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In drawing up tliese outlines of English History for junior classes, it has been my object to produce a readable and connected narrative of tlie most important events in the history of our country, without any political, theological, or ecclesiastical bias, which dis- figures so many of our school histories, and renders them unsuitable to be put into the hands of the young. For this reason I have confined myself as much as possible to a simple statement of facts, from which the readers, if they are sufficiently thoughtful, or are guided by intelligent teachers, may draw their own lessons and inferences. In order to make the work as complete as can be desired, a chapter has been added on the Litera- ture, Art, Science, Commerce, Manufactures, &c., of the English nation, which, though brief, will give the young student some idea of the grand position that belongs to England in the history of human progress and civilisation, B^mng Grovg, Maroh^ 1%1% CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. BRITAIN UNDER THE ROMANS PAGE . 7 CHAPTER 11. PERIOD OF THE HEPTARCHY, DOWN TO THE UNION OP ENGLAND UNDER KING EGBERT, >FRO]IK A.D. M9 to 827 15 CHAPTER III. £'ROM THE ACCESSION OF EGBERT TO THE NORUAN CONQUEST, FROU 800 to 1066 . 23 Egbert, 800—837. Ethelwulf, 837—858. Ethelbald, 858—860. Ethelbert, 860—866. Ethelred, 866—871. Alfred the Great, 871—901. Edward the Elder, 901—925. 3 Athelstane, 925—940. Edmund, 940—946. Edred, 946—955. Edwy, 955—959. Edgar, 959—975. Edward the Martyr, 975—978. Ethelred II., 978—1016. Edmund Ironside, 1016. Canute the Great, 1017—1035. Harold, 1036—1040. Hardicanute, 1040—1042. Edward the Confessor, 1042—' 1066. Harold II., 1066. CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV THE EAELY NOEMAH KINGS 1. William the Conqueror, 1066—1087. 2. William II., Rufus, 1087—1100 . 3. Henry I., 1100—1135 . , . , 4. Stephen, 1135—1154. .... ?AGE 45 49 51 53 CHAPTER V. THE PLANTAGEHET KINGS. 1. Henry II., 1154—1189 2. Richard I., 1189—1199 3. John, 1199—1216! 55 62 66 CHAPTER VI.. THE PLANTAGENET KINGS-Continued. 4. Henry III., 1216—1272 6. Edward I., 1272—1307 . 6. Edward II., 1307—1327 7. Edward III., 1327—1377' 8. Richard II., 1377—1399 72 77 82 85 91 CHAPTER VILI 1. Henry IV., 1399—1413 . 2. Henry V., 1413—1422 . 3. Henry VI., 1422—1461 . 96 98 102 CHAPTER VIII. THE HOUSE OF YOKK. 1. Edward IV., 1461—1483 2. Edward V., 1483—1483 ■ 3. Richard III., 1483—1485 108 113 115 CONTENTS. 5 CHAPTER IX. THE HOUSE OF TUDOE.' PAGE 1. Henry VIL, 1485— 1509 116 2. Henry VIII., 1509—1547 121 3. Edward VI., 1547—1553 . . . . . .131 4. Mary, 1553—1558 .134 5. Elizabeth, 1558— 1603 . . . . . . .138 CHAPTER X. THE HOUSE OF STUAET. 1. James I., 1603—1625 149 2. Charles I., 1625—1649 .154 3. The Commonwealth, 1649—1660 166 4. Charles II., 1660—1685 173 6. James II., 1685—1688 182 CHAPTER XI. THE HOUSE OF STUAET— Continued. 1. William and Mary, 1689—1694 . . . 2. Wmiam III., 1694 1702 3. Anne, 1702—1714 . 188 . 193 . 194 CHAPTER XII. THE HOUSE OF HANOVEE. 1. George I., 1714—1727 2. George II,, 1727—1760 ..... 3. George III., 1760—1820 .... 4. George IV., 1820—1830 .... 5. WiUiam IV., 1830—1837 .... 6. Victoria, 1837 . 199 . 202 . 209 . 224 . .227 . ^ . 230 Chapter on English Progress . . . . 237 Table oe Monarchs of England . 273 ,, Authors oe England . 275 ,, Distinguished Men .... . 279 Index . . : 281 HISTGEY OF ENGLAND. CHAPTER I. BRITAIN UNDER THE EOMANS. England, called by the Eomans Britannia (wlience Britain), was known to the Phoenicians at a very remote period. They heing the great traders of the ancient world, visited the south-western parts of the country, and especially the Scilly Islands, where they obtained tin, whence those islands were called the Cassiterides, that is, tin islands. But the Phoenicians, anxious to secure to themselves the monopoly of this trade, did not communicate their knowledge of the country to others, but rather invented stories calcu- lated to deter them from sailing in the same direction. Britain thus remained a country unknown to other nations, except by name, until the year B.C. 55, when Julius Caesar, then engaged in the conquest of Gaul (France), found that his enemies were assisted in various ways by the inhabitants of Britain. In order to prevent this, and at the same time to gratify his own ambition to be the first to enter the unknown island, he invaded Britain with a large fleet, sailing from Port Itius, in Gaul, and landing somewhere about Deal. The Britons, who had been warned by their friends in Gaul, offered a brave resistance, killing and wounding many of their enemies with their darts and javelins. The Eomans were unable to make any pro- gress, and after a stay of twenty days Csesar, fearing the ai3proach of winter, gave up the enterprise and returned to Gaul. But in the following year, b.c. 54, HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. I. lie resolved upon a second expedition. He landed at the same place as before with an army of five legions, and being now better prepared than the previous year he defeated the Britons in several engagements, though they fought with undaunted valour under their chief, Cassivelaunus. Csesar even advanced to the northern bank of the Thames, which he crossed somewhere about Coway Stakes, took the fortified town of Cas- --t^^'-i^Tfe COWAT STAKE!?, sivelaimus, and conquered a great part of the present counties of Middlesex an ' Essex. The Britons feelino- unable to continue the contest, sued for j)eace, which was granted to them ; but they had to give hostages and promise to pay an annual tribute to their con- querors. Caesar now quitted the country, but as he left no troops or garrisons behind, the promises of sub- mission made by the Britons were disregarded ; and as C83sar was otherwise engaged in Gaul, the Britons were no further molested by the Eomans for nearly a hundred years, and Caesar's conquests produced no efiect upon Britain. Csesar himself, in his Memoirs of his Gallic wars, has given us a full account of these two invasions, and from him we receive the first authentic information about the inhabitants of Britain. They were a branch of the great Keltic family, which appears to have been among the first offshoots of the Aryan race, that came into Euro23e from the East and occupied a large portion of it, viz., Southern Germany, Switzerland, the north of Italy, a great part of Erance, parts of Spain, Belgium, B.C. 55— A.D. 449.] KOMAN PERIOD. 9 and tlie British Islands. Tlie Britons had probably im- migrated to these islands from the coasts of Gaul and Belgium. Tacitus, a later historian, thinks that the south-western parts of Britain may have been occupied by settlers from Spain, while he is inclined to believe that the northern parts, especially Caledonia (Scotland), were inhabited by a people of Teutonic origin. But on the whole we may safely assume that the great body of the Britons were true Kelts. Those inhabiting Kent and the adjacent districts were more civilized than the rest, owing, no doubt, to their frequent intercourse with their continental kinsmen in Gaul and Belgium. The Britons were divided into a great number of tribes, all of which may be classed under two heads — the Gael, in the north, and the Cymri, in the south and south-west. Each tribe had its own chief, or king. The people generally lived in huts or caves, but the places in which the chiefs resided consisted of wooden huts, and were surrounded and protected by trenches and trunks of trees. They used to dye their skins with a blue colour obtained from woad, that they might appear more formidable to their enemies. Their chiefs, as in all other Keltic countries, were fond of finery, especially gold bracelets and collars, and wore mantles woven in checks, like the plaids still used in Scotland. They knew little of agriculture, and lived principally on the produce of the chase. The religion of the Britons, called Druidism, was an exceedingly well-organised system, managed and super- intended by Druids, their priests, who were the most powerful and most influential class of the nation. They possessed all the learning and knowledge of divine and human things. But as the art of writing was unknown to them, all knowledge was handed down to their disciples by'oral tradition. This body of priests was headed by one chief Druid, chosen by them- selves, and to him all owed obedience. The Druids alone knew and administered the laws, and those of Britain appear to have enjoyed a high reputation for learning, for many young men from Gaul and Belgium resorted to Britain for instruction in the mysteries of 10 HISTOUY OF ENGJjAND. [Chap, h Bruidism. As to tlie gods worsMpped by^tliem, little or nothing is known; they venerated the oak and mistletoe, but do not appear to have worshipped any images. They occasionally offered human sacrifices to their gods, bnt these mostly consisted of criminals who had been condemned to death. Many gigantic remains, snch as those of Stonehenge, are supposed to have been STONEHENGE. parts of Druidical temples. The island of Mona (Angle^ sea) was regarded as a sacred place and a sort of holy centre of the Druidical religion. During the first hundred years after Caesar's second expedition, Britain was visited only by peaceful traders from Gaul, who, no doubt, exercised a beneficial in- fluence on the civilization of the islanders. Eumours of contemplated invasions occasionally reached them, but nothing serious was undertaken. The mad emperor Caligula did indeed march out with an army of twenty thousand men to the coast of Gaul, to conquer, as he said, the ocean and Britain ; but when the army was ready fbr embarkation he ordered the soldiers to collect shells, which he called the spoils of the ocean, and returned to Rome, imagining himself a great conqueror. But three years later events occurred which led to its permanent occupation by the Romans. A treacherous Briton of the name of Bericus, who had been expelled by his countrymen," prevailed upon the emperor Claudius to undertake the conquest of Britain. Accordingly, in A.D. 43, four legions, under the command of Aulus B.C. 55— A.D. 449.] ROMAN PERIOD. 1 1 Plautius, proceeded to Britain. Claudius himself followed soon after, and iiis lieutenant having been successful in several engagements, the emperor entered Camalodunum (Rochester) as conqueror, and then re- turned to Eome, assuming the title of Britannicus. The war, however, was continued for nine years, during which Vespasian (afterwards emperor), accompanied by his son Titus, commanded one legion. He is said to have fought thirty battles, to have taken the Isle of Wight and twenty towns, and to have subdued several British tribes. Caractacus, the chief of the Silures, made every effort to repel the invaders, but was over- come by the superior military skill of his enemies : his wife -and daughters fell into their hands, and his brothers Burrendered. In this distress, he sought the protection of Cartismandua, queen of the Brigantes ; but hoping to derive more benefit from the friendship of the Eomans, she violated the laws of hospitality and delivered him up to his enemies. Caractacus and his family were carried to Rome in triumph; but his fortitude and noble bearing filled the Eomans with such admiration that they allowed him to return to his country. The south-eastern part of Britain was now in the hands of the Eomans, and was constituted as a Eoman province, which was henceforth governed by imperial legates or lieutenants. Attempts were made to suppress the Druidical religion, and the cruelty, oppression, and extortion of the Eoman officials knew no bounds. Such conduct could not but rouse the indignation of the natives. But it was especially the tribe of the Iceni, who, under their patriotic queen Boadicea, widow of Prasutacus, fell upon the Eomans, and destroyed their settlements at Camalodunum (Eochester), Londinium (London), and Verulamium (St. Alban's). She is said to have slain seventy thousand enemies, including the Britons who had treacherously joined them. The Eoman legate, Suetonius Paulinus, however, soon after gained a desperate battle, in which eighty^ thousand Britons are said to have fallen. Boadicea, in despair, then put an end to her vwn existence. 12 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND. [CllAP. I. Britain was now compelled qnietly to submit to its fate, and for a time the Eoman governors found it necessary to treat their subjects with more considera- tion. But this very consideration made the Britons only bolder, and fresh insurrections would have broken out had not the emperor Yespasian, a.d. 71, appointed the able Petilius Cerialis to the governorship of Britain, who succeeded in suppressing the spirit of revolt. Cerialis was accompanied by Julius Agricola, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, who had the command of one legion, and in a.d. 77 succeeded Cerialis as governor. His administration lasted till A.D. 85, and during that period he not only subdued all England but also the south of Scotland as far as the Clyde and Forth, between which rivers he con- structed a rampart to protect England against the inroads of the wild and fierce Caledonians. These latter he defeated in a great battle at the foot of the Grampians. His administration was less disturbed by attempts at insurrection than that of any of his pre- decessors ; for by the prudence, fairness, and justice of his measures he conciliated the Britons and rendered the Eoman dominion endurable. He did more than any other governor to Eomanize the Britons by in- ducing them to adopt the Latin language and Latin institutions, and to abandon their own religion for that of the Eomans. Agricola moreover was the first who, by sending a fleet round the north of Scotland, ascer- tained that Britain was an island, a fact which until then had only been conjectured. When a country had once become a Eoman province, it lost all political independence, it ceased to have a^ history of its own, and we rarely hear of any occur- rence except fruitless attempts to recover its independ- ence or of attacks upon it by foreign enemies. Such also was the case with Britain, The wild Caledonian tribes of the north, fearing for their own safety, kept up an almost perpetual state of warfare with the Eomaii provincials^ This indnoed th© emperor Hadrian in A,T)> 120 to abandon the rampart constraoted by Agriook and to establish another further south, between the B.C. 55— A.D. 449.]" ROMAN PEEIOD. 13 Tyne and Solway, consisting of a Iiigli wall and ditch. Parts of this still exist and are known under the name of the Picts' Wall. Bnt during a later attack of the Caledonians, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, the line of defence was again removed further north, and a new rampart was erected along the line of that of Agricola so as 'to include the south of Scotland within the Eoman province. The south of Scotland, however, remained at all times a precarious possession. Another enemy from whom the Eoman province of Britain had to suffer much were the Saxons, then dwelling in Holstein and about the mouth of the Elbe. They were bold sailors, and in their piratical expedi- tions during the third century plundered and devastated the coasts of the Eoman ^possessions in Gaul and Britain. In some of the British coast districts they even succeeded in establishing themselves permanently. Britain was thus exposed to very great danger on two sides, and this danger was increased by the appearance in Caledonia of two fierce tribes, the Picts and Scots, the latter of whom had immigrated into Scotland from the north of Ireland. Hence during the last period of the Eoman dominion in Britain we scarcely hear of anything else but of fearful devastations, caused on the one hand by the Picts and Scots, and on the other by Saxon pirates. At first the Eoman Government did all it could to protect its distant province, but the attacks made by Teutonic and other barbarians on Italy itself rendered it impossible to afford effectual help to the distressed Britons. While Eome was thus powerless to assist, Britain was occasionally governed by Eoman adventurers who set themselves up in the country as emperors, and were actually acknowledged by some, while others rejected them. The country thus fell into a state of utter confusion and anarchy, during which many of the Eoman officials were driven out of the island. At last the emperor Honorius, conscious of his inability to do anything in the matter, informed the Britons that henceforth they must rsly upon their own strength. This happened in a.d. 409, Several appeals still continued to be made to Borne foJ 14 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. L assistance, but in vain. The Roman dominion in Britain thus came to an end, and the Britons might have recovered their freedom and independence had circumstances "been more favourable. But as it was, they themselves had become unwarlike and effeminate during the Roman dominion, and were anything but united among themselves, while their enemies in the north and east became daily more daring and dangerous. In addition to all this Europe was at that time suffering from famine and the plague. If we now turn our attention to the effects produced by the Romans on their British provincials, we cannot deny that they had greatly promoted the progress of civilization, but along with it they had also introduced Roman luxury and vice, and it is probable that in most of the towns even the Latin language was spoken, as, independently of the Roman garrisons, they swarmed with Roman traders and adventurers. Traces of such luxury are still extant in the remains of baths and splendid dwelling-houses. Roads also were made through various parts of the country, some of which can still be traced. Most of the towns which sprang up during the Roman dominion were either colonies, as, for example, Lincoln, or arose out of Roman stationary camps, as is the case with Chester, and all those places whose names end in caster, Chester, or cester, which are corruptions of the Latin word castra, signifying a camp. Agriculture also and commerce had made considerable progress. But with all this the natives, when forsaken by the Romans, were in a helpless condition, because, as provincials, they had not been allowed the use of arms. The Druidical religion had begun to die out as early as the time of Agricola, and in its place had been introduced the worship of the Roman gods, to whom temples, shrines, and statues were erected in the towns. At the same time Christianity had found many adherents among the Britons as well as among the Romans. It had probably been introduced by mission- aries from Asia Minor, who reached Britain through Gaul, as must be inferred from certain differences in the observances and rites from those of the Romau 449—827.] SAXON PERIOD. 15 cliiircli. Tlie diffusion of Christianity among the Britons, however, was looked upon with no good feelings by their rulers, and during the persecution of the Christians under Diocletian terrible scenes were enacted in Britain as elsewhere : the martyrdom of Saint Albanus, of Verulam, belongs to that period. Under Constantius, the successor of Diocletian, the Britons were again allowed to profess the Christian faith, and in the reign of Constantino, a.d. 314, British bishops attended the first council of Aries. After this time British and Eoman converts lived in peaceful harmony so far as their religion was concerned. In consequence of this agriculture and the useful arts made such progress that Britain, through its fertility, was regarded as the granary of the northern provinces of the Eoman empire, and British workmen and artisans were often employed in foreign countries to restore buildings which had been destroyed by invading hordes of bar- barians. But all this prosperity came to an end by the withdrawal of the Romans from Britain. CHAPTER II. PERIOD OF THE HEPTARCHY DOWN TO THE UNION OF ENGLAND UNDER KING EGBERT, FROM A.D. 449 TO 827. AAer the departure of the Roman legions, the northern portion of Britain was helplessly exposed to the ravages of the Picts and Scots, while the southern and eastern coasts were now, more than ever, infested by pirates who invaded the island no longer for the sole pur- pose of booty and plunder; many established them- selves permanently in the country, and built strong- holds in which they collected their booty, and from which they made inroads into the interior. In this manner a warlike German population was gradually formed along the eastern coast, consisting of Saxons, Frisians, and Angles. In these circumstances the valour and patriotism of individual British chiefs was of little B 16 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [Chap. 11. ' avail, especially as they did not heartily co-operate together and were often engaged in bloody fends among themselves. Yortigern, one of them, who had raised himself above the rest by his bravery and prudence, advised his countrymen to employ one set of their enemies against the other, and to invite Saxon ad- venturers to assist them against the Picts and Scots. These Saxons were to receive assignments of land for their services, and accordingly, in a.d. 449, Hengist and Horsa are said to have come across the sea with a number of followers, and the Isle of Thanet, near the mouth of the Thames, was ceded to them as the district in which they might establish themselves. The Britons now made the sad experience which many other nations have made, viz., that a nation which cannot defend itself, and relies on the protection of others, becomes in the end the prey of its protectors. The success which these first adventurers met with soon attracted other swarms of Saxons, Angles, Jutes, and Frisians, who demanded to be employed and rewarded like their predecessors. As Vortigern was unable to comply with their requests, they commenced war upon their own account against the Britons themselves. These wars, protracted for nearly one hundred and fifty years, gradually drove the Britons out of their own country, while the losses sustained by the German invaders were constantly repaired hy new. comers from the eastern coast of the German Ocean. In the southern and eastern parts the British tribes were gradually almost extirpated. Wherever the invaders succeeded in establishing themselves, the native population was for the most part annihilated or reduced to slavery, and all the property was seized by the conquerors. During that disastrous period many of the Britons fled to Gaul, where they gave their name to the province of Lower Brittany. The horrors of this internecine war were increased by the difference of the religion of the Britons and that of their German invaders, for the latter, being pagans, aimed as much et the extirpation of Christianity as at the destruction of the Keltic population. 449—827.] SAXON PEBIOD. 17 During these wars those Britons who survived the sword sought and found refuge among the hills of Wales, Cornwall, and Cumberland, while the German conquerors formed a number of independent kingdoms in the fertile plains of England. Their number is commonly said to have been seven, whence they are called by a common name, the Heptarchy, though at times there were eight or even nine kingdoms. They were established in the following chronological order : 1. The kingdom of the Jutes, said to have been established in Kent, a.d. 455, by Hengist, with Cantej*- bury for its capital. 2. A body of Saxons, under Ella, in 491 founded the kingdom of Sussex (South Saxons) at and about Chichester. 3. In 516 Cerdic founded the kingdom of Wessex (West Saxons), with Winchester for its capital. 4. In 526 the kingdom of Essex (East Saxons) was formed on the banks of the Thames, with London for its capital. 5. In 547 a body of Angles under Idda occupied the country between the Humber and the Forth, which was formed into a kingdom under the name of Northumbria. This vast district, however, was at first divided into two kingdoms, viz., the Anglian Bernicia, and the Saxon Deira, both of which were subsequently united under the name of Northumbria. .6. In 571 Offa, the chief of another body of Angles, established himself in the country north-east of the Thames, where he formed the kingdom of East Anglia, with Norwich for its capital. 7. The seventh kingdom was founded in 574 by the Anglian Crida, under the name of Mercia, with Lincoln or Leicester for its capital. While the German invaders, commonly called by the general name Anglo-Saxons, were thus establishing themselves in the fertile parts of Britain, those Britons who had taken refuge in the west made a gallant stand, defending themselves with the utmost heroism. Many a British chief is renowned in the legends referring to this period, but none has obtained greater fame than 18 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. II.' king Arthur, the greatest hero in the Keltic legends, whose renown was spread all over Europe as the bravest defender of independence and of Christianity. It has already been remarked that all the German tribes which thus occupied the place of the Britons were pagans, worshipping a number of divinities and the principal heavenly bodies. They believed in a future state where, in an imaginary heaven, called Walhalla, the brave hoped to continue their favourite pursuits of war, of the chase, and of banqueting. In this belief they cherished a ferocious contempt of their own lives no less than of those of their enemies. They accordingly transferred to their new homes ihe religion, laws, customs, and institutions, of their original country in the north-west of Germany, and founded a number of kingdoms thoroughly Germanic in their constitu- tions. In their insular position they preserved their national character more pure and more free from foreign influences than any of the other Germanic kingdoms founded in the continental provinces of the Eoman empire. "When the wars were at an end, and when the Britons were almost extirpated in the parts of the country occupied by the invaders, the Anglo-Saxons lived in circumstances very favourable to the develop- ment of their national character. The Angles, from whom the country ultimately obtained the name o£ Anglia, or England, seem to have been more richly endowed by nature with those qualities which form the groundwork of a great nation than any of the other tribes. Not only were they bold, brave, and enter- prising, but eminently practical and docile, whence they soon attained in their new homes a degree of civilization far surpassing that of their brethren of the continent ; and as soon as the softening influences of Christianity were brought to bear upon them most wonderful changes were produced. The bitter national aversion subsisting between the Ano:lo-Saxons and the independent Britons in the west, indeed, prevented the latter from attempting to convert their enemies to Christianity; and their zeal for the propagation of the Gospel was displayed in other parts 449—827.] ' SAXON PERIOD. 19 of Europe, where no national hatred presented such insurmountable obstacles. Pope Gregory I., who was then zealously carrying on the missionary work among the pagans, met with no great difficulties among the Anglo-Saxons, who, in fact, looked upon the Christianity introduced to them by Eoman missionaries almost as a different religion from that of the Britons. Gregory's attention is said to have been directed to the Anglo- Saxons by the exceeding beauty of some Anglo-Saxon boys, who had been made prisoners of war, and were exhibited in Eome for sale. Accordingly, in the year 596, the Koman abbot, St. Augustine, by order of the Pope, landed with about forty monks in Kent, then governed by king Ethelbert, who was married to Bertha, a Prankish princess of the house of the Mero- vingians. This lady, being herself a Christian, had often entreated the king to embrace Christianity, and her influence now inclined him to listen to the missionaries, who acted with great prudence, and succeeded in persuading the king. Ethelbert then alloAved himself to be baptized, and his example was followed by many of his kinsmen and subjects. At Christmas, 597, scarcely a year after Augustine's arrival, ten thousand Saxons at once became converts to Christianity. The Eoman monks facilitated their work by sparing, as much as possible, the national feelings and habits of the con- verts, the necessity of which had been strongly im- pressed upon their minds by the Pope. The number of Christians soon increased so much that it was found necessary to establish a religious or ecclesiastical centre, and a metropolitan church and abbey were accordingly founded at Canterbury, of which Augustine himself was appointed the first abbot. The Anglo-Saxon church was thus, from its very be- ginning, closely connected with Eome, and without hesitation acknowledged the primacy of the Eoman bishop. Augustine and his associates endeavoured in vain to unite the Anglo-Saxon church with that of the Britons, and to establish harmony between them ; but the latter maintained a sort of defensive attitude against the Christianity of their conquerors. As Can- 20 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. 11. terlbmy was tlie most ancient seat of Christianity among the Saxons, it afterwards "became the see of tho archbishops of all England. York was soon after made the see of the archbishop for the north of the island, for the different kingdoms of the Heptarchy adopted Christianity, one after the other, without any com- pulsion being resorted to : example did everything. The customs and outward forms of paganism remained in many instances, and several of the superstitious beliefs, still lingering in country districts, may be traced to the pagan religion of our ancestors. A striking example of this consists in the fact that the names of the days of the week still in use are derived from those of pagan divinities. But the new religion, nevertheless, made a deep and lasting impression upon the nation, and several kings were so much disgusted with the vanities of their position as to withdraw into monasteries or undertake pilgrimages to Eome, where a separate school was founded for the education of young Anglo-Saxons, and supported by contributions from their countrymen at home. The Teutonic kingdoms, established in Britain, maintained, on the whole, their independence of one another, though it sometimes happened that one king ruled over several kingdoms, and it also occurred that one king, distinguished above the rest by valour and prudence, was regarded as the head of all the other kingdoms. -,For as the Britons of old had found it necessary to unite against their common foes, so now circumstances led to the same result among the Anglo- Saxons. The continual struggles against the Britons in the west, and the Picts and Scots in the north, rendered it absolutely necessary for the Anglo-Saxon States to unite for purposes of defence. Hence one of the kings generally exercised a sort of supremacy over the rest under the title of Bretwalda,, which was usually conferred on one of the southern kings, but others also were sometimes honoured with this high distinction. The first who obtained it was Ella, king of Sussex. It would, however, have been unprecedented in history had not jealousy and ambition produced quarrels and 449—827.} BAXON PSRIOB. 21 wars among so many potentates in one and tlie same island ; sncli at least was the case in Britain, and the several kingdoms had scarcely lasted two hundred and fifty years, when in 827 they were united mider Egbert, the powerful king of Wessex, who, disdaining the honour of a mere Bretwalda, availed himself of his position, and of the fact of several of the kingdoms having already become dependent on their more power- ful neighbours, for bringing the whole country under his own sway. It was, moreover, in his reign that the name of Anglia was first applied to England, exclusive of Wales, where the Britons still maintained their independence. YN^hen the Angles and Saxons took possession of Britain, a portion of the land, called folMand, was set apart for state purposes ; another part, called hocland (bookland), was assigned to the free warriors as their freehold property ; but a large portion was assigned to the chief or king as his domain. As the conquest was made at different times and by different chiefs, there was no uniformity of institutions and laws, but still there are some points more or less common to all the states of the Heptarchy. Everywhere one class of the population was reduced to a state of absolute slavery under the name of theoiv, esne, or thrall ; they consisted of conquered Britons and such Germans as had for- feited their liberty by crime. The free population was divided into cearls or cem^ls, who constituted the great body of the people, and thanes, who formed a sort of nobility or gentry, and whose rank was determined by the amount of their landed property. A second and higher class of nobles, bearing the title of eorl or earl^ enjoyed their privileges by the right of birth. The Anglo-Saxon kings, all of whom traced their origin to their supreme god Wo dan, did not succeed to their thrones by the right of primogeniture, but were always elected from auiong the members of the royal family ; neither did they possess absolute power, being limited in its exercise by the national assembly or council of the wise, called the Witenagemot. This council was essentially aristocratic, and was convened and presided 22 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. II. over by the king himself; its members consisted of earls, bishops, and abbots, to whom sometimes thanes also were added. They made the laws and voted the taxes, and the king was bound to listen to their advice in making war and peace, as well as in all other government matters. -They further formed a high court of justice, before which appeals might be brought against the decisions of inferior courts. The whole country was divided into shires or counties — hundreds — tytlies — and townships, and in this arrangement ample scope was left for every com- munity, both large and small, to exercise that self- government which still forms so characteristic a feature of the English nation. Each county was presided over by an officer called scirgerifa, that is, shire-reef or sheriff. We cannot here enter into any detailed descrip- tion of the constitutions of the several communities, but may observe in general that our most cherished institutions, to which this country owes its greatness and its glory, are legacies of the wisdom of our Anglo- Saxon ancestors. Ethelbert of Kent, under whom Christianitj^ was introduced, was the first who published in the year 600 a code of laws which, though composed in Latin, were entirely based upon the national in- stitutions of the Saxons. One hundred years later Ina, of Wessex, caused a more complete code to be framed, in which the Britons were placed under the protection of the state, and which clearly aimed at a friendly union of the conquerors and the conquered. Owing to the perpetual wars, agriculture at first made but slow progress among the Anglo-Saxons, and extensive forests were for a long time the abode of wild beasts and of robbers. The breeding of cattle, especially swine, was the occupation next in importance ; and the produce of these two appear on the whole to have been sufficient for the support of the people, for during this period famine occurred more rarely in England than on the continent. Industry and trade flourished to some extent in the towns, and London is called a great commercial centre of many nations, who visited it both by land and by sea. SOO— 1066.] ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 23 CHAPTEE III. fEOM a?HE ACCESSION OF EGBERT, THE FOUNDER OF THE UNION OF ENGLAND, TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST, FROM 800 TO 1066. Egbert . . . 800-836 Edwy. . . . 955-959 EthelwTilf . . . . 836-858 Edgar . . . 959-975 Ethelbald . . . . 858-860 Edward the Martyr 975-978 Ethelbert . . . . 860-866 Ethelred II. . . 978-1016 Ethelred . . . 866-871 Edmund Ironside 1016 Alfred the Great .. 871-901 Canute the Great 1016-1035 Edward the Eldei • . 901-924 Harold . 1035-1039 Athelstane . 924-940 Hardicanute . 1039-1042 Edmund . , 940-946 Edward the Confessor 1042-1066 Edred . . . . . 946-955 1 Harold II. . . . 1066 The honour of having united the several Anglo-Saxon kingdoms under one sceptre belongs to Egbert, who was elected in the year 800 to the throne of We s sex, which had gradually become the most powerful kingdom of the Heptarchy. He had previously spent thirteen years in the dominion of Charlemagne, during which time he may have seen the advantages of uniting several tribes under one head. He was a man of great natural ability ; and when in 809 the western Britons once more rose against him, he succeeded in uniting Cornwall with Wessex, and in compelling Wales to keep peace, at least for a time. Mercia, the principal state of the Angles, was then governed by the upstart Beornwulf, but it was in a declining condition, and when Beornwulf presumptuously attacked Wessex he was killed in battle, and Egbert wrested from Mercia the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex. The East Angles also revolted from Mercia and placed themselves under the protection of Egbert. A few years later even Northumbria submitted to him, and thus the whole of the seven kingdoms gradually acknowledged the su- premacy of Wessex. The kings themselves were not always deposed, but became the vassals and tributaries of Egbert, as was the case with Kent, Sussex, and Mercia. The union of the small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms 24 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND, [Chap. Hi under one energetic cliief had become a matter of necessity, as the country began to be more and more threatened by a new enemy, commonly called North- men (Normans) or Danes. They were Teutons, joartly from Scandinavia and partly from the north-west of Germany, and accordingly be]onged to the same race as the Anglo-Saxons themselves, bnt they were pagans, and as ferocious, if not more so, as the Angles and Saxons themselves had been. Egbert had scarcety been king of all England for six years, when they commenced a series of ravaging attacks on various parts, in which they seem to have been assisted by the Britons ; and Egbert perceiving this, chastised them in a great battle, and ordered all the Welsh living in his dominions to quit them in the space of six months. The year after this victory Egbert died, in 836, having founded a kingdom more extensive and more powerful than any that had existed in these islands ; and had it not been for the disturbances caused by the inroads of the Danes or Normans, the country might now have entered u]3on a period of great progress and prosperity. It is com- monly believed that after the conquest of Mercia, Egbert, in deference to the predominant race of the Angles, assumed the title of king of Anglia ; but others think that this title did not come into use until the reign of Edmund, the son of Alfred the Great. Egbert was succeeded by his eldest son, Ethelv/ulf, who had to fight against the Danish invaders almost without interru|)tion throughout his reign. He had received a monastic education, which had inspired him with the love of peace and tranquillity, strongly con- trasting with the energy and activity of his father. His great desire was to undertake a pilgrimage to Rome, but the necessity of defending his kingdom pre- vented it. His only daughter was married to the vassal king of Mercia, and the youngest of his five sons was Alfred, who afterwards became king of England, and obtained the surname of the Great. Ethel wulf seems to have been strongly impressed with the honour and dignity conferred by the Pope on Charlemagne, and with a view to obtain the papal sanction and consecra- 800—1066.] - ANGLO-SAXON PEBIOD. 25 tion for Ms own liouse, lie sent, in 853, his son Alfred, then only five years old, with a numerous retinue to Eome, where Pope Leo lY. anointed and crowned him, A few years later Ethelwlilf himself, accompanied by Alfred, spent a whole year at Eome, displaying the most lavish liberality towards the clergy, rebuilding the school of the Saxons, which had been destroj^ed by fire, and promising an annual donation, which subsequently the popes claimed as a tribute^ under the name of Peter's pence. As a ruler Ethelwulf was feeble, and almost undid the work of his father. For he divided his kingdom with his eldest son Athelstane, to whom he gave Essex, Kent, and Sussex; but the young man died before his father, and the latter, shortly before his death, which took place in 858, again divided his kingdom between his next two sons, Ethelbald and Ethelbert, the former receiving the western X3art, and Ethelbert Kent and the eastern portions. Ethelbald reigned only two years, and his early death deprived the country of a man who might have been of great service during the struggles that were ap- proaching, Ethelbeii; now again united the kingdom, and governed it with a firm hand until his death in 866. He was succeeded by Ethelred, whose short reign till 871 was an uninterrupted series of unfortunate Avars with the Danes, who in 860 had renewed their inroads and gained a permanent footing in England. They plun- dered and ravaged the country in a fearful manner, and being pagans they raged with unexampled cruelty against churches and monasteries. East Anglia fell entirely into their hands, and its king, Edmund, suffered at their hands the death of a martyr. Ethelred had to fight many a bloody battle against them, in which ho v/as bravely assisted by his brother Alfred, who suc- ceeded him on the throne in 871 and reigned till 901. This king, who deserves the name of the Great, perhaps more than any man ever entrusted with the government of a nation, was the youngest of Ethel- wulf 's sons, and the grandson of Egbert. At the time of his accession he was only twenty-two years old, but 26 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. [Chap. III. he had borne the title of king ever since his anointment by the Pope, and during the reign of his elder brothers he had always ranked as the second person in the king- dom. His intellectual superiority and the valour he had displayed against the Danes had won for him the affection of all his subjects. The career he now entered upon and the great qualities he unfolded have secured to him a fame and a reputation unequalled by any other ruler. The gratitude of posterity has known no bounds, and has looked upon him as the founder of everything that is good and noble in the institutions of the country, though it is now well known that some of them had existed long before his time, and others originated many years after his death. But he is, and always will be, regarded as the great and good king Alfred, for he delivered his country from the hated yoke of foreign pagans, restored and maintained the laws and institutions of his ancestors, and diffused throughout his dominions a love of letters and learning. Alfred had received a most careful education from his mother Osburga. Before his twentieth year he was seized by a malady, the nature of which is not precisely known, but which throughout his life never entirely left him. The strength of his will and of his mind however overcame all physical defects. At the time of his accession, the Danes, strengthened by fresh hosts, advanced as far as Wilton ; and although routed at first by Alfred and his few followers, they rallied and gained the day. Eight great battles were fought during the first year of his reign, with great losses to both sides, until at last the Danes agreed to evacuate the country with the exception of Mercia. But notwithstanding this arrangement, they continued to murder, ravage, and pillage the country in all directions. Soon all Northumbria fell into their hands, and expeditions were undertaken even as far as the valley of the Clyde, where many Danes settled, exchanging the sword for tho^ plough. In the south they carried on their depre- dations from the castles of Wareham and Exeter, but there Alfred besieged them and caused a fleet to be built to prevent the landing of fresh adventurers. Soon 800—1066.] ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 27 after Wessex itself was attacked and plundered, and Alfred himself was reduced to tlie greatest straits. But he did not lose heart : accompanied by a few nobles and warriors he spent several months during the winter in a marshy island in Somersetshire, where with the greatest difficulty he procured the mere ne- cessaries of life. He found, it is said, a place of safety in the hut of a cowherd, and one clay when he was ALFRED IN THE COWHERD'S HDT. sitting by the fire, making arrows for his bow, the wife of the herdsman, not knowing who he was, ordered him to attend to the cakes she happened to be making. Alfred, though sitting close by the fire, allowed the cakes to burn, and meekly bore the reproof for his inattention. Another legend relates that one day, when he was sitting in a hut reading some book, a beggar knocked at the door and received from the king one half of his last loaf of bread, whereupon St. Cuthbert appeared to him in a vision, and promised that he should be restored to his kingdom. At length with the aid of his Somerset nobles he constructed a fort, from which he sallied forth against the enemy, and kept up com- munication with his friends. He is said once to have entered the camp of the enemy in the disguise of a 28 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. III. minstrel, and thus to have obtained accurate infor- mation as to their numbers and plans. A course of action was then agreed upon between him and his faithful adherents, and an attack was made u]3on the Danes, who were driven back to their strongholds, where they were pursued and besieged by Alfred. After a fortnight they promised to evacuate the country, and to give hostages, if a free dejoarture were granted. These terms were accepted, and Guthrum, the chief of the Danes, and many of his principal followers, adopted Christianity. Guthrum, at his baptism, received the name of Athelstane^ and was adopted by Alfred. These events occurred in the year 880, and Athelstane with- drew to East Anglia, over which, together with % por- tion of Mercia, he ruled as a vassal king, recognising Alfred as his sovereign. A treaty was concluded be- tween the sovereign and his vassal, regulating the frontiers and other matters. Christianity now became the recognised religion in both kingdoms, and the foreigners who, owing to the weakness of Alfred's predecessors, could not be expelled from the island, were united with the Saxons by one religion and one law. The Danes, however, found it difficult to give up their former habits, and not only did they occasionally molest neighbouring districts, but gave assistance to some Normans who endeavoured to establish themselves in the country north of the Thames. Such conduct obliged Alfred, in 884, again to take up arms and restore the feudal relation between him and Athel- stane, who died in 890. His successor renewed the treaty with Alfred. We must not forget that Bernicia and Northumbria also continued to be governed by Danes, but the latter country was recovered by Alfred in the year 894, on the death of its king Guthred. For a series of years England now remained undis- turbed, and great as Alfred's activity had been in the defence of his country, it was equally great after his final victory over the Danes, for he now displayed the greatest intelligence and care in restoring what had been destroyed, and in improving what had been saved ; 3OO-,1066.] ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD, 29 ruined castles were rebuilt, towns and roads were re- paired, and new ones built, tlie riglits of the clergy were regulated and protected, and the city of London, which had almosj: been ruined during the wars with the Danes, and by frequent fires, was rebuilt. But what was more important than all this was the creation cf a powerful navy to protect the coasts of his dominions — in short, Alfred did all he could to improve the con- dition of his people — by restoring law and order, and protecting the people against all arbitrary encroach- ments. His success in these works of organisation was so great that the country, which during the late wars had been thrown into fearful disorder, is said to have become in a few years the safest and best organised in all Europe. Christianity had already made a deep im- pression upon the Anglo-Saxons, and many of the Saxon clergy were noble rivals of those of Eome. But during the Danish wars learning had fallen so low that south of the Thames no one could be found capable of translating a Latin book. To remedy this state of things, the king gathered around him the most dis- tinguished men from foreign countries, as well as from Biercia and other parts of England, where learning had not become quite extinct. In his thirty-sixth year he himself began the study of Latin, and ever after his favourite occupation was to translate works from that language into Anglo-Saxon, such as the "Consolations of Philosophy," by Boethius ; the " Ecclesiastical His- tory " of the Yenerable Bede, and the historical work of Orosius. He kept up an extensive connection v/ith various Christian churches, and especially with Eome, where he secured great privileges for the school of the Saxons. The education of his subjects was to him a matter of as deep concern as that of his o^vn children. The sons of the nobility were ordered to be instructed in writing, Anglo-Saxon, and Latin, before they were allowed to engage in war and the chase, and the king devoted a portion of his own revenues to the support of the school. All this was accomplished by Alfred in a short period by prudently husbanding his time and means. 80 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. III. To measure his time, he used six lamps, each of which "burned for four hours, which enabled him to divide the day into equal portions : one for sleep and bodily exercise, one for business of itate, and one for study and devotions. In like manner he divided his revenues into two parts ; one being devoted to the necessities of the state, and the other to churches, monasteries, and schools. While he was engaged in these quiet and beneficent ■works, his reign was once more disturbed, in 893, by fresh invasions of Danes. The war in which he was thus involved was continued during four j^ears ; but in the end Alfred succeeded in finally driving them off with great loss. The last years of his reign appear to have passed away in peace, for no further events are recorded, though he, no doubt, continued his beneficent activity until his death, which occurred in October, 901. This reign may be briefly characterized as that of a sage and of a hero. After Alfred's death the votes of the Witenagemot assigned the succession to his son Edward, surnamed the Elder, who had already distinguished himself in the Danish wars. This election was indeed opposed by the sons of his uncle Ethelred, but Edward not only maintained his position, but by his energy succeeded in securing the whole of his father's kingdom, although the Northumbrians, availing themselves of the repeated inroads of the Danes, rose in rebellion against him. The struggles against the Danes continually engaged nearly his whole attention, but at the same time he did all he could to secure the coasts by building strong- holds; he raised the importance of the towns, and maintained rigorous strictness in the administration of the law. His nearly uninterrupted warlike occupations, as well as probably his own inclinations, prevented his doing much for the advancement of intellectual culture among his people. He died at Farrendon, in Mercia, in 924. His legitimate children being still young at the time of his death, he recommended his natural son Athelstane as his successor. He was accepted by the Witenagemot and reigned till 940. Although 800—1066.] ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 31 the Danes in Nortlmmbria, in order to secure their in- dependence, allied themselves with the Scots, with roving bands of pirates, and the Britons in Wales and Ireland, he nevertheless conquered them all in the famous battle of Brunanburg in Northumbria. England thus obtained under him a power unequalled bj^ that of any of his predecessors, and his renown was widely spread among continental nations. In the adminis- tration of the internal affairs of his kingdom he pro- moted order and commerce, by raising every merchant who had made two voyages to the rank of a thane. As Athelstane left no children, Edmund the Elder, the eldest surviving son of Edward, who had already given signal proofs of personal valour, was readily recognised by the Witenagemot as the lawful successor. At the very beginning of his reign he had to crush an insur- rection of the Danes in the north. He took Nortlmm- bria from the Britons and gave it to king Malcolm of Scotland, who had to do homage to hiui, and promise to protect the north of England against the Danes. Un- fortunately Edmund's career was cut short by an act of violence. A man of the name of Leolf, who had been banished for a crime, made his way into the king's dining-hall and murdered him, in the year 946. As Edmund's children were still young the Witen- agemot conferred the crown on his brother Edred, who received the oath of allegiance not only from his English subjects, but even from the princes of Wales and the kings of Cumberland and Scotland. The Northumbrians had to be forced, and their country be- tween York and the Lothians was given to Osulph, in whose family the government remained until the Nor- man conquest. During the last years of his reign, Edred spent all his energies upon regulating and forti- fying the newly-recovered territory. He died in 955 without issue. His reign is marked in history by the rise of eccle- siastical power, through the influence of the pious and learned, but domineering Dunstan, abbot of Glastonbury. This man, descended from an old West Saxon family, made upon his contemporaries the impression of a c 32 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. [ChAp. III. person of srperior sanctity. His life was very anstere, and lie fostered a belief among tiie people that lie liad frequent conflicts witli tlie devil. He was skilled in all tlie arts of tlie time, and at the age of twenty- two he had "been appointed by the king abbot of Glastonbury. He there introduced the rules of the Benedictines, which soon after were adopted in most of the monasteries of England. In the reign of Edmund and Edred he had devoted himself entirely to monastic pursuits, but in that of Edred's successor, Edwy, his fiery zeal drove him into the political arena. Edwy, or Edwin, a son of Edmund, upon the death of Edred, was unanimously chosen by the Witenagemot. He was a young man of great beauty, but he brought upon himself many misfortunes by his thoughtlessness. Even at his coronation he became involved in a dispute which formed the beginning of a long protracted struggle of the rising power of the monastic orders against the state and the secular clergy. Edwy was married to the fair Elgiva, but owing to the near relationship between him and her, the marriage was considered to be con- trary to the laws oF the church. During the coronation banquet, Edwy left the hall, hastening to his beloved Elgiva. The nobles, oifended at his conduct, sent after him the abbot Dunstan, who in a most disrespectful manner forced the king back into the banqueting hall. From this moment the old secular clergy, who hated the Benedictines because they denied the priests the right to marry, sided with the young queen, who had long been annoyed by the ascetic severity of the monks. A plan was formed to overthrow the abbot and expel the Benedictines. The king demanded an account of all the treasures intrusted to the monastery of Glaston- bury, and Dunstan fled to Ghent in Flanders. Edwy closed the establishments of the Benedictines, and by various acts of indiscretion exasperated a large number of his subjects. At the instigation of Dunstan, Mercia and Korthumbria revolted, and after a short period of anarchy they proclaimed Edwy's brother Edgar king, making Dunstan his permanent councillor, and bishop of Worcester and London, Dimstan now returned to 800—1066.] ANaLO-SAXON PERIOD. 33 England, and tlie clergy who liad liitherto remained faithful to Edw}'-, under the fear of Dunstan, prevailed iijDon the king to divorce Elgiva. She was dragged out of the palace and banished to Ireland, her face having been cruelly disfigured with hot irons. When the wounds were healed, and she returned to England, she was seized at Gloucester, and put to death with fiendish tortures. Edwy himself died soon after 959 in the same place, but is supposed to have been murdered by his enemies. By the death of Edwy in 959 the whole kingdom became united under his brother Edgar, who has been called the most fortunate of all the Anglo-Saxon kings. Dunstan was at once made archbishop of Canterbury, and contrived to hold the reins of government in his own hands. It must be owned that he employed the power to which he had risen for the good of the coun- try, so far as it was compatible with the claims of the church and himself. Wherever it was possible he filled the episcopal sees with Benedictines, for whom Edgar is said to have founded no less than forty monasteries. During the first years of Edgar's reign, his name is scarcely ever mentioned ; but notwithstanding his licen- tious and dissolute mode of life, at which Dunstan cun- ningly connived, he enjoyed the affections of his people. Scandinavia had already sent forth its surplus popu- lation, so that now not much was to be feared from that quarter, and Edgar could therefore direct his attention more especially to those Danes who had permanently settled in England, in the neighbouring islands, and on the east coast of Ireland. For this purpose he kept up a large fleet, which he himself inspected annually, and v\^hich so completely secured his dominions that he ob- tained the name of the Peaceful. Still, however, his reign did not pass away without military undertakings. In one of his expeditions he subdued the Danes in Ireland and took Dublin : the first Anglo-Saxon con- quest beyond the sea. In his reign wolves are said to have been exterminated in England, the Britons in Wales being allowed to pay their annual tribute in vrolves' heads. It is strange to find that Edgar was not 34 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. Ill, crowned king till 973, many years after his accession ; it may have been a contrivance of Dunstan to make the king feel his dependence upon the church. Two years after this solemnity Edgar died, in 975, leaving his kingdom much better organised than it had been. Trade and commerce also had been much improved by his government. Edgar had been married twice, and his second wife, Elfrida, was bent upon securing the succession to her own son Ethelred, who was only seven years old, but Dunstan induced the Witenagemot to elect Edward II., Edgar's son by his first wife, then a boy of thirteen. The Benedictines and their party supported the choice, while the secular clergy, siding with the widowed queen, attempted to expel the Benedictines and give their monasteries to married priests ; but the archbishop fought manfully for the cause he had undertaken, and Elfrida began to despair of her son ever succeeding to the throne. One evening while Edward was hunting in Dorsetshire, he visited his step-mother at Corfe Castle without attendants. While he was sitting on his horse and drinking a cup of mead to refresh himself, he was murdered, in 978, by a hired assassin, in con- sequence of which he was afterwards regarded by his clerical adherents as a martyr. Elfrida's son, Ethelred II., surnamed the Unready, was now crowned king by Dunstan, who however is said to have foretold that his reign would be unfortunate. Dunstan had him educated as if he were intended to become a monk, though the young king had talents of which something better might have been made. As long as Dunstan himself lived, the government was indeed strong enough to resist attacks from without, and to prevent the internal decay of the kingdom ; but after his death, in 988, the country felt the loss of the man whose strong hand had kept together the different elements of which the state was composed. Even during the first years swarms of Scandinavians began to infest the English coasts and to enact the same terrible scenes which had been witnessed many years before. Many of these pirates came from Normandy, 800— 10G6.] AKGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 85 wliose inliabitants were unable entirely to renounce their former piratical habits. It ought to be mentioned that in 911 Charles the Simple, in order to stop their ravages, had ceded to these Northmen, or Normans, a whole province of France, which received from them the name of Normandy. Ethelred indeed tried to retaliate upon Normandy, but suffered so terrible a defeat that only a single messenger escaped to report the disaster to his master. But through the mediation of the Pope, a peace was concluded in 991, in which both the Normans and Ethelred were admonished to turn their arms against the pagans rather than against one another. In the same year an attack was made upon England by the king of Norway, in which he was so successful that Ethelred, on the advice of his clerical councillors, promised to pay the enemy ten thousand pounds of silver, and to suppl}^ them with provisions as long as they should stay in the island, on condition of their ceasing to devastate the districts they were occupjdng. The tribute thus paid to the Danes in this humiliating peace gave rise to a tax on the laity of England which, under the name of Danegelt, or Dane- money, continued to be levied for several ' centuries. But the Danes did not seem willing to leave the coun- try, and even a few years later the united kings, Sweyn of Denmark, and Olav Trigvason, thinking themselves sufficiently powerful to conquer all England, appeared with their fleets off the coasts, which they ravaged in a most barbarous manner. They, too, were bought off by sixteen thousand pounds of silver ; and in a sub- sequent attack, in the year 1000, they even received twenty-four thousand pounds. The excellent insti- tutions made by Ethelred's predecessors were partly neglected by him, and were partly insufficient for the exigencies of the time. Ethelred now tried to secure himself by forming connections with the Normans in France, and by marrying Emma, daughter of Eichard I. of Normandy. The Danes settled in England, looking with suspicion and fear on this new connection, con- spired to murder Ethelred and the leading men of his court. Ethelred hearing of the plot gave secret orders o 6 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. III. to put to death, on an ap|)ointecl day, all the Danes settled in tlie towns. This foolish and cruel order was executed on the 13th of Novemher, 1002. But it seems not to have been extended to Northumberland, East Anglia, and the towns of Mercia, for we afterwards still meet with great numbers of Danes in those parts. When the news of this massacre reached Sweyn, whose own sister had been murdered, he made a solemn vow to make himself master of England. For several years he devastated the coast districts, until in 1006 he consented to accept thirty-six thousand pounds of silver, promising to observe peace, which promise, hoAvever, he never intended to keep. The unspeakable distress which the country was now suffering at last roused the government to make some effort for its defence, and by means of a new tax, called ship-money, a fleet was built larger than any that England had yet seen. But it was all of no avail. The Danes continued their ravages, and while the English, disunited among themselves, were unable to offer any effective resistance, the Witenagemot once more offered to purchase peace for the enormous sum of forty-eight thousand pounds of silver. While this money was being collected, the Danes continued their ravages, and Sweyn, hearing of the success of his warriors in England, now resolved in person to make good his vow. In 1013 he landed with his sons Canute and Olav in the Humber, and as he advanced all the country submitted to him. He then proceeded southward, and the cruelties and de- vastations which he allowed his soldiers to indul2:e in seem to have surpassed everything that had yet been experienced in this much-tortured countr}^. The humiliation of the English had reached the lowest point, and it became a common saying that one Dane was a match for ten Saxons. Every one felt that there was no other way of safety except in submission to the invaders. Ethelred, now abandoned by his subjects, fled to Eichard II. of K"ormandy, who received him kindly, though Ethelred had very often ill-used his wife Emma, Kichard's sister. Soon after his arrival at Eouen, goo— 1066.] ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD, S7 Ethelred received the news of Sweyn's death, which opened the way for his return to England, where, in 1014, he was enthusiastically received. A war nov/ broke out between him and Canute, the son of Sweyn ; but the latter finding that the most powerful of Saxon nobles had determined to support Ethelred, Canute re- turned to his own country and engaged in other enterprises. But the period of peace which now seemed in store for England Avas but of short duration, for the Danes in Northumbria called back Canute, and as Edric, ono of the most powerful English nobles, joined him, Ethel- red in despair dismissed the army which his brave son Edmund, surnamed Ironside, had assembled, and shut himself up in London, where he died in 1016, after a long and most unhappy reign. The Witenagemot assembled in London remained faithful to Ethelred's son Edmund, but most of the nobles and ecclesiastical dignitaries, ready to side with any ruler that might secure to them their possessions, joined Canute. Edmund fought several times and suc- cessfully against the Lanes, but after the loss of one great battle, the chiefs of the two nations induced their kings to come to an understanding, in which the north of England was ceded to Canute, and the south re- mained to Edmund. Scarcely had this division of the kingdom been made, when Edmund, in November, 1016, was assassinated, probably at the instigation of the treacherous Edric. Under the last Saxon kings, whose reign now cam© to an end for a time, the court had become degenerated, and had displayed so much foolish vanity, licentious- ness, and wickedness, as to draw upon itself the con- tempt of the nation. No wonder, therefore, that Canute was at once declared king of all England by tho cowardly and selfish nobles. Edmund's children, who took refuge with king Stephen of Hungary, were set aside, and Canute took and received the usual oath of allegiance, and was crowned in London. He first en- deavoured to get rid of all the friends and relations of the late king, and those who did not make their escape S8 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IIL were put to death or sent into exile. In order to secure tlie support of Normandy, where the widowed Emma was residing with her brother, he offered her his hand, promising the succession in England to the children who might be the result of the union. The marriage took place in 1017. But being still doubtful of the fidelity of the Saxon chiefs, especially the faithless Edric, he had many of them put to death, and squan- dered their property in rewarding his Danish followers. When at length he felt safe in" his dominions, he sent the greater portion of his fleet to Denmark, which henceforth he governed conjointly with England. V His conduct now became quite altered, for he seems at last to have discovered the means by which alone his power could be permanently established. He vigorously promoted the interests of Christianity in Denmark, he placed the Danes and Saxons in England on a footing of equality, he bestowed especial care upon the admi- nistration of justice, and raised the character of the clergy by connecting them more closely with the order of the Benedictines and the Papal see, to which he again paid the long-forgotten Peter^s pence. By these and similar means he effectuallj^ won the affection of the Anglo-Saxons, who had already ceased to look upon him as a foreigner. In short, he felt so secure that he could divide his time between Denmark and England. In 1026 he undertook a pilgrimage to Eonie, where he Avas present at the coronation of Conrad II., emperor of Germany. He remained there for some time, during which he secured for his subjects several privileges. After this Canute returned to Denmark. He had always been ambitions to unite with his kingdom the crown of Norway, and having hitherto been unable to gain this end, he now effected it by bribing the nobles of Norway, who proclaimed him king in 1028. But he left this new country to be governed by his natural son Sweyn. In the meantime an ill feeling broke out between Canute and the duke of Normandy, who wished to secure the English throne to the sons of Emma by Ethelred. Canute averted the threatening danger by making certain concessions to the Saxon princes. 800—1066.] ANGJ-LO-SAXON PERIOD. 39 Towards the end of his life he had the further satis- faction of receiving the submission of the kingdoms of Scotland and Cumberland. He died in November, 1035, and was buried at Winchester. He had been one of the greatest and most powerful rulers of northern Europe, but his fame is tarnished by excessive ambition, and by the cruelty with which he treated his enemies at the commencement of his reign. England had become a province of Denmark, and during Canute's reign the great Saxon families had been more or less broken up and destroyed. Canute's only son by Emma, Hardicanute, had been entrusted by his father with the government of Den- mark, Sweyn was king of Norway, and his third son, Harold, for whom no provision seems to have been made, was more popular with the Danes in England than Hardicanute, and was elected by the chiefs king of Mercia and Northumbria. At a meeting of the West Saxon Witenagemot, the country south of the Thames was given to Hardicanute, but he had first to secure the kingdom of Denmark, which was invaded by the Norwegians, after they had expelled Sweyn. Emma made a useless attempt to secure the throne of England to her sons by Ethelred. But the elder of them, Edward, afterwards called the Confessor, made himself unpopular through his Norman followers, and being a man with- out much energy he soon gave up his claims ; the younger, Alfred, was treacherously seized by earl God- win ; he had his eyes put out, and died soon after in 1036. Upon this Harold was recognised as the sole king, but his short reign passed away without any important event, except that the Britons of Wales took up arms against England and were unusually successful. At last Hardicanute, after securing his rule in Den- mark, returned to England; but while waiting at Bruges for a favourable opportunity the news reached him that Harold had suddenly died of apoplexy at Oxford, in March, 1039. Hardicanute therefore was looked upon by all parties as having the best claims to the throne of England, which was now again to be 40 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IIL united to tlie crown of Denmark. His mother, Emma, now took fearful vengeance on lier former opponents. Many of the most distinguished men were put to death. Harold's body was dragged from its tomb and thrown into the Thames. A bitter animosity w^as thus fostered between the Danes and Saxons, and Hardicanute did not fulfil the expectations which had been entertained of him. He laid a heavy tax on the English to reward the Danes who had brought him back to England, and the Danes treated the Saxons with a haughtiness and insolence as if they had been their slaves. Towards monasteries which had already very large possessions, both Canute and his mother displayed the greatest liberality. Edward (the Confessor), who seemed quite harmless, was invited to come from Normandy and live at the court of England in a manner suitable to his rank. Hardicanute, during the last years of his reign, gave himself up to licentiousness and debauchery. He died of apoplexy during a banquet in June, 1042. As Hardicanute left no issue, the Danish dynasty in England came to an end, and the legitimate heir of the English crown, Edward, was proclaimed king. Amid his monastic pursuits he had long since renounced all worldly ambition, and he accepted the crov/n only with reluctance at the pressing request of the powerful earl Godwin, who hoped to rule the country under a king who seemed to be wanting in streng-th and energy. In order to secure this, Godwin induced him to marry his daughter Editha; but the J^oung king, with his monkish notions, did not treat her as his wife, whence he was called the Confessor, which means the Saint. The sons of Godwin obtained influential positions and played into the hands of their father. The new government, however, soon became joopular, as the Danish influence in the affairs of the country was sup- pressed, and the Danegelt was abolished. At the same time the king offended the national feeling of the Anglo-Saxons by showing much partiality for the Normans, among whom he had spent his early years, and a dislike towards the somewhat rude and coarse manners of his Anglo-Saxon subjects. The Normans 800— 106G.] ANGLO-SAXON PEBIOT>. 41 were alwaj^s more inclined to sliow complete sub- mission to tlie Papal See tlian the Anglo-Saxons, wlio had all along striven to keep their church more or less independent of Eome. Edward, sympathising Avith the Normans, filled the throne of Canterbury and several other episcopal sees with Normans. Earl Godwin now put himself at the head of those hos- tile to these measures, but he had to go into exile. When, however, he threatened to attack London, and its citizens were ready to receive him as a friend, Stigand, bishop of Winchester, brought about an understanding, in which the king had to promise to dismiss his Norman followers, both lay and clerical. The national feeling thus gained a decided victory; and when, after Godwin's death, his son Harold succeeded to his place, the king showed an honest desire to secure the English throne to its natural heirs. Amid the applause of the people the king recalled prince Edward, the son of Edmund Iron- side, from Hungary, who, however, died soon after his arrival in London, leaving an only son, Edgar Atheling. Harold, earl Godwin's son, displayed great energy in the administration of the kingdom. Macbeth, a power- ful Scottish chief, had usurped the kingdom of Scotland, murdered the legitimate king Duncan, and driven his son, Malcolm Kenmore, into England. Si ward, duke of Northumberland, was sent by the king of England into Scotland to chastise the usurper. The legitimate king Malcolm was restored, and Scotland became a vassal kingdom of England. Harold was repeatedly successful in defeating the rebellious Britons of Wales, but somewhat later he brought himself, as well as the kingdom, into dangerous perplexities; for having, during a shipwreck, fallen into the hands of a French count, he was ransomed by William, duke of Normandy, on a solemn promise that after the death of Edward the Confessor Harold would assist him in obtaining the throne of England. Edward died the very year after, 1066, having shortly before, at the request of his barons, named Harold, his brother-in-law, as his suc- cessor. Edward's body was buried in Westminster Abbey, and his memory has ever been dear to English- 42 imxorA- of ENaLANi*^. [Oitav. hi, luou becauso, though ho Avas a Avoak luoiuuvh, iiiulor him tho Anglo -Saxon oonstitniion Avas rostorod, ami hocauso hoth Ivtovo aiul after him tho conntrv >vatJ rnlod by ibroii2:uor?i, Harold >rat5 ai onoo aohnoNvh\l;:od hv tho nobles as kinp: of Kng-laiid, for during tho roign of lAhvavd iho (.'oufos^or ho had displayed a valour and energy Avhioh led tho people to entertain tho greatest hopes of Imu. The n\0!st iutlnential among the eleetors, moreover, Avere lii$ personal friends. avIio hurried on the eloetion. The only one that had any legitimate title to the t^ueoession ^vas F-dii-ar Atheling. the grandson of Edmund Ironside, Avho ho\vover "vvas too young, and obtained tho earldom of Oxford. The eoroi\ation was perlbrmed by the arehbishop of York, as Ji^tigand, Avho had been raised to the arehbishopric of Canterbury, had not yet obtained the sanetion of the Pope. Harold at oneo displayed the greatest vigour and energy to secure his position and the good of the eountry, and no part of the adnunistration was negleeted. He had not loug enjoyed his new dignity when he received the intelli- genee that duke AYilliam of Kormandy Avas con- templating an invasion of England, which w*as said to be sau'.Mioned by the Tope as a war against the per- jured usurper. It is further stated that tho I'ope took this step especially at the instigation of Hiidebrand (afterwards Gregory A'II.\ who by this means hoped to secure to the papacy a greater intlnence upon England. Harold negleeted no means to meet the emergency, but as the enemy did not appear at once, he under- took an expedition against the nobles in the north, who had invited the ZSorwegians. and had promised their king the northern half of England. Harold, however, defeated them in a great battle. ANilliam. l>eforc embarking on his undertaking, tried every means to gain his object without having recourse to arms. Harold I'eplied by expelling all the Xormans residing in his dominions. \Villiam now determined to make good his claims to England by force of arms. He had o-reat ditlicultv in persuadino- his friends, and manv P/,rj—]f)(i(;,-] ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 43 rofuBcd to join him, Ltit nevertholfss severi hundred nhipH were got roady, arjd many knights and morconariefi wore attracted from i ranco and other countrios by pro- rriiBOS of rich rewards. In the month of August, 1006, liis fle/j:t aesemhled at St. Yalery with sixty thousand warriors. On tPie 20th of Sej^tomher one portion of the fleet landed at Pevensoy and the other at Hastings. Harold on hearing this instantly returned from the north to London with his mercenari^ls, hut found it iraxjossihle to hring together a sufficient army in go short a time, But ho nevertheless rejected all proposals of a division of the country hetween himself and William. On the 14tli of October the Normans advanced to the attack, and for a time victory seemed to he on Harold's side, hut William's valour and courage suc- ceeded in staying the flight of his men: the contest was resumed with fresh vigour, and the defeat of the Anglo-Saxon.^ was soon decided. Harold and two of his hrothers fell fighting bravely round the standard of -r ' 1 -1 (' > ^ 1 . i . ! , /! 1 ;i . i' c; , ,, 1 . , J. L , -.,..- I J , ; ' . . ,' . ... , ....... . ....'.. . '. ,'j . j'i.L BATTIS OP HA.-: banner was jjlanted in the jjlace of that of Harold, and "William afterwards built on the spot a richly endowed abbey, called Battle Abbey. Harold left behind him several sons who fled to Ireland, and one daughter who took refuge in Denmark. Harold's body, when dis- covered arnoncc the slain, was buried at "Waltham 41 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND . [Chap. UI. Abbey, which he himself had founded. Thus ended the Anglo-Saxon rule in England, and the country be- came a province of Normandy as it had before been of Denmark. At the time of the conquest of England by the Kormans, the state of intellectual culture among the Saxons was little, if at all, inferior to that of the French Normans, though the latter had undoubtedly the ad- vantage of greater refinement in their manners and in the outward signs of civilization. Agriculture appears to have reached about the same state of perfection as that which existed at the time when the Eomans evacuated the island. A class of free peasants continued to exist throughout the Anglo-Saxon period, notwith- standing the frequent inroads and conquests of the Danes ; nay, these very Danes, who were closely related to the Saxons in manners and language, and had be- come completely amalgamated with them through the wise laws of Alfred and Canute, formed a powerful element in the Germanic population, which maintained its character even under the rule of the Normans. The laws of Ina had ordered that the greater part of the large estates should be kept under cultivation ; and the Angles have the merit of having first drained the extensive marches of East Angiia, which thus became the most fertile portion of England. The breeding of cattle always constituted the chief employ- ment among the Anglo-Saxons, but horticulture does not seem to have been neglected. All the regulations respecting the administration of the towns appear to have been the same as those among their countrymen on the continent, and there are in them scarcely any traces of Eoman influence. The connection with Home, both ecclesiastical and literary, which had never entirely ceased since the introduction of Christianity, became indeed more important after the time of Egbert ; but the Saxon spirit of independence was ever strug- gling against the attempts of the papacy to establish its supremacy in England. The influence of Dunstan and the Benedictines seemed to pave the way more and more for this scheme, yet it could never be carried 1066—1087.] WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 45 to tlie point which it had reached in France, even at a very early j)®^'^^^- -^^ ^^^ reserved for the Norman conqnerors to draw England completely into the great ecclesiastical communion with Eome. The development of the Anglo-Saxon literature, which had reached its height in the reign of Alfred, had now come to a close : the Conquest checked its further growth and it died away, but in its j^lace there arose, under the influence of the French Normans, that Christian romantic poetry which forms so striking a feature of the middle ages. CHAPTER lY, THE EAELY NORMAN KINGS^ WilUam I. thej ic66-1087 Conqueror . .j William 11. (Rufus) 1087—1100 Henry I, Stephen . 1100—1135 1135—1151 1. WILLIAM THE CONaUEROS, 1066—1087. The terror inspired by the news of Harold's defeat and death for the moment completely paralysed the energy of tlie Anglo-Saxons, and the vanquished fled in all directions. Some of the nobles assembled in London, however, resolved to make a stand, and Stigand, arch- bishop of Canterbury, at their head proclaimed Edgar Atheling king. "William was for some time detained in the south, but when at length he appeared before London, Stigand, with Edgar and all his noble fol- lowers, went to meet the conqueror, and tender their submission. William at first seemed to wait for some manifestation of the whole nation ; but on the advice of the clergy he hastened his coronation, which was per- formed on Christmas-day in Westminster Abbey. Both the English and Norman nobility received the new king with general acclamation, and he then took the cus- tomary oath, promising to protect the church, to observe the laws, and to prevent acts of violence, He also con- 46 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. [Chap. IV. firmed tlie liberties of London and other cities, and left the Saxon nobles undisturbed in their dignities and estates ; but those of the nobles who had fallen in the war were distributed among his Norman followers. He also confiscated all the private property of the Anglo-Saxon royal family, as well as of the principal adherents of Harold. The position of the conqueror was indeed most diffi- cult, surrounded as he was by a people who hated and detested him, and were ready at any moment to rise against him. But still things might gradually have settled down in peace, had not William thought it necessary to spend the greater -psirt of his time in Normandy, leaving the administration of England in the hands of Normans, who by their reckless insolence and oppression goaded the people into rebellion. He left England the very year after the conquest, taking with him Edgar and other Saxon nobles to prevent any attempts at raising the legitimate heir to the throne. An insurrection broke out immediately afterwards, and William hastily returning began to treat the Saxons with merciless oppression. Conspiracies were also formed by the sons of Harold, in which the kings of Scotland and Denmark and Edgar Atheling took part. Their scheme was indeed thwarted, but when in 1069 the Danes landed in the Humber, the garrison of York, consisting of 3000 Normans, was put to the sword, and William's dangers seemed to increase. But he again overcame all difficulties. His anger was now roused : the whole country between the Humber and the Tees was laid waste, and a hundred thousand human lives are said to have been sacrificed ; there now followed wholesale confiscations, by which he enriched himself and his followers, and many of the noblest Saxons who escaped from the sword took refuge in foreign countries. Nearly the whole of the Anglo-Saxon nobility was ex- terminated. All high offices of the church were filled with Normans, and archbishop Stigand was deposed, his place being filled by the learned Lombard Lanfranc. The Anglo-Saxons, however, did not give up all hope. Here ward, a brave Saxon, still believing it possible to 1066—1087.] WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 47 deliver his country, fortified liimself in what was called the " camp of refuge," in the Isle of Ely, where he was joined by other Saxon nobles. But William forced them to surrender. The sons of Harold, Edwin and Morcar, were put to death, Edgar Atheling who again made his submission was pardoned and allowed to retire into Normandy, while Hereward by his bravery won the admiration of William and received back his estates. England now seemed completely subdued, but Wil- liam had not only to contend with the conquered people, but also with the turbulence and lawlessness of his own Normans, who even went so far as to conspire against their own master. The plot, however, was discovered and easily piit down. William's eldest son Robert, who had been entrusted with the administration of Normandy, also rose in rebellion against his father, and unwittingly nearly killed him : when he became aware of what he was about to do, he was filled with remorse and contrition, and was pardoned. It may be said that William throughout his reign never felt quite safe. Even during his last years the country was harassed sometimes by the Welsh, and once again hy a Danish invasion, in consequence of which the king found it necessary to levy the odious impost of the Danegelt. In the year 1086 the king convened a great diet at Sarum, at which all the freeholders of England had to take the oath of fealty to him, and were confirmed in their possessions. The means for convening this as- sembly was furnished by a document called Domesday Booh, which had just then been completed, and which still exists in the Chapter House, in London. It con- tains an account of the lands in each county, the names of the king's direct feudatories and their sub-feudatories, the number of freemen, the revenues, and generally everything that seemed necessary to obtain a correct registration of the property in the country. The main object of this document was no doubt to ascertain how much revenue the royal treasury might derive from the country. The whole population of England seems at the time to have consisted of about 300,000 heads of D 48 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IV. families, and all together, perhaps, of two millions of souls. From this document we further see that Wil- liam introduced into England the feudal system, which had been established in France long before. During the last year of his life he was involved in a war Yv^ith the king of France, and while he was riding among the burning ruins of Mantes, his horse stumbled and threw him with such violence that he sustained a serious injury ; and feeling that his life was coming to a close, he tried to overcome his fears of death by most ample bequests and presents to monasteries and churches, and by setting free some of those who were still lan- guishing in prisons. He then regulated the affairs of his dominions, assigning to his son Robert, Normandy and his other continental possessions ; to William, his second son, the kingdom of England ; while the third son, Henry, received only a legacy of five thousand pounds of silver. At last the king died on the 7th of September, 1087, and was buried in the church of St. Stephen at Caen. William the Conqueror was one of the most powerful and prudent rulers of his time. Amid the greatest difficulties and dangers he had maintained his position for more than twenty years, among a people who cherished an invincible hatred to him and all his fol- lowers. This circumstance must be regarded as some palliation for his tyranny and cruelty towards the van- quished. He was passionately fond of hunting, and as the forests of England did not satisfy him, he created the " New Forest " near his palace at Winchester, for which churches and villages were razed to the ground. For the same reason his forest laws were of the severest kind, and v/hoever killed a stag, a deer, or even a hare, was punished by having his eyes put out, while any one might atone for killing a man by a moderate fine. The conquest of England produced vast changes : the native population was reduced to such poverty and wretchedness, that its very name became a term of reproach, while most of the Saxon nobles had perished. None of the few remaining were allowed to rise to any position of honour. French, the language of the court, 1087—1100,] WILLIAM RUFUS. 49 had become that of the church and the courts of law, and the Normans, in their insolent contempt of every- thing Saxon, would have liked to extinguish the national idiom altogether. But the great body of the people tenaciously clung to the tongue of their forefathers. In ecclesiastical matters, England became closely con- nected with Rome, though AVilliam never allowed the church to encroach upon his own prerogatives. The ancient Witenagemot seems to have become extinct, and the councils which he did assemble con- sisted only of his own personal friends and partizans. Notwithstanding all this, the conquest of England by the Normans cannot be regarded as an unmitigated evil, for it gave to the country a strong government instead of the feeble and degraded dynasty of the Anglo-Saxons, and introduced a class of nobles who by their very pride and jealousy of the crown, at a later period, bO" came the means of changing a despotic into a constitU' tional government. 2. WILLIAM KUFUS, 1087—1100. How completely the strong and unscrupulous hand of William the Conqueror had broken the spirit of the Saxons is clear from the fact that after his death the interests of Edgar Atheling and those of Harold's sons were entirely ignored, and that the arrangements of the Conqueror were acquiesced in, in spite of ancient usage. William, the Conqueror's second son, surnamed Eufus, that is red-haired, was now twenty-five years old. Provided with his father's letter to Lanfranc, his former tutor, he proceeded to England, and the arch- bishop, anxious to avoid anything like an election, crowned William Piufus in Westminster Abbey, after exacting from him a promise that he would govern according to law, cherish mercy, protect the church, and follow his advice. Both the Norman nobles and the Saxons without hesitation took the customary oath, but many of the former residing in Normandy conspired to raise their own duke Eobert to the English throne. William well understood that the Saxons must be his main support against them., and accordingly promised 50 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [CllAP. IV. to enact just and mild laws, to abolish unjust taxes, and the like. With the help of the Saxons, who re- joiced at the entire separation of England from Nor- mandy, William not only repelled the partizans of his brother in England, but by an expedition into Nor- mandy he obtained the cession of a portion of that country, and the two brothers then agreed that, if either of them died without issue, the other should succeed him in his dominions. Henry, the Conqueror's third son, thinking himself injured by this compact, threw himself into the fortress of Mount St. Michael, in which he was besieged by Robert, and soon compelled to take to flight, after which he spent several years in exile. Lanfranc, who had always guided the councils of William Eufus, died in 1089, and from this moment the king's tyrannical disposition and avarice displaj^ed themselves more and more without restraint. Desirous to enrich himself at the expense of the church, he did not fill the vacant see of Canterbury until, after the lapse of four years, a dangerous illness induced him to give the archbishopric to Anselm, a priest highly honoured for his learning and piety. Anselm, already in his sixty-first year, reluctantly accepted the dignity, but once in possession he manfully defended the rights of the church. Finding that he was struggling in vain against the avarice and arbitrary proceedings of the king, he resolved to go to Kome to solicit the assistance of the Pope. During Anselm's absence the king again usurped the estates and revenues of the archbishop. About the same time he also succeeded in gaining pos- session of Normandy, for Eobert, wishing to take part in the first crusade, mortgaged his duchies of Normandy and Maine for ten thousand marks, which sum William extorted with violence from churches and monasteries. But his attempt to enlarge his dominions in France proved a failure. He unexpectedly met his death, in 1100, while hunting in the New Forest : an arrow shot by Walter Tyrrel accidentally flew into the king's breast and killed him. It was rumoured, however, that he had been murdered, and this was the more readily 1100—1135.] iiEKRY 1. '^ ' 51 believed, because lie was hated by the people on account of his dissolute life, his luxury, and his oppression of the church and his subjects. He had never been mar- ried, but had spent his life surrounded by courtezans. 3. HENRY I, 1100—1135. Henry I., surnanied Beauclerc, that is, the Scholar^ immediately took possession of the crown, to which he had a legitimate claim by the regulations of his father, though it was contrary to the compact concluded be- tween William and Eobert. For this reason Henry thought it advisable to form a strong party for himself by liberal promises to the church, the barons, and the people. After he had taken the usual coronation oath, he secured the goodwill of the clergy by filling the sees which had been vacant for some time, and by recalling Anselm. He then issued a proclamation, promising to all his English subjects to follow the laws of the good king Edward the Confessor, with those alterations made b}^ his father with the advice of his barons. The Saxon portion of his subjects was further conciliated by his marrying Matilda, the niece of Edgar Atheling and daughter of the Scottish king Malcolm. Some of the Norman chiefs, however, not approving of this policy, again tried to raise duke Eobert to the throne. But the light-headed and good-natured Eobert, seeing that the Saxons remained faithful to Henry, con- tented himself with the restoration of Normandy. Some years later, however, in 1106, he not only lost his duchy, but having become involved in a feud with his brother, he was taken prisoner in the battle of Tenche- bray, and remained in captivity for twenty-eight years until his death. Henry vigorously coerced his vassals in France, and even king Louis YI. of France, after a long contest, in the peace of Gisors ceded to him the province of Brittany. Archbishop Anselm, after his return from Eome, had renewed the dispute about the right of investiture. Before this time the kings had exercised this right and 52 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. [Chap. IV. invested tlie bishops witli ring and crozier, for which the bishops had to do homage to the king. Ansehn now refused to receive his investiture from the king. But as the latter, supported by the nobles, insisted upon his right, the Pope, Pascal II., gave way ; and when the king at a synod in London, 1106, declared that henceforth he would no longer invest any bishop with ring and crozier, but would still exact their homage, all the bishops present acknowledged their obligation to render homage to the king. Thus the dis]3ute about the investiture by wise, mutual forbearance was settled, and three years later Anselm died. The rebellious spirit of the barons in Normandy and their restless neighbours obliged Henry to sjDend half of his time in France ; but in the end he secured for himself the possession of all the countries his father had ruled over. Even the succession of his son William had already been sanctioned by the barons both of England and Normandy; but this young prince perished in 1120 while crossing over from Normandy to England : he lost his life in an attempt to save his sister from shipwreck. This unfortunate accident so deeply affected Henry that afterwards, it is said, he was never seen to smile, Matilda was now the only child left to him ; she was married in 1114 to Henry Y. of Germany. When her husband had died, Henry, at a diet of his nobles, after much discussion, prevailed upon them to acknowledge her as his legitimate suc- cessor in England and Normandy, promising at the same time that he would not allow her again to marry a foreigner. Notwithstanding this promise, however, Henry, in 1129, gave her in marriage to Count Geoffrey, of Anjou, whereby he hoped to realize his favourite scheme of uniting Anjou with England. Not long after he fell out with his new son-in-law, and just as he was on the point of bringing his daughter back to England he suddenly died in Normandy, in 1135. Henry during his reign had exercised strict justice towards all classes of his subjects, whence he was called the " Lion of Justice :" he restrained the power of the nobles and protected the people against their acts of 1135—1154-.] STEPHEN. 53 violence. He was also distinguiislied for his extensive knowledge and for tlie regard lie j)aid to men of learn- ing. But in other respects lie was a true Norman, keeping the Saxons out of all the high offices, both lay and clerical. It had not heen customary to entrust the govern- ment of the kingdom to a woman, and the notion that the intended succession of Matilda was unlawful was pretty general. In addition to this Henry had broken his promise not to give her in marriage to a foreigner. A report was therefore speedily spread that Henry had recalled or at least repented of his daughter's succession. The nearest heir to the throne was Theobald, the eldest son of count Stephen of Blois and Adela, the daughter of William the Conqueror ; but while Theo- bald was tarrying in Normandy, where several barans gathered round him, offering their support, the news reached him that his younger brother Stephen had been elected and crowned king of England. Stephen was very popular; he had large possessions in England, and his accession was especially supported by the aversion felt by the English towards the Count of Anjou, as well as by the influence of Stephen's brother, who was bishop of Winchester. When at length the Pope also confirmed the election of the clergy and the people, Stephen promised to protect the rights of the church and to observe the laws of the good king, Edward the Confessor. Even the barons in Normandy showed themselves little inclined to favour the Count of Anjou, and Stephen thus felt himself pretty secure ill his possessions without going across to Normandy, 4. STEPHEI?", 1135—1154. The reign of Stephen, which lasted for nearly twenty years, was an almost uninterrupted succession of petty wars against Scotland and Wales, and of internal feuds and acts of violence, whereby the country fell into a state of disorder and anarcli}^ Stephen in these troubles had to rely chiefly upon foreign mercenaries from Flanders and Brittany, whose insolence and 54 HISTORY OF EKaLAND. [CiiAP. IV. violence offended tlie Norman barons. Tlie king's own weakness and his doubtful right of succession also called forth disturbances in England. A conspiracy of Saxons, to rid themselves of their Norman oppressors, was fortunately frustrated ; but the Norman barons, and afterwards the clerical dignitaries also, endeavoured to secure themselves by erecting strong and fortified castles all over the country, which were little better than robbers' dens. From them they frequently sallied forth, plundered and maltreated the Saxon people in the most barbarous and cruel manner. Under these circumstances Matilda of Anjou, supported by her brother Eobert of Gloucester, landed in England, 1139, where now she even succeeded in enlisting the support of Stephen's own brother, the bishop of Winchester, and other powerful ecclesiastics whom the king had offended in his endeavours to restrain their lawless conduct. In an unsuccessful battle the king became the prisoner of Eobert, and the bishop of Winchester even induced the clergy to recognise Matilda as the lawful sovereign ; the English people, however, con- tinued their strong aversion to the House of Anjou. The bishop of Winchester, at this time papal legate in England, indignant at Matilda's refusal to restore the captive king to freedom, now turned against her and caused her to be besieged at Winchester. She escaped, but her brother and champion was taken prisoner. She now consented to an exchange in which both Stephen and Eobert were set free. The civil war, however, continued fiercer than ever for five long years, during which Eobert recovered Normandy and the western half of England for his sister. In 1147 Matilda's son, Henry of Anjou, and Stephen's son Eustace, began to take part in the struggle, which was carried on with varying success. Stejohen himself showed so little ability that even after the death of Eobert he was unable to secure his throne. When at length his son Eustace died, the desire of peace after so much bloodshed led the bishop of Winchester and the archbishop of Canterbury to negotiate a treaty, whereby Stephen was recognised by Henry of Anjou 1154—1189.] HENRY II. 55 and his followers as king of England, wliile Henry himself was to be his successor. Henry, through his marriage with Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis YII. of France, had obtained Poitou and Guienne, in addition to his duchy of Normandy and Anjou. Thus the future king of England was at the same time a powerful ruler over a great part of France. The castles erected by the nobles were to be given up to Stephen, but as he had been obliged to dismiss most of his foreign mercenaries he was unable to effect this object, and he soon after died, in October, 1154. His second son remained in the undisputed possession of the county of Boulogne, which he inherited from his mother, but the crown of England now passed to the House of Anjou, which in history bears the name of Plantagenet, so called from planta genista (a kind of Spanish broom), which the founder of the house had worn on his helmet during the crusade. CHAPTER V. THE PLANTAGENET KINGS. Henry II. . . . 1154—1189 ] Richard I. . . . 1189—1199 John. .... 1199—1216 1. HENRY II., 1151—1189. When Henry II., in consequence of the contract made with Stephen, became his successor, he was only twenty-two years old, but already in possession of very extensive domains ; the young monarch was en- dowed by nature with excellent abilities, which he used in the best way to extend his powers. When he heard of the death of Stephen he was engaged in quelling some disturbances which had arisen in France against Louis YII., but he immediately proceeded to England to take possession of the kingdom. He was 56 HISTORY 03? ENGLAND. [Chap. V. received with entlmsiasm, and in December, 1154, he was crowned at Westminster by the archbishop of Canterbury, and soon after assembled the great nobles at his court. His first acts at this meeting inspired ever}^ one with the best hopes, for he confirmed the liberties of the city of London, and measures were taken to get rid of the remaining foreign mercenaries, and to destroy the castles erected by the nobles for the purpose of oppressing and plundering the surrounding country. Henry further resumed the crown lands which had been given away by his feeble predecessor. These last measures he carried out in person at the head of an army, and his subjects were thereby con- firmed in the hope that the king would rule according to the laws of Henry I., and everywhere maintain peace and justice. At another meeting in the following year he caused his nobles to take the oath of allegiance both to himself and his two sons, who, however, did not survive him. For some time Henry II. was engaged in w^ars against the AVelsh and the Scots, who were making inroads in the north of England, but at the close of the campaign he left to the king of Scotland the earldom of Huntingdon. It so happened that a few days before Henry's coro- nation Hadrian IV., an Englishman, had been raised to the papal throne; he now issued a bull, probably at Henry's own suggestion, by which the king of England was authorised and admonished to conquer Ireland, the object being to connect that island more closely with the see of Eome. But before Henry could engage in this enterprise he had to contend with his brother Geoffrey, who maintained that, by an ordinance of his father, he had a right to all the family possessions in France. Geoffrey, however, was soon obliged to give up his pretensions and to be satisfied with a pension. But the feuds in France continued, Henry endeavouring to secure to himself districts belonging to other members of his family. In these acts of aggrandise- ment he was supported during the first years of his reign by his chancellor, Thomas a Becket, who, by his tidroitness and amiable disposition, had so won the 1154—1189.] HENRY 11. 67 affections' of the king that in 1162 he was raised to the archbishopric of Canterbury. The king hoped that Becket, in his high ecclesiastical position, would remain his friend and assist him in his endeavours to establish a proper relation between the secular and ecclesiastical powers. The king was all the more justified in this hope because Becket, the son of a London citizen, was the first Saxon since the Norman conquest who had been raised to high honours ; but Becket, when he had once entered upon his office, steadily pursued but one object — to raise the secular power of his own order. With this view he at once resigned the office of chan- cellor in order to be more independent of the court. He led personally a most austere life, and thus sur- rounded himself with the halo of sanctity. The clergy at that time were notorious for many crimes and mis- demeanours, and the king was specially desirous to have such offences tried by lay courts ; but Becket main- tained that no layman could judge a priest. As however a considerable number of English bishops were opposed to this doctrine, Becket declared himself ready to yield. As this, however, was done in a somewhat evasive manner, the king resolved, in 1164, to summon a meeting of his barons and the higher clergy at Clarendon, near Salisbury, in order to determine what were the ancient customs of the kingdom in ecclesiastical matters. The assembly passed sixteen articles known under the name of the Clarendon Con- stitutions. The chief provisions were that a priest accused of crime should be tried by a secular court, that no priest should quit the country without the king's permission, that the revenues of vacant bishoprics should belong to the king, and that they should be filled up by the clergy convened by the king, subject to his approval. In fact, all provisions of these Con- stitutions aimed at restricting the privileges of the clergy. Becket was the only one of the bishops present who refused to recognise the validity of the resolutions, though in the end he signed and sealed the document. 58 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. V, But no sooner had lie left the assembly than he "began to repent of what he had done. It was evident that the national customs of the Saxons had come into violent collision with the papal decrees, and several attempts were made to bring about a reconciliation. In October of the same year the king summoned a great council at Northampton, before which Becket was sum- moned to account for his not having appeared in a suit instituted against him. When, after a long discussion, he was found guilty, he appealed to the Pope and secretly made his escape to France, where he obtained the protection of the king, while Henry in the mean- lime enjoyed the revenues of the archbishop. Becket was six years absent from England, and king Louis' protection of him led to a war w^ith France, in which Henry gained some advantages. While in Eome Becket resigned his dignity of archbishop into the hands of the Pope, who, however, restored it to him, and in addition appointed him papal legate for England. Becket now acted with greater vehemence against Henry : he excommunicated the bishops who were opposed to him, and even threaten ed the king with an interdict and excommunication. In the meantime negotiations were continued, but when Henry II. refused a complete reconciliation with Becket, the Pope himself threatened him with interdict. Owing to the mediation of Louis of France, Henry at length consented to Becket returning to his archbishopric, but without any allusion to the Clarendon Constitutions. Becket returned to England in December, 1170, but as those who had taken possession of the archbishop's cnta-tes refused to give them back, he at once pro- nounced excommunication against them. Three bishops who were excommunicated now repaired to the king, who was then staying in Normandy, and by informing him of what had happened irritated him so much that he exclaimed, " Is there no one who will rid me of this intriguing priest ?" These words were caught up by four courtiers ; they secretly hastened across the sea, and the king's messengers sent after them were unable to overtake them. On their arrival at Canterbury 1154—1189.] HENRY II. 59 they vehemently demanded of the archbishop to recall the sentence pronounced upon the bishops who were faithful to their king. Becket refused gently but firmly, and although his adversaries now threatened violence, he could not be prevailed upon to take to flight. Some monks then dragged him into the church, where, as they thought, he would be safe. "With calm- ness he awaited his enemies, and when they again with threats pressed him to recall his excommunication, he replied, " I fear neither you nor your swords." A blow was then aimed at him, and while commending his spirit to God he received a second blow v/hich broke his skull. The murderers then plundered his palace and rode off. This terrible deed was done on the 29th of December, 1170, and a little more than two years later Becket was canonised as a saint and martyr. Henry 11. knew well that this crime only injured his cause : for three days he shut himself up without taking any food, and then sent an embassy to Eome to clear himself from the suspicion of having been the instigator of the murder. Pope Alexander III. ordered an enquiry to be instituted. The murderers were at once excommunicated, but when afterwards they ap- peared in Eome full of repentance and contrition, they were ordered to do penance by joining the crusaders, and going to the Holy Land. After these events Henry II. turned his attention to Ireland. Ever since the eighth century Danes and Norwegians had settled in that island, and the natives, disunited among themselves, had facilitated the settling of foreigners among them. Irish kings, however, con- tinued to govern by far the greater part of the countrj^. The Christianity of the Irish had some things peculiar, ajid was independent of the Eoman see. Even in the time of William the Conqueror and Henry I. the popes had wished to draw Ireland into connection with the Eoman Church. When the papal bull empowered Henry II. to subdue Ireland, he was engaged by other and more pressing business, but now a favourable op- portunity offered itself for carrying out the pope's 60 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Char V. design. One of the Irisli kings having been expelled songht the protection of Henry II., and an English adventurer, earl Eichard, snrnamed Strongbow, accom- panied by others, made conquests in the east of the island, which, in 1171, he surrendered to the English king, but which he received back as tenant in chief of the English crown. In the same year Henry himself landed in Ireland, and all the princes, with the ex- ception of the king of Ulster, recognised him as their superior. The Irish clergy also took the oath of allegiance to the king of England, who, at a synod, presided over by a papal legate, caused the rites and customs different from those of the Eoman Church to be abolished. Although the greater part of Ireland had thus become subject to the English crown, it was manifest that the chiefs of the nation little intended to give up their own authority - After his return from Ireland, Henry II. asserted, upon a solemn oath before the papal legate, that he was innocent of the murder of Becket, and at the same time promised to abolish all the articles of the Clarendon Constitutions which were not based upon ancient customs or had originated in his own reign. He ob- tained, however, one important concession, viz., that without his consent, henceforth no appeal should be made to Home. After the canonisation of Becket in 1173, Henry made a pilgrimage to his tomb for the purpose of showing his sorrow and doing penance. By this public humiliation before the remains of the revered martyr, the king gained great popularity. But troubles now broke out in the royal family. At the instigation of queen Eleanor, who was offended by the king's in- lidelities, Henry, the king's eldest son, defied his authority, and caused great disturbances both in Eng- land and France ; but king Henry, with the assistance of his knights and mercenaries, soon crushed the re- bellious spirit, and young Henry was forced to submit to his father. "William, king of Scotland, also took part in these feuds, but was conquered and taken prisoner in a battle at Alnwick, and recovered his 1154—1189.] HENRY II. 61 freedom only by ceding a portion of Scotland and doing homage to tlie king of England. The Scottish clergy, also, had to acknowledge the supremacy of the English church. The English rebels likewise submitted, and as Henry's sons also returned to obedience and did homage for their possessions in France and Ireland, there now followed some 3'ears of peace, during which the king devoted himself to the organisation and ad- ministration of the internal affairs of his kingdom. His anxiety to maintain peace and justice led him, like his grandfather, Henry I., to regard the Saxon element as the surest foundation of his power and to introduce truly national institutions. By the Clarendon Con- stitutions he had saved the independence of the English Church ; and he now strengthened the self-government of towns, developed the system of trial by jury, secured the means of defending England against foreign ag- gression, and especially promoted the interests of cities, and, above all, of London, by the strict administration of justice, and favouring the institutions of corporations and guilds. In short, he employed the time of peace with energy and prudence, to strengthen his own authority and to gain the respect of both his subjects and of the neighbouring nations. His two daughters were married to foreign kings, and his five sons were placed in pretty independent positions, but they showed little gratitude for the confidence reposed in them by their father. The old jealousy between his two sons, Henry and Eichard, led to a series of severe struggles, in which the father sided with Eichard. Young Henry died during the war, in 1183. Not long afterwards Eichard also quarrelled with his father because he spoiled, and on every occasion showed a preference for, his youngest son John. The king also fell out with Geoffrej^ who, however, died in 1186. Henry II. had intended to undertake a crusade, but the faithlessness of his sons, and the interference of king Philip Augustus of France in these disputes, prevented him from carrying out the pledge to fight against the infidels. In the end the French king, with the assistance of Eichard and John, 62 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. V. the latter of whom now likewise showed a rebellious spirit against his father, compelled king Henry to con- clude an inglorious peace. The king, broken-hearted, survived this sorrow only a few days, and none but a natural son, who alone remained faithful to him, was present at his death-bed in 1180. Only two of his legitimate sons, Eichard and John, survived him, and they in succession occupied the throne of England after him. Henry II. displayed during his life an unwearied activity, but was often led away by passion; he vigorously, though not without harshness, controlled the countries subject to his sceptre. His interest for literature was shown by his surrounding himself with the most eminent men of the time, both scholars and poets. 2. RICHARD I., 1189-1199. Eichard I., surnamed Coeur de Lion, that is, lion- hearted, was thirty-two years old when his father died ; he had already possessed for many years Aquitaine and Poitou. He followed his father's body to the grave with deep repentance for what he had done, and hastened to Eouen to obtain the absolution of his sin. To his younger brother John, he left the possessions entrusted to him by his father ; he retained the wisest of his father's councillors and released his mother Eleanor from the confinement in which she had been kept by her husband for many a year, entrusting her at the same time with the regency of England. He then hastened to London to receive the crown; his coronation became the unfortunate occasion of a cruel persecution. Several wealthy Jews who had pressed forward in the crowd to see the king were murdered, and as the people, not only of England but of all Europe, were at that time fanatically excited against unbelievers of every description, the example of London was imitated in many other places, where Jews were indiscriminately murdered. Eichard's at- tempts to stop these cruel proceedings were of no avail. 1189—1199.] RICHARD I. 63 Soon after his coronation tlie king resolved to under- take a crusade against the Saracens in the Holy Land, and for this purpose he amassed as much money as he could : rights and privileges were ojoenly sold, and whoever gave money obtained lands and honours ; even "the king of Scotland bought his exemption from doing homage to Eichard for the small sum of ten thousand marks. When, on the 12th of December, 1190, the king set out, he appointed his favourite, Yf illiam, bishop of Ely, surnamed Lougchamp, regent of the kingdom, leaving to him the uncontrolled administration, adding to his dignity of chancellor that of grand justiciary, and procuring him the powers of a papal legate. Richard undertook the crusade in conjunction with Philip Augustus, of France, their united forces amount- ing to one hundred thousand men. But there soon arose between them a feeling of jealousy, each wishing to appear as the first champion of Christendom. On his arrival in Sicily he further offended the French king by his betrothal with Berengaria of Kavarre, whom he took with him to the Holy Land, and married in the isle of Cyprus. Even before he left Sicily he heard of the arbitrary proceedings of William of Ely, which induced him to send commissioners to England to enquire into his conduct. But these commissioners did not even dare to present their letters to him. Meanwhile, his brother John, whom he had treated only with too much kindness, thinking it improbable that his bold and audacious brother would ever return, began to aim at the throne for himself. Richard before his departure had recognised his nephew, Arthur, son of his elder brother Geofi'rey, as his successor. With this view, and with the assistance of the barons and the citizens of London, John tried to overthrow the bishop of Ely, who, by his insolence and arbitrary doings, had drawn upon himself universal hatred. Even Philip Augustus was not foreign to John's scheme, but the queen -mother Eleanor successfully maintained the authority of Richard, and William of Ely took to flight. When, at length, the news arrived that Richard 64: HISTOllY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. V. was a prisoner in Germany, Jolin went so far as to declare to the French, king that he would not con- clude any peace with his brother without the consent of Philip Angustiis, in return for which John was to have the kingdom of England and his brother's French possessions. But the lawful king's authority was again maintained by Eleanor and archbishop Walter, who had been appointed grand justiciar3^ The Pope also was induced to threaten the disturbers of peace in England with interdict and excommunica- tion. Meanwhile, Eichard, who was still a prisoner of Henry YI., of Germany, consented to do homage to him as the greatest ruler in Christendom and to paj^ him an annual tribute. But Henry, not satisfied with this, had his captive brought before a diet at Worms, and charged him with several offences and mis- demeanours. Eichard defended himself manfully, and the German princes condemned the conduct of the emperor, whereupon Eichard obtained his liberty for a ransom of one hundred and fifty thousand marks. In order to raise this sum, William of Ely, who, while abroad, had been kindly received by Eichard, was sent to England. Several months passed before the mone}^ was ready; and in 1194, Eichard, having recovered his freedom, returned to England, where he was received in triumph. A few months later he assembled a diet of his barons, in which John was declared to have forfeited all his possessions ; but when the latter threw himself at the king's feet, he received a generous pardon through the interference of his mother. A few words must be said about Eichard's captivity. He had entered upon what was the third crusade, from 1191 to 1192. His first great exploit in the East was the capture of Acre, which had been besieged for two years. On that occasion he had affronted duke Leopold of Austria, and a few da^'s later Philip Augustus, jealous of Eichard's rising fame, returned to France. Eichard now, with fearful losses, advanced towards Jerusalem ; but finding it impossible single-handed to effect anything, he concluded a peace with Saladin, on condition that Acre, Joppa, and a portion of the sea- 1189— 1199.] RICHAED L 65 coast should be given up to the Christians, and that pilgrims to Jerusalem should not he molested. A further inducement to conclude this peace was afforded him by information about the schemes of his brother John. On his return home he avoided passing through France ; and, being shipwrecked in the Adriatic, he resolved to proceed in disguise through Germany. In the neighbourhood of Vienna he was recognised and arrested by the order of duke Leopold, who had, how- ever, to deliver him up to the emperor. He was then confined in a castle in the Tyrol, and afterwards placed before the above-mentioned diet at Worms. The news of his imprisonment had called forth in England the greatest indignation, and even his former enemies felt sympathy with him. On his arrival he was crowned a second time at Winchester ; and having pardoned his brother he proceeded to Normandy in 1194 to avenge himself upon the French king. The desultory war in which he was thus engaged, and which is of little interest to us now, lasted until 1199, when a truce was concluded for five years. A few months after this peace Eichard ended his career by an inglorious death ; for while besieging a castle in Poitou, he was wounded in the shoulder by an arrow, and through the unskilful management of Ihe surgeon th injury proved fatal. He died on the 8th of April, 1199. Eichard had all along treated his nephew Arthur as his successor, but he had at last been induced by his mother to leave the kingdom to his brother John. The reign of Eichard I. was indeed brilliant, but comparatively useless. He was a man of prodigious bodily strength, and delighted in exercising it ; he was never more happy than when dashing into the tumult of a battle, or storming a fortified castle. The life in England seems to have been unpleasant to him, for during his whole reign he spent scarcely six months in his own kingdom, which was given up to disorder, and sorely ground down by his wars and the ransom which had to Toe paid for bis liberatiQA, 66 HISTORY OF ENGLANDo [Chap. V. r, 1199—1216. The riglit of succession was as as yet not well regulated in England. The king himself had generally fixed upon a successor, hut in the Anglo-Saxon period such an arrangement always had required the sanction of the "Witenagemot. Latterly, however, it had become customary for the king to nominate his successor. John's right to the crown was not universally acknow- ledged, and the barons in the dominions in France maintained that Prince Arthur was the legitimate heir to the English throne. This feeling induced John immediately after his coronation to proceed to Nor- mandy, and archbishop Hubert of Canterbury pre- vailed upon the barons to recognise John on condition of his taking an oath to protect the church, abolish bad laws, and to maintain justice throughout his dominions. Philip Augustus of France strengthened Prince Arthur, who was staying at his court, in his opposition to his uncle ; but his mother Constance, jealous of the French king's influence over her son, took him away from Paris and persuaded him to make his peace with John. This was done, and Philip Augustus, too, came to an understanding with John, who, however, was to appear before a court of the French king, his feudal superior. But as John refused he was declared to have forfeited all his feudal possessions. The French king now also made Arthur revoke his acknowledgment of John, and when the young prince commenced open hostilities against him, he had the misfortune of being made his uncle's prisoner. John kept him in close confinement, and in the following year, 1203, the prince suddenly disappeared, the report being that the English king had slain him with his own hand and thrown his body into the Seine. The French king summoned John to answer the charge made against him, but as this summons was again met by a refusal, John was declared a parricide, and to have forfeited all his French possessions. Philip Augustus now took up arms against him, and in a few years John was com- pelled to conclude a peace, in 1206, in which he had 1199—1216.] JOHK. 67 to cede Normandy and all his continental possessions to the king of France. John had been driven to conclude this j)eace, or rather truce, for two j^ears, because he was involved in a disastrous conflict with the ambitious Pope, Inno- cent III. The archbishopric of Canterbury had be- come vacant by the death of Hubert, and John charged the monks, who had made their election without his sanction, to proceed to a new election, which was made without consulting the bishops. Pope Innocent III. took advantage of this for the purpose of putting an end to several exceptional privileges belonging to the English church. With this view he caused the monks sent to Eome by the chapter of Canterbury to elect Stephen Langton, an Englishman distinguished for learning, purity of character, and practical wisdom. The Pope indeed asked John to sanction the election, but at the same time declared such sanction to be unnecessary. John, greatly enraged at this assertion, wrote angrily to the Pope, that he would never sanction the appointment of Langton. John neglected no opportunity of showing his contempt of the papal authority by attacking the jDroperty of the clergy, and stopping the papal jurisdiction in England. At the same time he offended both his barons and the clergy by imposing exorbitant taxes upon them. The Pope now, in 1208, had recourse to energetic measures, laying England under an interdict. John in ' retaliation ordered all priests without distinction to be expelled. This measure called forth, so many acts of violence that the king himself became frightened, and he now endeavoured to secure the fidelity of his nobles by compelling them to give up their sons to him as hostages. John, however, thought it prudent to enter into negotiations with the Pope, and to allow Langton to take possession of the archiepiscopal throne. But as the king persisted in his obstinacy the sentence of excommunication was pronounced upon him. Fear and terror no^v made him restless, and he endeavoured to drown this feeling by traversing his ov/n country, watching every hostile movement, and by making war 68 HISTORY OF EKGLAND. [Chap. V. against Scotland and Wales. Scotland again liad to acknowledge tlie feudal supremacy of England ; Ireland was divided into counties and liad to accept English laws ; and "Wales was gradually reduced to a state of dependence. But these wars, which lasted till 1211, though successful, had increased the taxes by which both the nobles and the people were oppressed. The discontent became general, and insurrections broke out which only led the king to fresh acts of violence, cruelty, and oppression. The king of France was com- missioned by the Pope to carry out the sentence of excommunication. In 1212 John was declared deposed, the English throne was promised to the French king, and the English barons were released from their oath of allegiance. The Pope, anticipating that John would be cowed by these measures, sent his legate, Pandolf, to England, who was to try to make John see his evil ways. The king had already assembled an army of sixty thousand men near Dover to meet his enemies from France. Pandolf 's eloquence made John tremble, and his obstinacy was broken at once. In May, 1213, John took an oath to submit to the papal see, and promised to answer all the charges for which he had been excommunicated, and especially to grant a safe return to the bishops and monks of Canterbury, and permit Langton to enter upon his archbishopric. Lastly, the king had to lay down the crown of England and Ireland into the hands of the papal legate, and to receive it back as the vassal of the Pope. The English nobility keenly felt this humiliation and the dependence of their kingdom upon a foreign poten- tate, but Pandolf ordered them with a threat of excom- munication to support their king, who had now become quite a different man, against the king of France. The latter was forbidden, in the name of the Pope, to un- dertake anything against England. The country might now have enjoyed a period of peace, but John was bent upon maldng an attack upon Poitou, a plan which he would have carried out at once, had not his own subjects refused to do military service under him. At last, however, having amassed a large treasure and a 1199—1216.] JOHN. (ji) niimerons army, lie proceeded to Poitoit. The Pope in vain endeavoured to mediate between liim and tlie king of France. Jolm gained indeed some advantages, but in tlie nortli bis army was utterly routed in a great battle at Bovines, in consequence of wbicli he was forced to conclude a peace, in vdiich again he ceded to France all the country north of the Loire, and even left several forts in Poitou and Guienne in the hands of the French king. • The effects of this defeat were nowhere felt more keenly than in England; scarcely had he returned Avhen the discontented nobles held a meeting, at v/hich they declared upon oath, that, if king John refused to observe the laws and liberties granted to them by Henry I. and the good king Edward, they would rise against him and make war upon him, until he acceded to their demands. The king took refuge in London, but the barons followed him and defiantly demanded the confirmation of the Charter of Llenry I. ; this hapjaened in the beginning of the year 1215. John asked for time to deliberate, but he employed it in attempts to separate the interests of the clergy from those of the barons. LJis opponents openly refused to obey him, and appeared with flying banners before l^orthampton Castle. Their numbers increased from all parts of England, as they formed connections with the king of Scotland and the Britons of Wales. When, at length, the council of the city of London joined them, their plans assumed a more definite form. The king, who vras at this time at Windsor, sent v^ord to his barons that he was graciously disposed to grant their requests, asking them to fix upon a time and place for meeting. Delighted with this message, they chose the 15th of June, on which day they were to meet at Punnymede, near Staines. Both parties appeared early in the morning ; the nobles all in arms, the king surrounded by the primate and other high ecclesiastical dignitaries. A charter was drawn up consisting of sixty-three articles ; it was signed by the king, and is known by the name of the Magna CJiarfa. It has ever since formed the foundation of the constitutional liberties of 70 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. [Chap. V. England. The object of tlie barons was not to create a new law, or a new constitution, but only to obtain a confirmation of ancient liberties and guarantees for kt:'g joh\ '?TG^^:N■':i irvoxA CHAnrA.. tlieir future observance. This great c'harter has been ratified no less than thirty-eight times during suc- ceeding reigns. The king for the present assented to everything ; he ordered the castles and hostages belonging to the nobles to be restored, the mercenaries to be dismissed, and to appoint twenty-five barons as conservators of the public liberties, to whom the whole country had to swear obedience. But it was evident that he was meditating revenge for what he considered an insult to himself. As he was a vassal of the papal see, he induced the Pope to issue a bull declaring the 1199—121(3.] JOHN. 71 charter null and void, and tlireatening excommunica- tion to every one who should obey it. Many of the barons, especially those in London and in the north, still remained in arms and kept up an understanding with the king of France ; nay, they went so far as to Oifer the crown to Louis, son of Philip Augustus. The result was that Louis landed in England in 1216 and advanced to London, where the assembled barons did homage to him. He then commenced war with John, who endeavoured to increase his adherents by proclaim- ing an amnesty. The national spirit, however, was not well disposed to the alliance between the barons and the foreign prince. About the same time Pope- Innocent III. died, and John now felt the whole weight of his misfortunes. The barons rejoiced, and every one began to hope that the new pope would follow a different policy. The king roused himself to a last and desperate move ; but while he was traversing the country with his armed bands, ravaging and destroying towns and villages, his career was cut short by death. As he was marching in Lincolnshire by the sea-shore the tide unexpectedly overtook him, carrying away a great portion of his army and all his baggage. John himself escaped, but his health being already much impaired, he was attacked by a violent fever, and a few days afterwards, on the 19th of October, 1216, he died at Newark ; his body was conveyed by his mercenaries to Worcester, where it v/as buried. King John, commonly surnamed Lack-land (because his father had assigned to him no share in his posses- sions), was one of the most dissolute men and the most tyrannical ruler: he was alternately brave and cowardly, and sacrificed the independence of his king- dom to his own personal objects. He was guilty of most appalling acts of cruelty ; but these very qualities led to the formation of the Magna Charta, which secured for all time the liberty of the English nation. His reign, moreover, was the period during which the Saxons and Normans became blended into one nation, and displayed their national feeling in their opposition to Prince Louis of France. ^2 HISTOEY or ENGLAND. [Chap. VI. CHAPTER VL THE PLANTAGENET KINGS — Continued. Henry III. , . . 1216-1272 Edward I. . . , 1272-1307 Edward II. . . , 1307-1327 Edward III, . . 1327-1377 Ricliard II. . . . 1377-1399 4. HENSY in., 1216—1272. The Pope was still lord paramount of England, and Jolm had recommended to him his eldest son Henry, then nine years old, as his successor. He was crowned at Gloucester in October, 1216, taking the usual coronation oath, and at the same time that of vassal to the Pope for England and Ireland. The marshal of England, the earl of Pembroke, who had shown the most unswerving fidelity to the late king, was appointed his guardian and protector of the king- dom. The Magna Charta was renewed, though with some alterations ; and this popular measure increased the partizans of the new king, whose influence was further strengthened by the fact that Prince Louis, who still claimed the crown of England, had offended the feelings of the English. At last, as Louis con- tinued his hostility against the new king, he was excommunicated by the papal legate Guala, and being driven to extremities, concluded a truce v/ith earl Pembroke and quitted England. When, in 1223, Louis succeeded his father as Louis VIII., he attacked Poitou, forgetting the promise he had made. Henry III. now crossed over to Prance, but produced no results ; he had lost his wise and brave guardian as early as the year 1218, whereupon there arose a dispute about the guardianship, which Peter, the unworthy bishop of Winchester, a native of Poitou, secured for himself, to the disparagement of the king's faithful counsellor, the grand justiciary Hubert de Burgh. This prelate filled all high offices with foreigners, and when, in 1236, Henry married Eleanor, the daughter of the count of Provence, thero 1216—1272.] HENEY III. 73 followed anotlier influx of Frenclimen. This excessive influence of foreigners was vigorously opposed hj Eichard, earl of Pembroke, tlie son of tlie king's late guardian; tlie king liiniself also gradually came to see that lie was only a tool in the hands of foreigners, and the bishop of Winchester, being at length dej)rived of his power, spent the remainder of his life in retii'e- nient. The English barons, however, still maintained a deflant attitude towards the king, and they, together with the English clergy, held a succession of meetings at which gradually an increasing opposition was formed, which assumed the name of Parliament. Notwithstanding his oath, Henry had repeatedly violated the great Charter, in consequence of which a vast amount of discontent arose even among the great mass of his subjects, especially on account of the extortions resorted to by him. While he endeavoured to find support with the Pope, his own brother, Eichard of Cornwall, thought it right to censure him for squandering the treasures of England. But the discontented barons soon found a more energetic spokesman in Simon de Montfort, who was married to the king's sister, Eleanor, and through his earldom of Leicester, occupied a prominent position among the English barons. The king's relation to the papacy absorbed enormous sums of money; and the circum- stance that the king at a diet in London again demanded vast sums to enable him once more to try to recover his French possessions, at length led the barons to declare that they would not follow hinr. Henry nevertheless undertook the campaign into France ; but as the English parliament refused the necessary money, and as even the nobles of Poitou did not support him, the king, in 1243, was forced to conclude a truce in which all Poitou was given up to the French. There now followed a period in which nothing of much importance happened, until finally a peace was agreed upon in 1259, in which Henry gave up all claim to both ]N"ormandy and Poitou. These foreign enterprises and the profligate conduct of the king himself, constantly obliged him to demand large 74 HlSTOUt OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VI. supplies from liis subjects, and even induced him to solicit presents from the nobilit)^ He generally gained his end by making liberal promises, such as to confirm the Charter, to undertake a crusade, &c. But these promises were no sooner made than they were broken. When at length, upon the crown of Sicily being offered to his son, he again demanded exorbitant sums from his subjects, the barons appeared in arms at West- minster, requesting the king to assemble a parliament for the purpose of settling the affairs of the kingdom. This parliament met at Oxford in 1258, and is known under the name of the Mad Parliament, from the dis- orderly manner in which the business was conducted,, for the barons appeared fully armed, and the king was little better than their prisoner. It was, however, agreed there, that a commission of fifteen barons should be appointed, with Montfort at their head, to draw up a scheme of reform, which the king was obliged to confirm beforehand with an oath. The reforms they made, known as the Oxford Statutes, demanded that the great Charter should be confirmed, that all the great offices of State and the castles of the kingdom should be held by natives, that marriages of wards with foreigners should be restrained, and that twenty-four persons should be chosen, twelve by the barons and twelve by the king, who should watch over the faithful administration of the laws, and be responsible to parliament, which was to meet three times in every year. The parliament, moreover, was to be attended by four knights chosen by the free- holders of each county, who were to lay before it any grievances that might come under their notice. These and other measures were calculated to secure the interests of the people as well as of the barons, though the government was virtually in the hands of the fifteen. For two years the kingdom, on the whole, enjoyed peace and tranquillity, but as the nobles began to quarrel among themselves, and the Pope released Henry from the oath to observe the Oxford Statutes, the king thought the time had come to recover his 1216—1272.] HENRY III. 75 authority. With this view he vi,sited the French king, Louis IX., and induced him to undertake the mediation between himself and his barons. To this arrangement both parties consented. But while Henry was still in France, a civil war was on the point of breaking out in England ; it was, however, prevented by negotiation, in which the Oxford Statutes were again confirmed. Louis of France, however, at a council at Amiens, in 1264, gave it as his award that the decrees of Oxford and all the articles depending on them should be annulled ; but at the same time he declared that all the earlier statutes, enacted before those of Oxford, should be maintained, and that an amnesty should be proclaimed. The barons, though bound to acquiesce in the verdict of the French king, were dissatisfied, and accordingly made preparations for renewing the war. Several towns, such as Nottingham, were sacked and ravaged by the Eoyalists, headed by the king himself and his brother Eichard. The king's son. Prince Edward, and his cousin Henry also took part in the war. Montfort and his party being in possession of the castle of Kenilworth laid waste the country far and wide, until at last a great battle was fought near Lewes (May, 1264), in which the Eoyalist army was defeated, and King Henry and his brother, Eichard, were taken prisoners. Immediately after the battle, Montfort granted a truce to the vanquished, called the Mise of Lewes, by which the king and his brother were set free, but Prince Edward and his cousin Henry remained as hostages in the hands of the victors, while all other matters were to be settled by a parliament. Montfort and his party now had all the power in their own hands, and he at once issued a writ for parliament to meet on the 20th of January, 1265. This parliament forms an era in our constitutional history, for Montfort, who had always shown a leaning towards the popular element, sum- moned to it not only the barons and prelates, but one hundred of the higher clergy, two knights from every shire, and two representatives from, every city and 7iJ HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VI. borough, so that this parliament was at once a representation of the barons and of the people. It seems that the young earl of Gloucester, jealous of Montfort's power and influence, deserted the cause of the barons and joined the Eoyalists. Prince Edward also, having esca[)ed from his keepers, collected a force with which he surprised Montfort's son at Kenilworth. He thence proceeded against the elder Montfort, whom he met near Evesham, in "Worcestershire. A great battle was fought there in August, 1265, in which Montfort was among the slain, and the king himself, who had been compelled by Montfort to take his place among the foremost barons, nearly shared his fate, but was saved by his son. Montfort's death was deeply lamented by the people, who honoured him as the champion of their liberties. His followers were one after another forced by Prince Edward to submission, though hostilities still con- tinued for two years. The king's authority was now fully re-established ; the Oxford Statutes were abo- lished, and the property of the rebellious barons was declared to be forfeited. The castle of Kenilworth did not surrender until December, 1266, and then Edward granted to the vanquished, terms known as the Dictum of Kenilworth, whereby they obtained permission to sue for pardon and to recover their estates on payment of certain sums of money. Llewellyn, a prince of Wales, who had sided with the barons, now also obtained a peace, but had to swear fealty to the English king, and to pay 25,000 marks, The remaining period of Henry's reign passed away in peace. In 1270, prince Edward, with the earl of Gloucester and other restless spirits, joined Louis IX. in his crusade against the infidels. The prince was still in the East when his father died in November, 1272. Henry's reign is that of a weak and un- scrupulous ruler ; he scarcely ever took an oath which he did not violate ; his partiality for foreigners, his relation to the j)apacy, and his wars with France and his own subjects, led him to grind down his people by taxes and imposts. But with all this his reign is one 1272— 1307.] EDWARD I. 77 of the most memorable in English history, because in it was laid the foundation of the peoj^le's house of representatives, which with few interruptions has grown and developed its powers down to the present day. Further, during Henry's long reign, the Saxon and ]S[orman elements of the English population had become completely blended into the English nation, • 6. EDWARD I, 1272—1307 Immediately after the death of Henry III., the barons assembled in London, proclaimed Edward king, took the oath of allegiance to him, and invited him speedily to return to England. The kingdom, however, was meanwhile placed under the regency of his cousin, the earl of Cornwall, the earl of Gloucester, and the arch- bishop of York. Edward received the news of his father's death at Naples, but remained a whole year in Italy and France, and thence proceeded to Flanders, where he made some commercial arrangements about the export of English wool and the import of Flemish cloth. He landed at Dover the 2nd of August, 1274, and was crowned at Westminster in December of the same year, when he received the homage of Alexander III. of Scotland and of the nobles of his realm, with the exception of Llewellyn of Wales. During his absence the country had not indeed been disturbed, but many irregularities had crept into the administration, and these he at once rectified, and bestowed all his attention upon the internal aifairs of the kingdom. The parliament which he assembled in 1275 passed several measures to establish justice and repress crime. In 1278, at a diet held at Gloucester, an enquiry by a jury was ordered into the roj^al domains and revenues, and the barons were required to show what warrant they had for their feudal j)osses- sious; the church also had to surrender possessions which had been illegally acquired, and in the following year the famous statute of Mortmain was enacted, by which it was forbidden to make over lands to ecclesi- astical bodies, without the king's permission. The 78 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VI. clergy at first offered some resistance, but when tlie king threatened to deprive tliem of all their feudal possessions, they yielded. After this, Edward went to France, where, having secured Guienne, he renounced all claim to Normandy. Edward now turned his attention to those parts of the island which still enjoyed political independence. His great scheme was to conquer Wales and Scotland, and to unite them into one compact kingdom. Llewellyn, who had shown no friendly dis]30sition at Edward's coronation, when summoned to appear before the king, refused obedience, in the hope of being able to strengthen himself by forming connections with France. The king and parliament, in 1276, therefore declared him to have forfeited his possessions, and in the following year an army marched into Wales. Llewellyn being hard pressed threw himself upon the mercy of the king, and had to accept a most humiliating peace, in which he was permitted to retain only the territory round Snowdon, together with Anglesea, as a fief of the English crown. But neither he nor his people could long endure this humiliation, and even his brother David, who had hitherto served under Edward against his brother, now joined Llewellyn, and the Welsh rose in open rebellion. Edward marched against them with an overwhelming force. Llewellyn was killed in battle, and David, being pursued by the conquerors, was at last betrayed into the hands of his enemies. He was found guilty of high treason, and put to death in a most barbarous manner. Wales was now incorporated with England, and divided into counties and hundreds, whereby peace and self-government were to some extent secured to the inhabitants in the same way as in England. While Edward was staying in the conquered country, a son (afterwards Edward II.) was born to him at Carnarvon in 1284, who, when his elder brother died, received the title of Prince of Wales, so that the AYelsh had at all events a prince of their own, at least in name. From that time the direct heir to the English crown has always borne the title of prince of Wales. 1272—1307.] EDWARD I. 79 Wlien the affairs of Wales were settled, Edward again devoted liis attention to the internal affairs of his kingdom, and then spent three years abroad, arbi- trating in a dispute between the kings of France and Arragon concerning the island of Sicily. On his return, in 1289, he discovered so mnch corruption in the ad- ministration of justice, that he found it necessary to dej)ose all the judges except two. The Jews, of whom great numbers had come over with William the Con- queror, had always been objects of po23ular hatred and persecution, especially since the coronation of Richard I. Many of them had become very wealthy, whereby the}^ excited envy, while the hatred of their religion was fanned by the priests and the superstitions of the age., Edward I., who had always treated them more harshly than his predecessors, in 1290 ordered all the Jews, under penalty of death, to leave the country for ever. In 1286 Edward's attention had been drawn to Scot- land, whose king, Alexander III., died in that ^''ear, leaving as his only heir a grand-daughter, Margaret, the only child of his own daughter and Eric, king of IS^orway. She was then only three years old, and during her minority Scotland was governed by six regents. Edward, whose heart seems to have been set upon gaining possession of Scotland, brought about a be- trothal between his eldest son and Margaret, called the Maid of Norway ; but on her voyage to Scotland she died, and there appeared at once thirteen claimants to the Scottish throne, the principal ones being John Baliol, Eobert Bruce, and John Hastings, all three descendants of David earl of Huntingdon, the brother of king Malcolm lY. The Scottish parliament referred the decision of the disputed succession to Edward, who accordingly proceeded with his barons to Norham castle, on the Tweed, to which place he also summoned the Scottish parliament. When they were assembled, Edward haughtily demanded of them to acknowledge him as their feudal superior until a decision should be arrived at. The Scotch were not a little astonished at such a demand; but, being powerless to resist, it was conceded, and the fortresses of the country were 80 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. YI. delivered into liis hands. Tlie commissioners wlio were appointed to examine the claims of the competitors decided in favour of Baliol. Edward at once sanctioned their award, in 1292, and made the new king swear fealty to him as his feudal superior. Soon after this Baliol was summoned to London to answer certain charges brought against him by his subjects. Edward treated him with marked haughti- ness, apparently for the purpose of driving him into open rebellion. About the same time Edward became involved in a dispute with the king of France, his superior for the duchy of Guienne ; and, as he refused to appear, he was declared to have forfeited his feudal rights over that duchy, 129i. He now prepared for war with France, and Baliol, considering the English king's embarrassments a favourable opportunity for avenging the indignities he had suffered, entered into a close alliance with France, and renounced his alle- giance to Edward. As soon as the latter was informed of this, he left the war with France to his lieutenants, and at once marched to the north, where he took Berwick in 1296. The same year a great battle was fought at Dunbar, in which the Scotch were defeated by Warenne, earl of Surrey, with the loss of 20,000 men. Baliol, v/ho made his submission, was sent as a prisoner to London, and the Scottish barons took the oath of allegiance to the conqueror. All the strong places of Scotland were entrusted to Englishmen, and Warenne was made governor of the whole country. Baliol, after being imprisoned in the Tower for two years, withdrew to France, where he died. Scotland now seemed completely conquered; but the reckless tyranny of its rulers soon drove the people again into rebellion. Meanwhile the war in France, which was carried on with little success, obliged Edward to have recourse to heavy demands of money from his people. This exasperated all classes of the population, and he was compelled to sign a compact, in which ho renounced the right to tax his subjects at his own will, in 1297, The following year an armistice with France was byonght about by the jnecliation of the Pop©, and 1272—1307.] EDWARD I. 81 Edward hurried back to England ; for a Scottish knight, named William Wallace, had assembled round his banner many of the discontented Scots, and had gained great renown by his bold and successful exploits. AYarenne; who attacked him near Stirling, was utterly routed, and obliged to retreat across the border. Ed- ward now himself took the field against him with an army of 80,000 men. The hostile forces met near Fal- kirk, where the Scots were completely defeated, in 1298, by the skill and valour of their English opponents. AVallace now disappears from the scene of action ; but the war was continued under Comyn (a son of Baliol's sister Marjory) ; for the nation w^as still bent upon reco- vering its independence. In 1303 Comyn defeated the English in a battle near Eoslin ; but, as peace was now fmally concluded with France, Edward Avas enabled to direct all his forces against Scotland, which he tra- versed in all directions, and everywhere victorious. Gomyn and Bruce, who had in the mean time been appointed regents, were in the end forced to stirrender at discretion, in 1304. Wallace, v/lio lived in con- cealment, was treacherously delivered into the king's hands by John Monteith, and in 1305 was put to death in London, in the barbarous manner reserved for those guilty of high treason, of which Wallace certainly w^as innocent, never having sworn allegiance to Edward. Com^m, after the resignation of his uncle Baliol, was the legitimate heir to the throne of Scotland ; but there was another competitor, in the person of Eobert Bruce, grandson of the Kobert Bruce who had claimed the crown with Baliol and Hastings. Both of them had submitted to Edward, and Bruce had been treated hy him with special favour ; but, fearing or mistrusting the king, Bruce fled from a council held in London to regulate the affairs of the kingdom. On arriving in Scotland, he summoned a meeting of nobles at Dumfries (1306), where it was resolved to make a fresh effort for independence. Bruce having become involved in a quarrel with his rival Comyn, stabbed him vvith a dagger, and Kirkpatriok, one of his attendants, com- pleted th© murder, The bishop of St. Andrews now 82 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. Yl crowned Bruce as Eobert I. of Scotland ; but Edward sent a large army, tinder Aymer de Valence, wlio de- feated Bruce, and compelled Mm to seek slielter in the western islands. All who were directly or indirectly concerned in the murder of Comyn were put to death. But Bruce, with indomitable perseverance, continued the fight, and gained many a victory. Edward now determined to put an end to this harassing war, and advanced with a strong army as far as Burgh-on-Sands, near Carlisle, where he was seized with a fatal disease, and died in July, 1S07. The reign of Edward I. was a period of growing prosperity for England : no king before him had done so much to improve the laws and enforce their strict observance. He was personally ambitious, bold, and energetic; but his conduct towards Wales, Scotland, and the Jews was treacherous and wantonly cruel. He lacked the generosity which honours valour and bravery even in an enemy. 6. EDWABD n., 1507—1327. The rei,<2,n of Edward II. is one of the most unfor- tunate in English history. He himself was weak and obstinate, and sacrificed the peace and happiness of his country to his attachment to unworthy favourites. When he ascended the throne he was twenty-three years old, and had been accustomed from his child- hood to the society of Piers de Gaveston, the son of a Gascon knight ; but, as it was found that he exercised a bad influence upon the young prince, Edward I., shortly before his death, banished him from the country. After the father's death, however, Gaveston w^as recalled, and honours and estates were lavished upon him. When the young king went to France to marry Isabella, daughter of Philip IV., Gaveston, being appointed regent during the king's absence, behaved with into- lerable arrogance and insolence towards the nobles, and even invented offensive nicknames for the most illus- trious among them. The barons, indignant at such conduct, compelled the king to banish his favourite ; but, unwilling to give him up entirely, Edward made 1307—1327.] EDWARD IL 83 him viceroy of Ireland, and during liis absence tliere succeeded in allaying the hatred of some of the nobles against him. After making some concessions to the discontented barons, he ventured in 1309 to recall his favourite once more to his court ; but, instead of being more cautious after what he had experienced, Gaveston behaved with even more insolence than before. The nobles, when summoned to a parliametit at York, refused to attend. As the king, however, was anxious to raise supplies, he convened in 1311 another parliament, at which the barons with their retainers appeared in arms, and compelled the king to appoint a committee of peers, called the " Ordainers," who were to draw up a series of ordinances for the proper government of the realm. The principal of these, on the whole wise ordinances, were — that no taxes should be levied except those esta- blished by ancient usage ; that the Great Charter, and all statutes based upon it, should be observed ; that parliament should be held once in every year, or twice if necessary ; that no war should be entered upon with- out the sanction of parliament ; and that all evil coun- sellors should be banished. Edward, notwithstanding his great repugnance to these ordinances, was obliged to sanction them. Gaveston, who during these transactions had kept in the background, now withdrew to Flanders. A few months later, however, he rejoined the king at York, and the nobles, finding the king and his favourite in- corrigible, now formed a powerful party, under the leadership of Thomas, earl of Lancaster, the king's own cousin. Edward, unable to resist them, placed his friend in the castle of Scarborough. From want of pro- visions, Gaveston was obliged to surrender, and, being carried to Warwick Castle, he was executed on Black- low Hill in 1312. The king at first threatened to avenge the deed, but had to suppress his wrath, and to grant peace and pardon to the barons. Immediately after his accession Edward II. had ad- vanced a little way into Scotland, but soon gave up the undertaking, and returned to the south. Meanwhile Robert Bruce, after many strange wanderings and 84 HISTOIiY OF ENGLAND. [CiiAP. VI. adventures, recovered possession of the whole country, v/ith the exception of the castle of Stirling. Edward, after having made peace with his barons, determined to make a great and final effort against Scotland. He invaded the country with an army of 100,000 men, while the Scotch had scarcely one-third of this number to oppose him. A fierce battle was fought in 1314, at Eannockburn, near Stirling, in which Bruce by his skill and prudence completely defeated the English, who are said to have lost 30,000 men. Edward after this meditated a fresh expedition into Scotland ; but, finding that Lancaster and his party refused to join him, he concluded with Bruce a truce for two years. Eight years after the death of Gaveston, another favourite of the king, Hugh de Spenser, imitating the example of his predecessor, provoked the indignation of the nobles, who, at a meeting at Westminster, passed an ordinance banishing both Spenser and his father, 1321. The king, exasperated at this proceeding, as- sembled an army and marched against Lancaster, who was drawing together a large force in the North, and entered into an alliance with Scotland. The ro^^al army gained a decisive victory at Boroughbridge. Lancaster was taken prisoner, hurriedly tried, and beheaded at Pontefract in 1322. Many of his followers were likewise put to death, while others made their escape to the continent. The Spensers, who were now recalled, received some of the forfeited estates of the nobles. A fresh attempt was then made against Scotland. But it ended in a truce being concluded for thirteen years, whereby Bruce was virtually recog- nised as king of Scotland. The last act of this pitiable reign is the saddest of all. When Charles lY. of France, after his accession, summoned Edward to do homage to him for Guienne and settle some differences about that duchy, he sent his wife Isabella, 1325. On her arrival in Paris she formed connections with some of the followers of Lancaster, who had taken refuge there, but more especially with young Eoger Mortimer, who became her paramour. Both she and the exiled nobles were actuated by their 1327—1377.] EDWAED III. 85 common hatred of tlie Spensers. Wisliing to obtain possession of lier eldest son, Edward (afterwards Edward III.), she requested the king to send him over, because her brother, the French king, wished to invest him with the duchy of Guienne, which might otherwise be lost. Edward did as he was desired ; but Avhen he asked her to return, she went to Flanders, and without the king's permission, betrothed her son to Philippa, the daughter of the count of Holland and Hainault. Yfith the assistance of the count she levied an army, and accompanied loj the king's own brothers and the exiled nobles, landed in Suffolk. The unpopu- larity of the king became at once apparent, for the queen met with little opposition in her progress, Edward fled to Wales while his son was made guardian of the kingdom. The two Spensers were taken and put to an ignominious death. The king tried to escape to Ireland, but was overtaken at Keath Abbey, in Gla- morganshire, and conveyed to the castle of Kenil worth. A parliament was summoned by the queen, at which a series of charges was brought against the king, and a deputation Avas sent to him compelling him to sign his own abdication, while his son was appointed king in his stead. The government, however, was virtually in the hands of the queen and her paramour, Mortimer. The unhappy king was dragged successively to the castles of Corve, Bristol, and Berkeley. In this last place he was committed to the charge of two jailors, who treated him with the greatest insults and cruelty ; find as they could not get rid of him in this way, they murdered him by introducing a red-hot iron, through a horn, into his bowels. His screams revealed what was going on, but no one dared to interfere. This horrible murder was perpetrated on the 21st of Sep- tember, 1327. 7. ED%YABD m., 1327—1377. When on the deposition of his father, Edward was crowned king, he was only fourteen years old ; a regency was therefore appointed consisting of a council of twelve, headed by Henry, earl of Lancaster, a brother of the one 86 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VI. who had been executed at Poiitefract, for the sentence which had condemned him was annnlled, and all the enemies of the Spensers had their rights and possessions restored to them. The young king, however, was in the power of his mother, Isabella, and her paramour, Mortimer. The violent deposition of Edward II. and the ap- pointment of a boy-king, induced Bruce, of Scotland, in violation of the existing truce, to invade and ravage England, and he advanced as far as the Tyne. Not- withstanding his youth, Edward marched with an army against him ; but Bruce avoiding a pitched battle retreated, and on the advice of his mother, Edward, in 1328, concluded a peace in which the Scotch king was relieved of all his feudal duties towards England, and became a perfectly independent sove- reign. This peace was strengthened by the betrothal of David, heir to the Scotch crown, who was then only five years old, with Edward's sister, Isabella, a child of seven years. Such a peace was of course distaste- ful to the English nation, and the earls of Lancaster, Kent, and IsTorfolk, believing that it had been brouglit about chiefly by Mortimer, formed the determination to overthrow the unworthy favourite. But he not only forced them to submission, but even ventured to bring a charge of high treason against Kent, who was the young king's uncle. The nobles were servile enough to find him guilty, and Isabella and Mortimer ordered him to be executed, in 1330. Mortimer now even went so far as to assume all the pomp and state of a king. All this was too much for the bold and manly sjiirit of Edward, who had already shown signs of unwilling- ness to submit to the dictates of the unworthy couple. The execution of his uncle roused his deepest indig- nation, and on the advice of some nobles, he resolved to assmne the reins of government himself. Isabella and Mortimer were living at the time in the castle of Nottingham, where they were stronglj^ protected by mercenaries. Into this castle the king and his followers penetrated by a subterraneous pas- sage. Mortimer was arrested and carried as a prisoner 1327—1377.] EDWAEB III. 87 to London, where lie was 'tried for liigli ireason and executed. The queen was henceforth kept in cap- tivity for life in Eising Castle, where the king, who, after all, conld not forget that she was his mother, paid her occasional visits. Edward now really began to govern his kingdom, the improvement of which engaged his thoughtful attention. At the same time he felt a strong desire to recover his feudal superiority over Scotland, for which a favourable opportunity now seemed to present itself. Bruce had died in 1329, and had been suc- ceeded by his son, David lY. A few years later some English nobles complained that their estates in Scot- land had not been restored to them, and instigated Edward Baliol, son of John Baliol, to assert his right to the crown. The English king at first secretly favoured the scheme, and when Baliol, in a war with his own countrymen, was obliged to take refuge in England, he was openly aided by Edward, to whom he promised to accept Scotland as a fief of the English crown. Douglas, who had in the meantime been ap- pointed regent, was defeated and slain near Berwick in 1333. This triumph of his English supporters established Baliol on the throne of Scotland ; but when it was found out that he had ceded to England some of the southern counties, he was obliged to flee from his exasperated subjects, and his rival j-ecovered a great part of the country. A regular border warfare was continued for several years, during which the Scots received large supplies from France. This circum- stance furnished Edward with an opportunity of carry- ing out a plan which he had been harbouring for some time, a plan which involved England during a whole century in a series of disastrous wars with France. Charles lY., of France, had died in 1328 without leaving male issue, and as by the salic law females were excluded from the succession, Philip YL, of Yalois, was chosen king. Edward III. had hoped to obtain the crown of France for himself, because his mother was a daughter of Philip lY. But his claims 88 HISTOEY OP ENGLAND. [Chap. VL were invalid, for as tlie salic law excluded females^ it, of necessity, also excluded the descendants of females. As Edward at first was unable to make good liis claim by force of arms, be consented io do liomage to Philip YI. for the duchy of Guienne ; but when France openly supported Bruce and his adherents, Edward declared his determination to concjuer France, and add another crown to that of England. The claim of Edward was supported by the emperor of Germany, the king of Bohemia, and other continental potentates, and having, by heavy taxes, raised a powerful force, he sailed in 1338 to Flanders; but as some of his supporters fell off, and the French king avoided any decisive engagement, this first campaign, which had cost enormous sums, had no results. A second expe- dition, in 1340, was more successful, for a large French fleet was defeated off Sluys with immense loss, and Edward might now have carried the war into France, but want of means obliged him to conclude a truce for two years. On his return to England, he found that his heavy and arbitrary exactions had created great discontent, and the parliament in 1341 carried a measure making the great officers of state responsible to parliament. In the same year a war of succession broke out in Brittany, where the brave countess de Montfort, while her husband was a prisoner in Paris, manfully defended his cause. Edward hastened to her assistance, because her husband had done homage to him as king of France. This led to a Avar between Edward and the French, which, with some interruptions, continued until 1345, when the earl of Derby gained a brilliant vic- tory over the enemy, though the hostile forces were at least six times as numerous as the English. In the following year Edward himself went to France and took several towns in Normandy, while Philip, with a very numerous but ill-disciplined army, was in the neighbourhood of Amiens. Edward, well prepared and accompanied by his son, Edward, commonly called the Black Prince, from the colour of his armour, fought and won the famous battle of Crecy in August, 1346. 1327—1377.] EDWARD III. 89 While the battle was raging, and the young prince was hard pressed, a messenger asked the king to send reinforcements. Edward at once asked, " Is my son dead or wounded ?" and when the answer was " Ko," the king told the messenger to return and tell the prince that he must win his spurs on that day, and that no help would be sent while he was alive. The flower of the French nobility fell on that day, twelve hundred knights and thirty thousand ordinary troops covered the field of battle. Immediately after this terrible battle Edward pro- ceeded to invest Calais, and every effort of Philip to relieve it was of no avail. While these things were going on in France, David Bruce, at the instigation of Philip, had invaded England with fifty thousand men, and was ravaging the country in a most ruthlesr:j manner. He advanced to the neighbourhood of Dur- ham, but Edward's queen, Philippa, sent out a force under the command of Percy, who defeated the Scotcli at Neville's Cross in 1346, and took the king prisoner. David was conveyed to London, but set free the next year, on payment of one hundred thousaud marks. Meanwhile Edward continued the siege of Calais, and it was not till after a heroic defence of eleven months that the place surrendered at discretion in August, 1346. There is a beautiful story connected with this surrender. To save the lives of their fellow-citizens, six burgesses appeared before Edward with halters round their necks offering to die, if he would spare the lives of the other citizens. Edward, induced by the entreaties of his wife, though with great reluctance, pardoned them; a truce was then concluded with France, which, with some interruptions, lasted till 1355. During this interval Philip YI. died, and was succeeded by his son John. The year 1349 is memorable for a terrible plague, called the black death, which, originating in China and India, caused most fearful ravages all over Europe ; in London alone ujDwards of fifty thousand persons died of it. This fearful scourge seems to have induced the belligerents to suspend their hostilities, but after 90 HISTORY Oi^ ENGLAND. [CiiAP. VI. tlie expiration of the truce, tlie Black Prince invaded and ravaged the south of France, while his father advanced with an army from Calais. But the latter was soon ohliged to return in order to drive back the Scotch, who were again devastating the north of Eng- land. The Black Prince met King John and his army of sixty thousand men near Poictiers in 1356, and by his extraordinary valour and prudence gained a de- cisive victory. John himself was taken prisoner, but treated with marked respect and courtesy. A truce was then made for two years, and John was conveyed to London, Avhere he was treated with the same re- spectful deference, but had to agree to a humiliating peace, which caused great excitement in France. Fresh negotiations were commenced, and some acts of hos- tility were committed, until, in 1360, the treaty of Bre- tigny was concluded, in which Edward III. gave up liis claim to the French crown, Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Tourraine, but became the absolute sove- reign of Guienne, Gascony, Poitou, and some other districts, together with the town of Calais. As the French estates refused to ratify this treatj^, John, with excellent good faith, delivered himself up as a prisoner to the English, and died soon after in London. His son and successor, Charles Y,, paid no regard to the arrangements of his father. The Black Prince, who was keeping his court at Bordeaux in great state, out of mere spite against the French king, supported a detestable tyrant, Pedro the Cruel, against his brother Henry, the two disjDuting the succession in Castile. Prince Edivard succeeded in establishing Pedro on the throne ; but having to levy for this purpose heavy taxes on his subjects, they tried to obtain redress by appealing to King Charles. The latter, disregarding the treaty of Bretigny, acted the part of feudal superior to the prince, and, as the j^rince refused to acknowledge him as such, hostilities broke out, and the prince assumed the title of king of France, 1369. From this time the power of the English in France declined ; for after a lew jesiYS all their pos- sessions in France were lost, except Calais, Bayonne, 1377—1399.] EICHARD II. 91 Bordeaux, and a few less important places. Meanwhile the Black Prince, disabled by disease, after committing an act of the grossest cruelty at Limoges, returned to DEATH OF THE ELACK ^RI^"CE. England, where he died in 1376. King Edward sur- vived his son only one j^ear, having previously declared in parliament that he appointed his grandson Kichard his successor. He died at Sheen (Richmond) in June, 1377. Edward III. was a ruler of great ability and personal virtue ; but towards the end of his life he gave himself up to sensual pleasures, and lost much of his popularity. His foreign wars procured him great renown, but j)ro- duced scarcely any good and permanent result. While he was obliged to make heavy demands upon his people, they availed themselves of these opportunities for get- ting their ancient rights confirmed or acquiring nevf ones. Trade and industry made great progress during his reign. Foreign artisans, especially Flemish weavers, were encouraged to settle in England, where they enjoyed the king's special protection. 8. RICHARD n., 1377—1399. Eichard, the son of the Black Prince, and grandson of Edward III., was only eleven years old at the death of his grandfather. On his arrival in London he was received with enthusiasm, owing partly to the renown 92 HISTOEY OF ENaLAND. [Chap. VI. of liis father, and partly to liis own liandsome appear- ance. The country had been left weakened and in debt hy Edward III., and, the truce with France having come to an end, England was threatened both from that quarter and fx'om Scotland. In these circumstances, a council was appointed by parliament to govern the kingdom; but the real power was usurped by two ambitious uncles of the young king, the duke of Lan- caster, who was very unpopular, and the duke of Gloucester. The French at once commenced ravaging the English coasts, and the Scotch renewed their border raids. The funds necessary to repel these enemies had to be raised by oppressive taxation, and in 1380 a poll-tax of one shilling was imposed upon all persons above the age of fifteen. The manner in which one of the col- lectors behaved towards the daughter of one Walter, a tiler of Dartford (commonly called Wat Tyler), exaspe- rated the father so much, that he slew the offender on the spot. The tax itself, which fell heaviest on the poor, had already excited great discontent ; and when the Dartford outrage became known, the people rose in arms, making Wat Tyler their leader, and the rebellion spread to all the south-eastern counties. Soon a large army of the malcontents marched upon London, in 138 1 . It assembled on Blackheath, where a priest called John Ball proclaimed the equality of all men, asking his hearers— ^^ '' When Adam delved, aud Eve span. Who was then a geutlemau ?" The populace of London applauded the rebels, broke open the prisons, destroyed the palace of the duke of Lancaster, and murdered not only the gentlemen they could seize, biit even the Flemish artisans and traders, whose prosperity excited the jealousy of the mob. The king met the rebels in person. As Wat Tyler was speaking to the king, and significantly playing with his dagger, the mayor of London, fearing for his sove- reign's life, stabbed Wat Tyler, who was finally dis- patohed by one of Eiehard's attendant^g. This act might nciY© led to Y^y Beriou^ oonsequeneas ; but they wers 1377—1399.] RICHABD II. 93 avoided by tlie king granting -the 'demands of the in- surgents. These were — the abolition of villeinage, or slavery ; fixed rents, in place of compulsory service ; the free exercise of trades ; and a general pardon. Eicliard not only promised to comply, but declared that he would be their leader.' The rebels were then induced to disperse, and the king at once assembled a large force, and ordered a great man}^ of the insurgents to be executed. When the insurrection was completely crushed the king got parliament to annul the con- cessions he had made. Richard thus at once displayed courage, weakness, and dishonesty, and parliament justly charged him with having caused the insurrection by mismanagement and by oppressing the poor. The war against France was carried on in the mean time without any noteworthy results. The Scotch were punished for their inroads by Eichard himself taking the field against them with a large force, burn- ing Edinburgh, Perth, and several other places, while the Scotch retreated before him, without offering any resistance. As the king advanced in age his conduct did not show that firmness and decision which had been ex- pected of him, and he allowed himself to be guided by two insolent favourites — Michael de la Pole, a foreigner, whom he created earl of Suffolk and chancellor, and Robert de Vere, whom he made marquis of Dublin. This step rendered the king so unpopular that, under the influence of the duke of Gloucester, parliament obliged him to give up Suffolk, and appoint a regency, with Gloucester at its head. Eichard^ mortified at this, privately consulted the judges, who gave it as their opinion that the regency was illegal, and that those who had forced him to sanction it were guilty of high treason. When Gloucester was informed of this, he had the judges seized, arraigned them for high treason, and had two of them executed. The two favourites made their escape in 1388, In this same year a battle was fought against the Scotch at Otterboiirnej which iB celebrated in the ballad of Chevy Chase. Ill May, 1389, Itiohard openly declared that he was 9i HISTORY 0^ ENGLAND. [CiiAP. YI. now old enoTigli to manage tlie aifairs of the kingdom. He took the reins of government into his own hands, hut did not venture upon any violence against Glou- cester ; and for a time the troubles of the kingdom were EATTLS OF OTTEaBOTJRNE, somewhat lulled by the return to England of John of Gaunt, the fourth son of Edward III., who had been engaged in a contest for the crown of Castile. Eicliard's first wife, Anne of Bohemia, died in 1394. The truce with Erance, which had been renewed from time to time, was now prolonged for twenty-five years, and Eichard confirm 3d the peaceful relation by marrying Isabella, daughter of the Erench king, a child only seven years old. He now resolved to show that he really was sovereign, and ordered the arrest of Glou- cester, who seems to have been intriguing to recover his influence. He was carried to Calais, where he was secretly assassinated in 1397. Several other great nobles also were executed or banished. In these proceedings the king was supported by his uncles, the diikes of York and Lancaster, The parliament, having done away with the council of regency, submissively ratified all his acts. His power now seemed to be firmly esta- blished, Elowever, things turned out very differently. 1377—1399.] RICHARD II. 95 Two great nobles, Henry, earl of Derby, and the earl of Nottingliam, who bad formerly been among the king's opponents, had become reconciled to him ; and Eichard, professing to be perfectly satisfied with their conduct, created the former duke of Hereford and the latter duke of Norfolk. Neither, however, trusted the king ; and Norfolk once expressed his feeling of insecurity to Hereford, who himself repeated the words to the king, though, when charged with it, he denied having done so. The dispute of the two dukes was to be decided b}^ single combat, in which God was supposed to give the victory to the righteous. But when the combatants were ready the king stepped in, forbade the fight, and banished Norfolk for life and Hereford for ten years. Richard thus got rid of his most dreaded opponents, and now wielded almost absolute power. Hereford, by his father's death, became duke of Lancaster, but was not allowed to take possession of his father's estates. Just at this time Eichard had gone to Ireland to chastise a party of Irish who had murdered his cousin Eoger, earl of March, the presumptive heir to the English crown. Hereford, hearing of the king's absence, and knowing the prevailing discontent, landed with a small force in Yorkshire. He was at once joined by the earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, and soon found himself at the head of an army of 60,000 men. When at length he was also joined by his uncle, the duke of York, who acted as regent in Eichard's absence, he was in reality master of the situation. When Eichard heard of these things he hastened back from Ireland, but was taken prisoner, forced to abdicate, and lodged in the Tower. Parliament assembled at Westminster in 1399, and declared him to have forfeited the crown, and Lan- caster in an elaborate speech set forth his claims to. it. The parliament, which was wholly on Lancaster's side, readily supported them, and Henry of Lancaster ascended the throne. The same parliament also annulled all the acts of Eichard, and ordered him to be imprisoned in a safe place. Early in the year 1400 the news came to London that he had suddenly expired in the castle of Pontefract. Whether he died a natural death or was G 96 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND, [Chap. VII. got rid of by assassination is uncertain. Some maintain that lie escaped, and lived for many years afterwards in Scotland. Eicliard left no cliildren. He was a man of an ex- citable temperament, and was in turns indolent and violent. When lie liad his own way, he became a despot, and, if he had had the power, he might have destroyed the liberties which his subjects had gained in the course of centuries. His reign, however, is me- morable as the period in which John Wicliife, a priest at Oxford, proclaimed the fundamental principles of the Eeformation. Believing that Christianity ought to be based solely upon the Scriptures, he translated them into English. After much persecution, he ended his life peacefully at Lutterworth, 1385. The influence of the papacy in England had been considerably dimi- nished even in the reign of Edward III., parliament having declared null and void the homage exacted by the Pope from King John. In the reign of Pdchard II., moreover, there was passed the famous statute out- lawing all persons who procured at Eome any transla- tions, excommunications, bulls, or other instruments, which touched the king, his crown, and realm. During this reign also a fuller development of the English Lan- guage took place by the translation of the Bible by Wicliffe, and the appearance of .the poems of Geoffrey Chaucer. During the Plantagenet period we find the House of Commons already established, and exercising great power by the side of the House of Lords. CHAPTER VIL THE HOUSE OP LANOASTEE. Henry IV, , . . 1399-1413 | Henry V. . . . 1413-1422 Henry VI. . . . 1422-1461 1. HEKRY IV., 1399—1413. Henry IV. may with justice be called a usurper, for- the rightful heir to the throne was Edmund, earl of March, great-grandson of Lionel, the second son of 1399—1413.] HENRY lY. 97 Edward III. Although, therefore, the people in London rejoiced at his accession, still the justice of his claims was not universally recognised either at home or abroad. In England a conspiracy of several nobles was formed against him, but the treachery of the earl of Eutland saved the king, who ordered the other conspirators to be executed. Charles VI. of France, indignant at the deposition of Eichard, his son-in-law, was likewise assuming a hostile attitude ; but war was averted, though the coasts of England were ravaged by the French for some time. A really formidable insurrection broke out in Wales, headed by Owen Glendower, who had been attached to Eichard II., and for that reason had been deprived of a portion of his estates. This man, who claimed to be descended from the ancient kings of Wales, roused the spirit of his countrymen, and placing himself at their head, defeated the forces sent against him, and made Edward Mortimer, uncle of the earl of March, his prisoner. Henry made an unsuccessful attempt to retrieve this disaster, though he was probably glad to get rid of Mortimer, who had married a daughter of the earl of Northumberland. When the latter wished to ransom his son-in-law, the king refused his per- mission. These things happened during the first two years after Henry's accession. Meanwhile Henry Percy, called Hotspur, a son of the earl of Northumberland, had gained a victory over the Scotch, whose leader, Douglas, with many other nobles, fell into his hands in 1402. The king forbade Hotspur to receive a ransom for them, and thereby exasperated that powerful family against himself. The three Percys, the earl of Northumber- land, the earl of AVorcester, and Hotspur, together with Scrope, archbishop of York, now formed an alliance with Owen Glendower against the king. Douglas and his friends were then liberated on con- dition of their joining the confederates against Henry. While on their march to Wales with twelve thousand men they fell in with King Henry near Shrewsbur}-, where a most bloody battle was fought. Hotspur was 98 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VII. killed, and Worcester and Douglas were made prisoners, wlierenpon their army dispersed, 1403. Worcester was belieaded on tlie spot, but Douglas was spared, and Northumberland, who had not been able to take part in the battle, was pardoned. Owen G-lendower, however, held out, being assisted by French auxiliaries, and the war against him was continued for many years. Two years later, 1405, Northumberland and his followers renewed the rebellion with the view to gain the English crown for the earl of March; but the enterprise failed ; Northumberland fled into Scotland, while Archbishop Scrope and others were beheaded. In a third attempt, in 1407, Northumberland was slain in Yorkshire, near Tadcaster. In 1405, Prince James, son of Eobert III. of Scotland, while on a voyage to Trance, was intercepted by Henry, ^and kept as a pri- soner at Windsor for nearly twenty years. Towards the end of his reign, Henry became involved in a war with France, in which his second son, the duke of Clarence, laid waste some provinces of that country. But he stopped his ravages on the receipt of nine thousand crowns. During the last years of his life the king suffered much from disease, and perhaps also from remorse at the crimes he had committed for the purpose of securing his crown. He died in London in 1413, leaving four sons and two daughters. Henry's position throughout his reign was one of great difficulty, but he maintained it with great ability, though not without much cruelty, for "he unrelentingly ordered his vanquished enemies to be executed; and his persecution of the sect called Lollards was tliQ first in which in England heretics were burned alive. His religious notions were of a very narrow and bigoted kind, and he was more concerned about the worldly prosperity of the churcli than of that of his own subjects. 2. HENEY v., 1413—1422. When Henry V. ascended the throne he was twenty- six years old. In his early years he had greatly 1413— 1422..] HENEY V» 99 distinguislied himself in the war against Owen Glen- dower and the Percys; bnt this period of activity was followed by one of indolence and profligacy, caused, it is said, by the jealousy of his father. When, however, he was called to the throne, he at once became an altered man, and dismissed his disorderly companions. On the whole his first acts were charac- terised by justice and generosity, for he released the earl of March from his confinement, and restored to Hotspur's son, Henry, his estates and his rank. He was, however, shrewd enough to perceive that his right to wear the crown rested on a very feeble foundation, and that he must, above all, secure the support of the clergy. This he gained by persecuting the heretical Lollards, of whom he had shown a bitter hatred even "before. Their chief protector. Sir John Oldcastle (commonly called Lord Cobham), who had been a faithful servant of Henry lY., was locked up in the Tower, but having escaped into Wales, he as- sembled a large number of followers, and the report being spread that a body of them had conspired to seize the king, Henry, upon this mere rumour, had a large number arrested, and about forty executed in 1414. Cobham himself found safety in flight, but four years later he was captured and condemned as a heretic and a traitor. After these things all Henry's thoughts seem to have been absorbed by the one desire to conquer France, the disturbed state of which seemed to afford him a favourable opportunity. King Charles VI. being found incompetent to govern his kingdom, his brother, duke of Orleans, and John, duke of Burgundy, were disputing about the regency. Henry of England secretly fostered the dispute, and entered into negotia- tions with the duke of Burgundy. Having further allied himself with the emperor of Germany, the king of Arragon, and other princes, he assembled a large force at Southampton for the purpose of invading France. When the expedition was on the point of Starting, Henry heard of the discovery of a formidable conspiracy, whose object it was to depose him and raise 100 HISIOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VII. the earl of Marcli to tlie throne. The leaders were arrested, liastily tried, and executed, 1415. After the short delay caused by these proceedings, he landed with his army of about thirty thousand men at Harfleur, which was taken after a siege of five weeks. But, owing to the heat of the summer, diseases broke out among his troops, which reduced them to half their original number, so that further undertakings became impossible. But Henry, undaunted, determined to force his way by land to Calais. When he arrived at the banks of the Somme, he found the French army drawn up on the plain of Agiiicourt, which arrested his progress towards Calais. The enemy's forces were four times more numerous than the English, yet in the battle which ensued (October, 1485) the English, with indomitable courage and steadiness, completely routed the French. The victory was decisive : the French lost ten thousand men, and among them the flower of their nobility. ; while the prisoners amounted to fourteen thousand, among whom were the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and other distinguished nobles. The English loss is said to have been very small, but the duke of York and the earl of Suffolk were among the slain. Henry, without trying to follow up his victory, proceeded to Calais, and thence to England, Avhere he was received in triumph amid the greatest rejoicings, and easily prevailed upon parliament to vote large sums of money. Meanwhile the feuds between the dukes of Orleans and Burgundy continued, and the latter formed an alliance with Henry, who, in 1417, set out on a fresh expedition to conquer France. He landed in Normandy, took and sacked Caen, and then proceeded to Eouen, which surrendered in 1418 after a protracted siege. Henry demanded of Burgundy the surrender of all the provinces ceded to the English in the treaty of Bretigny, and the full sovereignty over all his recent conquests. While these negotiations were still going on, the dukes of Burgundy and Orleans, in sight of their common danger, became reconciled, and the negotiations were broken oif. When the two dukes 2413—1422.] HENEY V. lOl r met at Montereau to devise a plan of action against the English, Burgundy was assassinated. Thereupon the Queen Isabella with her son, Charles the Dauphin, sought Henry's protection; and a few months later, 1420, the treaty of Troyes was concluded, of which the chief articles were, that Henry should marry Catharine, the daughter of Charles VI. and Isabella, that Charles should retain the title of king of France, but that the government of the kingdom should be left to Henry, and that on Charles' death the French crown should belong to Henry and his heirs for ever. France was thus at his feet, and he at once went to Paris, where the treaty obtained the sanction of the parliament. After celebrating his marriage, Henry returned to England with his bride. While he was here enjoying the height of his popularity, he was informed that his brother, the duke of Clarence, had been defeated and slain at Beauge, in Anjou, by the Dauphin, supported by Scotch auxiliaries, 1421. Henry accordingly hastened to France, taking with him James of Scotland, hoping thereby to draw the Scotch auxiliaries to his side. The plan succeeded to some extent, but those Scotch- men who remained faithful to their previous en- gagement, when taken prisoners, were treated as rebels, which exasperated their countrymen not a little. The war with the Dauphin was continued, and Henry meant to have headed an army against him, but he was suffering from a malad}^ which now assumed a serious aspect. It was therefore necessary to carry him to Yincennes, where, on feeling his end approach^ ing, he assembled his friends, requesting them to take care of his infant son, who had been born to him in 1421 at Windsor. He died August 31st, 1422. Henry was an energetic ruler, but unprincipled in his ambition, and cruel towards those whom he believed to be dangerous to himself. He is often blamed for his persecution of the Lollards, but, independently of his personal motives, he acted in this matter according to the general spirit of the age, and the indiscreet conduct of the Lollards themselves contributed not a 102 HISTORY OF EKGLAND. [Chap. VJI. little to provoke it. Popular freedom made some progress in his reign, for the petitions of parliament (what we now call bills) up to this time had often been altered by the king ; henceforth he was obliged either to reject them or to accept them in the form in which they were brought before him. 3. HEHBY VI, 1422—1461. As, at the time of his father's death, Henry VI. was scarcely nine months old, a regency had to be appointed both for France and for England. In the former country it was offered to, but declined by, the duke of Burgundy, and the duke of Bedford, brother of Henry V., undertook it, and caused his nephew to be proclaimed king of France, while the Dauphin, Charles YII., maintained himself in the south, and took the title of king, as his father had died a few weeks after Henry V. A war between the regent and the French king was the natural result. In England the duke of Gloucester, a younger brother of Bedford, was appointed protector of the kingdom, but his actions were controlled by a council of state appointed by parliament. Charles VII. had to rely mainly on the national feeling of the French, which was not favourable to English rule, and on his Scotch auxiliaries. The royal party was defeated in two successive campaigns, in the latter of which, in 1424, about five thousand French were slain. But the importance of these victories was much diminished by the conduct of the duke of Gloucester, who had married Jacqueline, countess of Hainault ; she had left her former husband, a cousin of the duke of Burgundy, and the latter naturally opposed her and her new husband when they claimed the estates of the discarded husband. Gloucester, leaving his wife at Mantes, returned to England, and here became involved in a quarrel with Beaufort, bishop of Winchester, to whom the education of the young king of England had been entrusted. The affair became so serious that Bedford, in 1425, was obliged to come to England for the purpose of effecting 1422-1461,] HENRY VI. 103 a reconciliation. Bedford on this occasion, as well as in tlie dispute about Hainanlt, beliaved most honour- ably, but still Burgundy could no longer heartily support the English cause. Charles VII., neglecting his opportunities, was attacked by the English in the south, which had always supported him. Bedford began the campaign, in 1428, by laying siege to Orleans, which was conducted by the earl of Suffolk. While this Avas going on, the English were victorious in some skirmishes outside the town, and it became evident that Orleans would not hold out much lono;er. Charles was even meditating a retreat, when the city was saved by one of the most marvellous events recorded in history. A peasant girl, Joan Dare (commonly called Joan of Arc), of the village of Domremy in Lorraine, had conceived the idea that she was destined by Providence to free her king and country from the hated foreigners. She sought an interview with the king and at once recogni^d him in a crowd of surrounding courtiers, though she had never seen him before. She told him that she had been sent by God to aid him and inform him that he should be crowned in the ancient city of Eheims. The king consulted his spiritual advisers, and as they saw no wrong in his availing himself of her services, she was dressed in the armour of a knight, and being assisted by able officers, she managed to enter the city through the midst of the besiegers in 1429. Her appearance acted like magic on the spirit of the inhabitants, and several successful sallies were made. The English, on the other hand, were struck with terror, believing her to be a sorceress, and about a week after her arrival the siege was raised. The French now gained several victories, and Joan per- suaded the king to proceed to Eheims. The march with twelve thousand men was successfully accom- ^ plished, and Charles was crowned at Eheims in the ancient fashion, amid the jubilant acclamations of the people. The maid of Orleans, as she was called, now considering her mission to be accomplished, wished to return home, but the king refused to part with so 104 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VII. valuable an ally. Tlie war was continued, but the French avoided any decisive engagements. At last, in a sally from Compiegne, 1430, the maid was taken prisoner by the duke of Burgundy, who delivered her Up to Bedford. She was tried for sorcery by the bishop of Beauvais, who was entirely devoted to the English interest. She was accordingly found guilty, and burned alive as a witch in the market-place at Eouen, in 1431, and her ashes were thrown into the Seine. From this moment fortune forsook the English ; the war still lingered on for some time, until, in 1432, events occurred which gave a new turn to affairs. The alliance between Burgundy and the English had been lukewarm ever since Gloucester's marriage with Jacqueline. The duchess of Bedford, a sister of Burgundy, died, and her husband, a few months later, married Jacquetta of Luxemburg, of which country Burgundy was the lord superior. As his consent to the marriage had not been asked, he felt annoyed, and resolved to support the legitimate king, Charles VII. After some negotiations, a congress was held at Arras, 1435, at which the English refused the offer to hold Xormandy and Aquitaine as fiefs from the French crown; but, as Bedford died in the same year, the treaty was signed. The death of the able regent of France was a severe blow to Henry. His successor was Eichard, duke of York. As the disputes between Gloucester and the bishop of Winchester prevented reinforcements being sent to France, Charles, in 1436, was enabled to enter Paris, so that the restoration to his ancestral throne was now complete. The war, however, still went on until 1444, when a truce was concluded which lasted till 1450. During this truce, the earl of Suffolk negotiated a marriage between Henry and Margaret of Anjou, a niece of the French king. Notwithstanding this marriage the French invaded Normandy and conquered the whole of it. Cherbourg and Bayonne also fell into theii* hands, and one place after another was lost until, in 1453, nothing was left to the English but Calais. 1422—1461.] HENRY VI. 105 If we now turn our attention to tlie state of England during these Frencli wars, we find tliat tlie country- was suffering from the jealousy and quarrels hetween the Protector and the bishop of Winchester, which had been kept somewhat in check so long as Bedford was alive. The bishop, who had in the meantime become cardinal, had gained the uj)per hand, and even went so far as to accuse the wife of his rival of sorcery and treason, for which she was sent as a prisoner to the Isle of Man. Gloucester, who felt this blow most keenly, took his revenge two years later by bringing the charge of ti'eason against the cardinal. The latter, however, answered it by producing a general pardon from the king. Queen Margaret, an ambitious and imperious woman, completely governed her husband, and exerted all her influence in favour of the cardinal and the earl of Suffolk. The latter, dreading Gloucester as a dangerous opponent, caused the parliament, in 1447, to accuse him of treason. He was found guilty and thrown into prison, where, after a few days, he was found dead in his bed. Two months later the cardinal also died, and was succeeded, as minister, by Suffolk, now the principal favourite of the queen. The house of Lancaster had now lost its chief supports, and the king himself had neither inclination nor capacity to govern. Suffolk was universally hated, because he was believed to be the cause of the loss of the French possessions, and to be concerned in the sudden death of Gloucester. But no one detested him more than the duke of York, who was beginning to think of claiming the English crown, as Henry VI. was as yet without issue. At a parliament held in 1450, the Commons brought several accusations against Suffolk, and even the court itself was obliged to consent to his being banished for five years. But the indignation against him was irrepresf?ible, and while he was crossing over to Calais he was murdered by a common seaman, who was never tried or punished for it. Soon after this, news reached England of another defeat in France, and the indignation at the mis- 106 niSTORY OF EKGLAND. [Chap.VIL management of the war, wliicli had cost so much blood and money, at last manifested itself in an open rebellion in Kent, which was headed by an Irishman, Jack Cade, who pretended to be a descendant of Mortimer. At the head of twenty thousand men he entered London, and put to death many men of rank and eminence, who were regarded as the cause of the people's losses and sufferings. The rebels demanded that the duke of York, who was very popular on account of his mild disposition, his courage, and ability, should be entrusted with the management of aifairs. But as Jack Cade by his arbitrary proceedings excited the alarm of the Londoners, they obliged him and his followers to dej)art, and the promise of a general amnesty induced them to disperse. But notwithstanding this promise, Cade was put to death in Sussex. The duke of York, knowing the weakness of the government, came across from Ireland with four thousand of his vassals, when the plan of appoint- ing him as successor to Henry was already talked of. Soon after the suppression of the rebellion, the duke of Somerset, the great grandson of John of Gaunt, who had just lost Normandy, returned to England, and a feud broke out between him and York. When, in October, 1452, a son was born to Henry, while the king was suffering from a severe malady, Somerset was arrested, and parliament declared York protector of the kingdom. When the king recovered, he re- instated Somerset and dismissed York ; the latter then took up arms and met the duke of Somerset near St. Albans, in 1455, where a great battle was fought, in which Somerset was killed and King Henry wounded. But Henry pardoned the victor and made him regent, as he was again attacked by his malady. On his recovery York again retired from his functions, and Henry, perceiving the ill-feeling subsisting between the houses of Somerset and York, resolved to bring about a reconciliation. A meeting took place in London, at which the earl of Warwick, governor of Calais, was also present ; and a reconciliation was effected. No sooner had Warwick returned to Calais 1422—1461.] HENRY VI. 107 than he committed an outrage for which he was called to account by the king. An attempt was made to assassinate Warwick, who was an active partizan of York; and as the queen was suspected of having planned the deed, York again prepared for war. The queen, with a numerous army, met him near Ludlow, ] 459 ; that of York was only one fourth of that of the queen, and being, moreover, deserted by one of his best officers, his little band dispersed, and he fled into Ireland, while Warwick returned to Calais. The parliament, soon after this triumph of the royal arms, attainted York and all his followers. Upon this, AVarwick returned to England, and soon assembled a considerable force with which, near Northampton, he defeated the royal army and took the king prisoner, in 1460. The queen, with her son, Edward, escaped into Scotland. The duke of York now returned from Ireland and openly claimed the crown, to which he had no more, in fact fewer, claims than the house of Lancaster, which had possessed it for nearly sixty years. Parliament, however, decided that Heury should remain king, but that he should be succeeded by the duke and his heirs, and that in the meantime the administration of the kingdom should be committed to the duke. The rights of Prince Edward were entirely disregarded. Queen Margaret, naturally dissatisfied with this arrangement, collected in the north of England a large force of men faithful to their king, and attacking York's army near Wakefield (1460), utterly defeated her enemy in less than half an hour. York fell in the battle, and one of his sons with many other nobles v^as put to death without a trial. Edward, the eldest son and heir of York, was at Gloucester when he heard of his father's death. He hastily assembled as large a force as he could, and marched towards London, but being followed by Jasper Tudor, earl of PemlDroke, he turned upon him, and in a sharp encounter defeated him at Mortimer's Cross in Herefordshire. Meanwhile the queen advanced southward without meeting with any opposition till 108 HTSTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VIII. slie readied St. Albans. She tliere gained a victory- over the Yorkists, who were commanded by Warwick, and rescued the king. But as her soldiers were in- dulging in plunder and rapine, Edward had time to reach London before her arrival. An assembly of nobles, prelates, and citizens met, before which he charged the king with having broken his engagements, and with imbecility ; at the same time he set forth his claims to the crown. These claims were admitted by the assembly, and in March, 1461, he was proclaimed king of England under the name of Edward lY. Henry lived ten years after this, but his history during that period belongs to the reign of his successor. Thus ended the dynasty of Lancaster. JSTotwith- standing his childish weakness and his incapacity to govern, Henry YI. possessed virtues which have endeared his memory to posterity, for he is the founder of several colleges both at Oxford and Cambridge, which are nobler monuments than the trophies of brilliant victories. CHAPTER YIIL THE HOUSE OF YORK. Edward IV.. , . 1461-1483 [ Edward V. . . . 1483-1483 Bichardni. . . 1483-1485 1. EDWARD IV., 1461—1483. Edward lY., who on his accession was nineteen years old, was, as we have seen, the second son of Eichard, duke of York, and claimed the throne because he was a lineal descendant of Lionel, son of Edward III. ; and as his claim was recognised by Parliament, he was proclaimed king without hesitation. But the crown which had been thus readily conceded to him, had to be defended at once, even before his coronation, by force of arms ; for the Lancastrian party, led by the brave Queen Margaret, had assembled a large force in 14(31—1483.] EDWABD lY, 109 Yorksliire, where Edward with little more than forty thousand men attacked them. Both parties fought with desperate courage, and no quarter was given. The contest for a time was undecided, but in the end Edward gained the day, and the massacre among the vanquished was terrible : thirty thousand dead are said to have covered the battle-field. King Henry VI., with his wife and son, escaped into Scotland, where they met with a hospitable reception, on ceding Berwick on Tweed to the Scottish king. Edward now returned to London and was crowned. Parliament met in November, and saluted him as the true heir to the crown, while the Lancastrian kings were declared usurpers, and the late royal family and its adherents were treated as traitors and deprived of their estates, which were given as rewards to Edward's supporters. Many executions also took place to strike terror into the friends of King Henry. Meanwhile Margaret sought the aid of the duke of Britanny, and of the wily Charles XI. of France, Though scantily provided with men and money, she invaded the north-east of England, 1464 ; but her army was routed and dispersed by Lord Montacute, a brother of Warwick. During her wanderings after this defeat, she and her son, it is said, fell into the hands of robbers. When she had with difficulty escaped from them, she came upon another robber who ajoproached her with a drawft sword. Margaret, with great presence of mind, courageously said to him, " I commit to thee the son of thy king." Disarmed by these words the robber not only abstained from violence, but conducted the queen safely to her friends. She took refuge in France, while Henry YI. found an asylum in North Wales. Thence he again proceeded to the north of England, where the Lancastrian party was, and always had been, strongest. He was accom- panied by several exiled nobles, and his force was increased by many of the northern barons and Scottish phiefs. But, frightened by the approach of Warwick, the king fled and concealed himself, until 1466, when he was treacherously delivered into the hands of Edward, 110 HISTORY OF ENaLAND, [CiiAP. VIII. wlio for several years kept him as a jprisoner in the Tower. Edward now enriched his followers with the confis- cated estates of the exiled nobles. Notwithstanding his irregular and dissolute life, he was very popular with the great mass of the people, on account of his valour and amiable affability, though he never was wanting in energetic measures to maintain law and order, and to increase the prosperity of his subjects. He strengthened himself by alliances with foreign nations, and when he felt himself pretty secure on the throne, he gave the reins to his sensual propensities. Several plans were formed for his marrying a lady of suitable rank, when he became acquainted with Elizabeth, the charming young widow of Sir John Grey, who had fallen fighting in the ranks of King Henry. After a time he married her privately, but soon made the step known, and caused her to be solemnly crowned. This marriage was soon followed by fatal conse- quences. Edward conferred extraordinary honours and favours upon the relations of his wife, who be- longed to the lower aristocracy. This exasperated, not a little^ the old and powerful aristocratic families, such as the Nevilles, to whom Edward's own mother belonged. Thus Elizabeth's father, Eichard Woodville, was made earl of Elvers, and her sisters were given in marriage to dukes and earls. The earl of Warwick especially felt hurt at the king showering his favours upon an inferior order, all of whom, moreover, belonged to the Lancastrian party. Even the king's - own brother, George, duke of Clarence, who was married to a daughter of Warwick, sided with the earl, a man more powerful and influential almost than the king himself. About this time the country people in the north rose in arms against the collectors of an ancient tax, levied for the benefit of the clergy. The insurgents, though checked by Warwick's brother, the earl of Northumberland, soon acquired a force of sixty thousand men, led by relatives of Warwick himself, and their 14G 1—1483.] EDWAHD IV. Ill cry now was, that the king should remove the Wood- villes and draw to himself the royal princes and the ancient nobility. King Edward once more en- deavoured to come to an understanding with Warv/ick and Clarence, but neither of them was willing to become reconciled, and Warwick even incited the people of Kent to rebellion. The king's army was defeated by the rebels near Banbury, 1469, where the queen's father and brother were taken and beheaded. After a time, tolerable terms were established between the king, Warwick, and Clarence ; but the reconcilia- tion was not honest, and in 1470 the king with difficulty escaped from an attack of Clarence. Early in the same year an insurrection broke out in Lincoln- shire, which demanded the restoration of Henry YI. Edward, with his usual energy, quickly took up arms and subdued the rebellion, but when it was found out that it had been excited by Warwick and Clarence, both fled into France, where Queen Margaret came to an understanding with Warwick, who promised to effect the restoration of Henrj^, and gave his daughter, Anne, in marriage to Prince Edward who was now seventeen years old. King Edward, meanwhile, abandoned himself to his usual pursuits, and treated the suggestion of a possible invasion of England with ridicule. But while he was engaged in quelling an insurrection in the north, Warwick landed with a fleet at Dartmouth, and issued a proclamation in which he demanded the restoration of Henry VI. Edward not being sufiiciently prepared to meet the enemy, sought the protection of his brother-in-law, Charles the Bold of Burgundy. Warwick, who had advanced without opposition, now entered London, October, 1470, brought the almost imbecile Henry out of the Tower, and caused him to be proclaimed king. The dissatisfaction with Edward's rule had become very general, and Warwick and the restored king were received by the people with great enthusiasm. King Edward, finding that he could not rely on his troops, fled into Flanders, and all the exiled Lancastrian nobles had their honours and H 112 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [Chap. YIII. estates restored to tliem. Tins revolution was effected without bloodshed, and tlie new , government was established without difficulty. Warwick and Clarence were appointed protectors of the kingdom during the minority of Prince Edward. Edward IV., who amid all his debaucheries never lost his energy, had obtained the secret support of Charles the Bold, and with a sma,ll force landed at Eavenspur, 1471, proclaiming that he had come only to claim his family estates. He advanced as far as Coventry, where he was suddenly joined by his brother, Clarence, who had become dissatisfied with the arrangements made with Queen Margaret. Being thus strengthened, Edward resumed the title of king, and, accompanied by his brother, proceeded to London, v/here a numerous party was still attached to him. He entered the city without hindrance, and Henry VI. was delivered up to him. Meanwhile Warwick also advanced, but coming too late, he met his enemies near Barnet, where a great battle was fought, in which Edward was victorious, and Warwick, whom the people had called " king maker," was among the slain. Edward IV. returned to London on the same day, and poor Henry VL was taken back to the Tower. On the same day, also, Margaret, with her son, landed at Weymouth with some French troops, and took up a strong position near Tewkesbury; here the brave queen was attacked by Edward and completely de- feated, May, 1472. Edward raged with merciless cruelty against the vanquished, and had Prince Ed- ward barbarously murdered before his own eyes. Margaret was dragged forth from a convent, where she had taken refuge, and conveyed to the Tower. A few daj^s later, Edward entered London in triumph, and on the following morning Henry VI. was found dead in his bed, having probably been murdered, perhaps by Edward's brother, Eichard, duke of Gloucester, The male line of the house of Lancaster was now extinet, and its surviving fidends were dis- persed and attainted. The kingdom mig;ht now have ©njoyad a period of peaoe^ but quarrels broke out 1483—1483.] EDWARD Y. 113 between Edwarcrs two brotliers, Clarence and Gloucester, about tbe inheritance of Warwick, each having married a daughter of the earl. The dispute was at last settled by the estates being divided between the two. But a fresh war with France was a more serious affair ; it was provoked by Edward demanding the French crown as belonging to him by inheritance. In making this claim he relied on the support of Burgundy ; but when, in 1475, he invaded France, he found himself disappointed, and as Louis XI. was afraid of war with England, negotiations were com- menced and a treaty was concluded at Pecquigni, in which Louis engaged to pay to Edward 75,000 crowns at once, and an annuity of 50,000 ; Queen Margaret, moreover, was to be ransomed for 50,000 crowns. Peace was thus restored, and Edward now again indulged his usual passions. He had for some time been alienated from his brother Clarence, and at last, on some frivolous j)retext, brought against him the charge of treason. The subservient parliament found him guilty, and Clarence was imprisoned in the Tower. Ten days later his death was announced, and it was rumoured that he had been drowned in a butt of malmsey, February, 1478. In 1480, a war broke out with Scotland, which had been in a distracted state ever since the captivity of James, who had been liberated by Bedford in 1424. Border raids of no great importance had of late been rather frequent, but in 1482 the duke of Albany, at the instigation of Edward IV., rose against his brother, James III., and offered, if raised to the throne, to hold Scotland as a fief of England. But the rebellion ended in a reconciliation between the Scottish princes. A year after this, Edward lY. died, April 9, 14B3, 2. EDWAED V„ 1483—1483, Edward Y., the eldest son of Edward IY„ was only hi Mb thirteenth year when his fethar died. His i-eign, if w© may so call its extended from th© 0tli of April to the 22nd of June, 1483, Bichard, duke of 114 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VIIL Gloucester, had been recommended by tlie late king as regent, but it was suspected tliat tlie queen-motber, Elizabeth, was seeking to secure to herself and her relatives supreme power. It now became evident how deeply rooted was the ill-feeling between the great houses of the old nobility and the lower nobles, who were represented by the Woodvilles. The queen's schemes were thwarted by Lord Hastings, the most conspicuous among the enemies of the Woodvilles. The young king was at Ludlow, under the care of THE TO"U'ER OF LONDON. Earl Elvers, who was ordered by the queen to escort him to London. At Stony Stratford they met Hastings and the dukes of Gloucester and Buckingham, who arrested the king's escort, and a few days later ordered them to be executed. The young king was carried to London and lodged in the Tower. When the queen heard of this, she, with her younger son, Eichard, duke of York, took refuge in the sanctuary at Westminster. The duke of Gloucester, on his arrival in London, was appointed protector by a great council, and Bucking- ham was richlv rewarded for his services. The coro- 1483—1485.] illCHAKD III. 115 nation of the king was fixed for tlae 22nd of June. Hastings, who had expressed his suspicions about the protector's ultimate designs, was accused of high treason and beheaded. His suspicions, however, were only too well founded, for a story, probably suggested b}^ the protector, was spread abroad that Edward IV., before marrying Elizabeth Woodville, had been married to another lady, so that his sons by Elizabeth were illegitimate. A clergyman, moreover, was ordered to preach at St. Paul's on the subject. When public opinion was thus prepared, Buckingham prevailed upon the Londoners to offer the crown to the protector, Eichard, duke of Gloucester, who, after a feigned reluctance, accepted it. The young king had been kept a prisoner in the Tower from the day of his arrival in London, and the general belief is, that he and his younger brother, Eichard, duke of York, were murdered by the order of their uncle, who had ascended the throne as Richard III. EICHARD m., 1483—1485. Eichard HI., who thus marked his accession by a deed of blood, was in his thirty-third jesn'. The friends who had aided him were richly rewarded, but he left the widows of his former enemies, Eivers and Hastings, in the possession of their property. After he and his queen, Anne, the second daughter of Warwick, had been crowned, he made a progress through the country, and caused his parliament, in 1484, to enact several useful laws relating to the administration of I'ustice and the interests of commerce. But insurrec- tions broke out in several quarters. One of them was even joined by his former supporter, Buckingham. The object of this insurrection was to raise Henry, earl of Richmond, a descendant of John of Gaunt, to the .throne. Eichard, on hearing of this, offered a» reward for the apprehension of the leaders. Eichmond, who was staying in Britanny, found it impossible to land in England, and Buckingham, having been 116 HISTORY 01? ENGLAND. [Chap. IX, betrayed; was executed at Salisbury without a trial ; wliile most of bis associates escaped to tbe Continent. Not long after the suppression of this revolt, Eichard's son, Edward, and the queen died, whereupon he declared his nephew, the earl of Lincoln, his successor. Meanwhile Eichmond, not venturing to come to England, obtained from Charles VIII. of France permission to collect a force for the purpose of invading England. He conducted these preparations with vigour and energy, and in August, 1485, landed at Milford Haven. Richard, on the other hand, trusting to the fidelity of his nobles, was ill-prepared. Eichmond, therefore, was enabled to march unopposed through Wales, and met the king's army at Bosworth. Two powerful nobles, with their men, at once deserted to Eichmond, and Eichard, on seeing himself betrayed, furiously dashed at his enemy, whom he saw at a distance, but he was overpowered by numbers, re- ceived several wounds, and was killed. Eichmond was at once ]«)rocl aimed king as Henry VII. Eichard was indeed guilty of acts of gross cruelty, but he hardly deserves to be classed among royal monsters. He was of the same passionate character as his brother, but did not possess his amiable and conde- scending affability. His legislative and administrative measures are deserving of high praise. CHAPTEE IX. THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. Henry VII . . 1485—1509 Henry VIII. . . 1509—1547 Mary .... 1553—1558 Elizabeth . . . 1558—1603 Edward VI. . . 1547—1553 1. HEHEY Vn., 1485—1509. Henry VII. had been proclaimed king on the battle- field of Bosworth, and his accession put an end to the long and sanguinary wars between the houses of Lancaster and York, or the Eed and White Eoses, as MS5— 1509.] HENEY VIL ll7 they are commonly called. Legal claims to the throne he had none : his descent from John of Gaunt gave him no right, as the nnion from which he sprang was illegitimate. He had, in fact, risen to the throne by the right of conquest, but did not like to lay stress upon it, and in order to strengthen his position he resolved to marry Elizabeth of York, the daughter of Edward IV., who had a real claim to the succession. It was this union between the houses of Lancaster and York that induced parliament to enact that the in- heritance of the crown should be, and remain, with Henry and the lawful heirs of his body. The marriage took place early in 1486, amid great rejoitjings of the people, who believed that at length a complete peace between the two contending parties was established. Had Henry acted discreetly, he might have realised that belief, but, unfortunately, he lost no opportunity of showing his aversion to some of the Yorkists, and this gave rise to several insurrections which disturbed his reign. One of these occurred only a few months after his marriage, and was attempted by Lord Lovel and a few other nobles; but when the royal troops marched against them they dispersed, and Lovel fled into France. The next year, 1487, a more dangerous insurrection broke out. Lambert Simnel, who was educated at Oxford, by a priest called Simons, was persuaded by him to represent himself as Earl Warwick (son of the duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV). The youth went to Ireland, which V\^as always favour- able to the house of York, and accordingly welcomed the pretender as the undoubted heir to the throne. Simnel was actually crowned at Dublin as Edward VI., and was soon surrounded by a large number of followers, among whom were Lord Lovel, the earl of Lincoln, and two thousand soldiers furnished him by Margaret of Burgundy, the sister of Edward IV. The insurgents landed on the coast of Lancashire and advanced towards Newark, hoping that during their progress their ranks would be swelled by other Yorkists But in this they were disappointed, and Henry meeting them at Stoke, in Nottinghamshire, lis HISTORY OP EKaLAND. [Chap. IX. defeated tliem in a liotly contested engagement. Half the insurgents and most of their leaders were slain ; Lovel escaped, but Simnel and his tutor were* taken prisoners and treated with utter contempt, Simnel being made a scullion in the king's kitchen, and Simons committed to close confinement. Many who had been implicated in the insurrection, bought their pardon by heavy fines, for Henry's ruling passion was avarice. The duke of Britanny, the only remaining fief of the French crown, was attacked by the king of France, and the duke, having some claim upon the gratitude of the English king, solicited his assistance. When Henry demanded from the northern counties subsidies to enable him to carry on the war against France, the people rose in arms, but the rising was easily suppressed, and the leaders were executed, 1488. Anne, the heiress of Britanny, had been asked in marriage for Charles VIII., but had been refused. She was now besieged in the town of Eennes, and Charles declared that she must either be his wife or his prisoner. The lady chose the former, and, by her marrying the king, Britanny became annexed to the French crown. Henry YII., finding himself thus outwitted by the young king, availed himself of the opportunity to gratify his avarice. He extorted money from his subjects by taxes, strangely called " benevolences," and obtained large grants from parliament, that he might avenge, what he called, the perfidy of the French king. But the result showed that his only object was to obtain money. After a considerable delay, he started on his expedition in October, 1492. From Calais he advanced to Boulogne, which he invested with a large army. But after a few days a treaty was concluded between the two kings at Estaples, in which Charles agreed to pay Henry £149,000 by half- yearly instalments, on condition that he should with- draw his troops from France. Henry thus " made profit on his subjects for the war, and u^^on his enemies for the peace," About the time when this sham war in France was 1485—1509.] HENEY VII. 119 on the point of breaking out, l-i92, a young man, whose real name is said to have been Perkin Warbeck, landed at Cork, declaring himself to be Eichard, duke of York, brother of Edward Y., who was believed to have been murdered in the Tower with his brother. The Irish at once received him with joy, but he had not been there long, when Charles YIII. invited him to his court and treated him as a real royal duke, hoping by his means to obtain more favourable terms from Henry. After the conclusion of the treaty of Estaples, however, Warbeck was sent away as of no further use. Warbeck then claimed and obtained the protection of Margaret of Burgundy, and as many of the English nobility also began to believe in him. Sir Eobert Clifford was sent to inquire into the matter, and his report was, that AYarbeck was the veritable duke of York. Clifford was now bribed by Henry to reveal the names of the English nobles who had supported the imposter. In consequence of this, several were arrested and some were executed, and among them Sir William Stanley, who had saved Henry's life in the battle of Bosworth. Wishing to get Warbeck removed from Flanders, Henry forbade all commercial intercourse with that country ; shortly after this the pretender landed with a body of followers at Deal, but was beaten off with some loss. He then went to Ireland where he was equally unsuccessful, and after several attempts to gain a footing in other quarters, he went to Scotland where James lY. received him kindly, and brought about a marriage between him and Catherine Gordon, a near relative of the royal family. With the assistance of his new friends he invaded England, but as his proclamation that Henry Tudor was a usurper made no impression there, the Scotch, after committing fearful ravages, returned to the north. This Scottish inroad afforded Henry a pretext for asking a subsidy to carry on war against Scotland. The money was readily voted by parliament, but the Cornish men refused to pay their share, maintaining the northern counties ought to defend their own 120 History of en^la^'D. [Chap. ix. country against the Scotch. About sixteen tiionsand insurgents, led by Lord Audley, marched towards London to petition the king, but on Blackheath they were attaoked by the royal forces and totally defeated, 1497. The leaders were executed, while the common people were allowed to disperse and return home. Meanwhile the Scotch made a second inroad, but were driven back by the English, who retaliated by ravaging the south of Scotland. Negotiations were then com- menced to induce James IV. to surrender Warbeck, and though this was refused, a seven years' truce was concluded between the two countries, in consequence of which Warbeck had to leave Scotland. His wander- ings now recommenced, and finding no support any- where, he at last deserted his followers and took refuge in the sanctuary of Beaulieu, in the New Forest. There he surrendered on the promise of pardon ; but when subsequently he attempted to flee, he was seized and imprisoned in the Tower. While there he attempted to escape in conjunction with his fellow prisoner, the earl of Warwick, in consequence of which both A^^re executed, 1499. Whether Warbeck was really an impostor, is still a matter of much un- certainty. Henry had seven children, of whom three died young; the survivors were two sons and two daughters. The eldest son, Arthur, married Catherine of Arragon in 1501, but died in the following year, and Henry, in order not to lose the rich dowry which had been received with her, planned a marriage of his second son, Henry, with the young widow. His eldest daughter, Margaret, married James IV. of Scotland in 1503. Edmund, earl of Suffolk, was now the only one who might dispute Henry's title to the crown. He was then living in Flanders, under the protection of Philip the Fair. In 1506 Philip was obliged, by stress of weather, to land at Weymoath, and Henry took the opportunity of extorting from him the promise to surrender Suffolk, on the distinct understanding that his life should be spared. But^ notwithstanding this, 1509—1547.] HENRY VIIl. 121 the earl was tlirowii into prison, and, on his death bed, Henry desired his son to see that Suffolk was put to death, which was done in 1513, Henry YII. died of consumption at Eichmond in April, 1509, having amassed a fortune of what in our money would make sixteen millions stealing. His ruling passion, as we have seen, was avarice, and he never scrupled at anything to gratify it. There was no lack of men ready at all times to assist him in fleecing the people and enriching both the king and themselves. The Star Chamber, which had been instituted before his reign for useful purposes, became under him a tyran- nical power to extort money. The reign of Henry A-^II. may be regarded as the period of transition from the middle ages to modern times. In it Columbus dis- covered the West Indies and the mainland of America, and Yasco de Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope, thus opening a new route to India. 2. HENRY Vm,, 1609—1517. Henry VIII. was the first king since the time of Eichard II. whose title to the crown was undisputed. On his accession he was in his eighteenth year, and a handsome youth ; he had been most carefully educated, and was skilled not only in all manly and martial exercises, but also well versed in several branches of learning. He seemed to be a young man of a generous and open-hearted disposition, but the hopes raised during the early part of his reign were destined to be sadly disappointed by his conduct and actions in later life. It had been his father's wish that he should marry Catherine of Arragon, the widow of his elder brother, Arthur. Henry himself had never been favourable to this scheme, but being urged by his council he gave way and married Catherine in June, 1509, and for many years they lived happily together. One of the first acts of his reign was to punish Empson, Dudley, and their agents, who had been the chief instruments of the extortion practised by his father, and both were 122 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IX. charged witli high treason and executed, 1510. The money, however, which his father had amassed was spent by the son in a series of most splendid court festivities. The first war into which Henry was drawn was vdth France. In 1508, Pope Julins II. had formed the league of Cambray against the republic of Venice, for the purpose of recovering from it some lands which it had taken from the Church. When this object was attained, he declared his determination to free Italy from the dominion of foreigners. With this view he prevailed iipon the Emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Spain, and Henry YIII. to form a holy league for the defence of the Church. Henry was further induced to claim back the ancient possession of Guienne. This was a tempting bait, and on the suggestion of Ferdinand a large English force, under the marquis of Dorset, landed at Guipuscoa in Biscay, 1512, where it was to be joined by a Spanish army, and then to invade France. But Ferdinand availed himself of the presence of the English for the purpose of conquering Navarre. Dorset waited in vain for six months, during which his troops suffered severely from disease, and per- ceiving at last that Ferdinand was not inclined to aid him, he returned to England. The brave admiral. Sir Edward Howard, however, ravaged the French coast and fought a terrific battle off Brest, in which he was victorious. Hostilities between France and England continued, and in 1513 a force of twenty-five thousand men having been sent into France, Henry himself crossed over, and in conjunction with the German emperor laid siege to Terouanne. The French attempting to relieve the place suffered a disgraceful defeat, for owing to a panic having seized their cavalry, ten thousand horsemen fled in full gallop before a small number of English, whence the battle was called in mockery the Battle of the Spurs. Terouanne now surrendered, and Tournay also fell into the hands of Henry, who, after appointing Wolsey bishop of the place, returned to England. While these things were going on in France,, the 1509—1547.] HENKY VIII. 123 earl of Surrey carried on a successful war against Scotland. James lY., though married to Henry's sister, had kept up his alliance with France, and had been instigated by the French king to invade England, At first James had been tolerably successful, but when he was met by Surrey at Flodden Field (1513), at the foot of the Cheviot Hills, a fierce battle was fought in which ten thousand Scotchmen w^ere killed, with their king and a large number of their nobility. This was the greatest defeat the Scotch had sustained during their protracted wars with England. In 1514 the French burnt Brighton and rav^.ged the south coast of England, but soon after a peace was concluded with both Scotland and France, Louis agreeing that Henry should keep Tournay, and that ho himself should marry Mary, Henry's youngest sister. The marriage was indeed celebrated, but three months afterwards Louis died. Let us now say a few words about one of the most remarkable men in English history — Thomas Wolsey. He was born at Ipswich, in 1471, of humble parents; he was educated at Oxford and soon dis- tinguished himself by his talents, his energy, and his tact. He had been employed in several affairs of state by Henry YIL, and was also for many years the principal adviser of Henry YIII., who successively made him bishop of Tournay, Lincoln, and York, and in 1515 he received a cardinal's hat from Leo X., and from Henry the office of chancellor of England; to these were afterwards added the office of papal legate and bishop of Winchester. Invested with these many and varied powers, Wolsey not only wielded the destinies of England, but exercised great influence upon continental countries. He and his master governed the country with almost despotic power, and for seven years, from 1515 to 1523, no parliament was assembled or consulted, and during that period Wolsey had plenty of opportunities of showing his talent for statecraft and intrigue. On the death of the Emperor Maximilian, in 1519, there appeared three competitors for the imperial crown, Charles, the son of Ferdinand 124 HISTOBY OF ENaLAND. [Chap, IX. of Spain, Francis, king of France, and Heniy YIII., thongli the last had no chance. The youthful Charles (Y.) won the race, and the jealousy thus created hetYv^een the rulers of France and Spain made each desirous to secure the friendship of Henrj'-. Francis accordingly arranged a meeting with Henry near Guisnes, where the entertainments offered to the English monarch were of such surpassing splendour, that the place received the name of the " Field of the Cloth of Gold." But the meeting had no political results, for Charles V. kept on good terms with Henry, and the only important event connected with it was, that Edward, duke of Buckingham, who had expressed, his disapproval of the meeting, and had incurred the hatred of Wolsey, was condemned for treason and executed on Tower Hill in 1521. In the same year open hostilities broke out between France and Spain, and Henry, after an unsuccessful attempt at mediation, took the part of his nephew, Charles V., who, on the death of Leo X., promised Wolsey to assist him to gain the papal throne. But Wolsey was disappointed on this occasion, and a second time, in 1523, when another election to the papacy took place. In consequence of this, Wolsey's interest in the emperor cooled. The war against France, however, was carried on by the English forces under Surrey and Suffolk, the latter of whom devastated the countrj- nearly np to the gates of Paris. The Scotch in the meantime, at the instigation of Francis, were preparing to invade England, but the English, anticipating ^the attack, laid waste the border country of Scotland and burnt Jedburgh ; after which a truce was concluded, which lasted eigliteen years. During this period England, as already mentioned, was governed by the king and cardinal at their pleasure, but when, in 1523, money was wanted, parliament was convoked, and Wolsey demanded one-fifth of every man's property. But parliament, presided over by Sir Thomas More, its Speaker 5 demurred ; and after long disoussiong ei, mp.oh Bmalier subsidy was voted, la fo25 Fmnois^ in his ■ to conquer Milan , was defeated by Oliarke T. 1509—1547.] HENRY VIII. 125 at Pavia and taken prisoner, and Henry thinking this a favourable opportunity of gaining tlie crown of France, Y/liicli English, kings had so often claimed as their lawful inheritance, prevailed upon the emperor to join him in the invasion of France, by the promise that Bnr gundy should be given up to him. But when Henry tried to raise the money for this enterprise without the sanction of parliament, the people refused to pay, and insurrections broke out in several quarters. Henry, to avoid greater evils, thought it wise to yield, and pardoned the rioters. "When Charles V. found that Henry had concluded a separate peace and alliance with France, communications were broken off between Spain and England. The year 1527 was the first in which it was openly said that the king had scruples about the validity of his marriage with the widow of his brother. He had separated from her three years before, but he him- self now o^Denly avowed his scruples. It may be doubted whether they were genuine, and whether he was not more influenced by the charms of Anne Boleyn, who had lived for some time at the French court, and is said to have there acquired a certain levity of manner. But however this may be, the Pope, on being applied to for a divorce, granted a commission to Wolsey and Cardinal Campeggio, bishop of Salis- bury, to inquire into the case. Attempts were at first made to induce the queen to retire into a religious house, but as she refused, the commission began its bittings, though no decision was come to. The Pope, then, revoking the commission, summoned Henry to appear before him. The king was exasperated at this, but blamed Wolsey, whom he believed to be the cause of it. Wolsey's ruin soon followed : he was ordered to sua-render the great seal which he held as chancellor, and being further charged with having broken the law by receiving orders from Pome, he was declared to have forfeited all his possessions, 8.nd ordered to be imprisoned during the royal pleasure. This was undoubtedly an act of grosR injustioo, as the cardinal had received th@ Pope's instructions with th© Mng*0 126 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. [GiiAP. IX, knowledge and sanction. In tlio next year, however, Wolsey was pardoned and ordered to live in his diocese at York; but in 1530 he was summoned to London to defend himself against certain charges. When he had reached Leicester he died, repenting in his last hour that he had served his king better than his God. Henry being bent upon marrying Anne Boleyn, took the advice of Cranmer, a clergyman, and a friend of his secretary Gardiner, to seek the opinion of the most learned lawyers in Europe. Cranmer was afterwards rewarded for this service by receiving the arch- bishopric of Canterbury. The opinion of the lawyers, which was favourable to the divorce, was laid before the Pope, but he hesitated to pronounce the sentence, fearing to offend Charles V., a kinsman of the queen. Parliament also sided with the king, and even showed an inclination to renounce its allegiance to Pome, if the Pope would not comply with the request. At last, tired of the delay, Henry, in 1533, married Anne Boleyn, without waiting for the final decision about the divorce, and Cranmer, at a court held at Dunstable, solemnly declared that the marriage with Catherine of Arragon was null and void, and Anne was crowned queen of England with extraordinary splendour. Having succeeded thus far, Henry determined hence- forth to act with even more energy and firmness : he got parliament to enact a measure which virtually proclaimed the independence of the English church, and another regulating the succession and declaring the king's first marriage void. Several persons ob- jecting to these measures were condemned and executed. One of them was Sir Thomas More, who had succeeded Wolsey in the chancellorship. More was a sincere catholic, and a man of high honour and integrity. His execution raised a cry of indignation all over the kingdom. The king's supremacy in religious matters was now established. He made Thomas ; Cromwell his vicar- general, who caused a general visitation of the monasteries. This led to an act of parliament sup- pressing all those religious houses whose revenues 1509—1547.] HENRY VIII. 127 were less than £200 a year, and their estates were made over to the crown. Such were the beginnings of the English Eeformation, and it is deeply to he regretted that it did not spring from purer motives. For many years a feeling had been growing in several parts of Europe that a reform of the Church of Eome had become necessary, and in Germany the monk, Martin Luther, scandalized by the sale of indulgences, had commenced, in 1517, a movement which soon spread beyond the frontiers of his own country. In England, too, there were not wanting men who em- braced the principles of his reformation. Henry YIIL, who was well versed in theological questions, wrote, in 1521, a book against Luther, "On the Seven Sacra- ments," for which he was rewarded by Pope Leo X. with the title of "Defender of the Faith." But as Leo's successor, Clement, refused to grant the divorce, Henry completely severed the connection with Eome, and made himself the head of the English Church. He did not, indeed, attempt to change the dogmas of the Church, for he himself remained a Catholic to the end of his days, but simply substituted his own authority for that of the Pope. In 1536 Queen Catherine died, and a few months later Anne Boleyn followed her to the grave. She had many enemies, and was accused of adultery; a subservient parliament found her guilt}^ and she was executed. The fact seems to have been that the king had got tired of her, and had become enamoured of Jane Seymour, one of her maids of honour ; and Henry committed the atrocious indecency of marrying her the very day after the execution of Anne Boleyn. The declaration of the independence of the English church from Eome, the suppression of monasteries, and the new regulations about the forms of worship were approved of by the majority of the English people, but many were opposed to them. A number of men in Lincolnshire rose in rebellion against them, but were easily dispersed, and pardoned. A more serious revolt broke out in Yorkshire, called the ^'Pilgrimage of Grace," The men insisted on evil 128 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IX. councillors being removed from tlie court, and upon the restoration of the forms of the old church. They were joined by the archbishop of York and many of the northern nobles. Several towns fell into their hands, but being attacked by a strong force under the duke of Norfolk, they lost heart and dispersed, and many of their leaders were put to death. This revolt led, in 1539, to the suppression of all the remaining monas- teries, the enormous revenues of which, amounting annually to one million and a half of our money, fell into the hands of the king, and were partly spent upon the creation of new bishoprics, the foundation of colleges and schools, and other useful objects. But the great bulk was given to favourites and squandered. At the same time several abbots and other persons of rank were executed on the pretext of their being engaged in treasonable plots, but, in fact, because they disapproved of the king's separation from Eome and setting himself up as the head of the church. Although he ordered the Bible to be read in the English language, and adopted some measures which seemed favourable to protestantism, yet he caused parliament to enact a statute for abolishing diversity of opinion on religious questions. This statute, consisting of six articles, contained the main points of Eoman Catholicism, viz., the doctrine of transubstantiation, communion in one kind, celibacy of the clergy, vows of chastity, private masses, and auricular confession. AH who denied the validity of these articles were to receive the severest punishments, and were to be burnt alive or executed as felons. Owing to its terrible severity, this statute was called " the whip with six strings." The number of persons refusing compliance with it was so great, that even the king's own party did not dare always to enforce the penalties. The king had, in fact, taken up a position which was as hostile to true Catholics as to true Protestants. In 1537 Queen Jane Seymour had died, a few days after the birth of a son, Edward, and since then Henry had been a widower. Cromwell, being himself a Protestant at heart, and wishing to strengthen his 1509—1547.] HENRY VIII, 129 party, persuaded the king to many Anne of Cleves, a German Protestant lady. Henry consented, biAt on her first appearance he conceived such a dislike to her, that in the very year of the marriage, in 1540, his servile friends, on some frivolous pretexts, declared it invalid, and immediately afterwards she was divorced. Cromwell, about a fortnight later, was put to death for having brought about the marriage. On the very day of Cromwell's execution Henry married his fifth wife, Catherine Howard, only a few days after the divorce from Anne of Cleves, Avhose maid- of-honour she had been. In the course of the next vear it was found out that her conduct before her marriage had been unchaste, and, it was said, that even after it she had been guilty of adultery. She was accordingly attainted by parliament, in 1542, and executed with all those who were supposed to have been implicated in her misconduct. The year after this, 1543, Henr}^ wedded Catherine Parr, a widow^ who had embraced protestantism, in consequence of vfhich her life, on one occasion, was in serious danger. But she was fortunate enouo;h to survive her roval husband. We must now turn our attention to the affairs of Ireland and Scotland, so far as they were connected "\\dth England. At "^e accession of Henry YIII., the> authority of England extended over only a portion of Ireland, the rest was governed by a number of chief- tains, partly English and partly Irish. Henry con- trived to win over the leaders, and by conferring titles and honours upon them, he induced them to recognise him as their chief. Henceforth he styled himself king of Ireland, which title was confirmed by an act of parliament in 1544. The relation between Scotland and England ha^d been unsatisfactory for some time. A war at length broke out, in which the Scotch were beaten in an engagement called " The Ptout of Solway." King James died immediately after this, from vexation ; but a treatj^ of peace was concluded, and Henry, thinking that it might be possible to unite the two kingdoms 130 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. [CilAP. IX. under one head, planned a marriage between his son, Edward, and the infant princess, Mary (afterwards queen of Scots), daughter of James Y. But Cardinal Beaton, a strong supporter of the Pope's authority, opposed the alliance with England, and Henry, exaspe- rated at this, in 1544, sent a strong force into Scotland, which burnt Edinburgh and Leith and devastated the country. As the Scotch received support and en- couragement from France, Henry, hoping to please Charles V. who was again on friendly terms with him, invaded France, heading a force of thirty thousand men. He laid siege to Boulogne, which surrendered after two mjonths, but before anything further could be undertaken, the emperor made a separate peace with Francis, leaving Henry to manage his affairs as best he could. In the following year, Francis collected a large fleet to invade England, and an engagement took place off Portsmouth, where he sunk an English ship with seven hundred men. But he nevertheless soon gave up the undertaking, and concluded a peace in 1546, according to which the English, at the end of eight Jyears, were to give up Boulogne, and were to receive a compensation of two millions of crowns ; Scotland also was included in this act of pacification. This was the last warlike undertaking in which Henry engaged, for death overtook him on January 28, 1547. He had latterly become so corpulent that he had to be wheeled from one room to another. He was buried at Windsor with the rites of the church of Eome. Henry left three children, a son, Edward, by Jane Seymour, one daughter, Mary, by Catherine of Arragon, and another, Elizabeth, by Anne Boleyn. All of whom one after another succeeded him on the throne. His reign is one of the most memorable in English histor}^ The development of the constitution was checked for a time by his tyrannical and arbitrary proceedings, and the parliament, when it was convoked, was little more than a tool ready to sanction the acts of the haughty and self-willed ruler. The Eeformation, so far as it belongs to his reign, consisted mainly in substituting 1547— 1563.] EDWARD VI. l3l the king's atitliority for tliat of tlie Pope; but still, one step was gained by the Scriptures beings made accessible to all in their English translations, of which there appeared three, by Tyndal, Coverdale, and Cranmer. The doctrines of the Eoman church not only remained untouched, but disbelief in them was punished with merciless severity. England's naval power entered upon a new career under him, for he no longer hired foreign ships, but founded dockyards at Woolwich, 'Deptford, and Portsmouth, and estab- lished the Trinity House for the encouragement of navigation. 3. EDWAED VI., 1547—1553. Edward VI., the only son of Henry VIII., was in his tenth year when his father died. His education was conducted by able men and with great care, and considering that at his death he was scarcely sixteen years old, he had made unusual progress in his studies. His character, so far as it could be known, inspired great hopes, but as he died so early we can hardly speak of his reign, for all that was done and accom- plished was the work of his councillors. By his father's will, the government, during Edward's mi- nority, was carried on by a body of sixteen councillors or executors, who nominated the king's uncle, the earl of Hertford, protector and guardian; he was at the same time created duke of Somerset. Both he and the young king strongly favoured the protestant cause, while the Chancellor Wriothesley, who was made earl of Southampton, was at the head of the catholic party, and naturally felt jealous of Somerset's position and influence with the king. Owing to some irregularity in the discharge of his judicial functions, he was dismissed by the protector, who now received full authority to make what regulations he might think fit for the good of the kingdom. We have seen that the scheme of Henry VIII. to unite the crowns of England and Scotland was thwarted by the opposition of Cardinal Beaton ; but Somerset 132 HISTORY OF ENG-LxVND. [Chap. IX. now resolved upon carrying ont tlie plan, and as some of tlie Scotcli nobility favoured tlie reformed doctrines, or were not averse to them, a secret treaty was concluded in wliicli they promised to aid the protector in bring- ing about the marriage between Edward and Mary, the infant queen of Scots. As soon as this arrange- ment became known, the national spirit of the Scotch rose against it, and war was declared. Somerset invaded Scotland with a large force*, and met the enemy at Pinkie, near Musselburgh, where he defeated them in a hotly-contested battle in which ten thousand Scotchmen perished and fifteen hundred v/ere taken prisoners. Next to the day of Flodden Field, this was the most terrible blow that Scotland had received. After plundering Leith and devastating the country, the conqueror hurried back to London in 1547. The^ Scotch now allied themselves with France more closely^ than ever, and a marriage was arranged between the Dau^Dhin and the infant Mary, who was at once conveyed to France. A few years later, 1550, a peace was concluded both with Scotlandi and France, in which Boulogne was restored to the French on their paying 200,000 crowns. In England the interests of the Reformation were in the meantime vigorously promoted by Somerset and Archbishop Cranmer. The statute of the " Six Articles" and some others relating to treason were abolished, and an act was passed ordering that the communion should be administered in both kinds ; a prayer-book was compiled and its use enforced by an act of uniformity ; priests were allowed to marry, and a number of articles were drawn up embodying the doctrines of the reformed English church. Lord Seymour, the brother of Somerset, had married Catherine Parr, the widow of the late king, and after her somewhat sudden death it was suspected that the ambitious nobleman was harbouring the plan of marrying the Princess Elizabeth ; and it was further observed that he tried in every way to win the affec- tions of the young king. On these and other grounds lie was accused of treason, found guilty, and executed 1547—1553.] EDWARD VI. 133 in 1549, Ills own brother having signed the death warrant. Several causes combined to excite the dissatisfaction of the people in different parts of the country, and gave rise to insurrections. In some cases they arose from the fact that noblemen enclosed the commons, which nntil then had been free pasture land of the adjoining villages. Most of these outbreaks were easily suppressed ; but in Cornwall, Devonshire, and Norfolk they assumed a religious character. The insurgents demanded the restoration of the mass, the re-enactment of the " Six Articles," and the restoration of some of the abbeys. But the vigorous measures of the government were everywhere victorious, and many of the leaders of the rebels, and those who had en- couraged them, were executed. The poorer classes of the population materially suffered by tlie proceedings of the reformers ; for formerly they had been employed or supported by the religious houses, and now large numbers w^ere homeless and lived by beggary. Hence the country was swarming with vagrants, against whom the severest laws were enacted. This accounts for the facility with which insurrections were excited. Earl Warwick had been most successful in dispersing and defeating the insurgents, in consequence of which he became a great favourite with the nobility. He was the son of Dudley, who in the reign of Henry YII. had made himself notorious by his extortions to satisfy that king's avarice. He now began to organise a conspiracy against the protector, who had displayed considerable rapacity and demolished religious edifices in order to obtain the materials for a palace he was building for himself in the Strand. As nearly the whole of the council favoured Warwick, Somerset was arrested and brought to trial. But as no charge of treason could be brought against him, he was only deposed from his office a,nd imprisoned, so that Warwick now virtually became the head of the government, 1549. In the year following, Somerset regained his freedom on most humiliating terms, and was allowed to take part in the deliberations of the 134 msTOEY OF ENGLAND. [diiAP. It, council. Tlie Reconciliation between the two rivals was effected by Warwick's son marrying a dangliter of Somerset. But after a while the latter attempted to recover his former position and j)ower, which cansed his arrest and the charge of treason and felony, for which he was executed in 1552. Warwick, shortly before this, had been raised to the rank of duke of Northumberland. He had now the complete control of all affairs, and although he was a catholic at heart, still not to lose his influence over the young king, he was obliged to fall in with his views. Some of the catholic prelates were deprived of their sees and imprisoned, and attempts were made to convert the Princess Mary who was a staunch catholic. Northumberland's next step was to try to alter the succession, so as to exclude Mary and raise Elizabeth to the throne, or, failing her, the heirs of Mary, sister of Henry VIII., whose family was strongly attached to protestantism. Edward was then prevailed upon to name Mary's granddaughter. Lady Jane Grey, who was married to a son of Northumberland, as his successor. This was a violation of the will of Henry YIII. and of an act of parliament, and although the lords of the council and others, from fear of Northumberland, sanctioned the illegal arrangement, it was soon frustrated. Soon after the execution of Somerset, King Edward was attacked by smallpox, and when he had recovered, a pulmonary disease made its appearance, and he gradually sank, and died at Greenwich on the 6th of July, 1553. 4. MAEY, 1553—1568. Mary, the eldest daughter of Henry VIII., was destined by the will of her father to succeed her brother, Edward, but we have seen that the duke of Northumberland had tried to secure the succession to his own daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey. Eor this purpose he designed to keep Edward's death secret until he should get Mary into his power. This was 1553-1558.] MA-Rt. 135 also the reason why the accession of Jane Grey tvas not made known till four days after the king's death ; but Mary, who had heard of Edward's death and of IS'orthumberland's design, went to the strong castle of Framlingham in Suffolk, whence she wrote to the council, complaining of their conduct and ordering them to proclaim her queen. Northumberland had become very unpopular, and many of his own friends began to espouse the cause of Mary ; although, there- fore, he had a strong force at his command, he de- spaired of success and withdrew to Cambridge, where, after disbanding his men, he proclaimed M ary queen. Lady Jane Grey who had enjoyed the royal honours for thirteen days was now put aside, and on the ord of August, Mary, accompanied by her sister Elizabeth, entered London in a sort of triumph. The Catholics Avho had been imprisoned were liberated, and Korthum- berland was execiited for high treason ; his son with other nobles, Jane Grey, her husband, Cranmer, Latimer, and many others, were declared guilty of treason and imprisoned in the Tower. The catholic prelates who had been deprived of their sees were restored. On the first meeting of parliament, the validity of the marriage of Henry YIII. with Catherine of Arragon was declared, so that Marj^'s title could not now be doubted. The forms of worship introduced under her predecessor were abolished, and those observed in the last year of Henry VIII. were restored ; married priests were compelled to abandon their wives or were expelled. Before the end of the first year Mary, declared her intention to marry Philip of Spain, son of Charles V. This announcement created fear and alarm not only among the Protestants but among the people generally, who thought that England might become a mere province of Spain. As petitions against the marriage were of no avail, a rebellion arose headed by the duke of Suffolk, Sir Thomas Wyatt, and Sir Peter Carev7. But their plans were badly managed and failed. Carew escaped into France, and Suffolk, being made prisoner, was carried to London. Wyatt 136 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IX. alone lield out and made Lis way into London, "but owing to the prudent and energetic measures of tlie queen lie was obliged to surrender. This rebellion aroused the fears and suspicions of the queen ; orders were given to execute Lady Jane Grey, her husband, DEATH OF LADY JANE GRET. and Suffolk; and Wyatt with fifty others were like- wise put to death as traitors. For some time even the life of Elizabeth was in danger, it being believed that she had been concerned in the rebellion. But as there was no proof, she was at first imprisoned in the Tower, and then removed to Woodstock, where she was kept in strict confinement by her jailor. Sir Henry Beding- field. At last, in July, 1554, Philip of Spain landed in England, and was married to Mary at Winchester amid great festivities. A few months later. Cardinal Pole also arrived as the Pope's legate, who prevailed upon parliament to return to the old allegiance with Rome, and granted absolution for their past errors. The queen, who herself was fiei^cely opposed to protestantism, was urged on by the violent counsels of her chancellor, Gardiner, and there now began a series of persecutions which lasted until the end of Mary's 1552—1558.] MARY.. 137 reign. Tlie first among her victims were Eogers, a prebendary of St. Paul's, and Hooper, both of whom were burnt alive. Gardiner himself seems to have become tired of his work, but his place was supplied by Bonner, bishop of London, who surpassed even his predecessor in his passion for persecution. Latimer and Ridley were burnt at Oxford, and Latimer, when fastened to the stake, called out . " Be of good comfort, Master Eidley, and play the man ; we shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as shall never be put out." Cranmer, in the vain hope that his life would be spared, had the weakness to recant ; but when he was, nevertheless, led to execution, he publicly declared that he bitterly repented of his recantation, and thrust the hand which had signed it into the fire, exclaiming : " This hand has offended !" Persecutions went on without interruption, and nearly three hundred persons were burnt at the stake, while many others perished in the prisons. After the death of Cranmer, Cardinal Pole was made archbishop of Canterbury, and now also began to exercise his functions as papal legate. The queen had, of course, restored to the church all the property over which she had control, but the nobility, who had been greatly benefited by the spoliations, refused to follow her example. Whether Philip had anything to do v/ith the persecutions in England is uncertain ; but he seems to have lost his interest in the country, and as there was little prospect of issue, he left England in 1555, and did not return till 1557, for the purpose of urging the queen to join him in a war against France. This was contrary to an article in the marriage contract, accord- ing to which England was not to go to war witli France for the interests of Spain. But as Henry II. of France was at the time supporting some English refugees who took possession of the castle of Scar- borough, war was declared, and eight thousand men were sent to join the Spanish army. When this object was attained, Philip left England, and never returned. The English and Spanish forces invested St. Quentin, 13S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [ChAp. 11. and an attempt of the Frencli to relieve tlie place led to the famous battle of St. Quentin, in which the French were defeated with immense loss. The Duke de Guise, knowing that Calais was insufficiently garrisoned, made an attack upon it, and Earl Wentworth, the governor, finding that his case was hopeless, surrendered in 1558, and the English thus lost the last of their possessions in France, which for centuries had been the cause of war between the two nations. At the time the loss was felt very keenly, and perhaps by no one more keenly than by the queen herself. Her health had been bad for some time, and the loss of Calais, and the knowledge that she was very unpopular with many of her subjects, seems to have hastened her end. She expired in London, November 17, 1558. That Mary during her reign perpetrated many acts of unpardonable cruelty, to which she owes the name of the Bloody Mary, cannot be denied. But there are circumstances which, if they cannot excuse, may at least palliate her acts. Her mother's disgrace, which involved her own illegitimacy, must have soured her mind. During her brother's reign she herself had been much persecuted. AVhen we further remember that the reforming party attempted to deprive her of the succession, we cannot much wonder that she should have listened to advisers like Gardiner and Bonner. 5. ELIZABETH, 1558—1603. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, was proclaimed queen on the very day of her sister's death, and proceeded to London, where she was welcomed by the great body of the people. After the execution of her mother she had been declared ille- gitimate, but she was, nevertheless, carefully educated, and became proficient in the ancient as well as in some modern languages, and in various female accomplish- ments. During the reign of Mary, she had been obliged to conceal her convictions and to conform to the rules of the old church. The insurrection of 1558-~1603.] FLIZABETH. 139 Wyatt had placed her very life in danger. But after her accession she immediately and without fear showed what her real convictions were. She selected Sir William Cecil, a well-known Protestant, as her principal adviser, released all those who had been imprisoned for their religious opinions, forbade un- licensed preaching, and ordered every part of divine service to be performed in English. Her accession, though welcomed by the majority of her people, was by no means satisfactory to all. Most of the Catholics still regarded her as illegitimate, and looked upon Mary of Scotland as the rightful heir to the throne; all the bishops refused to assist at her coronation, with the exception of the bishop of Carlisle, who was prevailed upon to perform the ceremony. But when parliament assembled, early in 1559, it declared Elizabeth legitimate, restored the supremacy of the crown in ecclesiastical as well as in all other matters ; and the book of Common Prayer used under Edward VI., with some alterations, was ordered to be read in all the churches. The queen was further allowed to nominate the " Court of High Commission," to which her spiritual jurisdiction was entrusted. When the bishops were summoned to take the oath of supremacy, all refused except the bishop of Llandaff, and all were deprived of their sees ; many other ecclesiastical dignitaries also were removed. But among the parochial clergy only few were prepared to give up their livings. The episcopal sees were then filled with men ready to support the reformation, and Parker became archbishop of Canterbury. Many men, no doubt, conformed to the new rules and laws from worldly motives, and many of those who were sincere did not agree with the doctrines and ceremonies ordered by the queen's authority. These latter were the Protestant dissenters or nonconformists. The Catholics, on the other hand, formed a powerful opposition, and it may be said that the whole of Elizabeth's long reign was an almost uninterrupted struggle with these two parties, But Elizabeth was 140 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IX. determined to have lier own way in tliese as in all other matter?!. The Catholics were the more dangerous of the two, as they did not scruple to gain their end by plots and cons23iracies. As they were not allowed to have any schools or colleges for the education of their priests, young men had to he sent to places in France, Italy, or Germany, while priests from those countries often visited England in secret, in order to keep alive the ancient faith. These and similar things led the government to have recourse to severe measures, and the Protestants now in their turn persecuted the Catholics almost as much as the Catholics had before persecuted the Protestants. Heavy fines were imposed for non-attendance at church and for celebrating mass, and persons trying to win over anyone to the Roman Church, and all priests and Jesuits found in the kingdom were treated as guilty of treason. Many Catholics were thus executed, tortured, or otherwise punished. Many of those Protestants who in the reign of Maiy had fled to the Continent, had become disciples of Calvin at Geneva ; they now returned home with peculiar views about the forms of public worship ; they objected to clerical vestments and other ritualistic forms ; they endeavoured, in short, to restore what they considered to have been the pure form of Christian worship during the first centuries after Christ, v/hence they received the name of Puritans. They met at first in private houses, but, in 1570, Thomas CartAvright, a divinity professor of Cambridge, formed them into a separate religious party. Cartwright himself was obliged to take to flight, but many Protestant clergy- man adopted his views, and set up places of worship in which they conducted divine service after their own fashion. As they greatly increased in numbers the}^, too, were persecuted with fines, banishment, and even death. Elizabeth herself inclined more to the Lutheran views than those of the Swiss reformer, whose prin- ciples were propagated in Scotland by John Knox. Mary, queen of Scots, was only a week old when her father, James Y., died, and her education was con- 1558—1603.] ELIZABETH. 141 diicted by lier mother, Mary of Guise, who was appointed regent. We have seen that she was Tbe- trothed to the Danphin, and at the age of five she had been taken to the French court, where she was educated till her marriage in 1558. Her husband died a few years afterwards. The moral laxity of the French court could not but exercise its influence on the beautiful young widow. As her father was a direct descendant of Henry YIL, the Catholic Mary was the natural rival of the Protestant Elizabeth, and her claims to the English throne were asserted by the Catholics from the beginning of Elizabeth's reign. The Guise familj^ which w^as all-powerful in France, even induced her to assume the title and the arms of Ihe queen of England. In Scotland the reformed doctrines had made great j)i'Ogress, and the nobles heading the Protestant party called themselves the " Lords of the Congregation." The regent, dreading their power, sought the assist- ance of France, and as England was thus threatened on two sides, Elizabeth secretly supported the Scotch Protestants, and concluded a treaty with them at Berwick for mutual defence. Soon after this the queen-regent died. The French trooj)s who were attacked by the English were shut up in Leith and compelled to surrender, whereupon a treaty was concluded at Edinburgh, 1560, in which it was stipulated that the French should evacuate Scotland and that Mary should cease assuming the title of queen of England. Mary, influenced by the Guise jparty, refused to ratify it. Meanwhile the Scottish parliament established the reformed religion, and forbade the celebration of mass under heavy penalties. In the year 1561, Mary, after the death of her husband, returned to Scotland, and for about four years her kingdom enjoyed a tolerable degree of tran- quillity. She then married her cousin, Lord Darnley, a handsome but passionate and dissolute character, who like herself was a descendant of Henry VII. Mary had made the Piedmontese musician, J)avid Bizzio, her French secretary, and, disgusted with 142 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IX. Darnley's profligacy, she sjoent mucli of her time with the secretary. This excited Darnley's jealousy, and he had Eizzio dragged from the queen's presence into a side chamber, where he was dispatched by a band of ruffians. This act must have extinguished whatever love she may still have felt for her husband ; but she nevertheless tenderly nursed him soon afterwards, when he was seized with smallpox in the neighbour- hood of Glasgow. In June, 1566; three months after the murder of Eizzio, Mary gave birth to a son, who afterwards, as James VI., became king of Scotland and subsequently of England as James I. After Darnley's recovery she brought her husband back to Edinburgh, and thinking Holyrood an unhealthy place, she assigned to him a solitary house near Edinburgh, called Kirk of Field. He had not been there many days when one morning the house was blown up by gunpowder, and Darnley's body was found at some distance from it. Lord Lennox, Darnley's father, suspecting that Bothwell, a great favourite of the queen, had been the perpetrator or instigator of the crime, commenced proceedings against him ; but when on the day of the trial Bothwell appeared surrounded by a large body of armed men, Lennox was afraid to make the charge, and Bothwell was acquitted. One month after this, Mary married the licentious Bothwell, who was made duke of Orkney, and as he was a Protestant, the marriage ceremony was performed according to the rites of the reformed church, although, according to Mary's principles, she could not regard the marriage otherwise than as invalid. This act immediately led to a confederacy of the nobles, the alleged object being to protect the infant prince and to punish the murderers of his father. Mary collected a small force and advanced against the insurgents, but finding that she could not depend on her own soldiers, she surrendered and was imprisoned in a castle on an island in Loch Leven. Bothwell escaped, became a pirate, and died in a prison in Denmark. While at Loch Leven, Mary was terrified into resigning the crown to her infant son, and tho 1558—1603.] ELIZABETH. 143 earl of Murray, or Moray, lier illegitimate brother, was appointed regent. After having been imprisoned for ten months, Mary made her escape, and soon gathered a force of six thousand men. She was attacked by Murray, and being defeated at Langside near Glasgow, she fled to Carlisle, 1568. This flight into England placed the English govern- ment in a difficult position. If Elizabeth had granted her protection, it would have been said that she connived at the grave charge brought against her of having instigated the murder of Darnley. On the other hand, if Elizabeth allowed Mary to take her own course, she knew that the Catholics would rally round her and endanger the peace of the kingdom. Mary was therefore removed from Carlisle to Bolton Castle, where she was virtually detained as a prisoner. Commissioners were sent to York to investigate the case, but the charges and countercharges were so complicated that no conclusion could be come to, and the commission was removed to London. Elizabeth was advised by her council not to liberate Mary until her innocence should be fully established. M.aTy, therefore, remained a prisoner, first at Tutbury and afterwards in Sheffield Castle, from 1570 to 1584. We have already seen that Elizabeth had to contend at home both against the Catholics and the ultra- Protestants or non-conformists. From abroad rumours reached England that the Pope was ready to give the sovereignty of the country to any Catholic prince who would conquer it, and restore the old allegiance with Iiome. There was, in fact, every reason to believe that the Pope, in conjunction with France and Spain, would leave nothing untried to eradicate protestantism altogether ; the plan of effecting this in England could be carried out only by dethroning Elizabeth and conferring the crown on Mary. With this view the earls of Westmoreland and Northumberland, the chiefs of the Catholic nobility, took up arms demanding the restoration of the ancient religion and the liberation of Marj^ They advanced with their forces into York- shire; but wheu they learned that Surrey was K 144 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IX marcliing against tliem witli a strong body of troops, they disbanded their followers and fled into Scotland", and their adherents were severely punished. West- moreland afterwards escaped to the Netherlands and entered the service of Spain, while Northumberland was seized by Murray and sent to England, where he was executed. The duke of Norfolk, who had formed the design of marrying Queen Mary, and had not been foreign to the insurrection, was tried„ and likewise put to death, 1572. In this same year about fifty thousand French Protestants were massacred in France, where they were called Huguenots. The massacre commenced on St. Bartholomew's day, whence it is known in history as the massacre of St. Bartholomew. In the Nether- lands, the Spaniards under Alva, who could boast of having slain one hundred thousand heretics, raged with equal fury. In 1578 Elizabeth concluded an alliance with the Netherlands who had risen against Alva, in which she engaged^ to support them with both men and money. About seven years later, 1584, events occurred which induced parliament to enact energetic measures for the protection of the queen's life against con- spirators. That such measures were necessary was proved in the following year, when a plot was formed to assassinate Elizabeth and to liberate Mary. Many persons were implicated in it, but owing to the vigilance of Walsingham, Elizabeth's secretary, the conspiracy was brought to light. Many of the accom- plices were arrested, and the leaders were executed as traitors, 1586. Mary was said to have been connected with this plot, and to have consented to the assassina- tion of Elizabeth. A commission was accordingly appointed to try her at Fotheringay Castle. The evidence brought forward against her showed that she had invited the French to invade England, but she Bolemnly declared that she had not conspired, against the life of Elizabeth. The court, however, found her guilty of having compassed the death of Elizabeth. Whether this verdict was based on sufficient evidence, 1558—1603.] ELIZABETH. 145 is still a matter of some uncertainty, bnt Elizabeth might, at all events, have avoided i carrying out the extreme punishment. After some affected hesitation she signed the death warrant, and the unhappy Mary was executed at Fotheringay, 1587. She bore her fate with firmness and in a truly Christian spirit. Pope Sixtus, exasperated at the execution of a Catholic queen, called Elizabeth the English Jezebel, and urged Philip of Spain to prepare for the conquest of England. Philip accordingly resolved to attack England with all the forces at his command. At all the ports of Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Sicily, prepa- rations were made on a gigantic scale, and an army of thirty thousand men was placed under the command of the duke of Parma. The English government, in the meantime, neglected nothing to put the country in s»: state of defence. Admiral Drake, in 1587, was sent to the coast of Spain, and at Cadiz destroyed one hundred Spanish ships, or as he expressed it, " singed the king's beard." This loss delayed the Spanish exjoedition for a whole year. When at last all was ready, the Invincible Armada, as it was proudly called, set sail in May, 1588. It consisted of a hundred and thirty ships, eight thousand sailors, and twenty thousand soldiers, and was placed under the command of Medina Sidonia, a man who knew very little of maritime warfare. The English fleet, under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham, assisted by Drake, Hawkins, and Forbisher, consisted of about a hundred and forty ships, many of which were very small, and fifteen thousand men. Besides this there were three land armies, one consisting of thirty thousand men which was to be employed as occasion required, and the two others of twenty thousand each were stationed on thp south coast and at Tilbury. When the Spanish Armada starfed, a tempest arose which did great damage to the ships and caused the delay of a month. At length it set sail in July, and the hostile fleets met in the British Channel. In the first skirmishes the English seamen and their light craft proved superior to those of Spain. On the 27th 146 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IX. of July the Armada anchored off Calais, where it was to ^ he joined hy the force under Parma. To prevent this, Howard in the night sent a number of fire-ships into the Spanish fleet, where they created such a panic that the Spaniards cut away from their anchorage and resolved to sail home round the north of Scotland and Ireland. Howard chased them as far as Flamhorough THE SPANISH AnaiADA. Head, and then returned, as he was in want of pro- visions. Between the Orkneys and Hebrides the Spaniards were overtaken by a storm, which completely dispersed them, and destroyed so many of their ships, that scarcely one-third of the great Armada reached Spain, and twenty thousand men were lost. The joy of the English people was unbounded, for England had indeeid had a narrow escape. When all fear of the Armada had ceased, a vigorous war was ca-rried on against Spain and her American colonies, and in 1596 Howard took and plundered Cadiz, where a vast amount of treasure was taken. In 3598 Philip II. died, but the desire to renew hostilities agaiiist England did not die with him, a^nd 1S5S— 1603.] ELIZABEl'H. • 147 Ireland was in great danger of being seized upon by tiie enemy. That country bad long been in a very disturbed state. The natives were discontented be- cause the best parts of the land were in the hands of Englishmen, who treated the natives with great cruelty and insolence. In addition to this, tlie Irish remained attached to their old religion and refused to listen to the new doctrines. The Catholic states of France and Spain encouraged the rebellious spirit of the Irish, and Spain especially supported them with men and money in retaliation for Elizabeth's inter- ference in the Netherlands. One of the principal leaders of the Irish was Shan O'Neal, earl of Desmond, Avho was succeeded by Hugh O'Neal, his nephew, whom Elizabeth made earl of Tyrone in the hope of winning him over to her side. But notwithstanding this he put himself at the head of a formidable rebellion in which he was supported by Spain with arms and otherwise. Several English generals were sent against him, and one of them was killed in 1598, in an attempt to relieve Blachwater, where the English sustained a severe loss. Nearly the whole of the native population was now in arms, and it became imperative to adoj)t energetic measures. The earl of Essex, the queen's favourite, was appointed lord- lieutenant ; but the earl, who had before distinguished himself in the war against Spain, wasted his time and his forces in petty skirmishes, without obtaining any result; and finding at last that his forces were not strong enough to encounter the enemy, he concluded a truce with Tyrone. Elizabeth hearing of this was filled with indignation, and Essex, afraid of the conse- quences, left Ireland. But after a time he ventured to appear before the queen, who ordered him to be temporarily confined, and Lord Mountjoy, who was sent to Ireland in his stead, soon compelled the Irish to submit to the queen's authority. Essex in the mean- time was deprived of his offices, but still hoped to regain the queen's favour. Finding this impossible he resolved to overthrow the power of the party at court which had intrigued against him. An attem^ot was 148 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IX. even made to seize the person of the queen, but the plan utterly failed, and Essex was carried to the Tower, condemned for high treason, and executed, 1601. A Spanish fleet landed at Kinsale to aid the Irish Catholics, but was defeated by Mountjoy and obliged to capitulate. Not long afterwards Tyrone also surrendered on condition that his life should be spared. This act terminated the Irish rebellion. During the last years of her reign Elizabeth was in a state of mental depression, probably the result of the many troubles of her long reign. At last she sank into a lethargic slumber, and died March 24, 1603, in her seventieth year. Although she disliked James VJ. of Scotland, she did not oppose his succession because he had a legitimate claim to the throne and because he was a Protestant. In the reign of Elizabeth the English reformation was completed ; the prosperity of the country rapidly improved, and the foundations were laid of our in- dustrial, commercial, and maritime greatness. Much of this was doubtless owing to the energetic character of the queen herself, but much also to the wisdom of her councillors. The character of her government was sometimes arbitrary and despotic, and although she remained a maiden queen, her tastes were coarse, and her court was not as morally pure as might have been expected. But notwithstanding all that may be said against her, her reign is in many ways one of the most brilliant periods of English history. 1603—1625.] JAMES I. 149 CHAPTER X. THE HOUSE OP STUART. James I. . . Charles I. . Commonwealtli Charles U. . . 1603—1625 1625—1649 1649—1660 1660—1685 James 11. . William III. Anne . 1685—1688 1688—1702 1702—1714 1. JAMES I., 1603—1625. JameSj the son of Mary, queen of Scots, "by lier second liusl)and. Lord Darnley, was crowned king of Scotland during his mother's captivity in Loch Leven Castle. His accession to the English throne at length bronght the two kingdoms under one head, which was, on the whole, beneficial to both countries. But the Catholics then, as before, would have liked better to see the throne occupied by one of their own way of thinking. And in the very first year of James's reign, two plots were formed against him — the "Main" and the "Bye" plots; the object of the former is said to have been to raise to the throne Lady Arabella Stuart, who, like James, was descended from Henry VII. This, however, may have been a mere pretext ; for the leaders, such as Ealeigh, lords Cobham, Grey, and the earl of K^orthumberland, were much dissatisfied with the new king, whom they only wished to frighten. The " Bye " plot which was going on at the same time, was formed by Eoman Catholics and Puritans, who wanted to seize the person of the king and to compel him to grant more religious toleration. These two plots, which somehow became mixed together, were ultimately abandoned ; but they had not escaped the vigilance of the government, and some of the leaders were put to death and others banished. Walter Ealeigh, Cobham, and Grey, how- ever, though condemned to death, were reprieved, and imprisoned. We have already seen that the Puritans were opposed to many of the views of the English reformed church, and as the throne was now occupied by a king who had been brought up in the Scotch Presbyterian 150 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X* principles, they tliouglit tlie time liad come when tliey might hope for a general adojDtion of their opinions. A petition was accordingly drawn np, signed by nearly a thousand clergymen, hence called the " Millenary Petition," in which they stated their wishes and the objections the}'- felt to the established system. Ey order of the king, a conference was held at Hampton Court, 1604, at which the subject was to be discussed by representatives of both parties. The king, who himself acted as moderator, strongly supported the English church joarty, and the resolutions formed were as gratifying to the English church party as they were unsatisfactory to the Puritans, for none of their griev- ances were redressed. The Catholics also hoped to obtain better terms from the son of Mary, but they were likewise disappointed, for he proceeded against them with increased severity, and this so much incensed the more violent spirits among them, that in 1605 they formed a plot for blowing up the king and his parliament. Eor this purpose, Robert Catesby, Thomias Winter, Guy Fawkes, and several others, bound themselves by an oath to accomplish their design. A cellar under the House of Lords was hired and filled with several barrels of gunpowder. As the time, November 5th, 1605, for carrying out the plan was approaching, some of the conspirators, wish- ing to save their friends who were members of the House, warned them of the danger by anonymous letters. One of these letters was sent to Lord Mount- eagle, and this led to the discovery of the whole scheme. AVhen the cellar was searched, Guy Fawkes was found concealed in it, and the train laid. He was at once arrested, and upon hearing this, the other conspirators fled to Dunchurch and thence to Holbeach, in Stafford- shire ; but they were pursued by the sheriffs with a body of armed men. The house in which they had taken refuge being attacked, some were taken prisoners, and others mortally wounded. Those who were taken were executed as traitors in January, 1606. The con- sequence of this plot was, that parliament enacted still severer laws against the Catholics, who were now com- 1603—1625.] JAMES I. 151 pelled to swear tliat they abliorred the doctrine that kings excommunicated by the pope might be deposed or murdered by their subjects. James at all times showed great partiality for his own country, upon which he lavished wealth and honours, perhaps in the hope that thereby he might reconcile the Scotch to a real union with England ; but in the latter country, it only roused the angry feelings of jealousy, and parliament, which, towards the end of Elizabeth's reign, had shown some symptoms of a spirit of independence, became more and more resolute in its oiDposition to the king's views, who maintained that parliamentary privileges were only matters of royal favour and not of right. As James was unable to induce parliament to vote as much money as he wanted, all kinds of expedients were resorted to, to make up the deficiency: peerages, baronetcies (which were first established in Ireland to protect the parts colonized by English), honours, and places, w^ere sold for money, while public servants often received no pay, and had to support themselves by bribes and peculation. The House of Commons persisted in complaining of these and other abuses, and the king, with his notion about the divine right of kings, found, to his vexation, that parliament was no longer as pliable as it had been, and that it insisted upon having a voice in all matters afi'ecting the interests of the kingdom. In 1612, Eobert Cecil, his principal adviser, and his eldest son Henry, died ; and in the following year, his daughter Elizabeth married Frederick, the elector palatine of the Ehine, from which marriage sprang the Hanoverian line of our rulers. After Cecil's death, Eobert Carr became James' prime minister and favourite. This man, who had originally been a page of a Scotch noble, had risen through the king's favour to the highest position in the kingdom. He ultimately married the young countess of Essex, who was divorced from her husband, and that Carr might be equal to her in rank, he was created duke of Somerset. His influence with the king roused the jealousy of other courtiers, who began to intrigue against him. A young man named 152 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X. George Villiers was introduced and recommended to the king, and soon became a formidable rival of Somer- set. In 1615, events occurred whicb proved to be the ruin of Somerset. Sir Thomas Overbury, who had always acted as a faithful friend to Somerset, expressed his disapproval of the marriage with the countess of Essex, and the latter on being informed of this resolved to wreak her vengeance on Overbury. By intrigues, she and her husband got him lodged in the Tower, where soon after he was found dead. An investigation was instituted, and several persons who had been ac- complices in the murder were executed, but Somerset and the countess for the moment escaped condemnation. In 1616, however, both were arraigned before their peers, and although they were found guilty, the punish- ment inflicted on them was only imprisonment in the Tower. They were indeed afterwards liberated, but ended their lives in obscurity and infamy. After Somerset's fall, the power of Yilliers became para- mount, and remained so to the end of James' reign. He passed successively through all the stages of the peerage, and was in the end created duke of Bucking- hauL Through his influence, Walter Ealeigh was released from the Tower, where he had been imprisoned for thirteen years. On his liberation, Raleigh proposed to the king to undertake an expedition to Guiana, where he hoped to find gold. He went out with fifteen armed ships, but as the undertaking was unsuc- cessful, he was, on his return, again cast into prison ; and to please the Spaniards, with whom Ealeigh had come into collision on his expedition, James caused this able and brave admiral to be executed in 1618. The tmwarrantable deed, which was simply a judicial murder, combined with other causes, made James very unpopular. When parliament met in 1621, great efforts were made to remove abuses and grievances; the House of Commons even went so far as to impeach the Lord Chancellor, the renowned Francis Bacon, viscount of St. Albans, for bribery and corruption. He was found guilty, ordered to pay a fine of £40,000, to be imprisoned during the king's pleasure, andcleclared 1603—1625.] JAMES I. 153 incapable of holding any public office. Tbe fine and imprisonment were afterwards remitted. Negotiations bad. b^en going on for some time to bring about tbe marriage of James' son Cbarles with the infanta of Spain, although the scheme was very Unpopular in England, and not much liked by the king himself. But Buckingham strongly urged the advan- tages of such a union, and the king at last consented. In 1623, Buckingham accompanied the prince to Spain, but his insolent behaviour so much offended the Spaniards, that the plan had to be given up. Buckingham, in his vexation, now openly showed his dislike of the Spaniards, which made him popular at home ; he even got the government to declare war against Spain, and parliament to vote a large sum of money to carry it on ; but no results were obtained. The reign of James I., of which not much good can be said, except that his autocratic views caused the parliament to assert and maintain its own rights, is remarkable for the system of colonization which was carried out on a larger scale than before. In Ireland, vast tracts of land, had fallen to the crown, and it was resolved to ]3lant colonies of English and Scotch in Ulster, Munster, and other parts where the settlers received lands. This became the origin of the towns of Londonderry and Coleraine. In North America, also, English colonies were planted: in 1610, New- foundland was colonised, and ten years later a body of non-conformists, known by the name of the Pilgrim Fathers, formed the nucleus of the New England states, by founding the town of New Plymouth. It may also be noticed that the charter granted by Eliza- beth in 1600 to the East India Company was renewed in perpetuity in 1609. James I. died at Theobalds, near Cheshunt, in Hert- fordshire, March 27th, 1625. He was not without some good qualities, and possessed a considerable amount of learning, which he used to display in a pedantic manner ; but these qualities were eclipsed by an inordinate conceit of his own wisdom and of his almost divine power as a king. He was awkward in 1 54 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X his person and "ungainly in his manners ; his govern- ment, notwithstanding his arrogance, was weak and feeble, as he allowed himself to he guided by favonrites whose character he was unable to discern. He Avas married to Anne, daughter of Frederick II. of Den- mark, by whom he had three children, Henry, who died in 1612 ; Charles, who succeeded him ; and Eliza- beth, who was married to the elector Palatine, 2. CHARLES I, 1625—1649. Charles, the only surviving son of James I., a few months after his father's death, married the Catholic princess, Henrietta Maria, a daughter of Henry lY., of France. Ever since Buckingham had risen to power and influence, Charles had allowed himself to be guided by him to his own and the country's misfor- tune. His queen, a woman of a violent temper, is also said to have exercised an undue influence over him, and to have led him to adopt measures which could not but provoke most serious opposition among his subjects, and ultimately brought him to the scafibld. There still were many grievances at home to be redressed, but Charles allowed himself to be persuaded by Buckingham to engage in a war against Spain. When he demanded from parliament £700,000 for this purpose, the majority voted only £140,000, and poundage and tonnage for one year only, a sum which was barely sufficient to carry on the business of the government. Parliament, in fact, refused to vote money for the war, until the king had shown what policy he meant to adopt, and until the conduct of Buckingham, who was the cause of the war, should have been inquired into. The king, in order to save his favourite, abruptly dissolved parliament, and en- deavoured to obtain the money by arbitrary and irre- gular exactions. When this method failed, a new parliament was summoned in 1626, Charles taking care that the best and most patriotic men should not be present in it. But he nevertheless found this parlia- ment as determined as its predecessor not to vote 1625—1649.] CHAELES I. 155 money until tlie grievances were removed ; they even resolved to impeach Buckingham, who was looked upon as the author and supporter of most of tho abuses in the administration. The king was indignant at seeing his minister thus treated by parliament, and as, nevertheless, they began their proceedings against him, he again dissolved them. All manner of illegal means were now resorted to to obtain the money. Many gentlemen, who protested against them, were brought to trial, and the servile judges declared the king's proceedings justified, although they were in direct violation of the Great Charter. "While he was thus struggling with diffi- culties, he felt himself obliged to declare war against France for the protection of the Huguenots, who v/ere besieged at Rochelle by the French government. Buck- ingham was sent out with an armed force, but had to return home without having effected anything. This disgrace, and the great loss of men, caused universal indignation, and Charles being in most urgent want of money, summoned a third parliament. The commons, with great liberality, promised five subsidies, on con- dition that the king should grant them what is known as the Petition of Right, which consisted of four articles : — 1 . That no man should be compelled to pay any money to the state unless ordered by an act of parliament ; 2. That no man should be imprisoned for refusing to pay such money, and that no free man should be imprisoned without cause being shown ; 3. That soldiers and marines should not be billeted on private persons; and 4. That no more commissions should be issued for punishing persons by martial law, Charles, after much hesitation and attempts at evasion, sanctioned the articles. Two months later Buckingham, who was preparing a new expedition to aid the Protestants at Eochelle, was assassinated at Portsmouth by a man who thought that he was doing a service to his country, but was afterwards executed for his crime. When parliament re-assembled in 1629 it censured the government for having neglected to give effective help to tho Protest- 156 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X, ants at Eoclielle, who, in tlieir despair, had been obliged to surrender ; and seeing that those clergymen who justified the arbitrary doings of the king were favoured and promoted, parliament declared them, as well as the promoters of Catholicism, to be enemies to the king- dom. These proceedings irritated the king to such a degree that he again dissolved parliament, adding the threat that " those vipers of the Commons should soon receive their reward." Some of the leaders of the Commons were at once imprisoned and fined. With France and Spain a peace was concluded in 1630. After having dismissed his third parliament, Charles made up his mind henceforth to govern the kingdom as an absolute monarch, without parliament. The government was now conducted in the most arbi- trary manner : royal proclamations were issued with the force of laws, illegal imports were laid on mer- chandise, monopolies were established, and enormous fines were inflicted for disobedience, and often on most frivolous pretexts. The Star Chamber and the Court of High Commission were the ready instruments em- ployed for these purposes, and Archbishop Laud, and Wentworth, a renegade, who, in 1632, was made a peer and governor of Ireland, were the king's chief advisers in these proceedings. Laud had been Bishop of London, and in 1633 was made Archbishop of Can- terbury, chiefly because he entertained the most ex- travagant notions about the royal authority. His oppressive and cruel measures were endless, but his rage was especially shown against the Puritans and those who opposed prelacy. Thus Dr. Leighton, a Scotch clergyman who had written a book called " Sion's plea against Prelates," had to pay a fine of £10,000, was publicly whipped, had his ears cut off', his nostrils slit, and his cheeks branded with the let- ters S. S, (sower of sedition). Another mau, a barrister named Prynne, was punished in a similar manner for having published a book against theatres entitled " Histriomastix." One of these obnoxious exactions led to consequences "which were of the greatest service to constitutional 1625—1649.] CHAKLES I. 157 freedom. This was the impost called sliip-money, which, was levied in London and other seaports. They were ordered to furnish a certain number of ships in 1638, but in the next year the same demand was also made upon inland towns. This created great discon- tent, and John Hampden, a gentlemen of Buckingham- shire, refused to pay the tax, though it amounted to only £1, for he was resolved to have the legality of the tax tried in a court of law. Only two out of twelve judges had the courage to declare that the tax was unlawful, and Hampden was condemned, 1637. The verdict, however, created great excitement, and was generally looked upon as unjust and unconstitutional, and the people henceforth paid the tas: v/ith greater reluctance than before. In Scotland, especially, the proceedings of Laud and his party made a deep impression, the Presbyterians being utterly opposed to the English church system. In 1633 Charles, accompanied by Laud, had visited Scotland in the hope of being able to introduce the English liturgy there, but no open attempt had then been made. Soon after a book of canons and the liturgy was drawn up for the use of the Scottish church. The first Sunday they were used in Edinburgh, in 1637, the congregation became excited to such a degree that they attacked the minister with stools and sticks, and anything that came to hand ; with difficulty he escaped in the crowd assembled outside. Similar scenes oc- curred in other places, and the new forms of service had to be suspended, though the magistrates were commanded by the government with threats to enforce their use. Nearly all Scotland was determined to resist these encroachments on its religious freedom, and when petitions against the use of the Prayer Book were of no avail, four " tables," or committees, were formed, con- sisting of noblemen, gentlemen, ministers, and bur- gesses, who framed what is called the '' National Covenant." In it almost all Scotchmen bound them- selves to resist any attempt to alter the Presbyterian form of worship, 1688. A meeting of the General Assembly was held in Glasgow, in which such uncom- 158 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X. promising hostility was shown to episcopacy that the royal commissioner declared the Assembly dissolved ; but the members refused to separate, and by a series of resolutions abolished the liturgy, the canons, and the whole hierarchical system, which the king had set his heart upon introducing. At the same time the Scotch made most active pre- parations to meet force by force. Laud and Wentworth advised their master to enter into no compromise, but to assert his authority by armed force. As Charles' finances were exhausted, he very reluctantly sum- moned his fourth parliament, 1640, demanding as sub- sidies nearly a million of money ; but the House of Commons insisted upon investigating and removing grievances before voting the supplies. The king, how- ever, wanting money, and not discussion, this par- liament also was dissolved before it had sat three weeks. When this became known in Scotland, the people, being sure that no satisfactory result could be gained by negotiation, resolved at once to take up arms. A Scotch army, under the command of the brave Leslie, accordingly crossed the Tweed, defeated Lord Conway on the banks of the Tyne, and took possession of Newcastle. Charles then assembled at York a great council of peers, who advised him to summon par- liament, and commence negotiations with Scotland. Eepresentatives of both countries then met at Eipon, where it was agreed to suspend hostilities until the parliaments of the two nations should have settled the matter in dispute, and that in the meantime the Scotch army should receive a weekly subsidy of £5600. The parliament now summoned, the renowned Long Parliament, met in November, 1640, and was not finally dissolved until 1660. The members, on their assem- bling, showed at once that they were in earnest? to remove the grievances and devise measures to re-establish constitutional liberty. Leighton, Prynne, and others were released from imprisonment and compensated, and Wentworth, who had in the meantime been created Earl of Strafford, was impeached for high treason an.d lodged in the Tower, by the order of his peers, 1625—1649.] CHARLES I. 159 was belieaded in the year following, having been found guilty. Laud also, and other high functionaries were soon after committed to the Tower.; some, fearing a similar fate, fled to the Continent. In 1641 a series of most important measures were passed, suppressing ty- rannical abuses of the royal prerogative. The English and Scotch armies were disbanded, and Charles, going to Scotland, where parliament was likewise assembled, made very ample concessions to the Presbyterians ; but they placed little confidence in them, although some of their very leaders were raised to high honours and offices, for Leslie was created Earl of Leven, and Argyle, the chief of the Covenanters, received the title of marquis. Strafford, who had governed Ireland since 1633, had offended and insulted all parties by setting up his own authority above that of the law courts. He had im- posed arbitrary taxes, and levied them by military force ; he had established monopolies for his own bene- fit, and had forbidden any person to leave the island without his permission. But what was felt more bitterly than anything else was the laws against Catholics, which were enforced with the utmost rigour. When the Irish saw the distracted state of England, and heard of the concessions made to the Scotch, they resolved to gain similar advantages for themselves. A formidable rebellion accordingly broke out in October, 1641, headed by Eoger Moore and Sir Philem O'lSFeale. The rebels acted with the most merciless cruelty to- wards all Protestants, massacring indiscriminately men, women, and children. Between forty and fifty thousand persons are said to have been murdered, and some with the most savage tortures. The king was suspected of having secretly fostered the rebellion as a demonstration against the English parliament, and the suspicion derives some support from his own words, which he wrote to his secretary : " I hope this ill news of Ireland will hinder some of these follies in England." The rebellion continued for several years before it could be crushed. When Charles returned' from Scotland, he was 160 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [CllAP. X heartily welcomed by the citizens of London. Par- liament perceiving this, and hearing at the same time of the Irish rebellion, became greatly alarmed. They doubted the king's sincerity, and were afraid lest, un- less they obtained better guarantees, the king might seize on any favourable opportunity to crush the na- tional liberties. They accordingly drew up and pub- lished a paper containing two hundred and six articles, called the " Eemonstrance of the State of the King- dom," in which they set forth all the grievances from the beginning of Charles' reign, the beneficial measures they themselves had passed, and the obstructions they had met with. The object, apparently, was to increase the prevailing dissatisfaction. It was on this occasion that parliament first appeared divided into two parties, the Cavaliers, or court party, and the Roundheads, the country or parliamentary party. The latter, consisting of such men as Pym, Hampden, Cromwell, and St. John, distrusted the king, and wished for stronger checks upon his power. The bishops were suspected of being the chief obstructors of liberal measures, and one of their number having been insulted by the mob outside the House, several of them signed a protest, declaring that they would not attend the meetings of the House, and would regard all acts passed in their absence as null and void. Irritated by this step, the House impeached them for treason, and the Lords approving of the im- peachment ordered the bishops to be committed to the Tower, December, 1641. In January, 1642, the king ventured upon a desperate step to recover his authority — the attorney-general was ordered to proceed to the House of Lords, and accuse of high treason Lord Kimbolton, Pym, Hampden, HoUis, and Haslerig, the most distinguished leaders of the parliamentary party. As the House refused to give them up, the king himself on the next day appeared with a strong body-guard in the House of Commons with the intention of seizing the accused. But they were not present that day, having received information about the design of the king, who had to withdraw in utter confusion. In this proceeding Charles had com- 1625—1649.] CHARLES I. 161 mitted an unconstitutional act, and it may be said tliat the revolution commenced on that day. Both parties prepared for war, though negotiations were still going on. The queen was sent to Holland, to solicit help from foreign powers. Parliament called the militia to arms, and the king, who had gone to York, summoned the gentry of the county to form a guard for the pro- tection of his person. Many noblemen, and more than sixty members of the House of Commons, obeying the king's command, declared that, as loyal subjects, they could no longer attend the parliament in London. War was thus declared, and both parties made active preparations for the civil strife. The royal party was joined by three-fourths of the nobility and the princi23al gentry with their retainers ; the parliamentary party consisted of the citizens of the great towns and the yeomen of the country. The land forces of the latter were commanded by the Earl of Essex, while the fleet was intrusted to the Earl of Warwick. Charles raised his standard at Nottingham, August, 1642. The first battle was fought in October, at Edgehill, in which the royalists, on the whole, gained some advantages, in consequence of which many who had hitherto been wavering joined them. It would be useless here to give an account of the many battles that were fought, suffice it to say that the royalists, on the whole, were gaining ground, that in London a conspiracy was formed in favour of the king, and that the parliamentary party for a time seemed gradually to lose in power and influence. Li one of the engagements Hampden was mortally wounded, and died soon after. The civil war was raging in all parts of the country, thousands of men were killed on both sides, and towns and villages were exposed to fearful sufi'erings. Oliver Cromwell had already given proofs of his skill and wisdom as a military commander, and was busily engaged in endeavouring to remedy the defects of the parliamentary army. The men under his command belonged, for the most part, to the sect of the Inde- pendents. The parliamentary army solicited the assist- ance of the Scotch against their common opponents, 162 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X. and the Scotcli promised compliance on condition that their troops should be maintained at the expense of the English, that parliament should recognise and sign the solemn " league and covenant," and that the church of England should be reformed according to the word of God. Both houses of parliament accepted the terms, and early in 1644, an army of 20,000 Scotchmen crossed the border. At the same time, an assembly of divines met at Westminster to consider the reforms to be made in the English church, and to promote uniformity in. worship, in other words, to substitute presbyterianism for episcopacy. Meanwhile, the king sLimmoned those members of parliament who were still loyal to him to meet at Oxford, but this counter-parliament led to no useful results. The English troops still engaged against the Irish rebels, were recalled by Charles, who made certain concessions to the rebels, in order to strengthen the royal army. But this reinforcement was nearly anni- hilated in its first encounter with the parliamentarians at Nantwich. The Scotch army had, in the meantime, advanced as far as York, and joined the parliamenta- rians under Fairfax. A fierce battle was fought at Marston Moor in 1644, in which the royalists were utterly routed, chiefly by the body of troops commanded by Cromwell, called " Ironsides." Through this battle, in which 4000 men were killed, Charles lost the northern part of his kingdom, and if Essex had been more active and circumspect in the west, the king would have been obliged to surrender or take to flight. During the greater part of the year 1644, the trial of Laud had been going on, and in the end, the prelate was declared guilty of high treason, and at the age of seventy, was executed in January, 1645. A vain attempt was again made at Uxbridge to bring about an understanding between the two contending parties. The English parliament perceiving that some of the commanders of its forces were becoming rather luke- warm, passed a self-denying ordinance, that no member of parliament should in future be entrusted with any command, either civil or military. Essex, and others, 1625—1649.] CHARLES I. 163 feeling tliat tliey were aimed at, at once resigned, and the cliief command was entrusted to Fairfax. Crom- well, who ought to have retired likewise, remained commander of the cavalry, becanse Fairfax declared that he could not well dispense with his services, for Cromwell had latterly taken a leading part in the re- organization of the army. The royalists, after some nnimportant skirmishes, met the new parliamentary army at Naseby, in Jitne, 1645, and suffered so severe a defeat, that for the pre- sent the civil war seemed to be at an end. The victory was mainly owing to the valour and skill of Cromwell. The king's correspondence fell into the hands of the conquerors, and from this, it became evident that the king had never been sincere in making any con- cessions. Charles now retreated to Wales, and thence went to Oxford, which was still loyal. He had j)laced his hope upon the earl of Montrose, who supported his cause in Scotland and Lad gained several victories ; but in Sep- tember, Montrose was completely defeated near Selkirk. After the battle of Kaseby, the most important towns in the west were taken by Fairfax and Cromwell, and the former noAv proceeded to lay siege to Oxford. The king, afraid of being taken prisoner, made his escape, and after much uncertainty as to what to do, surrendered himself to the Scotch army, which had advanced south as far as Newark (May, 1646). Parliament hearing of this, demanded that he should be delivered up to them, but the Scotch, unwilling to let him slip out of their hands, took him with them on their march to the north. They tried to induce him to establish presby- terianism throughout his dominions, but to no purpose. The English parliament also made proposals that led to no result. At last an arrangement was made with the Scotch, who offered to withdraw their troops on condition that parliament should pay them £400,000 for past services. Charles was then given] up to the English, January, 1647, who assigned to him Holmby House, in Northamptonshire, as his residence. No sooner was this first period of the civil war 164 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [CiiAP. X. ended than troubles arose between parliament and the army. The troops, who had for some time not received any pay, were for the most part to be disbanded, and the rest was to be employed against the Irish rebels. This was distasteful to the army, which began to mutiny, and a detachment of horse contrived to gain possession of the king's person, and carried him off, first to Newmarket and then to Ham]Dton Conrt, where he was allowed a considerable amount of free- dom. Most of the members of parliament were Pres- byterians, while the army consisted chiefly of Inde- pendents ; and the latter, in defiance of parliamentary orders, advanced towards London, demanding the im- peachment of several members. These members at once withdrew, and Fairfax with his army entered London without opposition, and all the measures which had been voted against the army were at once annulled. Proposals were in the meantime made to Charles by the army to restore him to his throne, ^n certain terms; but he was inflexible, and haughtily rejected every proposal, for he could not give ujo the hope that affairs would soon take a different turn, and enable him to dictate terms both to parliament and the army. The levellers, or the more democratic part of the army, now declared their determination to make no more proposals to the king, and even blamed their com- manders for what they had done. Cromwell, who belonged to the moderate party, found that he was suspected of trying to make his peace with the army ; and the king thinking that his life was in danger, secretly escaped from Hampton Court to the Isle of Wight. The army then resolved that the king should be brought to trial, and Cromwell and his friends, after much doubt and hesitation, signified their adhesion to the measure. While the king was at Carisbrooko Castle, in the Isle of Wight, parliament, about the end of 1647, made another attempt at reconciliation; but as the Scotch, with whom the king had opened communica- tions, offered easier terms, he again refused to treat with parliament, which now broke off all further dealings 162S— 1649.] CHAELEg I. 165 witH him (January, 1648). Upon this, a reaction seems to liave taken place in various quarters in favour of tile king. In the west, an army of Welslimen was raised Tby colonel Foyer to support the sovereign, and the Scotch army, under the duke of Hamilton, with the same view, advanced as far as Preston. But Cromwell and Fairfax crushed both these attempts, and Crom- well passed into Scotland to prevent any further rising there. During this second period of the civil war, the Pres- byterians in parliament, from fear of the army, and notwithstanding their previous vote, again entered into negotiations with the king, and things seemed to be promising, though Charles still refused to give up episcopacy ; when, on the 6th of November, the army put a stop to these proceedings ; Colonel Pride, with three regiments, " purified " the house, by preventing upwards of one hundred members, opposed to the army, from entering. The remaining members, called the Rump Parliament, ordered the king to be brought to Windsor, and to be tried for high treason against his people. The House of Lords disapproved of the step, but the Commons nominated a commission of one hundred and fifty members, who were to try the king in "West- minster Hall. Charles protested agpJnst the proceed- ings, declaring that, as king, he recognised no superior on earth. The trial lasted from the 20th to the 27th of January, 1649, and after the evidence had been heard, the commissioners pronounced the verdict, " that Charles Stuart, as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy to the good people of this nation, be put to death by having his head severed from his body." The night after the condemnation, Charles passed with Juxon, bishop of London, in pious meditations, and on the 29th took leave of his children and friends. On the 30th he was taken from St. James' to Whitehall, and after spending there a few hours in religious exercises, he was beheaded on a scaffold. Throughout his reign, Charles had shown himself as a 166 HISTORY OF ENaiiAND. [Chap. X. tyrant, wliose words and promises could not be trusted i but still bis execution was not only a crime, but a political blunder, for those wbo brought bim to tbe scaffold so ill contrived matters, " that tbe very man whose whole life had been a series of attacks on the liberties of England, now seemed to die a martyr in the cause of those liberties." Charles had six children, two of whom— Charles and James— succeeded him on the Endish throne. 3. THE COMMONWEALTH, 1649—1660. Immediately after Charles' death, the Eump parlia- ment declared it high treason to proclaim anyone king, and the House of Lords was abolished and declared useless and dangerous. The executive authority was entrusted for one year to a commission of forty-one persons, of which Bradshaw was president and Milton foreign secretary. Every member had to take an oath approv- ing of the abolition of royalty and the House of Lords. The republican government was, on the whole, carried on with moderation ; but a number of the sup- porters of the late king were brought to trial, and the duke of Hamilton and the earl of Holland were con- demned for high treason and executed ; while others were committed to the Tower. Much discontent also showed itself in the army, but was crushed by severe measures. The disturbed state of Ireland required immediate attention, for on the death of Charles, the marquis of Ormond proclaimed his son Charles II., king of Eng- land. There were still several armies in Ireland acting independently of one another and supporting different parties. The most powerful among them was the Catholic party under Ormond, which had posses- sion of nearly the whole country ; only Dublin, Belfast, and Londonderry being still held by the parliamentary army. Cromwell was appointed Lord Lieutenant, and with twelve thousand men, and a strong train of artillery, landed at Dublin, He opened the cam- 1649—1660.] TU^ COMMONWEALTH. 167 paign with, tlie siege of Drogiieda, whicb. was taken after a few assaults, and the wliole garrison was piit to the sword. A similar scene took place at Wexford, where 2000 of the enemy were slain, and the terror inspired by these massacres, led other towns to throw open their gates. Early in 1650, a second campaign was commenced, during which several towns surren- dered without resistance. Clonmel eJone defended itself bravely. After this, Cromwell was recalled on accctunt of the threatening attitude of Scotland. He left Ireton, his son-in-law, to complete the subjugation of Ireland ; but this was not effected till a later period by the fall of Limerick. Ireton, himself, died soon after, and the affairs of Ireland were settled by Fleetwood and Henry Cromwell. The danger from Scotland arose in this way. "When Charles II. found that he could expect no help from Ireland, he listened to the proposals of the Scotch parliament, which was indignant at the execution of the king. They pi'omised to support him, if he would sanction the solemn league and covenant. But before taking any decisive step, he wished to wait for the result of Montrose's enterprise, who had raised the royal standard in the north. Montrose failed, and the unfortunate nobleman was executed in Edinburgh for high treason. Charles sacrificed his friend by per- fidiously declaring that Montrose had ventured upon the enterprise against his special orders. Charles now signed the covenant promising not to permit Catholics to worship in his dominions, and declared the peace with Ireland null and void. Upon this, the Scotch raised an army to support him ; but the English government, determined not to be behind-hand, sent Cromwell, with an army of 16,000 men, into Scotland. On his arrival near Edinburgh, he found the Scotch, under the command of David Leslie, entrenched in a very strong position. As the country between tlio Tweed and Forth had been completely devastated, and Cromwell's army began to suffer from want and disease, he retreated towards Dunbar. The Scotch followed him, and rendered the position of the Eug- 168 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [ChAp. %. lisli very perilous. But Cromwell having sagaciously discovered that they had made a wrong move, ex- claimed : " The Lord has delivered them into our hands," and a terrible contest ensued, in Avliich the Scotch lost 3000 dead, and 10,000 prisoners. All mili- tary stores, and the whole country south of the Forth, fell into Cromwell's hands. Charles escaped to Perth, and having formed con- nections with other royalists in the north, caused him- self to he crowned king at Scone,* 1651. Cromwell, after a short illness, proceeded to Perth, of which he took possession, but learning that Charles had collected a force of about 11,000 men, and was on the march to invade England, he hastened in pursuit of the enemy, and brought him to a stand near Worcester. There the royalists were utterly defeated ; Charles fled, and after many wanderings, reached Fecamp, in Normandy. This glorious and decisive victory (September, 1651) raised Cromwell's military reputation to the highest pitch, and he wisely proclaimed an amnesty, which gained him friends even among the royalists. Monk completed the subjugation of Scotland, which was then incorporated with England. William, the Stadtholder of the Dutch Eepublic, who had married Mary, daughter of Charles I., disliked the proceedings of the English parliament, and there was good reason for fearing a dangerous collision be- tween the two republics ; for many of the English royalists had found shelter and protection in Hol- land, and the attempt to form an alliance with the Dutch met with no favour in this country. Communi- cation with the Dutch was broken off, and a navigation act was passed, which greatly injured their commerce. War was thus inevitable, and even before it was formally declared, a battle was fought in the Downs between the Dutch fleet under Van Tromp and the English under Blake. Several engagements afterwards took place, but without any decisive results, until at last Van Tromp attacked Blake near the Goodwin Sands and defeated him. The victory elated the Dutch eo mtich, tJiat they threatened to sweep the English 164:9—1660.] THE COMMONWEALTH. 169 from tlieir own seas. Three more battles, lioweveir, were fought, in each of which the Dutch were worsted, and lost many ships and men. This first war with the Dutch was concluded by a treaty at AVestminster, 1654, in which the Dutch promised to cease protecting English royalists, to honour the English flag, and to indemnify some English merchants for the losses they had sus- tained during the war. We have already seen that, after the battle of Wor- cester, Cromwell was looked upon as the first man in the kingdom, and he well deserved it. But parliament began to be jealous of his power, and tried to weaken it by reducing the army. He, however, was more than a match for them. He ordered a company of musketeers to accompany him to the House : he left them in the lobby, and after some violent altercation with his oppo- nents, called in his soldiers, cleared the house, and put the keys in his pocket (April, 1653). This act of violence did not create much excitement among the people, who had long been dissatisfied with the pro- ceedings of parliament. Cromwell, and the council of state, which was formed, at once resolved to call a new parliament ; but instead of its being elected in the usual way, Cromwell drew up a list of about one hundred and forty persons, who were deemed " faithful, fearing God, and hating covet- ousness." They were mostly illiterate and fanatical p>ersons, belonging to the sect of Independents ; one of its members, Barebones, a leather merchant, was a leading man among them, whence the parliament was nicknamed the Barebones parliament. The proceed- ings of this little assembly were characterised by great vigour in remedying what they considered defects in the law and government, whereby they irritated influ- ential portions of the community. At last they sur- rendered their power into the hands of Cromwell, who, in December, 1653, was made Lord Protector of the Commonwealth, and took an oath that he would observe a series of articles called the " Instrument of Government." The chief points of this document were that the legislative joower should be vested in the 170 HISTOHY OF ENGLAND. [Chap, X. protector and tlie parliament, that he should be assisted by a council, with which he should have the power of peace and, war, that parliament should be summoned every third year, sit at least five months, and consist of four hundred and sixty members ; that there should be an army of 30,000 men, and that all religions should be protected, except the Catholics and Prelatists. The new form of government was readily recognised by foreign powers, which even courted the protector's friendship ; and with Holland an offensive and defen- sive alliance was concluded. The new parliament met in September, 1654, but as it spent most of its time in attempts to curtail the power of the protector, to alter the " Instrument," and manifested great intolerance in religious matters, Cromwell dissolved it after a session of scarcely five months. Several conspiracies were also formed against him, both by royalists and republicans, but they were easily suppressed by his vigilance. As parliament had voted no supplies, Cromwell w^as obliged to levy taxes u]3on his own authority ; but as they were very moderate, they were j)aid with little opposition. As the protector did not wish to govern without a parliament, a new one was summoned 'to meet in Sep- tember, 1656; from this, however, about one hundred members were excluded, merely because they did not seem to meet the requirements of Cromwell. Its pro- ceedings at first satisfied him, and it even went so far in its desire to j)lease him, as to ofier him the title of king. He himself- would not have objected to this, but the leaders of the army w^ere vehemently opposed to it, and he therefore reluctantly declined the honour. The commons then passed an act called " The humble petition and advice," which empowered the protector to name his successor and to create a house of peers, which was, however, to be called simply " the other house." After this, in June, 1657, Cromwell was solemnly in- augurated in Westminster Hall as Lord Protector. He was now the sovereign of England in all but in name. But the task before him was one of extreme difiiculty. Consj)iracies against his life continued to 1649— 1G60.] THE COMMONWEALTH. 171 be formed, and Charles even offered rewards to any one wlio would assassinate liim. Besides this, the country- was divided by parties, among which, the stern repub- licans were thoroughly opposed to his government. The second parliament met in January, 1658, in two houses ; the upper house, selected by the protector, consisted for the most part of men who had played a conspicuous part during the preceding years, and created very general dissatisfaction ; for the republidans disapproved of a privileged class, and the people laughed at the house of lords, in whicli common trades- men sat, while the real nobility, even when invited, disdained to appear. When Cromwell found that the commons, instead of devoting themselves to useful business, spent their time in discussing the rights of the upper house and its powers, he dissolved them with the words, " Let God judge between you and me." Cromwell was thus not favoured by fortune in his administration of the Commonwealth, but he was more successful in his foreign relations. The French king sought his. alliance against Spain, and a united French and English army fought the famous battle of the Dunes against the Spaniards, who attempted in vain to relieve Dunkijk, which was besieged and taken, and then given to the English. They continued their ope- rations against the Spaniards, and a number of towns in the Spanish Netherlands fell into their hands. In the south, the duke of Savoy was comjDclled to stop the persecution of the protestant Waldenses, and the pirates in the Mediterranean were forced to respect the Eng- lish flag. The unceasing exertions and excitements had severely tried the health of the protector. Latterly, he suffered from an attack of gout, which was followed by a fever, terminating his life on the 3rd of Septem- ber, 1658. His body was buried in Westminster Abbey, and remained undisturbed until 1661, when the reac- tionary party disinterred it and hanged it on Tyburn gallows. Cromwell, himself, notwithstanding his sternness where it was necessary, would have governed his country mildly, liberally, and constitutionally had 172 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X. circumstances permitted him; but his parliaments, though carefully packed, proved unmanageable, and he could not act otherwise than -he did. Oliver Cromwell was succeeded by his son Eichard as quietly as if he had been the heir of a hereditary crown ; but he was in no way equal to his father, and had never shown any ambition to occupy the high place for which he was destined. His own relations despised him, because he was not a soldier, and the army tried to take all the powers out of his hands. In order to counteract these attempts, he summoned a parliament elected according to the old system. It met in January, 1659. Disputes arose between the commons and the army, and Richard Cromwell, yielding to the desires of the latter, dissolved parliament, and by this act virtually surrendered his powers. A few weeks later he formally resigned, and spent the re- mainder of his life partly abroad and partly at Cheshunt, where he died in 1712, The officers of the army now insisted upon the sur- vivors of the Eump Parliament being summoned, and a sufficient number met to form a house ; but this par- liament also quarrelled with the army, and the royalists, availing themselves of these troubles, organised a con- spiracy to effect the restoration of Charles II. For a time their plans seemed to succeed, but in August, 1659, they were utterly defeated by the parliamentary general Lambert, at Nantwich. After the suppression of this conspiracy, parliament renewed its quarrels with the army, and Lambert and several others were declared dejDOsed; but Lambert, who placed full reliance in his troops, marched to Westminster and dispersed the members, and thus the government fell into the hands of the army. General Slonk, who had the chief command in Scotland, also resolved to march to London, but no one knew whether he intended to support the Commonwealth or to restore the king. Lambert was sent against him, but instead of fighting, he commenced negotiations, and at the desire of the Londoners, who refused to pay taxes unless sanctioned by parliament, the Eump Parliament 1660—1685.] CHABLES II. 173 was once t&ore summoned in December, 1659. After a very sh.6it session, it dissolved itself and ordered a regular parliament to he elected, wliicli was to meet in April, 1660. Monk now had all the power in his hands, and committed Lamhert to the Tower. Still no one knew what Monk's design was, and every one dreaded a fresh civil war. Lambert effected his escape, and assembled a body of adherents, but was defeated and taken prisoner. Before the new parliament met, Monk threw aside the mask : he opened negotiations with Charles, and concerted measures for his return. When the plan was sufficiently matured, Charles sent a letter to both houses of parliament, called the " Declaration from Breda," where he was staying. In it he promised to grant a general pardon to all who should submit within forty days, to allow freedom of conscience in matters of religion, to leave the settlement of disputed estates to parliament, to pay the soldiers of Monk their arrears, and to admit them into his service. Both houses received this message with enthusiastic joy : the restoration of the monarchy was voted, and Charles was at once invited to ascend the throne of his ancestors. He landed at Dover on the 25th of May, and on his progress to London, delighted every one by his kind manners and affability. 4. CHARLES n. 1660—1685. The great body of the English people were intoxi- cated with joy at the restoration of the king, and at the prospect of a regular and tolerant government. But their hopes were doomed to sad disappointment. During the period of the Commonwealth, Charles had resided in various parts of the continent, and his court had everywhere presented scenes of licentiousness and debauchery. The parliament which had voted the restoration, generally called " The Convention Parlia- ment," continued its sittings until the end of 1660, and within that short period had to settle most im- portant affairs, for during the disturbances of the last 174 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [CilAP. X. years, everything liacl got out of order. One of the most important matters was the settlement of the public revenue. Parliament granted the king the duties of .tonnage and poundage for life, and instead of the old feudal revenues, which were now abolished, a permanent excise duty on beer and some other liquors. The army was paid its arrears, and all the soldiers, except two regiments were discharged. Twenty-nine of the regicides were brought to trial, and ten of them were executed at once ; three others, who were cap- tured abroad, suffered death a little later. The bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw, were disinterred and hanged on the gallows at Tyburn. In accordance with the letter from Breda, the estates vv^hich had changed hands during the Commonwealth, were to be restored wherever possible, and those who had purchased them were to be indemnified. But by the management of Clarendon, the chief minister, the royal and ecclesiastical estates were recovered from their present proprietors without any compensation. One of the first promises made by Charles was thus violated, as the settlement of the question ought to have been left to parliament. The promised religious freedom was perfidiously postponed, and parliament was dissolved in December without any thing being settled. The next parliament met in May, 1661, and con- sisted almost entirely of such enthusiastic royalists that for years they overlooked the king's profligacy and perfidiousness. Its first business was to settle the church question, with a vIcvnT to put the established church on a firm footing, and crush those Protestants who were opposed to it. Conferences of English and presbyterian divines were held, to make such altera- tions in the Prayer Book as to render it acceptable to the presbyterians, but no satisfactory result was ar- rived at, and it was only too evident that the object of the government was to extinguish all opposition. Par- liament voted that every member should take the sacra- ment according to the rites of the English church, and shortly after the " Corporation Act " was passed, or- daining that no man could be a member of a corporatioBj 1660—1685.] CHARLES II. 175 or hold any civil office in it, witlioiit renonaicing tlie solemn league and covenant and tlie doctrine that arms might be taken np against the king. In the next session, 1662, the "Act of Uniformity" was passed, which ordered that every clergyman hence- forth shonld use the amended Book of Common Prayer, and publicly declare his assent to everything contained in it ; disobedience was punished by expulsion from the living. The act further required that all clergy- men should receive episcopal ordination and abjure the league and covenant. About two thousand clergymen preferred losing their benefices to submitting to such tyrannical violence to their consciences. In May of the same year Charles married Catherine of Braganza, with whom he received as a dowry the sum of 350,000/., the fortress of Tangier, and the island of Bombay. Catherine, an excellent and virtuous woman, had to endure the grossest indignities from her dissolute husband. However, before the end of the year the king's extravagance compelled him to look about for other resources, and he sold Dunkirk to Louis XIV. for 40,000Z. This mean act excited great indignation among the people, but they cast the blame chiefly upon Clarendon. In Scotland the parliament, having at first believed in the promises of Charles about religious liberty, was soon undeceived, for episcopacy was established every- where, and presbyterianism seemed to be extinguished. The Catholics of Ireland likewise had good reason to be dissatisfied, few of them having their estates restored to them, while large grants were made to the king's friends and supporters, such as the dukes of York and Ormond. In the north of England some of the nonconforming ministers had opened private places of w^orship, which was made the pretext for passing the " Conventicle Act," 1664, which provided that all meetings of more than five persons, besides the members of the house- hold, for religious worship, not in accordance with the Book of Common Prayer, should be punished by fiiies and imprisonment, and, if persevered in, by trans- 176 HISTOEY OP ENGLAND, [Chap. X. portation. In consequence of this tyrannical statute great numbers of nonconformists were thrown into prison. During the great plague, which soon after visited London, some of the nonconformist preachers occupied the vacant pulpits, and did all they could to comfort the sick and dying. By this they brought upon themselves the charge of having disseminated seditious opinions, and another disgraceful statute, the " Five Mile Act," was passed, which forbade anj dis- senting minister coming within five miles of any par- liamentary borough. They were further forbidden to act as tutors or schoolmasters, under a penalty of 401. and imprisonment. Ill 1664 a second war broke out with Holland, chiefly in consequence of commercial jealousy between the two countries. After several encounters of the hostile fleets off the coasts of Africa, America, and the West Indies, in which the Dutch lost several of their possessions, a serious engagement took place near Lowestoft, where the English fleet was commanded by the duke of York, brother of Charles II. The Dutch were defeated, and lost eighteen ships, four admirals, including Opdam, their commander-in-chief, and seven thousand men, while the English loss did not exceed eight hundred. This victory was gained at the time when the ravages of the plague had reached their height in London. That fearful scourge lasted several months, during which more than one hundred thousand persons in London became its victims. All who had the means left the city, and only the poorer classes remained. In the beginning of 1666 the Dutch allied themselves with Louis XIV., who had declared war against Eng- land. Prince Rupert and Monk, now duke of Albe- marle, commanded the English fleet, and a great battle was fought near the Goodwin Sands, which lasted for four days, and Monk's division would have been utterly destroyed had not Eupert come to the rescue. The Dutch gained the victory, though the losses on both sides were very nearly equal. In the second battle, in the same neighbourhood, the English were more suc- cessful, and afterwards chased the Dutoii to their own 1660-1685.] CHARLES 11. 177 coasts, where tliey destroyed a large number of ships, and committed many outrages. The Dutch admiral, De Witt, vowed not to rest until he had avenged the insults of the English. Soon after these maritime engagements, on the 2nd of September, 1666, another terrible calamity befell the city of London — a fire broke out in a baker's house in Pudding Lane. The houses at the time were mostly built of wood, and the streets were very narrow, and as a strong east wind was blowing the fire spread rapidly, and continued for three days, without any possibility of stopping it. When at length the wind subsided, and many gaps had been made to isolate the burning masses, the progress of the fire was checked, but not until London, from the Tower to the Temple, was in ruins. The fire had destroyed St. Paul's cathedral, eighty -eight churches, the Eoyal Exchange, and other public buildings, and thirteen thousand two hundred private houses. The total loss was computed at seven and a half millions. The fanatical hatred between Protestants and Catholics created the belief that the Catholics had been the originators of the fire, a belief totally devoid of foundation, though it was inscribed as a fact on the " Monument," from which it was not erased till 1830. De Witt ke|3t his vow. In the beginning of 1667 Charles entered into a secret negotiation with Louis XIV,, and in the hojDe of a sj)eedy peace the navy was utterly neglected. The Dutch, perceiving this state of things, resolved to have their revenge. De Euyter appeared at the mouth of the Thames with seventy ships. The defences hastily constructed by Albemarle and York were insufficient. One portion of the Dutch fleet appeared off Gravesend and another sailed up the Medway, razing Sheerness to the ground, and doing great mischief all along the coast. Having thus satis- fied their desire for revenge, the Dutch returned home in triumph. This war was at last ended by the treaty of Breda, July 10, 1667, when it was agreed that each nation should retain what they possessed. Ever since the sale of Dunkirk, Clarendon had 178 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND, [CiiAP X, become very unpopular. In, addition to jfcliis, he liad offended tlie presbyterians by supporting' tlie episcopal party, and the king by his open disapproval of the profligacies of the court. All these things combined to bring about his downfall. A strong opposition was formed against him, and the king advised him to resign. As Clarendon declined to do this, Charles ungratefully dismissed his ablest minister, and abandoned him to his enemies. Clarendon was impeached for high treason, but before the trial came on, the king ordered him to leave the country, and an act was then passed banishing him for life. He died at Eouen, 1G74. After the fall of Clarendon a new ministry was formed, known, by the name of the Cabal, a word made up of the initials of the names of the five men who composed it, Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley, and Lauderdale. By their miserable subserviency to the king, and their attempts to make him an absolute ruler, these men have left a most unenviable reputation in English history. The most unprincipled among them were Buckingham and Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaftesbury ; the latter of them displayed such won- derful cunning and prudence that he was regarded by the people as endowed with almost miraculous prescience. Their first measure, however, seemed to promise well, for in 1668 they concluded the triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden, for the purpose of checking the attempts of Louis XIV. upon Flanders. Louis at last gave way, but still contrived, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, to obtain Lille, Tournay, and other places of the Spanish Netherlands. Unfortunately the objects of the triple alliance were soon lost sight of. The king's extravagance led to the appointment of a commission of public accounts, which greatly offended him. But as means had to be devised to provide him with money, Buckingham began nego- tiations with the French king to obtain pecuniary as- sistance for Charles. This led to the conclusion of a secret treaty at Dover (May, 1670), in which it was stipulated that Charles should approve of the Catholic doctrines and rites, and n\ake a public confession of 1660—1685.] CHARLES II. 179 tliem, tliat lie slioiild unite witli France to destroy the Dntcli republic, and that Louis should pay him an annual pension of 120,000Z., and assist him with an army in case of an insurrection among his subjects. It was further agreed that of the conquests to be made in Holland Charles should receive Walcheren, Sluys, and Cadsand. War was therefore declared against Holland in March, 1672. In order to obtain the money necessary for this war, Charles adopted the unprecedented and dishonest step of suspending for twelve months the payment of money advanced to the government, which at once put into his hands the sum of 1,300,000Z., but ruined many commercial houses and others who had invested their savings in public securities. The first encounter between the hostile fleets took place "in Southwold Bay, on the coast of Norfolk. Both sides fought most bravely, and the English suffered severely, though they claimed the victory. Meanwhile Louis had invaded Holland with an army of one hundred thousand men, and advanced to the neighbourhood of Amsterdam. But the Dutch, with their wonted determination, on the advice of William of Orange, who had been elected stadtholder, cut the dykes, and flooded the country. Louis was thus obliged to return, leaving some troops in the towns which he had taken. The war was henceforth carried on very languidly, both by land and by sea, until it was brought to a close by the treaty of Westminster in 1674, when the Dutch promised to honour the British flag and to pay nearly 300,000Z. as an indemnity for the expenses of the war. On the continent Louis continued the war for four years longer. In the beginning of 1673, parliament, which had not met for nearly two years, again assembled. The year before, the king had issued a " Declaration of Indul-» gence," whereby the penal laws against nonconformists were suspended; parliament now obliged him to re- voke it, and both Catholics and dissenting Protestants had again to bow under the old laws, which remained in force until, in 1828, protestant nonconformists ob- tained the right to hold public offices. In consequence of this revocation of the indulgence two members of the 180 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X. cabal, tlie duke of York and lord Clifford, who were Catholics, resigned their offices. Sir Thomas Osborne, afterwards earl of Danby, now became prime minister. There was at that time, and there had been for many years, a great dread of the Catholics, especially as Charles, not having any legitimate issue, his successor would be his brother York. Danby, to allay such fears, brought about a marriage between William, prince of Orange, and Mary, daugjiter of James I. At this Louis XIV. was so angry that he withdrew his pension from Charles. The popular mind, however, was so much inclined to listen to stories about secret plots of Catholics, that any rumour, however absurd, was readily believed. A Protestant clergyman, Titus Oates, a man of infamous character, came forward with the fictitious story that a number of Catholics in England, France, and Spain had conspired to kill Charles and re-establish the old religion. By this and other stories he lashed the nation into a state of perfect frenzy. The love of notoriety and gain induced other men to follow his example. Oates succeeded so well with his lies .that in the end he even ventured to impeach the queen. In this attempt, however, he was thwarted by the king himself. During this period of excitement many inno- cent persons were arrested and sent to the scaffold because they were supposed to be connected with those plots. One of the results of these agitations was the "Papists' Disabling Act," by which no Catholic was allowed to sit in either house. Parliament, which had now been in existence for nearly seventeen years, and at the commencement had shown a most servile submission to the king's will and pleasure, at last became thoroughly opposed to the con- tinued course of misgovernment. When the commons proceeded to impeach Danby, Charles dissolved them in the beginning of 1679. The new parliament, which met soon after, turned out to be equally hostile to the court. The proceedings against Danby were continued, and in spite of the king's wish to pardon him, he was sent to the Tower. Danby's place in the king's confidence was filled by 1660—1685.] CHAELES II. 18l Sir William Temple, from whose management mncli good was expected. One important measure was passed by Parliament, tlie Habeas Corpus Act, "for the better secnring the liberty of the subject, and for prevention of imprisonment beyond the seas." As several other bills distasteful to the king were spoken of, parliament was prorogued. The object of one of these bills "was to exclude his brother, the duke of York, from the succes- sion. Fearing that stormy times would come, the king wished to provide himself with a strong army, and in order to have a plausible pretext he drove the Scotch into a rebellion by the severe laws against conventicles. This led to acts of retaliation on the part of the Scotch. The hostility towards the Catholics likewise continued, and was fanned especially by Shaftesbury. Numerous petitions were sent up to the king to summon a parliament to get a bill passed excluding York from the succession. This created a reaction in the public feeling in favour of the court, and addresses were sent to the king expressing satisfaction with the govern- ment and abhorrence of the petitioners. Hence the two parties were called " petitioners " and " abhorrers," names which were soon after changed into whigs and tories. Parliament at length assembled in October, 1680, but as the commons still insisted on York's ex- clusion, it was again dissolved. That the English people had good reason to fear York, was clear from the brutalities with which he treated the Scotch dissenting Protestants. Charles, perceiving that the tide was turning in his favour, abolished the charters granted to London and other towns, and substituted new ones calculated to insure the ascendancy of the court party. The whigs were, on the whole, opposed to violence ; but Shaftesbury, and others of extreme views, including the duke of Monmouth, Charles' illegitimate son by Lucy Walters, thought it possible by a revolutionary movement to secure the exclusion of the prince and establish constitutional government. Shaftesbury, how- ever, finding the moderate whigs unwilling to follow his lead, escaped to Holland, where he died in 1683. Other men then took up the scheme, and a plot was 182 mSTOHY OF EKaLANB. CChap. X, formed to assassinate the king and York at a place called the Eye House. The plan was revealed, and lords Eussell, Essex, Algernon Sidney, and Hampden (a grandson of John Hampden), were arrested ; Mon- mouth, Grey, and others escaped. Eussell was declared guilty of high treason, and executed ; Sidney also was executed, though there was no evidence of his guilt ; and Essex was found dead in the Tower. Never was justice so much abused as during these last years of Charles* reign, during which he governed the country as an absolute despot, without the advice of parliament. York recovered his ascendancy at the court, and Danby and other political prisoners were released from the Tower. But the vicious career of the kina: was comins: to an end. Pie was seized with a fit of apoplexy, which terminated fatally. Before his death a Catholic priest "was secretly admitted into his chamber by the help of liis brother. Charles declared himself a Catholic, con- fessed his sins, and had extreme unction administered to him. He died February 6th, 1685, leaving no legiti- mate issue, but many children by mistresses, such as the Dukes of Monmouth, Grafton, St. Albans, and Eichmond. 5. JAMES n., 1685-1688 James II., son of Charles I., was about sixty-eight years old when he ascended the throne. In his earlier years he had served in the French and Spanish armies, and at the restoration was made lord high admiral. Immediately after his accession he married Mary d'Este, his first wife, Anne Hyde, a daughter of Clarendon, having died in 1671. During his short reign he dis- played all the bad qualities of his race, and an utter want of sympathy M^ith the people and their rights ; he even lacked the good humour and skill which had always secured to Charles II. a certain degree of popularity. Upon his accession he promised the assembled par- liament that his object would be to preserve the govern ment, both in church and state, as by law established. 1685-1688.] JAMES II. 183 In consequence of this declaration lie received a more hearty welcome from the people than might have been anticipated, as his character was pretty well known. But suspicions were soon raised hy his openly attending mass in state, and still more hy his levying taxes with- out parliament, and drawing to his court numbers of Catholics. Persons imprisoned for having refused com- pliance with the rules of the English church were liberated, but Protestant dissenters were not released, so that his indulgence benefited only those of his own persuasion. When, in May, 1685, parliament met, it showed itself devoted to the court, granted the king an ample revenue, and expressed its strong attachment to the established church. During the late reign numerous Protestant dissenters had taken refuge in Holland, and, indignant at seeing the English throne occupied by a Catholic, they formed a plan of overthrowing his government. The earl of Argyle headed a large number of Presby- terians, and Monmouth, who was also living in exile, was to join the undertaking and create a rebellion in England, while Argyle's scene of operation was to be in Scotland. Two expeditions were accordingly organized, and Argyle arrived in Scotland in May. Few persons of quality joined him, and the undertaking failed from want of agreement among the leaders, and of the hearty support of the people. When Argjde discovered that his position was hopeless, he fled, and fell into the hands of his enemies, who had him executed at Edin- burgh on the last day of June. About six days before the capture of Argyle, Mon- mouth landed at Lyme Eegis, in Dorsetshire, where he was received with enthusiasm, for he declared that he had come to defend the Protestant religion and the rights of the English people. His followers increased as he advanced towards Taunton, whence he proceeded to Bridgewater. The royal troops which were sent out against him, under the command of earl Eeversham, were encamped on the plain of Sedgemoor. Monmouth attacked them in the night, and his men, though ill armed, fought with the greatest bravery. His cavalry 184 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X was commanded by lord Grey, who seems to have «cted with much cowardice; and when Monmouth learned that the cavalry was routed, he lost hope and withdrew from the fight. In company with lord Grey he fled, hoping to reach the coast, but both were overtaken. Monmouth having been attainted immediately after landing in England, was carried to London, and be- headed on Tower Hill, on the 15th of July. The speedy crushing of these insurrections might have greatly strengthened James, but this result was frustrated by the atrocious cruelties perpetrated by Feversham and one colonel Kirke upon all those who had in any way been connected with the rebellion of Monmouth. Their cruelties were so revolting, and the conduct of the chief justice, Jeffreys, was so opposed to all law and decency, that the people almost justified the rebellion. Hundreds of persons were put to death in the counties through which Monmouth had passed, and nearly one thousand were sent into the colonies as slaves. In order to strike terror into the people, the heads and limbs of those executed were stuck on poles in the public places and streets, and even on church doors. That the king himself approved of these pro- ceedings is evident, from the fact that Jeffreys was promoted to the office of lord chancellor. James, elated by the success of his arms, thought it no longer necessary to conceal his real designs ; he re- solved to get rid of those parts of the constitution which were obstacles in his way towards absolute power. The Habeas Corpus Act prevented him im- prisoning persons arbitrarily, the Test Act kept out of the army Catholic officers, on whom he thought he could depend most, and the want of a standing army was felt as a necessity to curb his rebellious subjects. These things, therefore, he determined to alter, and when Halifax, the ablest statesman of the time, tried to prevent him from entering on so dangerous a course, he was dismissed. When parliament assembled in November, and likewise showed a strong opposition to the king's designs, it was at once prorogued, and after- wards dissolved. 1685—1688.] JAMES II. 185 In October of tlie same year, 1685, Louis XIV. had revoked the edict of Nantes, by which Henry IV. had granted religions freedom to the French Protestants. In consequence of this about one hundred thousand French Protestants emigrated to Germany, HoUand, and England. The arrival of these men strongly aroused the fears of the English people, who dreaded similar things from their own king. But James, in- stead of allaying these fears by adopting moderate counsels, continued to give his entire confidence to Catholic advisers ; he forbade clergjmien to preach against Catholicism, proclaimed liberty of conscience to all Catholics, both in England and Scotland, esta- blished an ecclesiastical commission, similar to the High Commission Court, which had been abolished many years before, and assembled an army on Houn- slow Heath, most of the officers of which were Catholics. In short, it was quite evident that James was bent upon re-establishing the old religion. The king even ventured to thrust Catholics into the two universities. In 1686 he appointed a Catholic dean of Christ Church, and in the following year he ordered a Benedictine monk to be admitted to the degree of master of arts; and as the vice-chancellor refused to violate the law, he was deprived by the ecclesiastical court of his offices and emoluments. At Oxford, which the king thought more pliable, he tried to introduce a Catholic of notoriously bad character as president of Magdalen College. The fellows refused to admit him, whereupon they were summoned before the ecclesiastical court, expelled from the university, and declared incapable of holding any church office. In April, 1688, another declaration was issued an- nouncing liberty of conscience, and the clergy were requested to read it publicly in their churches. But the principal ministers in London determined not to obey the order, and six of the bishops (Ken, Whit-e, Lloyd, Turner, Lake, and Trelawny), with archbishoj) Sancroft at their head, signed a petition praying the king to excuse the clergy. James resented this as an unjustifiable interference with the dispensing power to 186 HISTORY Oi^ ENGLAND. [CiiAP. X, wliicli lie laid claim, and declared the petitioners rebels. On the day appointed for the reading of the declaration it was promulgated in only four of the London chnrches. In the meantime the petition of the bishops had be- come widely known, and James' anger was roused to such a degree that he ordered the seven bishoj)s to be imprisoned in the Tower for having published a se- ditious libel. Soon after they were brought before the Court of Queen's Bench. The excitement in London was intense, the court and all avenues to it were crowded with people anxiously waiting for the issue. After long deliberations the bishops were acquitted, and the verdict was received with shouts of applause. A fortnight before this trial a son was born to the king, and called James, but the people disbelieved that the child was really his, and that the affair was only a trick of the Catholics, to prevent a Protestant succeed- ing to the crown. The prince of Orange, who was married to Mary, daughter of James II., had for some time been watch- ing the affairs of England with much interest. The whig p€irty, knowing that both the prince and princess were opposed to Catholicism, as well as to James' system of government, had become more excited by the treat- ment of the bishops and the birth of a son, for it was clear that he would be educated in the Catholic re- ligion. The leading whigs accordingly resolved to promote a change in the government. They sent a formal invitation to the prince of Orange to come to England at the head of a strong force. Those who signed this invitation were the earls of Danby, Devon- shire, Shrewsbury, Lord Lumley, the bishop of London, admiral Eussell, and Llenry Sidney. Great prepara- tions were made in Holland with energy and secrecy, and James, who received warnings and offers of assist- ance from the French king, slighted the suggestion, and "William completed his arrangements without hin- drance. When all was ready he sent a proclamation to England, in which he enumerated all the misdeeds of the government, and pledged himself to secure legal toleration to the different religious sects, and to have 1685—1688.] JAMES 11. 187 all disputed questions settled by parliament. When James discovered his real danger he tried to conciliate the people by revoking his tyrannical measures and promising all manner of concessions. But the people could not be deceived by such a sudden change, and on the 5th of November, 1688, William landed at Torbay with an army of fifteen thousand men, and was joinecl soon after by the noblemen who had invited him. James gathered his forces at Salisbury, but his officers deserted one after another to W^illiam, so that he felt obliged to hasten back to London, and knew not what to do. Finding his situation hopeless, he first sent his queen and son to the Continent, and on December 11th he left Whitehall in disguise, intending to go to France ; but he was seized and brought back to London. Meanwhile, William was advancing, and James was allowed to withdraw to Eochester, whence he fled to Ambleteuse. He made several attempts to recover his throne, but in vain, and afterwards resided at St. Germains, enjoying the hospitality of Louis, until his death, September 6th, 1701. In London per- fect order "prevailed until the arrival of William. There now followed a short period called the Inter- regnum, from December 11th, 1688, to the loth of February, 1689, the day on which the crown was offered and accepted by William and Mary. They entered London, December 18th, and the next day the peers and members of the parliament of Charles II., who at the time happened to be in London, met, with others, to deliberate as to what should be done. They called upon William to undertake the administration, and to summon a convention to meet on January 22nd for the purpose of regulating the affairs of the kingdom. After a few days the Commons resolved that James, having endeavoured to subvert the constitution, and having withdrawn himself out of his kingdom, had abdicated the government, and that thereby the throne had become vacant ; and, secondly, that it was inconsistent with the safety and welfare of the Protestant kingdom to be governed by a Catholic prince. The Lords agreed to the second resolution, but the first became the sub« 188 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [CHAP. XI. ject of a lengthened discussion. The result, however, was that the prince and princess were declared king and queen of England, and that the executive was en- trusted to the prince alone. The succession was then regulated by the Act of " Settlement." And to prevent any further disputes another act was passed, called the *' Declaration of Eights," which set forth the ancient rights of the people, and was read out to William on February 13th. He promised to preserve the Pro- testant religion, the laws of the land, and the liberties and property of the people. CHAPTER XL THE REVOLUTION DYNASTY, William aad Mary , 1689-1694 I Aane ..... 1702 X7H William III, alone . 1694-1702 | 1. WIILIAM AND MARY, 1689-1694. William, from first to last, had to contend with great difficulties, and even with ingratitude from those who had invited him to England. His manners, it is true, had nothing winning, and, generally, his words were few, but they could always be relied upon, and it cannot be denied that he freed England from the tyranny of the Stuarts, and secured civil and religious liberty, at least to a great extent. The irregular meeting, or convention, which had given the crown to William, constituted itself as a regular parliament, and at once proceeded to settle the most urgent questions. An act was passed requiring all members of parliament and all civil and military officers to take the oath of allegiance and supremacy. About four hundred clergymen refused, and, in conse- quence, lost their benefices; they were called non- Jurors, and caused much trouble to the government. The Nonconformists were benefited by an Act of " Toleration," which freed them from the penalties to which they had been liable, provided they took the 1689—1694.] WILLIAM AND MABY. 189 oath of allegiance and signed a declaration against Catholicism. This act of toleration, however, did not apply to either Catholics or Unitarians. The next subject was the settlement of the revenue* and it was arranged that the sum of 1,200,000Z. should be voted yearly in time of peace, and that 600,000Z. should be paid to the Dutch for their expenses incurred in William's expedition. The mutiny of a Scotch regiment at Ipswich, which had received orders to go to Holland, but started for Scotland, led to the passing of the " Mutiny Act," |. whereby a standing army was created and provision made that military offences should be tried by a court martial. In Scotland the revolution had taken the same course as in England. James II. had been declared deposed, and William and Mary had been asked to fill the vacant throne. Some attempt was indeed made by viscount Dundee to foment a rebellion, especially among the Highlanders, but they were met by the royal army at the pass of Killiekrankie, where in a fierce and un- expected attack the rebels gained the victory ; but as Dundee was mortally wounded they lost heart, and retreated and dispersed among the mountains. By the end of the year 1689 all Scotland, with the exception of some highland districts, submitted to the new order of things. In Ireland the case was different, for the majority of the people being Catholics continued their allegiance to James II., who, being supplied with men and arms by Louis XIV., attempted to recover his kingdom. He landed at Kinsale in March, and Tyrconnel, the governor of Ireland, placed about ten thousand men at his disposal. James summoned a packed parliament at Dublin, and, utterly incapable of profiting by his past experience, caused this parliament to repeal the Act of Settlement, confiscated the estates of all absentees above the age of seventeen, and nearly all the tithes were taken from the Protestant clergy and given to Catholics. Some of the towns, as Londonderry and Enniskillen, which refused to acknowledge James as their king were besieged, but they defended themselves 190 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XI, witli extraordinary valour and perseverance. After a siege of nearly four months Londonderry was relieved, and the Enniskilleners defeated a strong body of troops who were sent to seize the town. The number of Irish killed at that time amounted to about two thousand, and four hundred were taken prisoners. In the month of August Schomberg, one of William's generals, landed with ten thousand men in Ireland ; he took several of the northern towns, and entrenched himself near Dun- dalk, where a large number of his men perished from want and disease. In June, 1690, William himself, leaving the government in the hands of the queen, crossed over into Ireland with an army of thirty thou- sand men, and at once marched against James. The Irish army retreated before him, and took up a strong position on the banks of the Boyne. On the 1st of July, William, supported by able officers, utterly de- feated his rival. When James found that the battle was lost, he fled to Dublin, and thence to Waterford, where he embarked for France. After this victory of the Boyne, William went to Dublin, and without much difficulty secured the sub- mission of the south of Ireland ; he then proceeded to Limerick, where the remaining Irish army was assem- bled, but not meeting with the expected success, he returned to England, where he was received with demonstrations of enthusiastic joy. The war in Ire- land, however, was continued, and brought to a close in 1691 by the treaty of Limerick, in which it was agreed that the Irish Catholics should enjoy the same rights and liberties in religious matters as they had enjoyed in the reign of Charles II., and an amnesty was promised to all who testified their submission to William by taking the oath of allegiance. About fourteen thousand Irish soldiers, refusing to take the oath, entered the service of the king of France, where they were known by the name of the " Irish Brigade." The strong feeling aroused against France in conse- quence of the support given to James in Ireland, led the parliament, which reassembled in October, 1689, to join the general coalition against Louis, and 1689—1694-.] -WILLIAM AND MARY. 191 4,000,000Z. were voted for the army and navy. Wil- liam himself went over to Holland in the following year to arrange the plans of the allies against France. Before his return the bishops who refused to take the oath of allegiance were turned out of their sees, and their places were filled with men of moderate prin- ciples. The war against France was commenced in 1690, and lasted till 1697, being carried on both by land and by sea. In the first two years the allies were unsuc- cessful, and in the third Louis collected a large fleet, to make a descent upon England, having concerted with the Jacobites (the name given to the adherents of James, Latin, Jacobus) a plan of calling forth a rising in England at the same time. But the con- spiracy was discovered, and came to nothing. The French fleet under Trouville met the united English and Dutch fleets off La Hogue, and in the ensuing battle the French lost twenty-five ships, while the English, under the command of Eussell, lost none. On land the allies were less successful. In 1694 the English bombarded the coast towns Havre and Dieppe, but their attempt to destroy Brest failed, and the failure was ascribed to the treachery of Marlborough. In the course of the following year St. Malo and Dun- kirk were bombarded by the English, and Brussels by Louis ; but William performed one of his most brilliant feats in the recovery of Namur. During these bombardments and sieges many thousands of men were killed, and houses and churches were destroyed. At length, both parties being exhaiisted, the peace of Ryswick, in September, 1697, pUt an end to hostilities, and it was agreed that the fortresses taken by Louis in Flanders and about the Pyrenees should be restored to Spain, that a number of towns in the east of France should be given back to the emperor, that Louis should cease to disturb the English king in his possessions, and that neither sovereign should countenance con- spiracies against the other. The early part of the year 1692 had been marked by an act of atrocity in Scotland for which William • K ■ 192 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XI. must to some extent be held responsible. The High- landers who had refused to make their submission to the English king were in the end gained over by bribes and threats, except Mclan, the head of the McDonalds of Glencoe, who, being prevented by un- foreseen circumstances, was a few days behind the time allowed for taking the oath. Breadalbane and Dalrymple, the secretary of state for Scotland, made the lateness of Mclan the pretext for obtaining from William an order to destroy the whole clan. A number of soldiers were sent into the valley, and pretending to be friends to the people, were kindly treated by them, when suddenly, on the 13th of February, the soldiery savagely fell upon the unsuspecting peo23le and mas- sacred forty persons, including their chief. Those who tried to escape perished from hunger and cold. "When the circumstances became known William in- flicted on Dalrymple no other punishment than dis- missal. This cruel massacre is a stain on the king's character, for with a little more caution he might have prevented it. Although William was a great benefactor to England, he never was thoroughly popular, partly on account of the coldness of his manners, and partly on account of his being a foreigner. Even some of his first sup- porters afterwards carried on a treasonable correspond- ence with James, and parliament also showed little disposition to favour him, for the grants to him were made annually, and after the restoration of peace his foreign auxiliaries were ordered to be disbanded. AVil- liam perhaps committed the mistake of showing some partiality to his Dutfeh followers, such as Bentinck, who was made earl of Portland, Schomberg, Zuyles- tein, and Auverquerque. Until the year 1693 he had given no special preference to either party in the state, but on the advice of Sunderland, his confidential coun- sellor, he chose his ministers from among the whigs. In September, 1693, the queen became seriously ill with small-pox, and died on the 28th, leaving William sole king of England. 1694—1702.] WILLIAM IIL 193 2. WILIIAM III., 1694-1702. William was greatly affected hj the death of Maiy, and suffered much from depression ; but he roused him- self, and it was in the very year after that he recovered :N'amur from the French. This great success made him for the moment very jDopular, and in the new parliament which was then elected the whig party appeared in con- siderable force. One of the most important measures passed by it was an act regulating trials for high treason (1696), which clearly defined what treason consists in, gave the -accused better opportunities of defending themselves, and required at least two witnesses. _ Several plots had already been formed against Wil- liam's life, partly, it is said, instigated by James, or his agents. In February, 1696, the so-called " assassi- nation plot " was discovered, the object of which was to murder William and invade the kingdom. Several persons who were implicated in it were condemned to death. But the conspiracy produced one good result, as it led to the formation of a national association for the protection of the king's life. But parliament, fan- cying that peace was secured by^the treaty of Ptyswick, reduced the army to ten thousand, contrary to the king's express wish, and further hurt his feelings, in 1699, by obliging all not being native-born English- men, to quit the army, although those men had been of most signal service during the French war. King Charles II. of Spain had no children, and there was danger of the whole of the Spanish dominions falling into the hands of the French. In order to avoid this, a secret treaty was negotiated by William m 1698, by which the dominions were to be divided among three claimants—the French dauphin, the arch- duke of Austria, and the elector of Bavaria. But as the last of these three died soon after, a new division became necessary, but by various intrigues Louis XIV succeeded in securing all Spain for his grandson Philip. Ihis again led to the formation of a great alliance in IvOl, and to the war of the Spanish succession, which loroke out m the reign of queen Anne. 194 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XI. As William and Mary had no children, the death of the duke of Gloucester, the only surviving son of Anne, daughter of James II., in July, 1700, rendered a new settlement of the succession necessary, in order to secure it to a Protestant ; and an act was accordingly passed in 1701 limiting the inheritance of the crown to the princess Sophia, the electress of Hanover, and her heirs. William's health had gradually been fail- in «- : a fall from his horse, in which he broke his collar - bone, soon showed alarming symptoms, and on February 21st, 1702, he died at Kensington, in the fifty-second year of his age. S. ANNE, 1702-1714. Anne, the second daughter of James II. and Anne Hyde, married, in 1683, prince George of Denmark, and deserting the cause of her father, joined the revo- lutionary party. Her children died early, and in 1700 her only surviving son, William duke of Gloucester, was likewise carried off at the early age of eleven. Her husband who scarcely exercised any influence upon the affairs of England, died in 1708. Anne herself was a person of a kind and amiable, but weak, character, and allowed herself to be guided by her female friends and favourites, of whom the political parties were not slow to avail themselves for their own purposes. Immediately after Anne's accession, the Scotch showed signs of discontent with the existing arrangements be- tween their country and England. The question about a union of the two countries had been considered be- fore, and Anne herself expressed a wish that it should be realized. But there was considerable ojoposition in the Scottish parliament, which, in 1703, passed what was called the " Act of Security," providing that, after the demise of the queen, the same person should be incapable of holding the crowns of both kingdoms, unless the Scottish people were allowed to share with the English the full benefits of trade and navigation. This act called forth great exasperation in England, 1702— 17U.] ANNE. 195 and in tlie following year the English parliament by a similar act deprived Scotchmen of the rights and privi- leges of Englishmen, and greatly restricted the com- mercial intercourse between the two countries. In fact, affairs assumed so threatening an aspect that the English parliament thought it expedient to accept the Scottish Act of Security. The idea of a union, how- ever, was steadily gaining ground, and the opinion of the wisest men on both sides regarded it as a great benefit to both nations. Accordingly, in 1705, the Scotch parliament appointed commissioners to meet with representatives of the English government and discuss the terms on which the union might be effected. When the proposed terms became known in Scotland, nearly all parties were dissatisfied, but with the help of bribes and liberal promises the opposition was silenced, and in 1707 the union was decreed by both parties, and was to date from the 1st of May. The principal terms were, that the two countries should form one kingdom under the name of Great Britain ; that the succession should take place in accordance with the settlement made in the reign of William III. ; that there should be free communication of trade and navigation; that all rights, privileges,* customs, and duties should be the same, unless special arrangements were made ; that Scotland should retain her own laws and customs; that she should be represented in the English parliament by sixteen elective peers and forty- five commoners, representing counties and boroughs; and that the Presbyterian church of Scotland should retain its own form of worship, government, and dis- cipline. The peaceful union thus effected has been of incalculable benefit to both countries. Although Anne sided with the whig party against her own father, yet she, in her heart, hated them, believing them to be republicans and enemies to the church of England, to which she was devotedly at- tached. As it could not remain a secret that her sympathies , were with the tories, that party took courage, and clergymen began to preach violent ser- mons against toleration and dissenters, whereby the 196 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. Xt people were so mncli incited against tliem that some of the houses of dissenters were plundered, and their meeting-houses destroyed by the mob. Numerous pe- titions were sent to the queen to support the more intolerant party of the church, and rid herself of her whig advisers ; and as these petitions coincided with her own feelings, she dismissed all the whigs with the exception of Marlborough. This man, as colonel Churchill, had married Sarah Jennings, the queen's most intimate friend from early youth. Alter the revolution, William had rewarded Marlborough's military talents in the most generous and liberal manner. On her accession the queen was still completely under the influence of lady Marl- borough, and made her husband captain-general of all her forces, in which capacity he carried on the war on the continent, in conjunction with the allies, against France and Spain. In the new parliament, which met in 1710, the tories had the majority, and showed their aversion to the whig party by refusing to pass a vote of thanks for the great military services of the captain -general, and by charging him with peculation. The queen was then prevailed upon to deprive Marlborough of all his offices, and the whig influence at the court was at an end. The place of lady Marlborough was filled by a Mrs. Masham, of whose influence the tories now availed themselves for their own ends. The war, it was said, had been kept Up by the whigs chiefly to gratify Marlborough, and the tories, now opposing its continuance, commenced negotiations for peace. It is now time to turn our attention to the war which is called the war of the Spanish succession, and had been carried on by land and by sea ever since the accession of Anne. After the death of Charles II. of Spain, in 1700, the Spanish monarchy, through in- trigues, had fallen to Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. This led to the formation of the great alliance between England, Austria, and Holland, which was afterwards joined by the German emperor, Portu- gal, and Savoy, The object was to maintain the claims 1702—1714.] ANNE. 197 of the archduke of Austria. The war was opened in the Netherlands in 1702 by Marlborough, who during the first years was most successful, capturing town after town, and penetrating into the very lieart of Germany, where, in 1704, he gained the brilliant vic- tory of Blenheim, a village on the banks of the Danube. We cannot here enter into a detailed account of this complicated and wide-spread war ; suffice it to say that Marlborough, with few interruptions, continued his victorious career until 1711, when he was deprived of his offices through the intrigues of the tories. His GTBT^ALTAR. place at the head of the armies was then given to Ormond, who refused to act on the offensive, and as he separated his |;roops from those of the allies, the French gained some advantages ; but as nearly all parties were exhausted, conferences about peace were commenced as early as the year 1712. While the war was raging on the continent of Europe, the English fleet under admiral Eooke was operating against the coasts of Spain, where, in the first year, it gained considerable advantages. In 1704, Kooke took Gibraltar, and inflicted so severe a blow on the French fleet off Malaga that it did not venture 198 Hisi:oRY OF England. [Chap, xf. iipon anotlier battle during the war. In 1708 admiral Leake took the island of Sardinia, and in the West Indies large and valuable prizes were gained ; but an expedition against the French in Canada, in 1711, commanded by Hill, a brother of Mrs. Masham, proved a complete failure. It ought to be mentioned that in 1708 Louis XIV., in order to create a diversion, gave to the pretender (son of James II., who called himself James III.) a fleet, with an armed force, to go to Scot- land, but admiral Byng prevented him from landing in the Forth. Louis, ever since 1709, had attempted in vain to come to an arrangement with his. enemies, but when the tories had come into power they showed a strong desire to bring the war to a close, and at Utrecht a treaty of peace was concluded in 1713. In it the crown of Spain and its colonies was left to Philip, on the understanding that the crowns of France and Spain should never be united ; Gibraltar and Mi- norca were ceded to England, which also received Nova Scotia and St. Kitts. Louis further bound himself to support the Protestant succession in England, and to order the pretender to quit France. The substantial advantages thus gained by England were considerable, though perhaps not what might have been expected from the many and great victories gained by Marl- borough. The remaining short period of Anne's life is filled with the intrigues of the Jacobites to secure the suc- cession of the pretender, and Anne herself is said to have been favourable to it. The electress Sophia died in June, 1714, and by the act of settlement her son George Louis was the heir to the English throne. Soon after this Anne was seized by an apeplectic fit, and on the 1st of August, 1714, she expired at Kensington, in her fiftieth year. Her reign had been undisturbed by rebellion, and only one execution for high treason had taken place. Her strong attachment to the church was shown in many ways, and her provision for poor clergymen still exists under the name of " Queen Anne's Bounty." 1714—1727.] GEOBGE 199 CHAPTER XII. THE HOUSE 01" BRUNSWICK OR HANOVER. George 1. . . . . 1714-1727 George IV. . . 1820-1830 George II.. . . 1727-1760 William IV. . . 1830-1837 George III. . . . 1760-1820 Victoria . . 1837 1. GEORGE I., 1714-1727. Immediately upon tlie death of Anne, in accord- ance with the Act of Settlement, George Louis was proclaimed king as George I., for he was the son of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover and duke of Brunswick - Liineburg, and Sophia grand-daughter of James I. When he arrived from the continent in his new kingdom he was heartily welcomed, his accession being regarded as a guarantee for the maintenance of the Protestant religion. He was then fifty-fonr jesus old, and was married to Sophia Dorothea of Zelle, by whom he had two children, George (who succeeded him as George 11.) and Sophia (afterwards queen of Prussia, and mother of Frederick the Great). His wife, being suspected of an intrigue with count Kon- igsmark, had been imprisoned in the castle of Alden, where she remained for thirty -two j^ears, and died a few months before her husband. King George w^as totally ignorant of the English language, and seems to have had an aversion to English manners and cus- toms ; his own manners were coarse and awkward, and he always preferred living in his continental do- minions. His mind was uncultivated, his tastes low, and his society consisted chiefly of persons who pandered to them. Although he punished his wife severely on mere suspicion, he himself did not scruple openly to live with and lavish his favours upon mistresses. It must at the same time be stated that he was not with- out valour, as he had shown in the war of the Spanish succession, and that he was of frugal habits and anxious to preserve peace. On Anne's death eighteen lords justices, mostly whigs, were appointed to conduct the regency until 200 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XII. the arrival of the new king, on the 18th of September. He at once identified himself with the whig party, and his principal ministers were lord Townshend, brother-in-law of Robert Walpole, and general Stan- hope. The Jacobite party, which was strong among the tories and the clergy, had been taken by sur- prise by the sudden death of Anne; and steps were taken immediately by the new government to punish her late ministers for having intrigued with the pre- tender and with France. Oxford, Bolingbroke, and Ormond were impeached for high treason, and Oxford was arrested, while the other two escaped by flight. These proceedings created alarm among the Jacobites. The exiled nobles hoped to obtain assistance and sup- port from Louis XIV., but his death, on Sept. 1st, de- prived them of this hope. However, they nevertheless resolved to attempt a rising in Scotland and the north of England against the Hanoverian dynasty. The pretender was then living in France under the name of Chevalier de St. George. The first to raise the standard of revolt in the north of Scotland was the earl of Mar, who was soon joined by an army of ten thousand men, with which he made himself master of nearly the whole of Scotland north of the Forth. But he was defeated Nov. 13th, 1715, by an inferior force under the duke of Argyle at Sheriffmuir. In the north of England, Mr. Foster, the earl of Derwentwater, and other nobles advanced with a force as far south as Preston, but were compelled to surrender to general Carpenter on the same day, November loth, on which Mar was defeated in Scotland, About a month later the pretender himself landed at Peter- head, but finding that Mar had failed, and being him- self unable to inspire his followers with confidence, he and the earl embarked for France, leaving the army to take care of itself. Lords Derwentwater, Kenmure, and about twenty-six other leaders of the rebellion were executed. This rebellion gave rise to an important change in the constitution. In 1694 an act had been passed that a new parliament should be elected every three years. 1714—1727.] (GEORGE I. 20l but, as it was now feared, lest the Jacobites sliould be brought in in great numbers, an act was passed de- claring that a new parliament sliould be elected every seven years (septennial parliaments), which is still the law. The Jacobites, however, did not yet give up the hope of ultimate success, and remained, in fact, trouble- some throughout the reign of George I. In 1722 they formed a plan of seizing the Tower, the Bank, and other public buildings, and proclaiming the pretender simultaneously in different parts of the country ; but the scheme failed, and Atterbury, whom Anne had made bishop of Eochester, was deprived of his see and banished for having taken part in the plot. George I. always looked upon his continental pos- sessions as of more importance to him than England, and, in order to increase them, he purchased the secu- larised bishoprics of Bremen and Werden, which Den- mark had taken from Sweden, for 150,000Z. Charles XII. of Sweden then entered into intrigues with Philip Y. of Spain to promote the restoration of the Stuarts. But Stanhope, who had in the meantime become prime minister, formed what is called the "quadruple alli- ance," with Austria, France, and Holland, for the avowed purpose of preserving the peace of Europe. The Spaniards had already seized upon Sardinia, and, being bent upon recovering what they had lost by the peace of Utrecht, they sent out a fleet to conquer Sicily ; but admiral Byng defeated them off Cape Passaro in 1718. In revenge for this, the pretender was treated at Madrid as a legitimate king, and a fleet was got ready to escort him to England. But the little armada was dispersed by a storm, and only two ships reached Scotland, which of course could effect nothing. As Spain was everywhere unsuccessful, Philip at last gave in, and in 1720 joined the quad- ruj)le alliance. At home the administration was carried on by Stanhope in a liberal spirit. The prince of Wales had been excluded from the court ever since 1717, but Stanhope, in 1720, brought about a reconciliation between the king and his son, which, however, never 202 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [CiUP. Xll. became cordial. In the same year Robert Walpole also entered the ministry, and assumed the chief direc- tion of affairs, in which position he maintained himself for twenty years. He took prompt measures to punish the offenders in the South Sea Company, by which thousands of people had been ruined. The govern- ment was charged with having abetted the swindle, but Stanhope defended himself with such vehemence that he was seized with apoplexy, and died the next day, 1721. While the government was thus threatened in par- liament, a general war seemed to be on the point of breaking out, for a confederacy was formed at. Vienna between Spain and the German empire to compel England to give up Gibraltar and Minorca. In order to counteract this movement, England concluded, in 1725, at Hanover, a defensive alliance with France and Prussia, which was afterwards joined by Sweden and Holland. Spain spent a large amount of money upon a fruitless attempt to recover Gibraltar. However, a reconciliation was brought about by the French go- vernment in 1727. But Spain refused to join it, and the state of hostility between England and Spain con- tinued, until, in 1729, a peace was concluded, in which no mention was made of Gibraltar. In June, 1727, George I. was going on one of his usual visits to Hanover, when on the road he was seized with a fit of apoplexy, and died in his carriage, before he reached the palace of his brother, the bishop of Osnabrlick; this took place June 11th, 1727, 2. GEOEGE n., 1727-1760. George II., the son of George I., was born at Hanover, and thirty years old when he arrived in this country with his father, so that at his accession he was in his forty-fourth year. He spoke English fluently, but at heart was as much a German as his father. Like him, also, he was always most anxious to maintain the hereditary possessions of his family in Germany. In his habits he was quite regular, and 1727—1760.] GEOEGE II. 203 always remained attached to tliose wlio had once gained his esteem. His queen, Caroline of Anspach, was handsome and well educated, and during her husband's visits to Hanover she managed the aifairs of the kingdom. George II. had five daughters and two sons, Frederick, prince of Wales, and William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, both of whom died before their father. Sir Eobert Walpole was retained by the new king at the head of the government, and maintained his post until 1742, notwithstanding a powerful and ever- increasing opposition. His policy was one of peace, and, on tlie whole, very beneficial to the country. The leader of the opposition was the great AVilliam Pitt. In 1733 Walpole carried several financial measures, but had to give up a most important excise bill, by which he intended to stop enormous frauds committed upon the revenue. The year 1736 is marked by the Porteous riots at Edinburgh, caused by the fact that Captain Porteous had fired upon the people while trying to rescue a criminal. Porteous was tried for murder and condemned to death, but was reprieved, whereupon the mob broke into the prison, dragged forth the unfortunate man, and hanged him. Many other excesses were committed by the rioters, in conse- quence of which the Lord Provost was deposed and the city fined. For a long time the English had carried on a very lucrative contraband trade with the Spanish colonies. Spain, which thus lost a very considerable portion of its revenue, endeavoured to prevent this systematic smuggling by searching English vessels, during which process English crews were sometimes rather roughly treated. The parliamentary opposition, regarding such things as insults to the English name, forced Walpole, in 1739, to declare war against Spain. Operations were commenced against the Spanish colonies, but as they were nearly everywhere unsuc- cessful, the government was blamed, and the new parliament, which assembled in 1741, was so hostile to "Walpole that he felt obliged to resign ; but the king, 204 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [Chap. XII. wlio reluctantly accepted liis resignation, created laim earl of Orford. Walpole, however, did not long enjoy this honour, as he died three years later, 1745. He was succeeded by Carteret, afterwards Earl Granville, a very able, but somewhat inconsistent statesman. About the time of the fall of Walpole, events occurred on the continent which involved England in a war about the Austrian succession. According to an arrangement called the " Pragmatic Sanction," Maria Theresa, in 1740, succeeded Charles YI. of Austria. But the elector of Bavaria, who claimed the succession for himself, was supported by France. As George II. had promised to uphold the " Pragmatic Sanction," parliament voted a large subsidy for Maria Theresa, and five millions to carry on the war. In 1742 the earl of Stair entered Germany with an army of forty thousand men, partly English and partly German allies. In the following year George himself joined the army, just in time to save Stair, who, by unskilful management, had allowed himself to be shut up in a valley near Dettingen, on the Main, by the French, under Noailles. A battle was fought there in 1743, in which the French were defeated with the loss of six thousand men. This battle delivered Germany from the French, but led to a declaration of war by France against England, early in 1744. The first campaign was opened the following year in Flanders, under the command of the duke of Cumberland, and as the English were deserted by their allies, the great battle of Fontenoy was won by the French, who thereby became masters of Flanders. This seemed to be a favourable moment for the younger pretender, Charles Edward, to venture upon an attempt to gain the crown of England. James, the old pretender, had given up all hope, but his son, who had received promises of support from France, made preparations to throw a considerable army upon the coast of Kent. The French fleet had actually anchored off Dungeness, when the greater part of it was wrecked during a storm. After this disaster the French govern- ment abandoned the undertaking, but the pretender 1727—1760.] GEOBGE 11. 205 started with two sliips, one of wliicli was lost during the voyage, and landed with seven men on the coast near Inverness. He there gained over some high- landers, and with about sixteen hundred followers ho . marched southward and defeated a body of the king's troops at Prestonpans, near Edinburgh, 1745. This success made him master of nearly all Scotland, and largely increased the number of his followers. He was, however, determined to conquer England as well, and marched towards Carlisle, which surrendered to him. He then advanced as far as Derby. But the English government had not been idle, and three armies gathering around him, he found it impossible to reach London, where many friends were awaiting him. His own followers urged him to return to the north, and near Penrith he gallantly checked the army of Cumberland who was pursuing him. Thence he proceeded to Glasgow, Stirling, and Inverness. His army had, in the meantime, been much diminished, and being attacked by Cumberland on CuUoden Moor, his men were utterly routed. After this battle the pretender, despairing of success, dismissed his followers, became a fugitive, and after many romantic adventures escaped to the continent. Cumberland treated the vanquished followers of the pretender with merciless cruelty, whence he was nicknamed " The Butcher ;" more than eighty of them were executed, and among them Lords Kilmarnock, Balmerino, and Lovat, and many were transported. After this no more serious attempt was made by the Stuart family. James, the old pretender, died in 1765, and his son, Charles Edward, who was notorious for his dissolute life on the continent, died at Eome in 1788 ; his brother, Henry, the only survivor of the family, lived at Kome as Cardinal York until his death in 1807. The war with France was continued in the meantime both by land and by sea, until, in 1748, the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was concluded; in it the "Pragmatic Sanction" was maintained, and France and England were ordered each to restore the con(juests they had 203 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XIL made during tlie war. This peace lasted, indeed, for seven years, but there were several causes which kept Tip an ill-feeling between the two countries, and it was especially in their colonies in India and America that disputes about the boundaries and commercial interests were of constant occurrence. When at length it became evident that a fresh war could not be avoided, George II,, fearing for his conti- nental possessions, concluded alliances with Eussia, Hesse-Cassel, and Prussia, while France secured the alliance of Austria. The duke of Newcastle, who was then prime minister, annoyed the French in many ways, while he seems to have been unaware of their plans of operation. When, therefore, the French were trying to conquer Minorca, Admiral Byng was sent with an insufficient force of ten ill-equipped and ill-manned ships. In the ensuing action, Minorca was lost and Byng withdrew to Gibraltar. This failure created great indignation in England, and all the blame was thrown upon the admiral, who was tried by court- martial and shot in Portsmouth Harbour on the ground of his not having done his duty. Tlie ministry of Newcastle was broken up in 1757, and William Pitt undertook the administration of affairs in conjunction with Henry Fox (afterwards Lord Holland), and the duke of Newcastle. The period during which Pitt guided the helm of the state is perhaps the most brilliant in English history. In 1756 the Seven Years' War broke out on the continent between Frederick the Great and Maria Theresa, in which George II. supported the Prussian king with an army and a subsidy of 670,000Z. In the first campaign the duke of Cumberland was driven out of Hanover by the French, in consequence of which he incurred the displeasure of his father, and had to withdraw from the court. Pitt was at the time planning war on a gigantic scale, which was to be carried on simultaneously in nearly all parts of the world against France. The English arms were success- ful at Brest, Havre, Dunkirk, and at Quiberon, where, in 1759, the French would have been completely 1727—1760.] GEORGE II. 207 annihilated, had it not been for the misconduct of 'Lord George Sackville, which enabled them to escape. In Africa, the island of Goree, at the month of the Senegal, was taken from the French in 1758, and in America, General Wolfe with a small body of troops attacked Quebec, Sept. 13th, 1759, and although he was DEATH OP WOLFE, mortally wounded, his men, encouraged by his heroic conduct, forced Quebec to capitulate. The conquest of Canada was completed in 1760. The French settlements in India, on the coast of Coromandel, were governed by Dupleix, who tried to win over the native princes and with their assistance to humble the English. But he found an able and worthy opponent in Eobert Clive. In 1756 Calcutta was attacked by Dowlah, the rajah of Bengal, and when it became clear that the place would be compelled to surrender, all the Europeans with the governor took to flight, leaving behind about two hundred men to shift for themselves. When the city was taken, the conquerors threw one hundred and forty-six English- men into what is called th© Blaok Holej a military 208 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Char XII, prison, eighteen feet square, with only a small barred opening to admit air. This happened at the hottest season of the year, and when the dungeon was opened the next morning, only twenty-three men were found alive. Calcutta was sacked, and Englishmen were forbidden ever again to settle in the place. "When the tidings of this fiendish proceeding reached Clive, who was then governor of Fort St. David, an expedition was got ready at Madras, and at the head of nine hundred Europeans and one thousand five hundred native troops (Sepoys) he retook Calcutta without the loss of a single life, and then drove the French from Chandernagore. At length, though his forces did not amount to more than three thousand men, he gained the glorious victory of Plassey in 1756, over an armj' of fifty thousand natives. This battle made the English masters of Bengal, and the last French possessions in India were taken from them in 1761. From that time the British dominions in India have been in- creasing almost without interruption. Clive himself, after some further successes, returned to England and received the honour of a peerage. While Pitt's administration thus saw the English arms victorious in every part of the globe, and while England was everywhere successful, George II. died, of a rupture of the heart, October 25th, 1760, at Kensington. Until his reign the English had retained the Julian year, which had been reformed, in 1582, by Pope Gregory XIII., and had been adopted by all European countries, except England, Sweden, and Kussia. In 1752, however, the English also reformed their calendar, and the year was made to commence on the 1st of January instead of the 25th of March ; eleven days had, however, to be suppressed (from September 3rd to the 13th) in order to bring the calendar in harmony with tho solar year. 1760—1820.] GEORGE III. 209 3. GEORGE m., 1760-1820. George III. was the eldest son of Frederic Louis, prince of Wales, who had died in 1751. His education had been rather neglected, as he had been kept in great privacy, that he might not he contaminated by the general profligacy of the time ; and it was probably the result of these early habits, that his court was perhaps the purest in Europe, and afforded an example which could not but have a good influence, not only upon the higher classes, but upon the nation generally* His intentions were always good and his habits simple, and in the discharge of his public duties he always showed a more than common activity ; but he was obstinate, and tenaciously clung to once formed opinions, whereby he sometimes injured the interests of the country. Both George III. and his queen, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, were distinguished for their sincere piety. On his accession George was twenty-two years old, and married the year after. The throne was now again occupied by a king born and bred in England, and owing to Pitt's bold and successful administra- tion, the country had reached its highest glory. In 1761 the English conquered Dominica in the West Indies, and Belleisle off the coast of Britanny. Erance v/as at the time desirous to negotiate for peace, and Pitt, bent upon the recovery of Minorca, offered Belleisle in exchange. But the French king objected to this, because he was engaged in forming what is called the "Family Compact," by which the three branches of the house of Bourbon, " France, Spain, and Naples," guaranteed their possessions to one another. Pitt, on receiving information of this compact which was clearly aimed at England, at once proposed to declare wai' against Spain, for he knew that that country was making great warlike preparations. As this proposal was rejected, Pitt resigned, and Lord Bute, who had long enjoyed the special favour of the court, became prime minister. 210 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [Chap. XII. As soon as the Spanish fleet returned from the West Indies, Spain declared war against England, 1762, and Bute was now compelled to do what Pitt had foreseen. An English force was sent out to assist the Portuguese, our old allies, who were attacked by the Spaniards, and succeeded in repelling them beyond the frontiers. At the same time our forces in the West Indies took the Caribbean Islands and Havannah, and in the East the Philippine Islands were captured. The English arms were yictorious everywhere, and a vast amount of booty was taken. But Bute was nevertheless most anxious for peace, which at length was concluded at Paris, in 1763, and put an end to the seven years' war. In this peace Minorca was restored to Britain in return for Belleisle; Havannah and the Philippine Islands were given back to Spain in return for Florida and Porto Piico. In the West Indies, also, the Islands Guadaloupe, Martinico, and St. Lucia were restored to Spain, while England retained Tobago, Dominica, St. Vincent, and. Grenada. This peace was opposed by Pitt and received with little favour by the people, who thought that, con- sidering our great successes, the terms were not suffi- ciently advantageous, and as Bute had been its chief promoter, he became very unpopular and had to resign. His place was taken by George Grenville, whose ad- ministration fell on troubled times. George Wilkes, a member of parliament and editor of a newspaper called the " North Briton," had written scurrilous articles on Bute and the peace, and had made offensive comments on a speech of the king. Grenville had him arrested on a "general warrant," which was illegal ; but Wilkes was nevertheless expelled from the House and out- lawed. After a few j^ears he came back to England, and in 1768 was returned to parliament for Middlesex. As, however, he was not allowed to take his seat, the people regarded the proceedings against him as a violation of popular freedom. Wilkes became the idol of the. mob, which looked upon him as the persecuted champion, of liberty, and tumults arose in various parts Qi the country^ in which several persons were killecj. 1760—1820.] QWnm III. 211 It was not till 1774 that Wilkes wag allowed to take his seat in the House. Another more serious blunder of Grenville's was committed in 1764, when, for the sake of increasing the revenue, he imposed duties on several articles of American commerce, and at the same time proposed to extend to the American colonies the English stamp duties. This last tax seems to have been esjoecially hateful to the colonists, for when the measure became known in America, it created the greatest excitement : meetings were held in all the colonies, and resolutions were passed denying to the mother country the right to tax the colonies without their consent. The bill was passed in 1765, and in the same year the adminis- tration was undertaken by the marquis of Eockingham, who, on the advice of Pitt, in 1766, repealed the stamp act and thus restored peace for a time. But the ministry of Eockingham had to give way to Pitt, who, on entering on his second administration, was created Earl of Chatham. As, however, his health began to fail, the chief business devolved upon Charles Towns- hend, who, in order to raise the revenue, in 1767, imposed import duties in America on glass, paper, painters' colours, and tea. The scenes of 1765 were repeated, and riots occurred in several places. In consequence of this the British government, giving waj^, abolished the above mentioned duties, except those on tea. This did not diminish the irritation, and the colonists, determined not to pay the duty, formed associations pledging themselves not to use the taxed articles. In the mean time there were frequent changes of the ministry. Townshend died in 1767, and was succeeded by Lord North. Chatham resigned his place in 1768 ; but, when he was restored to health, he came forward as a vehement opponent of the government. The Ame- ricans for a time remained quiet, and it was not till 1773 that serious disturbances occurred. In that year three ships laden with tea arrived at Boston, when a number of men, disguised as Indians, boarded them, and threw the cargoes into the sea. Some stringent 212 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XII. measures, adopted in consequence of this outrage, com- pleted tlie rupture between the colonies and the mother country. In May, 1775, Massachusetts, with eleven other colonies, sent delegates to Philadelphia, where they resolved to cut off all commercial intercourse with England, so long as the hated statutes were not repealed. The cause of the colonies was supported in the British parliament by the ablest men, as Chatham, Bute, and C. J. Fox; but their advice was not heeded, and measures of coercion were adopted. The congress at Philadelphia had appointed George Washington com- mander-in-chief, and the first blood had been shed in April, in an affair at Lexington, where General Gage had a conflict with the Massachusetts militia ; and a few days later a regular battle was fought at Bunker's Hill, between an army of ten thousand Englishmen under the command of Gage and the Americans under Washington, in which the English suffered very se- verely. The war was now carried on by the Americans with great vigour. Canada was invaded and Quebec blockaded, though the Canadians showed little sym- pathy with the revolted colonies. On the 4th of July, 1776, the congress issued the formal declaration of the independence of the North American States. The war was continued with unabated vigour, and Washington was generally very successful, though he had often to contend with great difficulties. When, in 1777, the Americans had gained the great battle of Saratoga, Louis XYI. of France openly espoused their cause, and allowed Lafayette and other nobles to enter the Ame- rican service. We cannot here follow the war in its details ; it is sufficient to state that, owing to the almost uninterrupted success of the colonists, Lord North was inclined to make peace on any terms short of the inde- pendence of the colonies. Chatham, though in feeble health, opposed such a peace with all the powers of his eloquence, although he, too, acknowledged the rights of the colonies. This effort was too much for him ; he fainted in the House, and died soon after at Hayes, in Kent. The Am.GTiQ?JzZ' declined entering; into ^.ny negotic.- 1760—1820,3 GEORGE III. 213 tions with England, and the war was continued for fiv© years longer. In 1779 Spain, and afterwards Holland, also became involved in the war, so that England had to contend not only against America, but against France, Spain, and Holland. The French even contem- plated an invasion of England. In America fortune seemed to favour the English arms ; but when, in 1781, Lord Cornwallis with seven thousand men capitulated, and surrendered York Town, the war on land was vir- tually at an end; but at sea it was continued on a BTHATH OP CHATHAM. grand scale — in the North Sea against the Dutch, in the British Channel and the Mediterranean against France and Spain. Minorca surrendered to the enemy, after a brave defence, in 1782 ; but Gibraltar main- tained itself most gallantly under General Elliot, against fearful odds. The successes gained by the English at sea put an end to the war with France and Spain ; and with Ame- rica a separate preliminary peace was concluded at Paris, towards the end of 1782, and finally settled in the following year. In this peace England recognised 214 h:3toey of England. [Chap. Xil, the independence of the American States, and varions restitutions were made in the West Indies, Africa, and India. Spain received the two Floridas and Minorca ; to France was given the island of St. Pierre, Miqnelon, Chandernagore, Pondicherry, and other possessions. The Dutch also received back what they had lost. This protracted war with America added a hundred millions to our national debt, and was for the time a great calamity to England ; but the results of the American independence have in the end become a blessing to both nations. It is now time to turn our attention to the state of affairs at home. In 1778 the penal laws enacted against the Catholics in the time of William III. were repealed, and this repeal created among the Protestants, espe- cially in Scotland, such an alarm, that immediately associations were formed to oppose the act. In London the anti-Catholic party was headed by Lord George Gordon, a half-witted fanatic, who assembled in St. George's Fields a meeting of about sixty thousand per- sons, who walked in procession to Westminster to petition parliament to repeal the recent act in favour of the Catholics. As this was refused, the mob attacked and destroyed the Catholic chapels, forced open the prisons, and set fire to several parts of the town. For several days London was entirely at the mercy of the mob. At last, however, the rioters were overpowered by the military, though not until nearly five hundred persons had been killed or wounded. Twenty-one of the ringleaders were executed, and Lord Gordon ended his days in Newgate. In 1782 Lord North resigned his premiership, and was succeeded by Eockingham. About the same time there gradually arose a desire for constitutional reforms, in consequence of which the two great political parties of tories and whigs became more sharply marked, while a third, or radical party, was headed by such men as Wilkes and Home Tooke. William Pitt, the second son of Chatham, and the leading spirit among the whigs, proposed a reform of the system of electing members of parliament ; but, although such a reform 1760-1820.] GEOEGE III. 215 was reserved for a later period, some substantial im- provements were introduced in the House of Commons, which are still the law of the land. Kockingham died in the same year in which he had entered upon his second ministry, and was succeeded by Lord Shelburne, under whom Pitt became chancellor of the exchequer ; but, after some further changes, Pitt rose to the head of the government, and maintained his position, with one brief interruption, until his death in 1806. His great ability and popularity at once secured him a large majority in parliament, and many of the great measures passed a generation later, such as parliamentary reform, Catholic emancipation, the abolition of slavery, and others, were for the first time brought forward by that eminent minister. George III. was a thorough conservative, or tory, in his sentiments; while his son George, the prince of Wales, threw himself into the arms of the whigs, and in other respects led a life which could not but excite the displeasure of his father. He incurred enormous debts by his extravagance, and his residence in London was the scene of disgraceful revelries and debauchery. These things brought about an estrangement between father and son. In 1788 the king was seized with an attack of mental derangement ; but while parliament was discussing the regent to be appointed, the king recovered. The year 1789 is marked by the outbreak of the French Eevolution. We cannot here enter into the causes and the progress of that mighty outburst of popular indignation against oppression and the abuses of centuries. But the shock of the convulsion did not affect France alone : it was felt more or less in all the countries of Europe. At first the movement found many and powerful sympathisers in this country, espe- cially among the whigs ; but the frightful excesses of the Parisian mob soon filled all reasonable men with horror and disgust. In 1792 the French republicans called upon all nations to assert their freedom, and pro- mised their support, and democratic clubs were formed in several parts of England. When at length, in January, 216 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XII. 1793, Louis XVI. was executed, all the monarcliies of Europe looked upon the bloody deed as a crime that ought to be avenged. While our government was still hesitating what to do, the French declared war against England and Holland, and their armies overran the countries bordering on France. The duke of York, the king's second son, was sent out with an army into Belgium, but could effect nothing, and returned home. The English fleet, under admiral Hood, took possession of Toulon, which was held by the French royalists ; but, as the town became untenable, the fleet withdrew, and took Corsica ; while lord Howe defeated the French fleet off Ushant in 1794, capturing twelve ships of the line. An attempt on the part of England to conclude peace came to nothing. Plans were now formed for an invasion of England. Two of these j)roved failures : one expedition, led by Hoche, attempted to make a descent upon Ireland, and the other intended to land an army on the south coast of England. As Holland had been conquered by the French, and Spain had allied itself with them, the attack was now to be made by their combined fleets. That of Spain, though vastly superior to the English, was attacked, under the command of John Jervis, oft' Cape St. Vincent, in February, 1797, and completely defeated. Horatio Nelson, who had already distin- guished himself in the capture of Corsica, was mainly instrumental in gaining this victory. The French and Dutch fleets experienced a similar fate off Camperdown. While the English arms were thus victorious every- where, affairs at home were anything but satisfactory. Owing to the enormous expenses of the war, public credit had sunk very low, and the bank of England had to suspend cash payments. In addition to this, the seamen of the Channel fleet in 1797 mutinied, partly because of their low pay, and partly on account of the severity of the discipline. When, however, the griev- ances of the men were remedied, the ships, one after another, returned to their duty ; and Parker and other leaders of the mutiny were executed, while the rest were pardoned _» 1760—1820.] GEORGE III. 217 In 1798 general Bonaparte undertook his famous expedition to Egypt. Nelson followed him, and almost totally destroyed the French fleet in the bat.tle of the Nile. At home the government had to contend with revolutionary agitations, and to prosecute men for sedition ; while Ireland, which had long been in a very unsettled state, had been incited by the French Eevo- lution to demand extensive reforms. Several privileges were granted, or rather old restrictions were removed ; but, not being satisfied with these measures, the Irish entered into a treasonable correspondence with the French, the result of which was the abovementioned attempt of Hoche to land a force in Ireland. In 1797 the country had been placed under military law ; for the Irish were aiming at nothing less than an Irish republic, independent of England. In 1798 a general insurrection was j^lanned; but it was betrayed, and put down with a great deal of cruelty and bloodshed. The rebellion was finally crushed by general Lake at Vinegar Hill, near Wexford. It had, however, become evident that some decisive measures were absolutely necessary, and in May, 1800, Pitt proposed the union of Ireland with Great Britain, which was accepted by the English parliament, and carried through that of Ireland by means of bribes and threats ; for the Irish generally had a strong dislike to the measure. How- ever, the union took efiect on January 1, 1801, and Ireland henceforth sent one hundred members to the English parliament, and thirty-two Irish peers, elected for life, to the house of Lords. The Irish and English Protestant churches were united, so as to have the same doctrines and the same forms of worship. In 1800 Malta was surrendered to the English, after a blockade of two years. Eussia, Denmark, and Sweden agreed upon an armed neutrality in the war against Bonaparte. When in the follov/ing year the united parliament of the three kingdoms met, Pitt proposed to make certain concessions to the Irish Catholics ; but, as the king refused, Pitt resigned, thinking at the same time that his retirement might facilitate the conclusion of peace with France. He was succeeded by Addington. 218 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XlL As Prussia now also joined the northern league, an English fleet was sent into the Baltic, which, by the bombardment of Copenhagen, detached Denmark from the confederacy ; but the league was soon after broken u^^, and a new one was formed between Britain, Sweden, and Denmark. On the whole, England may be said to have been successful during that year ; for not only had the northern league been broken up, but the French had been defeated at Alexandria. At length a peace with France was concluded in March, 1802, at Amiens, in which England agreed to give up all her colonial conquests except Ceylon and Trinidad, to restore Egypt to Turkey, Malta to the knights of St. John, and the Caj)e of Good Hope to Holland. But Napoleon soon found reasons to pick a fresh quarrel, complaining that Malta was not evacuated quickly enough, and that French refugees found an asylum in England. After the peace, large numbers of English had gone to France, and Napoleon now ordered them all to be arrested. This completed the rupture, and Napoleon formed the plan of invading England from Boulogne. A large camp was formed, a flotilla of gun-boats was assembled, and most extensive prepara- tions were made in all the French ports. The insolence and the outrages committed by Napoleon at last led all the European states to unite against him, with the exception of Prussia, which, by keeping aloof, hoped to obtain Hanover, which was then in the hands of the French. At Boulogne everything was ready, and the fleets from Toulon and Spain were to sail to the West Indies, there to assemble, and thence to return to Europe. It was expected that their united efforts would be able to defy any English armament. But this scheme was thwarted by Sir Eobert Calder, who gained a victory over the returning fleets, not far from Cape Finisterre, in 1805. Nelson had in the mean time twice attacked the flQet at Boulogne without success, and had in vain pursued the fleets on their way to the West Indies ; but on October the 21st he fought the splendid battle of Trafalgar, and compelled the French admiral Villeneuve to take shelter in Cadiz. The vie- 1760—1820,] GEORGE III, 219 tory was complete, but Nelson was killed. " Thank God ! I have done my duty," were the last words spoken by the dying hero, as he closed a career of fame by a death of glory, and established a clear and unquestioned title to the first place in the proud roll of England's most illustrious naval commanders. This victory put an end to all fear of invasion ; but the joy of the Eng- lish people was marred by the news of the gallant Nel- son's death. DEATH OP KELSON. The great army assembled at Boulogne was now sud- denly turned against Austria. Pitt, who had displayed the utmost energy in prosecuting the war against the "unprincipled enemy, was worn out by the excitement of the times, and died in 1806. He was succeeded by lord Grenville, of whose ministry Fox was the lead- ing spirit; but Fox too died in the same year. The military achievements of England during this year w^ere not great, while the ambition and success of Napoleon on the continent were unbounded. He was now resolved to ruin the commerce of Britain by shut- tins: it out from all commercial communication with the continent. The peace of Tilsit, in 1807, between Napoleon and Eussia, contained a secret article, placing the fleet of Denmark at the disposal of France. In order to prevent this, a powerful English armament was sent out to demand th© surrender of the Danish 220 HISTORY OF ENGLANDo [Chap, XII. fleet. As this was refused, Copenhagen was invested and bombarded, and the Danish fleet had to be brought out. Meanwhile, in 1808, Portugal was overrun by a. French army, and Joseph, Napoleon's eldest brother, was made king of Spain. The British government sent an army, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterwards duke of Welling- ton, to Spain, and, after two battles, the French, by the convention of Cintra, were obliged to evacuate Portugal. The French rule was by no means popular in Spain : but still, when in 1809 the British army, under Sir John Moore, advanced from Portugal into Spain, he did not meet with the support he had expected, and had to face fifty thousand French, commanded by Soult. Moore fell in the battle of Corunna, and his forces withdrew, leaving the French masters of the country. Wellesley now took the command in Spain, and gained the bril- liant victory of Talavera, in which the French lost ten thousand men. But, while success was thus beginning to dawn upon our forces, an expedition to Walcheren, which was designed to take Antwerp, utterly failed, and the armament had to return home, after the loss of about seven thousand men from fever. In 1810 Napoleon, having made peace with Austria, was enabled to turn a very large force into Spain, and hoped thereby to drive the " English leopards " into the sea. Massena, with eighty thousand men, met "Wel- lesley at Busaco, and lost five thousand ; but*the English fell back on the famous lines of Torres Yedras, which had been constructed by Wellesley, and the French, being unable to follow them there, were obliged to retreat. In the beginning of 1811 Wellington advanced from these lines, and pursued his victorious career as far as the Pj^renees, gaining victory after victory, until towards the end of 1813 Soult was driven back into France. In England Grenville had been succeeded by the duke of Portland, and, upon the death of the latter in 1809, Spencer Perceval became prime minister. In 1810 George III. became permanently insane, and the prince of Wales henceforth governed the kingdom as 1760— 1820.] GEORaE III, 221 regent during the remaining years of his father's life. Perceval was shot in the lobby of the House of Com- mons in 1812, and was succeeded by lord Liverpool. About the same time America declared war against England, on account of some commercial disputes ; but of this we shall have to speak hereafter. The same year witnessed the gigantic but disastrous expedition of Napoleon into Eussia. Having lost in that campaign nearly half a million of men, he made a last effort at Leipzig in 1813, and, being thoroughly defeated there, he returned to France, whither he was followed by the Allies, and forced to sign his abdication at Fontaine- bleau in 1814. Being allowed to retain the title of emperor. Napoleon retired to Elba, and Louis XVIII. , brother of Louis XVI., was proclaimed king of France. A peace was then concluded at Paris, in which England, after all her losses in men and money, and after so many brilliant victories, obtained little more than Malta, the Cape of Good Hope, Mauritius, Ceylon, and some West Indian islands. During these events Wellington, having gained the brilliant victories of Talavera, Albuera, Ciudad Eodrigo, Badajoz, Salamanca, and Vittoria, pursued the enemy into France, and defeated them again at Orthez and Toulouse. After the conclusion of the peace he spent some time in Spain to settle the affairs of that country, and then returned to England, where honours and wealth were showered upon him by a grateful people, for the noble victories he had won over an unscrupulous usurper and tyrant, who had trodden down nearly all Europe under his iron foot. In the peace of Paris it had been arranged that a European congress should meet at Vienna to settle all the remaining details. The congress assembled on January 1st, 1815, and had not far advanced, when it was surprised by the news that Napoleon had escaped from Elba, had landed at Cannes, and was received with popular acclamations. The troops, deserting the royal standard, joined Napoleon, who entered Paris, while the king took to flight. The congress at Vienna immediately declared Napoleon a public enemj?-, and all the states there represented agreed to unite their 222 HISTOBY OF ENdLAND. [Chap. XII. forces against him. Armies at once set out to meet him, and, after several minor engagements, the battle of Waterloo was fought June 18th, 1815, in which the Allies, commanded by Wellington, completely defeated the French army. Napoleon, having lost thirty thousand men, fled to Paris, and, finding that his life was not safe, WELLINGTON AT WATEELOO. he abdicated in favour of his son. Thus ended the famous hundred days of his second empire, from March 21st to June 29th. Napoleon surrendered to Captain Maitland, of the Bellerophon, and threw himself upon the hos- pitality of the English, but, on the advice of the Allies, he was conveyed to the island of St. Helena, A\'here he died in 1821. The second peace of Paris, which was signed towards the end of 1815, settled the affairs of Prance, but left England pretty much in the position already assigned to her. ^ The congress of Vienna continued its sittings, and distributed the countries of Europe among the different sovereigns, apparently without any regard to nation- ality or the Tv^iBhea of the people, which, some years later, led to fresh disturbances. The enormous expenses 1760—1820.] GEOKGE III. 223 incurred during the protracted war against Napoleon had increased our national debt to nearly eight hundred millions. It has already been mentioned that in 1812 a war broke out between this country and the United States of America. It arose from the fact that Napoleon, by cutting off all continental commerce with England, had provoked the English government to measures of retalia- tion, in consequence of which the commerce of America was nearly destroyed. This was keenly felt by the Americans, who stopped all intercourse with England. As, moreover, the English claimed the right to search all American vessels, in order to prevent English sailors serving in them, war was declared. An attack was made on Canada in 1813, and the Americans captured Toronto ; but in the following year they were unsuc- cessful, and Washington was taken by general Poss, who burned a great part of the city. He himself was afterwards killed in an attack upon Baltimore, and the English suffered serious reverses both there and at New Orleans. This unhappy war was brought to a close by the peace of Ghent, in December, 1814, in which it was settled that both countries should give up the conquests they had made. England had in the mean time greatly suffered from the stoppage of commerce, and the consequent dearth of provisions, combined with heavy taxes, which were rendered unavoidable by the exigencies of the war. The agitation for parliamentary and other reforms was spreading, and the country was altogether in an uneasy condition. George III. continued in his state of mental aberration until his death, on January 29th, 1820, after a reign of nearly sixty years, the longest in English history. One of his sons, the duke of Kent, was married to Vic- toria, princess of Saxe-Coburg, the mother of our present queen. The princess Charlotte, the only daughter of the prince regent, was married to prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, afterwards king of the Belgians ; but she died in 1817, deeply lamented by the whole nation, as she was universally beloved and the heir-presumptive to the English throne. 224 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XII, 4. GEOBGE IV,, 1820-1830. The accession of George IV. was little more than a change of title, as he had already reigned for ten years as prince regent. He was born in 1762, so that on his accession he had attained the age of fifty- seven. Until his eighteenth year he had been kept in great seclusion, and almost in a state of pupilage ; but when he gained his freedom he broke through all restraint, indulging in extravagance and dissipation, and parliament had to pay his debts more than once. His mind, however, was highly cultivated, and his manners very polished, and in social intercourse he was generally kind and amiable, but his good qualities were spoiled by his habits of dissipation. In 1795 he married Caroline of Brunswick, to whom he conceived a great dislike. The only child of this union was the princess Charlotte, born in 1796 ; and soon after her birth the parents separated. The princess Caroline lived for some years in England, partly at Charlton and partly at Blackheath. In 1806 she was accused of unchastity ; but though the royal commission appointed to inquire into the matter acquitted her of the principal charge, her conduct was censured as un- becoming her station. After this she withdrew to the continent. When in 1820, on the accession of her husband, she returned to England to claim her rights as queen, a bill of pains and penalties was passed against her in the House of Lords, but was abandoned by the ministers, because the popular excitement was intense, and there was no hope of carrying it through the Commons. On the day of the coronation she made her appearance at Westminster Abbey, but was repulsed, and little more than a fortnight later death put an end to her troubled life. The conduct of the king towards his wife during these proceedings deprived him of the last remnant of popularity among his subjects. The distress prevailing in England, in consequence of the JSTapoleonio wars and the depression of commerce, still continued during the reign of George IV., and was increased by heavy taxation and unfavourable harvests. 1820—1830.] GEORCtE IV. 225 In addition to all this, a fearful commercial crisis occurred in 1825, a result of excessive speculation and over-trading. Many banking establisliments failed, and liundreds of persons who had lived in easy circum- stances were at once reduced to poverty. To mitigate the evil, sj'stematic emigration was devised, which caused a great influx of colonists into Canada and Australia. But this and other measures could not wholly remove the evil. People began to look about for further remedies, and the opinion began to spread that the only effectual remedy lay in a reform of the system of parliamentary representation. ■\vEi3TinN3TSR ABEi:?. This and the question of Catholic emancipation seemed absolutely to demand some kind of solution. George Canning, who had been in the ministry since 1822, became prime minister in 1827. He had already given his support to a bill brought in by Sir Francis Burdett to repeal the disabilities under which the Catholics were still suffering, and the liberal party now looked to him for such a measure ; but the king declared that such a thing was incompatible with his coronation oath, and that he would resist it. Canning died the 226 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XII. sajne year, and was succeeded by viscount Godericli, who resigned after a few months, and made room for the duke of Wellington, who was known to be opposed to all concession. In Ireland a regular organisation had been formed by the eloqiient Daniel O'Connell, under the name of " The Catholic Association," for the purpose of obtaining a repeal of the Catholic disabilities. A great stimulus was given to this movement in 1828 by the repeal of the old Test and Corporation Acts, whereby Protestant dissenters were greatly benefited. Just at this time O'Connell had been elected to represent the county of Clare in parliament, and it was felt that, if he were not allowed to take his seat, it might lead to very serious consequences. Such was Wellington's view, which induced him to announce a Catholic Relief bill, which was brought forward by Sir Eobert Peel, and passed both houses of parliament, against a formidable opposition, in 1829. By this bill the Catholics were admitted to equal rights with the Protestants, except that no Catholic could become regent, lord chancellor, or viceroy of Ireland ; they likewise still remained excluded from appointments in colleges and universities. In like manner the old law remained in force that an English king or queen could not marry a Catholic without the forfeiture of the crown. This bill obtained the sanction of George lY., but with great reluctance and vexation ; for in the question about Catholic emancipation he had completely adopted the views of the tories. During the latter part of his life he lived in seclusion at Windsor, where he died on June 26th, 1830. Besides the two great measures already mentioned, much also was done in this king's reign to improve the law, especially the navigation laws, by which all Eu- ropean countries at peace with England were put on the same footing. Parliamentary reform, and the abo- lition of slavery, were indeed discussed, but had to be postponed to a later date. The only military undertakings during the reign of George IV. were a war against the Burmese, on account of their inroads into the territory of Bengal, and tho 1830—1837,] WILLIAM IV. ' 227 support afforded to the Greeks in, tlieir attempt to shake off the yoke of Turkey. A fleet of English, French, and Eussian vessels, under the command of Sir Edward Codrington, defeated the Egyptian and Turkish fleets in the great battle of Navarino, in 1827, which led to the independence of Greece. 5. WILLIAM IV., 1830-1837. William IV. was the third son of George III., and nearly sixty-five years old when he succeeded his brother. He had entered the naval service at an early age, and rose to the rank of lord high admiral. Like most sailors, he was frank and good-natured, and far more popular than his brother. In 1818 he married princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, by whom he had two daughters, who died very young. During his reign the English court was distinguished for moral purity and the happy domestic life of the king and queen. We have already seen that the demand for par- liamentary reform had become pretty general in Eng- land, and the commotions in continental states about the time of William's accession greatly contributed to bring this question in England to a crisis. Attempts at such reforms had been made as early as the year 1782 by the younger Pitt, and after the outbreak of the French Eevolution the demand became both more in- tense and more widely spread. The prevailing distress also had its influence, and the success of the agitation for Catholic emancipation inspired a hope that par- liamentary reform might likewise be carried, if the agitation were carried on with vigour and energy. When the duke of Wellington openly declared his de- termination to resist all changes in the parliamentary system, there arose throughout the country such a state of excitement that a civil war seemed to be imminent. The duke had accordingly to resign, and was succeeded by earl Grey. The new ministry favoured the idea of reform, which had become absolutely necessary, for there were places, 228 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. SII. with very few, or no inliabitants at all, whicli returned members to parliament, nominated by the great land- owners, while the large manufacturing towns of recent growth were not represented at all. A Eeform Bill for England and Wales was brought in in 1831 by lord John Kussell, which passed the Commons, but was rejected by the Lords. Terrible riots now occurred in various parts of the kingdom, in which many lives were lost, and much property destroyed. During these troubles England was visited by the Asiatic cholera, which carried off thousands of victims. In 1832 the Reform Bill was brought in again and accepted by the Commons. The Lords were as bitterly opposed to it as before, and the ministry had to threaten to induce the king to create a number of new peers, to PASSING OP THE REFOKM BILI,. secure the passing of the bill. But the moderate coun- sels of the duke of Wellington prevailed upon the king to persuade the opposition peers to abstain from voting ; thus the bill was carried, and became law on June 7th, 1832. By it fifty-six boroughs were disfranchised ; thirty places which had hitherto returned two mem- 1830-1837.] WILLIAM IV. 229 "bers liencefortii only sent one. Of tlife places tlms made vacant, sixty-five were given to counties, and twenty-two to newly-created boronglis, each of whicli elected two members, and the remaining two to new horonghs, each of which returned one member. The constituencies also were enlarged, for tenants of land with a rental of 501. a-year received a vote for the county, and householders paying a yearly rent of 101. received a vote for the borough. Similar acts were afterwards passed for Scotland and Ireland, though with some differences, especially in regard to Ireland. The first reformed parliament in 1833 carried several important measures, for the tory party seemed almost paralysed. Ten Irish bishoprics were abolished; the trade to India and China, which had hitherto been monopolised by the East India Company, was thrown open to private enterprise, and 20,000Z. were voted to promote elementary education. But the great mea- sure of the session was an act for the entire abolition of slavery in the West Indies, which was effected at a cost of 20,000,000Z. as compensation to the slave owners. During the session of 1834 lord Grey resigned, and lord Melbourne, who succeeded him, carried an im- portant measure for the amendment of the poor law, by which out-door relief was almost entirely done away with, while the local overseers were controlled by a central poor law board in London. The old system of granting relief to the poor had in reality been an en- couragement to vice and indolence, and had demoralised the lower orders to an incredible extent. Towards the end of this year the king suddenly dismissed his ministers, and sent for Sir Eobert Peel, who undertook the administration on so-called liberal-conservative principles. But as he was not generally trusted, and was unable to command a majority in the House, he resigned in 1835, and lord Melbourne returned to office. Under his administration a measure for municipal re- form was carried, the business of boroughs having hitherto been managed, or, rather, mismanaged, by cliques, for their own benefit. The constituencies wera enlarged, and henceforth town councils v/ere appointed 230 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. [Chap. XII. by popular election. Among other improvements in- troduced at the same time we may mention the insti- tution of civil marriages, and the general system of registering births, marriages, and deaths, which were passed in 1836. Ireland, however, still remained a source of trouble to the government, for O'Connell now headed a new agitation for the repeal of the union with England, which gave rise to many disorders, in consequence of which coercive measures had to be adopted. William lY. died on June 20th, 1837, and was suc- ceeded in England by his niece, the princess Victoria, and in Hanover by his brother Ernest, duke of Cum- berland, as by the Salic law females are excluded from the succession in Hanover. 6. VICTORIA, 1837. Queen Victoria is the daughter of Edward duke of Kent, brother of William IV., and of Victoria, daughter of Francis duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and was born on May 24th, 1819. She lost her father when only nine months old, but was educated in the most careful and judicious manner by her mother. Three years after her accession, 1840, she married prince Albert, son of the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who afterwards obtained the title of Prince Consort. It is unnecessary here to dwell upon the public and private virtues, and the truly constitutional spirit with which queen Vic- toria rules her vast domains, for they are known and appreciated by all, and we shall confine ourselves to a brief statement of the principal events which have eccurred during her reign. The Eeform Bill of 1832, which many thought had gone too far, was considered by others not to have done enough for the people ; and the latter, or radical party, were not a little irritated at the declaration of lord John Eussell in 1837, that that measure was final. The more violent portion of the party obtained the name of Chartists, from the fact that at a meeting held at Birmingham, in 1838, they demanded a people's 1837.] VICTOKIA. 231 charter, containing six points — universal suffrage, vote by ballot, triennial parliaments, equal electoral districts, the abolition of property qualification, and salaries for members of parliament. Tbeir agitation was not always carried on in a lawful and constitutional manner, and the violent way in wbicb they endeavoured to force their opinions upon the country, rendered severe measures unavoidable. Some of the leaders who openly advised the people to have recourse to physical force — Frost, Williams, and Jones — were arrested and transported for life. The result was that for some years they remained quiet, but the outbreak of the French revolution, in 1848, gave them fresh courage, and, headed byFeargus O'Connor, they hoped by a monster demonstration to frighten the government into the concession of their demands. Some twenty thousand men, with a gigantic petition, containing, it is said, five millions of signa- tures, walked to Westminster. London was alarmed, and all business suspended, but a vast number of special constables and the military, stationed in various parts of the town, prevented disorders, and the mob, having delivered the petition, dispersed, without having done much mischief. Effectual precautionary measures thus put an end to what might have become formidable and dangerous. In Ireland the agitation for a repeal of the union was continued. The Catholic Eelief Bill passed in the previous reign did not satisfy the Irish, and an asso- ciation was formed to restore a separate Irish par- liament. This association spread very rapidly, and assumed formidable dimensions; monster meetings were held, and O'Connell pledged himself to have an Irish parliament before the end of the year 1843. At last the government felt it to be its duty to in- terfere and forbid such meetings. The ringleaders — O'Connell, his son and eight others — were brought to trial, and condemned to fines and imprisonment; but on their appeal to the House of Lords, the verdict was annulled. From this time the agitation ceased, until, in 1848, it grew into a rebellion, which had to be put doAvn by main force, and Mitchell and other 232 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XII. ringleaders were condemned to penal servitude. In 1866 the so-called Fenian conspiracy threatened to become dangerous, but again was successfully com- bated. In the very year of queen Victoria's accession, o, rebellion broke out in Canada, originating in disputes between the two nationalities (French and English) of the two Oanadas, which led to resistance against the constituted authorities. The rebels were supplied with troops and stores from the United States, until the unlawful proceeding was stopped by a proclamation of the president. With the help of the troops stationed in the country, and the loyal support of the inhabit- ants of the upper province, the insurrection was put down, and in the following year, 1838, lord Durham settled the affairs of the country in a conciliatory spirit, and endeavoured to establish the union of the pro- vinces by a popular constitution; but, being assailed by his enemies at home, he resigned. His successor, Poulett Thomson, afterwards lord Sydenham, however, adopting the same policy, succeeded in accomplishing what lord Durham had attempted. The two provinces were united, and the seat of government was at the same time removed from Quebec to Montreal. The ministry of lord Melbourne, whose wise and moderate counsels had guided the young queen during the first years of her reign, came to an end in 1841, and was followed by that of Sir Eobert Peel, who, by his liberal and moderate views, had, in the mean- time, secured the confidence of the nation. The poorer classes suffered periodically from the high prices of provisions, which were the natural result of the many restrictions upon trade. In 1842 the great distress pre- vailing all over the country, especially in the manufac- turing I districts, gave rise to disturbances in some places, and the government began seriously to consider the matter. Sir Kobert Peel, being at leligth convinced of the necessity of remedying this evil, proposed and carried a series of measures calculated to encourage commerce and manufacture, and reduced the taxation on numerous articles necessary in ordinary life. In 1837.] VICTORIA. 233 order to make up the deficit thereby created in the revenue, he imposed a property and income tax, which fell only on the npper and middle classes, and whicli has been maintained ever since, being sometimes di- minished and sometimes increased according to the exigencies of the state. A few years experience showed the wisdom of Peel's policy, and the idea of free trade was gaining ground every day ; but what pressed most heavily upon the poorer classes were the corn laws, which did not allow the importation of foreign grain, except at a high duty. Peel therefore introduced a sliding scale, that is, in times of a bad harvest the duty was lowered, but rose again when there had been an abundant harvest. It had, however, become evident that what >vas called protection of native industry was a delusion, and that free trade would be the best policy. The Anti-Corn- Law League, which had been founded, in 1838, by Eichard Cobden, made every effort to induce Parlia- ment to abolish those obnoxious laws. Cobden was ably supported by Yilliers and John Bright. A de- ficiency in the harvest in 1845, and the blight which affected the potato crop, both in England and L'eland, greatly aided the efforts of the League, and, in 1846, Peel, in spite of the most desperate opposition of the protectionists, succeeded in carrying the abolition of the corn laws, leaving only one shilling duty per quarter. The opposition to their repeal had been very powerful to the last, for farmers and landowners ima- gined that such a measure would be their ruin. But the result has proved the contrary. After having carried this, and other useful measures, Sir Eobert Peel retired from office, and was succeeded by lord John Eussell, who continued the commercial policy of his predecessor. Legislation has been carried on in the same liberal spirit ever since, down to the present day : the franchise has been greatly extended, by a second Eeform Act, in 1868, by which household suffrage has been established ; the last grievances of dissenters have been removed; the Irish church has been disestablished; the universities have been thrown 234 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XII. open to all her Majesty's subjects, without any distinc- tion of creed ; and a law has been passed providing elementary education for the whole nation ; it is only to be regretted that this last law did not precede the extension of the franchise. While at home the reign of Victoria has thus been characterised by steady progress, it has not been alto- gether free from the troubles and horrors of war. We have already mentioned the rebellion in Canada ; three years later, 1840, the English government became in- volved in a war between the sultan and Mehemet Ali, pacha of Egypt, who had cast off the allegiance to his master and conquered a portion of Syria. As England could not allow the Turkish empire to be dismembered, commodore Napier was sent out with a fleet, and having taken the principal port towns of Syria, and bombarded Acre, compelled the pacha to give up his conquests and content himself with the position of hereditary viceroy of Egypt. A more formidable war broke out with Eussia in 1854. The rulers of that country, being the heads of the Greek church of Eussia, had for more than a century aimed at gaining possession of Constantinople, as the most important and convenient centre of the nations belonging to the Greek church. The affairs of Europe were now in such a state that no power seemed likely to come to the assistance of Turkey, and a dispute be- tween the Greek and Latin Christians about certain holy places at Jerusalem seemed to the emperor Nicholas a favourable opportunity for attacking the " sick man," as he called the Turkish empire. He claimed the right to act as the head of the Greek church in Turkey, and, as this was rejected, he marched a force across the Pruth in 1853, into Moldavia and Wallachia, where- upon the sultan declared war against him. England and France, being opposed to the dismemberment of Turkey, now likewise declared war against Eussia, and a force under lord Eaglan was sent into the Crimea, while a fleet under Sir Charles Napier. sailed into the Baltic, to keep the Eussians engaged in that quarter also. In this war the British soldiers gained 1837.] VICTORIA. 235 imperisliable renown by their bravery in the battles of the Alma, Balaclava, and Inkerman, but suffered se- verely through lack of organization and foresight, especially in regard to the commissariat and other things which have to be provided on the outbreak of a war. In 1855 the king of Sardinia also joined the Allies. But the capture of the strong fortress of Se- bastopol, and some other places, brought the war to a close, and a peace was concluded at Paris in 1856, in which Kussia gave up the claims which had been the cause of the war, and was further obliged to dismantle the fortifications of Sebastopol, to give up her protec- torate over the Danubian principalities, and to with- draw her fleet from the Black Sea. In the East wars had been carried on against the Chinese, Afghans, and Indian chiefs, almost from the commencement of the reign of Victoria, and on some occasions the British soldiers suffered severe defeats, but the ultimate consequences were generally favour- able to England and the cause of civilization. Thus, although the war against China was scarcely justifiable, the peace which was concluded in 1842 gave to England the island of Hong Kong, and opened several Chinese ports to English merchants. The accounts of these Eastern wars belong to the history of the East rather than to that of England, still we cannot leave un- noticed the outbreak of the terrible Indian mutiny. No sooner had the Eussian war ended in the humiliation of Eussia, than news reached Europe of a terrible mutiny in India, which was accompanied by most horrible cruelties perpetrated by the natives against Europeans. The real cause of this mutiny lay, no doubt, in the general want of sympathy of Europeans with the native popu- lation, and it did not require much to cause a general rising. The mutiny was crushed, after much bloodshed and cruelty on both sides, in 1859 ; but one of its good results was, that the government of India was trans- ferred from the East India Company to the crown, in consequence of which a secretary for India was ap- pointed, who is assisted by a council of fifteen. In 1861 the Prince Consort died of a fever at Windsor, 23(5 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. [Chap, XIL leaving behind him a reputation for wisdom and dis- cretion such as* few men in his position could have achieved ; for although on his first arrival in England he was met by much ill-feeling, simply because he was a German, he ended in being beloved and respected by all classes of Englishmen. His beneficent influence had made itself felt in every department of social life ; he had been a true promoter of art and literature, and gave to British industry in particular a great and lasting impulse by the first great international exhibi- tion in Hyde Park, in 1851. Literature, industry, and the arts, both high and industrial, had found in him a sincere and intelligent patron. A CHAPTER ON ENGIISH PROGRESS, IN LITERATURE, ART, SCIENCE, COMMERCE, MANUFACTURE, &c. There is notliing more astonishing in the history of the world than the story of the progress of England from the earliest times until now. Long before Csesar landed, the Phoenicians had come from the far east to possess themselves of the mineral treasures of the Scilly Isles ; and there are some who think it by no means impro- bable that English metal may have been used in the construction of Solomon's temple. Be that as it may, the people themselves made but slight use of their mineral wealth. Their implements were at one time made of stone ; though at a later period we find them making knives, swords, and arrowheads out of bronze — • a mixture of copper and tin. Their clothing consisted of the skins of beasts, except in the south, where they were sometimes visited by Gallic merchants, from whom they learned something of civilisation. Before Caesar's galleys appeared off the coast of Kent, the Briton could carry his biggest ship upon his back, for it consisted only of wicker-work covered with hide. In such a cockle-shell the faint-hearted native timorously paddled along the shore, for he was unwilling to brave the dangers of the sea. How strikingly do these facts contrast with the use now made of our mineral wealth, 238 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. and with the naval glory of which we are in these days so proud 1 The Eomans were the first to teach the useful arts to the Briton ; but he was slow to learn, and it was not till the bold and enterprising Saxon appeared in the land that the real progress of the country commenced. THE SAXON PERIOD, (410 A.D.—1066 a.d.) LITERATURE. — Of the earlier portion of this period there is little to tell. It was only after the introduction of Christianity that a literature began to develop. The monasteries then became the schools, and the friars the teachers, of the time. Books were few and precious, and generally were written in the Latin language. The most notable prose writer was the Venerable Bede, a monk of Wearmouth, who Avrote in Latin ' The History of the Church of the Angles,' which, as has been mentioned, was afterwards translated into Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred. This distinguished sovereign became the translator and editor of several other well-known Latin works. The only poet of note who wrote in Anglo-Saxon was Caedmon, a cowherd in connection with a monastery at Whitby. His poetry consists of paraphrases of por- tions of the Bible. Among the few other remarkable persons may be mentioned the name of Gildhas, the first historian of Britain; of Aldhelm, the famous Latinist ; of Alcuin, the confidential friend of Charle- magne ; and of John Scotus, the most celebrated scholar of his day. It was during this period that the two great English universities were founded. INDUSTRIES.— The occupations of the bulk of the Anglo-Saxons were war and the chase. Their wants were simple and easily supplied. Their houses, though strong, were rudely built, and their manner of life was coarse and almost savage. The females were more in- dustrious than the men, and made what articles of cloth- ing were then in use. A few foreign workers in glass A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROaRESS, 239 had arrived at Wearmoutli; but the people were utterly ignorant of the art. Painting on glass, bell-making, &c., were often the occupations of the leisure hours of the friars, a knowledge of these arts having been de- rived from the Continent. COINAGE.— The silver coins of the Anglo-Saxons were called pennies, and were equal in value to two shil- lings of our money. The styca was the only copper coin, and was rather over the value of our penny. The money, both silver and copper, was miserably made, and the designs were curious and grotesque. THE EARLY NORMAN PERIOD. (1066 A.D.--1154 a.d.) LITERATURE.— William the Conqueror was fond of learning, and brought with him from Normandy several scholarly men, who did great service to the cause of education and literature. Among these were Lanfranc and Anselm, who occupied high positions in the church, and, both by practice and precept, encou- raged the people to greater diligence in their studies. Schools were now, for the first time, established apart from monasteries. French became the court language, and an effort was made to make it the language of the country; but the Saxons held most obstinately to their own expressive tongue, and ultimately compelled their conquerors to speak it too. The best history of this period is to be found in The Saxon^ Chronicle, which was compiled by various monks in the different monasteries to which they belonged. The greater number of the writers of this time still wrote in Latin. The principal authors were William of Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon, and Geoffrey of Monmouth, all of whom were chroniclers. The last-mentioned author wrote a history so fanciful as to be entirely unworthy of credit; but it is, nevertheless, remarkable as con- taining ' The Story of King Arthur and the Knights of the Hound Tdble,^ from which so many poets have taken material for some of their most successful productions. The Normans were the first to introduce Romances, so 240 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, called "because they were written in a language derived from the Eoman, or Latin tongue. They told of the wonderful adventures of heroes, in delivering the un- fortunate from giants, monsters, &c. INDUSTRY. — The invasion of a people like the Normans was certain to have a civilizing effect upon the Anglo-Saxons. We now find their manners under- going a gradual change for the better; and a certain degree of etiquette is introduced which had a very refining influence. The progress of industry exhibited itself in improvements in the construction of new roads and bridges. At this time, too, began the trade in wool, which, ere long, was to be the principal article of commerce. COINAGE. — There was little or no change in the money, except that silver halfpennies were occasionally used. These were of the value of about one shilling of our money. (1154,A.D.— 1485 A,D,) LITEEATUEE.— During this period we have the gradual amalgamation of the Saxons and the Normans. This change is very perceptible in the language of the country, which is now called Semi-Saxon. The real reason of this change is not to be found in the intro- duction of French words, but in the modifications which took place in the old Saxon. Thus the plural endings as and en now become es, the pronoun Mne is changed into Mm, and to is introduced before the infi- nitive. The best examples of these changes are to be found in the 'Brut ' of Layamon, a rhyming translation of a French poem relating to Britain. As the language lost more of its German inflections, and became simpler in its grammar, it has been called Old English and Middle English, to mark two stages in its advance towards the Modern English which we now speak and write. Old English seems to have been used in the thirteenth century, and the best illustration of it is the rhyming chronicle of Robert^of, Gloucester ; but there A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGEESS, 241 were many similar clironicles about tliis time. Middle English, was spoken for a much longer period than that last mentioned, and the authors are of much greater importance. Gower wrote well in the three languages then common in the country, viz., French, Latin and English. But all previous poets were now eclipsed by Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400), who has been styled the Father of English Poetry. His principal work is ^The Canterbury Tales,' a series of stories supposed to be told by pilgrims, on their way from London to the shrine of Thomas a Becket, at Canterbury. The ' Pro- logue/ or opening poem, is very valuable, as containing animated descriptions of the various characters of the time. Sir John Mandeville wrote contemporaneously with Chaucer, and is the first English author on the subject of foreign travel. His work, like Gower's, was written in three languages. John Wycliffe, the ear- liest English reformer, is notable as having written the First Translation of the English Bible, which was not only the largest prose work that had yet appeared, but was of singular value on account of the important re^ suits which came of it. In Scotland, John Barbour had written a very readable poem about King Kobert- Bruce. ART. — The only art of any consequence was that dt architecture. The pointed arch, and other Gothic cha- racteristics hitherto in vogue, were somewhat altered by the introduction of the rounded arch, usually styled Norman. SCIENCE. — The sciences were as yet in their infancy, although there were earnest men like Eoger Bacon and Michael Scott, who were trying hard to get light. But these men were regarded as wizards ; and Bacon was imprisoned by ignorant priests, who thought he must have something to do with Satan. To Eoger Bacon we are indebted for the magnifying-glass. The students of the stars, in those days, looked up to the sky as to the book of fate ; and regarded the planets, not with intent to gain a knowledge of them, but to find out what influence they had, or were thought to have, on the lives and destinies of men. This so-called 242 !IIST0KY OF ENGLAND. science was named Astrology, and became the parent of astronomy. In like manner, Alchemy preceded chemistry. It was the popular belief that, by means of certain chemical combinations, a stone might be made which would change the baser metals, iron and lead, into gold. The alchemists also endeavoured to discover an Elixir of Life, by the drinking of which men might live for ever. These wonderful things were never found out ; but in the search for them a knowledge was gained which was to prove invaluable. During this time, candles were substituted for torches; gunpowder was invented by Schwartz at Cologne (1340), and the first cannons were used by Edward III. at the Battle of Crecy (1346). TRADE and INDUSTRY. —As the Saxons and the Normans were gradually becoming one people, they began with singleness of purpose to advance the inter- ests of England. Trade was showing progress. France now found a market for her wines ; Eussia, for her furs ; the Netherlands, for woollen and linen goods ; while the far countries of the East sent gold, silk, and spices. England, on the other hand, exported wool, tin and lead, salmon, and sometimes, even slaves. Before the time of Eichard I., the Jews were the goldsmiths, jewellers, and bankers of the people; and letters of credit were used for the first time in the reign of John. The only manufacture of any consequence as yet, was the making of woollen goods at Worsted and Nor- wich ; but it does not seem to have thriven at first, for we find Edward III. inviting more Flemish weavers to settle in England, centuries after their predecessors had originally come to the country. The mining operations were of a very limited nature. The tin-mines of Cornwall had been wrought for a long time, and iron had been used in tolerable quantity ; but so long as the people lacked a sufficiency of fuel for smelting purposes, the progress must have been slow. Coal was discovered at New- castle in 1233 (in Scotland, earlier), but it was by no means a favourite ; for we read that when, in the four- teenth century, the London brewers tried the new fuel, iho smoke was found so disagreeable that an Act was A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH iP^dGEESB. 243 passed forbidding the use of it. Those wlio had tried it, however, found it to do so well that they persevered in spite of the new law. The Government then declared that the burning of the new mineral would be con- sidered a capital crime; and it is on record that at least one man was executed for continuing the use of coal. At present, the Londoners burn more than seven millions of tons of coal annually. COINAGE. — In the reign of Edward III., gold nobles were introduced. These were of the value of six shil- lings and eight pence, and were considered to be really beautiful coins. THE LANCASTRIAN AND YORKIST PERIOD. (1369 A.D.— 1485 A.D.) LITERATURE.- — In consequence of the wars with France in the earlier portion of this period, and the civil strife of the later, the literary progress of England was slow. FoRTEScuE and Lyttletoe^, two lawyers of the time, wrote works on the subject of the English Constitution ; but the poets, in England at least, were scarcely worthy the name, being mere rhymsters who wrote on historical subjects. Of these, Occleve and Lydgate are best remembered, because they helped to modernise the language which belongs to Middle English. There were no rules for spelling, every one having an orthography to suit himself. The English Drama was now in its infancy. The clergy of the time taught their people the stories of the Bible by 23erform- ing them in the churches. These performances are called Miracle Plays. In the reign of Henry VI., Moral Plays took the place of the miracles. They were performed by men who personated qualities, such as Virtue and Vice. They were like the persons we read about in Bunyan's ^Pilgrim's Progress.' Plays of this kind were called allegorical. In Scotland the leading author was James I., who strove hard to advance learning among his subjects. During his imprisonment in Windsor Castle he became v,ery fond of Chaucer's 244 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. works, and lias imitated Mm in his own manner of -writing. * The King^s QuTiair,^ or book, is his principal poem, and it describes the romantic story of his love. The universities of St. Andrews and Glasgow were founded during this period ; the former in 1411, and the latter in 1451. It is needless to add that the introduction of printing (alluded to below), gave an impulse to literature such as it had never yet received ; and it will be seen, when we come to discuss the next period, how rapidly the results of it began to manifest themselves. SCIENCE. — Little that is new has to be recorded of this time. Surgery seems to have been an unpopular study; for there was only one surgeon, with a few assistants, to attend to the wounded at the Battle of Agincourt. The study of the stars, however, seems to have advanced ; for we find Halley's comet first observed in ^England in 1456. This comet appeared when the Turks were carrying all before them, and were threatening to become the masters of Europe. It was regarded as an evil omen, and a prayer common at the time was, "Save us from the devil, the Turk, and the comet !" TRADE and INDUSTRY.--At the close of the Plan- tagenet period, the folly of Richard II. had done much to checJi the progress of commerce, and the wars of the succeeding dynasties had also an evil effect upon trade. But it did not stand still, notwithstanding these hin- drances. Villeinage (slavery) having been abolished, there were more persons interested than before. Wool was still the staple commodity ; but it had now become so excellent in quality as to rival the fine wools of Spain, and was therefore in greater demand than ever. To the exports must now be added guns and gun- powder; and to the imports, wines from Spain and Portugal. Among the most successful merchants were Cannyng and Whittington, who is well known in con- nection with his cat. Suffice it to say, that these men became very wealthy, and spent their money worthily in erecting fountains, in founding hospitals, and in con- tributing liberally to the charities of the time. A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGBESS. 245 The art of glass-making had become by this time well known ; and the improvements in the art of ship- building were important, the largest vessels being now about 900 tons burthen. But the art, of all arts the chief, was that of printing. This invention is variously ascribed to the Dutchman, Lawrence Coster, and to the German Gutenberg, of Mainz. However tha,t may be, the use of type was first introduced into England in 1474, by John Caxton, who set up a printing-press in West- minster, and produced the first book ever printed in this country. It was called ' Tlie Game and Flaye of the Chess.'' COINAGE.— The nobles coined in the reign of Ed- ward III. were increased in value to ten shillings, and were called rials ; and what had formerly been named nobles were now called angels. In the time of Edward VI, crowns and half-crowns were first coined. They were so called on account of the device of a crown stamped on similar coins in circulation on the continent. It is worthy of remark that, previous to this period, the money had been merely punched out of the solid metal, and had, therefore, a certain raggedness about the edges. In Elizabeth's time a new machine — the Mill and Screw — was invented, by which coins were made to have neatly- indented edges, as most of our silver coins now have. THE TUBOE PEEIOD. (1485 a.d.~1603 a.d.) LITERATURE.— As has been already hinted, the invention of printing was of invaluable service to the cause of learning and literature ; but there was now, also, a great revival in the study of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Numerous schools and colleges were being founded by Wolsey and others. The old monasteries fell in the time of Henry YIIL, and with them the schools so long attached to them. Students stood between the old ways of thought and the new, scarcely knowing which were better. It was a time of tran- sition. It is remarkable that during this period the ladies of England were more studiously inclined than 246 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND. ever before or even since. Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth knew the classical languages, and two or more modern ones; and the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey derived consolation in the hour of death from her Greek Testament. Such excellent examples made the ladies of the land, if only for fashion's sake, to study with diligence. The language is greatly indebted to Sir Thomas Wyatt and Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey, for the grace and smoothness which, till now, it had lacked. The latter poet is notable as having been the first to introduce the English sonnet, a poem fourteen lines long, with peculiarities in the arrangement of the rhymes. For the first time also, blank verse was intro- duced by Surrey in his translation of a portion of "Virgil's ' ^neid.' This blank verse is so called because it has no rhymes. Within a comparatively short period the New Testament was translated by Tyndale, and the whole Bible was afterwards published by Miles CovERDALE. TMs last translation was rendered neces- sary because Wyclifie's version had become almost unreadable. Of the Scottish poets there were two who merit distinction; these were William Dunbar and Gavin Douglas, both ministers, the latter a bishop. The former wrote allegorical poems, and the latter first translated the whole of Virgil's great poem into English. Modern English is considered to have begun about the middle of the sixteenth century, and the most note- worthy fact in connection with its beginning is the rapid development of dramatic literature. The Miracle and the Moral Plays were over, and now began the real drama. The earliest tragedy was ' Gorhodiic,^ or ^ Ferrex and Porrex' (1562), and was written by Sack- Ville ; the earliest comedy, ' Bal^Ji Boyster Doyster ' (1551), written by Udall; but, only fourteen years later, a much more amusing production followed, called ^Gammer Gurton's Needle^' by John Still. This last brings out, very humorously, the fuss made about the loss of a needle — at that time a most rare and valuable instrument. Until then the dramatic authors were but A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGRESS. 247 as the faint stars of the morning hours, for ere long William Shakespeare rises like the sun in his glory, and eclipses them all. This illustrious poet was born at Stratford-on-Avon in 1564. He was part proprietor of one of the earliest theatres — the Globe, London; wrote thirty-seven plays, besides sonnets and other poems, and died at his birth-place in 1616. His poetry exhibits the deepest knowledge of human nature, and contains more wisdom than any other English book, the Bible alone excepted. Contemporary with Shakespeare was Christopher Marlowe, a young man who lived a dissolute life, but who, had he conducted himself otherwise, might have rivalled the great dramatist himself. As it is, he is second only, in point of merit. Among the allegorical poets Edmund Spenser stands first. His poem, called ' The Faerie Queen,' although for the most part written in modern English, contains hundreds of words which the author made to suit himself, and to give his work an ancient aspect. Each couplet consists of nine lines, eight of which have ten syllables in each ; while the last, called an Alexandrine, has twelve. This, with a peculiarity in the arrangement of the rhymes, is called the Spenserian Stanza. Among the other poets was the gallant and generous Sir Phillip Sydney, who, like Surrey, wrote ' Sonnets,' as also a prose romance called ^Arcadia' He is best remembered for his kindness to the dying soldier at Zutphen. The notable prose writers were Sir Walter Kaleigh, Eichard Hooker, and Francis Bacon. The unfortunate Sir Walter was one of the wonders of the age. He was courtier, soldier, sailor, discoverer, colonizer, and literary man, by turns, and excelled in almost every case. His greatest work was ' The History of the World,' which he wrote while unjustly detained as a prisoner in the Tower by James I. Hooker wrote the ^Ecclesiastical Polity' — a book about the Church of England ; but Bacon, although he had now written his famous ' Essays,' did not produce his great book till the next period. ART. — The architecture of the time is known as Tudor, or Elizabethan, and is sometimes called the 248 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Florid style, on account of the elaborate ornamentation whicli was then the fashion. Music was now being cultivated,- and Tallis was the most notable composer. Painting, too, was "being patronised, for we find Hans Holbein, the German painter, at the court of Henry VIII. SCIENCE. — The progress in science was not very rapid, in England at least, at this period. In conse- quence, however, of the wonderful discoveries made by Galileo, the Italian philosopher, Astrology was to change its name, and to become a science indeed. Medicine, too, was making progress, for we find the royal doctors, headed by a medical minister named LiNACRE, forming themselves into a society or college in 1518. This was named the Royal College of Physicians, because the king granted them a charter. The object was to keep quacks from meddling with medical matters, and to prevent the use of other than wholesome drugs. TRADE. — In consequence of the decline of the feudal system, the character of the sovereigns, who were now nearly absolute, had a greater effect on the interests of the country than at any former time. Thus Henry VII. was a money-loving king, and, in order to fill his trea- sury, became one of the keenest merchants in the land. New commercial treaties were arranged, and trade became brisk. During this reign, obscure villages, such as Liverpool and Manchester, were beginning to give evidence of growth, and were becoming every year more important. In the matter of maritime discovery, Henry VII. made some effort to imitate Spain. Eng- land had narrowly escaped the honour of sending out Columbus ; but, perhaps, she thereby escaped that " curse of gold " which at length reduced Spain to a mean position among the nations of Europe. Henry sent out Sebastian Oaeot, who discovered the main- land of America in 1497, but, beyond the honour, there was no immediate gain. The character of Henry VIII. was exactly the reverse of that of his father, and yet even his extravagance was of advantage to trade. He scattered abroad the treasures to which he fell heir, A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGRESS. 249 and in this way did excellent service to business by the increased circulation of money. His love of finery, too, was imitated by his courtiers and by the wealthier classes among the people ; hence the finest cloths were imported, and the most skilful foreign workmen brought into the country. The natives regarded these with jealousy ; but, having an eye to the business of the future, they got laws passed prohibiting foreigners from employing other than English apprentices, so that their skill might at length become the property of the nation. The size and tonnage of vessels had now con- siderably increased, and merchants were thus enabled to trade with countries far distant from home. Com- mercial companies were got up ; some to work the Newfoundland fisheries, and others to bring to England the produce of Eussia — a country at that time scarcely better known than central Africa is now. Among the many methods of money -making, it is curious to note that the lending of money for interest was strictly forbidden, as it was deemed a direct violation of Divine law ; and in the reign of Edward YI., any person lending money for usury was liable, not only to tl^e forfeiture of his loan, but to be fined and imprisoned as for a crime. This law continued in force for twenty years ; 'but, although it was then repealed, the interest on money was limited to ten per cent. At this time, too, an old law, making it unlawful for foreign vessels to carry English goods, was repealed, and commerce was thereby greatly benefited. In Elizabeth's time there was developed a spirit of enterprise such as no other nation had exhibited. India being now regarded as the home of wealth, numerous efforts were made to discover the shortest possible route from England. Yasco di GrAMA had already found out the Cape route ; but it was believed for many a century afterwards that there was a yet shorter way round by the north of North America, and thence by the Pacific to China and India. This route it was the object of such men as Matiti^t Erobisher, and Sir John Davis to discover. They did not find it, however; but they gained vast stores of geographical knowledge, while their names 250 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. will ever be associated with the places they visited. Sir Francis Drake was the first to sail round the world (1577), and Sir Thomas Cavendish goon afterwards did the same. Ealeigh had crossed the ocean, and had in vain endeavoured to found a colony in that part of America now known as Virginia. It was during Elizabeth's reign that a charter was granted to the East India Company, giving them the sole right to trade with Hindostan. AGRICULTURE, &c. — Great improvements were taking place in the tillage of the soil. Much of the land was under pasture ; and it is worthy of notice, as a contrast to the dear times in whi ch we live, that beef and mutton sold at a halfpenny per pound, and veal and pork at three-farthings ! Clover and hops were imported for the first time, and, in 1586, Baleigh intro- duced the potato. In the reign of Henry VIII. some of our principal fruit-trees were brought from Flanders, and planted in Kent — among these, plums, apricots, gooseberries, and currants ; and at the close of the sixteenth century roses, carnations, and gillyflowers were brought from France. MANUFACTURES.— The woollen goods of English manufacture could now compete with those of Flemish make, and exports of this kind were highly valued on the continent. Silk had been introduced, but was merely used in hand-knitting, and in the production of such articles as cauls (nets for the hair), laces, &c. In 1589, Lee, a Cambridge student, invented the stocking- loom, by which the manufacture of silk stockings became an important branch of industry. Paper mills were first erected in Hertfordshire, about 1490, but the most important one was built at Dartford. The owner of this mill had a licence for " the sole gathering for ten years of all rags, &c., necessary for paper-making." Coach-making became a branch of English industry in 1564. It is recorded that " a coach was a strange monster in those days, and the sight of it put both horse and man to amazement." The iron trade, des- tined before long to be one of the most important, was as yet confined to the county of Sussex. There were A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGRESS. 251 iron districts in other parts of the country, hut their distance from London prevented their being exten- sively wrought. The mining operations in Sussex were of the simplest character; the fuel used in smelting was charcoal made from the oaks of the forest ; while the fan was driven by water-power. The guns made here were at first formed of pieces of metal strongly hooped together, but, in 1543, they were cast in a mould by Hogge, a master founder in Sussex. So very extensive had gun-making become, that during Elizabeth's reign cannon were exported in large numbers. The result was that England's enemies were found firing at her with guns made by herself. The foreign trade in these weapons had, therefore, to be forbidden. COINAGE.- — A gold coin worth two rials was made in the reign of Henry VIII., and was called a sovereign. At the same time, also, the testoon or shilling cam© into use. It was of the same value as our own, THE STUAET PERIOD TILL THE RESTORATION. (1603 A.D.— 1660 A.D.) LITERATURE.— At the commencement of this period Shakespeare and Raleigh were yet alive. The famous Bejt Jonson was the most important poet of the reign of James I. He had been student, bricklayer, soldier, and actor, and was now a play- writer; his principal comedy is ^ Every Man in His Humour.^ Two close friends, twin names in literature, were Beaumont and Fletcher. Together they composed very clever and sparkling plays. Philip Massinger, a poor man, who had a hard fight for bare existence, wrote a comedy entitled ' A New Way to Pay Old Debts' Other poets there were. Royalists and Puritans. Among the former may be named, Herrick, Carew, Suckling, and Lovelace, who are called lyric poets, because they wrote song-like poems. There were no very famous Puritan authors ; but there were religious poets, most of whose writings possess that queerness of illustration 252 HISTORY OP ENaLAND. which has led to their being called metaphysical poets. Their odd fancies were called conceits. Their names were Quarles, Herbert, and Ceawshaw. In Scot- land, Drummond of Hawthornden was the most con- spicuous of the poetical writers. Of the prose authors, Johj^ Milton and Francis Bacon were undoubtedly the greatest. Of the former we shall soon have more to tell; meantime it is sufficient to record, that he wrote some telling pam- phlets against king-worship, and also in favour of the freedom of the press. Bacon now produced his greatest work, the ' Novum Organum,^ which is esteemed one of the wisest and most useful books ever written ; for, by the aid of his new system of induction, he put a lamp into the hands of students of science, which guided them to many useful inventions and discoveries. Jeremy Taylor, Joseph Hall, and Thomas Fuller were three . distinguished divines notable in literature as having written Religious Books. ' Tlie Authorized Version of the Bihle' was published under the patronage of James I., and in the same reign fly-sheets con1:aining news were occasionally printed and circulated. They were the forerunners of the newspapers of the present ART. — In architecture, the greatest name is that of Inigo Jones, who designed the banqueting-house at Whitehall. Painting was being more extensively patronized, especially during the reign of Charles I., who had Vandyke and Rubens, the great Flemish artists, at his court. The former was so successful in painting the portraits of the King and the Eoyal Family, that he found more work to do than he could well manage. Music, too, had made some progress, and Bull, Gibbons, and Bird were the principal com- posers. SCIENCE. — Perhaps the most wonderful scientific discovery of the time was that of the circulation of the blood, by William Harvey, a London doctor, and one of the lecturers in connection with the College of Phy- sicians. He had explained his discovery to his students in 1619, but did not let th© world know about it till A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGRESS. 253 1628. On the continent, many important discoveries were made. Kepler had fonnd out the laws that gnided the planets in their motion round the sun; Snellins, the laws of the refraction of light ; Huygens, the way of applying Galileo's discovery of the pendulum to the art of clock-making ; and Guericke had invented the air-pump. TRADE. — Compared with the energy displayed during the reign of Elizabeth, the progress now made was not great. There were various ways of accounting for this. In consequence of the granting of monopolies, much business was kept in the hands of a few indi- viduals; then England was at war with Spain and Holland — countries with which there had hitherto been a good trade. The civil war had much to do with it, as had also the strong rivalry of the Dutch, even when there was amity between our nation and theirs. The old ill will to interest returned, and the old ten per cent, was reduced first to eight, and afterwards to six per cent. To the dishonesty of Charles I. we are indebted for the introduction of banking. Hitherto the merchants had kept their savings in the Mint (the place where the money is coined) ; but Charles, being needy, seized upon their store, saying he only wished the loan of it. After this, business men would trust the Mint no longer ; but entrusted their gains to the goldsmiths, who gave them interest for the use of the money. Indirectly, the events that led to the civil war were of great service to commerce, for they were the cause of the planting of those colonies in America, which have since proved so valuable to the trade of this country. Letters were conveyed on horseback, and a letter posted in London would reach Edinburgh in rather more than three days. MANUFACTURES.— It was during the earlier por- tion of this period that Manchester rose into impor- tance in connection with cotton. A silk mill had been erected at Derby (1620), and a tapestry factory at Mortlake. Ship -building was progressing, though it is curious to note that Glasgow, now so celebrated for the number and magnificence of the vessels she has built, 254 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. owned at this time a fleet of only twelve ships; and the Clyde was so shallow, that no ship of any size could approach nearer than fourteen miles from the town. Of the coal and iron business some interesting facts may be stated. No effort had been made to use coal for smelting purposes till the want of charcoal began to make itself felt. Now, since wood was still the fuel of the country, the people of the metropolis became alarmed lest the Sussex iron-smelters should use too much of it. The number of ironworks was therefore reduced, and immediately afterwards the smelters sought other iron-yielding districts, where there was also abundance of timber, as, for example, in South Wales. It was not till 1620 that any success attended the efforts made to utilise the coal. Proper appliances appear to have been contrived in that year by Dud Dudley, natural son of the Earl of Dudley. His works were at Cradley in Staffordshire, and he was soon able to turn out more smelted iron a week than those who still used the charcoal. Never did a man fight so doggedly as he through difficulties, perse- cutions, and misfortunes innumerable. His neigh- bours were jealous of him ; the mob hated him ; the floods demolished his works ; his rivals worried him with lawsuits ; and, to crown all, the civil war broke out. This put an end to the coal-smelting for a time, and it almost put an end to the entire iron trade of the country; for during the Commonwealth it was at a standstill. Cromwell himself tried to get Dudley's secret of coal-smelting from him ; but he would not divulge it to a Puritan. After the Restoration Dudley published a book, with the intention of revealing his secret ; but the language in which it was written was so mysterious that it hid the very thing it was in- tended to explain ; and hence the whole business had to be re-discovered. COINAGE. — Copper-farthings were issued for the first time during the reign of James I., and were the first copper coins since the styca. Charles I. issued two large and splendid silver coins of the value of ten shillings and twenty shillings respectively ; but they A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROaRESS. 255 were too heavy to remain long in use. In the same reign the guinea was introduced. It was so called because the gold of which it was made came from Guinea, in Africa. Its value at that time was only twenty shillings. During the Commonwealth there was no change of importance. THE STUART PERIOD, PROM THE RESTORATION TILL THE REVOLUTION. (1660 a.d.— 1688 a.d.) LITERATURE.— The enforced goodness which pre- vailed during the Commonwealth was succeeded by a period of wild dissipation and wickedness. The abo- minations of the age are stamped upon the literature. If authors wished to live, they must write to suit the depraved tastes of the people. The stage was now very different from that of the Tudor time. Hitherto, female parts had been played by men ; they were now performed by women. The scenery, hitherto plain and paltry, gave place to that which was fairly painted and pleasant to look upon. But, while these were improvements, the plays and the acting of them were vile in the extreme. Many of the dramatic authors were, doubtless, very clever, and their plays sparkle with wit and humour ; but they are now unreadable in decent society. The laureate of the period was John Dryden", who wished to write differently from what the age demanded, but dared not. Then there were Eochester, Wycherley, and Congreve, all dra- matists, and all panderers to the fashionable sins. But out from amongst this abomination, there rose a poem, pure, holy, and beautiful. It was the ' Paradise Lost ' of the blind old Puritan — John Milton. This is the grandest epic in our language. Now it was that Butler wrote his quaint and humorous poem called ' Hudihras,' in which he makes fun of the sad-faced Eound-heads. Among the prose writers we have BuNYAN, notable for his ''Pilgrim's Progress f Locke, for his famous ' Essay on the Human Understanding ; Sir Isaac Newton, for his splendid^ scientific works ; and Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, for his ^ History of tlie BehelUon,^ R 256 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. ART.— Christopher Wren was the great architect of the time. Not only did he design St. Paul's Cathedral, in London, but he may be said to have been the architect of London itself. The city had been almost entirely destroyed by the great fire in 1666, and when it was rebuilt, the plans were made by Wren. Painting, which had not thriven in Puritan times, revived with the Eestoration of Charles II. Sir Peter Lely and Sir Godfrey Kneller were the two most fa'mous por- trait painters. Music had also suffered a severe check during the Commonwealth ; but when it was over, there was a great revival in the art, and ere long it became more popular in England than it had ever been before, or has been since, until now. The ' National Anthem ' was the production of this time ; and Purcell Was the greatest composer. SCIENCE. — This was the age when the steam-engine was to be invented and utilized. The first to invent one in this country was the Marquis of Worcester. One day he saw a tight-fitting kettle-lid blown off by steam, and rightly imagined that the force which could blow off a lid could be turned to some good use. The engine he invented may be briefly explained thus : — He had a boiler of water placed on a -fire, and from it a tube leading into a cylinder, or long iron drum, inside of which a piston was to move up and down. The steam was led through the tube to the lower part of the cylinder, and by its pressure caused the piston to rise to the top. But it could not get down again until the steam beneath had been removed. A stop-cock was therefore opened, and it escaped, while at the same moment a jet of steam was introduced above the piston to make its descent more rapid. This second volume of steam had to be let out by a stop-cock placed above, before the piston would rise again. The continual opening and shutting of these stop-cocks had to be per- formed by the hand, and so, though the contrivance was ingenious, it was but a slow affair, and incapable of doing much important work. Towards the close of this period, Sir Isaac Newton discovered the Laws of Crravitation. Astronomy was advancing, and in 1671, A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGRESS, 257 tlie now world-famous Observatory was erected at Greenwich. COMMERCE, &C.— It is marvellous to consider how the commerce of England was increased at this time. The persecutions in France and in Holland had the effect of driving skilled workmen over to this country, which accordingly reaped the full advantage of their skill. But there were persecutions in England itself, and here the hand of Providence is visible. In other countries, mischief has come upon trade and commerce, by the enforced exile of the artizans ; but England reaped the benefit, and when her own artizans were exiled in a similar way, they became, as we. have seen, the founders of colonies which have been a gain and not a loss to the mother country. There were other causes of prosperity. The six per cent, interest was still continued ; the monopolies were being done away with ; and the postage of letters had become cheaper than before. A letter could now be sent a distance of eighty miles for twopence. The shipping was double what it had been during the reign of Elizabeth ; the revenue was trebled, and the merchants were becoming men of wealth. The tea-trade was started, but only some two thousand pounds were consumed during the first six years. As wealth increased, the people desired to see more of the country than hitherto, and hence stage- coaches were placed on the highways to meet the want. In cities, too, it became necessary to have vehicles for hire ; thus hackney-coaches came into use, although the streets were so badly paved that sedan- chairs, borne by men, were far more comfortable. MANUFACTURES.— Up to the year 1667, woollen goods, though still highly valued, had to be sent to the continent to be dyed; for the English chemists had not as yet discovered the proper method. At this time, the muslins, chintzes, and calicoes, sent home by the East India Company, became the fashion in England, insomuch that woollen and other manufactures were left in the background. In these circumstances it was deemed expedient to pass an Act limiting the trade in these foreign goods ; but merchants saw that these 258 HISTOEY OF ENaLAND* cotton goods had taken well, and so began to imitate them at home. Calico-printing was first started in London. Patents were now granted for the making of " blue paper for sugar-makers," and for paper " as white as anything the French or Dutch can produce." Sugar-refining was beginning to be associated with Bristol. In 1319, sugar had been used for the first time, honey having previously served the same pur- pose. In 1676, the British planters of the Barbadoes had a fleet of four hundred vessels engaged in bringing sugar to England. Coal was now more extensively in use as fuel for domestic purposes ; but the iron busi- ness was very poor, four -fifths of the entire quantity of the metal required having been imported from Sweden. COINAGE. — Copper halfpennies were coined by Charles II., though copper pennies were not made till the reign of George III. It was at this time that the figure of Britannia was first stamped on English money. FROM THE REVOLUTION TILL THE DEATH OP GEORGE U, (1688 A.D.— 1760 A.D.) LITERATURE. — -In consequence of the Eevolution, every department of labour received an impulse which made progress leap forward with rapid strides. A feeling of freedom and freshness pervades the lite- rature; for it is now no longer necessary to pander to depraved tastes in order to obtain a living. The authors were more manly and independent than here- tofore. Alexander Pope was the greatest poet of his day. He was weakly in constitution, and therefore, perhaps, waspish in temper. His chief works were ' The Bape of the Loch ' and a ' Translation of Homer's Iliad'' (Greek) into English verse. Two Scottish poets of repute were James Thomson and Allan Eamsay, the former of whom wrote ' The Seasons,'' and the latter ' The Gentle Shepherd,^ a pastoral drama (one referring to shepherd life). To this period we are indebted for the first daily newspaper, the first novel, the first maga- zine, and the first English dictionary. ' The Daily A CHAPTER ON EN^LIgfl PBOaBESS. 25 D CoUrant* (London, 1709) was tlie first newspaper of its kind. The earliest novel of any consequence was * Bohinson Crusoe,'' written by Daniel Defoe in 1719. Many other writers of fiction follow. Among them were Kichardson, author of * Pamela;' Fielding, of * Tom Jones ;' and Smollet, of ' Peregrine PicMe,'' &c. Early in the eighteenth century, a small literary paper, called ' The Tatler,^ made its appearance. It was under the management of Sir Eichard Steele, an accom- plished and sprightly Irishman. The most note- worthy contributor was Joseph Addison, who was remarkable for the purity and beauty of his English. Other publications — ' The Spectator,' &c. — followed, but it was not till 1731 that Cave started the first real magazine. It was called * The Gentleman's Magazine.^ In 1755, Dr. Samuel Johnson published the first Eng- lish dictionary, a ponderous volume, full of erudition, but neither so easy to understand, nor so accurate in its etymology, as the sixpenny dictionary of our own day. ' Gulliver's Travels,' by Dean Soviet, and ' Tristram Shandy,' by Laurence Sterne, are both works of fiction, but have a political and philosophical significance which the ordinary reader may fail to observe. ARTS. — In architecture, it may be noted, that St. Paul's Cathedral, London, designed by Wren, was now completed after thirty-seven years of labour and an expenditure of 1,000,000Z. Music. — There were two great composers at the beginning of the eighteenth century. These were Handel, a German, resident in England, and , Dr. Arne. The former is known for his grand oratorios, which, though unpopular at first, have become great favourites with the people; th© latter, perhaps, is best known as the composer of ' Mule Britannia.' Painting. — The artists of the time are nearly all English, and towards the close of the period. The English School of Painting rises into dis- tinction. The painters were principally employed in painting pictures on walls and ceilings. Of this class Sir James Thornhill was the chief. But William Hogarth was the genius of the time. He did for his age what Chaucer did for the time in which he lived, 260 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. except that Hogarth _ accomplished with the brush and the graving tool what Chaucer did with his pen ; in other words, he painted and engraved pictures which reveal the manners and customs of the period. . SCIENCE. — In 1721, inoculation was introduced into England by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, who had seen it successfully adopted in the East. It had been discovered that if a little matter were taken, after the eighth day, from a jDerson suffering from small-pox, and were pricked into the skin of a healthy person, the latter would take the disease, but in so mild a form as not to endanger life. Now, the ravages of this disease had been so frightful, that, after a little, this new protection was gladly adopted. It had only one draw- back ; inoculated people suffering from small-pox were safe themselves, but they could communicate the con- tagion to uninoculated "persons, to whom the result might be fatal. In geographical science, very rapid progress was made, in consequence of the discoveries of such men as Cook, Berkeley, Bruce, and Park, all of whom contributed information which was of great value to other sciences, such as botany and astronomy. On the continent, great experiments had been made in connection with electricity ; but the first invention making it useful to man, was that of the lightning- rod, by Dr. Franklin, in 1760. This rod was to protect buildings from being struck by lightning, the electricity being conducted into the earth, by the greater attractive power of the metal used in making it. It was during this period that the thermometers of Fahrenheit and Keaumur, were invented. The former has been adopted in England, the latter in France and other countries. COMMERCE.— Trade felt the same impulse to which we have alluded as having sprung from the Eevo- lution ; and, by the union of England and Scotland, the commerce of both countries was much improved. Greatly to the disgust and annoyance of the Goldsmith Bankers, a Scot, named Paterson, established the Bank of England in 1694. It speedily became the popular bank, and it now guides all the other banks of the A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROaRESB. 261 country. For the convenience of trade, canals now "began to be made. The Earl of Bridgewater's Canal, in Lancashire, in 1758, was the first ever made in Eng- land. For the guidance of vessels approaching dan- gerous parts of our coasts, lighthouses were erected. The first Eddystone lighthouse — soon after destroyed — was built in 1696. The failure of the South Sea scheme and multitudes of similar companies proved very, disastrous to thousands of merchants who had been too keen in the " race for riches." The commerce suffered for a little, and men of business were taught to be more careful and less credulous than they, had hitherto been MANUFACTURES AND INVENTIONS.— Societies were now formed for the encouragement of industry, and every effort was made to facilitate progress. The most noteworthy advance took place in the manufacture of silk in 1718. Before this, "thrown silk" (silk formed into threads) had been made in Italy, and in this state it was brought to England. It was considered that this manufacture had not a chance of success, till the English could " throw " silk for themselves ; so a man named Johjt Lombe went to Italy in 1715, and, over- coming many difficulties, he managed, in the guise of a common labourer, to get access to one of the mills. Here he kept a keen watch on every part of the process, and drew pla'ns of the machinery when he got home at night. At last, however, the Italians found out what he was doing, and he had to flee for his life. But he had won this secret, and when he got home to Derby, he set up a machine by which " thrown silk " could easily be made. The cotton manufactures were gaining ground. The spinning of the cotton into thread was as yet a very slow process, every thread having to be spun between finger and thumb. In weaving, again, the shuttle required the use of both hands ; the one, to send it across the web; and the other, to send it back again. In 1733, John Kay invented the fly- shuttle, by means of which much time was saved. The shuttle could now be driven forwards and backwards by a single jerk of the hand; but the weavers, who Lelieved in tlie old slow way, broke into tlie inventor'^ lionse, destroyed his loom, and would have killed him- self, had he not managed to escape to Paris, where he afterwards died in poverty. His fly-shiittle soon came into general nse, hut it wove so rapidly, that the hand- spinners could not supply the weavers with enough of thread, and hence they were often kept idle. It will soon be seen that ere long they would have little excuse for idleness. The use of coal for smelting purposes now became imperative. A quaker, named Abraham Darby, made considerable use of coal in his iron furnaces, in the year 1713; and his example was speedily followed all over the country. Darby did for pot-making and other hollow castings what Lombe did for silk-throwing. He went over to Holland, where the work was secretly conducted; and by dint of shrewdness and perseverance managed to discover the method which has ever since been in use. Type- casting also took its place among the industries of the time. The steam-engine of the Marquis of Worcester being of little service, it was improved u]3on by Savery, a miner, in 1698, who rendered it capable of pumping water out of coal-pits. A still greater improvement was effected by Newcomen, a blacksmith, in 1705. It is well known that the atmosphere has a pressure of from 12 to 15 lbs. on the square inch. Newcomen took advantage of this fact, and made his atmospheric engine. But before the air could drive down the piston, the steam had to be got out from beneath it. This was effected by injecting cold water into the cylinder, and thereby condensing the steam (turning it into water). This caused the cylinder to be alternately heated and cooled, a plan which required time ; and so, although the new engine was able to pump better than Worcester's or Savery's, it was but slow compared with the speed it was yet to attain. COINAGE. — There was no change in the coinage, except that, while Sir Isaac Newton was Master of the Mint, the money was better made than formerly. A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROaRESS. 263 THE REIGN OP GEORGE III. (1760 a.d.-~1820 a.d.) LITERATURE. — As the printing press becomes more capable of performing work, the great authors crowd upon each other to such an extent that it becomes difficult to mention the names which it will be of most benefit to remember. Perhaps the most useful book of the time was Dr. Adam Smith's ' Wealth of Nations.^ In it, many wise counsels were given as to the right method of conducting the commerce of a country ; and it also showed the necessity for Free Trade, that is. having no restrictions — such as duties — on the exports or imports of the nation. Dr. Smith lived to see the government learn the lessons he had taught. This period is remarkable for the number of its great his- torians. Hume wrote his ' History of England ;' Egbert- son, his * History of Charles F.,' &c. ; and Gibbon, his ' Decline and Fall of the Homan Empire.'' Goldsmith penned * The Vicar of Wakefield,' one of the most charming novels ever written, and wrote also a most excellent comedy, ' She Stools to Conquer.' These, to- gether with his poetical works, make him one of the most noted men of his time. William Cowper, towards the close of the eighteenth century, wrote his ' Tash^'' a didactic poem (one fitted to teach or instruct). The greatest poet was Egbert Burns, the lyric poet of Scotland. He was an Ayrshire ploughman; but though of low degree, he ^ expressed the emotions of the human heart so well that his name will be ever dear to his countrymen, in whatever region of the globe their lot may be cast. He was born in 1759, and died in 1796. Chief among the essayists of the time, was Edmund Burke, who now wrote his splendid * Essay on the Sublime and Beautifid.' ART. — At the commencement of this period the fashionable style of Architecture was after the manner of Italian villas — very pretty to look at, but not at all suitable for the climate of this country. The toy-like and uncomfortable dwellings now erected soon gave place to the more substantial and more comfortable 264 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. iiouses of our own time. Painting. — Tlie painters had by tliis time become so mimeroiis and so successful that they clubbed together in 1768, received a royal charter, and, under the presidency " of Sir Joshua Eeynolds, started the Royal Academy for the encouragement of art. Eeynolds was famous as a portrait-painter; Sir Benjamin West as a historical painter; and Gains- borough as a landscape painter. There was a great de- mand for copies of the works of great artists, and hence engraving began to be practised more extensively than hitherto. Bewick, the illustrator of a ' History of Bri- tish Birds,' was one of the most successful engravers. Sculpture, which, till now, had been almost exclusively in the hands of foreign artists, was to be carried on henceforward by native talent. Flaxman was the best- known sculptor of this time. Pottery made great pro- gress. This was owing principally to the genius of JosiAH Wedgewood, wlio introduced the art of painting on earthenware, and who was also instrumental in chang- ing the homely fashion of our more common dishes for the more elegant designs of ancient Greece and Rome. Music. — Handel's stately oratorios were becoming more popular, while music-clubs and concert-giving were the order of the day. The great composers besides Handel were Arnold and Mornington. English Opera, which has never thriven, was now originated. SCIENCE. — In Medical Science the discovery was made by Dr. Jenner, in 1795, that farm servants, who caught infection from sores on the udder of a cow, though they did suifer slightly, were safe from the attacks of small-pox. Vaccination (from vacca, a cow) was the result ; and it was found that, while vaccine matter taken direct from .the cow had the effect desired when pricked into the skin of a healthy person, the matter taken from a person thus vaccinated would be quite as useful. So slight are the usual effects of vac- cination that infants can easily endure them. Che- mistry. — Henry Cavendish a wealthy member of a noble family, gave himself up heart and soul to the study of chemistry. He discovered that hydrogen was the lightest gas, and that water was composed of hydrogen A CHAPTER ON ENaLISH PEOaEESS. 265 And oxygen. Tlie former of tliese discoveries led to various experiments in balloon-travelling. Astronomy. —John Herschel was a German music-master, wlio came to England to teach his art ; but he loved science better than art. He made a telescope by which he discovered new planets, and ere long became so notable as to be employed as astronomer by George III., who afterwards made him Sir John Herschel. COMMERCE.— During the earlier portion of the reign, commerce was considerably injured in conse- quence of the American war. . After peace had been proclaimed (1782), the loss was happily more than covered by the rapid increase of trade which suc- ceeded ; for, during the following ten years, the busi- ness with the Colonies was nearly doubled, as was also the number of vessels employed in the traffic. But the French war, which took place towards the close of this reign, was a sad blow to this prosperous state of things; and it is wonderful that British commerce was able to survive it. It was Napoleon's object to ruin our trade, 'and he very nearly succeeded. Not France alone, but every European nation which had hitherto done business with England, was ordered by the conqueror to give up the connection. The result was so ruinous, that, if the Government had not helped the merchants, our commercial prosperity would have become a thing of the past. But " the darkest hour often precedes the dawn." When peace was pro- claimed, the demand for British produce was so tre- mendous, that the disheartened merchants Avere cheered ; and henceforward " the tide led on to fortune." MANUFACTURES AND INVENTIONS.— -No period in the .previous history of the kingdom had been so fruitful in invention as this ; and the discoveries made were more useful than those of any former time in the history of the world. The Cotton manufacture received incalculable benefits from the ingenuity of four men. As we have seen, thread was wanted in sufficient quan- tity to keep the weavers going." In 1767, Hargreaves, a weaver, invented a machino which could spin thread 266 HlSTOnY OF SNG^LAND. very rapidly. He called it the Spinning Jenny, otit of compliment to his wife, whose wheel had first suggested to him the idea of his new machinery. Arkwright, once a Preston barber, contrived a machine in 1769 which could card the cotton so as to produce threads of different quality. The invention was called the Water- frame Throstle. Crompton, in 1775, combined the two machines — Hargreaves' and Arkwright's — so that card- ing and spinning could go on together. The new device was called the Spinning Mule. In 1787 De. Cartwright, an ingenious clergyman, was able to make a machine which was capable of performing the whole process of weaving. This was called the Power-loom. Now, therefore, we have machinery that will card, spin, or weave; and, within a very few years, the steam-engine will cause it to work so rapidly that liand-labour will go out of fashion. It was the pro- spect of such an issue that made the spinners and weavers so vicious against these inventors; for, with the exception of Arkwright, all of them suffered severely for their pains. The generations of the future were to Ije the great gainers. In 1769 the value of the cotton manufactures did not exceed 200,000Z. a-year ; in 1824 it had risen to more than 33,000,000Z. James Watt, a Glasgow mechanic, perfected the steam-engine in 1769. He had got a model of one of Newcomen's engines to repair, and soon saw that the heating and cooling of the cylinder would never do, if the piston was to work with speed. In process of time he invented the Con- denser, in which the steam could be condensed outside of the cylinder, which would thus remain without change of temperature. After this, there was nothing too difficult for the steam-engine to accomplish, where mere force was necessary. To quote a well-known writer, " The steam-engine pumps water, drives spin- dles, threshes corn, prints books, hammers iron, ploughs land, saws timber, drives piles, impels ships, works railways, excavates docks ; and, in a word, exerts an almost unbounded supremacy over i; materials which enter into the daily use of mankind,^ for clothing, for labour, for defence, for household purposes^ for Iogo- A. CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PEOGRESS, 267 motion, for food, or for instruction." Less than forty years afterwards, Watt's engine was used for the pro- pulsion of vessels. The first Steamboat seems to have been the Charlotte Dundas, the contrivance of William Symington, in 1802. In 1807 a man named Fulton built a steamer (on specifications drawn up by Syming- ton), which plied successfully between New York and Albany, on the Hudson Eiver. The first really useful steamer in Britain was the Comet, which was designed by Henry Bell, an Helensburgh innkeeper, in 1811. This vessel plied on the Clyde, between Glasgow and Greenock. Soon a,fter, Napier, of Glasgow, constructed marine engines which would work well in the stormiest weather, and hence seagoing steamers began to be built. Coal was now being produced in greater quantity, and Gas-making was added to the industries of the country. The curious discovery had been made by Murdoch, of Cornwall, in 1792, that the inflammable gas known to exist in coal could be used for illuminating, instead of candles. When prejudices had been got over, coal-gas came into general use. But the gas existing in coal-pits was the constant cause of disaster, as explosions fre- quently took place when the flame of the collier's lamp set fire to it. This was to be in a great measure prevented by the use of the Safety-lamp, invented by Sir Humphry Davy in 1816. It remains to be recorded that Lithography was invented at Paris in 1796, and Stereotyping, in Germany, in 1797. COINAGE. — Copper pennies were coined for the first time during this reign. The silver money was much neglected, being worn so smooth that both image and superscription had become almost invisible. FROM 1820 TILL THE PRESENT TIME. LITERATURE. — The authors are now so numerous that it is necessary to classify them. It will be con- venient, therefore, to arrange them in the following order : Poets, Novelists, Dramatists, Critics, Historians, and writers on other subjects than those previously indicated. I. Poets. — First in order of time comes Sm 268 HISTORY OF^ ENGLAND, Walter Scott, whose stories in verse are fresh and invigorating as a sea-breeze. The best-known poems are ' The Lady of the Lake^' ^ Marmion,' and * The Lay of the Last MinstreV Next we have Wordswokth, Coleridge and Southey, usually called The Lake Poets, because they resided near each other at the Cumber- land lakes. Wordsworth's great poem was ' Tlie Excur- sion f Coleridge is best known as the author of ' The Ancient Mariner;^ and Southey, though he wrote an epic, is better remembered as having written such poems as ' Mary, the Maid of the Inn,' ' Lord William,' &g. Great, however, as these poets were, they do not take so high a position in literature as Lord Byron^, whose narrative poems are the finest productions of the century. Among his numerous works, ' Ghilde Harold ' may be named as one of the best. Contemporary with Byron was the Irish poet Moore, who, though he never visited the far East, wrote an excellent oriental poem entitled ' Lalla HooMi.' His most popular work was his * Lish Melodies.' Thomas Campbell, a poet belonging to Glasgow, is well remembered as the author of 'TAe Battle of the Baltic,' ' Ye Mariners of England,' &c., though his ' Pleasures of Hope ' and ' Gertrude of Wyoming ' are, both of them, highly meritorious poems of a more ambitious kind. Percy Bysshe Shelley and John" Keats were poets whose wealth of imagery has never been surpassed. The ' Queen Mah ' of the former, and the ' Endymion ' of the latter, afford excellent illustrations of their respective styles. Mrs. Felicia Hemans was one of the most noteworthy among the lady poets ; her '■Better Land ' is well known to young people. Coming nearer to our own time, the greatest poet is, undoubtedly, Alfred Tennyson", the Poet-Laureate. He writes with great power, and in the most expressive English. His principal poems, — ' Maud,' ' The Princess,^ those regard- ing the Arthurian legends, and ''Enoch Arden,' are very popular. Mr. Robert Browning and Mrs. E. Barrett Browning are the most remarkable poets, after Tennyson. The humorous writer of greatest repute was the kind and genial Tom Hood, whose ^Bridge of Sighs' and ^ Bong of the Shirt^ are well remembered. IL Novelist^, A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGRESS, 269 — The most powerful novelist of tlie century was Walter Scott, whose admirahle series of ' Waverley Novels ' will continue to be read with eagerness, long after the thousand and one yellow-Tboarded novels of our own time shall have been consigned to the oblivion they deserve. Among the earlier lady-novelists of re- pute were Miss Austin and Miss Edgeworth, whose works were intended more for instruction than amuse- ment. In our time, Dickens and Thackeray occupy the front rank, and next to them come Charlotte Bronte, Miss Evans (George Eliot), Charles Kingsley, Charles Lever, Anthony Trollope, Wilkie Collins, and BuLWER Lytton, who was perhaps the finest writer of them all. He died in January, 1873. III. Dramatists. — In tragedy, the most successful author was Sheridan Knowles ; in comedy, Douglas Jerrold, EoBERTsoN, and Tom Taylor; and Bulwer Lytton distinguished himself also by the production of such dramas as ' Biclielieu,^ ' The Lady of Lyons,' &g. IV. Critics. — Reviews had, very early in the present cen- tury, begun to exercise a healthy supervision in regard to literature. The writers of the period were almost innumerable, and the public required to be guided as to what was worth reading and what was not. Greatest among these guides were Lord Jeffrey, Hazlitt, Cole- EiDGE, and De Quincey. V. Historians. — The best writers of English History, during this period, were Lord Macaulay and J. A. Feoude ; of Continental History, Sir Archibald Alison and Hallam ; and of Greek History, Thirlwall and Grote. There vet remain to be men- tioned the names of authors who have excelled in other departments of literature : thus. Dr. Thomas Chalmers, in Theology; Thomas Carlyle, in Philosophy; John Stuart Mill, in Political Economy; G. H. Lewes and EoRSTER, in Biography ; Hugh Miller, in Geology ; John EusKiN, in the literature of Architecture and Painting. The Newspaper Press has now an immense influence on all matters of public importance, and the rapidity with which news can be transmitted and printed con- stitutes one of the wonders of our day. In contrast to the slow-going, creaking old press of Caxton's time, 270 HISTORY OF ENaLAND» we have smart machines, driven by sjteam, whicli can print twenty thousand copies of a newspaper in an hour's time. ARTS. — In architecture there is, during the present time, a great want of originality of design. Many splendid buildings are being erected, but they are principally fashioned after styles in vogue long ago. Sir Gilbert Scott is one of the greatest architects of our time. Painting. — Among the great artists who have made the English school of painting so important in the nineteenth century, the following may be named : Turner, the prince of landscape painters ; Landseer and Herring, who excel in animal painting ; and Sir David Wilkie, Maclise, Frith, Sir Noel Paton, Millais, and Holm an Hunt, who are famous as figure painters. Music is much cultivated, although it has been found hopeless to compete with the success it has attained on the continent, and hence it is to foreigners we are indebted for the best compositions, and nearly also for the best performers — vocal and instrumental. Bennett, Balfe, Costa, Sullivan, and Wallace are among the most notable composers. In sculpture the most important names are those of Sir Francis Chantrey and Gibson. SCIENCE. — Of the very numerous benefits resulting from Science, we can only give a few. — Photography was a discovery of this century. By its means, the features of those we love are accurately delineated by a rapid and inexpensive process. Chemistry does good service in discovering dyes for cloths ; in preparing new bleaching processes ; in finding out disinfectants ; in making use of articles hitherto deemed useless ; and, in short, lending a helping-hand to every department of industry. One of the most important discoveries of modern times has been chloroform, which has done so much to lessen human suffering. Astronomy has become one of the grandest sciences, and, by its aid, the wonders of the universe are daily made known to us. It was now that Lord Eosse erected his gigantic telescope, by which new wonders were revealed. Geology, a science yet in its infancyj gives A CHAPTEE ON ENGLISH PROGRESS. 271 the world some knowledge of the earth's crust. The study of the atmosphere (Meteorology) is found to be of immense service ; and the system devised by the late Admiral Fitzroy, by predicting the approach of storms, has doubtless saved many a vessel from shipwreck. Closely allied to scientific inquiry is geo- graphical research. The most distinguished in this department are — Sir John Franklin, who lost his life in trying to discover the North-west passage ; Speke, Baker, and Grant, the explorers of the Nile ; and Dr. Livingstone, who, according to recent accounts, is still most perseveringly endeavouring to find out the real source of that mysterious river, and to give us more knowledge of Central Africa. COMMERCE.— It is during this period that we reap the full benefit of our insular position, our mineral treasures, our fertile soil, and the industrious habits and inventive skill of a free people. More than sixty thousand vessels now ply between England and the various quarters of the globe. Our great sources of wealth are our manufactures. But these received a great impulse in the early part of the present reign, from the finding of gold in Australia, which caused thousands of emigrants to leave our shores, and thus to create a new market for our goods. MANUFACTURES AND INVENTIONS.— The cotton manufactures take the lead among the industries of the land ; their annual value being reckoned at 6O,O0O,O0OZ. The woollen and linen trades come next. Many im- portant improvements Jiave taken place in the machinery connected with these departments of business, but we cannot here enumerate them. The iron trade has very rapidly developed. The invention of the hot blast by NiELSON caused the process of smelting to be carried out much better than before, and without such waste of fuel. In 1829 George Stephenson had invented the locomotive engine, and the first railway, between Liverpool and Manchester, was opened to the public. Since then, the country has been covered with a net- work of lines, over which trains may now travel at a speed of sixty miles an hour ! Marine engines are every year becoming s 272 HISTORY OF ENaLANB, more excellent in design, so that steamers are now able to cross th.e Atlantic in little more tlian nine days ! A great trinmpli of invention was the electric telegraph, first used for the transmission of news in 1837. Scien- tific men had long been engaged in examining the nature of this wonderful agent, electricity, but it was not till about the year mentioned that it was made the means by which men, miles apart, could communicate with each other almost instantaneously. In 1866, a cable was successfully laid along the bottom of the Atlantic between England and America : and in 1873, there is every probability that there will be a line of electric communication right round the world. In laying the submarine cables the Great Eastern is employed. She is the largest vessel afloat, being 22,500 tons' burthen. Her immense size may be judged from the fact that a promenade round her deck involves a walk of more than a quarter of a mile. She is built of iron, a metal now commonly in use for ship-building purposes. There is yet one important event to notice in connection with the progress of industry. In 1851 the nations of the earth were invited to send specimens of their arts and manufactures to London. The Great Exhibition Palace, where these were shown, was itself a triumph of art, being wholly built of glass and iron. On its eight miles of tables were exhibited every variety of home and foreign industries and inventions, while its courts were embellished with the choicest works of art which the time could produce. On one occasion there were pre- sent in the building at one time no fewer than ninety- three thousand persons. In the time of William I. that number would have represented a twentieth part of the entire population of England. COINAGE. — In the reign of William IV., fourpenny- pieces, or groats, were coined. In Victoria's reign, the guinea has been withdrawn ; the silver florin, or two- shilling piece, introduced, as also the threepenny-piece ; and for the clumsy old copper pennies and halfpence, the lighter and more elegant bronze money has been substituted. §'^ SAXONS AND BANES, 827 Egbert reigned 10 years. 837 Ethelwulf . jj 21 ,, 858 Ethelbald . . ' . 5 J 2 „ 860 Ethelbert . J J 6 „ 866 Ethelred I. 5> 5 „ 871 AHred, the Great, 5> 29i „ 901 Edward I., the Elder, >3 24 „ 925 Athelstane J J 15 „ 940 Edmund I. . ; J J 6 „ 946 Edred S 5 9 „ 955 Edwy J> 4 „ 959 Edgar 55 16 „ 975 Edward II., the Martyr, . 55 3 „ 978 Ethelred II., the Unready, 55 38 „ 1016 Edmund II., Ironside^ 55 1 5, 1017 Canute, the Great, 55 19 „ 1036 Harold I., Harefoot, 35 4 „ 1040 Hardicanute ; 5 2 „ 1042 Edward III., the Confessor, J 5 24 „ 1066 Harold II., . ' . JJ 9 months NOEMAN. 1065 William I. , the Conqueror, 1087 William II., Eufus, 1100 Henry I. . 1135 Stephen, of Blois, . SOyrs.lO mths.25d5^s. 12 „ 10 „ 24 „ 35 „ 4 „ 18 „ 10 ,; 25 „ PLANTAGENET. 1154 Henry II. . 1189 Richard I., Cceur d'e Lion, 1199 John, Lackland, 1216 Henry III. 1272 Edward I. . 1307 „ IL 1327 ., in. 1377 Eichard II. 1399 Henry IV. i 1413 1422 .^ ?' V. VI. ^ , 55 34 „ 8 „ 11 d'e Lion, 55 9 5, 9 >5 ' 55 17 „ 6 5 35 56 „ 1 5 55 34 „ 7 5 21 > 19 „ 6 5 13 33 50 „ 5 , 5 33 22 „ 3 , 3 8 LANCASTEE. a V J» 13 „ 5 5 5 20 • • 33 9 „ 5 5 , 11 , )1 38 „ 6 3 3 5 274 HISTORY OP ENGLAND, 2 ea YORK. 1461 Edward IV. 1483 „ V. 1483 Richard III. 1485 Henry VII. 1509 „ VIII. 1547 Edward VI. 1553 Mary I. . 1558 Elizabeth . . re: Lgned 22yrs 1 2 mth. 4dys, . >> J, • )> 2„ 2 )} TUDOR. 23 „ 8 37 „ 9 6 ,» • 6„ 5 8 »» 5„ 4 11 »» 44 „ 4 7 >» STUART— Union of England and Scotland. 1603 James I. . 1625 Charles I. . 1649 Commonwealth, . 1654 Oliver Cromwell, Protector, 1658 Richard Cromwell, Protector, 1659 Commonwealth, Restored 22 „ , J 3 23 „ 9 s» 23 4„ 10 ?, 17 4„ 8 J> 18 8 >> 10 1 » 1 »i STUART. 1660 Charles II. . . „ 24 1685 James II. . . • ,» 3 1689 William III. Prince of Orange, and ) g Mary II., Joint Sovereigns, S 1694 William III. alone . „ 7 1702 Anne . . . ,» . 12 9 10 ., 3 „ 17 10 „ 12 2 4 , 8 ,, 24 BRUNSWICK. 1714 George I. . 12 „ 10 „ 10 „ 1727 „ II. . S3,, 4 , 3 „ 1760 „ III. 59 „ 3 , 4 „ 1820 „ IV. 10 „ 4 1830 William IV. , 1^ 6„ 11 I 24 „ 1837 Victoria, Still reigning. CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL AUTHORS OF ENGLAND, WITH THE TITLE OF THEIR CHIEF WORK. Name. Eoger Bacon, Sir John Mandeville, John Gower, John Wickliffe, Geoffrey Chaucer, Sir Thomas More, Roger Ascham, Sir Walter Ealeigh, Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sidney, Francis (Lord) Bacon, William Shakspeare, Ben. Jonson, , Thomas Hobbes, George Herbert, Sir Thomas Browne, John Milton, Samuel Butler, . Jeremy Taylor, . Abraham Cowley, John Bunyan, . John Dryden, , John Locke, Sir Isaac Newton, Daniel De Foe, . Jonathan Swift, Joseph Addison, Alexander Pope, John Gay, Principal Work. Opiis Majus, Travels in the East, Confessio Amantis, Translation of the Bible, 1324 Canterbury Tales, . . 1328 TJtojpia, . . . 1480 The Schoolmaster, . 1515 History of the World, 1552 Faerie Qtieene, . . 1553 Arcadia, . . . 1554 Novum Organum, . 1561 Hamlet, , . . 1564 Every Man in his Humour, . . 1574 Leviathan, . . 1588 The Temple, . . 1593 Eeligio Medici, . . 1605 Paradise Lost, . . 1608 Hudihras, . . . 1612 The Great Exemplar, 1613 Davideis, . . . 1618 Pilgrim^ s Progress, . 1628 Hind and Panther, . 1631 Human Understanding, 1632 Principia, . , . 1642 Robinson Crusoe, . 1661 Gulliver's Travels, . 1667 Spectator, . . . 1672 Essay on Man, , . 1688 Beggar's Opera, . 1688 Bom 1214 1300 1320 Died 1292 1372 1408 1384 1400 1535 1568 1618 1599 1586 1626 1616 1637 1679 1633 1682 1674 1680 1667 1667 1688 1700 1704 1727 1731 1745 1719 1744 1732 276 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Name. Joseph Butler, . James Thomson, Henry Fielding, Samuel Johnson, David Hume, Laurence Sterne, Thomas Gray, . Tobias George Smollet, Adam Smith, OHver Goldsmith, William Cowper, Edmund Burke, Edward Gibbon, William Paley, . Dugald Stewart, Kobert Burns, . Maria Edgeworth, William Wordsworth, Sir Walter Scott, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, E,obert Southey, Thomas Campbell, Henry Hallam, . Thomas Moore, . Thomas De Quincey, . George Gordon (Lord) Byron, . Percy Bysshe Shelley, Felicia Dorothea Hemans, Thomas Carlyle, John Keats, Thomas Babington (Lord) Macaulay, . John Keble, Hugh Miller, Edward Bulwer (Lord) Lytton, Elizabeth B. Browning, Alfred Tennyson, William M. Thackeray, Charles Dickens, Eobert Browning, Principal Work. Born Analogy of Religion, . 1692 The Seasons, . . 1700 Tom Jones, . . 1707 English Dictionary, . 1709 History of England, . 1711 Tristram Shandy, . 1713 Elegy in a Churchyard, 1716 Roderick Random, . 1721 Wealth of Nations, . 1723 Vicar of Wahefield, . 1728 The Task, , . . 1731 The Sublime and . Beautiful, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, , 1737 Horce Paidince, . . 1743 The Human Mind, . 1753 Cottar^ s Saturday Night, 1759 Moral Tales, . . 1765 The Excursion, . . 1770 Waverley, . . . 1771 The Ancient Mariner, 1772 Curse of Kehama, Pleasures of Hope, Constitutional History of England, . Lalla Rookh, Confessions of an OjJtum Eater, . . . 1785 Died 1752 1748 1754 1784 1776 1768 1771 1771 1790 1774 1800 1731 1797 1794 1805 1828 1796 1849 1850 1832 1834 1843 1844 1774 1777 1777 1779 1859 1852 1859 1824 1822 1835 Living '1821 CUlde Harold, . . 1788 Revolt of Islam, . . 1792 Forest Sanctuary, . 1794 French Revolution, . 1795 Endymion, , . 1796 History of England, . 1800 1859 The Christian Year, , 1800 1866 Testimony of the Rocks, 1802 1856 The Lady of Lyons, .. 1803 1873 Aurora Leigh, . . 1809 1861 In Memoriam, , . 1810 Living Vanity Fair, . .1811 1863 Pickwick Papers, . 1812 1870' The Ring and the Book, 1812 Living CHRONOLOGICAL LIST oir DISTINGUISHED PERSONS IN ENGLISH HISTOKY. Name. Born. Died. Stigand, { Archbishop of Canter- ( bury. 1008 1072 Nicholas Breakspear, Pope Adrian IV., 1095 1159 Thomas a Beckett, ( Archbishop of Canter- l bury, , 1119 1170 Stephen Langton, o i Archbishop of Canter- ( bury, . 1151 1228 Simon de Montfort, . Earl of Leicester, 1206 1265 William of Wykeham, Architect, . 1324 1404 Edward, Black Prince, General, . 1330 1375 William Caxton, Printer, 1412 1491 Thomas Wolsey, Cardinal, . 1471 1530 Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Salisbury, , 1483 1555 Thomas Cromwell, Minister of State, 1490 1540 Edmund Bonner, Bishop of London, 1495 1569 Reginald Pole, . i Cardinal, i 1500 1558 Sir Thomas Gresham, Merchant, . 1519 1579 Sir John Hawkins, ^ Admiral, ^ i 1520 1595 William Cecil, Lord Burleigh, i Statesman, 1520 1598 Sir Francis Walsingham , Statesman, * 1.536 1590 Sir Francis Drake, Admiral, . 1545 1595 Sir Martin Frobisher, Admiral, . 1594 Sir Edward Coke, Lawyer, 1552 1633 Kobert Cecil, Statesman, 1565 1612 Inigo Jones, Architect, . 1572 1652 Geo. Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, . i Statesman, 1592 1628 John Hampden, Parliamentary Orator, 1594 1643 ^TS KISTOEf OF 22NGLAND. -• Name. Thomas (Lord) Fairfax, Sir Henry Vane, George Fox, Robert Boyle, . Sir Christopher Wren, John Churchhill, Duke of Marlborough, Sir Robert Walpole, . George Anson, . William Hogarth, John Wesley, . William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Robert (Lord) Clive, , James Wolfe, John Howard, . James (Captain) Cook, Sir Richard Arkwright, James Watt, Sir William Herschel, Edmund Cartwright, Charles James Fox, . Horatio (Lord) Nelson William Pitt, . William Wilberforce, Richard (Marquis) Wellesley, Sir John Moore, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, George Canning, Sir Humphrey Davy, Henry (Lord) Brougham, George Stephenson, . Sir John Franklin, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Raglan, Michael Faraday, Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde, _ . Sir Roderick Murchison, Sir John W. F. Herschel, Sir Henry Havelock, Robert Stephenson, . Richard Cobden, General, .' Parliamentary Orator, Founder of Society of Friends, . Natural Philosopher, Architect, , General, Statesman, Navigator, Painter, Founder of Wesleyan Methodism, Statesman, Painter, General, General, Philanthropist, Navigator, Inventor, . Inventor, . Astronomer, Inventor, , Statesman, Admiral, . Statesman, Philanthropist, r General, General, c General, Statesman, Chemist, Statesman, Engineer, Navigator, Statesman, General, Chemist, General, p Geologist, Astronomer, General, Engineer, Statesman, Born. 1611 1612 1624 1626 1632 Died. 1671 1662 1690 1691 1723 1650 1722 1676 1697 1697 1745 1762 1764 1703 1791 1708 1778 1723 1725 1726 1726 1728 1732 1736 1738 1743 1749 1758 1759 1759 1760 1761 1792 1774 1759 1790 1779 1792 1819 1822 1823 1806 1805 1806 1833 1842 1809 1769 1852 1770 1778 1779 1781 1786 1788 1788 1791 1827 1829 1868 1848 1847 1850 1855 1867 1792 1863 1792 1792 1795 1803 1804 1871 1871 1857 1859 1865 INDEX. Abbey, Battle, 43. Acre, 64, 234. Addington, Henry, 217. Adela, 53. Adelaide, Queen, 227. Agincourt, Battle of, 100. Agricola, Julius, 12. Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaties of, 17S, 205. Albans, St., Battles of, 106, lOS, Albany, Duke of, 113. Albert, Prince Consort, 230, 235. Albuera, Battle of, 221. Alden Castle, 199. i Alexander III., Pope, 59. Alexander III. of Scotland, 77. Alfred the Great, 24, 26. Alliance, The Triple, 196. Alma, Battle of, 235. Alnwick, 60. Alva, Duke of, 144. ^ Ambleteuse, 187. America, Discovery of, 121. Amiens, Council of, 75. Amiens, Peace of, 218. Amsterdam, 179. Angles, 15. Anglia, East, 17. Anne of Bohemia, 94. Anne of Britanny, 118. Anne of Cleves, 129. Anne of Denmark, 154. Anne, Queen, 194. Anselm of Canterbury, 50. Antoninus, Pius, 13. Argyle, Marquis of, 159. Argyle, Earl of, 183. Argyle, Duke of, 200. Aries, 15. Arlington, Henry, Lord, 178i Armada, Spanish, 145. Arras, 104. Arthur, King, 18. Arthur, Plantagenet, 63. Arthur, Prince, 120. Articles, Six, 132. Ashley, Lord, 178. Assassination plot, 193. Athelstane, 25. Atterbury, Bishop of Kochester, 201. Audley, Lord, 120. Atigustine, St., 19. Austria, Archduke of, 193. Auverquerque, 192. Aymer de Valence, 82. Bacon, Francis, 152. Badajoz, Battle of, 221. Balaclava, Battle of, 235. Ball, John, 92. Baliol, John, 79. Balmerino, Lord, 20S. Baltimore, 223.1 Banbury, Battle of, 111.-^ Bannockburn, Battle of, 84. Barnet, Battle of, 112. Bartholomew, Massacre of St., 144. Battle Abbey, 43. Bavaria, Elector of, 1 93. Beaton, Cardinal, 130. Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, 102. Beauge, 101. Becket, Thomas"^, 56. Bede, The Venerable, 29. Bedford, Duke of, 102. Belleisle, 209. Bellerophon, 222, Benevolences, 118. -. Bentick, Earl of Portland, 192. Berengaria of Navarre, 63. Bericus, 10. Berkeley, Castle, 83. Bernicia, 17, 28. Bertha, 19. Bible, Translation of, 06. Black Death, 89. Black Hole of Calcutta, 207. Black Water, 147. Blenheim, Battle of, 197. Boadicea, Queen, 11. Boleyn, Anne, 125. Bolton Castle, 143. Bombay, 175. Bonaparte, General, 217. Bonner, Bishop, 137. Boroughbridge, Battle of, 84. Boston, 211. Bosworth, Battle of, 116. BothweU, Earl of, 142. Boulogne, Siege of, 130. Bovines, 69. 280 INDEX. Boyne, Battle of, 190. Breda, Declaration from, ITS. Breda, Treaty of, 177. Brest, Battles of, 122, 206. Bretigny, Treaty of, 90. Bretwalda, 20. Brigantes, 11. Bright, John, 235. Bruce, Robert, 79. Buckingham, Duke of, 114, 17S, Bunker's HiU, Battle of, 212. Burdett, Sir Francis, 225. Burmese War, 226. Busaco, Battle of, 220. Bute, Lord, 209. Byng, Admiral, 19S, 201. Cabal Ministry, ITS. Cade, Jack, 106 Cadiz, Battles off, 145, 146. Caen, 48, 100. Calais, 89, 138. Calcutta, Black Hole of, 20T. Calder, Sir Robert, 218. Caligula, 10. Calvin, John, 140. Camalodunum (Rochester), 11. Cambray, League of, 122. Campeggio, Cardinal, 125. Camperdown, Battle of, 216. Canada, 20T, 232. Canning, George, 225. Canterbury, 19. Canute, 36. Caractacus, 11. Carew, Sir Peter, 185. Caris brook Castle, 164. Caribbean Islands, 210. Caroline of Anspach, 203. Caroline of Brunswick, 224. Carpenter, General, 200. Carr, Robert, 151. Carteret, John, Earl of Granville, 204. Cartismandua, 11. Cartwrigbt, Thomas, 140. Cassiterides Islands, T. Cassivelaunus, 8. Catesby, Robert, 150. Catherine of France, 101. Catherine of Arragon, 120. Catherine of Braganza, 175. Catholic ReKef Bill, 226. Cearls or Ceorls, 21. CecU, William, Lord Burleigh, 13y. Cecil, Robert, 151. Cerdic, IT. Charlemagne, Emperor of Germany,'23. Charles IV. of France, 84. Charles V. of France, 90. Charles VI. of France, 99. Charles VII. of France, 101. Charles XI. of France, 109. Chaiies V. of Germany, 124. Charles II. of Spain, 193. Charles XII. of Sweden, 201. Charles I., 154. Charles II., ITS. Charles Edward, Prince, 204. Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 209. Charlotte, Princess, 223. Charter, People's, 231. Chartists, 230. Chaucer, Geoffrey, 96. Chester, 14. Chevalier de St. George, 200. Chevy Chase, Battle of, 93. Cholera, Asiatic, 228. Christianity, 14. Churchill, John, Duke of Marl- borough, 196. Cintra, Convention of, 220. Ciudad Rodrigo, Battle of, 221. Clarendon, Constitutions of, 6T. Clarendon, Earl of (Edward Hyde), 1T4. Clement VII., Pope, 12T. Clifford, Sir Robert, 119. Clifford, Lord, 1T8. Clive, Robert, 20T. Cobham, Lord (Sir John Oldcastle), 99. Cobden, Richard, 233. Coleraine, 153. Columbus, 121. Commission, Court of High, 139. Commons, House of, 96. Commonwealth, The, 166. Compiegne, 104. Comyn, John, 81. Constance, 66. Conventicle Act, 1T5. Conway, Lord, 158. Copenhagen, Battle of 21S. Corfe Castle, 34. Corn Law, Anti-League, 233. Cornwallis, Lord, 213. Corsica, Island of, 216. Corunna, Battle of, 220. Covenant, National, 157. Coverdale, Miles, 131. Coway Stakes, 8. Cranmer, Thomas, 126, 131. Crecy, Battle of, 88. Crimean War, 234. Cromwell, Thomas, 126. ■ Cromwell, Henry, 16T. Cromwell, Oliver, 160. Cromwell, Richard, 1T2. Oulloden Moor, Battle of, 205. Cuthbert, St., 2T. Cymri, 9. Danby, Earl of (Sir Thomas Osborne), 180, 186. Danegelt, 35, 4T. Darnley, Lord, 141. David of Wales, T8. David II. of Scotland, 86. INDEX. 281 David, Earl of Huntingdon, 79. Deal, 7, 119. ,* Deira, Saxon, 17. Derwentwater, Earl of, 200. Dettingen, Battle of, 204. Devonshire, Earl of, 18(3. De Witt, Admiral, 177. Dieppe, 191. Diocletian, 15. Domesday Book, 47. Dominica, 209. Domremy, 103. Douglas, Earl of, 87. Dover, Treaty of, 178. Do-wla, Rajah, 207. Downs, Battle of, 168. Drake, Admiral, 145* Drogheda, 167. Druidism. 9. Dudley, 121. Dunbar, Battles of, SO, 1G7. Dundalk, 190. Dundee, Viscount, 189. Dunes, Battle of the, 171. Dungeness, 204. Dunkirk, 171, 175, 191. Dunstable, 126. Dunstan, .81. Dupleix, Governor of Coroniandel Coast, 207. Edgab- Atheling, 42, 45. Edgehill, Battle of, 161. Edmund the Eldei, 31. .Edmund Ironside, 41. Edmund, Earl of March. 06. Edmund, Earl of Suffolk, 120. Edied, 31. Education Act, Elementary, 2G4. Edward the Elder, 30. Edward II., 34. Edward the Confessor. 40. Edward I., 75, 77. Edward II., First Prince of Wales, 78, 82. Edward III., 85. Edward, Black Prince, S3. Edward IV., 107. Edward, Prince, 111. Edward V., 113. Edward VI., 130. Edward, Duke of Buckingham, 124. Edwin, 47. Edwy, 32. Egbert, 21. Elba, Island of, 221. Eleanor of France, 55, 62. Eleanor of Provence, 72. Eleanor, Daughter of King John, 73. Elfrida, 34. Elgiva, 32. Elizabeth Grey. Lady, 110. Elizabeth of York, 117. Elizabeth, Queen, 130. Elizabeth, Princess, 151. EUa, 17, 20. EUiot, General, 213. Empson, 121. EnniskiUen, 189. Eric, King of Norway, 79. Ernest, King of Hanover, 230. Essex, Kingdom of, 17. Essex, Lord, 182. Essex, Earl of (Robert Devereux), 147. Estaples, Treaty of, 118. Ethelbald, 25. Ethelbert, 19, 22. Ethelred II., the Unready, 34. Bthelwulf, 24. Eustace, 54. Evesham, 76. Fairfax. Thomas, Lord, 162. Falkirk, 81. Farrendon, 80. Fawkes, Guy, 150. Fenian Conspiracy, 231. Ferdinand V. of Spain, 122. Feversham, Earl of, 183. " Field of the Cloth of Gold," 124. Finisterre, Cape, Battle at, 218. Fire, The Great, 177. Five Mile Act, 176. Fleetwood. Charles, 167. Flodden, Battle of, 123. Folkland, 21 Fontenov, Battle of, 204, Foster, Mr., 200. Fotheringay Castle, 144. Fox, Henry, Lord Holland, 206. Fox, Charles James, 212. Franilingham Castle, 135. Francis I. of France, 124. Francis II. of Prance (Dauphin), 141. Frederick, Elector Palatine of the Rhine, 151. Frederick the Great, 199. Frederick, Prince of Wales, 203. Free Trade, 233. . Frisians, 15. Frobisher, Martin, Admiral, 145. Frost, Williams, and Jones, 231. Gael, 9. Gage, General, 212. Gama, Vasco de, 121. Gardiner, Bishop, 136. Gaveston, Piers de, 82. Catholic Association, Tlie, 22G. Geoffrey of Anjou, 52. Geoffrey Plantagenet, 50. George, Duke of Clarence, 110. George of Denmark, 194. George L, 199. George II., 202. George III., 209. 282 INDEX. George IV.; 224,' Geneva, 140. Germains, St., 187. Ghent, Peace of, 223. Gibraltar, Siege of, 197. Gisors, Peace of, 51. Glencoe, Massacre of, 192. Glendewer, Owen, 97. Gloucester, Earl of, 76. Gloucester, Duke of, 77. Goderich, Viscount, 226. Good Hope, Cape of, 121, 218. Goodwin Sands, 168, 176. Gordon, Catherine, 119. Gordon, Lord George, 214i Goree Island, 207. Gravesend, Battle of, 177. Greece, Independence of, 227. Gregory I., Pope, 19. Gregory VII., Pope (HildehrandJ, 42. Grenada, 210. Grenville, George, 210, Grey, Sir John, 110. Grey, Lady Jane, 134. Grey, Lord, 149. Grey, Lord, 184. Guala, Pope's Legate, 72. Guiana, 152. Guipuscoa, 122. Guise, Duke of, 138. Guisnes, 124. Guthred, 28. Guthrum, 28. Habeas Corpus Act, 181. Hadrian IV., Pope, 56. Halifax, Marquis of, 184. Hamilton, Duke of, 165. Hampden, John, 157. Harfleur, 100. Hardicanute, 39. Harold, 39. Haslerig, 160. Hastings, Lord, 114. Hastings, Battle of, 43. Hastings, John, 79. Havannah, 210. Havre, 191, 206. Hawkins, Admiral, 145. Helena, St., Island of, 222, Hengist, 16. Henrietta Maria, of France, 154. Henry L, 50. Henry II., 55. Henry III., 72. Henry IV., 95. Henry v., 98. Henry VI., 102. Henry VII., 116. ipenry VIIL, 121, 218. Henry V. of Germany, 52, Henry of Anjou, 54. Henry VI. of Germany, 64. Henry, Earl of Lancaster, 85. Henry of Castile, 90. . Henry, Earl of Derby, 95. Henry, Prince, 60. Henry d'Almaine, 75. Henry, Earl of Richmond, 115. Henry, Prince, 151. Heniy, Cardinal York, 205. Heptarchy, 17. Hereward, 46. Hertford, Earl of, 131. Hildebrand (Pope Gregory VII.), 42. Hill, 198. Hoche, General, 216, Holbeach, 151, HoUis, Lord, 160. Holmby House, 163. Honorius, 13. Hood, Admiral, Hooper, John, 137. Hope, Cape of Good, 121. Horsa, 16. Hounslow Heath. 185. Howard, Sir Edward, 122. Howard, Catherine, 129. Howard, Lord of Effingham, 145.. Howe, Lord, 216. Hubert of Canterbury, 66. Huguenots, 144. Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, lOZ. Huntingdon, 56. Hyde, Anne, 182. ICENI, 11. Ina of Wessex, 22, Independents, 161. India, East, Company, 153, 229. Indian Mutiny, 235. Indulgence, Declaration of, 179. Inkerman, 235. Innocent III., Pope, 67. Interdict, England under, 67. International Exhibition, 236. Interregnum, 187. Investiture, Eight of, 51, Ipswich, 189. I Ireland, Conquest of, 59.. Ireton, Henry, 167. Irish Brigade, 190. Irish Rebellion, 231. Irish Church Disestablished, 233. Ironsides, The, 162. Isabella of France, 82. Isabella of Scotland, 86. Isabella of Prance, 94. Isabella of France, 101. Itius, Port, 7. Jacobites, 191, 26l. Jacqueline, Countess of Hainault, 102, Jacquetta of Luxemburg, 104. James I. of Scotland, 98, 113. James IV. of Scotland, 123. INDEX. James VI. of Scotland and I. of Eng- land, 142. James II., Duke of York, 1T6. Jeffreys, Judge, 184. Jennings, Sarah, Duchess of Marl- borough, 196. Jervis, John, 216. Jews, 62, 79, Joan of Arc, 103. John II. of France, 90. John of Gaunt, 94. John, Duke of Burgundy, 99. John, Duke of Bedford, 102. John, Knights of St., 218. John, Prince, afterwards King, 61, 66. Joseph, King of Spain, 220. Julian Year, 208. Julius Csesar, 7. Julius II., Pope, 122. Jury, Trial by, 61. Jutes, 16. Juxon, Bishop of London, 165. Kelts, 9. Ken, Bishop, 185. Kenmure, Lord, 200. Kent, Edward, Duke of, 223, 230. Kenilworth Castle, 75. Kenilworth, Dictum of, 76 KilUekrankie, Pass of, 189. Kilmarnock, Lord, 205. Kimbolton, Lord, 160. Kinsale, 148. Kirk of Field, 142. Kirke, Colonel, 184. Kirkpatrick, 81. Knox, John, 140. Konigsmark, Count, 199. Lafayette, General, 212, La Hogue, Battle off, 191. Lake, General, 217. Lake, Bishop, 185. Lambert, General, 172. Langside, Battle of, 143. Lanfranc, 46, 50. Langton, Stephen, 67., Latimer, Hugh, 137. Laud, Archbishop, 156. Lauderdale, Duke of, 178. Leake, Admiral, 198. Leighton, Dr., 156. Leipzig, 221. Leo IV., Pope, 25. LeoX., Pope, 124. Leopold, Duke of Austria, 64 Leopold, King of the Belgians, 223. Leslie, Sir David (Earl of Leven), 158. Leven, Loch, 142. Leven, Earl of (Sh- David Leslie), 159. Lewes, Mise of, 75, Lexington, 212. Limerick, 167» .,. ,_ Limerick, Treaty.of, 190. Limoges, 91. Lincoln, 14. " Lion of Justice," 52. Lionel, Duke of Clarence, 95. Liverpool, Lord, 221. Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, 73. Lloyd, Bishop, 185. Lollards, 98. Londinium, 11, Londonderry, 153, 189. Louis VI. of France, 51. Louis VIII. of France, 71, Louis IX. c«i France, St., 75. Louis XL, 113. Louis XII, of France, 123. Louis XVI. of France, 212, 216. Louis XVIII. of France, 221. Lovat, Lord, 205. Lovel, Lord, 117 Lowestoft, 176. Lucia, St., Island of, 210. Ludlow, 107. Luther, Martin, 127, Lutterworth, 96. Lyme Regis, 183. Macbeth, 41. Magdalene College, 185. Magna Charta, 69, Maitland, Captain, 222. Malaga, 197. Malcolm, III., Kenmore, of Scotland, 31, 41. Malcolm IV. of Scotland, 79. Malo, St., 191. Malta, Island of, 217. Man, Isle of, 105. Mantes, 48. Mar, Earl of, 200. Margaret, Maid of Norway, 79. Margaret of Anjcu, 104. Margaret of Burgundy, 119. Margaret Tudor, 120. Maria Theresa, 204, Marlborough, Duke of (John Church- hill), 196. Marston Moor, Battle of, 162. Martinico, Island of, 210, Mary, daughter of Henry VII., and wife of Louis XII, of France, 123. Mary I., 130. Mary II„ 168, 192, Mary, Queen of Scots, 1-10. Mary of Guise, 141. Mary d'Este, 182. Masham, Mrs., 196. Massachusetts, 212. Massena, General, 220. Matilda, 51. Matilda of Anjou, 52, 64. Maximilian I., Emperor of Qqv-> many, 122. 28^ INDEX. Mclan, 192. Mehemet Ali, 234, Melbourne, Viscount, 229. Mercia, Kingdom of, 17. Merovingians, 19. Millenary Petition, 150. Milton, Jolm, 166. Minorca, 206. i Mona, Island of (Anglesea), 10. Monk, General, 1T2. Monmouth, Duke of, 181. Montacute, Lord, 109. Monteith, John, 81. Montereau, 101. Montfort, Simon de, 73. Montfort, Countess de, 88. Monument, The, 177. Moore, Roger, 159. Moore, Sir John, 220. Morcar, 47. More, Sir Thomas, 126. Mortimer, Edward, 97. Mortimer's'Cross, 107. Mortimer, Roger, 84. Mortmain, Statue of, 77. Montrose, Earl of, 163. Mountjoy, Lord, 147. Murray, or Moray, Earl of, 143. Mutiny Act, 189. Namue, 191. Nantes, Edict of, 185. Nantwich, 162, 172. Napier, Sir Charles, 234. Napoleon I., 222. Naseby, Battle of, 163. National Covenant, 157. Navarino, Battle of, 227. Neath Abbey, 85. Nelson, Horatio, Lord, 216. Neville's Cross, 89. Newark, 163. Newcastle, 158, Newcastle, Duke of, 20G. New England, 153. New Forest, 48. New Orleans, 223. New Plymouth, 153. Nile, Battle of the, 217. Norfolk, Duke of, 144. Norham Castle, 79. Normans, The (Northmen), 24. North, Lord, 211. Northampton, 58, 107. , Northumbria, Kingdom of, 17. Nottingham, Earl of, 95. Nottingham, 161. Gates, Titus, 180. O'Connell, Daniel, 226, 231, O'Connor, Fergus, 231. Oflfa, 17. , Qlav, ?6,, Olav, Trigvason, 35. Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobhara, 99„ O'Neal, Shan, Earl of Desmond, 147. O'Neal, Hugh, Earl of Tyrone, 147. O'NeaU, Sir Philem, 159. Opdam, Admiral, 176. Orleans, Duke of, 99. Orleans, Siege of, 103. Ormond, Marquis of, 166. Orthez, Battle of, 221. Osborne, Sir Thomas, Earl of Dauby, 180. Osburga, 26. Osulph, 31. Otterbourne, 93. Over bury, Sir Thomas, 152. Oxford Statutes, 74, Paris, Peace of, 213. Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury,13^. Parliament, Institution of, 73. Parliament, Mad, 74. Parliament, Long, 158. Parliament, Rump, 165. Parliament, Barebones, 169. Parliament, The Convention, 173, Parliaments, Union of Scottish and EngUsh, 195. Parliaments, Union of Great Britain and Ireland. 217. Parliaments, Septennial, 201. Parma, Duke of, 146. Parr, Catharine, 129. Passaro, Cape, 201. Pavia, Battle of, 125. Pecquigne, Treaty of, 113. Pedro the Cruel, 90. Peel, Sir Robert, 226. Pembroke, Earl of, 72. Penrith, 205. Percy, Henry Hotspur, 97. Percy, Earl of Northumberland, 97, Percy, Earl of Worcester, 97. " Peter, Bishop of Winchester, 72. Peter's Pence, 25. Pevensey, 43, Peterhead, 200. Philip Augustus of France, 61. Philip VI. of Valois, 87. Philip the Fair of France, 120. Philip II, of Spain, 135. Philip V. of Spain, 196, 201. Philippa, Queen, 85, 89. Philippine Islands, 210. Phoenicians, 7. Picts, 13. Picts' Wall, 13. Pilgrim Fathers, 153. Pilgrimage of Grace, 127 Pinkie, Battle of, 132. Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 203, 206. Pitt, William, 214. INDEX. !85 Plague, Great, 176, Plantagenet, 55. Plassey, Battle of, 203. Plautius, 11. Poictiers, Battle of, 90. Pole, Michael de la, 93. Pole, Cardinal, 136. Pontefract Castle, 95. Poor Law Amendment Act, 229. Porteous, Captain, 203. Portsmouth, Battle off, 130. Poyer, Colonel, 165, Pragmatic Sanction, 204. Presbyterians, 15''( . ? Preston, 165, 200. ' Prestonpaus, Battle of, 205. Pretender, The Old, 200. Pride, Colonel, 165. Prynne, 156. Pym, John, 160. QuADEtrPLE Alliance, 201. Quebec, 207. Quentin, St., Battle of, 13S. Quiberon, 206. / Raleigh, Sir "Walter, 149. Ravenspur, 112. Reform BiU, 228, 233; Reformation, English, 127. Rennes, 118. Revolution, French, 215. Rheims, 103. Richard Stvongbow, 60. - Richard I. , Coeur de Lion, 62. Richard II., 91. Richard III., Duke of Gloucester. 112. Richard, Earl of Pembroke, 73. Richard of Cornwall, 73. Richard, Duke of York. 115. Richmond, Sheen, 91. Ridley, Nicholas, 137. Right, Petition of, 155. Rights, Declaration, of, ISS. Ripon. 158. Rising Castle, 87. Rizzio, David, 141. Robert. Duke of Noi-mandy, 47. Robert, Duke of Gloucester, 54. Robert de Vere, 93. Rochester, Camalodunum, 11. Roehelle, Siege of, 155. * Rockingham, Marquis of, 211. Rodrigo, Ciudad, Battle of, 221. Roger, Earl of March, 95. Rogers, John, 137. Rooke, Admiral, 197. Roslin, 81. Ross, General, 223. Runnymede, 69. Rupert, Prince, 176. Russell, Lord, 182. Bttssell, Admiral, 186, 191. Ruyter De, Admiral, 177, Rye House Plot, 182. Ryswick. Peace of, 191. Sackville, Lord George, 207. Saladin, 64. Salamanca, Battle of, 221. Salic Law, 230 Bancroft, Archbishop, 185. . Saratoga, Battle of, 212. Sardinia, Island of, 198. Sarum, 47. Savoy, Duke of, 171. Saxons, 13, 15. Scarborough Castle, 137. Schomberg, Marshal, 190. Scone, 168. | Scots. 13. Scrope, Archbishop of York, 97. Sebastopol, Siege of. 235. Security, Act of, 194. Sedgemore, Battle of, 183. Selkirk, Battle of, 163. Senlac, 43. Sepoys, 208. Seven Years' War, 206. Seymour, Jane, 127. Seymour, Lord, 132. Sheerness, 177. Shelburne, Lord, 215. Sheriffmuir, 200. Ship-money, 36, 157. Shrewsbury, 97. Shrewsbury. Earl of, ISO. Sicily, 74. 201. Sidonia, Medina, 145. Sidney, Algernon, 182. Sidney, Hemy, 186. SUures, 11. Simnel, Lambert, 117. Simons, Priest, 117. Sixtus V.,Pope, 145. Slavery, Abolition of, 229. Sluys, 88. Sophia of Hanover, 194. Sophia Dorothea of Zelle, 199. Sophia of Prussia, 199. Soult, Marshal, 220. South Sea Company, 202. Southwold Bay, Battle at, 179. Spenser, Hugh de, 84. Spurs, Battle of the, 122. Stair, Earl of, 204. Stanhope, General, 200. Stanley, Sir William, 119. Star Chamber, 121. Stephen of Blois, 53, Stigand, 42. Stoke, Battle of, 117. Stonehenge, 10. Stratford, Stony, 114. Stuart, Lady Arabella, 149. Suetonius Pauliaus, 11. 286 INDEX. Suffolk, Dake of, 135. Sunderland, Earl of, 192. Surrey, Earl of, 123, Sussex, Kingdom of, 17. Sweyn of Denmark, 35. Tacitus, 9, 12. Talavera, Battle of, 220. Tangier, 175. Temple, Sir William, 181. Tenchebray, 51. Teronanne, Siege of, 122. Test Acts, 184, 226. Tewkesbury, Battle of, 112. Thanes, 21. Thanet, Isle of, 16. Theobald of Blois, 53. Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, 83. Thomas, Duke of Clarence, 98. Thrall, 21. Tilsit, Peace of, 219. Tobago, Island of, 210. Toleration Act, 188. Tooke, Home, 214. Toronto, 223. Torres Vedras, 220. Toulon, 216. Toulouse, Battle of, 221. Townshend, Lord, 200, 211. Trafalgar, Battle of, 218. Trelawny, Bishop, 185. Triple Alliance, 178. Tromp, Van, 168. Troaville, Admiral, 191. Troyes, Treaty of, 101. Tudor, Jasper, Earl of Pembroke, 107. Turner, Bishop, 185. Tyler, Wat, 92. Tyndal, William, 131. Tyrconnel, Governor of Ireland, 189. Tyrrel, Walter, 50. Ulster, King of, 60. Uniformity, Act of, 175. Universities thrown open, 233. Ushant, 216. Utrecht, Peace of, 198. Uxbridge, 162, Vere, Robert de, 93. Verulamium (St. Alban's), 11. Vespasian, 12. Victoria of Sase-Coburg, 223. Victoria, Queen, 230, Villeneuve, Admiral, 218. Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, 152. Vincennes, 101. Vincent, Cape St., Battle off, 216. Vinegar Hill, 217. Vittoria, Battle of, 221. Vortigern, 16. Wakejield, Battle of, 107. Walcheren, 220. Waldenses, 171. Walhalla, 18. WaUace, William, 81. Walpole, Sir Robei i, 202. Walsingham, Sir Francis, 144, Warbeck, Perkin, 119, Warenne, Earl of Surrey, 80. Warwick, Eaii of, the King-Maker, 108. Washington, George, 212. Waterloo, Battle of, 222. Wellington, Duke of, 220. Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, 156. Wessex, Kingdom of, 17. White, Bishop, 185. Whitehall Palace, 165. Wicliffe, John, 96. Wilkes, George, 210. William I., The Conqueror, 45. William II., Bufus, 49. William III. of Orange, 168, 188. Wilham IV., 227, William, Prince, 52. William, Longchamp, Bishop of Ely, 63. William, Augustus, Duke of Cumber- land, 203. William, Duke of Gloucester, 194. Witenagemot, 21, 49, 66. Wodan, 21. Wolfe, General, 207. 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