TH 6291 .H35 IGAL INSTRUCTION SERIES PLUMB ERiS' P£u^N.f£A§Sl|U(iK: Edited by PAI House Decor* With 79 En; Contents. — Col Painters. How and Decorating Walls and Ceilin Boot Making <* 179 Engrav Contents. — Re and Re-Soling, the Heel. Knifi How to Write Contents. — Th Making Signboj Shaded and Fai ing. Lettering Wood Finishir ings and Diagrams. IES. Glass _H_h & £ 3 I Book. chnical Instruction ginq, Painting, etc. s, etc. Tools used by Qting. Whitewashing aa. Embellishment of and Finishing. With Id Shoes. Re-Welting ^d Stitching. Making toes. ivings and Diagrams. he Signwriter's Outfit. r Forms of Lettering. Triting. Poster-Paint- Bhing. With Engrav- Contents. — Processes of Finishing Wood. Processes of Staining Wood. French Polish- ing. Fillers for Wood and Filling In. Bodying In and Spiriting Off. Glazing and Wax Finishing. Oil Polishing and Dry Shining. Re-polishing and Reviving. Hard Stopping or Beaumontage. Treatment of Floor-Stains. Processes of Varnishing Wood Varnishes. Re-polishing Shop Fronts. Dynamos and Electric Motors. With 142 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Introduction. Siemens Dynamo. Gramme Dynamo. Manchester Dynamo. Simplex Dynamo. Calculating the Size and Amount of Wire for Small Dynamos. Ailments of Small Dynamo Electric Machines: their Causes and Cures. Small Electro- motors without Castings. How to Determine the Direction of Rotation of a Motor. How to Make a Shuttle- Armature Motor. Undertype 50-Watt Dynamo. Manchester Type 440-Watt Dynamo. Cycle Building and Repairing. With 142 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Introductory, and Tools Used. How to Build a Front Driver. Building a Rear-driving Safety. Building Tandem Safeties. Building Front-driver Tricycle. Build- ing a Hand Tricycle. Brazing. How to Make and Fit Gear Cases. Fittings and Accesso- ries. Wheel Making. Tires and Methods of Fixing them. Enamelling. Repairing. Decorative Signs of All Ages for All Purposes. With 277 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Savage Ornament. Egyptian Ornament. Assyrian Ornament. Greek Ornament. Roman Ornament. Early Christian Ornament. Arabic Ornament. Celtic and Scandinavian Ornaments. Mediaeval Ornament. Renascence and Modern Orna- ments. Chinese Ornament. Persian Ornament. Indian Ornament. Japanese Ornament. Mounting and Framing Pictures. With 240 Engravings, etc. Contents. — Making Picture Frames. Notes on Art Frames. Picture Frame Cramps. Making Oxford Frames. Gilding Picture Frames. Methods of Mounting Pictures. Making Photograph Frames. Frames covered with Plush and Cork. Hanging and Packing Pictures. Smiths* Work. With 211 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Forges and Appliances. Hand Tools. Drawing Down and Up-setting. Welding and Punching. Conditions of Work: Principles of Formation. Bending and Ring Making. Miscellaneous Examples of Forged Work. Cranks, Model Work, and Die Forging. Home-made Forges. The Manipulation of Steel at the Forge. Glass Working by Heat and Abrasion. With 300 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Appliances used in Glass lAwing. Manipulating Glass Tubing. .Blowing Bulbs and Flasks. Jointing Tubes to BMds forming Thistle Funnels, etc. Blowing and Etching Glass Fancy Articles; Embossiiwmd Gilding Flat Surfaces. Utilising Broken Glass Apparatus; Boring Holes in, arjptliveting Glass. Hand-working of Telescope Specula. Turning, Chipping, and Grinding Glass. The Manufacture of Glass. % DAVID McKAY, Publisher, Washington Square, Philadelphia. HANDICRAFT SERIES {Continued). Building Model Boats. With 16& Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Building Model Yachts. Rigging and Sailing Model Yachts. Making and Fitting Simple Model Boats. Building a Model Atlantic Liner. Vertical Engine for a Model Launch. Model Launch Engine with Reversing Gear. Making a Show Case for a Model Boat. Electric Bells, How to Make and Fit Them. With 162 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — The Electric Current and the Laws that Govern it. Current Conductors used in Electric-Bell Work. Wiring for Electric Bells. Elaborated Systems of Wiring; Burglar Alarms. Batteries for Electric Bells. The Construction of Electric Bells, Pushes, and Switches. Indicators for Electric-Bell Systems. Bamboo Work. With 177 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Bamboo: Its Sources and Uses. How to Work Bamboo. Bamboo Tables. Bamboo Chairs and Seats. Bamboo Bedroom Furniture. Bamboo Hall Racks and Stands. Bamboo Music Racks. Bamboo Cabinets and Bookcases. Bamboo Window Blinds. Miscellaneous Articles of Bamboo. Bamboo Mail Cart. Taxidermy. With 108 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Skinning Birds. Stuffing and Mounting Birds. Skinning and Stuffing Mammals. Mounting Animals' Horned Heads: Polishing and Mounting Horns. Skin- ning, Stuffing, and Casting Fish. Preserving, Cleaning, and Dyeing Skins. Preserving Insects, and Birds' Eggs. Cases for Mounting Specimens. Tailoring. With 180 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Tailors' Requisites and Methods of Stitching. Simple Repairs and Press- ing. Relining, Repocketing, and Recollaring. How to Cut and Make Trousers. How to Cut and Make Vests. Cutting and Making Lounge and Reefer Jackets. Cutting and Making Morning and Frock Coats. Photographic Cameras and Accessories. Comprising How to Make Cameras, Dark Slides, Shutters, and Stands. With 160 Illustrations. Contents. — Photographic Lenses and How to Test them. Modern Half-plate Cameras. Hand and Pocket Cameras. Ferrotype Cameras. Stereoscopic Cameras. Enlarging Cameras. Dark Slides. Cinematograph Management. Optical Lanterns. Comprising The Construction and Management of Optical Lanterns and the Making of Slides. With 160 Illustrations. Contents. — Single Lanterns. Dissolving View Lanterns. Illuminant for Optical Lan- terns. Optical Lantern Accessories. Conducting a Lime-light Lantern Exhibition. Ex- periments with Optical Lanterns. Painting Lantern Slides. Photographic Lantern Slides. Mechanical Lantern Slides. Cinematograph Management. Engraving Metals. With Numerous Illustrations. Contents. — Introduction and Terms used. Engravers' Tools and their Uses. Ele- mentary Exercises in Engraving. Engraving Plate and Precious Metals. Engraving Monograms. Transfer Process of Engraving Metals. Engraving Name Plates. En- graving Coffin Plates. Engraving Steel Plates. Chasing and Embossing Metals. Etch- ing Metals. Basket Work. With 189 Illustrations. Contents. — Tools and Materials. Simple Baskets. Grocer's Square Baskets. Round Baskets. Oval Baskets. Flat Fruit Baskets. Wicker Elbow Chairs. Basket Bottle- casings. Doctors' and Chemists' Baskets. Fancy Basket Work. Sussex Trug Basket. Miscellaneous Basket Work. Index. Bookbinding. With 125 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Bookbinders' Appliances. Folding Printed Book Sheets. Beating ana Sewing. Rounding; Backing, and Cover Cutting. Cutting Book Edges. Covering Books. Cloth-bound Books, Pamphlets, etc. Account Books, Ledgers, etc. Coloring, Sprinkling, and Marbling Book Edges. Marbling Book Papers. Gilding Book Edges. Sprinkling and Tree Marbling Book Covers. Lettering, Gilding, and Finishing Book Covers. Index. Bent Iron Work. Including Elementary Art Metal Work. With 269 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Tools and Materials. Bending and Working Strip Iron. Simple Exercises in Bent Iron. Floral Ornaments for Bent Iron Work. Candlesticks. Hall Lanterns. Screens, Grilles, etc. Table Lamps. Suspended Lamps and Flower Bowls. Photo- graph Frames. Newspaper Rack. Floor Lamps. Miscellaneous Examples. Index. Photography. With Numerous Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — The Camera and its Accessories. The Studio and the Dark Room. Plates. Exposure. Developing and Fixing Negatives. Intensification and Reduction of Nega- tives. Portraiture and Picture Composition. Flash-light Photography. Retouching Negatives. Processes of Printing from Negatives. Mounting and Finishing Prints. Copying and Enlarging. Stereoscopic Photography. Ferrotype Photography. DAVID McKAY, Publisher, Washington Square, Philadelphia. HANDICRAFT SERIES (Continued). Upholstery. With 162 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Upholsterers' Materials. Upholsterers' Tools and Appliances. Webbing, Springing, Stuffing, and Tufting. Making Seat Cushions and Squabs. Upholstering an Easy Chair. Upholstering Couches and Sofas. Upholstering Footstools, Fenderettes, etc. Miscellaneous Upholstery. Mattress Making and Repairing. Fancy Upholstery. Renovating and Repairing Upholstered Furniture. Planning and Laying Carpets and Linoleum. Index. Leather Working. With 162 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Qualities and Varieties of Leather. Strap Cutting and Making. Letter Cases and Writing Pads. Hair Brush and Collar Cases. Hat Cases. Banjo and Man- doline Cases. Bags. Portmanteaux and Travelling Trunks. Knapsacks and Satchels. Leather Ornamentation. Footballs. Dyeing Leather. Miscellaneous Examples of Leather Work. Index. Harness Making. With 197 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Harness Makers' Tools. Harness Makers' Materials. Simple Exercises in Stitching. Looping. Cart Harness. Cart Collars. Cart Saddles. Fore Gear and Leader Harness. Plough Harness. Bits, Spurs, Stirrups, and Harness Furniture. Van and Cab Harness. Index. Saddlery. With 99 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Gentleman's Riding Saddle. Panel for Gentleman's Saddle. Ladies' Side Saddles. Children's Saddles or Pilches. Saddle Cruppers, Breastplates, and other Accessories. Riding Bridles. Breaking-down Tackel. Head Collars. Horse Clothing. Knee-caps and Miscellaneous Articles. Repairing Harness and Saddlery. Re-lining Collars and Saddles. Riding and Driving Whips. Superior Set of Gig Harness. Index. Knotting and Splicing, Ropes and Cordage. With 208 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Introduction. Rope Formation. Simple and Useful Knots. Eye Knots, Hitches and Bends. Ring Knots and Rope Shortenings. Ties and Lashings. Fancy Knots. Rope Splicing. Working Cordage. Hammock Making. Lashings and Ties for Scaffolding. Splicing aDd Socketing Wire Ropes. Index. Beehives and Beekeepers' Appliances. With 155 Engravings and Diagrams. Contents. — Introduction. A Bar-Frame Beehive. Temporary Beehive. Tiering Bar- Frame Beehive. The " W. B. C." Beehive. Furnishing and Stocking a Beehive. Obser- vatory Beehive for Permanent Use. Observatory Beehive for Temporary Use. Inspection Case for Beehives. Hive for Rearing Queen Bees. Super-Clearers. Bee Smoker. Honey Extractors. Wax Extractors. Beekeepers' Miscellaneous Appliances. Index. Ready Shortly : Electro Plating. Other Volumes in Preparation, DAVID McKAY, Publisher, Washington Square, Philadelphia. PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND DIAGRAMS EDITED BY PAUL K.' HASLUCK \ \ HONOURS MEDALLIST IN TECHNOLOGY, EDITOR OF "WORK" AND "BUILDING WORLD," AUTHOR OF "HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS," ETC. ETC. PHILADELPHIA DAVID McKAY, Publisher 610 SOUTH WASHINGTON SQUARE 1905 A s - >e ■: £ t- PREFACE. rr — - Peactical Plumbees' Woek contains, in a form convenient for everyday use, a comprehensive digest of information con- tributed by experienced craftsmen, scattered over the columns of Building Woeld, one of the weekly journals it is my fortune to edit, and supplies concise information on the general principles and practice of the art on which it treats. In preparing for publication in book form the mass of relevant matter contained in the Journal, much of it necessarily had to be re-arranged and re- written. The bulk of the matter and illustrations contained in this book were contributed by my old time colleague at Eegent Street Polytechnic, Mr. J. Wright Clarke, the authority on Practical Plumbers' Work, and he has kindly revised the whole of the proofs of this present manual. Readers who may desire additional information respecting special details of the matters dealt with in this book, or instruc- tion on any building trade subjects, should address a question to Building Woeld, so that it may be answered in the columns of that journal. P. N. HASLUCK. La Belle Sauvage, London. June, 1905, CONTENTS. CHAPTER I.— Introductory : Materials and Tools Used . II.— Solder and How to Make It III.— Sheet Lead Working IV.— Pipe Bending. V. — Pipe Jointing VI.— Lead Burning VII. — Lead-work on Roofs Index PAGE 10 25 31 46 55 87 105 15 ( LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE 1.— Sheet Lead Casting Shop . 11 2.— Adjustable Lever . 18 3, 4.— Copper Bits 18 5.— Brass Blowpipe . 18 6.— Cold Chisel .... 18 7.— Bend Bolt .... 18 8.— Hand Dummy 18 9.— Compasses .... 18 10.— Catspaw Cloth 18 11.— Dresser 18 12.— Bending Dresser . 18 13.— Chalk Line and Reel . 18 14.— Wiping Cloth .... 18 15. — Hammer .... 18 16.— Quench Hook . 18 17.— Shave Hook .... 18 18.— Long Dummy . 18 19.— Gauge Hook . 18 20.— Bent Shave Hook . 18 21.— Spoon Hook . 18 22.— Ladle .... 18 23.— Soldering Iron 18 24.— Chipping Knife 18 25— Bossing Mallet 18 26.— Drawing Knife 18 27, 28.— Mallets 18 29.— Jack Plane with Metal Sole 19 30— Cutting Pliers 19 31.— Steel Fixing Point 19 32. — Shears .... 19 33.— Solder Pot 19 34.-Rule .... 19 35.— Two-hole Pliers 19 36.— Rasp .... 19 37. — Square .... 19 38.— Screwdriver . 19 39.— Bending Stick 19 40.— Saw 19 41. — Bossing Stick . 19 42.— Settmg-in Stick . . 19 43, 44.— Turnpins . 19 45.— Bent Wedge . 19 46, 47.— Bevel Wedges . 19 48, 49.— Chase Wedges . 19 50.— Thumb Wedge 19 51, 52.— Wrenches . 19 53-55.— Plumber's Tool-chest 2 I, 22 56, 57.— Ingot .... 27 58, 59.— Cast of Solder . 27 60, 61.— Mould for Strip Solder 28 62. — Plain Seam Soldered Joint . 30 63.— Soldered Dot on Sheet Lead L 30 64, 65.— Copper-bit Joint . 30 66-71— Wiped Joints . . 30 72-74.— Lead Tray or Safe . . 32 75-78.— Lead Bossing . 33-35 79, 80.— Break . 36 81, 82.— Lining of Sink . . 37 83.— Corner of Sink . 38 84.— Splash-stick .' . 38 FIG. PAGE 85— Waste-pipe with P-trap . 38 86.— Dished Hole and Angle . 39 87.— Pattern for Sink Lining . 39 88.— Waste-pipe for Lead Sink . 40 89.— Lead Sink .... 40 90.— Cistern for Lead-lining . 43 91.— Bending of Lead Pipes . 46 82— Boxwood Mandrel . . 46 93.— Dummies . . . .47 94.— Sheet-lead Flapper . . 48 95.— Stages of Pipe-bending . 48 96.— Buckle in Bend ... 49 97.— Bobbin, Weight, and Cord . 49 98— Section of Weight . . 49 99.— Ball and Follower, and their Use .... 50 100.— Lead Bend . . . .51 101— Lead Elbow . . . .51 102.— Offset on Soil-pipe . . 51 103.— Return Bend . . . .51 104.— Soldered Elbow ... 51 105.— Hand-made Trap ... 52 106.— P-trap 52 107.— S-trap . . . . .53 108.— Anti-D-trap . . . .53 109, 110.— Copper Bit Joint . . 56 111, 112— Ribbon Joint ... 58 113, 114— Copper Bit Overcast Joint ... . . .56 115, 116.— Flange Joint . . .56 117, 118— Wiped Joint ... 56 119, 120— Overcast Joint . . 56 121, 122.— Block Taft Joint . . 57 123, 124.— Block Flange Joint . 57 125, 126.— Astragal Joint . . 58 127.— Bird's Mouth Joint . . 58 128, 129— Taft Joints ... 58 130, 131— Joint of Service Pipe to Cistern . . . . 58 132-136.— Branch Soil-pipe Joints 59 137.— Burned-lead Branch Joint . 60 138.— Horizontal Branch Joint . 60 139.— Lead Soil-pipe Jointed to Stoneware Drain . . 61 140.— Lead Soil-pipe Jointed to Cast-iron Bend . . .61 141. — Water-closet Connections . 63 142.— Dresser 64 143.— Proving Squareness of Pipe End . . . .64 144. — Lead Pipes Prepared for Jointing .... 64 145.— Gauge for Marking Pipes . 65 146.— Pipes Fixed for Wiping . 65 147, 148.— Joint Wiping . . 66, 67 149.— Wiped Joint . . . .67 150, 151.— Collars for Catching Wasted Metal ... 69 152. — Upright Joint ready for Wiping . . . .70 -PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. FIG. PAGE 153. — Pipes Ready for Fitting . 71 154.— Wiping Upright Joint . 71 155. — Brass Ring and Solder Joint 73 156.— Lead Pipe Screw Coupling 74 157.— Plumber's Soldering Lamp 75 158.— Socket on Lead Pipe . . 76 159.— Badly-made Branch Joint . 76 160.— Bolt-pin or Tommy . . 76 161-163.— Wiping Branch Joint 76, 78 164.— Bad and Good Taft Joints . 79 165.— Section of Flange Joint . 79 166 —Cast Tack and Pipe . . 80 167.— Folding Tack and Pipe . 81 168.— Soldered Face Tack . . 83 169, 170.— Wiped Joint on Cop- per Pipes . . . .83 171.— Tool for Making Joints . 85 172.— Copper-bit Joint ... 85 173. — Branch Joint in Composi- tion Pipes . . . .85 174.— Gas-generating Machine . 91 175.— Hand Bellows ... 91 176.— Air-chamber of Lead-burn- ing Machine ... 92 177.— Gas-generator ... 93 178.— Breeches Piece . . .93 179-182.— Hydrogen Generator 95, 96 183.— Riveted Seam ... 96 184.— Hand Hole Cap ... 97 185, 186.— Junction Piece . . 97 187.— Jet 98 188-191.— Air Machine . . 99, 100 192.— Butted Seam Partly Burnt 101 193.— Lapped Seam Partly Burnt 101 194.— Horizontal or Side Burning 102 195.— Vertical or Upright Burn- ing 102 196.— Burning Upright Joint . 103 197.— Branch Joint Ready for Burning . . . .103 198.— Lap Joint . . . .106 199.— Plain Soldered Joint . . 106 200.— Single or Nail Welt . . 106 201.— Double Welt . . .106 202.— Welted Edge of Lead Flat . 107 203.— Secret Tack . . . .307 204.— Solid Wood Roll . . .107 205.— Hollow Roll . . . .107 206.— Seam Roll . . . .108 207.— Section of Ridge Roll . . 108 203.— Section of Secret Hip Roll 108 209.— Square Gutter Drip . . 109 210.— Splayed Gutter Drip . . 109 211.— Hollownose Drip . . .109 212.— Bottlenose Drips . . .109 213— Welted Drip . . . .109 214.— Roll End and Drip . . 109 215.— Roll with Water Groove . 110 216-218.— Taurus or Curb Roll 110, 111 219.— Seam Roll with Bossed Ends Ill 220— Finished Roll with Bossed Ends 112 221.— Section of Seam Roll . . 112 222, 223.— Raglet , , . .113 FIG. P4GE 224.— Soldered Dot . . . . 113 225-223.— Gutter Cesspools . 113, 114 229.— Drip and Cesspool with Socket Pipe through End Wall . . . .115 230.— Parapet Box Gutter . . 115 231.— Box Gutter . . . .116 232.— Drip 116 233.— Setting out Lead for Gutter 116 234.— Scribing Gauge . . .116 235-237.— Parapet Gutters . 117, 118 238, 239— Valley Gutter . . 119 240.— Section of Cornice Gutter . 120 241.— Upright Gutter . . .120 242-245.— Secret Gutters . 120, 121 246.— Plan of Drip in Box Gutter 12-3 247.— Elevation of Lap on Curb . 123 248.— Section of Curb . . .123 249.— Section Showing Water Groove . . . .123 250-252.— Overcloaks . . .124 253— Setting Out Lead Flat . 125 254.— Lead Soakers . . .128 255— Hip with Soakers . . 129 256.— Ridge End and Step Flash- ing 130 257.— Chimney Flashing . . 131 258.— Chimney Break . . . 132 259, 260— Stepped Flashing . 133 261.— Burning in Lead Flashings 134 262.— Sectiou of Flashing and Stick 135 263.— Roof Outline . . . .136 264.— Plan of Roof Slope . . 136 265. — Section showing Lap . . 136 266.— Section showing Water Groove . . . .136 267.— Lead for Covering Ridge . 137 268. — Lead-covered Ridge . . 137 269-271.— Dormer Window . . 138 272.— Secret Soldered Tack . .139 273.— Alternative to Soldered Tack 139 274-277.— Roof Doorway . 139, 140 278.— Section of Doorway Cill . 140 279.— Lead-covered Hatch . 141 280.— Section through Gutter . 142 281.— Furnished Hatch Cover . 142 282, 283.— Trap-door in Lead Flat 142 284— Plan of Lead Flat and Sky- light ... .143 285, 286.— Enlarged Detail of Skylight . . . .144 287, 288.— Sections of Skylight . 145 239.— Plan of Skylight on Slated Roof ... 145 290, 291.— Sections of Skvlight . 146 292— Side Elevation of Turret Roof . . . 147 293.— Roll Before Folding . 148 294.— Lead Bav for Turret Roof . 149 295.— Section of Centre Roll . 149 296.— Octagonal Turret Roof . 1^0 297.— Lead Bay for Octagonal Turret Roof . . . .151 ^98.— Lead-covered Finial i • 154 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY: MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED. A comprehensive treatise on plumbers' work would need a large volume ; for the modern plumber is expected to supplement an intimate acquaintance with the common or immediate facts and principles of his craft by more than a smattering of applied science. The title is taken from "plumbum," the Latin name for lead ; whence plumber, a worker in lead. The origin of the craft is lost in oblivion, but references are made in Scripture to lead as material of commerce. In early times plumbers had to cast their own materials, such as sheets and pipes ; sheet lead is used for roof coverings, such as "flats," " gutters," " flashings," etc., and pipes for the conveyance of water into or from houses. Cisterns and pumps were made and fixed by him, as were also lead coffins or wooden shells lined or covered with that metal, lead figures cast solid or with sand cores, and a variety of utensils. In the present day the plumber is still a worker in lead in a manufactured state, but he has had more responsibilities pressed upon him. In addition to being skilful in the manipulation of the mate- rials he uses, he is regarded as a responsible person in all questions of domestic sanitation and water supply. The duties of the plumber may be summed up under three heads : (1) keeping water out of houses (roof work) ; (2) getting water into houses, and storing and distributing it where required for use ; (3) getting it out of houses after it 10 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK has served its purpose. In some places the plumber is also a painter, glazier, paper-hanger, gasfitter, hot-water fitter, bell-hanger, coppersmith, tinsmith, locksmith, etc. One book of convenient size cannot treat all these branches, and the scope of the present volume is restricted to working in lead. Lead (chemical symbol Pb, an abbreviation of the Latin word plumbum) is the material chiefly worked upon by the plumber. It is made by roasting galena, a native sulphide (consisting of 13*3 parts of sulphur to 86 of lead) in rever- beratory furnaces, at a dull red heat, by which most of the sulphide becomes changed by oxidation to sulphate. The contents of the furnace are then thoroughly mixed, and the temperature is raised, when the sulphate and sulphide react upon each other, producing a sulphurous oxide and metallic lead. Lead mining is carried on in Derbyshire and the North of England, as well as in Cornwall, in the Isle of Man, and at Leadhills, in Scotland. Spain, however, with about 120 thousand metric tons annually, is the greatest lead-producing country in Europe, the other countries being arranged in the following order with respect to the quantities produced, the figures after each representing thousands of metric tons (the metric ton is equal to 0*984 imperial ton) : Germany, 90 ; England, 67 ; France, 15 ; Italy, 10 ; Greece, 9 ; Belgium, 8 ; Austria, 6 ; and Russia, lj. The annual output of the United States of America is reckoned at 110,000 tons ; and of late years the annual output in Australasia has been reckoned at between 50,000 and 60,000 tons. Load melts at about 617° F., it expands greatly on heating, and does not always return to its original dimensions. The qualities that render it useful for such a large variety of pur- poses are its durability, easy fusibility, flexibility, mallea- bility, and elasticity. It is oxidised by moist air, and pure water containing oxygen dissolves lead oxide when placed in contact with the metal; for which reason lead cisterns ought never to serve for collecting rainwater for domestic use. The basic acetate of lead formed by exposing the metal to acid fumes (as the vapour of vinegar) is decom- posed by carbonic acid, forming a carbonate of lead, which, when washed and purified by levigation, is ready for use MATERIALS AND TOOLS USER 11 as a paint — the well-known and universally applied white- lead. Litharge is obtained by oxidising lead in a rever- beratory furnace, and the product, when further roasted, forms the higher oxide known as red-lead — also used as a r3 III bu c3 o bo S paint. Lead has a specific gravity of 11*4; its atomic weight is 207. It may be useful here to explain the expressions specific gravity and atomic weight. Specific gravity commonly 12 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. means the ratio of the weight of a body to that of an equal volume of water, the water being taken at a definite tempera- ture, usually at the temperature at which its density is greatest — namely, 4° C (39*2° F.). Fownes states, however, that " in all cases of solids and liquids the standard of unity adopted in this country is pure water at the tempera- ture of 15*5° C. or 60° F." The specific gravity of a sub- stance is, then, the ratio of its density to that of the standard substance. In other words, specific gravity de- notes the weight of a body, as compared with the weight of an equal bulk or volume of the standard body, which is reckoned as unity. In speaking of atomic weight, the standard of comparison is an atom of hydrogen, so that to say that the atomic weight of lead is 207 is to imply that an atom of lead is 207 times as heavy as an atom of hydrogen. Lead comes into the hands of the plumber in a manufac- tured form as cast pigs, sheets, or pipes. The pigs of lead are generally the pure lead as it leaves the furnaces, and weigh from 1 cwt. to 1^ cwt. each. Sheet lead is either cast cr milled. Fig. 1 shows all the appliances necessary for making cast sheets of lead. It is necessary to have a good- sized and well-lighted shop, with stone or paved floor ; a " casting-frame " A made of wood and having its sides and one end raised ; a metal trough with stoppered ends or " head- pan " b at the highest end ; another trough with one stopped and one open -end, called a " footpan," c at the lower end of the frame ; a cast-iron melting " pot " G set in brickwork, and having flues round and a fireplace beneath, and a load or two of fine loamy sand. The tools used are two 28-lb. ladles l ; a piece of board the same length as the width of the frame, and having handles projecting about 18 in. over the sides, called the strike e ; a pair of " planes " f made of sheet copper with edges curved up and handles in the centre, similar to a square float used by plasterers ; a waggon d which is a large bowl on wheels for conveying spare lead back to the pot ; a " drawing-knife " n for cutting off the bottom edge of the sheet after casting ; a pair of " sheet- hooks 5; o ; a pair of " handspikes," and a couple of " rollers " for shifting the sheets after casting, or a swinging or small travelling crane for the same purpose ; " felts " for holding the ladles, a broom i for sweeping up spilleol lead, a " sieve " MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED. 13 J for screening the sand, a watering-pot m, and a couple of shovels K. Milled lead is manufactured by casting a cake of lead and then passing it between large rollers until it is reduced to the desired thickness. Milled sheets are made from 20 ft. to 40 ft. long, and from 6 ft. 9 in. to 9 ft. wide. Sheet-lead is described as being five-, six-, or seven-pound lead. This signifies that one square foot of lead will weigh such a number of pounds. It is difficult to mill lead to a less thickness than 3-lb. ('051 of an inch), because of its want of tenacity. The weights of sheet-lead vary from 3 lb. to 14 lb. per foot super. ; above this weight it is usual to describe the milled lead as plates. In lead casting, the first operation is to fill the pot with lead and light the fire. The frame is then prepared by cover- ing it with the sand, which has been sifted, wetted with water, and thoroughly mixed and spread evenly by means of the strike. After beating down with the shovels and again making even with the strike, the sand is " planed " until it is quite even and has a hard, compact surface. " Muffles " are then put on the handles to raise the strike off the sand bed, the thickness being according to the substance of l°ad required. The headpan, which is of the width of the frame and has a lip resting on the top end, is then filled with molten lead ladled from the pot. When the lead has cooled — until it ceases to scorch a piece of white wood dipped in it — two men take up positions at the top end, one on each side of the frame, and hold the strike in readiness ; the contents of the pan are then upset by another man on to the frame, and the strikers immediately drop the strike on to the edges and run down to the bottom end of the frame, pushing the spare lead into the footpan, whence it runs into the waggon, and is dragged back to and emptied into the pot. Should the lead in the waggon be too cold for ladling, an iron ring or hook is partly immersed, so that when cold enough the lead can be lifted bodily into the pot. Immediately the strikers have done their part, a man with the drawing-knife cuts off the bottom selvedge so as to allow the sheet to contract, as it cools, without cracking. The lead is then rolled up and re- moved from the frame ; the sand is sifted, re-wetted, and the whole proceedings repeated. U PRACTICAL PLUMBERS 9 WORK. For making milled sheets, the lead is first melted in a large pot set in brickwork, and then run into a square mould, the size being according to the intended width of the sheet. An ordinary size is 7 ft. by 7 ft. by 6 in. deep. After being run into the mould, and while still molten, the lead is skimmed until all floating dross or dirt is removed. The cake of lead, which is of the size of the mould by 5 in. deep, and weighs about 7 tons, is allowed to set. It is then hoisted by means of a crane on to 1 the mill, which consists of a frame usually about 60 ft. or 70 ft. long by 7 ft. 4 in. wide (some mills are larger, and can turn out sheets 9 ft. wide), with cross rollers the whole length of the frame, and two large steel rollers in the centre, one being above the other. These large rollers, with adjusting screws to regulate the space between them, are turned by powerful machinery. The cake of lead is run on the travelling rollers, then passed between the larger ones, which reduce it in thickness and make it longer. It is then drawn back by the large rollers, which have been adjusted closer together, and is further elongated and reduced in thickness. When this process has been repeated until the sheet is about 1 in. thick, it is cut up by machine-worked shears into suitable lengths, according to the desired weights per foot of the finished sheets. These pieces, one at a time, are further rolled out and then folded, or doubled, in the middle and again rolled. The two sheets at the finish are each 34 ft. or 36 ft. long by 7 ft. wide, and weigh 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or any other number of pounds per square foot. When the sheets are passing between the rollers for the last time, cutters are arranged at the sides of the frame to cut off the side edges ; the ends are trimmed by hand. An iron mandrel is laid across each sheet, and the lead is dressed on to the mandrel, winch handles being subsequently fixed on the ends. These are turned by hand, and the lead is wound round them. The sheets are then corded and tied, rolled or hoisted on to a weighing-machine, and stamped with number, length, total weight, and weight per foot, after which they are ready for the market. The quality of lead may be judged by its soft- ness and malleability, hardness denoting the presence of im- purities. Plumbers tell the weight of ordinary sheet lead by simply feeling it with their fingers or measuring it with MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED. 15 their rule. The specific gravity of lead is 1T4 ; hence a square 1 in. thick weighs 59 lb., and for 6-lb. lead a square foot is about 0*1 in. thick. Some tool-makers keep notched gauges for the purpose, but the most accurate method is to square up the lead and weigh it. Lead pipes used by the Eomans were made of long strips of sheet lead bent cylindrical and joined at the edges. Haydn's " Dictionary of Dates " says that lead pipes for the conveyance of water were brought into use in the year 1236 — in what country is not stated. It is quite evident, how- ever, that they had been used long before that date. The pipes for the first London waterworks were of lead, and the works were builb by a Dutchman named Peter Morris (or, according to a more probably correct version, Maurice), in the year 1582. Up to the year 1741 lead pipes, so far as can be traced, had been made by hand, but in that year James Creed in- vented a machine for their manufacture on a large scale. This machine cut the lead up in strips to the width required for the given diameter of pipe. These strips were turned into pipes by means of rollers ; between the rollers was placed a ball, which produced the inside diameter of the pipe, and at the same time the edges were scraped fib for soldering by a tool fixed on the frame which held the ball. Lead pipes were first rolled solid in the year 1790. In that year, John Wilkinson, of Berwick-upon-Tweed, cast lead ingots in lengths, and put them on bars of iron, or of other metal harder than lead. These bars, or mandrels, as they are usually termed, he varied in length and diameter according to the size of pipe required. The mandrel, with the lead upon it, and extended to the length and thickness of the pipe manufactured, he passed repeatedly between rollers with grooves of different sizes, according to the external diameter required. He also claimed the process of drawing the lead ingots through metal gauges or dies of different diameters, after the lead has been placed on the mandrel, each succeeding die being less than the previous one, until the same was extended to the length and thickness required. The mandrel was then withdrawn, leaving a pipe of even diameter and thickness and of uniform length. Knowledge of the deleterious effect of lead pipe uporj 16 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. potable water induced many chemists and other ingenious inventors to attempt improvements upon the ordinary lead pipes, and amongst these are found lead pipes lined with tin, which invention was secured by patent to George Alderson in 1804. One of the greatest — perhaps the greatest of all — improve- ments in lead and composition pipes was made by John Hague, in the year 1822, when he patented and introduced his solid pressing arrangement. The pipes manufactured upon this principle for gas and water supply services are now al- most universally employed, especially for the former pur- posev These pipes are forced out by means of hydraulic pres- sure through a die or core placed in the bottom of a cast-iron mould. Pipes of this description are much cheaper and much more reliable than those made in strips and soldered at the joints. In fact, Hague's patent completely revolutionised the lead pipe trade. The hand-made lead pipe is made out of sheet lead, and the solid pipe is pressed out of solid lead by means of a pipe press, worked by powerful machinery. Each kind used as soil pipes has its advantages and advocates, and there is not much difference in efficiency and durability when the seam in the hand-made pipe is properly wiped or floated with ladle and iron. The machine-made pipe is the easiest to manipu- late when it is necessary to make bends in it. When the pipes are used for conveying soft water, or acids, or other corroding agents, the seamless pipes are the best, as in some cases the solder is eaten away by the acids, and in others electrolysis sets up owing to two metals^ lead and tin, being in contact in the presence of moisture. Machine-made lead pipe is made now by pressing lead in a semi-molten state though dies by hydraulic machinery. The presses are of two or three different kinds. The com- monest consists of a very strong cast-iron cylinder with closed top, in which are fixed the die and core of the size of the intended pipe. The bottom of the cylinder fits fairly tight, and slides up and down as it is pushed or pulled by a shaft connected to a piston in another cylinder beneath, which contains water under a great pressure. The piston being lowered, and the top chamber empty, the latter is filled with melted lead through an opening which is afterwards closed MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED. 17 with an iron plug and fastened. On turning on the water to the lower cylinder, the piston is forced upwards and the lead pushed out of the die at the top in the form of pipe. If small, the latter is wound on a wooden drum as it escapes ; if large, it is supported by a cord attached to the upper end and carried over a pulley above, the free end being held tight by a man. The hydraulic pressure in the "ram," or lower cylinder, is from 1 ton to 15 tons per square inch, according to the size of the pipe being made. This pressure is derived from a series of pumps, w r orked by steam or other power, and is steadied by an " accumulator," which not only helps to keep the pressure even, but stores up the power in case of stop- page. Should the pumps be kept working when the pipe- press is stopped, gearing, attached to the accumulator, opens a valve to relieve the excess of water pressure, or throttles the supply of steam to the pumps. To find the w r eight of a lead pipe of any thickness and diameter: — Eule : Subtract the square of the internal dia- meter of the pipe from the square of the external diameter — both in inches — and multiply the remainder by 3*86 ; the result w411 be the weight of the pipe in pounds per foot run. The thickness of lead pipe required to withstand a given pressure may be calculated by the following rule : Multiply the head of water in feet by the radius of the pipe in inches and by '433, and divide the product by 2,745, which latter equals the tensile strength of the lead in pounds per square inch. The result equals the thickness of pipe required in fractions of an inch. Or: Multiply the head of water in feet by the diameter of pipe in inches, and by 0*0000787. For each of these results a factor of safety of 10 is required, hence the last rule becomes : — ' T = H X D X 0-000787 in which T represents the thickness of the pipe in fractions of an inch. The illustrations on pp. 18 and 19, Figs. 2 to 52, show a few of the tools that are in ordinary use. The name of each tool is given under its illustration, and further in- formation, other than that obtainable in trade catalogues, is unnecessary. A large number of tools is necessary for special work, or work that has to be done under difficulties, or has complicated parts. 18 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. Fig. 3— Straight Copper Bit. Fig. 2.— Adjustable Bevel. C=& ^^ Fig. 1.— Hatchet Copper Bit. Fig. 5.— Brass Blowpipe. I >— t— >„JL» Fig. 6.— Cold Chisel. Fig. 9.— Compasses 5! V o Fig. 7.— Bend Bolt. =^> Fig. 8.— Hand Dummy V\(r iQ ~ Fig. 12.— Bending Dresser. Fig. 14 -Wiping ohS&e _ Cloth. and Reel. Fig. 16.— Quench Hook. Fig. 15.— Hammer. c=^=0 Fig. 20.— Bent Shave Hook. y\ Shave Fig. 19.— Gauge Hook. Fig. 21.— Spoon Hook. Fig. 23.- Soldering- iron. Fig. 18.— Long Dummy. n Fig. 26.— Drawing Knife. ( o o oL. — -— -* Fig. 24.— Chippinr Knife. y J'n&x ID : 25,— Bossing Mallet. D ' Fig. 27— Tomahawk Mallet. Fig. 28.— Wedge Mallet. MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED. 29 ^5l Fig. 30.— Cutting Pliers. Fig. 29.- Jack Plane with Metal Sole. c Fig. 31.— Steel Fixing Point. ■0£ P Fig. 32.— Shears. Fig. 31.— Bule. Fig. 33.-Solder ^^i^il^^^^PPPpp^-f " Fig. 36.— Rasp, Fig. 35.- Two-hole Pliers. Fig. 37.-Square. tn Fig. 33.— Screwdriver. 3 n=0 C Fig. 33.— Bending Stick. Fig. 43— Small Fig. 4i.-Large Turnpin. Turnpin. n Fig. 42.— Set- ting-in Stick. 1) ^ A Fig. 45.- Eent Wedge. Fig. 46.- ISj arrow Bevel Wedge. Fig. 47.— Wide Bevel Wedge. Fig. 48.— K arrow Chase Wedge. Fig. 49.— Wide Chase Wedge. Fig. 50.— Thumb Wedge, Fig. 52.— Screw Wrench. Fig. 51.— Shark's Jaw Wrench. 20 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. The following table is introduced to show at a glance the different thicknesses and weights of lead pipes commonly A B C D 35 A B c 10 D f Thin Zh { Thin 17 Middle 4 32 ! » 11 16 i H Strong 4i 28 ii i -: i Middle 12 14 5) 5 24 or 48 55 12* 13 I n 5J 22 or 44 i Strong 14 12 Thin 3 39 i 5) 16 11 55 3| 35 Thin 12 14 Middle 4 32 14 12 i * Strong 4i 28 ii < Middle 15^ 11 >j 5 48 Strong l'f 9 ?? 6 38 55 21 8 55 7 33 ! Thin 15 11 J> 8 33 il -; Middle 17 10 ! Thin 4| 28 i Strong- 19 9 Middle 5 24 or 48 Thin 19 9 5 ) Strong 6 38 Middle 23 7 ?? 7 33 Strong 26 i I ») 8 29 2 - Thin 19 Thin 51 5 6 24 20 Middle Strong 23 26 Middle / 25 55 30 Strong 8 22 / Thin 26 r^ 1 - 5» ^ 20 *h 55 27 CO 55 9 19 I Middle 30 5 5) 10 17 i Strong 33 -»J 5) 11 16 i Thin 36 «+H 12 14 3 I Middle 42 r^ " Thin 7 25 Strong 44 .£ 8 22 t Thin 45 to Middle 9 19 3i i Middle 49 .5 5) 9^ 18 Strong 52 "p 1 - Strong 10 17 r Thin 48 5 )) 11 16 4 -: Middle 57 — 55 12 14 i Strong 61 14 12 i Thin 73 5) 15 11 5 Strong 84 manufactured, so that, when ordering pipes, the strength of pipe can be given when the weight is stated in the specifica- MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED. 21 tion. Column a shows the internal diameter in inches ; b is the trade term indicating the strength of the pipe ; c the weight in pounds per yard ; D the average length in yards. The plumber usually carries his tools in a bag made of carpet, with a smaller one for his wiping cloths, and some- times another for his small tools. . On country jobs a large box or chest is generally used, as a bag will not nearly hold them all. Figr. 58. — Plumber's Tool-chest. The tools of a plumber are heavy, and a chest to hold them should be very strong. A chest to hold all that are used by plumbers would be very large, but a great many — such as long dummies, large ladles, pots, etc. — are not of sufficient value to be kept in a box. A plumber's ordinary kit of tools would go in a chest 2 ft. 6 in. long, 1 ft. 6 in. wide, and 1 ft. 2 in. deep (all inside dimensions). If a hot-water engineer's tools, such as stocks and dies, etc., are included, then the 29 PEAGTICAL PLUMBERS 7 WORK. box must be increased in size, or, better still, a separate one used. One reason for making the box strong is that, in addition to the weight of tools, plumbers do not always have proper lock-ups provided when working in new buildings, and their tool chests are convenient for holding a few articles such as cocks and valves, bar solder, and similar material. The plumber's tool-box is made of yellow pine, | in. thick when planed on both sides, with dovetailed angles, \\\\\\\^^V^\V\\^^^ Fi£\ 51. — Side Section of Plumber's Tool-chest. Fig\ 55. — End Section of Plumber's Tool-chest. plinth, and lid mouldings. The lid is clamped at the ends across the grain, and for the hinges box garnets are much better than ordinary butts. These box garnets are shown at f (Fig. 53). For fastening the lid, a staple and eyes, shown at G and h respectively, and a padlock are pre- ferable to an ordinary box lock. The fastenings should be screwed on so that they cannot be removed by taking out the screws from the outside. For carrying the box, wood cleats, and loops or rings made of rope — the ends being spliced together — are very suitable, and better than small iron handles on plates. These are shown at J, in Figs. 53 and 54. Figs. 2 and 3 are sections lengthways and crossways. MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED. 23 A, B, and c, in Figs. 53 and 54, and a in Fig. 55, show a tray 4 in. deep made of f-in. deal, and having dovetailed angles ; it is provided with divisions, and slides on deal fillets screwed on to the box ends. The division a is for small tools, such as pliers, small turnpins, gouges, hand chisels, etc. ; b for wiping-cloths, and c for shave-hooks, drawing-knife, rule, and similar tools. The heads of shave-hooks should be rolled up in " felts " when being packed for carriage. The tray can be lifted out of the chest on to the bench during working hours, and the tools replaced from time to time after being used. This will obviate the cloths being made dirty or the shave-hooks blunted by being knocked about on the bench.. The lower part of the chest is divided by a partition into two portions (d and e, Fig. 55). One side is for boxwood and other tools used for lead-laying ; the other is for hammers, long chisels, steel points, screw wrenches, spanners, and other metal tools. The lead-plane and saw should be placed in the former. The carpet tool-bag and plumber's overalls, when not wanted, can be packed on the front of the tray at k. The bottom of the box should have the grain of the wood running from back to front, and outside two fillets should be screwed on, with the grain running lengthways, These keep the chest clear of the floor, and also answer as runners when the chest is being dragged along, thus preventing the end plinth piece being forced off. The inside of the chest is left quite plain, but the outside should have three coats of oil paint, the finishing coat to be lead colour. As tool- chests are sometimes miscarried, it is an advantage to have the name and address of the owner, or the firm he works for, painted on the front, where it will be less likely to wear off than if painted on the lid. A plumber's tool-bag, already referred to on p. 21, is usually made of good Brussels or other strong carpet, and it should have a lining of thin leather or strong canvas. Brussels carpet is about 27 in. wide, and a piece about lj yd. long is the quantity required for an ordinary sized bag. The lining should be cut to the size required, so as to avoid a seam at the bottom, and should be closely sewn up the sides. The carpet should then be cut to suit the lining, allowance being made for seams and for about 2^ in. to turn down at the top inside the leather ; it should then be closely 24 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. sewn, wrong side out, with strong carpet thread, after which it should be turned, the leather lining put inside, and the %\ in. allowed at the top of the carpet turned down and closely sew T n all round inside the leather. Holes should then be cut near the top, and eyelets, consisting of short pieces of compo. pipe, tafted to the carpet inside and out ; a piece of sash cord is threaded through these eyelets for carrying the bag. In place of eyelets, short pieces of leather strap may be riveted to the top of the bag, with brass rings in them to pass the cord through. CHAPTER II. SOLDER AND HOW TO MAKE IT. Plumber's solder, wiping solder, also sometimes called " metal," for use with the ladle and the soldering cloth, is made up by melting together pure lead and block tin in the proportion of 2 lb. of lead to 1 lb. of tin. Plumber's fine solder is made of about equal parts of those two metals. Strip solder — used with the copper bit — is made in the pro- portion of 2 lb. of tin to fully 3 lb. of lead. Gasfitter's solder may be made in the proportion of 8 lb. of tin to 9 lb. of lead; tinman's copper bit solder is 1 lb. of lead to 1 lb. of tin ; pewterer's blowpipe solder is 1 lb. of lead, 1 lb. of tin, and 2 lb. of bismuth. The proportion of lead and tin may vary within certain limits without apparent effect on the solder. Good plumber's wiping solder, when in a bar, should have a clean grey appearance, and not be dirty-looking ; the ends of the bar should be bright, and show several tin spots mottled over their surfaces. In use, the solder should work smooth like butter, and not granular like wet sand. The tin should not separate from the lead, cooling in tears on the lower part of the joints. An ordinary test for the quality of solder is to melt it and then pour on to a cold but dry stone a quantity about the size of a five-shilling coin, and take note of the colour and also the number and sizes of the spots that appear ; but the only reliable test is to make a joint and note the ease with which it can be worked or used. The blowpipe solder used for making joints in composition pipe should melt at a low temperature, or the pipe itself would be melted. For making blown joints on lead pipes copper-bit solder made in thin strips is gener- ally used. This is the kind used also for soldering zinc. Some plumbers prefer solder finer, others coarser than the usual average which is given above. The method of making solder as practised in the work- shop is as follows : A 14-in. iron solder pot (Fig. 33) is sua* 26 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WOBK. pended over a coke fire, to which enough broken coke is added to bank up all round the pot. Sheet-lead cuttings and scraps of clean pipe are put into the pot until it is rather more than half full. Preference is given to pig-lead over sheet, and to new cuttings over pipe, because the lead rolled into sheets is generally purer than that used for pipe. Great care must be exercised to exclude compo. pipe, which often contains admixtures. Good composi- tion tube is made nearly all of tin, or an alloy of tin and lead in which the former metal is in excess. But as much composition tube is made of old metals which contain lead, tin, antimony, arsenic, and zinc, it would be inadvisable to put such material in the plumber's solder-pot. The effect would be to raise the melting point of the solder, and in applying it to the joint to be soldered it would probably par- tially melt the lead. Moreover, the metals named do not alloy perfectly, but partake more of the nature of a mixture in which the constituents partially separate when making the joints ; some, especially zinc, show as small bright lumps on the surface. Joints made with such solder, which usually is called poisoned metal, are difficult to form, and they usually leak when on water service pipes. The appearance of such joints is a dirty grey, instead of bright and clean as when good solder is used. From this it is clear that in making solder great care must be taken to exclude zinc from the pot. Zinc, lead, and tin do not alloy well ; lead will unite with only 1*6 per cent, of zinc, and above that propor- tion the metals are only mixed when melted, and on cooling partially separate. Sufficient lead having been melted in the pot, about \ lb. of roll sulphur, broken into pieces about the size of hazel nuts, is added, and the whole well stirred with a ladle, the sulphur unites with zinc and other impurities. The result- ant sulphides are skimmed off in the form of a cake, more sulphur being added so long as sulphides continue to form. Care must be taken not to let the sulphur fumes into the shop. The head of the ladle, in the intervals of stirring, is laid on the fire, to burn off any adherent sulphur. When sulphide ceases to be formed, a handful of black resin is thrown into the pot, and the lead stirred. When the resin has burned, the lead is again skimmed, and a piece of SOLDER AND HOW TO MAKE IT 27 Russian tallow about the size of a hen's egg is put into the pot, the lead being again stirred and skimmed. In stirring the lead it is lifted up and poured back by the ladleful, a larger amount of lead being thus exposed to the action of the cleansing material. Best block tin is now added in the required proportion, and after the molten mass has been w^ell stirred a little is run on to the hearthstone to test its fineness. If it appears too coarse more tin is added ; if too fine, more sheet-lead. Finally, a little resin and tallow having been added, the solder is skimmed and is then ready for use or for pouring into moulds. When plumber's solder is heated in an open V \ZZ7 Fig-. 56.— Side View of In ironworker. This mould is shown by Fig. 58, a view of the upper side, and Fig. 59 of the under side. Fine solder, used with the copper bit for tinning brass, iron, etc., sometimes known as " half-and-half," because it is made of equal parts, by weight, of lead and tin, is cast into strips triangular in section. The mould used for this purpose is shown in plan in Fig. 60, and in cross^-section in Fig. 61. Special care must be taken that everything put into a pot or ladle containing molten metal is perfectly dry. Anything wet introduced into the molten metal is sure to cause an explosion. The whole contents of the pot may be blown out to the danger of all within range. Burning the solder must be carefully avoided. A pot of solder after it has been red-hot has always a quantity of Fig. 60.— Plan of Mould for Fip\ Gl.— Section of Mould Strip Solder. for Strip Solder. " dross " or dirt collected on the top. This is principally oxide of tin and oxide of lead, the tin and lead having united with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form oxides of these metals. Lead being roughly 50 per cent, heavier than tin, the tendency is for the tin in the molten mixture to form the upper layer of the solder — the part most exposed to the action of the atmosphere. When the solder becomes red-hot, there is therefore more tin burned than lead. Hence the solder becomes too coarse, and more tin must be added. Zinc is the greatest trouble to the solder pot. Great care has to be taken to exclude it, or to get it out. It may get into the solder from a piece of compo. pipe having been put into the pot by mistake for lead ; but more commonly brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, is the source of the zinc that " poisons " the pot, into which brass filings find their way whilst brass is being prepared for tinning. If the filing is done at the same bench as the wiping, splashes of metal may fall on the filings, which will adhere, and thus get into the pot. Solder that is poisoned by arsenic or antimony is beyond the plumber's skill to 8 OLDER AND HOW TO MAKE IT 29 clean ; but zinc can be extracted by stirring in powdered sulphur when the solder is in a semi-molten condition, and then melting the whole, when the combined sulphur and zinc will rise to the surface, and can be taken off in the form of a cake, the solder being left in good condition for use. The flux ordinarily used for plumber's wiping solder is tallow, generally in the form of a candle. No other fluxes answer this purpose so well, as they all spoil the wiping cloths, but different kinds of fluxes are required for different kinds of work. For a wiped joint, a tallow candle is rubbed over the parts. This is called touching, and is often prac- tised in making copperbit joints ; though for this latter pur- pose many plumbers prefer to use black resin. Spirit of salts is employed as a flux for use when soldering, the " raw " spirit — which is a powerful poison — being used for zinc or galvanised iron, and the " killed " spirit for other metals, such as brass, tinplate, copper, wrought-iron, etc. After tinning brass with fine solder, the copper bit should be wiped quite clean, as the copper, uniting with some of the zinc in the brass, may affect the wiping solder. Some plumbers tin brass by holding it over the metal pot and pouring the solder on to it. This is bad practice, as the surplus solder, and any zinc with which it may have com- bined, fall into the pot. In cleaning solder, the sulphur must be used with more care than when cleaning lead, or the plumber will find himself burning out the tin as well as the zinc. The method ordinarily adopted by plumbers for tinning iron is to file it bright and then coat the part with killed spirits or chloride of zinc, also called spirit of salts, in which zinc is dissolved, and then dip it into molten plumber's solder. Sometimes sal-ammoniac is used for the flux, or a mixture of sal-ammoniac and chloride of zinc. When wrought-iron pipes have been thus tinned, and then soldered joints made, they have been found to come apart after a few years, the pipe ends, when pulled from the solder, being found to be rusty. Although more difficult to accomplish, iron pipe ends filed and covered with resin, and then plunged into molten solder, from the surface of which all dross has been skimmed, and afterwards soldered 30 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. together, have been known to last a considerable time. When tinning the pipes or making the joints, the solder must not be overheated, or failure will result. y^/'/v < vr gzz3gggsss \\sssssssss ss: Fig. 62— Plain Seam Soldered Joint. Fig. 63— Soldered Dot- on Sheet Lead. Fig. 64.— Blown, or Copper-bit Joint. Fig. 65.— Section of Copper-bit 'op J( roint. Fig. 65.— Wiped Pipe Joint. •„;„„*ffimr* )} /! , J , , J J J J J J J > J J J S J£gtjggV^\\\\\<.\4 Fig. 67.— Section of Wiped Pipe Joint. I Fig. 68.— Wiped Branch Joint. Fig. 69.— Section of Wiped Branch Joint. Fig. 70.— Wiped Flange Joint. Fig. 71.— Section of Wiped Flange Joint. Some of those soldered joints most generally used in plumber's work are illustrated by Figs. 62 to 71, shown above. 31 CHAPTER III. SHEET LEAD WORKING. The first example to be discussed is the covering of wooden stairs with sheet lead. Each tread should have a separate piece, and in cutting out the lead for the straight tread add sufficient to the measurement to cover the nosing, and to lap on the riser below about an inch, and to stand against the riser up to the moulding beneath the next tread. The winding stairs should be set out full size in plan, the treads being shown and also the wall on one side and string or newel on the other. This will give the treads, to which allowances should be added as for the straight steps. If the setting out of the plan is a matter of difficulty, cut brown-paper patterns ; one would do for all the straights, if of the same size, and one or more for the winders. Covering the risers with lead is a waste of both time and material. The copper nailing is usually done at the ends, about 1 in. from the edge of the lead, with a single row at the back and a double or treble row where the feet rest on or near the nosings. The laps on to the riser below each step can also be nailed, but sometimes sheet-copper tacks, the same as for lead flashings on roofs, are used instead. The nails on the nosings should not be less than 1^ in. apart, or the wood may split. Nailing, although usually employed, is not entirely satisfactory, and it is much better to countersink the woodwork, dress the lead into the sinkings, and screw in brass plates about i in. to - x \ in. thick and 1^ in. to 2 in. wide, these being fixed flush about 9 in. or 10 in. apart, and about 1 in. back from the nosing. When the lead re- quires re-dressing or renewing, the plates can be easily taken off and refixed. A continuous brass angle-piece may be screwed in the angle formed by the tread with the riser. Felt or other material should not be placed under the lead. 3l> PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. The bossing up of a lead try or safe (Fig. 72) will now be described. A tray of this kind should always be fixed under a valve closet, so that if the closet is out of order, or if water is slopped over the side of the basin, the floor Fig. 72.— Lead Tray or Safe. and ceiling beneath will be protected. When a tray 'with discharge pipe is provided, the water will be carried outside the house, and no damage will result. A tray 3 ft, 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in. will be sufficient for any ordinary closet, and this size need not be exceeded generally. To make the lead tray a piece of sheet lead 4 ft. long and 3 ft. wide should be cut out and squared up. It should be marked off 3 in. on all sides, and lines drawn from A a to b b, and o or >T Fig 7-L — Corner of Lead Tray. Fig. 73. — Pattern for Lead Tray. from c c to d d, as shown in Fig. 73, the margin thus marked being the sides, which are 3 in. high. Place a piece of quartering on the lines, and turn up the sides at right angles to the bottom. The corners will now appear as in Fig. 74. All bumps and buckles should now be SHEET LEAD WORKIXQ. 33 beaten out with a wooden dresser, and the lead all round the underneath edge of the tray should be knocked up to help to stiffen it whilst the corners are being bossed up. To knock up the corners, lay the tray on its end against the bench, with the underneath portion facing the worker. Take the bossing-mallet (Fig. 25, p. 18) in the right hand, and hold the dummy (Fig. 8, p. 18) in the left, underneath the corner ; then with the mallet drive the lead gradually into the corner, taking care not to let it buckle. Great Fig\ 75. — Lead Bossing. care is required in this part of the process, novices being apt to split the lead, or make a hole in the corner. After it is dressed into the required shape, see if the corner is at right angles with the bottom. A small piece of surplus lead will be found at the corner, and this should be cut off level with the sides. Serve all corners the same ; then when well dressed and finished, the tray will have the ap- pearance of Fig. 72. The general procedure in bossing up internal and ex- ternal corners in sheet-lead is to mark the lead where the 34 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK upstand is to be by indenting it with the side of a mallet. Set the external corner by working it up (say) 1^ in. high with a small mallet and short dummy. An external corner, if alone, should be finished by working out the surplus lead with a bossing-stick, the fingers of the left hand only being held inside. As soon as the corner is set, put the stiffening creases into the lead about 2 in. from the upstand. For an internal corner the lead should Fisr. 76. — Lead Bossing. be worked in from the corner of the sheet. When the in- ternal corner is near an external corner, the lead should be worked from the external corner after it is half up. An internal corner should be begun by knocking up a bulge from below, and working the bulge into the corner, this operation being repeated as often as necessary until enough lead is gathered for the required thickness. The external corners must be kept well down, and not be al- lowed to drag upwards. The lead should always be kept rounded until the finish, when the arris may be put where SHEET LEAD WOBKIXG. 35 the operator likes. The lead should be kept of the same thickness all the time. Lead Bossing. Reproductions of photographs showing different phases of the operation of lead bossing are given by Figs. 75 to 78. A break is the piece of lead bossed up to fit against an 36 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. external angle of a wall or other projection. In Fig. 79 a c show corners, and B is a break. The lead in gutters and on flats is usually turned up against walls, etc., to a height of 6 in., and to make the lead stand against a break to that height is usually considered to be a difficult task. The lead has to be made to flow by forcing it into the angle from the outer edges. A skilled plumber has no difficulty in bossing a break, but skill is necessary to make one in which the lead is left of equal thickness throughout on completion of the work. The process can only be learned by constant and long practice. The following is the best method of bossing-up sheet Fig. 79.- -Diagram illustrat- ing Break. Fk 80. — Sheet Lead Bossed up to Break. lead to a break, the distance between external and internal corners being 3 in., and the upstand being 4 in. Dress the piece of lead flat, and then strike chalk lines 4 in. from each of the sides next to the break, and inside the angle formed by the lines measure 3 in. each way to represent the break, as shown by dotted lines in Fig. 80. Cut off the corner-piece on the thick line at A, and fold up the sides on the chain lines. Boss the lead into the in- ternal angle b, and at the same time work up the two external corners. If carefully done, the lead will be of equal thickness in every part when finished. When relining a sink, begin by stripping off all the old lead, and removing all the old copper tacks. As it SHEET LEAD WORKING. 8! is always best to have a new w T aste-pipe, that also should be removed. The wooden frame should now be measured, and supposing it is 2 ft. long, 1 ft. 6 in. wide, and 1 ft. deep, a piece of lead 4 ft. 4 in. long and 3 ft. 10 in. wide will be required, this allowing for a 2-in. turn-down all round the top. Square all corners, then mark the height 1 ft. 2 in. from the edge on all sides ; draw four lines through these marks as showm in Fig. 81, namely from A a to B b, and from c c to d d. The corner pieces E are to be cut out, which w T ill give -the required shape of the lining, as shown by Fig. 82. This should be painted with "soil" about 3 in. wide, as shown, and when dry, the edges, ^-in. wide, are to be shaved with a shave-hook. Care must be t E E I 1 1 i E E I E 3 _.. 4 : 4 _.J 3 j Fig. 81. — Patten for Sink Lining. Fig. 82.— Lining of Sink. taken that no part of the edges remains unshaven, as this w r ould prevent the solder from adhering ; and a tallow candle should be rubbed over it as a flux. A piece of quartering about 18 in. long should be pro- cured for use in turning up the sides at right angles to the bottom. The lining is now lifted into the frame and dressed to the sides, the corners and bottom edges being set in with a chase-wedge (Fig. 49, p. 19). A few copper tacks can be placed round the shaved edges to hold the lead in position, care being taken that their heads are bright, and the spare 2 in. of lead at the top can be turned outwards over the edges, and nailed with copper tacks. The corners c (Fig. 83) should have angle pieces left on 15 mitre on the top edge of the wood casing. ^8 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. The sink is now ready for the angular joints to be soldered. Heat the metal-pot and plumbing-irons as de- scribed in Chapter V. (see pp. 66 and 71), and when the metal is melted take a ladleful, and with a splash-stick (Fig. 84), splash a sufficient quantity up the joint, wa»rm it with the soldering iron, and wipe towards the worker, thus joining the sides together. The waste-pipe, which should be 1| in. in diameter, should now be fixed, and have a trap wiped on as shown in Fig. 85. Having cut the requisite hole in the lead bottom of sink, open the end of the pipe with a turnpin, boss it into the old hollow, and solder in the brass grating, soiling and shaving the lead round it and neatly wiping the joint. Fig. 83.— Corner of Sink. Fig. 81. — Splash-stick. Fig. 8."). — Waste-pipe wiih P-trap. If the job were new, and the lining — instead of the relining of the sink — had to be undertaken, the work would be done in the following way : The hole through the bottom should be cut \ in. larger than the waste pipe, and it should be dished 1 in. all round | in. deep (a, Fig. 86) for the grating washer and plug, or other fitting to be soldered in. If the lead bottom is neatly bossed into this hollow, it will be easy to wipe a clean edge all round when the waste is soldered in. At each angle b (Fig. 86) the top edge of the woodwork should be dished in the same manner, but | in. deep, and the bottom must be arranged so that all the fall is to the waste, that all liquids may drain off. Presuming that the sink has to be lined with lead the SHEET LEAD WORKING. 39 same thickness throughout and in one piece, and that the wood case is made from 2-in. stuff, proceed to set out the lead preparatory to cutting out, taking for granted that the bottom and all angles are square or right angles, and the dimensions 2 ft. long, 1 ft. 6 in. wide, and 1 ft. deep. Take a piece of lead 4 ft. 4 in. by 3 ft. 10 in. as it is cut from the sheet, and proceed as already described, or adopt the fol- lowing alternative method : Strike a chalk line A (Fig. 87) as near as possible to one of the longer edges, and parallel to this, another line b at a distance of 1 ft. 2 in., and from b another parallel line at a distance of 1 ft. 6 in., the width of the bottom of sink. On line a mark a point 1 ft. 2 in. from the left edge ; place a set-square at this a ^ ^>: --i;----;-.:---3£ B*1 k Fig. 86.— Dished Hole and Angle. 5 E \ K J A K S CM ^ ■ / / T i i K H f B J K i <— \ 1~, — vl-2 0— *-l 2—, CO - K ; r F i gI K | v - i'o ; J c CM i Fig. 3 ; K I ^ J 1 fc J 3_ — 4'41—i ^ Fig-. 87. — Pattern for Sink Lining - . point, and strike the line d d. From this line strike a parallel line e e 2 ft. distant. Now set the compass points 1 ft. apart, being the depth of sink, and from f g h j mark on the sides the points k, and cut out as shown, leaving the angle pieces at corners and the margin pieces at side. The ends should be pulled up first, then the sides, the margin pieces being dressed square. Keep well within chalk lines in setting up, as an allowance should be made for thickness of lead. A blow or two with a heavy mallet on the underside will belly up the bottom and allow the lining to drop in the wood case. When the edges are dressed over, the square corner pieces are worked into the sinking in the woodwork, and the top of angle can be wiped 40 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS 1 WORK. flush. The edges should be nailed with copper tacks in straight lines at equal distances apart, trimmed to the face of the woodwork, and rasped or planed. The soldering is best done after the lining has been fixed. Soil the angles 3^ in. on either side, forming a quadrant on the bottom, and, when dry, shave 1 in. wide ; this will make the soldering about If in. wide. If the edges of lead are carefully punched into the angles, nailing is not necessary- When nails are used, the heads must be punched in below the surface of lead. It is advisable to wipe the metal from the bottom and bring it over the top edge, the sink being laid on its side for that purpose. Fig-. 88. — Waste-pipe for Lead Sink. The waste-pipe can be arranged as in Fig. 85 (p. 38) or as in Fig. 88, in which w p indicates the waste-pipe ; t, the trap ; w l, the water line ; and A s, the antisyphonic pipe. Many plumbers believe that the waste-pipe should not be less than 1^ in. inside diameter for the size of tank given, and should have the trap soldered on with a cone piece at top to receive a 4-in. grating. These gratings can be hinged, so that the underside and trap may be cleansed. The water seal of the trap should be kept up as near as possible to the bottom of the sink, and should be ventilated by a li-in. antisyphonic pipe. It may be mentioned that a bell-trap is open to the SHEET LEAD WORKING. 41 objection that when putting water down a sink, and finding it does not flow away quickly underneath the bell, a person will lift the loose bell grating, and this, of course, makes the trap insanitary, in fact, does away with the trap, and allows the foul air to come through the open waste-pipe. The bell is also liable to get knocked off the grating. When the lead lining of a sink is to be bossed up in- stead of being soldered together, the sink may be of the section shown at A (Fig. 89). This is the best form for a Fig. 89. — Section and Pattern of Lead Sink. sink where hot water is laid on, the sides and ends sloping as in an ordinary wooden washing tray. The angles are occupied by hollowed fillets, and the lead is then bossed to fit. By this means, the lead is not fixed rigidly, and is allowed to expand. When the lining is to be soldered, the lead (10 lb.) is cut out in one piece as at b (Fig. 89). For a sink 2 ft. 3 in by 1 ft. 9 in. by 1 ft. deep, the lead at the bottom would measure 1 ft. 11 in. by 1 ft. 5 in. at each of the two sides, 2 ft. 1 in. by 1 ft. Ih in. (average) ; and at each of the two ends, 1 ft. 7 in. by 1 ft. lj in. (average). 42 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. Allowance must be made for the angles on the top edge. The total amount of lead would be about 11 J square feet, weighing (say) 3 qr. 27 lb. There would be a 4 ft. 10 in. run of soldering, weighing a further 6 lb. Before instructions are given on lining tanks with lead, it must be said that there are objections to this being done ; soft water, it is well known, dissolves the lead, and the habitual use of water containing more than ^ gr. of lead per gallon is dangerous. Whilst one authority states that hard water, if free from organic matter, will not be affected by the lead, another authority says that potable water should never be kept in lead-lined cisterns. As a matter of practice, lead-lined cisterns should not be used ; for though it may be true that water of a certain degree of hardness and free from organic matter is unaffected by lead, the foreign matters held in solution by water are not always constant. Drought and an abundant rainfall, as w T ell as other causes, affect the quality of water, and where the health of the community is concerned every precaution should be taken to keep the potable water pure. Water containing less than 6 gr. of mineral sub- stances per gallon is reckoned as soft water. All above that is called hard water ; and to show w T hat a great varia- tion there is in the hardness of water it may be stated that water in the neighbourhood of London is said to contain about 18 gr. of chalk in each gallon. If lead-lined cisterns must be used, they should be regularly cleaned out. For the sides, the weight of the lead should not be less than 6 lb. per foot, and then for the bottom it would be an advantage to use 7-lb. lead. Iron bolts that are used as ties to strengthen the cistern should be encased in lead pipe, the ends of which can be soldered to the sides of the cistern. Wood cisterns lined with zinc are sometimes used, but it is questionable whether there is anything be- yond their cheapness to recommend them. Limewhiting lead, iron, or galvanised iron cisterns has been found to arrest the corrosive action of some kinds of water. The limewhite should be made from freshly- slaked lime and used at once, and size, oil, or other mix- ture is not required with it. The wash must be allowed to dry before filling the cistern with water, and renewed whenever the cistern is cleaned out. SHEET LEAD WORKING. 43 A suggestion as to the best method of constructing a lead-lined cistern is given in Fig. 90, which shows a framed and dovetailed cistern, 7 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, 2 ft. deep, to be lined with 6-lb. lead. The illustration gives an isometric view showing the cistern ready for lining. The sides are formed of three boards jointed, ploughed, and cross- tongued. For the purpose of breaking joint, the ends have to be formed of two boards and two half -boards as shown. For a cistern of this length one or two top ties should be dovetailed to the sides after lining. Often metal tie-rods are employed, and of these wrought-iron is the cheapest, Cistern for Lead-lining. but copper better resists any corrosive action or rusting. Holes should be bored through the cistern on opposite sides where the rods are to be fixed, and the rods passed through the holes and also through lead pipes fixed be- tween them. The ends of the pipes are wiped to the lead linings, and the bolts are to have a head on one end and a screwed nut on the other for tightening them. The heads and nuts respectively should have wrought-iron plates between them and the wood casing, to strengthen the latter and distribute the strain over a larger area. In lining a wooden tank with lead, the dimensions of the tank being 20 ft. by 9 ft. by 4 ft. deep, the bottom should be divided in its length into three parts. This 44 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. would give two seams across the bottom, and where the seams come the woodwork should be dished for the solder- ing to be wiped flush. The lead for each end of the tank can be in one piece, and if plenty of help is available, the sides could also be each in one piece. But if the tank is in* a cramped position w T here the extra hands cannot exert their full strength, each of the sides can be lined with two pieces, dishings being made in the woodwork for flush seams to be w^iped upright in the centre of their length. For rainwater, the sides and ends should be of 7-lb. lead, and the bottom of 8-lb. lead ; but if economy must be studied, 6-lb. lead sides and ends, and 7-lb. lead bottom, would do. To line the tank, first put in the sides, then the ends, and the bottom last of all. After the lead is in position, the upright flush seams and the upright angles should be soldered, then the bottom flush seams, and lastly the bottom angles. The laps must be arranged so that the solder will not run through when wiping. Up- right stiffening pieces wiped to the sides are better than soldered dots ; but if it is found necessary to fix stay rods to keep the wooden sides from bulging outwards, these rods would also help to support the lead and prevent it from bagging inwards as the tank is emptied of water. Plumbers do not agree as to the amount of solder they use when wiping angles, but about l\ lb. to lj lb. of solder is a fair average per foot run for a cistern lined with 6-lb. lead. A thoroughly good lead-burner, who is paid about half as much again as an ordinary plumber, would line and burn a large cistern in about the same time as if it were soldered. Under ordinary conditions either method would do, but where the water has a solvent action lead burning is better than soldering. Pure lead resists the action of water more than ordinary lead, and can be burned much better. With soldered angles a voltaic action takes place between the metals lead and tin ; with burned seams there is only one metal, and consequently no voltaic action. To prepare a slate cistern for lining with lead, the angles that are to be wiped should be lined with wood. Boards 6 in. to 8 in. wide and 1 in. thick should have one face planed down to a feather-edge, the feathering ex- tending half-way across the board to leave 3 in. or 4 in. level on the top, so that the solder will not run away from SHEET LEAD WORKING. 45 the angle when wiping. The wood linings should be care- fully fitted, the flat side being downwards and the feather- ing towards the inner parts of the cistern, and mitred at the corners so that they will mutually keep each other in position at the bottom, and they should be skew-nailed to each other on the tops of the upright angles. If the means of access to the cistern are awkward, the sides had better be in four pieces, necessitating four upright angles being wiped. After lining the angles with wood, the cistern can be lined with lead in the ordinary manner. Copper with tinned face is far preferable to lead for lining sinks in which hot water is used. The copper lining should be made the exact depth of the wood casing, but the length and width about \ in. smaller, so that it is free to expand without buckling in the bottom. The best weight for the bottom is 3 lb. to 3^ lb., and for the sides 2\ lb. to 3 lb. per superficial square foot. In lining a sink with pewter, the sheet pewter should be cut out to such a shape that as little soldering as pos- sible has to be done. In this case, the corners can be cut out, the metal folded to fit the case, the soldering done on the outside and cleaned off before placing in position ; the soldering is done by means of a copperbit or a blow- pipe. The solder is composed, by weight, of 1 lead, 1 tin, and 2 bismuth, and the flux is Gallipoli or olive oil. Soldering trials should be made on pieces of spare pewter before attempting that on the sink. 46 CHAPTER IV. PIPE BENDING. In bending a lead soil pipe, where the pipe overlaps in the throat (see Fig. 91), it will be seen that there is a surplus of lead to be disposed of, and where the parts do not meet, at the heel, there is a deficiency to be provided for. When the bend is completed, the lead should be of equal thickness in all parts, and this can only be attained by working the surplus lead from the throat to supply the deficiency at the heel. The tools necessary are a boxwood mandrel (Fig. 92), which should be about 15 in. long ; a boxwood bending Fig. 91. — Diagram showing Bending of Lead Pipes. Fig. 92. — Boxwood Mandrel. dresser ; a soft-wood dresser ; a boxwood mallet with cane handle ; a dummy A, Fig. 93, with a cane handle ; dummies b and c, Fig. 93, cast on ^-in. steam barrel, with heads at different angles to the handles ; and lead flappers as Fig. 94, but of different widths. A flapper is made from a strip of sheet lead by folding up a part of it to form a handle. The cane dummy is made by covering 3 in. of the end of the cane with sheet lead, or lead pipe, fastening the lead securely to the cane with tacks, shaving the lead very carefully all over, and wiping on a bulb of solder of the shape required. The long dummies are made by tinning about 2 in. of the iron barrel at one end, making an impression of the PIPE BENDING. 47 head of the cane dummy in a gallipot of sand, holding the tinned end of the barrel in the centre of the impression so made, and pouring wiping solder into the mould. The solder will unite with the tinning on the barrel, and the head will be secure. The heads should be trimmed, the sharp corners being well rounded off. It is better to bend the barrel to the required angle before tinning it. File the iron barrel bright where it is to be tinned, and paste a piece of paper round the edge where the tinning is not required, moisten with killed spirits of salts (muriatic acid saturated with zinc), and apply fine solder with the copper bit. After tinning, thoroughly wash the end of the barrel in clean water, to remove all traces of the acid. Put the lead pipe to be bent (say 4 ft. of 4-in.) on to the Fig, 93.-— Dummies, bench, first taking care that the bench is perfectly clean and clear of all grit, nail-heads, or anything that would mark the pipe. Dress it straight, drive the mandrel through so as to ensure a perfectly regular bore and to take out any indentations, and dress the pipe on to the mandrel during its passage by beating it with the lead flappers. A little linseed oil applied to the inner surface of the pipe will render the passage of the mandrel easier. Having dressed the pipe straight, mark where it is to be bent by striking it smartly with the bending dresser. One man must now, with a mandrel or a dresser, bear down on the place marked, w T hilst the other man lifts up the pipe at one end. This serves to bend the soft pipe, the pressure of the mandrel deciding at what point. It is not wise to bend the pipe too much at one operation (Fig. 95 suggests the successive stages of pipe bending). 48 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. Little and often is much the safer plan until experience has taught a man how much of a " pull-up " he can manage. When the bend appears as in Fig. 96, strike the pipe with the bending dresser at the places marked x x. This will make the contraction more gradual, and render it easier to dummy out without buckling. For working with the dummy, the pipe is held in the position shown in Fig. 96, the end being placed against a strip of wood about 1 ft. long, 2 in. wide, and 1 in. thick, which is nailed on the end of the bench. Upon the handle of the dummy being struck smartly on the strip of wood, its head will strike upwards against the inside of the pipe. By striking re- peatedly at the inside of the indentations the original bore of the pipe is restored. This having been done, lay the pipe first on one side, then on the other, and drive back Fig. 94. -Sheet-lead Flapper. L Fig. 93. — Successive Stages of Pipe-bending. the cheeks to the heel with the dresser. Now work up the sides with the dummy, and the pipe will be ready for another " pull up. ?; In case of doubt as to the thickness of any part, the bend should be tapped lightly with the mal- let, when the sounds will indicate where it is too thick or too thin. Where it is too thick it must be worked up with the dummy, which stretches the lead and of course reduces its substance, and the bulge thus raised is worked towards a place that is too thin. The bend should be made of larger bore than the pipe, and then dressed into the exact size with lead flappers. Except for single bends, where all parts can be easily reached, the beginner will find it best to finish off by put- ting a bobbin through. A bobbin is made of boxwood of the form shown at A (Fig. 97). A sash-line passes through a hole in the centre. The line also passes through a weight b (Fig. 97), to which it is fastened. The bobbin being Pipe bending. 49 inserted, the weight is drawn backward and forward by the line passing through the pipe. Each time the weight is pulled forward it strikes the bobbin and is drawn back again for another blow. Fig. 98 shows a section through a weight, which is com- posed of solder cast in a mould made by dressing a piece of 3-in. pipe to the required shape, cutting it through lengthwise, soiling the inside, putting in a wood core, and binding the two halves together tightly. When the weight has been cast, the mould comes off in two halves, and the core is taken out with a gimlet. A brass disc is soldered Fig. 98.— Saction of Weight. on to the end that strikes against the bobbin, and a brass trap screw, with a hole through the plug, is soldered into the other end. Half the line is passed through the weight, a knot is put into the middle, the knot is drawn into the recess under the trap screw, the line is passed through the plug of the screw, which is then screwed down on the knot, and the weight is fastened on to the line. As the bobbin passes through, the pipe is dressed on in the same way as it was dressed on the mandrel. In Fig. 98 the references to the lettering are as follows : — A, brass trap screw ; b, recess in which knot is held ; c, body of weight, made of wiping solder ; d, brass disc for striking against bobbin. 50 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK The bobbins may also be driven through the pipe by means of short pieces of wood a little smaller than the bobbins, and long wood rods. Or the bobbins may be driven through by allowing a lead ball to fall upon them. Another method is to drag them through by means of a cord knotted at one end, and passed through a hole made in the centre of the bobbin. High-class plumbers rarely use these appliances, as by their use the heel, or outside, of the bend is made thinner than the other parts. If lead pipe is very hard, it can be softened by burn- ing a few wood shavings inside the bend, the throat being uppermost. A better and cleaner method is to chalk the bend well, and then pour on a small quantity of molten lead, which, when set, can be easily tipped off with the finger. The dummying should be quickly done while the pipe is hot. Some plumbers prefer to use a blowlamp, as a Fig. 99. — Ball and Follower, and their Use. the heat can then be directed more definitely to the place where it is wanted. The lead pipe should be made just hot enough to make a fizzing noise when a drop or two of water is allowed to fall upon it. Bending with balls and followers is a method that was followed much more some years ago than it is at the present day. It is not considered a gQod way by first-class plumbers. The piece of pipe to be bent is pulled round a little till it dents in the throat ; two or more hard-wood balls A (Fig. 99), slightly smaller in diameter than the bore of the pipe, are then inserted in the pipe, and driven past the bend by means of some short round blocks of wood, called followers b (Fig. 99). This takes out the dent caused by the bending ; c (Fig. 99) will assist the reader in under- standing the process. The pipe is then bent again, and the process repeated until the required angle is obtained. The objections to this method of bending are those that PIPE BENDING. 51 apply to the use of ordinary bobbins : the pipe is weakened at the heel of the bend, and is liable to be damaged by the edges of the followers catching in the angle of the bend. However, if the followers are well rounded off, as Fig. 104.— Soldered Elbow. Fig. 103.— Return Bend. shown in Fig. 99, and both them and the balls well greased, there is very little fear of that happening. Of course, if this method is adopted, a set of balls and followers will be wanted for each size pipe that it is required to bend ; the most useful sizes for lead pipes are from li in. to 3 in. 52 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. diameter ; above or below these sizes, balls and followers are not recommended. By winching lead pipe bends it is understood that a bobbin with a rope through it (as already described) is dragged through the pipe and bends by means of a winch fixed on the end of a bench. This is sometimes practised instead of using followers and driving-rods to force the bobbin through. The method just described of bending soil or funnel pipes will not be suitable for small bore pipe such as is used for water service, overflows, etc. Strong lead service pipe, up to 1 in., can be easily bent by pulling round, if the bend is not made too sharp, and the plumber should Fig. 105.— Hand-made Trap. Fig. 106.— P-trap. always make his bends as easy as possible. When a sharp bend has to be made in a long piece of pipe, it is best to cut the pipe near to the place at which the bend is to be made ; then, when pulling round, if the throat contracts, it can be worked out to its proper size by means of what is called a bolt or tommy. This is made of iron or steel, with the ends well rounded and quite smooth, and is illus- trated by Fig. 7, p. 18. Some plumbers adopt the water or sand method for bending small pipes. In the former method the water should be poured in hot, and the ends plugged tightly or flattened close, and the soldering-iron run over the ends to keep the water from bursting out when the pressure of bending comes on it. In bending with sand, the sand may either be put in hot, or the pipe can be heated in the PIPE BENDING. 53 place where the bend is required. When rilling with sand, one end should be plugged, then the sand rammed in as tightly as possible till the pipe is nearly full, and the other end then flattened or plugged. Pipes should not be bent over anything sharp, but should be " humoured " as much as possible. The essential requirement is to keep the pipe full size at the bend, otherwise its effectiveness is reduced. Lead pipe is bent into a variety of shapes, and Figs. 100 to 103 show four of the chief. An ordinary right angle bend is shown by Fig. 100, a lead elbow by Fig. 101, an offset by Fig. 102, and a return bend by Fig. 103. The elbow shown by Fig. 104 is not an example of bending ; Fig. 107.— S-trap. Fig. 108.— Anti-D-trap. it is made by mitring the ends of the two pieces of pipe and then joining them with solder. Traps capable of being made by bending lead pipe are shown by Figs. 105 to 108, Tig. 105 illustrating the genuine homemade trap ; the in- scriptions give sufficient descriptions of the others. Sometimes a pipe bend is made out of sheet lead ; for example, by the following method, a lead bend can be made in halves out of 5-lb. sheet lead, and afterwards joined. The lead must be cut to the length, measured out- side, of the finished bend, and the width must be equal to half the circumference of the pipe. Thus, if the bend is to be 4 in. in diameter the lead should be ( J = 6'28, or say 6| in. wide. The edges must then be made 54 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. perfectly straight by rasping or by planing, and the pieces dressed on a 4-in. mandrel (a piece of 4-in. cast-iron rain- water pipe will serve the purpose), the place at which the bend is to be made being marked with chalk. One piece must be bent to the required angle, in order to form the keel or outside of the bend ; this will cause the sides to bulge outwards, and the bulge must be corrected by boss- ing the sides inwards to the desired extent, which will cause a slight thickening. The straight parts or ends must be kept to the right curve by frequent dressing on the mandrel. The other piece of lead must be bent the reverse way in order to form the throat of the bend ; and the bulged sides must be worked outwards in order to form the other half. Unless great care is taken in working the sides of the second half, the lead will be so reduced in thickness that it will break or tear. To lessen this risk as much as possible, the hollow in the throat should be worked out- wards, which will cause that part to be slightly thickened. After the two halves have been bossed to shape, the edges must be trimmed and accurately fitted together, then soiled inside and outside for a width of about 2 in., and shaved with a gauge-hook for a width of y\in. to \ in., when the seam is to be f in. or \ in. wide. The halves must then be laid in position on the bench, and the seam made by drawing with metal and a plumber's iron. The bend should then be turned over and the other seam soldered in a similar manner. Before beginning to make the bend draw the required shape with chalk on the bench, in order that the correct angle may be ensured. When many bends have to be made, a wooden or a cast-iron block, on which the halves can be worked, should be provided. 55 CHAPTER V. PIPE JOINTING. The two or three commonly employed processes of joint- ing lead and composition pipes will be the better under- stood when the styles and shapes of the principal joints have been illustrated. Figs. 109 to 138 have been prepared to show these joints in elevation and section, and the in- scription beneath the figures will serve equally as well as a lengthy description in the text. Figs. 139 tt) 141 show the application of some of these joints. Wiping joints, like other skilled arts, can only be learned by practice. But although the requisite skill of hand cannot be imparted, there are still many points upon which practical hints may prove helpful. Wiped joints are of two kinds, horizontal or under- hand, and upright, and it is commonly thought that the easiest way to make a horizontal joint is to roll the soft metal into shape. However, it is just as easy for a good plumber to make an ordinary underhand joint as it is to make a rolled joint. A rolled joint can only be made in a straight piece of lead pipe which can be rolled round on the bench. An underhand joint can be made on a hori- zontal pipe with bends in it, and when fixed in position. To make a rolled joint, the ends of the lead pipe are pre- pared as for any other method, and then secured to each other by means of "splints." These are pieces of thin board, or, better still, pieces of straight plasterer's laths, split up and pushed into the parts to be joined, so that the whole is as rigid as if it were one piece of pipe. After preparing the ends, the work is laid on two pieces of deal quartering 3 in. or 4 in. square, and about 2 ft. to 3 ft. long, laid crossways on the bench, so that the pipe can be rolled backwards and forwards on the blocks. If the joint is a small one, the plumber can manage by himself, and begin by pouring on the metal as for an underhand joint. When his heat is about right, he then with one hand holds 56 .PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. Figs. 109 and 110. — Copper Bit Joint. Figs. Ill and 112. — Ribbon Joint. illl i ill H !'h I'M /I III I 1 Figs. 113 and 114.— Coppsr Bit Figs. 115 and 116.— Flange Joint. Overcast Joint. Figs. 117 and 118. — Wiped Joint, Figs. 119 and 120.— Overcast Joint. PIPE JOINTING. 57 the cloth on the top of the solder, and rolls the pipe away from him with the other hand. He then lifts off the cloth, quickly rolls the pipe towards himself, replaces the cloth in position, the wiping hand having the fingers spread open to give the joint the proper roundness, and again rolls the pipe away from him. This process is repeated two or three Figs. 121 and 122.— Block Taffc Joint. Fig?. 123 and 12 k— Block Flange Joint. times, until the joint is of the right form and the solder is on the point of setting. Another way of making a rolled joint is for the plumber to use an upright, instead of underhand, cloth, which he holds on the near side of the joint, at the same time pour- ing solder on to the pipe and cloth whilst his mate slowly rolls the pipe towards the front side of the bench. On getting to that position, the mate quickly rolls the pipe to 58 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. Fig. 128.— Taf fc Joint. Fig. 129.— Taft Joint and Grating to Sink Figs. 130 and 131.— Joint of Service Pipe to Cistern. PIPE JOINTIS'd. 59 Fig. 136. Figs. 132 and 133. — Branch Soil-pipe Joint. Figs. 134 and 135.— Branch Soil-pipe Joint with Bend. Fig. 136. — Horizontal Branch Joint to Distribute Steam Right and Left, 60 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS 9 WORK. the back side of the bench, when the plumber again places the cloth in position and again pours, the pipe in the meantime being slowly rolled by his mate towards the wiper. As soon as the solder is at the right heat and in a plastic condition, he finishes off as described for the first method. For large joints, the pieces of pipe are mounted on a mandrel, and tightened up with thin splints forced Horizontal Branch Joint in Direction of Current. between it and the pipes, the mandrel having the ends laid in U-shaped notches cut into wood blocks and having a small winch handle for revolving during the time of wiping. Where a slow-speed lathe is handy, the mandrel and pipes can be mounted as for turning, and the joint made as above described. Before joint wiping can be begun, a supply of soil or smudge must be prepared. This material is best when PIPE JOINTING. 61 made up in small quantities, as it deteriorates, especially in hot weather, by keeping. The ingredients sufficient for an ordinary soil pot are a penny packet of lampblack, a piece of chalk about the size of a pigeon's egg, and i lb. Lead Soil-pip^ Wiped Soldered Joint Fig. 139. — Lead Soil-pipe Jointed to Stoneware Drain. Lead Soil-pipe. Wiped Soldered Joint Brass or Copper Thimble. Caulked Lead. Yarn or Lead Tape. Fig\ 110. — Lead Soil-pipe Jointed to Cast-iron Bend of size, or glue melted and diluted to the consistency of size. Some plumbers put in about a teaspoonful of brown sugar, but others object to this, as making the soil sticky. To make the soil, first put the size and a few tablespoon- fuls of water into the pot, and place on the hob or by the 62 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. side of the fire to melt, but do not allow it to boil or burn. Some plumbers use small gluepots, similar to carpenters', to prevent the size burning when being heated. Next crush and grind the chalk to a very fine powder, and mix and re-grind in conjunction with the lampblack. With a pallet-knife or similar tool incorporate some of the melted size with the mixture, on a flat board or stone, to form a thin paste, after which place the whole in the pot, re-warm, and thoroughly mix by stirring. A trial of the soil should be made on a piece of lead. If, after drying, it peels off, a little water should be added ; but if it is easily rubbed off, the size is not good or perhaps the lead is greasy. In the former case, use stronger size ; in the latter, well chalk the lead. When old soil has become too thick by reheating, a little porter or stout can be added to make it thinner ; but too much should not be used, or the soil will be so sticky that the solder will cling to it. Beer and sugar give a slightly glossy surface to the soil. Some plumbers soil their joints, after they are made, with black japan, or thinned Brunswick black. But it is doubtful whether the effect is as good as when a " dead " black, such as given by ordinary soil, is used. If the soil is to be washed off after the soldering is done, use paper- hangers' thin paste instead of ordinary soil. Instead of setting forth the principles of joint-wiping and leaving the application of them to the reader, it will be better to describe the process of preparing and wiping an " underhand ;; or horizontal joint on two pieces of, say, f-in. pipe. For practice cut off with a saw two pieces of pipe each 18 in. long. The saw used by plumbers is commonly 14 in. long in the blade, and of the pattern shown in Fig. 40 (p. 19). Dress the pipes out straight with a soft wood dresser. The soft wood dresser is usually made of horn- beam, and is of the form shown in Fig. 11 (p. 18). In the shops and on jobs which are expected to take a considerable time, generally a dresser is made out of a piece of quarter- ing, as shown in Fig. 142. It is easily made, is as useful as the design sketched in Fig. 11 (p. 18), and does not mark the pipe as a hard dresser does. It is also cheaper, as it costs nothing but the trouble of making it, the quartering being picked up on the job. PIPE JOINTING. 63 Iron Clip and Stays. Fi°\ 141. — Water-closet Connections. 64 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. The pipes having been dressed out straight, square the ends with the rasp, and prove that they are true by means of a square as shown in Fig. 143. Many plumbers are very particular, when making joints, to have every pipe-end perfectly square before using the turnpin or rasping off the arris. The result is seen in the greater neatness of their work. The burr should be cleaned out of the end of one pipe, and the outer arris rasped off, as shown in section by Fig. 144. The other pipe-end should now be opened by means of the turnpin, Fig. 44 (p. 19), until the first pipe will enter as far as it is rasped off. It will then appear as in the section to the right of Fig. 144. Both pipes should now be cleaned by wiping them with a clean rag or V . P . <3 . Fig. 112. —Dresser made from Quartering-. Fig. 111.— Lead Pipes Prepared for Jointing". Fig. 113. — Proving Squareness of Pipe End. glasspaper, and a little whiting or chalk rubbed on to kill the grease. The pipes are next marked 6 in. from the end by means of a gauge (Fig. 145), the scribing points being blunted so as not to cut into the lead. The gauge is held on th^ pipe with one hand while the pipe is revolved with the other. The end of the pipe, up to the 6-in. mark, is then soiled — that is, painted with soil or smudge, which should have been pre- viously warmed. If the soil " peels " off there is too much glue or size in it, or the pipe is greasy ; if it " rubs " off, it is too weak in size or glue. Try the soil on a piece of lead, and add water or size as the case may be. The soil is to prevent the solder adhering where it is not Pipe jointing. G5 required. When the soil is dry, mark the male pipe (to the left of Fig. 144) all round 1} in. from the end, and the female pipe 1^ in. from the end, by means of the gauge (Fig. 145). Next shave, by means of a shave-hook, the parts marked. Do not dig the shave-hook too deeply into the . i , r i i i Fig. H5. — Gauge for Marking Pipes. mark so as to gouge out the lead, but, firmly pressing the edge of the shave-hook into the mark, draw it towards the end of the pipe, leaving a bright surface. Be very care- ful to shave the whole of the part marked off, as an un- shaved streak will cause the joint to leak, the solder not being able to adhere to any part of the lead from which the soil has not been removed, for the pipe is soiled in the first instance in order to prevent the solder from adhering Fig. 146. — Pipes Fixed for Wiping, beyond the limits of the joint. Shave the rasped part of the male pipe and the inside of the female pipe as far as the one enters the other. Smear with tallow the parts of the pipes which have been shaved. The tallow acts as a flux, and causes the solder to alloy with the surface of the E 66 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. pipe. The solder flows in between the pipe ends and greatly strengthens the joint. The pipes, being now prepared, must be secured in position very rigidly. They can be laid, each piece upon two bricks set on edge, or upon two short pieces of quarter- ing, and held down on the bench by string, attached to holdfasts, as seen at A (Fig. 146), or secured to spikes driven into the bench, as illustrated at b. The width of a brick (4-J in.) is a convenient distance from the bench to have the pipe. If the pipe is nearer, the knuckles get burned with the solder, which drops off in getting up a heat. If the pipe is higher, the solder splashes as it falls, and burns the hands in that way. On the bench directly under the Fig. 117. — Underhand Wiping. joint put a piece of brown paper 10 in. square and four folds thick, or better still, a piece of thin sheet iron, for the purpose of catching the solder which falls off the joint in the process of making. With a pot of solder at the proper temperature near at hand, take a 3i-in. ladle in the right hand, and a wiping-cloth 4 in. square in the left hand, and begin. Stir up the solder in the pot so as to mix the tin, which rises to the top, with the lead, which sinks to the bottom ; take a ladleful and pour it on to the pipes very slowly and carefully. A beginner at wiping should practise forming his joints without any reference to wiping them until he can with confidence form a joint each time he tries. Then, forming PIPE JOINTING. 67 the joint quickly, he will wipe it round by keeping the cloth at the same curve all the way round and pressing on the edges so as to get them " clean " (see Figs. 147 and 148). The result will be seen in Fig. 149. Years ago plumbers always used the iron (Fig. 23, p. 18) Fig. li8.— Wiping Top of Joint. when making a joint, however small. In making the joint they proceeded in the manner described above, except that when the joint was formed they only wiped the under half without the iron, and finished the upper half with the iron, using it to keep up the heat. Fig. H9.— Wiped Joint. For plumbers' wiping-cloths, strong cotton bedtick, when old and soft, is sometimes used, but the best material is " fustian" or " moleskin." A pair of navvy's worn-out moleskin trousers will make up a good number of wiping cloths. New can be bought at any working man's tailor's, 63 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. but such cloth has to be boiled and washed to take out the "dressing" and make it soft. The "nap," too, has to be singed, otherwise the solder clings to it. It may be scorched by passing it over a gas flame, or quickly rubbing it over a red-hot iron. The cloth requires to be well greased before using, but too much must not be used or the joints will look dirty when finished. Another objection to too much grease is the injury to the hands, the muscles of which are contracted in the palms by the steam and heat which escape when the fat is at or near boiling point in wiping joints. Plumbers make their wiping-cloths them- selves according to their individual fancies as to size and thickness. The sizes of such cloths greatly vary, according to the length of the joints and the ideas of the plumber. For an upright joint on a 3^-in. pipe the cloth would be 4j in. long by 3 in. to 3^ wide, the thickness being 8 to 14 folds, accord- ing as the fustian is new or old, and having regard to the amount of "dressing" in it. Old is the softest and most pliable. For underhand joints a common size is 6 in. wide by 8 in. to 9 in. long. Some plumbers have them shorter, but young men burn their wrists with such cloths. Some men use a large cloth when pouring on the solder, and a smaller one, ready warmed, for wiping. The thickness for the underhand cloths is about the same as for the upright ; but this is a point upon which opinions differ. The above size for upright joints will answer for either 3-in., 3i-in., or 4-in. pipes ; but for underhand joints the above size can be reduced by about 1 to 2 in. in length for the 3-in. joints. An upright joint is one of the simplest joints a plumber has to make, but it requires not only the skill in manipula- tion, which can only be obtained by practice, but also that patient attention to detail which is given the most readily by the workman who can render a reason for his actions. The upright joint about to be described is made on a piece of 4-in. soil pipe, though joints of any size, from \ in. up to 6 in. or more, can be made by the same method. Begin by straightening the pipes and squaring up the ends. Then open one end of the pipe with a turnpin, rasp off the arrises of both pipes, and see that the bore of each pipe is free from burr. The pipes should be soiled for about 6 in., leaving a clean sharp edge, which may be PIPE JOINTING. 69 obtained by carefully wrapping a piece of straight-edged paper round the pipe, and allowing the soil to overlap the paper ; when the soil is dry, the paper can be removed. With a pair of compasses set at 2-in., or with a scribing gauge, scribe round the spigot pipe, and with the com- passes set at If in. scribe the socket pipe. This will allow I in. of one pipe to enter the other, and give a 3i-in. joint, which is the proper size for a 4-in. pipe. Carefully shave every part of the pipe between the scribed lines and the end, using only enough pressure to remove a very thin shaving ; if any part of the pipe is left unshaved, the solder will not adhere to it ; and if too much pressure is used, the pipe will be weakened at the junction of the soiling and the shaving. To keep the air from Fig. 150. Fi«r. loi. Figs, 150 and 151.— Collars for Catching Wasted Metal. tarnishing it, and to act as a flux, rub a tallow candle (or, as it is sometimes called, a touch) over the shaved part. The pipe can now be fixed ready for wiping. To catch the wasted metal when wiping the joint, a platform or collar will be required. To make it, procure two pieces of f-in. floor-board 1 ft. long, place them edge to edge, and having found the centre describe on the boards a circle, of 4j in. in diameter, in such a way that there shall be half a circle on each board. These half-circles should be cut out with a pad saw, and provision should be made for pinning the boards together, as shown at A in Fig. 150. Four screws should be inserted, as at b, for holding the edges of the boards together with string. The boards should be soiled all over, and they can of course be used again and again. An alternative method of making a collar is shown in 70 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. Fig. 151, which represents a piece of sheet lead containing a circle 12 in. in diameter and a projecting tongue, c being the 4j-in. opening, and the line D snowing where the lead has been cut for convenience in encircling the pipe. Fig. 152 shows the boards in position ; the lead collar is applied in the same manner. Fasten the pipes against the wall by tying them to spikes driven into the joints of the brick- Fig. 152. — Upright Joint Ready for Wiping. work (Fig. 152). Fig. 153 shows the pipes ready for fitting ; care should be taken to ensure perfect contact, otherwise the solder will run down and form " tear-drops ,; inside the pipe. In learning to wipe a soldered pipe joint (see Fig. 154), it is very much better to proceed by stages than to try to wipe all at once. The first stage is pouring on the metal and " tinning ; - the joint,or causing n film of solder to alloy PIPE JOINTING. - 71 with the surface of the pipe. The second stage is to form the joint of the shape required, and the third and final stage is to wipe it smooth. When the preparations already de- scribed have been made, the solder melted, and the iron Fig. 153. —Pipes Ready for Fitting'. made hot, the joint should be splashed with the molten metal, by the aid of the splash-stick, until the pipe is hot enough and sufficient metal has accumulated on it for the cloth to be used ; in judging the right temperature, ex- perience is the surest guide. Great care is necessary in melting the metal ; it is too hot when a piece of paper dipped into it bursts into flame ; if the paper turns brown Fig. 154. — Wiping Upright Joint. and smokes, it is at the right heat. If the surface of the paper is unchanged, the metal requires further heating. If allowed to get red hot, the solder deteriorates. The soldering-iron also should be heated to the proper tempera- ture, and the bulb filed clean and bright. The novice n PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORE. should pour the metal on to the shaved part, and on about two inches of the soiled part at each end of the joint. The cloth is held under the part being poured on, to catch the surplus solder. As the solder runs down the sides of the pipes and is caught in the cloth, it is pressed up against the bottom to help to get up the heat, and also to tin the pipes. As soon as the pipe is well tinned, the solder poured on is formed into the shape of a joint. Quickness and dexterity in using the cloth and the iron are the es- sentials of joint-wiping, and no amount of theoretical know- ledge will compensate for their absence. The cloth used for the above joint should be folded to six thicknesses, and should measure, when folded, about 4j in. square. Begin at the top of the joint, and with the hot iron in one hand, and the cloth, which should be previously warmed, in the other, rub the iron over the metal on the joint and wipe round with the cloth quickly and lightly, working downwards until the joint is finished. Wipe the edges clean ; ragged edges are the mark of a slovenly workman. When the joint has partially cooled, it may be cleaned and brightened by rubbing it oyer with tallow and wiping off with a clean soft rag. The joint will crack and sweat if it is knocked before the solder has set ; the final operations, therefore, of removing the collar and re-soiling the pipe to show up the joint, should be carefully performed. All wasted metal should, of course, be collected and returned to the pot. The amount of solder for wiping joints used by plumbers in different parts of the country varies very much. For conveying water under pressure the following weights are a fair average. The value can be found by multiplying by the price of the solder per lb. : — Size of pipe in inches | § | f 1 lj li If 2 2£ 3 3£ 4 Solder in lbs § } 1 1 l\ l\ If 2\ 2f 3 3j 4 4£ Even when working on the bench, there is a certain amount of solder wasted by splashing about when wiping, and in the form of dross when melting ready for use, but when working in houses, and especially in new buildings, or when making joints in difficult positions, the waste is often found to be considerable, PIPE JOINTING. 73 Lead and composition pipes of small bore and substance can be soldered together by copper bit or blowpipe, but the wiped joint is the stronger. To make either joint, the end of one pipe is opened to receive the end of the other. The opened end is reduced in thickness, and the outer edge only is strengthened by the solder when made with a copper bit ; the thinned part at the bottom of the cup or socket is not so strengthened. Hence the superiority of the wiped joint, in which the whole of the weakened parts are covered with a good thickness of solder. With service pipes, say, 2 in. or 3 in. in diameter and the lead \ in. or | in. thick, sufficient heat could not be applied by means of a copper- bit to make a reliable joint, even when placed in a favour- Fig-. 155. — Brass Ring and Solder Joint. able position. A leaden jack pump put together, and the suction-pipe joined on with copper-bit joints, would last but a short time. It is only the unskilful plumber who holds that the latter method is as good as wiping. Even if the copper-bit joints were the stronger, it would be difficult to make them when the pipes are in their in- tended positions or when fixed horizontally. When copper- bits are used each man requires a fire or stove near him, thus adding to the risk of setting fire to the building. When wiping is the practice, one fire is sufficient for heat- ing several pots of solder, and the fire can be in an out- building or where there would be little risk of injury. Small joints could probably be made with the copper-bit in a little less time than wiping, but for all-round work a skilful plumber could wipe joints as fast as solder them with a bit. It is only on small jobbing works where it is 74 PR AC TIG AL PLUMBERS' WORK. difficult to get a fire for heating a pot of solder that the bit has an advantage in time. The wiped joint is rather difficult to make well and neatly, except by first-class workmen. The form of joint illustrated in Fig. 155 can, however, be made by any fairly competent workman, and gives a good joint with a very small amount of solder. A and b are the two ends of lead pipes to be joined ; c is a turned ring of brass, steel, or other suitable metal that cannot be fused by solder ; d is Fig. 156. — Lead Pipe Screw Coupling. the solder filling up the space between the lead pipes and the ring. Such joints have been carefully tested, and found to withstand a greater pressure than the pipe itself. A joint of this type for a 1-in. pipe requires only 1 oz. of solder, whereas a wiped joint would require 20 oz. The essential part of the joint is the brass ring c, which forms a support for the solder d, and reduces the workman's task merely to wiping off the superfluous metal. Many methods have been adopted for coupling lead pipes to pumps and other machinery, but as all these methods possess certain features in common, only one PIPE JOINTING. 75 example need be illustrated. This is shown in Fig. 156. In this case A is a casting to which the lead pipe b has to be connected. The casting is screwed on the outside and fitted with a nut, c. d is a bush placed over the pipe b and inside the nut c. The outside of the casting a is —Plumber's Soldering' Lamp. coned at the end to fit the inside of the bush D, so that when the nut is tightened the lead pipe is coned and a tight joint effected. For wiping a joint, using a splash-stick and a soldering iron, take a ladleful of metal, and with the splash-stick splash the solder on to the joint and soiling to get up the heat (the iron should be heating at the same time). When 76 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. the pipes are sufficiently heated and there is enough solder on them to form the joint, take the iron, heated to a dull red, and rub it with a file to take off the dirt and Fig. 160. — Bolt-pin or Tommy. Fig'. 159. — Badly-made Branch Joint. scale ; then rub the iron all over the solder on the joint, and wipe as before. It is very handy at times to be able to make a joint without the use of metal-pot or iron, and this can easily Fig. 161. — Wiping Branch Joint. be done with a good blowlamp. To make the joint, take a strip of plumbers' solder run out about 15 in. or 16 in. long, and with the lamp warm up the joint (previously prepared as for wiping in the ordinary way) ; then melt off portions of the solder, and keep the soft solder more or PIPE JOINTIXG. 11 less in shape with the stick. Do not keep the lamp right on it full blast, but if the metal runs too fast and drops off, withdraw it a little or check the flame with the regu- lator. Having got sufficient solder on the joint and roughly shaped it, promptly pick up the cloth and wipe as before. A plumber's soldering and brazing lamp is shown by Fig. 157. A branch joint (show T n by Fig. 136, p. 59) is prepared by cutting a hole in one pipe somewhat smaller than the pipe that is to enter it, and working it up to a kind of ;. i £*'-- HH .:%,- w >■ ;: £ If . - ** /'-■'-£ >>r^-:.' ■«jT ' "" -ti^™ * . 4a^~r. ^^L :'mm^ ~ ^ ■ safe j Fig'. 162. — Wiping: Branch Joint. socket, as shown by Fig. 158. The entering pipe should never project into the other pipe further than the depth of this socket, or it would, in the case of waste or soil- pipe, cause obstructions. Fig. 159 shows a section of a badly-fitted branch joint, the proper way being shown by Figs. 133 and 135 (p. 59). The socket is worked up by means of the bolt-pin, or tommy (Fig. 160), which is inserted in the hole and struck with a hammer. Great care must be taken in fitting branch joints that they fit perfectly close, or the solder will run through. The wiping process (see Figs. 161 to 163) will be similar to that already described. 78 PKJCTICAL PLUMBEBtf WORK. Taft joints (Figs. 121 and 122, p. 57) arc not much in favour with skilled plumbers. They are much decried by some, but if properly constructed they are a strong, use- ful joint. The method of operation is to taft back the edge of the lower pipe from 1 in. to 1\ in., according to the size of the pipe, and here is where many spoil the joint. A and b (Fig. 164) respectively show bad and good tafting ; at a the pipe is shown flanged back quite sharp and square. It is thus rendered very weak at the angle, where it is liable to break off should there be any weight Fig. 163. — Wiping 1 Branch Joint. or expansion and contraction of the pipe ; but if made with an easy curve, as shown at b (Fig. 164), the joint when completed (see Fig. 122, p. 57) is a very good one. It is probably the easiest of all wiped joints to make. After tafting back the pipe, shave the inside, soil the top pipe 4 or 5 in., and shave the end l\ in. ; place in position, "touch" round, and either pour or splash on the solder, and when sufficiently plastic wipe as before described. The flange joint may be of either of the forms shown by Figs. 115 (p. 56) and 165. It is used mostly where a small pipe comes through a floor. To make the form shown by Fig. 165, first cut a lead collar or flange 3 in. or 4 in. larger PIPE JOINTING. 79 in diameter than the pipe that is to pass through it ; cut a hole the exact size of the pipe, and slip it over it, then cut the pipe off so that it stands up f in. or 1 in. above the flange. This is best done with a tenon saw and piece of board the thickness of the stand-up desired. Next drive the turnpin in to swell the pipe out a little, and then wwk the pipe down on the collar ; prepare and make the joint as described for the taft joint. In Fig. 165, a repre- sents the floor, b the lead collar or flange, c the lower pipe, d the upper pipe, and the dotted lines the wiped soldering. To make the form of joint shown by Fig. 115 (p. 56) the instructions given in the previous paragraph will largely apply. -Bad and Good Taft Joints. Fig. 165. — Section of Flange Joint. The block flange joint (Fig. 124, p. 57) is stronger than the plain flange joint. The wood block through which the pipe passes is fixed in the wall to support the pipe. This block is dished out as shown, and the lead flange, with a hole cut in it, that will just admit the pipe, is dressed down into it ; the pipe is then passed up through the block and flange, and the turnpin driven in as previously men- tioned to open out the pipe. Now, instead of dressing it sharply back on the flange, it is left as shown in the sectional view (Fig. 124), so that the solder will run under- neath as wel as above the tafting, thus forming a very strong substantial point. Of course it will be noted that the outside of the pipe that is tafted back will require to be shaved and " touched ?; as well as the inner part. It SO PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK, is also advisable to tin the lead flange before putting in place, to ensure more perfect cohesion between the parts. This class of joint is mostly used when soil or vent pipes are fixed in the interior of dwellings, in a chase or cut- ting left in the wall for that purpose. An astragal joint is shown in elevation and section by Figs. 125 and 126 (p. 58), and it consists of a soldered joint with ornamental mouldings, or astragals, round the pipe. For the astragals, a pattern of the design is first made in wood, and from this a print is made in damp, loamy soil, in which molten lead is poured to form a cast- ing. If many are required, the wood pattern should be sent to a foundry, and a flask made in gun-metal, from which any number can be cast. These do not require so much cleaning up to make them look smart as those cast in sand. For fixing them to the lead soil pipes the back sides are tinned with a copper bit, and also corresponding parts on the pipes. The astragals are then folded about three parts round the pipe, and 9 in. apart, and " sweated ' on by means of a blowpipe. If this is neatly done, no solder will be visible. The tack (the plain flat part shown in Figs. 125 and 126) should be cut out of 8-lb. sheet lead, about 9 in. square, the edges trued and trimmed, one end soiled 3 in. and shaved 1 in. wide ; corresponding spaces for a pair of tacks, prepared on the soil pipe, between the astragals and soldered seams, are then wiped or floated with metal and a plumber's iron. Cast-lead tacks have an advantage, as the nail holes are strengthened by having an extra thickness of the metal round them. A cast tack and pipe are show^n in elevation and horizontal section by Fig. 166 ; a folding tack and pipe are similarly shown by Fig. 167, and a soldered face tack and pipe by Fig. 168. The letters in Figs. 166 to 168 merety indicate the line of section. Expansion joints are of many kinds. An ordinary one is similar to a slip joint, but an indiarubber or asbestos ring is used instead of any packing or jointing material which would become hard. .The first-named joint is gener- ally used on outside lead soil pipes, and the latter two for waste pipes, but chiefly for those through which hot water passes. Although a lead pipe can be wiped to a cast-iron pip 3 PIPE JOINTING. 81 with a fair amount of ease, the joint will not stand satis- factorily. The best way is to file clean the end of the cast-iron pipe and then coat it with pure tin, using sal- ammoniac as a flux. The pipe is then washed to remove the sal-ammoniac, and afterwards re-tinned, using resin and grease as a flux. A plumber's joint (3^ in. long for 4 in. pipes) is then wiped in the usual way. Great pains will now have been taken to make a good, sound, strong joint Fig. 166. — Elevation and Section of Cast Tack and Pipe. Fig*. 167. — Elevation and Section of Folding Tack and Pipe. between the two metals. Nevertheless, in the course of time (it may be only a few years) the iron will come out of the solder. The first sign of decay will be a red ring of iron rust showing at the end of the joint. This rust will swell a little and cause the end of the soldering slightly to curl outwards. Eventually the rust will creep between the solder and the iron and destroy the adhesion of the one to the other. Only those metals that alloy together can be satisfactorily joined by soft soldering, and the solder f 82 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. should contain as great a proportion as possible of the metals that are to be united. The joint would, if out of doors, be subjected to temperatures ranging over 90° F. ; under such conditions the solder would expand '001251 in., and the iron would expand '000549 in., or less than half as much as the solder. The joint would therefore eventually become a loose ring on the iron pipe, but not on the lead pipe, as the expansion of lead and solder do not differ much. Numerous experiments have been tried for overcoming the, difficulty of wiping joints on ordinary tin-lined pipes, but the only method which has been found to approach success has been to insert a long nipple of tinned sheet iron ; this method, however, has not been wholly success- ful with the ordinary make of tinned pipe. However, on a new kind of tin-lined pipe, wiped joints can be made very easily, without the tin lining melting. It would often be a convenience if copper pipes could be united satisfactorily by wiping, but plumbers' wiped joints are of no use with copper tube, for the expansion and contraction will not permit them to remain sound, as many hot-water engineers know to their cost ; brazed joints would be satisfactory, though troublesome to make. If copper pipe is thick enough to be threaded, have the fit- tings threaded also, and screw them together the same as with iron pipe, except that with long runs there must be ex- pansion joints or other provision made for expansion. Even when a wiped joint on copper pipes is strongly made by " sweating " ona sleeve and then wiping a joint over the whole, it is doubtful if it would be permanent. It is very probable that electrolysis would set in, if the pipe is in damp ground. However, should circumstances suggest that a wiped joint might answer, the work is done as de- scribed below. Wiped joints on copper pipes are longer than wiped joints on lead or composition pipes. Copper pipes 2 in. or more in diameter have joints from 3^ in. to 4 in. long, 4-in. pipes have joints about 5 in. long ; but it must be re- membered that whilst reasonable length and thickness of joint are necessary to enable the copper pipe to withstand pressure and strain, the maximum time of service does not depend on the length or thickness of the joint as in lead- PIPE JOINTING. 83 pipe work. That which determines practically the life of the joint is the extent of pipe which is carefully tinned be- fore making the wiped joint. If the interiors of the two pipe ends are tinned, say, for 6 in. to 8 in., if the joint is cut open, in a few years' time, it is found that the tinning has diminished to 2 in. or 3 in., a corroding action having taken place at the end of the tinning ; for this reason it is advisable that the tinning be fairly thick, so as to retard the separation and ultimate failure of the joint. In tinning copper, first thoroughly clean it with dilute sulphuric acid Fig*. 169. — Copper Pipes Prepared for Jointing:. "Q Fig". 170. — Wiped Joint on Copper Pipes. Fig. 168.— Soldered Face Tack and Pipe. or scour with sand and water, and then rinse it with chloride of zinc, known as killed spirits. Melt some pure tin, throw in sal-ammoniac as a flux, and dip the copper in the tin, or pour or rub the latter over the copper. In pipes forming a portion of a distillery plant it is especially important that untinned spots are not left on the interiors of the pipe ends, as at such spots the destruction of the tinning commences at once. In Fig. 169, which is a part sectional view of the two pipe ends prepared for jointing, A shows the extent of the tinning, which is on the exterior and interior of the pipe ends and on the edges also. Fig. 170 shows the tinned ends slipped together ready for Si PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. wiping, the form of the required joint being shown by the dotted lines. The pipe is strengthened by putting one pipe within the other, and the corrosion of the tinning is ar- rested when it reaches the lap. If sufficient lap is given, the pipe may be handled before the joint is wiped — a great convenience. The pipe ends are placed together, when practicable, over the iron pot containing the molten solder, which is then poured continuously over the joint until a heat is got up. This practice is not possible with lead or brass pipes, because in the one case the lead would melt, and in the other the molten zinc would leave the brass and ruin the solder. When the pipes cannot be moved, a grain scoop (a kind of shovel) is placed beneath the joint and the solder poured on (rapidly. When a thorough heat has been obtained, the joint can be wiped, with the aid of a cloth and of the mushy solder from the scoop, in much the same way as a joint on a lead pipe is wiped. Plumbers are constantly called upon to make soldered joints in small-bore composition pipes used for conveying gas or water. The soldering of compo pipes is best done with a blowlamp ; this is the general practice, the copper- bit being used only for tinning, though it can of course be used for making any joints required in gasfitting. A tool that simplifies joint-making is shown in Fig. 171. It con- sists of two pieces of sheet copper soldered into the form of cones, and then joined together. A similar tool, made of sheet iron with a cutting edge, can be purchased ready made, but it thins the pipe too much ; the tool shown in Fig. 171 can be made in an hour, and answers its purpose perfectly. The joint shown in Fig. 172 is called a copperbit joint, and to make it the pointed end of the bit is inserted in the pipe and pressed down, and at the same time turned round, thereby opening the pipe. The end of the other piece of pipe is contracted or tapered, and is firmly pressed with a screw motion into the open end of the first piece of pipe, and it will be found that they are held well together, and that a practically tight joint is made before soldering. When ready for soldering, slightly open the socket pipe end with a turn-pin, to form a bed for the solder, and, after scraping the parts clean, rub the joint with tallow and press the pipes firmly together. Having placed a tin con- PIPE JOINTING. 85 taining crushed resin within easy reach, light the lamp, take a stick of fine solder in the right hand- and the blow- lamp in the left, and blow a flame round the joint (taking care not to keep the flame long in one place or the pipe will melt), hold the end of the solder in the flame until hot, dip it in the resin and rub round the joint. When the pipe is hot enough to melt the solder, cease blowing, and press the solder all round the joint, with a dotting motion, using the lamp as required. When enough solder to form the joint has been deposited on the pipe, the solder is made to flow by again heating ; it will then form a collar as shown in the illustration. Cease blowing directly there is any sign of the pipe melting, and avoid having too much solder on the joint, or it will run down over the ledge left Fig. 172. — Copper- bit Joint. Fig. 171.— Tool for Making Joints. Fig. 173.— Branch Joint in Composition Pipes. to hold it and disfigure the joint. The resin is removed by rubbing round the joint with tallow and wiping off with clean rag, but be sure the joint is set before disturbing it. A branch joint (Fig. 173) is made by running a file across the pipe to remove part of the metal, and then with a brewer's gimlet or a knife making an opening, say J- in. less than the diameter of the pipe to be inserted ; a piece of round wood, tapered, that just enters this hole is inserted with a screwing motion that slightly burrs up the sides of the hole and makes it circular, ensuring a perfect fit with the spigot pipe. Slightly contract the end of the pipe to be fitted, as in making the copperbit joint, and insert it in position with a gentle pressure until a tight fit is obtained. Scribe round at the junction, take out and cut off the end 86 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. of the pipe to J in. of the scribed line, run the round file across the opening to form a seat for the solder, cut away any projections from the inside of each pipe, then rub with tallow, and press the pipes together and solder. In making a branch joint at the side when it is impossible to get underneath with the lamp, the solder is put on at the sides, and when heated carefully can be made to flow underneath. A bit of looking-glass held under the joint will show if the joint is a good one. Before brass or copper fittings can be soldered to compo, the end that requires fixing must be tinned — that is, covered with a coating of solder. The usual fittings are to be bought ready tinned, but it is the usual practice to re-tin them, as the coating given by the manufacturer is generally insufficient to make a good joint. The end to be tinned is filed perfectly clean, care being taken that no pairt is missed or the solder will not adhere. Have ready a well-heated copperbit and a supply of fine solder ; some powdered resin is sprinkled on the brass and the copperbit and solder immediately rubbed on it, more resin or solder being added as necessary ; when it is well covered with solder, finish by drawing any drops of solder from the end of the brass towards the opposite end, be- cause any globules or drops of solder left on the brass will, when it is placed inside the compo pipe and heat applied, melt and run down inside the pipe, making it difficult to secure a proper joint. The end of the compo pipe is then opened out to admit the brass, which is pressed firmly into the pipe, the flame of the lamp being directed chiefly on the brass. As brass is a good conductor of heat, it is necessary in tinning small fittings to hold them with a pair of pliers, or to adopt some such contrivance as a piece of wood driven into the brass and used as a handle ; by the latter method much better control is obtained than by using pliers. 87 CHAPTER VI. LEAD-BURNING. The art of lead-burning, although very properly allied to the plumbing trade, was not generally recognised until quite recently as being part of the plumber's craft. It is, however, a most useful acquisition, and the introduction of lead-burning tests into the Practical Examinations in Plumbers' Work of the City and Guilds of London In- stitute renders it imperative that the student should be well acquainted with both the theory and the practice. The term lead-burning, although generally accepted anrl understood, is not strictly accurate, as the lead or metal is not really burned, but is fused. The process is also sometimes referred to as autogenous soldering. This term is also incorrect, as solder is not used in connection with lead-burning ; however, a strip of pure lead is applied in much the same way as a stick of solder is in the ordinary process of soft-soldering. Briefly, lead-burning is a pro- cess by which two pieces of lead may be joined by fusion. The credit of the invention of lead-burning is due to a Frenchman, who in 1838 found that by a combination of hydrogen and oxygen a flame could be produced that would unite certain metals which melt at comparatively low temperatures, and especially lead and tin. Although a very useful process, and one easily ac- quired, very few plumbers know how to do lead-burning, and the few who have the necessary knowledge and prac- tice endeavour to keep it to themselves as much as pos- sible, so that others who know little about it regard lead- burning as a very dangerous operation, and content them- selves with soldering or brazing any piece of work which may require connecting. There are two methods of lead-burning. In the first the junctures of the two sheets of metal are scraped clean and bright, the joint bedded in sand so as to form a channel from end to end, each side of the channel is soiled to pre- vent adhesion of lead, and lead heated above its melting 83 TRACT LGAL PLUMBERS' WORK. point is poured along the channel until the lead junctures fuse together. The surplus lead is then shaved off. In the second method a blowpipe is employed, and the flame is fed with hydrogen gas generated in a vessel on the spot. A foot-blower is employed to force a stream of atmospheric air into a stream of hydrogen gas, and the jet of flame is directed on to the cleaned joint, and this flame melts the lead as it is moved along the juncture. It is this second system that is generally meant when the term "lead-burning " is used. This system of joining metals has many advantages over soldering. The difficulty of making joints where pure tin has to be dealt with is entirely overcome by burning. For lining tanks for chemical purposes, or making chemical apparatus, where solder would be quickly destroyed, lead-burning is the only method which can be adopted ; for joining seams or pipes for lining stone tanks where wiping is extremely difficult, or sinks to which hot water is laid on, it can also be successfully employed. An advantage of lead-burning over soldering is that only one metal is used, and corrosion by electrolysis, or voltaic action, does not take place as when another metal, such as tin in solder, is in contact in a wet position. The only circumstances in plumbers' work in which burning must be insisted upon are in chemical works or manu- factories where chemical acids are used. The pipes, tanks, acid chambers, etc., have to be made of lead, which should be as pure as possible, free from alloys of other metals (excepting when hardened by antimony for special pur- poses, such as acid pumps), and joined together without the aid of solders of any kind. Lead-burning is extensively employed in the fitting up of a chemical plant, in which wood and stone tanks must be lined with sheet lead, while lead-piping is largely used. All seams and joints in connection with this work must be burned, as not only is solder subject to chemical action, but where heat is applied the unequal expansion and con- traction would quickly break the joints or seams. Labora- tory fittings, such as sinks, trays, benches, etc., which are generally covered or lined with lead, and the various appliances in connection with chemical experiments, all have to be burned where a joint or seam is necessary. LEAD BURNING. 89 In connection with domestic plumbing arrangements the burning process may be used to advantage in making the seams on lead soil-pipes, for the fixing on of astragals, fete. An upright joint on the face of a building is difficult to make ; and when the pipe is exposed to the direct rays of the sun, the life of a burned joint would be very con- siderably longer than that of a wiped joint. The joint can be made in any position, and damage to the building through the cutting of brickwork or the fixing of special arrangements necessary for joint wiping is of course en- tirely avoided. An extra branch may be put in without disturbing the stack. The only disadvantage in this con- nection is that a brass ferrule cannot be fixed to a lead pipe by this process, but in connecting a metallo-ceramic joint such as Doulton's to a lead soil-pipe, the process may be usefully employed. In the lining of sinks and trays with lead the seams are easily and securely made, and there is equal expansion and contraction of the metal throughout. Lead-burning apparatus consists of an appliance by which hydrogen gas can be freely generated, and a machine by which air can be forced along, also a quantity of rubber tube, and a junction piece and jet. Hydrogen may be produced in many ways, but the method most in favour is by the action of diluted sulphuric acid on zinc. When these two substances are brought into contact with each other, the sulphuric acid is split up, forming zinc sulphate and giving off hydrogen, thus: — Zn + H 2 S0 4 = ZnS0 4 + H 2 . Hydrogen is the lightest substance known, and is colourless, invisible, and in- odorous. It is taken as a standard by which all other gases are compared for weight. When in free combination with atmospheric air, it forms a highly explosive mixture, and this fact must be borne in mind when the lead-burning apparatus is being used. If due care is exercised, there need be no uneasiness on the part of the operator ; but he should not hold a light over or near the generating machine, nor should he attempt to light the outlet tap in order to ascertain whether or not hydrogen is being pro- duced. The old type of lead-burning machine consisted of an open cylinder, from 3 ft. to 4 ft. high, and about 1 ft. in 90 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. diameter, holding the acid and lined with lead. A closed vessel known as an ometer, containing the zinc, was im- mersed in the cylinder, and a pipe from the top of the ometer carried off the gas (see Fig. 174). This was a simple appliance, easily cleaned and charged, but its dis- advantage lay in the fact that if gas was generated in larger volume than was required by the operator, it was wasted ; and the ometer, when not in use, had to be lifted out of the cylinder, and when again immersed occupied some little time before it was ready for use. The air was generally supplied from a circular bellows encased in an iron frame and worked by an assistant. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 175. The actual dimensions of the old-type machine shown by Fig. 174 are 3 ft. high and 14 in. in diameter. There are two cases, or chambers, the outer one being usually a cylindrical vessel, lined with lead ; this is half filled with a mixture of sulphuric acid and water — about a quart of acid to two gallons of water. The chamber d is an en- closed lead vessel, with a pipe leading from the top, and a loose lead bottom which can be taken out when required. Into this receptacle is placed from 4 lb. to 6 lb. of zinc spelter ; and, when it is immersed in the dilute acid, the liquid finds its way among the zinc through perforations in the bottom of the inside case, and chemical action is set up, hydrogen gas being generated. This, when the tap o is turned on, is conveyed along a rubber tube to a junction, where it is mixed with air, forced along from the bellows (Fig. 175) and carried to the jet, which is a small brass tube with a cap screwed on the end. In this cap is a small hole, through which the gas is emitted, and when a light is applied to it a long, thin jet of flame is produced, which gives little or no light, but an intense heat, and when the flame is applied to the surface of metal it readily fuses it. Should such a machine come into the hands of the reader, it should be operated as follows : — When the machine is charged with the acid, water, and zinc, and the ometer is immersed, open the tap at the top and let out the air. Then close it, and allow the machine to stand for a short time, until the aeid has begun to act on the zinc. Meanwhile connect the pipes to the tap and the bellows, and then, whilst an assistant operates the bellows, the LEAD EUBNING. 91 v/, , .;-"-, ./' ^^<^ %&^^J KIP 7^'/^ , y '-:■ ~, .TT^Z, v/^y 1 r calculating the water that falls on the roof, first find the area of that portion emptying into the centre gutter; assume it to be 32 ft. by 43 ft., o.r 1,376 super ft. If, during a rain-storm, \ in. of water falls in ten minutes, 1,376 ^ (2 x 12) = 57^ cub. ft. This, taken as 1 in. deep by width of gutter, or 1 ft. = 688 lin. ft. Then, 688 ft. by 1 in. deep, runs out of the gutter in ten minutes, or 68*8 ft. in one minute, or 1*146 ft. in one second. The gutter having a fall of 1^ in. in 9 ft., or one in seventy-two, the water would attain a velocity of about 3 ft. per second. This velocity would cause the water to be of less depth than 1 in. To find the actual depth, VU6 * l ln ' = -382, or a little over f in. This shows the gutter to be of ample size. A 3-in. down-pipe, with hopper head, would be quite large enough. The rainfall of \ in. in ten minutes is extraordinary, but it has actually occurred. Water grooves to prevent water being drawn in by capillary attraction are necessary in all laps or passings where these are on either flat or sloping roofs, but not when the laps and passings are in upright positions. Fig. 246 is a plan of a drip in a box gutter, showing the lap on the curb of the roof ; Fig. 247 is an elevation of the lap on the curb; Fig. 248 is a section of the curb. Fig. 249 is a section on A b of the water groove, drawn to a larger scale. The water groove is shown by double dotted lines in Figs. 246 and 247, and by firm lines on Fig. 248. The proper way of laying lead valley gutters (Figs. 238 and 239, p. 119) is as follows : — Have the bottom of the gutter covered with good boards, 4 in. wide, planed to an even surface, the grain of the wood arranged parallel with the length of the gutter. Arrange a drip of 2 in. every 7 ft., and allow a fall of 1 in. between drips. Fix the tilting fillets on each side 3 in. from the sole of the gutter, and allow the lead to lie 6 in. under the slates. The laying of a lead flat will now be discussed. For LEAD WORK OX ROOFS. 123 a proper lead flat, the boards should be laid to a fall of about 2 in. in 10 ft., with their grain in the direction of the current, and they should be quite free from bumps and irregularities. If too much fall is given, the lead will " crawl ;; down, unless special means are taken to prevent it. Drips should not be less than 2 in. deep. Rolls should be 2 in. thick, and fixed 2 ft. 9 in. apart. The lead should be "soft ;; milled or cast, of equal thickness, and weigh not less than 7 lb. per square foot, and be turned up 6 in. Fig-. 247. — Elevation of Lap on Curb. Fig. 218.— Section of Curb. Fig. 2ly. — Section showing- Fig. 246.— Plan of Drip in Box Gutter. Water Groove. against walls. Copper nails lj in. long should be used fo. nailing the lead where necessary, but the fixings should not be too rigid, or so as to resist expansion of the lead. Flashings should be of 5-lb. lead, turned into walls not less than lj in., hang 3 in. over the stand-up lead on flat, and be fixed with lead wedges. The free edges of flash- ings should be secured by means of 6-lb. lead " tacks " 3 in. wide. Copper tacks are sometimes used, and are very good, but with zinc tacks a voltaic action sets up between the metals, and the zinc is soon destroyed. 124 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. The finishing off of rolls and drips on a lead flat is a subject of misunderstanding to many plumbers, who think that the overcloak should finish as at a (Figs. 250 and 251), whereas the correct method is that shown by c (Fig. 252) and D (Fig. 251). By continuing the overcloak about 1 in, to lj in. on to the flat, the edge of the lead is stiffened. Fig. 250. Fig, 251. Figs. 250 and 251. — Overcloak Wrongly Finished. Without this the edge opens away from the roll, especially when careless people step upon it, and wind and rain get beneath. In practice, it is found that water will not rise so high, by capillarity, with the lay-piece left on. The fold round the roll acts as a fixing by its grip, and, in addition to its usefulness, the work looks much better. When the overcloak lead is cut short as shown at a (see Figs. 250 and 251) the lead does not fit tightly to the roll Fig. 252. — Overcloak Correctly Finished. or drip, and there is nothing to prevent the lead rising when expanded by heat, and the free edge is also liable to be blown up by a high wind, or to be pressed outwards, as shown by dotted lines at b b, by anyone stepping on the rolls or on the edges of the drips. When the free edges are thus opened, water, when rain is falling, will LEAD WORK ON HOOFS. 125 splash beneath and thus wet and eventually rot the wood- work. Cutting the head short does not prevent the water rising by capillary action, but really shortens the distance the water has to travel to reach the woodwork. Lead *»,««„,'"(, <<"<«'"""<< i ""<""'«-<. ^ " ; +-27 - «- 2 7 - 1 1 *-1 J 7*-> i 1 I «j$ 76-- r-JSH *-■ %& — si - - - -I Fig. 253.— Setting Out Lead Flat. should be fixed to allow for expansion, or it will break ; and the lead overcloak should grip the roll tightly enough to form a fixing, and yet allow for expansion. Fig 253 shows how to set out a flat, 16 ft. by 8 ft., hav- ing bays, gutter, and cesspool ; 7-lb. lead should be used for the flat, gutter, and cesspool, and 5-lb. for the flashings. Dimensions of flat : — 16' 0" Total length of flat. Turn up against end walls. For the rolls, allowing 3j" under-cloak, and 6i" over-cloak — 1" for base of each roll. = Total length of lead on flat only. Length of bays. Turn up against top wall. Turn down into gutter. 7 10 = Total length of lead on flat only. Dimensions of gutter : — 16' 0" Total length, including cesspool. 8 Allowance for lap at one drip. 4 Do. for \ lap at cesspool drip. 2/ 6" = 1 Turn up at end walls. 18 = Total length of gutter lead. 2/ 6" = = 10 5/ 9" : = 39 20 9 7 6 4 126 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 1 ' 0" Width of gutter bottom. 6 Turn up against wall. *0 7 Do. do. flat drip. 2 1 = Total average width of gutter lead. 2" drip. 2 fall. 2 drip. 2 fall. 8 deep at lower end. 2 do. at highest end. 10 -f- 2 = 5" average depth. + 2 for turning on flat. 7" carried to *. For the extra depth of cesspool, which is 6" deep, there is : — 4/ 1' 0" = 4' 0" = length of sides, x 6 = depth. Then 20' 9" 7 10 18' 0" 2 1 36 1 6 145 3 17 3 6" 162 6 6 lead on flat. 37 6 lead in gutter. 4' 0" ~™ 6 2 extra lead in cesspool. And 162' 6" 6'" flat lead 37 6 gutter lead 2 cesspool lead 202 6 = Total area of 7-lb. lead. And 202' 0" 6"' 7 weight of 1 ft. of lead 1414 3 6 = weight in lbs. of the whole ; or 1414 & T | ¥ , or 1414- 2 7 3 lbs. LEADWOBK QN ROOFS. 127 Cwt. qr. lb. 112) 1414(12 2 14^3 = Weight of lead on flat. 112 294 224 28) 70 56 14 Flashing :— 16' 0" Length of fiat 8 width „ 16 length „ 8 width „ 0/ 4" =*'• 2 8 add for laps or passings. 50 8 Total length of flashing 6 average width of „ 25 4 Total dimension for flashings 5 weight of 1 ft. 126 8 Total weight of flashing in lbs. Cwt. qr. lb. 112) 126§ (1 14| = Total weight of flashings. 112 28) 14 Assuming the tacks to flashings are 6" x 3" and 3' 6" apart then 48' 0" -r- by 3' 6" = 14. Then 0' 6" 3 14/0 1 6'" = 1' 9" 0'" And 1' 9" 0" 5 lb. lead. 8 9 or 9 lb. nearly as total weight of tacks. 128 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. Cwt. qr. lb. And 12 2 14 ¥ V flat 1 14f flashing 9 tacks 13 3 9{& = Total weight of lead on flat. Soaker Fig*. 254. — Lead Soakers on Tiled Roof. For raising the lead shown above to a height of, say, 50 ft. , certain tackle would be necessary. The heaviest piece of lead being 7' 0" + 6" + 4" = I' 10" x 2' 7" + 10" + 3" = 3' 8", and r io" 3 H 23 6 5 2 8"' 28 8 8 superficial 7 weight of 1 ft. 201 8 or a little over If cwt. For hoisting this a pair of " shear legs" or two short LEADWORK ON ROOFS. 121) stout poles crossed and lashed together about 2 ft. below their top ends, the bottom ends being 8 or 10 ft. apart, the whole stood upright on the roof, and having a "jib," or stout pole with one end lying between the top ends of the legs, and projecting a few feet, and the other end lashed down or weighted, are necessary. On the outer or projecting end of the jib lash a " block " or wheel with a groove in the edge, and around this pass a strong rope with both ends reaching the ground, and having a few feet to spare in length. The roll of lead being lashed by one end of the rope, the men pull at the other and hoist the lead to the roof. If two men are not equal to the task, and a third one cannot find room to grip the rope with Fig. 255.— Section of Hip with Soakers. effect, he can sometimes stand on a stage of the scaffolding above, but it is much safer to fix a "snatch-block" at the ground level, pass the rope through that, and the men, to any number, then exert a longitudinal pull. A " crab " or "winch" hoist can be used; but this, although more powerful, is not so quick as the hand-wheel. A method that could be employed by one man only would be to use a pair of pulley blocks with a |-in. rope and suspend these from the jib which projects from the shear-legs on the roof or flat. Soakers and flashings are usually made of either sheet lead or sheet zinc, and are suitable for either slated or tiled roofs. An alternative, which is a little cheaper, although not so good, is to use either lead or zinc stepped flashings. Mortar or cement fillets always make a very poor job. Lead soakers on a tiled roof are illustrated by Fig. i 130 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 254. Serving the same purpose, but in a different position, is the hip soaker (Fig. 255). If a roof is covered with plain tiles of the usual size (11 in. by 7 in.), the soakers would be cut out the same width and the same length, les $ the amount of margin or exposed portion of a tile when finished, and plus 1 in. for turning the top end down for fixing over the head of the tile. If the latter show 4-in. Fig*. 256. — Ridge End and Step Flashing, margins, they will have 3-in. laps, and the length of each soaker should be 4 in. + 3 in. + 1 in. = 8 in. The lead, when cut out, should be folded lengthwise down the centre, 1 in. on the top edge of the flat, or roof, part, turned down to hang on the last laid tile, and then placed in position as shown in Fig. 254. The next tile is then laid, then another soaker, and so on up to the ridge. It is usual to fix a stepped cover flashing over the stand-up parts of the soakers (see Fig. 254), but in some cases the LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 131 latter are cut 3 in. wider, so as to have 6|-in. stand-up, and the steps cut out of the soakers and turned and wedged to the wall, instead of having cover flashings. It will be understood that in Fig. 254 part of the cover flash- ing and part of the tiling is shown cut away to reveal the shape of the lead soaker beneath. A view of a ridge end with step flashings is given by Fig. 256. Step flashings are also shown above the soakers jV^rTv Fig. 257. — Chimney Flashing. in Fig. 254. Chimney flashings are illustrated by Figs. 257 and 258, the latter figure showing also a break. Information on marking off, cutting out and fixing lead step flashings will now be given. The lead should be cut out 13 in. wide, 6 in. of it to lie on the roof and 7 in. to stand against the wall. The folding line and water line should be marked with chalk, and the lead folded at right angles on the folding line. As roofs vary in their pitch or angle of slope, and as the joints of the brickwork are not always at exactly the same distance apart, the lead, after folding, should be laid in the position it is to occupy, and, with the help of a wooden straightedge, the 132 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. bottom edge of the joint in each course should be marked with a pointed piece of chalk as far as the water line, as shown at a A (Fig. 259). The lead should then be laid on a board on the wall side, and the lines b b marked, one end of this line being 1 in. from the edge of the lead, ' and the other end cutting the joint line on the water line. Outside the lines a a, mark those shown at c c 1 in. dis- tant. These lines indicate the place of folding for turning into the brickwork. Fig. 258. — Chimney Break. The folding is done with a step turner, which is an iron tool like a double-bladed chipping knife. A tempor- ary tool can be made out of a piece of lj-in. hardwood, with one end cut to a bevel, and having a saw-cut equal to the thickness of the lead on one edge. In Fig. 259, which is drawn for a roof having a slope of 45°, the shaded parts are those which are to be cut away. The placing of the folded lead in position for marking out the steps is perhaps better shown by Fig. 260, in which the dotted lines b indicate the joint lines of the brickwork, c denotes the position of a lead or oak wedge LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 133 when finally fixing the step flashing, and d is the lead which covers the slating and which is clipped by lead straps, 3 in. wide, secured to the brickwork about 3 ft. 6 in. apart. Fig-. 259. — Cutting out Stepped Flashing. Burning lead flashings to stone or terra-cotta walls is done by filling the grooves with molten lead (see Fig. 235, p. 117). The best way of running the lead is shown in Fig. Fig". 260.— Method of Marking Stepped Flashing. 261, in which A represents a strip of dry deal, about 2 ft long by 2^ in. or 3 in. wide and 1\ in. thick, placed over the joint and held in position by struts against an oppo- site wall, or by a weight, as shown in the illustration. 134 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. The groove at the ends of the running stick is plugged with clap or common putty to prevent the lead escaping. The lead is poured through the two outer holes, shown on the top edge of the stick, the centre hole being left open for air to escape. The lead should not be poured too hot. When the pouring is finished and the lead has set, the stick is removed, and the face of the run lead is cross- hatched, about 1 in. apart, with a blunt hand chisel, as shown at b. The lead should not be staved or caulked in, as the stone at the edges of the groove would be chipped or stunned and eventually crumble or flake away. A section of the groove and flashing is shown in Fig. Fig. 261. — Burning in Lead Flashings. 262 ; A indicates the flashing and b the stick. It will be noted that the groove is slightly wider at the back than at the front. Before describing a typical roof job, the essential re- quirements of such work may be stated. In good roofing work, all sheet lead is of the best quality, and made of pure soft pig. The nails are of copper, with flat heads. The gutters, cesspools, and parts of roof where there is any foot traffic, are covered with lead weighing 8 lb. per superficial foot. Excepting as above, all flats, dormer tops, valleys, chimney and skylight gutters are covered with 7-lb. lead. All hips, ridges, and dormer-cheeks ar<3 covered with 6-lb. lead. Cover and stepped flashings and LEAD WORK OX ROOFS. 135 aprons are of 5-lb. lead, and soakers 4-lb. lead. The whole of the lead work must be properly bossed to suit the various positions. With the exception of soldered angles to the cesspools and the joints to the socket-pipes, no soldering whatever may be done to the lead work on roofs. The lead is to be fixed to keep it in position, but in such a manner as to allow for expansion. To prevent the lead Fig. 262.— Section of Flashing* and Stick. on flats and gutters "crawling" down, they should not have a fall exceeding 2 in. in 10 ft. For covering a sloping roof exposed to the sun, cast sheet lead is usually considered to be the best, as in it the molecules of the metal are more free to move amongst themselves than is the case in milled sheet lead, and the lead is thus less liable to fracture by the alternate ex- pansions and contractions that take place. Fig. 263 shows 136 PRACTICAL PLUMB EPS 9 WORK. the pitch of a roof, and Fig. 264 is a plan on the slope of the roof showing the arrangement of the bays and pass- ings. The dotted lines in the passings show the positions of grooves made to prevent water passing between the laps Fig. 263.— Roof Outline. by capillary attraction. Wood roll is the better form of roll where any foot traffic passes over the roof, but the hollow roll allows more freedom for movement of the metal by expansion. As capillary action causes water to rise between the laps of lead to a vertical height of about Fig-. 264.— Plan of Roof Slope. Fig. 26c. — Section Showing Lap. Fig. 266.— Section Showing- Water Groove. 3 in., the length of the lap should be about equal to this, as shown in section by Fig. 265. Fig. 266 represents a section at right angles to the water grooves indicated by dotted lines in Fig. 264. LEADWOBK ON ROOFS. 137 Covering a ridge with lead is by no means a difficult operation if set about in a proper manner. Before the wood roll is fixed, straps of lead about 3 in. wide, and long enough to overlap the slating about 7 in. on each side, Fig. 267. — Lead for Covering Ridge. should be nailed to the ridge-plate. For a 2-in. roll the lead can be 7 ft. to 8 ft. long, and about 1 ft. 6 in. wide. In setting out, strike a chalk line down the centre of the lead, and on each side set off half the girth of the exposed portion of the roll, which can be found by bending a strip of lead round it ; the lead can then be turned up on these lines in the form of a trough (Fig. 267). If this, when placed on the top of the roll, is raised and dropped down Fig. 268.— Lead-covered Ridge. smartly, the sides will fall and cover the roll. After the lead is tightly dressed home to the sides of the roll, the straps are drawn up and turned over to clip the free edges of the wings, as shown in Fig. 268. 138 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. The construction of a dormer window is clearly shown by Figs. 269 to 271. Fig. 272 illustrates a secret tack Fig. 269. — Dormer Window. soldered at the back of the cheek instead of employing a soldered dot as in Fig. 270 ; a second alternative is a Copper Washer Soldered Dot Fig. 270. — Section of Dormer Window on L M (Fig. 269). trmm Fig. 271. — Section of Dormer Cill on no (Fig. 269). piece of 2-in. lead pipe soldered at the back of the cheek lead and tafted (see Fig. 273). LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 139 In covering a dormer window with sheet lead, the apron should be fixed before the window frame is put into its place, and then turned up inside and dressed to the sill. The cheeks should then be set up and dressed for 6 in. to lie on the slates, 1^ in. to be nailed into a rebate cut into the dormer top, and 2 in. or 3 in. to return on the face, to 273. Fig-. 272.— Secret Soldered Tack. Fig-. 273.— Alternative to Soldered Tack. Fig-. 274.— Boof Doorway. which it is usually nailed, and a flat welt turned to cover the nail heads. If the cheeks are very large, they should be put on in two or more pieces, and vertical double welts turned. Soldered dots should not be used ; but if addi- tional fixings are necessary, secret tacks should be used, as shown in Fig. 272. The top of the dormer, if not too large, should be covered with one piece of lead, and the front and sides dressed round a nosing on the edges for preventing a high wind blowing it off. The lead at the back should be continued up the roof 9 in., and dressed to a tilting piece or springing, for the eaves course of 140 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS 9 WORK. slates to rest upon. In some cases it is necessary to fix a lead weathering on the front of the dormer for prevent- ing rainwater getting in at the top of the sashes. All free edges of lead should have tacks for preventing wind get- Fig. 275>. Fig. 276. Figs. 275 and 276.— Sections of Roof Doorway on PQ and ks (Fig. 274). ting beneath. For first-class work the apron should be 6-lb., the cheeks 7-lb., and the top 8-lb. lead. For ordinary work the above weights are 1 lb. less all round. Details of a doorway in a roof are presented by Figs. 274 to 278. Hatches are openings in the roof to give convenient access to the outside for the purpose of repairs, etc. They are sometimes made through flats, and sometimes through the slates of the roof, the hatch shown by Fig. 279 bemg of Fig. 277.— Section of Roof Doorway on T u (Fig. 274). Fig. 278. — Section of Doorway cm. the latter kind. A convenient size is 2 ft. 6 in. by 18 in., in- side measurement, the framework being 3 in. clear of the roof and 1^ in. thick. A gutter-board, tilting fillet, etc., should be fixed at the upper end of the curb. The lead re- LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 141 quired will be as follows : Bottom a (Fig. 279), length, 1 ft. 6 in. + lj in. + li in. + 6 in. + 6 in. =2 ft. 9 in. ; width, 6 in. + 3 in. + li in. = 10J in. Sides b b (Fig. 279), length, 2 ft. 6 in. + 1^ in. + 1^ in. + 6 in. +1 in. (this latter for tack at c, Fig. 279) = 3 ft. 4 in. ; width, 6 in. + 3 in. + l\ in. = 10| in. As the top piece d bosses the break, for which 1\ in. is allowed on each side, the length will be 1 ft 6 in. + l\ in. + 1^ in. + 1\ in. + 7^ in. = 3 ft., and the width 1 ft. 8 in. The total required for the frame will there- fore be one piece 2 ft. 9 in. by 10^ in., two pieces 3 ft. 4 in. Fig. 279. — Lead-covered Hatch. by 10^ in., and one piece 3 ft. by 1 ft. 8 in., 7-lb. lead being used for the gutter, and 5 lb. for the sides and bottom. To find the weight of the lead, add all the lengths together, and multiply by the width and weight of lead. Soakers can be used against the sides of the hatch. The bottom piece of lead should be turned up 4^ in., the top edge being dressed on the woodwork, and nailed. Re- turn the angle, and cut off, as shown by dotted lines (Fig. 279). The side pieces can be turned up for a similar dis- tance at the bottom, and nailed. The small breaks at the lower corners are bossed, care being taken not to thin the m FRAG TIG AL PLUMBERS 9 WORK. lead too much, or a bird's-eye will result. The art of lead bossing consists in making the lead of even thickness Fig. 280.— Section through Gutter. Fig. 281.— Finished Hatch Cover. throughout, and not thick in one place and thin in another. The wood tools used for lead laying should be carefully Fig. 283. Figs. 282 and 283. — Plan and Section of Trap-door in Lead Flat. looked after, so that they may not become damaged, as a piece of lead cannot be finished neatly if the tools used are LEAD WORK ON HOOFS. 143 chipped and faulty. The bossings when finished should not show any tool mark. Draw the lead required for the breaks from the outside margins or edges. Drive with quick, swinging blows to keep the lead warm, and finish off with a rather dull dresser. Cut off as shown, and turn the Fig. 284.— Plan of Lead Flat and Skylight. 1 in. left at c (Fig. 279) underneath to hold the corners together. The gutter D (Fig. 279) can now be turned up 4^ in. on one side and 9 in. on the other, as seen in Fig. 280, which is a section through the gutter. Turn the top edge over, and secure it with nails ; and also dress the lead over the tiling fillet F (Fig. 280). The breaks at the two ends of the 144 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WOliK. gutter are worked down. Draw the lead for them from the surplus 1^ in. left at each end of the gutter. Boss in a similar manner as the bottom angles, and finish with a dresser and trim up. After the framework is finished, the slater can complete the slating. The cover (Fig. 281) is 2 ft. 11^ in. by 1 ft. Hi in. by l\ in., and is made of 1-in. stuff. The length of the lead will be 2 ft. 11| in. + l| in. + l\ in. + 1 in. + 1 in. = 3 ft, 4^ in., and the breadth 1 ft. 11^ in. + 1^ in. + li in. + 1 m. + Sfatei Fig. 285. Fig. 286. Figs. 285 and 286.— Enlarged Detail of Skylight (see AB, Fig. 284). 1 in. = 2 ft. 4| in. A piece of 7-lb. sheet lead 3 ft. 4^ in. by 2 ft. 4^ in. will therefore be required. The weight of this would be 3 ft. 4£ in. + 2 ft. 4£ in. + 7 lb. =2 qr. 1\ lb. Set up 2j in. on all sides, and boss up the corners. After bossing, the wood frame is turned over inside the lead, and the bottom edge bossed over and nailed. The tools required for the work will be dressers, a bossing stick, and a bossing mallet. The method of bossing corners is fully described in connection with bossing up a lead tray in Chapter III. (pp. 32 to 34). A similar construction to the hatch just described is the trap-door (Figs. 282 and 283). LEAD WORK ON ROOFS* 145 Details of the construction of a skylight over a lead flat are presented by Figs. 284 to 288. It will be instructive to Condensation Gutter Fig-. 287.— Section of Sky- light on E F (Fig. 284). Fig. 288.— Section of Skylight on G H (Fig. 234). Fig. 289.— Plan of Skylight on Slated Roof. compare these figures with Figs. 289 to 291, which illustrate a skylight erected on a slated roof. Fig. 292 is a scale drawing of a amall turret roof, and j 146 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS 9 WORK. below is described the method of covering such a roof with lead, the bays to have lf-in. seam rolls (with copper tacks) in the centre and at the angles. Before putting on the lead, the woodwork should be prepared by cutting off the sharp arrises of the hips and sinking a rebate on the dotted Condensation Gutter Fig. 290.— Section of Skylight on z A (Fig. 289). line a (Fig. 292) to a depth equal to the thickness of the lead. Aprons, one on each side, dressed into the rebate and secured with copper nails, should then be fixed, the ends of the aprons being worked round the angles, and tacks turned, as shown at B. In practice it would be a difficult matter to make a really smart job unless wood rolls were used ; however, a City Guilds question in Plumbers' Fig. 291.— Enlarged Section of Skylight on x Y (Fig. 289). Work (Honours) for the year 1899 specified seam rolls, and these will be considered here. The position of the rolls should be set out on the actual turret, the widths of the rolls, less one thickness of lead, being shown, and copper tacks 4 in. long by 3 in. wide, LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 147 and about 18 in. apart, or three in the whole length, screwed on so as to come beneath the roll. These tacks are to be turned over the undercloak, a space being left at c as shown in Fig. 293, after the first bay has been placed in position. So as not to distress the lead, or reduce the Fig-. 292.— Side Elevation of Turret Roof. thickness in the angles, the lead should be set out the exact size as shown in Fig. 294, and the parts for the under- cloak and the overcloak turned and dressed down flat, and the corners partly worked to suit the bottom ends of the rolls. The bay is then placed in position, flapped to the hollow and round of the roof, and the sides worked upright, and then turned and folded to form the hollow rolls. 143 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS 9 WORK Great pains should be taken when doing this, or the rolls will become full of bruises and tool marks, which cannot be taken out. Neither should the overcloak be turned too tightly, or the lead will be pulled up as shown by dotted lines at d (Fig. 295), and probably broken or torn if an endeavour is made to work it down to form an angle. For covering the apex, or ball, a circular piece of lead is to be cut out, partly worked on a horse, then placed in position and dressed down to lie about 4 in. on the roof. To protect the top ends of the rolls and keep them from being bruised they may be temporarily covered over with Fi#. 293.— Roll Before Folding. saddle pieces of thin sheet-iron or copper. Of the illustra tions, Figs. 292 and 294 are drawn to a scale of \ in. to 1 ft., and Figs. 293 and 295 are half full-size. For finding the true shape of the bays, one side of the contour of Fig. 292 is first divided into any number of equal spaces as from a to r inclusive, and from these points lines are projected across the figure. The dotted line inside the centre roll (Fig. 292) and the line E (Fig 294) represent the creasing or folding line for the undercloak. The latter line, in Fig. 294, is divided into spaces equal to those on the contour of Fig. 292 ; horizontal lines drawn through them and the length of each line taken off with a pair of com- LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 149 passes are marked on Fig. 294, and the points thus found are joined by freehand. The necessary distances, which can be found from Fig. 293, being marked for the under- cloak and the overcloak respectively, show the margins for cutting out. The other, or left-hand, bay is set out in a similar manner, except that it is the other hand, and the Fig-. 295.— Section of Centre Roll. Fig. 29 L— Lead Bay for Turret Roof. horizontal distances should be taken from the firm lines which show the sides of the centre and hip rolls. The term "herringbone " is applied to a certain way in which the rolls are fixed on a dome or turret to be covered with lead. In addition to the rolls from the base to the apex, are others which are fixed slantwise between them. These sloping rolls sometimes intersect about midway in the bays. In addition to giving an ornamental appearance, 150 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. they form a very good fixing for the lead and prevent it " crawling " downwards under atmospheric influences. The Fig. 296.— Elevation and Plan of Octagonal Turret Roof. head is cut to shape and bossed to the rolls as for ordinary lead work on roofs. The best method of setting out lead bays for an LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 151 octagonal turret roof is as follows : If the roof is already- constructed, horizontal lines should be drawn between the hip rolls at equal distances (say 6 in.) apart, measured on the surface of the roof as shown in the elevation half of Fig. 296. The lower half of the figure, and the vertical dotted lines, are drawn only as aids to finding the true position in the elevation of the hip rolls to the centre bay, so as to be able to measure the width of the latter at all parts. Similar horizontal, and a centre perpendicular, lines must be drawn on the piece of lead to be used, and the dimensions transferred one at a time from the roof to Fig. 297. — Lead Bay for Octagonal Turret Roof. the lead, and the points joined together by freehand, as shown by Fig. 297. Outside the lines thus found, draw others 4 in. and 8 in. distant for the undercloak and over- cloak respectively. The sides of the bay must be then bossed upright ; or, if the contour of the roof is very round or very hollow, they can be doubled down flat until placed in position, and afterwards worked up and dressed to the rolls. If the bays are not very large, the nailing on the top end, and also the undercloaks to the rolls, will sup- port them. With a roof of this shape, the grip of the metal on the rolls will also help to support it. If the bays are put on in two pieces, or if laced rolls are used between the hip rolls, further support is obtained without the use 152 PR AG TIG AL PLUMBERS' WORK. of soldered dots. About three copper tacks can be used to each bay to hold up the bottom edge. The covering for the top should be bossed out of a round piece of lead, and the bottom edge should lie on the roof for from 6 in. to 9 in., to cover the nailing and make it watertight at that point. Copper nails should be used in preference to iron. The covering of domes — hemispheres — with sheet lead will now be described. Seam rolls should be made, as lead on a dome with wooden rolls almost invariably leaks at the parts close to the base, which are nearly upright. With a dome 50 ft. in diameter the bays of 8-lb. lead could not be cut out of one piece of metal ; neither would it be advisable to do so, as the fixings would not be strong. Horizontal laps would have to be arranged on an average of 7 ft. apart. The lower laps should be about 6 in. ; those nearer the apex 12 in. For the rolls, to average 2 ft. 3 in. apart, measured on centres, the width at the base would be about 4 ft. 6 in. The number of rolls may be 3*1416 x 50 -f 4 ft. 6 in. = 35. As it would be difficult to make a good finish at the apex if all the rolls were to meet at a point, they should be cut about 3 ft. short, and they should be made to finish at a drip to a raised portion, a capping piece of lead being fixed over the whole. In measuring a dome of this kind it is best to measure the surface, and to this add the extra lead on the rolls, laps, and on the edge of the capping which is worked over the top ends of the rolls. The dome surface measures 50 ft. x 3-1416 x 25 ft. (or half the diameter) = 3,927 ft. superficial. The length of rolls is 50 x 3*1416 -f4 = 39*27, and from this - 3 ft. = 36*27, or, say, 36 ft. 3 in., to which should be added 3 in. for dressing on the drip at the top end, thus making a net length of 36 ft. 6 in. On setting out a section of the roll, if the finished roll is 2 in. across and stands 2 in. above the boarding, the " undercloak " requires 3j in. of lead and the " overcloak " 6 in. of lead. Therefore 36 ft. 6 in. x 9£ in. - 28' 10" 9"'. This, multiplied by the number of rolls, gives: 28' 10" 9'" x 35 = 1,011' 4" 3'"— the total net amount of lead in rolls. The number of horizontal laps in the bays = 36 ft. 3 in. -i-7 = 5, the number of pieces of lead which — 1 = 4 as the number of laps. The depth of the laps = 6 in. + 1 ft. ~ 2 = 9 in. as an approximate average. For length of laps, LEADWOBK ON ROOFS. 153 2 ft. 3 in. (net length) + 9j in. (in rolls) = 3 ft, \ in., and 3 ft. i in. x 9 in. = 2 ft, 3j in. nearly. And 2 ft. 3| in. x 4 x 35 = 320' 10" superficial as the extra amount of lead in laps. Assuming that the capping lead laps 6 in. on the roll ends and drip, there will be an extra on the dimensions of a ring of lead 6 in. wide and measuring 6 ft. inside. Then 7 ft. (outside dimension) squared and x -7854 = 38*4846. From this deduct the inner piece, which was measured in the dome, = 6 ft. squared x *7854 = 28'*2744. Then 38*4846 - 28*2744 = 10 / *2102 or 10 ft. 3 in. (nearly) as the size of the extra lead on margin of capping. Then ft. in. 3,927 on dome 1,011 4j extra on rolls 320 10 ,, laps 10 3 ,, capping 5,269 5j total superficial feet 8 lb. lead 42,155 6 lb. of lead or 18 tons 16 cwt. 1 qr. 15j lbs. as the total weight of lead necessary to cover the dome. The simplest method of measuring up the lead on a dome is to measure up the superficial area of the dome, and add to that sum sufficient to account for all rolls and passings, ete. To find the area of a dome, assume that it is a true hemisphere, the rule is : Diameter of base x 3*1416 x vertical height. Example: A dome 20 ft. in dia- meter, and covered with 7-lb. sheet lead ; 20 x 3*1416 x 10 = 628*32 super, ft. This dimension x 7 = 4398*24 lb. = weight of lead on the dome. On such a dome would be about twenty-six rolls, running from the eaves to the apex ; and each roll would require a strip of lead 8 in. in width. The length of the rolls would be (20 x 3*1416) -*- 4 = 15*7, or say, 15 ft. 9 in. Then 15 ft. 9 in. x 8 in. x 26 x 7 lb. = 1911 lb. Added together = 4398*24 + 1911 = 6309*24 lb., or 2 tons 16 cwt. 27J lb. = the total weight of the dome. Any horizontal laps or passings, owing to the bays being put on in two or more pieces, would have to be allowed 154 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. for, and the extra weight added to the above total. A further allowance would have to be made if an apron were fixed round the base, or any ornament or finial fixed on the apex. Below is described the correct method of covering a wood finial with lead. It is assumed that the finial sur- mounts a slated roof that has lead hip rolls. The hip rolls should first be covered with lead in the ordinary way, the top ends of the lead being well nailed to the wood rolls near the finial. The wood base of the latter should be rebated, about 3 in. up from the roof, and a lead apron put on, the bottom lying on the slates about 1 ft. or 18 in., and be worked over the hip rolls, the top edge being Fig. 293. — Lead-covered Finial. dressed into the rebate. The finial can then be covered with a piece of sheet lead bossed to the shape, or a piece of 4-in. or 4-2-in. lead pipe placed on the wood block, the neck worked in beneath the ball, and then the top end closed by bossing. A skilful plumber would cover the finial with one piece of lead and have it large enough to lay on the slated roof some 2 ft. or 3 ft., and trim the bottom edge to an ornamental pattern ; but one who was not skilled should not attempt this, as he would most likely break all the heading slates, and there would be consider- able difficulty in repairing them. For use in covering the wood finial of a dormer window with 6-lb. lead, the finial being 2 ft. high and 2^ in. in diameter, with a 4^-in. ball on top, prepare a mandrel LEAD WORK ON ROOFS. 155 4| in. diameter and 2 ft. long, one end made quite round. Work an upstand in the centre of a piece of sheet-lead that will cover this mandrel, pass the lead over the finial, and dress the lead close on to the wood of the finial and down the ridges as an apron. The mandrel may be made of any kind of wood, and need not have the same finish as a pipe mandrel. An alternative method is to get a piece of sheet lead 2 ft. 6 in. long by 15 in. wide, and burn the two edges together. This burning can be done as described in Chapter VI., or the lead can be laid on a piece of board 3 ft. long by 3 in. wide, with the top covered with paper well smeared with tallow, and two hatched-shaped solder- ing bolts used red-hot, with a strip of lead as solder, and plenty of tallow as a flux. There will thus be ob- tained the equivalent of a piece of drawn pipe. By bossing one end over into the shape of half a bail and soldering the small hole at the top, it can be dropped over the finial and dressed to the smaller part. The finial shown by Fig. 298 is 8 ft. 6 in. high, turned and moulded out of 6-in. by 6-in. wood ; the scroll feet are four in number with 1 ft. 9 in. projection, 2 ft. 3 in. high and 6 in. thick. The base has four arms, each 1 ft. 9 in', long. In covering such a finial with lead, the four-armed base should be covered first. To do this lay the wood block on a piece of 7-lb. sheet lead and scribe all round with a pair of blunt compasses set to a width of 11 in., leaving a gusset piece in the internal angles for working up the break. Boss the lead to the sides and work over the top edges. Then begin at the outer ends of the arms and boss seams from the ends towards the centre, leaving the latter part open and standing up 3 in. high for bossing round the terminal post. Another method would be to boss the lead to the sides and 1 in. over the top edge, then burn in a piece of lead to cover the top side and work up holes on the top and bottom sides to fit round the post. The post b a can be covered with a piece of 7^-in. or 8-in. 7-lb. lead soil pipe bossed tightly home to the woodwork. The curved feet can be covered with strips of lead 14 in. wide, bent all round the top and bottom sides of the scroll and then bossed on each cheek or side until the edges of the lead meet in the centre of the cheeks. The seam down the centre of each cheek can be bossed or burned together. INDEX. Acetate of Lead, 10 Air, Action of, on Lead, 10 Alderson, George, 16 Anti-D-trap, *53 Astragal Joints, *58, 80 Atomic Weight of Lead, 11, 12 Balls, Pipe Bending with, ::: 50, 51 Basic Acetate of Lead, 10 Bays, Lead, for Octagonal Turret Roof, *150-152 Bend Bolt, *18 Bend, Return, 53 , Right Angle, *53 Bending Dresser, 18 Funnel Pipes, *48-*51 — ■ Pipes, 46 with Balls and Followers, *50 50 Bobbins, *48, 49, ; Chalking Bend, 50 ; Dummying, 50 ■ by Sand Method, 52, 53 — , Softening Pipe for, 50 , Tommy for, ::: 52 by Water Method, 52, 53 ■: Winching, 52 ■ Service Pipe, 52 Soil Pipes, *48-*51 Stick, ::: 19 Bent Pipes, 53 ■ ■ Shave Hook, *18 W x edge, *19 Bird's-mouth Joint, *58 Bit, Copper, 18 , Hatchet Copper, 18 Block Flange Joint, *57, 79 Taft Joint, *57 Blowlamps for Joint Wiping, 76 Blowpipe, Brass, 18 Solder, 25 Bobbins for Pipe Bending, *43-50 Bolt, Bend, *18 Bossing Mallet, *18 Stick, *19 Tray, *32 Bossing-up in Pipe Bending, 53. 54 Sheet Lead, 33-37 to a Break, 36 Sink Lining, 41 Bottle-nosed Drip, *110, 111 Branch Joints, Burning, 104 on Small Pipe, 85, 86 , Wiping, 77 Soil-pipe Joint, 104 Brass Fittings, Soldering, Compo, 86 , Soldering, 29 Break, Bossing-up Sheet Lead to, 35, 36 Buckle in Bent Pipe, *48 Burning Lead Flashings. 133 (see also Lead-burning) to Butted Joint, Burning, 102 Seam, Lead-burning, v 102 Cane Dummy, Making, 46 Carbonate of Lead, 10 Casting Lead, 13 Casting-frame, 12 Cast-iron Pipe Jointed to Lead Pipe, 61 , Wiping Lead Pipe to, 30 Catspaw Cloth, 18 Cesspool, Lining, *116, 117 Chalk Line, *18 Chalking Bend in Pipe, 50 Chase Wedges, *19 Chemical Symbol for Lead, 10 Chimney Flashings, *131 Chipping Knife, 18 Chisel, Cold, 18 Cistern, Lead-lined, *43 , Limewhiting, 42, 43 , Slate, Lead Lining of, 44, 45 , Weights of Lead for, 108 Cleaning Solder, 29 Cloth, Catspaw, 18 , Wiping, 18, 67, 68 Coal-gas for Lead-burning, 94 Collars used in Wiping Upright; Joints, 69 Compasses, *18 Copper, Advantages of, for Roof Work, 106, 107 , Conductivity of, 105 ■ Fittings, Soldering, to Compo, 86 , Fusibility of, 105 ■ Pipes, Wiping Joints on, 82 for Roof Work, 107 , Soldering, 29 , Tinned, Lining Sinks with, 45 , Tinning, 83 Copper-bit Joint, *56, 84, 85 Overcast Joint, *56 Solder, 25 Copper-bits, 18 Cornice Gutters, *120 Coupling Lead Pipes to Machinery, 74 , Screw, for Lead Pipes, 74, 75 Crawling Down of Lead, 106 Creed, James, 15 Curb Roll, *111, 112 Cutting out Flashings, *131, 132 Cutting Pliers, 19 Domes, Covering, with Lead, 152-154 , Measuring, 152 Doorway in Roof, *140 Dormer Window, *138, 139 Dots, Soldered, *30, *112 Double Welt, *110 Drawing Knife for Sheet Lead, 12 Dresser, 18 INDEX. 157 132 132 Sheet Dresser, Bending, *18 - -— for Pipe Bending, 46 Drip, Bottle-nosed, -110, 111 , Gutter, *110 , Hollow-nose, *1I0 — , Splayed, *110 , Square Gutter, *110 ■ , Welted, *111 Dummies for Pipe Bending, "46, 47 , Hand, *18 , Long, *18 Dummying Pipes, 50 Elbow, Lead, *53 , Soldered, *53 Electrolysis in Pipes, 16 Expansion Joints, 80, 81 Finial, Covering, with Lead, 154, 155 Fireproof Material for Roof Work, 107 Fixing Point, Steel, 19 Flange Joint, *56 , Wiping, 78, 79 Flapper for Pipe Bending, *47 Flashings, Burning, 132, 133 , Chimney, *131 , Cutting out, *131, ■ , Fixing, 131, 132 , Folding, 132 , Lead for, 108 •, Marking Off, 131, Flat, Covering, with Sheet Leal, 112, 113 Lead 122 \ Weights of Lead for, 108 , Welted Edge of, *110 Flux for Solder, 29 Folding Flashings, 132 Followers for Pipe Bending, ::: 50 Footpan for Lead Casting, 12 Funnel Pipes, Bending, *48-*51 Fusibility of Roof Coverings, 105 Galvanised Iron Cisterns, Lime- whiting, 42, 43 • ■ , Soldering, 29 Gauge Hook. *18, 64 Gas for Lead-burning, 93, 84 Gasfitter's Solder, 25 Gutters, Cornice, *120 , Determining Size of, 121, 122 , Drip, *110 - — , Lining, *117, 118 , Mansard, *120 , Measuring Lead for, *117, 118 , Parapet, Lining, *119, *120 , Secret, *120. 121 , Hip, 121 , Upright, '*120 , Valley, *120 , Water Grooves for, 122 , Weights of Lead for, 108 Hague's Improved Pipes, 16 " Half-and-half " Solder, 28 Hand Dummy, 18 Hatches, Gutter for, -143, 144 in Roofs. *140, 141 , Soakers for, 141 Hatchet Copper Bit, 18 Herringbone Rolls on Roofs, 149 Hips, Weight of Lead for, 108 Hollow-nose Drip, *110 Hook, Bent Shave, :;: 18 , Gauge, *18, 64 , Quench, *18 , Shave, *18 , Spoon, *18 Horizontal Branch Joints, ::; 59, *60 ■ Wiped Joint, 55 Hydrogen Gas Machine for Lead- burning, 89, :;: 94 , Air Supply for, 93, 99 , Charging, 97, 98 — - , Flame of, 100, 101 , Using, 101, 102 Ingots, Solder, *27, 28 Iron Cisterns, Limewhiting, 42, 43 , Tinning, 29, 30 Jack Plane, 19 Joint, Astragal, *58, 80 Bird's-mouth, *58 Block Flange, *57, 79 Taft, *57 Blown, *30 Branch, Burning, 77, *1G4 Soil-pipe, *59 Burned-lead Branch, *60 Butted, Burning, 102 Copper-bit, *30, :;: 56, 84, 85 Overcast, *56 Expansion, 80 Flange, *56, 78, 79 Horizontal Branch, ::: 59 Lap, *109 Lapped, Burning, 102 Overcast, *56 Pipe, Burning, *104 Plain Seam Soldered, *30 Soldered, *109 Ribbon, *56 Service Pipe, *58 Soil-pipe, *61 Soldered, on Small Pipes, 73 Stoneware, *61 Taft, *58 78 on Tin-lined Pipes, 82 Underhand, 62-88 (for details see Underhand Joint) Upright (for details see Up- right Joint) Welt, *109 Wiped, *56 Branch, *30 Flange, *30 - Wiping, 62-74 , Amount of Solder for, 72 , Blowlamp for, 76 on Copper Pipes, 82, 83 ■ , Soil or Smudge for, 60-62 ■' with Splash-stick and Soldering Iron, 75 Jointing Pipes, 55-86 Sheet Lead, 109, 110 Knife, Chipping, *18 158 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. 12 Ladle, *18 Lap Joint, *109 Lapped Joint, Burning, 102 ■ Vertical Seam, Burning, *103 Laying Lead, 114-116 Lead, Advantages of, for Roof Work, 106, 107 , Atomic Weight of, 11, , Basic Acetate of, 10 Bossing, *33-36 , Calculating Weight of, by Measuring, 14 ■ , Carbonate of, 10 Casting, 13 , Chemical Symbol for, 10 Cisterns, Limewhiting, 42, 43 , Conductivity of, 105 , Crawling Down of, 108 Flashings, Burning, 133 Flat, Laying, 122 , Fusibility of, 105 Influenced by Temperature, 113, 114 , Insonorousness of, 107 , Laying, 114-116 , Lasting Power of, 106 , Lining Tank with, 42 , Malleability of, 14 , Manufacture of, 10 , Melting Point of, 10, 107 , Milled, 13 — — Mining, 10 , Moist Air's Action on, 10 , Oxidation of, 10, 11 , Particulars of, 10 , Pig, 12 Pipe Screw Coupling, 74, 75 , Wiping Cast-iron Pipe to, 80, 81 , Quality of, 14 , Sheet, 12 , , Casting, 12 , , Weight of, 13 Sheets, Milled, 13 ■ , , Making, 14 1 1 sizes of, 13, 14 , Softness of, 14, 105 , Specific Gravity of, 11, 12, 15, 28 , Thickness of, 105 , Water's Action on, 10 , Weighing, 15 , Weight of, 106, 108 , Workableness of, 106 Lead-burning, 87-104 , Advantage of, 88 ■ , Apparatus for, *89 Branch Pipe Joint, 104 Butted Joint, 102 Seam, *102 , Coal-gas for, 94 , Domestic Uses of, 89 , Gas Used in, 93, 94 ■ Hand-made Pipes, 104 , Horizontal, *103, 104 , Hydrogen for, 89 , Apparatus for, *04 Lead-burning Lapped Joint, *102 Machine, 92 , Air Supply for, 98, 99 , Air-chamber of, *92 , Breeches Piece for, *94 , Charging, 97, 98 , Cylinder for, *92 -, , Flame of, 100, 101 -, Gas for, 93, 94 , Generator of, *93 -, Using, 94, 101, 102 Pipe Joints, *104 Rainwater Pipes, 104 ■ Seams in Lead Sheet, 102 , Side, *103 Soil Pipes, 104 , Upright, *1G3 Pipe Joint, *104 , Uses of, 88 , Vertical, *103 • ■ Lapped Seam, *103, 104 Level, Adjustable, 18 Limewhite, 42 Limewhiting Cisterns, 42, 43 Lining Cesspool, *116, 117 Gutter, *117, 118 Parapet Gutter, *119, 120 Sinks with Pewter, 45 Tinned Copper, 45 Slate Cistern with Lead, 44, 45 Wooden Tank with Lead, 43 Litharge, 11 Machine-made Pipes, Presses for, 16 Malleability of Lead, 14 Mallet, Bossing, *18 , Tomahawk, *18 , Wedge, *18 Mandrel for Pipe Bending, *46 Mansard Roof Gutter, *120 Maurice, Peter, 15 Melting Point of Lead, 10, 107 Pot for Sheet Lead Casting, 12 Milled Lead, 13 ■ Sheets, 13 1 Making, 14 1 Si ze f } ^ i4 , Thickness of, 13 , Weight of, 13, 14 Mining, Lead, 10 Moist Air, Action of, on Lead, 10 Morris, Peter, 15 Muffles for Lead Casting, 13 Nails for Roof Work, 134 Octagonal Turret Roof, Covering, 151, 152 Offsett Pipe, *53 Overcast Joint, *56 Oxidation of Lead, 10, 11 Parapet Gutters, *120 , Lining, *119, 120 Pewter, Lining Sinks with, 45 Pewterer's Blowpipe Solder, 25 Pig Lead, 12 Pipe Bending, 46-54 , Cane Dummy for, 46 INDEX. 159 15 74 of, 17 16 Pipe Bending, Dressers for, 46 , Dummies for, *46, 47 , Mallet for, 46 , Mandrel for, *46 , Tools for, *46 ■ Jointing, 55-86 - — ■ Joints, Lead-burning, *104 ■ Making Machine, Creed's, Pipes, Alderson's, 16 , Coupling, to Machinery, , Determining Thickness , - — - Weight of, 17 - — , Electrolysis and, 16 , Hague's Improved, 16 • , Hand-made Lead, 16 , , Burning, 104 , Machine-made Lead, 16 , , Presses for Making, , Morris's, 15 , Rainwater, Burning, 104 , Romans' Use of, 15 , Seamless Lead, 16 , Small, Soldered Joints on, 84 -— , Soil, Burning, 104 , Solid Rolled, 15 , Soldered Joints on Small, 73 ■ , Thicknesses of Lead, 20 , Tin-lined Lead, 16 , Weights of Lead, 20 ■ , Wilkinson's, 15 Plane, Jack, 19 Planing in Lead Casting, 13 Pliers, Cutting, 19 , Two-hole, *19 Plumber, Duties of, 9 Plumbers' Tools, 18, 19 Plumbing: Origin of Word, 9 Point, Steel Fixing, 19 P-trap, 53 Quench Hook, 18 Raglet, *112 Rainwater Pipes, Burning, 104 Rasp, *19 Red-lead, 11 Reel, 18 Return Bend, *53 Ribbon Joint, *56 Ridge, Covering, with Lead, *137 , Weight of Lead for, 108 Right-angle Bend, *53 Roll, Curb, *111, 112 , Seam, *111, 112 , Taurus, *111, 112 Rolled Wiped Joint, 55 Roof Coverings, Conductivity of, 105 ■ , Firmness of, 105 , Fusibility of, 105 Doorway, 140 Work, 105-155 Roofs, Sloping, Material for, 106 Rule, Plumber's, *19 Safe, Lead, *32 Salts, Spirits of, 29 Sand Method of Pipe Bending, 52 Saw, *19 Screw Coupling, Lead Pipe, 74, 75 Screw Wrench, 19 Screwdriver, *19 Seam Roll, *111, 112 Seamless Pipes, 16 Seams, Burning, 102 Secret Gutters, *120, 121 Service Pipe, Bending, 52 Joint, *58 Setting-in Stick, *19 Shark's Jaw Wrench, 19 Shave Hook, 18, 65 Shears, *19 Sheet Lead, 12 , Bossing-up, 33-37 , , to a Break, 36 , Casting, 12 Flapper, *47 , Jointing, 109, 110 for Roof Work, 134 % Weights of, 14, 108 Working, 31-45 Sink, Relining, *36-41 , , Bossing-up Lead for, 41 , , Pattern of Lead for, *39 , , Soldering Lead in, *41 , , Thickness of Lead for, 39 Waste Pipes, 38-40 Sinks, Lining, with Pewter, 45 Skylight Construction, *145 Slate Cistern, Lead-lining, 44 Sloping Roof, Covering, 135, 136 , Material for, 106 Smudge, 60-62 Softening Pipe, 50 Softness of Lead, 14 Soil Pipes, 60-62 , Bending, *48-*51 , Burning, 104 , Joints for, 61 " Soil " or Smudge, 60-62 Solder, 25-29 -, Avoiding Burning of, 23 , Blowpipe, 25 , Cleaning, 29 , Colour of, 25, 26 , Copper-bit, 25 , Excluding Zinc from, 28 , Extracting Zinc from, 29 , Fine, 25 , Flux for, 29 , Gasfltter's, 25 , "Half-and-half," 28 , Ingots for, *27, 23 Making, 25, 26, 27 ■ , Pot for, *25, 26 , Materials for, 26, 27 , Pewterer's Blowpipe, 25 , Plumber's Fine, 25 Pot, *19, 25, 26 , Strip, 25 , , Mould for, *28 , Test for, 25 , Tinman's Copper-bit, 25 , Wiping, 25 , Angles with, 44 Soldered Dots, *30, -112 160 PRACTICAL PLUMBERS' WORK. Soldered Elbow, *53 Joint, Plain Seam, *30 in Sheet Lead, :; 109 ■ on Small Pipes, 73, 84 Soldering Brass, 29 ■ and Copper Fittings to Compo, 86 • Copper, 29 , Flux for, 29 ■ Galvanised Iron, 29 ■ Iron, *18 Lead in Helming Sink, *41 , Spirit of Salts for, 29 , Tallow for, 29 ■ Tinplate, 29 , Touching, 29 Wrought-iron, 29 Zinc, 29 Solid Rolled Pipes, 15 Specific Gravity of Lead, 11, 12, 15, 23 ■ Tin, 28 Spires, Material for, 106 Splayed Drip, *110 Spoon Hook, *18 Square, Plumber's, *19 Stairs, Covering, with Lead, 31 Stoneware Pipe Jointed to Lead Pipe, 61 S-trap, *53 Strip Solder, 25 Taft Joint, 58, 78 Tallow used as Flux, 29 Tank, Lining, with Lead, 42-44 Taurus Roll, *111, 112 Thicknesses of Pipes, Table of, 20 Thumb Wedge, *19 Tin, Specific Gravity of, 28 Tin-lined Pipes, Wiping Joints on,82 Tinman's Copper-bit Solder, 25 Tinned Copper, Lining Sinks with, 45 Tinning Iron and Copper, 29, 83 Tinplate, Soldering, 29 Tomahawk Mallet, *18 Tommy for Pipe Bending, *52 Tool -bag, Plumber's, 23, 24 Tool-chest, Plumber's, *21-23 Tools for Pipe Bending, *46, 47 , Plumbers', 18, 19 " Touching," 29 Towers, Material for Covering, 103 Traps, *53 Tray, Lead, *32 Turret Roof, Covering, with Lead, *145-150 Turnpins, *19 Underhand Joint, Preparing, 62 Wiping, *62-68 , Dressing out Pipes for, *64 • , Gauge used in, *64 , Shave-hook for, 65 : Squareness cf Ends, *64 Wiped Joint, 55 Upright Joint, *68-*70 ■ , Collars for, -69, 70 , Wiping, 70 Valley Gutters, *120 , Weights of Lead for, 108 Voltaic Action in Lead Work, 44 Waggon for Sheet Lead, 12 Walls, Burning Flashings to, 1^3 Water, Action of, on Lead, 10, 15, 16 ■ Grooves for Gutters, 122 Method of Pipe Bending, 52, 53 Wedge, Bent, *19 Mallet, *18 Narrow Bevel, *19 Chase, *19 Thumb, *19 Wide Bevel, *19 . Chase, *19 Weighing Lead, 15 Weight of Lead, 106, 108 of Pipes, Finding, 17 ■ , Table of, 20 Sheet Lead, 14, 103 Weights for Pipe Bending, *48, 49 Welt, Double, *110 Joint, *109 Welted Drip, *110, *1U Edge of Lead Flat, »110 White Lead, 11 Wilkinson, John, 15 Winching, 52 Window, Dormer, *138, 139 Wiped Joints, ::: 56 • , Horizontal, 55 , Rolled, 55 , Underhand, 55 ■ , Upright, 68-70 Wiping Block Flange Joint, 79 Branch Joint, 77 ■ Cast-iron Pipe to Lead Pipe, 80, ai Cloths, 18, 67, 68 Flange Joints, 78, 79 Joints, Amount of Solder for, 72 - — ■ , Blowlamp for, 76 on Copper Pipes, 82, 83 with Splash-stick and Soldering Iron, 75 ■ on Tin-lined Pipes, 82 Lead Pipe to Cast-iron Pipe, 80, 81 Solder, 25 Taft Joints, 78 Wood Finial, Covering, with Lead, 154, 155 Wooden Tank, Lining, with Lead, 43, 44 Wrench, Screw, *19 , Shark's Jaw, *19 Wrought-iron, Soldering, 29 Zinc, Conductivity of, 105 , Excluding, from Solder, 28 , Extracting, from Solder, 29 , Fusibility of, 105 , Soldering, 29 Printed by Cassell and Company, L'mited, Ludgate Hill, London, E.C. ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. CONTAINING FACTS, FORMULAE, TABLES AND QUESTIONS ON POWER, ITS GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND MEASUREMENT; HEAT, FUEL AND STEAM ; THE STEAM-BOILER AND ACCESSORIES ; STEAM-ENGINES AND THEIR PARTS ; THE STEAM-ENGINE IN- DICATOR; GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES; MATERIALS, THEIR PROPERTIES AND STRENGTH: TOGETHER WITH A DISCUSSION OF THE FUNDAMENTAL EXPERIMENTS IN ELECTRICITY, AND AN EXPLANATION OF DYNAMOS, MOTORS, BATTERIES, SWITCHBOARDS, TELE- PHONES, BELLS, ANNUNCIATORS, ALARMS, Etc., AND ALSO RULES FOR CALCULATING SIZES OF WIRES. BY STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer, AUTHOR OF " Roper's Catechism of High-Pressure or Non-Condensing Steam-Engines/' "Roper's Hand-Book of the Locomotive," "Roper's Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines," "Roper's Hand-Book of Modern Steam-Fire Engines," "Young Engineer's Own Book," "Use and Abuse of the Steam-Boiler," "Ques- tions and Answers for Engineers," etc. FIFTEENTH EDITION. REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED BY EDWIN R. KELLER, M. E., AND CLAYTON W. PIKE, B. S., Ex-President of the Electrical Section of the Franklin Institute. PHILADELPHIA: DAVID McKAY, 610 South Washington Square. 1905. PRICE, POSTPAID, $3.50. SEND FOR CIRCULARS, MMT31 1005 ROPER'S Practical Hand -Books For Engineers and Firemen, NEW REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION. HANDY-BOOK FOR STEAM ENGINEERS AND ELECTRICIANS* PRICE, $3.50. Roper's Catechism for Steam Engineers and Electric- ians, $2*00 Roper's Questions and Answers for Steam Engineers and Electricians, . . 2.00 Roper's Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines, . 3.50 Roper's Care and Management of the Steam Boiler, 2*00 Roper's Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler, .... 2«00 Roper's Young Engineers' Own Book, 2*50 Roper's Hand-Book of the Locomotive, 2*50 Roper's Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and Firemen, 2*00 Roper's Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire Engines, . 3*50 DAVID MCKAY, Publisher, 610 South "Washington Square, Philadelphia. Complete Descriptive Circulars Mailed Free on Application. Send for them. TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. Important New Series of Practical Volumes. Edited by PAUL N. HASLUCK. With numerous Illustrations in the Text. Each book contains about 1 60 pages, crown 8vo. Cloth, $1.00 each, postpaid. Practical Draughtsmen's Work. With 226 Illustrations. Contents. — Drawing Boards. Paper and Mounting. Draughtsmen's Instruments. Drawing Straight Lines. Drawing Circular Lines. Elliptical Curves. Projection. Back Lining Drawings. Scale Drawings and Maps. Colouring Drawings. Making a Drawing. Index. Practical Gasfitting. With 120 Illustrations. Contents. — How Coal Gas is Made. Coal Gas from the Retort to the Gas Holder. Gas Supply from Gas Holder to Meter. Laying the Gas Pipe in the House. Gas Meters. Gas Burners. Incandescent Lights. Gas Fittings in Workshops and Theatres. Gas Fittings for Festival Illuminations. Gas Fires and Cooking Stoves. Index. Practical Staircase Joinery. With 215 Illustrations. Contents. — Introduction: Explanation of Terms. Simple form of Staircase — Housed String Stair: Measuring, Planning, and Setting Out. Two-flight Staircase. Staircase with Winders at Bottom. Staircase with "Winders at Top and Bottom. Staircase with Half-space of Winders. Staircase over an Oblique Plan. Staircase with Open or Cut Strings. Cut String Staircase with Brackets. Open String Staircase with Bull-nose Step. Geometrical Staircases. Winding Staircases. Ships' Staircases. Index. Practical Metal Plate Work. With 247 Illustrations. Contents. — Materials used in Metal Plate "Work. Geometrical Construction of Plane Figures. Geometrical Construction and Development of Solid Figures. Tools and Appliances used in Metal Plate Work. Soldering and Brazing. Tinning. Re-tinning, and Galvanising. Examples of Practical Metal Plate Work. Examples of Practical Pattern Drawing. Index. Practical Graining and Marbling. With 79 Illustrations. Contents. — Graining: Introduction, Tools and Mechanical Aids. Graining Grounds and Graining Colors. Oak Graining in Oil. Oak Graining in Spirit and Water Colours. Pollard Oak and Knotted Oak Graining. Maple Graining. Mahogany and Pitch-pine Graining. Walnut Graining. Fancy Wood Graining. Furniture Graining. Imitating Woods by Staining. Imitating Inlaid Woods. Marbling: Introduction, Tools, and Materials. Imitating Varieties of Marble. Index. Painters' Oils, Colors and Varnishes. With Numerous Illustrations. Contents. — Painters' Oils. Color and Pigments. White Pigments. Blue Pigments. Chrome Pigments. Lake Pigments. Green Pigments. Red Pigments. Brown and Black Pigments. Yellow and Orange Pigments. Bronze Colors. Driers. Paint Grinding and Mixing. Gums, Oils, and Solvents for Varnishes. Varnish Manufacture. Index. Ready Shortly : Practical Plumbing Work. Other New Volumes in Preparation, DAVID McKAY, Publisher, Washington Square, Philadelphia.