[J!||*}h Class. Book Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/groundwaterinsanOOmend DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Franklin K. Lanb, Secretary United States Geological Survey George Otis Smith, Director WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 398 GROUND WATER rN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA BY W. C. MENDENHALL, R. B. DOLE AND HERMMT STABLER WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1916 Montgraph DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Franklin K. Lane, Secretary United States Geological Survey George Otis Smith, Director Water-Supply Paper 398 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA BY W. C. MENDENHALL, R. B. DOLE and HERMAN STABLER WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1916 ^ fl b t £ e|>' \s> D. of D. MAY 9 1916 CONTENTS. Page. Introduction, by W. C. Mendenhall 9 Development of irrigation in the Southwest 9 Investigations by the United States Geological Survey 13 Geography of the valley 15 Geologic outline 18 Rocks of the border of the valley 18 Origin of the present surface of the valley 20 Soils 22 Surface waters 23 Occurrence and utilization of ground water, by W. C. Mendenhall 27 Origin of the ground water 27 Underground circulation 28 Quantity of ground water 29 Accessibility and availability of ground water 30 Development of ground water 30 Value of the waters for irrigation 32 Quality of the waters, by R. B. Dole 38 Importance of quality 38 Sources of data 39 Conditions of collection of samples 40 Methods of examination 41 Field assay 41 Carbonate and bicarbonate 42 Chlorine 42 Sulphate 42 Total hardness 43 Probable accuracy 43 Interpretation of results 46 Procedures of the Southern Pacific Co 50 Standards for classification 50 Mineral constituents of water 50 Water for irrigation 51 Source of alkali 51 Occurrence of alkali 52 Permissible limits of alkali 52 Relative harmfulness of the common alkalies 55 Relation between applied water and soils 55 Numerical standards 56 Remedies for alkali troubles 58 "Washing down the alkali 58 Drainage 60 Miscellaneous remedies 61 3 4 CONTENTS. Quality of the waters — Continued. Standards for classification — Continued. Page. Water for boiler use 61 Formation of scale 61 Corrosion 62 Foaming 63 Remedies for boiler troubles 63 Boiler compounds 64 Numerical standards 65 Water for miscellaneous industrial uses 69 General requisites 69 Effects of dissolved and suspended materials 69 Free acids 70 Suspended matter 70 Color 70 Iron 70 Calcium and magnesium 71 Carbonate 72 Sulphate 72 Chlorine 72 Organic matter 73 Hydrogen sulphide 73 Miscellaneous substances '. 73 Water for domestic use 73 Physical qualities 73 Bacteriologic qualities 74 Chemical qualities 75 Mineral matter and potability 76 Interpretation of field assays in relation to potability 79 Chemical character 79 Total solids 81 Purification of water 82 General requirements 82 Methods of purification 83 Slow sand filtration 84 Rapid sand filtration 86 Cold-water softening 87 Feed-water heating 88 Chemical composition of the surface waters 90 Rivers 90 Tulare Lake 94 Buena Vista reservoir 96 Denudation and deposition 97 Rate of denudation in the Sierra 97 Rate of deposition in the valley 98 Chemical composition of the ground waters 99 Types of ground water 99 Conditions north of Kings River 100 Occurrence of sulphate and nonsulphate waters 100 Cause of the difference in composition of water 101 Contact zone of sulphate and nonsulphate waters 102 Relation between the character of the waters and the origin of the silts , 103 CON IT. NTS. 5 Quality of the waters— Continued. Chemical composition of the ground waters — Continued. page. Condit ions around Tulare Lake 104 Contact zone of sulphate and non-sulphate waters 104 Total mineral content of waters 106 Thickness of the lacustrine deposits JOS Proper depth of wells near Tulare Lake 108 Conditions south of Tulare Lake 109 Composition and quality of east-side waters 110 Composition and quality of west-side waters 112 General character 112 Quality in relation to geographic position 113 Deposition of calcium sulphate 116 Composition and quality of axial waters 117 Irregularity of composition 117 Chloride content of artesian water 117 Increase of mineral content from south to north 119 General conditions 119 Deep waters 120 Occlusion of sea water 121 Shallow waters 122 Relation of depth to mineral content 122 Quality for irrigation 123 East-side waters 123 West-side waters 124 Axial waters 125 Results of using ground waters 125 Effect of cold water 127 Quality for industrial use 128 Industrial development 128 East-side waters 128 West-side waters 129 Axial waters 130 Results of using ground waters 130 Quality for domestic use 132 Depth and position of poor supplies 132 Possibility of pollution 132 Municipal supplies 133 Miscellaneous analyses 134 Analyses by the California Experiment Station 134 Analyses by the Reclamation Service 139 Forecasting quality of ground water 139 Summary 140 Pumping tests, by Herman Stabler 142 Notes on the plants 142 Tabulated results of pumping tests 165 Summary of pumping tests .' . 168 County notes, by W. C. Mendenhall and R. B. Dole 177 San Joaquin County : 177 General conditions 177 Flowing wells 178 Pumping plants 178 Quality of water 180 Well records 182 6 CONTENTS. County notes — Continued. Page. Stanislaus County 197 General conditions 197 Flowing wells 197 Pumping plants 198 Quality of ground water 198 Well records 200 Merced County 208 General conditions 208 Flowing wells 209 Pumping plants 209 Quality of water 210 Well records 212 Madera County 226 General conditions 226 Flowing wells 226 Pumping plants , 227 Quality of water 227 Well records 229 Fresno County 234 General conditions 234 Flowing wells 236 Quality of water 237 Well records 239 Tulare County 252 General conditions 252 Flowing wells 252 Pumping plants 253 Permanence of the ground-water supply 253 Quality of water 255 Well records 256 Kings County 281 General conditions 281 Flowing wells 282 Quality of water 283 Well records 284 Kern County 289 General conditions 289 Flowing wells 289 Pumping plants 290 Quality of water 292 Well records 295 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Plate I. Map of Sun Joaquin Valley, Cal., showing artesian areas, ground- water Levels, and pumping plants examined In pocket. II. Map of San Joaquin Valley showing location and depth of wells in relation to sulphate content of ground waters In pocket. III. Cross sections showing sulphate content of ground waters in San Joaquin Valley 102 IV. Map showing prospects for quality of water near Tulare Lake 108 V. Diagram showing mineral content of ground waters in San Joaquin Valley 120 Figure 1. Index map showing location of San Joaquin Valley 16 2. Longitudinal sections showing sulphate content of ground water in the vicinity of Tulare Lake 105 3. Cross sections showing mineral content of ground water in the vicinity of Tulare Lake 107 4. Cross section showing content of sulphate and total mineral matter of ground waters in the basin of Kern Lake 110 INSERTS. Page. Table 34. Summary of pumping plant data 168 37. Field assays of ground waters in San Joaquin County 180 38. Mineral analyses of ground waters in San Joaquin County 180 40. Field assays of ground waters in Stanislaus County 198 41. Mineral analyses of ground waters in Stanislaus County 198 43. Field assays of ground waters in Merced County 210 44. Mineial analyses of ground waters in Merced County 210 47. Field assays of ground waters in Madera County 228 48. Mineral analyses of ground waters in Madera County 228 50. Field assays of ground waters in Fresno County 238 51. Mineral analyses of ground waters in Fresno County 238 53. Field assays of ground waters in Tulare County 254 54. Mineral analyses of ground waters in Tulare County 254 56. Field assays of ground waters in Kings County 282 57. Mineral analyses of ground waters in Kings County 282 60. Field assays of ground waters in Kern County 294 61. Mineral analyses of ground waters in Kern County 294 7 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA. By W. C. Mendenhall, R. B. Dole, and Herman Stabler. INTRODUCTION. By W. C. Mendenhall. DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION IN THE SOUTHWEST. The agricultural industry in the southwestern part of the United States is peculiar in that within that region consumption tends con- stantly to exceed production. This condition is due to the large areas of desert, which are unsuited for agriculture but support many other industries. The irrigated land in the 11 arid States, lying for the most part west of the crest of the Rocky Mountains, was 7,254,110 acres in 1899, when the Twelfth Census was taken, and 13,202,889 acres in 1909, when the Thirteenth Census was taken. Although irrigation development has not been so rapid since 1909 as during the preceding decade, it has nevertheless continued, and large tracts are added each year to the reclaimed areas through the operation of the reclamation act, the Carey Acts, the desert-land law, and the development of lands in private ownership. Meanwhile general industrial expansion continues, although less rapidly than at earlier periods, and under the influence of this expansion and the pressure of population from the East most of the Western States are making important additions to their population each year. In the States of Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico the mining industry becomes yearly of greater importance, and the influx of people engaged in it is increasing correspondingly. The increase in the production of petroleum in California from 395,000 barrels in 1892 to 14,000,000 barrels in 1902 and 86,450,000 barrels in 1912 represents an amazing growth in an industry and in the population necessary to support it, which in turn greatly increases the demand for food products and thus stimulates agricultural development. The growth of trade with oriental countries and the development of the mineral resources of Alaska have resulted in great accessions to the population of the Pacific coast seaports, particularly those about San Francisco Bay and Puget Sound, and in greatly increased 9 10 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. demands for food products. The passage in 1914 of an Alaskan rail- road bill promises to increase the northern market during the con- struction period at least, and the completion of the Panama Canal will open eastern and European markets to certain types of Pacific coast products, to which these markets are now closed. Southern California, as that portion of the State lying south of the Tehachapi Mountains is called, has become established as a playground for the people of the entire United States, and of the thousands of tourists who visit this area each year many become permanent residents. Of the areas in the Southwest within which food products for its cities, its tourist centers, and its mining regions must be raised, the largest and most promising is the interior lowland known as the Great Central Valley of California. The southern segment of this lowland, San Joaquin Valley, contains about 7,500,000 acres, of which 1,728,975 acres was under irrigation in 1912(?). Southern California contains approximately a million acres of land that would be cultivable if water were applied to it ; yet in this region, where the water resources are fully utilized, perhaps a quarter of a million acres are under irrigation, and the remaining area either is nonproductive or yields a relatively low-grade and uncertain crop through the application of dry-farming methods. Furthermore, the density of population in the irrigated valleys south of the Tehachapi and the large and rapidly growing cities there means the consumption of practically all the staple food prod- ucts raised. Fruits, especially the citrus varieties, are grown for export, and in some years more grain is produced than is necessary for local needs; but in general the demand in this area for food sta- ples is in excess of the local supply and this condition will be accen- tuated rather than ameliorated in the future. Imperial Valley, in extreme southeastern California, is rapidly becoming a very productive area through the utilization of Colorado River water, and many other sections might be mentioned whose acreage will increase the total area under irrigation, but all of them together are smaller than San Joaquin Valley, which, with that of the Sacramento, must become the chief agricultural district of the Southwest. The agricultural development of this valley is controlled by the distribution of rainfall, the character of the soils, and the possibility of applying other water than that which reaches the valley as a direct result of precipitation upon its surface. Its extreme southern end, in the vicinity of Bakersfield, is strictly arid, the average rainfall there being less than 5 inches. Precipitation increases gradually toward the north, until at Red Bluff, in the northern end of Sacra- mento Valley, the annual rainfall averages 25.7 inches. Intermediate areas receive an amount of precipitation intermediate between these DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION in tin SOUTHWEST. 11 two extremes; but south of San Francisco Bay the available records indicate a rainfall of loss than 10 inches, and over the greater pari of this area, of less than 12 inches — an amount insufficient to insure crops, even of grain, and entirely inadequate for the other diverse food crops which a dense population demands. The progressive increase in aridity Prom the northern toward the southern end of the valley trough prevails to an equally marked extent east of the valley, in the mountain areas from which its surface waters are drawn. The total run-off from the Sierra, according to the best available records, is about 12,000,000 acre-feet annually. Of this amount, 3,300,000 acre-feet is supplied by the streams from Kings River southward and 8,700,000 acre-feet by the streams north of Kings River. The combined drainage area of the streams from Kings River southward is 4,871 square miles; that of the streams north of Kings River is 7,714 square miles. That is, a southern por- tion of the Sierra, whose area is nearly seven-tenths as large as the northern portion, yields but one-third as much water in the form of stream discharge. Hence in the south end of San Joaquin Valley the acreage which is irrigable by the use of surface waters is very much less than that in the northern end of the valley, and the area available for development there is correspondingly greater than that available farther north. The question of water supply is, of course, not the only one that confronts those who desire to see the development of San Joaquin Valley proceed rapidly, although it is properly regarded as the most pressing. The quality of the soil, particularly with reference to the presence of hardpan or of alkali, is of the utmost importance. Exten- sive alkali areas exist along the axis of the valley and part way up its eastern slope, especially at points where the ground waters lie close to the surface, and hardpans of at least two types underlie some of the higher and otherwise most valuable lands. These soil problems are being studied systematically by the soil experts of the Depart- ment of Agriculture * and the reports that are issued should be sup- plemented as rapidly as possible, until definite information as to soils is available for the entire valley. The conditions already outlined — namely, the great actual and the much greater prospective importance of San Joaquin Valley as an agriculturally productive center — have led during the last decade to greatly increased interest in the possibility of adding to the acreage under irrigation, and hence to the output in food products. Irrigation enterprises, like those based upon other industries, inva- riably pass through a pioneer stage, in which only the most easily 1 Lapham, Macy H., and Heileman, W. H., Soil survey of the Hanford area, California: U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils, Field Operations 1901. The results of similar surveys are available for areas about Bakersfield, Modesto, Turlock, Madera, Fresno, Portersville, and Stockton. 12 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. accessible resources are utilized. In this stage the land holdings are large, the methods of application of water are wasteful, and the agricultural output is low. Only later, when the population becomes much more dense and the need of greater output is clearly recognized, do methods so improve that the ratio of output to area, to re- sources, and to investment becomes such as to satisfy reasonable economic demands. In southern California irrigation methods have been carried to a greater degree of refinement than in any other section of the United States. When irrigation began there, during the first third of the nineteenth century, short crude ditches were constructed by which the waters utilized were diverted from the lower courses of the streams to near-by lands upon which they were turned, and the only products were grain and pasture, by which the flocks and herds were carried through the dry season. Such methods were in vogue until the late sixties and early seventies, when American settlers entered the country and attempted to utilize lands that had been regarded as entirely worthless. These settlers brought with them capital, and constructed their ditches on higher lines and in a much better manner than were the old Spanish zanjas. They applied water much less lavishly, to larger areas, and with much better unit results, and so by continued improvements of this type all of the surface waters were finally utilized to the best advantage. But settlers continued to flock to the region, and attention was then turned to the underground waters, which were developed at first only to supplement the surface supplies. Such reservoir sites as were available were also filed upon and made use of, and eventually many enterprises were started, some of which depended on a combination of surface and underground waters, and others on underground waters alone. Still later refine- ments resulted in the reconstruction of many of the old ditches, the replacement of open canals by underground pipes, and the elimination thereby of waste by seepage and evaporation. In the lower lands wells were drilled which yielded flowing water, and stream waters which had previously been utilized on these lower lands were diverted to the bench lands, where products of higher value could be grown. As a result of this intensity of development it is probable that in no area in the United States are the waters so thoroughly utilized as in the region that lies south of the Tehachapi Mountains. In their pas- sage from the mountains, where they originate in precipitation, to the sea, where they are lost, some portions of these waters are used as many as eight times — in power plants, in irrigation from surface streams, and finally by the recovery of that portion of the surface flow which, sinking into the alluvial fans, augments the supply in the underground reservoirs. [INVESTIGATIONS BY U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 1 8 Much of San Jo&quin Valley is still In the pioneer stage of irri- gation development, depending almost exclusively on surface waters, and in a largo part of the area waste is great, over-use is the rule, and, as a consequence, minimum production results from a maximum use of water. But the pioneer stage is passing. Engineers trained in more refined methods are entering the region and applying their training. Special communities, like those about Portcrsville and Lindsay, where citrus fruits are raised, have for a decade or more used deep ground waters, whose cost greatly exceeds that of surface waters where the latter are available in other parts of the valley. This relatively high cost is amply justified, however, in the citrus belt by the great value of the product In other parts of the valley, as, for example, in the neighborhood of Corcoran, capitalists who had profited in other regions through the use of flowing artesian waters have undertaken to develop colonies by utilizing waters of this type, whose existence had been proved years before by the owners of large cattle ranches, who had put down wells to obtain water for stock. In still other districts, as about Bakersfield, Stockton, and Fresno, isolated individual pumping plants have been installed within the last decade, and by their use lands whose owners had been unable to secure rights to the limited supply of surface waters have been brought within the productive zone. INVESTIGATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. These more or less isolated experiments and their successful out- come have resulted in a widespread recognition of the fact that the productivity of San Joaquin Valley can be greatly increased by the utilization of the heretofore neglected ground-water resources. This recognition has been followed logically by a desire for specific infor- mation as to the quality, occurrence, accessibility, character, and proper use of waters of this type. In response to this demand the Geological Survey and the Recla- mation Service began a study of the ground-water resources of the valley in 1905. This work was continued as funds became available in 1906 and 1907 by the engineers and geologists of the Survey, and in 1908 a preliminary report 1 was issued. The plan at that time in mind was to supplement the preliminary statistical study of devel- opments by more comprehensive work on the geological conditions controlling the distribution and circulation of the ground waters, by a careful field reconnaissance of the chemical characteristics of the waters, since the preliminary work had revealed the importance of 1 Mendenhall, W. C, Preliminary report on the ground waters of San Joaquin Valley, California: 17. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 222, 1908, 14 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. this element in the problem, and by a careful study of pumping costs under various conditions as developed by the experience of irrigators in the valley. The pressure of work in other directions has rendered it impossible to carry out this plan fully. Further field geologic studies have not been possible, but the chemical reconnaissance was completed by R. B. Dole in the fall of 1910, and his report, long ready for publication, is included as a part of this volume. Herman Stabler examined a large number of pumping plants in the valley during the same season, and the results of his studies are also included for the benefit of water users in the valley. Certain detailed data omitted from Water-Supply Paper 222 but forming the basis of many of the conclusions reached in it are also now published. The tables of wells examined and their costs, equipment, and yields are referred to especially. As a number of years have elapsed since the completion of these tables, they do not summarize the later developments. The addition of later wells would add to the mass of data rather than alter the conclusions to be drawn, however, so that their omission is not considered to be of great sig- nificance. In the preparation of Plates I and II the topographic and engi- neering map of San Joaquin Valley issued by the California State Engineering Department in 1886 has been used as a foundation. Some additions and corrections have been made as a result of later surveys, especially those made by the United States Geological Sur- vey about Bakersfield and along the southern and western borders of the valley, but the earlier map has been used substantially in its original form for the greater part of the valley. On Plate I (in pocket) the area in which flowing wells may be obtained has been outlined with as much accuracy as the information at hand permits. Beyond the limits of the belt of flowing wells the attitude of the ground-water plane has been indicated by hydrographic contours which are based on the elevations of the surface as indicated by the topographic sketch contours of the base map. Neither set of con- tours is accurate in detail, but it is believed that the relations between the two — that is, the depths to ground water at various points — are correct within a reasonable margin of error, so that the map will be of practical value. It must be remembered, in using this map, that ground-water levels do not everywhere remain constant. On the deltas and in the irrigated areas there is a more or less regular annual variation in level, the plane of saturation rising during the high-water period — the period of maximum irrigation in early summer — and fall- ing during the low-water period in the autumn and early winter. In the past there has been a marked permanent rise in the ground-water level in areas to which water has been applied by the construction of the large canals of the greater irrigation systems. This rise still con- GEOGRAPHY OF THE VALLEY. 15 tinues in some localities, bo which water has been applied for a [lum- ber of years, and it will be marked in regions to which canal systems may be extended in the future, although the chief changes of this character have doubtless already been brought about. In one or two limited localities (here is probably also a general decline in ground- water levels. It is not possible, of course, to indicate a varying water level by a single set of hydrographic contours. Those used indicate about the position and form of the water plane in the period from 1905 to 1907. GEOGRAPHY OF THE VALUE Y. San Joaquin Valley and Sacramento Valley together constitute the Great Central Valley of California, with an area of nearly 16,000 square miles. (See fig. 1.) This level-floored depression is more than 500 miles long and varies from 20 to 50 miles in width. East of it the Sierra rises to an elevation between 14,000 and 15,000 feet above sea level, and west of it the lower Coast Ranges separate it from the Pacific. The greatest elevation of the Sierra is near its eastern edge and all its important drainage is westward toward the Great Valley, an important fact upon which the greater part of the actual and prospective agricultural value of the valley depends. The Coast Ranges are a series of parallel ridges of moderate elevation that in- close valleys, like those of the Salinas and Santa Clara, which, when not too arid, are highly productive. The Great Valley itself exhibits little diversity in its physical aspect. Such differences as exist between its north and south ends are cli- matic, or, if physical, are directly due to climatic differences. Among local physical features based upon climatic differences may be men- tioned the Tulare basin at the south end of San Joaquin Valley. The basin is due to the aridity of the region and the consequent exten- sive development of alluvial fans. Two of these, extending from Kings River on the east and Los Gatos Creek on the west side of the valley, have coalesced in a low ridge south of which lie the Tulare Lake and Kern Lake depressions. Basins different in character and situation, but originating nevertheless in climatic conditions, are the overflow basins of the Sacramento and the lower San Joaquin valleys, of which the Yolo basin may be mentioned as a type. These basins occupy the lowest portions of the flood plains just outside the ridges that form the immediate river banks. The central valley opens to San Francisco Bay and thence to the Pacific through Carquinez Straits and the Golden Gate, and the com- bined drainages of the Sacramento and San Joaquin systems dis- charge through these gateways. Other passes, like the Tehachapi, the Tejon, and Walker Pass near the south end of San Joaquin Valley and the Livermore Valley gateway near Carquinez Straits, extend 16 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. across the mountain barriers that surround the central lowland, but they are not so low nor so pronounced as the central tidal gateway. In general it may be said that the Great Valley is completely inclosed except for this opening. Figure 1.— Index map showing location of San Joaquin Valley (shaded area). The larger lobe of the central depression, extending southward from Cosumnes River and Suisun Bay, is generally known as San Joaquin Valley, although it is not all drained directly by San Joaquin River and its tributaries. The southern, more arid third of the de- pression, extending from Kings River delta to Tehachapi Mountains, has no surface outlet under normal conditions, and the surplus surface waters accumulate in the Tulare Lake depression and Buena Vista GE0GBAPH1 OF THE VALLEY. 17 reservoir. Originally Kern Lake received a portion of the excess from Kern River, but through tin 4 protection afforded In a restrain- ing dike water is kept out of it except when unusual Hoods break the restraining dam. The original lake* bottoms have now become valuable wheat lands. The streams that drain into the valley from the Sierra carry prac- tically all of the water that reaches it. They are in every way more important than those that enter it from the west. They have larger drainage basins, individually and collectively; they have longer courses; and they flow from higher mountains, with a much greater rainfall and a better protective covering of forest and brush; hence their discharge is many times greater and much less erratic than that of the west-side streams. The total drainage area 1 tributary to the valley from the Sierra is 16,089 square miles; from the Tehachapi and Coast ranges 4,293 square miles; and the area of the valley floor is 11,513 square miles. The total area of the San Joaquin basin is therefore 31,895 square miles. The average run-off of the principal east-side streams north of Bangs River, with a combined drainage area of 7,714 square miles, is about 8,700,000 acre-feet, while that of Kings, Kaweah, Tule, and Kern rivers, discharging into the Tulare basin from a watershed with an area of 4,871 square miles, is about 3,300,000 acre-feet. The total discharge into the valley from 12,585 square miles of Sierra water- shed is therefore about 12,000,000 acre-feet. The preponderance of east-side streams has given the valley floor its well-marked unsymmetrical form. The valley axis, the line of lowest depression, is throughout much nearer the western than the eastern foothills. In places it lies against these hills, but elsewhere, as between Los Gatos and Cantua creeks, the west-side slopes are 15 or 18 miles wide, at least one-half as wide as those of the east side. They are also steeper than those of the east. Grades of 20 or even 40 feet to the mile are not rare, and it is unusual for the grades to be less than 6 or 8 feet per mile. On the east side 30 feet to a mile is about the maximum gradient, while 5 feet or less is perhaps the average. These conditions are due directly to the fact that the valley floor has been built up by the alluvial material eroded by the streams from the mountains east and west of the depression and deposited in it. The larger and more active streams build flatter but more extensive alluvial fans — the type that makes up the east-side slopes ; the more erratic and torrential streams of smaller volume build the steeper and less extensive fans that constitute the west-side slopes. iHall, W. H., Physical data and statistics of California, pp. 396 et seq., State Eng. Dept. California, 1886. 98205°— wsp 398—16 2 18 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. GEOLOGIC OUTLINE. 1 ROCKS OF THE BORDER OF THE VALLEY. In simplest outline, the geology of the eastern border of San Joaquin Valley consists of the " Bedrock series" of granites and metamorphic sedimentary and igneous masses of pre-Cretaceous age, overlain at the north and south ends of the valley in an interrupted band occupying a zone of low relief between the Sierra proper and the valley proper by a series of Tertiary sediments, entirely unaltered and including beds as old as the Eocene, although the great body of the material seems to be Miocene or Pliocene in age. Between San Joaquin River and Portersville this zone of late sediments is missing, and the sands and gravels of the valley proper lie upon the flanks of the granites and the metamorphic complex. Because of this hiatus the east-side Tertiary is separated into two bodies, of which the northern extends from Fresno River nearly to the Cosumnes, and the southern, conveniently designated as the Bakersfield area, extends from Deer Creek to Canada de las Uvas. The northern area of Tertiary rocks, which is chiefly in the Milton- Merced regions, includes a lower, clayey series that has been called the lone formation, a middle zone of andesitic sandstone, coarse volcanic breccias, and tuffaceous beds, and an upper gravelly series that is in places auriferous. This upper series usually occurs along the most westerly foothills and merges at many points with the gravels and soils of the valley floor. The southern area consists of alternating beds of soft sandstone, clay, and gravel, the uppermost beds being coarse, like those of the northern area, and scarcely distinguishable in some places from the alluvium of the valley itself. The geology of the western margin of the valley contrasts in many ways with that of the eastern border. The oldest rocks of the Mount Diablo Range — the easternmost of the coast ranges — comprise a series of altered igneous and sedimentary rocks of Jurassic (?) age known as the Franciscan formation, which extends along the axis of the range from a point southwest of Coalinga to San Francisco Bay. Overlying them on the valley side, but not continuously, is a series of sandstones, shales, and conglomerates of Cretaceous and earliest Tertiary (Eocene) age. Succeeding these in turn is a variable series, locally of great thickness and usually but not always present in some of its members, representing the middle and upper Tertiary. These rocks, like the older sediments beneath them, are sandstones, shales, and conglomerates, but usually they are less firmly indurated than the Eocene and Cretaceous rocks. They overlie the latter uncon- formably and contain many unconformities within themselves, with a 1 Abstract from a manuscript by H. R. Johnson, on the geology of the borders of San Joaquin Valley. GEOLOGIC OUTLINE. 1!) resulting variability in thickness and irregularity in extent of indi- vidual beds. This series contains the siliceous shales generally spoken of in literatim 4 as the Monterey, besides a great variety and abundance of sandstones and conglomerates. Toward the top of the series are beds that clearly represent fresh water or subaerial deposi- tion, undoubtedly much like that which is now taking place in Tulare Lake and in the west-side alluvial fans. As a whole the sedimentary series dips toward the valley, although interruptions like the anti- cline of the Kettleman and McKittrick hills in places vary the pre- vailing monoclinal dips. In general the structures of the valley border are more complex at the south end than along the middle portion and at the north. The valley as a whole is a great structural trough and appears to have been such a basin since well back in Tertiary time. Since it assumed its general troughlike form, gradual subsidence, perhaps interrupted by periods of uplift, has continued and has been accom- panied by deposition alternating at least along what is now its western border with intervals of erosion. This interrupted but on the whole continuous deposition seems to have been marine during the early and middle Tertiary; but during the later Tertiary and Pleistocene, when presumably the valley had been at least roughly outlined by the growth of the Coast Ranges, fresh-water and terrestrial conditions became more and more predominant, until the relations of land and sea, of rivers and lakes, of coast line and interior, of mountain and valley, as they exist now, were gradually evolved. As these conditions developed, the ancestors of the present rivers probably brought to the salt and fresh water bodies that occupied the present site of the valley and its borders, or, in the latest phases of the development, to the land surface itself, the clays, sands, gravels, and alluvium that subsequently consolidated into the shales, sandstones, and conglomerates of the late Tertiary and Pleistocene series, just as the present rivers are supplying the alluvium that is even now accumulating over the valley floor. The very latest of these accumulations are the sand and silt and gravel beds penetrated by the driller in his explorations for water throughout the valley. They are like the early folded sandstones, shales, and conglomerates exposed along the flanks of the valley, except that they are generally finer, and are not yet consolidated or disturbed. The greater part, perhaps all of them, accumulated as stream wash on the valley surface or in interior lakes like the present Tulare Lake, but a proportion of the older sediment that is greater as we delve farther back into the geologic past accumulated in the sea or in salt bays having free connection with the sea. It is these very latest geologic deposits, saturated below the ground-water level by 20 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. the fresh water supplied chiefly by the Sierran streams, that con- stitute the reservoirs drawn upon by the wells, whether flowing or pumped, throughout the valley. The chemical composition of the ground waters, as well as their occurrence and accessibility, is related to the geology. Where the valley alluvium is derived from the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds of the coast ranges, rich in gypsum and other readily soluble minerals, the ground waters contain large quantities of the salts. Where, on the other hand, the alluvium is derived from the granites and meta- morphic rocks of the Sierra, whose potassium, sodium, and calcium compounds are in the form of difficultly soluble silicates, the ground waters under ordinary conditions contain very little of these salts. Obviously if the sands and gravels through which the ground waters percolate were deposited under such conditions that salts were deposited with them, as in the salt water of the sea or of bays like San Francisco Bay, or in interior lakes that are saline through evaporation, as is true of Tulare Lake, then the ground waters them- selves will quickly become saline, although when they leave the mountains as surface waters, before their absorption by the alluvial fans, they may be as pure natural waters as are known in the world. ORIGIN OF THE PRESENT SURFACE OF THE VALLEY. The lowland through the heart of California known as the Great Valley, whose origin as a depression appears, in accordance with the facts just outlined, to date well back into Tertiary time, owes its actual surface to more recent action and to more obvious agents. That surface is, in brief, a combination of the surfaces of a great number of alluvial fans, originating at the mouths of the canyons through which the tributary streams discharge from the mountains into the valley. Each stream that enters the valley brings with it from the moun- tains a greater or a smaller quantity of sand, gravel, or bowlders. All or a part of this burden is deposited in the valley, and the deposit constitutes the alluvial fan of that particular stream. The apex of each fan is the mouth of the stream canyon. From this apex it broadens and flattens until it coalesces at its periphery with other fans. The stream that built it usually spreads delta-wise over it, discharging through a number of diverging channels into the trough of the valley. As a rule these spreading distributaries flow upon the surface of the fan, but some of the major streams from the San Joaquin northward are incised into the valley floor in trenches 100 feet or less in depth. This must be due to special conditions, such as recent change in volume of stream flow or in elevation of the land relative to the sea — conditions not yet understood. &S6L6GIC or i i i\i.. g 1 The fans of different portions of the valley indicate by their mass and form the conditions of volume and distribution of rainfall under which they originated. The west-side fans, particularly (hose in the middle of the valley and near its southern end, are steep and symmetrical, forms characteristic of areas of low rainfall very irregularly distributed. The east-side fans arc of much greater mass and lower slope because the rivers that built them have a greater flow of somewhat less irregular character. The Kern River fan has grown westward against the McKittrick hills until it has isolated the Buena Vista basin south of it. Before dams had been built, inter- fering with the natural conditions here, a shallow lake occupied the present site of Buena Vista reservoir and the old bed of Kern Lake, and during seasons of unusual rainfall there was overflow northward toward Tulare Lake. The basin occupied by Tulare Lake is likewise due to the aridity of the valley and the consequent development of Kings River and Los Gatos Creek fans. South of the low, broad ridge due to the coalescing of these two fans is the Tulare basin, in which a part of the surplus water of the streams south of it accumu- lates. As a consequence of the flatness of this basin and the very erratic character of the supply that reaches it, the lake fluctuates widely in area during a series of years. Northward from Tulare Lake basin the discharge of the streams is sufficiently great and sufficiently constant to prevent the formation of delta-dams like those formed by Kings River and Los Gatos Creek fans, and an open channel is maintained from the San Joaquin north- ward to Suisun Bay. Along the lower course of the San Joaquin, conditions resemble those in Sacramento Valley — that is, they are the conditions usual along rivers draining humid rather than arid regions. Large areas are subject to regular annual inundation during the spring floods or are protected jfrom this inundation only by artificial levees. The greater part of the water that inundates this area is supplied by the Sacramento system, but the greatest overflow occurs when the floods appear in the two systems at the same time. The essential fact as to the present valley surface is that it is a direct result of stream action. It has everywhere been built up by deposition from the streams or from the fluctuating lakes that are themselves dependent upon the streams ; and it is formed of materials brought by the streams from the mountainous portions of their drainage basins where they are eroding instead of depositing. Throughout the south end of the valley its surface is a combination of alluvial fan surfaces; at the north end of the valley these fans, less strikingly and typically developed because of the greater pre- cipitation there, still predominate along the valley borders, while the center of the valley is a flood plain of the usual type. 22 GROUND WATER IK SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. SOILS. As the valley surface has been molded by stream action into its present form, so the soils of the valley represent deposition by the rivers of materials washed out of the mountains from which they drain. This soil is modified in various ways after the streams have deposited it — by disintegration of the rock particles where the streams have left them, by the mingling of the products of vegetal decay where vegetation is abundant, or by chemical processes in place, such as the formation of hardpans or the accumulation of alkalies; but the soil foundation, so to speak, reflects pretty closely the type of rock outcropping in the drainage basin of the stream on whose delta the particular soils are found. For example, the soils of the deltas of Kern and Kings rivers are in large part of granitic derivation, because granitic rocks form the greater part of the mountain drainage basin of each of these rivers. Their coarseness and the distribution of the coarse and fine phases are to a certain extent matters of accident, due to the location of present or past channels of the streams across their deltas; but in steep alluvial fans the coarser and more bowldery soils occur nearer the mountains. In the fans of those east-side streams from the Merced northward, whose lower courses at least are cut through late Tertiary formations containing a large percentage of lavas and derived products, other types of soil result. The west-side streams, draining mountains practically free from granites and similar rocks but with soft serpentines, shales, and sand- stones, deposit fragments of those rocks in their alluvial fans, and the result is a soil type entirely different from that of the east side and south end of the valley. These shale, clay, serpentine, and sand- stone fragments disintegrate much more quickly than the granitic sands that contain large proportions of such resistant minerals as quartz and feldspar, and the result is the mellow, loamy soil with its fragments of siliceous shale that makes much of the west slope of the valley and is so productive whenever water can be applied to it. Soil of another general class occurs at a few localities along the east side of the valley. This soil is not of alluvial fan origin, brought into the valley by the streams from the surrounding mountains, but is due to decay in place of the rocks underlying the particular area where it occurs. Soils of this class are found northeast of Fresno beyond Clovis, and in some of the coves like Clark Valley north of Reedley, and perhaps in other foothill valleys in the Portersville- Lindsay district. Some of the rolling wheat lands found in a zone along the eastern border of Stanislaus and Merced counties may also be regarded as derived from the decay of rock in place rather than from inwashed alluvial fan material, but as the rock is itself a late SI KIWri: WATKKS. 23 Tertiary sediment differing but little from the alluvial fan materia] of the same area, the classification of < he soils as residual rather t han colluvial has no practical significance. Another type of soil is neither more nor less than fine beach sand. This type is besl developed in a zone surrounding Tulare Lake, and it represents the shore lines of that water body when it contained much more water than at present. In places this sand has been reworked by the wind — blown into inconspicuous dunes, as in tin 4 '•Sand Ridge" near the Kings-Kern county line. Finally, there are the soils of the "tulc lands" and the "islands," the areas subject to overflow particularly along the lower course of the San Joaquin and its tributaries, but present, although less exten- sively developed, in other areas. These lands are black loams or adobes or impure peats, and when reclaimed are particularly adapted to certain classes of crops. The Bureau of Soils of the Department of Agriculture has made detailed surveys of certain areas in San Joaquin Valley as the begin- ning of a general soil mapping of the entire valley. The sheets at present available cover areas about Stockton, Modesto, Turlock, Madera, Fresno, Hanford, Portersville, and Bakersfield. In the text of the reports and in the maps that accompany them, the soils are classified in great detail on a physical basis, and by a proper study of this classification the geologic origin of most of the soils may be traced. Another task undertaken by the Bureau of Soils, of even greater immediate value, is the mapping of the alkalies. 1 This work is de- signed to afford suggestions as to the management and reclamation of alkali soils and prevention of the rise of the alkalies. When it has been completed for the entire valley it will be of great service in preventing sales of worthless lands to purchasers who buy in good faith with the idea of establishing homes. Many sales of this kind have been made in the valley, and any work that will tend to reduce their number is to be welcomed. SURFACE WATERS. The streams of San Joaquin Valley and their characteristics have been referred to incidentally in the preceding pages. These char- acteristics depend upon the physical geography of south-central Cali- fornia and the control which it exerts over climate. All of the peren- nial and important streams flow from the Sierra. Precipitation within the Sierra district depends upon altitude, latitude, and longitude. Up to a certain limit precipitation increases 1 Mackie, W. W., Reclamation of white-ash land affected with alkali at Fresno, California: U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Soils Bull. 42, 1907. 24 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. with increase of altitude; beyond that limit, which at the crossing of the Central Pacific is at Cisco, 6,000 feet above sea and 1,000 feet below the summit, precipitation decreases. Rainfall decreases also southward along the summit of the Sierra as well as in the valleys; and in those parts of the range, principally its southern portion, where altitude does not increase regularly from the western toward the eastern margin, so that the effect of longitude is not obscured by that of altitude, vegetation indicates less rainfall as the desert border of the range is approached. Under these conditions, therefore, it is evident that the greatest discharge per unit of area will come from those streams with the greater proportion of their drainage basins farthest north, in the high part of the Sierra but west of the summit. The following table has been compiled from tables of discharge in United States Geological Survey Water-Supply Papers 298 and 299 and unpublished records for July, August, and September, 1912, and shows the yearly discharge, in second-feet per square mile for certain rivers draining the western slope of the Sierra. Values are for the year ending September 30. Table 1. — Yearly discharge in second-feet per square mile of certain California rivers. 1905-6 1906-7 1907- 1908-9 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 Kern River near Bakersfield Tule River at Portersville Kaweah River near Three Rivers.. Kings River near Sanger San Joaquin River near Friant Merced River near Merced Falls. . . Tuolumne River at Lagrange Stanislaus River at Knights Ferry. Calaveras River at Jenny Lind Mokelumne River near Clements. . Cosumnes River at Michigan Bar.. American River at Fairoaks Bear River at Van Trent Yuba River near Smartsville Feather River at Oroville 1.08 1.73 2.88 3.05 0.805 1.58 2.18 2.58 3.24 3.51 2.70 3.45 4.13 0.423 .670 .819 .960 .656 2.90 3.61 3.45 2.95 4.11 2.55 4.15 3.84 5.10 3.56 1.03 .396 1.05 .988 1.80 1.32 1.02 1.50 2.13 2.23 2.45 1.89 2.45 2.81 ■1.80 2.48 1.70 3.32 2.78 4.41 2.81 0.435 0.590 .631 1.45 2.24 3.00 2.69 3.15 3.43 2.34 3.30 2.31 3.98 2.70 4.00 2.66 0.247 .258 .548 .764 .878 .651 .967 .863 .219 .843 .356 .911 .460 1.28 .791 a 11 months, October missing. An examination of the above table shows that there is a general tendency toward increase in the discharge per square mile northward from the Kern to the Feather. Except Kern, Merced, Calaveras, Cosumnes, Bear, and Feather rivers the streams occupy comparable positions on the western slope of the Sierra and drain the areas of maximum precipitation for their respective latitudes. The rather regular increase northward may therefore be assigned with confidence to the effect of latitude on precipitation. The drainage basins of both the Feather and the Kern extend into the very eastern part of the Sierra beyond the zone of maximum precipitation, and the inferiority of run-off from their basins as compared with that of neighboring streams may be assigned, in part at least, to the effect of SURFACE WATERS. •J:, Longitude thai is, their basins extend so far cast as to l>c measurably affected by desert conditions. Altitude may also be a factor since the Feather and the Kern drain portions of the range which arc not so high as sonic of the intermediate areas. The deficiencies of Merced, Calaveras, Cosumnes, and Bear rivers may be in part ascribed to altitude and in part to longitude as the major portion of their areas does not extend to the summit of the range. The dis- charge of the principal east-side streams and the areas drained by each are summarized in the following table, compiled from tho records of the State Engineering Department of California and from those of the United States Geological Survey. The number of years of observations from which the average dis- charge was determined is also given. As the length of these records varies from four to twenty-two years it is obvious that they differ in value; but on the whole they supply a concrete indication of tho average amount of water discharged into the San Joaquin Valley annually by its chief streams. Table 2. — Mean annual run-off of streams from east side of San Joaquin Valley. Stream. Years of record. Length of record. Drain- age area. Mean annual run-off. Square miles. 2,345 266 520 Acre-feet. 695,000 137,000 506,000 1,740 1,940,000 1,640 268 1,944,000 111,000 . 122 166 1,090 1, 548 1,035 33,100 47, 200 1,200,000 2,050,000 1,390,000 395 631 283 351,000 988,000 172,000 536 400,000 12,585 11,964,300 Second- feet per square mile. Kern and Tulare Lake basins: Kern River near Bakersfield Tule River near Portersville Kaweah River near Three Rivers. Kings River near Sanger San Joaquin River proper: San Joaquin River near Friant. . Chowchilla Creek near Buch- anan. Mariposa Creek at foothills Bear Creek at foothills Merced River near Merced Falls. Tuolumne River near Lagrange. Stanislaus River at Knights Ferry. Calaveras River at Jenny Lind. . Mokelumne River near Clements Dry or Jackson Creek at foot- hills. Cosumnes River at Michigan Bar. Total 1879-1882, 1893-1906, 1908-1912 1901-1912 1903-1912 1895-1912. Years. 22 11 17 1878-1882, 1896-1901, 1907-1913 1878-1884 1878-1884 , 1878-1884 1878-1882, 1901-1912 1878-1882, 1895-1913 1878-1882, 1895-1900, 1903-1913 1908-1912 1878-1881, 1901, 1903-1913. 1878-1884 15 15 1907-1913. 0.409 .711 1.34 1.54 1.64 .571 .375 .393 1.52 1.18 1.86 1.23 2.16 .841 1.03 Note.— Compiled from Water-Supply Paper 299. The records for 1878 to 1884 were collected by the State Engineering Department of California; many of them, however, were estimates based on run-off of adjacent streams. These estimated records have been omitted from the above compilation when records for other years were available. The high-water period of the Sierra streams comes during the late spring and early summer months, when the snow accumulated in the winter is melting most rapidly from the mountains; the low-water flow comes during the late summer and fall months after the snows are gone and before the winter rains have begun. These characteris- tics are illustrated in the following table of monthly discharge of 26 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. Kings River for 1906, as determined by the United States Geological Survey: 1 Table 3. — Monthly discharge of Kings River near Sanger, 1906. Month. Discharge in second-feet. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. 25,500 205 2,360 2,150 792 1,150 21,000 1,220 5,240 7,760 2,960 4,720 16,800 3,930 10, 700 26,600 8,320 17,100 22, 400 8,180 16,300 7,900 1,870 4,300 2,020 682 1,120 682 385 516 610 330 397 2,230 330 700 Total in acre-feet. January... February.. March April May June July August September October. . . November. December. 144,000 63,900 322,000 281,000 658,000 1,020,000 1,000,000 264,000 66,600 31,700 23, 600 43,000 Each of the major streams discharges from the mountains upon the eastern edge of the valley in a single channel, but after reaching the valley it usually divides into a number of branches, thus spreading over its delta. This characteristic is most marked in the streams that flow into the southern end of the valley, for many of the northern tributaries are incised in the valley floor and are thus confined between definite banks. This distribution is much more pronounced during the high-water period of early summer than at other seasons of the year. A main channel of sufficient capacity to carry the low- water flow proves inadequate during the flood period, and there is then overflow into the numerous subsidiary channels. The natural habit of all of the main streams has of course been extensively modified by irrigation. Canal systems now take from the channels practically all of the low-water flow and an important percentage of the maximum early summer flow. These systems have been described by Grunsky. 2 The west-side streams are practically negligible as factors in the San Joaquin Valley water supply. Only a few of them are perennial, and the late summer flow of these is so slight that a few acres at most can be irrigated by their use. A trifling amount of irrigation of this type is accomplished by utilizing the waters from Los Gatos Creek, Cantua Creek, and others. i U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 213, p. 159, 1907. 2 Grunsky, C E., U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 17, 18, and 19. These papers are no longer available for distribution, but they may be consulted in libraries. OCCURRENCE AND UTILIZATION OF GROUND WATER. By W. C. Mendeniiai.i,. ORIGIN OF THE GROUND WATER. The ground water of San Joaquin Valley has precisely the same origin as its surface water — namely, the rainfall and snowfall in the drainage basins tributary to the valley. It is in reality simply that portion of the surface water that sinks into the sands and gravels of the valley floor and makes the rest of its journey seaward by slow percolation through the pores between the sand grains. One of three things happens to the water that reaches the earth's surface as precipitation: (1) It returns directly to the air by evapora- tion from plant, soil, or water surfaces; or (2) it flows to the sea in surface streams; or (3) it sinks into the ground and joins the body of water that saturates the soil particles below the ground-water level. It is with the latter part of the precipitation on the nearly 32,000 square miles of area included in San Joaquin Valley and the mountain watershed tributary to it that we have to deal. In the outline of the geologic history of the valley it has been pointed out that its entire surface is made up of the surfaces of con- tiguous alluvial fans, and that the valley is underlain to a depth that can not be determined accurately, but that doubtless runs into thou- sands of feet, by porous, unconsolidated, alluvial-fan material, mingled, in some areas, with lake deposits. This material has been transported from the mountains to the valley by the agency of run- ning water. Many times its own volume of water has passed through and over it in the course of its removal from the mountains to the valley. It was deposited by and in water and has been more or less continuously saturated ever since. A large but quite undeterminable portion of the run-off from the mountains each year sinks and joins the ground water. Of the 3,300,000 acre-feet discharged annually into the valley south of the Kings River-San Joaquin divide, only the small portion that spills northward from Kings River itself reaches the sea over the surface, because there has been no outflow from Tulare Lake for forty years. The greater part evaporates or sinks to join the underground supply. Northward from Kings River the surface waters are greater in volume than south of it and serve effectually to keep the sands and gravels beneath them saturated. 27 28 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. UNDERGROUND CIRCULATION. Ground waters near the surface usually move slowly in the direc- tion of the surface slope and at rates that vary with the gradient of the slope and the coarseness of the material through which they percolate. The freedom of the outlet by which they escape is also important. They may be ponded by a restricted outlet just as surface waters may. Measurements of rates of ground-water move- ments in San Joaquin Valley are not available, but facts stated in the following paragraph indicate pretty plainly the conditions that probably prevail: 1. The alluvial fans that make up the valley floor are generally of low slope and fine material. The fans of the Canada de las Uvas and of San Emigdio Creek, at the south end of the valley, and of Pala Prieta and Los Gatos creeks on the west side are exceptions; but the streams that have produced them contribute so small a proportion of the ground waters that they may be disregarded. 2. The general slope of the lowest line of the valley, from the south to the north, is not only not continuous, in that it is interrupted by ridges like that north of the Tulare basin, but it averages only about 1 foot to the mile, a very low gradient for a semiarid region. 3. The wells drilled throughout the valley prove that the sediments underlying it are all fine. 4. The surface outlet of the San Joaquin and Sacramento drainage is by way of Suisun Bay and the straits of Carquinez to San Francisco Bay; but the straits are restricted, and it is not probable that bedrock lies far beneath the surface in their vicinity. In short, there is no adequate outlet for the ground waters of the Great Valley, which is canoe-shaped, with only a notch in the rim at the straits through which the surface waters spill. All these conditions favor slow movement of the ground waters about the borders and at the ends of the valley, with their practical stagnation along the lower San Joaquin because there is no adequate outlet for them there. To be sure, capillarity and evaporation afford some slight escape for the ground waters as they approach the surface in their slow movement along the valley axis. The great alkali areas of the west slope and of the valley trough indicate escape of ground waters, because it is by this escape that the alkalies are concentrated at the surface; but the outlet provided in this way is of slight consequence when compared with the total body of ground waters. The belief that there is little movement in the subsurface waters of the lower San Joaquin is strengthened by a consideration of their chemical characteristics. Some of the ground waters of the upper deltas of the east side are among the purest waters of this type known, while those from the shallow flowing wells of the bottom of Tulare Lake and from the deeper wells of the north end of the valley are so UNDERGROUND ciiuti ation. ^> ( .) heavily charged with mineral matter as not to be potable or suitable for irrigation purposes. Ground waters dissolve the soluble minerals from the rock fragments — the clay, sand, or gravel particles with which they are in contact. The amount thus dissolved depends upon the chemical combinations in which the minerals exist, some being much more soluble than others, and upon the length of time during which the waters are in contact with them. In general, the alkalies in the sands and gravels of the east side are in the most resistant form, the silicates of the granitic debris from the Sierra; the alkalies of the sands and gravels of the west side are in less resistant form, the sul- phates and carbonates of the Cretaceous and Tertiary shales and sandstones; hence the ground waters of the high parts of the east slopes of the valley, which move with comparative rapidity, are much purer than the waters from similar situations on the west side. Furthermore, the volume of water poured out upon the east-side fans is many times greater than that discharged upon the west side, so that the alkalies dissolved are greatly diluted. But down in the trough of the valley, especially near its north end, the ground waters contain a much larger percentage of salts, even than those of the west side. If there were rapid circulation of ground waters here, this con- dition should not exist, for the dissolved salts should be gradually carried out. The fact that the waters are highly mineralized is regarded then as additional evidence of sluggish circulation, or per- haps practical stagnation. QUANTITY OF GROUND WATER. Little need be said of the quantity of ground water in the valley, for two reasons: The first is that although it is clear that the quantity is enormous, it is not possible to estimate it with any exact- ness; the second is that the actual quantity is not of so much impor- tance in its use as its accessibility and the rapidity with which it is restored when withdrawn. The area of the valley is about 11,500 square miles. The depth of the sands and gravels which are saturated with the ground waters is probably not less than a mile at the maximum, and may be much more. The average depth is equally unknown, but wells 1,000 or 2,000 feet deep, or even more, that are scattered throughout the val- ley, do not reach the bottom of the unconsolidated sands and gravels ; so it may safely be assumed to be one-quarter of a mile and more. At this depth, nearly 3,000 cubic miles of sands, gravels, and clays are saturated with ground water, and if the porosity is 20 per cent the conclusion is reached that 600 cubic miles of water underlies the valley — certainly both a sufficiently conservative and a sufficiently startling estimate. But this includes waters of all qualities, some not usable, and some lying at great depths and not accessible. 30 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. ACCESSIBILITY AND AVAILABILITY OF GROUND WATER. One of the most important elements in the cost of ground water, of course, is its accessibility, by which is generally meant the depth at which it stands beneath the surface; but the depth of boring necessary to develop it and, if pumped, the amount that it is drawn down when the pumps are in operation are also important elements. The cheapest waters in general are those that flow out at the sur- face, even though deep wells may be necessary to develop them and the initial cost may therefore be great. But these waters may not always be most available, because they are to be had only in the lower parts of the valley, where, because of climatic conditions and alka- linity of soil, many of the lands are less valuable than those farther up the slopes. Generally speaking, about the borders of the valley the ground waters lie at the shallowest depths in the deltas and at the greatest depths in the interareas. The flood channels and the irrigation ditches are the lines along which recharge of the ground waters is effected; hence in their vicinity the ground-water level lies near the surface and the pumping lift is at a minimum. Beneath the higher parts of the west-side slopes, unfortunately, where water is most needed, it is not accessible. The conditions here illustrate well the dependence of the ground water upon local surface supply. Surface run-off is most limited in this area and the ground water lies at too great depth for profitable utilization. DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER. The development of ground water in the valley is as yet in its infancy. It does not compare in intensity with that in southern California, where, with an irrigated district of perhaps a quarter of a million acres, there are nearly 3,000 flowing wells, costing about $675,000 and yielding nearly 200 cubic feet of water per second, and at least 1,500 pumping plants in which $2,500,000 or more is invested, by which an average of nearly 300 cubic feet per second of water is produced. Other minor wells increase the investment, but add little to the product. The total estimated investment in the development of ground water, exclusive of the distribution systems, is about $5,000,000 in this restricted district and the water produced is approximately 500 cubic feet per second. For comparison with this development south of the Tehachapi, the following estimates have been prepared from the records obtained by the United States Geological Survey in 1905-1907 to indicate the relatively meager development in San Joaquin Valley at that time. DEVELOPMENT 01 GROUND WATER, 31 Table 4, — Qrourukwater development in San Joaquin Valley in 1906. County. Num- ber oi arte- sian wells. Kst i- mated COS!. Esl i- mated yield. Num- ber of pump- ing plants. Est i- mated cost. well and plant. Esl i- mated capacity. Estimated output (one-sixth capacity). Total cost. Total yield. Kem 112 r_'i 40 31 133 5 $161,400 189,968 112,959 40.000 13, 237 18,013 3, B30 Scc.-ft. 78. if. 23.31 19.3 7.5 7.81 7.95 1 104 191 3 28 17 43 9 202 $138,632 244,098 1,530 8ec.-ft. 25.-..SI li 12. 72 1.34 30 40.8 40.93 8.35 250 42.64 a 54. 24 .24 5 6.8 6.82 1.39 41.67 $300,032 431. (Mill 114,489 Sec.Jt. in,, i --- I? a 77. :..-» 19.54 12.60 Madera Merced Stanislaus 44,931 46,700 58, 168 94,713 14.61 14.77 2.39 San Joaquin. . 123,836 41.67 522 569, 407 140. 33 597 599, 727 759. 98 158. 80 1,001,468 299.13 a One-third capacity. The data on which these estimates were based were neither so complete nor so satisfactory as those used in southern California, and therefore the conclusions must be regarded as suggestive rather than as accurate in detail. As an example of one of the weak points in the estimates, attention may be called to the column in which the output of the pumping plants is recorded. Generally these plants are used in the irrigation of alfalfa or of garden products. Some of them are independent sources of water; others are auxiliary to gravity waters and are used only when the latter are not available; some are in the southern part of the valley, where the rainfall is less than 5 inches; others are in the northern part of the valley, where the rainfall is more than twice as heavy, and where on this account less water need be applied artificially. Of course the pumps are not in constant operation anywhere, but the percentage of the year that they are run varies with local conditions. No exact estimate of this percentage can be made, but it has been assumed in the estimates that the pumps are operated the equivalent of two months continu- ously, hence, that their output for the year is one-sixth of what it would be were they in constant operation. This estimate is more likely to be too high than too low. In one county, Tulare, which includes the Portersville, Exeter, and Lindsay citrus districts, a larger factor is used. Most of the pumps in this county are used for citrus irrigation, and it is assumed here that their output is one- third of what it would be were they in continuous operation. This estimate should not be excessive. Accepting the estimates, then, as they are, we find that in San Joaquin Valley there were in 1905-6 between 500 and 600 flowing wells and a somewhat greater number of pumping plants, representing an investment between $1,000,000 and $1,500,000 and yielding in the neighborhood of 300 cubic feet per second. The number of wells then was about one-fourth that of southern California, the investment one-third, and the product about one-half, although the total irrigable 32 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. area of San Joaquin Valley is nearly 10 times that of the southern field and the ground waters available are probably in similar ratio. This comparison, even though the figures upon which it is based are not complete, gives a graphic idea of the development that may yet be accomplished in central California by the full use of the ground- water resources. A later review of ground-water development and conditions has been prepared by S. T. Harding and Ralph D. Robertson. 1 Their conclusions, based largely on the data herein presented but supple- mented by some later statistical information, may be quoted: It is estimated in this report [Water-Supply Paper 222] that the ultimate amount of ground water developed may be 10 times that then developed in southern California, or 5,000 cubic feet per second. At that time [1905-6] about 300 cubic feet per second was being developed in the San Joaquin Valley. This has been more than doubled since. If 5,000 cubic feet per second is obtained for six months of the year, it will equal a total of 1,810,000 acre-feet, or approximately 15 per cent of the total mean annual discharge of the streams at the edge of the valley. Considering the gen- erally open structure of the subsoils, the seepage of this amount or more can be con- sidered as reasonable. Increase in gravity irrigation should increase the quantity reaching ground supplies. Ground water in sufficient quantity for irrigation can be obtained in all parts of the valley proper, except in the west-side areas. In the lower valley floor artesian flow can be secured, although this is not extensively used for irrigation. While the quantities available decrease and the lifts required increase from the valley trough to the east-side foothills, the value of the products which can be grown increases, so that the highest development may be found in the regions of smallest ground- water supply. As pumping for irrigation requires both an initial cost and an operation expense that are plainly evident to irrigators, the pumped water is generally used more economically than that from gravity canals. As a large portion of the water at present pumped is used to supplement the water received from canals, it is not reasonable to expect the area irrigated from ground water will be entirely additional to that irrigated from canals. While any estimate of the total possibilities of the ground supplies must be liable to much uncertainty, the area eventually irrigated wholly by this means will certainly be several times that at present supplied and may reach a total of 600,000 acres. While use of ground water will be rather general throughout the lower valley floor and east-side plains, the largest use will be where gravity supplies are the least accessible, as in San Joaquin County, or where supplemental pump supplies are the most profitable, as in the Fresno district. VAIjTJE of the waters for irrigation. Although the ground waters of the valley have been known and used in minor ways practically ever since its settlement, it is never- theless true that the movement for their extensive utilization as sources of irrigation supply is a late phase of development, for many of the earlier attempts to make use of them resulted in failure. Among the causes that have contributed to past failures may be mentioned: Application of the developed waters to poor lands; 1 Harding, S. T., and Robertson, R. D., Irrigation resources of central California: California Conserva- tion Comm, Rept. for 1912, pp. 172-240. \ A ill OF CHE w \ I BBS FOB LKRIG \ I l<>\. 33 wasteful methods of application; dependence on the continuance <>f artesian flow; lack of adjustment bo the greater cost of pumped waters as compared with that of the gravity waters upon which reliance has heretofore been placed; lack of intensive farming meth- ods and of proper adaptation of crops bo soil and locality; boo large farm units; and, in a few cases, inadequate transportation facilities. The most potent, of all these causes has been the prevalence of tho easy-going methods of the pioneer -the careless, wasteful habits that are a direct inheritance From the grazing and grain-raising period which has not', vet passed from the valley. Land and such waters as are utilized have cost little heretofore in San Joaquin Valley, and things t hat cost little are lightly valued, no matter what their intrinsic worth. This spirit is fostered by the immonso holdings of some of the larger companies. Few of these companies practice intensive cultivation, though their lands are among the best in the valley. Usually hay and grain are raised to feed through tho dry season the stock that is in pasture during the grazing period. But although not as a rule intensely cultivated and by no means producing tho maximum of food products or supporting the largest possible popu- lation, most of the large holdings are more carefully and successfully managed than the quarter section of the small farmer. Despite all obstacles and discouragements, however, the use of ground waters is gradually extending. Special high-priced products like the citrus fruits of the Portersville-Lindsay district justify heavy expenditures for production, and ground water has long been success- fully used in this section. The success of pumping water to great heights to irrigate the specially early citrus fruits of this region is fully demonstrated, the acreage devoted to these products is constantly extending, and the yield is increasing rapidly as groves planted recently approach maturity. Irrigation by means of pumped ground water is also proving suc- cessful under the entirely different conditions that exist about Lathrop, Lodi, and Stockton, in San Joaquin County. Several hun- dred small pumping plants are in operation in this county, the greater number of which have been installed within a few years. By their use alfalfa, vineyards, and varied crops of fruits and vegetables are successfully grown. Windmills also are extensively used, often with auxiliary gas engines attached to the same well. The area in wdiich this type of irrigation is practiced is closely settled, houses are neat, prosperous looking, and well cared for, the villages and cities which supply the country trade and market the products are flourishing, and altogether there is every evidence of successful endeavor and abundant prosperity. Still other communities whose existence depends upon the utiliza- tion of ground waters are the recently established colonies in Kings, 98205°— wsp 398—16 3 34 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. Tulare, and Kern counties, of which the Corcoran settlement is a type. This particular locality is within the artesian basin, and a group of deep wells yield flowing waters which are utilized for all pur- poses. As a result, successful dairy farms have been established, sugar beets are raised, and a factory has been built for the manufac- ture of sugar from them. It is thus evident that there is a gradual awakening to the value of the ground waters and their usability, although in many localities the advocate of the use of these waters is still met by the statement that they can not be developed and applied at a profit under agricultural conditions as they now exist. It is true that the pumped waters are more expensive than the ditch waters, whose cost as a rule is very low. The average cost of current for pumping the water used by the Kern County Land Co. near Bakersfield, with an average lift of 30 feet, is $1.29 per second-foot for 24 hours on the basis of a charge of 15 cents per horsepower per hour for electric current, whereas the charge for surface water in the same locality is 75 cents per second- foot for 24 hours — that is, the current for pumping the ground water costs more than the surface water. When it is remembered, however, that almost universally in San Joaquin Valley water is used in great excess, to the immediate and ultimate injury not only of the lands to which it is applied but of adjacent lands; that on many of the delta lands there is as yet but little intensive cultivation, and that therefore the margin of profit is low; that there is an important proportion of large holdings and absentee ownership dependent upon inefficient hired labor; and above all that, in the midst of the communities in which it is asserted that pumped waters can not be profitably used in agri- culture individuals may generally be found who are using them with striking success ; when all of these things are taken into consideration, it may be asserted with confidence that the greatest increase in the agricultural development in this valley in the future will be brought about by a utilization of the ground-water supplies, whose develop- ment has only begun and whose value is as yet but faintly realized. It will probably be true in the future, as it has been in the past, that side by side with successful attempts at the utilization of ground waters will be unsuccessful attempts, and that the general move- ment for full realization upon this asset will be checked here and there by conspicuous failures widely advertised. This is a condi- tion that always arises in any general advance. Each failure should teach its individual lesson as to a particular way not to under- take development or to apply water, and should not be interpreted as an argument against the usefulness of the resource under proper conditions, for the fundamental facts remain that ground waters exist beneath the floor of San Joaquin Valley in immense volume and that over wide areas they are of high quality and very accessible. VALUE OF THE WATERS FOB IRRIGATION. 85 They arc certain, therefore, to be widely used in the future, and l>\ their use hundreds of thousands of acres now arid and unproductive will be brought to yield handsomely. The development of the ground wains under the conditions thai exist at present, when the chief argument against them is their cost as compared with that of the surface 4 waters which have set the stand- ard, should follow two or three lines. In the first place, pumping plants in the higher parts of the delta lands should be used as adjuncts to insufficient gravity supplies. The supply of the gravity waters during the flood months of May, June, and July is from 2 or 3 to 15 or 20 times that available during the months of August, September, and October, when many crops are maturing. As a consequence many owners of late rights to gravity waters secure a portion of the flow during the early high-water period, but are left without it during the low-water period, when there is only sufficient to satisfy the earliest rights. Such owners often have enough gravity water for one or two early irrigations, but not more. Under present conditions, therefore, the maturing of late crops is a precarious matter with them, and they are confined prac- tically to those products which will yield returns when irrigated only in the spring or early summer. This is a serious handicap, as it greatly limits the range of their agricultural activity and often condemns their land to idleness during half of the year. By the installation of pumping plants, to be operated only when gravity waters are not available, this handicap is removed, and yet the cost of irrigation is much less than where no surface waters are available and pumps must be operated continuously. In the second place, in districts that have a market for garden products or for those special farm products whose value and yield justify some expense in their production, as sweet potatoes, celery, asparagus, or onions, the small land owner can well afford to install an individual pumping plant independent of surface supplies. The same method will be successful with crops that require only one or two irrigations a year, as, for example, some of the fancy varieties of grapes that are now raised so profitably in the northern part of the valley. Another line to be followed in development is the utilization of flowing artesian waters. Along the axis of the valley is a zone with an area of about 4,300 square miles within which flowing, waters are available. Over perhaps two- thirds of this area the flowing waters are sufficiently pure to be suitable for use in irrigation. None of these lines along which it is suggested that ground waters may be used are experiments. Each has been followed successfully in some of the communities in the valley, although in other sections quite as favorably situated the investigator will be told that pumped 36 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. or flowing waters can not be used profitably. Communities, like individuals, fall into ruts, acquire bad habits, and lose the power of initiative. In this condition they may overlook or fail to utilize some of their most valuable assets. In the course of this investigation nearly 4,000 wells in the valley have been examined and data collected as to depth, yield, cost, etc. Among them are many flowing wells. For most of the wells the data are incomplete, but from the records available the following averages have been determined : Table 5. — Average size, depth, yield, cost, etc., of flowing wells. Interest charge mSSr's inch per year. Kern... Kings.. Tulare.. Fresno. Merced . Annual Number aver- Average diameter Depth (feet). Yield (miner's Average cost. interest on cost aged. (inches). inches). « at 8 per cent. 10 10 621 53.3 $1,545 $123.60 7 9 1,037 30 2,555 204. 40 32 8 745 26 1,711 136. 88 7 8 936 20 1,540 123. 20 16 7 350 6J 470 37.60 $2.30 6.81 5.26 6.16 6.84 a A California miner's inch equals 0.02 second-foot. These averages are based upon the actual experience of owners of wells already drilled and flowing. They therefore have a definite value as a basis for estimating costs of artesian waters to be obtained as a result of future developments. They may be compared with the charge made on the Kern delta for gravity water, namely, 75 cents per second-foot for 24 hours, equivalent to $5.47 per miner's inch per annum. In comment upon the table it is to be said that the Kern County average is too low, because it happens that among the wells for which sufficiently complete data exist for computing these averages there were one or two of exceptionally great yield that have unduly raised the average yield and reduced the cost, thereby giving a figure lower than that which will probably be realized in future develop- ment. It must be remembered further that the figures are based on the assumption that the entire year's flow will be utilized. This assump- tion can be realized only by the construction of reservoirs in which the water will be stored during the nonirrigating season for use when wanted. Such construction will add to the cost and will reduce the supply in three ways: (1) By a reduction of flow because of the increased height of delivery necessary to discharge into a res- ervoir; (2) through loss by evaporation from the surface of the reservoir; (3) through loss by seepage from the reservoir. The uncertainty as to the amount that will be delivered by any artesian well is another disturbing factor in making exact calcula- VALUE OF THE WATERS FOB IRRIGATION. 37 (ions. The area within which flowing waters are procurable has been outlined with approximate accuracy, but the yield of any well can he determined only aft or the well has been sunk and the necessary capital invested in it. Some of the wells used in computations have delivered much more than the average supply and so have yielded exceptionally cheap waters; others have delivered less than the average, and their waters are correspondingly expensive. Another condition that must be realized is this: When the number of wells drawing from the artesian supply is greatly increased in any particular neighborhood, the wells interfere and the yield of each is lessened. When the maximum acreage is dependent on artesian flow under these conditions, the installation of pumping machinery may become necessary in order to insure the continuance of an ade- quate water supply. As against these disadvantages, which have been rather fully out- lined, as is essential in any frank and therefore useful discussion, are to be placed regularity and relative constancy of the supply and its avail- ability at all times, as compared with the fluctuations of surface waters unavailable except during the flood season to any but the owners of the oldest rights. An added advantage where the landowner owns his well is his complete control over his water supply. He may irrigate when and how he will, and thus most economically, and is not dependent upon the adjustment of supply among a number of users from a common source. QUALITY OF THE WATERS. By R. B. Dole. IMPORTANCE OF QUALITY. The wide range in the mineral content and consequently in the use- fulness of the ground waters of San Joaquin Valley makes it neces- sary to know their composition before undertaking water projects involving any considerable expenditure. Most of the surface run-off may be used indefinitely in irrigation without deleterious effect, and ground water nearly as good can be obtained in many parts of the region, while certain aquifers yield supplies abundant in quantity but so highly mineralized that they are poisonous to vegetation. In the estimation of the railroad locator the amount of dissolved solids throughout the entire area is such as to make the quality of the water supplies equal in importance to quantity. Softening plants are necessary on the west side, and railroads are obliged to haul water to several stations, where the available supplies are unfit for steaming. In further extension of railroads through some townships the diffi- culty of procuring supplies that can be rendered suitable for locomo- tives will doubtless make quality of water the determining factor in the location of tanks, stations, and roundhouses. The wineries, breweries, ice factories, and laundries also must have water of proper quality, and the establishment of paper mills, strawboard mills, starch factories, sugar works, and other water-consuming mills of industries closely related to modern farming will make the quality of this important raw material a still more pressing problem. At present the needs of irrigation turn attention to all possible sources, because the demands of intensive farming have so far exceeded the available surface supply that underground waters are largely utilized and are depended on exclusively in some districts. This rapidly increasing draft on the ground reservoirs will ultimately bring about complete utilization of all supplies that can be safely applied under careful supervision and improved methods of irrigation. Study of the chemical characteristics of water in this region is par- ticularly interesting because of the great variety of conditions that affect the mineral content. The east side of the valley, filled with alluvium derived from hard, difficultly soluble rocks and furnished with water from the granitics of the Sierra, yields supplies entirely distinct in composition from those of the alluvium of the west side, which has been washed down from the gypsiferous sedimentaries of 38 SOURCES OF DATA. 39 die Const Range. The amount of rainfall decreases southward from that of the semihumid country around Suisun Bay to that of the arid region bl lower Kern County, the average annual precipitation at Lodi being about 18 inches, at Fresno 9 inches, and at Bakersfield only 5 inches. Both ground and surface waters are affected in composition not only by this progressive decrease of precipitation from north to south but also by the equally apparent difference in t be amount of water received by the two sides of the valley. As the total precipitation on the west slopes of the Sierra is much greater than that on the east side of the Coast Range the streams of the east side of the valley exceed those of the west side in size and number, and a proportionate difference in quantity of ground water is reflected in its composition. A relation between topography and quality is traceable in the low ridges of the deltas, which favor the deposition oi salts by confining strong solutions in small basins, thus establish- ing tracts where wells yield highly mineralized water. Changes in mineral content due to irrigation are shown by dilution of normal water in some sections and accumulation of alkali in others. The influence of these conditions of climate, geology, and economic devel- opment on the composition of the mineral matter makes study of the water instructive and pleasurable, while the agricultural and indus- trial interests that are involved render the results of great immediate value. SOURCES OF DATA. Most of the conclusions regarding the quality of the ground waters are based on the results of 400 partial assays made by the writer dur- ing the fall of 1910. Information regarding the effect of the waters in irrigation, steaming, and other uses was obtained by visiting about 500 wells. The general plan of the field study was to travel back and forth across the axis of the valley and to test as many samples as pos- sible from wells of different depths near what was clearly recognized as the critical area — that along the axial line. Though this scheme was generally successful wells sufficiently varied in depth could not be found in some localities, and the onset of the rainy season finally prevented the completion of studies in Kern County. Fifty samples of water were analyzed by Mr. F. M. Eaton, of San Francisco, in order to supply more complete information regarding certain sources and to afford a check on the field assays. In addition a few waters were analyzed by Mr. Walton Van Winkle. The locations of the waters that have been tested are shown in Plate II (in pocket). The quality of the surface waters was so thoroughly investigated by Van Winkle and Eaton 1 that it was not necessary to make any further tests, and statements herein about the mineral content of the surface waters are based entirely on their work. 1 Van Winkle, Walton, and Eaton, F. M., The quality of the surface waters of California: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 237, 1910. 40 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. Valuable knowledge regarding the composition of the ground waters is afforded by miscellaneous analyses performed at the agri- cultural experiment station of the University of California; as these analyses are in such form that it is not practicable to incorporate them in the general part of this report they are appended in a separate table. Special acknowledgment is due to Mr. Howard Stillman, engineer of tests, Southern Pacific Co., and to Mr. W. A. Powers, chief chemist of the Santa Fe Railway Co., for placing at the disposal of the Survey analyses of the water supplies along the rights of way of these rail- roads. CONDITIONS OF COLLECTION OF SAMPLES. Though the mineral content of water from shallow wells in humid regions is materially lessened by the dilution following heavy rainfall, an opposite effect is produced by similar rainfall in areas of low pre- cipitation because the water in a humid region percolates downward through layers that have been deprived of their easily soluble matter by long-continued leaching, whereas the sinking water on arid land dissolves the alkali in the upper soil and carries more or less of it into the wells, which ordinarily draw their supplies from below the belt of concentrated alkali. As the dry soils in arid regions are either highly absorbent or impervious occasional light rains do not affect shallow wells, but long-continued transmission of such nearly pure water, such as occurs near canals and in dry watercourses, removes the soluble salts from the ground so that shallow wells in the immediate vicinity yield better water than those farther away. Deep wells are certainly affected by long-continued periods of drought or rainfall, but how soon, to what extent, and in what manner are problems for which there is only theoretical solution. Consequently, as the concentra- tion of shallow-well waters in San Joaquin Valley might be changed by heavy rainfall the conditions of precipitation during the year in which the samples were taken may be noted. Tabl-e 6. — Inches of precipitation in San Joaquin Valley during 1910 1 Station. County. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee. Year. Lodi San Joaquin... 2.35 1.76 2. 53 0.15 0.02 Tr. 0.00 0.00 0.40 0.32 0.21 1.27 9.07 Farmington. do 3.24 2.26 3.70 .17 .05 0.00 .00 .00 .50 .38 .38 .94 11.62 Tracy Oakdale do 1 90 1 20 .00 .00 .00 .00 . II! .05 .42 Stanislaus 2.9.5 .83 3.28 .34 .06 .00 .00 .00 .29 .16 .39 .67 8.97 Denair do 1.56 .55 3.00 .72 .01 .00 .00 .00 .20 .04 .04 .02 6.14 Newman do 1.99 .28 2.60 .18 .00 .00 .00 .00 .52 .12 .19 .51 6.39 Le Grand . . . Merced 2.10 .48 1.88 .83 .00 .00 .20 .00 .30 .83 .73 .28 7.63 LosBanos... do 3.22 .30 2.03 .00 .00 .00 .00 .25 .28 .26 .47 6.81 Storey Madera... .67 .50 1.40 .49 .00 .00 .00 .00 .75 .80 .26 Fresno Fresno 1.22 .21 1.28 .27 Tr. Tr. Tr. .00 1.00 .45 .24 .21 4.88 Selma do 2.00 .14 1.09 .35 .00 .00 .00 .00 1.50 .55 .33 .47 6.43 2.40 2.37 .00 .22 1.66 1.96 .00 .00 .00 .04 .00 .00 """.14 .31 .64 ".'36 T63 Portersville . Tulare .34 .00 7.10 Angiola do .66 .00 1.45 .00 .00 .00 .00 .88 .57 .30 .60 Wasco Kern 1.79 .00 .68 .16 .00 .00 .00 .00 .85 .25 .19 .70 4.62 Bakersfield . do 1.15 .22 1.20 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .83 1.37 .54 5.31 Compiled from the Monthly Weather Review, U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau, 1910. METHODS OF I \ wn\ \ I i<>\. 41 The total precipitation in the valley lor the year was considerably less than the average during the preceding LO years, the northern stations showing greater deficiency than the southern ones. Accord- ing to Table 6, In which the records o\' 16 selected stations are arranged in geographicaJ order from north to south, one-half to three-fourths of the rain fell during the first four months of the year. There was practically no rain at all between April and the middle of September, and all the streams throughout the valley were markedly low during that period. Unusually early and heavy rainfall took place Septem- ber 14, 15, and 16, but as the ground had been so long without rain the effect of the influx on the quality of the ground water was prob- ably inappreciable. Some slight showers occurred during October, but they were barely sufficient to dampen the surface of the ground and are negligible. More rain fell during November, but the field work had been carried by that time below Fresno into the semiarid region where the precipitation was proportionately light. The stream discharges were little affected by the November rains. The rainfall during December was far below normal, though the showers through- out Kern County were heavy enough to make the ground muddy. Field work was discontinued December 6, but a few samples, espe- cially from deep wells in Fresno County, were collected the middle of December. Evidently, therefore, the samples were collected during or after the dry season before the ground could be affected by winter rains, and in a year of exceptionally low precipitation; consequently the mineral content of the waters may be considered to be normal. The greatest deviations from what may be looked upon as normal were found in waters from shallow wells near stream beds or flooded irriga- tion ditches, but such conditions could easily be recognized, and they have been noted in the detailed descriptions. METHODS OF EXAMINATION. FIELD ASSAY. As the limited time and funds for the work prohibited complete analysis of all the samples and as such analyses of only a few waters could not be typical of waters over large areas, it was decided to test a great many waters as nearly correct in the field as such work can be done and to amplify and corroborate these data by a few laboratory analyses. The methods of assay described by Leighton 1 were employed in the field work, determinations being made of total hardness, and the carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, and chloride radicles. Color also was estimated in a few waters. 1 Leighton, M. O., Field assay of water: TJ. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 151, 1905. 42 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. CARBONATE AND BICARBONATE. For the carbonate test 10 drops of a 1 per cent solution of phenol- phthalein was added to 100 cubic centimeters of the water in a glazed white porcelain mortar, and the solution was then titrated with tablets of sodium acid sulphate, each of which was equivalent to about 1 milligram of carbonate (C0 3 ) . Few waters contained normal carbonate; consequently a qualitative test with the indicator was sufficient to show their absence. Quarters of tablets, made by slic- ing with a knife, were used for more accurate estimation. Some tablets were then dissolved in a fresh portion of water to which 2 drops of a one-tenth per cent solution of methyl orange had been added, and the mixture was titrated with the water to an alkaline reaction. The amount of bicarbonate was computed by the formula lOOOnA oTJ x= -w~- 2B in which W = amount of water in cubic centimeters, A = the value of 1 tablet in milligrams of HC0 3 , n = the number of tablets, x = parts per million of HC0 3 , and B = parts per million of C0 3 as determined by the previous test. CHLORINE. A measured amount of the water, to which 5 drops of a 5 per cent solution of potassium chromate had been added, was titrated in the mortar with tablets containing silver nitrate, which were crushed and triturated by a pestle. The content of chlorine in parts per million can be calculated from the number and the standard of the tablets and the amount of water. Two strengths of tablets were used, one having an equivalent of about 1 milligram and the other about 10 milligrams of chlorine. Chlorines less than 300 parts were estimated in 50 cubic centimeters of water with the weaker tablets cut in quar- ters. Titration of greater amounts was commenced with the stronger tablets, and waters containing more than 2,000 parts per million of chlorine were diluted with distilled water before titration. SULPHATE. For estimation of sulphate 100 cubic centimeters of the water was slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid (1 — 1), about 1 gram of moderately coarse crystals of barium chloride was added, and the cold mixture was vigorously shaken until the crystals were completely dissolved. This treatment precipitates barium sulphate in a finely divided state, and imparts to the liquid a turbidity the degree of which is proportional to the amount of sulphate and can be de- termined in the turbidimeter. This instrument consists essentially METHODS OF l.\ \M1N \TlOX. 43 of a glass tube inclosed in an open-bottomed brass tube suspended by a large-headed tripod over a Btandard candle, whose flame is kept automatically 3 inches from the bottom of the glass lube The latter is graduated in millimeters from bottom to top in one scale and in cubic centimeters in another, SO that it serves both as a depth measure foe turbidity readings and as a graduate for general use. The liquid containing the precipitate of barium sulphate, after being thoroughly agitated, was poured into the graduated tube until the image of the flame disappeared. The depth in millimeters of the liquid in the tube was then read across the bottom of the meniscus, and the corresponding amount of the sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) was found by reference to the rating table of the turbidimeter. The readings were made in a darkened place and usually after dark. It was customary to average the results obtained on three or more precipitations. Direct readings were made for amounts between 30 and 400 parts per million, and less than 30 parts were estimated as trace, 5, 10, or 20 parts by the turbid appearance of the mixture. Appropriate dilutions were made for amounts exceeding 400 parts. TOTAL HARDNESS. Total hardness is determined in the field tests by adding to a measured amount of the water tablets containing a known amount of sodium oleate until the liquid after vigorous shaking forms a foam that does not break hi five minutes while the bottle rests in a horizontal position. This substitution of tablets for the soap solution commonly employed in the laboratory is entirely satisfactory from the standpoint of accuracy, and it also obviates carrying a bulky bottle of soap, but so many tests had to be made and the time consumed in grinding the oleate tablets is so considerable that it was more economical to use a short burette and an alcoholic solution of Castile soap each cubic centimeter of which was equivalent to about 1 milligram of CaC0 3 . Fifty cubic centimeters of water was titrated, allowance being made in computing the hardness for the soap consumed by 50 cubic centimeters of distilled water. So much dependence is placed on the estimate of total hardness in interpreting the results of the field assays that dilutions with distilled water were frequently made in order that interference by the insoluble soaps of the alkaline earths might be avoided. PROBABLE ACCURACY. Thirty-two waters that were analyzed by Mr. F. M. Eaton were also assayed in the field, and the results of analyses and assays are compared in Table 7. The bicarbonate and carbonate in both sets have been recomputed to C0 3 because changes in the condition of 44 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. the carbonates during the time between assay and analysis make comparison difficult unless this is done. The computation does not affect the accuracy of the results in any way. Table 7. — Comparison of field and laboratory results of the examination of 32 waters from San Joaquin Valley. [Parts per million.] No. Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ). Sulphate radicle (SO4). Chlorine (CI). Total hardness as CaC0 3 . Field. Labora- tory. Field. Labora- tory. Field. Labora- tory. Field. Labora- tory.o 1 24 34 37 36 40 60 50 67 60 50 75 63 73 44 99 64 80 87 46 147 115 185 87 75 72 82 88 77 828 101 860 38 25 35 39 40 44 66 38 73 65 57 78 65 81 44 103 65 92 83 45 159 101 198 95 70 76 96 94 68 962 108 841 42 5 Tr. Tr. 10 Tr. Tr. Tr. Tr. Tr. 5 Tr. Tr. 5 20 Tr. Tr. Tr. 55 Tr. Tr. 10 5 395 52 800 764 828 471 Tr. 1,640 5 5 2.9 8.2 7.0 3.7 4.1 1.6 66 6..6 45 4.9 541 45 713 600 711 441 718 10 5 10 15 30 10 25 15 20 35 15 25 20 50 5 55 35 55 110 20 65 280 115 470 85 165 125 445 490 210 1,380 4,110 5.4 6.0 8.0 14 25 5.9 22 15 15 35 10 22 19 48 6.0 51 35 58 112 22 64 279 128 433 86 153 122 481 492 196 1,418 4,310 41 51 59 40 63 84 87 151 111 51 122 3 94 96 24 68 44 250 28 11 68 28 80 505 810 953 854 162 535 1,220 59 1,838 48 2 47 3 . 51 4 42 5 76 6 80 7 40 8 144 9 113 10 56 11 114 12 19 13 94 14 122 15 38 16 67 17 59 18 160 19 20 28 26 21 71 22 31 23 91 24 450 25 26 754 698 27 1,027 120 655 1,240 30 2,773 28 29 30 31 32 a Computed from values for calcium and magnesium. In Eaton's tests 100 cubic centimeters of water was evaporated to dryness, and the residue was dried at 180° C. for estimation of dis- solved solids. Iron was estimated colorimetricalry and calcium and magnesium gravimetrically in that residue. Carbonate, bicarbonate, and chloride were determined by titration in ordinary manner, and sulphate by precipitating and weighing as barium sulphate the sul- phate in 100 cubic centimeters of the sample. The content of the alkalies, expressed as parts per million of sodium, was computed from these estimates by means- of the following formula. The symbols represent the amounts in parts per million of the radicles, and their respective coefficients are obtained by dividing their valences by their molecular weights. Na = 23 (0.0333CO 3 + 0.0164HCO 3 + 0.0208SO 4 + 0.0282C1 -0.0499Ca-0.082lMg). METHODS OF EXAMINATION. 45 The two sols of carbonate determinations in Table 7 show numerical differences ranging from to 1 ;>■-!; only one set., however, has a relative difference exceeding M per cent and the average difference of the other 31 sots is 7 per cent. This is not, unreasonable in view of the better light, and other facilities in tho laboratory, and it should he remembered also that all the figures are results of single determina- tions with unusually small quantities of water. The usual error in the determinations of low chlorines by Held assay is 5 parts or less because most of the estimates were performed with 50 cubic centi- meters of water. The average difference of tho 11 sets of figures ex- ceeding 100 parts per million is less than 6 per cent. Evidently field estimates of chlorine should be expressed not more exactly than to the nearest 5 parts per million and not more than three significant figures should be given. As total hardness was not determined in the laboratory, a com- parative figure has been calculated from the amounts of calcium and magnesium by means of the following formula, in which H, Ca, and Mg represent respectively total hardness as CaC0 3 , calcium, and mag- nesium in parts per million: H = 2.5 Ca + 4.1 Mg. Though this formula expresses the theoretical relation between the amounts of calcium and magnesium and the hardness found by titration with soap and conventionally expressed as CaC0 3 actual determinations do not agree exactly, because the soap titration is subject to obscure errors and because the form of computation mag- nifies errors in the estimates of the bases. Yet review of the columns showing total hardness indicates that the results obtained by titra- tion convey an approximate idea of the amount of the alkaline-earth bases, though the proportionate differences of single determinations are fairly high. Possibly more nearly accurate estimates could have been made by using a weaker soap solution and greater dilutions. The estimates of appreciable amounts of sulphate are too few to permit computation of a probable error, but it is apparent that the procedure gives estimates near enough to the correct values for use in approximate classification. The field estimate of sulphate in set No. 14 is obviously incorrect, and other computations indicate that the laboratory report, of sulphate in set No. 30 is one-half what it should be. 1 * See also Dole, R. B., The field assay of water: Eng. News, vol. 64, p. 145, 1910; Rapid examination of water in geologic surveys of water resources: Econ. Geology, vol. 6, June, 1911. 46 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS. For the purpose of ascertaining how much dependence may be placed on field assays — that is, how interpretations of them compare with those of examinations more carefully made and also how far such interpretations agree with practical experience in using the waters in question — certain values have been computed from the data of the 32 analyses and assays of the same waters in Table 7, and notes have been made of the known uses of the waters. The values in the columns headed " Field," in Table 8, are calculated from the assays and in those headed " Laboratory," from Eaton's more com- plete analyses, except the figure for total solids in the laboratory results, which was obtained directly by weighing the residue dried at 180° C. The computations and classifications are made by means of formulas and ratings explained on pages 50-82. METHODS OF EXAMINATION. •17 ■9 o &E C^ ^ «-> ^ 2 i= 8 5S 2 23-3, 5s 1 I J 5 s,-Ss j aj °g g„ s J a a. 1 igf-g .JH lili i§; ga> g 03^2 w §~S«a ^ £ 3 3 " 03 % «- S,e 2 II I 11 1 Ns-i iw s i3fJ11 ^3 aaigs aals2lis5§tRo 3 53|§o3a :::!!: ! ! : : : : i : : : : : i : IS ■ £ o ! uh oft •* o . : : :otn : : : : :cq :^> : : • • ' • ' ! — _: 3 • • • • • • > "O ■ ■ i : i j : : : : : ; : : : ; : ; • | : :j ; | oh d "2 u d dddddddddddfc^-jddj^d ® on : oph : :::::::::: jphW f :> j g ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; : ; ; ; ; ; : : ; ; ; ; ® ^O O OO O OOOOOL'OOL'g^H'oH'oH' •- o • • • • • ; • • : :^o ^ophoPh^Ph^p* 2 — rH ; ; — \ i ; — '. — ; — ; — ; — ; — ; — ; — ; — : — ; — ; — ; — ; — ; O V. O O OO O OOOOOH"5oL'ddoh'oH'oH II o . ' ' . . : : ; : i^^ ;^ ; joph^is^pm — H — i — H — ! — I I I I 1 . . ! . I I — > d : : od : ^d \oqOooo • jd—'o i-J^ 2 od o o d 9od9o9ow9ddoooc;ooQ|, fa — H i r-j ; .. j ......!'....!. . d d ! ! d : ' '. 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M coo o 00 o o 00 o 10 o 000 o 000 o o o o co co r^- 10 r~ (NcurfiooOrtoi-XTC-T^ca jz rn" > -d OiO O OO O OOOOOOOOOOOOQOOOO 2 COtH lO t~ lO -^ ■<»< COIN CO OiOO OS os> o>-^ OO CO ^H ~ 03 ^2 ai . -w 03 +^> 03 +-> 03 O GO .S GO .3 GO GO O GO O 2 03 2 03 ® a a w>a.w>a^ O (h O !_ o o 'o3 bCO q&A&AZ S5 ^ ; i^ : : o> 'o 03 ' . 03 • ' d d d rQ 03 +J "d Tj^ HH ^ : : : : ■ • 03 ;zj d -q . ; ; : ; j ■ G? [3 t>jO o o o o d d d £ >::::': ■a rOTj fid 2b 03+i S'g.SjiS'd O § ol ^ O 03 c3 03 'a &1 •'J 'TO 1-s PiOfr ;PhW Ph « : a d o o.a',2 od O O tf'O O 03 .ft "d-S o G?.H [3 03 03^ +3 03 O 1 o S PhOPr JPMW Ph pq : 03 O B o O 1 03 8 • o >> 3 S _,o : :~° 9» r 2. r 2.99 oo : : !zi!z; O CO 03 O Bo 03 'a ^ : d "3 Jo : :-° occ <=> o99 O GO 9d s 03 03^^ «? « c3 03 -a 6 oo ; \tt O ^ : a 5 A '• '• '• ' ^a '• ■£0000^.^0 =f T3 t3 T) T3 03 ^ -^ d d § jg w : ; : ;> o "c3 s .a a ■ d "3 .OfXJ 'd T3* "3 fflrd^ d d s w : : : : > +a 03 Sh O t^ IM^H COiC J O 0(\ to any considerable extent because they thicken and foul the water more than they pre- vent the formation of hard scale. The third class comprises compounds that act mechanically like those of the second class and also partly dissolve deposited scale, thus loosening it and aiding in its ready removal. Of these, kerosene is very effective, but graphite is believed to be still better. Many boiler compounds possessing or supposed to possess one or more of the functions just described are on the market and are widely sold. Some are effective and some are positively injurious. Most of them depend for their chief action on soda ash, petroleum, or a vegetable extract, but all are costly compared with lime and soda ash. Boiler compounds can not reduce the amount of scale and may increase it. Their only legitimate functions are to prevent -corrosion and deposition of hard scale and to remove accumulations of scale that have become attached to the boiler. Every engineer should bear in mind that steam boilers are costly and that fuel and boiler repairs are costly and should hesitate to add substances to his feed water without competent advice as to their effect. It is far more economical to have the water supply analyzed and to treat it effectively by well- known chemicals in proper proportion, either within or without the boiler, than to experiment with compounds of unknown composition. NUMERICAL STANDARDS. Stabler's excellent mathematical discussion of the quality of waters with reference to industrial uses ! contains several formulas by which the effect of w r aters may be computed. They have been recalculated in order to obtain the estimates in parts per million. The terms in- volving iron, aluminum, and free acids have been omitted because these substances are too scarce to call for consideration in such approximate rating; and the terms involving sodium and potassium have been united for simplicity. (1) s = Sm + Cm + 2.95 Ca+1.66Mg (2) h = Si0 2 + 1.66 Mg+ 1.92 CI +1.42 S0 4 -2.95 Na (3) f = 2.7Na (4) c = 0.0821 Mg- 0.0333 C0 3 - 0.0164 HC0 3 . These equations express numerically some of the relations that have been discussed in the preceding sections on scale, corrosion, and 1 Stabler, Herman, Some stream waters of the western United States, with chapters on sediment carried t>y the Rio Grande and the industrial application of water analyses: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 274, p. 165, 1911. See also Eng. News, vol. 60, p. 355, 1908. 98205°— wsp 398—16 5 66 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. foaming. Sm, Cm, Si0 2 , Ca, Mg, Na, CI, S0 4 , C0 3 , and HC0 3 repre- sent the amounts in parts per million, respectively, of suspended matter, colloidal matter (oxides of silicon, iron, and aluminum), silica, calcium, magnesium, alkalies, chlorine, sulphate, carbonate, and bicarbonate. Formula 1 gives the amount of scale (s) that would probably be formed from the water under ordinary conditions of boiler operation; as the ground waters of San Joaquin Valley are practically clear, Sm is equal to zero. Cm has been given a value of 50 for waters not exceeding 400 parts of total solids and 30 for other waters, and these values may be considered large enough for safety. Formula 2 gives the amount of hard scale forming ingredients (h) . The ratio - expresses the relative hardness of the scale. If - is s s greater than 0.5 the scale may properly be called hard; if it is less than 0.25 the scale may properly be called soft. Scale (s) has been estimated from the data of the field assays by adding to total hardness (H) the values of Cm used in formula 1 (s = Cm + H) . As H theoretically equals 2.5 Ca + 4.1 Mg, and the last two terms of equation 1 are 2.95 Ca+ 1.66 Mg, the unknown but variable ratio between calcium and magnesium introduces an uncertain error. Estimates of the scale-forming constituents are, however, always approximate, and experience indicates that this computed value is accurate enough for relative ratings. Formula 3 gives the amount of the foaming ingredients (f), as esti- mated from the probable content of alkali salts. The value of sodium (Na) computed by the formula on page 57 has been used in computing the amount of the foaming ingredients from the results of the field assays. Formula 4 has been used to calculate the corrosive tendency of the water (c). As can be readily seen from the coefficients, it expresses the relation between the reacting values of magnesium and the radicles involving carbonic acid (p. 62). If c is positive, the water is corrosive. If c + 0.0499 Ca, the reacting value of calcium, is nega- tive, the mineral constituents will not cause corrosion, but whether organic matter or electrolysis will cause it is uncertain. If c + 0.0499 Ca is positive corrosion is uncertain. These conditions of reaction may be restated to conform to the data of the field assays thus: If 0.033 C0 3 + 0.016 HCO3 equals or exceeds 0.02 H the mineral constituents will not cause corrosion. If 0.004 H exceeds 0.033 C0 3 + 0.016 HCO3 the water is corrosive. One-fiftieth of the total hard- ness (0.02 H) is equivalent to the reacting value of calcium and mag- nesium, and H divided by 230 (0.004 H) is equivalent to the reacting value of magnesium on the assumption that Ca = 6 Mg, a ratio in which magnesium is given its smallest probable value in relation to WATI.K FOB BOILEB USE. 67 calcium. The reacting values of carbonate and bicarbonate arc represented, respectively, by 0.033 CO, and 0.016 HCO„ the coeffi- cients of which are obtained by dividing the valence of each radicle by its molecular weight. After these three attributes of boiler feed have been computed rating the water is largely a matter of judgment based on experi- ence. The commit tee on water service of the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association has offered two classifications by which waters in their raw state may be approxi- mately rated, but, as the report states, "it is difficult to define by analysis sharply the line between good and bad water for steam- making purposes." Table 11 gives these classifications with the amounts transformed to parts per million. Table 11. — Ratings of waters for boiler use according to proportions of incrusting and corroding constituents and according to foaming constituents. Incrusting and corroding con- stituents. Foaming constituents. Parts per million. Classifica- tion .« Parts per million. Classifica- tion, b More than— Not more than— More than— Not more than — 90 200 430 Good. Fair. Poor. Bad. 150 250 400 Good. Pair. Bad. Very bad. 90 200 430 150 250 400 a Am. Ry. Eng. and Maintenance of Way Assoc. Proc, vol. 5, p. 595, 1904. b Idem, vol. 9, p. 134, 1908. The classification by incrusting and corroding constituents has been applied to the computations of scale-forming ingredients (s) in the analytical tables accompanying this report. The quantity of foaming ingredients (f) should always be considered in conjunction with the probable amount of scale or sludge that would be formed, the hardness of the scale, and the tendency toward corrosion. These ratings result in a classification rather more rigid than that usually reported by chemists of railroads in California, and for that reason those who are thoroughly familiar with local conditions and with the chemistry of water will doubtless prefer to disregard the descrip- tive terms of the classification and to draw their own conclusions regarding the quality of the waters from the figures representing scaling, foaming, and corrosion. The classifications are given prin- cipally for the aid of those not thoroughly familiar with such matters, and rather to indicate the limits of usefulness than to define rigidly the value of the waters. No matter how low a water may be in undersirable constituents it is poor economy to use it if it is much poorer in quality than the average water of the region in which it occurs. On the other hand, 68 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. if the best available supply is poor the economy of purifying it even at large expense is obvious. Along the Atlantic Coast, where waters containing less than 100 parts per million of incrusting ingredients are extremely common, a supply carrying 200 parts of such substances would not be considered fair for boiler use. Throughout most of Mississippi Valley, however, such a supply would be considered good, because in that region natural waters not exceeding 100 parts in scale- forming constituents are rare. This variance in local standards is well illustrated by the opinions on the two sides of San Joaquin Valley as to what constitutes a good boiler water, and because of it numerical standards should be interpreted relatively not literally. At the same time any classification by nominal ratings must be applied absolutely if the terms are to have comparative significance outside the region where the waters exist. Waters of poor quality can be improved by treatment in softening plants. How bad a water may be used with- out treatment depends on the cost of softening the water and the relative saving effected by the use of the softened water. A report 1 of the committee on water service of the American Railway Engineer- ing and Maintenance of Way Association sets forth the factors involved. The benefits include the saving in boiler cleaning, repairs, and fuel, the decrease in the time during which the boilers must be withdrawn from service for cleaning and repairs, the decreased depre- ciation of the boilers, and the value of the materials removed by soften- ing. The cost of softening includes the cost of labor and power for the softening apparatus, the cost of softening chemicals, the interest on the cost of installation, depreciation in the value of the softening plant, and the waste in changing boiler feed due to increased foaming tendency. In locomotive service, it is in general economical to treat waters containing 250 to 850 parts per million of incrustants and to treat those containing less than 250 parts if the scale formed contains much sulphate. 2 As the incrusting solids may commonly be reduced to 80 or 90 parts per million, the economy of treating boiler waters deserves consideration in a region where many supplies contain 300 to 500 parts per million of incrusting matter. The amount of mineral matter that makes a water unfit for boiler use depends on the combined effect in boilers of the softening reagents used with such waters and of the constituents not removed by soften- ing. Sodium salts added to remove incrustants or to prevent corro- sion increase the foaming tendency, and this increase may be great enough to render a water useless for steaming. It is not of much benefit to soften a water containing more than 850 parts per million of nonincrusting material and much incrusting sulphate. 2 Trouble 1 Am. Ry. Eng. and Maintenance of Way Assoc. Proc, vol. 8, p. 601, 1907. 2 Idem, vol. 6, p. 610, 1905. w\ii:i; FOB MISCELLANEOUS ENDUSTRIAL USES. li'.l from priming in locomotive boilers begins at a concentration <>f about 1,700 parts per million of foaming const ituents, and the limit of safety for stationary boilers is reached at a concent radon of about, 7,000 parts. Though waters containing as high as 1,700 parts per million of foaming constituents have been used, it, is usually more economical to incur considerable expense in replacing such supplies by bet t cl- ones. WATER FOR MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIAL USES. GENERAL REQUISITES. Many articles arc affected by the ingredients of the water used in their manufacture and can be improved by its purification. If by the same process the boiler efficiency of the factory can be increased the expense is often justified when it would not be warranted merely by the increased value of the product. This observation applies particularly to paper, pulp, and strawboard mills, laundries, and other establishments where large quantities of water are evaporated to furnish steam for drying, and to ice factories and similar plants where distilled water is required. Besides its use for steam making water plays a specific part in many manufacturing processes. In paper mills, strawboard mills, bleacheries, dye works, canning factories, pickle factories, cream- eries, slaughterhouses, packing houses, nitroglycerin factories, distil- leries, breweries, woolen mills, starch works, sugar works, canneries, glue factories, soap factories, and chemical works water becomes a part of the product or is essential in its manufacture. In most of these establishments the principal function of the water is that of a cleansing agent or a vehicle for other substances, and therefore a supply free from color, odor, suspended matter, microscopic organ- isms, and especially from bacteria of fecal origin, and fairly low in dissolved substances, especially iron, is with few exceptions satisfac- tory. But water hygienically acceptable is necessary where it comes into contact with or forms part of food materials, as in the making of beverages, sugar, and dairy or meat products. As ideal waters for any use are rare, the manufacturer must ascertain what degree of freedom from impurities is necessary to prevent injury to his machinery or to his output and whether the cost of obtaining such purity is counterbalanced by decreased cost of production and increased value of product. EFFECTS OF DISSOLVED AND SUSPENDED MATERIALS. The effects in some industries of the substances most commonly found in water are outlined in the following pages, the object being to offer approximate standards for classification. 70 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. FREE ACIDS. Free mineral acids, such as the sulphuric acid in drainage from coal mines or the hydrochloric acid in the effluents of some indus- trial establishments, are especially injurious and nearly always have to be neutralized before the waters containing them can be used industrially. In paper mills, cotton mills, bleacheries, and dye works waters containing a measurable amount of free mineral acid decompose chemicals, streak and rot fabrics, and corrode and rapidly destroy metal screens, strainers, and pipes. SUSPENDED MATTER. Suspended matter in surface waters may be of vegetable, mineral, or animal origin, as it consists of particles of sewage, bits of leaves, sticks and sawdust, and sand and clay. The fine silt so common in rivers of the West is largely derived from clay. Few well waters contain suspended animal or vegetable matter, but many carry finely divided sand and clay, and many become turbid by precipitation of dissolved ingredients. Suspended matter is objectionable in all processes in which water is used for washing or comes into contact with food materials, because it is likely to stain or spot the product. Suspended matter due to precipitated iron is especially injurious even in small amount. Suspended vegetable or animal matter liable to decomposition or to partial solution is much more objectionable, even in small amount (10 to 20 parts per million), than equal quantities of mineral matter. For these reasons water should be freed from sus- pended matter before being used for laundering, bleaching, wool scouring, paper making, dyeing, starch and sugar making, brewing, distilling, and similar processes. In making the coarser grades of paper, such as strawboard, a small amount of suspended matter is not especially injurious, but for the finer white and colored varieties clear water is essential. COLOR. Color in water is due principally to solution of vegetable matter. Materials bleached, washed, or dyed light shades in colored water are likely to become tinged. Highly colored waters can be used in mak- ing wrapping or dark- tinted papers but not in making the white grades, and paper manufacturers are put to great expense for water purification on that account. The lower waters are in color, there- fore, the more desirable they are for use in bleacheries, dye works, paper mills, and other factories where brown tints in the products are undesirable. IRON. Iron is the most undesirable dissolved constituent, and its presence in comparatively small quantities necessitates purification. Many ground waters contain 1 to 20 parts per million of iron, which may watki; FOB MISCELLANEOUS tNDUSTBIAl I 71 be precipitated by exposure bo the air and by release of hydrostatic pressure, causing the waters to become turbid, and many such waters develop rusty-looking gelatinous growths that may interfere in in- dustrial operations. In all cleansing processes, especially if soap or alkali is used, precipitated iron is likely to cause rusty or dull spots. In contact with materials containing tannin compounds iron forms greenish or black substances that discolor the product. Therefore many waters containing amounts even as small as 1 or 2 parts per million of iron have to be purified before they can be used industrially. In water for dye works iron is especially objectionable and commonly prevents the use of the water without purification. 1 Iron in the water supply of paper mills may be precipitated on the pulp, giving a brown color, or during sizing or tinting, giving spotty effects. Water containing much iron can not be used in bleaching fabrics because salts that spot the goods are formed. The dark-colored com- pounds that iron forms with tannin discolor hides in tanning and barley in malting, and give beer a bad color, odor, and taste. 2 CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM. Calcium and magnesium are similar in their industrial effects. In water their amounts bear a more or less definite relation to each other, most waters carrying 10 to 50 per cent as much magnesium as calcium. Both are precipitated on whatever is boiled in water containing them, forming a deposit that may interfere with later operations. They also decompose equivalent amounts of many chemicals employed in technical operations, causing waste and forming alkaline-earth com- pounds that interfere with the later treatment of fabrics. These are the strongest incentives to preliminary softening. Some of the chem- icals used to disintegrate the fibers in making pulp are consumed by the calcium and magnesium in the water supply, though the loss from this source is not nearly so great as that which occurs later when the resin soap used in sizing the paper is decomposed by the calcium and magnesium. The insoluble soaps thus created do not fix themselves on the fibers, but form clots and streaks. Similar decomposition of valuable cleansing materials and subsequent deposition of insoluble compounds take place in laundering, wool scouring, and similar proc- esses. In the manufacture of soap, calcium and magnesium form with the fatty acids curdy precipitates that are insoluble in water and therefore have no cleansing value. They interfere with many dyeing operations, neutralizing chemicals and changing the reactions of the baths, besides forming insoluble compounds with many dyes. Highly calcareous waters can not be used for boiling the grain in distilleries because they hinder proper action by causing the deposition of 1 Sadtler, S. P., A handbook of industrial organic chemistry, p. 483, Philadelphia, 1900. 2 De la Coux, M. A. J., L'eau dans l'industrie, pp. 187, 232, Paris, 1900. 72 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. alkaline-earth salts on the particles of grain, nor for diluting spirits because they cause turbidity. 1 Very soft water, on the other hand, is said to be undesirable in paper mills for loading papers with any form of calcium sulphate because such waters dissolve part of the loading materials. 2 Probably waters high in chlorides would also be bad for this purpose, because chlorides increase the solubility of calcium sulphate. CARBONATE. The effects of carbonate and bicarbonate in waters used in industrial processes are commonly not differentiated. It is not unusual to estimate the combined carbonic acid and to state it as the carbonate without distinguishing between carbonate and bicarbonate, though in many natural waters the carbonate radicle is absent and the com- bined carbonic acid is in the form of bicarbonate. If hard waters proportionately high in carbonate and low in sulphate are boiled. the bicarbonate radicle is decomposed, free carbonic acid is given off, and the greater part of the calcium and magnesium is precipitated. Consequently waters of that character are generally more desirable for industrial operations than waters high in sulphate and low in car- bonate, whose hardening constituents are not greatly reduced by boiling. In beer making waters high in carbonate are said to produce dark-colored beers with a pronounced malt flavor because the car- bonate increases the solubility of the nitrogenous bodies, whereas waters high in sulphate yield pale beers with a definite hop flavor because the sulphate reduces the solubility of the malt and the color- ing matters. 3 SULPHATE. The influence of sulphate in beer making has been noted. Hard waters with sulphate predominating are desirable in tanning heavy hides, because they swell the skins, exposing more surface for the action of the tan liquors. 4 Sulphate interferes with crystallization in sugar making by increasing the amount of sugar retained in the mother liquor. CHLORINE. High chlorine is usually accompanied by high alkalies. Appreci- able amounts of chlorine are injurious in many industrial processes. Beverages and food products, of course, can not be treated with waters very high in chlorine without becoming salty. In tanning, chlorides cause the hides to become thin and flabby. 4 Animal char- 1 De la Coux, M. A. J., L'eau dans l'industrie, p. 251, Paris, 1900. 2 Cross, C. F., and Bevan, E. J., A textbook of paper making, p. 294, New York, 1900. :{ Brewing water, its defects and remedies, p. 19, American Burtonizing Co., New York, 1909. Also De la Coux, M. A. J., op. cit., p. 169. 4 Parker, H. N., and others, The Potomac River basin: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 192, p. 194, 1907. watki; FOB DOMESTIC USE. 73 coal used in clarifying sugar is robbed of its bleaching power by absorption of salt. Tho quality of sugars is affected by chloride- bearing waters, because saline salts are incorporated in tho crystals. 1 In the preparation of alcoholic beverages chlorides in large amount prevent the growth of the yeast and interfere with the germination of the grain. Tho only commercially developed way of removing chlo- rine from water is distillation. As the cost of this process has been greatly reduced by use of multiple-effect evaporators, it is worth con- sideration where chloride-bearing waters must be used. ORGANIC MATTER. Organic matter of fecal origin is, of course, dangerous in any water that comes into contact with food products, and water so polluted should bo purified before being used. Care in this respect is par- ticularly necessary in creameries, slaughterhouses, canneries, pickle factories, distilleries, breweries, and sugar factories. Organic matter not necessarily capable of producing disease is further undesirable in industrial supplies because it induces decomposition in other organic materials, like cloth, yarn, sugar, starch, meat, or paper, rotting and discoloring them, and because it causes slime spots on fabrics by sup- porting algae growths. HYDROGEN SULPHIDE. Hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S), a gas with an odor like that of rotten eggs, occurs dissolved in some ground waters. It is corrosive even in small quantities, and it also injures materials by discoloring and rotting them. MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. Silica and aluminum are usually not present in sufficient quantity appreciably to affect any industrial process, except those in which water is evaporated. 'Large quantities of sodium and potassium, by adding to the amount of dissolved matter, are objectionable in some manufacturing operations. Phosphates, nitrates, and some other substances not noted in this outline interfere with industrial chemical reactions, but they are present in few natural waters in sufficient quantity to have noticeable effect. WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE. PHYSICAL QUALITIES. Entirely acceptable domestic supplies are free from suspended matter, color, odor, and taste and are fairly cool when they reach the consumer. The more nearly waters fulfill these conditions the more satisfactory they are for general use. Suspended mineral matter clogs pipes, valves, and faucets, and growths of microscopic plants i De la Coux, M. A. J., op. cit., p. 152. 74 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. suspended in water frequently cause odors and stains. The outlets of some artesian wells in San Joaquin Valley are surrounded by growths of microscopic organisms, which form tufts or layers in pipes and well casings and sometimes clog them. Detached particles escape through faucets, giving the water an unsightly appearance and staining clothes washed in it. So far as known, such growths in tanks and mains do not cause disease, but they often impart un- pleasant odors that make the water objectionable. True color is usually due to dissolved vegetable matter and causes serious objec- tion only when it exceeds 20 to 30 parts per million. In general, the well waters of this area are satisfactory in respect to suspended mineral matter and color. Finely divided material from quicksands enters some driven wells, but such trouble is not so serious as it is in other parts of the country. A few waters, espe- cially those containing iron, develop a turbidity of 10 to 30 parts per million on exposure to the air by precipitating dissolved matter, and such condition gives rise to apparent though not to real color. The only ground waters possessing much real color were found near the north end of Tulare Lake, where buried peat beds of old swamps probably contribute the organic matter that causes the color. The odor most commonly noticed in the ground waters of the valley is that of hydrogen sulphide, especially in the area where artesian wells yield notable quantities of natural gas. According to analyses quoted by Watts 1 the gas from wells at Stockton comprises about 25 per cent nitrogen, 12 per cent hydrogen, and 60 per cent hydrocarbon illuminants estimated as marsh gas (CH 4 ), and proba- bly this composition represents the general character of the gas throughout the valley, though the proportions of the substances may differ locally. The content of hydrogen sulphide is doubtless very small, but minute quantities of it are sufficient to cause appreciable odor. This smell, nauseating to some people, can usually be re- moved by spraying or splashing the water. BACTERIOLOGICAL QUALITIES. Before a water is used for domestic purposes there should be reasonable certainty that it is free from disease-bearing organisms and that it can be guarded against all chances of infection. The dis- ease germs most commonly carried by water are those of typhoid fever. The bacilli enter the supply from some spot infected by the dis- charges of a person sick with this disease, and, though comparatively short lived in water, they persist in fecal deposits and retain their power of infection for remarkable lengths of time. Consequently, water from lakes and streams draining from population centers or 1 Watts, W. L., The gas and petroleum yielding formations of the central valley of California: California State Mining Bur. Bull. 3, p. 75, 1894. WATEB FOB DOMESTIC I BE. 75 from irrigated fields should not be used for drinking without purifica- tion. Wells should be so Located as bo be guarded againsl the en- trance of filth of any kind, either over the top or by infill ration. Pumps and piping in the system should also be protected. Water from a carefully cased well more than 20 or 30 feel deep is acceptable if the weU is Located at a reasonable distance from privies, cesspools, and other sources of pollution. Many open dug wells and pits con- structed as reservoirs around the tops of casings are exposed to fecal contamination from above or through cracks in poorly built side walls. Care should be taken that the casings of deep wells do not be- come leaky near the surface of the ground so as to allow pollution to enter. As a matter of ordinary precaution the ground should be kept clean and water should not be allowed to become foul or stagnant near any well, no matter how deep. If shallow dug wells are neces- sary they should be constructed with water-tight walls extending as far as practicable into the well and also a short distance above ground. The floor or curbing should be water-tight, and pumps should be used in preference to buckets for raising the water. Every possible pre- caution should be taken to prevent feet scrapings and similar dirt from getting into the well. Ground water is not only less likely to become contaminated when protected from surface washings, air, and light, but it keeps better and is less likely to develop microscopic plants that give it an unpleasant taste. CHEMICAL QUALITIES. The amounts of dissolved substances permissible in a domestic supply depend much on their nature. No more than traces of barium, copper, zinc, or lead should be present, because these sub- stances are poisonous; however, their occurrence in measurable amounts in ordinary waters is so rare that tests for them are not usually made. Any constituent present in sufficient amount to be clearly perceptible to the taste is objectionable. Water containing 2 parts per million of iron is unpalatable to many people and may cause trouble by discoloring washbowls and tubs and by producing rusty stains on clothes. Tea and coffee can not be made satisfactorily with water containing much iron because a black inky compound is formed. Four or five parts of hydrogen sulphide makes a water unpleasant to the taste, and this gas is objectionable also because it corrodes well strainers and other metal fittings. The amounts of silica and aluminum ordinarily present in well waters have no special significance in relation to domestic supply. Approximately 250 parts of chlorine makes a water " salty," and less than that amount causes corrosion. Where the chlorine con- tent runs as low as 5 or 10 parts in normal waters unaffected by animal pollution the amount of chlorine is frequently taken as a 70) GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. measure of contamination. But the establishment of isochlors, or lines of equal chlorine, in San Joaquin Valley would be of little sanitary value, because many of the ground waters dissolve so much chlorine from the silt that the small changes caused by animal pollu- tion are completely masked. Calcium and magnesium are the chief causes of what is known as the hardness of water. This undesirable quality is indicated by in- creased soap consumption and by deposition on kettles of scale com- posed almost entirely of calcium, magnesium, carbonate, and sul- phate. Calcium and magnesium, forming with soap insoluble curdy compounds that have no cleansing value, prevent the formation of a lather until these two basic radicles have been precipitated. Hard- ness is commonly measured by the soap-consuming capacity of a water expressed as an equivalent of calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ), and it can be determined by actual testing with a standard solution of soap or can be computed from the amounts of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) by means of the following formula: Total hardness as CaC0 3 = 2.5 Ca + 4.1 Mg. If, as Whipple states, 1 1 pound of ordinary soap would soften only about 24 gallons of water having a total hardness of 200 parts per million, it can readily be seen that the hardness of water is of intimate concern, especially in the west side, where waters as hard as 300 to 1,000 parts are common. Soda ash (sodium carbonate) is used to 11 break" or soften hard water in order to save soap. Some large cities in other States have found it advisable to soften their public supplies instead of leaving that task to the individual consumer. MINERAL MATTER AND POTABILITY. The lower waters are in mineral content the more acceptable they are as sources of supply, yet the amount of dissolved substances that can be tolerated in drinking water is much greater than that allowable in city supplies, for which hardness, corrosion, pipe clogging, and general utility have to be considered. Though there are certain limits above which the common ingredients are intolerable, these limits are not only difficult to ascertain but are also likely to shift. A normal water is not a pure solution of one salt, whose physiologic effect can be measured, but an indeterminate mixture of solutions of several salts whose effects are not easily differentiated. Further, though all animals select for drinking waters that are lowest in solids and avoid those that are highest, the same animals, when trans- ported to districts of poor water, accustom themselves to supplies of far greater mineral content than those which before they would not i Whipple, G. C, The value of pure water, p. 26, New York, 1907. watki; FOB DOMESTIC [JSE. 77 touch. Consequently any general limits that may t>e assigned to the various mineral ingredients must be regarded as extremely flexible. The. truth of this statement may be more fully appreciated by consideration of the data in Table 12, in which the analyses are grouped according to the chemical character of the waters and are arranged in each group in descending order of strength. Table 12. — Mineral matter in certain waters. [Parts per million.) No. Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ). Sulphate radicle (soo. Chlorine (CD. Total hardness as CaC0 3 . Total solids. Calcium and mag- nesium (Ca+Mg). Sodium and potassium (Na+K). Character of watet 1.... 43 Tr. 1.310 2,800 7,489 966 1,550 Na-CI. 2a... 360 1,560 1,300 5,000 Do. 3.... 75 5 1,740 01 3,600 .SOO" ""830" Do. ■}.... 46 328 1,520 506 3,600 170 1,030 Do. 5.... 54 390 1,060 490 2,800 160 750 Do. 6.... 200 5 279 31 872 11 320 Do. 7°. 110 2,300 800 4,900 Na-SO<. 8.'.'.. 100 1,810 160 i,'i3o~ 3,200 380 ' '"*580' Do. 9.... 362 1,640 460 1,760 4,100 150 600 Do. 10.... 97 800 150 560 1,700 190 320 Do 11.... 73 430 75 83 940 25 300 Do. 12"... 410 620 500 2,470 Na-C0 3 . 13.... 963 Tr. 492 """660" 2,452 m "756" Do. 14.... 208 Tr. 135 47 750 15 240 Do. 15.... 100 Tr. 64 71 350 24 86 Do. 16.... 75 1,680 145 1,280 2,900 400 400 Ca-S0 4 . 17.... 72 1,380 150 1,320 2,500 440 220 Do. 18.... 60 1.380 135 1,100 2,400 370 305 Do. 19.... 74 895 85 720 1,700 228 208 Do. 20.... 38 9 4 50 169 16 16 Ca-C0 3 . a From a manuscript report by Herman Stabler on the underground waters of Carson Sink, 1904. The other analyses were made for this report. The first group in Table 12 represents sodium chloride waters; that is, waters in which alkalies and chlorides predominate. Analysis No. 1, of water from a gas well in Stockton, represents a solution of the chlorides of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium with little else. The water contains 4,310 parts per million of chlorine, and it is so salty that it is nauseating. The water represented by the next analysis has been used by the owner's family several years for all domestic purposes, but visitors object to it and consider it disagree- able to drink. No. 3 is the analysis of water from a deep well near Stockton that was formerly used as a source of domestic supply but has been abandoned. Nos. 4 and 5 are analyses of water from artesian wells near San Joaquin River, and though both supplies taste disagreeably salty to persons not accustomed to them, they are regu- larly used for drinking, cooking, and washing. Two gallons of the former water contains about as much common salt as a pound of uncooked ham. No. 6, the test of the supply of a very deep ar- tesian well on the west side not far from Lemoore, indicates a water much lower in chloride but higher in carbonate or " black alkali." As the farm on which the well is situated was not occupied informa- 78 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. tion regarding the value of the water as a constant beverage could not be obtained. It contains much gas and would be distasteful on that account; otherwise, however, it differs from that represented by No. 14 only in being somewhat higher in chloride and alkalies. More strongly mineralized alkaline sulphate waters are drunk. The first one (see analysis No. 7), from a well in Carson Sink, was used when necessary, but the domestic supply was commonly hauled from another source several miles away. The water represented by analysis No. 8, which has been used for all domestic purposes for several years on a ranch west of Mendota, carries 1,800 parts of sulphate and exceeds 3,000 in total solids. It has a distinct taste and drinking a quart of it would be equivalent to taking somewhat less than a minimum dose of Glauber's salt. The water correspond- ing to No. 9 was used in the cook wagon and for watering the stock about one year on a ranch near Tulare Lake, but it was considered "alkali" water, and the domestic supply is now obtained from a deeper and much better well. Chloride and carbonate, as well as sulphate, however, are notably high in this water. The waters cor- responding to 10 and 11 are used for all domestic purposes, though they have a distinct taste. The former is one of a battery of wells that have been the exclusive supply of a family for three years, and the latter is the municipal supply of Mendota. The examples in the next group prove that less alkaline carbon- ates can be tolerated. The first analysis (No. 12) shows a water also high in chloride but not excessive in sulphate. This water has a color of 130, and it obviously carries much "black alkali." A party of men accustomed to alkali was so badly afflicted with diarrhea after drinking this water that work had to be stopped until another supply could be obtained. No. 13 shows nearly double the amount of carbonate but no sulphate. This water supplies a trough for stock, but it was evidently repugnant to the cattle, and current report in the neighborhood is to the effect that water from wells of the same depth "kills hogs/ 7 a phrase that seems to express the acme of undesirability. The mixture of alkaline carbonates and chlorides with the former predominating, indicated by test No. 14, has been used many years, but it is much lower in carbonate than the preceding two. The water listed under No. 15, the city supply of Stockton for many years, is drunk both by the inhabitants of the city and by visitors without harmful effect. Though the next four are designated calcium sulphate waters the alkalies also are high, and, furthermore, application of the term calcium necessarily implies the presence of magnesium in amounts ranging from 10 to 40 per cent of the total calcium and magnesium given in the seventh column of the table. The water corresponding to No. 16 can not be used for cooking, and herders object to it so strongly watki; FOB DOMESTIC USE. 79 that the drinking supply is hauled 8 miles from the well represented by No. 17, which oarriea 300 parte less of sulphate and about half as much sodium and potassium. Analysis No. 18, which is similar to Xo. 17, is of a water that has been used more than 10 years for oooking and drinking by one man. These three waters tasted unpleasantly st rong to the writer and seemed to increase thirst instead of quenching it. Though the water represented by analysis No. 19 is lower in sul- phate than the preceding ones of this group, it is strongly mineralized. It is the hotel supply at Huron, where it is used for all purposes. Calcium carbonate waters arc extremely common, but it is unusual for them to be so highly mineralized as those of other classes. The representative of this type, indicated by test No. 20, is low in total solids and is entirely acceptable for drinking and cooking. The immediate consequence of drinking waters too high in mineral content is usually diarrhea. Many persons at first afflicted with this trouble become accustomed to the new supply and acquire what may be termed immunity. Whether other disorders result from the continued drinking of such waters is not known; and it is equally uncertain whether cattle and horses that so commonly are reported to have been killed by drinking strong mineral water were killed by the purging produced by the mineral matter in the water or by excessive consumption of water itself. It would appear from the data in Table 12 and the comments on it that alkaline carbonates are most injurious and alkaline sulphates least injurious and that alkaline chlorides occupy an intermediate position. This arrange- ment corresponds to the order of the same substances in reference to their toxic effect on plants. The most striking feature is that the amounts of mineral matter in most of these waters is much greater than that ordinarily considered permissible in drinking water. Waters exceeding 300 parts per million of carbonate, 1,500 parts of chloride, or 2,000 parts of sulphate are apparently intolera- ble to most people. These limits fortunately are far beyond the points where the substances in solution are clearly perceptible to the ordinary taste. In conclusion it can not be too emphatically stated that the information on this subject is fragmentary and un- certain and that any limits of mineral tolerance are modified by individual idiosyncrasy. 1 INTERPRETATION OF FIELD ASSAYS IN RELATION TO POTABILITY. CHEMICAL CHARACTER. The total amount of mineral matter and the nature of the chief constituents in a water comprise the essential information for judg- ing its potability in respect to mineral ingredients. Though nitrates, 1 For further data see Dole, R. B.. Concentration of mineral water in relation to therapeutic activity: U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1911, pt. 2, pp. 1175-1192, 1912. 80 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. phosphates, sulphides, and other substances occur in some waters they may usually be disregarded in interpretation or their insignifi- cance verified by a few laboratory analyses. Silica is usually present in colloidal form and it is relatively constant in quantity. Calcium and magnesium are similar in many effects and they vary in amount together, calcium usually being the greater. Sodium and potassium are so similar in effect that they are seldom separated in industrial analyses but are reported together as sodium. Carbonate and bicarbonate, representing more or less conventionally different conditions of carbonate in equilibrium, may be considered together under the common term of carbonate (C0 3 ), to which bicarbonate is translated by- dividing by 2.03. These groupings, rendered possible by the usual mode of occurrence of these substances and by their effects, greatly simplify classification of waters that have been assayed. Direct estimates are made of carbonate, sulphate, and chloride, the three principal acid radicles. The approximate amount of the alkaline earths, calcium and magnesium, can be computed from the total hardness; theoretically the total amount of these two bases must be between 40 per cent and 24 per cent of the total hardness expressed as CaC0 3 ; it usually lies between 37 per cent and 30 per cent, as the ratio of calcium to magnesium ranges from 7 to 1 : therefore, one-third of the hardness is a reasonable estimate of the alkaline earths that will usually be in error less than 10 per cent. The alkalies, sodium and potassium, can be computed by the Stabler formula already noted (p. 57). These estimates and computations of the amounts of the chief acids and bases can then be used in applying the following classification : Classification of water by chemical character. Calcium rCan f Carbonate ( C0 3)- Calcium (Caj Sodmm(Na)/ lchloride(Cl) The designation " calcium" indicates that calcium and magnesium predominate, and " sodium" that sodium and potassium predominate among the bases; the designation " carbonate," "sulphate," or " chlo- ride" shows which acid radicle predominates. Combination of the two terms classifies the water by type, and tabulation of the classifi- cation can be abbreviated by use of the symbols. The appellation Na-COg, for example, indicates that sodium and potassium pre- dominate among the bases and that carbonate or bicarbonate, or both, predominate among the acids, and that the water would yield on concentration and crystallization more sodium carbonate than any other salt, though this classification does not in any way show the amounts of the salts in solution. w a I EB FOB DOMESTIC USE. 81 The numerical preponderance of certain acid and basic radicles establishes the nature of many waters, but if further refinement in classification is desired comparison can be made of the reacting values of the radicles, which arc the fundamental bases of the effect of the radicles. These values can be computed by multiplying the amount of each constituent by its valence and dividing the product by its molecular weight. The factors given in Table 13 can be used for that purpose. The factor for sodium may bo used for the combined values of sodium and potassium. The reacting valuo of calcium and magnesium is nearly one-fiftieth of total hardness (II), as theoretic- ally H = 2.5 Ca + 4.1 Mg, whence 5Q = 0.050 Ca + 0.082 Mg. Table 13. — Factors for computing reacting values. Basic radicles. Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K).. Factor. 0.0499 .0821 .0434 .0255 Acid radicles. Carbonate radicle (COd) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Nitrate radicle (N0 3 ) Chlorine(Cl) Factor. 0. 0333 .0164 .0161 .0282 TOTAL SOLIDS. Total solids can be computed from the data of a field assay in sev- eral ways, one of which is to calculate the probable amount of saline residue that would be produced by the acid radicles and to add thereto an arbitrary amount for silica, undetermined substances, and volatile matter. As potassium has the smallest reacting weight of the four common bases the assumptions that equal amounts of sodium and potassium are present and that calcium and magnesium are absent constitute an extreme condition representing a maximum saline residue; similarly, the assumptions that equal parts of calcium and magnesium are present and that the alkalies are absent consti- tute the condition representing a minimum saline residue. A formula based on an average between these two extremes gives an estimate of total solids (T. S.) within 15 per cent of the exact value for most natural waters. T. S. =SiO a + 1.73 CO3 + O.86 HCO3+ 1.48 S0 4 + 1.62 CI. The average content of silica (Si0 2 ) in most ground waters of San Joaquin Valley, according to available analyses, is about 30 parts per million in waters exceeding 400 parts of total solids and 50 parts in other waters. The estimate of solids should not be expressed more 98205°— wsp 398—16 6 82 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. closely than to the nearest 10 parts or with more than two significant figures, and it may be translated into words by the following rating: Table 14. — Rating of waters by total solids. Total solids (parts per million). Classification. More than— Not more than— 150 500 2,000 Low. Moderate. High. Very high. 150 500 2,000 PURIFICATION OF WATER. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS. Purification of water is removal or reduction in amount of the sub- stances that render waters in their raw state unsuitable for use. It is practiced on a large scale with one or more of three objects in view: First, to render the supply safe and unobjectionable for drinking; second, to reduce the amount of the mineral ingredients injurious to boilers; third, to remove substances injurious to machinery or to industrial products. The largest purification plants in this country have been constructed almost solely to render the waters potable; and some waters, when so purified, need no further treatment to make them suitable for steaming and for general industrial use. But many other waters are hard, and increased appreciation of the value of good water has resulted in demand for the removal of the hardening constituents also. Only a few settlements in San Joaquin Valley have surface water supplies for domestic use, and extensive installation of filter plants is doubtful. But if municipalities in the region ever adopt river supplies, filtration will be necessary because of the widespread pollu- tion of the streams by drainage from irrigated lands. The present general use of boiler compounds, however, even on the east side, indi- cates the advisability of water softening. Feed-water purification plants are now common on the west side, and future development of that region of highly mineralized waters will be accompanied by increase in the number of these plants. Removal of bacteria, especially those causing disease, and removal of turbidity, odor, taste, and iron are the principal requirements in purification of a municipal supply, elimination of bacteria and sus- pended matter being the most important. The common methods of effecting such purification are slow filtration through sand and rapid filtration after coagulation, both methods usually being com- PURIFICATION OF WATER. S.'i bined with sedimentation. 1 The first process is known as "slow Band" filtration and the second as "mechanical" or "rapid sand" lilt rat ion. The efficiency of such filters is measured primarily by the ratio between the number of bacteria In the applied water and the 11111111)01* in the effluent. This figure, stated in percentage of removal, should be as high as 98, and it often reaches 99.8 per cent under normal conditions with a carefully operated filter of either kind. Removal of scale-forming and neutralization of corrosive constitu- ents are the chief aims in preparing water for steam making. For this two general methods arc employed — cold chemical precipitation followed by sedimentation, and heating with or without chemicals, usually followed by rapid filtration. The first process is carried on in cold-water softening plants and the second in feed-water heaters. METHODS OF PURIFICATION. The requirements of the water supplies for industries are so varied that classification of purification methods is difficult. Water prop- erly prepared for domestic and boiler use is suitable for most industrial establishments, and it is more economical for small manufacturers in large cities to obtain such water from the city mains than to main- tain private supplies and purification apparatus. It is usually cheaper, however, for large factories to be supplied from separate sources, not only because of saving in actual cost of water but also because of the opportunity thus afforded of procuring water specially adapted to the needs of the factory. The common methods of industrial-water purification are those already mentioned, or combinations of them, modified to meet particular needs. In a few industrial processes, notably the manufacture of ice by the can system, water practically free from all dissolved and suspended substances is necessary and distilled water must be manufactured. Recent improvements in multiple-effect evaporators have greatly reduced the cost of distilla- tion, so that it is now economical to distill for industrial and domestic use many waters heretofore considered too highly mineralized to be treatable. Many large factories, hotels, and even municipalities have installed multiple-effect stills. Besides the four common systems of purification, many minor processes are used, sometimes alone, but more frequently as adjuncts to filters or softeners. Surface waters are screened through wooden or iron grids or through revolving wire screens to remove. sticks and leaves before other treatment. Coarse suspended matter can be re- moved by rapid filtration through ground quartz or similar material, in units of convenient size, provided with arrangements for wash- i For description of filters see Johnson, G. A., The purification of public water supplies: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 315, 1913. 84 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. ing the filtering medium similar to those used in mechanical niters. Very turbid river waters may be first allowed to stand in large sedimentation basins in order to reduce the cost of operating the filters by preliminary removal of a large part of the suspended solids. Supplies undesirable only because of their iron content are aerated by being sprayed into the air or by being allowed to trickle over rocks or by other methods that cause evaporation of carbonic acid and absorption of oxygen, thus precipitating and oxidizing the iron in solution so that it can readily be removed by rapid filtration. Similar aeration is employed to evaporate and oxidize dissolved gases that cause objectionable tastes and odors. Disinfection by ozone, copper sulphate, calcium hypochlorite, and many other substances kills organisms that may cause disease or impart bad odors and tastes. Purification of this character must be done with substances that destroy the objectionable organisms without making the water poisonous to animals. Calcium hypo- chlorite, sodium hypochlorite, and chlorine gas are used to disinfect drinking water, and treatment with these substances is now widely practiced either as an adjunct to filtration or as an emergency pre- caution where otherwise untreated supplies are believed to be con- taminated. Disinfection by this method is not a substitute for purification by filtration, for it does not remove suspended matter nor appreciable amounts of color, organic matter, swampy tastes f or odors, and it does not soften water. 1 Natural purification of water is accomplished largely through biologic processes, 2 in which the organic matter is oxidized by serving as food for bacteria and objectionable organisms are destroyed by the production of con- ditions unfavorable to their existence. Action of this kind takes place in reservoirs and lakes, and it is also relied upon in many proc- esses for the artificial purification of sewage. 3 SLOW SAND FILTRATION. Slow sand filtration consists in causing water to pass downward through a layer of sand of such thickness and fineness that the requisite removal of suspended substances is accomplished. The slow sand filter is also called the " continuous" and the "English" filter. On the bottom of a water-tight basin, commonly constructed of concrete, perforated tiles or pipes laid in the form of a grid are covered with a foot of gravel graded in size from 25 to 3 millimeters in diameter from bottom to top. A layer of fine sand, 3 to 4 feet deep, is put over the gravel, which serves only to support the sand. 1 Op. cit.,p. 71. 2 Hazen, Allen, Clean water and how to get it, p. 83, New York, 1907. 3 Winslow, C.-E. A., and Phelps, E. B., Investigations on the purification of Boston sewage, with a history of the sewage-disposal problem: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 185, 1906. PUBIFIC \ I ION OF WATER. N."i When water is applied on the surface, It passes through the sand and the gravel and flows away through the underdrain. The suspended materials, including bacteria, are removed by the sand, the action of which is rendered more efficient by the rapid formation of a mat of finely divided sediment on its surface. When this film has become so thick (hat filtration is unduly retarded, the wafer is allowed f<> subside and about, half an Inch of sand is removed, after which fijtra- tion is resumed. The sand thus taken off is washed to free it from the collected impurities and is replaced on the beds after they have been reduced about a foot in thickness by successive scrapings. As cleaning necessitates temporary withdrawal of filters from service, they are divided into units of convenient size, usually one-half to 1 acre each, so that the operation of the en the system may not be interrupted. Most modern filters are roofed and sodded, as this facilitates cleaning by preventing the formation of ice, permits work on the filter beds in all kinds of weather, inhibits algae growths, and prevents agitation of the water by wind and rain. The foregoing are the essential features of a slow sand filter, but several adjuncts render this system more efficient. A clear- water basin for the filtered supply, covered to prevent deterioration of the water, is provided in order that the varying rate of consump- tion may not unduly affect the rate of filtration. Clarification of turbid water is rendered more economical by allowing it to stand for one to three days, during which a large portion of the suspended matter is deposited, so that the time between sand scrapings is lengthened. In some plants roughing or preliminary filters con- sisting of beds of coarse sand or fine crushed stone are provided, through which the water flows 15 to 20 times as fast as through the sand filters, a very large proportion of the suspended matter being thus removed. Objectionable odors and tastes may be obviated by aeration before or after filtration. Killing the bacteria before filtra- tion by use of chlorine or other germicides is also practiced. Slow sand filtration removes practically all the suspended matter and the bacteria. Color is only slightly reduced and hardness is not changed. The process is specially adapted to waters low in color and suspended matter and slightly polluted. Very small particles of clay are not removed by these filters and waters carrying such par- ticles only for short periods may be benefited by the occasional addition of a coagulant before filtration. It can readily be- seen that the efficiency of this kind of filter depends largely on the character of the sand, as the ability to prevent the passage of suspended matter is governed by the size of the spaces between the sand particles. The rate of filtration depends on the average size of the sand par- ticles, the thickness of the sand bed, the head of water, and the turbidity. Under ordinary conditions of operation in the United 86 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. States the rate of slow sand filtration of water previously subjected to sedimentation is 2,000,000 to 4,000,000 gallons per acre per day. RAPID SAND FILTRATION. The rapid sand filter is also known as the American filter, and until recently it was generally styled the "mechanical" filter, because of its contrivances for washing the sand. Its distinctive features are its use of a coagulant and its high rate of filtration. While the raw water is entering the sedimentation basin, which is smaller than that used with slow sand filters, it is treated with a definite proportion of some coagulant, which forms by its decomposition a gelatinous pre- cipitate that unites and incloses the suspended material, including the bacteria, and absorbs the organic coloring matter. This com- bined action destroys color and makes suspended particles larger and therefore more readily removable. When aluminum sulphate, the coagulant most commonly used, is decomposed aluminum hydrate is precipitated and the sulphate radicle remains in solution, replacing an equivalent amount of the carbonate, bicarbonate, or hydrate radicle. One part per million of ordinary aluminum sulphate requires somewhat more than 0.6 part of alkalinity expressed as CaC0 3 to insure complete decomposition. 1 The natural alkalinity of many waters is sufficient to effect this reaction. If the alkalinity is not sufficient part of the aluminum sulphate remains in solution and good coagulation does not take place. Therefore lime or soda ash is added if the alkalinity is too low. The proper amount of aluminum sulphate to be used is determined by the amounts of color, organic matter, and suspended matter, and by the fineness of the suspended matter, and it is best ascertained by direct experimentation with the water to be purified. Much of the trouble in operating the earlier types of rapid filters has been caused by failure to produce a good "floe" or precipitation because of improper ratios of coagulant and alkalinity. Ferrous sulphate instead of aluminum sulphate is used as a coagu- lant in some filtration plants. With this substance lime must be added in order to bring about proper coagulation. The water, after having been mixed with the coagulant, is allowed to stand three or four hours in the sedimentation basin, where a large proportion of the suspended particles is deposited. It is then passed rapidly through beds of sand or ground stone to remove the rest of the suspended matter. Many filters now in use are built in cylin- drical form 10 to 20 feet in diameter, and some are so designed that filtration can be hastened by pressure. The sand, 30 to 50 inches deep and coarser than that used in slow sand filters, rests on a metallic 1 Hazen, Allen, Report of the filtration commission of the city of Pittsburgh, p. 57, 1899. ITKIIICATION OF WATKK. S, floor containing perforations large enough t<> allow ready issue of the water, but small enough to prevent passage of sand grains. When the Biter has become clogged the How of water is reversed, filtered water being forced upward through the sand to wash it and to remove the impurities, which pass over the top of the filter with the wasted water. A revolving rake with long prongs projecting downward into the sand mixes it during washing and prevents it from becoming graded into spots of coarse or fine particles. Tn recently constructed works rectangular niters 300 to 1,300 square feet in area have been built, in which the sand is agitated during washing b} r compressed air forced through it at intervals instead of by a revolving rake. Larger orifices in the strainers are also being used, the passage of sand being prevented by fine gravel over the strainer pipes. The rate of filtration is from 100,000,000 to 120,000,000 gallons per acre per day. The time between washing is 6 to 12 hours, depending principally on the turbidity of the applied water. Mechanical filtration removes practically all suspended matter, reduces the color to unobjectionable proportions, and under some conditions removes part of the dissolved iron. The permanent hardness of the water is increased in proportion to the amount of sulphate added by the coagulant, and if only enough lime to decom- pose the coagulant is added, the total hardness is slightly increased. If larger amounts of lime are added, however, the total hardness is reduced. If soda ash is used in place of lime the foaming con- stituents are slightly increased. The chemicals are always added in solution. As this method of filtration is used almost entirely for river waters with fluctuating contents of suspended and dissolved matter proper operation requires constant and intelligent attention. COLD-WATER SOFTENING. The principal objects of water softening are to remove the sub- stances that cause incrustations in boilers, particularly calcium and magnesium, and to neutralize those that cause corrosion. Solutions of chemicals of known strength are added to the raw supply in such proportion as to precipitate all the dissolved constituents that can be economically removed by such treatment. The water is then allowed to stand long enough to permit the precipitate to settle, after which the clear effluent is drawn off; or the partly clarified effluent may be filtered very rapidly through thin beds of coke, sponge, excelsior, bagging, or similar material in order to remove particles that have not subsided in the tanks. The water softeners on the market differ from one another chiefly in the precipitant, in the filtering medium if one is used, and in the mechanism regu- lating the incorporation of the chemicals with the water. Installa- tions may be of any size to suit consumption, and the process can 88 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. be combined with rapid sand filtration for purifying municipal supplies. Among the substances that have been proposed as precipi- tants are sodium carbonate (soda ash), silicate, hydrate (caustic), fluoride, and phosphate; barium carbonate, oxide, and hydrate: and calcium oxide (quicklime). Lime and soda ash, however, are almost exclusively used on account of their excellent action and comparative cheapness. When soda ash (Na 2 CO a ) and lime dissolved in water to form a solution of calcium hydrate, Ca(OH) 2 , are added to a water in proper proportion free acids are neutralized, free carbon dioxide is removed, bicarbonate is decomposed, and iron, aluminum, and magnesium hydrates and calcium carbonate are precipitated. The precipitate in settling takes down with it a large proportion of the suspended matter. The treatment removes the incrusting constituents prac- tically to the limit of their solubility, and also removes the calcium added as lime. Sodium, potassium, sulphate, and chloride are left in solution, and the alkalies are increased in proportion to the quan- tity of soda ash added; that is, the foaming constituents are increased, and the maximum proportion of these that is allowable in the treated water fixes the maximum proportion of incrustants that a raw water can contain and be satisfactorily treated. The proportion of in- crustants left in a treated water is determined by the solubility of the precipitated substances and by the completeness of the reaction between the added chemicals and the dissolved matter. It has been brought below 90 parts per million in some well-treated waters. The sulphate radicle can be removed by using barium compounds, which precipitate barium sulphate, but the poisonous effect of even small amounts of barium and the relatively high cost of its salts are great objections to their use. The chlorides are not changed in amount by water softening. The chemicals should be very thoroughly mixed with the raw water and sufficient time should be allowed for complete reaction, which proceeds rather slowly, for otherwise precipitation will occur later in pipe lines or in boilers. FEED-WATER HEATING. Water heaters are designed primarily to utilize waste heat in stationary boiler plants by raising the temperature of the feed water and thereby lessening the work of the boilers themselves, but they also effect some purification, and many heaters have been specially designed with that end in view. The heat is derived from exhaust steam or from flue gases. Heaters utilizing steam either are open — that is, operated at atmospheric pressure — or are closed and operated at or near boiler pressure. In accordance with these different con- ditions, which result in distinct purifying effects, feed-water heaters PURIFICATION <>r WATER. V.) n OSt^OO C©CT>Q HCOCO 00 CN 00 .-i t~ CO iCt^Ol CO CO CN cocoi- oocnct> osCN-r oo co f i-— i-r os co co cNcoc© S.SS"* o Total dis- solved solids. OOQ- CO — to cn if? coouo oo-trc co >f5 co r>- 5'°S CNCOt^ CO TOO M-»l- i-1T<0 l-'OCN 00 Oi CO OCO r-IOiCO ■*« C7S CC ■* h CN od o Otp'n e» co t^ co xr >d t-i ■*« ec a> co>r f TO) 1-1 Sul- phate radicle (S0 4 ). t^. 00 CN t^ CO TT Q00CO C005C5 rfil^CN CNOr- I-t^CN 03 1^ — HOIH t^ CN COO CO OCN T "* t- CV CO iO CO CN »C i- t>- t>- «3 O O >-H 53"SS° CM CO CO CO CN l^ ONf t^- i-l «t] t^HM ■8 S-5^ K^£« A ^ • OOO OOO OOO OOO OOC d OOO OOO O (H^ 3 &3? rn O CN CO CO 00 t-l t- t^COCO COOCO > CO OICN iO CO OV 00 CN CN '^^ % 03 5Sl£ ^ s ~ CO O T-H t^OOOO tihOO VOM COCN00 t-hcOCN SRaa COC000 HMO tCriN I- CO U3 CO CN T Ui-V CO COCN tt CT> to rt t^ O^ |H 00' 00 O CO C iO co'cN COI>t-( OOCOO i-H 00 d 0)000 CO^-irt O • CO OiOC I • 0C • -O O -C7> lo I iC I— 1 • I— »H O ; 03CJ CO 00 a.9 OSOCO iCCOCT 1— 1 T-l T— 1 NHl- NHr- O3 00 t H©r- M> CD OJD ►2 a £ flO y M 03 ^> 03 «lH ^1 & -d CD 1 ^5 fl2 £co flfi 30 03 rH »h CO CD d 5 «D - — " ®co Si I s Sco' ecco •as w - "03^ > fl 00 ° fl"^ c3 ^2 ©CO ^« Q3 CD CD O fl * 3 "03^ S3 CD a 1 §CN fl-" 1 fed *-s fl CO 02 £.5 ■3 fl O 03 © - a- 3^ »t-s CD -H m 3 &H a M 92 GROUND WATEK IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. The extremes of suspended and dissolved solids that are indicated in Table 15 did not necessarily occur at the same time, but the amounts of the various dissolved constituents correspond to the reported dissolved solids. The waters of Mokelumne, Stanislaus, Tuolumne, and Merced rivers, which were sampled at or near the entrance of the streams into the valley and before they have been used for irrigation, are low in all constituents,* and they compare favorably with the waters of rivers along the Atlantic Coast, which are considered entirely acceptable in respect to their mineral con- stituents. The water of Hudson River at Hudson, N. Y., though less changeable in quality, is distinctly higher than any of these in dissolved matter, and the water of Lake Superior, carrying 60 parts per million of dissolved matter, is only slightly lower in mineral con- tent. Though the California stream waters fluctuate considerably in their load of mineral matter, they are no more highly mineralized at their worst than the best of the ground waters. They would be classed as moderately soft by the most critical standards; they are low in dissolved scaling and foaming constituents, and therefore sedimentation to remove the varying amounts of suspended matter is all that is required to make them good boiler waters. The com- puted alkali coefficients indicate that the waters even at the lowest stages are excellent for use in irrigation, and this classification is amply corroborated by experience. Kern River, sampled at the mouth of the canyon 5 miles northeast of Bakersfield, is somewhat higher in mineral content than the other streams, but still it is moderate. Such increase in the southern end of the valley is natural in view of the low rainfall, which has been insufficient to remove from the ground the accumulation of soluble salts. The analyses of water from San Joaquin River at the Southern Pacific Co.'s bridge near Lathrop, a few miles above Stockton (San Joaquin Bridge), show how evaporation, seepage from irrigated tracts, and surface and subsurface drainage from the entire valley increase the mineral content of the outflowing water and tend to differentiate it from the mountain tributaries. Yet, even though the river water is subject to these adverse influences, it is acceptable for irrigation and for boiler use. It varies greatly in quality from season to season, being lowest in dissolved matter during the spring freshets and highest during the fall when the river is at its lowest stages. Table 16. — Mean discharge of certain tributaries of San Joaquin River compared with the mean mineral content of that stream during 1906 and 1908. Mean suspended matter in the water of San Joaquin River near Lathrop (parts per million) Mean dissolved matter in the water of San Joaquin River near Lathrop (parts per million) Mean discharge in second-feet per square mile: « Stanislaus River at Knights Ferry Tuolumne River at Lagrange Merced River at Merced Falls * U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 213 and 251. 1906 60 161 3.63 3.33 2.63 1908 52 205 ,837 ,960 ,631 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE SURFACE WATERS. 93 The difference between the average quality of (lie water of San Joaquin River during different years is not very great, as the data in Table 16 indicate. The mean discharge of the three principal tributaries was approximately lour times as great in 1906 as in 1908, but the amount of dissolved matter at Sao Joaquin Bridge was less than 30 per cent greater during the dry year, and the decrease of suspended matter corresponding to the decrease in discharge is only 13 per cent. In general suspended matter varies directly and dis- solved matter inversely with the discharge of streams, but these relations are neither absolute nor invariable, and study of analyses of several other river waters has demonstrated that the fluctuation of the average content of mineral matter is not so great from year to year as the fluctuation in discharge. Table 17. — Comparison of the average condition of the water of San Joaquin River with the average condition of three tributaries in 1906. Parts per million. Percentage of anhydrous residue. Constituents. Stanis- laus R iver at Knights Ferry. Tuolum- ne River at La- grange. Merced River at Merced Falls. San Joaquin River near Lathrop. Stanis- laus River at Knights Ferry. Tuolum- ne River at La- grange. Merced River at Merced Falls. San Joaquin River near Lathrop. Suspended matter. . . 140 83 48 14 .20 11 5.0 11 .0 46 11 5.6 68 74 43 11 .19 10 4.3 12 .0 41 12 6.6 52 65 39 14 .10 9.1 3.8 9.3 .0 35 11 5.6 60 161 78 16 .23 18 8.0 27 .0 66 26 30 Total hardness a Silica (Si0 2 ) Iron (Fe) 17.3 .3 13.6 6.2 13.6 28.5 14.4 .2 13.1 5.6 15.8 26.3 20.0 .2 13.0 5.4 13.3 24.3 10.1 .1 Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potas- sium (Na+K) Carbonate 'radicle (C0 3 ) 11.4 5.1 17.1 20.9 Bicarbonate radicle (HC0 3 ) Sulphate radicle (SOi) Chlorine (CI) 13.6 6.9 15.8 8.8 15.8 8.0 16.4 18.9 a Computed. Comparison of the average condition of the San Joaquin for 1906 with the average condition of Stanislaus, Tuolumne, and Merced rivers, the three tributaries entering above San Joaquin Bridge, brings out the essential differences in the waters (Table 17). Though nearly all constituents are greater in quantity in the San Joaquin the principal change in chemical composition is increase of the percentages of sodium, potassium, and chlorine at the expense of carbonate; in other words, chlorides of the alkalies are added to the solution. The moderate increase in mineral constituents is less than what might be expected in view of the high mineral content of the west-side ground waters and the semiarid condition of the valley. 94 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. TULARE LAKE. The usually high mineral content of the water as well as the inter- mittent nature of Tulare Lake prevents its use for irrigation. As the landlocked basin forms an immense evaporating pan in a semiarid region the dissolved salts that are brought in by tributary streams have been deposited in the lake bed after the water has evaporated, the salts being partly redissolved later or left under or mixed with protective layers of silt. That such successive concentrations, dilu- tions, and depositions have taken place for many centuries is shown by the known history of the lake and by the highly mineralized con- dition of the first few hundred feet of silt underlying its bed. When the area of the lake has been greatest the proportion of sub- stances in solution has been low enough to permit use of the water for irrigation, but its usual unfitness is established by analyses made by chemists at the agricultural experiment station of the Univer- sity of California under the direction of E. W. Hilgard. The results of their tests, given in Table 18, can not be reduced to ionic form because of the methods of analysis and they are therefore given in the original hypothetical combinations, the only change being that the amounts have been converted from grains per gallon to parts per million. Table 18. — Partial analyses of water from Tulare Lakefl [Parts per million.] Total residue. Residue insoluble in water. Organic and vola- tile matter. Sodium carbonate. Sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, etc. A 1,445 1,403 1,401 1,399 1,400 3,504 5,188 660 1,301 230 92 128 38 91 76 478 604 521 648 616 676 B C D E 143 63 119 88 113 39 241 276 85 77 478 1,272 1,622 230 530 740 F. G 3,170 873 581 H I A. Near southeast corner of the lake inside of Root Island, 300 yards from shore. B. Near middle of lake at surface. C. Near middle of lake at depth of 10 feet. D. Near middle of lake at depth of 20 feet. (The first four samples apparently were collected m the spring of 1880.) E. Sample collected in January, 1880. F. Sample collected in June, 1888. G. Sample collected in February, 1889. H. Near mouth of Kings River, March 28, 1880. Taken at surface when a strong wind brought m more river water than usual. I. Near outlet of West Side Canal at depth of 10 feet. (Probably taken at same time as sample H.) Samples A to E inclusive were collected in 1880 while the lake was decreasing in size and its dissolved salts were being concentrated. The samples collected at reasonable distance from the shore indicate that the lake throughout carried practically the same amounts of a Compiled from Calfornia Univ. Agr. Exper. Sta., Rept. for 1890, appendix. CIIKMKWL COMPOSITION OK 'NIK SUKFACK WATERS. 95 dissolved matter. The water at that time was too high in mineral content to he suitable for use. Samples F and (1, taken in L888 and 1889 while tho lake was low, show much greater concentration of the soluhle substances, tho total residue having become more than tripled in 1889. Tho results of these tests prove the futility of any project involving use of tho lake waters for irrigation. If the supply were suitable during uncertain periods when the lake is largo the inevi- table concentration accompanying evaporation would make the water dangerous during low stages. Dilution of such strong water by mix- ing it with a supply from Kings River would result in reducing one excellent water to poor condition. Table 19. — Chemical composition of the water of Tulare Lake a Constituents. Total solids Organic and volatile matter. Silica(Si0 2 ) Alumina ( AI2O3) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3). Sulphate radicle (S O4) , Chlonne(Cl) Scale-forming ingredients (s) . Foaming ingredients (f) Probability of corrosion (c)&. , Alkali coefficient (inches) Parts per million. 1,400 39 8 20 24 458 25 735 230 236 107 1,300 N. C. 2.2 1,401 76 12 5 17 21 460 755 203 210 102 1,240 N.C. 2.2 5,188 276 32 14 13 1,760 120 1,945 1,020 994 95 5,100 N.C. Percentage of anhydrous residue. 1.47 1.76 33.60 1.83 26.56 16.87 17.32 100.00 0.92 .38 1.31 1.62 35.38 28.62 15.61 16.16 0.65 35.83 2.44 19.52 20.76 20.26 100.00 100.00 a Analyses made in the chemical laboratory of the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of California. b N. C.=noncorrosive. Table 19, giving the chemical composition of the lake water in parts per million and in percentage of the anhydrous residue, shows in more detail the nature and amounts of the dissolved substances. Analysis No. 1, corresponding to E in Table 18, gives the composition in January, 1880; No. 2 is apparently the same as C (Table 18), collected in the spring of 1880; and No. 3 shows the composition in February, 1889. The analyses, stated by Hilgard in hypothetical combinations, have been computed to ionic form and to parts per million by the writer. The water belongs to the sodium carbonate type, the proportion of alkaline earths being low. The percentage of calcium and magnesium decreased greatly between 1880 and 1889, a change compensated by a proportionate increase in alkalies. The relative amount of carbonate decreased appreciably, while sulphate and chloride correspondingly increased. This indicates the deposi- tion of alkaline-earth carbonates. The alkali coefficients are so low 96 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. that the water could not be considered suitable for irrigation. Though the amounts of scale-forming ingredients are low, and such waters would probably not corrode boilers, the contents of foaming constit- uents would render such supplies unfit for boiler service. Tulare Lake may be regarded as a catch basin whose water is valueless. BUENA VISTA RESERVOIR. Kern River has several delta channels spread fanlike in the valley west of Bakersfield, and some of these channels formerly conveyed the water of the river to a shallow depression comprising the basins of Kern and Buena Vista lakes and Buena Vista Swamp. In recent years, however, the original courses have been modified by levees and diversion canals until at present none of the flow reaches Kern Lake basin except intermittently through an irrigating ditch, and only the flow at high stages is directed toward Buena Vista reservoir. This body of water, occupying the former basin of Buena Vista Lake, in T. 31 S., R. 25 E., and T. 32 S., R. 25 E., is a storage reservoir for irrigation canals to the northwest. It is separated by a levee from the basin of Kern Lake, whose bed is now dry and under cultivation. The analysis of a sample from the east end of Buena Vista reservoir in the spring of 1896 is reported in Table 20. Table 20. — Partial analysis of water from Buena Vista reservoir. 1 [Parts per million.] Total residue 503 Organic and volatile matter 100 Residue insoluble in water Ill Residue soluble in water 292 Soluble residue: Sodium sulphate 269 Sodium chloride 23 Sodium carbonate Insoluble residue: Silica 53 Carbonates of calcium and magnesium and calcium sulphate . . 58 When the water is in the condition shown by these tests, or is more dilute, it is suitable for irrigation and for use in boilers. The water may be prevented from becoming too strong by continual replenish- ment from Kern Kiver. Water from Kern Lake on March 24, 1880, before it dried up, contained more than 3,600 parts per million 2 of mineral matter and was bad for irrigation. 1 Analysis performed in the laboratory of the California Agricultural Experiment Station under direc- tion of E. H. Loughridge. California Univ. Agr. Exper. Sta. Rept. for 1895-1897, p. 77. Converted into parts pel million by the writer. 2 California Univ. Agr. Exper. Sta. Rept. for 1890, appendix, p. 48. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE SURFACE WATERS. ( .)7 DENUDATION AND DEPOSITION. BATE OF DENUDATION IN THE SIEBRA. San Joaquin Valley has been filled by alluvium deposited by entering streams, but bow much of the deposition took place in an arm of the ocean, how much in a fresh-water lake, and how much above water, and many other circumstances of the fluvial upbuilding arc more or less conjectural. The rate at which material in the active basin of San Joaquin River— the portion east of the present river bed and north of Kings River — is now being moved has been calculated from the analyses quoted in Table 15 and gagings of the tributaries, and the results of these calculations are summarized in Table 21. During 1906 approximately 225 tons per square mile in the form of dissolved matter and 265 tons per square mile in the form of suspended matter were transported from the slopes of the Sierra Nevada into the valley. Table 21. — Rate of denudation on part of the western dope of the Sierra Nevada in 1906. Drainage basin. Mokelumne River above Clem- ents Stanislaus River above Knights Ferry Tuolumne River above La- grange Merced River above Merced Falls Sq. mi. 642 935 1,500 1,090 Mean run- Otf.a Sec.-ft. per sq. mi. 3.04 3.63 3.33 2.63 Weighted mean. Mineral content of water. Average suspended matter.* Paris per million. 84 140 68 52 Average dissolved matter. & Parts per million. 75 83 74 Denudation. Suspended matter. Tons per sq. mi. per year. 232 472 188 197 265 Dissolved matter. Tons per sq. mi. per year. 224 296 243 168 225 a V. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 213, 1907. b U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 237, 1910. The figures of denudation in tons of dissolved matter per square mile per year in Table 21 have been computed by multiplying together the mean run-off, the average dissolved matter, and the factor 0.985. Denudation as suspended matter can not be so well approximated by similar computation with averages because the amount of suspended matter carried during a heavy flood may be greater than that during all the rest of the year. Therefore, denudation as suspended matter has been computed for each 10-day period represented by the samples, and the sum of these estimates has been divided by the area of the basin to obtain the denudation in tons per square mile per year in the form of suspended matter. Thus the removal of material from 4,167 square miles of the Sierra has been estimated. If it is assumed that the denudation on the first three basins is typical of the north- 98205°— wsp 398—16^—7 98 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. ern two-thirds of the mountain slope and that that on Merced River basin is typical of the southern third, the weighted means for the 7,500 square miles of the Sierra tributary to San Joaquin Valley north of Kings River may be obtained. These two figures represent an annual movement of 1,700,000 tons of dissolved matter and 2,000,000 tons of suspended matter into the valley. This is equivalent to a denudation of 26 ten-thousandths of an inch annually, or 1 inch in 385 years, a high rate of denudation. These estimates do not take into account the dissolved matter that is carried into the valley by the ground waters, but as the present problem is essentially one of silt movement this chemically dis- solved matter can be neglected. No allowance has been made for the "bottom load," or material rolled along the beds of the streams, because the meager information in reference to this manner of trans- portation tends to show that the bottom load moved past a given point in a river that is not overloaded is a very small percentage of the total load. The sectional area of the heavy load near the bottom is only a # small part of the total cross section through which sus- pended matter is transported, and the bottom load necessarily moves more slowly than the lower filaments of water, which in turn move more slowly than any other waters in the cross section. Therefore, though bottom material may be obvious because of the size of its particles, it probably constitutes only a small fraction by weight of the total material that is moved. How long a period may be represented by estimates based on one year's studies is uncertain. According to the figures representing the mean discharge of several streams in the valley, 1 the run-off during 1906 was considerably higher than normal, and the estimates of trans- ported silt may, therefore, be considered greater than the normal for the present century. RATE OF DEPOSITION IN THE VALLEY. As no measurements of the discharge of San Joaquin River near Lathrop were made during the period in which samples were col- lected, 1.00 second-foot per square mile has been taken as a reasonable estimate of the average run-off throughout the 16,500 square miles of the basin north of Tulare Lake. This figure and the averages of analyses at Lathrop for 1906 (Table 17) give the annual removal of material by San Joaquin River as 2,600,000 tons of dissolved and 1,000,000 tons of suspended matter. That is, about 1,000,000 tons more of suspended matter and 900,000 tons less of dissolved matter are brought into the valley annually by the active east-side tribu- taries of the San Joaquin than are carried to the bay. The excess i Clapp, W. B., The surface water supply of California: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 213, 1907. n PBS OF GROUND WATER. 99 of dissolved matter undoubtedly is contributed by underflow. Though no perennial streams enter San Joaquin River from the west side above, the sampling station at San Joaquin Bridge, some sus- pended and dissolved matter undoubtedly reaches the main stream over the surface during the rainy season. On the other hand, some of the suspended material brought into the valley by mountain streams is later disintegrated and dissolved and passes out in solution. These features slightly modify the estimates, some increasing and others decreasing the computed differences between outgoing and incoming material; due allowance for their influence, however, seems to be made by assuming that the difference between the amounts of outgoing and incoming silt represents the present annual accretion. This quantity, 1,000,000 tons, distributed evenly over the 3,500 square miles of plains region between San Joaquin River and the Sierra would represent an annual deposition of 285 tons per square mile. If this material, thoroughly dried and compacted by pressure, is assumed to weigh 100 pounds per cubic foot, 1 it would represent an annual upbuilding of 24 ten- thousandths of an inch, or 1 inch in about 420 years. As wells in the valley have penetrated 2,000 to 2,500 feet of sedi- ment, this annual accretion would indicate a period of not less than 6,000,000 years for the fluvial filling. It is, of course, absolutely a matter of speculation whether the present rate of deposition repre- sents the average rate during the entire period in which the valley has been filled. Mr. Mendenhall states (p. 28) that u the wells drilled throughout the valley prove that the sediments underlying it are all fine," and this indicates that past rates of deposition could not have been much greater than the present rate, for if they had been the transported material w T ould have been coarser and the parti- cles of deeper sediments in the valley would now be larger than those of the upper sediments. But even under the extreme assumption that 4,000,000 tons, or twice the present amount, of silt had been brought annually into the valley and that none of it had been transported to the ocean, the time of filling would not be less than 1,500,000 years. This calculation, approximate and based on hypotheses though it may be, indicates that the time occupied by the valley filling in- volves geologic periods and not a few thousand years. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE GROUND WATERS. TYPES OF GROUND WATER. The wells in San Joaquin Valley north of Tulare County yield three general types of water in relation to geographic position. The east- side and west-side types, named, as may be inferred, from their 1 Dole, R. B., and Stabler, Herman, Denudation: In U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 234, p. 80,1909. 100 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. position in the valley, are distinguishable from each other par- ticularly by their difference in content of sulphate (S0 4 ), and the intermediate or axial type, occurring along the strip between the areas of typical east-side and west-side waters and -blending into them, is distinguishable chiefly by its relatively high content of alkalies. As this geographic grouping greatly facilitates under- standing of the general characteristics of the ground supplies and their usefulness discussion of it has been taken up in as much detail as the assays warrant. When the determinations of sulphate are plotted on a map, as in Plate II (in pocket), it is seen that nearly all the waters high in sulphate and no waters low in sulphate were found on the west side; and that very few waters on the east side north of Kern County contain more than 10 parts per million of sulphate. Waters high in sulphate are scattered over the east side of Kern County, but not enough tests were made to warrant definite conclusions regarding their distribution, and the following statements therefore relate particularly to conditions in the area north of that county. CONDITIONS NORTH OF KINGS RIVER. OCCURRENCE OF SULPHATE AND NONSULPHATE WATERS. Water from wells less than 1,200 feet deep contains 80 to 2,000 parts per million of sulphate in the area west of the limit indicated by A' A' in Plate II (in pocket). The quantity of the radicle is usually less in the northern part than in the broad plains south of Newman, where arid conditions of water supply are more nearly approached. A decrease from west to east in the quantity of sulphate is noticeable in most of the western area, but there are many excep- tions to this relation, and it is not nearly so striking as the abrupt change that occurs between the limits indicated by lines A'A' and C'C (PL II). Wells more than 200 feet deep east of the limit indicated by C'C yield water containing not more than 10 to 20 parts per million of sulphate and usually not more than 5 parts. Wells 200 to 1,000 feet deep were tested all over the eastern part of the valley; a well 2,500 feet deep at Stockton, one 1,800 feet deep at Corcoran, one 1,400 feet deep near Pixley, and a 1,300-foot well near Madera also were tested and none yields water carrying more than 10 parts of sulphate. It may be concluded, therefore, that this is a general condition applying to the entire eastern area north of Kern County. The water of wells less than 200 feet deep in the same territory north of Kings River contains practically no sulphate, but south of that river in Kings and Tulare counties high sulphate occurs in the water of shallow wells for a few miles east of the axis, and then abruptly disappear to recur in the water of only a few scattered wells between there and the foothills of the Sierra. The four waters that CONDITIONS NORTH OF KINGS RIVER, 101 were found to contain much sulphate far easl of the axis in Tulare County are from wells in areas thai have mil been irrigated, and the eround around them shows accumulations of white alkali. The wells probably penetrate interdelta aroas where alkali sails have been deposited l\\ evaporation, and their waters might be improved by the leaching effect of irrigation accompanied by drainage. East of the boundary indicated by line B'B' (PL II) sulphate does not occur in appreciable amount in the water of wells Jess than 200 feet, deep except in the few scattered areas of Tulare County. The boundary indicated by A'A' parallels San Joaquin River and Kings River Slough, lying one-half to G miles west of them from San Joaquin Bridge to Tulare Lake. The boundary indicated by C'C' runs in the same general direction, passing just west of Stockton, Modesto, Livingston, Lemoore, and Angiola. Boundary B'B' lies between A'A' and C'C' from Stockton to Lemoore, where it crosses C'C, diverging gradually from it and ultimately curving in a broad sweep eastward to the foothills. These boundaries do not show the exact limits of the areas of sulphate-bearing waters within 2 or 3 miles east or west, but in view of the large number of tests it is fairly certain that wells 1,200 feet or less in depth west of boundary A'A' yield sulphate waters and that wells less than 1,200 feet and probably those 2,000 or more feet deep east of boundary C'C' yield nonsulphate waters. Between these two boundaries, wmich separate the areas of typical east-side and west-side waters, lies a strip 3 to 15 miles wide in the axis of the valley, where the change in sulphate content occurs. North of Kings River the change in the water from wells of the same depth along parallels is abrupt, and the farther the wells are from the west side of this strip in the axis the deeper they can be bored without striking sulphate water. CAUSE OF THE DIFFERENCE IX COMPOSITION OF WATER. This essential difference in the chemical composition of the ground waters is traceable to the structure of the plain. Geologically San Joaquin Valley is a deep trough that has been filled to its present level by material washed down from the slopes of the mountains bounding it, and the chemical characteristics of the filling material are essentially those of the rocks from which the material has been derived. The rocks of the Sierra are principally granites, and meta- morphic igneous slates and schists. These hard, difficultly soluble rocks and the sedimentary rocks derived from them that lie along the eastern foothills as far south as Madera County and also in Kern County have supplied to the valley material that is in turn capable of yielding little mineral matter to water percolating through it; consequently the areas of east-side debris furnish ground waters 102 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. notably low in all mineral constituents. On the other hand, the rocks of the Coast Range, consisting largely of Cretaceous shales and sand- stones and the calcareous gypsiferous shales, sandstones, and clays derived from them are much more soluble, and the filling material of the west side of the valley is therefore distinctly different from that of the east side. The water that passes through the west-side allu- vium becomes highly impregnated with mineral matter and consti- tutes a distinct type of supply whose essential characteristic is the presence of large quantities of sulphate and correspondingly large quantities of bases. CONTACT ZONE OF SULPHATE AND NONSULPHATE WATERS. In order to trace more closely the boundaries of these character- istic types of water cross sections have been plotted along the east and west lines indicated in Plate II (see cross sections AB to MN, inclusive, PL III). The numbers on the cross sections represent the amounts of sulphate found in the ground waters. The position of the dot near each number in reference to the surface profile cor- responds to the depth of the well, and its position in reference to the vertical axis corresponds to the distance of the well from the west side of the valley, all the cross sections originating at the foothills of the Coast Range. Dotted lines aa' indicate the known eastern bound- aries of zones of sulphate water and dotted lines bb' the known western boundaries of zones of water very low in sulphate. The width of the uncertain strip between aa' and bb' obviously differs in the several sections according to the available information regarding quality. Solid lines cc' indicate in each section the probable junc- tion between the zones of sulphate and nonsulphate water, and the degree of uncertainty of its location is clearly indicated by its relation to the other lines. The upper end of boundary cc' is located on the west side of the present beds of the axial watercourses in all the sections except IJ and MN, though the uncertain strip is 2 to 10 miles wide at the surface except in section MN. This apparently empirical location of the boundary is explainable by the fact that local informa- tion indicates the sulphate or nonsulphate character of the water near the surface in many places where tests could not be made. No analyses of water along the location of section AB are available on the west side nearer the river than Banta, but the poor quality of two waters less than 2 miles west of the river was evident from their taste. In section CD, aa' is very near the location of the river, and east of Newman and Los Banos and at Mendota (sections EF, GH, and KL) shallow borings, when they contain water, are currently reported to yield highly mineralized supplies. Therefore it is probable that cc' should have about the surface location indicated. The abrupt change in character of the waters is not absolutely demonstrated for 20C- jysjgSzz a c 'X .■.•.'•;•;•.'•.•.■•.■•. ■.'•../ \ s :•'•...••;. ■•.••:•;.«?/ '\y:szi}: : :-47i:i 500- 1,000 • SECTI 200- ■Seala <-V W3&AY/7&/7, 500- 1,000 - c' SECT li 200- . /fiW '.'■/5SS 500- 1,000 - • 335 \ ' S ECT SECT 10 5 10 CROSS IONS SHOWIN , S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 398 ~~""~~"~"^^ River -TTTTTTTTTT/ffiZff ^~-~ -_ __i SU >,a,l, ■/'; ■> V« '" J^V >. SECTION p-S 0-T Ground water having Ground water having Trace of sulphate high sulphate lowsulphatt m Location ofbottom of well. Number reprc^oni.- oiiiphai- ■ '.Silent of its water Eastern IrtTiitofgrounTwatVlinownlo contain much sulphate /estern limitofgroundwafe?VioWto~cohtain very little sulptiJtt; Probable junction of waters high and low in sulphate CROSS SECTIONS SHOWING SULPHATE CONTENT OF GROUND WATERS IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. CONDITIONS NORTH OF KINGS RIVER. 103 the entire distance from San Joaquin Bridge to Bangs River, but thai the transition is effected very quickly in some regions is shown by the data in sections LI and MN, in which the sulphate content of the ground waters drops from 100 to 500 parts per million down to practically nothing within 2 or 3 miles. In all the sections cc' dips eastward; that position is clearly estab- lished in sections EF, KL, and MN, and comparison of data for wells near the other sections but not included in them shows the proba- bility of a generally similar dip everywhere between San Joaquin Bridge and Kings River. The dip of cc' explains why some shallow wells near the axis yield better water than deep ones. For example, wells of any depth less than 600 feet in Newman (see section EF, PL III) yield water high in sulphate; in Stevinson Colony, a few miles farther east, however, water from wells less than 80 feet deep contains almost no sulphate, but water from wells exceeding 250 feet in depth is as high in sulphate as that in Newman, and a well in Livingston or east of that city could probably be drilled to any depth without striking sulphate water. RELATION BETWEEN THE CHARACTER OF THE WATERS AND THE ORIGIN OF THE SILTS. What relation the boundary between these types of water bears to the junction of the east and west encroachments of silt deposited during the filling of the valley is a geologic problem that need not be extensively considered. It is significant that the present bed of the river, the lowest part of the land surface, coincides so nearly with the surface boundary between the types of ground water. As silts that are now transported to the axis from both sides of the valley are sharply divided from each other by being diverted to a northerly course at the river ground waters moving toward the axis — at least those near the surface — would be differentiated in chemical composition because the sediments through which they are passing are derived from rocks of different character. Such waters can not mingle to any great extent both because of their being balanced by hydrostatic pressure and because of their diver- sion underground to follow the northerly course of the river. Con- sequently it is reasonable to conclude that the bed of the river always has been the junction line of the two apposed influxes of debris and that the line of demarcation between the types of water represents successive positions of the river channel during the up- building of the valley. Such supposition readily explains the com- paratively sharp change in the character of the waters, a condition that would not exist if the east-side waters had pushed westward into the west-side sediments or if the west-side waters had entered the east-side sediments. The westward migration of the bed of the 104 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. stream is caused by the greater proportion of silt contributed by the east-side streams because of their greater discharge and the more rapid upheaval of the Sierra. The only well on the west side found to contain very little sul- phate is 2,250 feet deep and in sec. 14, T. 18 S., R. 18 E., midway between the locations of cross sections MN and OP and about 3 miles west of Kings River Slough. This apparent lack of sulphate in the waters of the deep sediments on the west side indicates the presence of sediments like those of the east side below the typical material of the west side, but as no other well approaching this one in depth could be found, this single test does not furnish sufficient evidence for definite conclusions. CONDITIONS AROUND TULARE LAKE. CONTACT ZONE OF SULPHATE AND NONSULPHATE WATERS. The relations between the east-side and west-side types of ground water change materially near the outlet of Kings River. Shallow wells bordering the north and east shores of Tulare Lake yield water high in sulphate and other constituents, but deep wells in the same area yield water exceptionally low in all constituents, including sulphate. The reason for this apparently confused con- dition can be made clear by consideration of the cross sections depicted in Plate III and figure 3. The section indicated by OP (PI. Ill) starts at the foot of the hills west of Huron, crosses Kings River Slough southwest of Lemoore, and passes through Hanford. The sections indicated by QR, QS, and QT have their origin at a common point in T. 21 S., R. 18 E., and radiate across the basin of Tulare Lake, passing, respectively, south of Stratford, through Tulare, and north of Angiola. lines aa', bb', and cc' represent, respectively, the known eastern boundary of sulphate water, the known western boundary of nonsulphate water, and the probable contact between those two types of water. The relations between aa', bb', and cc' in sections OP-QT indicate that the overlapping of the zone of sulphate-bearing waters is due to saline material that has been deposited in the lake bed during suc- cessive evaporations of the lake water. Kern, Kaweah, and other rivers now regularly or intermittently tributary to Tulare Lake formerly discharged their waters north toward San Joaquin River, but the outpushing delta of Kings River, gradually cutting off the higher end of the valley, formed the basin of Tulare Lake and altered the river courses. Shallow Tulare Lake, which fluctuates greatly in area, has been completely dry within recent years, and undoubt- edly similar periods of low water and dryness have been often included in the history of the lake since its formation. After the water has CONDTTTONS AROUND TULABB I kKE. 105 been removed by evaporation the mineral substances thus left, behind have strongly impregnated the bed with sails, which Later influxes of silt have partly covered and protected from resolution. Thus as the valley has boon built up the Lake basin has been Oiled with alter- .Setmtropic ; Tnlare Lahe Stratford . SECTION U-V SECTION Y-Z 10 15 Ground water having Ground water having Trace of sulphate Ground water of Location of bottom of well, high sulphate very little sulphate uncertain quality Number represents sulphate content of its water Lower limit of ground water Upper limit of ground water Probable upper limit of groundwater known to contain muchsulphate known to contain very little sulphate containing very little sulphate Figure 2.— Longitudinal sections showing sulphate content of ground water in the vicinity of Tulare Lake. nating or mixed layers of silt and saline deposits that now yield highly mineralized waters to wells entering them. Wells that pass com- pletely through the old lake beds on the east side reach sediments capable of furnishing excellent supplies because they are unmixed with the saline deposits. Therefore aa' in sections OP-QT marks 106 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. not only the known east boundary of the zone of sulphate water, but also the known boundary of the zone of saline impregnation, while cc' shows the probable boundary between the east-side and west-side types of water for part of its length and the boundary between the east-side and the superimposed "lake residue" waters for the re- mainder. The correct position of dd', indicating the probable western boundary of the lake deposits, is highly uncertain, but the eastern boundary of the zone affected by the lake residues is fairly well fixed by the results of tests of water from shallow wells. It runs southeast from Lemoore (see B'B', PL II) to Corcoran, thence to Angiola, beyond which its location is not well defined. One well 40 feet deep east of B'B' in sec. 1, T. 19 S., R. 21 E., yields water con- taining 65 parts per million of sulphate, but this doubtless enters a small isolated tract of alkali. The distribution of sulphate in the waters under the basin of the take is portrayed also by longitudinal sections UV to YZ in figure 2, the locations of which are indicated in Plate II. The known boundaries of zones of sulphate and nonsulphate waters are indicated by aa' and bb' as in Plate III except that in the longitudinal sections the boundaries mark north and south instead of east and west limits. The " uncertain area" in the section across the east side of the present lake from Semitropic to Stratford (section UV) is necessarily extensive because so few ground waters were available for examination. In the same section cc' indicates the probable contact of sulphate and nonsulphate waters at the north end of the lake, but no similar boundary can be located at the south end, for the only water that could be tested between the lake and Semitropic was taken from a 20-foot dug well and contained 1,130 parts per million of sulphate. More abundant data in section WX, 8 miles east of and parallel to UV, permit location of the contact (cc') with fair degree of proba- bility at an average depth of 170 feet. In the section represented by YZ, 3 miles east of and parallel to WX, the influence of the lacus- trine deposits does not appear. The sulphate water in one well near Hanford probably comes from a small spot of alkali. The shallow wells in the southern part of this section are affected by the sediments of different character in Kern County. TOTAL MINERAL CONTENT OF WATERS. Additional evidence that the highly mineralized condition of the aquifers under the lake is caused by saline residues is afforded by the results of other tests besides those for sulphate. All excessive amounts of chloride and bicarbonate in ground waters near the lake were found either west of or almost exactly in the position indicated by bb' (PL III), a fact indicating that bb' represents the eastern limit of the zone of highly mineralized waters and also indicating concen- CONDITIONS ABOUND CULABE LAKE. 107 SECTION Q-T 5 10 15 Ground waters contain less than400 parts per million of total solids Location of bottom of well. Number represents total - solids of its water o. —a' t Eastern limit of ground water known to contain much sulphate b — b' Western limit of ground water Known to containvery little sulphate c —c' Probable junction of waters high and low in sulphate d ^'Probable western limitof water impregnated with mineral matter by deposits inthe basin of Tulare Lake Figure 3.— Cross sections showing mineral content of ground water in the vicinity of Tulare Lake. 108 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. tration and deposition from highly saline solutions as the causes of the impregnation of the shallow waters with mineral matter. The relation of the total mineral content of the waters to the probable boundaries of the old lake basin is graphically summarized in figure 3. The boundaries aa', bb', cc', and dd' in these four sections are those shown in Plate III, but the figures give the calculated total mineral content of the waters. All waters from the alluvium above the boundary indicated by dd'c are high in mineral content and waters from wells west of the lake are, of course, also high for the west side is normally a region of high mineral content. The bot- toms of five wells yielding water containing more than 400 parts of total solids are in the boundary indicated by bb' (fig. 3), but no well whose water exceeded that amount was found in the eastern part of the area. THICKNESS OF THE LACUSTRINE DEPOSITS. The maximum thickness of the lacustrine deposits is not entirely established because of the limited range of depth of wells that could be tested and because of uncertainty whether the high mineral content of wells near the middle of the basin is due to mineralization by typical west-side alluvium or by lake deposits. Along boundary B'B' (PL II) the thickness is not more than 8 or 10 feet. Southwest of Lemoore the water of a well 375 feet deep (section OP, PI. Ill) con- tains 121 parts of sulphate, and the water of a well 386 feet deep near Stratford (section QR, PL III) contains 381 parts of sulphate, but that of an 850-foot well as near the slough and 3 miles farther north yields water containing only 10 parts per million of sulphate. The water of a 95-foot well (section QS, PL III) in sec. 25, T. 20 S., R. 21 E., con- tains 127 parts of sulphate, and that of a 400-foot well near by prac- tically none; the water of a 102-foot well in sec. 23, T. 22 S., R. 22 E. (section QT, PL III), contains 1,640 parts, and that of a 216-foot well in the next section practically none. It may be concluded that the maximum thickness of the lacustrine deposits is certainly not less than 100 feet nor greater than 850 feet and probably about 400 feet and that the thickness is much less near the edges of the basin. Boundaries cc' and dd' have been located in sections OP to QT inclusive (PL III) in accordance with these conclusions. PROPER DEPTH OF WELLS NEAR TULARE LAKE. Plate IV shows the depths to which wells near Tulare Lake should be sunk in order to strike water of good quality. The purple con- tour lines, indicating the depth in feet below which waters containing sulphate or excessive amounts of other mineral constituents will probably not be encountered, have been located in accordance U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY iEORGE OTIS SMITH. DIRECTOR WATER-SUPPLY I'Af'l M MAP OF TULARE LAKE AND VICINITY, CALIFORNIA Showing depth to which sulphate water may be obtained and location of wells from which water was tested 5 5 10 Miles 1915 LEGEND -i% ao°' Location of well from which water Line west of which ground waters Contours indicating depth in feet was tested. Black number indi- contain large amounts of sulphate below which sulphate waters will cates depth in feet; purple number (Reproduced from Plate II) probably not be encountered indicates sulphate content of water ( Wells should be bored 50 to 100 in parts per million. T signifies feet deeper to assure good water) trace of sulphate CONDITIONS SOUTH OF TULARE LAKE. 1() ( .) with the data in sections OP to YZ, inclusive of Plate III and figures 2 and 3. Dependence lias aecessarily been placed in the reported depths of wells. Boundary A' A' corresponds to boundary A'A' Indicated in Plate 1 1. For safety wells should be sunk 50 to 100 feet deeper than the depths indicated by the contours, and as practically all the water in the upper strata is highly impregnated with mineral matter the casings should be tight down to the good water. Though it is not known how far west of the location of the 500-foot contour wells can be drilled without encountering sulphate water, line A'A' rep- resents the extreme western limit of nonsulphate water at all depths, and the safe limit even for deep wells is probably not beyond the middle of the lake, the shore of which in 1910 is shown by a dotted line located from personal observation and local report without instrumental data. Within the area near Tulare Lake designated as yielding nonsulphate water spots may be found where supplies of poor quality may be afforded by deep wells, but such spots will be small. Information regarding the quality of ground waters immediately south of Alpaugh is scanty. CONDITIONS SOUTH OF TULARE LAKE. Data on the quality of ground water in Kern County are restricted to so few areas that conclusions can be formed only in respect to local characteristics, the analyses being discussed in more detail on pages 292-294. The water of wells 200 to 1,000 feet deep at Pond, Semitropic, Buttomvillow, and Oil Center contains little sulphate, but the deep water in the basin of Kern Lake contains some, and nearly all ground water southeast of Bakersfield to a depth of at least 300 feet seems to contain much sulphate. A well 686 feet deep 6 miles west of Buttonwillow, whose water carries 49 parts per million of sulphate, may mark the eastern boundary of the west-side type of water. Contrary to conditions farther north, many shallow waters in the east part of the valley in Kern County are rather high in sulphate and other substances. This high mineral content may be due to the influence of the Pliocene and Miocene sediments at the base of the Sierra, which in Kern County are different in texture and composition from those north of Madera County. Cretaceous rocks are plentiful and the ground waters are notori- ously bad in the foothills south of the basin of Kern Lake. There- fore, the high sulphate content of ground water in the adjacent portions of the valley is probably caused by the character of the silt washed down from the hills as well as by concentration similar to that which has occurred in the basin of Tulare Lake. The data 110 GKOUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. in section D'E' (fig. 4) indicates a gradual increase of mineral con- tent of the ground water from north to south across the basin of Kern Lake, the bed of which is now dry and under cultivation. The deep waters under the lake bed contain measurable quantities of sulphate, but none is particularly high in dissolved solids, and all are greatly superior to the shallow waters around Tulare Lake. This more favorable condition is explained by the fact that the Kern basin has not been landlocked so long as that of Tulare Lake. KernRiver/ BaKersfieiaj^288 Bt> 1507-220— 175^M 70 i IS T 16 ? 30 S & ±3 'V Sea level 115 300 44*> 210 34- Location of bottom of well. Upper number represents total mineral content and lower number sulphate content of its water Trace of sulphate Figure 4.— Section D'E', showing content of sulphate and total mineral matter of ground waters in the basin of Kern Lake. COMPOSITION AND QUALITY OF EAST-SIDE WATERS. Ground waters distinctly of the east-side type occur east of the boundaries indicated by B'B' and C'C in Plate II (in pocket), and the location and significance of these boundaries have been dis- cussed (pp. 100-104). Wells less than 1,100 feet deep in the east side north of Kern County yield waters much alike in total mineral con- tent and in composition. These waters are the best ground supplies in the valley, being usually acceptable for all purposes and belonging almost exclusively to the calcium carbonate class 1 typical of humid and semihumid regions. On the east side near the axis sodium carbonate and some sodium chloride waters are found, but sulphate waters are found only in a few widely separated tracts in Tulare County. The averages in Table 22 show the characteristics of the east-side waters and their similaritv to each other. 1 For the explanation of this and similar terms defining the character of water see p. 80. COMPOSITION \M> QUALITY OF EAST-BIDE WATERS. Ill Table 22. Average chemical composition and Quality of water from wells 10 to 1,100 feet deep east of the boundaries indicated oy />"/>" and <"(" in Plate If. I raits p'.>r million exoepl as otherwise designated.] Number of analyses Carbonate radicle (COa) Bicarbonate radicle (HCOs). Sulphate radicle (SO<) Chlorine (CI) Sodium and potassium (Na+Kl Total hardness as CaCOg... . Total solids Alkali coefficient (k) (inches) S e a 1 e - f o r m i n g constit- uents (s) Foaming constituents (f) . . . San Joa- quin Coun- ty. 10 id) 5 35 35 140 280 50 180 LOO Btanls- laus Coun- Merced Madera Conn- i Coun- ty, ly. 21 26 160 140 Tr. Tr. 50 25 35 30 140 100 310 210 60 60 190 140 90 80 20 125 4 40 20 120 220 60 160 CO Fresno coun- ty. :;i 135 20 TO 210 70 130 80 Tulare Coun- ty. 67 Tr. 140 8 35 40 100 240 40 140 110 Aver- age. a 208 140 4 35 30 110 240 60 160 90 Limits of indi- \ [dual deter- mination . High- est. 18 344 202 490 500 500 1,500 400 460 1,000 Low- est. (I 35 Tr. 4 4 4 50 4 40 a Total. The averages, which have been computed from the results of the assays, are arranged in geographic order from north to south, and they are graphically represented in Plate V (p. 120) . Tests were made for carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, chloride, and total hardness, and the other quantities are computed from the results of those tests. The mean of 208 analyses represents a water moderate in total solids, fairly hard, and without distinct taste due to mineral matter, and therefore unobjectionable from a chemical standpoint for domestic use; such water would be fair for boiler use, as it contains only a moderate amount of scale-forming matter and little foaming matter; and it would be entirely acceptable for irrigation. The averages by counties represent waters of the same type, for the differences in some of the constituents are not great enough to have particular signifi- cance. The apparent tendency toward decrease southward in hard- ness and bicarbonate may be explained by the decrease in rainfall, which results in a decrease in the quantity of carbon dioxide supplied by decaying vegetation. The last two columns of Table 22 show that local fluctuations in quality are far greater than the differences in the county averages, and they indicate that there is considerable latitude for selection when supplies of lowest mineral content are necessary. The fluctuations are much greater in Tulare County than in any other part of the region. Altogether the waters of wells less than 1,100 feet deep are more nearly uniform in quality throughout the east side than in any other part of the valley. 112 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. Table 23. — Chemical composition of water from wells more than 1,100 feet deep the boundaries indicated by B / B / and C'C in Plate II. [Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] Of Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) Bicarbonate radicle (HC0 3 ) Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) Chlorine(Cl) Sodium and potassium (Na+K) a. Total hardness as CaC03 Total solidsa Depth of wells (feet) San Joaquin County. 110 5 2,900 1,300 1,650 5,900 1,200 to 2, 500 Madera Fresno County. County. Tr. 137 417 Tr. Tr. 1,160 135 485 240 776 47 2,000 610 1,310 1,200 Tulare County. 18 6S 5 15 50 8 170 1,400 a Computed. East-side wells more than 1,100 feet deep yield water entirely differ- ent in composition from that of shallower wells. Four wells, 1,200 to 2,500 feet deep, in San Joaquin County yield salt water unfit for use. (See Table 23.) The 1,310-foot well near Madera supplies salt water much lower in mineral content than that from the deep wells in San Joaquin County. The 1,200-foot well east of Wheatville, Fresno County, yields water much lower in chloride and all other constitu- ents, but carbonate is so high that the water is poor for irrigation. The supply of the 1,400-foot well in T. 22 S., R. 24 E., represents con- ditions in Tulare County, where some of the best waters are struck at depths greater than 1,100 feet. This sodium carbonate water is low in mineral content and fairly acceptable for boiler supply and for irrigation. It is important to note that neither this well nor those as deep as 2,000 feet near Tulare Lake encounter salt water, as do wells of similar depth near Stockton. COMPOSITION AND QUALITY OF WEST-SIDE WATERS. GENERAL CHARACTER. Typical west-side ground waters occur west of the boundary in- dicated by A'A' in Plate II (in pocket). They are not so uniform in mineral content as the waters of the east side, but they are much higher in mineral content, and they are characterized by high per- centages of sulphate. Calcium sulphate or gypsum waters occur generally near the foothills of the Coast Range, and sodium sulphate waters near the axis of the valley. The west-side supplies as a class are so highly mineralized that they are very hard and are unsuitable for boiler use without purification. Nearly all of them have a dis- tinct " alkali" taste and many are unpalatable. Fortunately, how- ever, the sulphate nature of the dissolved matter makes it relatively less harmful to crops, and comparatively few supplies are absolutely unfit for irrigating lands. COMPOSITION AND Ql'AI.ITY OF WEST-SIDE WATERS. 1 1 3 QUALITY IN RELATION TO GEOGRAPHIC POSITION. The quality of the west-side ground waters differs so much from place to place that no more definite description of the waters as a class can bo given than that In the preceding paragraph. The region has, therefore, been roughly divided into districts, in which the sup- plies are more or less comparable with each other, for, unlike the wa- ters of the east side, the waters of the west side arc dependent in quality more on geographic position than on depth. The averages of analyses of water in each district, presented in Table 24, indicate ap- proximately the character of the west-side supplies and the differ- ences to which they are subject. The last column, giving the average quality of ground waters on the east side of the valley, has been added for comparison. The total mineral content of water in each district is graphically represented in Plate V (p. 120). Table 24. — Average chemical composition and quality of ground waters west of the boundary indicated by A' A' in Plate II. [ Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] Number of analyses Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) Bicarbonate radicle (HC0 3 ) Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) Chlorine (CI) Sodium and potassium (Na+K) Total hardness as CaC0 3 Total solids a Alkali coefficient (k) (inches) a. . Scale-forming constituents (s) a. Foaming constituents (f) a San Joa- quin County near' foothills. Tr. 180 690 300 340 620 1,800 4 650 900 San Joa- quin County between Tracy and San Joa- quin River. Stanislaus County. 15 Tr. 190 200 75 50 280 6-tO 30 310 230 21 Tr. 220 220 300 130 400 930 21 420 340 Merced County northwest of Los Banos. 14 Tr. 240 70 60 50 250 510 40 300 150 Merced County southeast of Los Banos. 9 Tr. 180 330 440 360 380 1,530 6 410 Fresno County northwest of Mendota. Fresno Fresno County County Kings County. near foot- hills south near slough south of of Mendota. Mendota. 7 10 3 Tr. 145 250 70 1,160 420 290 130 70 50 240 240 110 1,040 250 170 2,100 1,030 610 12 20 25 840 280 240 640 660 310 Average quality of east-side waters. Number of analyses Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) Sulphate radicle (S0 4 ) Chlorine (CI) Sodium and potassium (Na+K) a Total hardness as CaC03 Total solids a Alkali coefficient, (k) (inches) a... Scale-forming constituents (s) a . . . Foaming constituents (f) a Tr. 150 1,140 220 350 900 2,300 9 950 900 140 4 35 30 110 240 60 160 a Computed. The waters of five wells, 46 to 268 feet deep, in San Joaquin County between Tracy and the western foothills belong to the sodium sulphate class, and they carry 900 to 2,500 parts per million of min- 98205°— wsp 398—16 8 114 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. eral matter, 250 to 960 parts of which is sulphate. They are poor for irrigation and too high in scale-forming and foaming constituents to be fit for boiler use. Alkalies predominate in some of the 1 5 waters from widely scattered wells 20 to 400 feet deep in the same county south and east of Tracy and west of San Joaquin River, but most of the waters belong to the calcium sulphate class. All would be considered poor for boilers because they would form large quantities of hard scale and would cause foaming. They are better than the waters near the foothills, however, and they are low enough in mineral matter to be suitable for irrigation. Depth bears no apparent relation to quality, except that in certain sections the shallow supplies are somewhat worse than the deep ones. The part of Stanislaus County between San Joaquin River and the western foothills is narrower than the rest of the west side, and con- sequently the normal ground water there is affected by mixture with the more highly mineralized water that is slowly percolating north- ward from farther south in the valley. The 21 supplies that were tested in western Stanislaus County differ greatly from each other in composition, ranging from the calcium sulphate to the sodium chloride type. The artesian waters near San Joaquin River, like those in Stevinson colony across the river, are salty, rather poor for irrigation, and capable of foaming in boilers. Wells 20 to 200 feet deep through- out the region yield supplies containing chlorine in amounts ranging from 15 to 300 parts without apparent regularity. Most of the waters could be used for irrigation, but none is good for boiler use because of the high content of scale-forming and other ingredients. Conditions in Merced County are similarly complex and irregular. West and north of and including Los Banos 14 wells, 23 to 580 feet deep, yield better water than wells southeast of that city. Sulphate is lower than in other parts of the west side and chloride likewise is moderate, but both radicles are always present in appreciable amount. The waters generally can be used for irrigation without causing trouble by their mineral content, but they need to be softened before being used in boilers. Waters from different depths show irregular local differences of quality. The ground supplies southeast of Los Banos are poorer than those northwest of that city, and resemble those of northwestern Fresno County. They are strong sodium sulphate and sodium chloride waters that range from fair to very poor for irrigation. Their con- tents of foaming and scale-forming ingredients are so great that they are poor for boiler use, and some of them are industrially useless. A few shallow wells near irrigation ditches yield water better than the average. COMPOSITION AND QUALITY OF WEST-SIDE WATERS. 11;*) The broad flat west side of Fresno County, at present occupied by sheep ranches and a few isolated farms, did not afford much oppor- tunity for investigation, but the results of the tests that could be made make it apparent that this region yields the hardest and most strongly mineralized ground waters in the west side of San Joaquin Valley. Most of the wells near San Joaquin River and Kings River Slough yield sodium sulphate waters lower in mineral content than those farther west. Ten waters from wells thus situated and 20 to 1,100 feet deep contained 600 to 1,700 parts per million of total solids. All would be likely to foam in boilers and could be distinctly i ni]) roved by being purified before use. Most of them could be ap- plied in irrigation under proper conditions of drainage to prevent al- kali accumulation. The waters farther west in Fresno County are very high hi sul- phate and alkaline earths; that is, they are gypsum waters. Though this makes their content of incrustants so high that they are very bad for boiler use, it does not influence to so great extent their value for irrigation, and many of them could irrigate crops if proper precau- tions for drainage were taken. Few shallow wells on the plains yield water, wells usually being 100 to 700 feet deep, and it is improbable that any better water would be encountered by boring deeper. A well 2,250 feet deep yields sodium chloride water high in carbonate and very poor for irrigation or for boilers. The great quantity of gas in it makes it likewise unpalatable. Three wells, 170 to 285 feet deep, west of Tulare Lake, in Kings County, were tested, one near the present shore of the lake and two about 5 miles from it. These waters contain considerably less dis- solved constituents than the west-side waters of Fresno County, and they could be considered suitable for irrigation. They are high in sulphate, however, and the one farthest from the lake is a strong gypsum water. Field work in the region south of Tulare Lake was not carried far enough west to make it certain that the true character of the ground waters in that part was discovered. A 20-foot dug well in sec. 1 ( ?), T. 24 S., R. 21 E., yields strong water high in sulphate, because it comes from the mineralized silt in the basin of Tulare Lake. No wells between that section and Semitropic could be sampled, but wells at the latter place yield water low in sulphate. Deep waters at But- tonwLTow are low in sulphate, but those from wells 40 to 100 feet deep are high in sulphate, yet do not have the very high mineral con- tent that is characteristic of ground waters in western Fresno County. Future investigation north and south of Lost Hills will probably show that the west-side belt of waters high in sulphate extends south- ward into Kern County, and that it terminates at its eastern boun- dary as abruptly there as in the counties farther north. 116 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. DEPOSITION OF CALCIUM SULPHATE. The figures in Table 24 (p. 113) indicate that in general the ground waters near the western foothills are calcium sulphate waters and that those farther east are sodium sulphate waters, the former con- taining much more mineral matter than the latter. This highly interesting alteration in the ground supplies that flow from the foot- hills of the Coast Range toward the axis of the valley evidently is the result of deposition of gypsum while the waters are passing through the ground. This phenomenon can be made clearer by means of the data in Table 25. Table 25. — The deposition of calcium sulphate from west-side waters. [Parts per million.] Constituents. Fresno County, southern part. Fresno County, northern part. C. Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine(Cl) Total hardness as CaS04. . . Alkalies (computed) Total solids (computed) — 145 1,160 130 1,410 240 2,100 250 420 70 340 240 ,030 140 1,720 140 1,900 360 3,000 184 470 400 270 470 1,700 Column A gives the average of analyses of water from 7 wells 80 to 400 feet deep near the foothills southwest of Mendota in Fresno County and column B a similar average for 10 wells 20 to 1,100 feet deep in a strip east of the 7 wells but west of Kings River Slough. These averages indicate that during the eastward passage of the water carbonate increases at the expense of the chloride and the alkalies remain unchanged. The decrease in total solids, 1,070 parts, is equivalent to the decrease in total hardness expressed as calcium sulphate; furthermore, the decrease in sulphate, 740 parts, is equiva- lent to 1,050 parts of calcium sulphate, or almost exactly the decrease in total solids. These striking relations make it evident that gypsum is being deposited from the ground waters; for if the change were one of simple dilution other constituents would be proportionately de- creased, and if the alteration in character were caused by reaction between alkali salts in the silt and the calcium salts dissolved in the waters sulphate would not be decreased and the alkalies would be greatly increased. The figures in columns C and D afford a similar comparison of waters from wells in the northwestern part of Fresno County, column C giving the average of analyses of water from four wells 200 to 280 feet deep far out on the plains and column D giving the mean of analyses of water from two wells 437 and 532 feet deep near San Joaquin River. The decrease in sulphate, equivalent to 1,700 parts per million of calcium sulphate, is not completely equaled COMPOSITION WD QUALITX OF AXIAL WATKHS. 117 by the change o( 1,630 in total hardness as calcium sulphate and of 1,300 in total solids, but these alterations are all of such magnitude in comparison with other changes that they lead to the conclusion that calcium sulphate is being deposited. North of Fresno County ground waters near San Joaquin River are affected in mineral content by seepage from the south and consequently any similar deposition that may occur there is effectually concealed. COMPOSITION AND QUALITY OF AXIAL WATERS. IRREGULARITY OF COMPOSITION. The region of ground waters of the axial type can not be bounded so definitely as those of waters of the east-side and west-side types. It is included within the artesian area and it covers the territory be- tween the boundaries indicated by A'A' and C'C in Plate II (in pocket) overlapping on both sides and gradually merging into the areas in which other types predominate. As the axis of the valley or the lowest part of its trough receives the drainage of the valley ground waters there contain the highest proportion of the most readily soluble substances, the alkalies. On the west side sodium and potassium are left predominant among the bases after calcium sulphate has been removed from the ground water. On the east side the moderately mineralized calcium carbonate waters are strengthened by solution of alkali salts from the silts through which they slowly seep on their way from the foothills to the axis, and they are undoubtedly altered by drainage from irrigated lands. Carbo- nate is predominant on the east and sulphate on the west side of the axial belt, and both radicles are overshadowed by chloride in several localities. In general, the higher sodium content of waters from wells in the axis makes them less desirable for irrigation than that from wells on either side of the valley, and the same characteristic makes them more likely to foam when they are used for steaming. The most noticeable feature of the axial waters is their wide range of concentration and composition, which is indicated in Plate V by graphic representation of the mineral content of water from wells of various depths in many localities. Nearly all wells in the axis near Tulare Lake yield sodium carbonate water, the deep supplies being much lower in mineral content than the shallower ones. Along Kings River Slough the mineral content of the ground waters is in- creased by the strong waters entering from the west side, and this influence continues northward for some distance along San Joaquin River. CHLORIDE CONTENT OF ARTESIAN WATER. Many deep wells along the axis north of Kings River yield brackish water, while wells away from the axis but just as deep and in the 118 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. same latitude do not; this indicates the existence of local saline de- posits in the moderately deep silts and the downward percolation of water charged with the soluble constituents of the silts. Very deep wells invariably yield salt water, a condition that may be explained by the broadspread occlusion of saline waters within the deeper layers of silt. As this likelihood of striking distasteful salty water, harmful in irrigation and corrosive to boilers, is a discouraging feature about putting down deep wells into the abundant artesian flow near the river, Table 26 has been prepared giving certain data regarding artesian waters that were tested between Lemoore and San Joaquin Bridge. Table 26.- -Chloride content of water from artesian wells between San Joaquin Bridge and Lemoore. Location. Depth (feet). Chlorine (CI) (parts per million). Quality for irrigation. Quality for Sec. T. R. boiler use. 480 350 285 301 600 330 250 330 402 +500 297 707 325 350 660 372 320 300 340 283 350 550 375 437 240 400 532 520 +300 1,310 640 550 700 700 750 800 690 1,100 600 1,200 1,178 700 2,250 295 250 430 450 1,060 320 2,080 1,980 150 1,520 10 30 10 139 372 445 35 25 20 25 25 1,155 175 685 20 30 115 1,680 25 1, 160 75 245 65 55 155 265 150 35 125 135 40 20 280 Fair Very bad. Bad Do do.... Poor do Bad Do Do 26... 6S 9 E Very bad . Do 31 . 6S 10 E 6.. 7S 10 E Poor Bad Do 25 7S 10 E Do. 17 7S HE do Good Bad Do. 13 9S 9E Bad. 20 8S HE Very bad. Fair. 10 8S 12 E Fair 16 8S 13 E do Good Fair , Do. 27 8S 14E Do. 36 9S 10 E Bad. 36 9S 10 E Poor do Good do Fair Do. 14 10 S 11 E Very bad. Fair. 15 9S 13 E Do. 21 9S 13 E Do. 6 10 S 14E Good do Bad Do. 30 9S 15 E Do. 21 IIS 12E Very bad. 1 US... 12 E Fair 33 US 13 E Poor Good do Poor Bad Very bad. Fair. 35 9S 14E 11 10S 14E Do. 22 13S 14E Very bad. Do. 6 13S 15 E 34 US 16 E Good Bad Fair. 32 US 18E Very bad. Bad. 31 13S 15 E Fair 10 14S 16E do Good Fair Do. 12 15S 16 E Do. 19 15S 16E Do. 25 15S 17E Poor do do Good Poor do Fair Do. 9 15S 17E Do. 14 16S 17E Do. 8 17S 17E 15 17S 18 E Bad. 2 17S 18 E Do. 36 18S 18E Do. 28 18S 20E Poor do Poor. 14 18S 18 E Bad. Thirteen artesian waters along Kings River Slough and within 6 miles of that watercourse were tested. (See Table 26.) Among these the water from the 2,250-foot well in T. 18 S., R. 18 E., containing 280 parts of chlorine, is practically useless. The water of a 550-foot well at Jamesan and of an 800-foot well south of that station are rather INCREASE OF MINERAL CONTENT FROM SOUTH TO Noktii. 119 high in chlorine. Hie other ten waters, from wells 600 to 1,200 feet deep, are moderately low in chlorine and good to poor for irrigation, but undesirable for boiler use because of their high contents of foaming ingredients. Nearly all the artesian waters from wells less than 1,000 feet deep east of San Joaquin River and south of Dickersons Ferry are low in chlorine and are suitable for common use, but those west of the river in the same latitude are much poorer. Water from the 1,310- foot well in T. 1 1 S., R. 18 E., is high in chlorine and bad for general use. All deep waters around Newman and Stevinson Colony contain much chlorine. This condition extends south to Dickersons Ferry and north to Crows Landing, and probably no wells in that territory more than 300 feet deep will yield really satisfactory water. Water from shallow wells in Stevinson Colony is much better than that from deep wells. No well more than 200 feet deep could be found between Crows Landing and Lathrop and therefore the quality of the deep axial waters in that area are unknown. The water of the 480-foot well at Crows Landing carries 295 parts per million of chlorine and is only fair for irrigation. The w T ater of a 1,200-foot well near French Camp, just north of Lathrop, contains 1,735 parts of chlorine and is unfit for irrigation. Wells more than 1,200 feet deep at Stockton yield salt water while those 700 to 1,100 feet deep yield fresh water fair or poor for irrigation and shallower wells yield satisfactory fresh water. The 1,310-foot well near Madera yields water containing 1,160 parts per million of chlorine. Therefore it may be concluded that any well more than 1,200 feet deep between Dickersons Ferry and Suisun Bay will yield salt water unsuitable for use. As the analyses show that the water of wells more than 400 feet deep near the axis between Dickersons Ferry and Crows Landing is salty and poor in quality, it is reasonable to conclude that wells 400 to 1,200 feet deep near the axis between Crows Landing and San Joaquin Bridge wdll also yield salty water. A similar conclusion regarding 500 to 1,000-foot wells 10 miles or more east of the river in Stanislaus and San Joaquin counties is, however, unjustifiable by the data at hand. It is possible that fresh water may be encountered between those depths as in eastern Merced and Madera counties, but no assertion to that effect can be made. INCREASE OF MINERAL CONTENT FROM SOUTH TO NORTH. GENERAL CONDITIONS. Structurally, San Joaquin Valley is a trough filled with silt from the surrounding mountains. The ground waters, following the gen- tle but definite slope, percolate toward the axis and then follow the axis northward. They dissolve and retain in solution the more readily soluble substances with which they come into contact, and 120 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. some of thorn deposit part of their load of less soluble constituents. Theso conditions lead to belief that the ground water gradually increases in mineral content as it progresses northward, or, in other words, that analyses of water from wells of equal depth should indi- cate an increase of mineral content from south to north. It is the purpose of this section to show how far the results of the tests sup- port that belief. Plate V shows graphically the amount of mineral matter in ground waters in different parts of the valley. Averages of analy- ses grouped by depth of wells have been used for the east side in order that the changes from county to county might be more clearly shown, but the results of individual tests have been plotted in the axis because the total solids there are so divergent. The only feasible grouping of analyses on the west side is by location. The length of the blocks indicates the amount of total solids and the shading indicates the depth of the wells. For the purposes of this diagram it has been convenient to accept the boundaries indicated by A 'A' and C'C in Plate II (in pocket) as the limits of the respective areas. The diagram as a whole shows simply and forcibly the relations between location, depth, and mineral content of the ground waters. The east-side waters, low in mineral content, are remarkably uniform in quality down to a certain depth. The west-side waters are much more highly mineralized and are differentiated from each other prin- cipally by their distance from the foothills. The axial waters, extremely variable in character, are influenced by east-side and west-side waters and by soluble constituents in local sediments. The relations represented diagrammatically in Plate V explain several apparently inconsistent conditions of quality. Briefly, the data establish that a progressive increase in the min- eral content of the deep-seated underground drainage takes place, especially near the axis of the valley. No such relation exists in re- spect to the shallow waters, however, even near the median line of the trough, where the influence would be most clearly evident. DEEP WATERS. Analyses of water from wells more than 1,100 feet deep show a definite increase in mineral content from south to north proportionate to the increase in alkalies and chlorine; that is, the waters become more salty toward the outlet of the valley. Wells on the east side of Kern, Kings, and Tulare counties from 1,100 to 2,000 feet deep yield excellent water averaging about 200 parts per million of total solids. The water of the 1,200-foot well in sec. 2, T. 17 S., R. 18 E. is moderate in solids and in chlorine; the salty water of the 1,310- foot well in sec. 32, T. 11 S., R. 18 E. contains more than three times U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 3,000- WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 398 PLATE V 1,500- 500- 0- 4,000- z O 3,500^ ^ 3,000-H H! H 25 00- S 2,000- o in J 1,500- 1,000- 500- 35 MILES Narrow bsrs bar 1ERCED CO 2,000- 1,500- 1,000- 500- -25 MILES *10 MILES" III I STAN I SLAU 5 CO SAN JOAQUIN CO kn n J. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 398 PLATE ' MINERAL CONTENT OF GROUND WATERS IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. [NCREASE OF \il\i.i;\! CONTENT FROM SOUTH TO NORTH. J 21 as much tninera] matter; and the waters that were bested from wells more than i.ioo teet deep in Sao Joaquin County average 5,200 parts per million in mineral content.. These data indicate a decided north- ward increase beginning in Fresno County in the mineral content of the deep waters, a conclusion that is corroborated by the few available tests of deep ground waters in the axis. Tho 2, 250-foot well in sec. 14, T. IS S., 11. IS E., included among the axial waters, yields poor water, and the 1,200-foot well at French Camp furnishes a supply comparable with the deep waters at Stockton. OCCLUSION OF SEA WATER. Though it has been suggested that this increase of solids, represent- ing increase of chloride and alkali, is evidence of the occlusion of sea water within the deep sediments, the composition of the waters makes this improbable. Sea water contains 33,000 to 37,000 parts per mil- lion of mmeral matter hi solution, while the water of a 1,786-foot well at Stockton contains 4,700 parts, that of a 2,500-foot w T ell at Stockton 7,489 parts, and that of the 1,200-foot well at French Camp only 3,000 parts. Besides this striking difference in concentration the figures in table 27 prove that the composition of the mineral mat- ter is also entirely different from that of sea water. The analysis of water from the 2,500-foot gas well at Stockton has been selected for comparison because it is the strongest water and because as much as possible of the upper fresh waters has been excluded. Even if the deep water had been diluted through a leaky casing the composition of it could not have been so radically changed from that of sea water. Table 27. — Comparison of the composition of water from a 2,500-foot well at Stockton ivith that of sea water. [Percentage of anhydrous residue.] Constituents. Well.a Ocean. & Silica (SiOs) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na+K) . Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chlorine (CI) Salinity (parts per million). 0.72 10. 72 1.20 3.24 3.72 22.40 31.70 .64 .21 .00 7.69 62.28 55,29 7,489 33, 010 to 37, 370 a Silica not determined. Estimated for purposes of computation as 50 parts. Analysis-by F. M. Eaton, Sept. 19, 1910. b Average of analyses by Dittmar; quoted by Clarke, F. W., The data of geochemistry: .IT. S. Geol. Sur- vey Bull. 616, p. 123, 1916. Minor ingredients omitted. These waters are similar only in that they are both strong solutions of sodium chloride. The ratio (1 to 3.3) between the amounts of calcium and magnesium in the well water is that of ordinary ground water and is the reverse of that in sea water (3.1 to 1). This funda- mental difference and the undoubted absence of any appreciable 122 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. quantity of sulphate in the well waters, whereas the residue of ocean water contains nearly 8 per cent of sulphate, makes it entirely im- probable that the saline character of the deep-seated supplies is due to the retention of ocean water within the valley sediments. It is more reasonable to believe that the salt represents an accumulation derived from the silts through which the water has very slowly passed. SHALLOW WATERS. Waters from wells 400 to 1,100 feet deep in the axis of the valley increase from south to north in mineral content, but on the east side waters from wells of similar depth are slightly mineralized and are much alike in composition irrespective of their position. Shallower waters show great local diversity of composition in the east side and in the axis. No regular relation holds for supplies of this class, and their quality is predictable only from local tests. On the west side local conditions determine the quality of ground waters, in which no regular increase of mineral content from south to north is apparent. The mineral content of waters on the west side is highest in Fresno County, and it decreases northward, rising somewhat near the foothills in San Joaquin County. The total solids of ground waters near the west shore of Tulare Lake are less than those of supplies in Fresno County, but it is unknown whether that condition prevails in the west side of Kern County. RELATION OF DEPTH TO MINERAL CONTENT. It is a fairly prevalent belief that the deeper a well goes the greater is the mineral content of its water. Yet a little thought establishes the unreasonableness of such general assumption, and a cursory review of analytical data is sufficient to prove the fallacy of it. The mineral content of a ground water depends primarily on the kind of rock with which it comes into contact, and its chemical composition at any stage in its progress tells the main facts of its history. Pres- sure, temperature, and duration of contact, the physical structure of the rocks, and the nature of substances previously dissolved in the water influence the extent and the manner in which minerals are acted on by the solvent, but the effect of these conditions is sub- ordinate to that of the chemical composition of the rocks themselves, which is the chief determining factor of the mineral content of ground water. It is therefore not at all rare to find deep waters better than shallow ones. Many wells 1,000 to 3,000 feet deep in sedimentary rocks penetrate strata yielding widely different kinds of water, but without any relation to depth except in so far as depth has reference to the character of the rocks that contain the supplies. Indeed, these facts are so nearly self-evident that it would be needless to state them QUALIT1 FOB IRRIGATION. L23 if belief in a general relation between depth and quality were not so frequently expressed. Differences in the quality of water Prom various depths can be detected in almost every Locality in San Joaquin Valley, but they arc not regular and can not l>c widely generalized. Nearly all the best waters on the oast side arc produced by wells 200 to 1,000 feet deep. They arc generally good for irrigation, fair for boiler use, and entirely acceptable for domestic supply. On the east side it is not unusual to find the water from wells 10 to 30 feet deep much harder than that from deeper wells. Similar greater mineral content of shallow waters from glacial deposits derived from calcareous forma- tions in the Central States has been noticed, and it is probably due to more rapid mechanical disintegration of the layers nearest the surface and to greater abundance of solvents like carbon dioxide in the upper waters. Geographical location has more influence than depth on the mineral content of well waters on the west side a few miles from the river, for the differences of composition among the waters at various depths are not so great proportionately as on the east side. The relations between depth and quality are more uncertain along the axis than in any other part of the valley. For example, wells 30 to 100 feet deep in Stevinson Colony yield fresh water of moderate mineral content, but wells more than 300 feet deep yield undesirable salt water. On the other hand, water from wells less than 100 feet deep near Tulare Lake is highly alkaline, and the best supplies are obtained from wells 800 to 2,000 feet deep. QUALITY FOR IRRIGATION. EAST-SIDE WATEKS. Almost no trouble from poor quality of ground waters for irriga- tion has been reported throughout the east side of the valley, and available analyses amply confirm the results of experience besides indicating more territory into which this application may be ex- tended. Wells generally throughout the east side yield water that is good or fair for irrigation — the supplies may be used year after year with only moderate care to prevent alkali accumulation due to the mineral constituents of the waters. This statement should be sup- plemented by the warning that the soil in many sections already contains enough alkali to interfere with cultivation under ordinary conditions and that water of any quality, no matter how good, can not assist in producing full crops on such areas until the excess of sodium salts in the ground has been removed by drainage or by some other means. It is therefore important to note that statements re- garding the quality of waters for irrigation refer only to the action of the mineral ingredients of the waters in reducing or increasing the 124 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. mineral content of the soil solution. On the other hand, notes of the actual effect of the waters on crops involve all growing conditions, such as the nature of the ground, the care given the crops, and other features; consequently a statement that crops have not flourished after having been irrigated by a certain water does not necessarily imply that the mineral constituents of the water did the damage. The best waters for irrigation on the east side are furnished by wells 200 to 1,000 feet deep, though a large number of shallow wells also are utilized. Within the artesian area south of Kings River water from wells as deep as 1,600 to 2,000 feet is satisfactory and has been used on crops. North of Fresno water from wells more than 1,000 feet deep is poor, and near the northern end especially it is unfit for irrigation. Four waters that were tested from wells 1,200 to 2,500 feet deep in and around Stockton are bad because they are strongly saline. Tests of the deep wells at the waterworks, a 1,162- foot well, and a 1,010-foot well near Stockton indicate that sodium replaces calcium as the predominant base at a depth of about 900 feet and consequently that the ground waters become progressively poorer from that depth down to about 1,200 feet where the salty supplies are struck. So few deep wells could be tested south of San Joaquin County that it is uncertain how far southward this condition extends, but it seems reasonable to assume that it is general over the east side between Stockton and Fresno. WEST-SIDE WATERS. Wells are being pumped for irrigation at several places on the west side of the valley, and continued settlement of that region will undoubtedly result in greatly increased use. The ground waters of the west side, being much more highly mineralized than those of the east side, are poorer for irrigation. Few of those that were tested, however, are so bad that they are absolutely unfit for use, a fact all the more important because the absence of perennial streams and other surface supplies capable of being stored on the mountain slopes makes the adoption of ground supplies a necessary feature of utilizing the lands. Though the mineral content of the waters is high, the principal ingredients away from the axis are calcium, magnesium, and sulphate, the toxic alkalies being relatively low. Water of this calcium sulphate type can be applied to land without injury at far greater concentrations than are allowable for sodium waters; indeed, calcium sulphate in the form of gypsum or "land plaster' ' is often spread on fields to neutralize the deleterious effect of black alkali. Several tracts in western Fresno County now being irrigated by well water have not been under cultivation long enough fully to demonstrate the value of the waters, but sufficient time has elapsed QUALITY FOB [RBIGATION. 125 to make it apparent thai selected crops under proper care can be raised. The results at the pumping stations of the Pacific (oast Oil Co., where lawns, fruit trees, and garden truck have been irri- gated for several years, also give favorable testimony as to the feasibility of utilizing the west-side waters. axial WATERS. Calcium and magnesium are the predominant bases in the typical waters of both sides of the valley, but they gradually become sub- ordinate toward the axis, where the alkalies, sodium, and potassium, occur in greater quantity. This alteration takes place more or less generally within the limits of the artesian area, and it is practically complete within the boundaries indicated by lines A' A' and B'B' of Plate II. Because of this alteration the axial waters are least desirable for irrigation, and further development of irrigation on both sides of the valley, with resultant increase of the more readily soluble constituents in the ground supplies, will probably make the axial waters still poorer and will also cause greater accumulation of alkali there in the soil. This probability that the axis will even- tually become the sewer for the rest of the valley suggests that safe cultivation of the ground there will necessitate the construction of dikes and underdrains for the purpose of removing the alkali and preventing undue rise of the ground-water level. Water from artesian wells 1,400 to 2,000 feet deep close to the present shore of Tulare Lake is being successfully used for irrigating alfalfa, grain, and other crops, but many wells less than 400 feet deep in that region yield unsatisfactory supplies. Tests of water from wells 300 to 600 feet deep in Stevinson Colony indicate that the water is bad for irrigation, and attempts to use it in crops have been unsuccessful. It is understood that a similar failure followed use of some of the deep waters in Jamesan Colony. KESULTS OF USING GROUND WATERS. The character, mineral content, and classification of some supplies that have been applied to crops in San Joaquin Valley are presented in Table 28 in order to give a general idea of the kinds of water that are available. The tests have been grouped for convenience under three headings. Reference may be made to the tables of assays (pp. 182-294) for information regarding the value of other local waters for irrigation. The quality for irrigation has been computed from the analytical data and it is followed by a statement regarding the result of applying the waters to crops. Where no information is given other than that certain cultures have been irrigated it may be understood that those cultures have been irrigated for several con- secutive years without apparent ill effect due to the quality of the water. 126 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. Table 28. — Types of ground water in San Joaquin Valley and their value for irrigation. East side. Total solids (parts per million). Chemical character. Quality for irri- gation. Results of use in irrigation. 160 160 180 190 190 190 200 200 210 230 250 258 260 400 140 150 150 160 170 170 200 220 230 300 370 390 2,000 Ca-C0 3 ..-- ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do NarCOs.— ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do Na-Cl Good.... ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do Fair ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do Bad Irrigates alfalfa and sorghum. Irrigates alfalfa. Irrigates grapes. Irrigates peaches. Irrigates grapes and alfalfa. Irrigates grapes. Has irrigated garden several years. Irrigates garden. Do. Irrigates olive trees. Irrigates alfalfa. Irrigates orange trees. Has irrigated oranges 6 years. Irrigates garden. Irrigates alfalfa, garden, and fruit trees. Has irrigated grapes, alfalfa, and garden several years. Irrigates alfalfa. Used several years on alfalfa. Successfully used on grapes and alfalfa. Successfully used on alfalfa and fruit trees. Irrigates alfalfa. Used on garden truck 30 years without trouble. Irrigates alfalfa. Irrigates fig, peach, and other fruit trees. Used generally in city for lawns and gardens. Do. Destructive to crops. Axis. 372 Ca-COs--- - Good.... Irrigates orange trees. 130 Na-COs--- ...do Irrigates lawn and garden. 130 ...do ...do Has irrigated alfalfa, cabbages, and garden truck 18 years. 130 ...do ...do Irrigates lawn, garden , and trees. 140 ...do ...do Irrigates grain and alfalfa. 140 ...do ...do Irrigates alfalfa. 150 ...do ...do 170 ...do ...do Used several years on alfalfa. 190 ...do ...do Irrigates orchard and garden . 190 ...do Fail- Used 3 years on alfalfa, grapes, and peaches. 200 ...do Good.... Irrigates garden and fruit trees. 200 ...do....... Fair Irrigates alfalfa. 210 ...do ...do Used on alfalfa several years. 218 ...do....... Good.... Irrigates melons, grapes, and garden truck. 220 ...do Fair Irrigates alfalfa, grapes, and garden truck. 220 ...do ...do Irrigates asparagus. 260 ...do ...do Irrigates alfalfa. 700 ...do Poor Used on alfalfa, garden, and orchard to some extent in 2 years without bad effect. 1,200 ...do Fair Irrigates garden. 2,300 ...do Bad Kills grass around well. 600 Na-S04..~ Fair Has irrigated vegetables and berries 8 years. 980 ...do Poor Used 1 year on garden. 300 Na-Cl..... Fail- Irrigates alfalfa. 310 ...do ...do..... Irrigates wheat and alfalfa. 670 ...do Poor Used successfully on alfalfa. 810 ...do ...do Said to kill vegetation. 1,210 ...do ...do Has been used on grain and alfalfa . Not now used. 1,600 ...do ...do Garden truck did not grow well when irrigated with water. Tomatoes grew smaller each year. 2,400 ...do Bad Tried unsuccessfully on crops. West side. 410 Ca-COs-..- Good.... Irrigates lawn and trees. 620 Na-S0 4 .... ...do Irrigates garden and small fruit trees. 950 ...do Fair Irrigates lawn and trees. 1,600 ...do ...do Has irrigated wheat and barley 2 years. 1,200 Ca-S04.... Good.... Irrigates lawn and trees. 1,500 ...do ...do Has irrigated alfalfa, cotton, and garden truck successfully, for 1 year. 2,400 ...do Fair Has irrigated barley 1 year. QUALITY l-'Olt IUI{l«i.\ HON. 127 The data in Table 28 prove thai the nature as well as fche quality of t ho dissolved matter has much to do with its effect. Waters containing as much as 1,200 to 2,400 parts per million of total solids, the chief constituents of which are calcium and sulphate, have been successfully applied to cultures. This quantity of mineral matter is greater than the maximum considered allowable in California Under the ordinary practice by Hilgard, 1 who evidently has alkali waters especially in mind. Continued use of these stronger waters will undoubtedly involve careful selection of crops and installation of underdrainage to prevent excessive accumulation of alkali. Many sodium carbonate or black alkali waters are being used without apparent trouble near the center line of the valley, but they are all rather low in mineral constituents, total solids being 140 to 400 in the best waters and exceeding 800 parts per million in only a few. It is fortunate that the deep waters east of Tulare Lake are low in mineral matter, as they belong to the sodium carbonate class. The calcium carbonate waters, ranging in this valley usually from 150 to 400 parts per million of solids, can be used without any trouble, and they are classed as good or fair for general irrigation. EFFECT OF COLD WATER. The slow development sometimes reported regarding cultures irrigated with ground water on the east side may be caused by the low temperature of the water when it reaches the feeding rootlets, a condition that is undesirable particularly during early stages of growth. Cold water has its greatest retarding effect when it is applied by flooding or by "basin irrigating," as the method of running water into shallow pools around the trunks of bushes and trees is known. When the water is applied through furrows it has opportunity to become warm before it reaches the delicate roots, and the harmful consequences of low temperature are thus avoided. The same result can be obtained by storing the supplies in reservoirs, though this occasions some loss by evaporation. It is customary in many districts to pump into reservoirs during the day and to distribute the supply during the night, when the loss by . evaporation is less and more water can therefore be absorbed by the ground, which also does not bake so badly on the surface after the downward percola- tion. The chill is taken from the water during this storage and sub- sequent damage is obviated. i Hilgard, E. W., Soils, p. 248, The Macmillan Co., New York, 1906. 128 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. QUALITY FOR INDUSTRIAL USE. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. Two transcontinental lines traverse the valley from end to end, comprising, with their branches and some shorter systems, about 1,400 miles of track, along which the consumption of water by loco- motives is over 3,000,000 gallons a day. Most of this mileage is on the east side of the valley, where the best waters for boiler use are found, but two or three lines already enter the west side, and agri- cultural development there will soon necessitate more extensive trans- portation facilities. The numerous wineries in the vineyard dis- tricts, particularly around Stockton and Fresno, use large quantities of water for steam making and for washing vats and bins. Ice fac- tories are operated in the larger cities, where laundries and breweries also are important consumers. EAST-SIDE WATERS. The ground waters of the east side are generally suitable for boiler use without purification. As they belong mostly to the calcium carbonate type and contain practically no sulphate and rarely much chloride, they are not likely to foam or to be corrosive. The quan- tity of scale-forming ingredients ranges from 90 to 300 and of foam- ing ingredients from practically nothing to 250 parts per million. The supplies are generally good or fair for boiler use, form a soft scale, and do not require boiler compounds. Table 39 contains a summary of tests of east-side industrial sup- plies particularly in reference to boiler use. The softest supplies sup- plies almost everywhere on the east side are obtained from wells 200 to 1,000 feet deep. Water from many wells less than 50 or 60 feet deep contains more scale-forming matter than that from deeper wells, and it is therefore less desirable for industrial use. This condition may be demonstrated by comparison of analyses at Stockton, Merced, Fresno, and Tulare, and, though it is not invariable, it is near enough so to make it worth while to investigate the quality of deeper waters before extensive industrial development is undertaken in unexplored localities. Wells more than 1 ,200 feet deep at Stockton, French Camp, and Madera yield salt water unfit for boiler use, and all wells of that or greater depth on the east side as far south as Fresno will probably yield bad water. Wells of the same depth in Tulare County, how- ever, yield supplies that are very low in scale-forming ingredients, noncorrosive, and low enough in foaming constituents to be classed as good or fair for boiler use. Some ground waters on the east side, more commonly shallow ones, contain enough iron to make them QUALITY FOB INDUSTRIAL USE. 129 industrially undesirable. This type of water is avoidable, however, and water of acceptable quality may be obtained nearly everywhere on the east side. WEST-SIDE WATERS. The west-side supplies are very hard calcium sulphate waters. They form hard refractory scale in boilers, and many of them are cor- rosive, and consequently as a class they are undesirable for boiler use. The most highly mineralized sources were found in the west side of Fresno County and in the south part of western Merced County. It is understood that very bad boiler waters also are encountered west of Button willow in Kern County. Few of the waters used in boilers on the west side belong in the calcium sulphate class, for most of them are near enough to the axis to be predominant in alkalies. In order to avoid confusion, however, those from wells in the territory west of the boundary indicated by A'A' in Plate II have been entered in Table 29 as west-side waters. The quantity and hardness of the scale produced generally by west- side waters are such that softening is necessary before introduction of the waters into boilers. The Southern Pacific Co. treats 300,000 to 350,000 gallons of water daily at Tracy and about 30,000 gallons at Westley, and avoids the use of ground water at Los Banos, Fire- baugh, and Mendota by pumping from San Joaquin River. The water at Tracy is treated with lime^and soda ash in a cold-water softening plant, about two-thirds of the incrusting matter being removed. The supply at Westley, fairly high in incrustants and in foaming constituents, is softened by means of lime, the sludge being dumped on the ground near the tanks. The supply at the ice factory of the Newman Light and Power Co. at Newman gives a large amount of hard scale even after having been passed through an open heater with a filtering attachment. Though the railroad supply at that place is much lower in incrustants it contains nearly as great quantity of foaming ingredients, and the city water is like the railroad supply. Experience at the pumping stations along the pipe line of the Pacific Coast Oil Co. is valuable not only in showing the normally poor quality of the west-side waters for boiler use but also in demonstrating how much can be done to improve them by scientific treatment. The pipe line, after entering the west side a few miles north of Tulare Lake, traverses it from south to north at a distance of 5 to 10 miles from the axis. Most of the boiler supplies along the line are of sodium sulphate character — that is, sodium and sulphate are the chief ingredients, but the waters also contain much calcium and mag- nesium. This makes them capable of forming considerable hard scale and of foaming when they are concentrated; altogether they 98205°— wsp 398—16 9 130 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. range from poor to very bad for boiler use in the raw state. It is general practice at the pumping stations to remove a large part of the incrusting matter by treating the supplies with soda ash in open heaters. The tendency to foam is increased in proportion to the quantity of soda ash added, but trouble from that source is obviated by frequent blowing off. The boilers are cleaned regularly every three weeks or of tener, and this attention coupled with the preliminary treatment makes it possible to utilize the waters without trouble or danger. The waters still farther west r however, are generally much higher in incrustants, and many of them are so hard that they could not be rendered fit for use by any treatment except distillation. AXIAL WATERS. Excellent supplies for boilers can be obtained from deep wells between Tulare Lake and the city of Tulare in Kings and Tulare counties. Several waters near Corcoran and Angiola produce almost no scale and can be strongly concentrated without trouble from foaming or corrosion. RESULTS OF USING GROUND WATERS. The more important facts in reference to the industrial supplies of the valley are summarized in Table 29. More complete details of the analyses can be obtained from the analytical tables (pp. 182- 294) . The analyses have been grouped for convenience under three headings and by chemical character. QUALIT1 FOB INDUSTRIAL USE. 131 Table 29. —Some industrial water supplies in San Joaquin Vallq/. I Parts per million exoepl aa otherwise designated.] Baal side. Soale- forming Ingredi- ents (s). Foaming ingredi- ents (f). Proba- bility of cor- rosion Character of water, Quality for boilt'i>. Remarks. no 10 N. C. Ca-COg.... Fair Used En wine making and in boilers. Wash boilers once a week and get soft sludge. No compound used. 90 40 X. C. ...do Good 1 sed in boilers. 115 40 N.C, ...do Fail- Used in beer making and in boilers. Some compound used. 130 40 N.C. ...do ...do Used in wine making and in boilers. ("lean boilers once m 3 months. A lii tie sludge removed. Blow one gage in 24 hours. Use skimmer. No com- pound used. 135 50 N.C. ...do ...do Locomotive supply. Boiler supply. Clean boilers once a week, 150 40 N.C. ...do Good getting 7 to 8 pounds hard scale and some sludge No compound used . 160 20 N.C. ...do Fail- Distilled for ice making. Little sludge in boilers. Practically no scale on atmos- pheric condensers in 4 months. 125 80 N.C. ...do ...do Locomotive supply. 155 60 ? ...do ...do Do. 100 10 ? ...do Good Distilled for ice making. Little sludge. 190 90 ? ...do Fail- Locomotive supply. 300 30 ? ...do Poor Do. 200 140 ? Ca-SC-4.... Fak Do. 300 160 ? ...do Poor Do. 60 80 N.C. Na-COs... Good Do. 100 80 N.C. ...do Fair Boiler supply. Clean every 2 weeks. Egg- shell scale"; no corrosion; no compound used; blow one-half gage two or three times each shift. 105 100 N.C. ...do ...do Locomotive supply. 40 250 N.C. Na-Cl ...do Do. Axis. 70 SO N.C. Na-C0 3 ... Good Boiler supply. Practically no scale. No treatment; no corrosion. Blow once in 24 hours. 70 80 N.C. ...do ...do Boiler supply. Cochrane heater. No chemicals. Practically no scale. 70 180 N.C. ...do Fair Used in 1,250 H. P. boilers. No scale; no pitting. Boiler supply. No trouble; no treatment. 50 70 N. C. Na-Cl Good West side. 260 90 ? 700 270 C. 400 350 ? 250 220 ? 260 840 ? 125 1,000 N.C. 230 160 790 380 N.C. N.C. 105 500 N.C. 500 650 ? Ca-COs. Poor. Ca-SCu [ Very bad Na-SO^ ...do. Bad. Poor ...do I Very bad.. .do. ...do.. ...do.. ..do Na-Cl. ...do. ...do. .do. Boiler supply, heater. Boil Use soda ash and Cochrane "oilers cleaned every 3 weeks. Biow 2 gages every 12 hours. Boiler supply. Use soda ash and Cochrane heater. Boiler supply. Boilers cleaned once a month. Scale hard, brittle, about ^ inch thick. Blow 1 gage every 24 hours. Soda treating plant being installed. Locomotive supply. Cold water softener with lime and soda ash used. Boiler supply. Use soda ash and Cochrane heater. Clean every 18 days. 9 S3J • 1*583 N © © o3 '-5 -2 £ 3 2 5 t- .2 £ S &.2 o S3 © a> &*£ ft H U5 'O - . MOO -xo> to co to 1O00CR 8 WHO 00 "* sss; ISSS r-oo_ 83 t~ 00 38 '30 CO £8 iocoooooo)t»'*ostoa'*o>c»poioo 00 «C CO O0 OHO CM WNHOSOOOOWO N^OJONTf TjiiOffiMOJ'i'OcOlNiOaj WVJVT+, .9 ;o -O o © o •3^.9^. o ft :o © © 9ftS 5^ 9-> s'^j&s^&tiSs pqPn oo.soo«q ..500 n.43 a a w-> ' ■ P? ft ft^oo 02 55 02 H ft Eh ■< CJ . . . , .t; o o o o sftftftft i 5» T CO 1 <£> -H O- 3iI*S o>oo> ihBS «OIN t^iOOO .3 1 a ° 5 s«i 55 136 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. n it s "o W -1 +a O '£> " O ft 1 8Jt~ > 8* Alkaline car- bonates (Na 2 C0 3 +K2CO3). «o a • g l On is Calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ), magnesium carbonate (MgC0 3 ), calcium sulphate (CaS0 4 ). ,d 03O .2© 23 S w Organic and volatile matter. "5 ,• Portion insoluble in water after evapora- tion. OS Portion soluble in water after evapora- tion. CO 3-3 OS CT>CN 00O C0O5 +J © © ft 1 < V c e v c P l PC I H 1 00 e c P C +. P 1 n > 1 £>02 00O CO cbPh -4h > o o o o o o o o o-£ £ P« N'^OONOOCOCO'* CO CN O «0 CN CO CO •** . r~ IHONNH li-Hi-H .HCN 00 imcnScn -£§£ rHCN NNiHrt, 00)OlOMO-*OOMOOOt ""•OOOCOffllNOiOOJ^H! HCOrtNCOININl .-oooooofeo,2 of 1-1 5 : © .• .• • ! .• • B ■ * « £ i^ £ >>© I ui . HH MISCEL1 INEOUS AN \\ VTBES. 137 r-CNa2 o as O-hCOCN pssg§ Id o I w X d c ! c ; 1 s • t ,i ;~ , | ij p | 3 .3 1 a d O 9 H DQ - >- a c 3 1 1 ■5 2 * * 3 • a « !§8< ciHaNacoftHHHON' c o o o » a ■* l« m * O! LO o Mr* os oo 1-h in co co co cn MfsaoccxacxNOMO OOOOOOOOQCNO^ lO rHNO)rtta>i-l C» x££l o o o o o I 5 3 odd j* 3 d d 3 d.t; o'3 ° SCO « cj£« gOBf * I x £> ooot^»^T*<«;or.-}< -' 2 ,> " r- cm t- i^ co a? l-i~_l~-.Ca2Oi0CNoaaHiaoiooHaD O LO OC OS O i-i ~ CO X »0»'*<0 0'> ® 3 © t> ! ^ 53 ~ .S uSrc3'3 ;►> ; 2 is 138 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. GQ I 3 & 3 I ^5 I o a if °3 Oco lo-gao ^2 .JD . ,Q C3 • -,2=3.2 • •« • S3 ° oS-'SS ° °*3 ° CNCNCO ! co co -gi c oooo CM CO i oo r- cm co A is COM & o fc£ 9<2 g © S i-lO5l^.T}4 CN»*"0000>iOI^T-IOOC5t^ -*d>iocN-.e«5T-i S2ooo r*4 • o il -la- 3« 3 w p ki a rt 2 goo o-y g-3 . M -wawfiEH S « fe •C2^ S,2co~ 3g WW .•fl'MfioQpq, o^ MTSCEl.I.ANKOrs ANALYSES. 139 ANALYSES BY THE RECLAMATION SEBTIOB. A few analyses of water from wells in San Joaquin Valley were made by chemists of the Reclamation Service during 1901 and L905. Though the results have heretofore been published ' they arc in- cluded herewith in order that the analytical records may be complete. The analysis of water from the 1,990-foot well at the State Insane Hospital, Stockton, agrees closely with those of water from other very deep wells in the city. The water of the well at Firebaugh is nearest in composition to that of the 532-foot well at Miller pumping station in sec. 22, T. 13 S., R. 14 E. The highly mineralized water from a flowing well reported as being at Tulare is undoubtedly from a well about 200 feet deep west of Angiola. Though the sources of the other samples can not be identified, the analyses of them agree entirely with the statements made in the preceding text. Table 32. — Analyses of ivater from wells in San Joaquin Valley by chemists of the United States Reclamation Service. [Parts per million.] Location. State Insane Hospital, Stockton « SE. i sec. 17, T. 11 S., R. 18 E. . . NE.isec. 11,T. 7S.,R. 12E... SW. i sec. 23, T. 7 S., R. 13 E . . . Tulareb Portersville Goshen Firebaugh Buttonwillow Bakersfield Dudley Count}'. San Joaquin. Madera Merced do Tulare... ....do.... ....do.... Fresno . . . Kern ....do.... Kings.... Date. Mar., 1907. July, 1905. do do Dec, 1905. do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do Carbon- ate radicle (C0 3 ). Bicarbon- ate radicle (HC0 3 ). 84 174 123 336 1,630 205 82 195 455 254 241 Chlorine (CI). ,620 85 14 70 436 2 7 225 35 21 183 Dis- solved solids. 6,940 380 328 584 2,110 250 156 1,420 816 358 2,090 a Depth, 1,990 feet; calcium (Ca), 600; magnesium (Mg), 171; sodium and potassium (Na+K), 1,370; sulphate radicle (SO4), 8 parts per million. b Flowing well. FORECASTING QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The analyses and assays accompanying the county notes (pp. 177-306) are tabulated by range, township, and section, the locations on the Spanish land grants being inserted in proper order to conform to that arrangement. The locations of the wells from which samples of water were collected are indicated in Plate II (in pocket). The tables show first the amounts of the ingredients determined by analysis, then certain computed amounts necessary to proper under- standing of the quality, and lastly classifications indicating the approximate nature of the waters and their general usefulness. The information thus tabulated is so detailed that it is not necessary to describe the waters individually in the text. The formulas that 1 Stabler, Herman, Some stream waters of the western United States: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 274, p. 146, 1911. 140 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. have been used in the computations and the ratings by which the waters have been classified are fully described in pages 50-83. The best way to use this material in forecasting the local quality of water is to study the tabulated analyses in connection with Plates II, III, and V and figure 2. After analyses of the water of wells near the locality under consideration have been compared, sections through the locality should be drawn representing the depth of the wells in relation to the composition of their waters. The deeper a well is the greater the area over which its water may be considered representative, because the deep supplies circulate more slowly than the upper ones and are less affected by rainfall, vegetation, and slope. The general direction of movement of the deep waters is from the foothills toward the axis, gradually changing near the axis to a direction parallel with it. Waters within 20 to 50 feet of the surface are diverted more or less from this course by surface configu- ration — that is, shallow waters move toward near-by gullies, coulees, or watercourses. The somewhat meager information on the subject indicates that shallow wells in the sandy deltas yield better water than shallow wells in the slight depressions between the deltas, and that shallow wells in land showing alkali patches yield poorer water than those in nonalkali tracts. Several shallow wells in dry stream beds were found to yield less strongly mineralized water than neigh- boring wells not affected by the stream underflow. These conditions are not invariable, but if they are considered with judgment knowl- edge of them is helpful in predicting the quality of water in the unex- plored areas of the valley. SUMMARY. The more important conclusions regarding the quality of water in San Joaquin Valley may be summarized as follows: The waters of the perennial streams are entirely suitable for irri- gation; storage to remove suspended matter renders them accept- able for boiler use, and filtration would purify them for domestic supply. On the east side between the Sierra and the trough of the valley wells 20 to 1,000 feet deep generally yield calcium carbonate waters, moderate in total solids and in total hardness and distinguishable by their low sulphate content. These waters are suitable for domestic use, good or fair for irrigation, and fair or poor for boiler use. Many of them have been successfully applied to diversified crops for several years. Water from wells less than 50 feet deep is generally poorer than that from slightly deeper wells. On the west side wells between the Coast Range and the trough of the valley yield hard, gypseous waters high in mineral content SUMMARY. 141 and especially in sulphate. Nearly all the waters taste of alkali, but they are potable except the most highly concentrated ones close to the foothills. The west-side waters are poorer for irrigation than those of tho cast, side, hut few of them are unfit for use if proper care is taken to prevent accumulation of alkali. They contain so much scale-forming matter that they should be softened before use in hoilers, and many of them are so strongly mineralized thai they can not he economically softened. In the axis or trough of the valley wells yield waters distinguishable by tho predominance of sodium and potassium among the basic radicles. These waters gradually mingle on either side of the valley with those of the east-side and west-side types, and they are locally altered by seepage from both sides of the valley. The ground waters in the axis differ much from each other in concentration and in composition and therefore in their economic value. Nearly all except the salt waters and those from wells less than 300 feet deep in or near the bed of Tulare Lake are potable. Many of those north of Kings River are poor for irrigation and are too high in foaming constituents to be suitable for steaming. The deep artesian waters south of Kings River are good or fair for irrigation and for boiler use. Borings more than 1,200 feet deep as far south as Fresno County yield strong salt waters unfit for use, but south of that county wells of that or greater depth, yield sodium carbonate waters of low mineral content. Many flowing wells 300 to 800 feet deep in the axis also yield salt water. The chief reason for the difference of composition between ground waters of the east and the west side is the different character of the sediments through which they pass; the silt brought down from the Sierra was derived from old, difficultly soluble rocks, but that from the Coast Range was derived from more recent met amorphic and sedimentary rocks containing gypsum and other readily soluble constituents. Alkalines predominate in the axial waters because the more readily soluble constituents have become concentrated during the movement of the waters toward the natural drain of the valley. The very deep waters of the east side and of the axis increase northward in mineral content, but the shallow waters show no such general relation. PUMPING TESTS. By Herman Stabler. NOTES ON THE PLANTS. During the summer of 1910 pumping tests were made on about 50 irrigation plants in San Joaquin Valley, in connection with other studies of the water supply. In the following pages a description of each plant and test is given, with brief remarks concerning the results shown by the test. The date of installation is given in the heading. The data of chief interest to the irrigator have also been collected in Table 34, in which the various factors in the cost and relative efficiency of the several plants are presented. A summary of the principal points to be observed in order to obtain good service from a pumping plant is also appended. 1. T. R. HILL, LODI, CAL. (1910). Location.— Lot 7 of the Hogan tract, SW. \ sec. 19, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 6-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 18-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 3^-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 8-inch pulley, catalogue capacity of 250-300 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 8 inches by 44 feet, uncased; water 8 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Engine, $235; pump, $85; well, $22; complete plant, $385. Use in 1910. — Preparation of land and irrigation of young alfalfa. Proposed plan of irrigation provides for the watering of 4 acres of alfalfa eight times. Test. — The following results were obtained during a two-hour test of the plant on September 25, 1910. Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 0.96. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 256. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 310 (marked 325); pump, 686 (catalogue speed, 830). Head: 6-foot lift; 20-foot suction. Total static head, 26 feet. Remarks. — The plant is about as small as can be satisfactorily used for irrigating alfalfa but is far larger than a 4 or 5 acre alfalfa tract can support. The owner pays a building cost of $96 per acre, and the cost of plant depreciation, maintenance, and operation amounts to $17 per acre annually. At this rate more than half the value of all the alfalfa that can be raised will be required for the upkeep of the pump- ing plant and payment of taxes and interest and insurance charges. For the first few years this may not be noted by an owner who makes no allowance for deprecia- tion, but as the plant grows older the problem of renewal must be met. The efficiency of the plant is low. So far as could be noted without detailed study this is accounted for by the following facts: The engine is larger than is required for the work done and is underspeeded and fed an excess of distillate; the pump is much underspeeded. The owner can not hope to make a living on his small tracts by raising alfalfa, His net revenue could be greatly increased by supplying pumped 142 rr.MiMNt; tksts. 143 Water to adjacenl lands and in BUCh case a 1-inch |)innp could profitably be installed. Care in designing the plant for proper speeds and in operating would add materially to the owner's success. 2. J. C. DUTTON, LODI, CAL. (1906). Location. — SW. \ sec. 31, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 6-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 22-ineh ])iilley; belt-connected to a 4-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 8-inch pulley, catalogue capacity 100 150 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 10 inches by 50 to 60 feet, uncased; water 5 to 10 feet below the surface according to season. Building cost.— Engine, $290; pump, $100; well, $25; complete plant, $495. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 3 acres of vineyard watered two or three times, 1 acre of alfalfa, and 1 acre of eucalyptus trees watered once a week or about 12 times in the season. Test. — The following results w r ere obtained during an hour and a quarter test of the plant on September 26, 1910: Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.00 Water pumped, gallons per minute, 380. Speeds, revolutions per minute: Engine, 248; pump, 666 (catalogue speed, 670). Head: 6-foot lift; 15-foot suction. Total static head, 21 feet. Remarks. — The plant is well designed and properly speeded. When tested the batteries were in poor condition and excess of distillate was being used. Poor ignition and relatively low efficiency resulted. The relatively large profits obtainable from a high grade of table grapes probably justify the installation of this plant. The area served is so small, however, that irrigation from it must necessarily be expensive. To provide for economical irrigation by means of this plant an area 10 to 15 times as great should be served with water. 3. J. C. DTJTTON, LODI, CAL. (19091). Location— SW . I sec. 31, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 4-horsepower Peerless vertical distillate engine; belt-connected to a 3£- inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 8-inch lagged pulley, catalogue capacity 250-300 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 10 inches by 60 feet, cased for 12 feet; water 14 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Engine and pump, $325; well, $30; complete plant, $400. Use in 1910.— Irrigation of 8 acres of vineyard and 2 acres of alfalfa. Test. — The following results were obtained during a 1^-hour test of the plant on September 26, 1910: Consumption of distillate, gallon per hour, 0.75. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 265. Speed, revolutions per minute, engine, 310. Head: 8-foot lift; 19-foot suction. Total static head, 27 feet. Remarks.' — This plant gives results satisfactory in view of its size and irrigation costs that are not unreasonable in consideration of the value of the crops raised. Either plant No. 2 or No. 3, however, if properly located, could do the work of both with much greater economy. 4. A. S. LA SALLE, LODI, CAL. (1902). Location. — NE. | sec. 25, T. 3 N., R. 6 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 12-horsepower Hercules distillate engine, 24-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 7-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 16-inch pulley, catalogue capacity 1,100-1,300 gallons per minute. Wells, three, bored, 8 inches by 90 feet, 10 inches by 90 feet, 17 inches by 90 feet; water 11 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Engine and pump, $750; complete plant, $1,250. 144 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 20 acres of alfalfa four times at the rate of 2 acres in seven hours. Test.— The following results were obtained during a 2-hour test of the plant on September 27, 1910: Consumption of distillate: No satisfactory measurement obtainable. Owner states that 12 gallons are required for a 10-hour run, corresponding to 1.2 gallons per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 868. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 300; pump, 410 (catalogue speed, 492). Head: 8-foot lift; 19-foot suction. Total static head, 27 feet. Remarks. — This plant apparently operates at high efficiency. Records of water pumped and distillate used are both somewhat doubtful, however, so the apparent efficiency may be too high. The engine has been given excellent care and operates in a very satisfactory manner after eight years' use. A 6-inch pump would be better suited to the plant than the one now in use. The 7-inch pump has to be speeded considerably below its economic capacity in order that the engine may not be too heavily overloaded. The owner of this plant has two other pumping plants on his property. One plant properly located could with much greater economy do the work of all three. 5. J. H. HIGH, LODI, CAL. Location. Sec. 18, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant.' — Byron Jackson pumping unit, consisting of a 5-horsepower electric motor direct-connected to a 3-inch horizontal centrifugal pump; catalogue capacity, 225 gal- lons per minute. Well, bored, 8 inches by 25 feet; water 8 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Pumping unit, $513; well, $16; complete plant, $550. Use in 1910.— Irrigation of small garden and 2 acres of alfalfa; also, for pumping to elevated tank for domestic use. Test. — The following results were obtained during a 1-hour test on September 28, 1910: Current used, kilowatt hours per hour, 4.0. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 300. Speed of motor and pump, revolutions per minute, 1,150. Head: 6-foot lift; 14-foot suction. Total static head, 20 feet. Remarks— The efficiency of the plant is low, probably on account of the high speed of the pump necessary for pumping to the elevated tank. The result on the lower lift used for irrigation is overspeeding, increased discharge, and low efficiency. The cost per acre of the plant is far too high to be justified by the value of the crops raised. It is essentially a luxury. 6. P. H. TINDELL, LODI, CAL. Location. — SW. \ sec. 18, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 12-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse distillate engine, 30-inch pulley; belt- connected to a 5-inch Jackson horizontal centrifugal pump with llj-inch pulley. Catalogue capacity 700 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 8 inches by 150 feet; water 16 feet below the surface; pump installed in 1898, engine in 1906. Building cost.— Engine, $650; pump, $120; well, $200; complete plant, $1,000. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 5 acres of alfalfa six times, 13.5 acres of vineyard once, 28.5 acres of vineyard twice, and 10 acres of vineyard three times. Two to two-and- a-half acres irrigated per day of 12 hours. Test. — The following results were obtained during a one-hour-test on September 28, 1910: Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour (from owner's record, no measurement being obtainable), 1.20. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 605. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 263; pump, 645. PUMPING TESTS. 1-lf) Head: ll-foot lift; 20-foot suction. Total static head, 31 feet. Remarks. - This plant, being operated with Eaii efficiency to irrigate 52 acres, La sub- ject to the reasonable water cost of $3.60 per acre per year or $2.60 per acre-foot of water pumped. The crops raised can readily stand such a. charge. The amount of water used, I . I acre-feel per acre per year, is rather 1<>\\ because of the relatively small water requirement of vineyards. The plant Is of sufficient capacity to irrigate an area fully twice as greal as thai n<>\v watered from it. 7. GEORGE D. KETTLEMAN. LODI, CAL. (1910). Location. — SW. j sec. 7, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. riant . — 20-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 30-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 6-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with L2-inch pulley, catalogue capacity 800-1,000 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 12 inches by 46 feet, uncased; water 18 feet below the surface. Engine house has substantial cement floor and very heavy concrete engine base. Building cost. — Engine, $760; pump, $90; well, $30; complete plant, $1,200. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 4 acres of alfalfa 10 times at the rate of 0.4 to 0.3 acre per hour. Also as insurance against drought for a large vineyard, though no irrigating water was supplied to the vineyard lands. Test. — The following results were obtained during a 4-hour test of the plant on September 29, 1910: Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.83. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 914. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 222; pump, 530 (catalogue speed, 566). Head: 8-foot lift; 20-foot suction. Total static head, 28 feet. Remarks. — This plant is remarkable on account of the very high yield of the well, 0.204 second-foot per foot of draw-down. Except for wells in a stream bed, no other well tested in San Joaquin Valley was found to have a capacity 85 per cent as great. A considerable amount of sand has been pumped out and on account of the heavy draft some sand continues in the discharge. The cost of operation in 1910 was $31 per acre irrigated, a very large proportion of the value of the alfalfa raised. The building of such a large plantcan not be justified by the use to which it is put. The insurance against drought for the vineyard is perhaps its greatest value. In any case a considerably smaller plant would be fully as useful and much less expensive than the one installed. Only fair efficiency is obtained, the pump being slightly under- speeded and the engine working at small load. 8. CHARLES RASH, LODI, CAL. (1909). Location. — NW. \ sec. 19, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 10-horsepower Samson distillate engine; 20-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 5-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 10-inch pulley; catalogue capacity, 600-700 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 12 inches by 48 feet, uncased. Building cost. — Engine, $350; pump, $75; well, $30; complete plant, $550. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 2.5 acres of alfalfa six times. Available for use in vineyard also. Test. — The following results were obtained during a two-hour test of the plant on September 30, 1910: Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.50. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 406. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 303; pump, 596 (catalogue speed, 646). Head: 3-foot lift; 23-foot suction. Total static head, 26 feet. Remarks. — The plant is well designed in most respects. The pump should be set lower, however, in order to avoid excessive suction lift. The operating efficiency 98205°— wsp 398—16 10 146 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. was very low during the test. This was due in part to excessive feeding of distillate and in part to the presence of air in the pump. The pump was also somewhat under- speeded. In order to secure reasonable economy, the plant should serve a much greater acreage. As used in 1910, the building cost of the plant is $220 per acre irri- gated and the annual cost of irrigation $32 per acre, or $7.80 per acre-foot of water pumped. The crops raised are not of sufficient value to warrant such irrigation costs. 9. JOHN TRETHEWAY, LODI, CAL. (1908). Location. — NW. \ sec. 11, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 25-horsepower Samson distillate engine; 32-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 7-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 14-inch pulley (catalogue capacity, 1,100-1,300 gallons per minute). Well, bored, 13 to 8 inches by 137 feet, cased; water 26 feet below the surface. Building cost.— Engine, $900; pump, $120; well, $100; complete plant, $1,300. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of garden and of 14 acres of alfalfa, watered twice. Test. — The following results were obtained during a two-hour test of the plant on October 3, 1910: Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.57. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 425. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 220; pump, 460 (catalogue speed, 630). Head: 22-foot lift; 26-foot suction. Total static head, 48 feet. Remarks. — The operation efficiency of this plant was excellent when all conditions are considered, though the actual results were poor. The engine and pump were underspeeded in order that the capacity of the well might not be exceeded, and the distillate feed choked as far as practicable. A much smaller plant would pump with better efficiency all the water that the well can supply. More extended irrigation from this plant is proposed, but additional water supply from additional wells or from reconstruction of the present well will be necessary to make the plant a success. 10. J. A. HIEB, LODI, CAL. (1907). Location. — SW. \ sec. 15, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 8-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse distillate engine, 24-inch pulley; belt-con- nected to a 4-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 8-inch lagged pulley; catalogue capacity, 400-450 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 8 inches by 46 feet, uncased; water 19 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Engine, $470; pump, $70; well, $25; complete plant, $650. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 4 acres of alfalfa, watered 18 times, at the rate of one- third of an acre per hour. Test. — The following results were obtained during a one-hour test of the plant on October 4, 1910: Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour (owner's statement of average require- ment, no satisfactory measurement being obtainable), 1.00. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 444. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 275 (118 explosions); pump, 750 (catalogue speed, 743). Head : 7-foot lift; 20-foot suction; total static head, 27 feet. Remarks. — This plant is well designed, the various parts being well adapted to one another. The efficiency appears to be lower than would be expected, but this is probably due to the rather heavy draft of distillate. The building cost and operation and maintenance costs per acre of land irrigated are unreasonably high in view of the crops raised, for the plant is of sufficient size to irrigate an area twenty times as great as that for which it is actually utilized. . PUMPING I l-.sis. 147 11. SAM KUMMIS, LODI, CAL. Location. — SE. \ sec. 24, T. 3 N., R. (i E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. 12-horsepower distillate engine (unknown make), 36-inch pulley; belt- anected to a 6-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with L2-inch lagged pulley; catalogue capacity, 800-1,000 gallons per minute. Engine and pump on a portable platform and used to pump from three wells located a1 convenient points; water about 8 feet below the surface. Estimated building cost. — Engine, $600; pump, $105; wells, $150; complete plant, $900. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 60 acres of almonds and alfalfa, mostly almonds. Test. — The following results were obtained during a short test on October 4, 1910: Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour (owner's statement of average use, no measurement beinu: obtainable), 1.20. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 444. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 138; pump, 400 (catalogue speed, 566). Head: 3-foot lift: 24-foot suction; total static head, 27 feet. Remarks. — The engine is an old one but is still doing good service. The plant operates at low efficiency, chiefly because the speed is very low, this being necessary in order to avoid excessive suction lift. A portable centrifugal pump can be used to advantage only in case the water table is close to the surface of the ground. An 8-horsepower engine and a 4-inch pump would do the work of this plant with greater efficiency and at about two-thirds the building cost. 12. W. G. MICKE, LODI, CAL. (1905). Location. — NW. i sec. 7, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — Byron Jackson pumping unit, consisting of a 3-horsepower electric motor direct-connected to a 2-inch horizontal centrifugal pump, catalogue capacity, 100 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 5 inches in diameter, shallow; water 16 feet below the surface. Building cost. — About $250 for the completed plant. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 1.5 acres of alfalfa and garden five times at the rate of 0.06 acre per hour. Test. — The following results were obtained during a 2-hour test of the plant on October 6, 1910. Current used, kilowatt-hours per hour, 2.0. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 108. Speed of motor and pump, revolutions per minute, 1,700. Head: 6-foot lift; 19-foot suction. Total static head, 25 feet. Remarks. — This plant has low efficiency because of its small size. As it lies idle the greater portion of the time, the costs per acre are large even though the current is purchased on the basis of actual use. 13. MRS. WM. P. BEARD, LODI, CAL. (1910). Location. — NW. \ sec. 30, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 5-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 20-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 3|-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 7-inch pulley, catalogue capacity, 250-300 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 8 inches by 50 feet, uncased; water 12 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Engine, $200; pump, $85; well, $4; complete plant, $325. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 2 acres of alfalfa and 0.3 acre of garden six times. Test. — The following results were obtained during an hour-and-a-half test on October 6, 1910. Consumption of distillate, gallon per hour, 0.80. 148 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 249. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 276; pump, 716 (catalogue speed, 807). Head: 5-foot lift, 19-foot suction. Total static head, 24 feet. Remarks. — This plant is operated at low efficiency on account of small size, low speed of pump, and slip of belt. The area irrigated is so small that the building cost per acre and cost per acre of operation and maintenance are excessive. 14. JACOB WAGNER (1904). Location. — NW. i sec. 19, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 12-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse distillate engine, 28-inch pulley; belt-con- nected to a 5-inch Krogh "Pacific" horizontal centrifugal pump with 10-inch pulley, catalogue capacity, 500 to 950 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 12 inches by 115 feet, cased; water 14 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Complete plant estimated at $1,000. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 6 acres of alfalfa watered five times at the rate of 0.07 acre per hour. Test. — The following results were obtained during a 2-hour test on October 7, 1910. Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.25. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 299. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 232 (118 explosions); pump, calculated, 650 (catalogue speed, 573). Head: 11-foot lift; 24-foot suction. Total static head, 35 feet. Remarks. — As is the case with most plants on which tests were made in this neighbor- hood, the costs are high by reason of the small area of irrigation. The efficiency of this plant is very low and can not be explained by reasons that were apparent. The dis- charge is far too small for size and speed of the pump, and there were indications of air leakage in the suction pipe. It may be, however, that poor condition of the pump or clogging of the foot valve is the cause of the low efficiency. The well is deeper than most in the vicinity, and the upper aquifers are cased off. This seems to have been a mistake in construction, as the capacity of the well is relatively small. 15. W. E. BUNKER, GUSTINE, CAL. (1910). Location.— -NW. \ sec. 7, T. 9 S., R. 9 E. ; Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 100-horsepower Samson four-cylinder vertical distillate engine; direct-con- nected to a 26-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump, catalogue capacity 16,000 gallons per minute. Building cost. — Engine, $2,850; complete plant, $3,950. Use. — Pumping for irrigation from a gravity canal through 8-foot suction and 12-foot lift (total static head 20 feet) to high lands. In 1910 156 acres of raw land was watered once at the rate of 0.64 acre per hour using 7.5 gallons of distillate per hour. Plan of irrigation provides for watering 350 acres of alfalfa twice per season. Remarks. — Though not an underground water development, this plant, which was visited but not tested, is cited as an example of a type of plant being installed at various localities on the west side of San Joaquin Valley in a region highly developed for alfalfa and dairying. The land is reputed to be salable at $30 per acre without and $300 per acre with a water right. Plants of this type extend the use of flood waters to high lands that could not otherwise be watered. Water is supplied by the canals only until sometime in July or August so that the growing season is relatively short. Plants that can quickly irrigate a large area seem to be essential in view of the conditions and the value of the crops seems to warrant rather high costs. From the use of distillate and time for watering it is evident that the plant was not operated at full capacity in 1910. PUMPING TESTB. 149 16. JOE HOUSE, GUSTINE, CAL. (1909). Location. SW. j sec (i. T. S S., R . !) K., M-uuit Diablo* base and meridian. Plant. 25-horsepower Samson distillate engine; L4-inch Samson centrifugal pump, catalogue capacity 5,000 to 6,000 gallons per minute. Building cost. — Engine, $900; complete plant, $1,500. Use in n)io.- Irrigation of 77 acres of alfalfa twice at the rate of L.15 acres per hour. Remarks.- This plant receives its water supply from a gravity canal. The pump operates under water and has a lift of 5.5 feet to II acres and :'>."> feet to (>'.', acres of land. The costs for the season were SI!) for distillate at If) cents a gallon, $1 for lubricating oil, and a merely nominal amount for attendance. The water supply is usually available until some time in July or August. The plant was visited on October 11 but no tests were made. From the foregoing data, supplied by theowner, the efficiency is excellent and the total cost of irrigation about $2.90 per acre. To this should be added $1.50 to $3 per acre charged by the gravity canal company for the water supplied. 17. PATTERSON COLONY, PATTERSON, CAL. (1910).i This plant is located near the new town of Patterson on the west bank of San Joaquin River about 30 miles southwest of Stockton. It is noteworthy as being the largest irrigation pumping plant in San Joaquin Valley . The Rancho del Puerto, or Patterson Ranch, contain ing about 18,000 acres of land, has been subdivided and is being sold in small holdings with a water right providing for irrigation of the lands with water pumped from San Joaquin River. The irrigable area contains about 14,000 acres and is watered with an assumed duty of water of 1 second-foot to 160 acres from five sections of main canal differing about 13 feet in elevation. The main pumping plant with a capacity of 50,000 gallons per minute (111 second-feet) is located on the river bank and raises the water about 21 feet to the first-lift canal. The first-lift canal supplies water to a large area of land and terminates in a small reservoir supplying a second pumping station that raises water to the second lift canal. The second-lift canal, in turn, supplies water to the land and through a reservoir to a third pumping station. In the same way the fourth and fifth pumping stations and the third, fourth, and fifth lift canals are operated. The canals and reservoii-s are lined with concrete and extend about 17,500 feet in a straight line west from the river. The motive power is electricity supplied 19 hours a day (to avoid peak load) at the low rate of three-fourths of a cent per kilowatt-hour actually used. The pumps are of the horizontal centrifugal type, were specially designed for the conditions under which they operate, and gave effi- ciencies over 75 per cent in tests at the factory. The pump equipment planned for the several stations (about half installed in 1910) is as follows: Table 33. — Pumping equipment, Patterson colony. Sta- tion. Number and size of pumps. Station capacity in gallons per minute. Accumu- lated lift in feet. 1 Four 20-inch 50,000 46,000 31,000 18,000 6,000 21 2 34 3 47 4 60 5 One 15-inch 73 1 The construction of this pumping system has been described in detail by G. C. Stevens (Eng. Record, vol. 62, pp. 284-286, 1910). 150 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 18. P. ALLING, LODI, CAL. (1908). Location. — NE. \ sec. 30, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 5-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 17-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 4-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 8-inch lagged pulley, catalogue capacity 400-450 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 6 inches by 46 feet, uncased; water 11 feet beneath the surface. Building cost.— Engine, $200; pump, $70; well, $25; complete plant, $355. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 3.5 acres of alfalfa and a small area of eucalyptus trees and garden eight times at the rate of 0.12 acre per hour. Test. — The following results were obtained during a 2-hour test on October 13, 1910. Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 0.97. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 406. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 328; pump, 642 (catalogue speed, 694). Head: 7-foot lift; 16-foot suction. Total static head, 23 feet. Remarks. — The well at this plant has very great capacity for one of so small a diame- ter. The efficiency of the plant is low and is accounted for by the use of an excess of distillate. The unit costs are high on account of the small area irrigated. The plant is well kept, and with more extensive irrigation operations would give excellent results. 19 AND 20. HOGAN BROS., LODI, CAL. (1904). Location. — SW. £ sec. 19, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 12-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse distillate engine, 22-inch pulley; belt-con- nected to a 5-inch Krogh "Pacific' ' horizontal centrifugal pump with 10-inch pulley, catalogue capacity 500-950 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 12 inches by 46 feet, uncased ; water 9 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Complete plant, $1,000. Use in 1910. — In conjunction with plant No. 21, for the irrigation of 30 acres of alfalfa, 5 acres of strawberries, and 5 acres of garden truck. Tests. — The following results were obtained from a 1.5-hour test of the plant on October 5, 1910, and a 2-hour test on October 14, 1910, respectively. Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.67-2.12. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 710-640. Speed, revolutions per' minute: Engine, 267-271 (117-124 explosions); pump, 557-577 (catalogue speed, 524). Head: 3.5-foot lift; 24.5-foot suction. Total static head, 28 feet. Remarks. — The engine is an old one. The cylinder has been rebored and at the time of the test needed repacking as it allowed considerable escape of gases. An excess of distillate was being used. The efficiency of the plant was low, but the unit costs are better than for many neighboring plants because a larger relative area is irrigated. 21. HOGAN BROS., LODI, CAL. (1909). Location. — SW. \ sec. 19, T. 3 N., R. 7 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 12-horsepower Union vertical distillate engine, 18-inch pulley; belt-con- nected to a 5-inch Globe horizontal centrifugal pump with 14-inch pulley. Well, bored, 12 to 6 inches by 55 feet, cased 25 feet; water 12 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Complete plant, $1,000. Use in 1910. — In conjunction with plant No. 20, for the irrigation of 30 acres of alfalfa, 5 acres of strawberries and 5 acres of garden truck. Test. — The following results were obtained during a 1.5-hour test of the plant on October 14, 1910. Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.38. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 500. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 343; pump, 427. Head: 2-foot lift; 25-foot suction. Total static head, 27 feet. PUMPINc TESTS. 151 Rcmarh. — This plant is operating at low efficiency. This is probably due in pari, to the great suction lift approaching the limit of practicable operation, and in part to the low speed of the pump. The economic discharge and speed of pump are not known, but it is probably considerably underspeeded and working at low efficiency to develop a relatively small discharge. 22. E. P. TYLER (1910). Location.— Lot 233, Merced Colony; NE. \ sec. 5, T. 8 S., R. 14 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 35-horsepower General Electric Co. induction motor, 9£-ineh pulley; belt-connected to a 10-inch Jackson horizontal centrifugal pump with 21-inch pulley, catalogue capacity, 3,000 gallons per minute. Wells, bored, one 12 to 10 inches by 172 feet, one 12 to 8 inches by 292 feet, one 12 to 8 inches by 220 feet, all cased 40 to 50 feet; water 6 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Wells, $680; house, $150; installation, $220; pump, motor, and trans- formers, $1,950; complete plant, $3,000. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 4 acres of alfalfa and as demonstration pumping plant for Merced Colony. Will be used to irrigate all crops on a ranch of 174 acres. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on October 18, 1910. Current used, kilowatt-hours per hour, 28 (owner's record for season). Water pumped, gallons per minute, 2,160. Speed, revolutions per minute: Motor, 1,160; pump, 550 (catalogue speed, 550). Head: 5-foot lift; 23-foot suction. Total static head, 28 feet. Remarks. — This plant operates with only fair efficiency, and though the pump is apparently speeded properly the discharge is far below the catalogue capacity. There were some indications of air leakage in the suction pipe, but the cause of the poor results was not ascertained with certainty. Electric current was obtained at the rate of 3 cents per kilowatt-hour delivered. The plant costs were high in 1910, but with increase in area irrigated as proposed will be reduced to reasonable amounts. 23. W. R. GIRARD, MERCED, CAL. (1910). Location.— Lot 185, Merced Colony; SW. \ sec. 32, T. 7 S., R. 14 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 10-horsepower General Electric Co. induction motor, 8^-inch pulley; belt- connected to a 5-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 14-inch pulley; cata- logue capacity 600-700 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 12 inches by 235 feet, cased for about 50 feet; water 6 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Transformers, $131; motor, $209; pump and accessories, including digging pit and installing pump and motor, $206; building, $50; well and casing, $174; miscellaneous supplies and labor, $38; complete plant, $808. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 18 acres of alfalfa. Test. — The following results were obtained during a 1-hour test of the plant on October 18, 1910. Current used, kilowatt-hours per hour, 8.6. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 630. Speed, revolutions per minute: Motor, 1,160; pump, 700 (catalogue speed, 581). Head: 3.5-foot lift; 16.5-foot suction. Total static head, 20 feet. Remarks. — This plant was in good condition when tested. The pump is apparently slightly overspeeded but no reason for appreciable lack of efficiency was apparent. Nevertheless the recorded efficiency was very low. The record of current used, how- ever, was taken from a meter reading without other tests and is probably too high. A meter reading of about 6 kilowatt-hours would have indicated a satisfactory efficiency. 152 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 24. S. M. PATE, MERCED, CAL. (1905). Location. — NW. \ sec. 2L, T. 8 S., R. 13 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 15-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 28-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 6-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 12-inch pulley, catalogue capacity 800-],000 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 12 inches in diameter; water 15 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Complete plant, estimated, $760. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of several acres of alfalfa. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on October 19, 1910. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 765. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 231; pump, 547 (catalogue speed, 592). Head: 9-foot lift; 21-foot suction. Total static head, 30 feet. Remarks. — No measurement or owner's record of use of distillate could be obtained. The pump is slightly underspeeded and operates below economical capacity. 25. JESSE RODERIGS, MERCED, CAL. (1907). Location. — NW. \ sec. 10, T. 7 S., R. 13 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 12-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 24-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 6-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 12-inch pulley, catalogue capacity 800 to 1,000 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 10 to 7 inches by 84 feet, cased 71 feet; water 9 feet below the surface. Building cost.— Well and casing, $68; building, $66; complete plant, $700. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 9 acres of grapes once, 16 acres of sweet potatoes once a week, and 3 acres of alfalfa five times. Test. — The following results were obtained during a 1.5-hour test of the plant on October 20, 1910. Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.61. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 400. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 232; pump, 460 (catalogue speed, 575). Head: 8-foot lift; 20-foot suction. Total static head, 28 feet, Remarks. — During the latter part of the test the engine was speeded up to 256 revo- lutions per minute and the discharge increased to 450 gallons per minute with 4 feet additional draw down. The speed regulator on the engine was worn so that normal speed could not be maintained, the extra speed during the latter part of the test being secured by a temporary makeshift. Though the pump is underspeeded it is apparently not producing the discharge that it should and probably needs careful overhauling. The engine is using an excess of distillate and leaks badly around the piston. The efficiency is low. The plant is too large for the owner's use as he states that the discharge is as great as he can take care of to advantage. An 8-horsepower engine and a 4-inch pump would be a much more suitable and economical installation for this plant. 26. A. L. SAYRE, MADERA, CAL. Location. — SE. \ sec. 31, T. 11 S., R. 18 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 50-horsepower electric motor, 16-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 10-inch Jackson horizontal centrifugal pump with 14-inch pulley, catalogue capacity 3,900 gallons per minute. Three wells, bored, 10 to 12 inches by 110 feet, uncased; water 19 feet below the general surface; pump installed in 1903; electric machinery in 1909. Building cost. — Transformers, $660; motor, $550; wiring, etc., $150; pump, about $550; complete plant, $3,000. A gas producer and gas engine costing $2,800 formerly operated the plant but have been discarded for electric machinery. PUMPING TESTS. 153 Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 225 acres of vineyard once, and 150 acres of alfalfa, five times, and 55 acres of hay and Borghum twice. Operated almost continuously from March or April to October. Test. — The following results were obtained during a 3. 5-hour test of the plant, on October 2 1, supplemented by a brief test on October 23, 1910. Current used: 30. (J kilowatt -hours per hour by meter measurement, equivalent to 49.0 horsepower. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 2,300. Speed, revolutions per minute: Motor, 689; pump, 800 (catalogue speed, 650). Head: 19.5-foot lift; 21.5-foot suction. Total static head, 41 feet. Suction head by gage, 22.5 inches of mercury or 25.5 feet; hence total head including friction is about 45 feet. Remarks. — After the test on October 21 the owner protested that the measurement of water must be in error. Accordingly a second measurement was made on October 23 with essentially the same result. Every precaution was taken to insure accurate results, and there can be no serious doubt of the recorded flow. The pump is operated at excessive speed and should under these conditions give a discharge of more than 3,000 gallons per minute, but presumably on account of wear and great suction lift the actual discharge does not exceed 2,300 gallons per minute. As the plant is oper- ated almost continuously throughout the irrigation season to water a large area the unit costs are low. The water-right charge or building cost amount to only $7.50 per acre and the cost of operation and maintenance, including depreciation, renewals, and repairs, amounts to only $3.60 per acre, or $1.50 per acre-foot of water pumped. Irrigation can scarcely fail to be profitable on such terms even with crops of relatively small value. This plant had a larger discharge than any other tested and was so operated as to give irrigation costs that could be compared favorably with those of any other plant in the valley working under similar conditions as to head and rate charged for power. 27. H. W. PATTERSON, BORDEN, CAL. Location. — SW. \ sec. 8, T. 12 S., R. 18 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 42-horsepower steam traction engine, 40.5-inch pulley; belt-connected to an 8-inch Jackson horizontal centrifugal pump with 15. 5-inch pulley, catalogue capacity, 1,600 gallons per minute. Wells, bored, 10 inches by 96 feet and 10 inches by 134 feet; water 22 feet below the surface. Reservoir with earth embank- ments and capacity of about 1,000,000 gallons, used to collect water pumped at night; pump installed in 1904; engine purchased in 1909. Building cost. — Complete plant, $3,500. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 30 acres of orchard twice, 50 acres of alfalfa four times, and 40 acres of corn and barley once. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on October 24, 1910. Consumption of crude oil, gallons per hour, 14.00 (owner's record from test run of 15.5 hours). Water pumped, gallons per minute, 1,320. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 229; pump, 588 (catalogue speed, 695). Head: 19.5-foot lift, 20.5-foot suction (19 inches by gage). Total static head, 41 feet. Remarks. — This is one of the few steam pumping plants remaining in the valley and the only one tested. The costs are not materially different from those for distillate or electric plants under similar conditions, but the additional attention required in the operation of a steam plant is responsible for its general unpopularity. The pump is underspeeded and produces a relatively low discharge. 154 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 28. S. W. SKAGGS, BORDEN, CAL. (1907-8). Location. — SE. \ sec. 6, T. 12 S., R. 18 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 30-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 46-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 6-inch Price horizontal centrifugal pump with 10-inch pulley. Wells, bored, 112 and 186 feet in depth, cased; water 14 to 18 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Complete plant, $3,200. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 60 acres of alfalfa three times. (First two waterings in season given from gravity supply.) Test. — The following results were obtained during a 2-hour test of the plant on October 24, 1912. Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 3.8. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 780. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 204; pump, 905. Head : 16-foot lift, 25.5-foot suction (by gage) . Total static head about 42 feet. Remarks. — The engine was using an excessive amount of distillate and the efficiency is in consequence low. Great suction lift probably also contributes to the low effi- ciency. The building and operation and maintenance costs are reasonable. 29. WALTERS BROS., MADERA, CAL. (1903). Location. — Sec, 32, T. 11 S., R. 18 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 45-horsepow3r Hercules distillate engine, 70.5-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 7-inch California (Krogh) horizontal centrifugal pump with 20-inch pulley. Wells, bored, 10 inches by 104 feet, cased, and 10 inches by 174 feet, cased to 134 feet; water 22 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Complete plant, $3,500, including $500 for pump pit. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 50 acres of alfalfa four times; 35 acres of vineyard once, and 15 acres of hay and barley twice, at the rate of 0.35 acre per hour. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on October 25, 1910. Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour: 4.00 (from owner's statement, no accu- rate measurement being obtainable). Water pumped, gallons per minute, 1,900. Speed, revolution per minute: Engine, 162; pump, 565. Head: Lift, 21 feet; suction, 25.5 feet (by gage). Total static head about 46 feet. Remarks. — The efficiency of this plant appears to be very high but both use of dis- tillate and discharge are open to question. The plant is well operated and gives good results as to cost when the head is considered. 30. VALLE-VERDE INVESTMENT CO., FRESNO, CAL. (1909). Location. — Near Mendota, Cal., in sec. 2, T. 14 S., R. 14 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 75-horsepower Samson vertical 3-cylinder distillate engine, 40-inch pulley; belt-connected to an 8-inch Jackson double-suction vertical centrifugal pump with 13-inch pulley; catalogue capacity, 1,600 gallons per minute. Wells, bored, 12 inches by 380 feet and 450 feet, cased and 80 feet of casing perforated; 9.6 inches by 414 feet, cased and 80 feet of casing perforated and wrapped spirally with wire of triangular cross section; water 52 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Complete plant, $6,500, including $1,500 for the two 12-inch wells and $1,800 for the third well. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 2 acres of alfalfa eight times, 6 acres of broom corn twice, 40 acres of Egyptian corn twice, 10 acres of Kaffir corn three times, and a half acre of garden twelve times. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on October 27, 1910. PUMPING TESTS. 155 Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 7 .27 '. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 1,080. Head: 51-foot lift; 31-foot suction (by gage). Total static head about 82 feet. Remarks. — This plant is the only one <>n the "west side" that was tested. Tne depth to water is over 50 feet and the flow of water, occurring in One sand, is nut free. The two wells without special casing give a comparatively small flow because of clogging with sand. The third well gives much better results, being fitted with a special screen such as is described by Bowman. 1 After all, however, the suction head is excessive and accounts for the fairly low efficiency of the plant and the small dis- charge of the pump. The building cost of the plant is about $34 per acre of land that it will irrigate, though with the small area now watered the cost is over $100 per acre. The cost of operation and maintenance is now about $8.40 per acre-foot of water pumped but could be reduced to $4.10 per acre-foot if operated for the irrigation of a larger area. The costs, even under the best conditions, must be a relatively high proportion of the value of ordinary crops raised and every care should be taken to secure economy in the operation of such a plant if it is to be used successfully. 31. ROSEDALE WATER CO., PORTERSVILLE, CAL. (1897). Location. — Sec. 3, T. 22 S., R. 28 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 20-horsepower Westinghouse induction motor; direct-connected to a 4-inch California (Krogh) horizontal centrifugal pump. Wells located adjacent to and on both sides of Tule River as follows: Dug well 28 feet deep; bored well 12 inches by 35 feet; shaft or dug well 18 feet deep. Wells connected by tunnel or piping. Building cost. — Complete plant estimated, $1,300, not including extensive system for water delivery. Use in 1910. — Operated continuously from April to October 15 for four and five waterings of 22 citrus orchards aggregating 177 acres in area. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 3, 1910. Current used, horsepower, 23.00 (from power company's bill), equivalent to 17.15 kilowatt-hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 565. Speed, of motor and pump, revolutions per minute, 1,125. Head: 74-foot lift; 5-foot suction. Total static head, 79 feet. Remarks. — This plant is owned and operated in cooperation by 22 orchardists. Each pays to the cooperative organization 50 cents per hour for the time that water is supplied by the plant to his lands. In this manner all receive irrigation water much more economically than if each owned a plant for his own exclusive use. Being operated continuously throughout the irrigation season the cost of pumping water amounts to less than $2.50 per acre-foot even though the head is 79 feet. The wells are located on the edge of Tule River and generally give a full supply of water with little drawdown. The water level fluctuates considerably during the season, however, and the plant can not be run at full capacity at all times. The water is pumped through 900 feet of 12-inch pipe to the highest land to be irrigated and then flows in open cement flumes to the various orchards. 32. D. C. SETTLEMIRE, PORTERSVILLE, CAL. (1910 Location. — SW. £ sec. 12, T. 22 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 12-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse distillate engine; belt-connected to a . Downie geared double pump head. Well, bored, 12 inches by 180 feet; water 33 feet below the surface. 1 Bowman, Isaiah, Well-drilling methods: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 257, p. 98, 1911. 156 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. Building Qost. — Complete plant, $2,500. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 9 acres of young orange trees and small garden five times. Will be utilized for irrigation of about 40 acres. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 3, 1910: Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.00 (owner's record, no satisfactory measurement being obtainable). Water pumped, gallons per minute, 165. Speed: Engine, 264 revolutions per minute (66 explosions); pump, strokes per minute, 32. Head: Cylinder, 100 feet below pump head. Total static head, about 50 feet. Remarks. — The test of this plant was not wholly satisfactory. The pump was evi- dently discharging far below its rated capacity and the engine working on a very light load. The efficiency was consequently low. The small discharge could be explained satisfactorily by a worn-out or clogged valve or other similar condition at the cylinder. Under the conditions of operation in 1910 the costs of irrigation were excessive. With the pump in good condition and the entire 40-acre tract irrigated, however, the costs would be reasonable. 33. G. A. MARTIN, PORTERSVILLE, CAL. (1908). Location. — SE. £ sec. 12, T. 22 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 3-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse induction motor; belt-connected to a single- action Krogh pump head with 19-inch stroke. Well, bored, 10 inches by 100 feet; water 60 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Complete plant, $900. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 7 acres of oranges and 3 acres of garden truck five times at the rate of 0.042 to 0.037 acre per hour. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 4, 1910: Current used, 3. 3-horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 2.46 kilo- watt-hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 38.3. Speed: Motor, revolutions per minute, 1,800; pump, strokes per minute, 21. Head: Cylinder, 94 feet below the pump. Total static head, about 70 feet. Remarks. — The efficiency of this plant is very low, but, aside from the small size of the machinery, no poor working conditions were apparent. The costs, though high, are no doubt warranted by the relatively high returns from citrus culture. 34. R. W. JOB, PORTERSVILLE, CAL. (1910). Location. — NE. £ sec. 13, T. 22 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 15-horsepower General Electric induction motor; belt-connected to a No. 3 double-action straight-line deep-well pump with 30-inch stroke. Well, bored, 12 inches by 285 feet; water 80 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Pump and motor, $2,400; well, $900; complete plant, $3,500. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 80 acres of young orange trees five to six times. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 4, 1910: Current used, 15.32-horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 11.43 kilowatt-hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 210. Speed: Motor, 1,185 revolutions per minute; pump, 16.5 strokes per minute. Head: Cylinder, 120 feet below the pump. Total static head, about 140 feet. Remarks. — This plant operates with satisfactory efficiency, and the costs of irrigation are reasonable for citrus culture. PUMPING CBSTS. J 57 35. BLACHERNE WATER CO., PORTERSVILLE, CAL. (1907). Location. — SE. ] sec. 23, T. 21 8., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. 15-horsepower Westinghouse induction motor; belt-connected to a No. 30 power head Anion deep-well pump with 24-inch stroke Well, bored, L0 inches by 112 feet; water about 60 feet below the surface. Building cost.— Pump, motor, etc., $2,326; well and 12 acres of land, $1,200; com- plete pumping plant, about $3,500; complete system, including pumping plant, 1,200 feet of 8-inch wood-stave "pipe, about 6,600 feet of cement flume, and 12 acres of land, $4,S00. Use in 1910. — Operated practically continuously from April to October, inclusive, for tin 1 irrigation of 45 acres of oranges. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 5, 1910: Current used, 16.00 horsepower (from power company's bills), equivalent to 11.9 kilowatt-hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 172. Speed: Motor, 1,133 revolutions per minute; pump, 22 strokes per minute. Head: 80 feet below and 125 feet above the power head. Total static head about 205 feet. Remarks. — This plant pumps water through 1,200 feet of 8-inch wood-stave pipe to a hill crest from which it flows through about 6,600 feet of cement flume to five citrus orchards aggregating 45 acres. The plant is owned and operated by a coopera- tive stock company, the stockholders being owners of the lands irrigated. Each irrigator is assessed $2 per acre per month for water service. The stave pipe leaks appreciably, but the plant, nevertheless, shows high efficiency. The costs of opera" tion, though high per acre of land irrigated on account of the great lift, are warranted by the value of the citrus-fruit production. 36. HILO PUMP, PORTERSVILLE, CAL. (1904). Location. — NW. i sec. 23, T. 21 S., It. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 30-horsepower Westinghouse induction motor; direct-connected to a 4-inch Price horizontal centrifugal pump. Well, bored, 12 inches by 165 feet, water 30 feet below the surface. Building costs. — Complete plant, $3,500. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 100 acres of citrus orchards. Tests. — The following results were obtained during tests on the high and low lifts on November 5, 1910: Current used, 30.10 horsepower (from power company's bills), equivalent to 22.5 kilowatt-hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute: High lift, 410; low lift, 383. Speed: Motor and pump, 868 revolutions per minute. Head: 92-foot (high) lift; 25.5-foot (low) lift; 25-foot suction. Total static head, 117 feet (high) and 50 feet (low). Remarks. — This plant pumps water for a small area under the low lift at the pump- ing plant and for 90 or more acres under the high lift through 700 feet of 12-inch wood- stave pipe to a cement ditch from which distribution is made to the several orchards. An assessment of $1.75 per acre per month is made for water service. Among the expenses of operation are the wages at $22.50 per month of a superintendent, who operates the plant and distributes the water. The efficiency of the plant is good and the costs are reasonable for the lift. 158 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 37. COPO DE ORO WATER CO., PORTERSVILLE, CAL. Location. — SW. \ sec. 14, T. 21 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 30-horsepower Westinghouse motor; belt-connected to a double plunger Ames pump head, 11-inch cylinder, 28-inch stroke. Well, dug 60 feet, then tunneled and drilled in rock to about 150 feet* water enters about 50 and 150 feet and stands 20 to 30 feet below surface. Building cost. — Complete plant, $6,000. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of citrus orchards. Water users charged $1 per hour for use of plant. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 5, 1910: Current used: 23.00 horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 17.15 kilowatt-hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 237. Speed: Motor, revolutions per minute, 893; pump, 25 strokes per minute. Head: Cylinder 60 feet below the pump. Total static head about 147 feet. Remarks. — This plant is located in the center of an area of citrus orchards in a nar- row depression between two hills. The location is not favorable for an abundant water supply. Water is pumped through about 1,000 feet of pressure pipe to a con- crete flume on the hillside at the upper edge of the citrus orchards. The flume is well constructed and carries the water perhaps a mile to the most distant orchard irrigated. A new plant more favorably located for water supply has been built by the company but was not in operation when visited. Detailed operation statistics were not available. 38. SUNNYSIDE WATER CO., PORTERSVILLE, CAL. Location.— SW. \ sec. 14, T. 21 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 50-horsepower Westinghouse motor; belt-connected to two No. 30 power- head Ames double plunger pumps with 24-inch stroke. Three wells, bored, 12 inches by 100 to 150 feet; water 30 to 50 feet below the surface. Building cost— Complete plant, $6,000 (?). Use in 1910. — Irrigation of orange orchard five times. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 5, 1910. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 547. Speed: Motor, revolutions per minute, 898; pump, 22 strokes per minute. Head: Cylinder 100 feet below the pump. Total static head, about 180 feet. Remarks. — Only meager information as to this plant could be secured at the time the brief test was made. 39. J. H. LEACH, PORTERSVILLE, CAL. Location. — SW. i sec. 23, T. 21 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 2-horsepower vertical Fairbanks-Morse distillate engine; belt-connected to a 2-inch Price horizontal centrifugal pump. Well, bored, 6 inches by 80 feet; water 10 feet below surface. Building cost.— Engine, $120; pump, $35; well, $75; complete plant, $250. Use in 1910.— As auxiliary to gravity supply for 3 acres of garden, about 300 hours aggregate run . T es t. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant November 7, 1910: Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 0.15. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 23. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 400 (87 explosions); pump, 1,060. pumpim; tests. 159 Head: 4-foot lift; ID-foot suction. Total static head, 23 feet. Remarks. — This is a fair type of the small plant suitable for use in truck gardens. The suction pipe was evidently leaking air somewhat and the efficiency was low. Nevertheless the plant was doing good service as an auxiliary to a gravity water supply. A renewal of the suction pipe would probably be required to place it on an efficient working basis. 40. J. J. ANDERSON, PORTERSVTLLE, CAL. (1910). Location. — Sec. 23, T. 21 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 6-horsepower Victor vertical distillate engine; belt-connected to a 6-inch Jackson horizontal centrifugal pump, catalogue capacity 400 gallons per minute. Well bored to 90 feet but filled to 43 feet depth. Building cost. — Engine and pump, $400; complete plant, $500. Use in 1910. — Supplement to gravity supply on 17.5 acres of orchard and garden. Test . — The following results were obtained, during a test of the plant on November 7, 1910: Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 0.92 (owner's record). Water pumped, gallons per minute, 406. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 370. Head: 9-foot lift; 22-foot suction. Total static head, 31. Remarks. — This plant was installed in July, 1910, and used successfully during the season as a supplement to a gravity supply. The plant was unhoused and not in the best of condition. A loose belt caused excess of slip and consequent loss of efficiency. Pump speed could not be measured. The cost per acre, though high, is not unreason- able. 41. BADGER IRRIGATION CO., NEAR EXETER, CAL. This plant is especially noteworthy for the high lifts. Three primary pumping plants lift the water from wells for the irrigation of low lands and to a reservoir from which a fourth plant lifts it to supply laterals at elevations of 66, 200, 247, 300, and 412 feet above the pumps. The maximum irrigation lift is about 490 feet. As originally planned there were laterals at elevations of 530 and 586 feet above the level of the pumps, but these were abandoned. An orange orchard of 190 acres is irrigated by the system, which is reported by the company to have cost $18,000. The irrigation season is about five and a half months, including parts of April and October. The following data as to the primary plants were furnished by the company: 1. 7.5-horsepower, type C, Westinghouse induction motor, operating at 110 volts; 6-inch Jackson horizontal centrifugal pump (catalogue capacity 400 gallons per minute). 2. 15-horsepower, type C, Westinghouse induction motor, operating at 110 volts; Hooker double-acting deep-well pump. 3. 7.5-horsepower, type C, Westinghouse induction motor, operating at 110 volts; W. T. Garrett single-acting deep-well pump. The three plants use about 28.4 horsepower and supply about 2 second-feet of water- The fourth or high-lift plant is equipped with a 75-horsepower, type C, Westing, house induction motor operating at 2,000 volts and two W. T. Garrett double-acting triplex pumps. These pumps are reported to give a discharge of 1.5 second-feet at all lifts up to the 300-foot level and 1 second-foot at the 412-foot level. The pulley arrangement is such that speeds suitable to the various lifts may be given to the pumps. The cost of irrigation is necessarily very high with a plant operating under such an unusual head, but it appears to be warranted by the returns from the citrus crops grown. The company officials state that they are satisfied with the results obtained. 160 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 42. TOM POGTJE, EXETER, CAL (1309). Location. — SE. £ sec. 2, T. 19 S., R. 26 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 5-horsepower General Electric induction motor, operating at 220 volts; belt-connected to a Garrett single-acting deep well pump, 8-inch cylinder. Well bored 12 inches by 112 feet, water 36 feet below the surface. Building cost.— Pump, $540; well, $100; complete plant, $1,400. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of garden, orchard, and alfalfa. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 9, 1910: Current used: 5.05 horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 3.8 kilowatt-hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 179. Speed: Motor, revolutions per minute, 1,167; pump strokes per minute, 29. Head: Cylinder 60 feet below the pump; lift 13 feet. Total static head, about 60 feet. Remarks. — This plant was giving satisfactory results. 43. P. W. PRESTON, EXETER, CAL. (1907). Location. — E. £ NW. \ sec. 2, T. 19 S., It. 26 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 10-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse distillate engine, 39-inch pulley; belt- connected to a 4-inch Price horizontal centrifugal pump with 8-inch pulley. Well, bored, 8 inches by 90 feet in pit 35 feet deep; water 36 feet below the surface. Building cost. — Engine, $550; pump and pipe, $151; well and pit, $200; complete plant, $1,000. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 26 acres of citrus fruits. Test. — The following results were obtained during a 2-hour test of the plant on November 9, 1910: Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.00 (approximate). Water pumped, gallons per minute, 320. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 274 (105 explosions); pump, 1,320. Head: 37-foot lift; 14-foot suction. Total static head, 51 feet. Remarks. — This plant was giving good service. It is of sufficient capacity to irri- gate a considerably larger area than it serves, but the cost per acre is warranted for citrus culture. 44. L. W. SHAW, EXETER, CAL. (1910). Location.- -W '. | SW. 1 SE. i sec. 35, T. 18 S., It. 26 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 8-horsepower Samson distillate engine, 28-inch pulley; belt-connected to a 3^-inch Samson horizontal centrifugal pump with 7-inch pulley, catalogue capacity of 250-300 gallons per minute. Well, bored, 10 inches by 90 feet; water 36 feet below the surface. Building cost.— Well, $300; complete plant, $1,000. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 15 acres of oranges and about 4 acres of alfalfa. About 800 gallons of distillate used. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 9, 1910: Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 0.875. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 220. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 263; pump, 1,004. Head: 31-foot lift; 24-foot suction. Total static head, 55 feet. Remarks. — The efficiency of this plant was only fair. The pump was underspeeded, but even under this condition the water was drawn down so far as to create a rather PUMPING TESTS. 161 large suction head. The machinery was apparently in good condition, the faults of the plant being in design. The pump La too high above the water level and the pulley size not in proper ratio. 45. MR. BRISCOE, LINDSAY, CAL. (1910). Location. — NE. \ sec. 30, T. I!) S., R. 27 E., Mount, Diablo base and meridian. Plant.- -3-horsepower General Electric induct ion mot or direct -com km 'tod to a 2-inch type I* Krogh horizontal centrifugal pump, catalogue capacity of 100 gallons per minute. Well, bored. 10 inches by 80 feel, filled up to 51-foot depth. Building cost. — Pump and motor, $125; well, $300; complete plant, $900. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 10, 1910: Current used: 3.59 horsepower (from power eompany's bill), equivalent to 2.68 kilowatt hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 116. Speed, revolutions per minute, 1,800. Head: 28-foot lift; 18-foot suction. Total static head, 46 feet. licmarks. — The power consumption at this plant is unreasonably high, with conse- quent low efficiency. The cause of excessive power use was not apparent. 43. O. S. GARD, LINDSAY, CAL. Location.— NW. % sec. 31, T. 19 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 3-horsepower Bullock motor direct-connected to a 2-inch Eclipse horizontal centrifugal pump. Well, bored, 10 inches by 77 feet; pit 32 feet deep. Building cost. — Complete plant, $350. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 20 acres of oranges with four months' steady operation. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 10, 1910: Current used: 3.47 horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 2.59 kilowatt hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 72. Speed, revolutions per minute, 1,700. Head: 10-foot lift; 30-foot suction. Total static head, 40 feet. Remarks. — The pump and motor were installed so that they could be raised or low- ered by sliding in a frame. When tested the pump and motor had been raised nearly to the surface for the winter and was practically out of commission. The suction head was therefore very great and the indicated efficiency of the plant low. The test does not show what the plant could do under normal conditions. 47. HILL PLANT OF DR. C. B. ROOT, LINDSAY, CAL. Locations. — NE. \ sec. 6, T. 20 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 7J-horsepower Westinghouse type C induction motor; belt-connected to a double-acting Whitmer deep-well pump. Well, bored, 203 feet deep; water, 60 feet below the surface. Discharge through 750 feet of 4-inch pipe. Building cost.— Well, $200; complete plant, $1,500. Use in 1910. — In conjunction with plant No. 48, used for the irrigation of 70 acres of oranges. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 10, 1910: Current used: 7.44 horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 5.55 kilowatt-hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 96. 98205°— wsp 398—16 11 162 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. Speed: Motor, revolutions per minute, 1,143; pump, strokes per minute, 32. Head: 75 feet above and about 75 feet below the power head. Total static head 150 feet. Remarks. — This plant has been in use several years and has given reasonably satis- factory service throughout. 48. LOW-LEVEL PLANT OF DR. C. B. ROOT, LINDSAY, CAL. Location. — NE. I sec. 6, T. 20 S., R. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 7|~horsepower Westinghouse type C induction motor; belt-connected to a double-cylinder, single-plunger Garrett deep-well pump. Well, bored, 201 feet deep. Building cost.— Well, $500; complete plant, $1,500. Use in 1910. — In conjunction with plant No. 47, used for the irrigation of 70 acres of oranges. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 10, 1910: Current used: 7.92 horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 5.91 kilowatt-hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 161. Speed: Motor, revolutions per minute: 1,165; pump strokes per minute, 28. Head: 25 feet above and about 75 feet below the power head. Total static head 100 feet. Remarks. — This is a well-kept plant that gives satisfactory results. The pumped water is distributed through cement pipe. 49. ROEDING & WOOD NURSERY CO., EXETER, CAL. (1909). Location.— NE. \ sec. 14, T. 19 S., R. 26 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 40-horsepower Western distillate engine; belt-connected to a No. 28 power head, single-acting Pomona deep-well pump. Well, bored, 15 inches by 100 feet; cylinder 68 feet down; 86 feet to main aquifer. Building cost. — Engine and pump, $3,370; building, $250; well, $500. Complete plant about $4,120, exclusive of iron-pipe line nearly a mile long. Use in 1910. — For irrigation of 13- acres of alfalfa and 5 acres of citrus nursery at plant and about 160 acres of olives and nursery at high levels; being used as supplement to gravity supply on 100 acres of this area. * Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 11, 1910. Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.50. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 393. Speed: Engine, revolutions per minute, 224 (28 explosions); pump, strokes per minute, 18. Head: 5 feet above and 38 feet below the pump head, Total static head, 43 feet. Remarks. — The plant is designed for operation under widely differing conditions. At the plant about 25 acres, chiefly in alfalfa and nursery trees, is to be irrigated. The greater part of the irrigable area, however, is located at the edge of the foothills, nearly a mile distant. The owners report that at the end of 3,760 feet of 7|--inch pipe the total head, including friction, is 173.5 feet, and the pump delivers 1.03 second-feet against this head when the engine uses 2.75 gallons per hoar of distillate. An addi- tional 1,000 feet of pipe carries the water to a level 150 feet higher, where about 0.5 second-foot can be delivered. The test made was on the lowest lift, where the opera- tion would be least economical. . PUMPING I BSTS. 163 50. LAUREL COLONY, TULARE, CAL. (1903). Location. — Sec. 36, T, ins.. R. 23 E., Mourn Diablo base and meridian. Plant. LO-horsepower Westinghouse type C induction motor, direct-connected to a 6-inch Krogh California centrifugaJ pump. Well, bored, L0 inches by 165 feet. Building cost. -Well, $1, 800: machinery, $1,000; complete plant, 13,000. Use in 1910. Irrigation of 320 acres, chiefly alfalfa land. Test. The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 14, L910: Current used: 14.00 horsepower, equivalent to-10.4 kilowatt-hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 910. Speed, revolutions per minute, 1,100. Bead: Lift, 10 feet; suction, 20 feet. Total statitJ head 30 feet. Remarks. — This plant is noteworthy for the relatively high cost of the well. It is located in an artesian belt and (he water rises within 1.5 feet of the surface. Flow- ing wells are not unusual in the locality. The plant is operated for the benefit of sev- eral settlers. The costs per acre are low. the capacity duty being about 1 second-foot to 160 acres. The motor is run at considerable overload. A second plant of about the same size would be required to produce maximum yields from the entire area covered. 51. DR. M. S. CHARLES, TULARE, CAL. (1910). Location. — Sec. 4, T. 20 S., R. 24 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 3-horsepower Westinghouse type CCL induction motor; belt-connected to a 2-inch Golden West horizontal centrifugal pump. Well, bored, 5 inches by 70 feet. Building cost. — Motor and transformer $210; complete plant, including 460 feet of 4-inch pipe, $518. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 32 acres of garden and alfalfa land. Test. — The following results were obtained dining a test of the plant on November 15, 1910: Current used: 4.5 horsepower (from company's test) equivalent to 3.36 kilowatt- hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 135. Speed, revolutions per minute: Motor, 1,702; pump, about 1,490. Head: 9-foot lift; 16-foot suction. Total static head, 25 feet. Remarks. — The apparent efficiency of this plant is very low. The machinery watf ew and the installation seemed to be first class. The consumption of power had been tested by the company shortly before test on November 15. A ground on the electric circuit or an obstruction in the discharge pipe would seem to be tha most likely diffi- culties. 52. G. H. HAUSCHILDT, TULARE, CAL. Location. — Sec. 5, T. 20 S., R. 24 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 3-horsepower Westinghouse type CCL induction motor, direct-connected to a 3-inch Krogh California horizontal centrifugal pump. Well, bored, 10 inches by 850 feet, Building cost.— Well, $1,480; complete plant, $2,020. Use in 1910. — Irrigated 40 acres of alfalfa four times with about 6 inches of water. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 16, 1910: Current-used: 3.42 horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 2.55 kilowatt-hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 180. Speed, revolutions per minute, 1,700. 164 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. Head: 10-foot lift; 19-foot suction. Total static head, 29 feet. Remarks. — Discharge is through 150 feet of 6-inch wood-stave pipe to a 0.5-acre reservoir, which is used to store water at night and afford a larger irrigation head. 53. F. S. McADAMS, TULARE, CAL. (1910). Location.— -SW . \ sec. 13, T. 20 S., R. 23 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 10-horsepower General Electric induction motor; direct-connected to a 5-inch Price horizontal centrifugal pump. Well, bored, 12 inches by 163 feet; cased. Building cost.— Well, $325; complete plant, $845. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 90 acres of alfalfa. Planned to irrigate 120 acres. Oper- ated continuously from April to August 1. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 18, 1910: Current used: 9.7 horsepower (10.25 horsepower from power company's bill). Water pumped, gallons per minute, 720. Speed, revolutions per minute, 1,172. Head: 6-foot lift; 22-foot suction. Total static head 28 feet. Remarks. — This is one of the better class plants and is operated so as to give relatively low costs per acre irrigated. 54. W. J. McADAMS, TULARE, CAL. (1909). Location.— SW. i sec. 18, T. 20 S., R. 24 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 15-horsepower Westinghouse type CCL induction motor, direct-connected to a 7-inch Price horizontal centrifugal pump. Wells, bored, 12 inches in diameter, one 90 feet and the other 127 feet in depth. Building cost. — Pump and motor, $750; complete plant, $1,400. Use in 1910. — Irrigation of 200 acres of alfalfa. Operated continuously for 6 months. Additional area of 40 acres being prepared for irrigation. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 18, 1910: Current used: 19.21 horsepower (from power company's bill), equivalent to 14.34 kilowatt-hours per hour. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 1,450 (approximately). * Speed, revolutions per minute, 846. Head: 10-foot lift; 19-foot suction. Total static head, 29 feet. Remarks. — This plant is typical of the best practice for irrigation of alfalfa. 55. L. G. MARTIN, TULARE, CAL. (1910). Location. — NW. I sec. 18, T. 20 S., R. 24 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. Plant. — 10-horsepower Alamo distillate engine, 24-inch pulley, belt-connected to a 5-inch Price horizontal centrifugal pump, 8.5-inch pulley. Well, bored, 12 inches by 110 feet. Building cost. — Well, $220; engine and pump, $650; complete plant, $900. Use in 1910. — Installed in late summer and used for watering stock and irrigating 40 acres of alfalfa. Will be used for irrigation of 80 acres of alfalfa. Test. — The following results were obtained during a test of the plant on November 18, 1910: Consumption of distillate, gallons per hour, 1.45. Water pumped, gallons per minute, 695. Speed, revolutions per minute: Engine, 264; pump, 695. Head: 9-foot lift; 17-foot suction. Total static head, 26 feet. Remarks. — This is a new plant and the operation shows rather low efficiency. The vacuum gage showed loss of head in the suction pipe, probably due to some obstruction . GBOTJND WATEB IN BAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. J 65 TABU&ATED RESULTS OF PUMPING TESTS. In Table 34 the data derived from the preceding pumping |>lanl tests and information collected at the time the tests were made are assembled so as to present in concise form the chief factors of engi- neering interest in each case. The number in the first column corresponds to the number used in the description of each plant and its test. The second and third columns give the discharge in gallons per minute and in second-feet, generally as determined by test, though in a few specified cases as reported by the owner or operator of the plant. The fourth column, of drawdown, shows the extent to which the water level in the wells was lowered during the tests. Generally about 20 minutes was required to reduce the water level to an eleva- tion that remained constant thereafter with uniform discharge from the plant. The capacity of the well (column 5) is derived from the third and fourth columns, being the discharge in second-feet divided by the drawdown in feet. This capacity is only an average figure, however, as each succeeding foot of drawdown probably causes an increasingly greater yield of the well. The total static head represents the difference in elevation between the water level in the well during operation and the level at which the water is discharged from the pumping plant. The useful water horsepower is derived from the discharge and the total static head, being the discharge in pounds per second (the dis- charge in second-feet X 62.3) multiplied by the total static head in feet, divided by 550 (the number of foot-pounds per second in one horsepower). The column giving the length of irrigation season in days is based on what information could be secured as to the customary period during which crops were irrigated in the several localities examined. In the ninth column is shown in terms of days of continuous opera- tion the length of time the plants were operated in 1910. Comparison of this column with that preceding indicates that in general the plants were operated for only a small part of the irrigating season. This shows one of the principal sources of the high cost of irrigation by pumping, for the fixed costs on a pumping plant that is lying idle mount up rapidly and result in a high cost per acre actually irrigated. The columns giving capacity of plant show respectively the amounts of water that could be delivered if the plants were operated 80 per cent of the irrigation season, and the amounts that were actually delivered in 1910. These columns show, like columns 8 and 9, that the large proportion of the time that the plants are idle is a principal factor in making the cost of pumping higher than is necessary. 106 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. The figures of column 12, giving the acreage irrigable with maxi- mum draft of 1 second-foot to 80 acres, is obtained from the figures in column 3, the actual discharge in second-feet. The acreages ac- tually irrigated in 1910 are given in column 13. Column 14, giving the duty of water in 1910 (obtained from the figures of columns 11 and 13), is of principal interest in showing the variation in irrigation practice among individual ranchers. The figures also indicate roughly the amount of water actually delivered to the land for irrigation. The item of fuel oil has been expressed in three ways — the amount of fuel oil (distillate) used per hour by the engines tested and the corresponding costs per day and per useful water horsepower per day. The cost of fuel oil was taken as the cost delivered at the plants and ranged from 8 cents to 13 cents per gallon of distillate in various parts of the valley. In the lower part of the table under the same columns the electric power consumed at motor-driven plants is shown. In general these plants were not provided with meters and no means for testing power consumption were available. The results shown, therefore, are taken in most instances from power companies' bills. It is the custom of the power companies to test the plants from one to three times during the irrigation season and to charge for power used on the basis of the maximum amount consumed dur- ing their tests. The figures of the building cost represent the cost of the com- pleted pumping plants. The total costs are based on the most relia- ble information obtainable, including statements of owners and of the companies installing the machinery. From these total costs the cost per acre with maximum draft of 1 second-foot to 80 acres and the cost per acre irrigated in 1910 are obtained from the correspond- ing columns of the area irrigable. The annual cost of depreciation, renewals, and repairs is based on the assumption that for a distillate plant these costs will amount to 15 per cent per year on the cost of the machinery and for a motor- driven plant to 8 per cent per year on the cost of the machinery. These values, if anything, are lower than the actual and do not depend very largely on the amount of use given the plant during the year, for the depreciation of machinery may be as great during periods of nonuse as during periods of use; in other words a plant may "rust out" as quickly as it would "wear out." There is of course a consid- erable variation in the sum total represented by the three items, depending on the care given to the machinery. In order to make a comparison of the various plants, however, a uniform percentage was used throughout, though the actual cost of all the machinery was not exactly that recorded in the notes on the tests. The item of taxes was not included with the other fixed charges, since a reliable TABULATED II KS II IS OF PUMPING TBSTB. 1G7 value (o be applied was not determined upon, but in other similar studios taxes bave been figured as a per cent per year on the firsl cost. 1 [nteresl on the investment, another element of fixed charges, in the amount of 6 to 8 per cent on the first cost is also omitted from the items in the table. In computing the annual cost of fuel (or current), labor, and lubrication, the fuel or current cost for the first column — involving SO per cent continuous operation — is obtained from the figures of length of irrigation season in days and the fuel or current cost per 24 hours. For the fuel or current cost with operation as in 1910, the figures of continuous equivalent operation in days in 1910 and the fuel or current cost per 24 hours are used. To the costs of fuel alone thus obtained, 2 cents per hour of operation for distillate plants, 5 cents per hour for the steam plant, and 1 cent for motor-driven plants was added in order to cover the charges of labor and lubrication. The figures of total annual cost of maintenance and operation are obtained from preceding data. The total costs are in each case the sum of the annual cost of fuel (or current), labor, lubrication, depre- ciation, renewals, and repairs. As has been previously stated, the items of taxes and interest on investment have not been included, but they probably would add an annual sum equal to about 7 to 9 per cent of the total building cost. The costs per acre are these total costs divided by the appropriate values for the area irrigable or irrigated. The costs per acre-foot of water pumped represent the total costs divided by the capacity of the plant in acre-feet per season. The total cost per acre-foot of water per foot of static head is the total cost per acre-foot of water pumped, divided by the static head. The last column indicates the relative efficiency of the plants in percentages. To determine the figures in this column it was assumed that a gallon of distillate should produce 8 horsepower hours of energy in a plant of fairly good design. A comparison on this basis of the amount of fuel oil used with the useful water horsepower developed gives the efficiency. For example, in plant No. 1, 0.96 gallon of distillate per hour yielded 1.68 useful water horsepower, but on the basis of 1 gallon of distillate per hour to 8 useful water horsepower 0.96 gallon should yield 7.68 horsepower. The efficiency is therefore 1.68 divided by 7.68, or 22 per cent. For the steam plant it was assumed that 1 gallon of crude oil should produce -2.5 horse- power. Similarly, for motor-driven plants, comparison of the horse- power of electric energy used or paid for with the useful water horsepower developed gives the efficiency. 1 Smith, G. E. P., Ground-water supply and irrigation in the Rillito Valley: Arizona Univ. Agr. Exper. Sta. Bull. 64, p. 209, 1910. 168 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. SUMMARY OF PUMPING TESTS. The irrigator is sometimes apt to consider only the actual expenses of operation of a plant when figuring on the cost of pumping water. The cost of irrigation by pumping, however, includes properly both the cost of operation and all fixed charges, such as interest on the investment, depreciation, taxes, and repairs. In the descriptions of the individual pumping plants tested, atten- tion has in several instances been called to one or more of the specific factors that render the plant a relatively expensive source of water supply. In summarizing the results of the tests these factors may properly be mentioned again and their effects on the cost of irrigation emphasized. Most of the pumping plants in San Joaquin Valley are well housed, but this important matter is not always properly attended to. The rapid depreciation of pumping as well as other kinds of farm machinery if not taken care of is very real, and depreciation is an important factor in the cost of irrigation water obtained from wells. In the tabulated results of pumping tests the depreciation charge has been combined with those for renewals and repairs, the total of the three being taken as 15 per cent per year for distillate plants and 8 per cent per year for motor-driven plants. These figures are believed to be conservative, since in similar tests by others the depre- ciation charge alone for gasoline plants has been taken as from 10 to 12 or 15 per cent and for motor-driven plants as from 6 to 7 or 9 per cent. 1 It will be noted that in the tabulated data summarizing the tests in San Joaquin Valley, interest and taxes have not been included with the other fixed charges. They probably should be taken as adding to these charges about 7 to 9 per cent per year on the value of the plant. The tendency throughout the valley is to install pumping machinery capable of more work than is required of it. This custom may be in part attributable to the sellers of the machinery, who are of course desirous of making large sales; but the installation of large plants appears also to be followed as a matter of convenience in operation. The irrigator finds it easier to run a large pumping unit for a few hours than to accomplish the same amount of irrigation with a smaller plant requiring perhaps several days to supply the same acreage with water. The interest on the greater amount of capital tied up in the larger plant and the increased amount that must be charged to depre- ciation form very considerable items in the total annual cost of irri- gation, however. In places where a larger plant has been installed 1 Le Conte, J. N., and Tait, C. E., Mechanical tests of pumping plants in California: U. S. Dept. Agr. Office Exper. Sta. Bull. 181, pp. 51-52, 1907. Smith, G. E. P., Ground-water supply and irrigation in the Ttillito Valley: Arizona Univ. Agr. Exper. Sta. Bull. 64, p. 200, 1910. Annua fuel( labor cat la Annual cost of depre- ciation, renewals, and With 81 repairs. per con oontinu ous opera- tion. $4S $24 64 251 49 20: 96 29; 115 29. 128 42. 64 351 153 37 81 25: 100 29. 200 73 37 2i: 100 30. 39 24; 180 96 i si" 59: 210 1,32 ; 250 1,38 350 2,46 i 98 5? ] 285 80 \ 25 20, 1 60 67- 105 75 l 100 67 f 1.54' 1 460 \ 88 I 1,54 2 450 1,28 40 48 1 16 20 I 128 2,93 2 40 92 2 130 2,48 a 80 38 5 20 14 3 20 12 1 35 23 1 60 51 3 80 1,20 1 50 21 1 190 81 i 186 85 | 10 ° 1,55 3L 240' "*"l,'20 1 800 3,55 4. 70 30 i 36 23 4 16 22 4 J 70 |\ 70 42 44 plates to cu stomary £ase in fuel consume py supply u tilize 1 di snt installec 1 late in s [ apply on 101 ne raised fc ) acres of r the wii Ipump is in its norm Table 34. — Summary of pumping-plant data. ! Discharge. 'epeeii V pel 11 HI lool ol Total head. Useful 1 Length gation season. Con- Capacity of plant season). Area irrigable (acres). Duty of in 'mm. feel per Power. Building cost. Annuel cost of reneuals Annual cost ot fuel (or current), labor, and lubri- T lal annua cost of maintenance and operation. 1 Distillate. With 80 and m to 80 a per cent continuous operation aximura draft of 1 second-foot With operation as in 1910. Test No. Gallons minute. 256 380 868 605 914 406 425 444 444 672 500 249 299 406 6,750 765 450 400 1.000 I.I Ml 165 106 320 220 f M81 i 393 I '225 1,320 300 108 2, 160 610 2.3011 till! 185 720 1.450 5(15 38 210 172 ( '" i .■. ,",:.' • '!' Seeond- leet. ,-iiir..i- lent of 1910. With 80 per cent ous op- eration. With M'i'iYu ion 1910. With draft of 1 second- foot to 80 With ,,|H-i lti.,.H as in Gallons per hour. Cost per Cost per 21 hours iul e.eier horse- Total. Cost per irriesiMe (trail of f. 80 acres. Cost per irrigated in 1910. With 80 .'■!'. Mi'i','.','.' tion. With in Piin. Total. Per aore. Per acre- water pumped Per aero fool 01 per foot of 22 i036 .031 .037 ilil-jill .037 .052 .088 .031) 193 402 557 607 470 324 107 251 219 11. 00 II. 7(1 lb'' 5.90 6. 10 0.70 11 4. 00 2. 10 8.40 42.10 18 .,11 4.00 4.31) 5.90 .14 .13 .05 '.OH .84 1.24 .1.1 .08 22 11 .055 .030 15 13 7/20 is' 22 6. 10 57 24 ""71 '"i" 20 20 12 .082 ,11.111 .080 .100 .085 .170 12.5 73 120 1.5 18 730 40 90 200 177 10 .6 109 ii' 559 13:1 320 583 73s 087 1,036 1,655 4.70 ; 60 7.' 21) 23 12 23 17 7,0 .19 Steam plant, crude oil fuel. 2- 14.0 7.60 .5.5 Electric power. 4 kw. hours per hour, at 5c. . . 2 k\v. hours per hour, at 4c. . . 28 (?) kw. hours per hour, at 3c 8.6 kw. hours per hour, at 3c . 49.0 horsepower, at 850 14.0 horsepower, at S25 4 ,5 horsepower, at $25 3. 12 horsepower, at 825 10.25 horsepower, at $25 Hi. m horsepower, at 825 2;ut0 horsepower, at $50 3.30 horsepower, at $50 13.32 horsepower, at $50 16 ill) horse; lower, at S50 30.10 horsepower, at $50 5.2 2.5 1.7 .......... 1,700 8o'" 380 '525 12l' 375 2.3 5^8 3.0 lis 3.5 2,490 2. 40 23.311 8.20 6.50 4.40 .'03 .02 .03 .30 :o3 .04 120 180 210 54 130 210 210 109 2S5 1,200 ITS 707 1.555 30 55 1.7 .247 21 20 .0)5 40 epower,atS50 38 170 500 190 2.7 3,540 4,340 23 8.00 .06-.02 . 22 13 26 'power, at $50 120 180 180 76 128 } " 1.9 } « 203 415 439 219 435 509 .s.sii 6. in 4.(10 .14 17.44 horsepower, at 850 .d 39; 'and 13.5 cents' for lest numbered 32. With SO t per acre per annum fur a ra-ou •■( ii'u .lavs ami 3.0 lams are used for on-hard in nation, chiefly for citrus uty of water wilh su perceui emit humus o'peiatiou of ■ strum! liue I result:; shown hi - the first half of the s i movable frame t therefore very great a intltj ui ...Mid pumped l hw.s i hau thai s si"M M w:\ OF PI \i i'i \<; T1STS. 169 than is needed to supply the acreage watered the error can of course be remedied if more land can be furnished with water. The same result will of course be accomplished cither by bringing new land under irrigation or by supplying from one plant lands that have been watered by two or more pumping units each of which has been operated only a small part of the time. The advantage of coopera- tion in reducing the cost per acre of irrigation is shown in the plants listed as tests Nos. 31 and 35. Although theoretically the pumping system might he only large enough to furnish the necessary amount of water if kept running continuously throughout the irrigation season, practically the mini- mum size of plant is approximately fixed by the necessity of pump- ing a stream large enough to flow through the irrigation ditches with sufficient velocity to permit its proper distribution. From the observations made in San Joaquin Valley it would appear that in this region plants of less than 5 horsepower are not efficient in this respect, except perhaps in the case of plants used for watering small truck gardens. The size of stream that must be thrown in order to give proper distribution depends very largely on the character of the soil, however. In Sacramento Valley it has been found that " a dis- charge of at least 12 gallons a minute to the acre should if possible be provided for alfalfa on ordinary loam soils in tracts of 40 to 200 acres, with larger capacities for smaller tracts, and slightly smaller capacities for larger tracts." 1 Although in some regions economy is obtained by the use of smaller plants pumping into reservoirs from which a sufficient discharge can be maintained during periods of irrigation, this practice has not been followed in the San Joaquin, and the cost of reservoir construction probably would more than counterbalance the saving in cost of pumping equipment under the conditions of irrigation that obtain. In localities where pumping plants are installed as auxiliaries to surface water supplies the adaptation of proper size of plant to the area irrigated can not be adhered to; for in such instances a relatively large amount of water may need to be pumped during intervals of shortage in the ditch supply, and machinery capable of furnishing a given quantity of water in a limited time may be required. Such conditions obtain mainly in places where high-class crops are raised, however, which can profitably bear the relatively high cost per acre of pumping water. An example of this is furnished in the plant of W. E. Bunker (No. 15). In connection with the mistake of installing a larger plant than is needed for the area irrigated may be mentioned the installation of a plant having greater pumping capacity than the well can supply. 1 Bryan, Kirk, Ground water for irrigation in the Sacramento Valley, Cal.: IT. S. Geol. Survey Water- Supply Paper 375-A, p. 38, 1915. 170 ' GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. Considerable loss in efficiency may develop in such cases, either simply from excessive draw down, which makes the pumping lift greater than need be, or from the entrance of air into the pump, whose suction is thereby impaired. Losses of efficiency directly trace- able to leakage of air were noted in tests Nos. 8 and 39. Such over- taxing can usually be overcome by enlarging the well or by sinking one or more auxiliary wells connected by tunnels or by suction pipes to the pump intake. Although pumps in good condition may lift water about 28 feet under suction, a lift of about 20 feet has been found in practice to be the maximum economical limit. Centrifugal pumps and the cylin- ders of reciprocating pumps should therefore be placed not higher than this distance above the water level when pumping. Examples of low efficiency produced in part at least by excessive suction lifts are furnished by plants Nos. 8, 21, and 30. Enlargements or bell- mouths on the ends of intake and discharge pipes are found to reduce the friction loss of head at entrance and discharge points and thus slightly to increase the efficiency. Likewise, the elimination of unnec- essary elbows and bends in the pipes reduces friction losses. Cases where actual obstructions in pipes appeared to be responsible in part for the low efficiency were noted in plants Nos. 51 and 55. At many pumping plants the end of the discharge pipe is placed higher than is necessary. Since every foot in height that the water is raised requires a certain amount of work, it is obvious that the discharge point should be only high enough to deliver the water into the ditch. Flagrant cases of disregard of this principle were not observed in the San Joaquin, however. The running of a large internal combustion engine at less than its load capacity is an important factor in increasing pumping costs. Under such conditions, in order to keep down to normal speed, the engine misses a number of explosions each minute. Serious loss in efficiency may thus be occasioned, as brake tests show that under such conditions there is a marked loss in the effective work. This loss is due largely to the fact that the power consumed within the machine in compression of the charge and in friction losses is approxi- mately constant, and hence as the amount of work produced by the machine is decreased the energy consumed internally becomes a larger portion of the total amount. 1 An especially noteworthy instance of low efficiency due to a poorly designed plant was found in that of T. R. Hill (test No. 1). The overloading of an engine, when normal speed is kept up by feeding an extra amount of fuel, is also uneconomical, both because of the 'excessive fuel consumption and the strain on the machinery. 1 Le Conte, J. N., and Tait, C. E., Mechanical tests of pumping plants in California: U. S. Dept. Agr. Office Exper. Sta. Bull. 181, p. 72, 1907. SUMM \im OF PUMPING TESTS. 171 Notable variations in speed, either of increase or of decrease beyond the normal, result in inefficient service; for every properly constructed engine is designed to run under conditions of speed and load that are fairly well determined by the size of the engine parts, and any great variation in these conditions is hound to he attended by loss in efficiency from one or more 4 causes. In electric motors underspeeding does not result in notable efficiency loss since the inter- nal friction losses are sligbt and a large part (80 to 90 per cent) of the power consumed is given out as useful work. Overspeeding, however, may necessitate repairs due to the overheating or burning out of parts. The proper adjustment of feed and ignition in an internal combus- tion engine have very great influence on the efficient working of the machine. If the ignition is retarded too much, an excessive fuel charge is required. By advancing the spark, therefore, to produce a certain amount of preignition, the fuel consumption may be cut down appreciably. The improper timing of ignition may have been the cause of excess fuel consumption in plants Nos. 18, 19, and 28. The temperature of the jacket water is a factor that is too often overlooked; for if the cylinder is cooled too much, ignition may lag, and the same effect will be produced as by a spark too far retarded. Too little attention is in many cases paid to the proper oiling and adjustment of the various bearings. Injury of course may quickly result to them from overheating due to lack of oil, or to running too tight, while if too much play is allowed the engine will become injured by pounding. Slippage of a loose belt is often the cause of poor service, as in tests Nos. 13 and 40, while too tight a belt produces an undue strain on the pulley bearings. For proper running of a pump, relations of load and speed similar to those in an engine must be taken into consideration. The improper speeding of a centrifugal pump will cause loss in efficiency because if underspeeded the runner will not impart an economic proportion of its velocity to the water, and therefore the pump will not lift water to its full capacity (tests Nos. 1 and 27) ; or, because if over- speeded, the runners will churn or will produce excessive velocity in the stream of water, with consequent losses due to excessive friction in the intake and outlet pipes (test No. 5). While a centrif- ugal pump throws more water when somewhat overspeeded, it requires much more power for a given discharge than does a larger pump run at the proper speed. As has been previously mentioned, overspeeding may also cause marked drop in efficiency by drawing air into the pump and impairing its suction. Overspeeding is, how- ever, less to be avoided than underspeeding, since the discharge drops rapidly with slower rotation. 172 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. For each rotary pump there is a definite relation between the lift of the water and the speed of the pump, for greatest efficiency. The proper speed for each lift is usually given by the pump maker, and should be closely adhered to for satisfactory results both in the amount of water lifted and in power economy. In reciprocating pumps underspeeding may in some cases produce undue diminishing of the discharge through failure of the valves to open and close promptly. Overspeeding often results in the breaking of sucker rods or the loosening of pump foundations, with conse- quent throwing out of alignment and increased friction losses. The proper size and speed for the pump will be determined by the amount of water to be discharged and the lift. The engine or motor should then be adapted in size to give the necessary power. By means of the proper-sized pulleys or gears the suitable working speed for both pump and prime mover can be obtained. The proper size of prime mover and pump for given lifts and discharge are given in some manufacturers' catalogues or will be supplied by the service departments of the firms. Consultation with these departments will often prevent costly mistakes in the installation of a plant. For the larger plants special design to suit the conditions of oper- ation will generally be profitable. The following tables may be of use in some cases, however, in aiding in the choice of a suitable com- bination of prime mover and pump. Table 35. — Time required for irrigation with pumps of various sizes, assuming 3 acre- feet as duty of water per acre per annum. Water required per an- num. Time required for pump to raise tabulated quantities of water, a Area to be irrigated. 3-inch pump, capacity 225 gallons per minute. 3^-inch pump, capacity 300 gallons per mmute. 1 4-inch pump, capacity 400 gallons per minute. 5-inch pump, capacity 700 gallons per mmute. 6-inch pump, capacity 900 gallons per mmute. 7-inch pump, capacity 1,200 gallons per minute. 8-inch pump, capacity 1,600 gallons per minute. 10-inch pump, capacity 3,000 gallons per minute. Acres. 5 Acre-feet. 15 30 45 60 90 120 180 240 300 360 480 600 720 840 960 1,080 1,200 1,440 1,680 1,920 2, 280 2,640 Hours. 360 720 1,080 1,420 2,160 2,880 4,320 Hours. Hours. Hours. Hours. Hours. Hours. Hours. 10 542 814 1,080 1,630 2,170 3,260 4,340 15 610 814 1,220 1,630 2,440 3,260 4,070 4,880 20 30 697 930 1,400 1,860 2,320 2,790 3,720 4,650 542 723 1,080 1,440 1,810 2,170 2,890 3,620 4,340 5,060 40 542 814 1,080 1,360 1,630 2,170 2,710 3,260 3,800 4,340 4,880 60 610 814 1,020 1,220 1,630 2,030 2,440 2,850 3,260 3,660 4,070 4,880 80 100 542 120 650 160 868 200 1,080 240 1,300 1,520 1,730 280 320 360 1,950 400 2,170 480 2,600 560 3,040 640 3,470 760 4,120 880 4,770 Capacities taken from manufacturers' catalogues. SIMM A in OK PI' M PING TESTS. 173 Table 36.- Engine horsepower, cost of pumping plant, annual fixed charges, and cost •per hour of operation for pumps operated against various sialic hiatls.'i Static hoad. Size of pomp. Engine horse- power. Cost of pumping plant. Annual fixed charges. Cos) per hour of operation. Feet. Inches. Cents. 20 3 3 SHOO |59 (1.7 ;;.'. 4 3(10 72 7.6 4 5 120 85 9.1 5 s 600 r_>r> 11.9 6 10 770 L62 13. 1 7 15 1,050 2 IN 17.2 8 20 1,320 271 22. 2 10 35 1,920 398 30.9 25 3 4 350 70 7.3 3* 5 410 83 8.0 4 480 99 10.1 5 10 720 149 13.1 6 15 990 205 16.2 7 18 1,150 238 20.9 S 25 1,480 307 27.3 10 45 2,250 467 49.3 30 3 4 360 71 8.3 3i 6 470 95 9.3 4 8 590 121 10.5 5 12 840 173 15.3 6 18 1,110 229 18.8 7 20 1,280 264 24.7 8 30 1,660 343 32.4 10 50 2,430 502 58.8 35 3 5 420 83 9.0 3* 6 480 96 10.5 4 8 600 122 11.9 5 15 960 197 17.5 6 18 1,120 230 21.9 7 25 1,450 298 28.5 8 35 1,840 379 37.4 10 60 2,660 549 68.3 40 3 6 480 94 9.3 H 8 600 121 10.5 4 10 720 146 12.1 5 18 1,080 220 19.7 6 20 1,230 251 24.7 7 30 1,620 332 32.3 8 40 2,010 413 42.4 10 75 3,000 618 77.8 45 3 6 530 104 10.2 3| 8 660 132 11.5 4 10 790 159 13.4 5 18 1,170 238 21.9 6 25 1,500 306 27.6 7 30 1,740 356 36.1 8 45 2,300 472 47.5 10 75 3,170 649 87.2 50 3 8 640 126 10.0 3-1- 10 780 155 11.5 4 12 910 182 14.6 5 20 1,290 261 24.1 6 25 1,510 307 30.4 7 35 1,920 392 39.9 8 50 2,470 506 52.5 10 100 3,760 773 96.5 55 3 8 650 127 10.8 3| 10 790 156 12.4 4 15 1,030 206 15.9 5 25 1,460 295 26.3 6 30 1,690 343 33.3 7 40 2,100 428 43.7 8 50 2,480 507 57.8 10 100 3,770 774 106.0 60 3 8 660 128 11.5 3i 10 800 157 13.4 4 15 1,040 207 17.2 5 25 1,470 296 28.5 6 30 1,700 344 36.1 7 45 2,270 462 47.5 8 60 2,710 553 62.8 10 100 3,780 775 116.0 o Cost oi pumping plant is exclusive of wells and casing. Fixed charges are 8 per cent of cost of pumping plant plus 14 per cent of cost of machinery. Cost of operation is cost of fuel at 10 cents a gallon plus 2 cents an hour for labor and lubrication. 174 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. From the average rated capacity for each size of pump, obtained from manufacturers' catalogues (Table 35), and the lift, the neces- sary water horsepower is obtained from the formula given on page 165, which may be a little more simply expressed thus : Total static head in feet X discharge in TT f , t gallons per minute Useiul water horsepower = ' 7 o, Jo / A plant efficiency of about 43 per cent, determined mainly from experimental tests of good plants, has been applied to these values of water horsepower to obtain the figures of required engine horse- power for Table 36, the nearest standard size of engine above the re- quired horsepower being taken in nearly every case. The sizes of engine needed are larger than those given in similar tables in cata- logues of pumping machinery; but they are believed, from results observed in actual experience, to be approximately correct. The cost of pumping plant includes only the cost of engine, pump and fittings, and the housing. Since the cost of engine and pump varies somewhat according to the make and the cost of housing varies with the style of building used, the three items have been combined into the averages presented. The prices used for the machinery, however, are average list prices for the indicated sizes of distillate engines and centrifugal pumps, and the cost of housing is based on actual examples. This latter item is taken as about $50 for the smaller plants, increasing for the larger sizes by about 10 per cent of the additional cost of the machinery. Attempt has not been made to determine the average cost of well and casing, since these are such variable quantities that averages would be of no special significance. In some places the cost of the completed well is rela- tively small, while in other places it may equal the cost of the re- mainder of the plant. The annual fixed charges have been computed as 8 per cent of the cost of pumping plant plus 14 per cent of the estimated cost of engine and pump alone. While this is a somewhat different basis of estimate from that used in calculating the fixed charges of Table 34, and includes allowance for interest and taxes, it is believed to be fair and to give approximately the same results. The cost per hour of operation is based on the probable amount of distillate used per hour, at 10 cents per gallon, plus 2 cents per hour of operation for labor and lubrication. The duty of distillate is taken, as the result of numerous tests, at one-eighth gallon per horsepower per hour developed. In the table this is of course not the same as the horsepower "size" of the engine, which is adapted only approximately to the actual power required. The hourly con- sumption of distillate for each combination of pump and lift can be obtained, if desired, from the last column, by subtracting the labor SUMMAin OV ITMI'IMi ll,SIS. 175 and lubrication cost (2 cents) and dividing by lo (the assumed price in cents per gallon). For example, in (lie first case the computed distillate consumption is 0.47 gallon per hour. From this figure other calculations based on different costs per gallon can be made. Example. — It is desired to irrigate by pumping a tract of SO acres of land to he set in alfalfa. In consideration of rainfall, evaporation, and other climatic conditions the area should be flooded during the irrigation season with sufficient water in amount to cover the land 3 feet in depth (equivalent to flooding 6 inches in depth six times during the season). The depth to water in neighboring wells is about 20 feet, and it is desired to raise the water 5 feet above the surface of the ground at the proposed pumping plant. The irrigation season is about 200 days in length. Referring to Table 35, opposite 80 in the first column, we find that a 3^-inch pump will require 4,340 hours, or 21.7 hours a day for 200 days to supply the desired amount of irrigating water; a 4-inch pump will require 3,260 hours, or 16.3 hours a day for 200 days; a 5- inch pump will require 1,860 hours, or 9.3 hours a day for 200 days; a 6-inch pump will require 1,440 hours, or 7.2 hours a day for 200 days, etc. Now, the depth to water being 20 feet and the lift above the surface of the ground 5 feet, a head of 25 feet must be provided for in addition to the suction lift. The suction lift should be taken at 25 feet unless it be known that a well of great capacity can be secured. The total static head, therefore, in this case will be 50 feet. In the table on page 173, opposite " 50 " in the column for static head, the following information can be found: a. 3|-inch pump, 10-horsepower engine, cost, with housing, $780: Fixed charges $155 Operation, 4,340 hours at 11.5 cents per hour 499 Total yearly cost of pumping 654 Yearly cost per acre 8. 18 b. 4-inch pump, 12-horsepower engine, cost, with housing, $910: Fixed charges 182 Operation, 3,260 hours at 14.6 cents per hour 476 Total yearly cost of pumping 658 Yearly cost per acre 8. 22 c. 5-inch pump, 20-horsepower engine, cost, with housing, $1,290: Fixed charges 261 Operation, 1,860 hours at 24.1 cents per hour 448 Total yearly cost of pumping 709 Yearly cost per acre 8. 86 d. 6-inch pump, 25-horsepower engine, cost, with housing, $1,510: Fixed charges 307 Operation, 1,440 hours at 30.4 cents per hour 438 Total yearly cost of pumping 745 Yearly cost per acre 9. 31 176 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. e. 7-inch pump, 35-horsepower engine, cost, with housing, $1,920: Fixed charges 392 Operation, 1,080 hours at 39.9 cents per hour 431 Total yearly cost of pumping 823 Yearly cost per acre 10. 29 It appears from these figures that the total cost of pumping grad- ually increases with the size of plant used. This is because the larger plants lie idle a proportionately greater time, while interest, taxes, depreciation, etc., accumulate. With the foregoing informa- tion in mind, the rancher can proceed to have a well, or wells, bored with some definite idea of the sort of plant he will need. The boring, digging, or drilling of wells in such manner as to secure the greatest flow of water at least cost is a matter subject to wide variation in procedure in accordance with local conditions. Let it be assumed that a well is bored and the test x shows a flow of 300 gallons a minute with a lowering of 15 feet in the water surface. Such a well will sup- ply a 3|-inch pump with a suction lift of 15 feet (assuming the pump to be placed at the water surface) ; a 4-inch pump with a suction lift of about 20 feet; but will not supply a pump of larger size. With this well, therefore, the choice is narrowed down to plants a and b. It is now possible to revise the estimates because, instead of a suction lift of 25 feet, as previously assumed, it is known that the lift will be about 15 feet for plant a, or 20 feet for plant 6. The total static heads will be 40 feet and 45 feet, respectively. From Table 36 the following revised estimates are derived: a-l. 40-foot head, 3-i~inch pump, 8-horsepower engine, cost, with housing, $600: Fixed charges $121 Operation, 4,340 hours at 10.5 cents per hour 456 Total yearly cost of pumping 577 Yearly cost per acre 7. 21 6-1. 45-foot head, 4-inch pump, 10-horsepower engine, cost, with housing, $790: Fixed charges 159 Operation, 3,260 hours at 13.4 cents per hour 437 Total yearly cost of pumping 596 Yearly cost per acre 7. 45 It is seen that plant 6-1 costs $190 more than plant a-l and that the yearly cost of pumping will be $19 greater. In view of the lesser time required for pumping, the larger plant would probably be chosen by most ranchers, but with the foregoing study of the problem, the choice could be made intelligently with clear knowledge as to what the added convenience of the larger plant will cost. If a still larger plant were, for any reason, considered desirable additional wells would be required. 1 Every well should be carefully tested by pumping and its flow measured before a pumping plant is purchased. Only in this way can the plant purchased be adapted to the flow obtainable from wells. COUNTY NOTES. By W. 0. Mendenhall and It. B. Dole. SAN JOAQUIN COUNTY. GENERAL CONDITIONS. San Joaquin County is, with the exception of small areas in Ala- meda and Contra Costa, the northernmost of those counties whose valley lands belong to the southern division of the great central lowland of California. Because of its latitude and its position near the gateway that opens to the Pacific, it differs greatly climatically from the southern counties of the valley. Its temperatures are not so high and do not fluctuate through so wide range (monthly averages vary from 46.5° in January to 72.5° in July and August), its rainfall is greater, amounting to about 15.5 inches, and its per- centage of foggy days exceeds that of Kern, Tulare, and other of the southern counties. Furthermore, situated as it is along the lower San Joaquin, it includes a tidal section of that stream and a large area, called^ Stockton Islands, that is subject to inundation when the Sacramento is in flood, and a still larger section subject to overflow, except where it is protected by dikes and levees, when floods in the San Joaquin and its tributaries occur at the same time as those of the Sacramento. The county, therefore, includes a part of that central California area, whose problems of reclamation, drainage, and navi- gation involve in so complete and fascinating a way all of the phases of hydraulic engineering. The rivers must be improved and con- trolled for navigation purposes, the lowlands must be protected from floods and drained, while the higher bordering parts of the valley lands, too dry to produce the more valuable crops although suited to grain raising, require irrigation for their fullest development. This threefold problem belongs typically to the Sacramento Valley, but it requires solution also in that of the lower San Joaquin. The Stanislaus Water Co. takes its supply of water from the Stanis- laus near Knights Ferry and irrigates an area of several thousand acres along the southern border of the county in the Escalon and Manteca districts. In the Lodi and Stockton districts the systems of the Stockton & Mokelumne Irrigating Co. and the Woodbridge Canal & Irrigation Co. supply surface waters to limited areas. Within the island district, west and north of Stockton, where reclamation has been accomplished by the construction of protective levees, water is 98205°— wsp 398—16 12 177 178 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. sometimes admitted within the dikes during high-water periods in the streams for irrigation purposes, but as subirrigation is effectual throughput the greater part of these areas, surface irrigation is rarely- necessary. The higher lands of the valley slopes, both along the east and west sides, are devoted to grain raising, as some of them have been for almost half a century. No water is applied to them. There is no uniformity as to practice among the vineyardists, some of them irri- gating their vines, others preferring that they be not irrigated. FLOWING WELLS. San Joaquin County includes the northern portion of the great central artesian zone of the valley, but as this zone is less important in its northern part, both because of the inferior yield of wells there and because of the greater proportion of water of poor quality ob- tained from them, there has been relatively little development for irrigation purposes or domestic supply. Twenty-nine records have been obtained, and these are believed to include all of the flowing wells existing in the country districts and nearly all of those in the city of Stockton at the time when the records were secured. Only six of these supply water suitable for irrigation, and the yield of these is small. By far the greater number of the flowing wells have been drilled for the gas they yield, but as the water with the g'as is saline and therefore not usable for drinking or for irrigation it is allowed to waste. The few artesian wells that furnish water of good quality not only yield small supplies but are expensive because of their considerable depth. Those of which records are available are from 975 to 1,200 feet deep. Wells of lesser depth do not yield flows, and those of greater depth, at least in the Stockton neighborhood, yield saline waters and gas. Farther west than Stockton, nearer the axis of the valley, the water, even from shallow wells, is strongly mineralized. It will be realized that under these conditions flowing wells are not of value for irrigation in the county, despite the rather large area over which flows may be obtained. PUMPING PLANTS. During the last few years irrigation by the use of pumped waters has become an important factor in the development of the east side of San Joaquin County. Around Lathrop and French Camp in the district east of Stockton and in the country about Lodi, a large number of plants have been installed and new wells are being sunk and new plants put in operation constantly. SAN JOAQUIN COUNT \. 179 This development is of a most promising type. Most of the plants are small and the acreage irrigated by each is limited. This means small holdings, intensive cultivation, and eventually relatively dense settlement. The average recorded horsepower of 193 plants is only 6.2. Of the 193 plants 138 develop from 2 to 8 horsepower, while 42 are equipped with engines developing from 10 to 15 horsepower. One hundred and eighty-seven gas engines were in use in 1906, 13 plants used motors at that time, and 2 were operated by steam. One hundred and thirty-seven owners of plants reported a total of 1,455 acres under irrigation, an average of only 10.6 acres each. The cost of 106 of the plants was reported by the owners as $64,983, an average cost of $613 each. These facts indicate the small scale and individualistic character of the development. The power companies charge a uniform rate of 3 J cents per horse- power per hour. This is higher than the fuel charge in the gas plants, the reported average in 12 plants for the summer of 1906 being 1.45 cents per horsepower per hour, but labor and installation, both of which are heavier charges in the gas plants, tend to equalize the difference. Water as developed in these small plants seems to cost the users from $1.50 to as much as $3 or $4 per acre-foot. Generally water is delivered from the pumping plants to the acre- age served through earth ditches, and where the soil is sandy and porous this method results in much waste. The pumping-plant wells are comparatively shallow, and hence are very much cheaper than the deep wells necessary to secure arte- sian flows. The average depth of somewhat more than 100 wells, taken at random from the records, is about 80 feet. Another group of 20 wells average only 40 feet in depth. These latter wells are equipped with small pumping plants, developing an average of 5 horsepower each, and the water which they yield is ample. The wells are particularly cheap because it has been found that in many parts of the area it is not necessary to case them, or at least they need be cased only to slight depths. Twelve pumping-plant wells are reported as without any casing; 24 others were only partly cased, the pipe in these varying in length from a few joints to three- fourths or seven-eighths of the entire depth of the well. The windmill has been an important factor in irrigation in the Stockton district, and although it has been practically superseded by the small pumping plant, it is still used, especially in the vegeta- ble garden and fruit districts east and northeast of Stockton. Its chief disadvantage, of course, is the uncertainty of the wind. It is not unusual to see a well equipped both with a small gas engine and a large windmill, the engine being used when the wind fails. The wheels used are of wood and of local manufacture, from 18 to 22 feet in diameter, and cost complete with the tower from $175 to $200. 180 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. Much of the gardening and fruit for the San Francisco market is in the hands of Italian immigrants, who, after giving the windmill a thorough trial, have generally abandoned it in favor of the more relia- ble gas engine. Irrigation by pumping, of the general type practiced about Stock- ton and Lodi, could be extended with great advantage throughout a large acreage, now without water, between Mokelumne River and Tejon Pass, but to be practiced successfully it will require a different spirit from that which as yet largely dominates the West. The pro- moting and speculative spirit, the desire to get rich overnight, to control large holdings, and to avoid personal labor, will have to be superseded by a willingness to be satisfied with sure but moderate returns, to be content with small farm units, and to attain personal independence through individual effort. It is to be hoped that the American citizen of the generations to come will prove willing to accept these conditions and that in the future dependence need not be placed upon our adopted citizens for detailed development of this desirable type. QUALITY OF WATER. The waters that were tested from wells 20 to 40 feet deep on the east side of San Joaquin County contain somewhat greater quantities of all mineral constituents than those from wells 50 to 1,100 feet deep, and though they are low in alkalies and are good for irrigation they are rather poor for steaming because of their content of scale-forming matter. Water from wells 50 to 900 feet deep is commonly the best. Wells around Stockton 900 to 1,100 feet deep yield water somewhat higher in sodium and potassium than in calcium and magnesium and therefore poorer for irrigation; this characteristic content of alkali probably decreases, however, toward the Sierra. Waters from depths greater than 1,100 feet around Stockton are unfit for use be- cause they are salty, and that condition probably is uniform over the entire county. No ground waters among Stockton Islands could be tested, but according to common report they are bad, which doubtless means that they are highly mineralized calcium sulphate or sodium sulphate waters with appreciable amounts of chlorides. This would make them bad for boilers and poor for irrigation. The waters of T. 2 S., R. 4 E., are higher in mineral content and poorer for irrigation than those farther east, and many are of the cal- cium sulphate type. Around Tracy and Banta wells more than 100 feet deep yield better water than shallower ones. The change to waters of the axial type, or those in which the alkalies exceed the alka- line earths, is apparently complete within the limits of El Pescadero, where the waters that were tested are suitable for irrigation. Water Sou Hi|h.... Par- - no Moderate ..do Low Moderate Soi Dr. ..do.... ..do.... ..do...„ St .do.. Veryhieh ^Moderate st °::do:::: ..do.... Soi Sar ..do.... .do.... ..do.... ..do.... ..do.... ..do.... ..do.... Na-S0 4 . Ca-S0 4 . . Na-S0 4 . Ca-S0 4 . Ca-C0 3 . ...do.... ...do... ...do..., ...do.... ...do.... Na-CL. Na-C0 3 . ...do... ...do..., ...do.. r . Ca-C0 3 . ...do... ..do... ..do... ..do... ..do... ..do... Bad.... ...do... Poor... ...do... Fair.... ...do... ...do... ..do... ..do... ..do... Very bad Poor... Fair ...do... ...do... ...do... ...do... Poor... ...do... Fair.... ...do... ...do... Fair... ...do... Good.. ...do... ...do... ...do... ...do... ...do... ...do... ...do... Bad... Fair... ...do... ...do... ...do... Good.. ...do... ...do... Fair... Good.. ...do... ...do... Southern Pacific Co. Pacific Coast Oil Co. Southern Pacific Co. Do. Do. Do. F. M. Eaton. Southern Pacific Co. F. M. Eaton. Do. Do. Kennicott Water Softener Co. Vv T alton Van Winkle. F. M. Eaton. D. B. Bisbee. Southern Pacific Co. F. M. Eaton. Southern Pacific Co. Do. Do. F. M. Eaton. Kennicott Water Softener Co. imping station. )0 feet deep. ,000 feet deep. . H. Henderson. Citizens Gas Co.. L. Gerlach. Jacob Ohm JohnTrethcvay Henrv Pope S. B. 'Light L. E. Gerlach .. A. Sanguinetti. . Mrs. S.Bolliger. San Joaquin County . : irly Theo. lnfelt George liarbero Tli.-... k'ueppc R. Jung. 'iggin. Burdett Salmon JooWillo Mrs. Frank Hutchinson. L. A. Gremaux G.H. J. Uriel!.. C. W.Mourey.. Table 37.— Field assays of ground waters in San Joaquin County. [Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] s,yl.' 'J i ('•.impodo In. Kr,inco-r.. C.linno do In. Lioilec es . C! [V.n.lm (('Jrinie.). Campodelos Fr ni'-i-. is . Campo de lo< KiotHee-. Campodelos Franceses. Tiolonninoil . juliiiI ii i . ■ . I "rilj.i., cl qiiiuililieo Ca-SO ( .. , and 218 feet deep. i welkni;., i n (175 feet deep. Table 38. — Mineral analyses of ground waters in San Joaquin County, [Parts per million exce; Determined quantities. (ii'i '">,'. Computed quantities. I i !': - i'T. Southern Pacific Co. Pacific Coast Oil Co. Southern Pacific Co. Gas & Electric Co. Southern Pacific Co. May — , 1S99 Sept. — , 1910 July —1900 } « .. Se|:1. 12, -T.il> -. Moderate. Southern Pacific Co. Pacific Coast Oil Co. Southern Pacific Co. ' n Walton Van Winkle. D. B. Bisbee. Southern Pacific Co. F. M. Eaton. Southern Pacific Co. aC., corrosive; N. C, "Inelioliiio . . -. j . le of ji ' ' i. . d Computed. uncertain or doubtful. e Arti^iOfi well: proliohlv moie ilem noo feet Oeep. I F..UI- well: Oil.-, to o:r, loot deep at electric purapins station. ,/ Klovoii well. al (in ine ■ i ii.ni. ■.■on M l.liill loci 'loop. '• loimkrii wells a i I'll in ■ s »" I" 1,1)11" l'-i" '■'"W- 180 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY SAN JOAQUIN COUNTY. 1S1 from wells 100 to 500 feet (loop in the territory from El Pescadero to wit hin 2 or 3 miles of the foothills could probably be applied to crops without harm if proper drainage were arranged, but water from wells more than 500 feet deep would probably be no better than that from shallower ones. Though the water of San Joaquin River is altered in quality by the combined effects of ground affluents from the upper west side, seep- ago from irrigated lands on the east side, and occasional influxes of water from west-side creeks, it is usually low in mineral content and fairly clear, and at all times good for irrigation as the analyses made by the Geological Survey for two years establish. The results of analyses and assays of ground waters in San Joaquin County are given in Tables 37 and 38, in which the waters have also been classified with respect to their value for domestic and boiler use and for irrigation. 182 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. WELL RECORDS. The facts assembled in the following tables and in much of the pre- ceding discussion were secured by W. N. White in 1906-7. Practi- cally all of the pumping plants and all wells of importance then exist- ing were examined and the essential data regarding them were secured. In addition enough of the shallow domestic wells in the outlying areas were examined to furnish evidence of the depth to ground water and to give some indication of its quality. Much more complete evidence on the latter point was procured by R. B. Dole in 1910 and has been assembled in the chapter and tables prepared by him and appearing both in the county notes and in the general discussion. 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The valley in this latitude is contracted somewhat, so that its width is greater both to the north and to the south than here. South of Tuolumne River and east of the San Joaquin, the canals of the Turlock irrigation district supply gravity water to a large part of the valley; and north of the Tuolumne the canals of the Modesto district supply the west-central part of the county from a point about 8 miles east of Modesto to San Joaquin River. West of the San Joaquin the lower line of the San Joaquin and Kings River canal system extends to the vicinity of Crows Landing. Under these canal systems much alfalfa is raised, dairying is an important and growing industry, and there is an increasing acreage devoted to fruit raising and diversified farming. Outside of the irrigated district the greater part of the valley lands are in grain, both wheat and barley being raised, although here, as in other parts of the Great Valley, the pro- duction is less than formerly. Along the San Joaquin the flooded bottoms and the neighboring alkali lands are used for grazing. Less use is made of ground waters in this county than in any other part of the valley. The rainfall is sufficient, so that grain raising has been successful in the past, and irrigation has not been absolutely necessary in order that the valley lands might be utilized. The pressure for irrigation therefore has not been so intense as in the more strictly arid sections farther south. Furthermore, the sur- face supply is more nearly adequate than in many of the counties, and the limits of productivity through the use of the cheap gravity waters have not been reached, because the Turlock and Modesto districts are not yet fully developed. Because of this large supply of surface water and its as yet incomplete utilization little interest has been taken heretofore in the development and use of ground waters. FLOWING WELLS. The Survey has records of only five flowing wells in the county. These are near the southern boundary, and most of them are west of San Joaquin River. Only one, that on the McDermott estate, northeast of Newman, is used for irrigation. The others furnish supplies for stock. Because of the meager development, the limits of the area within which flowing waters are to be expected has not been determined with certainty. Nor are these limits of as much importance here as 198 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. farther south in the valley, because the flowing wells will yield rather meagerly, their waters will be of poor quality generally, and the flow- ing-well area will be confined to a zone of low land along the axis of the valley, much of which is subject to overflow and some of which is alkaline. The settlers along the west side — owners of fertile, alkali-free soils, capable of immense production if water could be applied to them, but practically limited under present conditions to dry crops — are as a matter of course deeply interested in the possibility of securing irrigation water from any source. The streams that flow from the west-side hills toward the valley are wet-weather streams of slight flow and can not be considered as sources of irrigation water. The San Joaquin and Kings River canal system may be capable of slight extension when irrigation practice on the lands under it im- proves; but at best it can serve only a small additional acreage. It is probable that pumping systems will eventually be installed to lift water directly from the San Joaquin to apply to those west-side lands that are within 40 or 50 feet of the low-water level in the river. Pumping plants may also be installed in the lower west-side lands to pump ground waters, but the lift will be nearly as great as from the river and the water will be of inferior quality, since all of the west-side ground waters contain notable quantities of salts and some of them approach the limit of usability for irrigation. PUMPING PLANTS. Pumping plants for irrigation were practically unknown in this county in 1906, when this investigation was made, but one or two being in operation. They are used, however, to supply the stations of the Pacific Coast Oil Co., the railroads, and the domestic sup- ply for the city of Modesto. Ground waters are accessible with moderate lifts throughout the west half of the east slope of the valley, and as irrigation progresses under the gravity systems and the water plane rises, their development will become increasingly desirable as a means of drainage as well as a source of auxiliary or independent irrigation supply. That intensive cultivation and careful methods will make it as practicable here as it is elsewhere in the valley scarcely needs affirmation. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. Though little land in Stanislaus County is irrigated by pumping it is apparent from conditions north and south of this county that ground water of good quality can be procured from wells 100 to 1,000 feet deep in the territory indicated as east of line C'C in Plate II (in pocket). Those that were tested average about 300 parts per STANISLAUS COUNTY. 199 million in total solids and 140 parts in total hardness, and nearly all are classed as good for irrigation; they would form some scale in boilers, but they are not corrosive and would not cause foaming. Waters deeper than 1,200 feet are probably salty. As no wells more than 200 feet deep on the east side of the county could be tested, the composition of the deep waters between San Joaquin River and the location shown by line C'C is unknown. Some of the supplies from wells 30 to 100 feet deep west and south of Modesto and close to the axis are high in chlorides, and those from wells 300 to 600 feet deep in Stevinson Colony are salty, as is also that from the 480-foot well at Crows Landing. Any artesian waters in Stanislaus County, there- fore, would probably be salty and would range from fair to bad for irrigation, according to their concentration. The west-side waters are irregular in composition, except that all contain notable amounts of sulphate. All those tested near Newman are highly mineralized sodium chloride waters of poor quality, the shallow supplies not being essentially different from those at 300 to 400 feet. Several waters with carbonate predominating were found at Crows Landing and at Westley, but they would also deposit large quantities of hard scale in boilers. No supplies that would be con- sidered unfit for irrigation were found north of Newman, though the artesian supply near Crows Landing is of rather doubtful quality. Water from wells 80 to 300 or 400 feet deep west of the artesian area could probably be utilized for irrigation. The water from San Joaquin River is acceptable for irrigation. Tables 40 and 41 indicate the composition and usefulness of the ground waters in Stanislaus County that were analyzed or assayed. 200 GLiOUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. CD O 05 £ p>> rO T3 cu u © © CO 0) * "? ?5 OS <* • ■*)<•-( ,(OMOONO"5C _ 'HlON-^NHNtOIMOlHHNOVNl an : £ bObo£ b0 . 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MERCED COUNTY. GENERAL CONDITIONS. Merced County extends entirely across the San Joaquin Valley and thus includes both east-side and west-side territory. The gradual amelioration northward of the aridity of the south end of the San Joaquin Valley becomes noticeable at this latitude; hence, the raising of grain without irrigation, which is possible on the east side as far south as Fresno County, is usually successful on the west side in the northern part of Merced County. Irrigation by surface water is accomplished principally by the util- ization of San Joaquin and Merced rivers. The lower line of the San Joaquin and Kings River canal, which leaves the river near Mendota in Fresno County, extends entirely across the west side of Merced County and into Stanislaus County. The high-line canal of the same system also extends from the southern to within a few miles of the northern edge of the county. This irrigation work com- mands the larger portion of the west-side plain. The zone of un- watered land, between the high-line canal and the foothills, is rela- tively narrow. The most important east-side system is the Crocker-Huffman canal, which taps Merced River about 2 miles below Merced Falls and serves an extensive section east and north of the county seat. The Stevinson-Mitchell canal heads in San Joaquin River about 14 miles southwest of Merced and commands a belt from 3 to 4 miles wide between this point and the mouth of Merced River. The principal settlement below this canal, the Stevinson Colony, is between the lower Merced and the San Joaquin. North of Merced River, the Turlock irrigation district extends into Merced County from Tuolumne County, in which He the greater part of the lands covered by the system. In addition to these major systems, there are a number of minor canals along the Merced River bottoms. On the whole, however, the county is thinly settled and but a small portion of it is under irrigation. Perhaps three-fourths of the valley lands are devoted to dry farming, the production of hay and grain, or to pasturage. The territory east and north of Merced, the Plainsburg and Le Grand districts in the southeastern part of the county, much of the foothill area, and the greater part of the strip on the north side of Merced River are producing hay and grain, while the greater part of the area between the main line of the Southern Pacific Co. and San Joaquin River is in pasture. Part of this pasture land was at one time tilled, but for various reasons, among them the rise of alkali, tillage has ceased, and the lands have been returned to pasture. On the west side the strip above the canals and between them and the MEKCED COUNTY. 209 hills is generally in grain from Dos Palos northwanl. South of Dos Palos this strip is utilized principally as shoe]) range. FLOWING WELLS. The use of ground waters, like surface irrigation, is more usual in pierced than in Madera County, although it has not as yet become extensive in either county. The total number of flowing wells in the eounty is between 125 and 150. The greater number of these wells are shallow, from 100 to 400 feet deep, and their yield is correspond- ingly small. As the most of them were drilled twenty or twenty-five years ago, not for irrigation but for domestic purposes and for stock, they fulfill the function for which they were intended. Of the 130 or 135 flowing wells of which the Geological Survey has records, but 15 are reported as used for irrigation, and even these are generally used on a small alfalfa patch or garden of but little importance. The total yield of all the flowing wells in the county is estimated at less than 8 second-feet. That large yields may be secured is indicated by the experience of the Crocker-Huffman Land and Water Co. in sink- ing a 2,000-foot test well for oil in the spring of 1902 in sec. 15, T. 7 S., R. 13 E. No oil was found, but this well, although near the eastern edge of the flowing well area, as indicated by the shallow developments to date, yielded what is reported to have been the largest flow in the Merced district. When the casing was pulled the flow ceased, doubtless because of leakage into the upper strata. Practically all the flowing wells in the county are south and west of Merced and Livingston and east of Los Banos and South Dos Palos. Though there are many wells of this type 250 to 700 feet deep, they are principally for stock and domestic use, as the San Joaquin and Kings River canal system supplies plenty of cheap gravity water to this district. PUMPING PLANTS. There are between 40 and 50 pumping plants in the county, most of them equipped with gas engines. More than half of these are used to develop irrigating waters, and the remainder are used chiefly for domestic or town supplies. Grain, fruit, alfalfa, berries, sweet potatoes, etc., are the principal crops raised by the ranchers^ who use pumping plants for irrigation. They express themselves as satisfied with the results and convinced that pump irrigation in many parts of Merced County may be made highly successful. In the Atwater and Livingston districts, as well as about Plainsburg and Le Grand, plants have already proved practicable. Throughout much of the east side, to the west, south, and east of Merced, the ground-water level is within 20 feet or less of the surface, and where 98205°— wsp 398—16 14 210 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. soils are favorable such accessible ground waters may be utilized to advantage in pumping operations. Merced, like other east-side counties, includes a belt between the trough of the valley and the foothills that contains more or less alkali because of the proximity of the ground water to the surface. In certain parts of this belt the content of alkali has increased in recent years as the result of irrigation by means of gravity water supplied by the Crocker-Huffman system. In such areas, if the lands are still productive, pumping, either as an independent source of irrigation water or as an auxiliary to the gravity system, is most to be desired. It results in benefit to the community in several ways. In the first place it is a method of drainage. The water that is supplied to the land is drawn from beneath it. The tendency of the ground waters to rise with irrigation is thereby counteracted and the ground water level is kept down. In the second place there is no overuse. Each acre-foot of water developed costs a fixed sum. Under these con- ditions more will not be used than is needed and the usual tendency of the ground-water plane to rise with irrigation will not be manifest. Again, pumping and the use of relatively high-priced water encour- ages intensive cultivation and this again reduces the quantity of water necessary. Frequent cultivation and the creation thereby of a mulch at the surface has long been recognized as one of the effective means of prevention of loss of water by evaporation from the surface. Whether lands already damaged by alkali as a result of the applica- tion of too much water can be reclaimed and utilized by pumping under the economic conditions that now exist is an unsettled ques- tion; but there is no doubt that the irrigation of undamaged lands whose water plane lies within 20 or 25 feet can be carried out success- fully where intensive farming methods are used, and that the rise of alkalies in such lands will be prevented. QUALITY OF WATER. The east-side waters from wells 15 to 700 feet deep, ranging from 100 to 600 parts, average about 200 parts per million in their content of mineral matter. Though they differ considerably from each other in concentration those away from the trough are generally calcium carbonate waters good for irrigation and good to poor for boilers. Wells 100 to 1,000 feet deep in the territory indicated as lying east of line C'C on Plate II would probably yield water of the character just described. No apparent general difference in quality exists be- tween the shallow waters and those down as far as 600 or 700 feet, though local differences of some magnitude are observable. For example, comparison of analyses (Tables 43 and 44) indicates that shallow waters at Merced are poorer than the deeper ones. Water Mrs. Desmarais AnnaD. Ehlers Do J. F. Chamberlain Miller & Lux E. B. Fowler E. P. Tvler August Tetzlaff John Furtado Do California Pastural & Agric W. Whelan J. L. Gillette T. B. Striblin- George D. Bliss G.L.Hake N.C. 14 18 N.C. 20 •? 18 N.C. 17 N.C. 50 ? 80 N.C. 40 X. c. 35 N.C. 12 N.C. 30 N.C. SO N.C. 140 N.C. 140 N.C. 100 N.C. SO N.C. so Xll^ll Moderate . uu ...do -DUU Good ..do ...do Fair ..do Ca-C0 3 .... Poor ..do Na-C0 3 ... Fair ..do ...do ...do ..do Ca-COs..-- ...do ..do ...do ...do Low ...do ...do Moderate . Na-COs. - - Good 1 ..do Ca-COa..-- Fair ..do ...do ...do ..do ...do ...do ..do ...do ...do ..do ...do ...do ..do ...do ...do ..do ...do ...do 1' Ull. Do. Good. Fair. Do. Good. Do. Do. Do. ! Fair. Good. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. oC, cc Three wells 172, 292, and 320 feet deep. Classification. Owner. ] Mineral :ontent. Chemical j <*£»* j «*«£!* character. j boilers> L^^. Analyst. A. J. Hulen Octloderate.. Oct. do MayCigh do May.do Augfoderate.. Octligh Oct.. do Octloderate. . Ca-COs.-.-i Fair Na-COs.. J... do Na-S0 4 ....i Very bad.. ...do |...do Good.... ...do Fair ...do Poor Good.... Poor.... ...do Good.... ...do ...do ...do F. M. Eaton. Do. Pacific Coast Oil Co.. Do Do Pacific Coast Oil Co. Do. Do. Southern Pacific Co . . Miller & Lux John Kincaid California Pastural & Agricultural Co. Miller & Lux Na-C0 3 ... Na-Cl Ca-Cl Na-C0 3 ... ...do Fan Very bad.. Bad Good Fair Poor Fair Southern Pacific Co. F. M. Eaton. Do. Do. Do. Santa Fe Ry. Co Do Nov.do do Ca-CO Kennicott Water Sof tener Co. Do. Fresno Consumers Jan.[igh ...do Bad Go>I Fair Good.... Smith, Emery & Co. Ice Co. Do ...do Do. second at 95 to 220 feet depth. 98205— WSP 398- Table 43.— Field assays of ground waters in Merced County. [Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] Frank Mnp.van . George P. Oleson . D. C. Van Clief. J.J. Stovin ■■ ',, i Hi^ll 3fc Na-CO,. Na-Cl... < Poor ..do Fair iTery bad r.iur .".'!"! tjmliiv n.rir.i. Miidt-riH' Ca-COi... ...do ..do Na-C'l... Xa-Cdi.. 1 IT', 1 1 1 1* ll _ Na-Cl... M"ilor;in ! . .Au !.'i . ' H,„ Verj high ...Io ,.ru ..do ...do ...do Ca-C< >.,.... -.do Na-CO,... Fair. I 'nor. N. C, noncorrosive; 1. corrosion 6 Artesian well; depth not given, probably i ; Three wells 172, 292, and 320 t Table 44. — Mineral analyses of ground waters in Merced County. [Parts per million except s olhenvi*!' desii'iiali'il Dale Location. Determined quantities. Computed quantities. Classification. \nalysl. Owner. See. T. R. Depth (feet). Silica (810,). Iron (Fo). Cttl- (Ca). slum (Mg). (Na+K). Car- 1 "!.' lull- If U'0,,1. flioar- li.maio indirle (HOOs). Sul- radielo Chlc- (C™. Total Seale- i'l.i'in in' ■ 11. in .. (s). .tag Proba- i.iliu-u (c™ Alkali C (l" Mineral Chemical character. Quality boilers. irrigation Oct. 25,1910 Ocl. 27,1910 May 29,1909 2-1 32 39 39 25 10 Sail)! 10 S.. 6S... 9s".:; 9S... 6S... 10S.. ios!! ides o 9E.. 10 E . 10 K . 10 E . 10 F, . HE . 11 E . 12 E . 14 E . 90 84 660 372 283 320 "'V32' c59 f'36 c59 0.05 33 . 50 i 21 1 72 3.5 6 5.8 52 3.7 2.1 33 9 6 520 6 25 6 44 22 53 48 Tr. 26 3.6 71 179 266 85 137 107 521 45 521 7 7.0 21 24 32 Tr. 58 51 139 .,.,„ 372 181 22 35 125 12 .311 232 1,616 1,118 188 218 369 212 781 220 400 SS 300 450 40 140 840 S70 ],::;,u 85 1, ;oo 40 1 70 120 60 140 10 N.'C. 7 N. C. X. C. ? c. N. C. X. c. 1 N. C. 15 10 7.4 4.5 45 4.2 4.7 22 40 75 16 170 Moderate.. "iiisii.".'.::: ...do ...do Moderate. Moderate. ...do Moderate.. Fair Good... . F. -M. Eaton. on I'acilii I'o.isl uil l.i. Na-COj. .. ...do 'Fair.'.'.*! 'i'"o.'.r'.'!!! Good.... Poor.... 'Good!!!. I'a.-ilit-Coasl nil Co. Do. Do Sooili.'i o I'm lln- l.'o. Millci A- Lux .' " I .,1 . Ijliloiuia I'llslUial ,\: A^ricullilval Co. Miller A- Lux May 2.1,19119 Aug., 1900 "il. 14,1910 "I 31,1910 Oct. 14,1910 do Nov. 4,1902 "i.'oo' .40 .15 .25 51 38 10 19 54 Xl-l.'H:-.. xa-n Ca-L'l X.1-CO1... ...do Ca-CO !!!do!!!!!! Y. IV 11:11.1 . . Bad Good Si mill, -in I'aducl'o. F. M. Eaton. Do. Do. Fair Bad Go>l ...do ...do Fair Good.... Kennicott Water Sof 17 19 88... 78... 1G E . HE. HE. Do. Fresno Cousiunei -. Ice Co. Do Jan. 17,1910 do m Do. aC, corrosive; N. C, nourorrosivo; V, b Computed. e Including oxides of Iron and alumini 98205-wsp 39S— 16. (To face page 210.) -VT TA A ATTTTIT \T A T T T? V MERCED COUNTY. 211 from wells deeper than 700 feet could not be tested, but it is probable that borings more than 1,200 feet deep in the valley part of the county would yield salty or brackish water. It is reported that a 2,000-foot well in sec. 15, T. 7 S., R. 13 E., yielded soft water of fine quality, but it is probable that the water was strongly saline; no analyses of it are available, and the hole filled after removal of the casing. Calcium carbonate waters are found along the east edge of the flowing-well area, but the supplies gradually become poorer toward the axis of the valley because of increasing predominance of the alkalies, so that many of those near San Joaquin River are poor to bad for irrigation. Artesian wells 300 to 600 feet deep in Tps. 6 S., R. 9 E.; 6 S., R. 10 E.; 7 S., R. 9 E.; 7 S., R. 10 E.; 7 S., R. 11 E.; and 8 S., R. 1 1 E., yield rather highly concentrated sodium chloride waters; several wells 250 to 700 feet deep southeast of those townships be- tween Chowchilla Ranch and Merced, however, yield carbonate waters of good quality; consequently the sodium chloride waters may be considered to be confined to a belt near the axis and to be most common in the northern part of the belt. Wells 30 to 50 feet deep around the mouth of Merced River, where some of the strongest salt waters were found in deeper wells, yield good water. Water from wells a few miles west of San Joaquin River contains appreciable amounts of sulphate, but that constituent is subordinate to carbonate in a strip extending from Newman into Los Banos Colony midway between the river and the foothills of the Coast Range. Though alkaline-earth bases are most commonly predomi- nant, and the carbonate character of the water consequently does not spoil these waters for irrigation, they are poor for boiler use. South- east of that area in Dos Palos Colony and the territory west of it the ground waters, being harder and higher in mineral content, are fair to poor for irrigation and bad for boiler use. The deep well at South Dos Palos yields salt w T ater. 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J V v— ' W >~> -— ' *~ ' r 5 'O X) X5 T3 T3 X} a> ap a> ,fi,d,d o u o d d d 0} 0} >3 0} r , , BJB1 •-d ■ 2 2 . o . ,d,d :-S ; d d , 7 inches , 6 inches , 7 inches o o o o o o o o pqpqpqpQpq :pq 00WO! j*oi*00C0O)O3q S3q 00 03 Ttl^T}HTtiTt<-<*<-*i'*llOiOlO'0'0'OiOiCiOlO>OlO'Ol<5'OU5kOU5 •u^nos diqs -U*AV J, •uopoag 000000000OQOOO00O5000000000000000000000000000O0O000000000O000O0O000000 MERCED COUNTY. 223 IS :S sg s 88 E e S3 842 5 19 s g S3 s 9 u> >- e T • S § 8 8$ 3 p! M 812 d«c .5.5 « o d !s i s g o COtO OC p J5 c « K c cr X « ce p re pj c 1C EC P OJ Pi p p t» QC « x e'- er* P p ■«S P) r- «- ff HOiow«N'*i';'oo'*do ■ J3J3 ;Jj a 'd*d o .d ' .d CO .« d£ :pQffl lOOOOOOOOOOOO Oflflflfl dddddddddddddd®®®* tMfc,^,^ O O © O r? 2-d ,d 3+? d • d JoSSol oooo5? oooo : . . . , ■ - . . • © J" " ^dddd^ddd ^"g ^ddddd ^ ^dddd^ddd ^§ ,*g o ■ • • *oo • • -dodo • :pqm : : iowppq ^"o o o o o d d d d d '-'HONMINOfflM )2<3505©05O©0000 )qX00»XOO0C00 'COCO 00 ' oi os oo d d o iPPW oooodoogoooooo l010lOWlClfllCHOU5iOW5U5U30(0!0<0©!Offl®10<0(0(C!0<0®tO .C05D©0©50 | C50«OI>-I>-t>.t^.|>.t-OiCiOiO ooooooooooooooooooooxoooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo '000000000000000000000000000000O3O5O5Oi 224 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY o £ °~i oo .s-s Is s :a 'ea'eS'eS e e e "^ asa 020202 COMMN, P£ cococoPcoco CO 02 CO P 02 CO CO CO CO CO ft l-I H P P HH C0C0O2O2pO2O2lZ;O2O2O2O2pPc00202 O O O O O O O O 00 O © O O O O O O O ^ifttoiooi ■ »o .mo OOUJMiOMMOOfflOOOOONOOON lOlONNlOOOQNOHCOlOCOnCilfflaOM NfONNHcqcqNw o o o Pfflffl ■ o o :.a.a GO w :.a.a ■t>© ' o o :pp .a .a .a -..a 3 . tig . 3 5 :pp . o o o • o icqfflpq :pq »3 A'' 3 S-d-d-d^; SoooSi . t^ t- o 2 2 o r- o- )0000O5ggO>0000 00 1cOH(OM(ONt)i t^ 00 00O00 03 0i002 ■^CCOCOCOlOi^CC 00 00 00 05 00 00 00 00 q 'q 000000 00 00q* U5lOTt«^Tf(^^^^^^TtlTf<^-*TtlCClWCOCOMCOCOfOCOCOCOCOCOO050J05050J05O0505050J05O05050S0i0505050505 •uoijoag lONMf 00!Ot'NOMtOOOOiOOHHHNNHOM'«iT|i'^U3fq«NNtO(DOOiOM' 2S*S o J. ° ■SI'S jjlll P5 w c3S Scig I-saia^i .9^3 aa a fl«J9 P> 5 I IH^^pSScopS o o pp* |1 §| Sp is* 'coSS MERCED COUNT 225 a a asaa CO CO WJlVl'Jl AoqcgQcgi coco cococo ice OQQQQcg'cq'cq aTco co co oq m ft cq a! ai . © -H A.L.Sayre 5 ? ft Do I' 8 5. Y. Cockrum f» 6. Shepherd 14t) Mineral content. Moderate.. ...do ..do ..do Very high . Moderate.. ..do ..do ..do ..do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do High Moderate. ...do Chemical character. Ca-COs- ...do ...do Na-COa. Na-Cl... Ca-C0 3 . ...do ...do ...do ...do .-.do ...do ...do ...do ...do Na-CI... Na-COs. Ca-C0 3 . Quality lor boiI»>r^. Fair ..do ..do ..do Very bad . Fair ..do ..do ..do ..do ..do Poor ..do, Fair ..do Very bad . Fair ...do Quality for irri- gation. Good. Do. Do. Fair. Bad. Good. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Bad. Good. Do. bably more than 300 feet. Owner. Geo. D. Bliss Sierra Vista Vineyard Co. Southern Pacific Co ... . Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co. Classification. Date Chemical character. Oct. i9Ca-C0 3 .... ....do..--- do May, Oct. ...do 1 Na-COs.... Quality for boil- ers. Fair Good.... Fair... ...do... Quality for irri- gation. Good.... ...do .do..... .do.... Analyst. F. M. Eaton. Do. Southern Pacific Co. Kennicott Water Soft- ener Co. a q oxides of iron and aluminum. °— WSP 39&-16. (' Table 47.— Field assays of ground waters in Madera County. [Parts per milli on except as otherwise designated.] Date, Location. Depth of (tilt). Determined quantities. Computed quantities. Classification. Owner. Sec. T. K. Carbon- Bicar- ni.li.-li' (IK'O,). Sulplr.iU' radicle (SO,). Chlorine (CI). Total hsHilll v asCaCO . Total solids. iOiT.lill^ Foaming (J). ' Proba- bility ..[ i-ooYli- Mineral ClW31!Cill character. Quality lor Quality l.,ri,n- Oct. 19 11 35 32 33 34 21 28 5 30 OS. 10 S. 12 S. 12 S. io s! 11 s. us! 12 s! 12 S. 14 E. 14 E. 14 E. i:! ii' 16 E. Hi Iv 16E. llilv 17 E. 17 E. 17 E. 18E. 15 K. 18 E. 18 e! 18 E. 240 16 42 50 44 100 Tr. 167 126 83 103 95 202 227 137 99 Tr. Tr. 15 5 287 Tr. Tr. Tr. Tr. Tr. 5 5 Tr° Tr. Tr. Tr. 20 30 30 1,680 40 15 105 25 25 25 1,160 15 76 69 100 140 148 192 186 98 .6 160 170 'l60 180 210 170 140 310 400 300 100 2,000 210 130 1 ™ n!c! i c. ' ?_ k'. c! N. C. N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. 100 70 1.2 80 70 50 50 140 80 55 1.8 HO ...do 8 .™..'.' '.V.iv'.'.'.'.'.W :,Lvr.v--.\ ...do ...do ...do - :::d ::::::: ...do ...do ...do ...do Hfeli Moitssih-.. ...do Ca-CO... ...do ...do N.i-i ■(),... '.'.'.io'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.An.'.".'.'.'.'. ...do Na-CI N'aJ'Oi... Ca-COj . . . Pair :::do.':::::: Fair.'.'.".'."!" ...do Pair. Oood. 140 120 140 150 190 120 200 220 240 150 120 soo 130 50 50 160 3,200 20 10 160 70 50 1,300 net. 23 Oct. 22 Oct. 23 Oct. 20 Do. Fair. Bad. Do. Do. Mill r A Lux Oct. 22 (HI. 20 ii.-i. 22 ...do.... Ocl. 20 ...do.... Oct. 22 Oct. 21 Do. B. W. Thomas Do. J'oi>;' A Talbot Do. Table 48. — Mineral analyses of ground waters in Madera County. [Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] Date. Location. 1 ■3 ft Determined quantities. Computed quantities. Classification. Owner. Seo. T. R. I 1 i | ! 1+ IS II 1 So 1" | L Is 2 „6 .§ 1 1 1 i. ll I 6 1 .11 I j. I 1 i! ¥ Mineral Chemical character. (tualitv Quality Analyst, Oct. 19,1910 13 10 S. OS. 14 E. 15 E. 400 0.10 .20 22 13 5.1 4.0 H2 jj 90 71 25 12 200 147 125 95 40 N.C. N.C. 80 80 Moderate.. Ca-COj.... ...do Fair Good.... Good.... ...do F. M. Eaton. ''■'>. "■< < Southern Pacific Co. May, 1900 Oct. 1,1902 1? [OS. US. 17 E. is E. 90 «74 * 63 16 11 8 » 81 24 5 27 226 181 155 115 60 711 N.C. 60 40 Moderate,.. ...do ...do Na-COj.... Fair..... ...do Pl.lUtll.TTI I'LlCiflC CO. Kennicott Water Soft- SantaFeLatluayi ... 3 a C, corrosive; N 98205°— W 398— 16. 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FRESNO COUNTY. GENERAL CONDITIONS. The part of Fresno County within San Joaquin Valley contains one of the largest and most intensively cultivated areas as well as a por- tion of the most barren territory in the Great Central Valley. The rainfall, which gradually decreases in amount from the mouth of the Sacramento southward, is so slight in Fresno County that dry farm- ing is precarious, hence most of the unirrigated land is also unculti- vated and is used only as range. Around Fresno and south and east of that city luxuriant crops of great diversity are grown ; raisin, table, and wine grapes, peaches, almonds, apricots, and other high- priced products are chiefly cultivated, while hay and cereals yield good returns in the less thickly settled portions of Kings River delta. This rich and populous region is irrigated by gravity water, dis- tributed by a network of canals that take their supply from the river. These irrigation systems have been fully described by Grunsky. 1 A later paper, by Lippincott, 2 dealing with the possibility of storage and the development of water power on Kings River, embodies the results of a close study of the ground waters and their relation to alkali conditions by Louis Mesmer and Thomas H. Means. From this report (pp. 53, 54, and 85) the following quotations are taken: The natural drainage of these lands is toward the southwest, at the rate of about 6 feet to the mile. The soil is largely granitic sand, and below an average depth of 10 or 15 feet it is saturated with water. The surface water is somewhat alkaline, and there- fore it is not advisable to pump it for irrigation. Water below a depth of 50 feet can be considered satisfactory for irrigation. This is based on tests of more than 800 wells in the district, some of them being in sections where there were the strongest surface alka- line indications. In every case this lower water was found to be good, and when the strata near the surface are penetrated it rises to the elevation stated. There have been few attempts to pump water in larger quantity than is required for domestic purposes. A 2-inch screw pipe, put down to an average depth of 50 feet, landing the pipe on a stratum of clay, and then boring through the clay and allowing the water to come in from the bottom of the hole, is always ample for this purpose. ******* A few small pumping plants have been installed — one 5 miles east of Fresno, on Minnewawa ranch; several around Selma, and two near Wildflower — which yield at least 0.5 second-foot to a 7-inch imperforated well not more than 70 feet deep, with a lift not to exceed 20 feet in any case. Wells of 10-inch or 12-inch casing should be put down to a depth of about 100 feet on an average, and should not be perforated above 50 feet below the surface, thus shutting off all possible chance of drawing from the more or less alkaline surface water. It is probable that wells of tins size and depth would each furnish 1.5 second-feet. ******* The result of pumping * * * would be to improve the conditions rather than to increase the trouble from alkali. The water table would be lowered sufficiently to permit the washing down of the alkali salts, and the salts, instead of being confined to the surface layers of the soil, would gradually be distributed * * * and by this i U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 18, pp. 39 et seq., 1898. Out of print. May be consulted in libraries. 'U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 58, 1902. Out of print. May be consulted in libraries. FRESNO COUNTY. 235 dilution rendered harmless. The lowering of the water table would be of the great- est assist a are to the reclamation of the lands already alkaline, and would probably per- mit this reclamation without extensive underdrains. Other reports dealing with the problem of alkali and drainage have been prepared by Fortior, Maekie, and Cone. 1 In a report by Lewis A. Hicks on the " Generation and transmission of electric power and installation of pumping plants," included in Water-Supply Paper No. 5S, an estimate has been made of the cost of water pumped from the ground-water supply by electric power generated on Kings River. The estimates are made on the basis of 100 pumping stations, each with a maximum capacity of 5 second-feet and an average lift of 45 feet, and the probable cost of the water produced is given as 50 cents per acre-foot when the pumping plants operate 328J days per year and $1.43 when the pumping plants operate 100 days per year. Among the conclusions reached by Mr. Lippincott 2 after a thorough investigation of conditions on the Kings River delta are the following Pumping plants can be established and operated which will furnish 1,000 acre-feet of water per day at a cost not much greater than that now paid for gravity water from the canals, to supplement the present summer supply or to extend the irrigated areas. The operation of the pumping plants will partially if not wholly prevent the rising of alkali to the surface of irrigated lands. The rise of the ground waters presents a difficult problem in prac- tically all of the delta lands of the San Joaquin Valley, and is merely particularly well exemplified in the Kings River delta in Fresno County. Mr. Grunsky states that the rise in ground waters since the beginning of irrigation is from 10 to as much as 50 feet in parts of the delta. One great difficulty that arises in dealing with the problem is due to the fact that the injury is done in one locality while a large part of the cause may be in another. The lower delta lands are the chief sufferers from the rise of the ground waters, but the cause is to be found in the irrigation on the higher lands as well as on those affected. Over portions of the central arte- sian basin and about its borders the ground waters have always stood close to the surface, and much of the land was impregnated with alkali before there was any settlement in the valley. The effect of the irrigation on the higher lands has been to extend this satu- rated alkali zone slowly up the slope toward the eastern margin of the valley until it has encroached to a certain extent upon lands that were valuable. Without storage the gravity waters will not serve an acreage greatly in excess of that supplied by them now, and the pumping 1 Maekie, W. W., Reclamation of white-ash lands affected with alkali at Fresno, Cal.: XJ. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Soils Bull. 42, 1907. Fortier, Samuel, and Cone, V. M., Drainage of irrigated lands in the San Joaquin Valley, Cal.: U. S. Dept. Agr. Off. Exper. Sta. Bull. 217, 1909. Cone, V. M., Irrigation in the San Joaquin Valley, Cal.: U. S. Dept. Agr. Office Exper. Sta. Bull. 239, 1911. 2 Lippincott, J. B., Storage of water on Kings River, California: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 58, p. 98, 1902. 236 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. plants that must be installed to secure future growth will in addition serve a most valuable function in drainage, tending to prevent the extension of alkali conditions and aiding in the reclamation of lands already containing too much alkali. FLOWING WELLS. The flowing wells of the artesian belt of Fresno County are sparsely scattered over a broad area along the trough of the valley. In 1906 there were only about 40 of them, ranging in depth from less than 100 to 1,500 feet, the latter being the depth of one of the wells be- longing to the Johns estate, north of Summit Lake. In the district adjacent to Lemoore, south of Kings River, small flows, sufficient for stock and domestic use, are obtained at 150 feet and less, but farther north no shallow wells are found. Those on the James and Herminghause ranches, south of San Joaquin River, are 600 to 800 feet deep. The flowing wells of the larger ranches were bored generally to obtain a supply of water for stock at times when none is available in the sloughs and irrigating ditches. Irrigation in these large holdings is as yet accomplished only during the flood season when abundant gravity water is avail- able for lavish use. The possibility of using ground waters for such purposes is scarcely considered, although on one of the James ranches the water from a flowing well is used to irrigate about 50 acres of alfalfa. The great west-side plains, with their productive soil, freedom from hardpan, good drainage, and favorable situation, are nonproductive because of their aridity, and must remain so until water can be applied to them. The ground-water plane seems to be nearly horizontal, such evidence as is at hand indicating a slope of only about 2 to 5 feet per mile; hence it is nearly as far to ground water beneath any part of these plains as the plains themselves are above the lowest part of the valley. If experiments should prove that these lands will suc- cessfully produce citrus fruits or other high-priced, products, then it may be that the water can be pumped to them from the valley and the venture made commercially practicable despite the great expense involved, for it is to be remembered that water is pumped to heights of several hundred feet in Tulare and San Bernardino counties in localities where it can be used on good citrus lands with an excellent margin of profit. At present the west slope is almost devoid of permanent residents. There are perhaps a dozen settlers between Panoche Creek and the Coalinga branch of the Southern Pacific. Sheep camps, occupied temporarily in winter, are scattered over them. In the early nineties a few seasons of heavy rainfall led to settlement about Huron, and two or three crops of grain were harvested, but since then there has usually not been sufficient rainfall to mature a crop, and the plains FRESNO COUNTY. 237 have been abandoned to the sheep men, who lease tbe grazing privileges from tbe large landholders, notably the Southern Pacific Co, QUALITY OP THE WATER. The water from wells 20 to 200 feet deep that were tested on the east side of the county would be considered entirely suitable for use in irrigation except that within about 10 miles of Kings River Slough. In general, calcium carbonate waters of moderate mineral content are encountered on the east side, but the characteristic alkali alteration takes place toward the axis of the valley, and the upper waters are less desirable, though not absolutely harmful. According to the tests wells 100 to 300 feet deep at Fresno yield supplies containing but from 120 to 300 parts per million of mineral matter. The shallow wells yield somewhat harder water, and it is reported that the water at 600 feet is good, while a 500-foot well 6 miles northeast yields water like that of the 100 to 300 foot wells in the city. Doubtless wells could be sunk to 1,000 feet without danger in the deltas east of a line joining Jamesan and Caruthers, if it were necessary or desirable to go so deep as that for sufficient supply. Determinations by means of the electrolytic cell of the total solids in 854 ground waters in Kings River delta, including parts of Kings and Tulare counties, as well as the greater portion of the east side of Fresno County, are pub- lished in Water-Supply Paper 58. 1 Most of the wells from which the samples were taken are less than 100 feet deep', none in Fresno County being more than 300 feet deep. According to these estimates the shallow waters are moderately low in mineral content; total solids exceed 300 parts per million in only 5 per cent of the samples, and only two among several hundred samples tested in Fresno County contain more than 600 parts per million of dissolved matter. The quality of east-side waters deeper than 1,200 feet is unknown for no wells approaching that depth could be tested. As far south as Fresno County wells more than 1,200 feet deep strike salt water, but south of that county wells as deep as 2,000 feet yield fresh water, and it is therefore evident that the final disappearance southward of excessive chlorides in the deep supplies takes place somewhere be- tween Madera and Corcoran and probably within Fresno County. Some of the wells 550 to 800 feet deep near Jamesan Colony give brackish water, but this is no indication of the possibilities farther east, for water from moderately deep flowing wells elsewhere in the valley is better in proportion to the distance of the wells east of the axis. The water of the 1,200-foot well in sec. 2, T. 17 S., R. 18 E., contains only 135 parts per million of chlorine and 610 parts of total solids; the 2,250-foot well in sec. 14, T. 18 S., R. 18 E., con- tains 279 parts of chlorine and 872 parts of solids; that is, neither i Lippincott, J. B., Storage of water on Kings River, California: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 58, 1902. 238 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. water, though both are near the axis, where the alkali content of the waters should be greatest, approaches in saltness or in mineral con- tent the very deep waters farther north. The west side of the county is mostly semiarid sheep range, but the possibility of producing good crops by the use of ground water along the lower eastern edge of this west-side plain is being demonstrated around Mendota and Huron, and on several isolated farms between these settlements. Barley, Egyptian corn, alfalfa, and general garden truck are being irrigated by pumping in T. 14 S., R. 14 E.; T. 15 S., R. 14 E. ; T. 15 S., R. 15 E. ; and T. 20 S., R. 17 E. The ground water out on the plains is highly gypsiferous, more than 60 per cent of the total residue consisting of calcium, magnesium, and sulphate. Such water is very bad for boiler use because treatment to remove the scale- forming constituents and to neutralize the corrosive tendencies increases the foaming ingredients to so great amount that excessive foaming is likely to occur. The content of alkali is not excessive, however, and does not destroy, though it reduces, the value of the water for irrigation. The area in which such ground supplies are typical extends from South Dos Palos to the Kings-Fresno county line between the artesian belt on the east and the foothills of the Coast Range on the west. Only one well in it more than 250 feet deep was tested, and that well, 1,200 feet deep in sec.ll, T. 20 S., R. 17 E., is said to be unproductive below 400 feet; it is probable that any waters that may be encountered below 250 feet are similar to those above that depth in their essential characteristics. Plate III (p. 102) and figure 3 (p. 107) show the relation between the location and depth of wells in the artesian area and the sulphate content of their waters. Alkali bases are predominant in all of them, but other- wise they differ greatly from one another in composition and con- centration. Sodium sulphate waters of high total solids are char- acteristic west of the slough and sodium chloride and sodium carbonate waters east of it within the limits of the artesian area. They are fair to very poor for irrigation, and supplies from shallower, nonflowing wells are superior for general use. The water of the 2,250- foot well in sec. 14, T. 18 S., R. 18 E., comes from one of the deepest borings in the valley. The analysis by Eaton shows it to be much less strongly mineralized than other supplies west of the slough, but very poor for irrigation because of its high content of bicarbonate, chlo- ride, and alkalies; it is understood that the water killed crops to which it was applied. Its content of foaming constituents is great enough to make it undesirable for boiler use. The fact that it con- tains practically no sulphate, though all the other waters in the imme- diate vicinity are high in that constituent, indicates that the well passes through the typical west-side sediments and draws its supply from beneath them. Greater quantities of gas than are present in the other artesian waters of the county escape from the casing. a C, corn c Two wells 45 and 75 feet deep. Owner. Classification. Dat Chemical ! OPg®* character. bo ^_ I j Qualitv for ' lirrigationJ Analyst. Pacific Coast Oil Co J. G. James Co F. C. Stillman Joseph Mouren Sanford & Claverias Southern Pacific Co Manuel Nunez Pacific Coast Oil Co.... Southern Pacific Co Do Do Santa Felly. Co Nov. 1_ _ . Nov. I" Nov. 11" " do.Th. Oct. 1 ) e - Fresno Brewing Co Do Southern Pacific Co Miller & Lux Pacific Coast Oil Co M. F. Tarpey Southern Pacific Co A. R. Gilstrap Southern Pacific Co Santa FeRy. Co Nov. IS.. June — e July i June 2] Oct. i; ; Nov. I do.; June 13 Oct. 2.'" Oct. 31" Nov. L _ , Ca -C0 3 Dec. 31 . Na . co Nov. if Apr. f Oct. f Na-S0 4 .. Na-Cl... Ca-30 4 .. ...do ...do Na-C0. 3 . Xa-Cl... Na-SO... Ca-C0 3 .. ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do Na-COg. ...do Na-S0 4 . Ca-C0 3 .. ...do.... ...do.... Verv bad ...d6 ...do ;---do I. ..do... I Fair... Very had 1. ..do I Fair.. L.do !...do L.do i Good.... ! Fair I Good.... '...do 1 Very had. j Fair.. > Good ! Fair.., !— do ...do- Fair.. ..do.. ...do.. ...do., i.do.. I Good. ! Poor, i Fair.. ! Good. L..do„ i...do.. ...do.. 1. ..do.. ...do.. I Fair.. i Good. ! Fair.. i Good. |...do.. ...do.. ...do.. ...do.. Pacific Coast Oil Co. F. M. Eaton. Do. Walton Van Winkle. F.M. Eaton. Southern Pacific Co. F. M. Eaton. Pacific Coast Oil Co. Southern Pacific Co. Do. Do. Kennicott Water Soft- ener Co. F.M. Eaton. . Walton Van Winkle. Southern Pacific Co. Do. Do. F. M. Eaton. Southern Pacific Co. F. M. Eaton. Southern Pacific Co. Kennicott Water Soft- ener Co. Leep. >n and aluminum. aatter, 11 parts. 98205°— WSP 398—16, Table 50. — Field assays of ground waters in Fresno County. [Parts per million except as otherwise designated.) 1 .<'. MlMllKiM Ii. I. Nnclulld Oct.' 22 Dc-.' 9 ...do.... J. <;, lames Co Do Nov. 7 s. 1). Williams New ll'.in' school 'lurid Pacific Coast Oil Co ...do.... ..do.... Nov.' in Nov. 11 ...do.... Nov. 1 Nov. 8 Jii.i-]iIi M.mrni J. E. Howard H. 0. Marshall Y.'healville school district Joseph Mourcn Manuii ::uiic/. ..do.... ..do.... Nov. in ...do.... Nov, I2 Nov lo Nov. 3 II II 1 i.hi'i ..do.. Nov. 7 Nov. 8 Oct. 23 Nov. 1 ...do.... Oct. 23 Oct. 31 Nov. 3 Nov. 5 Jlolmorn Land& Wator Co Nov. f, Nov. 4 SI. (icMt-c Y.'lnei v ...do.... Magnolia school district ...do.... G.E.V/ood .do . . Depth (leel). Determined quan'Oic ni.'in- /jti'i'ij Computed quantities. 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C" Cuo | ■2§ Is Analyst. H. A. Burke Ca-Cl Na-C0 3 ... Ca-C0 3 .... Na-COs... ...do Ca-COs.... ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do Bad Good Fair Good ...do Fair ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do Fair Good.... ...do Fair Good.... ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do..... ...do F. M. Eaton. Southern Pacific Co. Do. F. M. Eaton. Southern Pacific Co. F.M.Eaton. Kennicott Water Soft- ener Co. Southern Pacific Co. Do. Do. F.M.Eaton. Do. Do. Southern Pacific Co. Southern Pacific Co Do J. H. Hauschildt Tulare Water Co Do Santa Fe Ry. Co Southern Pacific Co ... . Do Exeter Waterworks Mrs. S. Navarre F. Stone G. K. Hostetter Southern Pacific Co — foot wells. 5°— WSP 39 Table 53. — Field assays of ground voters in Tulare County. [Parts per million' extent as otherwise designated.) D. H. Dopkins. C. F. Gustavesc Augustus Bell.. Ke ilv sclioo George Clark... James Brady... .1. F. Chism'. L.M.Coko S.S. Hough Wallace F.ros Waukena Development Co.. V. H. Carlton W. S. Miller H. W. Butcher I'itv of Mp.iu C. A. Canflold . Kline. . T. W. Carr Citv ■>( Hinuua E. H. Cranz Dank oi Visalia \lta t'omslock Paokwood s,-hui'|. : i.trut . I. D. Reinhardt W. A. Bedford.. F. J.Hesse Mis. C. Ranger.. Pacific. Coast Oi) J. H. Glide Cutler Bros Frank Siseler... C. M. Middcr... M. F. Capell... W. L. Thomas . A. L. Simmons. S.J.Vincent Mr. Leavitt H. E. Rodman City of Portersville. . Nov. 17 Niv, 1.', Nov. n. Heplhof well (feet). l>H 23 E. Aug. 4, 1902 Nov. 17,1010 660 29 168 267 80 N. C. Uodei'aio . Ca-CO Fair J. H. Hauschildt 20 S. 24 E. F. M. Eaton. I'nkne w alerCo Southern Pacific Co. 29 26 4.0 § 122 102 9.0 12 174 134 140 ll.i 50 20 N.C. N.C. 75 170 Moderate . Ca-COi.... Fair ...do ...do ...do Santa Fe Ry. Co Nov. 4,1902 29 tss. 25 E. 626 «8 5 Kennieolt Water Soft- Southern Pacific Co... May 30,1902 31 21 S. 26 E. so 624 20 u 35 do Dec. 29,1904 32 32 » 17-1 N.C. ...do ...do ...do Do. , H' ' : U- , V OT 19 S. 2«E. Mrs. S.Navarre Nov. 21, 1910 26 E. 60 .60 ...do ...do F.M.Eaton. F.Stone 50 .50 128 242 ...do Do. 0. K. Hostetter (d) .35 258 ...do Do. Southern Pacific Co . . . 6 20 31! ,9 6 1711 50 N.C. 00 ...do ...do ...do ...do Southern Pacific Co. i and aluminum. f* 398-16. (To lace page 2 OK A TIT I. aim-: COUNTY. 2 55 installation of additional pumping plants in those parts of the citrus belt where development is now most intense and the effects upon the ground water Lave been most clearly discerned, for it is obviously more important to protect the orchards that are already producing than to plant more. QUALITY OF WATER. The quality of ground water in the basin of Tulare Lake lias been discussed in detail in pages 104-109. Waters from wells 20 to 1,400 feet deep east of the boundary indicated by B'B' (PL IT), generally are carbonate 1 waters, good or fair for irrigation, containing about 240 parts per million of total solids. Nearly all the deep wells yield sodium carbonate water; nearly all the supplies are low in scale- forming and foaming ingredients and are noncorrosive. The waters from wells less than 100 feet deep show greater difference in quality than the deeper supplies, a condition explainable by the probability that the more highly mineralized ones come from pockets of alkali- impregnated silt. The shallow waters of high mineral content almost invariably are taken from wells on tracts showing alkali. 256 GROUND WATER IN $AN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 3 © O 03 O o © CO __© c3 W) g s o © +3 © 02 03 C3 © © el c3 © Pi © © © > o3 o3 ft5 o -< £ o3 •PC3© ss.a O^; I! 1^1 fi-s C3 O |al si a 2 trey; •i^nos •uot^osg > co **t< co co co ^ ^ 88 TtWOffiOO©OOONOONNOOXNH(»OOHHCecOMHtO>OlOCOi OOOOcONiOOOiN'*OOiOOM'*HOcOOOOO!(OOOiO'OOWHOiOp 000 .00 .9.9.9 1-9 -3 cdio co 't-io 6 inches 5 inches 6 inches . . . 5 inches m en 03 « a> 53 -£-£^ 000 •9 -3 -9 0O5C3iO5O5Oi00300C00C100 COCOCOCOCOm-*-TjHTfOlO>0»OlOUOir3>-0»0 NNNW«NNNN(NN(NIN«N(N(NNNlNf)INCqNCqNNINlNMNN« co co co CO CO cO cO co CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO co CO CO CO CO CD CD CD CD O CD co CD CO CO CO CO :.sa 2c3§^S ■sii: Ilia&l ;|i 1 sis *&6 ^a^rn^a^ ^a^ ,ooo_'o_!_;o , . a .gag . .a .go > g . . . d . g . .a • <-. g . . > & .go . g M :£W£ :W :£H :£ :fi :W£ : W :£M :£ t- t^. t- 1^ •» t- i CD t-» CO CO l^- CO M 00 00 00 00 00 00N00OOOffl00NNSc0NN0iC35NOiO<0!0ONNiOiCi0'*<0O00OtD«5i0©«0^*i0ir5>0'*ifli0' )U5MU3 03- c a w » oi in to CD CD CD CD CD O O O O O COiCCNiOCO > o o o o o i .9 .9 B B B . io co »c co »o iooooS ipqpqpqfqpq ;.g,g ■ o o ;.9.9 'CO iO 'COiO ) o o \BB CO "3 ^5 \AAj o • o O ' .9 '..9.9.! 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Bhh; fed a3ocj-< aajri fio-irinwS V3 CP s^s 276 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY oB-B 888 ^83 •5 u ^1 ■fl HfiflQai -x QmQOQ^QQQH a? PJ •S o o 1 6 ^> ^3 oq ^xJid'd R -- ^h£ :5£W £ :o£ .9 : :££ Sp££ ^id ■eg; ^ + OCCXNOOCOfOCO^CO^iOCC ■^llO O O •* < 1— 1 CM 1 + si 03 O R Eh .g.g lOOO •S.S .s.g 1 00 00 ' 03 03 '•S.S. oo io 'Hioo^in .5.5 ■S.S.5. \T3 TJ T3 TS T3 ' pqpQWPn :ni 03 fl — — .■' c. c: o CTs 00 00 00 ~ Cl 9§ubh •mnos diqs •not^B^s OO O 00®*00ooo ^ 1 I-H.-!?! OSiO ■C'J'^'OOONOOMOaoSOOOOOl 1 O -OOO t^O-"* 1 O* HO 'OOM00OHO ss % ,kio is , m to so i» ra 05 05 o? a>a?a?c?© ■.,e,e,e ',CC ,£.£.£ • OOO .ooooo .'.5.5.5 : .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 •OCt^ 1 ^ "00101^1000 ' 05 0? © " (0 05 0? 05 05^ <©^" •'CCO '00000 ■' o Ipqpqpq .'pqfqpqpqpq : pq o o o o o o o 5.5.5.5.5.5.5 Oi SO 00 O CO t>- Si o o o o o o o x x r> x x x : ocxxxxt^t-t^i^t^t^r^t^t^wt^^;c;--S! • t^oooooooo->»<-<^. T3 £ c ? 8 - :JSJ.S ®.G 5 p!«illlllI!^JlIII |lpl¥ii3ll2^JS|l^ 13^1115 jj 278 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. o 3 -J O'-O GOrH ss 8 8 cn o 11 on tsss II 00 CN 00 00 CO •« (M 00 i-h co >o ic r— o >o iq ass a a CO CQ ££ A i-5 cg i-h of i-Tcg i-5 i-5 cq oq i-1 h-1 QQ QAcGAt-Taifc^i-i^&a! 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' 2 : £ i i 111 'J^Wi* : ■ o o 2 g.g £ft; o o X C C X ^ i so to >o IO to to to to to iO to ' INN10-*OOOH10000000NOOO« © O O O © - - ■ .NOOOMOOOSHH'-- oocjo-cjcjoco .S .2 .5 -5 "" .2 -S .2 .2 -2 ©NiOOOrtOXNiflN o - o •= .5 d ■c -C -c -c -c -c 9 01 9 9 83 9 o c c e c c © © CO © o o o o :wp :« : n :n S> x ! 8 8 os . e XX • XCS X •XQ000 CN I s - ■ © ^ t^ © •<*< X ■aO'l'lONN^lOO ox 'XX xcox ■ x cr. s o :/: © © x © OX • X X X X C5 X ■ OOOOOiOOOOXXXX • t^to t-~© t> r- x ■ 00 00 00 OS 00 00 OS • 00 00 OO 00 00 00 00 ;oocc---cccccccc-:cco^ct?acccc!Oi tONSNNNNN '"tfirf-^cccocococ^co CN (N «« NTHNMMMCCMMNINi-lrtlNNNINMMrHrt CO (M (N CO CO CO : : : a J£ *-' '-2 o§ 'S . CO .3 fijiiipijiiilijiiim. 280 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. T3 ! o 1 I ■PC32 sa-9 838 sss >oioc CM IMC 85 ine 8 8 1? o a >ooo (M CD CO oiooo lOCNCON CO CM T*0 oo »o 8 CI 2 It • T " •1 Icq'oc ft ftp CC QApVftflP a dq : ■s I * c a c I * c -d : : : € ■91 Tem- pera- ture of water. .8 g p.o-2'3 SOUJiOOOUlNOIMOOiJiOlOO IJjHHHHrtN i-H fi-S .OOOO^iCi-IHO^tiiOOOOO ~cococoO'*NcoN'cooooH(Mocq « ,H i-H rH CM CM CM CMt- *1 f-l 43 i •Sri ^ 9> -«£ C3 O En o o o r^-ooi> x)xTxt$ o o o PQMW c X c t: 8 00 o loo :,a :ooi-i • o • S 3 c3 O :pq jPfipqpq o OS 30 OOOIC OS OS OS t*» 00 00 00 00 T)1 ■*> 00 o d o o r~t>.i>.r~r~^t--r^r~r~t~ooooooTj< CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMiMiM 'mnos diqs -uavox CMCMCMcMCMCMCMCMCMIMCMCMCMCMCM •uoi^oag ■tfOOOOOOOCOr-lT-HCMCMIMOOOO^Ci CM CM CM CM <-H <-H >-H >-l .-H i-H r-i CD 1 o 5 E 1 l w 1 i Hi ft ft •1 a pq 5 a % | c 1 § E E is! W e c p > a F g IS c - H c > P g. ! c c C ! c e ft GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. 281 KINGS COUNTY. GENERAL CONDITIONS. The valley portion of Kings County includes the present and past Tulare Lake bottoms and the southern slope of the lower Kings River delta. Tulare basin is the lowest point in the southern section of the valley and is the area in which all surplus waters from Kings River southward accumulate. The flood waters of Kings River are divided on its delta, part of them flowing northward to join the San Joaquin drainage, while the other part flows into Tulare Lake. Dur- ing years of low or moderate snowfall and rainfall in the Sierra, practically all the flow of Kern, Tule, Kaweah, and Kings rivers is used in irrigation, and there is but little excess to escape to the basin; but during years of heavy precipitation great volumes of water accumulate in the Tulare lowlands. This basin is very shallow. Its shores have gentle slopes, hence the area of the lake fluctuates widely with slight changes in the depth of the water in it. Since. settlement began in the San Joaquin Valley it has had a complex history. What is known of its earlier history has been summarized by Grunsky. 1 That part of the following resume which deals with conditions prior to 1897 is condensed from his account ; the resume of conditions since 1907 has been furnished by H. D. McGlashan, district engineer, U. S. Geological Survey. Resume of history of Tulare Lake. 2 1853. High. 1853-1861. Subsidence; elevation of surface in 1861, 204 feet above sea level. 1861-1863. Rapid rise to the highest known stage, 220 feet above sea level, overflowing into San Joaquin River; area about 800 square miles. 1863-1867. Decline to about 208 or 209 feet above sea level. 1867-1868. Filled again to about 220 feet above sea level. 1872-1876. Fluctuated between 211 and 217 feet above sea level. 1876-1883. Decline to 192 feet above sea level; lowest stage then known. 1883-1897. Fluctuating; generally low. 1897-1905. Decline; practically dry in 1898; dry in autumn of 1905. 1905-1907. Rise; elevation of water surface in summer of 1907, 193 feet above sea level; aiea of water surface, November, 1907, 274 square miles. 3 1907-1908. Depth gradually decreasod from 14 feet in June, 1907, to 8.3 feet in Decem- ber, 1908. 1909-1911. Gradual rise to depth of 13.4 feet in July, 1909; change in stage gradual to December, 1911, when depth was 10 feet. 1912-1913. Precipitation low. Depth gradually decreased to 1.5 feet in September, 1913. i Grunsky, C E., Irrigation near Bakersfield, Cal.: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 17, pp. 16-17, 1898. Out of print; nay be consulted in libraries. 2 Elevation of bottom of lake, 179.1 feet above sea level. 3 McGlashan, H. D., and Dean, H. J., Stream measurements in San Joaquin River basin: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 299, p. 20, 1912. 282 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY. A knowledge of the history of this lake makes clear the origin and character of the soils of all except the northern part of Kings County, where the alluvial-fan or " delta" conditions so general in San Joaquin Valley prevail. Evidences of the former occupancy of the lowlands by the lake appear everywhere. Faintly marked sandy beaches encircle the depression at various elevations and over these beaches are strewn the shells of the mollusks that lived in the lake. In its lowest parts, dry and planted in grain in 1905, the fine sediments that settled in the lake bottom make a fertile alluvial soil. It is to be presumed that the history of the lake for many centuries has been like that part of it which we know directly, i. e., that it has fluctuated in area and depth, occasionally drying out completely, then filling to the point of overflow. Under such conditions relatively little of the water which it has contained can have escaped by surface overflow; the greater part of it has evaporated or has been absorbed by the sands and silts of the lake bottom. With the shrinking of the lake during the years preceding the inflow of 1906, its old floor was placed under cultivation and valuable crops of grain were produced. This successful grain culture proves the nonalkaline character of the present surface of the old lake bottom, but the saline waters yielded by numerous shallow flowing wells within it indicate the presence of alkali at slight depths. The few wells available as evidence in and about the borders of the old lake, however, indicate that deeper wells in some places obtain the better water. FLOWING WELLS. There are probably as yet less than 100 flowing wells in Kings County (77 were visited by Geological Survey representatives in 1905), yielding approximately 20 second-feet. Probably not more than one-third of the wells are used for irrigation, a large number of small- bore shallow wells being used for stock and for domestic supply. The northern part of the county, in the vicinity of Hanford, Armona, and Lemoore, is well supplied with surface water by the canal systems that head in Kings River, and is a most productive, thoroughly culti- vated area. Ground waters are not needed and no serious attempt has been made to utilize them here. In the vicinity of Corcoran, Waukena, and Angiola, however, a successful colony has been established that depends almost entirely upon ground waters. A number of deep wells have been put down to depths of 900 to 1,600 feet, which yield flowing waters in amounts ranging from 5 to 40 miner's inches. Shallow wells have also been bored and pumping plants have been installed over them. The tract includes about 30,000 acres, and alfalfa, cereals, sugar beets, dairy and garden products, and fruits are produced successfully. - ' ! Classification. Owner, r t s). Mineral content. Chemical character. Quality for boilers. Quality for ir-i- gation. J. E. Meadows j Do » E. P. McAdams j nigh ...do Very high. Moderate.. High Moderate. . ...do ...do High ...do ...do Verv high. High ...do ...do Low Moderate.. ...do ...do ...do ...do High ...do Moderate. . ...do Very high . Moderate. . ...do ...do ...do Very high . ...do Moderate. . Ca-S04.... Na-S0 4 .... ...do Ca-COs.... Na-S0 4 .... Na-COs... ...do ...do Na-S0 4 .... Na-COs... ...do Na-S0 4 .... Na-COs... Na-S04.... Na-COs... Ca-COs.... Na-COs... ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do Na-Cl Na-S0 4 .... Ca-COs..-. Na-COs... ...do ...do ...do Na-S0 4 .... Na-C0 3 ... Bad Very bad . ...do Fail- Bad Fair Bad Very bad.. Bad Very bad.. ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do Good Fair Bad Fair ...do Bad Very bad.. ...do Fair ...do Very bad.. Fail- ...do Good Fair Very bad.. ...do Fair Good. Do. Poor. Good. Do. Fair. Poor. Do. Good P. Blakeley • W. D. Sprague > Rhodes estate ; R. W. Dougherty [ M. A. Heinlen > Do > a C. C. Friend i' W. N. Stratton '9 Poor. Do. Do. Do J. F. Poole 1*2 C. E.Mort is Mrs. M. Dutra ) William Hogle > Do. Do. Good. D.Ross L Ernest Howe > Do. Do. Do. Do. A. P. Reiding > W.S.Buit j Mrs. E. M. Killmer 5 6 Dallas school district j 3 Do. J.Martella \ Do J W.H.Thayer i i City of Corcoran ... . . .7 D. W. Lewis a L. P. Denny [. 1 Jess & Gates g 6 Fair. Do. Poor. Good. Fair. Do. Do. Bad. Do 1 Fair. / Color, 40 parts. Q Color, 140 parts. Owner. Classification. Dat Lemical iraeter. Quality for Quality for boilers. irrigation. Analyst. W. D. Sprague Rhodes estate , Southern Pacific Co. . Santa FeRv. Co Nov. ^-C0 3 . do.io June 23,-Cl... Oct. \o.... Fair... Bad... Fair Fair ..do do Fair., Poor. Pacific Coast Oil Co. Santa Fe Ry. Co L. P. Denny. Jess & Gates. Oct. 'icor." Nov. 2£o --•-do-io Good Very bad. . ...do... Fair..., Good. Poor. Bad. Fair. F. M. Eaton. Do. Southern Pacific Co. Kennicott Water Soft- ener Co. Pacific Coast Oil Co. Kennicott Water Soft- ener Co. F. M. Eaton. Do. 1; depth unknown. 98205°— WSP 398—16. Table 56.— Field assays of ground waters in Kings County. [Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] Do ...do Nov! li) Nov. 11 Nov. 9 Xov'.'io' ). Spra>.ait' des estate N. Stratton .Poole ...do ...do Nov. 9 . N do'.". est Ho wc '. RekliiiB E. M. killmer is siiiool District Nov. 23 Do .do I "-! ■■ 1. IIVh'i'. Car- bonate iui Li. !o Determined qnanlilies. Bicar- r:''lii'!( 'II'. (. '. Poiai ( YiiUpilfO 1 l[llallliiil'*. Cosiaini: .'lioills Alkali coeffl- I la'.-ile'aiion. High \ it;.' Ill ii .\iolO| '.■. Ui-li Moderate. Ci-cn... X.-Sii,.. Wi-C'J.. ' C, corrosive; N. i Color, zero. " Color, 66 parts. Table 57. — Mineral analyses of ground waters in Kings County, [Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] Date. Location. I ! Determined quantities. Computed quantities. Classification. Owner. Seek It. O | 1 1 i i 'g I So 6 L is 3 f 3 'I 1 3 if? P •9S Ma ; ! . 1 < Mineral Clieinical i.'iiirii'S'.r. One lily ioi boilers. Quality ior iirieation. Analyst. W. D. Sprague !:h,i.!,.s estate SI'Sllll'I'lll I'lll'ilH' Co.. Santa Va Ry. Co Nov. 9,1910 'iuii R L 2.-.','iwi Oct. 1, 1902 14 14 15 i., s. lss. 18 S. 22 S. 22 S. 20 E. 20 E. ■:t is. 21 E. 22 E. 22 E. 22 E. I'll 1.. 700 540 850 1,424 »116 6 27 39 1.40 1.00 12 6 22 2.0 Tr. Tr. 2 111 3.4 «69 94 264 «750 14 210 295 114 104 727 6.6 8 22 75 21 21 35 266 335 152 710 '220 90 75 40 130 340 2.-II 710 2,000 180 N. C. N. C. N. C. N.C. N. C. N.C. N. C. N.C. 10 10' 11 2.6 12 Moderate.. Higta"-"-"."- Na-CO s ... 'Na-Cl! '.'.'.'. ...do Na-COs... had'.'.'.'.'.'.'. Pair ...do Very bad'.! poor.'!!!!! Fair ...do Poor.'."!!!! Bad Fair P. M. Eaton. Do. Poutliern Paeilie Co. k, miiroit Waur Soft- Santa Fe By. Co Nov. 23,1910 do \wrCo. less ^ Gates ',87 - d0 Pair Do. -w^ :t'ix-u:. « Computed. (To face page 282.) > Including oxides of iron and alu c Artesian well; depth unknown. KINGS COUNTY. 283 QUALITY OF WATER. The quality of the water around Tulare Lake lias been discussed in detail in pages 104-109. Along the northern and eastern borders of the county dependence is placed almost exclusively in artesian wells 1,000 to 2,000 feet deep for irrigation supplies. These wells yield fair water. Close to the lake and within its borders wells 20 to 300 or 400 feet deep yield very poor water, but the quality of water between those depths grows better in proportion to distance from the center of the lake. Means' s tests reported by Lippincott l indicate that the waters near the surface immediately east and southeast of Hanford are poor in quality; the areas around the 40-foot well in sec. 1, T. 19 S., R. 21 E., and the 42-foot well in sec. 2, T. 18 S., R. 23 E., may form part of the same territory. Wells 1,200 to 1,800 feet deep along the eastern border of the county yield water excellent for all uses. Three sulphate waters west of the lake are acceptable in irrigation ; that from the 285-foot well in sec. 24, T. 21 S., R. 18 E., is being applied to vines, garden truck, and small fruit trees. The quality of water likely to be struck by wells south and southwest of the lake is problematical for that region includes the marshy overflow lands across which the discharge of Kern River has passed, and as the silts there have probably been derived from both east-side and west- side encroachments it can not be assumed that the waters from them would be of the west-side type. It seems probable, however, that supplies similar to those in T. 22 S., R. 22 E., would be found in T. 23 S., R. 22 E., and that artesian waters in T. 22 S., R. 19 E., and T. 23 S., R. 20 E., would be similar to that from the 225-foot well in T. 22 S., R. 19 E. i Lippincott, J. B., Storage of water on Kings River, California: U. S. Geol. 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CO CO CO CO CO 286 GROUND WATER IN SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY o.fr ■PS* sa-a S58S8 cocdco-* SS8S8 CO CO CO CO ''t 1 o £ 8£ ^ ■ ^ ^ ^ a :aaa 02 -OQCQCQ "el c3 aa CQCQ 82 c3 0202020202 ;o2oa 02 fififififtfiPPfiPfifiQfiQfi02 02 02fifific0fio202fio2fifi 0202 :020202 flfiflflflQfl n3 OiO>010i010J050>OiO)01050l010)0)01CftOiOJ0^010100Cft010iCftOl01000JOOO COOCOOOOC»T-Hi--l0005C35»OCO»OCOt^CSlCOCOCOC^COO'>*05 00NWO c$ cs a c3 c$ eaaaa CO CO CO CO CO "3 2~ 3«g 2 i>t>r~i>- >00 .-^IMO '00»000»CW-^OOCOOOCX)00(NOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO -ooooooo loioccnoioooi 8£ 00 t> ■t^OiOcOOlOOOOOOOOOOO 'HHNMlOIMlOOlOI'inOOiOiOiO ' OINOOOOO S SSw! ■g«> g-a. ooooooo : ,s . .a m m o to to 9 w 2 2 d 2 2.3 2 ,d A fl rd rd 2 rd OOmOONO .sa.g-.a.g.g-.a to « "d to oo -— oo 'tTtT gtftfg»d 2 2^22^2 o o >->o o >>o pqpDMmpqtKfq ^ o d 2 2 ■3 cO rH OCN en 2 xf ^xT-crT-d rd <» co a © © 2 P s* t-i m s- C d >>o o o o O'd HPHWWffiW 1° I CO s. <;19 161 540 8 S„UI : a,, I'aeincCo. 11 ■j;-s. ■rjs. 25 E. 12.', 220 '"."35' 42 41 50 6 40 18 2 92 51 29 354 351 ? 7 ? 35 30 ■10 100 Moderate.. ...do ...do ...do Ca-CO, Ca-S(),.... ...do Ca-C0 3 .... '.'.'.do'.'.'.'.'.'.'. t.tiud.... ..do Nov. :>?; I'jio 7 NF.C 250 F. M. Katon. S,-|,l. [.',, I>'IJ 16 30 S. 26 E. 42 26 23 160 70 Sum:- -in 1-aeifie Co. 29 S. 24 ' 60 499 160 ■I Ca-SI >,.... 52 35 < 1". is:i ..do kern County Land Co 218 289 180 19 Petroleum Pevelupe.ieiu Co. Dec. 2, 1910 4 29 S. 28E. /5.135 .05 10 1.2 61,550 1,708 1,418 3, 930 60 4,200 .0 VeryhLrli. Very bad.. Bad 29 29 S. 30 S. 28E. 29 E. 200 c26 -.» 61 7 14 84 278 51 28 134 372 90 260 •10 N.C. 40 60 Ca-C0 3 .... Good 1 ..do Poor | °.d°o d ::::! Pacific Coast Oil Co. Dec. 3, 1910 F. M. Eaton. 1 uncertain or doubtful 1 and aluminum (FeoOa+AljOj). .- \\ en- -'.i- i'''.:].'.i-T-,iiria roundhouse. / From bottom of weu*. KERN COUNTY. 295 I B C£ -a o bfi o o CD o © rC -+J ^.^ r^ ^ f-i .3 3 fe 02 ^> §H <3 o3 rS £h GO © 5 ^ s 3 £ 7! o CD <^ £ "S ^ S © © w^ v 3 d ° > •pH © 03 5r=5 •a "© ^ 8 £ c3 ft^ o J5 1 n3 (M GO CO 0) © Ph^ W £>H < 00 H §^ ■E ^ c3 °3 " - 13 o *P a .3 ^ £ "S o 2 ^ «* © OQ r^H "^ +^ o <3 G <4-i -H T3 T3 © © I— 1 i-H _■ 00 rd <3 S 2 i^» © t> sa-j ©^ ° fa 8S '5 S = 3 88 8 '8gl2«Si £* 05 O & & Ph5 73 > £.2 a Tj 03 C3 O gas 92nBy •qinos di qs -u m o x •uot;03g SgSS 8SS — — se 88 S3 coPPoiaih-i^^^r^H-Ifl m O OPaJGCC^PV.^Occ oooooooo o_ O C3 ' O O O 73 73 t3 73 73 "2 73 u ^ 73 73 73 $ J^OOOOOOOOOO r)< 30 OS OS 1~- O 05 o -o io »o >o ( rt^HCMCM-H -HHCOMtOtONtOwCMNl 03 03 coo H1O00 LOONtDOO O'OOOOO o o_3 ■s-sl .g.a-| o o o o a .a .2 .a 00 CD 00 t* o o o o o o C2 C5 00 -/ — — X 00 CO o f-CCO ^ OC CX3 00 0000 00 £- !S?5 c4 6j r> >o io io >o >o io io lo >o o io io m lo io io >o io >o >o lo io >o iowio PQ CM , p COrQ CUr,-! Q3 l-H a -S 2 °'&:a :q1 o H o o n? 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Acids, effects Of, in water 70 Alameda County, records of wells in '. . 196 Alkali, occurrence of 52 permissible limits of 52-54, 50-58 remedies for troubles from 58-G1 source of 51-52 Alkalies, relative harmfidness of 55 Ailing, P., pumping plant of, test of 150 American Railway Engineering and Mainte- nance of Way Association, re- ports on boiler waters by 67-09 Analyses of ground water 134-138, 180-131, 198-199. 210-211, 227- 228, 237-23S, 255, 283, 292-294 Anderson, J. J., pumping plant of, test of 159 Artesian areas, ground-water levels, and pumping plants examined, map showing In pocket Axial waters, composition and quality of. . 117-119 suitability of, for industrial use 130, 131 for irrigation 125, 126 B. Bacteria, precautions against, in w r ater 74-75 Badger Irrigation Co., pumping plant of, test of 159 Beard, Mrs. William P., pumping plant of, test of 147-148 Bicarbonate, test of water for 42 See also Carbonate. "Black alkali." See Carbonate. Blacherne Water Co. pumping plant of, test of 157 Boiler compounds, character and use of 64-65 Boilers, ratings of waters for 65-C9 troubles from water in, causes of. 61-63 remedies for 63-09 Borden, pumping plants at, tests of 153-154 Briscoe, — , pumping plant of, test of 161 Buena Vista reservoir, water of, analysis of . . 96 Bunker, W. E., pumping plant of, test of 148 C. Calaveras County, records of wells in 196 Calcium, effects of, in water 71-72, 76, 78-79 Calcium sulphate, deposition of 116-117 California Agricultural Experiment Station, analyses of waters by 134-138 Carbonate, effects of, in water 72, 78 test of water for 42 Charles, Dr. M. S., pumping plant of, test of. 163 Cldorine, content of, in artesian water 117-119 effects of, in water 72-73, 75-76, 77 test of water for 42 Coagulants, substances used as 86 Cold water, effect of irrigating with 127 Cole r, disadvantage of, in water 70, 74 Contra Costa County, records of wells in. . . 194-190 Copo de Oro Water Co., pumping plant of, test of 158 Corrosion of boilers, causes of 02 D. Denudation in the Sierra, rate of 97-98 Deposition in San Joaquin Valley, rate of 98-99 Depreciation of pumping plants, percentage of 166, 168 Depth, relation of, to mineral content 122-123 Development of the valley trough 19 Disinfection of water, means of 84 Distillate, price of 166 Domestic use, poor supplies for, depth and position of 132 requirements of water for 73-82 Drainage, removal of alkali by 60-61 Dutton, J. C, pumping plants of, tests of 143 E. Eaton, F. M., analyses by 90-91 w^ork of 39 East-side waters, composition and quality of 110-112 suitability of, for industrial use 128-129, 131 for irrigation 123-124. 126 Efficiency cf pumping plants, mode of esti- mating 167 Exeter, pumping plants at, tests of 159-161 F. Feed water, heating of 88-89 Filtration, rapid sand, description of 86-87 slow sand, description of 84-86 Fiske, A. J., jr., work of 212, 229, 295 Flooding, effect of, on alkali 58-60 Foaming in boilers, causes of 63 Food products, areas in the Southwest in which they can be produced 10 increasing demand for , in the Southwest . 9 Fresno, pumping plant at, test of 154-155 Fresno County, farming and irrigation in. . 234-236 flowing wells in 236-237 ground waters of, assays and analyses of : 237-238 pumping in, cost of 235 records of wells in 239-251 waters of, analyses of 136-137, 139 Fuel oil, price of 166 G. Gard, O. S., pumping plant of, test of 161 Geography of the valley. . ; 15-17 Geology, outline of 18-21 Girard, W. R., pumping plant of, test of 151 307 308 INDEX, Page. Ground water, accessibility of 30 analyses of. . . . 134-138, 180-181, 198-199, 210-211, 227-228, 237-238, 255, 283, 292-294 circulation of 28-29 collection of samples of 40-41 development of 30-32 field assay of 41-50 accuracy of 43-45 results of, compared with results of analyses. 46-50 origin of 27 quantity of 29 quality of, important 38-39 substances tested for in 50-51 value of, for irrigation 32-37 Grunsky , C. E . , on the history of Tulare Lake. 281 Gustine, pumping plants at, tests of 148-149 H. Harding, S. T., and Robertson, Ralph D., on development of the ground water. 32 Hardness, test of water for 43 Hauschildt, G. H., pumping plant of, test of 163-164 Hieb, J. A., pumping plant of, test of 146 High, J. H., pumping plant of, test of 144 Hill, T. R., pumping plant of, test of 142-143 Hilo pump, test of 157 Hogan Bros., pumping plants of, tests of. . 150-151 House, Joe, pumping plant of, test of 149 Hydrogen sulphide, effects of, in water. . . 73, 74, 75 I. Imperial Valley, benefit of irrigation to 10 Industrial use, requirements for 69-73 results of 130-131 suitability of water for 128-131 Industries, extent of 128 Iron, effects of, in water 70-71, 75 Irrigation, development of, in the Southwest. 9-13 suitability of ground water for. . . 32-37, 123-125 use of ground water for 31-32 value of ground water for 32-37 with cold water, effect of 127 with ground water, results of 125-127 J. Job,R. W., pumping plant of, test of 156 K. Kern County, flowing wells in 289-290 Kern County, ground water of, assays and analyses of 138, 139, 292-294 ground water of, sources of 289 pumping plants in 290-292 records of wells in 295-306 Kern River, water of, analyses of 91 Kettleman, George D., pumping plant of, test of 145 Kings County, flowing wells in 282 ground waters of, assays and analyses of. . 137, 139,283 records of wells in 284-288 Kings River, development of ground water on 234-236 Kings River, monthly discharge of 26 wells north of, composition of water of. . 100-104 Kummis, Sam, pumping plant of, test of 147 L. La Salle, A. S., pumping plant of, test of. . 143-144 Laurel Colony, pumping plant of, test of 163 Leach, J. II., pumping plant of, test of 158-159 Lift of pumps, limit of 170 Lindsay., pumping plants at, tests of 161-162 Lippincott, J. B., on irrigation with ground water in Fresno County 234-235 Lodi, pumping plants at, tests of. . 142-148, 150-151 M. Mc Adams , F . S . , pumping plant of, test of. . . 164 Mc Adams, W. J., pumping plant of, test of. . 164 McCreary, P. L., analyses by 90-91 McGee, W. J. , work of 90-91 McGlashan, H. D., on the history of Tulare Lake 281 Madera, pumping plants at, tests of 152-153, 154 Madera County, farming and irrigation in 226 flowing wells in 226-227 ground waters of, assays and analyses of. 136, 139, 227-228 pumping plants in 227 records of wells in 229-233 Magnesium, effects of, in water 71-72, 76, 78-79 Martin, G. A., pumping plant of, test of 156 Martin, L. G., pumping plant of, test of 164 Means, Thomas H., work of 234 Merced, pumping plants at, tests of 151-152 Merced County, farming and irrigation in. . 208-209 flowing wells in 209 ground waters of, assays and analyses of. 136, 139, 210-211 pumping plants in 209-210 records of wells in 212-225 Merced River, water of, analyses of 91-93 Mesmer, Louis, work of 234 Micke, W. G., pumping plant of, test of 147 Mineral content of ground waters, diagram showing 120 increase of, from south to north 119-122 relation of, to depth 122-123 Mokelumne River, water of, analyses of 91 Municipal water supplies, composition of. . 133-134 O. Organic matter, effects of, in water 73 P. Pacific Coast Oil Co., treatment of boiler waters by 129-130 Packard, W. C, work of 90-91 Pate, S . M . , pumping plant of , test of 1 52 Patterson, H. W., pumping plant of, test of. . 153 Patterson, pumping plant at, test of 149 Patterson Colony, pumping plant of, test of. . 149 Pogue, Tom, pumping plant of, test of 160 Pollution, possibility of 132 Portersville, pumping plants at, tests of . . . 155-159 Potability, rating of water as to 79-82 Powers, W. A., acknowledgment to 40 INDEX. 309 Page. Precipitation, record of, In 1910 -nmi Preston, P. W., pnmping planl of, test of — 160 Plied . K. M., work of 212. 290 Pumping, cost of electric current for 34 Pumping machinery, large, expense of u>s-iG9 overloading and underloading, waste in.. 170 overspeeding and underspeeding, waste in 171-172 selection of proper size of 174-176 Pumping tests, discussion of 168-176 tabulated results of 165-167 Pumps, cost of operating, against various static heads 1 73 of various sizes, time required for irriga- tion with 172 Q. Quality of ground waters, means of forecast- ing 139-140 near Tulare Lake, map showing prospects for - 108 summary of 140-141 R. Rash, Charles, pumping plant of, test of . . . 145-146 Reinhart, William, work of 90-91 Rivers. Sec Streams. Robertson, Ralph D., Harding, S. T., and, on development of the ground water. 32 Rocks of the border of the valley 18-20 Roderigs, Jesse, pumping plant of, test of 152 Roeding & Wood Nursery Co., pumping plant of, test of 162 Root, Dr. C. B., pumping plants of, tests of. . 161-162 Rosedale Water Co., pumping plant of,testof . 155 S. Salt. See Chlorine. San Joaquin County, flowing wells in 178 ground waters of, assays and analyses of 135, 139, 180-181 pumping plants in 178-180 records of wells in 183-194 San Joaquin River, water of, analyses of 91-93 San Joaquin valley, west side of, composition of well waters of 112-117 Sayre, A. L., pumping plant of, test of 152-153 Scale, formation of 61-62 Settlemire, D. C, pumping plant of, test of. 155-156 Shaw, L. W., pumping plant of, test of 160-161 Skaggs, S. W., pumping plant of, test of 154 'Smith, S. M.,work of 212,229 Soda ash, use of, for softening water 76 Softening of water, means of 76, 87-88 Soils, origin of 22-23 problems concerning 11 relation of applied water to 55-56 surveys of 23 Solids, total, formula for estimating 81-82 Southern Pacific Co., procedure in analyses • for 50 treatment of boiler waters by 129 Stabler Herman, formulas of, for rating boiler waters ., 65-67 Page. Stanislaus County, (lowing wells in 197-198 ground waters of, assays and analyses of L35, 198 LOO pumping plants in 198 rainfall and surface waters of 107 records of wells in 200 207 Stanislaus River, water of, analyses of 91-93 Stanislaus Water Co., irrigation by 177 st ill man, Howard, acknowledgment to 40 Stockton & Mokelumne Irrigating ( o., opera- tions of 177 Streams, mean yearly run-off of 25 yearly discharge of 24 waters of, analyses of 90-93 Sulphate, content of, in ground waters, cross sections showing 102 content of, in ground waters, map show- ing In pocket effects of, in water 72 test of water for 42-43 Sunnyside Water Co., pumping plant of, test of 158 Surface of the valley, building of 20-21 Surface waters, chemical composition of 90-99 volume of 23-26 Suspended matter in water, effects of 70, 73-74 T. Tindell, P. H., pumping plant of, test of. . . 144-145 Tretheway, John, pumping plant of, test of. . 146 Tulare, pumping plants at, tests of 163-164 Tulare County, flowing wells in 252 ground waters of, assays and analyses of 137, 139, 255 permanence of 253-255 sources of 252 pumping plants in 253 records of wells in 256-280 Tulare Lake, history of 281-282 water of, analyses of 94-96 wells near, composition of water of 104-109 proper depth of 108-109 wells south of, composition of water of. 109-110 Tuolumne River, water of, analyses of 91-93 Tyler, E . P., pumping plant of, test of 151 U. United States Geological Survey, investiga- tions of ground waters by 13-15 United States Reclamation Service, analyses of well waters by 139 V. Valle-Verde Investment Co., pumping plant of, test of 154-155 Van Winkle, Walton, analyses by 90-91 workof 39 W. Wagner, Jacob, pumping plant of, test of 148 Walters Bros . , pumping plant of , test of 154 Water, applied, relation of, to soils 55-56 distillation of, apparatus for 83 mineral, potability of 76-79 purification of, demands on 82-83 methods of 83-88 turbid, effects of 70 310 INDEX. Page. Wells around Tulare Lake, water of, compo- sition of 104-109 flowing, data on 36 location and depth of, in relation to sul- phate content of ground waters, map showing In pocket. north of Kings River, water of, composi- tion of 100-104 of east side of valley , water of, composition of 110-112 Page. Wells, records of 182-196 south of Tulare Lake, water of, composi- tion of 109-110 West-side waters,composition and quality of 112-117 suitability of, for industrial use 129-130, 131 for irrigation 124-125, 126 White, W. N., work of 182, 200, 212 Windmills, use of, in San Joaquin County . . 179-180 Woodbridge Canal & Irrigation Co., opera- tions of 177 O II I - — — «». J *. s , —