PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
OTHER BOOKS BY 
 THE SAME AUTHOR 
 
 The Airedale 
 
 Scottish and Irish Terriers 
 
 The Fox Terrier 
 
 The Bull Terrier 
 
 Practical Dog Keeping 
 
2 <'/• 
 
 PRACTICAL DOG 
 BREEDING 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAMS HAYNES 
 
 Author of "The Airedale," "Scottish and Irish 
 
 Terriers," "The Fox Terrier," "The 
 
 Bull Terrier," etc. 
 
 HANDBOOKS 
 
 Number 30 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 MCMXV 
 
>^ 
 
 -%- 
 
 Copyright, 1915, by 
 OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 All rights reserved. 
 
 APR 16 1915 
 
 9GIA397678 
 
' -'^ 
 
 ■^^. 
 
 TO 
 
 THREE FELLOW FANCIERS AND RIVAL BREEDERS, 
 
 RALPH W. CONDEE 
 
 C G. DARLING 
 
 EARLE J. WOODWARD 
 
 WITH THE author's THANKS FOR THEIR FRIENDLY 
 CRITICISMS AND VALUABLE SUGGESTIONS DUR- 
 ING THE WRITING OF THIS BOOK 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THIS little book is probably the first at- 
 tempt to apply modern principles to 
 the problems of dog breeding. Like 
 all pioneers, It enjoys certain advantages and 
 labors under peculiar handicaps. 
 
 The first object has been to help practical 
 breeders. Clearness has been a prime con- 
 sideration. Accordingly, everything has been 
 translated Into " dog talk." The examples 
 have been drawn from the Stud Book, the 
 kennels, the show ring and the field, and some- 
 times from the writer's experience as a judge 
 and breeder. In a few Instances, it has been 
 necessary to have recourse to Imaginary cases, 
 but these too, have been expressed in dog 
 fancier's language. 
 
 In the light of our present knowledge of 
 heredity. It Is plain that the selection practiced 
 by most dog breeders Is crude and haphazard. 
 The breeding " system " advocated In these 
 pages Is not new, but It Is hoped that the 
 
 7 
 
8 PREFACE 
 
 readers will close the book with freshened 
 ideals and a better understanding of the fun- 
 damentals of dog breeding. 
 
 Williams Haynes. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PART ONE 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF DOG BREEDING 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I Introductory Considerations 13 
 
 II Reproduction 30 
 
 III Variation 48 
 
 IV Heredity 68 
 
 V Selection 88 
 
 PART TV^O 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF DOG BREEDING 
 
 VI Pedigree Studies 107 
 
 VII Breeding Systems 126 
 
 VIII The Stud Dog 145 
 
 IX The Brood Bitch 161 
 
 X The Puppies 179 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Dog Breeding Calculator 194 
 
 Bibliography 197 
 
 9 
 
PART ONE 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF DOG 
 BREEDING 
 
 " Heredity and variation — every one knows that some- 
 where hidden among the phenomena denoted by these terms, 
 there must be principles which, in ways untraced, are ordering 
 the destinies of all living things." — Bateson. 
 
PRACTICAL DOG 
 BREEDING 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INTRODUCTORY CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 NO doubt, quite the orthodox Introduc- 
 tion for this book on dog breeding 
 would be a couple of paragraphs ex- 
 patiating on the increased interest that we 
 Americans are displaying in thoroughbred 
 dogs for bench shows and field trials and as 
 companions and guards; but I am sure that it 
 Is safe to assume that my readers are acquainted 
 with these familiar facts. 
 
 Dog fanciers are also informed — at least 
 roughly — of the tremendous advances that 
 have been made the past few years In our new 
 knowledge of the old study of genetics, for 
 articles on the recent scientific developments 
 and practical discoveries in plant and animal 
 
 13 
 
U PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 breeding have found their way not only Into 
 the popular magazines, but also into the daily 
 papers. When the editors of newspapers in 
 the big cities, whose touch upon the pulse of 
 public interest must be very delicate, find a 
 news value in these items about breeding, it be- 
 speaks a widespread interest from a consider- 
 able number of our citizens. 
 
 In the midst of much popular interest In all 
 phases of breeding, dog breeders, somewhat 
 curiously, have given but the scantiest attention 
 to the theoretical and practical work being 
 done by trained biologists, the agricultural sta- 
 tions, and careful breeders of various kinds of 
 stock. This is strange, for with certain limi- 
 tations the knowledge gained in a painstaking 
 study of the sugar content of beets will be val- 
 uable to all breeders, not only of plants but 
 also of animals. Experiments in breeding mice 
 and poultry have yielded results that are be- 
 ing practically applied by many horse and cat- 
 tle breeders. Notwithstanding these good ex- 
 amples, dog fanciers have refused " to take the 
 tips " — to borrow a phrase from the paddock 
 — that fellow breeders and scientific investiga- 
 tors can give them. 
 
 This can, however, be reasonably explained. 
 Dog breeding is a sport pure and simple, and. 
 
INTRODUCTORY 15 
 
 as such, it Is very largely removed from any im- 
 mediate economic influences. Scientific work- 
 ers have devoted themselves to problems of 
 more direct, practical value than the breeding 
 of a dog to win championship points or a 
 derby stakes. They have lent their aid in pro- 
 ducing the 200-egg hen, in increasing the weight 
 of cattle and of hogs, in raising the percentage 
 of butter fat In milk. The breeders of eco- 
 nomically Important stock make breeding 
 their business, and they have the sharp goad 
 of gold to prod them to greater efforts. Their 
 pwn stock has been the subject of scientific ex- 
 periment. They have httle difliculty In trans- 
 lating into dollars and cents the results of these 
 experiments. 
 
 To-day many cattle, horse, sheep, hog, and 
 poultry breeders are alive to the valuable helps 
 that science can give them. Dog breeders have 
 fallen hopelessly behind. A book on breed- 
 ing that is as plain as A B C to a progressive 
 ciairyman will be full of terms that are new 
 and unintelligible to the dog fancier. Every 
 3nce In a while, one meets a dog breeder who 
 basses among local fanciers as a scientific 
 jreeder. Usually his *' science " consists of 
 :opIes of Darwin's " Origin of Species " and 
 Animals and Plants under Domestication," 
 
16 PRACTICAL BOG BREEDING 
 
 some hazy notions about atavism, telegony, 
 and Mendellan Inheritance, combined with a 
 remarkably good knowledge of the points, his- 
 tory, and pedigrees of his breed. It may be 
 stretching the truth to call such a man a sci- 
 entific breeder, but he Is surely making some 
 serious effort along the right way. Most fan- 
 ciers, it Is to be feared, do even less than this. 
 In this day and generation and after all the 
 work that has been done in the study of genet- 
 ics, It Is an outrage that a prominent dog 
 owner should confess that " put two good ones 
 together, and trust to luck " is his idea of suc- 
 cessful dog breeding. Nevertheless, I am told 
 by one of his friends that this is the acknowl- 
 edged " system " of the owner of a certain 
 large kennel. His kennel is filled with the best 
 dogs that money can buy; every modern de 
 vice to promote good care and good health 
 has been Installed In the building; an expert 
 kennelman Is in direct charge of the dogs, — 
 but is any one surprised to learn that these 
 kennels have never produced a home-bred 
 champion? When we hear such expressions! 
 and when we see such wasted opportunities, Iti 
 quite justifies Mr. Muss-Arnolt's forceful state- 
 ment that " ninety per cent of the so-called dogi 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 17 
 
 breeding Is nothing more nor less than canine 
 prostitution." 
 
 Dog fanciers have made a serious mistake in 
 not grasping for their own benefit the impor- 
 tant knowledge that has been accumulated in 
 other fields by scientists and breeders. " The 
 principles of scientific breeding " is a pretty 
 good term to put a dog fancier to rout. Be- 
 fore he runs away, however, let him remember 
 that only a few years ago " all these durned 
 high falutin' notions " were scouted by the very 
 farmer who to-day boasts of the blood lines 
 of his cattle and the egg records in his poultry 
 yards. 
 
 Let him also recall the many years his breed 
 of dogs has been bred and the number of thor- 
 oughbred puppies that are whelped each year. 
 Further let him remember that dogs, excepting 
 I field dogs, are bred solely for size, shape, and 
 color, all variations of form, without any re- 
 gard for the more elusive functional variations 
 of weight, fertility, composition of flesh, and 
 I contents and quantity of the milk secretions 
 which are all so vital in the breeding of live 
 stock. 
 
 Compared with other breeders, the dog fan- 
 cier has an easy task. In the first place he 
 
18 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 has less for which to breed. Secondly, dog 
 histories and dog pedigrees have been for gen- 
 erations carefully recorded. Lastly, dogs have 
 been bred toward approximately the same Ideal 
 for a considerable time — much of the com- 
 mercial stock and poultry being comparatively 
 recently manufactured varieties, comparable 
 with the Boston Terrier and the Airedale. 
 But are dogs nearer to the Ideal, or do they 
 breed closer to type than other domesticated 
 animals? 
 
 A good understanding of the principles 
 that have helped other breeders will help the 
 dog breeder. Certainly, they will give him a 
 big handicap over any rival who breeds on the 
 " trust to luck system." Of course, these prin- 
 ciples are not Infallible rules, else we should, 
 long ago have heen able to reduce all breed-' 
 Ing to a series of mathematical formulae that 
 would produce champions at will. Just be- 
 cause we must work with such very uncertain , 
 tools, It Is all the more Important that we| 
 should learn all we possibly can and from every 
 possible source. 
 
 Often dog fanciers mistake the true object 
 of dog breeding. " The longest way round Is 
 the shortest way home,'' but many rush In 
 frantically with the wild hope of breeding a 
 
I NT ROD UCTOR Y 19 
 
 champion In their very first litter. Once in a 
 great while this succeeds, but most of the dismal 
 failures are to be accounted for by this hasty, 
 short-cut method. If instead of trying to get 
 a chance winner, the dog breeder would set 
 seriously to work to build up a strain of his 
 own by gradually improving the quality of his 
 stock, he would stand just about one hundred 
 per cent better chance .of accomplishing lasting 
 results. 
 
 Every breeder should have a knowledge of 
 the principles that underlie all successful breed- 
 ing, and no breeder can be successful unless he 
 be patient and persevering. Equally important 
 in his equipment is a thorough knowledge of 
 the breed. He must know the Standard that 
 describes the ideal type; he must be able to ap- 
 ply this ideal to the actual dog without having 
 it distorted by the individual application. In 
 I other words, he must have in his mind's eye 
 a very definite conception of what sort of a 
 dog he wants to produce, nor should he be 
 easily changed from his ideal. A heavy bur- 
 den is laid on the breeder's shoulders by every 
 change of type. 
 
 The judges are largely responsible for these 
 changes. The incompetent all-rounder, with 
 his imperfect knowledge especially of the finer 
 
20 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 points of many of the breeds he so boldly es- 
 says to judge, is the worst offender. There is, 
 however, little doubt that, if the Standards of 
 the different breeds were expressed in more ex- 
 act language and more liberally illustrated 
 with weights and measures, much confusion 
 would be avoided. Every one knows that a 
 person's fingers should meet when clasped 
 round his own wrist, and that both hands should 
 just be able to encircle the neck. Each penny 
 scale on every railroad platform in the coun- 
 try tells you what you should weigh according 
 to what your height may be. 
 
 Similar figures can be worked out for dif- 
 ferent varieties of dogs and embodied in the 
 G'^^ndards. One example will suffice: " Back 
 :v>f '.-■■;• T " is a quotation from one of the pres- 
 ent Stai.J .^ds. '' Length, back of skull to root 
 of tail, 22^ inches" carefully indicated for a 
 dog, with 21 inches specified for a bitch. This 
 is also a quotation, taken from the official de- 
 scription of the Skye Terrier Club, drawn byi 
 Mr. Duncan Cunningham. There is no mate- 
 rial for debate on the comparative clearness of 
 these two definitions. 
 
 In addition to knowing the points of his va- 
 riety, a successful breeder must know as much 
 as possible about its past history. There are 
 
INTRODUCTORY 21 
 
 two phases of canine histories. The one treats 
 of events; the other of dogs. The former is 
 interesting; the latter is invaluable. 
 
 It is a standing joke that the origins of all 
 breeds of dogs are shrouded in mystery; but al- 
 most always we know something of the condi- 
 tions that called new breeds into existence and 
 of the uses to which they were originally put. 
 In many cases, we have some pretty reliable 
 information about the materials employed in 
 the '' manufacture " of certain varieties. A 
 knowledge of these things is useful. Some 
 Idea of the work that was expected of the an- 
 cestors of our terriers gives one a wonderful 
 insight into the true meaning of the whys and 
 wherefores of a wire jacket. To know that 
 the Otterhound was a factor in the creation of 
 the Airedale explains where this popular dog 
 got his exceptional nose, his big size, and also 
 his tendency to unattractive ears. 
 
 Interesting and suggestive as this part of a 
 breed's history is, it Is not nearly so essential 
 to a successful breeder as a sound working 
 knowledge of the good and bad points of the 
 different individual dogs of the past. Without 
 this knowledge a breeder cannot do any real 
 breeding; he will only be mating dogs. No 
 landlubber at sea in an open boat without sail 
 
22 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 or rudder could be more completely helpless. 
 James Watson In his work " The Dog Book," 
 a book, by the way, that should be in every 
 fancier's library, gives a vivid illustration of 
 what is the real meaning of a pedigree. He 
 says: 
 
 '' We have already said that pedigree is val- 
 uable, and it is an essential in the case of pur- 
 chasing for breeding, but we again repeat that, 
 if the buyer does not know something regard- 
 
 Sire 
 
 King's 
 Masterpiece 
 
 King 
 
 Killarney Lily 
 
 Kaiser 
 
 Kindle 
 
 /Red Idol 
 \Kriffel I 
 
 fCh. Breda Mixer 
 \Red Inez 
 
 'Balmoral B 
 
 Saintfield 
 Midge 
 
 ]^Ba 
 
 eda Dan 
 almoral Fan 
 
 /Red Idol 
 tshankhill Violet 
 
 Dam 
 
 Koerchion 
 
 Kaiser, iiooc 
 
 iKindle 
 
 Red Idol 
 
 Kiffel 
 
 Red Inez 
 
 /Red Ire \ 
 
 I^Breda Iris 
 
 rCh. Breda Mixei 
 /Knoxonia 
 
 Ch. Breda fThe Irish Am- 
 Mixer ■< bassador 
 [Breda Vixen 
 
 /Ch. Bachelor 
 1 Breda Florence 
 
INTRODUCTORY 23 
 
 ing the dogs In the pedigree, either personally 
 or from reliable Information, one string of 
 names Is as good as another to him. Here Is 
 a case In point as shown In the following Irish 
 terrier pedigree (see page 22) : 
 
 " According to the United States govern- 
 ment test the Irish terrier that owns that pedi- 
 gree Is practically a mongrel, because In two 
 generations It has but one ancestor with a stud- 
 book number. . . . The seeker for champions 
 in the pedigree discards It because he only finds 
 Breda Mixer and Bachelor, and they are too 
 far back. Now we will put It before the man 
 who knows: 
 
 " * I see a Knox bred one. Knox has done 
 quite a bit of good breeding In his time and 
 they seem to come better right along, but that 
 Is to be expected, of course. If the man knows 
 his business; and Inbred too, and In the fashion- 
 able way. Did you ever notice how many 
 good ones are by a son of a dog that gets good 
 ones out of a daughter? ... In this case you 
 have a son of King bred to sister of King. 
 
 " * Why, man, you have a wonderful pedi- 
 gree here. I have never seen anything like It 
 before: full of Breda Muddler blood, or what 
 made him, and not once is he mentioned. 
 Here you have King's sire Kaiser out of 
 
24 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 Kriffel, by Breda Mixer who got Muddler, and 
 Kaiser's sire Red Idol was out of Breda Iris 
 the dam of Muddler. The King's dam Kin- 
 dle is a full brother in blood to Muddler, for 
 Red Inez was a sister, if not a little sister, to 
 Breda Iris. 
 
 " ' All this is repeated below in the pedigree 
 of Koerchion, King's sister. Do you know 
 how Kriffel's dam Knoxonia was bred? No; 
 well, she was a Knox anyway, and we can take 
 her as all right. King's Masterpiece Is a half- 
 brother of our Celtic Badger, I see, for his 
 dam is Klllarney Lily. I met a man the other 
 day who had lately been at Belfast, and he 
 told me of his visiting Mr. Knox and spoke of 
 his dogs very favorably. He likes King very 
 much; and I remember his saying that it was 
 little wonder that Badger and this Masterpiece, 
 which he saw, were good ones, for Killarney 
 Lily was one much above the average. From 
 the way he spoke, she must be a very nice one. 
 
 " ' If I remember rightly you won a couple of 
 times with this bitch, but she did not strike as 
 one who would go on much further than she 
 then was. I know, however, that if I owned 
 her nothing would induce me to part with her 
 until I had tried her as a brood bitch. If she 
 
INTRODUCTORY 25 
 
 j does not prove a good one, then there is no 
 
 ! value In a pedigree.' " 
 
 Formerly dog breeders relied almost exclu- 
 sively upon what might be called Individual 
 
 j selection. They picked out their best bitches 
 
 ' and bred them to their best dogs. In the light 
 of modern knowledge, they followed the 
 
 i " trust-to-luck " theory more than they ever 
 would have acknowledged, for they rather 
 prided themselves In their quaint, old-fashioned 
 way on their skill and care as breeders. Most 
 dog fanciers to-day are following right in their 
 footsteps, practicing individual selection, with 
 possibly some efforts to breed out faults by 
 counterbalancing, or mating a bitch to a dog 
 whose strongest points offset her own peculiar 
 weaknesses. 
 
 All this is directly In the face of the fact that 
 the ancestors more remote than the Immediate 
 parents are being continually shown to be highly 
 Important. This places more and more em- 
 phasis on the value of a real understanding 
 of a pedigree, which means a real knowledge 
 of the dogs. One of the chief advantages of 
 the foundation of a strain of your own will be 
 the very intimate knowledge that you must of 
 necessity have of the Individuals behind your 
 
26 PRACTICAL BOG BREEDING 
 
 breeding stock. The breeder who knows the 
 most about the points of the dogs of the past 
 will be best able to foretell the quality of the 
 puppies of the future. 
 
 An example will make even clearer the very 
 great practical value of a knowledge of the 
 real meaning of a pedigree. A certain strain 
 of Airedales has produced a great number of I 
 winners, but it inherits from its founder a ten- 
 dency to light, round eyes and heavy ears. 
 That these defects are buried in the blood is 
 proved not by the shining examples of perfec- 
 tion in these points that this strain has pro- 
 duced, but by the fact that the majority of dogs 
 bred in this strain are more or less " off " in 
 eyes and ears. To be specific, a certain dog 
 of this strain is being extensively used at stud 
 to-day. As an Individual he Is good in ears 
 arid his eye escapes comment except from the 
 hypercritical judge. Without knowing his 
 family tendency to poor eyes and ears, no one 
 would expect his get to be bad In these points. 
 Nevertheless, a breeder would be bitterly dis- 
 appointed should he use him to Improve these 
 points, and many of his puppies are downright 
 faulty In these respects. 
 
 To sum up the requirements of a successful 
 breeder and the equipment that he must have: 
 
INTRODUCTORY 27 
 
 He must first of all be a true dog lover and a 
 patient man blessed with that spirit that comes 
 up smiling after many disappointments. These 
 things are inborn in the man himself, and no 
 amount of study can provide him with these nec- 
 essary characteristics. 
 
 A good, sound working knowledge of his 
 breed, however, may be acquired by visits to 
 I shows, trials, and kennels, by talks with ex- 
 I perlenced fanciers, judges, and breeders, by 
 reading historical articles In the kennel papers 
 and by study of the monographs that various 
 authorities have written on different breeds. 
 
 The third requirement for success as a dog 
 breeder is a knowledge of the principles that 
 underlie modern scientific breeding. We have 
 seen that, as a class, dog owners are behind 
 other stock breeders in their application of 
 these scientific helps to practical problems. 
 Some fanciers will find in the following pages 
 terms and Ideas that may be quite new to them, 
 but within the limits of clearness all that has 
 not a direct practical bearing on breeding op- 
 erations has been omitted. It is to be hoped 
 that some breeders will be stimulated to pursue 
 further their study, and to this end a short list 
 of the most important and suggestive books is 
 given in the Appendix. 
 
28 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 If a dog owner is a breeder at heart, if he 
 has a good knowledge of his breed and of the 
 principles of breeding, he can make a kennel 
 that will become world famous. Others have 
 done so. The Duchess of Newcastle laid the : 
 foundation of her justly celebrated kennels by 
 the purchase of two Fox Terrier bitches, Eber 
 Post, a wire, and Partney Prude, a smooth, for 
 which she paid just ten pounds, fifty dollars. 
 Ask any terrier man about Ch. Collarbone of 
 Notts, or Ch. Cackler of Notts, or Ch. Collai" 
 of Notts, or Ch. Corker of Notts, or about 
 that litter of nine all first prize winners and two 
 of th.em champions. All these terriers were 
 bred by this lady from her own strain. 
 
 As a matter of fact, the modest fancier 
 usually has a distinct advantage over the larger 
 kennels. Without a fat purse he is forced, in 
 this day of high priced prize winners, to breed 
 his own good ones. Necessity was ever the 
 mother of invention, and the Stud Books, both 
 in England and this country, show that there 
 have been more champions bred in the " kitchen 
 kennel " than in the wealthy fancier's " show 
 place." 
 
 The American dog fancy needs careful, seri- 
 ous breeders. For years we have been Im- 
 porting dogs from England. Far too often it 
 
INTRODUCTORY 29 
 
 has been a case of the last dog over shall be 
 first In the award list. In some breeds we 
 have bred dogs as good as England's best 
 specimens, but in many varieties the retort of a 
 professional at a recent show Is true enough to 
 have a sharp sting to It. Two dogs were on 
 the block before the judge, and the handler of 
 one waved the stars and stripes by saying of 
 his entry, " He's an American-bred, sir." The 
 other dog's handler replied, " Yes, and he 
 looks It." 
 
 Will a dog fancier be repaid for the time, 
 and the trouble, and the expense, and the work, 
 and the disappointments of breeding? If he 
 Is a successful breeder, he most surely will. 
 Financially, because a good dog always com- 
 mands a good price, and a kennel with the repu- 
 tation for turning out good dogs will be a 
 Mecca to which bench show and field trial devo- 
 tees will always flock. Less substantial than 
 dollars and cents, but hardly less satisfying to 
 a true breeder are the personal satisfaction of 
 having accomplished something difficult and 
 worth while and the honor always accorded a 
 breeder of champions among good fanciers. 
 To breed a great dog Is a feat that calls for 
 more than time and money. It demands brains 
 and gameness and good faith. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 REPRODUCTION 
 
 THE similarity between the artificial se- 
 lection of the breeder and the natural 
 selection by means of which Darwin 
 first explained evolution has often been pointed 
 out. By repeated citation it has become very 
 trite, but, like most classic examples, it is a very 
 useful one. We can cover much Important pre- 
 liminary ground by briefly considering this 
 Darwinian theory. 
 
 In his " Origin of Species " Darwin brought 
 forward a wealth of evidence to prove that like 
 tends to produce like (that two Beagles will 
 have Beagle puppies) that the offspring always 
 differ from their parents (that no two Beagles 
 were ever identically alike). These are the 
 two fundamental laws of heredity and varia- 
 tion. Darwin said in substance that, granting 
 the truth of these, the fierce struggle for exist- 
 ence always going on in nature would explain 
 the differences in the various species through 
 
 30 
 
REPBODUCTION 31 
 
 the action of natural selection, or the survival 
 of the fittest. 
 
 In order to get this plainly before us, let us 
 take an imaginary case and reduce it to its 
 very simplest form. Let us suppose that by 
 the invasions of some stronger animal a remote 
 ancestor of the dog is driven out of a wooded, 
 mountainous country and forced to live on the 
 bare, open plains. Let us leave out of consid- 
 eration every factor except the procuring of his 
 food. On the plains he has no cover to aid him 
 In stalking his prey, and he cannot, therefore, 
 approach his victim so closely as before. 
 
 It is evident that those wild dogs which can 
 run ever so little more swiftly will stand 
 just so much better chance of " making a liv- 
 ing " in the new country. Moreover, skulking 
 through the deep shadows, a dark color would 
 make him less conspicuous, and, whether he 
 was hunting or being hunted, would be a dis- 
 tinct advantage. In the open, however, against 
 the light shades of the rocks and dried grasses, 
 a dark color would be a decided handicap, but 
 a dun or a fawn would be an advantage. Ob- 
 viously, any dogs that were a bit lighter in 
 coloring would be enabled to creep just so much 
 nearer to a feeding antelope. Any dogs 
 swifter of foot and lighter in color will be bet- 
 
32 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING ; 
 
 ter able to live on the plains than their slower, 
 darker brothers and sisters. They will have 
 just that slight advantage In getting food and 
 escaping enemies that in the life and death i 
 fight for existence will enable them to win out. , 
 Natural selection will be working for speed and' 
 light coloring. 
 
 Those wild dogs, in our example, that are 
 swiftest and lightest will, we have seen, be bet- 
 ter able to live on the plains. The chances are 
 In favor of their being the parents of the fol- 
 lowing generation. Their offspring will con- 
 tain individuals some lighter and some darker 
 than their parents, and also some swifter and 
 some slower. On the average, however, the 
 second generation will be lighter and sv>^ifter 
 than the generation to which their parents be- 
 longed. Again the swiftest and the lightest 
 will survive, and these selected Individuals will 
 almost certainly be swifter and lighter than 
 their parents, who were In turn the swiftest 
 and lightest of their own generation. And so 
 on for ages. 
 
 Eventually the comparatively slow moving, 
 dark colored wild dog that came down to the 
 plains from the mountains has become a fast 
 running, dun colored one. Any dog fancier 
 knows that this will mean that a thick-set dog 
 
SEPRODUCTION 33 
 
 ^ith erect shoulders and straight hocks has be- 
 :ome a hthe, racy animal with sloping shoul- 
 ders and well let down hocks. The demand for 
 increased speed has forced Important changes 
 in conformation. 
 
 Remember, moreover, that we have only con- 
 sidered the single factor of procuring food. 
 (Not only this, but every other condition of his 
 life has been radically changed by the migra- 
 ion from the wooded hills, and each change 
 
 ay have a very direct effect. It Is not hard 
 o Imagine that, given sufficient time, the dog 
 jmight be so changed as not to be recognized 
 as belonging to the same species. 
 
 This is briefly the explanation of evolution 
 :accordIng to the Darwinian theory of natural 
 selection. It Is well to note that all biologists 
 agree In their belief In evolution, and the dis- 
 putes that are engaged in are not over the ques- 
 tion of evolution, but over explanations of how 
 evolution has been accomplished and how It Is 
 working to-day. 
 
 It Is plain, for example, that natural selec- 
 tion cannot account for all the phenomena of 
 evolution. It can only act as a sieve, winnowing 
 the fit from the unfit. As Arthur Harris has 
 said, " Natural selection may explain the sur- 
 vival of the fittest; but It cannot explain the 
 
34 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 arrival of the fittest." Neither can it account 
 for any useless character, like the tail of the 
 peacock, for example, which is certainly no 
 help to the bird in its struggle for existence. 
 Darwin himself recognized these objections and 
 suggested sexual selection as a supplementary 
 force. Other theories have been advanced, but 
 they do not interest us. The points to be 
 brought out here are that evolution is accepted 
 by all biologists, and natural selection is ac- 
 knowledged to be one of the most important 
 factors in evolution. The laws of heredity 
 and variation are fundamental beliefs. 
 
 Both artificial selection and natural selection 
 rest upon heredity and variation. They differ 
 In that natural selection is passive and usually 
 very slow in its action, but artificial selection, 
 In the hands of a breeder, who is able to work 
 backward through pedigrees and forward by 
 judging his breeding stock not only by their 
 own qualities but also by the qualities of their 
 existing offspring. Is more active and yields 
 quicker results. 
 
 Fundamentally the breeder's work Is selec- 
 tion, and all selection is based upon the work- 
 ings of heredity and variation. If like did not 
 beget like all would be chaos. What could a 
 breeder do if a Beagle dog bred to a Beagle 
 
REPRODUCTION 35 
 
 jitch resulted in a litter consisting of a Gor- 
 don Setter, a French Bulldog, a dog with un- 
 dreamed-of characteristics, and maybe a lion 
 :ub and a young raccoon thrown in for good 
 Tieasure? This sounds like extravagant fool- 
 ishness because the law of heredity is so unl- 
 v^ersal that any exception seems beyond com- 
 prehension. 
 
 On the other hand, if the mating of two 
 Beagles produced a litter all exactly a mean 
 between the two parents, a perfect combina- 
 tion of all their physical points and mental char- 
 acteristics, breeding would be absolutely fruit- 
 less. In a very short time we should have all 
 Beagles reduced to a dead level average. 
 Every single one would be the same size, have 
 the same conformation and markings, and be 
 identical in voice, speed, nose, and disposition. 
 Thanks to variation a selection is possible, and 
 thanks to heredity a selection is effective. 
 
 Plainly, a breeder cannot know too much 
 about these two basic laws upon which all his 
 work depends. Before taking them up, how- 
 ever, we can advantageously look into the me- 
 chanical side of reproduction. It has an im- 
 portant bearing upon our work. 
 
 Most people know that the whole body of 
 any animal is made up of a great colony of 
 
36 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING, 
 
 minute cells. Bone cells and muscle cells, fori 
 example, differ In many ways, but all cells have 
 much in common. Every cell Is filled with a 
 
 Fig. I. — Typical Cells of the Frog. A, surface of the tongue; 
 B, nerve cell; C, the top layer of skin, a, in cross section, b, 
 surface view; D, blood cells, a, top view, b, cross section. From 
 life; highly magnified, but not to scale. 
 
 gelatinous substance called protoplasm in 
 which is a tiny speck, the nucleus. (Fig. i.) 
 All functions of the body are carried on by 
 
REPRODUCTION 
 
 37 
 
 cells, each doing Its own work. Moreover, 
 all growth In a body Is accomplished by means 
 of cell division, in which the nucleus splits in 
 half and separates, each part carrying with It 
 
 n^ 
 
 
 ••■'M'"~ 
 
 ■ '■ flB^^- ■ 
 
 
 '■■'Im:- 
 
 S-»'k 
 
 
 '■im 
 
 '■ '■•' -'nK' ■■■' •■ 
 
 
 - :WlM'-.- 
 
 :?fc; 
 
 
 :,:^:--.. 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 f'<^?m 
 
 
 -H& 
 
 Fig. 2. — Cell division showing splitting of nucleus (N), division of 
 cell contents with each half, and formation of new cell wall. 
 Highly magnified from Root Tip of Onion. 
 
 'half of the protoplasm. (Fig. 2.) Finally 
 the whole colony of cells that makes up the liv- 
 ing organism has arisen from a single cell. In 
 
 ^this minute germ cell are hidden away all the 
 secrets of heredity and variation, secrets that 
 
 iman has been trying for years to wrest from It. 
 
38 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING^ 
 
 Dogs, like the other higher animals, repr( 
 duce sexually. The combination of the malj 
 and female germ cells is necessary for the devel 
 opment of a puppy. The sperm, or male gen 
 cell (Fig. 3, A) is even many times smallel 
 than the microscopic female cell. It is a frej 
 
 Fig. 3.— Germ Cells. A, Sperms, (i) Snail, (2) Frog, (3) Bird; B, 
 diagram of typical ovum, (N) nucleus, (Y) yolk granules (Food 
 supply). Not drawn to scale, 
 
 moving body, shaped like a spear with a round- 
 ish head and a whip-like tail, which is used, 
 like a propeller, for locomotion. These sperm 
 cells are produced literally in millions. The 
 ovum, or female cell (Fig. 3, B) is larger, 
 round in shape, and without the power of mo- 
 tion. Like other cells, both the sperm and thej 
 ovum contain protoplasm and a nucleus. 
 
 Fertilization takes place when the sperm; 
 
REPRODUCTION 39 
 
 actually unites with the ovum. In some way 
 that Is not yet thoroughly understood, the ovum 
 has the power of attracting to Itself any sperms 
 that are near It. They move toward the 
 ovum, tails being used as propellers. Finally 
 one — but only one — sperm pushes Its spear- 
 like head In through the wall of the ovum, the 
 tail being left behind. The head of the sperm, 
 containing Its nucleus and protoplasm, now 
 travels to the nucleus of the ovum. The two 
 nuclei fuse together. Fertilization has taken 
 place. The tiny germ cell is definitely started 
 on its way toward the development of a new 
 individual. It is endowed with tremendous 
 energy and divides repeatedly after a set pat- 
 tern till in the place of one cell there are many. 
 It grows, fed by the mother to which it fastens 
 Itself, and in the course of time it develops 
 into a puppy and is born. The details of the 
 development of the embryo inside its dam are 
 highly Interesting, but since a breeder can have 
 no direct influence over that development once 
 fertilization has taken place, it would be out 
 of place for us to follow these studies here. 
 
 Let us, however, return a moment to the 
 sperm and the ovum. In the microscopic cells 
 are hidden away all the possibilities of a new 
 dog, a new dog that will be of the same va- 
 
40 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 riety as his parents, at the same time differing 
 from them in a thousand ways. For years 
 scientists have been patiently trying to wrest 
 from these tiny specks of life their wonderful 
 secrets of heredity and variation. Much is still 
 a mystery, but many things have been learned 
 that can be of great value to dog breeders. 
 
 There have been a number of explanations 
 proposed to account for the well known fact 
 that like tends to produce like. One of the 
 earliest of the theories of heredity assumed that 
 the great number of different parts that make 
 up each adult animal each gave off little buds 
 which were carried by the blood to the repro- 
 ductive organs and stored away in the germ 
 cells. According to this view, a miniature du- 
 plicate of the parent was tucked away in its 
 own germ cells, each sperm and each ovum con- 
 taining a complete set of buds representing every 
 part of the body of the animal that produced it. 
 
 This theory has been discarded. One obvi- 
 ous objection to it is to be found in the case of 
 mutilations. If each part of the body gives off 
 buds to be stored away in the germ cells, it 
 follows that should a certain part be removed 
 in the parent it ought to be lacking in the off- 
 spring. All Spaniel puppies would therefore 
 be born with short tails, since the buds for the 
 
REPRODUCTION 41 
 
 last few joints at the end of the tail should be 
 missing from both parents. Other theories 
 have been advanced, but the one in which we 
 are particularly interested Is the germ plasm 
 theory of the great German biologist, August 
 Welsmann. 
 
 In all its details this germ plasm theory is 
 
 Fig. 4- — Diagram of the Germ Plasm Theory, The Squares (i, 2, 
 3) represent the individuals of succeeding generations; the black 
 dots (Ai, A2, A3) are the vital germ cells passed on direct with 
 the bodies (squares) built around them for their protection. 
 
 somewhat complicated to one who has not had 
 scientific training, but it may be briefly ex- 
 plained. According to Welsmann's concep- 
 tion the whole of the fertilized ovum is not used 
 up in the development of the new individual. 
 A part of it Is put aside and remains unchanged 
 for the special purpose of making the germ 
 cells which this new individual will use to be- 
 get the following generation. The accompany- 
 ing diagram (Fig. 4) will help to make clearer 
 this Important idea. The black dots (Ai, A2, 
 
42 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 etc.) are the germ plasm that is passed along 
 complete and intact from generation to genera- 
 tion. The white squares are the individuals of 
 the different generations, each an elaborated 
 collection of specialized cells developed for the 
 express purpose of protecting and supporting 
 the germ cells. This idea of heredity usually 
 associated with Weismann's name is the most 
 reasonable explanation of the observed phe- 
 nomena that we have, and other men, notably 
 Haeckel, Owen, Brooks, Rauber, and Galton, 
 have been contributors to this important con- 
 ception. The setting aside of certain cells at 
 the very beginning of embryonic development 
 and later making reproductive organs out of 
 them has been actually seen under the micro- 
 scope. There are other important facts sup- 
 porting the germ plasm theory, and, as we shall 
 see, it offers a sound explanation for most of the 
 observed facts of heredity. 
 
 If the germ cells which give rise to the off- 
 spring are continuous with those that gave rise 
 to the parent, and this is the generally accepted 
 belief among biologists, breeders will find new 
 Ideas of great practical benefit presented to 
 them. It follows that the transmission of the 
 individual characteristics of the sire and the 
 dam is not nearly so direct as dog breeders are 
 
REPRODUCTION 43 
 
 prone to take for granted. " Like father like 
 son " is not nearly so accurate a saying as " like 
 tends to produce like." This understanding of 
 heredity throws the emphasis off the individual 
 and upon his or her units of inheritance. We 
 are not mating a dog and bitch of certain 
 physical points and peculiar characteristics. 
 We are combining two germ plasms, each bear- 
 ing certain factors of inheritance. This is a 
 great deal more than a mere difference in terms. 
 The direct connection from generation to 
 generation is through the germ plasm, and any 
 variation in the offspring lies, not in the devel- 
 opment or characteristics of the parents, but 
 only In those things that may affect the nature 
 of their germ plasm. It is as If you had a 
 number of similar balls of soft clay, which will 
 represent the germ plasms. You can put these 
 clay balls into paper bags of different sizes and 
 colors and shapes. By so doing, however, 
 you will not In the least change the clay balls 
 no matter how different they may look In their 
 different bags. Moreover, It would be quite 
 possible to put two Identical balls In two like 
 bags, and yet to change the nature of the balls 
 markedly by putting one In a hot oven for a 
 few hours. The two bags will still appear 
 quite alike, but inside of one will be a baked, 
 
44 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 hard ball of brick, and in the other a damp, 
 plastic ball of clay. According to the germ 
 plasm theory of heredity, the germ plasm, the 
 balls of clay in our example, are passed along 
 from generation to generation directly, and the 
 differences in the Individuals bearing the germ 
 plasm is not a sure test of differences in their 
 germ plasm. 
 
 That there are things, however, that affect 
 the nature of the germ plasm Is very evident, 
 or else there would be no variation. As a mat- 
 ter of fact we all appreciate that there Is con- 
 stant and Infinite variation. The germ plasm 
 theory must be able to reasonably explain this, 
 or it will not be acceptable. 
 
 Naturally the combination of two different 
 germ plasms In the mating of a dog and bitch 
 would cause a variation. There must, how- 
 ever, be other factors, or all the puppies of a 
 litter would be Identical, each a mean between 
 its two parents. This certainly does not tally 
 with common observation. There must be 
 other factors at work. 
 
 We have seen that the fertilized ovum Is a 
 combination of the male sperm and the female 
 ovum, each, according to the accepted theory, 
 carrying its own germ plasm with Its individual 
 units of heredity. As has been pointed out. 
 
REPRODUCTION 45 
 
 all growth Is by cell division in which the nu- 
 cleus divides, each half taking with it half of 
 the protoplasm. Fertilization is essentially the 
 direct opposite of this, for two cells fuse. It 
 Is easy to see that were two cells to combine 
 we should have, in a quantitative way, a dou- 
 ble cell with a double nucleus and double the 
 regulation amount of protoplasm. This piling 
 up would continue, and in the next generation 
 we should have a quadruple cell. Without go- 
 ing Into the technical details. It may be said 
 that when the sperm cells are maturing In the 
 male reproductive organs they reach a certain 
 stage when they divide Into four parts, each 
 containing a fourth of the original nucleus and 
 a fourth of the protoplasm. The ovum also 
 undergoes reduction, as this Is called. In this 
 case, however, three-fourths of the original nu- 
 cleus Is extruded from the cells, thrown off, 
 and lost so far as reproduction is concerned. 
 The result of this Is that the sperm and the 
 ovum are each. In a quantitative sense of 
 the word, a quarter cell. When they com- 
 bine and fuse they make a half cell, which 
 amounts to the same thing as a full cell divid- 
 ing. 
 
 This reduction is an actual fact and has been 
 often seen in the germ cells of many different 
 
]i 
 
 46 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 kinds of animals. Of course, only the main 
 features of reduction have been outlined, and 
 all confusing technical words have been stripped 
 away. Some knowledge of the subject, how 
 ever, Is important to the breeder who would 
 have a better understanding of the nature o 
 heredity. 
 
 The reduction of the sperm and ovum is re- 
 garded as a factor that introduces a primary 
 cause for variation. The Interpretation of the 
 observed facts is as follows. The germ cells 
 are considered as being made up of definite and 
 distinct units of Inheritance, called by Wels- 
 mann determinants. By dividing the germ cell 
 first up and down and then crossways, the de- 
 terminants are divided in equal numbers but 
 In different combinations. A homely example 
 would be to cut a cherry pie into quarters. 
 Each quarter would contain approximately the i 
 same number of cherries — but they will be 
 different cherries. So, reduction of the germ 
 cells Is supposed to yield an Infinite number of 
 different combinations of the units of Inherit- 
 ance, resulting In Infinite variation. 
 
 The importance to a practical breeder of 
 these modern conceptions of inheritance will be 
 better appreciated when we come to apply them 
 directly to the specific problems that fanciers 
 
REPRODUCTION 47 
 
 tiust solve. The dog breeder should get them 
 lear in his mind, for we shall use them later. 
 ATeismann's theory of heredity considers the 
 mcestral germ plasm as being passed on di- 
 •ectly from generation to generation and re- 
 rards the body as a case developed round the 
 'ital germ cells for their nourishment and pro- 
 :ection. Reduction of the sperm and the ovum 
 s a well known fact that is interpreted as sup- 
 plying a fundamental cause for variation, in so 
 much that the reduced cells will each contain 
 different combinations of the units of heredity, 
 or determinants. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 VARIATION 
 
 IF like literally produced like, without any 
 variation, there would be neither dog 
 shows nor field trials. Nor would there 
 be any dog breeders, though, of course, some 
 people might raise dogs to supply a demand 
 for a useful animal just as manufacturers turn 
 out tenpenny nails, sugar coated pills, and lead 
 pencils. 
 
 Variation is the raison d'etre of the bench 
 show and the field trial. Just imagine a judge 
 confronted by a class of Boston Terriers in 
 which every single entry was absolutely iden- 
 tical in conformation, size, markings, and dis- 
 position. It would be like trying to select the 
 best of a paper of pins. Try for a moment to 
 wax enthusiastic over a field trial in which 
 every bird dog not only looked just alike, but 
 was blessed with the same nose, speed, bird 
 sense, and training. It would be about as 
 thrilling as a coursing match on treadmills. 
 
 48 
 
VARIATION 49 
 
 I 
 
 \\ Moreover, variation is the backbone of 
 ')reeding. Contrast the mingled hopes and 
 'ears of the breeder who studies for the first 
 lime the puppies of a new-born Htter with what 
 Ihis feehngs would be were he absolutely cer- 
 tain that every last youngster in the lot was an 
 jxact reproduction of its sire and dam. For a 
 jime, to be sure, there would be some interest 
 [n crossing established varieties. Even this 
 vould be quite mechanical, and the results could 
 )e foretold with discouraging accuracy. More- 
 3ver, our many times great grandfathers would 
 bng, long ago have exhausted the possibilities 
 of such cross-breeding, which, if persisted in 
 iander a condition of heredity without varia- 
 tion, would eventually result in the develop- 
 ment of a single breed, the great average dog, 
 ithe exact mean of all varieties. He might be 
 la very remarkable dog to look at, but he would 
 hardly prove an interesting animal in the breed- 
 ing kennels. 
 
 It is due to variation that the breeder is en- 
 abled to make a choice. Only when a choice 
 is presented is there any possibility of improve- 
 ment. It is very obvious that variation is an 
 important subject for the dog breeder. There 
 are a number of very practical problems that 
 are brought much closer to their correct solu- 
 
50 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 tlon by a better understanding of variation 
 What breeder, for example, would not lik( 
 to know the exact limits of variation, anc 
 hov/ much it can be controlled? Whether oi 
 not variations are correlated, and does a lon^ 
 head of necessity mean a long back? Whal 
 kinds of variations are most surely Inherited 
 which are hardest to fix In a strain; which are 
 easiest to lose? These questions, and otherj 
 like them, can be applied by any breeder to his 
 own dogs. It Is easy to appreciate their vital 
 importance. A clearer understanding of the 
 nature of variations of all kinds is certain to be 
 a very practical help. 
 
 Dog fanciers are fairly brought up on varia- 
 tion: their shows and trials are based upon It, 
 and their breeding would be aimless without 
 It. They have trained their eye to appreciate 
 slight differences In dogs that an ordinary per- 
 son never notices; but, skilled as our judges 
 and breeders are in recognizing the slightest 
 gradations, they are not in the habit of distin- 
 guishing between different kinds of variations 
 and of classifying them. These distinctions 
 are Important. Their recognition avoids con- 
 siderable confusion. They are, moreov<?r, 
 rather obvious once the attention Is direclcd 
 to them. 
 
VARIATION 51 
 
 In the first place, there are variations of 
 jform and variations of function. The bench 
 show enthusiast Is deeply concerned with the 
 [former. A Collie breeder, for example, is 
 jvery anxious to perfect a long, clean skull with 
 [a level mouth and filled In foreface, topped off 
 with semi-prick ears (all matters of structure). 
 The follower of the field trials, on the other 
 Ihand, lays most emphasis on functional varia- 
 tions. A Pointer man Is vitally interested in 
 ihls dog's speed, nose, and endurance (all mat- 
 ters of function). Oft and again the bench 
 show fancier has been charged with utter indif- 
 ference to vitality, disposition, and Intelligence. 
 The unconcern of the field dog owner to the 
 looks of his animals is proverbial. Evidently, 
 both display a lop-sided Interest in their dogs, 
 but this Is really not so serious as some alarm- 
 ists would have us believe. 
 
 The -breeder whose sole object Is to produce 
 
 dogs that will win championship points and sil- 
 
 jverware knows full well that shyness and 
 
 iviciousness, constitutional weakness, and the 
 
 tendency to develop certain diseases are all to 
 
 'be religiously avoided. The keenest field trial 
 
 follower appreciates that speed and endurance 
 
 are dependent upon good conformation. All 
 
 breeders are concerned with the functional 
 
52 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 variations of fertility and impotence, of ex- 
 ceptional prepotency as a breeding individual, 
 of the tendency to abortion or to faulty milk 
 supply displayed by some bitches. On the 
 other hand, no breeder wants to breed unsound, 
 cripples. 
 
 Again, all variations can be classed as either! 
 quantitative or qualitative. They are all eitherii 
 differences in degree or differences in kind. Oft; 
 two Toy Spaniels one may grow a very full, 
 profuse coat; the other may always be com- 
 paratively short haired. This is a quantitative i 
 variation, a degree of difference. The tex- 
 ture of one coat may be fine and silky, without ; 
 the slightest tendency to curl, and the othern 
 coat may be coarse and decidedly wavy. Thissi 
 is a qualitative variation, a difference in kind. 
 All variations in size and shape are quantitative. 
 Variations in substance and material, as tex- 
 ture, coloring, dispositions, etc., are qualitative. 
 It is usually considered that the qualitative vari- 
 ations are easiest to fix and also easiest to lose. 
 It is therefore useful for a breeder to learn to 
 make the distinction between the tv/o and to 
 keep this distinction before him in his breeding 
 operations. 
 
 Still a third classification can be made of 
 variations. They are either continuous or dis- 
 
VARIATION 53 
 
 continuous. The great majority of all varla- 
 jtions with which the breeder is concerned are 
 'continuous. In fact, it is hard, with the ex- 
 ception of color and markings, to fix on any 
 [variations of importance to the dog breeder 
 that are strictly discontinuous. The two dif- 
 fferent kinds are easily distinguished. A re- 
 cently proposed English Standard for the Fox 
 Terrier gives the ideal length of head as seven 
 Inches measured from the nose to the occiput 
 with calipers. If all Fox Terrier heads in the 
 'world were so measured, we should find some 
 longer and many shorter than this ideal. 
 There would, however, be a continuous series 
 of lengths without any sharp breaks. Every 
 possible length from eight to five inches (as- 
 suming that these are the limits) would be rep- 
 resented. The length of head Is a continuous 
 variation, but the coloring of the head Is a dis- 
 continuous variation. We should find many 
 were black, white, and tan; some black and 
 white, and also tan and white; fewer would 
 be all black, or all white, or all tan. There 
 would, however, be no intermediate shades of 
 greys, blues, brindles, smuts, or fawns. These 
 colors are not found in pure bred Fox Terriers. 
 They could only be obtained by resorting to 
 cross-breeding. 
 
54 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 A moment's reflection will convince any ex- 
 perienced fancier that continuous variation is 
 the one that almost exclusively enters into his 
 breeding operations. It is probable, how- 
 ever, that some of the fancy points of our 
 highly artificial breeds have originally arisen 
 from discontinuous variations. It seems prob- 
 able, in lack of any direct proof, that the screw 
 tail of the English Bulldog, for example, first 
 appeared as a mutation, or a sudden discon- 
 tinuous variation. There is plenty of evidence 
 contributed by the Dutch botanist De Vries 
 to prove that these mutations are continually 
 appearing in various forms of plant and animal 
 life, and that they breed true without reverting 
 to the ancestral form. It is certainly feasible 
 to suppose that the screw tail first appeared 
 as a mutation. Of course, it has been carefully 
 preserved and improved by selection, and even 
 been bred into other varieties, the Boston Ter- 
 rier and the French Bulldog. 
 
 It lies within the range of possibility to breed 
 a Fox Terrier head a hair's breadth longer 
 and another a hair's breadth shorter than seven 
 inches. Obviously in the case of discontinuous 
 variations the opposite is true, and no amount 
 of selection, without any cross-breeding, would 
 produce a gray marked Fox Terrier. 
 
VARIATION 55 
 
 It has been boastfully said that, if they 
 would, breeders could produce a dog without a 
 ,head — the Old English Sheepdog and the 
 Schlpperke are living proofs of the ability to 
 I produce a dog without a tail — but there are 
 ; certain very definite limits to what can be ac- 
 icompllshed by means of artificial selection. 
 (This Is particularly true In the case of discon- 
 tinuous variations. To remember this, and to 
 differentiate between the continuous and dis- 
 continuous, may prevent a foolish waste in 
 striving after the unattainable. 
 
 We have already seen how bisexual repro- 
 duction and the reduction of the male sperm 
 and the female ovum Introduce a primary 
 cause for variation. There are other Internal 
 causes of variation. 
 
 Dog fanciers are generally credited with a 
 pretty firm belief in telegony. Certainly It is 
 not unusual to hear the opinion expressed that, 
 if a bitch Is mismated with a mongrel or a 
 dog of a different breed from her own, she Is 
 spoiled for breeding purposes. It is supposed 
 that the mesalliance will affect the character of 
 her subsequent puppies. During the past ten 
 years there has been a continually increasing 
 number of fanciers who place no credence In 
 the belief that a previous sire affects subsequent 
 
56 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 litters. The belief, however, lingers, chiefly 
 among " novices " and " old-timers," and every 
 once In a while we hear of a case supposed to 
 prove the contention. 
 
 The late F. H. McConnell personally re- 
 lated to me an experience of his, which I offer 
 for what It may be worth. A wire Fox Ter- 
 rier bitch of his was mismated to an Irish Ter- 
 rier dog. The resulting puppies were such 
 demons on rats that the experiment was inten- 
 tionally repeated, but the third time she was 
 bred to a thoroughbred Fox Terrier, a dog. If 
 I remember correctly, of the Warren strain. 
 The pups of this litter were said to show very 
 unmistakable signs of Irish Terrier character- 
 istics. 
 
 Be that as It may, the weight of all scientific 
 evidence Is against a belief In telegony. The 
 recorded examples are few and far between, 
 and direct experiment has never yielded any- 
 thing but negative results. Darwin cited the 
 famous case of Lord Morton's thoroughbred 
 mare. She had a hybrid colt sired by a 
 quagga. Afterwards she foaled twice to a 
 thoroughbred stallion, and both of these colts 
 were marked with bars over the shoulders and 
 on the legs, supposed effects of the quagga 
 upon the get of the stallion. However, Pro- 
 
VARIATION 57 
 
 j fessor Ewart of Edinburgh repeatedly per- 
 formed the same experiment on a large scale 
 and was unable to find any traces of the quagga 
 In any but the direct hybrids of the cross-breed- 
 ing. 
 
 To discard a good bitch because she has 
 ! thrown puppies to a strange dog seems, in the 
 I light of all evidence, to be a bit fanatical. She 
 should certainly be given the benefit of the 
 : doubt, and probably most fanciers would be in- 
 clined to at least give her a trial. Professor 
 ij Davenport of the University of Illinois made a 
 I canvass among dog fanciers to find out how 
 i many believed in the effect of previous matings. 
 He received thirty-seven replies — one from a 
 i believer In telegony; two, non-committal; six, 
 uncertain; and twenty-eight denials. These fig- 
 ures, and from my own experience I consider 
 them indicative of the facts, show that the great 
 majority of dog breeders are not believers in 
 telegony. 
 
 Another supposed cause of variation is the 
 impression upon the embryo of certain sights, 
 sounds, colors, etc., that affect the dam while 
 carrying the offspring. This very old belief is 
 more widespread among horse and cattle breed- 
 ers than among dog fanciers. In the Bible we 
 read that Jacob, to increase the number of 
 
58 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 spotted offspring which were to be given to him, 
 set up peeled sticks before the herd. It is, 
 however, generally considered that instances of 
 pre-natal influence through external sources are 
 to be regarded more in the nature of strange 
 coincidences than of any serious cause for va- 
 riation. 
 
 Horse and cattle breeders, however, have 
 gone to rather fantastic extremes in this belief, 
 hanging up colored blankets or holding desir- 
 ably colored animals in front of females during 
 service. I have heard a few similar cases in 
 dog breeding. The English Bulldog Tidal 
 Bishop, white with brindle markings and bred 
 from white pied stock. Invariably got dark 
 brindle puppies, thanks, it was rumored, to the 
 foresight of his owner in holding a brindle dog 
 in front of the bitches he served. Practical 
 breeders, however, disregard these pre-natal in- 
 fluences entirely, or at best regard them with 
 skeptical curiosity. 
 
 Reversion to ancestors back of the immedi- 
 ate parents has been often observed In kennels, 
 and It certainly presents a form of variation. 
 It, however, belongs more to the study of hered- 
 ity. We shall see later that it Is capable of 
 a reasonable explanation. 
 
 The various external forces and their effect 
 
VARIATION 59 
 
 lupon variation have long been a subject for 
 debate. The trend of biological evidence 
 IS more and more against a belief In inheri- 
 tance of modifications due to environment. 
 Of course, every breeder appreciates that pup- 
 pies bred from stock that is carefully fed, prop- 
 erly housed, and well exercised will be healthier 
 and stronger than those whelped in kennels 
 where the conditions of life are less ideal. 
 This, however, is more a matter of development 
 than of variation. 
 
 It has been frequently observed that the num- 
 ber of puppies in a litter is larger among do- 
 mesticated dogs than among the wild canida. 
 Abundant food and protection from the ex- 
 tremes of weather have doubtless been the main 
 factors in this increase. 
 
 The Instances of deterioration in British 
 breeds of dogs Introduced Into India have been 
 often quoted from Darwin, but since he col- 
 lected his Information additional facts have been 
 brought forward. A strong dog fancy has de- 
 veloped in India, with numerous shows under 
 the jurisdiction of the Indian Kennel Club. 
 Judging from descriptions and photographs, 
 Indian breeders have been able to produce dogs 
 that compare favorably with their direct impor- 
 tations from England, and to-day we hear lit- 
 
60 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 tie about the degeneration of dogs in the east- 
 ern country. Moreover, the success of the 
 Airedale Terrier in the Philippines and through- 
 out tropical America is further confirmation of 
 the fact that climate does not have such a di- 
 rect bearing on variation as was formerly sup- 
 posed. 
 
 In America we sometimes hear complaints 
 that the extremes of temperature and the dry- 
 ness of the air (compared with the climate of 
 Great Britain) ruin the correct texture of a wire 
 coat. Many terrier owners have never been 
 able to find any direct confirmation of this be- 
 lief. It is certain that dogs brought to a new 
 country have to become acclimated just as peo- 
 ple do, but there is only the scantiest evidence 
 that this has any direct bearing upon their off- 
 spring with which a practical breeder must 
 reckon. 
 
 Many of the external forces affecting dogs 
 are closely allied in their nature to acquired 
 characteristics. These will be discussed later. 
 Some consideration of them, however, belongs 
 to the subject of variation. The best working 
 rule, in view of the disputed importance of these 
 external forces, will be to take no chances. 
 Kennels should be so arranged and so managed 
 as to keep the breeding stock in the very best 
 
VARIATION 
 
 61 
 
 possible condition, so affording the most favor- 
 able opportunity for the action of these exter- 
 i nal forces In the desired direction. 
 I We have now classified the different types of 
 I variation and considered briefly the principal 
 causes at work to produce them. We have seen 
 that every variation is either structural or func- 
 
 1200 
 IQOO 
 
 eoo 
 eoD 
 
 400 
 
 eoQ 
 
 r-^ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 56 $0 62 &¥ 66 68 70 72 7* 76 7d 
 
 Fig. 5. — Showing the actual variation in height of 8,585 British men. 
 
 tional; quantitative or qualitative; continuous 
 or discontinuous. We have taken up the causes 
 of variation In bisexual reproduction; in reduc- 
 tion of the germ cells, in telegony, in pre-natal 
 Impressions; m reversion, and In various ex- 
 ternal forces. Having In our minds a clearer 
 Idea of the nature of variation, let us see how 
 variation behaves. 
 
 By the very definition of continuous varia- 
 
62 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 tion we expect — and rightly so — to be able 
 to get all possible shades of differences. These 
 differences can be expressed more accurately 
 and clearly by a graph than In any other way. 
 The accompanying figure (Fig. 5), which Is 
 taken from J. A. S. Watson's little handbook 
 " Heredity," expresses graphically the varia- 
 tion In the height of 8585 British men. 
 
 The vertical lines represent the differences In 
 height In Inches and the horizontal lines show 
 the number of men In hundreds. The very top 
 of the curve Is at a point between 67 and 68 
 Inches and a little over the line of 1300 Indi- 
 viduals. This means that of the 8585 men 
 measured there were over 1300 who were 
 roughly 6714 Inches tall. There were 1200 
 men who were something over 66 Inches tall, 
 and also 1200 men who were 69 Inches tall. 
 The curve expresses graphically the average 
 height and the variation from that average of 
 the men measured. It Is merely another way 
 of saying " Most men are an average height "; 
 but It also shows that that average Is close to 
 67^ Inches. 
 
 Another thing that this curve shows us Is that 
 the deviation from the average Is quite uniform. 
 There are just about as many men taller than 
 the average as there are men shorter than the 
 
VARIATION 63 
 
 average. Not only this, but just about as many 
 men are two Inches above as there are men two 
 Inches below the average height. The curve is 
 remarkably regular on both sides of the apex. 
 A great amount of similar data has been 
 carefully collected, measuring not only varia- 
 tions In men but also In plants and animals. 
 The figures so collected have been graphically 
 expressed In the same 
 way. The curves 
 thus derived have 
 been found to be re- 
 markably similar, all 
 being very close to 
 the normal variability 
 
 curve, as it is called. Fig. 6. — Curve showing variations 
 ' , in normal height. Compare 
 
 This normal curve Is ^^^^ ^^s. 5. 
 
 shown in Fig. 6, and one can see at a glance 
 how close to It IS the curve of the height 
 of the 8585 men. The differences in the height 
 curve from the normal are accounted for by 
 the number of men measured. Had eight mil- 
 lion heights been recorded Instead of eight 
 thousand, the curve would more closely ap- 
 proach the normal. 
 
 All this has a very practical meaning for dog 
 breeders. It proves to us that all continuous 
 variations have a decided average and that the 
 
64 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 falling off In numbers, at first quite fast, very 
 fast in the middle portion, and slower at the 
 extremes, is remarkably even on both sides of 
 the average. Applying this normal variability 
 curve to the ideal length of a Fox Terrier's 
 head, we should find, assuming that the aver- 
 age would be six inches, that just about as many 
 had heads only five inches long as had the ideal 
 length of seven inches. These figures are, of 
 course, purely arbitrary. There is no data 
 available on the length of Fox Terrier heads. 
 It Is, however, quite certain that. If the Ideal Is 
 seven Inches, the average would be below this. 
 In real hfe " an Inch on a terrier's head Is a 
 good deal," but the even figures were taken for 
 simplicity's sake. The variation would not be 
 so great, but this does not affect our exam- 
 ple. 
 
 Most dog fanciers will be surprised to find 
 that variation is such a regular and consistent 
 thing. We are quite prone to regard all varia- 
 tions as sudden, freakish, and more or less un- 
 reasonable. It Is only by studying great num- 
 bers that the regular and symmetrical continuity 
 of all variation becomes apparent. Working 
 with Individuals, we get the erroneous Idea that 
 all variations are sudden and Irregular. There 
 are such variations, mutations, but these are not 
 
VARIATION 65 
 
 :he variations with which dog breeders are com- 
 inonly working. 
 
 I Very gradual variations, both good and bad, 
 lire being continually presented to the dog 
 breeder for his choice. The great difficulty lies 
 Xi the fact that the dog is made up of such 
 1 great number of distinct points. Very sel- 
 dom does a dog appear which combines any con- 
 ilsiderable number of variations all in the desired 
 direction. We are, accordingly, forced to sac- 
 rifice one point for the advantage of another. 
 In this the dog breeder has the opportunity for 
 displaying his rarest judgment, and in making 
 these choices he will be benefited by knowledge 
 both of variations and of their inheritance. 
 I If the sole and only object of the Fox Ter- 
 rier breeder were to produce a dog with a head 
 seven inches long, this could be accomplished 
 in a comparatively short time. But besides 
 that seven inch head he wants a well shaped 
 head, nicely balanced, with a flat skull, clean 
 cheeks, and well filled in foreface; a well placed 
 and correctly shaped, dark eye; sound, level 
 teeth, just covered with tight lips; small, V- 
 shaped ears, placed on the corner of the skull 
 and faUing forward — and we have not yet 
 gone " behind the collar " ! The neck, shoul- 
 ders, front, ribs, back, loins, hindquarters, feet. 
 
66 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 tail, height, weight, bone, coat, and style, eact 
 one must be considered in as careful detail as 
 mere length of head. Not only this, but thei 
 relative positions of each part and its proper 
 combination with other points is vitally im-i 
 portant. 
 
 It is small wonder that the perfect dog ol 
 any breed has yet to be bred. The ideal is 
 tremendously improbable, but it is at least con-i 
 ceivably possible. No fancier has ever seen a: 
 perfect dog — excepting, of course, o?ie of his 
 own home-bred puppies who died very young! 
 — but we have all seen dogs that in one or two, 
 possibly even in half a dozen different points, 
 were our ideal. That these few points have 
 appeared in accordance with our ideals is a 
 pledge of good faith on the part of variation 
 to supply us with the required material out of 
 which to make absolute perfection. 
 
 The variations, both good and bad, which 
 are being continuously presented for our selec- 
 tion are, we have seen, always clustering round 
 the average. Their causes are often mysteri- 
 ous, but we have much knowledge on which to 
 base our breeding operations. We are able to 
 get a clear idea of the nature of the various 
 kinds of variations and to appreciate that they 
 normally swing evenly on each side of the aver- 
 
VARIATION 67 
 
 ^ge. This knowledge will help the breeder 
 vhen he comes to employ the advantageous va- 
 cations, through the agency of heredity, in his 
 ifforts to breed the ideal dog. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 HEREDITY 
 
 HAVING considered variation, whicl 
 makes breeding possible, we are lee 
 naturally to a study of heredity 
 which makes breeding effective. We have 
 already discussed the germ plasm theory o] 
 heredity, the most reasonable explanation foi 
 the observed facts, and we must now investi- 
 gate these facts to see what practical benefits 
 we can derive from the knowledge gained b) 
 careful experiments and painstaking researches. 
 
 The very simplest case of heredity is the 
 " pure line," or when reproduction is by means 
 of self-fertilization. Although such reproduc- 
 tion is beyond the scope of the dog breeder's 
 operations, still, because it throws much light 
 on the nature of heredity, it will repay us for 
 a moment's investigation. 
 
 Professor Johannsen made the original ex- 
 periments in the sUidy of pure line heredity 
 
 with peas and beans, and his results have been 
 68 
 
HEREDITY 69 
 
 I Checked and confirmed by other observers. 
 He took the beans from nineteen plants, each 
 ipf which had been self-fertilized, as is the usual 
 ':ondition in this variety, and he measured them 
 ifor variability in weight, breadth, and other de- 
 tails. The whole lot showed a standard varia- 
 ition, and the curve he plotted from his data was 
 close to the normal variability curve. He 
 kept carefully distinct the seeds from each 
 parent plant, and grew each pure line, or in 
 lother words, each lot of seeds from each self- 
 |fertihzed plant, separately. The plants raised 
 |in each pure line produced seed that had each 
 Its own distinct average, differing from the 
 [general average of the nineteen original par- 
 ents. Moreover, he divided each pure line 
 Into lots according to size, but the same sized 
 'seeds from the same pure line produced seeds 
 that were not of their own size, but nearer to 
 ijthe average size of the pure line from which 
 •both they and their parents had sprung. 
 . This means that even within a pure line, 
 itwhen the germ plasm is, of course, unaltered 
 : and constant In succeeding generations, there is 
 'always variation. Variation Is Inherent In the 
 [germ plasm, even when It In Itself Is un- 
 I changed, for seeds larger than the average 
 I produce seeds smaller than themselves and 
 
70 PRACTICAL BOG BREEDING 
 
 closer to the average of the pure line. L 
 other words, individual characteristics, evei 
 In a pure line when there Is asexual reproduc 
 tlon, do not reproduce In the offspring. 
 
 For the breeder this means that no amoun 
 of selection In a pure line would ever product 
 a strain that would regularly have larger seed: 
 than the average. In pure line breeding then 
 a very definite limit to what can be accom 
 plished solely by selection Is set. The great 
 significance of these experiments for the dog 
 breeder Is the proof they present that even 
 when the germ plasm Is unchanged there is al- 
 ways variation. 
 
 In the case of bisexual reproduction, which 
 Is the condition under which the dog breeder 
 works, two different germ plasms are united to 
 form the new generation. The germ plasm 
 is no longer a constant, the Inheritance Is dou- 
 ble, from two germ plasms, and the case Is ob- ^ 
 viously more complicated. 
 
 In an exhaustive statistical study of the 
 height of 205 parents and their 928 children, 
 Galton was able to analyze the results of bi- 
 sexual reproduction. He arrived at conclu- 
 sions that are of Inestimable value to breeders. 
 He found that : 
 
 I. Like parents beget unlike offspring, and 
 
 I 
 
HEREDITY 71 
 
 vice versa, like offspring come from unlike par- 
 ents. Abnormally tall parents, he found, had 
 tall, short, and medium sized children; while 
 of all the tall children studied, some came from 
 tall, others from short, and others from me- 
 dium sized parents. 
 
 2. Offspring are on the average nearer to 
 the average of the race than their parents. 
 The average height of the children of two 
 parents Is not the mean between these parents. 
 When the average height of the two parents Is 
 above the average of the race, the children's 
 average will be shorter than their parents, and 
 so closer to the race average. 
 
 From the first conclusion It follows that two 
 dogs of very different type may be whelped In 
 the same litter, a fact to which any practical 
 breeder will readily testify. Also, that two 
 dogs of remarkably similar type may have been 
 bred from very different parents, another fact 
 that Is corroborated by common experience. 
 The general conclusion emphasizes the value 
 of a good working knowledge of the true mean- 
 ing of a pedigree and shows the utter foolish- 
 ness of any attempts to judge the offspring by 
 the parents, or the parents by a consideration 
 of the points of the offspring. Almost dally 
 we see dog fanciers attempt these two Impos- 
 
72 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 sibllltles. It Is common to hear a man say, 
 '' No, I never saw such-and-such a dog, but 
 judging from his pups he must be a short- 
 backed one with good legs and feet," or some- 
 thing of that sort; while it Is even more usual 
 to hear a man say that " So-and-so has the besti 
 eyes and ears of any dog at stud, and he cer- 
 tainly ought to get pups good In these points." 
 The second conclusion of Galton's studies is 
 the principle of regression, or the drag of the 
 race. To the dog breeder It presents vitally 
 the true value of a pedigree. To return again 
 to our example of the Fox Terrier head, which 
 In the last chapter we assumed would average 
 six Inches long with an ideal length of seven 
 Inches. It would surely result In disappoint- 
 ment to breed together two dogs with ideal 
 seven inch heads, for regression would bring 
 the average of the resulting puppies back 
 closer to the average of the race, which would 
 be closer to six inches. Conversely, a dog and 
 a bitch with five inch heads would, on the aver- 
 age, produce puppies longer headed than them- 
 selves, for the average of the offspring would 
 by the same law approach nearer to the aver- 
 age of the race, which in this case Is an Inch 
 longer than the Immediate parents. 
 
 Could a complete refutation of the Ideas 
 
HEREDITY 73 
 
 usually followed by dog breeders be more 
 forcibly expressed? We are so very prone to 
 cant about " like produces like," and so very 
 willing to accept a pedigree, which at best is 
 only a guaranty of purity of blood, as proof 
 positive of uniformity in type. 
 
 Plainly, there is but one way to cut loose 
 from the drag of the race. Bring the general 
 race average as close as possible to the ideal 
 expressed in the Standard. In this way, and 
 only in this way, can regression be won over 
 from an enemy to an ally. If a Fox Terrier 
 breeder should by continued and careful selec- 
 tion raise the average of his own strain from 
 the general race average of six inches to the 
 ideal average of seven inches, he would not 
 have to worry about length of heads so long as 
 he exercised enough selection to hold the very 
 great advantage he had gained. 
 
 Besides the pure line inheritance and the bi- 
 sexual inheritance there is another, named 
 after the man who discovered it, Mendelian in- 
 heritance. Mendel, an Austrian monk, study- 
 ing the crossing of different varieties of gar- 
 den peas, made important discoveries that were 
 quite unappreciated for thirty-five years. In 
 1900 his work was rediscovered and confirmed 
 by De Vries, Tschermak, and Correns, each 
 
74 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 working independently. The garden pea 
 shows sharply differentiated characters in its 
 different varieties. Mendel crossed these and 
 observed the way that these different charac- 
 ters were inherited in the hybrids. Mendelian 
 inheritance then is primarily the inheritance 
 of hybrids, or cross-breds, but subsequent study 
 has shown that many individual characters in 
 straight bred animals follow this same law. 
 
 It is beyond our needs to go into all the tech- 
 nical details of Mendel's experiments, or to 
 know how he succeeded in being sure that he 
 was crossing certain plants. We will confine 
 ourselves to the results obtained in one par- 
 ticular case. Crossing the tall variety, which 
 is about six feet high, and the dwarf, which is 
 about a foot and a half high, Mendel got a 
 generation of plants, every one of which was 
 just as tall as the tall parent. This is certainly 
 not what one would naturally expect, for we 
 generally look upon cross-breds as a combina- 
 tion of their parents, and we would think the 
 offspring of the tall and short varieties would 
 be about four feet tall. These tall cross-bredsj 
 were allowed to fertilize themselves, which ii 
 the usual method of reproduction, and froi 
 the resulting seeds a second generation was^ 
 raised next year. 
 
HEREDITY 75 
 
 This second hybrid generation behaved In a 
 truly extraordinary manner. Many plants 
 were just as tall as their tall parents and the 
 tall half of their grandparents; others, how- 
 ever, were just as short as their dwarf grand- 
 parents. There were absolutely no plants of 
 intermediate height. What is even more re- 
 markable, the dwarfs bore a constant numer- 
 ical proportion to the tails. There was one 
 dwarf to three tall, or twenty-five per cent, of 
 the second hybrid generation were dwarf. In 
 the next and In all succeeding generations, 
 these dwarfs continued to produce only dwarf 
 plants. Here was a hybrid, breeding abso- 
 lutely true, a perfect dwarf produced from 
 tall parents, produced in turn from crossed tall 
 and dwarf. 
 
 The seventy-five per cent, tails in the second 
 hybrid generation behaved very differently. 
 Self-fertilized, some produced both tall and 
 dwarf plants, while others produced only tails. 
 It was found that twenty-five per cent, of the 
 apparent tails of the second hybrid generation 
 were true tails and continued to produce tails 
 Indefinitely. Those seeming tails, half of the 
 whole second generation, continued to produce 
 both tails and shorts, In the ratio of twenty-five 
 per cent, true dwarfs, twenty-five per cent, true 
 
76 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING <| 
 
 tails, and fifty per cent, seeming tails, but in 
 reality hybrids in inheritance. 
 
 To sum up the results of this important dis- 
 covery: the first cross between tall and dwarf 
 produced all tails. Mendel expressed this by 
 saying that tallness is in this cross dominant 
 and dwarfness recessive. This hybrid, tall- 
 dwarf, but tall looking generation, produced 
 twenty-five per cent, true dwarfs, twenty-five 
 per cent, true tails, and fifty per cent, hybrids 
 with tallness dominant. This is known as 
 segregation, or the sifting out of the offspring 
 in definite proportions of the characters em- 
 ployed in the cross. This proportion is 1:2: 
 I. These same results can be expressed in a 
 chart: 
 
 I 
 
 Td 
 
 TT Td Td DD 
 
 I I I I 
 
 TT TT TT TT TT Td Td DD TT Td Td DD DD DD DD DD 
 
 The first cross is represented by the letters 
 T (tall) and D (dwarf). The fact that tall- 
 ness is dominant and dwarfness is recessive is 
 represented by the symbol Td, a tall looking 
 plant in which dwarfness lies recessive or hid- 
 den. The true tails (TT) and the true dwarfs 
 
HEREDITY 77 
 
 (DD), which are later segregated, continue, as 
 is shown, to breed true. 
 
 This principle of segregation, or the splitting 
 up of the off-spring into the Mendelian ratio 
 of 1 : 2 : I is a fundamental part of this type of 
 inheritance. Dominance of one character over 
 another does not invariably occur. Sometimes 
 there is a blending. In such cases the sym- 
 bols in the chart would be changed from Td 
 to TD, representing in this particular case a 
 plant of intermediate height. The subsequent 
 splitting off into true tails and true dwarfs 
 would be the same in each case. 
 
 Beyond all further doubt Mendel's law has 
 been demonstrated to hold in its mathematical 
 relations. The breeder, however, must re- 
 member it applies only to one character or set 
 of characters, not to the entire individual. 
 Judged as individuals, the Mendelian nature of 
 a hybrid cross might not be at all apparent, 
 though each character be following strict Men- 
 delian inheritance. Some characters would be 
 dominant in one parent, others in the other 
 parent, and still others might be a blend. In 
 this way, the different characters, viewed as a 
 whole, would seem a hopeless muddle. For 
 this reason the true nature of such inheritance 
 
78 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 was so long obscured, on-ly to be discovered by 
 the careful Isolation and study of each charac- 
 ter by itself. 
 
 The dog breeder can make no use of Men- 
 del's law until he establishes what characters 
 in dogs, If any, follow It. That there are such 
 characters Is highly probable. Color In chick- 
 ens, pigeons, rabbits, guinea pigs, and cattle; 
 hair and eye colors In man; presence or ab- 
 sence of horns In cattle; the shape of the comb 
 In chickens, and many other similar characters 
 have been found to follow Mendellan inherit- 
 ance. 
 
 A. L. Hagedoorn has done some work on 
 color Inheritance in Dachshundes, and C. C. 
 Little has made a statistical study of coat col- 
 ors in Pointers from data In the A. K. C. Stud 
 Book. Their work, which supplements the 
 rather scanty data of Professor A. Lang, In- 
 dicates that black and brown (liver) follows 
 the same Mendellan Inheritance observed In 
 these colors In mice, guinea pigs, and rabbits. 
 Dr. C. G. Darling believes eye coloring In 
 Airedale Terriers Is Mendellan, the light color 
 being dominant. He acknowledges that he has 
 not sufficient data to either prove or discredit 
 this hypothesis, but, as an eye specialist and a 
 terrier breeder, his opinion bears weight. If 
 
HEREDITY 79 
 
 he Is correct, It Is probable that all eye color- 
 ing In dogs follows Mendellan Inheritance. 
 
 It Is also probable that the smooth and 
 broken coats In Fox Terriers, a form of cross 
 breeding that Is common, is Mendehan, the 
 broken coat being, In this case, dominant. 
 The red and black coloring In Chow Chows 
 and self colored spaniels Is also probably ac- 
 cording to Mendellan Inheritance. However, 
 before a positive statement can be made In any 
 of these cases, more evidence Is required. 
 Such evidence would be a valuable contribution 
 to the equipment of breeders, and It Is to be 
 hoped that some day It will be collected. To 
 be of practical value. It must be determined by 
 a careful study of a great number of Individ- 
 uals from all po-sslble combinations, for large 
 I numbers are necessary to establish the true ra- 
 tio, and of course, the greater the number of 
 cases the less the probable error. 
 
 In view of the great likelihood of different 
 characters In dogs being subject to Mendehan 
 inheritance there Is a practical value In know- 
 ing what are the average numerical results to 
 be obtained from crossing characters following 
 this ratio. Let us take a simple case when 
 black and red colors are crossed, the black be- 
 ing dominant. The symbols used are the same 
 
80 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 as before, i.e., BB, a true black; RR, a true 
 red; and Br, a seeming black with red reces- 
 sive. A hundred offspring will in every pos- 
 sible cross give the following approximate re- 
 sults : 
 
 Sire and Dam 
 
 
 Puppii 
 
 
 BB 
 
 Br 
 
 BBxBB 
 
 lOO 
 
 . . . 
 
 RRxRR 
 
 
 
 BBxRR 
 
 
 100 
 
 Br xBr 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 BBxBr 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 RRxBr 
 
 
 50 
 
 RR 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 Mendelian inheritance is particularly ap- 
 phed to crosses of certain sharply defined char- 
 acters. But quite aside from this practical ap- 
 plication of this type of inheritance, in a pe- 
 culiar manner it throws a strong light on the 
 nature of the germ plasm and the whole sub- 
 ject of heredity. 
 
 From the action of characters under Men- 
 delian inheritance we can see that the units of 
 heredity in the germ plasm remain, even when 
 crossed, true and pure in respect to any given 
 character. To return to Mendel's original ex- 
 periment, the unit for tallness is carried by 
 one plant and the unit for dwarfness by an- 
 other. On combining the two germ plasms 
 these two units remain distinct, or all offspring 
 
HEREDITY 81 
 
 of the cross would forever afterwards be a 
 i blend, and there could never be separating of 
 the offspring back to the original sizes. The 
 tallness and the dwarfness remain distinct, 
 though they may blend. 
 I Each hybrid germ plasm contains heredity 
 ' units represented by T and D. When crossed 
 the T's of one plasm combine with the 
 T's of the other plasm, giving TT or true tall, 
 or they may combine with a D, resulting in 
 TD which may be either a blend or one factor 
 may dominate the other. The D's act in the 
 same way, they may combine with other D's 
 giving DD, or true dwarfs, or with T's giving 
 DT, or TD, which is the same thing. 
 
 Each germ plasm of every individual has 
 two determinants as they are called. These 
 may be TT, or DD, or TD. On crossing 
 these couples in each Individual act independ- 
 ently, and one determinant of one parent will 
 combine with one determinant of the other 
 parent. Accordingly In crossing TT x DD 
 the only possible result will be TD. This is 
 exactly what happens in the first hybrid cross. 
 But on crossing TD x TD we can get either 
 TT, or DD, or TD, and It Is a mathematical 
 certainty that the chance of TD combining is 
 just twice as great as TT or DD, hence the 
 
82 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 establishment of the Mendelian ratio of iTT: 
 2TD : iDD. 
 
 It is just as if you tossed two coins in the 
 air. The only possible combinations for you 
 to get would be two heads, one head and one 
 tail, or two tails. If you did this five times, 
 it might happen that you got two heads every 
 time; but if you did it a thousand times and 
 kept count, you would find that you would get 
 very close to 250 two heads, 500 heads and 
 tails, and 250 two tails — the Mendelian ratio 
 of I : 2 : I. 
 
 The practical application of this is the les- 
 son it teaches that in Mendehan inheritance 
 it is useless to try to establish in a strain a 
 blend between two characters. Such a blend 
 will never breed true. The characters will 
 continually be splitting up into the two orig- 
 inal forms. v^^ 
 
 Another very practical lesson is that very 
 evidently the germ cells of both parents each 
 contain a complete set of hereditary units. 
 Every possible character is represented in both 
 male and female, which applies to all inherit- 
 ance whether Mendelian or otherwise. This 
 upsets the idea that the sire Is more important 
 than the dam so far as the physical appear- 
 ance of the offspring is concerned. This Is a 
 
HEREDITY 83 
 
 ime honored belief that dies hard, but the 
 looner it is buried the better it will be for all 
 )reeders. 
 
 The question of whether or not acquired 
 Iharacteristics are inherited has been long de- 
 )ated by biologists. The tendency is to place 
 ess and less credence in this once popular be- 
 ief. Practical breeders ought to be able to 
 iistinguish true acquired characteristics, so as 
 |o appreciate their relation to his operations. 
 I First, such a character is only acquired dur- 
 ing the lifetime of the individual. Those char- 
 acters that have been acquired by the whole 
 l-ace are beyond the scope of this definition. 
 The retrieving habit, which must be taught to 
 \i bird dog, is an acquired characteristic: the 
 Dointing habit, which they have inherited, is 
 jiot. 
 
 ! Second, a factor outside the dog, something 
 in his habits, training, or environment, must 
 tiave brought about the change. Cutting off 
 a terrier's tail is an acquired character: the 
 itendency displayed by many terriers to go 
 thick in skull, though this happens in the dog's 
 lifetime, is not. 
 
 I Third, and this is the most difficult point to 
 jestablish in the individual case, the acquired 
 jcharacter must affect only the body of the dog 
 
84 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 and not his germ plasm. Bad raising during 
 puppyhood may result in rickets and other 
 weaknesses. If these weaknesses go furtherii 
 and affect his fertility they cannot be strictly i 
 considered as acquired so far as that dog's heri- 
 tage is concerned. 
 
 In this strict, scientific sense, acquired char-, 
 acteristics are obviously non-inheritable, else:- 
 long ago our Terriers and Spaniels would have 
 been born with short tails and no trainings 
 would be necessary for bird dogs and hounds. ' 
 Diseases, as such, are not inherited strictly, 
 though, of course, communicable diseases mayv] 
 be transmitted by the dam to the pups. This 
 is not inheritance but infection. The tendency 
 to develop certain diseases is, however, passed 1' 
 on from one generation to another. Use and 
 disuse of certain faculties or organs probably 
 act much in this same way. The fact that 
 Pointers and Setters have for generations been 
 broken to the field makes Pointer and Setter 
 puppies easier to train. Exercise of certain 
 muscles develops them and makes them 
 stronger. Effects from use and disuse must, 
 however, be very slow in their action. They 
 are felt more in transmission of the capability 
 for further development than in a direct in- 
 heritance. 
 
HEREDITY 85 
 
 In practice the breeder need not worry over 
 jbe Inheritance of acquired characters, pro- 
 ided he Is assured they are acquired In the 
 trlct meaning of this term. This Is not so In 
 he case of care and treatment of his breeding 
 tock and puppies. Environment Is a very 
 llfferent thing, and poorly housed, dirty, un- 
 ier-fed stock are not good breeding stock, 
 environment has a very direct action on de- 
 velopment, and the breeder must maintain his 
 ;ennels under favorable conditions that will In- 
 ;ure strength and health among his dogs. 
 
 In our conceptions of heredity we dog breed- 
 ers have made two mistakes. These are nat- 
 aral ones, and It Is some consolation to know 
 ;:hat other breeders, and even trained biolo- 
 gists, have fallen Into the same errors. In the 
 first place, we have paid too much attention 
 to the exceptional Individual, the dog that Is 
 a " stormer," way above the average of his 
 race. Secondly, and this sounds somewhat 
 paradoxical, we have not paid enough atten- 
 tion to the Individual points that go to make 
 up the whole dog. 
 
 In our almost fetish worship of the Cham- 
 pion of Record, we have been led astray In 
 formulating any sound systems of breeding. 
 We have overlooked the great average of the 
 
86 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 race and the drag that this average always e> 
 erts. This has been very strikingly demor 
 strated in the statistical studies of inheritanc 
 which were pointed out earlier in this chapter 
 
 Although as breeders we are continuall 
 working for the development or effacement o 
 certain points, we have overlooked the fact tha 
 these different characters behave differently Ir 
 transmission. Some blend, others never do 
 Some are correlated, others are quite inde 
 pendent. 
 
 The fact that heredity is from the whole rac( 
 more directly than from the individual is for 
 cibly impressed on us, and the fact that hered- 
 ity keeps all variations close to the race aver- 
 age, together with the fact that many charac- 
 ters combine in definite proportions, bring out 
 the mathematical nature of all inheritance. 
 We are working with tremendously compli-i 
 cated material. It is little wonder that this 
 mathematical relation of variation and hered- 
 ity should be obscured. But picking out indi- 
 vidual characters and working with them ini 
 large numbers give new ideas and fresh in- 
 spiration to the careful breeder. We can now 
 appreciate the real significance of scientific 
 breeding, and understand that it is not merely 
 fine spun theory. 
 
HEREDITY 87 
 
 The principles of variation and heredity in 
 the light of modern biological knowledge en- 
 able us to make our selection in matings with 
 a fuller understanding of the problem before 
 us and with a more reasonable expectation of 
 success. It is very much more effective than 
 the old hit and miss methods. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 SELECTION 
 
 THE dog breeder Is merely a spectator 
 of variation and heredity. However 
 much he may know of the causes of 
 these highly Important factors In his breeding 
 operations: however deeply he may be Inter- 
 ested In the results, his direct control over 
 either cause or result is nil. He Is quite power- 
 less to exert the least bit of Influence over the 
 combination of the heredity units In the germ 
 plasm of the stud dog or of the brood bitch 
 he breeds to him. 
 
 He can, however, select which two germ 
 plasms are to be combined. In doing this, as 
 he does every time he mates two dogs, he 
 ceases to be a mere passive on-looker. He be- 
 comes the active, directing force. His will. In 
 a measure, replaces natural selection. Obvi- 
 ously, his selection will have a most vital In- 
 fluence on the breed with which he Is dealing. 
 His skill and knowledge, or his carelessness and 
 
 88 
 
SELECTION 89 
 
 Ihis Ignorance, as the case may be, have effects 
 [much more far reaching than the immediate 
 success or failure of his own kennels. Many 
 breeders do not seem to realize the great re- 
 sponsibility that rests upon their shoulders. 
 I The principles of variation and of heredity, 
 those two Important laws governing all breed- 
 ing, must always be remembered during a con- 
 sideration of the very practical problems of 
 selection. Bearing this in mind, the solution 
 of the problems of selection will be discovered 
 in the answers to the following questions: 
 What Is the true object of selection? What 
 can and what cannot be accomplished by se- 
 lection? How can the results possible through 
 selection be best accomplished? 
 
 What is the true object of selection? 
 
 We have already seen that all variations 
 swing close to the race average, and heredity 
 always tends to keep them there. These vari- 
 ' atlons may be on one side of the average of 
 the race, or they may be on the other — they 
 may be, from a fancier's point of view, either 
 favorable or unfavorable. But, excepting 
 sudden mutations, all cluster about the race 
 average, and just as many will be on one side 
 as the other. The curve of normal variabil- 
 ity Illustrates this graphically. The principle 
 
90 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING] 
 
 of regression in heredity is always exerting it 
 drag to keep the get of exceptional parents 
 which may be exceptionally good or exceptioi 
 ally bad from the breeder's standards, closei 
 to the average of the race than were the indj 
 vidual parents. 
 
 It is very evident that the only way thJ 
 breeder can make any important, permanent 
 headway is to bring the average of his own 
 strain closer to the ideal expressed in the Stand- 
 ard than it is to the average of the race. In 
 this way, and only in this way, can the drag 
 of the race be lessened, and this drag Is the 
 breeder's worst enemy. Until he can overcome 
 it, his breeding can only be partially successful. 
 To overcome it, by raising the average of his 
 own strain, is the true object of all selection. 
 
 Just what this drag of the race means to a 
 breeder is expressed in mathematical form by 
 Galton's law of ancestral heredity. This law 
 was first derived from statistics. It has sub- 
 sequently proved to be substantially correct. 
 Pearson, by taking into consideration the indi- 
 vidual variation in each generation, has worked 
 out a more complete mathematical expression 
 of the same principle, but for practical pur- 
 poses Galton's figures are sufficiently accurate. 
 It is very obvious, from what we know of vari- 
 
SELECTION 91 
 
 atlon and heredity, that inheritance is not 
 alone from the immediate parents, but also 
 from the parent's parents " even to the third 
 and fourth generation." Galton's law, as 
 stated in the following table, expresses in per 
 cent, the effective heritage contributed by each 
 of the first six generations and by every indi- 
 vidual in those generations. 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Influence of 
 
 Influence of 
 
 Generation 
 
 Ancestors 
 
 Generation 
 
 Indimdual 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 SO. 
 
 25. 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 25. 
 
 6.25 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 12.5 
 
 1.56 
 
 4 
 
 i6 
 
 6.25 
 
 0.39 
 
 5 
 
 3^ 
 
 3-125 
 
 O.IO 
 
 6 
 
 64 
 
 1.5625 
 
 0.024 
 
 These figures give true meaning to the drag 
 of the race. They put before us vitally the 
 advantages of lessening this drag, which 
 should be the true object of all selection. Yet 
 how very few keep this object before them. 
 Most are trying, by hook or crook, to breed a 
 champion. They rush cross lots, forgetting 
 that " the longest way round is the shortest 
 way home." Instead of trying to breed a 
 chance champion, they should strive to bring 
 their own strain gradually closer to the ideal. 
 In other words, they should work to purify the 
 ancestry of their strain, so that the inheritance 
 
92 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 from all ancestors may not only be similar In 
 type, but also as close as possible to the ideal. 
 Such a strain would be invaluable. To be 
 sure, every puppy bred would not be a com- 
 plete expression of the ideal — In fact the 
 ideal dog had never been seen, and probably 
 never will be — but that every htter would 
 contain pups close enough to that ideal to win 
 is beyond cavil. 
 
 Can this be accomplished by selection? 
 
 Theoretically it can. Practically, there are 
 great difficulties to be overcome. In several 
 strains, If not all the points that make up the 
 modern dog, at least some of them have been 
 brought to high and uniform perfection. The 
 underjaws of Bulldogs bred In Mr. Walter Jef- 
 feries' Stone Kennels are famous the world 
 over. " For legs and feet go to Redmond " 
 Is a byword among English Fox Terrier breed- 
 ers. Llewellyn bred English Setters are uni- 
 versally accredited with dash and speed. A 
 few other instances might be cited, but it is 
 sad they are so few. 
 
 The great difficulty In dog breeding lies In 
 the very great number of points that make up 
 the dog. It would not be difficult to pick out 
 one or two points and to establish a strain that 
 would average close to the Standard. It is, 
 
SELECTION 93 
 
 however, a very different matter to bring all 
 the multitudinous points of the modern show 
 or field trial dog to the ideal. Nevertheless, 
 it is possible, for variations are always being 
 presented for selection. In working for the 
 ideal dog a breeder sometimes feels as if he 
 were trying to drain the sea dry with a sieve. 
 This is not so, though it is almost as if he were 
 attempting this task with an after dinner coffee 
 spoon. It is theoretically possible to establish 
 a strain that would turn out champions to 
 order, even if the practical difficulties are great. 
 A glance at the table of Galton's law of an- 
 cestral heredity gives a foundation for this 
 statement. It will be noticed that the influ- 
 ence of the individual ancestor becomes less 
 with astounding rapidity. The individual con- 
 tribution of a dog in the sixth generation is 
 only 0.024 pel* cent. A somewhat involved 
 mathematical proof has been worked out to 
 show that after six generations of careful and 
 continued selection a certain character will in- 
 variably breed true. No further selection for 
 that point is necessary, provided no dogs which 
 will deteriorate the inheritance for that point 
 are introduced into the strain. In other words, 
 six generations of selection in the case of our 
 old example of the length of a Fox Terrier's 
 
94 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 head would raise the average from six to seven 
 inches, and that new length would be indefi- 
 nitely maintained so long as adverse selection 
 was not brought to bear. The very practical 
 advantages of possessing a strain of Fox Ter- 
 riers whose length of head was fluctuating 
 about the ideal average rather than an inch 
 below it needs no comment. 
 
 The mathematical study of variation and 
 heredity is of inestimable value, and serious 
 breeders should acquaint themselves with the 
 formulae which, however, have no place in a 
 little handbook. Without going into the 
 mathematics involved, it may be said that it 
 has been established that any character con- 
 sistently bred for can be fixed in six genera- 
 tions, but that there will be but a very slight 
 reduction in the variation. We could increase 
 the length of Fox Terrier heads in a strain 
 from six to seven inches, but when the new 
 average was established the number of dogs 
 varying about this new point would be the 
 same as formerly varied about the old average. 
 
 This seems a refutation of the common be- 
 lief that a strain will die out. Except for ad- 
 verse selection, either intentional or uninten- 
 tional, there is no reason why, if fertility can 
 be maintained, any family or strain should 
 
SELECTION 95 
 
 |vear out, deteriorate, or become extinct. In 
 iictual practice there have been many cases 
 ^here, in spite of all that could be done, a 
 jjtrain has degenerated. What has happened 
 In most such cases is that the breeder has been 
 'forced to have recourse to outside blood to 
 ieep up the stamina and fertility of his strain. 
 I/Vdverse selection has been forced upon him 
 Iwilly-nilly. 
 
 i Furthermore, it seems at first sight that if 
 variability is not materially reduced by con- 
 tinued selection, a type once established should 
 not only breed true, but be capable of indefi- 
 nite further improvement. Raise the average 
 length of head in a strain of Fox Terriers to 
 iseven inches, then set a new ideal of eight 
 inches and repeat the process. It sounds rea- 
 sonable, if it is true that variation is not re- 
 duced. The figures show that this cannot be 
 I done below 85 per cent, of the original varia- 
 tion, but there are other limits set to what can 
 be done by selection. There is a definite me- 
 ichanical limit, for example, to the length of 
 lleg and the weight it will support. There is 
 a physiological limit to the work that can be 
 done by the vital organs, such as the size of 
 I the heart and the amount of blood it can pump. 
 These mechanical and physiological limits 
 
96 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 make it Impossible to breed a Great Dane up 
 to the size of a shire horse. 
 ^ The breeder can expect that Intelligent, con-i 
 tinued selection will change type In any deslredi 
 direction, and that new type will breed true^ 
 after six generations of continued selectlon.i 
 He cannot, however, expect to accomplish any 
 material reduction In the amount of variation.! 
 So far as the opportunity that variation always 
 presents for further selection Is concerned, the( 
 breeder will always have material available, 
 but^ there are mechanical and physiological 
 limits beyond which no amount of selection cam 
 ever be carried. However, In all probablHty, 
 these limits have not been reached, except pos- 
 sibly In the size of the very large and the very; 
 small breeds. 
 
 If the true object of selection Is to lessen the 
 drag of the race and If careful continued selec- 
 tion can change type, but not reduce variation, 
 how can the dog breeder most quickly and ef- 
 fectively accomplish his results? What are: 
 the principles Involved In rational selection? 
 
 First and foremost, the breeder must know 
 the points of the dog he Is breeding. "Am 
 eye for livestock " Is a common phrase. Some 
 people are blessed with It : others seem to lack 
 It. Several years ago, two friends visited my 
 
SELECTION 97 
 
 kennels to pick a Scottish Terrier puppy. 
 Neither visitor knew the points of the breed, 
 and color and markings were in this case little 
 help in distinguishing between the youngsters. 
 The elder could not tell one puppy from an- 
 other: the younger could invariably pick out 
 any one of the dozen odd with ease. The one 
 had no " eye for livestock." The other, pro- 
 vided she learned the points of the breed, was 
 I a born judge. If a breeder has an " eye " for 
 a dog he is Indeed blessed. If he has not this 
 desirable faculty, he should do all in his power 
 to cultivate it. 
 
 Once a breeder has thoroughly learned the 
 points of his breed, he must " keep his eye in," 
 as the saying is, by attending shows. It is 
 suicidal for a breeder to bury himself in his 
 own kennels. He must visit shows, see and 
 study good dogs, distinguish their excellencies 
 and their defects. Otherwise, he will be un- 
 able to tell which of his puppies are ducklings 
 and which are swans. The homebred puppy 
 very often appears to be a worldbeater in his 
 own run. In the show ring, however, his 
 proud owner often discovers faults that he 
 never before dreamed existed. 
 
 But the breeder who returns to his kennels 
 with a new ideal of perfection after every 
 
98 PRACTICAL BOG BREEDING 
 
 bench show that he visits will never accomplish 
 a thing. Once the points of the breed are 
 learned, a breeder must set up before him am 
 ideal toward which he must always work. To 
 change that Ideal every six weeks is to Insurer 
 failure. True, the type that wins at the bench 
 show to-day is often very different from the : 
 type that was winning five years ago. This 
 places a great burden on the already over- 
 loaded shoulders of the breeder. It is hard ' 
 work to establish any given type or any given 
 set of characters. To be continually shifting 
 that type and changing the characters makes 
 lasting improvement impossible. From all 
 that has been said of the true object of selec- 
 tion and from what we know of ancestral 
 heredity, it is plain that to be forever tinkering 
 with the Ideal and at the same time to expect 
 to fix that ideal in a strain are two things as 
 Incompatible as oil and water. 
 
 Besides knowing the points of his breed and 
 having a fixed and definite ideal to breed for, 
 the breeder must know the history of his vari- 
 ety. He should know what they were orig- 
 inally used for, and, if a manufactured variety, 
 what breeds were employed In their manufac- 
 ture. Even more important is a knowledge of 
 the good and bad points of the different Indi- 
 
 i 
 
SELECTION 99 
 
 vidual aogs of the past. He must appreciate 
 I the prevailing faults of his breed. He must 
 know just what certain bloodlines stand for 
 and what they mean in good and bad points. 
 : He must realize what strains are predominant 
 I and In what ways their predominance will be 
 beneficial or harmful to his own stock. This 
 , knowledge is absolutely essential to a success- 
 1 ful, intelligent selection. The practical appli- 
 cation of the principles of variation and hered- 
 ity, so essential to a breeder's success, can only 
 be made by means of this knowledge. Yet 
 how very often do we see men and women at- 
 tempting to breed from dogs whose very sire 
 and dam are absolutely unknown to them save 
 In name only. 
 
 The sire and the dam are, so far as heredity 
 Is concerned, equipotent. The germ cells of 
 each carry a complete set of all heredity units, 
 as is evidenced by the nature of Mendelian 
 inheritance. Either sire or dam may transmit 
 to any puppy of either sex any or all of their 
 own characteristics. The parent, however, 
 whose heredity units for any particular point 
 are purest will, in general, predominate over 
 the parent whose inheritance for this same 
 point is mixed. This explains the prepotency 
 of an In-bred dog. A Bulldog, for example. 
 
100 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 in-bred to a strain noted for wonderful under- 
 jaws and layback, big flat skull, but with bad ij 
 ears and a long tail can naturally be expected 1;! 
 not only to possess these peculiar excellencies jj 
 and faults himself, but also to pass them on to )l 
 his get. The figures in Galton's law of an- 
 cestral heredity will prove to be a rough guide 
 by which to judge the prepotency of an in-bred 1' 
 dog or bitch. Since they express this in fig- 
 ures, they are easy of application. Breeders 
 must always remember that in-breeding is a 
 double-edged sword. The faults or defects in 
 any in-bred dog or strain will be intensified and 
 passed on just as surely as any good points. 
 
 Quite aside from in-breeding, there is an- 
 other feature of predominance that is highly 
 important. In most breeds of thoroughbred 
 dogs the most casual study of pedigrees im- 
 presses one with the great importance of cer- 
 tain dogs and certain families. In all breeds 
 that I have studied, including Airedales, Scot- 
 tish Terriers, Chow Chows, and field trial 
 Pointers, I have found that most of the great 
 dogs have been bred either in or close up to 
 certain famihes. Wheeler in the Show Collie 
 traces the main line of Collie blood through 
 the various important dogs, each a direct de- 
 scendant of Old Cockie. Mr. Ralph W. Con- 
 
SELECTION 101 
 
 dee has traced out the hne of the main line 
 of blood In Airedale Terriers, which has come 
 down to us from old Champion Brush. 
 
 These Interesting family trees are not works 
 of the Imagination, and any one can readily 
 convince himself of the great Importance of 
 these main lines by selecting at random any 
 important show winner of these breeds and 
 seeing how very quickly his pedigree runs Into 
 the main line of blood. In fact, If his sire Is 
 not directly In the main line, the chances are 
 that his sire's or his dam's sire will be. In 
 the chapter on Pedigree Studies these two 
 charts, and others, are given In full. 
 
 In most breeds It is safe to assume that there 
 is a prepotent strain. A few phenomenal dogs 
 and their get have been responsible for most 
 of the Improvement that has been made. It 
 is Impossible for a breeder to tell offhand 
 whether or not any given dog is really a great 
 sire, or merely a popular show dog being used 
 extensively at stud. It will be well worth while 
 to study the pedigrees of his own breed to de- 
 termine what family has produced the great 
 dogs. If a stud dog is bred in the right strain 
 it Is safe to assume that he stands just so much 
 better chance of being a truly valuable stud 
 dog than one outside of this line. 
 
102 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 Although the influence of sire and dam are 
 equal and prepotency may be displayed by 
 either sex, still in a numerical sense the sire 
 is more important. An average dog at stud 
 will be the sire of fifty puppies to any one 
 whelped by a bitch. His influence on the fu- 
 ture generations of the breed is obviously the 
 greater in direct proportion to the number of 
 pups he gets. This must not, however, be 
 taken in any way as an excuse for the old fal- 
 lacy that " any old bitch with a pedigree is a 
 good brood bitch." Quite the reverse is the 
 truth. For the breeder, his own brood bitches 
 are every bit as important as the stud dogs to 
 which he breeds them. Both sire and dam 
 are equal in any individual mating. The 
 greater importance of the sire only applies 
 broadly to the whole breed, but both for the 
 advantage of the individual breeder and the 
 good of the whole breed it would be well if 
 it could be determined whether or not a certain 
 dog is an exceptionally good sire during his life- 
 time, and not, as is so often the case, after he 
 is dead. Sires should always be selected on 
 their records as producers of good puppies, not 
 on their records as bench show specimens or 
 field trial winners. 
 
 In selecting the individuals for breeding 
 
SELECTION 103 
 
 stock a distinction should be made between 
 faults and defects. A fault Is positive: a de- 
 fect is negative, though the difference is often 
 mainly one of degree. Never breed to a dog 
 that is downright faulty in any one point no 
 matter how great may be his other excellencies 
 Is an old-time rule that is sound and sensible. 
 Among the faults specially to be eschewed in 
 any breed are those of conformation and sound- 
 ness. Bad pasterns, cow hocks, deafness, 
 blindness. — except when any of these are 
 caused by overwork or accident — should be 
 shunned. Over-shot or under-shot, except, of 
 course, in breeds where these formations of 
 the jaws and teeth are required; or bad shoul- 
 ders must be viewed with keen suspicion. Such 
 positive faults, once they are Introduced into 
 a strain are hard to eradicate. 
 
 In studying pedigrees so that they may be 
 made a practical aid to selection, the breeder 
 must remember that while the importance of 
 back blood Is very great, still this Importance 
 lies mainly In the early generations. To go 
 back ^Yt or six generations before finding a 
 good dog in a pedigree is foolish. Take the 
 very extreme example of when a good dog ap- 
 pears so many as ten times in the sixth genera- 
 tion. Even then his Influence would only be 
 
104 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 0.24, or less than one quarter of one per cent. 
 If the Individuals between the first and this 
 sixth generation are inferior or commonplace 
 or doubtful, such a pedigree, however beauti- 
 ful it may look, is not a good one for breed- 
 ing purposes. 
 
 To sum up: the real purpose of selection is 
 to bring the type of the breed as close as pos- 
 sible to the ideal as set forth in the Standard. 
 To do this for any length of time raises the 
 quality of the inheritance of every pup since 
 all ancestors are closer to the average of the 
 ideal than to the average of the race. The 
 drag of the race in this way becomes a help 
 and ceases to be a hindrance. Selection will 
 fix a character or type In six generations, but 
 no amount of selection can materially reduce 
 variation. There are, however, limits, me- 
 chanical and physiological, to what can be ac- 
 complished by selection, but in dog breeding 
 these limits have not yet been reached. In 
 order to make a wise selection, the breeder 
 must know his breed, Its points, its character- 
 istics, Its history, and, that his selections may 
 be cumulatively effective, he must set up before 
 him an ideal and always breed toward It. 
 
PART TWO 
 THE PRACTICE OF DOG BREEDING 
 
 PraestanisimI canes in suo quique genera sunt, id est, ex 
 unius generis parentibus prognati. 
 
 The best dogs are bred each in their own race, that is, 
 from parents of the same breed. 
 
 — Conrad Gesner in " Historiae Animalum." 
 
I 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 PEDIGREE STUDIES 
 
 THE practical dog breeder, striving to 
 produce a bench show winner or a phe- 
 nomenal field trial performer, often 
 shrugs his shoulders skeptically at the experi- 
 ence and precepts of breeders of other kinds 
 of thoroughbred stock, and he is inclined to 
 pooh-pooh the theoretical work of scientists. 
 If the principles of variation, heredity, and se- 
 lection do not apply to dogs as they do to other 
 animals, then scientific dog breeding, In the ac- 
 cepted meaning of the words, is chimerical. 
 The dog breeders' Indifference to these things 
 is, in this case, thoroughly reasonable and well 
 justified. If, however, the reverse is true, then 
 dog breeders merely handicap themselves by 
 their failure to understand and apply the prin- 
 ciples of genetics to their problems. 
 
 " The proof of the pudding," says the old 
 
 saw, " is in the eating." The proof of the 
 
 dog breeder's pudding is In the puppies. The 
 
 kennel that consistently turns out home-bred 
 
 107 
 
108 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 winners, either on the bench or in the field, Is 
 avowedly successful. The dog show fancier's 
 ideal is the bench champion: the hunting dog 
 enthusiast's ideal is the field trial champion. 
 This furnishes a definite standard of accom- 
 pHshment of the object at which all serious dog 
 breeders are aiming. Moreover, the records 
 of the wins at shows and trials are available 
 for reference. The records of wins plus the 
 pedigree records of the stud books furnish us 
 with a handy gauge by means of which we can 
 either prove or disprove the efiiciency of scien- 
 tific principles applied to practical breeding 
 problems and also, a good medium by means 
 of which the work of the biologist can be trans- 
 lated into the everyday terms of the breeder. 
 I know very well the objections that can be 
 raised against the stud books as a source of 
 material for studies of this kind. In the first 
 place, there is no guarantee that the pedigrees 
 recorded are correct. There have been, of 
 course, some cases of deliberate fraud in the 
 registering of dogs, but ninety-nine dog fanci- 
 ers out of a hundred would, I am sure, as soon 
 steal pennies from a beggar as fake a pedigree 
 record. Calamity howlers to the contrary, the 
 men and women who breed dogs are at heart 
 sportsmen and sportswomen, and for every 
 
PEDIGREE STUDIES 109 
 
 story of crooked dealing one hears gossiped at 
 the ringside, one can hear ten of such scrupu- 
 lous honesty that It puts to shame the " butcher, 
 the baker, and the candlestick maker." The 
 deliberate errors In the pedigree records are 
 so Infrequent that for practical purposes they 
 can be discounted. 
 
 More common is a distortion of the records 
 through personal fancies or prejudice. For 
 example, the stud books would be but a poor 
 place from which to collect data on Boston 
 Terrier colorings. Many dogs must be en- 
 tered as '' dark brindle, evenly marked with 
 white," which are not, strictly speaking, this 
 very popular color and much desired markings. 
 Such errors are Impossible of detection, and 
 the sole solution lies In the selection for study 
 of subjects that do not bear any taint of this 
 kind. Most common of all are the typo- 
 graphical errors. These creep into any book, 
 and. It Is to be regretted, they are specially fre- 
 quent In records of this kind, made up, as they 
 are, from blanks filled in by many different 
 persons writing In all degrees of legibility. 
 Nor do the fantastic names bestowed on some 
 dogs help this trouble. These most common 
 errors, however, are seldom such that they af- 
 fect the results of statistical studies. 
 
110 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 Granting the weight of these objections, 
 there Is, however, much that a breeder can 
 learn from studies of pedigrees. Nor Is this, 
 especially if one be working with his own 
 favorite variety, the dry-as-dust work it might 
 be supposed to be. The main objects of the 
 studies I have made here have been to throw 
 light upon the direct connection existing be- 
 tween the scientific work of the biologist and 
 the practical work of the breeder, and to sug- 
 gest studies that serious breeders can make 
 with advantage each in his own breed. 
 
 Whenever two or three dog fanciers go 
 hobby horse riding together the old question 
 about in-breeding is sooner or later almost sure 
 to be discussed. We have all heard some care- 
 ful breeders praise such a system of breeding 
 to the skies, and others, equally competent and 
 successful, denounce it bitterly. The general 
 public has the idea that thoroughbred stock, 
 and most especially thoroughbred dogs, have 
 been weakened in constitution and dulled in in- 
 tellect by continued In-breeding. Many dog 
 owners, while they will stoutly deny the ill ef- 
 fects of such mating, will almost in the same 
 breath exclaim that there Is altogether too 
 much In-breeding. The whole subject has 
 been badly muddled by a loose use of the term 
 
PEDIGREE STUDIES 111 
 
 In-breeding, and by very hazy notions on the 
 part of every one concerned as to just how 
 common true in-breedIng is among dogs. 
 
 In-breeding means nothing more nor less 
 than the crossing of the blood of one individ- 
 ual. There are only three possible ways in 
 which this can be accomphshed. 
 
 I. By breeding a sire to his own daughter, 
 as expressed in a pedigree of the following 
 general type : 
 
 Puppies 
 
 rA 
 
 B 
 
 2. By breeding a dam to her own son 
 
 - r 
 
 Puppies J 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 3. By breeding together full brother and 
 full sister: 
 
112 PRACTICAL BOG BREEDING 
 
 iA 
 
 Puppies 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 D 
 
 'A 
 B 
 
 These, and only these, are true in-breedlng. 
 Bearing this in mind, any dog breeder will at 
 once recognize that a great deal of what is 
 really line breeding passes in current talk as 
 true in-breeding. Such inaccuracy in the use 
 of simple terms is decidedly unfortunate. The 
 perfectly true statement that continued in- 
 breeding results in degeneration of both physi- 
 cal and mental powers is transformed into a 
 foolish bugaboo if every line bred dog is to 
 be considered in-bred. 
 
 Just what proportion of thoroughbred dogs 
 are in-bred and what proportion are line bred? 
 Here is a question to which the stud book can 
 furnish the answer. For the purpose I have 
 selected two terrier breeds, the Scottish and 
 the Airedale Terriers. These belong to the 
 same general family, but the Scottie is one of 
 the oldest breeds In this division, while the 
 Airedale is a comparatively recently manufac- 
 tured variety. In each breed one hundred 
 average dogs were selected, fifty of each sex 
 
3 
 
 X 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 93 
 
 90 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 lO 
 
 87 
 
 88 
 
 PEDIGREE STUDIES 113 
 
 [md ten from each stud book for the past ten 
 kars, so as to get a fair general average of 
 he whole breed. In like manner, a hundred 
 :hampIons were picked out at random from 
 jach variety. The results were as follows : 
 
 Average dogs. Champions. 
 
 :)COTTISH TERRIERS 
 
 ' Inbred 
 
 Line-bred 
 
 Out-bred 
 
 Airedale Terriers 
 
 I Inbred 
 
 Line-bred 
 
 Out-bred 
 
 Note — The "Line-bred" in the above only includes dogs 
 bred from the primary cross of half brother to half sister, and 
 there are certainly dogs in the " Out-bred " that are truly m- 
 bred. 
 
 Including both in-breeding and the primary 
 
 cross of line breeding only 7 per cent, of the 
 
 Scottish terriers are closely bred, and but 13 
 
 Iper cent, of the Airedales. Plainly, there 
 
 must be a great deal of exaggerated talk about 
 
 ; in-breeding. I will say frankly that, although 
 
 T am tolerably familiar with Scottish Terrier 
 
 breeding, I expected to find more than seven 
 
 among one hundred average dogs closely bred; 
 
 and an experienced and successful Airedale 
 
 breeder to whom I put the question thought 
 
 " about a third (33 per cent.) of the Airedales 
 
 are close bred.'' 
 
114 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 Those who advocate in-breeding as the solu- 
 tion of the dog breeder's problems are wont to 
 claim that the majority of the champions and 
 great dogs have been produced by this system 
 of breeding. The records do not confirm this 
 belief. Of the Scottish terrier champions 
 only one in ten is close bred (including in- 
 breeding and the primary cross of line breed- 
 ing), and only one in eight of the Airedales. 
 It is interesting to note that in both breeds the 
 number of line bred champions greatly exceeds 
 those that are truly in-bred. 
 
 In accomplishing the result desired by dog 
 breeders, i.e.^ the winning of the honorable 
 title, line breeding has proved to be, at least 
 in the case of these two representative breeds 
 of Terriers, tremendously more effective. It is 
 also interesting for a breeder to note that in- 
 bred dogs winning their championships have 
 been only half as numerous as in-bred dogs in 
 the average lot. In other words, an in-bred 
 dog has only half the chance of becoming a 
 champion that is enjoyed by an out-bred ani- 
 mal. In the case of the line bred dogs, how- 
 ever, the chances of winning the right to the 
 prefix " Ch." seem to be double those of an 
 average out-bred dog. Very evidently line 
 breeding is the best friend of the Scottie and 
 
PEDIGREE STUDIES 115 
 
 Airedale fancier. This Is, of course, exactly 
 what one might have foretold by a broad ap- 
 plication of the principles of inheritance, re- 
 membering especially the behavior of all varia- 
 tions and the law of ancestral heredity. 
 
 One remarks at once In this table that the 
 Airedales are more closely bred throughout 
 than are the Scottish Terriers. I will hazard 
 a guess, without dignifying It by calling it even 
 a probable explanation, and suppose that this 
 Is the result of close breeding being forced on 
 the Airedale fanciers because theirs Is a re- 
 cently manufactured variety and has therefore 
 less variety In blood lines. 
 
 The very general recognition afforded to 
 families and strains by dog fanciers, and the 
 very commonness of such expressions as " the 
 winning strain " and " bred In the purple " 
 show that the prepotency of certain blood lines 
 has been so great as to be apparent without 
 any serious statistical study of pedigrees. In 
 several varieties, the line of descent has been 
 traced out through the strain that has proved 
 to be preeminently successful In the show ring 
 or the field. H. E. Packwood In his admir- 
 able monograph, " The Show Collie " goes to 
 considerable pains to show that the vast ma- 
 jority of the finest specimens of this breed have 
 
116 PRACTICAL BOG BBEEBING 
 
 been closely bred to the strain started by Old 
 Cockle. The chart of the family he gives is 
 as follows: 
 
 Old Cockie (pedigree unknown) 
 Ch. Charlemagne (grandson) 
 Ch. Metchley Wonder (grandson) 
 Ch. Christopher 
 Edgbaston Marvel 
 
 Ch. Wellesbourne Conqueror Ch. Portington Bar None 
 
 Ch. Parbold Piccolo Edgbaston Plasmon (inbred) 
 
 Ch. Anfield Model Ch. Ormskirk Olympian Ch. Ormskirk Emerald 
 
 Ch. Wishaw Leader Heacham Galopin 
 
 Ch. Squire of Tytton 
 
 Somewhat similar tables have been worked 
 out for other breeds, notably wire Fox Ter- 
 riers, Airedales, Scottish Terriers, and Pom- 
 eranians. More elaborate records were ana- 
 lyzed by the late Major Taylor in his valuable 
 work on the performances and pedigrees of the 
 Setters and Pointers. Professor Davenport of 
 the University of Illinois has made an exhaus- 
 tive statistical study of the ancestry and track 
 records of American trotting horse sires and 
 their get. These studies demonstrate strik- 
 ingly that the greatest improvement in speed 
 has come through a few exceptional sires, all 
 more or less closely related in blood. 
 
 Adapting Davenport's methods to a study 
 
PEDIGREE STUDIES 117 
 
 of dogs, substituting for the time record of 
 the trotter the winning of a championship as a 
 standard of accomplishment, I have analyzed 
 the ancestry and get of all Airedale Terrier 
 dogs who have won the honorable title either 
 in Great Britain or the United States. This 
 data, when analyzed, bears out the general 
 conclusion that most of the improvement In a 
 breed of dogs, as in the case of a breed of 
 horses, has been due to a few exceptional sires, 
 all of the same family. It is interesting to 
 note that the line of descent worked out by me 
 from stud book statistics is identical with the 
 family tree prepared empirically by Messrs. 
 Ralph W. Condee and Earle J. Woodward. 
 Statistical study coincides In results with the 
 practical experience of breeders. 
 
 To January, 19 13, eighty Airedale dogs and 
 sixty-nine bitches had won their championship 
 in England and this country. Of these eighty 
 dog champions, who any fancier knows will 
 have better-than-average opportunities at stud, 
 fifty-three never sired a championship winner 
 of either sex. Despite the exceptional stud op- 
 portunities of all champions, only twenty-seven 
 of them sired champions. Moreover, of these 
 twenty-seven champion sires of champions but 
 thirteen were the sire of more than one cham- 
 
118 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 plon. But, and this Is significant, these thir- 
 teen champions sired forty-nine of the hundred 
 and forty-nine championship winners. In other 
 words, one-third of the total number of cham- 
 pions of the breed were sired by one-third of 
 the dog champions, while only a half of all 
 champions were sired by any champion. The 
 thirteen exceptional champion sires got 33 per 
 cent, of the champions, while the sixty-seven 
 other dog champions between them sired only 
 22 per cent, of all champions. These figures 
 are only roughly approximate, but they show 
 impressively the tremendous Influence for good 
 of these thirteen exceptional breeding Indi- 
 viduals. 
 
 In the second generation, of the eighty dog 
 champions only twenty-four appear as grand- 
 sires of champions, and of this twenty-four, 
 only ten are grand-sires of four or more cham- 
 pions. The fact that almost without exception 
 the thirteen champions who sired two or more 
 champions are also among those who were 
 grand-sire of four or more champions is con- 
 firmatory evidence of their prepotency. The 
 exceptional sires are also the exceptional grand- 
 sires. The following table shows the cham- 
 pions in the ancestry and get of these excep- 
 tional breeding Individuals; 
 
Champion Get 
 
 Dam's 
 Sire 
 
 PEDIGREE STUDIES 119 
 
 1 1 " 
 
 ^ 
 
 MSOMM rx «0 MtO M N 
 
 M 
 
 Sire's 
 Sire 
 
 Qj.| mtI-u^ OfOM MM to vr, 
 
 iri 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 Co 
 
 Ot- 
 
 M comNMiim m w rjcJM 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 i ^ 
 
 \ s 
 
 « 
 •2 
 
 Grand 
 Dams 
 
 
 M 
 
 - 
 
 Is 
 
 
 HI MMM Mp^MMM MM _}. 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 Co 
 
 
 M M MI-IM MmMM 
 
 ON 
 
 
 
 
 Bolton Woods Briar 
 
 Cholmondely Briar 
 
 Clonmel Monarch 
 
 Crompton Oorang 
 
 Crompton Performer 
 
 Endcliffe Crack 
 
 Master Briar 
 
 Master Royal 
 
 Midland Royal 
 
 Red Raven 
 
 Rock King 
 
 Rock Salt 
 
 Rockley Oorang 
 
 The Gamecock 
 
 The New King 
 
 Tone (York) Masterpiece 
 
 
120 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 Without tracing out all the relationships — 
 and every dog in this table is related — it is 
 worth while to point out that all are de- 
 scendants of Cholmondely Briar. The three 
 greatest producers of the lot are Master Briar, 
 grandson of Cholmondely Briar, his son Clon- 
 mel Marvel, and Crompton Oorang, who is 
 by a son of Master Briar out of a daughter of 
 Clonmel Monarch. 
 
 This same table is very useful In checking 
 certain beliefs more or less popular among 
 dog breeders. For example, there is the old 
 kennel proverb that " a great sire is famous 
 for his daughters." The table does not bear 
 this out. The great Airedale sires have pro- 
 duced thirty championship winning sons to 
 twenty championship winning daughters, or 
 half again as many. Since the proportion of 
 dog to bitch champions in the whole breed is 
 only eight to seven, the great sires have been 
 distinctly above the breed average in their male 
 get who have won championships. 
 
 In the second generation, the proportion of 
 grandsons winning their championships is even 
 greater. The exceptional grand-sires pro- 
 duced seventy-two grandsons and fifty-three 
 grand-daughters who were able to annex the 
 title. Moreover, sons of champions pro- 
 
PEDIGREE STUDIES 121 
 
 duced eighty champions of both sexes, forty- 
 five dogs and thirty-five bitches, while the 
 daughters of champions produced forty-five 
 champions, twenty-seven dogs, and eighteen 
 bitches. Except that both sons and daughters 
 of champions produced more champion sons 
 this Is not a fair comparison, since the oppor- 
 tunities of the dogs are vastly greater than those 
 of the bitches. In fact, when we consider the 
 comparatively few number of puppies that any 
 bitch can produce during her lifetime, the 
 daughters of exceptional sires have made a 
 wonderful showing and, compared with the 
 average progeny of the average brood bitch, 
 they surely fall under the class of the excep- 
 tional breeding Individual. Theoretically, an 
 Ideal matron would be one whose sire and two 
 grandslres were among the exceptional sires. 
 Such a bitch could be very reasonably expected 
 to prove the dam of puppies above the average 
 class of the breed. 
 
 Certain characteristics In cattle, poultry, rab- 
 bits, guinea-pigs, and human beings have been 
 proved to follow Mendellan Inheritance, and 
 it Is a very natural hypothesis that certain 
 points In thoroughbred dogs do likewise. Eye 
 color, wire and smooth coats, and coat color 
 are those characters that, from what has been 
 
122 PRACTICAL BOG BREEDING 
 
 discovered to be true In other animals, we 
 should most naturally expect to behave in the 
 typically Mendellan ratio when contrasting 
 factors are crossed in dogs. 
 
 That black and brown coloring do In fact 
 exhibit the same behavior in transmission 
 among dogs as among mice and guinea pigs was 
 forecast by the experiments of Professor A. 
 Lang and Dr. A. L. Hagendoorn. This has 
 recently been corroborated by the pedigree 
 studies of coat color in Pointers by C. C. Little 
 of the Bussey Institution. The Pointer was 
 chosen because the breed is well established and 
 exhibits at the same time marked and easily 
 recognized differences in color, and yet there 
 Is no fancy, placing a premium on any particu- 
 lar shade. The results of Little's studies, 
 which were first published In The Journal of 
 Heredity, are set forth in the following table: 
 
 Nature of Mating 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Matings 
 
 Color of Offspring 
 
 Black 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Liver 
 
 Liver x Liver 
 Black X Black 
 Yellow X Yellow 
 Black X Liver 
 Yellow X Liver 
 Yellow X Black 
 
 97 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 
 56 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 77 
 8 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 305 
 5 
 
 
 95 
 
 46 
 
 2 
 
 Totals 
 
 i86 
 
 114 
 
 54 
 
 453 
 
PEDIGREE STUDIES 123 
 
 Little concludes from his study of these mat- 
 ings and the results obtained that there are two 
 factors at work producing the colors in Point- 
 ers: " I. B. The factor for black pigment 
 which is absent in brown (liver) animals. E. 
 The factor for the extension of the brown and 
 black pigment in the hair. In the presence of 
 this factor, animals have spots of brown or 
 black pigment on a white ground. In its ab- 
 sence the colored spots are yellow of various 
 shade." This allows the following combina- 
 tions, resulting in the four different visible 
 types : 
 
 1. BE = Black. 
 
 2. bE = Brown (liver). 
 
 3. Be = Yellow with black nose. 
 
 4. be = Yellow with flesh nose. 
 
 Little makes practical application of this 
 analysis of coloring in the following sugges- 
 tions to Pointer breeders: "In order to 
 purify a strain from black individuals it is only 
 necessary to go on breeding liver to yellow or 
 yellow to yellow indefinitely. As long as this 
 is carefully done there should be no blacks pro- 
 duced. Yellows from two liver parents may 
 safely be crossed with liver-colored animals. 
 If, however, any other yellows are used, the 
 breeder may expect a certain number of black 
 
124 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 young among the progeny. To obtain a pure 
 black strain is not so simple, requiring for its 
 certain completion a separate breeding test for 
 each black individual by crossing it with yel- 
 lows coming from two liver parents. If 
 among the progeny any liver or yellow young 
 are found, it is certain that the black in ques- 
 tion is not of the formula BBEE and will, 
 therefore, not breed true." 
 
 This is a splendid example of the help that 
 the practical dog breeder can get from the sci- 
 entific work of the trained biologist. In the 
 past, dog breeders have regarded such work as 
 purely theoretical and of little or no use to 
 them, largely because the data and experiments 
 of these investigators of breeding problems 
 have not been made with dogs. On the other 
 hand, because the material is expensive and the 
 time required for practical experimentation 
 comparatively long, biologists have not em- 
 ployed dogs in their work on the principles of 
 genetics. Recently there have been indications 
 of a change in this condition. Dog breeders 
 are beginning to awaken to the opportunities 
 they have neglected in shutting their eyes to 
 scientific help for their practical work. Bi- 
 ologists are extending their studies to include 
 analysis of the statistical data of the kennel 
 
PEDIGREE STUDIES 125 
 
 club stud books and direct experiments with 
 thoroughbred dogs. Both breeders and biolo- 
 gists must profit by such a movement. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 BREEDING SYSTEMS 
 
 THREE things every dog fancier has: 
 a private formula for a sure cure for 
 distemper; a pet method of feeding 
 and conditioning; and a system of breeding. 
 These three vary almost as infinitely as the 
 total number of those riding the doggy hobby. 
 Nevertheless, each personal variation can usu- 
 ally be placed under a general classification. 
 
 There have been, so I have read, something 
 over three thousand distinct and infallible sys- 
 tems for breaking the bank at Monte Carlo; 
 but all of these are founded upon four basic 
 principles. It is much the same with all the 
 different systems of breeding a champion. All 
 these systems can be reduced either to a single 
 one, or at best a combination of two or three, 
 of six different basic systems. Strange to re- 
 late, three of these six are no systems at all. 
 
 The use of the word system applied to a 
 plan or method of dog breeding Is unfortunate. 
 
 126 
 
BREEDING SYSTEMS 127 
 
 The wtDrd implies scientific order, a definite 
 rule. It connotes infallibility, a sort of guar- 
 anteed success. No breeder should ever be- 
 come so infatuated with a particular scheme 
 of mating as to follow it blindly, and any 
 breeding system that sets itself up to be a set 
 of fixed and unchanging rules can at the very 
 outset be regarded with suspicion. Such ad- 
 vice as " Always breed a bitch to her sire's 
 sire " is wickedly foolish. The breeder who 
 attempts to follow it is courting failure. The 
 principles of genetics cannot be expressed in 
 mathematical formula that will invariably 
 work out a correct solution for any breeding 
 problem. Other breeding systems are guesses 
 founded upon practical observation, but mis- 
 interpreted by lack of experience or insufficient 
 knowledge. Others are merely excuses for Ig- 
 norance, or more often laziness. Neither a 
 guess nor an excuse can rightly be called a sys- 
 tem. 
 
 The best of the so-called systems are those 
 that neither attempt to lay down fixed rules, 
 nor to bolster up weakness, nor to offer short 
 cuts to success. At best, they are merely 
 guide posts pointing out the way to sound 
 breeding practice, and even to call them sys- 
 tems is twisting the meaning of that word. 
 
128 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 Because some breeding systems are good, 
 others are bad, and still others are indifferent. 
 It is well worth the serious breeder's while to 
 consider them somewhat in detail. After so 
 doing he will be better able to map out for 
 himself a course that he is to follow in his 
 breeding operations. Let us first consider 
 those systems that are no systems at all. 
 
 The greatest of these is the trust-to-luck 
 system. It is to be feared that a majority of 
 fanciers breed their dogs on this basis. " Put 
 two good ones together, and trust to luck." 
 That sums up the idea of these men. It is 
 this famous system that, as H. E. Packwood 
 puts it, " floods the whole world with well bred 
 bad dogs," for a dog can have a pedigree full 
 of champions and yet be not only a poor speci- 
 men but also be downright badly bred. Some 
 strains of blood mix about as well as oil and 
 water, and to attempt to cross them results in 
 positive retrogression. Selection is the only 
 direct force in breeding that is at the breed- 
 er's command, and when he fails to employ it 
 he ceases to be a breeder at all. 
 
 Next to the trust-to-luck breeding, and just 
 about as popular and just about as pernicious, 
 is the fashionable breeding system. By this 
 method a bitch is invariably mated to the lat- 
 
BREEDING SYSTEMS 129 
 
 est sensational winner. Pedigree, and all that 
 it means in heredity, individual points, and 
 all that they mean in variation, — both are 
 blissfully Ignored. Only the number of first 
 and special prizes won count, and it is very well 
 known that, given a certain amount of quality, 
 the number of prizes won is almost always in 
 direct ratio to the opportunities given a dog. 
 A reasonably typical dog in the hands of a pro- 
 fessional visiting every show in the circuit, or 
 a reasonably good performer run through all 
 the field trials from Connecticut to Mississippi, 
 either will have a bigger list of wins to his 
 credit at the end of the season, than a truly 
 superior dog, the property of a fancier who 
 only supports his own local fixtures. Trust-to- 
 luck makes no pretense of serious selection. 
 Fashionable breeding deliberately bases its se- 
 lection on a gauge as stable as a weather vane. 
 It is not to be supposed that there have 
 been no valuable sires who have also been popu- 
 lar winners, but a breeder who sends his brood 
 bitches to the latest sensation Is very apt to 
 produce dogs like the one a fair fancier showed 
 under George Raper at a show In the Mid- 
 lands several years ago. The dean of the 
 English judges gave the entry the gate and his 
 owner later came up and complained bitterly 
 
130 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 that such things should not be because, for- 
 sooth her entry was sired by Champion So-. 
 and-so and his dam was Champion Such-a-one.; 
 Raper's answer was, "Next time, Madam, i 
 show the pedigree and leave the dog at home."' 
 
 ^ A third so-called breeding system Is the ego-' 
 tistlcal system. A fancier breeds to his own 
 dogs because It Is cheaper, because It gives j 
 them greater opportunity as sires, or because 
 it supplies the puppies with pedigrees that look 
 as If he had estabhshed a strain of his own. 
 Often he Is absolutely honest In his belief that 
 his stud dog Is the greatest living sire, but this 
 blind prejudice, even though It be Innocent, is 
 none the less at fault because It Is blind and 
 Innocent. This egotistical breeding is the 
 breeding vice of little minds. 
 
 These three systems, the trust-to-luck, the 
 fashionable, and the egotistical are all actively 
 bad. By a lucky fluke some few good dogs 
 may have been bred according to them, but 
 any one of the three followed consistently Is 
 sure to result In great waste of time, effort, and 
 good breeding material, without having made 
 the least progress. They are the ones that 
 are no systems at all, and together they are un- 
 doubtedly responsible for that vast army of 
 
BREEDING SYSTEMS 131 
 
 thoroughbred dogs whelped every year that 
 are never good enough to be anything more 
 than a yard dog or a companion. 
 
 The three systems that remain are much 
 more serious attempts at careful selection based 
 upon definite principles. If they were no more, 
 they would be great improvements over those 
 we have discussed. Properly employed, each 
 is a valuable aid. Their abuse has lessened 
 their usefulness. Not one of them can be 
 considered an infallible rule of sound breed- 
 ing, for any one persistently employed will 
 bring a breeder upon the rocks. These sys- 
 tems are in-breeding, line breeding, and out- 
 breeding. 
 
 There are, we must remember, but three 
 forms of true in-breeding. In-breeding neces- 
 sitates the direct crossing of one individual's 
 blood. This Is only possible when a sire Is 
 mated to his own daughter; when a dam Is 
 bred to her own son; or when full brother and 
 sister are crossed. Probably nine fanciers out 
 of ten consider the mating of half brother and 
 sister (dogs with either the same sire or else 
 the same dam) as in-breeding. This Is the 
 primary cross of line-breeding. In fact, as we 
 discovered In our pedigree studies, most of the 
 
132 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 Ideas about the prevalency of in-breeding re- 
 sults from a confusion of these two terms and 
 what each really means. 
 
 The mating of a sire to his own daughter 
 obviously results in a tremendous intensifica- 
 tion of his own blood. Using the figures of the 
 numerical expression of the law of ancestral 
 heredity, there will be 3 1 per cent, of his blood 
 In the puppies. Plainly, such a cross Is the 
 most effective means of perpetuating the quali- 
 ties of a certain dog. The same is true in the 
 case of a bitch bred to her son. These two 
 are the closest forms of breeding, though, of 
 course, if the Individuals employed be them- 
 selves In-bred, or even line bred, the intensi- 
 fication of blood will be even greater. 
 
 The breeding together of full brother and 
 sister is the most effective means of preserving 
 and magnifying a certain cross. A bitch bred 
 to a certain dog has produced a litter of very 
 exceptional quality. To repeat the cross will 
 be an uncertain experiment at best, but to breed 
 together the best dog and the best bitch of the 
 exceptional litter will fix the nick of blood 
 firmly. 
 
 In-breeding for generation after generation 
 will result In degeneration of physical and men- 
 tal powers, and, If persisted in, will eventually 
 
BREEDING SYSTEMS 133 
 
 mean sterility and the production of monstrosi- 
 ties. Blind puppies, and ones with malforma- 
 tions, especially of the legs, feet, ears, and tail, 
 are the goal of continued in- and in-breeding. 
 How soon the deterioration will appear depends 
 upon the ruggedness of the variety experi- 
 mented with and the conditions of kenneling, 
 exercise, and feeding under which the breeding 
 stock lives. It Is, however, perfectly safe to 
 say that to-day no breed of dogs Is in-bred to 
 anywhere near an injurious point. The total 
 number of In-bred dogs certainly does not ex- 
 ceed lo per cent., and In most breeds probably 
 not 5 per cent. These figures show that there 
 is much exaggeration in the belief In the com- 
 monness of In-breeding. 
 
 The danger of in-breeding lies not, as so 
 many suppose, In deterioration, but In the mag- 
 nification of the heredity of a single Individual. 
 This Is, of course, the very object of all in- 
 breeding, but since the good and bad points are 
 both Intensified, In-breeding Is a double edged 
 sword. It Is just as difficult. If not more so, 
 to remove faults as to Improve excellencies. 
 The removal of In-bred faults Is a " bad job." 
 For this reason, in-breeding can only be judi- 
 ciously used. However, the fact remains that 
 In-breeding, properly understood and wisely 
 
134 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 applied, is a most directly effective weapon in 
 the hands of the breeder. Much of the im- 
 provement in our blooded stock — this is par- 
 ticularly true of cattle and poultry — has been 
 the direct result of skilful and prudent in- 
 breeding. 
 
 Judged by the results produced, however, 
 line breeding, although its results have been 
 slower and are less sensational, has been even 
 more effective. In our pedigree studies we 
 saw that line breeding has, in the case of two 
 typical Terriers, produced more than five times 
 as many champions as in-breeding, and the 
 breeding of a champion is the object of the dog 
 fancier's breeding operations. Line breeding 
 may be considered as a slower, safer, surer 
 method of close breeding. 
 
 Line breeding can be defined as the combin- 
 ing of the blood of a certain individual without 
 the direct use of that same individual. It is 
 fairly represented by the marriage of cousins 
 in whose children the blood of the grand-par- 
 ents is again combined. It is possible — in 
 fact, fanciers often use the term In this way — 
 to have a dog line bred to a certain great indi- 
 vidual without that individual's name actually 
 appearing in the pedigree at all. Such a line 
 bred dog offers all sorts of opportunities for 
 
BREEDING SYSTEMS 135 
 
 ithe use of certain blood in various combina- 
 tions, since he can be mated directly to the ex- 
 ceptional Individual In question without the at- 
 tendant dangers, both active and passive, of 
 direct in-breedlng. 
 j The primary or closest cross of llne-breed- 
 ' ing Is the mating of half brother and half sis- 
 ter. This, like in-breeding, offers a means of 
 concentration of one Individual's blood. The 
 outer limits of line-breeding shade off Into out 
 breeding. It Is not always possible to deter- 
 mine just when the one begins and the other 
 ends, but for practical purposes a rough and 
 ready rule can be based on the law of ancestral 
 heredity by disregarding as line-breeding any- 
 thing beyond the fourth generation. 
 
 Two subordinate modifications of line-breed- 
 ing principles are the figure system and the al- 
 ternate generation system. The former was 
 originally worked out for race horses and was 
 first presented to dog fanciers by C. J. Davies 
 In his book on breeding. In his monograph 
 on Scottish Terriers he traces out the system 
 In the pedigrees of this breed. The distin- 
 guishing feature of the figure system Is the 
 transfer of the emphasis from the sire to the 
 dam. Instead of studying the sires In a pedi- 
 gree, the dams are analysed, and all dogs are 
 
136 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 placed In families traced back through their 
 dams to the original females of the breed. 
 The system has one very obvious advantage. .' 
 The fact that a sire usually has many more i 
 progeny than a dam makes the determination ij 
 of his true worth as a breeding individual a 
 much more compHcated and difficult task. 
 With his many opportunities, a dog at public 
 stud may sire several winners and yet not be 
 a truly exceptional sire. On the other hand, 
 if a bitch produces the same number of good 
 offspring she is almost surely an exceptional 
 breeder. 
 
 The figure system traces back the different 
 families through the bitch line, and by this 
 means discovers the strains that have been spe- 
 cially prepotent. As an example, Davies, In 
 tracing out the Scottish Terrier blood lines, 
 discovered that the vast majority of the cham- 
 pions of the breed have come through their 
 dams from the bitch Splinter II. Bitches who 
 trace in tail female to this bitch and their sons 
 are members of the Splinter II family, and, as 
 such, are peculiarly desirable breeding stock. 
 The figure system has never gained any gen- 
 eral popularity among dog fanciers, probably 
 because of the labor necessary to trace out the 
 female lines of the different breeds. Few dog 
 
BREEDING SYSTEMS 137 
 
 fanciers have the patience and the industry of 
 the chief supporter of this system, which, more- 
 over, has no very apparent advantage over the 
 method adapted from Davenport in discov- 
 ering the prepotent strains through the better 
 known and more easily traced sires. 
 
 The alternate generation system of breed- 
 ing is based upon the belief that exceptional 
 quality is accustomed to skip a generation. A 
 famous dog is noted for his bitch puppies, or 
 a dog never gets a son as good as himself, are 
 two very common and very dogmatic state- 
 ments. Their support rests upon the fact that 
 several great dogs have failed at stud, and that 
 their sons have often been markedly successful 
 sires. We have seen, however, that this does 
 not hold as generally true. The shining ex- 
 ceptions have led fanciers astray. The prin- 
 ciples of genetics would certainly not bear out 
 any belief in certain characters skipping a gen- 
 eration, except in the case of reversions which 
 are, however, very irregular in their action 
 and quite uncommon. The drag of the race 
 would be at work to make the get of excep- 
 tional individuals less exceptional, i.e.y closer 
 to the average of the race, but there is no bio- 
 logical evidence to support the idea that it is 
 better to breed to the progeny of an excep- 
 
138 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 tional dog or bitch, If the parent is available. 
 
 Straight out-breeding, the scrupulous avoid- 
 ance of all close breeding of any type, is a 
 child of the super-fear of the noxious effects 
 of continued close breeding. From what has 
 been said, it is plain that this is foolish and un- 
 profitable. Moreover, from a practical point 
 of view, it is almost impossible. The line of 
 descent of most breeds has come to be con- 
 centrated in certain families which have proved 
 to be overwhelmingly prepotent and from which 
 most champions and exceptional breeding indi- 
 viduals have been bred. Quite naturally, 
 sometimes consciously and often unconsciously, 
 this has resulted in more or less consanguinity 
 throughout the variety. Any breeder, whose 
 breeding operations were extensive and ex- 
 tended over any considerable period of time, 
 would find it difficult to live up religiously to 
 a system of complete out-breeding. If he suc- 
 ceeded in so doing, his dogs would be such a 
 jumble of mixed strains and contrasting heredi- 
 ties that any success that he might achieve 
 would surely be sporadic and fleeting. 
 
 Destructive criticism is not nearly so valu- 
 able as constructive. It Is a fruitless and 
 thankless task to pull apart the various breed- 
 ing systems without piecing together a substi- 
 
BREEDING SYSTEMS 139 
 
 tute to take their place. '' Piecing together " 
 is the correct verb, for the breeding system I 
 am going to recommend Is not an original pro- 
 duction, though I am sure that in the form I 
 offer it, it has never been presented to dog 
 fanciers. I have borrowed freely from the 
 work of other dog owners, from the practice 
 of other breeders, and from* practical applica- 
 tion of the principles of genetics, always work- 
 ing upon the foundation of my own experience. 
 
 First the dog breeder who seriously intends 
 to make every effort to guarantee his own suc- 
 cess will learn all he can from the history of 
 his breed, and next, after thoroughly under- 
 standing their points, he will draw up for him- 
 self a very definite ideal. His actual breeding 
 operations will be directed towards the estab- 
 lishment of a strain that will as closely as pos- 
 sible approximate this ideal. 
 
 Remembering always that until the drag of 
 the race can be transformed into an ally, it 
 is the breeder's worst enemy, he should strive 
 to accomplish this, rather than to attempt any 
 chance success in the production of a flyer or 
 two. How can this be done, and how can it 
 be done most quickly and with the least ex- 
 pense? 
 
 Even a casual study of any breed will re- 
 
140 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 veal the fact that certain points " come good " 
 in the majority of the dogs. Other points are 
 commonly bad. If in the selection of the 
 brood bitches of his kennels, a breeder get two 
 or three of sound average type, but excelling 
 particularly in those points in which their 
 breed, as a breed, is weak, he will have made 
 the best possible start toward the establishment 
 of that ideal strain. Naturally, these bitches 
 should not only excel in these weak points of 
 their breed, but should, so much as possible, 
 be bred from stock strong in these same char- 
 acters. Bred to dogs excelling in these same 
 points, and better in others, the foundation of 
 the strain is well laid. 
 
 In every subsequent mating that takes place 
 a breeder should always strive to hold every 
 good point possessed by his bitch, and to add 
 to them something extra from the stud dog. 
 The dangerous pitfall that trips hundreds of 
 thoughtful breeders is an attempt to balance 
 points, good and bad, against each other. A 
 bitch excelling in eyes, skull, and ears but la- 
 mentably bad in foreface will be bred to a dog 
 with a capital foreface, but shocking In eyes, 
 ears, and skull. Or a bitch with speed and 
 hunting sense, but lacking in bottom, will be 
 mated to a solid dog with substance to spare, 
 
BREEDING SYSTEMS 141 
 
 but little else to recommend him. As an ex- 
 ample of glorious optimism such matings are 
 splendid, but as breeding operations they are 
 pathetic. The result is more than apt to be 
 a spoiling of whatever good points were pos- 
 sessed by both parents, for these points were 
 probably above the average of the race, and 
 the principle of regression would tend to pull 
 the average of the puppies back closer to the 
 breed mean. Always hold then whatever 
 good points we have, endeavoring in each suc- 
 cessive mating to add to these other goocl 
 points. 
 
 The advantage of starting at the weakest 
 points of a breed and working up toward those 
 points that are commonly good in the variety 
 with which one is dealing is almost self-evident. 
 It tremendously simplifies the problems of se- 
 lection. The more generally a certain desir- 
 able point is possessed by a breed, the easier 
 it will be to find a suitable mate possessing it. 
 Sooner or later every breeder is forced to com- 
 promise. He must sacrifice one point for an- 
 other, but the longer he can postpone this com- 
 promise, the firmer will be the foundation of 
 his strain. Moreover, a dog excelling in 
 points notably weak in his variety will never 
 fail to catch a judge's eye. This very prac- 
 
142 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 tical, almost mercenary, consideration cannot 
 be overlooked in these days of keen competi- 
 tion. 
 
 Working to found a strain from weakness 
 through to strength, and always scrupulously 
 holding all the good points and trying to add 
 other excellencies to them is a broad policy that 
 will be found to be eminently practical and 
 valuable. Working on this basis, there are two 
 things useful in narrowing the selection of the 
 individual dogs in any particular mating. Al- 
 ways judge a dog as a breeding unit not by its 
 own points, but on its ancestry and progeny. 
 
 To form a right estimate of the ancestry 
 of a dog a knowledge of the points, both good 
 and bad, of the dogs of the past is absolutely 
 necessary, and a wide acquaintance with the 
 dogs of the present is imperative if one is to 
 judge a dog by its progeny. There are great 
 practical difficulties in the way of doing this. 
 It is, however, the best and surest means of 
 arriving at a correct conclusion of the true 
 worth of any individual as a breeding unit. 
 Every scrap of definite knowledge of this kind 
 can be regarded as a valuable asset, but breed- 
 ers are fortunate in having another alternative 
 that gives valuable assistance In selection. If 
 
BREEDING SYSTEMS 143 
 
 an accurate tracing out of the winning strain 
 cannot supplant knowledge of the points of the 
 dogs of a breed, at least it can ably supplement 
 it. In the Airedale and Scottish Terriers we 
 found, and the same is probably true of every 
 breed, that a few exceptional sires had been 
 responsible for the vast majority of the im- 
 provement. It is very much worth while for 
 a fancier to trace out the winning strain in his 
 own variety. An indifferent dog bred in this 
 strain will almost surely be a better sire than 
 an exceptional winner in whose veins this de- 
 sirable blood does not flow. 
 
 The elimination of all guess work and the 
 willingness to accept considerable length of 
 time before success comes should be the first 
 resolution made by a breeder. This means 
 study, first, of the principles of genetics; next, 
 of the breed with which one is dealing; and 
 lastly, of the individuals employed in every 
 mating. Working upon a foundation of ex- 
 cellence In the weak points of his breed and 
 always retaining good points gained and add- 
 ing others to these, the breeder, provided he 
 judges his breeding stock by their puppies 
 rather than by their own points, is sure to es- 
 tablish a strain upon which he can count for 
 
144 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 results. This, however, cannot be done In a 
 season. The breeder must possess those quali- 
 ties we all admire in our dogs, patience, game- 
 ness, and faithfulness. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE STUD DOG 
 
 TO ninety-nine fanciers out of a hundred 
 it is the soundest and kindest advice 
 to warn against keeping a stud dog. 
 Since it is human nature for each of us to con- 
 sider himself " the hundredth man," and as the 
 temptations, especially financial temptations so 
 hard to overcome, are strong, it is right and 
 proper that this advice should be supported 
 with hard facts. 
 
 The conscientious breeder always finds that 
 the selection of a suitable sire to whom to breed 
 his matrons is his most serious problem. The 
 more thoroughly he understands the principles 
 underlying sound breeding practice, the more 
 serious this problem becomes. He will look 
 further than to the latest winner, either at the 
 bench shows or in the field trials, as the case 
 may be. He will not necessarily be satisfied 
 with a champion son of champion parents. He 
 will never breed to a dog just because he is 
 convenient, or because he is owned by some 
 
 145 
 
146 PRACTICAL BOG BREEDING 
 
 friend, or by a prominent fancier, or by a pop- 
 ular judge. 
 
 He must find a dog that is better than his 
 bitch in as many of her best points as possible: 
 a dog, moreover, that has desirable features not 
 possessed by his bitch. This dog must be 
 from parents and grand-parents of the correct 
 type; a dog bred, if possible, in the "winning 
 strain " ; a dog who has been proved by his 
 puppies to be a desirable sire. Any experi- 
 enced breeder will say that it is perfectly im- 
 possible to discover a dog combining all these 
 qualities. Granted, some of these points will 
 always have to be sacrificed, but the chance of 
 finding the greatest possible number of them 
 lies in having every dog at public stud avail- 
 able. For any one fancier to hope to keep a 
 single dog combining them is to hope for the 
 " impossibly impossible." No fancier, be he 
 ever so wise and ever so wealthy, could pos- 
 sibly expect to own such a collection of sires 
 that he would be sure of having just the best 
 possible mate for each bitch in his kennels. 
 The best possible mating is, or should be, none 
 too good for every careful breeder. 
 
 The impossibility of keeping suitable mates 
 for all the matrons of a kennel is, of course, 
 the chief objection to owning a stud dog. 
 
THE STUD DOG 147 
 
 [ Many fanciers, not only of dogs, but of other 
 i kinds of stock, have tried the costly experiment 
 ! of attempting to maintain a small stud of ex- 
 j ceptional quality. They have always failed as 
 I breeders, because of the dearth of material for 
 selection. Perfection, even in any one detail, 
 appears so seldom that the breeder must have 
 the greatest freedom In his choice of breeding 
 stock. The greatest freedom is only to be se- 
 cured without the temptation to breed to one's 
 own stud dogs. However good they may be 
 as Individuals, however potent as sires, It is 
 almost always sure that somewhere Is a dog 
 who would be a better mate for any given 
 bitch. 
 
 It requires the greatest strength of mind not 
 to breed to one's own dog. It is so much more 
 convenient. There are no express charges or 
 stud fees to be paid. One Is naturally jealous 
 of his dog's reputation and wants him to have 
 every possible opportunity to sire winning pups. 
 If one can withstand these temptations, and 
 always be sure that he Is honest with himself 
 In selecting the best possible mate for each of 
 his matrons, then there Is no objection In the 
 world to his keeping one or forty stud dogs. 
 It is, however, a pretty safe estimate that not 
 one In a hundred "fanciers can do so. 
 
148 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 It may seem that this advice against keeping 
 a stud dog is diametrically opposed to the ad- 
 vice to found a strain of your own. This is 
 not of necessity the case. It is to be assumed 
 that a breeder will keep trace of the dogs he 
 has bred and sold. These can therefore be I 
 surely counted among the available sires from 
 whom a selection can always be made. In 
 fact, a breeder should consider them first, and 
 most men do so. But here too he should 
 guard against partiality. Do not breed to a 
 dog you have bred, simply because you are his 
 breeder, or because he will supply the puppies ' 
 with a pedigree that will look on paper as if 
 you had established a strain. That way lies 
 the egotistical breeding system that leads to 
 nowhere. 
 
 If one has determined to keep a stud and 
 resolved to use him with discretion, two courses 
 are open. He can either breed or he can buy 
 his dog. In either case he should apply rigor- 
 ous tests, the same as he would apply to any 
 dog he was to mate to his own bitches. 
 
 The ideal stud dog should be possessed of 
 quality, and accordingly he will probably be a 
 winner at the bench shows, or in the case of a 
 sporting dog, a proved performer in the field. 
 If he is a champion so much the better, for 
 
THE STUD DOG 149 
 
 while the title sometimes only means luck or 
 opportunity, still it is generally evidence of 
 quality above the average of the breed. His 
 sire and dam, and their sires and dams should 
 bear investigation as to type. If possible, the 
 dog should be already proved as a sire of win- 
 ning puppies. This is the one most valu- 
 able test that can be applied to a prospective 
 sire. Naturally, he should be sound and 
 healthy, and he will be at his physical prime 
 when three or four years old. 
 
 Being the possessor of such a dog. It is but 
 natural that a fancier should wish to offer his 
 services at stud. This is right and proper, but 
 he should remember that by placing his dog 
 at the disposal of fellow breeders he assumes 
 certain responsibilities. First, it is his duty to 
 see that his dog is kept in the best of good 
 health. A vigorous, healthy dog Is obviously 
 a more desirable sire than a weak, sickly one. 
 The foundations of good health, kenneling, 
 food, exercise, and cleanliness, have been dis- 
 cussed at length In the companion volume to 
 this book, " Practical Dog Keeping," and It 
 would be going beyond the limits of our sub- 
 ject to discuss them here. There are, however, 
 a few special points that apply directly to the 
 stud dog. He should have plenty of exercise — 
 
150 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 more than Is given to the other dogs — and his 
 regular diet should be supplemented with raw, 
 lean, chopped meat. If very heavy demands 
 are made on his vitality, a couple of raw eggs 
 beaten up with a tablespoonful of sherry or 
 port (for a dog the size of a Pointer) may be 
 given him daily. 
 
 Authorities differ on the number of bitches 
 a dog may safely be allowed to serve. Some 
 say only twelve a year: others claim a dog can 
 stand service twice a week without injury to 
 his powers. The former seems " unreason- 
 ably conservative," except in the case of a very 
 young dog, but the other goes to the other and 
 the more dangerous extreme. A service a 
 week, or three in two weeks seems a reason- 
 able demand. A young dog should not be used 
 as stud before he is ten months old and should 
 be only used sparingly during his first year. 
 After a dog is six years old he should not be 
 used more than twelve or fifteen times a year, 
 and at eight years one can expect his ability to 
 get puppies to become uncertain, though some 
 dogs have proved to be potent as old as ten. 
 
 Besides attention to the health and vigor of 
 the stud dog, the owner must assume certain 
 responsibility for visiting matrons. He must 
 provide against any possibility of a mesalliance, 
 
THE STUD DOG 151 
 
 and see that she is properly fed and exercised. 
 When she first arrives, if she has come by ex- 
 press, she should be given a run and put in 
 some quiet, comfortable place removed, if pos- 
 sible, from the other inmates of the kennels. 
 Upset by the journey and frightened in a 
 strange place, she needs rest and quiet. She 
 should have all the clean, cool water she wants 
 to drink — she is sure to be thirsty — and she 
 should be fed lightly. The next day she will 
 be ready to be bred. 
 
 A " tie " is generally considered evidence of 
 a satisfactory service. There is, however, no 
 foundation of fact for the theory that the 
 duration of the '' tie " is any indication of the 
 number of puppies that will be born. More- 
 over, bitches have proved to be in whelp after 
 a service when there was no " tie " at all, but, 
 in such cases, it is but fair to notify the owner 
 of the bitch of the circumstances. 
 
 There is no more provoking trial to a 
 breeder's patience than to have a brood bitch 
 " miss." He is apt to put the blame on the 
 stud dog. This is natural, but unjust. Abso- 
 lute sterility is uncommon among dogs. Over 
 eighty per cent, of the cases of barrenness are 
 to be found among the bitches. Moreover, a 
 bitch out of condition — too fat is much worse 
 
152 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 than too thin — very often falls to have pup- 
 pies even after an apparently satisfactory mat- 
 ing with a proved sire. In such cases, it is her 
 owner's fault. However, most of the misses 
 are the result of not breeding the bitch at the 
 proper time during her period of heat. Some- 
 times this is the fault of her owner in not ship- 
 ping her promptly: sometimes the blame rests 
 with the owner of the stud dog who Is careless. 
 
 But whatever the cause and whoever is to 
 blame, the owner of the bitch is almo-st sure to 
 charge the stud dog with the fault. Of this 
 the stud dog's owner may be sure, and, since 
 the reputation of being a sure sire of large lit- 
 ters is a valuable asset to any dog, every pre- 
 caution ought to be taken to reduce to a mini- 
 mum the chances of a miss. Careless words 
 from fancier to fancier are often a stud dog's 
 best — or worst — advertisement, and there 
 are some " knocks " no optimism can transpose 
 into " boosts." A reputation as an uncertain 
 sire is one of these. 
 
 In advertising a stud dog, discretion Is the 
 better part of valor. A few facts soberly 
 stated are better than buncombe and extrava- 
 gant claims. Our English cousins are usually 
 more circumspect in their kennel advertising 
 than we, but oddly enough there appeared In 
 
THE STUD DOG 153 
 
 a recent issue of one of the British kennel 
 papers an advertisement that is a good example 
 of all a stud advertisement should not be : 
 
 AT STUD 
 
 The Oldest and Most Consistent Strain 
 
 of Airedales and the Greatest Sires of 
 
 the Past Two Years 
 
 NOTE-NO OORANGS IN 
 THIS STRAIN 
 
 FACTS. NOT BLUFFS! 
 
 Stud Dog's Name (K. C. S. B ) 
 
 THE MOST PERFECT 
 
 AIREDALE 
 
 LIVING 
 
 £180 refused, winner of 80 firsts and 
 specials defeating many champions. His pup- 
 pies out this year (we ignore last year's) in- 
 clude , and a puppy 
 
 shortly to come out who can beat the lot. 
 
 FEE, FOR A SHORT TIME, 30s. 
 
154 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 One does not have to be a walking encyclo- 
 pedia of Airedale pedigrees and performances 
 to appreciate the questionable taste of such 
 statem&nts, while, had I included the names, 
 any novice in the Airedale fancy could see that 
 despite the bold claim to the contrary, there is 
 more " bluff " than " facts " in the advertise- 
 ment. But, some one may ask, what has taste 
 got to do with it ? — a stud card Is not a son- 
 net. True, but the object of a stud card is 
 to sell the services of your dog. Confidence is 
 an essential, integral part of every sale ever 
 made, and surely confidence is never begot- 
 ten by statements that the veriest tyro knows 
 to be misleading. On the other hand, one 
 does not have to write a " tombstone adver- 
 tisement.'' There is a happy medium. 
 
 A good working guide when writing a stud 
 advertisement is to be sure first that you pre- 
 sent the essential facts, and let the good word 
 you say for your dog be secondary. There 
 are five facts that should be In every stud ad- 
 vertisement. The dog's name and stud book 
 number, his pedigree for the first two genera- 
 tions, his age, the fee, and the address. In 
 some breeds, his weight or his color also come 
 into the class of the essentials. These are 
 facts that every one who breeds to any dog will 
 
THE STUD DOG 155 
 
 want to know, and, if they are presented clearly 
 In the stud card, it saves time in letter writing. 
 
 In saying a good word for your own dog it 
 Is always well to let a list of his winning pup- 
 pies or a criticism quoted from a show report 
 in a kennel paper speak in your stead. " Best " 
 and '' greatest " are two adjectives that should 
 be struck out of the advertiser's lexicon. You 
 will never get any three fanciers to agree on 
 the " best dog of the breed " or on the " great- 
 est sire." It is silly to claim something that 
 cannot be, except in one case in a thousand, 
 substantiated, and which is sure to create just 
 the impression that one ought to strive to 
 avoid. 
 
 The various kennel journals are the best 
 imedlums through which a stud dog's services 
 may be offered. This may be supplemented by 
 letters and cards sent to known breeders of your 
 variety. Lists of these can be purchased for 
 two cents a name and are a good investment. 
 
 Two little things that, although not strictly 
 In the form of advertising, will prove to be 
 vei7 valuable publicity are Certificates of Serv- 
 ice and Whelping Cards. Owners appreciate 
 such attention and they help create confi- 
 dence and good will. A good form for a cex- 
 tlficate is: 
 
156 PEACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 THE NONAME KENNELS 
 
 SOUTHERN PINES NORTH CAROLINA 
 
 (Utrtxtxcntt of ^tu& Btrvm 
 
 ®0 Hlfnm 3(t Mug Qlnnr^rn: This certi- 
 fies that on 19 the English 
 
 Setter bitch property of. 
 
 of , was bred to our English Setter 
 
 dog , A. K. a S. B. No. , 
 
 F. JD. S, B. No, , and is due to whelp 
 
 on or about 19 . 
 
 Arkttomk&gm^ttt 3a ^nth^ iiab^ of the re- 
 ceipt of dollars, $ , in full 
 
 payment of the above service. 
 
 Witness. Owner. 
 
 Southern Pines, N, C, 19 . 
 
 The whelping card, which should be printed 
 on a self-addressed post card may be in this 
 form: 
 
THE STUD DOG 157 
 
 THE NONAME KENNELS, 
 I SOUTHERN PINES, N. C. 
 
 ON 19 MY ENGLISH SETTER BITCH 
 
 , A. K. C. S. B. No , 
 
 F. D. S. B. No WHELPED PUPPIES, 
 
 DOGS AND BITCHES TO YOUR STUD 
 
 DOG 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 NAME 
 
 ADDRESS- 
 
 Any local printer can get these up in attrac- 
 tive shape, and at a reasonable cost. Both the 
 certificate of service and the post cards for re- 
 cording whelping will prove to be a good in- 
 vestment for all kennels that do any consid- 
 erable business, and it is but little more 
 expensive to gain that decidedly personal touch 
 by having special forms printed with the ken- 
 nel name and address on them than to buy the 
 stock forms. These are, however, better than 
 none, and are specially available for the small 
 kennel or the breeder with a single stud dog. 
 
 Before leaving the subject of the stud dog, 
 it will be well to consider briefly some of those 
 ills that are peculiar to him, and which, accord- 
 
158 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 Ingly are not treated in general books on dog 
 keeping. 
 
 Impotence, or sterility, may be due to a vari- 
 ety of causes, some incurable, others able to 
 be remedied. In many cases either one or both 
 of the testes do not descend to the scrotum. 
 In the former case a dog is usually fertile : in 
 the latter, he is usually impotent, though often 
 able to perform the act of coition. Of course, 
 a dog that has been castrated is absolutely 
 sterile. In other cases, without any apparent 
 reason or cause, the seminal fluid is deficient. 
 This can often be determined by a micro- 
 scopical examination. Impotence from any of 
 the above causes is almost without exception 
 beyond remedy. A diet of raw meat, supple- 
 mented with raw eggs and sherry, is rarely 
 beneficial, but, in the case of a valuable dog, it 
 is certainly worth a fair trial. 
 
 Temporary impotence, due to accident or de- 
 formity, is amenable to treatment. Fracture 
 of the bone of the penis, which happens occa- 
 sionally, will mend in a month's time, usually 
 without treatment, but a dog should not be 
 used at stud for two months. When the open- 
 ing of the prepuce is so constricted as to pre- 
 vent the penis from protruding, it can be cured 
 
THE STUD DOG 159 
 
 by a simple operation. This had, however, 
 best be left to a veterinarian's skill. Some 
 dogs, especially young dogs, and dogs used too 
 often at stud, are temporarily impotent because 
 of the lack of sexual desire. A dose of tinc- 
 ture of cantharldes, from three to twenty 
 drops, according to the size of the dog, admin- 
 istered In water two hours before service, will 
 often have the desired effect. 
 
 Inflammation of the testicle is usually caused 
 by some accidental injury In the case of young 
 dogs, but In old animals, especially if they have 
 been extensively used at stud for a long time, 
 it may arise from some constitutional cause. 
 The testicles become swollen, and the scrotum 
 Is shiny and red. The dog suffers consider- 
 able pain and walks and sits down with diffi- 
 culty. Local relief Is sometimes obtained by 
 the use of a hot poultice and sometimes by an 
 ice bag, but the dog should be thoroughly 
 purged and placed on a light diet of milk, thin 
 soups, and dry biscuits. 
 
 In some cases the testicle enlarges, without 
 the Inflammation and soreness. This condition 
 Is nine times out of ten found In old dogs, and 
 unless the enlargement continues and If It does 
 not cause any great discomfort by hanging low 
 
160 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 and interfering with the dog's actions, it may 
 be left alone. The only positive cure is cas- 
 tration. 
 
 A dog used at stud often develops wart- 
 like growths on the penis. These greyish, 
 hard growths often spread and grow, and 
 should be promptly treated. A wash of two 
 teaspoonfuls of common washing soda in half 
 a pint of water sometimes effects a cure, but, 
 if this fails, use a five per cent, solution of chro- 
 mic acid, treating only one or two warts at a 
 time. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 THE BROOD BITCH 
 
 THE dog breeder's estimation of the 
 brood bitches of his kennels has 
 changed materially in the present gen- 
 eration, swinging back to the opinion held be- 
 fore the era of bench shows and field trials. 
 The first fanciers, who kept their dogs solely 
 as hunting dogs or companions, appreciated 
 nicely the true value of quality in their ma- 
 trons. In early sporting books such statements 
 as " select always the fairest and the best trail- 
 ers as dams " are common. Later, the idea 
 became prevalent that " any old bitch with a 
 pedigree is a good brood bitch." To-day, we 
 have returned to the earlier and sounder esti- 
 mation of the value of the bitch side of a 
 pedigree. 
 
 We have already seen that although in the 
 
 case of the breed at large the stud dog, because 
 
 of his greater opportunities, is numerically more 
 
 important, still in the case of the individual 
 
 161 
 
162 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 mating this is not so. The two parents are 
 equipotent and of like importance. In fact, 
 to the breeder, the brood bitch, being his own 
 property, while he usually sends her away to 
 an outside dog to be bred, is of paramount im- 
 portance. A kennel's strength or weakness — 
 I speak, of course, of a kennel that is pri- 
 marily a breeding establishment — can be 
 judged by its matrons. The breeder will, 
 therefore, pay strictest attention to the selec- 
 tion of his brood bitches, and he will always 
 exercise great care of their health and condi- 
 tion. 
 
 When a bitch is neither in season, in whelp, 
 nor nursing a litter, she requires no different 
 care from any other inmate of the kennels. To 
 repeat the discussion of all the questions of 
 feeding, kenneling, exercising, and grooming, 
 which have been treated at length in the com- 
 panion volume of this book, would be out of 
 place here. 
 
 Many persons, even many persons who have 
 owned dogs, are, however, peculiarly Ignorant 
 of the sexual functions of a bitch. Owners of 
 dogs advertised at public stud often receive 
 bitches to be bred to their dog that evidence 
 no sign of being " in heat," showing that an 
 appreciation of the fact that a bitch Is avail- 
 
THE BROOD BITCH 163 
 
 able for breeding purposes only at certain 
 times Is not common. 
 
 GEstrum, or the period of menstruation of 
 the bitch, usually first appears when she Is 
 from seven to ten months old. The medium 
 sized breeds usually have their first heat seven 
 or eight months after birth, larger breeds and 
 the very diminutive varieties often delay the 
 period to the tenth month or even to a full 
 year. Once the periods begin they occur with 
 considerable regularity every six months (there 
 are, of course, some Individual exceptions to 
 this rule), till a bitch Is about eight years old. 
 
 From Its first Indication till Its abatement the 
 season of heat lasts three or four weeks. The 
 first sign Is a swelling of the external parts, 
 the vulva. This Is followed almost directly 
 by a slight mucus discharge which gradually 
 thickens, and Is succeeded, In a week's time, 
 by blood. This condition, which will continue 
 for a week or ten days, Is again followed by 
 the mucus discharge which gradually disap- 
 pears, the parts assuming their normal size 
 again. The proper time to breed a bitch. In 
 fact, the only time when she will stand for a 
 dog, Is just after the cessation of the flow of 
 blood. This Is the only time that she will re- 
 ceive a dog's services, although her condition 
 
164 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 from the first of heat sexually excites the male. 
 In sending a bitch away to be bred, since there 
 are but a few days when she is available, it 
 is wise to ship her off at the first signs of heat, 
 thus avoiding disappointment and delay of six 
 months. 
 
 During, or just after heat, inflammation of 
 the uterus is sometimes caused by chill, usually 
 the result of giving the bitch a bath. Such 
 attacks may become chronic, appearing at each 
 heat, and the condition is common only in 
 old bitches. The symptoms are dullness and 
 loss of appetite, accompanied by slight fever 
 and followed by loss of flesh and swelling of 
 the abdomen, which is quite hard and painful 
 to the touch. These symptoms Increase in se- 
 verity, ending In a pinkish, offensive discharge. 
 The start of the discharge usually results In a 
 marked improvement In the bitch's condition, 
 but sometimes this discharge fails to come 
 away naturally. In this case the womb is rup- 
 tured, and the patient usually dies of acute 
 peritonitis. The bitch should be kept quiet and 
 every effort should be made to make her com- 
 fortable by applications of hot linseed poul- 
 tices, fre^juently changed, to her abdomen. 
 The vagina should be syringed out with a warm 
 solution of lysol, and her strength should be 
 
THE BROOD BITCH 165 
 
 kept up with milk, beef troth, fish, and such 
 other Hght, nourishing foods as she can take 
 and retain. 
 
 Much less dangerous, but far more common 
 Is a white mattery discharge after heat. The 
 proper treatment Is a thorough syringing night 
 and morning with a solution of ten grains of 
 burnt alum In an ounce of water. 
 
 After a bitch has been bred, she needs no 
 special attention during the first month or six 
 weeks of her pregnancy. She should, of 
 course, have plenty of exercise and an abun- 
 dance of good food. This does not mean that 
 she should be worked all day In the field nor 
 allowed to run her legs off, nor should she be 
 stuffed. If a bitch Is properly kept, no change 
 in her dally routine need be made, but It Is 
 advisable to see that her bowels are kept open 
 by a weekly dose of castor oil and syrup of 
 buckthorn. Three weeks after service she 
 should be treated for worms. Some fanciers 
 suppose that this will prevent worms In the 
 puppies. It will not, but It is a valuable pre- 
 cautionary measure, since no bitch that Is In- 
 fested with these parasites can properly assim- 
 ilate her food. 
 
 The determination of whether or not a bitch 
 is In whelp Is often Important. This can best 
 
166 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 be accomplished about three weeks after con- 
 ception. At this time, if she be laid on her 
 back and quieted until she will relax her abdo- 
 men, small, roundish bodies can be felt by 
 the fingers manipulating her belly. Often the 
 exact number of the expected family can be 
 foretold. At four weeks the puppies seem to 
 disappear, but any time after the sixth week 
 they can be easily felt moving about, if the I 
 hand be gently but firmly pressed against the 
 abdomen. The secretion of milk in the 
 breasts, which occurs even in maiden bitches, 
 six or eight weeks after heat, is no sure sign. 
 Some bitches will exhibit all of the signs, ex- 
 cept the motion of the pups, of pregnancy. 
 They increase in size, just as if they were to 
 have a large litter, but at the end of the time 
 of the supposed gestation only a little, watery 
 discharge comes away, and the bitch gradually 
 gets smaller. These cases of false conception 
 are provoking enough, and they are quite 
 common. 
 
 Assuming that the service has been effective, 
 the bitch, six weeks after conception, will begin 
 to need a little extra watching and attention. 
 She should be fed three times a day from now 
 on, the best rule being little and often. Her 
 exercise should be kept up, but always within 
 
THE BROOD BITCH 167 
 
 reason. Short walks two or three times a day 
 should be the routine. Do not let her run and 
 romp and keep her from all undue excitement. 
 Do not wash her after the seventh week, and 
 do not take her In a motor or on the train. 
 These things are all apt to induce abortion. It 
 Is poor policy to be forever dosing a pregnant 
 bitch. The less medicine and the more com- 
 mon sense she has the better it is for her and 
 for her expected offspring. 
 
 The bitch's time of gestation Is sixty-three 
 days. This, however, Is not a hard and fast 
 rule, though reference can always be made to 
 the table in the appendix with the reasonable 
 expectation that It will give approximately the 
 date a bitch will be due. Live, healthy litters 
 have been born on the fifty-eighth day and, at 
 the other extreme, on the seventy-first, but 
 these are extreme exceptions. It Is not diffi- 
 cult to read the signs a bitch gives of her com- 
 ing confinement, and one can usually know 
 within a few hours of when she will whelp. 
 She becomes restless, seeking a quiet place and 
 refusing food. If a box has been prepared for 
 her, as It should be, she will nervously get In 
 and out of it, turning round and round, and 
 nosing and scratching at the bedding. The 
 vulva swells and there is a thick mucus dis- 
 
168 PRACTICAL BOG BREEDING 
 
 charge. When her labor pains come on, she 
 will strain and pant, and turn round and lick 
 herself. This is a sure sign that labor is well 
 progressed, and the birth of a pup can be con- 
 fidently expected in a very short time. Dur- 
 ing labor, unless something goes radically 
 wrong, the bitch should be left strictly alone. 
 
 A proper whelping box, however, is easily 
 prepared and will be a capital investment. 
 This should be square, or nearly so, each side 
 being just long enough for the bitch to be able 
 to lay out at full length. A bit of old carpet 
 lightly tacked at each corner is the best bed- 
 ding, for second choice, a scanty supply of good 
 wheat straw. A little shelf fastened round the 
 sides of the whelping box, just high enough for 
 a pup to get under it and broad enough to pre- 
 vent his being crushed in the corner should 
 his mother inadvertently lie on him, is excellent 
 puppy life insurance. Even the most careful 
 of mothers will sometimes kill her babies in a 
 cramped box, or if they are hidden in deep bed- 
 ding. 
 
 The time required for the birth of a litter 
 varies greatly, both with the age of the bitch 
 and her breed and the number of puppies born. 
 A bitch having her first litter must always be 
 expected to require more time than a matron 
 
THE BROOD BITCH 169 
 
 who has had two or three. A medium sized 
 bitch who has had several litters will often give 
 birth to two or three puppies within an hour, 
 while a bitch of the same breed having her first 
 litter will hardly do so well in two or three 
 hours' time. The bitches of the larger breeds 
 commonly have big litters and often require all 
 day. If after any pup has been born an inter- 
 val greater than two hours elapses before the 
 arrival of another, something may be wrong. 
 Examine the bitch. If a bladder — the pups 
 are born in a sack, the foetal membrane — is 
 protruding, things are probably going well. 
 Matters should be allowed to take their nat- 
 ural course, for it is always a good rule never 
 to interfere until absolutely necessary. 
 
 The normal course is for the bitch to rip 
 the foetal membrane once it is well protruded, 
 and the puppy is then soon delivered. The 
 mother bites the umbilical cord and cleans and 
 dries the puppy. Usually the next pup is by 
 this time nearly born. After three or four 
 youngsters have arrived, there is often an in- 
 terval of a couple of hours, during which the 
 bitch rests. At this time, some clean, cool 
 water and a little thin oatmeal gruel may be 
 given the bitch. 
 
 It is not unusual, especially when the litter 
 
170 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 is very numerous, for a bitch to become very 
 exhausted. A little milk with a tablespoonful 
 of brandy will often revive her sufficiently, or 
 it may be necessary to use drug to stimulate 
 the action of the womb. Ergotine is the best 
 of these. It should be administered hypo- 
 dermically in a dose of from one to three 
 grains, according to the size of the dog, in 
 from ten to forty drops of brandy. Injected 
 under the loose skin under the thighs, the ac- 
 tion of this drug is evident in fifteen minutes, 
 and the dose can be repeated, if necessary, in 
 two hours. 
 
 Those breeds with particularly large skulls, 
 as English and French Bulldogs and Boston 
 Terriers, often have trouble in whelping, the 
 heads of the puppies being too large to pass 
 the dam's pelvic bones. Toy dogs, quite aside 
 from their more delicate constitutions, some- 
 times have trouble due to an occasional pup 
 throwing back in size to the larger stock from 
 which the variety has been bred. Another 
 somewhat similar case is when a small bitch 
 has been mated to a dog of a larger breed, as 
 a Fox Terrier bred to a Setter. 
 
 Another class of parturition troubles arise 
 from an unnatural position of the puppy at the 
 time of delivery. The normal position for the 
 
THE BROOD BITCH 171 
 
 puppy to be born is head foremost with the 
 front legs raised and lying close on each side 
 of the neck. When the hind legs are pre- 
 sented, the pup is usually born easily, but there 
 is some danger of its smothering. Malpresen- 
 tations of a more serious nature are not com- 
 mon, but they are dangerous. To interfere, 
 which is sometimes necessary, usually means the 
 loss of the pup, which, if not killed, is often 
 maimed. Moreover, unless care be exercised, 
 inflammation may set in, resulting fatally for 
 the dam. Therefore, the discovery of a mal- 
 presentation should always be the signal for 
 a hurry call to a reliable veterinarian. If one 
 is not available, prompt action should be taken 
 by the breeder himself, since it is foolish to 
 allow a bitch to waste her energies, which she 
 will probably need to bring forth the other 
 pups. 
 
 In all such cases the first object should be 
 to get the puppy into the right position. This 
 failing, to remove it as quickly and easily, and 
 with as little danger and inconvenience to the 
 dam as possible, for her life is then of greatest 
 consequence. If reasonable care be exercised 
 to prevent sudden jerking, and if force is only 
 exerted during the throes, a bitch will stand 
 considerable puUfng on the foetus. Inflamma- 
 
172 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 tlon, resulting from direct injuries to the bitch 
 herself are dangerous, and It requires a steady 
 and skilful hand, especially when the knife must 
 be used, to manipulate forced deliveries. 
 
 A common malpresentatlon is when the fore- 
 legs are turned down and backwards, throw- 
 ing the shoulder girdle forward, thus form- 
 ing an obstruction. A blunt pointed hook, — 
 an ordinary long handled buttonhook will an- 
 swer admirably, — should be used to catch the 
 forelegs and lift them into better position. 
 This done, the pup can usually be delivered by 
 the bitch unassisted. Sometimes in head pres- 
 entation the hind legs are bent forwards up 
 against the belly, causing trouble. Without 
 obstetrical forceps there is little the amateur 
 can do in such cases. It is best to tie a string 
 to the pup's forelegs and to pull firmly at each 
 throe, so as to help pass the hind quarters. An- 
 other form of presentation that will sometimes 
 cause trouble is when the front and hind foot 
 appear simultaneously. The fore leg should 
 be pushed in and the hind leg tied with a string 
 or tape. The other hind leg should then be 
 felt for and drawn out (the buttonhook may 
 prove useful here). After securing the sec- 
 ond hind leg, the puppy should be delivered by 
 traction. 
 
THE BROOD BITCH 173 
 
 There are two malpresentations of the head. 
 In one case, the head is bent forward, the lower 
 jaw pressing against the chest so that the top 
 of the skull is presented. The foetus should, 
 if possible, be pushed back and efforts made to 
 raise the nose either with the finger or a long 
 handled hook inserted in the mouth of the pup. 
 When, on the other hand, the head is bent back- 
 wards, presenting the front of the throat, ef- 
 forts should be made to push the foetus back 
 and depress the nose. If this fails, the pup 
 can be decapitated, and the body and head de- 
 livered separately. In cases where the pup is 
 presented transversely, the back or side appear- 
 ing, it is seldom possible to turn the pup into 
 a position making delivery possible. The only 
 solution is to cut the body in two and forcibly 
 remove the parts. 
 
 Considering the artificiality of their lives, it 
 is remarkable what a small percentage of bitches 
 ever have any trouble whelping. I have gone 
 Into parturition troubles at considerable length, 
 for few easily available books treat of them, 
 but the breeder can always console himself by 
 remembering that they are comparatively rare 
 occurrences. 
 
 After the litter has been born. If the case 
 has been, as is to be expected, a normal one. 
 
174 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 the dam needs but little attention. A good 
 bowl of thin oatmeal gruel and a change of 
 bedding will suffice for her immediate needs. 
 A breeder should curb his very natural desire 
 to examine the new arrivals. Nothing is so 
 disturbing to them and their mother. A nerv- 
 ous dam and a disturbed pup are a pretty poor 
 foundation for good health. Sleep, plenty of 
 sleep, is what the new born babies need most 
 the first two weeks of their lives. Remember 
 that '^ well begun is half done." 
 
 Bitches sometimes display strange idiosyn- 
 crasies of the maternal instinct. Some are so 
 devoted to their offspring that they refuse food 
 and will not leave the pups for a moment. 
 Such extreme devotion must be forcibly con- 
 trolled, and the bitch at least required to take 
 some exercise, even if she cannot be forcibly 
 fed. Other bitches are almost indifferent to 
 their family, and a few go to the extreme of 
 refusing to allow them to suckle. Some bitches 
 have been known to eat their new born pups, 
 and this may develop into a regular habit. 
 Fear is the cause of this, and under more quiet 
 conditions bitches have overcome this strange 
 tendency. A diet of raw, lean meat, prior to 
 whelping is advisable in such cases. It is a 
 preventive measure that must, however, be sup- 
 
THE BROOD BITCH 175 
 
 plemented by overcoming the bitch's nervous- 
 ness. 
 
 While nursing her family, a bitch should be 
 well fed. Four meals a day proves very satis- 
 factory. Breakfast of soup and dog biscuits, 
 and the regular kennel dinner in the evening, 
 with milk or gruel at noon and the last thing at 
 night: this makes a highly satisfactory fare. 
 The fact that the puppies will roughly double 
 their weight while they are nursing and that 
 the recuperative processes carried on by the 
 bitch herself are considerable gives some idea 
 of the strain that she must bear. Adequate 
 food is obviously a necessity. 
 
 The number of puppies a bitch can raise to 
 the best advantage is a question only to be set- 
 tled by a consideration of the individual case, 
 remembering at once the size of the bitch and 
 her individual strength. Four is certainly the 
 outside limit for any of the toys. Five is 
 plenty for a dog of medium size like the Ter- 
 riers. Six is about all that can be reasonably 
 asked even of the largest varieties. It requires 
 fortitude for a breeder to destroy puppies from 
 a carefully selected mating. However, unless 
 a foster mother can be provided for the sur- 
 plus, it is wisdom so to do. Four to six strong, 
 well nourished, healthy pups will be worth 
 
176 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 more at six months than twice that number of 
 sickly, leggy, slab-sided, cow hocked wreck- 
 lings. Often it is possible to obtain a foster 
 from the local pound. The dog catchers are 
 very apt to pick up stray bitches when their 
 puppies are born. The points or breeding of 
 the wet nurse have nothing to do with the care 
 she can and will bestow on her adopted family, 
 provided she is sound and healthy. Skin dis- 
 ease is to be particularly guarded against. 
 
 The saving of the dam's energies, when she 
 Is asked to raise only a reasonable number of 
 puppies. Is great, and this should be supple- 
 mented by the exercise of the same judgment 
 in the number of times she Is bred. Most 
 breeders, since summer puppies are more easily 
 reared, prefer to have their matrons whelp in 
 the early spring. Some go so far as to never 
 breed a bitch in the fall. It Is certainly unwise 
 to breed a bitch each time she comes In season. 
 Three litters In two years is enough, and even 
 this should only be asked of a robust bitch. 
 
 Whether or not a bitch should be bred at her 
 first season is a debatable question. There is 
 good authority on both sides. Personally, I 
 believe it is a question that cannot always be 
 answered either in the positive affirmative or the 
 absolute negative. If the bitch Is strong and 
 
^ THE BROOD BITCH 177 
 
 well developed there Is no reason, provided she 
 does not come in before she is nine months old, 
 why she should not be bred without damage to- 
 herself or risk to the puppies. However, it is 
 unreasonable to expect to breed sound, healthy 
 pups from a weak, immature bitch. 
 
 Even a healthy bitch nursing a rational num- 
 ber of pups may sometimes have a scanty sup- 
 ply of milk. She must be given raw, lean meat 
 and plenty of oatmeal gruel and fresh milk. 
 The secretion should be stimulated by massag- 
 ing the breasts. On the other hand, some 
 bitches have an excessive supply of milk, evi- 
 denced by swelHng of the breast, which becomes 
 hard and painful. The milk should be drawn 
 off night and morning, and a laxative dose of 
 castor oil and syrup of buckthorn administered. 
 The diet should consist of dry food — stale 
 bread and dog biscuits are capital. 
 
 The teats of a nursing bitch sometimes be- 
 come dry and cracked. The soreness is great, 
 and a bitch, because of the pain, will not allow 
 the pups to suckle. The teats should be 
 washed with warm water night and morning 
 and then rubbed with a little boracic acid oint- 
 ment. In fact, even if there be no soreness. It 
 is well to wash the nipples twice a day with a 
 solution of boracic acid. 
 
178 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 Weaning the puppies can be left to nature. 
 At five weeks old they will usually start lapping 
 a little warm, sweetened milk. At six weeks, 
 their mother should only be with them at night. 
 At seven weeks they should be shifting for 
 themselves. 
 
 After the puppies are weaned, the bitch 
 should be given a good purge and allowed a 
 week of rest cure with three good meals a day. 
 After this she should be treated for worms, 
 and then put back on the regular kennel fare 
 and routine. It may be advisable to give her a 
 dose of cod liver oil tonic morning and night 
 for a couple of weeks. The more promptly 
 she can be restored to normal conditions the 
 better it will be for her, and a breeder will 
 find that her ca.re will be time and pains well 
 invested. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 THE PUPPIES 
 
 BY their puppies you can judge the suc- 
 cess of dog fanciers, for, although there 
 are large kennels that cut a wide swath 
 in the awards at the bench shows and field 
 trials, still, unless they are producing a reason- 
 able number of home bred winners, they are 
 principally important in the development of the 
 thoroughbred dog as furnishers of incentive for 
 the true breeders. Their example of prizes 
 won is stimulating; their financial support is 
 even more valuable; but, as factors in the im- 
 provement of the variety in which they are in- 
 terested, they are, it is to be regretted, often 
 negligible. 
 
 Puppies, better puppies than ever before 
 graced a bench or pointed a covey, are the goal 
 of the dog breeder's ambition. Toward this 
 end he always works. It seems strange then 
 that, as a breeder, his work is finished before 
 the puppies are born. The only point he 
 179 
 
180 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 touches directly In the breeding of better pup- 
 pies Is in his selection. It is, of course, his will 
 that determines which two of many possible 
 individuals shall be mated, In other words, 
 which units of heredity shall be combined. 
 This is, as we have seen, a difficult and compli- 
 cated task, and to make the best selection a 
 breeder needs every help he can secure. Hence 
 the great Importance of a thorough knowledge 
 of the history and points of the variety being 
 bred and a sound understanding of the princi- 
 ples of heredity and variation. It Is Ignorance 
 of these things, ably supplemented by careless- 
 ness and catch-penny methods, that makes 
 " well bred bad dogs " a drug on the market. 
 
 Despite the fact, however, that the trend of 
 modern biologic thought is to lighten the em- 
 phasis formerly placed upon the Inheritance of 
 acquired characteristics and to discount largely 
 the Influence of environment on physical struc- 
 ture, still the practical breeder of dogs Is very 
 vitally Interested in the proper rearing of his 
 home bred puppies. The most perfect litter 
 of exceptional individuals ever whelped must 
 be raised to have any value. The good pro- 
 verbially die young, and to hear fanciers talk 
 one gets the idea that the pick pup of every lit- 
 
THE PUPPIES 181 
 
 ter ever whelped Is Invariably buried during 
 infancy. 
 
 From every point of view, the first six months 
 of a dog's life are the most Important and crit- 
 ical in its individual development, and the first 
 day is more important In Inverted ratio than the 
 two hundredth. Few fanciers seem to appre- 
 ciate this. They usually consider that puppies 
 are safest while nursing. In so much that they 
 are less trouble and are less interfered with, this 
 is in a measure true. The vast number of pups 
 that die before their eyes are open, however, 
 shows that this condition is more apparent than 
 real. In raising a valuable litter then, a fan- 
 cier should start the moment they are born. 
 Eat, sleep, and grow : this Is the life of the pup- 
 pies during the first two weeks of their exist- 
 ence. Every effort must be made to make this 
 life as Ideal as is possible. A bad beginning 
 never makes a good ending in the rearing of 
 young animals. 
 
 When a puppy is born, its mother will at- 
 tend to its first toilet. However, since damp 
 and chill are potent enemies of the young life, 
 it will be wise to take it from its mother, when 
 she has finished with It, dry it thoroughly and 
 wrap It In warm flannel rags, putting it In a 
 
182 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 dry, warm place. The mother will be so en- 
 gaged that she will not be disturbed and the 
 whole family can be re-united after the last of 
 the litter has been born. Since the navel cord 
 is sometimes the seat of an infection that is 
 fatal, and prevention being very much better 
 than cure, it is well to wash off the cord with 
 a little tepid water in which is a mild solution 
 of some good disinfectant, peroxide of hydro- 
 gen or lysol are excellent, and to dust it with 
 boracic acid powder. 
 
 Many fanciers have had experience with an 
 apparently mysterious and almost universally 
 fatal disease popularly called the squeaks. 
 Puppies three or four days old suddenly lose 
 their appetites, become nervous and fidgety, and 
 are in apparent pain. They whine and squeak 
 continually, from which symptom the disease 
 has received its name. The abdomen swells at 
 first and is hard to the touch, but the puppies 
 eventually die, stretched out on their bellies 
 with a flat, crushed look. The immediate cause 
 is to be found in the bitch's milk, which, if 
 drawn off, will be seen to be greenish and 
 stringy, with a strong, sourish odor. 
 
 The final cause is intimately associated with 
 the condition of the dam prior to whelping. It 
 is a disease peculiar to cramped quarters, and 
 
THE PUPPIES 183 
 
 the best means of prevention are attention to 
 the bitch during her pregnancy. She must 
 have plenty of exercise, and her bowels must 
 be kept open. Some fanciers make a practice 
 of milking a bitch after she has whelped and 
 before the pups have suckled. This Is advis- 
 able, since every possible preventive measure 
 should be employed, there being no known cure 
 for the disease once It has attacked the off- 
 spring. 
 
 If for any reason the dam cannot nurse her 
 own puppies and a foster cannot be pro- 
 cured, It Is quite possible to raise them by hand. 
 This Is an Irksome task, but not difficult. The 
 pups will suck from an ordinary nursing bottle, 
 but the rubber nipple had best be substituted by 
 one made of soft leather — an old glove an- 
 swers admirably — In the end of which several 
 holes have been pricked with a large pin. 
 This leather nipple must be stuffed with a bit 
 of sponge to give It form, for a pup In nursing 
 wraps Its tongue round the nipple. The nip- 
 ples and bottles should, of course, be kept clean, 
 boiling them out after each feeding. 
 
 A bitch's milk, contrary to popular opinion, 
 Is stronger than a cow's. The following analy- 
 sis by A. J. Sewell, M.R.C.V.S., the well known 
 English veterinarian, shows this difference: 
 
184 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 Bitch Cow 
 
 Butter 14.8 4.0 
 
 Sugar and Soluble Salts 2.9 5.0 
 
 Casein and Insoluble Salts i6.oo 3.6 
 
 Water 66.3 87.4 
 
 A bitch's milk, it appears, is about three times 
 as concentrated as cow's milk, yet many fan- 
 ciers dilute the latter when feeding pups. This 
 is, of course, the exact reverse of the proper 
 method. A fairly close approximation of 
 bitch's milk can be prepared by taking a pint of 
 cow's milk, adding to it four tablespoonfuls 
 of cream, a heaping teaspoonful of either Mel- 
 len's or Eskay's baby foods, and six ounces of 
 water. The prepared baby food should be 
 mixed thoroughly with the water till a paste is 
 made, and then added to the milk and cream 
 and the whole brought to a boil, feeding when 
 it has cooled to blood heat. 
 
 A day's rations may be prepared at a time, if 
 kept tightly corked in clean bottles in the ice 
 chest, and warmed by putting the nursing bottle 
 in hot water just before feeding. Besides the 
 obvious advantage of feeding artificial milk as 
 close as possible to the composition of the pup's 
 natural diet, the more concentrated food has 
 the further advantage of furnishing adequate 
 nourishment without the danger of overloading 
 the small stomach of the young pup. Each 
 
THE PUPPIES 185 
 
 pup should be allowed to suck the bottle ten 
 minutes, and they will have to be fed every 
 three hours, day and night. At three weeks 
 old the puppies will only require food every 
 four hours, but they must be allowed to suck 
 for fifteen minutes. 
 
 At five or six weeks the puppies should nat- 
 urally begin the weaning process. By the time 
 they are two months old they should be entirely 
 independent of their mother. It is, however, 
 best to leave this entirely to nature. Do not 
 force matters. Their mother's milk is the best 
 food pups can have, and so long as she will 
 nurse them, they sL:^uld be allowed this ad- 
 vantage. The arrival of the youngsters' first 
 teeth will soon enough force the dam to leave 
 off nursing them. 
 
 The dog, like most mammals, has two sets of 
 teeth. The first set, the milk teeth, are tem- 
 porary: the second are permanent. There are 
 twenty-eight milk teeth, and the permanent set, 
 varying according to the breed, contains forty- 
 two or forty-four. There are three different 
 kinds of teeth: the incisors, twelve in number in 
 each set, are in the front of the mouth and used 
 for cutting and tearing: just behind the incisors 
 are the canines or tusks, four In number : in the 
 back of the mouth are the molars, twelve in 
 
186 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 the milk set and seven on each lower jaw and 
 six on each upper In the permanent set, heavy, 
 strong teeth, used for crushing and grinding. 
 Some short faced breeds, as Bulldogs, have 
 only live upper and six lower molars in each 
 jaw. 
 
 Usually puppies experience little or no 
 trouble in cutting their milk teeth. The larger 
 breeds cut these teeth earlier than the smaller, 
 the center molar in the lower jaw usually ap- 
 pearing first about three weeks after birth. 
 The upper incisors next appear, followed by 
 the lower incisors and the tusks, after which 
 the two lower molars will come through and 
 then the upper ones, the front upper molar be- 
 ing the last of the milk set to make Its appear- 
 ance. 
 
 The process of dentation will take about two 
 weeks, so a puppy of the larger breeds should 
 be equipped with a set of temporary teeth by 
 the time it Is five weeks old, while pups of the 
 smaller breeds will be a few days later. Bitch 
 puppies generally cut their teeth a few days 
 earlier than their brothers, and summer pup- 
 pies may have their teeth a little earlier than 
 winter pups of the same variety. This set of 
 teeth Is very soft, and by the time a pup Is four 
 months old the sharp edges will be worn 
 
I THE PUPPIES 187 
 
 smooth. This, together with the fact that the 
 teeth are not set close and grow farther apart 
 as the pup's jaw grows, furnishes a rough in- 
 dex to the age of the youngster. 
 
 At about four months old, a puppy begins 
 to get its permanent set of teeth. The center 
 upper incisors will be loose or out about this 
 time, and the fourth upper molar is beginning 
 to put In an appearance. The other upper in- 
 cisors and then the lower ones are replaced and 
 the permanent tusks begin to show through 
 the gums. The back molars appear next and 
 then the more forward ones, the upper teeth 
 appearing earlier than the lower, the opposite 
 of the order in the temporary set. 
 
 The teeth do not follow any set and regular 
 order, but by the time a St. Bernard, a Great 
 Dane, or a Mastiff is five months old he should 
 have a complete set of permanent teeth. The 
 Terriers and medium sized dogs are usually 
 two or three weeks later, and a toy may not be 
 through teething till seven or even eight 
 months. During the cutting of these perma- 
 nent teeth it pays to watch a puppy's mouth. 
 One of the permanent teeth may come up be- 
 side a temporary one without forcing it out. 
 If neglected, this will cause no end of pain and 
 inconvenience, and, if long neglected, may even 
 
188 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 result in a twisting of the permanent teeth. It 
 is a simple thing to look into a pup's mouth 
 every few days during the teething period and 
 to draw any loose teeth of the baby set. 
 
 A puppy is often upset during the cutting 
 of the permanent teeth. Eczema sometimes 
 breaks out and the youngster's digestive tract 
 is more than apt to be disarranged. Give a 
 pup a thorough worming when he is three 
 months old. It is a perfectly safe supposition 
 that a puppy has worms, and it is the best in- 
 surance against stomach disorder, bowel 
 troubles, and rickets to institute and follow a 
 regular course of vermifuge. Three months is 
 a good age to administer the first dose, and re- 
 peat it every three months till a dog is a year 
 and a half old, after that at least twice a year. 
 
 Any of the vermifuges placed on the market 
 by reliable firms will be found to be very ef- 
 fective, if the directions of the manufacturers 
 are carefully followed. It is always advisable 
 to do well what is worth doing at all, and the 
 treatment should be repeated two or three days 
 after the first dose. 'Thorough treatment for 
 worms will forestall most of the teething 
 troubles, but if the pup is upset, put him on a 
 light diet and administer a dose of castor oil 
 and syrup of buckthorn. 
 
THE PUPPIES 189 
 
 Rickets Is a disease peculiar to puppies, and, 
 if the youngster gets through his teething, he is 
 very apt to escape all possibility of this trouble. 
 Few cases appear, and then only as a legacy of 
 distemper, after a dog is six months of age. 
 The symptoms cannot be mistaken. The 
 joints, especially those of the legs, swell; the 
 forelegs are bowed and the hind legs are cow- 
 hocked. Usually there is involuntary twitch- 
 ing and shaking, the pup is thin and pot bel- 
 lied, suffers considerable pain, and Is alto- 
 gether a miserable, pathetic object. The cause 
 is worms, aggravated by improper food, lack 
 of exercise, foul air, dampness, and lack of light 
 and air. In extreme cases it is kindest and 
 wisest to put the sufferer mercifully out of the 
 way. If a cure Is attempted — permanent cure 
 is seldom achieved — the puppy must be 
 treated heroically for worms and then well fed, 
 well housed, and well exercised. Fowler's solu- 
 tion of arsenic, or better still, cod liver oil tonic, 
 after the formula recommended in the compan- 
 ion volume to this book, is valuable. 
 
 Many puppies have fits. Sometimes these 
 occur during the cutting of the second teeth, 
 but they are usually the result of worms with 
 heat or super-excitement furnishing the imme- 
 diate cause. The youngster, who has appar- 
 
190 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 ently been quite well, suddenly crumples up, 
 rolls about, kicking and champing its jaws, and 
 frothing at the mouth. In a few seconds it will 
 stagger to its feet, look about in a dazed man- 
 ner, and then rush off, running round in circles, 
 barking excitedly. Attack may follow attack 
 in rapid succession and with increasing severity 
 till the puppy may die of exhaustion. 
 
 First and' foremost, one must remember that 
 fits, as evidenced by these symptoms, have noth- 
 ing whatever to do with rabies. Thousands of 
 innocent dogs are slaughtered each year and 
 hundreds of people are scared to distraction 
 through this very silly mistake. The bite of 
 a dog in a fit is absolutely harmless, and one 
 can secure him without any fear. This should 
 be done, and he must be restrained from hurt- 
 ing himself in his frenzies. A sponge or large 
 cloth, soaked in cold water, should be soused 
 on his head, and he should be kept quiet in a 
 dark room. Talk to him and pet him gently. 
 Do whatever you can to quiet him. After the 
 fit has disappeared, the dog should be kept on 
 a light diet of milk and thin broth for a couple 
 of days and then treated for worms. 
 
 There are three minor operations that some 
 breeders are called upon to perform upon their 
 dogs. 
 
THE PUPPIES 191 
 
 The terriers, except the Scottish Terrier, 
 and the spaniels, except the Irish Water Span- 
 iel, are docked. This is best done when the 
 puppy Is four or five days old. The skin 
 should be drawn down away from the body as 
 far as possible, so it will be able to grow over 
 and cover the stump of the bone, and the tail 
 cut off clean with a pair of scissors. It is best 
 to keep the pups away from the mother for 
 half an hour or more, until the active bleeding 
 has stopped. This, however. Is seldom serious, 
 and it can be readily checked by an application 
 of tincture of perchloride of iron. It Is not a 
 bad plan to wash off the wound with a mild solu- 
 tion of disinfectant. It is customary to leave 
 about three-fifths of a Fox Terrier's tail and 
 something more than half of the tails of the 
 other Terriers. The sporting Spaniels have a 
 little less than half of their tails left and the 
 toys about a third. 
 
 Cropping is not quite so easy, but the em- 
 ployment of the steel clips, sold by kennel sup- 
 ply houses for this purpose, makes it a surer and 
 simpler operation than formerly. The clips 
 should be fastened securely to the ear in the cor- 
 rect position, and the part of the ear outside 
 the metal cut out quickly and cleanly with a 
 sharp razor. Cocaine Is sometimes used as a 
 
192 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 local anesthetic, but this is hardly necessary, 
 for the pain is very slight. Cropping had best 
 be done when a pup is nine or ten months old, 
 and the proper training of the ear after cut is 
 all-important, if a correct carriage is to be in- 
 duced. It is at this point that the amateur 
 generally fails dismally, and he should, if pos- 
 sible, receive a few practical lessons from a com- 
 petent man, or else send his dogs to such a one 
 to be cropped. Surgeon's plaster, wax, and 
 even plaster of Paris are employed to fasten 
 the ears back across the skull, so that when re- 
 leased they shall stand smartly erect. 
 
 Puppies are sometimes born with extra claws, 
 dew claws, on the inside of their legs. These 
 whether they be on the front or back legs, 
 should be removed four or five days after birth, 
 by cutting them off clean, close to the leg, with 
 sharp scissors. This is an almost painless and 
 bloodless operation. 
 
 The troubles of puppyhood are almost with- 
 out exception the result of improper quarters, 
 dirt, poor or badly selected food, or worms. 
 With a very little reasonable attention, there 
 Is not a reason in the world why the average 
 pup should not be " disgustingly well." Grow- 
 ing youngsters demand room and light and fresh 
 air. They must have adequate food. They 
 
THE PUPPIES 193 
 
 cannot thrive If infested with worms. Remem- 
 ber these things and the problem of raising pup- 
 pies successfully is solved for you. 
 
 It is, however, true that no matter how 
 roomy and light your kennels be, nor how 
 large their runs, nor how careful you are of 
 what goes into the pups* stomachs: they will do 
 better on a farm. This being so, it Is well. If 
 possible, to make an effort to find reliable per- 
 sons with whom you can board your youngsters 
 between five and eight months of age. This 
 English custom, and It Is a great factor In the 
 success of the British kennels, Is one that Is 
 based on years of experience, and we In Amer- 
 ica should make every effort to establish It in 
 this country. It will be an important factor 
 In the rearing of better puppies. 
 
194 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
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APPENDIX 195 
 
 Date Due to Whelp After Service. 
 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The following list of books has been prepared with the 
 view of enabling those breeders who wish to extend their 
 knowledge of the principles and practice of breeding to do so 
 in the most economical and effective manner. In general, the 
 books mentioned are the standard works on the subjects they 
 treat, but an effort is made only to include those most avail- 
 able to American readers. Because of the lack of informa- 
 tion on books treating of the histories and points of the vari- 
 ous breeds, a short list of the most important of these is in- 
 cluded. 
 Evolution. 
 
 Charles Darwin's " The Origin of Species," " The Descent 
 of Man," and '' Animals and Plants under Domestication " 
 (in the order named) make a splendid introduction to this 
 study, and can be followed by A. R. Wallace's " Darwin- 
 ism," Romane's " Darwin and After Darwin," and Weis- 
 mann's " The Evolution Theory." 
 Reproduction. 
 
 E. B. Wilson's "The Cell," is the standard work on the 
 cell, and will supplement the elementary facts found in any 
 good text-book on Physiology. 
 Variation. 
 
 H. M. Vernon's " Variation in Animals and Plants," con- 
 tains many forceful examples of the different types of varia- 
 tion, while for a statistical study the best books are F. Galton, 
 " Natural Inheritance," and K. Pearson, " The Grammar of 
 Science." For mutations one should read, H. de Vries. " Spe- 
 cies and Varieties," and "The Mutation Theory." 
 Heredity. 
 
 J. A. Thompson's " Heredity," is a standard work — the 
 sections dealing with the germ plasm theory are especially 
 197 
 
198 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 good — and G. Archdall Reld's "The Laws of Heredity," is 
 capital treatment of heredity in man. 
 Selection (Breeding). 
 
 By far the best work I know for practical breeders is " Prin- 
 ciples of Breeding," by Eugene Davenport — a clear and 
 complete exposition of the scientific and practical material. 
 More directly treating of the problems of dog breeding is C. 
 J. Davies' " Breeding to Type." " The Rational Service," 
 by " Great Dane," and " The Management of the Stud Dog 
 and Brood Bitch," by Theo. Marples are valuable little 
 books. 
 General Works on Dogs. 
 
 The standard American work treating the histories and 
 points of the various breeds is James Watson's " Book of the 
 Dog," a popular one volume edition of which is now pub- 
 lished, containing all the text, but only part of the illustra- 
 tions of the original two volume edition. " Modern Dogs," 
 in four volumes, two devoted to sporting dogs, one to terriers, 
 and one to non-sporting breeds, by Rawdon B. Lee is a well 
 written, authentic work, and " The Twentieth Century Dog " 
 (two volumes, one sporting; one non-sporting) is a remark- 
 ably valuable compilation of the opinions of many experienced 
 owners. " The Kennel Encyclopedia," edited by J. Sidney 
 Turner, is a splendid work of reference, while Count Henri 
 de Bylandt's "Dogs of All Nations" (2 vols.) is a profusely 
 illustrated work giving, in four languages (English, French, 
 German, and Dutch) the official standards of all known 
 breeds, many of which are not even mentioned in the Eng- 
 lish and American works. 
 
 The following is a list of the most important monographs 
 on the more popular breeds. Those books published in Amer- 
 ica are marked with a star (*). 
 Sporting Dogs. 
 
 * " The Sporting Dog," Joseph A. Graham. 
 " The Bloodhound," Edwin Brough. 
 
 " Bloodhounds," Major E. H. Richardson. 
 
 " Scotch Deerhounds and their Masters," George Cupples. 
 
 * " The Borzoi" (Russian Wolfhound), Joseph Thomas. 
 *" Horse and Hound" (Foxhounds), General Roger Wil- 
 liams, M.F.H. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 199 
 
 * " The Foxhound," General Roger Williams, M.F.H. 
 
 * " The American Fox Hound," Haiden C. Trigg, M.F.H. 
 * " The Beagle," edited by Reno B. Cole. 
 " The Greyhound," Dalziel, Maxtee, and Rixon. 
 " Sporting Spaniels," Cane and Phillips. 
 
 * ** The Cocker Spaniel," Eugene Glass. 
 
 * " The Spaniel and its Training," F. H. Mercer. 
 " The Clumber Spaniel," James Farrow. 
 
 "The Pointer and his Predecessors," William Arkwright. 
 Terriers. 
 
 "Terriers," edited by Harding Cox. 
 "The Airedale Terrier," Holland Buckley. 
 *"The Airedale," Williams Haynes. 
 "The Airedale Terrier," F. M. Jowett. 
 
 * " All About Airedales," E. M. Palmer. 
 *"The Bull Terrier," Williams Haynes. 
 " The Perfect Fox Terrier," Sidney Castle. 
 
 " The Fox Terrier," Hugh Dalziel, revised by J. Maxtee. 
 
 * " The Fox Terrier," Williams Haynes. 
 "The Fox Terrier," Rawdon B. Lee. 
 "The Scottish Terrier," C. J. Davies. 
 
 "The Scottish Terrier," W. L. McCandlish, with a chap- 
 ter on " The West Highland White Terrier," by B. W. Pow- 
 lett. 
 
 *" Scottish and Irish Terriers," Williams Haynes. 
 
 " The Irish Terrier," F. M. Jowett. 
 
 " The West Highland White Terrier," Holland Buckley. 
 Non-Sporting Dogs. 
 
 " The Great Dane," Frederick Becker. 
 
 " Great Danes, Past and Present," Morrell Mackenzie. 
 
 "The Collie," Hugh Dalziel, revised by J. Maxtee. 
 
 "Show Collies," H. E. Packwood. 
 
 *"The Useful Collie," W. A. Sargent. 
 
 "The Perfect Bulldog," Hay Hutchison. 
 
 " Show Bulldogs," Sidney H. Deacon. 
 
 " Bulldogs and Bulldog Men," H. St. John Cooper. 
 
 * " The Boston Terrier," Varnum Mott, M.D., revised by 
 Williams Haynes. 
 
 *"The Boston Terrier," Edward Axtell. 
 
 " The Whippet an^J Race Dog," Freeman Lloyd. 
 
200 PRACTICAL DOG BREEDING 
 
 " Manual of Toy Dogs," Mrs. Leslie Williams. 
 
 " Toy Dogs," Mrs. Handley Spicer. 
 
 *' English Toy Spaniels," Mrs. Lillian Raymond-Mallock. 
 
 "English Toy Spaniels," the Hon. Mrs. Lytton. 
 
 " Show Pomeranians," Miss L. Ives. 
 
 " The Yorkshire Terrier," " Our Dogs." 
 
INDEX 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abortion, tendency of some bitches to, 52; causes and preven- 
 tion of, 167. 
 
 Acquired characteristics, an external cause of variation, 60; 
 defined, 83-84; less belief in inheritance of than formerly, 
 
 85. 
 Advertising a stud dog, 152 seq. 
 
 Airedale Terrier, 18, 21, 26, 60, 78, icx), 112, 113, n6, 143, 153. 
 Agricultural stations, practical work in breeding done by, 14 
 
 15. 
 
 American bred dogs, beaten by importations, 29. 
 
 Ancestral heredity, law of, 90-92; a guide in breeding, 100. 
 
 Artificial selection, compared with natural, 30 seq.; definite 
 limits to, 55. 
 
 Atavism, breeders' hazy ideas of, 16; observed by dog breed- 
 ers, 58 ; related to inheritance, 59. 
 
 Batson, quoted, 11. 
 
 Beagle, 34, 35. 
 
 Bibliography, 197 seq. 
 
 Biologists, studies in practical breeding, 14-15; agree on evo- 
 lution, 33; example of help from, 124. 
 
 Blindness, fault to be shunned, 103 ; a result of continued in- 
 breeding, 133, 
 
 Books on dogs, valuable to breeder, 27; list of, 198 seq. 
 
 Boston Terrier, 18, 48, 54, 109, 170. 
 
 Breeding systems, 126 seq.; every breeder has his own, 126; 
 six basic, 127; the figure, 135-137; the alternate genera- 
 tion, 137; a new, 140 seq.; the trust-to-luck, 16, 25, 128; 
 the fashionable, 129-130; the egotistical, 130, 148; see also 
 inbreeding, out breeding, line breeding. 
 
 Brood bitch, a valuable, 140; care prior to service, 150; proper 
 condition for service, 151; modern high regard for, i6i; 
 203 
 
204 INDEX 
 
 period of heat, 163; period of gestation, 167, 182; care 
 at time of whelping, 170; care when nursing, 175; how 
 often to breed, 176. 
 
 Castration, 158. 
 
 Cells, whole body a colony of, 35; structure of, 36-37; divi- 
 sion, 37; the germ, 38-39; reduction in germ, 45 seg. 
 
 Champion, bred in first litter, 19; his breeder honored, 29; 
 must be sound, 51 ; fetish worship of, 85 ; a strain of, 93 ; 
 is object of breeder's operations, 107; statistics of breed- 
 ing in two breeds, 113-114; Airedale studied statistically, 
 117-121; not always best sire, 145. 
 
 Characteristics, individual, transmission of, 42 ; intensified by 
 inbreeding, 99. 
 
 Chow Chows, 79, loo. 
 
 Coat, variation in, 52; affected by climate, 60; Mendelian in- 
 heritance of in Fox Terriers, 79. 
 
 Collie, 51, 115-116. 
 
 Color, studies in coat and eye, 78 ; of Boston Terriers, 108 ; of 
 eyes and coats probably Mendelian, 121-122; rule for 
 breeding for, 123. 
 
 Condee, Ralph W., quoted on Airedale bloodlines, loo-ioi ; 
 family tree of Airedales prepared by, 117. 
 
 Cropping, 191. 
 
 Cross-breeding; futile without variation, 49; only could pro- 
 duce some results, 53 ; by Mendel, 75. 
 
 Cunningham, Duncan, on Skye Terrier standard, 20. 
 
 Dam, as important as sire, 83, 99; the theoretically ideal, 121; 
 importance of in figure system of breeding, 135; valuable 
 when excelling in her breed's weak points, 140; old opin- 
 ion of importance of, 161; care during pregnancy, 165; 
 care at whelping, 170; perversion of maternal instincts, 
 174. 
 
 Darling, Dr. C. G., on eye color, 78. 
 
 Darwin, books best known to fanciers, 15; theory of natural 
 selection, 30 seg.; case of telegony cited by, 56; on de- 
 terioration of dogs in India, 59. 
 

 INDEX 205 
 
 Davenport, Professor; canvass among dog fanciers made by, 
 57; studies in trotting horse pedigrees, 116-117. 
 
 Davies, C. ]., on figure system of breeding, 135 seq. 
 
 Deafness, a fault to be shunned, 103. 
 
 Determinants, see Factors of Inheritance. 
 
 De Vries, on mutations, 54; on Mendelian inheritance, 73. 
 
 Dew claws, removal of, 192. 
 
 Distemper, a cause of rickets, 189. 
 
 Docking, 191. 
 
 " Dog Book," quoted, 22. 
 
 Dog breeder, so-called scientific, 15; has a comparatively 
 easy task, 17; necessary equipment of, 19 seg., 144; re- 
 quirements for success as, 26-28, 144; rewards of, 29; 
 must know fundamentals of genetics, 35, 107, 143 ; a 
 spectator of heredity and variation, 88 ; " eye for live- 
 stock " an asset of, 97; is a true sportsman, 108; his best 
 friend, 115. 
 
 Dog breeding, a sport, 14; true object of, 18; puppies are 
 proof of success in, 107. 
 
 Dominance in Mendelian inheritance, 76. 
 
 Drag of the race, see Regression. 
 
 English Bulldog, 54, 58, 92, 99, 170. 
 
 Evolution, Darwin's theory of, 30 seg.; belief in, 33. 
 
 Ewart, Professor, experiments breeding horse and quagga, 57. 
 
 Factors of inheritance, combined in sexual reproduction, 43 ; 
 different combinations assured by reduction, 46 ; remain 
 pure when crossed, 80; complete set in each parent, 82. 
 
 Faults, breed's prevailing, 99 ; differentiated from defects, 
 103; inbred, hard to remove, 133. 
 
 Fertility, important to breeders, 52 ; cannot always be main- 
 tained, 94; impaired by continued inbreeding, 133. 
 
 Fertilization, process of described, 38 seg.; in plants, 68. 
 
 Fits, 189. 
 
 Foetal membrane, puppies born in, 169. 
 
 Food, effect of in natural selection, 33; proper for a stud dog, 
 150; proper for a nursing bitch, 175, 177; artificial for 
 puppies, 184. 
 
 Foster mother, 176. 
 
206 INDEX 
 
 Fox Terriers, 28, 53, 54, 56, 64, 65, 72, 92, 95, n6, 170. 
 French Bulldogs, 35, 54, 170. 
 
 Galton, contributor to theory of heredity, 42; statistical stud- 
 ies in inheritance, 70-71; law of ancestral heredity, 90 
 seq. 
 
 Genetics, recent advances in, 13; popular interest in, 14; 
 knowledge of, necessary to breeder, 35, 107, 143. 
 
 Germ plasm, theory explained, 41 seq.; unchanged in pure 
 line, 69; nature of, in hybrids, 81; of sire and dam equi- 
 potent, 99. 
 
 Gesner, Conrad, quoted, 105. 
 
 Gestation, duration of, 167; table of, 194-195. 
 
 Gordon Setter, 35. 
 
 Great Dane, 96, 187. 
 
 Hagedoorn, A. L., experiments in color breeding, 78, 122. 
 
 Harris, Arthur, quoted, 33. 
 
 Heat, see CEstrum. 
 
 Heredity, law of, 30; basis of selection, 34; an exception to, 
 seems ridiculous, 35; makes selection effective, 35; se- 
 cret of, lies in germ cells, 40; early theory of, 40; Weis- 
 mann's theory of, 41 seq.; pure line, 68 seq.; Mendelian, 
 73 seq.; mistaken conceptions of, 85; dog breeder a spec- 
 tator of, 88; law of ancestral, 90; advantages of mathe- 
 matical study of, 94; of individual magnified by in- 
 breeding, 133. 
 
 Heredity, Journal of, quoted, 122. 
 
 Histories of breeds, carefully recorded, 18; important to 
 breeders, 21 ; part of breeder's equipment, 27. 
 
 Hocks, cow, a fault, 103. 
 
 Hybrid, in Mendel's experiments, 75; the germ plasm of, 81. 
 
 Impotence, important to breeders, 52 ; see also Sterility. 
 
 Inbreeding, prepotency of, 99; defined and studied statis- 
 tically, no seq.; as a breeding system, 131; the uses of, 
 132; a double edged sword, 133. 
 
 Indian Kennel Club, 59. 
 
 Irish Terrier, 23-25 ; 56. 
 
 Irish Water Spaniel, 191. 
 
INDEX 207 
 
 Johannsen, Professor, experiments in pure line breeding, 68 
 
 seg. 
 Judges, responsible for type, 19-20; as owners of stud dogs, 
 
 Labor, signs of, 168; duration of, 169. 
 
 Lang, A., on breeding for coat color, 122. 
 
 Line breeding, confused with inbreeding, 112, 131; statis- 
 tically studied, 113; most effective in breeding champi- 
 ons, 115; uses of, 134; modifications of, 135, 137. 
 
 Little, C. C, studies in coat color of Pointers, 78, 122. 
 
 McConnell, F. H., quoted on example of supposed telegony, 56. 
 
 Malformations, a result of inbreeding, 133. 
 
 Malpresentations, 170 seg. 
 
 MastiflF, 187. 
 
 Maternal instinct, perversions of, 174. 
 
 Mendel, experiments in cross-breeding, 74 seg. 
 
 Mendelian inheritance, breeders' hazy notion of, 16; nature 
 
 of, 73; in dogs, 78-79; 121 seg.; results expected from, 
 
 80. 
 Milk, faulty supply chronic with some bitches, 52; in breasts 
 
 during pregnancy, i66; treatment for scanty supply, 177; 
 
 cause of "squeaks," 182; bitch's and cow's analyzed and 
 
 compared, 184. 
 Muss-Arnolt, G., on "canine prostitution," 16. 
 Mutation, defined, 54; not common in dogs, 64. 
 
 Natural selection, compared with artificial selection, 30 seg. 
 Navel cord, bitch severs, 169; seat of infection, 182. 
 Newcastle, Duchess of, her strain, 28. 
 
 Nucleus, in each cell, 36; behavior in cell division, 37; be- 
 havior in fertilization, 39; reduction of, 45. 
 
 CEstrum, period of described, 163 seg. 
 Old English Sheepdog, 55. 
 Otterhound, 21. 
 
 Out-breeding, statistics of, 113; results as a fear of inbreed- 
 ing, 138; seldom possible and not effective, 138. 
 Ovum, described, 38; fertilized, 39; reduction of, 45. 
 
208 INDEX 
 
 Packwood, H. E., on Collie pedigrees, 115 seg.; quoted on 
 trust-to-luck breeding, 128. 
 
 Parturition troubles, 170 seg. 
 
 Pasterns, weak, a bad fault, 103. 
 
 Pearson, correction of Galton's law, 90. 
 
 Pedigree, true meaning of, 23-25 ; another example, 26 ; im- 
 portance of in understanding regression, 71 ; how to use 
 in selection, 103; studies invaluable to breeders, no; 
 Raper quoted on, 129. 
 
 Penis, fracture of bone of, 158; prevented from passing pre- 
 puce opening, 158; growths on, 160. 
 
 Pointer, 51, 78, 84, 100, 116, 122. 
 
 Points, knowledge of, necessary, 96 ; following Mendelian in- 
 heritance, 121 seg.; balancing of, in mating dangerous, 
 141. 
 
 Pomeranian, 116. 
 
 "Practical Dog Keeping," companion volume, 149, 162. 
 
 Predominance of strains and individuals, 99. 
 
 Pregnancy, care of bitch during, 165, 183; determination of, 
 166; period of, 167; table of duration, 194-195. 
 
 Prenatal impressions, as cause of variation, 57 seg. 
 
 Prepuce, too small opening of, 158.^ 
 
 Previous sire, effect of, see Telegony. 
 
 Protoplasm, a part of all cells, 36; behavior in reduction, 45. 
 
 Puppies, less numerous in wild dogs, 59 ; easy to train setter, 
 84; dog gets more than a bitch produces, 102; are proof 
 of successful breeding, 107, 179; malpresentation of, 170 
 seg.; care of, at birth, 174, i8i ; number a bitch can raise, 
 175; good care necessary, i8o; artificial feeding of, 184; 
 teething, 185 seg. 189; rickets in, 189; special illnesses 
 of, 192; putting out to walk, 193. 
 
 Pure line, breeding experiments in, 68 seg. 
 
 Rabies, not to be confused with fits, 190. 
 
 Race average, offspring closer to, than exceptional parents, 
 
 71 ; advantages of strain raised above, 94. 
 Raper, George, quoted on pedigree, 129. 
 Regression, principle of demonstrated, 70 seg.; what it means 
 
 to a breeder, 90; object of selection is to overcome, 96; 
 
 against a belief in alternate generation breeding system, 
 
 137; "how to make an ally of, 139. 
 
INDEX 209 
 
 Reproduction, mechanical side of, 35 seg.; bisexual, 38; 
 
 asexual, 70. 
 Reversion, part of heredity rather than of variation, 58. 
 Rickets, 189. 
 
 St. Bernard, 187. 
 
 Schipperke, 55. 
 
 Scottish Terrier, 97, 100, 112-113, 116, 135, 143, 191. 
 
 Screw tail, originally a mutation, 54. 
 
 Segregation, Mendelian ratio of, j6; fundamental part of 
 all Mendelian inheritance, 77. 
 
 Selection, kind, formerly practiced, 25 ; artificial and natural, 
 30 seg.; breeder's work is, 34, i8o; fruitless in pure line 
 breeding, 70; solution of problems of, 89; the true object 
 of, 89, 104; accomplishments possible by, 92; six gen- 
 erations of, will fix a character, 94; adverse, sometimes 
 forced on breeder, 95^ limits of, 95; able to change 
 type, 96; rational principles of, 96 seg.; good rule for, 
 102 ; how to use a pedigree in, 103 ; abandoned in trust- 
 to-luck breeding, 128 ; perverted in fashionable breed- 
 ing, 129; of sire, 145; of dam, 140, 161. 
 
 Service, care of bitch before, 151; certificate of, 156; proper 
 time for, 163. 
 
 Setter, 84, 92, 116, 156, 170. 
 
 Sewell, Dr. A. J., on composition of bitch's milk, 183. 
 
 Shyness, to be avoided in breeding stock, 51. 
 
 Sire, not more important than dam, 83, 99; great improvement 
 has come from few great, loi ; great effect on breed of 
 popular, 102; importance of exceptional sires, 117; not 
 necessarily famous for his daughters, 120; breeding a 
 bitch to her sire's, 127; selection of, 145 seg. 
 
 Size, limit reached in some breeds, 96. 
 
 Skye Terrier, 20. 
 
 Spaniels, 40, 79, 191. 
 
 Squeaks, 182. 
 
 Stamina, cannot always be maintained, 95 ; impaired by in 
 and inbreeding, 133. 
 
 Standard, knowledge of, necessary, 19; could well be more 
 specific, 20; new English Fox Terrier, 53. 
 
210 INDEX 
 
 Statistics, of telegony, 57; of variation in human height, 70; 
 of champions, 113-114; of Airedale breeding, 117-121. 
 
 Sterility, a result of inbreeding, 133; a cure for, 158; tem- 
 porary, 158; lack of sexual desire results in, 159. 
 
 Stock breeders, more scientific than dog breeders, 15; believe 
 in prenatal impressions, 58. 
 
 Strain, knowledge of important, 99; some are prepotent, 100; 
 recognized by dog breeders, 115; of winners in Collies 
 and Airedales, 116-121; a breeder's own, importance of 
 establishing, 19; chief advantage of, 25; the Duchess 
 of Newcastle's, 28; Warren, 56; an ally against regres- 
 sion, 73 ; several famous, 92 ; establishment of, is best 
 breeding system, 139. 
 
 Stud Book, records success of small breeder, 28 ; furnishes 
 measure of breeding success, 107; typographical errors 
 in, 108. 
 
 Stud dog, great show dog not always a great, 101 ; objections 
 to keeping a stud dog, 145 seq.; the ideal, 148; feeding, 
 150; number of bitches should serve, 150; advertising, 
 152 seq.; peculiar ills of, 157. 
 
 Taylor, Major, studies in bird dog pedigrees, 116. 
 
 Teats, sore, 177. 
 
 Teething, time of, 185 seq.; troubles during, 188. 
 
 Telegony, breeder's hazy ideas about, 15; evidence pro and 
 con, 55; Ewart's experiments in, 57; Davenport's statis- 
 tics about, 57. 
 
 Testicles, inflammation of, 159. 
 
 Tie, evidence of service, 151. 
 
 Toy Spaniels, 52. 
 
 Type, changed by selection, 96; changed by judges, 98. 
 
 Use and disuse, effect of, on breeding stock, 84. 
 Uterus, inflammation of, during heat, 164; injuries to, in 
 forced deliveries, 172. 
 
 Variation, law of, 30; basis of selection, 34; secret of, in germ 
 cells, 40; reduction a cause of, 46; reason for shows and 
 trials, 48; correlated, 50; of form and function, 51; quan- 
 titative and qualitative, 52 ; continuous and discontinu- 
 
INDEX 211 
 
 ous, 52; internal causes of, 55 seg.; external forces caus- 
 ing, 59 seg.; mathematical nature of, 62; normal, 63; in 
 pure line, 69 ; breeder a spectator of, 88 ; always present, 
 93 ; mathematical study of, 93 ; not to be reduced by se- 
 lection, 95. 
 Vermifuges, i88. 
 
 Watson, James, example from on true meaning of pedigree, 
 
 22 seg. 
 Watson, J. A. S., on normal variation, 62. 
 Weaning, best left to nature, 178; when to start, 185. 
 Weismann, theory of heredity, 41 seg. 
 Whelping, certificate of, 157; box for, 167; time required for, 
 
 168; care of bitch during, 170; malpresentation of pups 
 
 in, 171. 
 Woodward, Earle J., on Airedale strains, 117. 
 Worms, in brood bitches, 165; in pups, 188, 193. 
 
OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY— NEW YORK 
 
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 5. THE AIREDALE, by Williams Haynes. The 
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 the Airedale, as a distinctive breed. The author then takes up the 
 problems of type as bearing on the selection of the dog, breeding, 
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OUTING PUBLISH TNG COMPANY— NEW YORK 
 
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 simple home remedies, breaking and the cure for various equine 
 ▼ices. An important chapter is that tracing the influx of Arabian 
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 Askins. Contains a full discussion of the various methods, 
 such as snap-shooting, swing and half-swing, discusses the flight of 
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 \ 14. PROFITABLE BREEDS OF POULTRY, by 
 
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 rather than in specimens for exhibition. In addition to a careftil 
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 troubles. 
 
 18. SCOTTISH AND IRISH TERRIERS, by Wil- 
 liams Haynes. This is a companion book to "The Airedale," 
 and deals with the history and development of both breeds. For 
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 22. THE BULL TERRIER, by Williams Haynes. 
 
 This is a companion book to "The Airedale" and "Scottish and Irish 
 Terriers" by the same author. Its greatest usefulness is as a guide 
 to the dog owner who wishes to be his own kennel manager. A full 
 account of the development of the breed is given with a description 
 of best types and standards. Recommendations for the care oJ 
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OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY-NEW YORK 
 
 23. THE FOX TERRIER, by Williams Haynes. 
 
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 arious Uses to Which He Can Be Put — are among the phases 
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OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY— NEW YORK 
 
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 28. MODERN GOLF, by Harold H. Hilton. ] 
 
 Hilton is the only man who has ever held the amateur champi 
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 Haynes. Mr. Haynes is well known to the readers of the OUTES: 
 HANDBOOKS as the author of books on the terriers. His n< 
 book is somewhat more ambitious in that it carries him into t 
 general field of selection of breeds, the buying and selling of doj 
 the care of dogs in kennels, handling in bench shows and field tria 
 and at considerable length into such subjects as food and feedin 
 es^ercise and grooming, disease, etc 
 
' OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY— NEW YORK 
 
 I 32. PRACTICAL TREE PLANTING, by C. R. 
 
 ttis. The author, who is the New York State Forester, takes up 
 ^' general subject of reforesting, covering nature's method and the 
 tctical methods of broadcast seed-sowing, seed spot planting, 
 psery practice, etc. The various species are described and their 
 ptability to varying conditions indicated. Results of reforesting 
 shown and instructions are given for the planting of wind- 
 ^ks and shade trees. 
 
 33. AMATEUR RODMAKING, by Perry D.Frazer. 
 
 UStrated. A practical manual for all those who want to make 
 ;ir own rod and fittings. It contains a review of fishing rod his- 
 7, a discussion of materials, a list of the tools needed, description 
 the method to be followed in making all kinds of rods, including 
 (Casting, bait-fishing, salmon, etc., with fiill instructions for wind- 
 ;, varnishing, etc 
 
 34. PISTOL AND REVOLVER SHOOTING, by A. L. 
 
 Himmelwright. A new and revised edition of a work that has 
 iady achieved prominence as an accepted authority on the use of 
 hand gun. Full instructions are given in the use of both revolver 
 i target pistol, including shooting position, grip, position of arm, etc. 
 5 book is thoroughly illustrated with diagrams and photographs 
 I includes the ^xules of the United States Revolver Association 
 I a list of the records made both here and abroad. 
 
 I 35. PIGEON RAISING, by Alice MacLeod. This 
 
 I book for both fancier and market breeder. Full descriptions 
 given of the construction of houses, the care of the birds, pre- 
 ation for market, and shipment. Descriptions of the various 
 sds with their markings and characteristics are given. Illustrated 
 ii photographs and diagrams. 
 
 36. FISHING TACKLE, by Perry D. Frazer. E- 
 
 trated. The subtitle is descriptive. "Hints for Beginners in 
 Selection, Care, and Use of Rods, Reels, Lines, etc." It tells all 
 I fisherman needs to know about making and overhauling his 
 de during the closed season and gives full instructions for tour- 
 lent casting and fly-casting. Chapters are included on cases and 
 ders for the care of tackle when n<4 in use. 
 
OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY— NEW YORk 
 
 37. AUTOMOBILE OPERATION, by A. 
 
 Brennan, Jr. lUustrated. Tells the plain truth about the liis; 
 things that every motorist wants to know about his own car. j 
 you want to cure ignition troubles? Overhaul and adjust y<rj 
 carbureter? Keep your transmission in order? Get the maxim i 
 wear out of your tires? Do any other of the hundred and < i 
 things that are necessary for the greatest use and enjoyment of y i^ 
 car? Then you will find this book usefuL 
 
 38. THE FOX HOUND, by Roger D. Williai,. 
 Author of "Horse and Hound". Illustrated. The autho e 
 the foremost authority on fox hunting and foxhounds in Amcr i, 
 For years he has kept the foxhound studbook, and is the final sou I 
 of information on all disputed points relating to this breed, j i 
 book discusses types, methods of training, kenneling, diseases i i 
 all the other practical points relating to the use and care of | 
 hound. An appendix is added containing the rules and regulati* i 
 of hound field trials. 
 
 39. SALT WATER GAME FISHING, by Chaii 
 
 F. Holder. Mr. Holder covers the whole field of his 8ub;j 
 devoting a chapter each to such fish as the tuna, the tarpon, ami i 
 jack, the sail fish, the yellow-tail, the king fish, the barracuda, e 
 sea bass and the small game fishes of Florida, Porto Rico, the Pac ( 
 Coast, Hawaii, and the Philippines. The habits and habitats of 
 fish are described, together with the methods and tackle for tak 
 them. The book concludes with an account of the developm 
 and rules of the American Sea Angling Clubs, Illustrated. 
 
 40. WINTER CAMPING, by Warwick S. Carpent 
 
 A book that meets the increasing interest in outdoor life in the c 
 weather. Mr. Carpenter discusses such subjects as shelter equipnw 
 clothing, food, snowshoeing, skiing, and winter hunting, wild lift 
 winter woods, care of frost bite, etc It is based on much actual 1 
 perience in winter camping and is fully illustrated with work 
 photographs. 
 
 41. LEARNING TO SWIM, by L. DeB. Handl 
 
 Illustrated, Mr. Handley takes up the problem firom the standpo 
 of the person of any sex or age who cannot swim a stroke. Step 
 step he unfolds the various stages, floating, the side stroke, \ 
 crawl, the trudgeon, the breast stroke, swimming on the back, e 
 concluding with a chapter on speed swimming and training for i 
 ing. It covers the whole field of natation in a clear, simple manr 
 with photographs showing each stroke in detail. 
 
 42. BOAT AND CANOE BUILDING, by Vici 
 
 Slocum. All of lis like to think we could build a boat if we 1 
 to. Mr. Slocum tells us how to do it. Designs are given for 
 various types of canoes as well as fiill descriptions for preparing 
 material and putting it together. Small dories and lapstreak be 
 ire also include*^ 
 
OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY ^NEIV YORK 
 43. PRACTICAL PROSPECTING, hj Charles 
 
 Johnson Post. Illustrated. Did you ever wonder what ore- 
 be^wg rock looked like? Did you ever want to know how to test 
 ■it for the various minerals? Would you be interested in learning 
 bow to put together a rough and ready outfit that would do all the 
 work of the more expensive kits ? This book covers all these points 
 "^<* ™ore. It 18 a valuable companion for a walking trip through 
 
 he hdls. It tells you not only where minerals arc found and how, 
 
 lut also where you need not expect to find them. 
 
 44 BOXING, by D. C. Hutchison. Practical fa- 
 
 itrucUon for men who wish to learn the first steps in the manly 
 art. Mr. Hutchison writes from long personal experience as an 
 lamateur boxer and as a trainer of other amateurs. EUs instructions 
 »re accompanied with full diagrams showing the approved blowg 
 [and guards. He also gives fiill directions for training for condition 
 without danger of going stale from overtraining. It is essentially a 
 book for the amateur who boxes for sport and exercise. 
 I " 
 
 45. TENNIS TACTICS, by Raymond D. Little. 
 
 Out of his store of experience as a successful tennis player, Mr. 
 Little has written this practical guide for those who ivish to know 
 how real tennis is played. He tells the reader when and how to 
 taiie the net, discusses the relative merits of the back-court and 
 volleying game and how their proper balance may be achieved; 
 analyzes and appraises the twist service, shows the fundamental 
 necessities of successful doubles play. 
 
 46. THE AUXILIARY YACHT, by H. L. Stone. 
 
 Combines information on the installation of power in a boat that 
 i\ as not designed especially for it with the features desirable in de- 
 bi^ning a boat for this double use. Deals with the peculiar proper- 
 lies of the auxiliary, its advantages and disadvantages, the handling 
 of the boat under sail and power, etc. Does not go into detail on 
 engine construction but gives the approximate power needed for 
 dilferent boats and the calculations necessary to fiiid this figure. 
 
 ' 47. TAXroERMY, by Leon L. Pray, illustrated with 
 
 diagrams. Being a practical taxidermist, the author at once goes into 
 the question of selection of tools and materials for the various stages 
 pf skinning, stuffing and mounting. The subjects whose handling 
 is described are, for the most pan, the every-day ones, such as 
 ordinary birds, small mammals, etc., although adequate instructions 
 are included for mounting big game specimens, as well as the pre- 
 liminary care of skins in hot climates. FuU diagrams accompany 
 the text. 
 
OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY— NEW YORK 
 
 48. THE CANOE— ITS SELECTION, CARE AND 
 USE, by Robert E. Pinkerton. Illustrated with photographs 
 With proper use the canoe is one of the safests crafts that floats, 
 Mr. Pinkerton tell* how that state of iafety may be obtained. He 
 gives full instructions for the selection of the right canoe for eacl 
 particular purpose or set of conditions. Then he tells how it should 
 be used in order to secure the maximum of safety, comfort and use 
 fulness. His own lesson was learned among the Indians of Canada, 
 where paddling is a high art, and the use of the canoe almost wa 
 much a matter of course as the wearing of moccasins. 
 
 49. HORSE PACKING, by Charles J. Post 
 
 Illustrated with diagrams. This is a complete description of the 
 hitches, knots, and apparatus used in making and carrying loads o] 
 various kinds on horseback. Its basis is the methods followed in the 
 West and in the American Army. The diagrams are full and detailed 
 giving the various hitches and knots at each of the important stagee 
 so that even the novice can follow and use them. It is the only 
 book ever published on this subject of which this could be said 
 Full description is given of the ideal pack animal, as well as a cata 
 logue of the diseases and injuries to which such animals are subject 
 
 50. RAINY DAY IN CAMP, by C. H. Claudy 
 
 Illustrated. What do you do when you are stonnbound in the cam j 
 and time hangs heavy on your hands ? This book gives a long lisl 
 of games that you can play and the rules that govern them. It alsc 
 describes various improvised indoor occupations appropriate tc 
 camp life. K you have it in your duffle bag you need not fear the 
 approach of threatening clouds. 
 
 51. WALKING OUTFITS, by C. P. Fordyce 
 
 Illustrated. Every year the adherents of *Tiiking" in this country 
 grow in numbers and enthusiasm. It is an old art and a valuabl< 
 one. But something more than a pair of legs is necessary to mak( 
 the walking trip a success. You must wear the right shoes and th« 
 right clothes. You must carry with you the right kind of sleeping 
 and cooking outfit. Mr, Fordyce gives the concentrated experienci 
 of many years on highway and trail. 
 
 52. LEARNING TO SKATE, by J. F. Veme 
 
 Illustrated. Half the fim of skating is in knowing how to do i 
 with the least effort. Nothing is so easy when you know how— o 
 so hard when you don't. This book describes the process in detai 
 from the first day on the ice to the highest development o 
 speed and fancy skating. The author is familiar with the^ lates 
 developments in Europe where figure skating has been carried V 
 a much higher point than in America.