'V— ^-, LIVES OF 0UR Presidents \ CONTAINING AN ACCOUNT OF THE^ CHILDHOOD, EARLY EDUCATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF ALL THE PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES INCLUDING ■^ VhCDOTES. INCIDENTS AND PERSONAL TRAITS WHICH ENABLED THEM TO ATTAIN THE HIGHEST OFFICE IN THE GIFT OF THE PEOPLE, TOGETHER WITH A FULL ACCOUNT OF THEIR ADMINISTRATIONS By ELLA HINES STRATTON Author of "All the World Over: or, the Twins Abroad" ''Lives of great tneri all remind us We can make our lives sublime." ^ TO WHICH IS ADDED THE HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY K R (J VI 1 T S DISCOVERY BY COLUMBUS DOWN to the PRESENT 1 IME Profusely Embellished with Phototype and Wood Engravings NATIONAL PUBLISHING CO, :i3!i TO 24.-; American Street PHILADELPHIA . \ TWF I mA^V OF Ct vGSESS, Two OopiM Aectrvt* FEB. 2C 1902 fpHP-'W f T 6MTII. COPY a e^TERED ACeCRDIhO TC ACT OF CONGRESS. IK THE YEAR 1903, BV D. Z. MOWELL n> ^Ht OfFlCE Cf 1H£ LtBSARIAN OF CONGRESS. AT WASHiNCTON, 0. C. U. 8. A. X ELLA HINES STRATTOIN. '^pn^ author of this volume, Airs. Stratton, was boru iu Caribou Maine, wheu the beautiful Aroostook Valley (since called th. Garden- of New England) was little more than a vast wilderness. Sht is tL>- eldest of the three children of Joseph W. and Marcella (Hall llinei-, her mother being better known as " Flora Wildwood," anc .!:.. eiongs tea family of ready writers. She is emphatically J child of the people, who has taken a place, unaided, well up the ladder ol literar ' work. Sa^ has not only been the architect but the builder of her own sue ces«. Eer ancestors were among the first settlers of New Eno-land and love ufjustice, charity, and conscientiousness have been her iuher nance. In all the relation, of life she strives to be loval and true Her gnndfather, Winslow Hall, was among the few brave hearted men who fomded the " Liberty Party." Her great-grandfather, Enoch Hall fougr,tinder Washington in the Revolutionary War, was several time-^ .eni I, Boston as a member of the General Court when Maine was a framlTh^' J!^^'^^.^^"^^"'^" ^^ ^ ^^^er of the Convention which framedhe Constitution of Maine in 18x9-1830, and represented h's .Iow..,l Hall, a woman of rare intellectual abilit3', was a lineal ,na "' !^"'"*^°" ^^^ °^t^i"-d at Presque Isle, Maine, Boston Mass f^^ t i:i^e7i b r' " ' ''^' ^'^" '^"^^^ ^^^^""^^^^ ^-- XS61 an wT r. ^'''"°"' '' ^^^ ^^^^ Maine Volunteers of i.Oi ail her home circle has her first care and thought •i' n. urged by her mother, she sent her first br«i...o^.-;. 470 111 ELLA HINES STRATTON. I I into Lae \vide world to seek a welcome in the already crowded Lath<; literature. That she underrated her own powers is proven bv (u^^ p-en nine surprise at her success. Since then she has contributed tL scv<^' papers and magazines under various " noms de plume," and ha/g enjoyed learing her work criticised, sometimes by near friends who dic\ not sus- pect the authorship. Her articles and stories have appeared in Portland Ti^^u script Daughters of America, Golden Daj-s, Youths' Companion, 1 Harper's ^''oung People, Lothrope's magazines, and other leading periodica'.- Although prose is her forte she is represented in both . '' spl.cts .' \Liine" and "Poets of America." She edited the juvenile departjment of he Geographical News until it was combined with the Geogrlaphical ^lagazine. Her first book, " All the World Over," contains ab(jiut 600 saees, and treats accuratelv of everv countrv known to travell )eople, climate, products, and animals. She is careful in selecting and comparing authorities, has ways of )btaining information not in print, and her books may be accepted as •eliable. j Her most earnest wish is that the}' may interest the childrev. of he United States of America, those who are to become the guarclians of )ur great nation. That they may incite the rising generation to a thorough s .♦ .._, < i" he biography and history, the successes and failures of the past, hey may be the better prepared to perform the duties whicl hem- so that I await / "X CONTENTS. GEORGE WASHINGTON ,_ JOHN ADAMS 22 THOMAS JEFFERSON JAMES .AIADISON JAMES MONROE JOHN QUINCY ADAMS gg ANDREW JACKSON gg MARTIN VAN BUREN _ „g WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON ' " L JOHN TYLER : 'Z^.... 86 JAMES K. POLK.. r:r:Tr7r^ „^ 00 ZACHARY TAYLOR MILLARD FILLMORE ^^ FRANKLIN PIERCE. ....^____-^^.________^__^^ ^^^ JA!-i=-q BUCHANAN "....... ,'06 ABRAHAM LliNLOLN .^.^,.^frr7Z ^^.' ANDREW JOHNSON ....>,rrrrTrrr'!^7TZ.... ULYSSES S. GRANT ..'"'. "^ RUTHERFORD B. HAYES '^^ JAMES A. GARFIELD CHESTER A. ARTHUR '"^^ GROVER CLEVELAND '"^^ BENJAMIN HARRISON Z'' "- '^^ WILLIAM McKINLEY '••■••••-■ ,52 THEODORE ROOSEVELT '^^ THE STORY OF PORTO RICO. HAwXliyPHILIPPINESAND CUBa'" !-' THE HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY ^^UBA... ,,i EARLY ADVENTURES IN NORTH AMERICA '^^ STORY OF CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS IT, THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR ^^ THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION ^'"^ FROM THE RIAOLUTION TO THe'cVvil w^r '"' THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 40i tM FROM THE CIVIL WAR DOWN TO THe' PRESENT TI ^'' FECIAL .;; '*''° ill LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. George Washington 17 Vashington Planting the Flag on Fort Duquesne 19 Medal in Honor of the Recap- ture of Boston 20 ousE Where Washington Lived in Philadelphia 20 Signing the Declaration of Inde- pendence 21 The Declaration of Independence Read to the Army 23 Inauguration of Washington 25 Washington's Home at Mt. Ver- non 26 Washington Crossing the Dela- ware 27 Washington's Quarters at Mor- RISTOWN 29 Continental Bili^ 30 Vv'ashington's Tomb at Mt. Vernon 3 1 John Adams 33 Election Scene in Philadelphia IN 1816 35 Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia... 39 S :ene IN Florida 42 Thomas Jefferson 46 Signatures of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence... 47 1 iousE IN Which the Declaration was Written 50 S''eaker's Chair and De.sk in Inde- pendence Hall 51 Old Liberty Bell 52 Statue of Jefferson at Washing- ton c^ James Madison 55 Indian Child in Cradle 56 Indian Amusements 57 Massacre by Indians at Fort Dear- born 53 J AMES Monroe 59 Fourth of July Celebration in 1812 61 First Settlement of New York... 63 John Quincy Adams 66 Town Ckier Calling i he Hour at Night 63 Andrew Jackson 61) Settler's Cabin 70 Southern Plantation 7 Osceola, Chief of the Semlnoles 7; Seal of the United States 7>. Independence Hall 7, Steamboat Loading with Cotfon... y!i Gener.\l Anthony Wayne 80 National Capitol at Washington 82 United States Mint at Philadel- phia 85 John Tyler 87 Interior of Independence Hall . 80 James K. Polk 91 Smithsonian Institution, Washing- ton, D. C 92 Zachary Taylor 96 Indian Life in their Native For- es is 9 Capture of a Battery a r M in ierey 9^ , Batile of Buena Vista 100 Millard Fillmore loi Scene in the Allegheny Mountains 10^ V LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. I'K AN KLIN Pi ERCE VV^HiTE House, Washington, D. C. James Buchanan Indians Watching a Train Crossing THE Mountains Bridge over Susquehanna River.. Abraham Lincoln Refreshment Saloon, Philadel- phia, i86i The Peace Commission Assassination of Presi dent Lincoln Grave of President Lincoln Lincoln Monument in Fairmount Park Andrew Johnson Ulysses S. Grant Birthplace of General Grant Grant's Boyhood Days in Ohio Grant Going for Ammunition at Monterey House where Grant was Married The Old Cottage when Times were Hard (jkant's Headquarters near Fort Donaldson Grant Writing Despatches Mrs. U. S. Grant CiOTTAGE IN WHICH GrANT DieD Futherford B. Hayes. EPARTMENT OF StATE, WASHINGTON J iMES A. Garfield I arfield Homestead, Ohio /Assassination of President Gar- field I'eath-Bed of Garfield Mrs. Lucretia R. Garfield C HESTER A. Arthur Bird's-EyeView of New York City Crover Cleveland Cleveland Taking Oath of Office Mrs. Cleveland •■■ 07 08 10 1 1 13 17 18 19 22 23 24 25 29 30 31 32 33 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 43 44 46 47 48 49 SO 53 54 55 Special Benjamin Harrison 156 U. S. Postoffice Building, Phila- delphia I ,3 William McKinlev i 3 Theodore Roosevelt 16S Map OF THE Philippine Islands 175 Street Scene in Manila i;8 Admiral George Dewey 179 Uniform of United States Of- ficers 1^0 Christopher Columbus i;-/ Columbus Quelling Mutiny on His Ship 189 Landing of Columbus at San Sal- vador 191 Columbus Receiving Natives on His Ship 105 Reception of Columbus by Ferdi- nand AND Isabella 206 Columbus at the Monastery of La RaHIDA 2'2 Indian Weapons 2- ^ N AT I V HS ASTO N I S H ED B Y TH E FX L I PSE OF THE Sun 2 i ; Sebastian Cabot 25 The Coast OF Florida 2,7 Fernando De Soto 2^S Sir Martin Frobisher 2 ' Captain John Smith 2; Pocahontas Interceding for Cap- tain Smith 242 Pocahontas 24.1 Building the First House 'in Jamf-stown 2-, Types of North American Indians i- . French Explorers Burying Leaden Plates 23; The Half King 2f^ Will's Creek Narrows, Maryland 2; Disastrous Defe.\t of General Bkaddock 276 LIST OF ILI.USTRATIONS. Vll 281 288 294 295 296 300 310 BURI ING OF KlTTANNING BY GkN- Ei- al Armstrong PAI.1-ADES OF THE Hudson Wu.'iAM Pitt Sit.'- of Fort William Henry on Lake George "> ■ WAL of Indian Allies at the . ENCH Camp MON rCALM Ni A' . \RA Falls General James Wolfe 3" Dea h of General Wolfe, Quebec 3 1 5 King George III 3i6 A ^ ISIT OF PONTIAC AND THE In- ,NS TO Major Gladwin 321 Samuel Adams 3-7 Hanging a Stamp Act Official in , Effigy 32° Thk wing the Tea Overboard in B' 5TON Harbor 329 Bat-, le of Lexington, April 19, ir'5 331 Death of Isaac Davis 334 Geniral Israel Putnam 335 Batjle of Bunker Hill 34° Dea:h of Major Pitcairn 343 Sekueant Jasper at Fort Moul- tfe 348 Gen RAL Nathaniel Greene 352 GeniRAl John Sullivan* 353 Ben:amin Franklin 35^ Geni RAL Charles Lee 359 Was.iington Calls on Colonel R HL 362 The Marquis de Lafayette 365 Arrest of General Prescott at iV avport, Rhode Island 368 I.af^-.yette and Washington 369 ViEV. of Valley Forge, Washing- T. >i's Heauquakters 374 Washington's Headquarters at Valley Fokge 375 General Burgoyne Addressing the Indians 37° Herkimer Mortally Wounded 377 General Benjamin Lincoln 381 Cavalry Charge of Count Pulaski 383 John Paul Jones 3^5 Lord Cornwallis 3^7 "Now Put Watts into Them, Boys" 389 Benedict Arnold 39 • Escape of Benedict Arnold 394 Major Andre 395 Surrender of Lord Coknwallis. 399 Officers of the Chesapeake Sur- rendering their Swords 405 The " Wasp " Boarding the "Frolic" 4o8 Perry's ViCTORy on Lake Erie 412 Pakenham Leading the Attack ON New Orleans 4H Henry Clay 4' 7 Daniel Webster 4'8 John C. Calhoun 4' 9 Professor Morse 420 Santa Anna 423 Post Office, New York, in 1878.. 425 Hydraulic Mining in California.. 426 Stephen A. Douglas 427 Charles Sumner 428 Mormon Hand Cart Company Crossing the Plains 429 Mountain Meadow Massacre 430 Robert Toombs 433 Major Anderson 434 Fort Moultrie, Charleston Har- bor 435 Jefferson Davis 43^ Inauguration of Jefferson Davis AT Richmond, Va 437 Special. \nii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 44; Arrest of Mason and Slidell on THE British Steamer -Trent •. . . 440 Isi_\ND No. id. Charge of the Federals at Co- rinth General George R McClellan ... 446 Ge.\er.\l T. J. J.^cRsox 44S General Robert E- Lee. 450 -McClellan at the Battle of Antietam 451 General George G. Me.\de. 453 Gexer.\l J. E. B. Stewart 454 bHERIDANS CaV.U-RV ChARGE .AT Cedar Creek M.AJOrGeN.J. M. SCHOFIELD Commodore David C. Fakr.\glt ... 465 Gener.al James B. M.\cPherso.n 46^1 SiSKixG of the '• Alabama " by the " Ke.\rs.age " ,. L-AST Cavalry Charge of the ^^AR 46S Bcrning of Chicago < rj Hor.\ce Greeley ^^^ ^ Memorial H.\ll, Philadelphia...... 476 General John C. Pemberton 455 View of Centenni.\l Fochibition.... 477 " "' Indians Surprised AND Defe.\ted... 479 The Capture of Lookolt Moun TAIN 456 Thom.as F. Bavard. General J.XMES Longstreet 457 J.\mes G. Bl.\ine. Attack on Fort Sumter by the 483 486 John A. Logan 48^ Monitor Fleet 45S I Levi P. Morton 488 Gener.\l \Vm. T. Sherm.\n 459 G.xrrett A. Hob.\rt 489 Battle OF Cold H.\rbor 460 Gener.\l Nelson A. Miles. 496 SPECI.U> GEORGE WASHINGTON. c 'HARLIE NELSON sat by tlie window, with a dissatisfied frown, watching what was going on out of doors with eager, tearful eves. Every one in the whole town was cele- brating Washington's birthday except him, he thought bitterly. " O, what made me have the measles just in time not to get well before this?" he wailed. "O dear. What a good time they are all having. Dear me And I know the coasting is as good as can be. O — dear — me." " What a dismal face for a boy to liave — when he is get- ting rid of the measles so nicely, too," laughed IMamma Nelson, taking the sorrowful, boyish face between her two loving hands, with a tender kiss. "Shall I tell you a story, Charlie?" "A story, mamma?" ex- claimed Charlie, brightening up a bit, for Mamma Nelson's stories were sure to be good ones. "What is it about?" "About George Washing- George Washington. ton, first President of these United States. It is his birthday, 3'ou know." The dissatisfied frown returned, darker than at first. "No, I don't want that," he said impatiently. "I've heard about 2 17 18 GEORGE WASHINGTON. him ever since I can remember. I know the stor\- of the little hatchet all by heart — and I wish George Washington never had had any hatchet. I know how he rode that colt to death — the one that hij mother liked so well — and his mother didn't even scold him because ht never told a lie. O, I know all about George Washington now, and I don't believe half folks say about him." "Are you sure that you know all about him?" smiled Mamm.i Nelson. " Then tell me where he was born ? " " Why — in Virginia, of course." ** Yes, but in what part ? " " Wh3'-e-e, where his father lived, I suppose." " Where was that ? " "I-I don't exacth' know." *' Where was his father bom ? " " Well,— I don't know that either." '* Who was his mother ? " " I-I guess that is something else that I don't know." Charlie's face was very red, for he did not like to own that he did not know things. " I thought that there were some things that 3-ou could leam about the little babe that was bom at the old Washington homestead, at Pope's Creek, \'a., February 22, 1732." BORN IN ONE OF THE FIRST HOUSES BUILT IN VIRGINIA. " What an awful long time ago. Is he as old as that ? " Charlie made a mental calculation and forgot an item of histon,- in his surprise. " Ah, so you did not know that he died at Mount Vemon, December 14, 1799, and was buried in the brick vault on the estate more than a hundred years ago ? O, Charlie. I thought that you knew it all." " ^\'hat kind of a house was he bom in?" asked Charlie, in confusion "In one of the first houses ever built in Virginia. Mam' miles of the blue Potomac could be seen from its windows, as well as the snnnv shores of Man.'land upon the opposite side of the river. The joof was very steep, with low, projecting eaves, and there was an 1 WASHINGTON PLANTING THE FLAG ON FORT DUQUESNE. 19 20 GEORGE WASHINGTON. immense cliimney at each end. There were four large rooms on the ground floor, besides the pleasant chambers, and the house \\as surrounded by well kept grounds." "I should like to see it mamma — it would be almost like seeing Wash- ington, wouldn't it?" " Not exactly, I think, but it might make him seem more real, " said Nettie, who medal in honor of the recapture of boston. came in to hear the story. "Is the house still there, mamma?" "Nothing remains of it, but a stone marks the site where it stood. Two or three dj-ing fig-trees ; a few shrubs, with here and there a hardy flower which grass and weeds cannot kill ; these are all that remain to show where a lovely, fruitful earden was once. Perhaps even HOUi^E WllKRE WASHINGTON LIVED IN PHILADELPHIA. theSC are gOUe now, but they were there when your father visited the place a few years ago. " " You have not told us about his father and mother, " said Charlie. SIGNING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 22 GEORGE WASHINGTON. " And how many brothers and sisters did he have ? " asked Nettie. "One question at a time, please," laughed Mamma Nelson. "His father, Augustine Washington, was married twice. George had two half brothers older than he was, while three brothers and two sisters were younger. One sister died when a little baby, the other, Betty, always idolized her famous brother. I have heard that Washington was haughty and proud, although he was the beloved ' Father of his country. ' He had reason to be, if blue blood gives one that right, for the genealogy of his family dates back — nearly to the conquest. No doubt some of the race fought in that. " "Did every one fight in old times, mamma?" queried Charlie. WASHINGTON'S ANCESTORS AND THE FEUDAL LAWS. " In those olden days, my son, under the old feudal laws, a man's castle was only his own so long as he could defend it and hold it by the strength of his strong right arm. Bishops were appointed over prov- inces, and the3% in turn, appointed favorite knights to rule over the villages in their territory. These knights were expected to be always ready to follow the banners of the bishops when unfurled in war." " What has all this to do with Washington, mamma?" asked Nettie. " I will tell you. One of these knights, William De Hertburu, governed a village on the banks of the Tees, probably the one which is now called Hartburu. He was the first of the Washington family that we have a record of Later he ruled the village of Wessyngton, and the family name became Wessyngton. Next, in the list of loyal knights who fought for their ill-fated king at Lewes, in 1264, we find the name of William Weshington. About 1450 the name was .spelled Wassing- ton, later it became Was.shingtou, and finally Washington. The more direct ancestors of our Washington were the brothers John and Andrew,} who came to Virginia in 1657, and purchased large tracts of land in Westmoreland County between the Potomac and Rappahanock Rivers. John, as Colonel, led the forces of Virginia in the war with the Seneca Indians." THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE READ TO THE ARMY. 23 24 GRORGE WASHINGTON. "It seems as if tlie Wasliingtons were all fighters,'' mused Nettie. "They were all brave and fearless meu, and when tlie need came they were warriors. They followed the banner of St. Cuthbert to the Holy War ; they invaded Scotland with Edward the I, and followed the standard of Queen Philippa. Later we find that James Washington lost his life fighting for King Charles at the siege of Pontefract Castle, and read of gallant Henry Washington, who served under Prince Rupert, at the Storming of Bristol, in 1643.'' BRAVERY OF WASHINGTON. "How brave they all were. I don't blame Washington for being a little proud," declared Charlie. " Bravery is not all, my son," said Mamma Nelson, gently. " Those who have borne the name have been honorable men, and gentle, yet fear- less women. It is the faithful discharge of duty which brings honor and trust ; always remember that, my children. Hereditary rank is much less than hereditary virtue." " Can you tell us who George Washington's mother was ? " asked Nettie. " Her maiden name was Mary Ball, and it may be that Washington owed his character to her as much as to his illustrious paternal ancestors, after all. She was a beautiful girl at the time of her marriage — she became a woman of strong character, devoted to her famil}^, and she exacted implicit obedience from her children at all times. After her husband died, when George was twelve years old, she directed the educa- tion of their children, and not least of her useful lessons were those of self-denial and self-control." " Did Washington ever go to college? " asked Charlie. " No, his education was very limited. One of his father's tenants gave him his first lessons in reading, writing, and arithmetic. He was so very neat about his books that some of them, in manuscript, are still treasured at Mount Vernon, as models of neatness and accuracy. When only thirteen years old, he wrote a code of rules by which his whole life o z I < < DC UJ z LiJ o o h- co z DC o o Q QC o o cc UJ Q z UJ oc DC 3 W THE INAUGURATION OF WASHINGTON. 26 GEORGE WASHINGTON. was governed. He wanted to enter the naval service, but finalh' fitted himself for land surveying. As a child, he had a great liking for military life, and delighted in organizing his playmates into companies for drilling. When nineteen years old lie was Major and acting Adiutant of the Provincial troops. WASHINGTON'S HOME AT MOUNT VERNON. Three years later he led his men against the French, at Fort Duquesne —now Pittsbnrg. The next year, when with General Braddock at Alonongahela, he had three horses shot under him, and several bullet holes through his coat, but escaped unharmed. The Indians believed that he bore a charmed life and could not be killed. He was Commander of the Virginia troops in 1774, and represented that State in the Con- w < < W Q W K H O Z 00 CO O u z o H O z S < 27 28 GEORGE WASHINGTON. vention at Philadelphia the next j'ear. At the beginning of the Revo- lution he was chosen Commander-in-chief, and served without any pay except his actual expenses. It is said that Frederick the Great once sent his portrait to Wash- ington, with these remarkable words: "From the oldest General in "Europe to the greatest General in the world." HIS COMMANDING APPEARANCE. " Papa says that General Washington was a very stern man," said Nettie. "And aristocratic and vain," added Charlie. " When he was at the head of the nation it was said of him that he was more solid than brilliant, and had more judgment than genius. As a President he weighed his decisions carefull}-, but, his policy- once set- tled, he held to it with steadiness and dignit}'^, in spite of all opposition. As an officer, he was brave and cautious ; his campaigns were rarel}' start- ling but always judicious. He was calm in defeat, sober in victory, commanding at all times, and irresistible when aroused ; but he exercised equal authorit}' over himself and over his army." " Why, if he was all that, he was an angel," cried Nettie incredu- lousl}'. "In biographical stud\' we must alwaj's make some allowance, my dear," smiled ]\Iamma Nelson. " George Washington was a man and a statesman ; not a saint, as some of his admirers think. He was almost a giant in stature, being six feet and two inches tall and as straight as an Indian." "Was he vain ? Well, he was verj' particular about his dress at all times. We often read of him as being dressed in velvet, with satin coat linines. When he was married he wore a blue broad-cloth suit, the coat of which was lined with red silk, and ornamented with silver ; his waist- coat was white satin, heavil}- embroidered ; he wore gold knee and shoe buckles, and his hair was powdered." GEORGE WASHINGTON. 29 " But, witli all his love of finery and good living, lie refused to be made King of America." " I guess I know more about George Wasbington tban I ever did before," nodded Nettie. " But if be was so sober and cross as I tbink be was I'm glad tbat I wasn't bis bo}-," said Cbarlie. " He was not sober and cross I am very sure. He was always very WASHINGTON'S QUARTERS AT MORRISTOWN. basbful witb strangers, but be liked to ride and bunt, and always spent bis evenings witb bis family, cracking jokes and nuts togetber. But be never bad a cbild of bis own, altliougb bis wife bad two cbildren wbom be loved dearly, and wben tbey died, be adopted two of tbeir cbildren as bis own. He owned hundreds of slaves, but be was a kind master, and very tbougbtful of tbeir comfort." "Did be bave slaves? I am sorry," mused Nettie. 30 GEORGE WASHINGTON. *' He lived in a different time from ours, my dear. He was fitted fol his life-work, and lie did it well. His slaves were all freed by his will." "Do you know who his wife was, mamma ? " asked Charlie. " Her name was Martha Dandridge, and she was the daughter of Colonel John Dandridge, a planter who lived in New Kent County, in Virginia. She was about Washington's age, being born in 1732, and she died at Mount Vernon nearl}' three years after he did. When quite ;i^nimtc^f Cornel Six :Z)OX:t*Ai^. s^^^^gg*. -T^ HIS Bill entitles tlw y^y"^ 4^> x?i^ SIX SPANISH MlLLtD //J ^^\''" _ a Resolution GRESS tinlUilUt Phi ladelpha Ww ^-i/^C' SIX DOLLARS g^ C^<»Hy^^ 7' CONTINEMTAL BILLS. young she married Daniel Park Custis, a wealth}- planter. He died in about eight 3-ears, leaving his wife one of the richest women in A'irginia. She had four children, two of whom died before she saw Washington. It is said that their wedding was one of the finest ever seen in Virginia. I have told j-ou how Washington was dressed. His wife wore a white silk quilted petticoat, with a heavily corded white silk over-dress, also diamond buckles and pearls. But, although she dressed so nicel}' and lived in style, she was very patriotic, and during the Revolution she wore garments which were spun and woven by her servants, as an example of economy to the women of the countr}-. I declare, the boys have a companj' of soldiers, and — yes, they are inarching in at our gate." GEORGE WASHINGTON. 31 " Halt," commanded Captain Hadley Ames, as he drew liis company up before tlie window where Charlie was sitting. "I say, Charlie, we can't come into the house, you know, the folks at home woi^ldn't like it." WASHINGTON'S TOMB AT MOUNT VERNON. 'And you wouldn't like it either — the measles I mean," interrupted Charlie. " It is just awful." "Is' pose it is — I don't want to know," laughed Captain Hadley. "But we've brought 3'ou some candy and nuts and a picture of George Washington to hang in your room. We'll lay them on the steps — tell your mother to get them. All the boys have them, the pictures I mean 32 GEORGE WASHINGTON. and we are going to get our mothers to tell us all about Washington to-night. I don't half know about him, do you? "I know more than I did when I thought that I knew it all,'' laughed Charlie. " Well, we hope you'll like it — the candy and stuff, I mean," said Captain Hadle}-. "Rightabout. Forward. March." And away marched Captain Ames and his compau}-, just as Captain Washington had marched with his company, years before. ^A/ASHINGTON CANNOT BE FORGOTTEN. "We know our story first, don't we, mamma?" asked Charlie, as he looked his presents over." Do you suppose their mothers can tell them all that j-ou have told us?" " Ver}' likeh' the}' can tell it better," answered Mamma Nelson. "I have told you very little of Washington's life after all. You must study for yourself. Read the biographies of great men, and you will see that success never comes b}^ chance, nor are men called to important posi- tions until they prove themselves worth}^ of the trust." "There is no danger that people will forget George Washington," said Nettie. "No. Ma}' 15, 1897, a bronze monument, in his memory, was unveiled in Philadelphia. The city was gay with flags and bunting, and the monument was unveiled by President McKinley." "I'm sorry the story is done — when shall we know as much as you do, mamma ?" sighed Charlie. "When you learn it, nothing comes by chance. You must work for knowledge, but the work will be pleasant. Try it, my children." " I am sure that we shall — now," answered Nettie. JOHN ADAMS. CHARLIE gained so rapidl}- that before the week had passed he sat in an easy chair upon the sunny veranda one bright morning, as happ}' as a king upon his throne. Nettie sat upon the step near by, ready to do his bidding, while Mamma Nelson often looked up from her sewing to smile at his happiness. "Now, if Had were only here — and the rest of 'em,'' he sighed; and at that moment Hadley was seeu coming down the street. "Just like the Arabian Nights stories — make a wish, and get it," laughed Nettie. "Hello, Charlie, you out?" shouted Hadle}', stopping at the gate. "Hello, and I'm out," Charlie called back, in a happ}', trembling voice. "Come in, will vou ? " "I guess I can, 'long's you're fumigated — the house, I mean," laughed Hadley, as he took a seat JOHN ADAMS. .-i . , j l, • 1 j ■' upon the step, clasped his hands around his knees, and nodded brightly at Charlie. " I say, old fellow, it seems good to see you." "Does it? I'm glad you missed me. But here come Bennie and Ray. Come right in, I can't give 'em now — the doctor said so," and Charlie's eyes seconded his words of welcome. "We know it — he told us," Ray answered for both. Then there was an expressive silence. Charlie was too happj' to 3 33 34 JOHN ADAMS. talk much, and the others did not know what to say. At last Charlie remembered something he had been thinking about since he saw them. "I say, boys, did you hear all about Washington that night?" he asked eagerly. "No, my mother went up to Aunt Jane's, and she has not had time to tell me yet, but she will — sometime," answered Hadley. "Aren't you in an awful hurry to hear it ? " cried Charlie. YOUNG PEOPLE SHOULD KNOW OUR HISTORY. " Well, no, I don't know as I am. I don't like history very well, and it don't seem as if those folks, the Presidents and Generals, and — and the rest of the ones that they talk about, }'ou know — it don't seem as if they ever were really and trul}"- anybody, so I don't care much if I never hear the story of Washington." " Pho, I'd like to know who does care about it," cried Bennie Small. " I have to read more than I want to about the old fogies in history when I go to school. I don't believe that they ever were alive." "I don't, either," asserted Ray Brown. "You would if my mamma told you the story," declared Charlie, with a loving glance at Mamma Nelson. "She says that we boys ought to know all about the history of our country, and what kind of men have helped to govern it. If we never become President, we want to vote rightly, 3'ou know. O, mamma, can I tell them now ? What is the use of waiting, when I am getting well so fast ? " Mamma Nelson smiled at the eager, curious faces, then she nodded. " Charlie and Nettie have a plan which I think you will like," she said. " Yes, boys. Will you do it ? " cried Charlie. " And bring Josie and Ruthie and Katie with 30U, for mamma says that it is just as important for girls to know as it is for boys," exclaimed Nettie. " She says that if wonen do not vote, they ought to understand these things." "So the}'' can tell history stories," nodded Charlie; then he added, impatiently, " Will you do it, boys ? " 36 JOHN ADAMS. " Perhaps. We can tell better when we kuow what it is," suggested Hadle}', cautiously. "Of course — but I'm so glad, and — and everj-thing, that it seems AS if I couldn't exactly think straight. Well, when mamma told us the stor}' of Washington, it seemed as if I knew him — it just did — she made it so plain. Nettie and I could talk of nothing else, and so she said '• " No, no, Charlie, 5-011 and Nettie must have the credit of the plan, for 3-011 thought of it first," interrupted Mamma Nelson. "I guess we all thought of it together — anyway- we talked about it, didn't we ? Well, we are going to have a club, just as men do, and women, too — that is, if you fellows want to." " How can we tell until we know ? " questioned Hadley. LIKE ALL OTHER BOYS. " You shall know at once, my friend. It is this. We will meet at our house once a week, and mamma will tell us the story of the Presidents — now do you want to ? " The boys looked at each other in questioning silence. In fact they hardly understood what thej- ought to say. Charlie watched anxiously-. "I guess you don't know what mamma's stories are,'' he said in a disappointed way — he had hoped that they would be so pleased. "We cannot learn as much about them as we would like to," said Mamma Nelson. '' Biographers do not say much about the boyhood of great men, and that is what we want to know most, isn't it? " "Yes, that is what I would like to hear about. Perhaps they never had an}' boyhood. Grandfather saA-s that he never did — he had to work so," said Ray. " The}' often began life's duties earlier than boys now do." Mamma Nelson went on. " But I think that they were boys like you. They liked to play ball, skate and swim, just as you do." "It don't seem so when you read about them in history," mused Beuuie. JOHN ADAMS 37 " Wh}^, if we could think that the}^ were ever boys like us — why, of course we'd like to hear all about them," declared Ra}^ "I'd like to hear about them anyway," piped a voice from bej'ond the garden hedge. The boys started and looked in that direction Soon a small freckled face, with two eager blue eyes, appeared above the hedge. "I didn't mean to speak out so, ma'am," the voice went on. "I couldn't help hearing, I just came to see if I could get a squint at Charlie. I've been here 'most ever}' da}^, and when the window was open a bit I could hear the stories j-ou told him — I didn't mean no harm." JAKE JOINS THE CLASS. "It's Jake Lewis, mamma," whispered Charlie. "He hasn't any mother, and his father — 3-ou know." " Mamma Nelson nodded, and Jake found courage to add : "I heard j^ou talking about Washington, ma'am, and telling it all so beautiful and plain, and then I wished — but I don't suppose that J. could " Charlie looked at !Mamma Nelson inquiringl}-, then he looked at the boys and smiled. "Of course 3'ou can, Jake," he said, decidedly. " Come right in. We can't begin to-da}', for the girls are not here, but a week from this afternoon mamma will tell the stor}- of Washington over again — isn't it so, mamma ? — then we can go right along with the rest of the Presi- dents. I shall be all well by that time. You tell him that we want him, mamma." " I think that he understands that there is a place for him," smiled Mamma Nelson. "A big place too, Jake," added Hadlej-, heartily. " I wonder that we did not think of j-ou before, you like histor}- so well, but " "I know — I couldn't go to school any more; perhaps I never can go again," murmured Jake, in a half defiant tone, as he crept through the Ledge, and took a seat near Charlie. " He's given me books to read, and 38 ■ ■ JOHN ADAMS. helped me lots,'' he added, jerking his thumb towards the sick boy, who was blushing beneath his mother's approving eyes. 1 "And we'll help you, all of us, only we didn't think of it before," said Bennie. " If we have a club we must have a President," said Mamma Nelson. " I move that Mamma Nelson be our President," shouted Hadlej'. '' Second that motion," echoed a chorus of voices. " I thousfht that I was to be the storv teller," said Mamma Nelson. " So j'ou are, but you'll have to be almost everj-thing, for we don't know much," returned Bennie. *' Well, we will begin that way- In fact, I think that this is but the small beginning of a great ending. I am quite sure that you will like the stor}' of the Presidents so well that you will become a historj- club, but we will not talk of that j'et. We shall have to work, each one must learn all that is possible of each President in turn, and be able to tell it to the others at each meeting. Will you do this ?" WILLING TO HEAR IT A DOZEN TIMES. "I am sure we will do the best that we can, ma'am," said Jake- earnestly. '' And now that we are organized as a club, I think that we will go over the story of Washington to-day, if Hadlej- and Bennie, aud Ray will go home and fetch the girls," said Mamma Nelson. " O really, mamma,'' cried Charlie in pleased surprise. " Hurr^- boys." "Of course we will, if Charlie isn't too tired," said Ray. "I couldn't be too tired to hear that a dozen times, as mamma tells it," returned Charlie. In h.alf an hour ihey were all assembled, and eager to begin. *' Now, mamma, tell them the storj- of Washington, please," said Nettie, eagerly ; and Mamma Nelson told it to them as she told it to Charlie and Nettie, while they were celebrating \\'ashington's birthday. JOHN ADAMS. 39 "I never thought mucli about him before," said Hadley, thought- fully, after che stor}- was briefly told, " but I shall after this." "You uever said what he looked like," began Jake, eagerl3\ " I've heard that his hair was red, and his face was all marked up with small- pox. Was it so, ma'am ? " ''Partly so," replied Mamma Nelson. "His face was very fair, and slightly pitted bj' small-pox. His nose was rather large; so was his mouth. His eyes were a blueish gray, and his hair was brown with a reddish tinge. His hands and feet were ver}^ large, and he weighed two hundred and ten pounds." "Thank you, m a' a m. Now we can almost hear him speak when we look at his pic- ture," said Jake, soberly. "Yes, we'll be sure to think more about him, now " said Rav. carpenter's hall, Philadelphia. " So say we all of us," cried Bennie. " It seems different to hear it told than it does to read it out of those dry, old histories." " It seems more real, a-ou mean," nodded Katie. " Yet, if it were not for the histories we should not know it to tell," answered Mamma Nelson. "Disagreeable things are necessary some- times, and we should never shirk, whether we like a thing or not." Jake said no more ; he stole away into a corner alone, and no one except Mamma Nelson noticed the resolute, almost defiant look on his young face. She saw, and understood. The week passed very slowly to at ie?ist nine eager young people, Histories, encyclopedias and 40 ~ JOHN ADAMS biographies were searched, for each one wanted to be able to tell something about John Adams, the second President of the United States, when his life stor}' was told by Mamma Nelson. The time, so impatiently waited for, came at last, and before the clock finished striking the hour all were seated upon Mrs. Nelson's pleasant veranda. "It is cooler here," said Nettie. "To-day is almost as warm as summer." "Let me see," began Mamma Nelson. "John Adams was the sec- ond President of this country, I believe; what can j-ou tell me about him?" " He served but one tetm, while Washington had two terms," said Katie. "He was sixtj'-two years old when he went to the White House to live," Hadley announced. " He was elected by only three votes, and he used to call himself The President of Three Votes,' " added Bennie. A RIVAL OF THOMAS JEFFERSON. " He was candidate against Thomas JeflFerson, who was defeated, but thej' were alwaj's good friends," said Nettie. " Not always, for when JefiFerson was elected instead of himself, he .Tould not stay to see him inaugurated — John Adams wouldn't, I mean," declared Josie. " Well, they made that all up, and the last words that John Adams ever said were 'Thomas Jefferson still survdves,' " exclaimed Ray. "The}' both died July 4, 1S26, you know, within a few hours of each other. " " How many of the Presidents died on Independence Day ? " asked Mamma Nelson. " I think that there were three, ma'am, and Monroe was the other, " answered Jake, hesitatingly. " What more about John Adams r " questioned Mamma Nelson again. JOHN ADAMS. 41 " He was buried in a vault beneath the Unitarian Church in Quincy, Mass. — so was his son, John Ouincy Adams, who was President, too — after his father was, *' replied Rnthie. " I know that he wanted an education more than he did his part of his father's money, " said Jake. " When he was inaugurated he was dressed in a full suit of pearl colored broadcloth, and his hair was powdered, " added Nettie. WHERE PRESIDENT ADAMS WAS BORN. ** Well done, " said Mamma Nelson, approvingly. " You have not been idle, surely; I like to have you try to learn for yourselves. You have learned quite a part of what I was going to tell you. Authors did not consider it necessary to write much about the youth of great men, when the Presidential biographies were written, but we will make a beginning which I want you all to follow up — that is the way to learn, you knoM' John Adams was born at Braintree, now Quincy, Mass., October 13, 1735, and died at the same place. His father was a thrifty farmer, as well as a deacon of the church. As Jake says, John Adams preferred an education to money. He was trained in a strict Puritan way, and his first schooling was in the public schools ordered by the General Court in 1647 — 'That in every township containing fifty families, one person shall be appointed to teach the children to read and write, and that where any town shall increase to one hundred families, they shall set up a Grammar School. ' " " What about a high school, mamma ? " asked Nettie. " They had none. Pupils who wished to go to college prepared for it under a private tutor. " " What college did John Adams graduate from ? " asked Ruthie. "He graduated from Harvard College, in 1755. The next year he taught grammar school in Worcester, Mass., at about the pay of a day I laborer. " " I thought that he was a lawyer; wasn't he, mamma ? " asked josie. "Yes. He was admitted to the bar in 17 58. He delended Captain I 4S JOHN ADAMS. 43 Prestou and his seven soldiers, and was the principal legal adviser of the Patriot army. " " Can you tell us who he married?" asked Hadley. "His wife's name was Abigail Smith, a daughter of Rev. William Smith, of Weymouth, Mass., where she was born November 23, 1744. It is said that she was one of the most remarkable women of the Revo- lution. She married John Adams October 25, 1764, when he was a young lawyer practicing in Boston. She had a cheerful disposition, was a woman of great force of character, and was always a helpmate to her husband. She died in Quinc}^, Alass., October 28, 1818. " THE WHITE HOUSE AT WASHINGTON. " Read us what you found in the history about the White House that she lived in," suggested Charlie. "When Mr. Adams became President she wrote of the Executive Mansion. 'The house is upon a graud and superb scale, requiring about thirty servants to attend and keep the apartments in proper order, and perform the ordinar}^ business of the house and stables. We are sur- rounded by forests, but wood is not to be had easily, because people can- not be found to cut and cart it. The house is made habitable, but not a single apartment is finished. We have no fence, yard, or other conveni- ence without, and the great unfinished Audience Room I make a drying room of, to hang up the clothes in.'" " Think of it. Hanging clothes to dry in the x\udience Room at the White House," exclaimed Katie. " Why didn't some of the thirty servants cut some wood, ma'am ? " questioned Jake. " Or his boys ? Didn't John Adams and his wife have any children, mamma ?" asked Charlie. "Yes, a daughter and three sons. Don't you remember that John Quincy Adams was another of the Presidents ? In the spring of 1776 ' provisions were become so scarce in Boston that a pound of fresh fish cost twelve pence sterling ; a goose, eight shillings four pence ; a turkey, 44 JOHN ADAMS. twelve shillings six pence ; a duck, four shillings two pence ; liam was two shillings one penny a pound; vegetables were wanting ; a sheep cost thirtv-five shillings sterling ; apples were three shillings four pence a bushel ; fire-wood was forty-one shillings eight pence a cord ; and horse flesh was not refused by those who were able to get it.' During the Revo- lution, John Adams lived in a very frugal way. At one time he had no fine flour in his house for four months." " Was he as good a man as Washington was ?" asked Jake. "He was alwaj-s truthful and out-spoken, often vehement, somewha\ vain and talkative, if we maj'- rely upon what has been written of him. His temper was sometimes violent, but short-lived, and no man was ever more honorable and npright. He was one of the first to urge separation from England, and helped to draw up the Declaration of Independence, which he was one of the signers of." " Uncle Jack says that he has seen the old Adams house in Quincy, where he lived," said Josie. " I have been thinking that our club might visit Quinc}- some day," smiled ^lamma Nelson. " We might learn something of the Adams family which has never been printed." " Can we go ? Do j-ou truly mean it, mamma ?" shouted Charlie. "I certaiulv do mean it, but we will decide that matter later,' laughed Alamma Nelson. < a z < z o o z I- z OJ Q W UJ cc a. F THOMA S JEFF ERSON. •• f EXPECT, as 3-0U will liave so much to tell, I shall not have to say I anything to-day,'' began Mamma Nelson, when another week had passed, and the club were again assembled. " Who has learned the most of the third President of the United States ? What was his name?" " Wh}^ mamma ! We all know that — everybody does. It was Thomas Jeflferson, of course," cried Charlie. " Well, I know that he was fift3--eight years old when he was elected," said Bennie, so positivel}^ that the}' all laughed. " He founded the Universit}- of Virginia, for he wrote this epitaph of himself, ' Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declara- tion of Independence, of the Statute of Virginia foi Religious Freedom, and Father of the University of Virginia,'" said Josie. "There, I was just going to tell a'ou that he wrote the Declaration of Independence, ma'am — and it was the best thing that he ever did in his whole life," cried Jake. "He died on the Fourth of July, when every one was celebrating the Declaration of Independence w-hich he wrote," added Ra}-. ''Just fift}'- years from the day that it was signed," Josie concluded. " At school he was noted for good conduct, good scholarship, iudus- try, and bashfulness," said Katie. " He was called the strongest man in his count}- — so was his father," was Bennie's contradictory statement. " His father owned a very large farm, and he could go hunting with out going oflf his land. He was a great rider, too, and often swam his horse across the river," said Ray. " His family was a musical one, and he played on the violin," said Ruthie. " The}- must have had music enough, then, for Thomas Jefferson had nine brothers and sisters," laughed Nettie. 45 46 THOMAS JEFFERSON. " Is tliat all that 3-ou can tell ?" asked Mamma Nelson. "I see that each of 3-ou remembered what interested you the most. Can you think of anything more ?'' ''He kept slaves, and he didn't like to," said Hadley. THOM.\S JEKFERSON. •'Yes, he had a ven,'^ large plantation, and kept a great many slaves, yet he thought that it would be better to abolish slavery. Charlie, when was he bom, and where ?" "April 2, 1743, at Shadwell, Va., and died July 4, 1S26, at Monticello, \'a. He is buried in a small enclosure, containing THOMAS JEFFERSON 4t -^et rrr^.-'ffpl-^xyn'i^ ^m/7?^vt^^^ (oan yfyf/uii^4(^^€M^ ^n^''*- &rf^I^^ l^^-^^^ 7' r y^TTi SIGNATURES OF THE SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. thirty graves, perhaps, in the woods, on the road from Charlottsville to Monticello. The granite obelisk which marks the grave is much broken b}^ relic hunters," answered Charlie promptly. "Now tell us your part, mamma?" 48 THOMAS JEFFERSON. "So vou are tired of telling the story," hiughed Mamma Nelson. "O uo. ma'am. I think that isn't it. bnt yon can tell it best," pro- tested Jake. " Well. " M.unma Nelson began, " Thomas Jefferson was born five miles or more east of Charlottsville, \'a., near the place where the river Rivanna enters the James. The first American Jefferson, snp- pKised to have come from Snowdon in Wales, arrived in \'irginia before the Mayflower landed at Plymouth. Thomas Jefferson's father was a self-made man, who died wheti Thomas was fourteen years old, leaving a comfortable property for his family. " STUDIED FIFTEEN HOURS A DAY. " Then he could have a good education, " said Jake joyfully. " Yes, he had the best education that he could get in \'irginia at that time. When but nine years old he was placed in a faniilj* of a Scotch clergyman, to learn Greek, Latin and French. Before he was seventeen he entered William and Mary College, at Williamsburg. He said of himself that he studied fitteeu hours a day, when at college, and ran a mile and back every night at twilight, for exercise. At that time he was a very shy, warm hearted boy, rather tall and slight, always eager to learn all that he could. He was strong, but not gfood-looking. Later he is said to have been courtly, and even handsome, although, at the time of his inauguration, he is described as over six feet tall, loose jointed, with long limbs, and reddish hair combed loosely back and tied behind. He wore a black coat with a light under dress. " " Did he make laws for himself, as Washington did ? " asked Ray. '* I have never known that he did, but he had a ver}>- good rule, by which he governed his conduct. \\'hen he was tempted to do a thing which might not be quite right, he did not decide until he asked himself what learned and noble men, his teachers, perhaps, would do if placed in a like situation ; then he tried to do as they would. That habit helped to make him what he was. He graduated with high honors, studied law. and was admitted to the bar when he was twentv-four vears old. " THOMAS JEFFERSON. 49 "Was lie married then ? " asked Josie. '' No, Uc was twent5'--uine years old wheu lie married ^Irs. Martha Skelton, daughter of John Wayles, of Williamsburg. She was born in Charles City County, October 19, 174S, and died at Monticello, September 6, 17S2. I have read that she was very beautiful, well educated, and wealthy. Mr. Jefferson was true to her memory and never married again. He was very much attached to his daughter, ]\Iartha, whom he spoke of as his 'cherished companion, and the nurse of his old age. ' " " Did he have other children ? " asked Nettie. "Yes, four. Two of them died in infancy ; Luc\- died before reach- ing womanhood, and Mary at the age of twenty-six. " "Wasn't he Governor of some State?" asked Bennie. JEFFERSON'S NOBLE CHARACTER. "He was Governor of \'irginia in 1779. In i7SShe was Minister to France, and was Secretary of State in 17S9. He was Vice-President in 1797, and became President for two terms in iSoo. One of the first things that he said as President i.s worthy- of thought. It was this — *We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists, brothers in thought, act and purpose. ' We owe man}' 'Jeflfersonian ' principles of our government to him. Near the close of his life he lost lieavil}?- b}- endorsing a note for a friend, who became bankrupt. Then Philip Hone. Mayor of New York, raised a sum of money for him, to which Philadelphia and Balti- more each added. Mr. Jeiferson was deepl}- grateful for the gift. ' It is an offering of love, not a cent of it is wrung from the tax-payer,' he said. Thomas Jefferson was always just, with perfect control over himself. He was a patriot, and his influence will be felt as long as the United States continues to be a nation." ''That will be a long time," said Hadley, positively. '' Only think, he was only nine years old when he began to study the languages," mused Charlie. '' Wasn't he smart ? " "Was he like other boys — do ^-ou t.hiuk, ma'am?" asked Jake, anxiously. 50 THOMAS JEFFERSON "I tliiiik so — decidedl}-," smiled Mamma Xelsou. ''I found one little incident of his boyliood in an old book \-esterda3'. You remember that he was ver\' fond of horses and of hunting. In those days hunting was a great amusement among the richer classes in \'irginia, and this is the little storj' about Thomas Jefferson. He was probabU" not more than a dozen years old, although he was riding a spirited horse in the chase. He c^me up with the hounds just as the}- had cornered a poor, little fox. The bo3* looked around — ^not a hunter was in sight, for all were following the rest of the pack, after the mother of the little fox. perhaps. Then he looked at the little fox. It was - not old enough to be very much frightened. Thomas lifted it gently, and wrapped his hunting jacket around it. At least, it was not as afraid of him as it had been of the dogs, vriih their red, open mouths, and deep hayings. So Thomas Jeflferson, the boy. said nothing, but mounted his horse with the little animal in his arms, and rode away to a safe distance. Then he put the little fox down in some thick bushes, close to a rocky hill, where the foxes had holes in the ground. ' There,' he said with great satisfaction. ' Run away and hide yourself, you are too little to be killed.' " " Is it an\' worse to kill a little fox than a big one ? " asked Jake, quietl}'. '' We hardly think so, do we ? But the little fox was more helpless HOUSE IN WHICH THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE WAS WRITTEN, PHILADELPHIA. THOMAS JEFFERSON. 51 tliaii a big one, and that was what appealed to Thomas J etiTerson, I think. He always took the part of the weak and helpless." " Then when I think of him, I shall think of David Barker's poem abont 'the under dog in the fight,' " cried Ruthie. "That was just it. Thomas Jefferson had a long and eventful life. He was eighty-three years old when he died-an old man, beloved and honored by his countrymen. He served his native land in many ways, always doing the duty nearest him promptly and well, as he understood It. But through it all he defended the cause of the ' under dog in the fight,' and is remembered for his kindl}, words, as well as for his statesmanship." " Why did we never think of a club like this before, boys ? " asked Hadley. "And girls," added Katie, impressively. "Excuse me," returned Hadley, with a .low bow. "Why have we never thought of this before, ladies and gentlemen ? " "Because mamma didn't," said Charlie, lo3'ally. "If every mamma would think of it, what lots more the boys and girls would know-but every one hasn't got a mother," Jake sighed as lie spoke, but Mamma Nelson laid her hand upon his with a gentle pressure, and smiled. Mamma Nelson's smile always said more than her talking did. After a moment's silence, she said : 'I think that our club is without a name yet." "So it is," ejaculated Nettie. " What shall it be ? " "I think the Owl Club would be good-we are seeking for knowl- edge,^you know, and the owl is the emblem of wisdom," suggested Josie. "Owl Club," cried Bennie, scornfully, "we want something that sounds bigger and better than that." II We might call it the President Club," suggested Ray. "O no. There is President enough to it now. Uncle Sam's Club- would be better, and mean the same," said Katie. speaker's chair and desk on which declaration .was SIGNED. 62 THOMAS JEFFERSON. "I don't like one much better than the other, and neither of them is as good as the Owl Club," said Josie, decidedly. "What shall we call it, mamma? Ah, I see it in your ejes — j'ou iave thought of a name," cried Nettie. Mamma Nelson said nothing, but she took ten dainty blue badges from a box. Each one bore the name " The White House Club," in silver letters, beneath a picture of the Capitol, and each one had a heavy gold fringe. "We allow no politics in our Club," smiled Mamma Nelson, pleased at the eager haste with which the badges were pinned in place on coats and dresses. " So we \vi\\ wear both the silver and the gold." But we are forgettiug something. Our Club name has not been accepted yet, and '" " O yes it has." " What beauties, thej' are — the badges, I mean." " How proud we'll be to wear them." old bell, lndepFndence h.\ll. "Of course, that's the best name, only we couldn't think of it." " No one but mamma could." " I guess the Club is named," laughed Mamma Nelson. "And for ever}' day use I have provided these," as she spoke she laid ten button pins on the stand. They were oval, just a picture of the White House at Washington on a blue ground. "Are the}' for us ? " asked Jake. "Of course they are," replied Mamma Nelson. "I have noticed that members of different organizations like to wear some emblem of their order if they are really interested in it, and I thought " " That we would take more interest — and we shall — if we can," interrupted Hadley. "The pins you may take with you, if you like, to wear all of the i THOMAS JEFFERSON. time. The silk badges we will keep in this box, for club use onlj'," said Mamma Nelson. "I think that we will look np about two Presi- dents for the next meeting — ^James Madison and James IMonroe. Kf: ■^ -> STATUE OF JEFFERSON AT WASHINGTON. I am afraid that 3-011 will get tired before we get through if we take but one every evening." "No fear of that, ma'am," said Jake, brightly. " Tuesday is the bright day in every week." "So say we all," laughed Hadle3\ " I could stay here and hear about it all the time." " If mamma would tell stories all the time — but she will not; so good-night," nodded Charlie. r- . JAMES MADISON AND JAMES MONROE. a I NEVER saw such long weeks; it seems as if Tuesda}' never would come," sighed Jake, at the next nieetingof the White House Club. " Of course the time isn't any longer than it always was, but it seems so to us," added Hadley. " I never thought that I could like to hear about the Presidents so well," declared Bennie. "It is so with all historical stud}'," smiled Mamma Nelson. "The more j-ou learn, the more you want to know. I have told 3'ou before that I hope this is but the beginning." " If it is, we owe it to you, for we never liked to study histor}'^ before — especially people's history," said Josie, gratefullj'. " Well, as we have two subjects this evening, we must get to work. Who was the fourth President, how many terms did he serve, and what can you say of him ?" Mamma Nelson began. "His name was James Madison, he served two terms, and his grand- mother was a sister to Zackary Ta34or's grandfather," declared Ray. "He was born at Port Conway, Va., March 16, 1751, and died at Montpelier, June 28, 1836," said Ruthie. " He lies in a beautiful spot on the old Madison estate near his home in Montpelier," said Katie. " Is that all ? Bennie, have you nothing to tell us ?" asked Mamma Nelson. " Why — yes — if I could remember it," laughed Bennie. " I've been trying to think of it, but I can't hardl}'. I sat up until eleven o'clock last night reading Stoddard's book. He says that in 1623 a list was 54 JAMES MADISON AND JAMES MONROE. 55 written of all tlie men, women and children of the town, and in that list was the name of a Captain Isaac Madison, of English descent, and — and there was something abont him — he was a great Indian fighter, I guess. JAMES MADISON. " I think the record is not very clear so far back as tbat, but probably he did fight the Indians, for there was much trouble between the whites and the natives then." "Well, wouldn't we make trouble if another race of men came here and took our lands away ?" demanded Jake. 5« JAMES MADISON AND JAMES MONROE. "I think we sliould," replied INIamma Nelson, emphatically. "I never coxild quite blame the Indians as much as many people do. It is true that they were savage and cruel, but their education, and often the injustice of the whites, made them so. The)- have been wronged in many ways, and if the}^ returned evil for evil, a thousand fold, there is some excuse for them." " After all, the}- were not much worse than our own ancestors in the i old feudal times," mused Josie. " That is ver}^ true, Josie, but people are apt to forget that. Is that j all that you learned, Bennie ?" ■ " I knew that I couldn't think of it when I wanted to, so I wrote it," said Bennie, triumphantly, handing a slip \ of paper to Mamma Nelson, who read aloud : "In 1653 a patent was taken out for lands, by one John Madison. This John had a son John, whose son, INDIAN CHILD IN CRADLE. Ambrose, was a planter. The son of Ambrose was James, the owner of Montpellier, and the father of President James Madison." "Well done. Here we have five generations, which proves that the Madisous were people of some consequence, although like George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, James ]\Iadison did not strictly belong to the 'First Families of Virginia.' " "I guess the F. F. V.'s were glad enough to claim them," ejaculated Bennie, triumphantly. "Yes, after they occupied the highest oflBce in the nation," smiled Mamma Nelson. " People alwaj^s recognize success. Although James Madison's father did not belong to the richest class, he was in ver^'^ com- JAMES MADISON AND JAMES MONROE. 57 fortable circumstauces, and his sou had good educational privileges. His mother, who was Nellie Conway, of Port Conwa}', had charge of his early teaching, as well as that of his four brothers and three sisters. Then he was taught by private tutors until he entered Princeton Col- lege, from which he graduated in 1771, and began the study of law." " I heard that he studied twenty-one of the twentj^-four hours every day at college. Do you believe that? " asked Hadley. — ^Mssssa"- INDIAN AMUSEMEiN IS— CA.Ni.K-RACE BETWEEN SQUAWS. " I cannot dispiite it, although I confess that I doubt it. Did any of you find out anything about his early life ? ' "No, I didn't. Hadley and I hunted through every book that said Madison, and then we gave it up," grumbled Bennie. "I think that there was not much written about him as a boy. His boyhood was spent upon a large plantation, where many slaves were kept. The living was primitive, but plentiful, for it was nearly all laised at home. George Washington was nineteen and Thomas Jefifer- scn was eight 3'ears old when James Madison was born. It is safe .0 58 JAMES MADISON AND JAMES MONROE. saj' that uo one of them suspected what parts they were to act in the forming of this great nation." , " He was a great friend of Jefferson through life," said Hadley. ' "Yes, and his wife, Dollj^ IMadison, as she was commonl}- called, helped in the duties of the Executive Mansion when JeflFersonwas Presi- MASSACKK 1!V INDIANS AT KOKT DEAKRORN. dent. She was practically mistress of the White House for fourteen years." | " My father says that James Madison was defeated once because he was a temperance man. Was it so ? " asked Katie. " It was the custom then, as I fear it is now, to treat the voters on liquors before election, and that was expected of all candidates. When James Madison was elected to the Legislature in 1776, his friends paid those bills wit.Uout his knowledge. When nominated for a second term JAMES MADISON AND JAMES MONROE. 59 he was defeated because lie refused the treat mone}^, or to furnish liquor ^n auy way. To my mind, no man ever spoke truer words than he did JAMES MONROE. when he said * The reputation and success of a government depends upon the purity of its popular elections.' " "But he was sent to Congress in 1779," said Ray. " And was Secretary of State when Jefferson was President," added Ruthie, "And became President for two terms in 1S09," nodded Jake. "Well, we want to know who furnished treats then," ejaculated 60 JAMKS MADISON AND JAMES MONROE, Hadle}^, with twinkling eyes. " I think it was just as bad for his friends to do it as for him.'" " You ask me something wnich I cannot answer. You must remember that the subject of temperance was not what it is now at that time. The liquors were then pure extracts of grains and fruits, and while I do not believe that the strong drinks of those days did any one any good (and often much harm), they surely did not cause as much miser}- and disgrace as the poison stufl which is now sold in manj' places. What great event marked James Aladison's administration ? " SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. "The War of 1812," answered Jake with honest triumph, as the others hesitated. " The British wanted to search American vessels — for deserters — and claimed some men who were American citizens. That made a fuss, but before it was ended they were willing to let us and our vessels alone." "Well done, ni}' boy. IMadison's whole term of service was marked by wars, the histor\- of which will furnish you much pleasant study, and while people would not shout themselves hoarse for him, as they Avould for men like Andrew Jackson, his work in the nation's 3^outh left a lasting influence for good. It is said of him that 'he w^as modest, quiet, reserved in manner, small in stature, refined, courteous and amiable.' " "You have told us nothing of his wife yet," suggested Nettie. " Her name was Dorothj^ Payne, and she was bom in North Caro- lina, May 20, 1772, and died in Washington, D. C, July 12, 1S49. She was the daughter of John Payne, a Quaker, and Mary Coles, a cousin to Patrick Henry. She was first married to John Todd, who died of yelloM fever." " I could not find how man}^ children they had," said Josie. " For a ver}'' good reason — thc}^ had none. His wife had a son three years old when he married her, and her young sister, Anna, lived with ihem, but they never had any children. Now we come to James Monroe, 62 JAMES MADISON AND JAMES MONROE. the fifth President. What State was he born in? And what is that State sometimes called ? " " It is called 'The Mother of Presidents' — Virginia is — for seven of the Presidents came from there. Monroe was bom in West Morelaud Count)', Va., April 27, 1875. and died in New York City, July 4, 1831," said Hadle}'. " Right. What of his ancestry ? " " He was of Scotch descent, and the first Monroes came to Virginia in 1650. His ancestors were Scotch Cavaliers," added Katie. HIS REMARKABLE TRAITS. " He lived at Oak Hill, quite near Monticello and Montpelier, I think," concluded Nettie. "Yes, he lived in the neighborhood which was famous for its patri- otism. Probably the Stamp Act excitement of 1766 was one of his earliest recollections. I have not been able to find an3-thing about his boyhood, but he probably prepared for college at home, under private tutors, as many did at that time. His father was a wealthy planter, who owned many slaves. James Monroe was quick and impulsive, although he was just and generous with those imder his control. I can tell you one little incident of his }■ outh, although I will not vouch for the truth of it. It was customary in wealth}^ families that every child should have a colored servant — a slave — a little older, as especial property. One day James Monroe's 'boy,' Sam, did something which his young master did not like. ' I'll have you flogged,' screamed young James, and Sam was sent to the overseer with the written order for his whipping." " Did he know it ? What made him go ? " demanded Jake. 'Slaves usually did as they were told — thinking that it might be worse if they didn't. But as soon as Sam was out of sight, James'anger was over, and he hastened to the whipping shed, to find Sam already stripped to the waist, and tied to the whipping post, while a big negro stood by with upraised lash, ready to carry out the sentence. ' Stop,' screamed James. ' He is mine — my very own — and I will not have him JAMES MADISON AND JAMES MONROE. 63 whipped.' 'Your father sent the order,' said the overseer. 'I don't care — Sam's mine.' Then throwing his arms around his slave-friend, James would not stir until his father came to release him." " Did the planters' sons like their slaves so well ?" asked Jake. " Some of them did, and there were instances where masters and slaves, thns brought up to- gether, were true friends through life. Slaves have even refused free- dom when it meant separation." " What college did James Madison enter ?' ' asked Ray. "The William and Mary College, but soon left it to enter the army as a cadet. He was Lieutenant in the Third Virginia Regiment,in 1776, and become Major FIRST SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. two years later. He held a seat in the Assembly of Virginia for some time, while studying law with Jefferson. He was delegate to Congress several times, and was consul to France in 1794. When he had held nearly every important office, except that of President, he was elected to that position, in 1816, and served two teirms, having been Secretary of State and Secretary of War under Madison." 64 JAMES MADISON AND JAMES MONROE. " Did he make the Mouroe Doctrine? " asked Jake. " It was adopted through his influence, and is monument enough of his devotion to his country. It means literally 'America for Americans,' as it opposes all foreign government in America. It has exerted a powerful influence'" " Was he a rich man ? " asked Ruthie. " Yes, but he was poor when he died. He spent a great deal of his private means when United States minister abroad, to keep up the dignit}^ of this government. Oak Hill has gone out of the family and is now a stock farm. His public life was long and unselfish, and he was always an upright, patriotic man. His service was marked by a wise and liberal policy." "He was buried in New York, was he not ? " asked Katie. BURIAL PLACE OF PRESIDENT MONROE. "In New York at first, but in 1858 the body was removed to Holly- wood Cemetery, at Richmond, \''a.." " Didn't he marry a New York woman ? " asked Josie. " Yes, Elizabeth Kortright, a beautiful Tory belle, and a ver}^ aris-" tocratic woman, who declared that a President's wife should return no calls and should pay no visits. Her oldest daughter especiallj' was verj- exact upon all rules of etiquette. There were two daughters, Eliza and Maria. Elizabeth Kortright was born in New York Cit}-, in 1768, and died in Virginia in 1S30. She was the daughter of a British ofl&cer, and was an educated and accomplished woman. " | "Wasn't the White House burned before James Monroe was Presi- dent ? " asked Nettie. J "During the War of 181 2 the British took the City of Washington,! and burned the White House. Mrs. Madison saved the large portrait of George Washington and the plate, with all the most valuable portable articles belonging to the mansion. When the President and his family returned to Washington their home was in ashes, and was not rebuilt, ready to live in, until the next year after Mr. Monroe was inaugurated." JAMES MADISON AND JAMES MONROE. 65 just then Charlie, who had left the room unnoticed, came in with a plate of home-made candy. "This is part of my entertainment," he laughed. "I made it myself — with a little help from mamma and Nettie. " " Mamma believes in pleasant surprises, " nodded Nettie. " Perhaps she thinks they are needed to make us want to come, but they are not. This is nice, though, " declared Josie. "So say we all, " said Bennie, helping himself a second time. "We should know your opinion if you didn't tell it, " cried Ray JOHN QUINCY ADAMS AND ANDREW JACKSON. "O ^F COURSE you liad no trouble iu getting information about tlie sixtli President, who was John Quincy Adams," began Mamma Nelson, when the Club was ready for business. "He was born in Braintree, or Quincy, Alass., July ii, 1767, avd died of paralysis, on the floor of Congress, beneath the dome of the Capitol, February 23, 1848," said Hadley. " I am sure that he never had an}' fun when he was a bo}', if he began his public life as young as the}' say he did," declared Bennie, increduloush-. " His bo3hood jame at a time when bo3-s thought as men — in the shadow of the Revolution," answered Mamma Nelson. "It is said that his leading traits of character were as marked at seven years of age as at sevent}-." " He was only seven years old when he stood upon Penn's Hill, beside his anxious mother, and listened to the conflict on Bunker Hill. From the same place he watched Charlestown burn," cried Hadle}-, with kindling eyes. " I wish I had been there, too." " You think so, but I think that he would have been glad if he had been somewhere else just then," ejaculated Ruthie. 66 JOHN QUINCY ADAM.S. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS AND ANDREW JACKSON. 67 "His father's farm was eleven miles from Boston, and when he was only nine years old he rode back and forth, to carry the latest news to his mother," said Josie. "He went to Paris with his father when he was eleven years old. Was he educated there?" asked Ray. " He attended school at Paris, Amsterdam, and Leyden, but returned to graduate from Harvard College, declaring that an American education was best for an American career." A VERY PROMISING BOY. " How old was he when he went abroad as secretary to — to — to somebody, you know ? " stammered Bennie. " Fourteen years old. He went as private secretary with Frauds Dana, Minister to Russia. When he returned from Europe with his father, he brought his diary to his mother: It was inscribed : 'AJournal, byj. Q. A. From America to Spain. Vol. I. Began Friday, November 12, 1779.' That was the beg -uing of a diary which he kept till within a few days of his death." "1 wish that I could read it," sighed Hadley. "You can find much of his writing in the public library, and you will find it profitable reading. He was a strong abolitionist, a Puritan of the sternest, most uncompromising sort, ready for any duty, however disagreeable." "Did he never make a mistake in thinking that something was a duty when it was not ?" asked Nettie. "I shouldn't be surprised if he did, but he was honest and inde- pendent, with an iron will. It was of no use to threaten him." "I read that he was very blunt and outspoken, and always spoke the truth, no matter where it hit," said Jake. " He certainl}^ took no pains to make friends, but he did his whole \ C8 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS AND ANDREW JACKSON. duty in a way that seemed right to him, and nearly his whole life was spent in the ser\-ice of his countr}', as minister to foreign lands, in the Senate, and as Secretary of State. In 1S05 he was Professor of Rhetoric in Harvard College. His last words were ' This is the last of earth, I am content.' " "Wasn't he a : ^ lawyer too?" asked M Hadley. "Yes, he gradtiated from Harvard College j'te with honor, and entered the ofl&ce of Theophilus Parsons to study law. He was ad- mitted to the bar ill 1790, and was a successful law- yer. In 1797, shortly after his marriage ^vith Louise Johnson, niece of Thomas Johnson, of Mar}'- OLD CUSTOM OF TOWN CRIER CALLING THE HOUR AT NIGHT, land, he lived at the Capitol of Prussia. Mrs. Adams was, perhaps, the most accom plished and scholarly mistress that the White House ever had." " What of their children ?" asked Josie. " They had three sons, and a girl who died and was buried in Prussia. The oldest bo}^, George, was the onU* one of the sons of the President who was a foreiner, as he was born during their stay in Berlin. The other sons were John and Charles Francis." JOHN QUINCY ADAMS AND ANDREW JACKSON. 69 " It was in his own home that John Quiucy Adams showed the best side of his natiire, for he liked children and took a great interest in what- ever interested them." " When shall we go to Ouincy, mamma," asked Charlie, suddenly ANDREW JACKSON. " I think June would be the best time, and I have already made arrangements for a three days stay." " And we will all go, mamma?" said Nettie, inquiringly. " Every one," returned Mamma Nelson, with a beaming look at the 70 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS AND ANDRFAV JACkSON. circle of eager faces. *' Now what have you to say about Andrew Jackson, tlie seveuth President ?" "He was born at Waxhaws, N. C, March 15, 1767, and died at his home, the Hermitage near Nashville, Tenn., June S, 1845," answered Ray, promptl}'. " He was the son of a Scotch-Irish linen weaver, who came to America in 1765, and died before Andrew was born, leaving a half cleared farm, and three j'ouug bo5''S to his wife's care. She was a resolute woman, with almost Spartan cour- age and firmness of character." "Then they were very poor," suggested Bennie. "So poor that the two oldest bo3's never went bej^ond the common school, and the}' did not have much of that, while all of them went to school with bare feet because the mother was not able to provide shoes for them. She wanted Andrew to be a minister, and sent him to Wax- haws Academy-, spinning flax to earn money to pa}' his waj-. " He was then called ' mischiev- ous Andy,' and was verj' fond of -rj ■ ^T'"'^^-^^^ II -nil A SKTTLER'S CABIN. running races, leaping bars, and jumping. He was a protector of younger boys, but was often over-bearing to his equals and superiors. An old school-mate once said of him : — ' I could throw him three times out of four easy enough, but he never stayed throwed.' " He was dead game, and never would give up beat." " Then he was not a nice boy at all, was he, mamma ? " said Charlie. '' He was not perfect by anj'- means, my son. Did you ever see s person who was ? But he loved his mother passiouateh', and 5'ielded h-:-' JOHN QUINCY ADAMS AND ANDREW JACKSON. 71 alDSolute and williug obedience. Different times call for different men, and the boy Andrew early developed those traits which won success for the General and for the President. He was eight years old when the Revolution began, so he had very little education, for he joined the American army when he was thirteen 3-ears old, with his brother Robert. His brother Hugh died just before that, at the battle of Stono." A SOUTHERN PLANTATION. "I thought that he was taken prisoner when he was thirteen years old," said Jake. "So he was. It was when the British General Tarlton, with three hundred cavalry, attacked Waxhaws. The militia were surprised, and the settlers were in terror. The meeting house was used as a hospital, and Mrs. Jackson, with her two sons, were among the nurses." "While he was a prisoner a British officer ordered him to clean his boots. Jackson refused, saying that he was a prisoner of war, and demanding to be treated as such. The officer was mad at this daring 72 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS AND ANDREW JACKSON. answer and struck at him with his sword. Jackson threw up his arm to ward off the blow, and received a severe wound, the scar of which he alwaj-s carried," said Hadle}-. '' Can 5'ou tell any more about his imprisonment ? '' " He and his brother were taken to Camden, with other prisoners, and both had the small-pox there. At last their mother got them exchaiiged and went to bring them home. Robert died in a day or two." NOT AN EDUCATED MAN. 'Right again. But the devoted mother died very soon after that, and was buried in an unknown grave. Jackson tried to find her resting place in vain, in after years." " What did Andrew Jackson do then ? Did he go to school any more ? " asked Ruthie. " I think not, except to study law. He never learned to write the English language correctU', and never had anj' but the crudest knowl- edge of the law, j-et he was successful, and the secret of that success was that he always did his best." " I have heard he liked horses as well as Washington did, "said Jake. " He was verj- fond of them, and when he owned a plantation he raised blooded stock. When he was elected to the House of Represen- tatives from Tennessee, he rode to Washington on horseback, a distance of about eight hundred miles." ''Did he have any relatives ? And did he live with them after liis mother died ? " asked Charlie. " He had no near relatives, but lived with a distant one, who was a saddler, and Andrew learned that trade. He began to study law when he was eighteen, and was successful from the first, probabl}' because of his love of justice. He often took his fees in lands, and soon had quite a propertv. He lost his fine plantation, however, by becoming a silent partner vith a merchant in Nashville. " " It was not his fault, but he had to help pay the debts, and h*- began life again, in a log cabin," added Katie. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS AND ANDKi.W JAx^KiUJN. 73 OSCEOLA, CHIEF OF THE SEMIXOLES. * You said that he was a General — what war did he fight in ? " asked 'B^s.y. "In the war of 1S12, and he was Commander at New Orleans. Then he led the forges in the war with the Seminoles. The Indians 74 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS AND ANDREW JACKSON. dreaded him, and gave him the name of 'Sharp Knife.' He never spared himself in battle, or on the march. He often gave his horse to a wounded private soldier, while he walked beside him." " He was nick-named ' Old Hickor}',' wasn't he ? " asked Hadle}\ " Yes, because his soldiers declared that he was as tough as hickory wood." " I have heard that it was because when the army had not enough to eat he ate the hickory nuts, to set his men the example of cheerful endurance," said Ray. " What public offices did he hold before he was President?" asked Nettie. " He was in the House of Representatives, and served in the Senate. Then he was judge of the Supreme Court, but resigned that office, and went to farming about teu miles from Nashville, at the Her-j mitage, where he died." " What of his family ? " asked Josie. "His wife was Rachel, daughter of Colonel John Donelson, who] lived where Nashville now stands. She first married Captain Lewis] Robards, from whom she was divorced. Her home life with Mr. Jack- son was very happy. Although they had no children of their own,] their house was always filled with little ones who loved the stern old soldier well. These were relatives of his wife, or neighbors' children."] "I thought that there was an Andrew Jackson, Jr.," said Ray. MADE HOME BRIGHT AND HAPPY. " Mr. Jackson adopted one of Airs. Jackson's brother's children, a twin boy, and gave him his own name. By the world he was sometimes] thought harsh and domineering, often profane, but in his own home hej was patient, gentle, and loving." "He is often spoken of, while some of the other Presidents are sel- dom mentioned. Why is that ? " asked Hadley. " With the exception of Washington and Lincoln — and perhaosl Grant — he was the most popular President with the masses. He was) JOHN QUINCY ADAMS AND ANDREW JACKSON. 76 fearless, and tlie one word ' Duty ' was the ke3'-note of his life. He did noL know liow to shirk. He was elected President in 1828, and served two terms." " Hear what Bancroft says of him — read it mamma," said Charlie, who had been searching the book-shelves. Mamma Nelson took the book and read : " Andrew Jackson was sincere and true. He was nivich respected und beloved, and possessed both physical and moral courage. He was OBVERSE. SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES. reverse. always fortunate, never vanquished ; he conquered the wilderness, (fie savage, the veterans of the European army, and was conquered by noth- ing but death." "There is praise for you," ejeculated Bennie. " And all true," said Mamma Nelson positively. " We can add nothing to that eulogy, we will not take from it by trying to do so. "Andrew Jackson's life is past, and he lies in the garden of the Her- ■ mitage, beside his beloved wife. A massive monument of Tennessee granite marks the spot, iit emblem of the life which animated the clay beneath it — as enduring as his fame will be." "We'll soon have, Tippecanoe and Tyler too", laughed Bennie. MARTIN VAN BUREN AND WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. ''A 1 /"E have Martin Van Buren, the eiglith President, and V V William Henry Harrison, who was elected ninth President, but died a mouth after his inauguration," said Mamma Nelson. "Who can tell the most about Martin Van Buren ? " "He was born in Kinderhook, N. Y., December 5, 1782, and j died there July 24, 1S62, and was buried in the village cemetery at that place. His parents were both of Dutch descent," said Ray. " What college did he graduate from ? " " Not any ma'am. He never even got all the education that he could in the public schools — that was all until he began to study law," asserted Jake. " Then he began his law stud}^ very j^oung, did he ? " "He was fourteen years old, but he didn't study it regular, ma'am.. He began as ofl&ce bo}^, then he was lawyer's clerk, then he copied pleas, and at last he was especial pleader in the Constable's Court." " It took him seven years to get through. He was twenty-one when he was admitted to the bar," said Hadley. " I think that he was in partnership with Benjamin F. Butler, of] Alban}', at one time, wasn't he ?" asked Katie. "Yes, and they were life-long friends." " What kind of a boy was he ? " asked Bennie. " I could not find very much about his younger days. As I said before, writers did not think it was necessarj^ to tell much about that, so long as they made the reader familiar with the public life-work of the men." 76 MARTIN VAN BUREN AND WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 77 "We are glad that the style of writing is changing, for we want to know what they were like when they were boys," said Ray. "I found one little incident of his boyhood," Mamma Nelson went on. " He was a born orator, and had a strong liking for extempore speaking, and a great fondness for debate and argument, at a very early INDEPENDENCE HALL. Built in 1 73 1 and used as a State House, and afterward as a meeting place for the Continental Congress. The Declaration of Independence was adopted and signed in this building. age. It was then quite a fashion to have Lyceums, where questions were debated. Often there was a rivalry between towns, as to which could produce the best speaker. Martin Van Buren was a general favorite in these assemblies because of his ready wit, and his quickness to discover the weak points in his opponent's argument. He was nearly seventeen years old when a popular debater published a challenge, offering to meet any opponent who might be found willing to debate with him, upon any question that they might choose. Van Buren's friends promptly accepted the challenge, and a meeting was arranged 78 MARTIN VAN HUREN AND WILLIAM HKNRV HARRISON. in the Lyceum hall. The man walked proudly down the aisle at the appointed time, and mounted the platform— to face a beardless boy. He could hardly keep silent while the Lyceum president went through the usual introduction, then he burst forth angrily—' What. Did you call me here to fool with a boy ? ' ' We think that the boy's a match for you,' shouted a voice from the audience. Martin Van Buren saw uhat STEAMBOAT LOADING WITH COTTON. was at stake, he felt as if his whole future depended upon that night's work, and he buckled on his armor, as truly as did the knights of old. When the word contesv was ended, he was the victor." " Father told me that very story last night," shouted Bennie, exci- tedlv. " But I didn't know whether to tell it to you folks or not. My grandfather was in that very Lyceum hall that very night." Martin Van buren and wIlliam henry harrison. 79 " Why didn't you tell us about it?" asked Josie, iu surprise. "I would tell if I knew anything like that." " I was thinking whether I would or not, when Mamma Nelson began. I was going to tell it as soon as I could think it straight," faltered Bennie. " Did Martin Van Buren hold many public offices ? " asked Jake. "He served in the New York Senate, and was also Attorney Gen- eral. In 182 1 he was United States Senator, and was re-elected, but resigned to become Governor of New York. He was Secretary of State under Jackson, Vice-President under Jackson's second term, and suc- ceeded him as President in 1836." " Who recommended Mr. Van Buren when he was nominated for the Presidency ? " A VERY LIVELY CAMPAIGN. " General Jackson was deeplj- interested in his nomination. It took place in the Democratic Convention at Baltimore in Maj-, 1S36. His chief Whig competitor was William Henry Harrison. Mr. Van Buren was elected in November, 1836, receiving 170 electoral votes out of 294, which was the whole number. I have always heard that the campaign was a very spirited one ; the whole country was much excited and the big meetings that were held were addressed by the leaders of both parties. Campaign songs, banners and processions are all mentioned as a feature of the contest. All accounts agree that it was one of the most spirited campaigns our country has ever known. There was much agitation on the subject of slavery, and besides, the financial condition of the countr}' was very unsatisfactory." " How many terms did he serve ? " questioned Jake. " Only one, and his administration began and ended with a financial panic, and we came very near having another war with Great Britain during the time. Yet that term was called the gold and silver adminis- tration, because of the gold spoons, silver knives and forks, and cut glass- ware used at the White House. These were not much in use before this." / 80 MARTIN VAN BUREN AND WILLIAM HPINRY HARRISON 1 Mr. Tyler made a speech before Congress in July, 1840, in which he said : ' What will the plain Republican farmer say when he discovers that our economical reformers have expended thirteen thousand dollars of the people's money for lamps, candle-sticks, and looking-glasses ? ' " " Is that the kind of a man that he was ? I shall not study him any more," cried Bennie. " Why not ? He worked as he believed. You will find that he was courteous and cordial, with a spotless private charac- ter. He was very happj' in his home and in his family. His wife, Hannah Hoes, was of Dutch descent. She was born at Kiuderhook in 17S2, and died at Albany February, 18 19. She was >ilr. Van Buren's class- mate, and they were mar- ried in 1807. The poor loved her, but she did not care for society. It was her death-bed request that her famil}^ should spend as little as possible at her funeral, and give what fashion demanded to be expended for mourning to the poor and need}^" " How many children did they have ?" asked Katie. " I found mention of two sons. John, and Abraham, whose wife was mistress of the White House during her father-in-law's stay there. Mrs. Van Buren died in 1819, you remember." " William Henry Harrison next," cried Hadley. " I liked hira because father has told me all about being in Washington when his grandson, Benjamin Harrison, was inaugurated twentj'-third President." ■■^i GENERAL ANTHONY WAYNE. MARTIN VAN BUREN AND WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. ^i " Yes, Harrison next, and what can yon say of him ? " smiled Mamma Nelson. " He was nearly seventy years old when he became President, and he died in one month after taking his seat," said Ruthie. " Mamma told us that he was President only a month," nodded Charlie. " It was in 1840 that a very exciting and important campaign ended, and ' Tippecanoe and Tyler ' were installed as President and Vice-Presi- dent of the United States." " Why was he called Tippecanoe ? " asked Jake. " Because, as General Harrison, he fought the battle of Tippe- canoe upon the banks of the river by that name, and defeated the Indians under the Prophet, Tecumseh's brother. Each of the Presi- dents had a nickname, which was given to them when they occupied the highest office in the land. I will find them all out, and tell them to you with a few general statistics when we finish the biographies, or better still, we will all see how many we can find out. Now, who will tell me the birthplace of William Henry Harrison ? " GENERAL HARRISON'S BIRTHPLACE. " It was Berkley, Va., and he was born February 9, 1773. He died at Washington, D. C, April 4, 1841, and lies at North Bend, on the Ohio River," replied Josie. " What of his ancestry?" " It is said to be English. General John Harrison, one of his ancestors, was one of the judges who tried and condemned Charles I," said Ray. " And lost his own head for doing so, as soon as that King's friends were in power again," added Bennie. "His father was Benjamin Harrison, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence," cried Hadley. " Right, every one of you. Did any of you find out who his mother tvas ? " 6 VIEW OF THE NATIONAL CAPllOL AT VVAiHiNGTON. MARTIN VAN BUREN AND WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 83 " I don't think that I saw anything about her — if I did I have for- gotten," said Bennie, slowly. " Well, I went to the public library in Boston 3'esterday, and I thought that I would look up about some of the Presidents. I found two biographies which said that W. H. Harrison was a descendant of Pocahontas, the Indian girl who saved Captain John Smith from a cruel death — you all know the story." " I guess that we do," cried Charlie. " And I wish that she was my descendant." " Ancestor, you mean," laughed Hadley. "Well, then I found a little book called 'Pocahontas, and her descend- ants, by her marriage with John Rolph, gentleman.' In that I found that ' Susannah Randolph, sixth in descent from Pocahontas, married one Benjamin Harrison, of Berkeley, in 1770, and died leaving one son.' I thought that I had found something which every one did not know, and which would interest you very much, but soon I found another Harrison biography which denied the relationship to Pocahontas, and said that there were two men in Berkeley, at that time named Benjamin Harrison, and that the signer of Declaration of Independence married a Miss Basset." " What more did you find out, ma'am ? " asked Jake eagerly. WHAT IS SAID OF HIS ANCESTORS. " I came home, and now you know just as much about it as I du. Of the six or seven Harrison biographies that I looked at, two said that he was descended from the Indian girl, one denied it, and the others did not mention it at all." "I think I will write to General Harrison." " We shall hear from him, for he likes young people. Tell him that we are trying to learn all we can about the Presidents, and we want to know true," suggested Ruthie, wisely. " Where was W. H. Harrison educated ? " " The first that I could find was where he went to Hampden — Sidney College — and after leaving, began the study of medicine," said Hadiey. :4 MARTIN VAN BUREN AND WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. " I fouud nothing about his school days, but he probably had all the advantages of wealth and cultured societ}', for his father was well to do in the world. When his father died he gave up his studies, and joined the arni}^ as ensign under Wayne, against the Indians. The next year he was made lieutenant, then aide-de-camp, and at last captain in com- mand at Fort Washington. In 1798 he was secretary of the North West territory, the next year delegate in Congress, and he was Governor of the territory which is now known as Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin in 1800. From that time until 1841, when he became Presi- dent, he was almost constantly in public office. He was Commander-in- chief of the American army from 181 1 to 1S14." "HARD CIDER AND LOG CABIN." " What do they mean when they call his election ' the Hard Cider and Log Cabin campaign ? ' " asked Jake. " Because the Baltimore Republicans laughed at the nomination and scornfully said that if the Whigs would give General Harrison a pen- sion of two thousand dollars a year, and a barrel of hard cider, he would spend the remainder of his days sitting by a sea-coal fire in his log cabin, studying mental philosophy. This speech aroused all the ' log cabins ' in the laud, and typical log cabins headed the processions throughout the campaign. The excitement lasted until November, and the whirlwind of public sentiment swept Harrison and Tyler into the White House." " His wife was a New Jersey woman, was she not ? " asked Josie. " Yes, she was Anna Symmes, daughter of Colonel John B. Sj-m- mes, of the Continental. Her mother died soon after her birth. It is said that she was very handsome, a woman ' to the manor born,' who shrank from no duty, and made her home a pleasant and attractive one. Thej' had a large family of children, but I think that only one survived her. She died at North Bend, Ohio, at the home of her son, John — father o( Benjamin Harrison, our late President." MARTIN VAN BUREN AND WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 85 " I think that I will wear another badge, if I can find a Harrison campaign medal," exclaimed Hadley. "You'll wait some time then, unless you find some curiosity col- lector generous enough to give you one," laughed Ray. "John Tyler and James Polk next — am I right, mamma ? " asked Charlie. "Yes, and I want you all to know so much about them that I will not have to say a word." " Perhaps," answered Katie, with a merry laugh. "That is easier said than done, with quite a lot of the Presidents," grumbled Bennie. "I wish folks would write just as folks are, and not make them out either too good to live or too bad to die." " An impartial biographer is the hardest thing on earth to find, my boy," replied Mamma Nelson truthfully. U. S. MINT, PHILADELPHIA. JOHN TYLER ,^K AND JAMES K. POLK. '''' I ^UESDAY again," said Mamma Nelson, looking at tlie eager, 1 young faces around lier. " We have first John Tyler, tenth President, who took the oath of office April 5, 1S41, immedi- ately after the death of W. H. Harrison. Death had promoted him twice before it made him President of the United States, when he became Governor of Virginia, and when he was made Senator by the death of the Senator elect. Where was John Tyler born, and when ? " " He was born in Green way, Va., March 29, 1790, and died at Richmond, Va., January iS, 1S62," said Ray. " His father was an officer in the Revolutionary army — and a brave one, too," added Ruthic. "His father was also in the Federal Court of Admiralty, and a man of considerable means. You did not remember all of your lesson, Ruthie," laughed Josie. "Well, you remembered for me, and that is just as well — so long as it is told," was the retort. " If his father was rich, he had a good education," said Jake,decidedl3'. *' I think he had, although I found but one mention of his 3'outh. When quite a boy he went to a small school, kept by one John McMurdo, who was a very severe master, and often unreasonable. He seemed to think that if he spared the rod he would surely spoil the child, and he sometimes whipped his unlucky pupils without mercy for trifling offences." "Did the people let him whip them so?" asked Ruthie, in astonish- ment " They wouldn't do it now ? " JOHN TYLER AND JAMES K. POLK. S7 "No one interfered as long as no bones were broken. In those days a teacber's commands were absolute law, and some teackers, like this McMurdo, made much of tlieir authority." JOHN TYLER. " I should think they would have beaten all the sense out of their scholars," exclaimed Bennie, indignantly. " I never could remember a thing if I was whipped like that — I wouldn't." " Perhaps he did injiire their good sense, in a way, for when only eleven years old, although one of the largest pupils in school, John Tyler was the ring-leader in a school rebellion," 88 JOHN TYLER AND JAMES K. POLK. "What was that, mamma?" asked Charlie. " Well, after they had borne the master's harshness as long as they thought they could, they made up their minds to stop it — in their own way — and boys' ways are not always best, you know." " Are boys' ways any worse than girls' ways ? " asked Hadle}', roguishl}'. TEACHER WAS LOCKED IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. " I think that they are about even, generallj^ but it was the boys' ways that made the trouble iu this case. One day Master McMurdo called John to the desk, to punish him for some trifling offence, which was probably done on purpose to Hasten an excuse for open rebellion. John did not stir from his seat. He watched the master, and the other boys watched him in breathless silence, for the signal for combat which they knew would soon be given. The master hesitated a moment, too astonished and indignant to speak, then, his face red with rage, he strode down the aisle to seize the boy who had thus dared his authority — then the signal came. There was confusion instantly. The smaller children screamed and huddled together in the farthermost corner ; some of the girls ran out of doors ; others encouraged and aided in the assault. Benches were smashed, and more than one felt the force of the irate master's strong arm before IVIr. McMurdo was overpowered. They bound him, hand and foot, with strong cords that were suspiciously con- venient to find. ' Lock him into the school-house, and leave him to cool off,' commanded John Tyler, and the sentence was stricth' carried out, in spite of the frantic threats of the master." *' What did the scholars do then ? " asked Katie. ** Went home, of course," laughed Ray. " Yes, they went home, as if they were returning from school, and you may be very sure that none of them told what had been done." " Didn't any of them let the master out ? Did he have to stay there all night ? " asked Jake, anxiously. " It was quite late in the evening when a passing traveler heard him calling, broke down the door, and let him out." 90 JOHN TYLER AND JAMES K. POLK. " I wouldn't want to have been them when he caught 'em," ejaculated Charlie, rather incoherently. " Probabl}'' the ring-leaders never returned to his school, for John T3der was but twelve years old when he entered William and Mary Col- lege. But, I do not think that Mr. McMurdo was very hard on them, for he had had a needed lesson. Teachers should govern with dignity and kindness, not by brute force. He complained to Judge Tyler, John's father, however." " What did the Judge say to him ? " asked Bennie, quickly. "He listened to the complaint in silence, then made this apt answer, ' Sic Semper Tyrannis,' which means ' So is it alwaj^s with tyrants.' " GRADUATED WHEN VERY YOUNG. "John Tyler must have graduated from college before he was seven- teen years old," mused Hadley. " He did, and then studied law. He was admitted to the bar when he was nineteen years old." " And went to the Legislature when he was twenty-one," said Ray. " Yes, then he was sent to Congress. He was married twice," the first time to Letitia Christian, who died at the White House, then he married Julia Gardiner of New York. " Was he a good President? " asked Josie. "Well, it is said that he went back on his election principles when he found himself really President, and there was much dissatisfaction about it." " He was in favor of having all the States made slave States, wasn't he? " asked Jake. " I believe that he did not want any restriction placed on slavery. When he died he was a member of the Confederate Congress, and he is buried in Hollywood Cemetery, in Richmond, near James Monroe. His grave is surrounded by magnolia trees." " Where did he live after he was President ? " asked Katie. *' When he left the White House he went to an estate three or four JOHN TYLER AND JAMES K. POLK. 91 miles from Greenway, on tlie James River, whicli he named Sterwood Forest. He lived there quietly until 1861, when he was President of the Peace Convention at Washington, trying to effect a compromise between the North and South. When this could not be done, he declared himself in favor of the South, and went to Richmond." ''Can you tell us of his wives, and if he had any children ?" asked Ruthie. " His first wife, Letitia Christian, was the daughter of a planter in New Kent Count}-, Va. His daughter-in-law was mistress of the White House until the death of Mrs. Tyler, after which Mrs. Tyler's daughter did the honors. There was a son and a daughter by this marriage. His second wife was Julia Gardiner, from Gar- diner's Island, N. Y., who was mistress of the White House during the last eight months of his term of office. She was a Roman Catholic, devoted to church charities. I find but one child mentioned, a son, who was author of ' The Letters and Times of the Tylers.' " " Well, we are done with the times of the Tylers now," cried James k. polk. Charlie. "The next is James K. Polk, eleventh President of this great and glorious nation. He was born in a double log house, in Mecklen- burg County, N. C, November 2, 1795, and died at Nashville, Tenn., June 15, 1849. His ancestors bore the name of Pollock, and came to America early in the seventeenth century. They were people from the north of Ireland." "Well done, Charlie, how did you happen to know so much?" laughed Hadley. 9t JOHN TYLER AND JAMES K. POLK. " I knew that mamma would ask me, for she said she would, because I have not done my part in telling things," nodded Charlie. "So I thought I would say it first." Mamma Nelson joined in the laugh at Charlie's expense, then she asked : " What more do you know about James K. Polk ? Was he of Irish descent ? " " Not exactly, I think, for people from the Highlands of Scotland _,^ _.^^p^^j^^ settled the north- ^ ^C=_;^ q3= ern part of Ire- "^ -__, land. He was what folks call Scottish- Irish descent." " Quite right, my son. There are man}' states- uien in America of that descent. Was his father a rich man ? " " O ask the others a little, mamma. Have I THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINliTON, D. C. Uot doue Ul}' part to-night ? Let them tell me something now," cried Charlie. " I'll tell you. His father was a farmer iu moderate circumstances, and he was a surveyor, too. James helped him in both occupations, and H they were not what people call wealthy, he had the chance to get a good education. He attended Murfreesborough Academy, then gradu- ated from the University of North Carolina with high honors," said Hadley. " As a student he was correct, punctual and iudustrious, and he was called the best scholar of his class in classics and mathematics, and delivered a Latin salutary when he graduated," added Josie. JOHN TYLER AND JAMES K. POLK. 93 "The university gave him the degree of lyly.D., iu 1847," said Ray. "Was he a lawyer, too ? " asked Ruthie. "Yes, he entered the office of Felix Grundy, who was then at the head of the Tennessee bar. While studying law he became acquainted with Andrew Jacksou, and they were friends through life." " I think that his nickname was Young Hickory, wasn't it ? " asked Jake. " I think it was. And he was also called the ' Napoleon of the Stump,' because of his popular style of oratory. One of his cabinet said of him ' Of all our public men, Polk was the most thoroughly consistent representative of his party.' He was a successful man from the first, as Representative, Congressman and Speaker of the House, until he became Governor of Tennessee." "He became President in 1845, didn't he?" asked Hadley. "Yes. Can you tell me the great event of his administration, Jake ? " "I think it was the Mexican War, ma'am," was the hesitating reply. MADE A GOOD PRESIDENT. " And by it the United States gained New Mexico, California and Utah. It is said that Polk was prudent, far-sighted and bold, and a frank and sincere friend. Mr. Bancroft calls him ' one of the best Presi- dents we ever had.' He died of cholera soon after the close of his term of office, and was buried in the garden of the family homestead, at Nash- ville, Tenn. But, in 1891, the courts decided against his will, which left his property to the 'worthiest of the name forever,' and the tomb with the bodies of the ex-President and his wife, was removed by the State to Capitol Hill, Nashville, that the land might be divided among his heirs." "Why, didn't they have any children? " asked Nettie. " No, his nearest relatives were his heirs. His wife was Sarah Childress, daughter of a farmer near Murfreeborough, Tenn., and she was extremely popular in Washington society before her husband 94 JOHN TYLER AND JAMES K. POLK. became President. As tlie mistress of the White House, ishe held weekly receptions, but she abolished the custom of giving refreshments to the guests. An English lady once said, after meeting her in Washington, ' Mrs. Polk is a very handsome woman ; she is well-read, has much talent for conversation, and is highly popular.' " •' Eleven Presidents passed bj^ — how many more shall we have, mamma?" asked Charlie. " Charlie Nelson ! Didn't you know that there has been twenty- four?" cried Nettie. " Aha, Miss Nettie, there have been twenty-five ; we must reckon Cleveland twice, for he had two terms, with Harrison between them" shouted Charlie, triumphantly. "If we reckon all the terms, how man}' would there be?" asked Mamma Nelson. "Let me think," returned Ray. " If each one had served just four years there would have been twenty-four, but Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe and Jackson each served two terms." NUMBER OF PRESIDENTS. " Yes, and Lincoln, Grant, Cleveland and McKinley," added Mamma Nelson. "That makes nine extra times, so why should we not call the number of Presidents thirty-three? " " I don't know — the people have voted for President thirty-three times — that's sure," mused Hadley. " Is it ? " cried Bennie, with a laugh. " Where do the Vice-Presi- dents come in ? Tyler, Fillmore, Johnson and Arthur became President because the President in office died — you must count them out of the thirty-two who were voted for by the people — seems to me." " I guess Bennie is right," smiled Mamma Nelson. " We'll hear about Zackary Taylor— old Rough and Ready— next, isn't it he, mamma ? " asked Charlie. " Yes, Zackary Taylor and Millard Fillmore, and if you have your lessous well I may give you a pleasant surprise." ZACKARY TAYLOR AND MILLARD FILLMORE. • 66 TV TOW, MAMMA, we are ready to be surprised," cried Charlie, j \ impatiently, as the last one of the Club entered the cosy parlor. " What do you think ? Nettie and I do not know what it is any more than any of you. Mamma wouldn't tell us, would you, mamma ? " " Haidly. The surprise is for all alike, but it was not promised unless the evening's lessons were well learned, so we will have business first and pleasure afterwards," said Mamma Nelson, gaily. '* Zackary Taylor was another man who died in ofiEce, although he lived a year after being inaugurated. He was the twelfth President. Where was he born ? " "In Orange County, Va., September 24, 1784, and died at the Executive Mansion, in Washington, July 9, 1850. He is buried in Cave Hill Cemetery, Louisville, Ky.," answered Ray, promptly. " What of his ancestry, Hadley ? " " He was descended from James Taylor, who came to America, from Carlisle, on the English border, in 1658." " Who was his father, Nettie ? " " His father was Colonel Richard Taylor, a daring officer of the Revolution, who was one of the first settlers of Louisville, where he went when Zackary was quite young." " If he lived in a new country he did not have a chance to get much education, did he ?" asked Josie. " No, he was brought up on a farm in a thinly settled country, and he had hardly any chance for schooling. Yet he learned to be a soldier, for many of his father's neighbors were his fellow soldiers. Young 95 96 2ACKARY TAYLOR AND MILLARD FILLMORE. Zackary and his brothers liked to listen to the war stories which thesa old comrades delighted to tell, and all but one of Colonel Taylor's sons entered the army. So if he w^s not getting knowledge from books, he Besides that, the was learning that which iniiUenced his whole life ZACKARY TAYLOR. settlement was in constant fear of the Indians for several years. Hardly a day passed without a small encounter upon one side of the river." "Why didn't the}' move somewhere else?" asked Be nnie, with a shiver. " I would not like to live in such a place." ZACKARY TAYLOR AND MILLARD FILLMORE. S7 " There is no need for tlie boys of to-day to live in such constant peril as the boys of the frontier did. During Zackary Taylor's entire bo3'hood, he often waited and watched at home with his mother, while his father was out fighting the Indians. And the evening employment of the Taylor brothers was casting leaden bullets before the great open fire, heating the lead in skillets before pouring it into the moulds." INDIAN LIFE IN THEIR NATIVE FORESTS. "Did the Indians ever attack them ? " asked Katie. " I cannot tell you that, but I shouldn't wonder if they did, although I found no account of it. But you can retain this picture of Zackary Taylor, the boy — you can imagine how he looked in the bright fire-light, as he and his brother were casting bullets. So you see he had not much time for study, even if there had been schools for him to attend." " How old was he when he entered the army ? " asked Ray. " About twenty-four years old. His oldest brother, a Lieutenant in the army, died, and he was chosen to fill the vacancy." " He was stationed at New Orleans then, wasn't he ?" asked Katie. *' Yes, and about that time he married Margaret Smith, daughter of 98 ZACKARY TAYLOR AND MILLARD FILLMORE. a TMaryland planter. This planter ■^'as a direct descendant from Richard Smith, whom Oliver Cromwell appoin\ea Attorney General of IMaryland. So Zackary Taylor's wife could honestly claim to belong to one of the ' first families.' " " I have heard that she went with her husband, living in the bar- racks on the frontier. She was a nurse in the hospitals, and the soldiers loved her as well as they did their commander," said Josie. CAITURE OF A BA'/TERY AT MONTEREY. " Yes, she lived at Tampa Bay, during the Florida War, taking care of the sick and wounded there. She liked home life best, and was not very pleased when her husband was made President. She took no part in the social duties of the White House, leaving that to her youngest daughter, Elizabeth, who was commonly called Bett3\" " Had they other children ? " asked Ruthie. "Two other daughters, Ann and Sarah, and a son. Sarah Taylor became the wife of JciiTerson Davis. The son, Richard, was Major GeU' • ZACKARY TAYLOR AND MILLARD FILLMORE. 99 eral iu the Confederate Army, and surrendered to General E. R. S. Canby at Cicronelle, May 8, 1865." " I thouglit that Zackary Taylor was a General," said Josie. " So he was, but not at first. He was Captain before the War of 1812, and was sent to Fort Harrison. The garrison was small, and the Indians, under Tecumseh, knew it, but when the}^ attacked the fort they were repulsed with great loss. Captain Taylor was brevetted Major for defending the fort so gallantly. Zackary Taylor also served in the Black Hawk War, as well as in the Seminole War, and was commander of the Florida troops in 1840." " He was at the Battle of Monterey, in the Mexican War, for I read about it the other day," said Jake. "That was General Taylor's greatest victory, and was closely fol- lowed by that great victory against heavy odds at Buena Vista." " OLD ROUGH AND READY." "Father says that his soldiers loved him," said Hadley. " They had great faith in him, calling him ' Old Rough and Ready,' because he was always ready for any duty at a moment's notice. He fol- lowed the lines of industry and self-denial through life. His motto was ' My country, right or wrong.' Had he lived he would have shown the world that a great soldier can also be a great statesman. When nomi- nated for the presidency this ' ignorant frontiersman, who had not voted for forty years,' was triumphantly elected over men of refinement and education, and the society at Washington could find no fault with him when chief magistrate of the nation." " Millard Fillmore became President at his death," said Katie. "Yes, what was the ancestry of the thirteenth President ? " "I guess it was English. He was born near Summer Hill, N. Y., February 7, 1800, and died at Buffalo, N. Y., March 7, 1874. He is buried at Forest Lawn Cemetery, Buffalo, N. Y.," was the read}^ answer. " Well done, Beunie. Did you learn that by heart?" laughed Katie. L.ofC. JOO 2ACKARY TAYLOR AND MILLARD FILLMORE. BATTLE OF BUENA VISTA. " I IcEow one thing," cried Jake, eagerly. " His great-grandfather was on the 'Dolphin,' when she wa.s captured by Captain John Phillip.s, the pirate. Fillmore, with three other men, were made to work for the WASHINGTON IN THE 1; ^ VO LU HON AR Y WAR BETSY ROSS HOUSE, PHILADELPHIA BIRTHPLACE OF OUR NATION'S FLAG ZACKARY TAYLOR AND MILLARD FILLMORE. 10] pirates, who were very cruel to them. At last they thought that they would run away, so they killed the ofihcers, and put the vessel into Bos- MILLARD FILLMORE. ton harbor. The Captain had a sword with a silver handle on it, and that was given to John Fillmore. His folks have it yet." " What became of the pirates ?-— that's what I want to know," ques- tioned Bennie. " They were condemned to death, perhaps they were h.ung in chains, 102 ZaCKARY TAYLOR AND MILLARD FILLMORE. which was generally the fate of pirates in the olden times," answered Mamma Nelson. "Were Mr. Fillmore's folks poor?" asked Ruthie. "Yes, he worked on the farm in summer, and went to the country school in the winter." " And all the books he had were a Bible and a hymn book. He never even saw a map of the United States until he was nineteen years old — think of that," exclaimed Hadley. " No, nor even a copy of Robinson Crusoe," added Benuie, regretfully. HIS HARD LOT WHEN YOUNG. "He remained at home, helping his father, until he was fifteen years old, when he was apprenticed to a wool-carder, to learn that trade. He was the youngest apprentice, and his master treated him very unjustly. In speaking of this treatment in after years Mr. Fillmore said, ' It made me feel for the weak and unprotected, and hate the insolent tyrant in every station of life.' " "The first book that he ever owned was a small dictionary, which he studied while carding wool," said Jake. " I don't see how he could learn much out of a dictionarj-," cried Hadley, in amazement. "Why not? All the words in the English language are in it," laughed Ray. " I guess 3'ou could learn from it if it was the onl}' book that vou had, and you truly wanted to learn something," said Jake. "Ah, that is the secret of it— of all success," smiled Mamma Nel- son. "Fillmore, like Lincoln and Garfield, certainly deserves the credit of winning his own way to the highest office in the land. For weeks and mouths and years he worked on, with grim determination to suc- ceed, often until long past midnight. His ancestors, for three genera- iions, were resolute pioneers, and the boy inherited his trait of perse- vercnce in the face of all obstacles." "Was he a lawyer, too?" asked Nettie. SCENE IN THE ALLEGHENY MOUNTAINS. 103 lOi ZACKARY TAYLOR AND MILLARD FILLMORE. "Most of the Presidents were," added Josie. " He was. When nineteen j^ears old, he attracted tlie notice of a prominent lawyer, who offered him a chance in his office, giving him his board for his work. While studying, he helped pay expences by teach, ing. He was admitted to the bar in four j^ears, and his first fee was four dollars. He was sent to Congress several times, and was Vice-President in 1S48. A little over a year later the death of General Taylor made him President." '' Wasn't he married twice ? " asked Ruthie. " Yes, February 5, 1826, he married Abagail Powers, a clergyman's daughter, and she has been called her husband's 'Right Hand,' so faith- fully and well did she perform her life-duties. The White House owes its nice library to her. Their only daughter did not long survive her mother. This daughter was very accomplished, with a bright, sunny disposition. One more child, a son, lived until 1891. Mr. Fillmore's second wife was Caroline Mcintosh." MADE HIMSELF UNPOPULAR. " Didn't Mr. Fillmore sign the ' Fugitive Slave Bill ? ' asked Ray. "Yes, and that act made him very unpopular, even with his own party, at the north. Yet no President was ever more honest in doing his duty — as he saw it. Now that the strong feeling has passed, he will be judged more gently." "That's all about the Presidents to-night, isn't it, mamma?" asked Charlie, a little impatiently. "I think so — but whj' ? Are vou losing your inteiest?" asked Mamma Nelson, reprovingly. "No indeed. But IMr. Robbin's man left a box at the back door :i long time ago, and Bennie and I have been wondering about it ever ' since. I s'pose it's the surprise," returned Charlie. "Then you and Bennie ma}' bring it in," said Mamma Nelson. *' And a hammer," called Nettie. The box was soon brought, and surrounded by an eager group. ZACKARY TAYLOR AND MILLARD FILLMORE. 105 " It's marked ' Glass — with care,' — easy, Bennie," cautioned Ray. As soon as the cover was off, Mamma Nelson removed the excelsior and paper very carefully, and took out nine thin packages, which she placed in the hands of nine waiting young people. "This is our surprise," she said. "Open the packages." They were not long in obeying, and nine pictures of the Presidents were disclosed. The portraits were arranged in a group and set in pretty gilt frames. "I know why mamma gave us these," cried Charlie, with shining eyes. "She did it to make us remember 'em better, didn't you ?" " Perhaps. And the pictures are your very own — to hang in your own rooms." " We'll always keep them — as long as we live," said Katie. "And thank you, too," added Jake. "I never had anything so nice." 0^ FRANKLIN PIERCE AND JAMES BUCHANAN. •^ '' I ^HE uomiuation of Franklin Pierce, as foiirteentli Presideut, 1 was a surprise to politicians generall}-, and as much of a sur- prise to him as to an}' one else. What can you tell me of him ? " asked Mamma Nelson. " He was born ut Hillsborough, N. H., November 23, 1804, and died at Concord, N. H., October 8, 1S69," said Ray. " He was also buried at Concord." " His father was General Benjamin Pierce, of the Revolutionary Arm}-," continued Hadle3\ " And also Governor of New Hampshire for two terms," added Ray. " Mother says that Franklin Pierce was a beautiful bo3^ with blue e3?es, light curly hair, and a sweet, expressive face," said Katie. '' Grand- mother lived in Hillsborough, 3'ou know." •'So you almost knew him, didn't j'ou ? " asked Charlie, in sur- prise. " Hardly," laughed Katie. " He died in 1869, don't you remember? " " Franklin Pierce was a kind-hearted bo}-, who would lose his recess at school to help a class-mate in his studies," said Josie. "Yes, answered Alamma Nelson, after a moment's thought. '' His was one of those contradictory natures, so seldom found. He was gen- erous, kind hearted, and ready to shield the poor from injustice if in hi.^- power, yet, notwithstanding his parentage and his New England birtl and education, he always maintained the rights of slave- holders." " His father was a farmer," said Hadley. 106 FRANKLIN PIERCE AND JAMES BUCHANAN, 107 " And trained liis sons in the same profession," added Ray. " What a lot of the Presidents have been farmers' sons, mused Nettie. " More than half of them. Farmers' sons and daughters are the backbone of the nation. Where was Franklin Pierce educated?" " He received his preparatory education at Hancock, Francestown and Exeter," answered Josie. " Didn't he go to Bowdoin College ? " asked Ruthie. " Yes, he entered there when sixteen years old, and during his first long vacation he taught a district school in Hebron, Me." " When at college he thought more of the military drill than of his studies, and at the end of the second year he was at the foot of his class," declared Charlie. " But he made up for that by hard study, and was third in his class when he graduated," protested Hadley. " Henry W. Longfellow was one of his class-mates," said Nettie. " So were Calvin E. Stowe, Nathaniel Hawthorne and John P. Hale," added Katie. "After graduating from college," Mamma Nelson went on, " he studied law one year with Levi Woodbury, then went two years to the law school at Northampton, Mass., and in Judge Parker's office at Amherst, N. H. His first case was a miserable failure, but he said ' I will try nine hundred and r»inety-nine cases, if ni}- clients trust me, and if I, fail, as I have to-day, I will try the thousandth. I shall live to argue cases in this court house in a manner that will mortif}' neither myself nor my friends — and he did it. He served four terms in the State House of Representatives, being Speaker of the House during the last two FRANKLIV PIERCE. lOS FRANKLIN PIERCE AND JAMES BUCHANAN. terms. Then he went to Congress for another four years, being the youngest member there." "Did he not fight in the Mexican War ^" asked Hadley. "Yes, he enlisted as private, became Brigadier General, and was a brave soldier. When he became President, his inauguration w^as attended with great pomp and ceremony, but his administration was a stormy THE WHITE HOUSE WASHINGTON, D. C one, and some of the diiEculties which then arose led to the Civil War. Franklin Pierce was a sincere lover of his country, but he was timid and inefficient." "You have not told us of his family. Wasn't one boj^ killed in a railroad accident ?" asked Nettie. " They had three children — all boys. Two of them died in child- hood, and Beunie, thirteen years old, was killed by an accident on the UJ D O I ui H i UJ I I- < 5 < D Z < z O CO a: a: < I z u Q CO Ul cc a FRANKLIN PIERCE AND JAMES BUCHANAN. 109 Boston and Maine Railroad, two mouths before liis father entered the White House." " How did it happen ? " asked Ruthie. " The cars were thrown from the track against a mass of rock, and Bennie was killed instantly. His mother never recovered from the shock of his death, and it was a sorrowful mistress that went to the White House in March, 1S53. But she performed her duties like the noble woman that she was, and presided over the Executive Mansion with great grace and dignity." " Why, mamma, 3'ou have not told us her name yet," exclaimed Nettie. " Then you must excuse me. Her name was Jane Appleton, and she was the daughter of Rev. Jesse Appleton, President of Bowdoin Col- lege. She married Mr. Pierce in 1834, and died at Andover, Mass., December 2, 1863. Mrs. Robert E. Lee said of her, 'I have known many ladies of the White House, but none more truly excellent than the afflicted wife of President Pierce.' She was a refined, religious, and well-educated woman." "Then she was liked better than her husband was?" suggested Ray. "She had nothing to do with the political duties of the White House. The wives of Presidents are the ' First Ladies ' in the land, and at the head of society. She performed her duties as well as her feeble health would allow, and she was a universal favorite. With but very few exceptions the women who have served as mistress of the Wliite House have been remarkable for their intelligence, accomplishments and virtues." " Yet it seems as if there isn't much real home-life in the White House. The time of the President and his wife seems to belong to the people," mused Katie. " That is true — in a degree, and more than one resident there has looked forward eagerly to a return to the old home and life." " What makes men want to go there so badly then ? " asked Josie. no FRANKLIN PIERCE AND JAMES BUCHANAN "That is a question wliicli has puzzled wiser heads than ours, uiy dear," laughed Mamma Nelson. '* Public life does not lead through beds of thornless roses, yet man}' eagerly choose it. And now we come to James Buchanan. Some of you surely know his history." JAMES BUCHANAN. "He was born near l^Iercersburg, Pa., April 23, 1791, and died ai Lancaster, Pa., June i, 1868, where he was buried in Woodward Hi'.' Cemetery," said Hadley, promptly. *' What wa.s his ancestry ? " FRANKLIN PIERCE AND JAMES BUCHANAN. Ill " It was Scotch-Irish," answered Nettie. " His father was born in Donegal, Ireland, and came to the United States in 17S3." " Father says that he was respectable, bnt poor, and that he was a man of great force of character, although he sometimes looked at things through a smoked glass, and of course they seemed different to him then thau they did to other people," laughed Bennie. V CHEYENNE INDIANS WATCHING A TRAIN CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS. " Did he have a chance to get a good education ? " asked Katie. " Yes, and he was admitted to the bar in 1S12. Two years after that he was elected to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, and was re-elected. In 1S21 he became a member of Congress, and held that position ten years b}^ re-election. President Jackson sent him to Russia, as an ambassador, to negotiate a commercial treaty." " What does that mean, mamma?" asked Charlie, with a puzzled frown. 112 FRANKLIN PIKRCE AND JAMES BUCHANAN. " It means an agreement abont duties on merchandise, between nations b}- which trade between them may be increased. Mr. Buchanan became United States Senator in 1834,, and was re-elected twice." "He favored slavery," asserted Hadley. " That has been denied, but he did not think that States, then holding slaves, conld be interfered with legallj^ When Polk was President, he made Mr. Buchanan Secretary of State. When Taylor came into office he retired from official life, and bought a small estate near Lancaster, which he called Wheatland. He remained there until Pierce was elected, then went to England as Minister, where he received marked attention. In 1856 he was elected President. How well I remember that campaign," laughed Mamma Nelson. " I was eight years old at the time, and my father was a Fremont man." THE UNION WAS PRESERVED. "What kind of a man was that, ma'am?" asked Jake. "I should have told you that the other candidate for the Presidency was General Fremont, a brave and true man. When he was defeated I thought that our great Union was surely going to be destroyed." " But the Union did not go to pieces, it is as good as gold to-day," asserted Hadley, proudly. " Yes, and although it has passed through trying times, the States are more firmly bound together now than ever before," replied Mamma Nelson, warml3\ "Wasn't Buchanan the last President before the war?" asked Ray. " He was, but the causes of war had been multiplying for some time. You must know that a President, however energetic and honest he may be, does not have full control of the affairs of the nation, and sometimes they are blamed for what they cannot help." " And if things are just right during their term of office, why they get all the credit of it. Isn't that so ? " asked Hadley. "Just so, my boy — it is so in every walk in life. Shortly after James Buchanan was elected, the famous Dred Scott case was tried, and FRANKLIN PIERCE AND JAMES BUCHANAN. 113 tte decision was one whicli gave siave-owners the power to hold tlieir slaves in any part of the Union. This hastened the Civil War, I think." " Who was Dred Scott, and what was his case ? " asked Josie. BRIDGE CROSSING THE SUSQUEHANNA RIVER AT HARRISBURG. "Dred Scott and his wife were slaves in a slave State. Their mas- ter moved into a free State, taking them with him. Some States had laws of their own which declared that slaves were free when they entered their borders. Dred Scott and his wife claimed their freedom b}- one of these laws. The decision of the courts gave them to their mas- ter, ar»d aroused an intense feeling in the North." 8 114 FRANKLIN PIKRCK AND JAMKS BUCHANAN. "Wasn't John Brown hung at Harper's Ferr}-, during Buchanan's term of office ? " asked Ray. "Yes. In 1859, John Brown, with only nineteen men to aid him, seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry. The}^ were not wise in doing so, but they thought that if they began the fight the .slaves would join them in a combat for their freedom. They were overpowered b}' the govern- ment troops, and old John Brown, with six of his most zealous associates, was hanged." " I don't care — 'His soul went marching on,'" sang Charlie. '' And will march on until the end of time — poor old John Brown," added Nettie. " He was hasty and over-zealous, perhaps, for the time for freeing the slaves had not arrived. God works out His own plans in His own way, my children. John Brown should have realized that he, and his handful of men could not do it, but many a soldier marched to the tune of 'Old John Brown' in the dark days of the Civil War which followed so soon. The question of slavery was not the only cause of the war. We can better understand it now, with the numerous histories which have been written on both sides. There is no excuse for ignorance on the subject, and I hope that the White House Club will search out the truth." "Was Buchanan to blame for the war?~father says so," said Jake. A MAN TRUE TO HIS CONVICTIONS. "James Buchanan was loyal and honest in his own convictions of what the Constitution of the United States meant, I truly think. His errors were not those of a traitor, for he supported Lincoln after his inauguration. He was never married. A young lady, to whom he was engaged, died just before he entered Congress, in 1S21. He always mourned for her, and was true to her memory. He took care of four of his sister's children, upon the death of their father and mother, and adopted the youngest, IMiss Harriet, who was mistress of the White House while he was President. The son of another sister lived with liim ^1 §0 FRANKLIN PIERCE AND JAMES BUCHANAN. 115 " What was the name of this niece ? " asked Katie, *' It was Harriet Lane Johnson, and she was called one of the most beautiful women that ever held the position of ' First Lady in the Land.' She was the daughter of Elliot T. Lane and her mother was the sister of Buchanan. She was educated in a Catholic convent in George- town, D. C, and while at the White House, she received the Prince of Wales and his party, when they visited the United States. She married Henr}^ Johnson in 1866." " Lincoln next," cried Bennie, eagerly. " I've been wishing to get to him. My father calls him the best and greatest President that we ever had." " Better than Washington ? " questioned Katie, in great surprise. '^ I think so, too," admitted Mamma Nelson. " In contrasting the two men I can but say that the true, simple life of 'honest old Abe' seems grander to me than that of even our beloved Washington. But each of them was the right man for the place and time in which he lived, and both names will shine upon the roll of fame through all history." " We can find lots about Lincoln," said Jake. "That is right. We are getting where it is easier work to find out about a President, for the dates are more recent." " And the names are more like real folks, because we have heard so miich about them," nodded Bennie. ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND ANDREW JOHNSON. N i860, there was an exciting campaign. Cau 3'ou tell me who was elected as sixteenth Presi- dent at that time," asked IMamma Nelson. " Abraham Lincoln, of course," answered Charlie, in surprise. ''Why, we all know that, ma'am," laughed Jake. " The first Lincoln in America — or the first that has been traced — was one Samuel Lincoln, of Norwich, England, who came to Hingham, IVIass. His grandson, a man of some propert}*, died in Berks County, Pa., in 1735, and the propert}^ was divided among his sons and daughters. One of the sons, John Lincoln, went to Virginia. One of his sons, named Abraham went to Kentucky, about 17S0. In two j-ears he was killed b}' the Indians, leaving a widow, three sons, and two daughters. The youngest son, not quite as smart as the others, learned the carpenter trade, and was married to Nancy Hanks, June 12, 1S06. They had three children, the youngest of whom, a son died when a babe ; the eldest was a girl ; and the second " " Was a boy, and his mame was Abraham Lincoln — our Lincoln — isn't it so, ma'am?" interrupted Jake, eagerly. " I think it is so," answered Mamma Nelson, smiling at his eagerness. " Can you tell me where he was born ? " 116 ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND ANDREW JOHNSON. 117 '' He was boru in Hardin County, Ky., February 12, 1S09. He was assassinated in Washington, D. C, by John Wilkes Boothe, April 14, 1865, and is buried in Oak Ridge Cemetery, Springfield, 111.,'" replied Ruthie. "I found this about Lincoln, but I don't believe it," exclaimed Hadlev, producing a paper from wbich he read — of himself Lincoln says : ' My parents were botli born in Virginia, of undistinguislied fam- ilies — second families, perhaps I should say. My mother's name was Hanks. JMy paternal grand- father emigrated from Virginia to Kentucky in 17S0. His ancestors were Quakers in Pennsylvania.' " "Was Abraham Lincoln as poor as that," demanded Ray. " Yes, that is all perfectly true. I have told you about his father's ;f '-^i^ familv, which was much the same as "^^ all frontier families. His mother's people belonged to a class called 'Poor Whites' in the slave States. Abraham uncoln. She was, however, a woman of great natural ability, although she had bu very little education or culture. She is described as ' a handsome youne woman, of appearance and intellect superior to lier lowly fortunes.' The young couple had not much to begin housekeeping with. They lived in a log house, with no floor, in the simplest stvle that 3'ou can imagine." "Then he never had a chance to go to school much ? " said Jake. " No, I have heard that his entire schooling, except his law studies, did not exceed one year. When he was about eight years old his father moved to Indiana, and .Abraham helped chop the trees to build the new house," 118 ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND ANDREW JOHNSON. *' Now, Mamma Nelson. Wli}^ lie wasn't as old as I am, and I could not cut even a little apple tree down," cried Charlie, incredulously. " I hope not, my son," laughed his mother. " But Lincoln cer- tainly did it. You must lemember that frontier boys began hard work ver}^ young, and Abraham Lincoln labored very hard to help get a living from a new farm, in a new country. They chopped the great trees, burned them when they were dry enough, then cleaned the charred sticks from the ground, before a crop could be sown and gathered." COOPER SHOP REFRESHMENT SALOON, PHILADELPAIA. 1861. "Was the new house a log one, too ? " asked Katie. " Yes indeed, and the windows had oiled skins in them instead of glass, while their bread was made from coarse meal, pounded in a great mortar. Later a mill was built in the neighborhood. It was a horse mill, with a windlass, and each man that came with a grist was expected to help grind it out. One day Abe, as he was called, went to the mill with a horse that was supposed to be very stead3\ Abe hitched the horse to the windlass, and he went all right until i PEACE COMMISSION. 120 ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND ANDREW JOHNSON. the grist was nearly ground, then he became very lazy. ' G'liing there, old fellow. G'l ' shouted the boy impatiently, enforcing his words with a stoiit stick. Abe did not finish the sentence — not then at any rate. In an instanct the horse's heels flew out, hitting his 3''oung master in the head. ' He's gone now,' said the mill men, and he did not come to his senses for nearly an hour. When he did he finished the sentence which had been so rudely interrupted." " Didn't he have a step-mother? " asked Nettie. LOST A GOOD MOTHER. " Yes. His own mother died soon after they moved to Indiana. She had been a great encouragement and comfort to him while he studied by the light of a pine knot, evening after evening, after learning the rudiments of reading and writing. In less than two j^ears his father married again, and that woman took his mother's place, and carried on the work which she began. She encouraged her step-son to get an edu- cation, and helped him in every way that she could. Soon a school was opened in the settlement by a man who could ' teach reading, 'ritiug and 'rithmetic' — the three Rs." "Then Lincoln went to school." said Hadley, with satisfaction. *' He did, and wore a suit of dressed buckskin, and a coon-skin cap. The school did not last 'long — for him — for he had to work, but he went on with his studies in the evening. He read and re-read all the books that he could borrow, and bought one whenever he could save money to do so. When he was of age his library consisted of ^sop's Fables, Pilgrim's Progress, Lives of Washington, Clay and Franklin, with Plu- tarch's Lives." " Why was he called ' the rail splitter ?' " asked Jake. " About the time he was twenty-one the family moved to Illinois. Here Abraham and another man split three thousand rails in one day — or it is so stated." " Did he work for his father after he was twent3'-one ?" asked Ray. *' Not long. He hired with a man, a river trader, to run a flat boat PRESIDENT LINCOLN ON INAUGURATION DAY, MARCH 4th, 1861. ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND ANDREW JOHNSON. 121 to New Orleans, then became his clerk for some time. Finally he bought the store, with another man, but soon sold to his partner and began surveying." " I thought he was a lawyer," exclaimed Nettie. " So he was. He studied that as he did everything else — after his work for the day was done. It is recorded of him that ' At this period he lived by surveying land, wore patched homespun clothes, and spent his leisure hours in the study of law.' " " Father says that he would not treat to liquors when he was elected to the Illinois legislature," said Bennie, with much satisfaction. CAPTAIN IN BLACK HAWK WAR, *' But yet he was re-elected three times," nodded Katie. " I have heard him called Captain Lincoln, was he in the army ? " asked Josie. " He enlisted in the Black Hawk War, and was chosen Captain. He was twice elected as President, but did not serve long on the second term', " As soon as he was President there was war — why was that ? " asked Ruthie. " There were many causes, I think the first of which was that the people of the North and of the South did not understand each other very well — did not recognize their dependence upon each other." "Uncle George says there would have been no seceding if Andrew Jackson had been President instead of Buchanan. He says that it was threatened when Jackson was President, and the old General said, ' Go tell them that I will send fifty thousand men to enforce the laws. If that don't bring them to their senses, by the Eternal, I will take the field myself — and that was the end of it," said Hadley. "Whether Andrew Jackson sent that word or not, there was no secession, although there was some trouble during his term of office. Abraham Lincoln was very tender-hearted, with a horror of cruelty of any sort, yet his administration was filled with all the awful horrors of 122 J ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND ANDREW JOHNSON. 12[ a Civil War. ' He was merciful except to the unmerciful — even then he was just ; he was charitable even to the uncharitable ; and he was kind except to those who were unkind.' He was always a champion for the right, and had great fore-sight and firmness. No man, since Wash- ington, ever held so high a place iu the hearts of his countrymen." t-s&. THI-: GRAVE OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN. "We all think that he was greater than Washington," said Hadley. "Others think him a great man, too, for on Memorial Day, 1895, a bronze monument of Abraham Lincoln was unveiled in Edinburg, in Scotland, dedicated to the memory of the Scottish-American soldiers who fought in the Union Army." "Was his wife of higher family than he was? " asked Hadley. " Mary Todd was the daughter of Robert S. Todd, whose family was 124 ab;;ahai\i Lincoln and andrkw johnson. among tlio influeutial Kentucky pioneers. The family was divided by the Civil War, much to her sorrow. She often visited the camps and hospitals around Washington. The cruel death of her husband was a great shock to her, and as it was followed by that of her youngest son, Thomas, or ' Little Tad,' as he was called, she never entirel}- recov- ered. She died July i6, 1882." " But there were other children besides Tad," said Charlie. LINCOLN MONUMENT IN FAIRMOUNT PARK, PlIILADKl.l'MI A. ''Yes, there were four sons — one died in infancv, another died during President Lincoln's term of service, and only the oldest, Robert is now living. He is a hard-working law\-er, a modest, unassuming man. He resides in Chicago. " I guess that he is glad that he is his father's son," sighed Jake. " I wouldn't be surprised if he was — in a quiet way. He would be hardlj' human if he was not proud of the name which Lincoln left upou the pages of our country's histor\'," smiled Mamma Nelson. '' But Abraham Lincoln's death made Andrew Johnson the President of the ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND ANDREW JOHNSON. 125 United States of America. He was born at Raleigh, N. C, December 29, 1S08, and died near Carter's Station, Tennessee, July 31, 1875. His ANDREW JOHNSON. parents were very poor, and when he was but four years old his father was drowned while trying to save the life of a friend." " Wasn't he the ' Tailor Boy '?" asked Katie. " Yes, when he was ten years old he was apprenticed to a tailor to learn that trade. He served his seven years, working faithfull}- ; but he was not sent to school." 126 ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND ANDREW JOHNSON. " Didn't he have any chance to learn ? How conld he be President, then ? " asked Josie. "A visitor at the shop often read aloud to the workmen. Andrew Johnson heard him and became interested. He learned his letters, then borrowed a book, and a fellow workman helped him learn to read." | " He had perseverance, like Lincoln, didn't he ? " asked Bennie. " He resembled Lincoln in that, if in no other respect. He could see no difficulty in the way when once he had made up his mind to a thing. He could be disappointed, but never defeated, for if he failed one day he was ready to tr}- it again the next." " Didn't he ever go to school ? " asked Ruthie. " No, his wife taught him writing and arithmetic, and read aloud to him while he worked at his trade. When he was twentj^ years old he was alderman, was elected Mayor at twent3'-two, and was re-elected three limes." " Did he hold many public offices ?" asked Bennie. HELD MANY OFFICES. " He served in the Legislature, and as State Senator, then went to Congress for ten years in 1843. After that he was twice Governor of Tennessee. In 1857 he was United States Senator, and was militarj^ Governor of Tennessee in 1S62. In 1864 he was elected Vice-President, and became President April 15 1865. " Wasn't he impeached ? " asked Ray. " Not exactly. He had much trouble and was saved from impeach- ment by only one vote. The onh^ noteworth}^ thing of his administration was the purchase of Alaska from Russia, for #7,000,000." " He selected the spot for his own grave, upon a hill near Greenville, Tenn." said Katie. "Was he married? " asked Nettie. " His wife was Eliza McCordle, and they were married Ma}' 17, 1S27. She was a devoted wife and mother, but she did not go into societ)^ much, on account of ill health. Her daughter, Martha presided at the White i ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND ANDREW JOHNSON. 127 House, usuall3\ They had two other daughters. Mrs. Johnson died less than a year after her husband died. "Can I tell, mamma? Can I tell it now?" shoiited Charlie. Mamma Nelson nodded and smiled. " It was too good to be kept so long, but mamma says work before play always and so we had to have our evening lesson first of all." " What are you waiting for now, Charlie ? Wh}- don't you tell us if it is too good to keep ? " demanded Bennie, impatiently. "Well, we've all got an invitation to go IMaying Lue first da}' of Ma}', and Uncle Sandy is coming for us with his big hay wagon," announced Charlie triumphantly. "Yes, every one of the W^hite House Chib. Isn't it fine, Jake?" asked Nettie. " I — guess — so," faltered Jake. "Every one means all, Jake," said Mamma Nelson, gently. "You will come with us ? " "If you want me," answered Jake, with a wistful smile. "Nobody much does want me to go to places." "You belong to the Club, and the invitation is as much for you as for us " declared Charlie. ULYSSES S. GRANT AND RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. .^M.. LYSSESS. GRANT was the eighteenth President," began Alamma Nelson. "I am sure that you will not have to tell much about him — only we like to hear you tell it best. Even Benuie can remember all about General Grant," asserted Ray. " I guess I remember 'em all," retorted Benuie, indignantly. " We have been studjang hard this week — that is, before and after the May party," added Ruthie. " What a loveh^ time we did have." " Besides the study we have heard of General Grant ever since we can remember. He seems more like a flesh and blood man than any of the others that we have been told about," said Josie. " Ke was born in the little frontier town of Point Pleasant, O. — when?" asked Mamma Nelson. "April 27, 1S22 — ^James Monroe was President then," said Kay. " He died on Mount McGregor, N. Y. — near Saratoga — ^July 23, 1S85, and we all know about the splendid tomb in New York, and how ever^-body went to the ceremony when his bod}' was placed in it," added Katie. " His father was of Scotch descent, and his mother was of Puritan stock," nodded Bennie. " Remember that." "His father owned a farm, but was a tanner b}^ trade. I have been reading 'From the Tanner}- to the White House,'" said Hadley. "Ah, then we shall expect you to tell us a great deal about General Grant," said Mamma Nelson. 128 ULYSSES S. GRANT AND RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 129 "I guess that I cau do it. One queer thing was the way that he was named. His name wasn't Ulysses S. at iirst. His mother's family jjamed him by ballot, and they agreed on Ulysses, but his grandfather, Simpson, wanted him called Hiram, and his name was settled as Hiram Ulysses. His father had a leather-covered trunk made for him, with his initials on it in brass-headed nails. The letters were H. U. G." " Then, how is it that he was called Ulysses Simp- son ? " asked Ray. " I was going to tell you about that. When he went to West Point, a Mr. Hamer was the Member of Congress who got him the appointment. General Grant was called by his middle name, but the man didn't know it. He thought that his other name was probably that of his mother's family. So he wrote it Ulysses Simpson, and that name was kept because it could not be changed easih-. "The cadets called him Uncle Sam," said Nettie. "What of his education ? " asked Mamma Nelson. " He was ver}- fond of study, and learned all that he could before going to West Point," answered Jake. '' He fired a pistol off when he was only two years old," said Charlie. " His father thought that he would be frightened, but he wanted to €re it again. A man that was there told his father then that he would be a General — and he was." "He did not suspect how true his words were, did he? Many a tri:e word is thus spoken in jest. Was he a good scholar? " ULYSSES S. GRANT. 130 ULYSSES S. GRANT AND RUTHERFORD H. HAYES "He never was veiy brilliant, but was slow aud steady and sure. He was faithful in every duty, however small, and never fell back. He declared that there was no such word as 'can't' in the dictionary," said Bennie. "That is true. You cannot fina the word iu the dictionary. His POINT PLEASANT, OHIO. THE BIRTHPLACE OF GENERAL GRANT. father was a tanner, you say, did Grant learn that trade?" " Yes, but he did not like it much," answered Katie. " He liked to work on the farm very well, aud began to hold the plough when but eleven years old. He liked to work with horses best of all, and did the team work for farm and tannery until he was seventeen." " He was only eight years old when his father sent him to Cincin- nati, forty miles away, for some passengers, and he did so well that he ULYSSES S. GRANT AND RUTHERFORD 'i. HAYES. l;]l was often sent on such trips after tliat," remarked Ray. "Can you tell me why his father seut him on such trips wlien he was so 3^oung ? '' asked Mamma Nel- son, meauingl}'. " Because — be- cause he always kept his word," faltered Charlie. " If he said that he would do a thing he was sure to do it. And he never gave up what he tried, very easily, either." "That was just it. When he was Commander- in-chief of our great army, it was said that he did not know how to retreat." " Once he rode a pony in a cir- cus," said Jake. GRANT'S BOYHOOD DAYS IN OHIO. " The pouy had been trained to throw boys — it was a part of the show — but he could not get rid of U. S. Grant any way he could fix it. He ran around the ring a few times, then a trained monkey jumped on to the boy's shoulders, and grabbed both hands into his hair, jabbering and screaming as the pony kicked and run." 1:^2 ULYSSES S. GRANT AND RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. "How could lie stay on, and wasn't he scart ? " asked Bennie. "He just stuck his'bare heels into the pony's sides, and clung to his mane, and he looked proud and glad instead of frightened. Scart? Why, he wouldn't be Grant, if he was that, would he, ma'am ? " "I think not," smiled Mamma Nelson. "The pony was fairly beaten. He was the best horseman in the cavalry drill of his class, and was called one of the best in the ami}-. A good story is told of him LIEUTENANT GRANT GOING FUR AMMUNITION AT MONTEREY. when abroad. It happened in Milan, in 1878, and General Grant was about to review the flower of the Italian army. A group of Italian officers waited for him at the door of a hotel, while three grooms in uniform were trying to restrain a fiery horse. A looker-on writes: 'It kept the three men busy to restrain the beautiful blood-bay horse; every mo- ment it seemed as if it would leap on top of the holders and break awa}'. A more restless, wicked-appearing beast I have seldom seen.' The oflScers exchanged sly glances as General Grant coolly approached ULYSSES S. GRANT AND RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. the animal, look- ing liim over with satisfied, admiring eyes. But there was a round of ap- plause when the General mount- ed, for horse and rider instantly became as one being, so per- fectly did they move together." "The Ital- ian did not sfet ahead of him any more than the circus man did. I'm glad," breathed Jake. "I like best the story about how he thrashed his Canadian cousin for call- ing General Washington a rebel," said Katie. " Washington was a rebel — to the king," said Mamma, Nelson, positively. " He surely was." "Oh, he wasn't !" exclaimed Nettie and Josie together. Mr ocGF^eSfTA^E WMg^ fiMBS^ WERE-wSftcr:-— :: 134 ULYSSES S. GRANT AND RUTMICRFORD B. HAYES. "No — was lie? Of course, but uot to liis owu couutry, for that was America," cried Charlie. *' But Graut wouldn't have him called a rebel, and T am glad. ?Ie and his cousin were great friends, too, but it didn't make a bit of difference to Grant. Wasn't it good? " " Both were right. Don't you remember the story of the gold and silver shield ? I think it was ver}?- foolish of them both to fight over it. What did Grant do after he graduated from West Point ? And how old was he then ? " "He was t w e n t }•- o n ° when he left West Point, and he fought all t h r o ugh the Mexican \\'ar under General Zackary Taylor. August 2 2, 1848, GRANT'S HEADQUARTERS, NEAR FORI' D)NALDSON. ^^ j. Jg^^.g ^f absence, went to St. Louis, and was married tojulia B. Dent, a sister to one of his class-mates. In 1854 he resigned his commission in the army, and went to St. Louis, where he lived with his father-in-law, at Whitehaven, a large plantation." "Colonel Dent set aside about sixty acres for his son-in-law's own use, and Grant began farming with no capital and no tools. His neigh- bors were slaveholders, by whom he was regarded as a Northerner. His first home was a big, two-story cabin of hewn logs. It had a hall between two rooms on the ground floor, and two chambers. It is nov kept as a relic." " That home was not much like the White House," mused Ray. "Did he name his home, as many of the Presidents did?" asked Katie. ' "Yes— he called it ' Hardscrabble.' " ULYSSES S. GRANT AND RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 135 "What made him call it such a fuuuy name?" asked Josie. " Because he realized what a fight with destiny he must have, I suppose. But he soon had a nice span of horses, with which he hauled wood to St. Louis. About this time a neighbor said ofhini, 'he hasn't an enemy that I know of— all like him.' " "Did he keep slaves ? " asked Hadley, in anxiety. "His wife had two slaves which her father gave her, but they did brins: not bring them North. Grant's early struggles made his love for horses stronger. The Sultan of Turkey gave him a pair of full-blood- ed Arabian horses from the Imperial stables, when he visited Coustanti- ^°P^^' GRANT WRITIN'C; DISPATCHES BEFORE CROSSING THE RAPIDAN. " I Avisli I coiild see them. What were they like? " breathed Charlie. " One was a dapple gra.y of fair size, and having all the traits chara'-teristic of Arabian blood ; small, well set, restless ears ; wide, pink nostrils ; and large, soft eyes ; waving mane, and a long tail, reaching almost to the ground, and a skin of such delicacy that the stroke of a lady's whip is sufficient to draw blood. The other has all these points. He is iron-gray with a white star on his forehead, the large, black eyes have all the expression of a Bedouin woman's. Their gait is perfect, be it either the rapid walk, the long, swinging trot, or the tireless, stretch- ing gallop, while a rein of one thread of silk is enough to guide their delicate mouth. Let one of these Arabs, in a mad rush of a charge or flight, lose his rider, and that instant the docile steed will stop as if turned to stone. These horses are of the famous Lahtan race — th^ purest Arabian blood, found only near Bagdad. 136 ULYSSES S. GRANT AND RUTHERFORD R. HAYES. The dapple gray is appropriateh' named Djej'ton (the panther), and the iron-gray is called Missirli (the one from Cairo) from being bought in Cairo.' " " Is General Grant's birthday celebrated ? " asked Jake. " It is in some of the largest Northern cities, but the custom is not universal throughout the land. We cannot do too much to keep the memory of such men before our boys and girls." " What of the wife ? " asked Ruthie. "And children," added Josie. " We have already learned his wife's name. During the war she was with him much of the time, near the scene of ac^ tion, and after she left the White House she accompanied him on his tour around the world. They had three sons and oue daughter. Perhaps the daughter is best known, on ac- count of her marriage with Mr. Sartoris, an English gentleman." " Her name was Nellie — papa ^:^i. ^ \^'-^' MRS. U. S. GRANT. has her picture in an album which he carried in the army," said Bennie. "Yes, and the names of the sons are Frederick Ulysses, Jr., and Jesse." " Before General Grant died he wrote a letter addressed to wnoever should be President of the United States when it was presented. It asked for the appointment of his grandson, Ulj'sses, to West Point," said Nettie. " He was a grand man, wasn't he ? Think of him writing his own biography, wlien he was slowly dying, so that his family would be pro- vided for after he was gone," mused Hadley. ULYSSES S. GRANT AND RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 137 " I could hear about him all night, but I don't know what more to ask about," sighed Katie. "Yon must get his own book, also his Tour Around the World, and read about him for j-ourself. We have onljr time for a brief account of each President, you know" " Mamma gives a taste knowing that we shall like it so well that we shall want more. Isn't it so, mamma ? " laiighed Nettie. "That is just it. Now we have reached the nineteenth occu- pant of the White House. Who was he?"' "Rutherford B. Hayes — why, you kne\i' that, Mamma," cried Charlie. "She just wanted to see if we knew," laughed Jake. " He was born in THE COTTAGE IN WHICH GRANT DIED AT MT. McGREGOR_ , ^, . ^ Delaware, Ohio, Octo- ber 4, 1822, and died in Fremont, Ohio, January 17, 1893," said Hadley. "He was sixth in descent from George Hayes of Scotland, who came to America about 1682. Tradition connects this George Hayes with the fighting ploughman of Scottish history." " What about him ? " asked Josie. "He and his sons turned back the Danish invaders at Loucarty. 'Pull your plough to pieces and fight,' was his command and they did fight, and won." " Was his father a farmer too ? " asked Ray. "No, he was a merchant, and died before his son, Rutherford, was born, leaving his family in comfortable circumstances." "Then they were rich," said Ruthie. 133 ULYSSES S. GRANT AND RUTIIERFORu i^. HAYES. *' They were not wealthy, but they had enough for all reasonable wants." "But he could have a good education," asserted Katie. RUTHERFORD R. HAYES. "His first education was in the public schools, then at Norwalk Academy, and at Middletown, Conn , where he prepared for Kenyon College, in his native State. He graduated in 1842, and his conduct wa^^ ULYSSES S. GRANT AND RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 130 * always an honor to his mother.' It is said that he excelled in debate, had good common sense, was quite popular, and never used profatjf* language." "He was a law\^ex", too?" questioned Hadley. " Yes, he studied law after leaving college and became a criminal lawyer, beiug admitted to the bar in 1845." THE DEPARTMENT OF ST.\TE, WASHINGTON, D, C. " Was he in the army ? " asked Jake. "He entered as Captain, but went to the front as Major of the Twenty-third Ohio Regiment. He became Colonel of the regiment in 1862, and was made Major General for gallant conduct at Cedar Creek. General Grant speaks of him as a brave soldier always. He was Member of Congress in 1865, and was afterwards Governor of Ohio," 140 ULYSSES S. GRANT AND RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. "And became President March 4, 1S77," nodded Charlie. "There was much dispute about his election, and many have not fclt right toward Mr. Hayes because of it, but his administration was, on the whole, satisfactory, although it began with a general business stag- nation. Indeed, people now recognize his wisdom and uprightness." " What of his family ? " asked Nettie. MARRIED A PATRIOTIC WOMAN. " His wife's name was Lucy Webb, daughter of a physcian in Chillicothe, Ohio, and she died in 1887. She was noted for her devotion to the sick and wounded soldiers during the war. She was a woman of great refinement and moral courage, and banished wine from the White House tables. Although some censured her for it, more regarded her with added esteem. She is classed among the best beloved wives of Presidents. Eight children were born to Mr. aud Mrs. Hayes, three of whom died yjung. The others, a daughter and four sons, are living." When the rest of the Club had gone. Mamma Nelson noticed that Jake lingered, and asked, kindly : "What is it, my boy ? Is something troubling you, and can I help you ? " " It is this, ma'am," he answered, in a choked voice. "I can't come au}- more — and — and " " You can't come. Wh}^ not ? " demanded Charlie. 'Well, you know — I — ui}' father — lie says that it isn't good forme to be getting high ideas. He thinks I am always going to know nothing — but I don't," Jake went on defiantly, his face flushed and his eyes dim with the tears which he would not let fall. Mamma Nelson was silent. She wai; thinking of a plan that might help Jake Lewis to the knowledge which he craved. " Do you think that your father would be willing for you to hire out for evening work ? " she asked, meaningl}-. "Of course he would, ma'am, that's just what he does want," was the gloomy answer. ULYSSES S. GRANT AND RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 141 " Then we can arrange it," said Mamma Nelson, brightly. *' 1 will see your father at once, and I will give you a dollar a week." " What must I do ? " Jake asked, in a bewildered way. " I know— O Jake, are you stupid ? Mamma is going to hire you to stud}^," shouted Charlie, excitedly. "Every evening, Jake — ^just think of it," added Nettie. " O, could I ? — would you ? — is it that, ma'am ? " the astonished boy altered, incoherently. " Yes, but you needn't tell any one what I want you to do, I will see that you have work enough," returned the good woman, who did not seem to know the service that she was doing in His name. ''Jake flashed one wild look of incredulous, joyful questioning at the smiling faces around him, then he caught Mrs. Nelson's hand, kissed it passionately, and rushed from the house. He could not trust himself to speak. "Did you ever?" ejaculated Charlie. " Those who have the least chance to get knowledge prize it the most," said Mamma Nelson, with a meaning which they could not fail to understand. JAMES A. GARFIELD AND CHESTER A. ARTHUR. MAMMA NELSON'S plan worked so well that Jake was in liis usual place at the next meeting of the Club, his face beaming with gratitude and happiness, and only Alamma Nelson, Nettie and Charlie knew of the cloud which had darkened his sky of knowledge. '' President Garfield was born in Cu3'ahoga County, O., Novem- ber 19, 1S31, and died at Elberon, N. J., September 19, 1S81," Mamma Nelson began. " What kind of a house was he born in ? " " In a log cabin made of unhewn logs laid up in the corn-cob stj'le, with cracks chinked with moss and cla3\ The chimney was made of sticks of wood and mud ; the floors were split logs, and the three small windows had greased paper for glass," replied Jake, who had been diligentl}' reading " From the Log Cabin to the White House," with Charlie. " When he was assassinated, a nation mourned his death," added Nettie. " The whole country was in mourning, as it was for Lincoln. Telegrams of sympathy were received from all over the world. Queen Victoria sent a special one to his wife." " What of his ancestry ? " " His father was born in New York, but was descended from English Puritans. His mother belonged to a Huguenot family, which left France in 16S5, to make a home in free America. James A. Garfield's father went to Ohio when it was nearly a wilderness, and although he made a good beginning for a prosperous home, he died when James was but eighteen months old," said Hadley. " What did the family do then ? " 142 JAMES A. GARFIELD AND CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 143 " The oldest sou, Thomas, was thirteen years old at the time. He took charge of the farm. But until a crop could be harvested, the brave mother went without food that her children might have more to eat," said Nettie. " What, went without food — how could she ? " asked Bennie. " No one could go without food entirely, of course. Nettie means chat this devoted mother measured the meal, counted the da3's until they would be likely to have more, then ate but two meals herself every day. Soon she saw that the meal was going faster than she had plann- ed for, then she ate but one meal a day for the rest of the time until harvest' That season she sT)lit the rails to fence the wheat field, while Thomas did the farm work. " " Did she chop the trees, ma'am ?" asked Jake. " No, she found logs in james a. garfield. the woods which her husband had prepared for that purpose, but split- ting the logs into rails was no small task for a woman living on one meal a day, " I should say it wasn't," cried Ruthie. " Didn't she have any boys hut Thomas and James ? " I think that the two other children were girls. One sister, Mehitable, carried James to school on her back when he was three years old. He learned rapidly, and had a remarkable memory, often reciting at home almost word for word, the lessons of the older scholars. ^.' 144 JAMES A. GARFIELD AND CHESTER A. ARTHUR. " I fouud about his first pair of shoes — it was when he was three years and a half old," said Katie. " A shoemaker came to the house to make them, and was paid by the first monej^ that Thomas earned by working for a neighbor." '' Did James have to work hard, too ? " asked Beunie. THE G.-^RFIELD HOMESTEAD, NEAR MENTOR, OHIO. "I suppose he did just as soon as he could do anything, for their life was one of privation and toil. When he was eight j^ears old he had his own part of the daih' work to do. He cut the wood, milked the cow, and cultivated the garden, while Thomas did the heavier work." " Wasn't it hard for him to do it ? " asked Jake. " I wouldn't be surprised if it was sometimes, but he alwa3'S said, ' I can do that,' — he did not know the meaning of ' can't,' any better than Grant did." "Didn't he go to school any more ? " asked Josie. JAMES A. GARFIELD AND CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 146 " He weut to the district school in the winter when there was no farming to do, and he studied evenings. When he was twelve years old he took the entire charge of the farm, while Thomas worked out at twelve dollars a month to pay for building a frame house. He had been cutting and hauling the lumber for it for a long time, as he could find time. He worked out until he earned enough to pay for putting the house up, then came home to help build it. James took his first lessons in carpentering on that house. After that he worked for a carpenter ivhenever he could spare the time. His first day's work was plamng one hundred boards, at one cent each." " But he worked out when he was only fourteen years old," said Hadley. '■ Ye.s, he thought he could help his mother in that way, for he could earn more than enough to pay a man. He hired to a man, who made potash, for fourteen dollars a mouth and his board." KEPT BOOKS AND WAITED ON CUSTOMERS. " What, did he do ? " asked Ruthie. " He kept the books, and waited on the customers, but he did not like the place very well. Next he chopped wood for an uncle, then hired out to work on a farm. Next we hear of him as a canal boy, driving horses. He never drank strong drinks, never used tobacco, and was always a peace-maker." " Did he know anything else but the carpenter's trade, ma'am ? " asked Jake. " He studied to be a teacher, boarding himself with two of his cousins. He began the second year with only a ninepence in his pocket, working for a carpenter after school hours. During the winter months he taught school."' " Did he never go to college ? " asked Nettie. "Yes, he entered Hiram University as janitor the first year, then was assistant teacher, still helping the carpenter after regular study 10 J 46 JAMES A. GARFIKLD AND CHESTER A. ARTHUR. hours. He mastered the studies of six years iu three, besides working to pay his expenses." " I thought he weut to Williams College," said Jake. "So he did. He saved three hundred and fift}' dollars while at Hiram. He entered Williams and graduated with highest honors, in two years. He said of himself: 'When I get into a place which I can easily THE ASSASSINATION OF JAMES A. GARFIELD. fill I alwaj^s feel like shoving out of it into one which requires more of me.' He never left a thing and passed on, until he understood it." "What did he do after he graduated ? " asked Charlie. " He returned to Ohio, and resumed his teaching in Hiram Institute for a year, then became its President. He was also a popular preacher. His first vote was cast for General John C. Fremont, and he was a Repre- sentative soon after that." " Wasn't he another lawyer ? " asked Ray. " Yes, he studied law as he had the time to spare, and was admitted JAMES A. GARFIELD AND CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 147 to the bar the year he became State Senator in Ohio. He enlisted at the begining of the war, and was Colonel of the Forty-second Ohio Regiment. Many of his pnpils were in that regiment. President Lincoln made him Brigadier General in 1862, for his braverj^ and skilful leadership. He DEATH-BED OF JAMES A. GARFIELD, was promoted to Major General before he resigned his command to enter Congress, where he made his first speech January 14, 1864. He remained in Congress nearly twenty 3'ears." "He was inaugurated President in 1881, wasn't he ? " asked Katie. " Yes, and was shot in the waiting room of the Baltimore and Poto- mac Station, July 2, 1881, by Charles Guiteau, a political fanatic, and disappointed office-seeker." "He was not killed instantly-," said Hadley. 148 JAMES A. GARFIELD AND CHESTER A. ARTHUR. "No, but he died of blood-poisoning, September 19, 18//, and is buried at Lake View Cemetery, at Cleveland, O." " What became of the man who killed him ? " asked Bcnnie. " He was executed June 30, 1882, although his counsel tried hard to clear him on the plea of insanit}'. Garfield's tragic death recalls the words which he spoke from the balconj' of New York Custom House, when Lincoln was kill- ed. ' Fellow citizens,' he called to the crowd l>elow, ' Clouds and darkness are around Him. His pavilion is dark waters and thick ; mercy and truth shall go before His face. Fellow citizens, God reigns, and the Gov- ernment at Washing- ton lives.' His friends started a subscription which gave to his widow and children $360,000." " Who was his wife ? " asked Katie. " Her name was Lucretia Rudolph, the daughter of a farmer in Hiram, O., and one of his school-mates when he was at the Hiram Institute. They were married while he was President there, and had seven children, of whom five are living — a daughter and four sons." " Chester A. Arthur was twenty-first President," asserted Ray. " Yes, and his administration was a period of political rest and quiet. MRS. LUCRETIA R. GARFIELD. JAMES A. GARFIELD AND CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 149 The diificiilties arising from the Civil War liad been settled — the people had had enough of strife to welcome prosperity and peace. What can you tell of this President ? " "He was born at Fairfield, Vt., October 5, 1830. I could not find much about his boyhood. I guess he did not have much, for he entered Union College when he was only fourteen years old," said Hadley. " My grandfather went to school with him when he was preparing for college at Schenec- tady, and he says he was as full of fun as anv of boys, although us le studied hard because he liked to, and seemed to learn fast because he could not help it,'' said Ray. "His father was a minister, and his mother was the daughter of a New Hampshire pio- neer," added Bennie. " And he had two brothers and six t-isters," announced Katie " He was eighteen years old when he graduated from college," said Josie. "Then he began to study law, fitting boys for college to pay hi;' way. Can you tell me what he did as a lawyer that was unusual ?'' " I can," shouted Jake. " He defended negroes." "He declared himself their champion at the time of the Lemmon slave case." " And what was that ? " asked Ruthie. CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 150 JAMi:S A. GARFIELD AND CHESTER A. ARTHUR. " A Virginia slave-holder, named Lemmou, started to take eight slaves to Texas, bringing them to New York to send by ship. A free colored man sent in a petition, ^vhich resnlted in the slaves being set free by the law that they were made freemen bj- being brought into a free State. The case was appealed but of uo use. From that time he BIRD'S-EYE A'lEW OF NEW YORK CITY. was an open advocate of the colored race. Did he make as much money and gain as many friends by doing so ? " " I don't think so, because people did not stick up for the slave* much then," said Jake. " No, he worked against public opinion, but he worked well, and lived to see the success of his principles. In 1S62 he was appointed Inspector General, with rank of Brigadier, and later he became Quarter- master General. After the war he practiced law until GeneraT Grant JAMES A. GARFIELD AND CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 151 appointed him Collector of the Port in New York, which position he held nearly eight years. Then he retnrned to his practice. He was Vice President in iS8i, and was President in September of the same year." " He did not live very long after he was President did he ? " asked Hadley. . " No he died in New York, November iS, 1886, and was bnried in Rural Cemetery, Albany, N. Y. " " I have heard that his sister was mistress of the White House while he was there. Wasn't he married ? " asked Nettie. " Yes, he married Ella Herndon, daughter of Commander William L. Herndon, of the U. S. Navy, wlio was lost at sea when in com- mand of the' ill-fated ' Central America.' She died before her husband was elected. Their first child, a son, died young." " Tell us about his sister. We want to know all the women who did the honors of the White House," suggested Josie. " Mary Arthur was the youngest of a family of nine children, while Chester A. Arthur was the eldest son. She married John E. McElroy of Albany, N. Y. When her brother was President she spent hei winters at the White House, where she won many friends, and filled the position with great tact." " We shall have three Presidents next time," Nettie announced. " How is that ? There will not be time," said Bennie. " Why, wasn't Cleveland the twenty-second and twency-fourth, and we can't make two of him very well," was the laughing reply. " No ; mamma will only tell us the Cleveland story once, will you mamma," asked Charlie. " There is no need to tell it twice," smiled Mamma Nelson. "No need, perhaps, only we are almost through, and— it would make our time longer," sighed Bennie. GROVER CLEVELAND AND U BENJAMIN HARRISON. OUR FIRST subject to-niglit is Grover Cleveland," Mamma Nelson began. "Snrely you can all tell a great deal about luni." " I have seen Gray Gables, where he spends the summers," said Hadle}'. " He was born at Caldwell, N. J.. March .8, 1S37." nodded Nettie " A man named Moses Cleveland came to America from England in 1635, and settled in Woburn, Mass. Grover Cleveland is the eio-hth in descent from him," asserted Bennie. ^ " His mother was the daughter of an Irish merchant in Baltimore " Charlie added. ' " When he was three years old his father moved to Fayetteville near Syracuse, N. Y.," said Josie. '^ I wonder what sort of a boy he was," mused Ruthie. " His biography states that he was not different from healthy hearty boys of his own age when he attended the village schools in Fayette, villa," declared Nettie. " That means that he would rather plague his sister than eat his dinner," laughed Katie, with a sly glance at Ray. " O no," said Mamma Nelson, gently. " I hope mv boys do not do so. It means that he liked to play ball, swim, and " " And go fishing," interrupted Chariie. "Yes, and go fishing," admitted Mamma Nelson. " But he must have liked his studies, too. His fiuher took the agency of the American Home Missionary Society, and moved to Clinton, wliere Hamilton Col lege Houghton Seminary, and a good preparatory school are situated GROVER CLEVELAND AND BENJAMIN HARRISON. 153 Wheu he liad nearly finished the preparator}' course he began to earn the money to take him through college, which he wanted to enter in a year or two." " Father says that the boys of the Cleveland family worked their own way through college," said Beunie. " If there was need of it they did not hesitate to work their way through anything. So Grover left school and entered a village store, on a salar}' of fift}- dollars for the first year, and one hundred for the second. He then returned to school and took up his studies again. But soon the death of his father changed his plans, and the family was broken up. Grover worked in the New York Institute for the Blind two years, then he decided that teach- ing was not his life-work, and started for the ' Great GROVER CLEVELAND. Wcst ' to Seek his fortune." "I thought that he went to Buffalo, where his uncle lived," exclaimed Katie. " He stopped there to ask his uncle's advice. His uflcle was Lewis /. Allen, author of the American Herd Book." " What did his uncle advise ? " asked Jake. " To remain with him, for a year at least, and help him edit an edition of his Herd Book, while he looked around for something else. I have heard that this uncle was a rank ' Black Republican.' He owned a farm -i Grand Island, where he kept a herd of fifty cows. When asked for incidents of Grover's boyhood he laughed and said : — " ' Grover was a funny boy, always getting into scrapes. One day he was 154 GROVER CLEVELAND AND BENJAMIN HARRISON. 155 examining a pair of steers which I had just brought home. I told him he'd better leave them alone, but he thought he knew more about them than I did. Soon they kicked him across the stable — served him right, too ! He always thought he knew — that was Grover — but when he had work to do he always did it well. " ' " Well, Cleveland was a lawyer, too. 1 looked it up, and all but five of the Presidents — I ill ink it was five — have been lawyers," said Had- ley. " Cleveland entered ! a law office as copyist, where he received three or four dollars a week for his services. He boarded with his uncle and walk- ed back and forth daily. Although the distance was two miles, he was alwaj'-s punctual, no mat- ter what the weather." "Didn't he work for MRS. CLEVELAND. the Same lawyers he studied with after he was admitted to the bar ? " asked Raj'. " He remained with them over three years as managing clerk, giving a part of his salary to his widowed mother, who died in 1SS2. He was Assistant District Attorney of Erie County, Ncav York, three years." "My father says that he was drafted, and sent a substitute : was it so?" asked Bennie. " Yes, but his mother and sisters were dependent upon him while 156 GROVER CLEVELAND AND BENJAMIN HARRISON his brother was iti the army. That was the reason why tlie substitute was sent. He seldom practiced hiw alone, and his partnerships were generally successful." " Did he not hold more public offices ? " asked Hadle}'. "Oh, yes. He was Sheriff of Erie County, Mayor of Buffalo, and Governor of New York. While in that office he lived very simply, and used as little official form and ceremony as possible. He kept no carriage, but walked from his house to his work like auA' day laborer." "In March 1S85 he was first inaugurated Presi- dent, and in 1893 for a sec- ond tei-m," said Ray. " When was he mar- ried ? " asked Ruthie. "June 2, 1886, at the White House. His wife was Frances Folsom, daughter of a former law partner," answered Nettie. BENj.wiv n\RRi-^(iv. " He has been rather noted for using his power to veto, but he has done his duty — as he saw it — unflinchingly. It has been said that he listens to the counsel of all, then does as it seems best.He is persistent, if not a trifle obstinate." " His sister was mistress of the White House when he first went there, was she not ? " asked Josie. " Yes, Rose Cleveland accompanied her brother to Washington and remained with him until after his marriage. She is quite noted as a. 'lecturer and author. Except ]\Irs. Madison, Mrs. Cleveland was thc^ youngest mistress the White House ever had. She was also the first wife of a President married in the Executive Mansion. They have four children, three girls and a boy." \ GROVER CLEVELAND AND BENJ/^ MIN HARRISON. 157 "Benjamin Harrison, twenty-tliird President, conies next — who is he ? " cried Charlie, incoherently. "He is the son of his grandfather," laughed Katie. " Where is the letter, mamma ? " whispered Nettie. Mamma Nelson laid an envelope on the table, with a mysterious smile. Each member of the Club looked at each other member with a glad little nod. " There have been three men, that we know about, called General Harrison," began Mamma Nelson. "The first one was hanged by order of Charles H, in 1660, as having been one of the the judges who tried Charles I, and signed his death warrant for treason to Parliament. He was a trusted friend of Cromwell's, and his descendents came to America to give us two Presidents." " And we don't know how many more will have that name," observed Jake, wisely. AN ILLUSTRIOUS ANCESTOR. " Very true. Benjamin Harrison, great grandfather of the Benja- min Harrison that we are talking about, was Governor of Virginia three times, and was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence." "Mamma the letter ! What do you think, folks? — Benjamin Harrison is no relation to Pocahontas — isn't it too bad ? Read it, Mamma." Charlie could keep quiet no longer. Mamma Nelson drew a folded paper from the envelope on the table and read aloud : — " Dear Madam :— Replying to your query I have to say that General Harrison is descended from Benjamin Harrison the Signer, who married a Miss Bassett.'' " That settles the dispute," said Mamma Nelson positively. " And I confess that I was a little disappointed," she added, with a look at the circle of clouded faces. " I will tell you a story of him which is said to be perfectly true. Young Ben was just seven years old when the whole ir.s gru\i:r clevfxand and benjamin Harrison. coiinlry was slioutiug for 'Tippecanoe and Tyler too," and remembers one incident of that campaign, at least. He made a visit to Cincinnati with his grandfather and seeing the tempting stand of an old apple- woman he C00II3' filled his pockets with her best frnit and walked on.'' i£:' ' ^, .-1(1 --.I ..>1 ,a i L«l] Us Tin: v. S. POST office building. PHll,.-\DrLl-HlA. " Didn't he know better than that, IMamnia ? I would, and my grandfather isn't a president/' cried Charlie. "He knew no better or he wouldn't have done it. Apples were plenty and free at North Bend, and he didn't think that they were worth money in Cincinuatti." " What about his education ? " asked Jake. " It was begun at home, and then he went to the district school, and to a school near Cincinnati known as Farmer's College. Later he entered Miami University, at Oxford. O. He graduated when eighteen GROVER CLEVELAND AND BENJAMIN HARRISON. 159 years old, and begun the study of Lt.\v. He was admitted to the bar, and married before he was of legal age." " Can you tell any more of his bo^-hood ? " asked Ruthie. "He helped with the work of his father's farm. It was a large one, and the produce was shipped to New Orleans in flat boats. He dis- tinguished himself very early as an off-hand debater. It is said that 'at a town meeting, when an abolitionist abused Webster and Clay fcr the part which they took in the compromise measures of 1850, the citiz as were amazed to see a slender, tow-headed boj^ of seventeen moart a bench and make a vigorous speech in favor of the great statesmen. " " Was he well off? " asked Jake. " He began life with eight hundred dollars, left him b}' an r and his first home was a little one-story cottage. General Harrison wcut to the war as Colonel of the Seventieth Indiana Regiment, an 1 w as Brigadier General before the close of the Rebellion. At the close of his term of service he resumed his law practice, until 1881, when he was sent to the Senate, and held his place there for six years." O GREAT CAMPAIGN SPEAKER. " Had. says that he had the scarlet fever when he was ihirty- two years old. Did he?" asked Josie. " I am sure I don't know," laughed Mamma Nelson. " I did not iry to look up his ailments. His first wife died a short time before his re-nomination, and he was defeated. General Harrison was always a prominent speaker during campaigns. He has been called coLl and indifferent, bat people like him because they knew that they could irust him. He was a true American, of whom all true Americans are j ustl}' proud. His home life was very simple and pleasant, but he was too b' ' sy to waste time in idle conversation with strangers or curiosity si kers. Once a friend he was alwa^'S a friend. The children of his neight rhood called him Grand-pa Harrison." [ "Nettie, you said^.tkat his second wife was a niece of his fir t one, what was her name ? " asked Ray. "A 160 GROVER CLEVELAND AND BErlJAMIN HARRISON. He was niuiried in April 1S96 to Mary Lord Dimick of New York. They have oue child, a girl, born iu 1S97. ' What of his first wife, mamma ? " And did she have any children,?" asked Charlie. Her name was Caroline Scott, daughter of a professor in Miami University, afterwards President of Oxford Seminary. She died iu 1892. They had two children, the son, Russell, lives in Montana, the daugi;ter Mary married a merchant iu Indianapolis, and is the mother of .' Haby McKee.' " You left out a part — I like it best of all — about Mrs. Harrison," said Nettie. "She was said to have been a highly educated woman, very iutel'.gent and intellectiial, with great artistic ability, a devoted wife and mother, as well as a remarkabl}' good housekeeper." DEATH OF GENERAL HARRISON. ' Only one more evening," sighed Katie. '' I wish there were a thou- sand Presidents!" '■ r guess you would change your mind if you had to remember about them all," declared Benuie. '' Not if they were all good ones — as good as ours are," asserted Katie. Just then the news-boy left a paper at the door. "All about General Harrison's death, ma'am," he called to Mamma Nelson, and Charlie hastened to bring it in. " It is true," said ]\Iamma Nelson, softl}-. " A great and good man is lost to the American nation. He died March 13, 1901. President McKiuley ordered the doors of the Executive Mansion closed to all visitors, and would see no callers excepting on urgent business. He directed that the flags on every public building iu the United .Stairs ; at every army post iu ihc United States, Cuba, Hawaii, and the Philippines; and on every American warship, in whatever waters, should flv at half-mast for thirty days. He -^ • ' . of sympathy Harrison, and attended the func.u. i iic City of Washington GROVER CLEVELAND AND BENJAMIN HARRISON. 161 was in mourning. Flags were at half mast, not onl}^ upon public buildings, but upon hotels, stores, and many private residences." Again Jake lingered after the others went away. " Father is that bad I don't know as I can come regular, ma'am," he said in a choked voice. " Seems as if he wasn't himself at all now, I — don't — know ." " Do the very best you can, my boy, and come as often as you can," replied Mamma Nelson, heartily. " Your place is always open to you." " And be sure to be here next Tuesday night, for it is the last of the Presidents — hearing about them, I mean. Why-e-e-e ! Did you think of it? We shall soon be at the end of our lessons," exclaimed Charlie, in surprise. " If I can come I will," returned Jake, slowly. But before an^cnet Club day something happened to postpone the meeting. Jake's father died in a drunken fit, and, while the boy could hardly mourn for him, he was alone in the world. "Jake is our boy now," declared Charlie, when the news reached the Nelson home. " If it could be so arranged," hesitated Mamma Nelson. " I think it can be," said Papa Nelson. That boy has the right kind of stuff in him — I have watched him. And I know of no bettei charity than helping such boys to help themselves. I can give him work enough to pay his way and enable him to feel independent. Per- haps we may shelter ' an angel unawares,' who knows ? That boy may be President of the United States some day ! " *' Can I go and tell him ? Can I ? " shouted Charlie. " Yes, bring him back with you — he has no other place, and is all alone," answered Papa Nelson. So it was that Jake found friends in time of need 11 WILLIAM McKINLEY AND THEODORE ROOSEVELT. cKINLEY next," exclaimed Charlie. "We can all tell something about him, for when he was assassinated we were all reading about him in the papers. And we can remember when he was elected." " Well, oegin by naming his birthplace, smiled Mamma Nelson. " It was Niles, Ohio, and he was born Jan- uary 29, 1843," '^^'3-S the ready answer. ''And he died in Buffalo, N. Y., September 14, 1901," added Nettie. "Right, who will tell me his nationality ?" asked Mamma Nelson. " He was an x'Vmerican," declared Hadley. !^; " But his ancestors were Scotch-Irish and Ger- ►si^^ man." "And he inherited great energy and perse- verance from this ancestr}'," nodded Josie. "He had also great intellectual ability, and he was a student when the Civil War broke out." " My father says that he had more real knowledge of the questions of the day than— than — almost any other President ever had," asserted Bennie. " I read that he was before the public almost thirty years ; that he was considered a typical American ; and that he was a self-made man, who saw many ups and downs in political life," added Ray. "All of which is true," Mamma Nelson went on. "His earliest 162 WILLIAM McKINLEY AND THEODORE ROOSEVELT. 163 education was that of the common schools, then he entered the Academy at Poland, Ohio. In i860 he entered Allegheny College, but gave up his studies on account of ill health, taught a country school, and was clerk in the Poland postoffice. At the battle-cry of Freedom he enlisted las private in the Twenty-third Ohio Regiment, and remained with it throughout the war." "He was promoted to Captain in 1864, and was Brevet-Major when discharged. And every pro- motion was for gallant, sol- dierly conduct," declared Josie. "At the battle of An- tietam he carried meat and coffee to the soldiers under fire, and Colonel Rutherford B. Hayes, afterwards Presi- dent, recommended him for promotion then," added Ruthie. "He was with Sher- in his campaign man through the Shenandoah Valley ; at Appomattox, WILLIAM McKINLEY. when Lee surrendered to Grant, and was honorably discharged July 26, 1865," said Nettie. "At one battle he saved a regiment which was being cut off by the enemy. By order of General Hayes he went, over fences and ditches, under a well directed fire from the watchful Confederates, while no one expected to see him return. Yet he led the regiment to safety, perform- ing one of the most gallant acts of the Rebellion," nodded Josie. "Yes, he passed through the war, winning promotion by his daring bravery, fought in many hard battles, and died by the haudof an assassin ! " sighed Ray. 164 WILLIAM McKINLEY AND THEODORE ROOSEVELT. " He was auotlier lawyer ! " exclaimed Bennie. " Almost all of 'em were." "Yes, lie was admitted to the bar wliile lie lived iu Canton, Ohio, where he married Ida Saxton in 187 1. She was the daughter of a banker there, and quite a romance might be made of their courtship. They were playmates ; firm child-friends ; and 3'outliful lovers. The bond between them, — his care for her and her love for him, — has been a beautiful lesson to all. They had two children, girls, but both died in childhood, and Mrs. McKinley has been a semi-invalid since their death." " Then there were no ' Children of the White House ' wliile he was President," said Katie regretfully. "No children, perhaps, but plenty of young company from the rela- tives of the President and his wife, as well as their friends, and they always received a cordial welcome," said Nettie quickly. THE PRIDE OF HIS MOTHER. "How his mother must have loved him ! What a pit}'^ that she did not live to enjoy his honors with him," said Ray. " She certainly did love her gifted son. She was once asked if she was not proud to see him made President of the United States, and she made this characteristic reply : ' I am proud to be the mother of my boy,' " returned Ruthie. "What has his public record been? " asked Hadle}-. " He was a soldier four years ; a Congressman four terms ; author of the famous McKinley Bill ; and twice Governor of Ohio," answered Charlie. " Wasn't he a lecturer ? " asked Nettie, " He excelled as an orator, and a man who knew him for many years once said of him ' William McKinley was quiet, dignified, modest, and considerate of others ; true as steel to his friends ; unhesitating at the call of duty, no matter at what sacrifice ; with a heart full of sj-m- path)' for those who toil ; a disposition unspoiled by success ; and a private life equally spotless, — one of the finest tA'pes of courageous, WILLIAM McKINLEY AND THEODORE ROOSEVELT. 165 persevering, vigorous and developing manhood that this Republic has ever produced.' " " If he was all of that he was good enough to be the President of our United States," nodded Bennie. "Why was he in Buffalo ?" asked Josie. " September 6, 1901, was President's Day at the Pan-American Exposition, and President McKinley had just finished his last speech on earth, the concluding words of which were : — 'Our earnest prayer is that God will graciously vouchsafe prosperity, happiness and peace to all our neighbors, and like blessings to all the peoples and powers of earth.' '' " Then he was shot by Leon Czolgosz, an avowed anarchist, for no Jetter reason than that he didn't like our government ! He was at liberty to move out — if he wasn't satisfied," cried Raj' indignantly. WENT PURPOSELY TO COMMIT MURDER. "He owned that he went to the Temple of Music for the purpose of killing the President, first wrapping a handkerchief around his hand to conceal the deadly weapon which he carried. Then he took his place in the line of people who were proud of a chance to grasp the hand of our ruler, and deliberately^ shot the President as he extended his hand towards him and smiled ! We may pity the man when we think of his fate, but sympathize with him — never !" "I should say not ! " exclaimed Jake. "He fired two shots and would have emptied his revolver if he had not been knocked down by the enraged bystanders. He was worse than a rattle-snake, for a snake does give warning before it strikes." "They ought to have had the trial and execution of Czolgosz so secret that no living person, except the necessary ofiEcials, would ever know his end. Such a mystery would strike terror to those who might be tempted to follow his example. Men can summon desperate courage for desperate deeds when they expect notoriety and a hero's name, but few could be found to dare such a thing with the prospect of utter ' oblivion and detestation before them," said Charlie. 166 WILLIAM Mckinley and throdore roosevelt " He was seutenced to the electrical chair iu Auburn Prison, and when he arrived there, he was so overcome that he admitted his terrible mistake, acknowledged that he had a fair trial, and expressed sorrow for his deed," added Nettie. "Pit}' he hadn't been sorry before it was done!" ejaculated Hadley. "He was electrocuted at Auburn prison October 29, 1901. I think that . Congress had better make more laws as soon as possible, if we have none that will reach the anarchists. This is the fourth or fifth attempt to kill a President of the United States. Nothing was proved, although much talk was made aboiit foiil play when William H. Harrison died. General Jackson defended himself when an attack was made on his life. But Lincoln, Garfield and McKinley were killed — three of the seven elected Presidents since 1864 ! Isn't it time something was done?" LIVE FOR THE GOOD WE CAN DO. " What an awful — awful thing it is to be President ! " breathed Josie. " Not so, my dear child," returned Mamma Nelson decidedly. " We live for the good which we can do for mankind, and, in the interests of humanity, an individual life, even though it be the highest iu the land, is but a small thing, although we count it great. William McKinley will stand in history as one of those rare, noble men who could find pity for an enemy, even with the shadow of death upon him. The one fact that, through so many years of public life, not one breath of scandal has ever touched his private life, added to his tender, chivalrous devotion to his mother and wife, has endeared him to every true American. His life- work closed with all the tenderness and thoughtfulness which has char- acterized his course, and foreign nations, with our own, mourn his loss." "He was buried at Westlawn Cemetery, at Canton, Ohio, but what he said of Washington may well be said of him, ' The nation is his best eulogist and his noblest monument,' " said Ruthie. " When Lincoln was killed 3'ou thought that the countrj^ was going to destruction, — what do you think of McKinley, Mamma Nelson ? " asked Ray. " Our country is too great and powerful for an3'thing serious to WILLIAM McKINLEY AND THEODORE ROOSEVELT. 167 follow even the assassination of a President. Another saying of McKinley is that ' A goverment like ours rests upon the intelligence, morality and patriotism of its people.' " "And, as Garfield said when Lincoln was killed, 'God reigns and the government at Washington still lives,' " added Charlie. "I found this verse in 'Famous Men and Women,' " said Bennie, as he repeated : — " ' Weep not for him who departing leaves millions in tears ; Not for him who has died full of honor and years ; Not for him who ascended Fame's ladder so high From the round at the top he has stepped to the sky.' " THE NEW PRESIDENT. " Theodore Roosevelt is President now. What can you tell me about him ?" asked Mamma Nelson. " He is descended from a Dutch immigrant on his father's side ; his father's mother was Irish, his own mother was a daughter of James D. Bullock, of Georgia, a family of Scotch and Huguenot origin," answered Katie. " Go on, Jake, that is not all." " He took the oath of office and became President of the United States at 3.35 p.m., September 14, 1901, declaring that he would con- tinue the policy which President McKinle}^ began for the peace and prosperity and honor of our beloved country, and retains the old Cabinet, for a time at least," added Jake. " A new line of Presidents begins, for the Civil War is but history to him, while all of our later rulers won distinction in it before being called to the head of the nation. He was born in New York, October 27, 1858, and unlike most of his predecessors, he came from a wealthy family. The White House has given the world a striking proof that all men are created free and equal, and reach its portals by their own exertions, and are judged by their own merits. He graduated from Harvard College, and he has advanced, step by step, from Police 168 WILLIAM McKINLEY AND THEODORE ROOSEVELT. Commissioner of New York to the presidential cliair. I need not tell you Bis record as one of the famous ' Rough Riders ' who did such gallant work in Cuba during our war with Spain. Bennie, can you give us an account of his public service so far." " Mr. Roosevelt graduated from Harvard College in 1880," Bennie began. " He served three times in the legislature ; was an author as well as a statesman ; went to W3'oming as a ranch owner in 1884, but did not find cattle raising ver}^ profitable. He was head of the Police Department in New York in 1S94. In 1897 he was Assistant Secretary of the Navy ; in 1898 he was Colonel of the ' Rough Riders ' in Cuba ; in September of that year he was Governor of New York ; in 1900 he was elected as Vice-President ; and he be- came President in 1901." "Just before the war, when he was Assistant Secretary of the Navy, he asked for and obtained $950,000 to put the THEODORE ROOSEVELT. equipments of the marines into proper order, and to buy ammunition for gun practice, saying that, sooner or later, we should have to fight Spain, and it was best to be prepared. It was a costly but a very wise expenditure. Without this practice in gunnery Cervera's fleet would not have been destroyed, and Dewe3''s victory would never have been won," asserted Hadle3\ " I read that very few men of any nation had ever made as good a record in public life, at so young an age as he," said Bennie reflectively. " When he was young his health was so poor that his folks did not WILLIAM McKINLEY AND THEODORE ROOSEVELT. 169 think that he would live to grow up, so he got the cattle ranch in Wyoming, and, if he didn't find it a profitable business he did find health in the free wild life out of doors," added Ra}'. " Roosevelt never does what the people expect him to do," said Josie. "No one knows what he will do next." " But j-ou ma}^ be sure that it will be something for the good of our country," nodded Ruthie. " No American will ever have to blush for his deeds." " I suppose the position sobers a man and enlarges his ideas," mused Charlie. "It will be likely to check his impulsiveness, even if the President of the United States can not have his ovi^n way in everything, as kings do." "Can you tell us nothing about his early life, Mamma Nelson ? " asked Katie, eagerly. A MAN OF MANY ACHIEVEMENTS. "President Roosevelt has been a cow-boy, a traveler, a writer, a reformer, a soldier and a statesman, and it is comparatively easy to trace his steps through these changes, but we have not room for a full biography." " He got the name of Teddy at Harvard College," declared Ray. "It was when he gave the bully of the college a scientific thrashing, — he couldn't help it. Mamma Nelson — much to the surprise and gratifi- cation of his fellow students." " And he shot a bear out West which weighed over twelve hundred pounds!" added Jake. "He did not write his books of hunting from the experience of other people." "When he was Police Commissioner of New York he iised to go the rounds very quietly to see if his men were doing their duty. Dis- charges and promotions were the result of this investigation, and the city police learned caution," nodded Bennie. " He hated deceit and trickery. Once, when he was on his western ranch, he saw one of his men about to put his mark upon an unbranded 170 WILLIAM McKINLEY AND THEODORE ROOSEVELT. steer, and immediately discharged him, for, he said, ' If j-oii will steal I for me you will steal from me, I can not trust you,' " said Charlie. 1|{ '*He has been married twice, hasn't he?" asked Katie. ■'Yes, the present Mrs. Roosevelt was Miss Edith Carow, of New | York, a woman of high principles and more than average intelligence. ' She dislikes notoriety as much as her husband does,and j^oung Theodore inherits it from both father and mother." " President Roosevelt and his wife were child-sweethearts, the same as the IMcKiuleys were, but their paths in life separated and he took another woman for a wife. After her death he met Miss Carow abroad and they were married," said Nettie. THE CHILDREN AT THE WHITE HOUSE. "The President's oldest daughter, Alice, is nearl}- eighteen years old, and is the only child of the first marriage. What are the names and ages of the others ?" asked Mamma Nelson. "Theodore, jr., is fourteen years old; Kermit is twelve; Ethel is ten ; Archibald is seven ; and Quentin is four years old," Nettie responded. " And they are going to the public schools just like any other chil- dren — the paper said so!" exclaimed Bennie. "Why not?" asked Ray coolly. "The}^ are children like all the rest of us, and there is no royalty, save that of worth, in our free America. Yes, and a fellow has to prove his right to that before he gets it !" " Don't be too sure about the royalt}-, my boy," laughed Hadley. " I saw it stated that President Roosevelt was descended, through his mother, Miss Bullock, from Prince Someled of Argj^le, — the real blood royal of Scotland!" "We will put that with the Pocahontas stor}-, and find out the truth' of it when we can," returned Ray. " One question more, — where is the Roosevelt home ?" asked Mamma Nelson. " At Sagamore Hill, Oyster Bay, Long Island," answered Nettie. THE STORY OF PORTO RICO, HAWAII, THE PHILIPPINES AND CUBA. • 41 SUPPOSE yoit would like to hear about other things now," I smiled Mamma Nelson. "Oh, yes, — tell us something about Cuba, do," pleaded Katie. "And Porto Rico," added Josie. "And don't forget the Philippines," concluded Ray. "We are done with the Presidents, and this would be almost as good, — better'n nothing anyway. We want to keep on as long as we can," declared Bennie. " It would take many meetings of the club to tell you all you ask, my dears, but I will tell you a little of the historj' of the islands which have become a part of our nation. This seems to belong to the story of McKinle}^. Cuba is rightly called ' The Unhappy Isle,' for it has along history of wars, cruelty, and bloodshed. Can you tell me who discovered it, and when ?" " Christopher Columbus, in 1492. But he did not know w-hathe had fovind," said Jake. "Then how did he know that he had found it ? " laughed Bennie. " Wh}^ he thought that he had found that fabled countr}- described by Marco Polo, a part of the East Indies, instead of the West.''' " He didn't know Geography very well, did he ? " asked Charlie. " You must remember that no one knew of this hemisphere in those days. He anchored in a beautiful bay, west of Nuevitas de Priucipo, 171 172 STORY OF OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. and planted there a Spanish flag. That was the beginning of Spanish rule in Cnba." " What kind of people lived there then ? " asked Rnthie. " They were a gentle race of Indians, who did not make human 'sacrifices, as the Mexican Indians did, and believed in a great and powerful God. In 151 1 the son of Columbus and Diego Velasquez, with three hundred men, made settlements in Cuba, one of which was Santiago de Cuba." " How large is the island ?" asked Kadley. " It is about seven hundred miles long in a curved line, one hundred and seventeen miles wide at the widest point, and twenty-one at the narrowest. It has many curious caves ; some silver and gold ; and rich copper mines ; but there is not capital and energy to develop them. Then there are fine slate quarries, plenty of iron, coal, and petroleum, and marble and jasper." " I suppose there are also plenty of snakes, tarantulas, and — and awful things," said Josie with a shudder. BEAUTIFUL BIRDS. " There are no savage wild beasts, but numerous birds of the most brilliant plumage ; there are plenty of fish, and enormous turtles, lizards and crocodiles ; not many snakes, but one thing which you would all like to see, — fire-flies so brilliant that they are used for lamps, and people read by their light." " That would be nice, for folks wouldn't have to clean lamps," laughed Rnthie. " But we want to hear about the war with Spain," suggested Ray. "Why you know all that now, you have heard it right along. I could tell 5^ou no more about the blowing up of the Maine; Dewey's splendid victory at Manila ; you could tell me all about Hobson and the brave men with him, who sank the Merrimac ; of the loss of brave Admiral Cervera's fleet ; and of the desperate fighting before Santiago. The war lasted but 105 days, but wars never can be measured by time but STORY OF OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 173 by the suffering which they cause. If the result is the end of cruel Spanish rule in America and Independence for poor Cuba, the sacrifice has not been in vain." "What of Porto Rico?" asked Nettie. "Porto Rico, or Puerto Rico, is the eastern and smallest of the four islands comprising the Greater Antilles, and belonged to Spain from 1509 until 1S9S. It is one hundred miles long and forty miles wide, about three-fourths the size of Connecticut, having an area of about 3700 square miles. It is almost rectangle in shape, transversed from east to west by a range of mountains 1500 feet in average height, the highest peak being 3670 feet above sea level. The climate is warm but not torrid, and is remarkably healthy ; the soil is very fertile and covered by rank vegetation — rare plants, palms, ferns, and flowers noted for lovely perfume as well as dazzling beauty, growing on every hand. About five-sixths of the island is cultivated, and highland rice is the staple food product." LARGE EXPORTS OF SUGAR AND COFFEE, "What are the exports?" asked Beuuie. "They amount to about $15,000,000 annually, of which sixty per cent, is coffee ; twenty per cent, is sugar, although some large sugar plantations have been turned into cattle ranges ; five per cent, is tobacco and it is of the finest quality ; and the remainder consists of cocoa, hides, sponges, honey, cabinet woods, etc. Cotton, noted for its strength, length of fibre, and whiteness, is also raised, with fruits and spices, cattle and sheep." " Are there any imports ? " asked Charlie. "More than the exports, being about $16,000,000, of which fifty per cent, are manufactured articles of cotton, wool, silk, and fancy goods, hardware and provisions of all kinds ; fifteen per cent, being rice ; ten per cent, fish ; ten per cent, meats and lard, and seven per cent, flour." "I have heard that the island is very densely populated,"said Josie. "It is. The population is estimated at from 800,000 to 1,000,000, 174 STORY OF OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. of which throe-fifths are white, the remainder being black and mixed bloods. Slavery has not existed since 1873." "Do the}' have good roads, railwa)'s and telegraphs ?" asked Ray. "Tliere are about 250 miles of good wagon road, the military high- way beini;- tlie best ; 150 miles of railway, and 400 miles of telegraph. Among ihc most urgent needs for the future of Porto Rico are a thorough readjustment of propertj^ lines, better roads, harbor facilities and hotels." "You have not told us one word about the birds and animals yet," exclaimed Jake. "There are hundreds of varieties of land and water birds of finest plumage — the mocking bird, rubj', topaz, emerald crested humming bird, crimson maize bird and others,but there are not many wild animals, and the few are of the smallest varieties." "We want to know something of the Hawaiian Islands," suggested Ray. STORY OF CAPTAIN COOK. " I suppose you do, as the islands became a part of the United States in 1S98, our flag being raised there August 12th, of that year. They were discovered in 177S by Captain James Cook." " Who was killed and eaten b}' the cannibal natives !" cried Katie. "When?" asked Mamma Nelson. " Wh}- — e — e ! I guess it was in February, 1779, only a little more than a year after he discovered the islands. Don't you think that he was sorry that he found them ?" said Jake. "Perhaps, but his death began a great work, that of civilizing those same savage natives, although but sixteen per cent, of the original number are now there. The population consists of Hawaiians, mixed bloods, Japanese, Chinese, Portuguese, Americans, British, Germans, etc., etc." "Isn't a leper colony established on one of the islands?" asked Hadley. "Yes, on the northern part of Molokai, where all persons with that STORY OF OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 175 dread disease are carried, never to see their homes again. The group consists of fifteen islands, eight of which are inhabited, and have an area of 6740 square miles, or about one-sixth as large as Ohio. They are in the same latitude as Cuba, and the climate is ver}' healthy and even, the thermometer having a range of only thirty degrees." "The largest vol- cano in the world is on Hawaii," cried Ra)-. " The largest act- ive one, yes; it is called Kilauea, and the island can boast of another in- teresting one. Manna Loa. The highest peak is jMunakee, 13,- S05 feet above sea level." " What are the ex- ports ?" asked Charlie. " Sugar is the most important, but rice, coffee, hides, ba- nanas and wool are also exported, while map OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, good wheat is raised in the highlands. Ninety per cent of the com- merce is with the United States." "Then we export their imports," nodded Josie. " Yes, and they consist of clothing, provisions, machinery, hardware, and timber. Live stock is raised to supply vessels with meat." 176 STORY OF OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. "Are the birds beautiful there ?'' asked Nettie. " Very beautiful, but they have no sweet sougs. Nature equalizes things in this world of ours, my dears, and the plainest birds are those ■which sing her sweetest praises." "And now we have come to the Philippines — hurrah! — Cousin Will is there !" ejaculated Nettie, eagerl)-. * '' ]Many American bovs are there. The Philippines were discovered b}' Magellan in'iSSi. He named them for Philip II. of Spain, and was killed b}- the natives." "I wouldn't want to live where it rains six mouths of the 3'ear," grumbled Bennie. FLOODS DURING RAINY SEASON. "The rainv season is from July i to October 31, when the rain comes down in torrents and the low lands are flooded. There are two other divisions of climate, the hot and the dry seasons. The hot season is from Alarcli to Jiiue, then the heat is very oppressive, and thunder- storms with hurricanes — the dreaded typhoons — are very frequent. The drj- season is from November to February or March, and, though fires are not needed, woolen clothing is not uncomfortable. The air is then clear and bracing and the sky usually cloudless." "I should think that the terrible tj-phoons would destroy everj-- thing," observed Hadley. " Oh no. Nature has a wonderful repair shop in the Philippine Islands, as in all tropical climates, and she soon covers all signs of ruin." " Did 3'ou sajr how manj^ islands, ma'am ? " asked Jake. " There are more than I2CX), estimated to contain about 115,000 sqiiare miles. The most of these were subject to Spain, a few were governed by independent native princes, according to their own ancient laws and customs. Many of the smaller islands are uninhabited and some of them are rocky and barren. All of them are hilly, some moun- tainous and show evident signs of volcanic birth. There are many volcanoes, which have been active and destructive until quite recently." STORY OF OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 177 "The population is a mixed race, is it not ? " asked Katie. " There are few of the original negritos remaining, and the popula- tion is estimated at from 7,000,000 to 15,000,000, mostly Mala}- stock. The Tagals and Visayers are the most numerous of the native tribes, the Tagals being the ones with whom our soldier boys have oftenest met. These two tribes dwell in the cultivated lowlands and towns. The mountain regions are inhabited by negroes who greatly resemble the savage Alfoors of Papua, and genuine ' head hunters ' have been seen within thirty miles of Manila. There are few white residents when compared with the numbers of Mongolians and natives." " I suppose, as the islands are tropical, the forests, fruits and flowers are the same as in all hot countries ? " mused Josie. MAGNIFICENT FORESTS. " Certainly. Immense forests cover the mountain sides to their summits ; — ebony, iron-wood, cedar, sandal-wood, gum-tree, logwood aud bamboos, aud these are lashed together by the palasan, or bushrope, which often grows to be hundreds of feet in length. Blossoms and fruit are upon the trees the whole year, and cultivated fields yield a succession of crops. Among the fruit trees are orange, citron, bread-fruit, mango, cocoaniit, guava, tamarind aud rose-apple." " Of course there are other fruits ? " said Josie, iuquiriugl3^ "Bananas, pine-apples, plantains and smaller ones, while in the fields sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, indigo, coffee, cocoa, cinnamon, vanilla, cassia, giuger, pepper, rice, maize, wheat and other plants and cereals may be found. Other productions are copra, mother of pearl, coral and amber, besides dyewoods and other valuable timbers." "What about Manila hemp ? " asked Bennie. " It is grown in Luzon, Samar, Leyte and Bahol, and largely exported. Hats, mats, baskets, musical instruments, ropes, carriages and furniture are among the manufactured articles, but cigar aud cigarette making furnish employment for a great many." "Do they find valuable metals ? " asked Ray 12 '• 178 SIORV OK OUR N1';\V I'OSSKSSIUNS. "Some of the islamls aw believed to contain threat mineral wealth. Gold has been found, also fine beds of iron, cupper, limestone, variegated marbles, sulphur, saltpetre, quick silver and vermilion " "Do the Philippines export more than thev ini])ort ?" questioned STREET SCENE IN MAMl.A, I'll I l.IPriNK ISLANDS. "Oh yes. The exports consist mainly of sugar, hemp, coffee aud tobacco, to the amount of $2i,ooo,cxx), Avhilc the imports, chiefly rice, flour, wines, clothing, coal and petroleum, are only ;?i 1,000,000." " Do they have tigers and lions there ? " asked Bennie. " No, there are no beasts of prey excepting wild-cats ; other animals are oxen, buffalo, sheep, goats, hogs, harts, squirrels, and many kinds of monkeys. The jungles are full of snakes and lizards ; the rivers are STORY OF OUR NF.W POSSESSIONS. 179 full of crocodiles ; there are great spiders, tarantulas, white ants, mos- quitoes and locusts to annoy. lUil j;lcaniiug- fireflies, brilliant queen beetles, beautiful song-birds, turtle doves, birds of paradise, and inaiu' 'kinds of lovely jjaroqucts. Hives of wild bees hant;- from l)ranclies beside hummingbirds' nests, and the sliore caverns arc filled witli edible swallows' nests. Some of these caves are also ten- anted by immense bats." " What kind i)f men are the Philippines any- way ? " asked Charlie. " Thus far our peo- ple have found 'the little brown men ' hard to un- derstand, and still harder to manage. They are said to be courteous and amiable, but capable of blood-thirst}' cruelty up- on any fancied provoca- tion. They have a high opinion of themselves, de- spise drunkenness, have great courage, but not high powers of organization. As they can take life easy they do so." "Tell us of Aguinaldo," pleaded Ruthie. " He is a full blood Tagal, of Malay descent, very prepossessing in appearance, and of more than ordinary intelligence. The Tagals are quick to learn, and eager to make enlightened pi'ogress, while the Moros, who live in Mindanao and the Zulu Islands, are born pirates, fanatical Mohammedans, and very fierce and untamable." " I should like to see Aguinaldo," said Jake. ADMIRAL Cl'.OKGE DFAVEY. They are sociable and very fond of music. 180 STORY OF OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. " You ma}* have tlie chance, for it is uot unlikel}^ that he will come to this country as a prisoner of war. January 28, 1901, he proclaimed himself dictator of the Philippines, and March 23 he was captured by United States troops." "And this ends the story of the Philippine war!" cried Katie. " Not so fast ! It was May i, 1S98, when Admiral Dewey destroyed Ui\IPT)K.M OF UNITED STATES MARINES AND NAVAL OFFICERS. Montojo's fleet, and before the new year came this government had paid Spain $20,000,000 for the privilege of continuing the fight which they began. The Malay race will not brook restraint, but are suspicious, sometimes treacherous. The more civilized tribes, with the foreign population, will probably recognize justice onl}^ when it is proven to them, while the wilder tribes will have to be conquered bj- superior strength and cunning, and I fear the lesson must be given more than once. It will cost money to subdue the Philippines, and beyond the STORY OF OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 181 value of treasure expended is a part of the young life of our nation. More than the millions of dollars are the stricken American homes, the blasted hopes, and the early graves of our Boys in Blue. If all this bring advancement to those far-away islands the sacrifice may not be wholly in vain." "Didn't the United States take other islands during the war?" asked Hadley. "Yes, the Ladroues, fifteen in number, but only five inhabited. They are about a thousand miles from Luzon, on the east, and were discovered by Magellan in 1521. June 21, 1898, the largest one, Guam, was seized by our government, and is still held as a coaling station, but Germany purchased the others from Spain the next year." WHERE THE PRESIDENTS WERE BORN. "Is there anything more about the Presidents, ma'am?" asked Jake. " Can any of you tell me what States they were born in ? " "Virginia furnished seven of them," answered Nettie, promptly. "Who were they ? Ah, I thought you could not name them. They were Washingto|i, jjefferson, Madison, Monroe, Tyler, W. H. Harrison and Taylor. Ohio comes next with five — who were they ? " "I don't believe we can tell that either, mamma — I can't seem to remember," faltered Charlie. "Yes, there are McKinley and Harrison, and ' " The others were Garfield, Grant and Hayes. North Carolina furnished three, can you name them ? " " I remember Johnson and Polk," exclaimed Hadley. "The third was Jackson, and there has always been a dispute about his birthplace. No writer has ever seemed quite sure whether Waxhaws was in North or South Carolina. New York gave us three presidents, and Massachusetts two — name them." "John Adams and John Quincy Adams from Massachusetts," said Jake, proudly. 182 STORY OF OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. "VanBnreii, Fillmore and Roosevelt from New York, I think," faltered Benny. " There are five more from as many States. Can 3^011 tell me abont them ? " " Cleveland from New Jersey," cried Nettie. "Arthur from Vermont," added Josie. "Lincoln from Kentucky," said Katie, triumphantly. " Buchanan from Pennsylvania," nodded Ruthie. "One more," smiled Mamma Nelson, as they hesitated. "I think that one was Pierce from New Hampshire," faltered Ray. THE YOUNGEST PRESIDENT. " Right. Now tell me who the youngest President was." "Roosevelt — he was 42 when he became President," answered Charlie, with a laugh. " Oh, I am not so very smart, good people, I found mamma's list and learned it." "Confession is a good thing," smiled Mamma Nelson. " You may tell me what President was the oldest when he took his seat." " W. H. Harrison, who was 68." " Can you give the ages of the others ? " "I think so, but I must begin with Washington, who was 57; John Adams, 62 ; Jefferson, 58 ; Madison, 58 ; Monroe, 59 ; J. Q. Adams, 58 ; Jackson, 62 : VauBuren, 55 ; W. H. Harrison, 68 ; Tyler, 51 ; Polk, 50 ; Taylor, 65 ; Fillmore, 50 ; Pierce, 49 : Buchanan, 66 ; Lincoln, 52 ; Johnson, 57; Grant, 47 ; Hayes, 55; Garfield, 50; Arthur, 51 ; Cleve- land, 48 ; Harrison, 56 ; McKinle}-, 52, Roosevelt, 42. " That is very well, I will excuse you for finding mj' paper. Now tell me how many were farmers' sons, and how many became farmers when their public life was over." , "I looked that up last night, but I did not know 5^ou would ask about it," returned Charlie triumphantly. ' I couldn't find what the fathers of W. H. Harrison, Buchanan, Johnson, Hayes and Roosevelt did, but the fathers of Arthur and Cleveland were clergymen ; the father STORY OF OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 183 of Tyler was a judge ; Andrew Jackson's father was a linen weaver, and the rest, sixteen of them, were sons of farmers." "Some of the others were very poor, and some of the farmers had other trades, as Grant's father was a tanner as well as a farmer," said Ray. " Six of the Presidents became farmers, and three were almost her- mits before they died," said Bennie. " Can you tell me what the fathers of the ' White House Ladies ' did? THE FAMILIES OF THE PRESIDENTS. " The wives of Tyler, Polk, Taylor, Lincoln, Grant and Garfield were farmers' daughters," answered Ruthie. "Jackson's wife was the daughter of a land surveyor," nodded Bennie. "The fathers of Mrs. John Adams, Mrs. Fillmore and Mrs. Pierce were clergymen," said Katie. " Mrs. Madison was a Quaker, I do not know what her father did," said Hadley. " And we couldn't find out about the wives of J. Q. Adams, Van Buren, W. H. Harrison, Johnson and Roosevelt," declared Katie. "The fathers-in-law of Jefferson and Clevelend were lawyers, and McKinley's wife was the daughter of a banker," saidjosie. " Benjamin Harrison's first wife was the daughter of a college pro- fessor, and the father of Hayes' wife was a doctor," said Jake. " I think that Monroe's father-in-law was a British officer, and Arthur's was a naval commander," added Bennie. "Well done! I am proud of the White House Club, which is about to exist only in history and remembrance. I have asked you these questions to see if you were interested enough to goon with biographical history. I see that you are and I am very glad. I do not want to stop while there is anything to be learned." "Then we shall never stop, ma'am," laughed Jake. " You told us that you would look np all the nicknames of the 184 STORY OF OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. Presidents, and I know that you have dune it. Tell tlu-m to ns, please," pleaded Charlie. TITLES GIVEN TO THE PRESIDENTS. !Marania Nelson took a paper from the table and read: "Washington was called 'The Father of His Country' and the ' American Fabius ' ; John Adams, the ' Colossus of Independence ' ; Jefferson, ' the Sage of INIonticello' and ' Long Tom ' ; Madison, 'Father of the Constitution' ; Monroe, 'Last Cocked Hat', (because he was the last President to wear the cocked hat of the Revolution); John Q. Adams, ' Old Man Eloquent ' ; Jackson, the ' Hero of New Orleans ' and 'Old Hickory' ; Van Buren, ' Little Van ' and the ' Little Magician' also 'King Martin, the First' ; W. H. Harrison, the 'Washington of the West ' and 'Old Tippecanoe' ; Tyler, 'Accidental President ' ; Polk, 'Young Hickory' ; Taylor, ' Rough and Ready ' and 'Old Zack ' ; Fill- more, the 'American Louis Philippe' (becauseof his fancied resemblance to that French king) ; Pierce, ' Poor Pierce ' (pronounced Purse) ; Buchanan, 'Old Public Functionar}*' and 'Old Buck'; Lincoln, 'Honest Old Abe' and 'Father Abraham'; Johnson, 'The Tailor President'; Grant, ' Unconditional Surrender ' and American Caesar'; Hayes, Presi- dent de facto'; Garfield, 'The Teacher President' and 'The Martyr President'; Arthur, 'The First Gentleman of the Land' and ' Our Chef; Cleveland, 'The Old Man of Destiny' and 'Old Grover'; Harri- son, 'Backbone Ben' and' The Son of his Grandfather'; McKinle}', 'The American Napoleon'; — that is all, just as I found it in James Grant Wilson's book, 'The Presidents of the United States'." IT IS GRIT THAT TELLS. " And Roosevelt is surely ' Our Teddy', and we're proud of him," added Charlie, triumphantly. "The most of 'em — the Presidents, I mean — worked their own way up, didn't they ? " asked Bennie slowly. "Yes, and that is the way with ever^' one — man, woman, or child, that succeeds in any calling. Many have the additional help of true STORY OF OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 185 noble ancestry, great wealth and influential friends, but always remem- ber this : — It is not so much genius that wins the race In the contest for glory or fame, As it is the posseseion of an inborn grace By a homely, significant name. Success is won by it ; Fame built upon by it ; This sturdy bull-dog grit ! Your ancestors may have been noble and great, And their virtues may fall unto you. These cannot avail, if but idly you prate, And leave the work which you have to do. Genius is tame to it ; Ancestry lame to it ; This sturdy bull- dog grit ! There was a silence for some moments, as each one thought some- what sadly that they had come to the last of their pleasant, instructive meetings. Then Bennie looked up with sparkling, hopeful eyes. " Couldn't we go on anyhow. Mamma Nelson ? " he cried eagerly. "Seem's as if we ought to know the history of our country as well as that of otir Presidents, and — and history books are so dry, — I can never study them." "Then the world is a big place, and we ought to know about it, btit how can we learn without you tell us ? We must go on," added Jake earnestly. "Perhaps so," smiled Mamma Nelson." After vacation is over we will see about it. Young folks must play as well as work, you know, and you have earned a rest." EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA .-'lii^ IT IS a singular fact, tliat the principal Euro- pean nations owe their possessions in America to the enterprise and skill of Italian navigators, though not a single colony was planted b}^ the Italians themselves. Columbus opened to Europe a new world, and acquired for Spain a dominion wide and rich enough to satisfy even Castilian ambition, and his recompense was ingratitude, imprisonment, and an old age dishonored b}^ chains. Cabot, a Venetian in the English service, acquired claims upon the lasting remembrance of Great Britain, the granting of which he never realized. Verazzani, of Florence, explored America for the benefit of France, but Avhen sailing on a second expedition to this conntr}- perished at sea. Amerigo Vespucci, who was also a Florentine, though his name is imperishably associated with the New World, bought but an empty fame for himself and his country. Columbus sailed on his first voyage of discover}^, from the bar of Salte, a small island in front of the town of Huelva, early on the morning of the 3d of August, 1492. He directed his course in a south-westerl}' direction, for the Canarj^ Islands, and immediately commenced a minute journal of the voj^age, in the preface to which he recounted the motives which led him to the expedition. In the conclusion of this preface, he saA's, '' I intend to write during this voyage, very punctnall}', fromdaj- toda}-, all that I ma}' do, and see, and experience, as will hereafter be seen. Also, mj- sovereign princes, beside desribing each night all that has occurred in the da}-, and in the day the navigation of the night, I propose to make a chart, in which I will set down the waters and lands of the Ocean sea, in their proper 186 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 187 situations under their bearings ; and, further, to compose a book, and illustrate the whole in picture by latitude from the equinoctial, and longi- tude from the west ; and upon the whole, it will be essential that I should CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. forget sleep, and attend closely to the navigation, to accomplish these things, which will be a great labor." The first land that Columbus expected to meet was Cipango, which had been placed by geographers at the eastern extremity of India. This was the name given to the island now called Japan, b}^ Marco Polo, the celebrated Venetian traveller. The most extravagent accounts of the 188 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. riches of this country were given by the writers of that age, and the Admiral was anxious to proceed directly there. At sunrise, on Snndaj'-, the 7th of October, the Nina, which had outsailed the other vessels, on account of her swiftness, hoisted a flag at her mast-head, and fired a gun, as a signal of having discovered land. REWARD PROMISED TO FIRST DISCOVERER. There had been a reward promised by the King and Queen to the man who should first make this discovery ; and each of the vessels was striving very eagerly to get ahead, and obtain the promised recom- pense. As they found nothing of the land the Nina made signals for, the Admiral shifted his course, about evening, towards the west-south- west, with a determination to sail two days in that direction. The reason for making this change was from watching the flight of the birds. The Portuguese had discovered most of their islands in this manner, and Columbus noticed that the flocks which passed them all flew from the north to the south-west. He inferred from this that the land was situated in that quarter. After sailing a day or two, they found the air as soft as that of Seville in April, and wonderfully fragrant ; the weeds appeared very fresh, and many land birds were taken. The men, however, lost all faith in all signs of laud, and did not cease to murmur and complain. The Admiral encouraged them in the best manner he could, representing the riches they were about to acquire, and adding that it was to no purpose to com- plain ; for, having come so far, they had nothing to do but to continue, till, by the assistance of Heaven, they should arrive at the Indies. On the nth of October, they met with signs of land that could not be mistaken ; and all began to regain spirits and confidence. The crew of the Pinta saw a cane and a log, and picked up a stick, which appealed to have been carved with an iron instrument, a small board, and abund- ance of weeds that had been newly washed from the banks. The crew of the Nina saw other similar signs, and found, beside, a branch of a thorn full of red berries. Convinced by these tokens of the neighborhood COLUMBUS ADDRESSING HIS MEN DUk..;^^ ^ MUTINY ON BOARD HIS SHIP. 189 190 EAKl.V HISTORY 01' AMICRICA. of land, Culiiuibus, after evening prayers, made an address to his crew, reminding them of the mcrcj^ of God in bringing them so long a voyage with snch fair weather, and euconragiug them b}^ signs that were every dajf plainer and plainer. He repeated the instrnctious that he had previously given, that when they had sailed seven hnndred leagues to the westward without discovering laud, they should lie by from midnight till day break. He told them that, as they had strong ho])es of fiuding land that night, every one should watcli in his place ; and, besides the thirtj' crowns a year, which the Spanish sovereigns had promised to the first discoverer, he would give him a velvet doublet. DAWN OF THE NEW WORLD. About ten o'clock thai evening, while Columbus was keeping an anxious look-ont from tlie top of the cabin, he thought he beheld a light glimmering ,it a great distance. Fearing that his hopes might deceive him, 1r called two of his companions to confirm him. One of them came in season to observe it, but the other was too late. It had disappeared. From this they supposed it might be the torch of some fisher- man, raised up and then suddenly dropped again. The}' were all confi dent of being near land. About two o'clock in the morning, the Pinta gave the signal of laud. It was first perceived by a sailor named Rodrigo de Trianna ; the thirty pounds a 3'ear were not granted to him. but to the Admiral, who had first seen the light in the midst of darkness, His son says, " that this signified the spiritual light he was spreading in those dark regions." When the daj'^ appeared, they perceived below them a large island, quite level, full of green trees and delicious waters, and, to all appear- ance, thickly inhabited. Numbers of the people immediateh' collected together, and ran down to the shore. They were very much astonished at the sight of the ships, ^hich they believed to be living creatures. The .ships im mediately' came to anchor. The Admiral went ashore in his boat, well armed, and bearing the royal standard. The other cap- 192 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. tains each took a banner of the green cross, containing the initials of the names of the King and Queen on each side, and a crown over each letter. The Admiral called upon the two captains, and the rest of the crew who landed, to bear witness that he took possesion of that island for his sovereigns. Thej^ all gave thanks to God, kneeling upon the shore, shedding tears of jo_v for the great mercy received. VISITS FROM THE NATIVES. The Admiral rose, and called the island San Salvado. The Indians called it Guanahani, and it is now called Cat Island, and belongs to the group of the Bahamas. Many of the natives came down to witness this ceremony. The}" were very peaceable and quiet people, and the Admiral gave them some red caps, glass beads, and a few other trifles of small value, with which they were much delighted. The}^ imagined that the strangers had descended from heaven, and valued the slighest token they could receive from them, as of immense worth. When the Admiral and his companions returned to their vessels, the natives followed them in large numbers. Some swam ; others went in their canoes, carrjdng parrots, spun cotton, javelins, and other articles, to exchange for hawks' bells, and strings of beads. They were generally young, of good stature, with thick and short black hair. Their features were good and their countenances pleasant, though an extreme highness of the forehead gave them rather a wild appearance. Some were painted black, others with white and red ; some on the face only, others over the whole bod}-. They had no knowledge of weapons and grasped the swords which were shown to them by the blades. Their javelins were made of sticks, with points hardened at the fire, and armed with fish bones instead of iron. They easily learned the words that were spoken to them. No beasts were seen upon the island, and no birds but parrots, in which the sailors and the Indians continued to trafi&c until night. Columbus pursued his voyage among the many green, fertile, and EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 193 populous islands which cluster in the seas he had reached. He had hoped to find great wealth of gold, and the information he received by signs from the Indians seemed always to confirm this opinion, and to send him on some expedition where he was confident of finding rocks sparkling with riches, and rivers flowing over golden sands. But he was con- tiniially deceived, or continually deceived himself. At an island they called Isabella, he remained several days in the vain expectation of pro- curing some gold. The Indians had told his people stories of a rich king dressed in splendid garments, and covered with golden ornaments, and they were in hopes that he would be civil enough to visit them, and bring a great many valuable things with him. But no person of that description appeared, and they began to grow tired of waiting ; and taking in a fresh supply of water, the}^ set sail for some other island, in search of the rich king and the gold mines. DIRECTED HIS COURSE TOWARD CUBA. They directed their course towards Cuba, where they felt sure of finding the land of spices, silks and precious metals, of which they were in quest. With this island they were exceedingly delighted, though they still found it by no means the promised land. On the northern coast they sailed into a beautiful river, twelve fathoms deep at its mouth. The banks of the river, upon both sides, were covered with trees of a most rich and luxuriant foliage, and with beautiful shrubs and flowers of every description. They ascended the river some distance, and the Admiral said it was exceedingly pleasant to behold the delightful verdure which presented itself, and to listen to the songs, and admire the variegated plumage of the birds. The island was full of pleasant mountains, and the grass grew, long and green, down to the very edge of the water. On the 24tli of December, the weather being very calm, and the vessel lying about a league off" the Holy Cape, Columbus, at about eleven o'clock at night, retired to rest. It was so very calm, that the man whocn the Admiral had left in charge of the helm, contrary tc express orders, committed it to a boy, and went to sleep. Columbus says that the sea 13 194 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. was as still as water in u dish, so that there was not a S3amau awake on board of the ship, when the current carried them directly upon brealcers that were roaring with a noise that might have been heard a league off. As the rudder struck, the fellow at the helm cried out, and Colui ibus immediately awoke and ran upon deck. The master whose watch it was tliL-n came out, and the Admiral ordered him and the other sailors to take the boat, and carry out an anchor astern. Instead of obeying his command, they immediately rowed off to the other caravel, at that time half a league distant. On perceiving this desertion, Columbus ordered the masts to be cut away, and the vessel lightened as much as possible. But all was in vain ; she continued fast aground, and was rapidly filling with water. The men on board the other caravel would not receive the deserters in the boat, but obliged them to put back to their own ship. As it was impossible, by this time, to preserve the vessel, Columbus was only anxious to save the men. They went to the other caravel, and on the succeeding day, with the assistance of the natives, and their canoes, they preserved everything of value. The Indians were very honest and kind, everything being guarded by them with extreme care, at the express order of the King. They lamented as much as if the loss had been their own. GREAT FEAST ON SHORE. The chief King of the place gave the adventurers three houses, in which to store the articles they had saved from tlie wreck. Perceiving the desire of the Admiral to prociire gold, he informed him tliere was a place in the neighborhood where it might be found in large quantities. Columbus entertained the King on board of the caravel, and received an invitation to a feast upon shore. The Indian monarch treated the Admiral with every honor, feasting him with several sorts of shrimps, game, and other viands, and with the bread which they called cassavi. He afterwards conducted him into an arbor near his house, where they w^re, attended by more than a thousand persons. The King wore a shirt and a pair of gloves, which Columbus had COLUMBUS RECEIVING NATIVES ON BOARD HIS SHIP 395 196 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. presented to him, and with which he was very much pleased. He was very neat in his manner of taking food, rubbing his hands with herbs, and washing them after the repast. The}' then went down to the shore, when Columbus sent for a Turkish bow and some arrows. These were given to one of his crew, who happened to be ver}' expert in tlieir use. The people were astonished with this exhibition, as they knew nothing of these weapons ; but they spoke of some people called " Caribs," who were accustomed to come and attack them with bows and arrows. Upon which Columbus told the King, that the sovereigns of Castile would send people to fight against the Caribs, and take them prisoners^. ASTONISHED BY THE GUNS. By order of Columbus, several guns were then fired. The King was astonished, and his followers were very much frightened, falling upon the ground in terror and wonder. Afterwards a mask was brought, with pieces of gold at the eyes and ears, and in other places. This was given to the Admiral, together with other jewels of gold, which were placed upon his head and neck. Many other presents were also made to the Spaniards. All these things contributed to lessen the grief of the Admiral at having lost his vessel ; and he began to be convinced that the accident had providentially happened, in order that this place might be selected for a settlement. Many of his crew were very desirous to remain, and the Admiral accordingly chose a situation for a fort. He thought this uecessar}-, because the territory was at such a distance from Spain, that the natives ought to be held " in obedience, b}- fear as well as b\- love." The Spaniards were so active in building the fort, and the Indians so diligent in assisting them, that it was erected in ten days. A large vault was dug, over which a strong wooden tower was built, and the whole sur- rounded by a wide ditch. In the account of the voyage, drawn up for his sovereigns, Colum- bus says that he hopes, on his return from Castile, to find a ton of gold collected by the men left here, by trading with the natives ; and that he EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 197 believes they will have discovered mines and spices in sucli abundance, that before three years, the King and Queen may undertake the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre. " For I have before protested to 3-our majesties," says he, " that the profits of this enterprise shall be employed in the jonqtiest of Jen\salem, at which your majesties smiled, and said you were pleased, and had the same inclinations." COLUMBUS RETURNS FROM HIS VOYAGE. Commbus left thirty-nine men in the island, with seed for sowiug, and provision to last a twelvemonth ; he left there also the long boat of the ship, and goods to traffic with. To the fortress, the adjacent village, and the harbor, he gave the name of La Navidad, or the Nativitj^, in memory of their having escaped the perils of shipwreck on Christmas day. After cruising about among the islands till the i6th of January, they set sail directly for Spain. After one or two violent storms, a visit to St. Mary, one of the Azores, a penitential pilgrimage to a hermitage on that island, and an interview with the King of Portugal, at Valpa- raiso, Columbus entered and anchored in the harbor of Palos, on the 15th of March. After receiving the congratulations of his friends at Palos, Columbus immediately set out to meet his sovereigns, whom he found at Barcelona. To this place, he made a sort of triumphal entry, surrounded by the haughty nobility of Spain, vying with each other in the honors they could pay to the discoverer. He was received publicly by the sovereigns, in a splendid saloon, seated on the throne, and encircled by a magnificent court. On his entrance they rose to greet him, and would hardly allow him to kiss their hands, considering it too unworthy a mark of vassalage. Columbus then gave an account of his discoveries, and exhibited the different articles which he had brought home with him. He described the quantity of spices, the promise of gold, the fertility of the, soil, the delicious climate, the never-fading verdure of the trees, the brilliant plumage of the birds in the new regions which his own enter- prise had acquired for his sovereigns. He then drew thtir attention to 198 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA the six natives of tlie New World, whom lie liad brought with him, and described their manners and dispositions. He exhibited their dresses and ornaments, their rude utensils, their feeble arms, which corresponded with his discription of them, as naked and ignorant barbarians. To this he added, that he had observed no traces of idolatry or super- stition among them, and that they all seemed to be convinced of the existence of a Supreme Being, and concluded with saying, " that God had reserved for the Spanish monarchs, not only all the treasures of the New World, but a still greater treasure, of inestimable value, in the infinite number of souls destined to be brought over into the bosom of the Christian church. -Vfter certain preliminary negotiations with His Holiness the Pope, and with the monarch of Portugal, both of whom felt much, inclined to possess a portion of the new territories, but did not know exactly how to obtain it, Columbus sailed on his second expedition to the New World on the 25th of September, 1493. On the 3d of November he made an island, which he called Dominica, as it was first discovered on a Sunday. Other islands were soon seen, and boats were sent ashore at some of them. They were of different shapes and aspects, some green and some woody, some covered with rocks of a bright azure and glittering white. To one of these groups he gave the name of Eleven Thousand Virgins. EAGER TO POSSESS THE NEW TERRITORIES On reaching La Navidad, at midnight Columbus gave orders that guns should be fired to apprise the colonists of their arrival, but no answering signal was given. A canoe soon afterwards came off to the fleet, and inquired for the Admiral. The Indians i-efused to come on board until they had seen and recognized him. When questioned about the Spaniards who had remained there, they said that some of them had been taken sick and died, and that some had quarrelled, and gone away to a distant part of the island. The Admiral concealed his surmises iu i-espect to their fate, and dismissed the natives with some trifling presents to their king, Guacanagari. EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 199 On tlie next day lie found but little reason to doubt as to tlie fate of the colonists. When the Admiral landed, he found all the houses in the neighborhood burnt, and the fort entirely destroyed. The only remain- ing tokens of the history of the colonists were elevf;n dead bodies, with some torn garments, and broken articles of furniture. They discharged 'all the cannon and musketry of the fleet at once in hopes that the sound 1 might reach the ears of some concealed wanderer, who still survived to tell the fate of his companions. But it was in vain. Columbus was soon visited by Guacanagari, the King, who pretended to have been wounded in a descent of the Caribs, but who was suspected by the Spaniards of having been concerned in the slaughter of their countrymen. He was, however, dismissed in safety, and it was not till subsequent circumstances in some measure confirmed their suspicions that the Admiral sent out a party to reconnoitre the island and take him prisoner. They scoured the shores, and the lighter caravels entered far into the windings of the rivers. Maldanado was at the head of this expedition, and, with his party, was going towards a high house they saw at a distance, where they supposed the cacique might have taken refuge. ARMED WITH BOWS AND ARROWS. "And as he was going," says Peter Martyr, "there met him a man with a frowning countenance and a grim look, with a hundred men fol- lowing him, armed with bows and arrows, and long and sharp stakes like javelins, made hard at the ends with fire ; who, approaching towards our men, spake out aloud with a terrible voice, saying that they were Taini, that is, noble men, and not cannibals ; but when our men had given them signs of peace, they left both their weapons and fierce- ness. Thus, giving each of them certain hawks' bells, they took it for so great a reward that they desired to enter bonds of near friendship with us, and feared not immediately to submit themselves under our power, and resorted to our ships with their presents." It was learned that Guacanagari had retired to the mountains ; and on this intelligence, the fleet sailed from Navidad to Monte Christi. The 200 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. Admiral intended to steer towards the east, and establish a colony at the harbor of La Plata. Bnt being detained by contrary winds, the fleet finally came to anchor in a haven about ten leagnes west of Monte Christi, where there seemed to be a very fine sitnation for a colony. The soil was fertile, and the snrrounding sea abounded in fish. Behind it were impenetrable woods, and the rocks below it might be easily crowned with a strong fortress.. This was the place, therefore, chosen for the new settlement. A chapel was immediately erected, in which a Catholic festival was for the first time, celebrated on the 6th of January, 1494. The public buildings of the new town were erected of stone ; the private houses were built of wood, and covered with grass and leaves. Seeds were sown, which sprung up with great rapidity. The neighboring Indians assisted them in building their houses, and provided them food with the greatest diligence and zeal. Columbus called the new settlement Isabella, in honor of tht distinguished patron of his expedition. MAKING NEW DISCOVERIES. On the second of February, a fleet was dispatched to Spain, to com- municate the progress of discovery, and the existing condition of affairs. The Admiral was now doomed to be the victim of new troubles. He was sick, and during his illness, a mutinjr broke out among the discon- tented, who laid a plan to return to Spain, and prefer formal charges against Columbus. On recovering from his illness, and learning about the plot, he confined the ringleader, and inflicted some light punishment on the accomplices. Having thus arranged matters at the new settle- ment, he set out for the gold mines in the interior. After establishing a fortress, and leaving fifty-six men at St. Thomas, and sailing along the northern coast of Hispaniola, in the hope of obtaining an interview with Guacauagari, Columbus continued his course to Cuba, where he entered a spacious harbor to which he gave the name of Puerto Grande. Still sailing along the coast, the Indian men, Avomen and children, continually crowded to the shore, bringing whatever they could find to EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 201 barter for beads and bells. All inquiries after gold tliey answered by pointing toward the south. While sailing in this direction, they reached a beautiful island, which still retains the Indian name of Jamaica. It was found to be very populous and pleasant. On attempting to land, they were met by a large number of canoes, filled with armed Indians, who resisted their approach, darting arrows and javelins, and setting up menacing shouts. Columbus ordered a few shot to be fired among them ; ind a large dog let loose, which occasioned great terror and confusion. - On the following day, however, they again resorted to the shore, and engaged in traificing with the Spaniards. Most of them were painted with various colors, wearing feathers upon their heads, and palm leaves upon their breasts. Some of their canoes were ornamented with carved work and paintings. These boats were each made out of a single trunk, and many of them were of great size. One was found to be ninety- six feet long and eight broad. Columbus now bore off for Cuba resolv- ing to sail several hundred leagues along the coast, and discover whether it were really the continent. A large group of islands, vli rough which his ships now passed, he called the Queen's Garden. When coasting . along Cuba, he frequently sent boats ashore, with several men, who might inform themselves of the character and products of the country, and inquire of the natives as to its extent. CATCHING FISH WITH OTHER FISH. While thus engaged, they saw a singular manner of taking fish among the natives of one of the islands of Queen's Garden. " Like as we with greyhounds do hunt hares in the plain fields," says Peter Martyr, "so do they, as it were, with a hunting fish take other fishes." This fish was of a form unknown before to the Spaniards, having on the back part of the head a very rough skin. The creature is tied by a cord to the side of the boat, and let down into the water. When the Indians see any great fish or tortoise, the cord is loosened, and the hunting fish fastens upon it, retaining its hold with so much force that the prey is drawn with it to the surface of the water, and there secured. 202 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. Columbus pursued his voyage till lie had sailed along the coast of Cuba three hundred and thirty-five leagues. The natives could not tell him the extent of the country, though they knew that it exceeded twenty days' travelling. Comparing these circumstances with his previous notions, he arrived at the conclusion that '' this country was the begin- ning of India, which he had intended to come to from Spain." He caused this decision to be published onboard the three ships, and all the seamen and most skilful pilots fully concurred with him in the opinion. They all declared under oath that they had no doubt upon the subject. STOPPED WHILE NEARING THE GOAL. The Admiral also swore to his belief, and the clerk formally attested it, on board of the Nina, on the 12th of June. At this very time, a ship- « boy from the mast-top could have seen the open sea be^-ond the islands to the south ; and if Columbus had continued his course in that direction but a single day more, he would have arrived at the end of his imagined continent. But in this error he lived and died : supposing Cuba the extremity of the Asiatic continent. The Admiral relinquished all further examination of the coast, and stood south-east to an island which lie named Evangelista. He here became enclosed in a large ba}', which he had supposed a channel open- ing to the south-east. The water in some places in this sea was as white as milk ; and according to one writer, there were sometimes such a mul- titude of tortoises that they arrested the progress of the ships. At length they were once more coasting along the beautiful and luxuriant shores of Cuba. Here Columbus sought for a pleasant and convenient harbor, where his weary crew might find refreshment and repose. An incident occurred here, while the Admiral was hearing mass upon shore, that is of considerable interest. An old man, of great dig- nity and gravity, came towards them, and behaved ver}- reverently all the time that the ceremony was going on. When the mass was over, he presented, with his own hands, to Columbus a basket of fruit, and when he had been some time entertained there, he requsted permissjcu lo speak EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 203 a few words througli the interpreter. The amount of this speech is thus given by Peter Martyr : — " I have been advertised, most might}' prince, that 3'ou have of late with great power subdued many lands and regions hitherto unknown to you, and have brought no little fear upon all the people and inhabitants of the same ; the which your good fortune you shall bear with les3 inso- lence if 3'OU remember that the souls of men have two journeys, after they are departed from this body ; the one, foul and dark, prepared for such as are injurious and cruel to mankind ; the other, pleasant and delectable, ordained for them which in their time loved peace and quiet- ness. If, therefore, you acknowledge 3-ourself tobe mortal, and consider that every man shall receive condign reward or punishment for such thing sas he hath done in this life, you will wrongfully hurt no man." OLD MAN'S WISDOM. Columbus was much pleased and affected by the eloquent wisdom of the old man, as it was conveyed to him by the interpreter. He answered that the chief cause of his coming was to instruct the islanders in the true religion ; and that he had special commands from his sovereigns of Spain to subdae and punish the mischievous, and defend the innocent against violence from evil doers. The old man was delighted with the Admiral, and was desirous to accompauy him on the voyage, notwithstanding his extreme age. The entreaties of his wife and children alone prevented him. Columbus remained several days in the river, and on taking leave of of his old adviser, he steered south for the open sea. Storms and adverse winds, however, detained him a few days about the island of Queen's Garden, and again visiting Jamacia, he was received with great kindness and confidence. On the 24th of September, they had reached the eastern extremity of Hispaniola, and pursued their voyage towards the south-east. It was the design of Columbus, at the present time, to complete the discovery of the Caribbee Islands. But the fatigues which he had suffered durino- the voyage had completely exhausted him. Besides his great mental 204 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. exertions, he had shared in the bodily labors of the expedition, with more unwearied activit}^ than the best of his seamen. He had shared all their privations and toils with them. His body and mind at length snnk nnder these continned and nnintermitted labors. A deep lethargy fell upon him, and his crew were fearful that he would die. He could neither remember, nor see, nor hear ; and was carried back in a state of insensi- bility to the harbor of Isabella. UNEXPECTED MEETING OF BROTHERS. What was his supprise and joy, on recovering iiis faculties, to find Tiere by his bedside, his brother Bartholomew, whom he had not before met with for thirteen years, and whom he had supposed to be dead. He had been appointed by the Spanish Government to the command of three ships, and had received orders to assist his brother in all his enterprises. He reached Isabella just after the Admiral had departed for the coast of Cuba, with supplies of provision that arrived at a fortunate moment, to alia}- the discontents of the Spaniards, and to alleviate the maladies under which they had been suffering. Meantime the Indians had become much incensed by the outrages of the soldiers, and several Caciques united for their destruction. This was the state of things when the Admiral reached Isabella, and it was not till the island was restored to obedience, that Columbus determined to return to Spain. His enemies at court were many, active and influencial, envious and malignant ; and by their influence such accusations against the Admiral were laid before his sovereigns, that they determined to send a person of trust and confidence to Hispaniola, to inquire into the alleged abuses. Columbus received this emissary with dignity, and acknowledged complete submission to the will of his monarch. On the loth of March, 1496, he set sail for Isabella on his return to Spain, leaving his two brothers to administer the government during his absence. When. Columbus arrived at Cadiz, he found three caravels in the harbor ready to set sail for Hispaniola. By these vessels the Admiral EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 205 dispatched letters to liis brother, to inform him of his safe return, and to give him further instructions in respect to the government of the colony. He then immediately repaired to Burgos, at that time the ordinary resi- dence of the court. The sovereigns were absent, but they both soon returned, not only to give him a favorable reception, but to load him with thanks and kindness. The accusations of his enemies were passed by in silence, either as entirely unfounded, or as of no weight, when compared with the great services and unquestionable fidelity of Colum- bus. FOUNDING COLONIES. The Admiral was encouraged by this unexpected r^eption. He requested the immediate equipment of six ships, three of which were to be freighted with provisions and necessary utensils and implements for the colouy of Isabella, and the rest to remain under his own direction. This demand appeared very reasonable, but the sovereigns suggested that it was immediately important to found a solid establishment, on which succeeding colonies might be modelled. The propriety of this was obvious. It was arranged that the sovereigns, at their own charge, should transport a large number of sailors, soldiers, laborers, mechanics and artist to Hispauiola. To these, surgeons, physicians, and priests were added. The Admiral also obtained permission to carry a number of musicians, to solace their labors, and amuse their leisure hours ; law- yers and advocates were expressly excluded by edict, in order to prevent quarrelling iii the new dominions. Nothing could have been more prudently devised than the greater part of these regulations. There was one proposal of Columbus, how- ever, extremely pernicious to the interests of the rising colony. He suggested the transportation of convicted criminals, and of those con- fined in prisons for debts which they could never hope to pay, as a com- mutation for the punishment to which they would otherwise be sub- ject. This advise was given in consequence of the present difl&culty ol procuring men willing to embark in the expedition. The evils which had befallen their coutrymen deterred those who could live in peace and KEKniNAND AND ISABF.IJ-A EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 207 prosperity iu Spain from goiug to the Indies ; bnt the proposition of Columbus was most unwise and unjust. Much delay occurred in the preparation for the voyage, owing to the obstacles thrown in the way by the cold-blooded enemies of Columbus ; but the expedition was enabled to set sail on the 30th of May, 1498. The Admiral pursued a more southerl}' course than he had before taken, and on the 31st of Jul}', made an island which he called La Trinidad. He contin-.ied coasting to the south-west point of Trinidad, to which he gave the name of Point Arenal. Near this place the ships cast anchor. WOULD NOT COME ON BOARD. A large canoe here put off from the shore, in which there were about five-and-tweuty Indians, who cried out to them in a language which no one in the ships could understand. Columbus endeavored to prevail upon them to come on board, but to no purpose. Thej' remained gazing at the ships, with the paddles in their hand, ready for instant escape. Their complexion was fairer than that of any Indians they had before seen. They were almost naked, and, besides the usual bows and arrows, they carried bucklers — a piece of armor which they had never before seen among the natives of the New World. Columbus having tried every other means to attract them, and in vain, determined to try the power of music. He ordered a sort of Indian dance to be executed on the deck of his ship, while the musicians on board sung and played upon their different instruments. The natives mistook this for a signal of battle, and immediately discharged their arrows, and on a return from a couple of cross-bows, commenced a rapid retreat. Without knowing it, Columbus was now really in the neighborhood of the continent. While anchored at Point Arenal, the extremity of the island of Trinidad, he saw high land towards the northwest, about fifteen leagues distant, which he called Isla de Gracia. This was the province to which he afterwards gave the name of Paria, and which formed a part of the continent. They found in Trinidad the same kind of fruits 208 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. that abounded in Hispaniola. There were also large quantities of oysters there, and a great number of parrots, of every variety of beautiful and brilliant plumage. In the strait formed between Trinidad and the main land, the}' were near!}- swallowed up by the violence of the waters. Two very rapid currents, setting in from opposite quarters, lifted the ships violently to a great height, on a mountain of surges, but the waves gradually sub- sided, and the}- escaped without injury. To this pass Colunjbus gave the name of Boca de la Sierpe, or the Mouth of the Serpent. They soon found themselves, b\' the assistance of favorable breezes in a tranquil gulf, sailing quietly beyond the reach of danger. PRODUCTS OF THE NEW COUNTRY. Columbus was astonished to find the water of this gulf fresh, and to observe its great smoothness and stillness. It was at a period of the year when the rain falls in large quantities, and the swollen rivers emptied themselves so copionsl}-, as to overcome the natural saltness of the sea. He found many good harbors, as he proceeded towards the north, much cultivated land, and many rivers. Going ashore at different times, the seamen found grapes, apples, a kind of orange, and a great many monkeys. On Monda}', the 6th of August, a canoe, with five men in it, came oif to the nearest caravel, and one of the Spaniards requested them to canv him ashore. Leaping into the boat, he overset it, and the Indians were taken and carried to the Admiral. Their complexion was like that of the natives they had seen in the neighborhood. The Admiral treated them kindly, and gave them hawks' bells, glass beads and sugar. They were then sent on shore, and gave so favorable an account of their visit, that great numbers collected about the ships. These were received in a similar manner, and brought bread, and water, and a sort of green wine, to exchange for the trifles that the crews were willing to give them. They all carried bucklers, bows, and poisoned arrows. On the next day, a number of friendly Indians came ou board, EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 209 bringing bread, corn, and other provisions, together witb pitchers of a white beverage, like wine, and a gi'een liqnor made from maize and varions frnits. They set no valne npou the beads, but were much pleased with the hawks' bells, and held brass in very high estimation. Columbus, on the following morning, took six Indians, to serve as guides, and continued his voyage. He next touched at a point which he called Aguja, or the Needle. The country about was very populous and highly cultivated, and so beautiful that Columbus gave it the name of the Gardens. Many of the inhabitants visited the ships, with wrought cotton cloths about their heads and loins, and little plates of gold about their necks. These they would have been very glad to have exchanged foi hawks' bells ; but the stock of these articles was exhausted. The Spaniards procui-ed some of them, however, and were told that there were islands in the neighborhood which abounded in gold, though they were inhabited bj- cannibals. WOMEN WITH COSTLY DECORATIONS. Some of the females who came on board wore strings of beads about their arms, among which were a number of pearls. These excited the curiosity and avarice of the Spaniards at once. The boat was sent on shore to ascertain the direction of the countries where the}- might be found. The sailors who went in the boat were received in a very hospi- table manner, and conducted to a large house, where they were feasted b}' the natives. Various kinds of bread and fruit were set before them, and white and red liquors, resembling wine. These Indians had fairer skins, and were more kind and intelligent than any thev had before met with. On the 14th of August, the ships approached the formidable pass to which they had given the name of the Boca del Dragon, or the Dragon's Mouth. This was a strait between the extremit}- of Trinidad and Cape Boto, at the end of Paria, and was about five leagues in width. In the mean distance there were two islands. The sea at this pass is verv tur- bulent, foaming as if it were breaking over rocks and shoals. The ships 14 210 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. passed it, however, in safety, and stood for tlie westward, where they had been told the pearl regions were to be found. Columbus was charmed with the beauty of the coast along which their course now lay. He touched at various islands during the voyage, two of wliich were afterwards famous for their pearl fishery. These were called Margarita, and Cubagua. As the Admiral was approaching this latter island, he saw a number of Indians in their canoes, fishing for pearls. They immediately fled towards the land. A boat was sent in pursuit, and a sailor, who saw a woman with a large number of pearls about her neck, broke up a piece of painted Valenciau ware, and gave the fragments to her in exchange for them. These were carried to the Admiral, who immediateh' sent the boat back with a quantity of Valencian ware and little bells. In a short time, the sailors returned with about three pounds of pearls ; some were small, but others were of considerable size. It has been said that if Columbus had seen fit to remain here, he could have collected a sufficient quantity of pearls to pay all the expenses that had hitherto accrued in the dis- cover}' and settlement of the New World. But he was in haste to return to Hispaniola. His crew had become impatient, and he was him- self sick, and suffering under a violent disorder in his e3'es. A SUPPOSED PARADISE. The region which he had called Paria, Columbus supposed to have been the situation of the terrestrial paradise. He believed it to be elevated above the rest of the world, and to eujo}- an equalit}- of day and night. The fresh water which sweetened the gulf of Paria, he supposed to flow from the stream spoken of in Scripture, which had its fountain in the garden of Eden ! The admiral, however, did not long indulge this imagination, "which," says Charlevoix, "we may consider as one of those fantasies to which great men are more subject than any other." Columbus immediately set sail for St. Domingo, where he found aflFairs in a state of the utmost confusion. Many of the Spaniards whom EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 211 he had left at Isabella, had been slain by the natives, and disease had thinned the ranks of those whom the knife had spared. Famine threat- ened, distress was busy and deadly, and peril stared on them from every side. Rebellion was not idle, and numbers had taken up arms against the regular authorities. Under these circumstances, Columbus issued a proclamation denouncing the rebels, with Roland their ringleader, and approving the government, and all the measures of Don Bartholomew, diiring his absence. For a considerable period, the history of the island is a repc. tition of successive revolts, followed by accommodations that were inces- santly interrupted and broken. It possesses but little iuterest, as it is a mere tissue of insubordination and ingratitude. The next grand change in the drama, represents Columbus in chainS; transported as a prisoner across that ocean whose blue waters had been first disturbed by his own adventiirous bark, and from whose shadows he had revealed a New World for the fading dominions of the Old. The rumor was no sooner circulated at Cadiz and Seville, that Columbus and his brothers had arrived loaded with chains, and condemned to death, thati it gave rise to an immediate expression of public indignation. INDIGNATION AT THE COURT. The excitement was strong and universal ; and messengers were immediately dispatched to convey the intelligence to Ferdinand and Isa- bella, who were much moved by the exhibition of popular feeling, and offended that their name and authority should have been used to sanction such dishonorable violence. They gave orders for the immediate liber- ation of the prisoners, and for their being escorted to Granada with the respect and honor they deserved. The}^ annulled all the processes against them, without examination, and promised an ample punishment for all their wrongs. Columbus was not, however, restored to his command at Hispaniola, nor was it till many months afterwards that he was placed at the head of an expedition to open up a new passage to the East Indies. On the 9th 212 COLUMBUS AT THE MONASTERY OF LA RABIDA. EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 213 of May, 1502, Columbus agaiu set sail from Cadiz on a vo3'age of dis- cover}'. He first directed his course to Arzilla, upon the coast of Africa, a Portuguese fortress at that time besieged by the Moors. He arrived too late to be of any assistance, for the seige had been raised. He sent his son and brother upou shore, to pay his respects to the Governor, and continued on his voyage. He now touched, as usual, at the Canary Islands, from whence he proposed to sail direct to the continent. His largest vessel, however, proved so clumsy as to be unfit for service, and he determined on this account to steer for Hispaniola, where he found a fleet of eighteen ships ready to depart for Spain. Arrived at St. Domingo, Columbus wrote to the new Governor, Ovando, requesting permission to enter the harbor, as well to exchange one of his vessels, as to procure shelter from a violent tempest that was expected, recommending in the same letter, that the departure of the fleet should be delayed a few days on the same account. DESTRUCTION OF THE FLEET. His request was refused, and his advice neglected. The fleet set sail, and on the next night were swallowed up by the waves. Of eighteen ships, onl}- two or three escaped. Columbus had taken precautions against the storm, which his superior skill and experience had enabled him to foresee, and his little squadron was saved. On board of the ves- sels which were wrecked were Bovadilla, Rolan, and most of the vicious and discontented who had been so busy in injuring the Admiral. All their ill-gotten wealth perished with them. Columbus soon left Hispaniola, and sailed towards the continent. Being becalmed on his voyage,- the currents carried him to some small and sandv islands, near Jamaica, to which he gave the name of Los Poros, or the Wells. Sailing southward, he discovered the island of Gnanaia, where he had an interview with some natives that he found in a canoe. This canoe was eight feet wide, made of one tree, with an awning of palm leaves iir the middle, for the women and children. It was laden 214 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. with cotton clotlis, of several colors, aud curiously wrought ; wooden swords, edged with sharp flints ; small copper hatchets ; bells and plates; and the berries which they called cacoa. Coutinuiug his voyage, on the 25th of September, Columbus came to anchor near a little island called Quiriviri, and a town on the conti- nent, the name of which was Cariari. The country here was very beau- tiful, full of forests of palm trees, and fine rivers. A large number of the natives crowded from the adjacent country, some with bows and arrows, some with hard and black clubs pointed with fish bones, as if intending to defend themselves from the Spaniards. But perceiving they had nothing to fear, the Indians were very desirous to barter the articles they had with them. IN SEARCH OF GOLD MINES. Columbus proceeded on his eastward course, stopping at a number of islands, aud having various communications with the natives. Being detained by contrar}- winds, on the 5th of December, he determined to stand about, and go in search of some rich gold mines of which he had been told, in the province of Veragua. For a number of da3-s, the ships were driven about by violent tempests The rain poured down in tor- rents, the thunder rolled and the lightning flashed incessantl}'. Besides these dangers, they escaped from a tremendous water-spout which passd very near them, but luckily without injur3^ On reaching Veragua, the Admiral's brother went up the river Belem, in the boats, to find the King. Discovering a great man}^ signs of gold, Columbus determined to leave a colony here. Eighty men were chosen to remain, and houses were built for them covered with palm leaves. One of the ships was to be left behind, with a quantity of wine and biscuit, with nets and fishing tackle. When everything was ready for his departure, the Admiral found that the river had dried so much that there was not water enough to float the ships into the sea, aud while detained here on this account it was discovered that Quibio, the Cacique of Veragua, had laid a plau EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 215 to destroy the Spaniards and burn their settlement. They determined therefore, to take him and his chief men prisoners. A party of seventy- six men, under the command of the Admiral's brother, were dispatched A INDIAN WEAPONS. on this expedition. Arriving in the neighborhood of the house where Quibio resided, they advanced, two by two, as silently as possible, and obtained possession of the Cacique's person, together with a good deal of his \v'ealth, and a number of his wives and children. 216 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. The prisouers were committed to Juan Sanchez, the chief pilot of the squadron, a strong and trustworthy man, who undertook to carry them safelj^ to the ships. He was told to take special care that the Cacique did not escape ; and answered that he would give them leave to pluck out his beard, if he did not keep him from getting away. The}' had come within half a league of the mouth of the river, when Quibio com- plained that his hands suffered from the cords with which the\- were bound. Juaij Sanchez then loosed him from the seat of the boat, to which he was tied, and held the rope in his own hand, and a little while after, Quibio threw himself into the water, and sunk to the bottom. Night was coming- on, and the Spainards could neither hear nor see what after- wards became of him. The lieutenant, on the next day, returned to the ships with his prisoners and plunder. HE SETS SAIL FOR SPAIN. The river having now been swollen by the rains, Columbus was able to set sail with three of his ships for Spain. When Quibio saw that the vessels had left the coast, he immediately surrounded \vith his warriors, the little colony that had remained behind. The lieutenant was a man not to be easily discouraged ; he went out against the Indians with a verj' small number of followers, and with the assistance of a dog, put them all to flight. It so happened that, at the very time of this attack, a boat had been sent from the ships to procure water. For this purpose the captain of it was going some distance up the river and, though warned of the danger, would not desist from his undertaking. The river was very deep, and sheltered on both sides by overhanging trees and thick bushes, which grew down to the verj'' edge of the water. When the boat had gone about a league from the colony, the Indians rushed out from the thickets on each side, in their canoes, blowing horns, and making the most hideous noises. The canoes could be easily managed by one man, and all the rest of the crews were busy in sending their arrows and javelins. In such a EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 217 shower of darts the Spauiards were obliged to drop the oars, and protect themselves with their targets. But there were such a multitude of Indiaus surrounding them from every quarter, that the seven or eight men in the boat were soon pierced with a thousand wounds. Only one of them escaped, who threw himself, unobserved into the water, and swam to shore. Pursuing his way through the thickest of the wood, he reached the colony in safety. The Spaniards were much terrified at the intelligence, and still more affected, when the bodies of their companions came floating down the river, covered with wounds, and followed by the birds of prey. They determined not to remain in the country, and immediately removed from the thickets, where their houses were built, to the open plain. Here they constructed a kind of bulwark with casks and chests, and planted cannon about them at convenient distances. The sea beat so heavily, that it was impossible to have any communication with the ships. A BOLD ADVENTURE. Columbus was alarmed at the long absence of the boat, but was unable to send another in search of it. He remained ten days in this condition, during which time the captive Indians escaped, by bursting the hatches at night, and leaping into the water. At length one of the sailors proposed to the Admiral that he should be carried in the boat to a certain distance from shore, and that he would swim the rest of the way, and discover what had become of their companions. This man was Pedro Ledesma, a native of Seville. Being borne to within about a musket shot of land, he plunged into the swelling and foaming waves, and succeeded in reaching the shore. He here learned what had happened — the loss of his comrades, and the determination of the colonists not to remain. With this information, Ledesma swam back to the boat that was waiting for him. As soon as the waters became more quiet, those who had been left on shore lashed a couple of Indian canoes together, loaded them with their effects, and, leaving behind them the worm-eaten hulk of ship, made for the little fleet of the Admiral, 218 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. The tliree ships theu set sail, aud held on their course to Porto Bello, where they were obliged to leave one of the vessels, because it was so worm-eaten and leak3^ Continuing their voj'age they passed the Tor- tugas, and reached the cluster of islands which had been called the Queen's Garden. While at anchor in this place, about ten leagues from Cuba, with very little to eat, and their vessels exceedingly leaky, a great storm arose, aud the two remaining ships were driven with such violence against each other that it was with difl&culty that they escaped, even with great injurjf. Sailing hence, with much toil and danger, they reached an Indian village on the coast of Cuba, where they procured some water and pro- visions and departed for Jamaica. They were obliged to keep continuall}' working at three pumps in each of the vessels. With all this, however, thev could not prevent the water from gaining upon them with great rapidity ; and when thej^ put into the harbor of Puerto Bueno, it almost came up to the decks, Leaving this port, the}' run their vessels ashore as far as possible, in the harbor of Santa Gloria, and built sheds upon the deck for the men to lie in. HOW TO LEAVE THE ISLAND. They were thus situated about a bow-shot from the land. It hap- pened that the Indians of the island were peaceable and well disposed, and came off from all quarters, in their canoes, to traffic. Tliey brought to the ships some little creatures like rabbits, aud cakes oi' bread, which the}' called zabi, wliich they were glad to exchange for hawks' bells and glass beads. Sometimes the Spaniards gave a cacique a looking-glass or a red cap, aud perhaps a pair of scissors. It was now necessar}- to devise means to leave the island. They had no tools to build a new ship with, aud it was in vain to stay in hopes that some vessel from Spain would fall in with them. The Admiral thought the best course would be to send word to Hispaniola, and request that a ship might be sent to them with am mu- nition aud provisions. Two canoes were, accordingly, selected for EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 219 this purpose, and committed to Diego Mendez and Bartholomew Fiesco, with six Spaniards and ten Indians to manage them. They went along the coast of Jamaica, to the eastern extremity, where it was thirty leagues distant from His- paniola, and put out to sea. departed, ' ' the men on shore began fikl ^^ grow discontented, // and a violent sickness NATIVES ASTONISHED BY THE ECLIPSE OF THE SUN broke out among them. They became turbulent and seditious. The leaders of the sedition, two 220 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. natives of Seville, brothers, by tlie name of Porras. One of tlieni openly insulted the Admiral on the deck of his ship, and turning his back on him, exclaimed, " I am for Spain, with all that will follow me." About forty of the most mutinous joined with him, and, seizing some canoes which the Admiral had purchased, departed for the eastern extremit}' of the island. These conspirators treated the natives ver}- cruelly upon the way, committing various outrages, and compelling them to row their canoes for Hispaniola. The sea soon grew rough, and they threw every thing they could spare overboard, in order to lighten their slender barks. CANOES REACHED THE SHORE WITH DIFFICULTY. At last the}^ threw over even the helpless natives who had been forced into their service, and left them to perish in the waves. With much difficulty the canoes reached the shore. They again ventured out once or twice, after an interval of several weeks, and were again driven back by the winds. From the man}' excesses committed by these men, and the increasing scarcity of provisions, the Indians at length began to neglect even those who had remained with the Admiral, and whom they had hitherto supplied with sufficient quantities of food. Columbus was desirous to awe the natives into compliance with his requests. He knew that on a certain night there was to be an eclipse of the moon. On the day before this event, he invited all the caciques and chief men of the place to an assembly. He here told them through an interpreter, that the Spaniards believed in a God, who dwelt in Heaven, rewarding the good and punish- ing the evil ; that this deity had been offended with the wicked who rebelled, and had raised up the winds and tempest against them ; that he was angry with the Indians for their negligence in not furnishing loud for the white men, and that he would that night give :hem a sign of his indignation in the skies. The Indians listened, and departed, some in terror, some in scorn. But when the eclipse began, as the moou was rising, they were all sti'uck with fear and confusiou. They EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 221 came running with cries and lamentations from every quarter, bringing provisions, and praying tlie Admiral to intercede for them. Columbus shut himself up while the eclipse lasted, and when he saw it begin to go off, he came out of his cabin and warned them to use the Christians well in future, and bring them all they should require of them. From that time the supplies of provisions were always abundant- ARRIVAL OF A STRANGE VESSEL. Eight months passed after the departure of Mendez and Fiesco, before any notice was received of their arrival. Other desertions were on the point of taking place, when, towards dusk, one evening, a caravel was espied in the distance. It proved to have been sent from Hispaniola, tinder the command of Diego de Escobar. He had orders not to go on shore, nor to permit his crew to have any communication with the followers of the Admiral. Escobar went in his boat to deliver to Columbus a letter Ifrom the Governor, and a present of a cask of wine and a couple of hams ; then, returning to his caravel, he sailed away that very evening. The Admiral was very much surprised at this singular conduct, and the people thought the Governor intended to leave them there without assistance. But Columbus soothed them with such explanations as he could invent ; told them that Mendez had arrived safely at Hispaniola, and gave them promises of speedy relief He now turned his attention towards arranging affairs with the rebels. Messengers were sent to them, whom they insulted and dismissed ; and it was at last necessary to come to open battle with them. For this purpose fifty men, well armed, were selected from those who continued faithful to Columbus, and put under the command of the " x^delantado." Having arrived at a small hill, about a bow-shot from the camp of the rebels, two messengers were sent before, to request a peaceable con- ference with their leaders. They refused to listen to them, but fell, with swords and spears, upon the party of the '' Adelantado," thinking to rout them immediately. The rebels, however, were finally dispersed with 222 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. some slaughter. On tlie next day, all who had escaped joined in an Innuhk. petunn, to the Admiral, repenting of their past condnet, and declaring themselves ready to return to their d.Uy. Columbus granted their request upon condition that their captain should remain a prisoner as a hostage for their good behavior. They were accordingly quartered about the island, in such places as were most convenient, till the arrival of a ship from Hispaniola. Some days now passed, when Diego Mendez arrived with a vessel which he had purchased and fitted out at St. Domingo, on the Admiral's credit. They immediately embarked on board of it, and, sailing with contrary winds, reached St. Domingo on the 13th of August, 1504 The Governor received the Admiral with the greatest respect and cere- mony, but his kindness was only forced and treacherous. He .set Porras free from his chains, and attempted to punish those who were concerned m his arrest. Columbus remained here till his ship was refitted and another hired, and in these vessels they pursued their voyage to Spaiu. ACCIDENT FROM STORMY WEATHER. Setting sail on the 12th of September, the mast of one of the ships was carried by the board, when they were about two leagues from shore. This ship returned to the harbor, and the Admiral pursued his voyage in the other. The Aveather proved very stormy, and the remaming ''ship was much shattered before she arrived at St. Lucar. At this port Co- lumbus received the sad intelligence of the death of his noble patron, 1 Isabella. He then repaired to Seville. But he was doomed to submit to the evils of that ingratitude, which is not the growth of republics only, but often finds a genial soil' under the .shadow of a throne. The discoverer of a world, and the natural master of the empire he had found, Columbus was obliged, in his old age, to submit to the caprices and insults of a narrow-minded monarch, to whose insignificance his own magnanimity was a continued reproach. Deluded with promises, foiled with disappointment, exhausted with the toil and hardship of momentous and ill requited enterprise, mortified by EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 223 undeserved iiCglect, disgusted by the baseness und meanness of a servile court, and an ungrateful King, opjjressed with infirmity, and cares, and wretchedness, Columbus died at Valladolid, on the 20th of May, 1506. His death was worthy of his character and his fame ; marked by no violent emotion, calm, composed, and happy ; blessed by the memorj- of what he had done for mankind, and cheered by the hopes of a holy faith. A fit end to the great drama of his life. Columbus could never forget the ignominy of his chains. He pre- served the fetters, hung them up in his apartment, and ordered them to be buried in his grave. In compliance with this request his body was removed from Seville to the island of St. Domingo, and deposited, with his chains in a brass coffin, on the right of the high altar of the Cathedral of St. Domingo. There his bones remained, until the Spanish part of the island was ceded to France, in 1795. In consequence of this cession, the descendants of Columbus requested that his remains might be removed to Cuba. On the 19th of January, 1796, the brass cofiin which contained the ashes of this great man, together with a chain which served as a memorial of his sovereign's weakness, was carried down to the harbor in procession, under fire of the forts, and put on board a brig of war, to be removed to Havana. The brig arrived safely in the harbor of Havana, and the remains of the discoverer of America were buried with all the pomp and ceremony that could be bestowed upon them. EARLY ADVENTURES IN NORTH_AMERICA. THE exploits of Columbus having excited a great sensation among Englisli merchants, and at the Court of Henr_v .the YII., the adventurous spirit of John Cabot, heightened by the ardor of his son Sebastian, led him to propose to the King to undertake a voyage of dis- covery, with the twofold object of becoming acquainted with new terri- tories, and of realizing the long-desired object of a western passage to China and the Indies. A commission was accordingly granted, on the 5th of March, 1497, ^'^ ^"™ '^"^^ ^^^^ three sons, giving them liberty to sail to all parts of the east, west and north, under the royal banners and ensigns, to discover countries of the heathen, unknown to Christians • to set up the King's banners there ; to occup}^ and possess, as his subjects, such places as they could subdue ; giving them the rule and jurisdiction of the same, to be holden on condition of paying to the King one-fifth part of all their gains. By virtue of this commission, a small fleet was equipped, partly at the King's expense, and partly at that of private individuals, in which the Cabots embarked with a company of three hundred marines. Our knowledge of this voyage is collected from many detached and imperfect notices of it in different authors, who, while they establish the general facts in the most unquestionable manner, differ in many particular circum- stances. The most probable account is that Cabot sailed north-west a few weeks, until his progress was arrested by floating icebergs, when he shaped his course to the south-west, and soon came in sight of a shore named by him Prima Vista and generally believed to be some part of Labrador, or Newfoundland. Thence he steered noi'thward again to the sixty-seventh degree of latitude, where he was obliged to turn back by the discontent of his crew. 224 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 225 He sailed along the coast in search of an outlet as far as the neighorhood of the Gulf of Mexico, when a mutiny broke out in the ship's company, in consequence of which the farther prosecution of the voyage was aban- SEBASTIAN CABOT. doned. Cabot reached England with several savages and a valuable cargo, although some writers deny that he ever landed in America, and it is certain that he did not attempt any conquest or settlement there. This voj'age was not immediately followed by any important con- sequences ; but is memorable as being the first that is certainly ascer 226 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. taiued to have been effected to this continent, and as containing the title by which England claimed the territories that they subseqneuth' acquired here. Through a singular succession of causes, during more than sixty 3'ears from the time of this discover}- of the northern division of the continent by the English, their monarchs gave but little attention to this country, which was destined to be annexed to their crown, and to be one principal source of British opulence and power, till, in the march of events, it should rise into an independent empire. This remarkable neglect is in some measure accounted for by the frugal maxims of Henrj' VII., and the unpropitious circumstances of the reign of Henry VIII., of Edward VI., and of the bigoted Mary ; reigns peculiarly adverse to the extention of industry, trade and navigation. DISCOVERY OF FLORIDA. While English enterprise slumbered, both France and Spain were active and successful. Francis I. sent a vessel called the Dauphin, to the American coast, commanded by Juan Verazzano, a Florentine, who had distinguished himself by his successful cruises against the Spaniards. In this voyage he discovered Florida, and sailed seven hundred leagues on the North American coast, which he named New France. He made another voyage in the following year, when he landed with some of his crew, was seized by the savages, and killed and devoured in the presence of his companions on board, who sought in vain to give him any assistance. The gloomj^ impression produced b}^ the tragic fate of Verazzano seemed to have deterred others, for some time from such enterprises, and for several succeeding years neither the King nor the nation seem to have thought any more of America. After a lapse of ten j^ears, these enterprises were renewed, and Jacques Cartier, a bold seaman of IMalo, who proposed another voj'age, was readily supplied with two ships under the direction of the Vice- Admiral of France. His first vo3'age resulted in the discover)'^ of the Baye des Chaleurs, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In the following spring, a large expedition was equipped, and proceeded direct to EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. Newfoundland. Discovering the river afterwards called the St. Lawience, he sailed up this stream three hundred leagues, to a great swift fall, made friends of the natives on its banks, took possession of the territory, built a fort, and wintered in the country, which he called New France. The next spring Cartier returned with the remains of his crew, which had been much diminished by the scurvy. He carried with him Donna- con a, the In- dian King of the country, whom he had made captive partly by force, and partly by stratagem. On his return he represented to the King the immense ad- vantages which might result from a THE COAST OF M.nRiDA. Settlement in that country, for the purpose of carrying on the fur trade ; but his advice was slighted, and the proposed establishment dela3'ed. Francis I. after- wards became aware of the importance of the enterprise, and dispatched Cartier with the appointment of Captain-General, and with five ships. After a long and boisterous passage, Cartier arrived at Newfound- , land, thence proceeded to Canada, and on the 23d of August, 1535, arrived at the harbor of St. Croix. But this enterprise was also infelicitous in its issue, and for half a century the French made no further attempt to establish themselves in Canada. To give a brief narrative of the Spanish attempts at colonization in '22S EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. North America, it was iu the j'ear 1528, that Pamphilo de Narvaez, hav- ing obtained from Charles V. the grant of all land lying from the River af Palms to the Cape of Florida, sailed from Cuba, in March, with five ships, on board of which were four hundred foot, and twenty horse, for the conquest of the country. Landing at Florida, he marched to Apa- lache, a village consisting of forty cottages, where he arrived on the 5th of June. Having lost many of his men by the natives, who harassed the troops on their march, and with whom they had a sharp engagement, he was obliged to direct his course towards the sea. Sailing to the west- ward, he was lost, with many others, in a violent storm, about the middle of November, and the enterprise was frustrated. Calamitous as was the issue of this expedition, it did not extinguish the Spanish passion for adventure, and Fernando de Soto, a distinguished companion of Piz- arro, was created Adelantado of Flor- ida, combining the offices of Governor General and Commander-in-Chief. On the i8th of May, 1539, Soto set sail from Havana on this expe- dition, with nine vessels, nine hun- dred soldiers, two hundred and thir- teen horses and a herd of swine. This army met with various disasters, and suffered much from disease and the attacks of the savages. Soto died, and to conceal his loss from the Indians his body was put into a hollowed oak and sunk in a river. The small remains of his army, con- sisting of three hundred and eleven men, arrived at Panaco on the loth of September, 1543, and all concerned in this great expedition were reduced to poverty and distress. About the vear 1562, the Huguenots made an effort to colonize Flor- FERNANDO DE SOTO. EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 229 ida, but after suffering deeply from shipwreck, sickness, and Spanish cruelt}^, they were completely destroyed. The expeditious of Laudon- niere andRibault entirely failed. Ribanlt was massacred with his troops, by the Spaniards, after a pledge of safety, and their bodies were not only covered with repeated wounds, but were cut in pieces and treated with the most shocking indignities. A number of the mangled limbs of the victims were then suspended to a tree, to which was attached the follow- ing inscription : — "Not because they are Frenchmen, but because they are heretics, and enemies of God." To revenge this barbarous massacre Dominique de Gourgues determined to devote himself and his fortune. FORTS ARMED BY SOLDIERS WITH ARTILLERY. He found means to equip three small vessels, and to piit on board of them eight}' sailors and one hundred and fift}' troops. Having crossed the Atlantic, he sailed along the coast of Florida, and landed at a river about fifteen leagues distanct from the May. The Spaniards, to the number of four hundred, were well fortified, principally at the great fort, begun b}' the French, and afterwards repaired by themselves. Two leagues lower towards the river's mouth, they had made two smaller forts, which were defended by a hundred and twenty soldiers, well sup- plied with artillery and ammunition. Gourgues, though informed of their strength, proceeded resolutely forward, and, with the assistance of the natives, made a vigorous and desperate assault. Of sixty Spaniards in the first fort, there escaped but fifteen ; and all in the second fort were slain. After a company of Spaniards, sallying out from the third fort, had been intercepted, and killed on the spot, this last fortress was easily taken. All the surviving Spaniards were led away prisoners, with the fifteen who escaped the massacre at the first fort ; and, after having been shown the injury that they had done to the French nation, were hung on the boughs of the same trees on which the Frenchmen had been previ- ousU- siispended. Gourgues, in retaliation for the label Meneudez had attached to the bodies of the French, placed over the corpses of the 230 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. Spaniards the following declaration : — " I do this not as to Spaniards, nor as to mariners, but as to traitors, robbers, and murderers." Having razed the three forts, he hastened his preparation to return ; THE RENOWNED EXPLORER, SIR MARTIN FROBISHER. and on the 3d of May, embarked all that was valuable in the forts, and set sail for La Rochelle. In that Protestant capital he was received with the loudest acclamations. At Bordeaux these were reiterated, and he was advised to proceed to Paris, where, however, he met with a verj' dif- ferent reception. Philip had already an embassy demanding his head. EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 231 whicli Charles and Catherine were not disinclined to give, and had taken steps for bringing him to trial, but they found the measure so excessively unpopular, that they were obliged to allow him to retire into Normandy. Subsequently he regained royal favor, and found ample employment in the service of his country. GREAT BRITAIN TAKES THE LEAD. Thus terminated the attempts of the French Protestants to colonize Florida. Had the efforts of Ribault or Laudonniere been supported by the Government, France might have had vast colonial dependencies be- fore Britain had established a single settlement in the New World, in- stead of inscribing on the pages of history a striking instance of the ruinous and enduring effects of religious hatred, alike on individual and national fortune. One of the most important objects of maritime enterprise in the reign of Elizabeth, was the discovery of a passage to India by the north of America ; but notwithstanding the utmost exertions of the most emi- nent naval characters, Frobisher, Davis, and Hudson, the attempt proved utterly abortive. In the same year, however, in which Frobisher' s third voyage terminated so unsuccessfully, Sir Walter Raleigh, with his half brother and kindred spirit. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, projected the estab- lishment of a colony in that quarter of America which the Cabots had visited in the reign of Henry VII., and a patent for this purpose was pro- cured without difficulty, from Elizabeth. One enterprise under Gilbert failed, from tempestuous weather, but by the aid of Sir George Peckham, Sir Walter Raleigh, and other persons of distinction, he was enabled to equip another expedition, with which, in 1583, he again put to sea. On the 30th of July, Gilbert discovered laud in about fifty-one de- grees north latitude ; but, finding nothing but bare rocks, he shaped his course to the southward, and on the 3d of August arrived at St. John's harbor, at Newfoundland. There were at that time in the harbor thirty- six vessels, beloirging to various nations, and they refused him entrance ; but, oa sending his boat with th^ assurance that he had no ill design, 232 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. and that lie had a commissiou from Queen Elizabeth, the}^ submitted and he sailed into the port. Having- pitched his tent on shore, in sight of all the shipping, and beiug attended by his own people, he summoned the merchants and masters of vessels to be present at the ceremony cf his taking possession of the island. When assembled his commission was read and interpreted to the foreigners. .-V turf and twig were then delivered to him ; and procla- mation was immediately made, that, by virtue of his commission from the Queen, he took possession of the harbor of St. John, and two hundred leagues every way around it, for the crown of England. He then, as the authorized Governor, proposed and delivered three laws, to be in force immediately ; by the first, public worship was established according to the Church of England ; by the second, the attempting of anything prejudicial to her Majest3''s title was declared treason ; by the third, if any person should utter words to the dishonor of her Majesty, he should lose his ears and have his ship and goods confiscated. When the proc- lamation was finished, obedience was promised by the general voice, both of Englishmen and strangers. GRANT OF LANDS TO SETTLERS. Not far from the place of meeting, a pillar was afterwards erected upon which were engraved the arms of England. For the better establishment of this possession, several parcels of land were granted by Sir Humphrey, by which the occupants were guaranteed grounds convenient to dress and dry their fish, of wliich privilege they had often been debarred, by those who had previously entered the harbor. For these grounds the}'' covenanted to pay a certain rent and service to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, his heirs or assigns, for ever, and to maintain pos- session of them, by themselves or assignees. This formal possession, in consequence of the discovery by the Cabots, is considered the founda- tion ot the right and title of ihe crown of England to the territory of Newfoundland, and to the fishery on its banks. Gilbert, intending to bring the southern parts of the country within his patent, the term of EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICA. 233 which had uow nearly expired, hastened to make further discoveries before his return to England. He therefore embarked from St. John's harbor with his little fleet, and sailed for the Isle of Sable, by the way of Cape Breton. After spending eight days in the navigation from Cape Race towards Cape Breton, the ship Admiral was cast away on some shoals, before any discovery of laud, and nearly one hundred persons perished ; among those was Stephen Parmenius Budeius, a learned Hungarian, who had accompanied the adventurers, to record their discoveries and exploits. Two days after this disaster, no land 3'et appearing, the waters being shallow, the coast unknown, the navigation dangerous, and the provisions scanty, it was resolved to return to England. Changing their course accordingly, the}' passed in sight of Cape Race, on the 2d of September, but when they had sailed more than three hiindred leagues on their way home, the frigate commanded by Sir Humphrey Gilbert himself, foundered in a violent storm, at midnight, and every soul on board perished. STORY OF CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. THE favorable reports whicli had been brought back to England by the voyagers to the New \\'orld had prevented the interest of Eng- lishmen in America from entireh' dying out, and some ardent spirits believed it possible to make that continent the seat of a pros- perous dominion dependent upon England. The former assistants of Raleigh, in particular, held to the convictions which their chief had entertained to the day of his death. Sir Walter Raleigh, the famous English navigator and courtier, had visited America and conceived the project of making the whole country tributary to his sovereign. The selfish and timid polic}' of King James having made it impos- sible for men to acquire distinction by naval exploits, as in the daj-s of Elizabeth, the more adventurous classes lent a willing ear to the plans for colonizing America, which were discusced in various parts of the kingdom. Bartholomew Gosnold, who had explored the New England coast, was especiallj- active in seeking to induce capitalists to send out a colony to it. His glowing accounts of the New World awakened a good deal of enthusiasm, and men who had money to invest, and were somewhat inclined to indulge in speculation, were ready to aid any scheme that promised to be lucrative and advantageous to themselves. Sir Ferdinand Gorges, a wealthy gentleman and Governor of Ply- mouth, had been greatlj* interested in America by the accounts of Way- mouth, who had given him two of the Indians he had brought to England. These succeeded in interesting others in their plans, and the result was that early in the reign of King James two companies were forme(i iu 334 STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 235 England for the colonization of America. One of these was the "London Company," composed chiefly of noblemen and merchants residing in London. The other was the "Plymouth Company," composed of "knights, gentlemen and merchants," residing in the west of England. King James divided Virginia into two parts. To the London Company he granted "South Virginia," extending from Cape Fear, in North Carolina, to the Potomac. To the Plymouth Company he gave " North Virginia," stretching from the Hudson to Newfoundland. The region between the Potomac and the Hudson he left as a broad belt of neutral land to keep the companies from encroaching upon each other's domains. Either was at liberty to form settlements in this region within fifty miles of its own border. COLONIES ESTABLISHED IN AMERICA. The London Company was the first to settle the country assigned it. A liberal charter was granted the company ; the lands in the New World were to be held by it on the simple conditions of homage and the payment to the crown of one-fifth of the gold and silver and one-fifteenth of the copper that should be discovered. A general council, residing in England, was to have authority over the whole province, and the mem- bers of this council were to be appointed and removed by the King at his good pleasure. Each separate colony was to be under the control of a colonial council residing within its own limits, and the king retained the right to direct the appointment or removal of the members of these councils at his pleasure. The king also reserved the supreme legislative authority over the colonies, and framed for their government a code of laws — "an exercise of royal legislation which has been pronounced in itself illegal." The colo- nists were placed by this code under the rule of the superior and local councils we have named, in the choice of which they had no voice. The religion of the Church of England was established as that of the colony, and conformity to it was secured by severe penalities. Death was the punishment for murder, manslaughter, adultery, dangerous seditions 236 STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. aud tumults. In all cases not affecting life and limb offenders might be tried by a magistrate, but for capital offences trial by jury was secured. In tbe former cases tlie punishment of the offender was at the discretion of the president and council. The Indians were to be treated with kindness, and efforts were to be made for their conversion to Chris- tianity. For five years at least the affairs of the colonists were to be conducted in a joint stock. The right to impose future legislation upon the province was reserved by the king. Such was the form of government first prescribed for Virginia by England, in which, as Bancroft truly saj'S, there was "not an element of popular liberty." " To the emigrants themselves it conceded not one elective franchise, not one of the rights of self-government. They were to be subjected to the ordinances of a commercial corporation, of which they could not be members ; to the dominion of a domestic council, in appointing which the}' had no voice ; to the control of a superior council in England,which had no sympathy with their rights ; and finally, to the arbitrary legislation of the sovereign." AN EXPEDITION OF MEN. Under this charter the London Company prepared to send out a colon}' to Virginia. It was to be a commercial settlement, and the emigrants were composed altogether of men. One hundred and five persons, exclusive of the crews of the vessels, joined the expedition. Of these not twenty were farmers or mechanics. The remainder were "gentlemen," or men who had ruined themselves at home by idleness and dissipation. A fleet of three small ships, under command of Captain Newport, was assembled, and on the nineteenth of December, 1606, sailed for America. The emigrants sailed without having perfected an}' organization. The king had foolishly placed the names of those who were to constitute the government in a sealed box, which the adventurers were ordered not to open until they had selected a site for their settlement and were ready to form a government. This was most unfortunate, for during the long STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 237 voyage dissensions arose, and there was no one in the expedition who conld control the nnriily spirits. These qnarrels grew more intense with the lapse of time, and when the shores of Virginia were reached the seeds of many of the evils from which the colony afterwards suffered severely had been thoroughly sown. There were among the number several who were well qualified to direct the affairs of the expedition, but they were without the proper authority/ to do so, and there was no such thing as voluntary submission to be seen among the adventurei^s. The merits of the deserving merely excited the jealousy of their companions, and the great master spirit of the enter- prise found from the first his disinterested efforts for the good of the expedition met by a jealous opposition. DRIVEN NORTHWARD BY A STORM. Newport was not acquainted with the direct route, and made the old passage by way of the Canaries and the West Indies. He thus consumed the whole of the winter, and while searching for the island of Roanoke, the scene of Raleigh's colony, his fleet was driven northward by a severe storm, and forced to take refuge in the Chesapeake Bay on tbe twenty- sixth of April, 1607. He named the headlands of this bay Cape Henry and Cape Charles, in honor of the two sons of James I., and because of the comfortable anchorage which he obtained in the splendid roadstead which enters the bay opposite its mouth, he gave to the northern point the name of Point Comfort, which it has since borne. Passing this, a noble river was discovered coming from the westward, and was named the James, in honor of the English king. The country was explored with energy, and though one small tribe of Indians was found to be hostile, a treaty of peace and friendship was made with another at Hampton. The fleet ascended the river and explored it for fifty miles. A pleasant peninsula, on the left bank of the stream, was selected as the site of the colony, and on the thirteenth of May, 1607, the settlement was definitely begun, and was named Jamestown, in honor of the king. The leading spirit of the enterprise was John Smith, one of the 238 STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. truest heroes of history-, wlio has beeu deserved!}- called "the father of \'irginia." He was still a j'oiiug man, being but thirty years of age, but he was old in experience and knightl}- deeds. While yet a j'outh he had served in Holland in the ranks of the army of freedom, and had travelled through France, Egypt and Italy. Burning to distinguish himself, he had repaired to Hungary, and had won a brilliant reputation by his exploits in the ranks of the Christian army en- gaged in the defence of that countrj- against the Moham- medans. He repeatedh' de- feated the chosen champions of the Turks in single com- bat, but being at length cap- tured was sent to Constanti- nople and sold as a slave. The wife of his master, pit)'- ing his misfortunes, sent him 'o a relative in the Crimea, with a request to treat him with kindness, but contrary to her wishes, he was sub- jected to the greatest harsh- C.MT.AIN JOHN SMITH. ^^^^ Rendered desperate by his experience, he rose against his task- master, slew him, and, seizing his horse, escaped to the border of the Russian territory, where he was kindly received. He wandered across the country to Transylvania, and rejoined his old companions in arms. Then, filled with a longing to see his "own sweet country" once more he returned to England. He arrived just as the plans for the coloni- zation of Virginia were being matured. He readily engaged in the expedition organized by the London Compau}-, and exerted himself in a marked degree to make it a success. He was in all respects the STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 239 most capable man in the whole colony, for his natural abilities were fully equal to his experience. He had studied human nature under many forms in many lands, and in adversity and danger had learned patience and fortitude. His calm, cool, courage, his resolute will, and his intuitive perception of the necessities of a new settlement, were destined to make him the mainstay of the colony of Virginia, but as yet, these high qualities had only excited the malicious envy of his associates, and the efforts he had made to heal the dissensions which had broken out during the voyage, had made him many enemies. CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. When the box containing the names of those who were to consti- tute the colonial government was opened, it was found that the king had appointed John Smith one of the council. Smith was at this time in confinement, having been arrested on the voyage upon the frivolous charges of sedition and treason against the crown, and his enemies, notwithstanding the royal appointment, excluded him from the council. Edward Wingfield, "a groveling merchant of the west of England," was chosen president of the council and governor of the colony. The services of Smith could not be dispensed with, however, and he was released from his confinement, and sent with Newport and twenty others to explore the river. The}' ascended the James to the falls, where the city of Richmond now stands, and visited Powhatan, the principal chief of the Indian nation holding the country into which they had come. He was then dwelling at his favorite seat on the left bank of the river, a few miles below the falls. Powhatan received them kindly, and silenced the remonstrances of his people by saying: "They hurt you not; they onh' want a little land." The chief was a man of powerful stature, "tall, sour and athletic." He was sixty years of age, and had under him a population of six or eight thousand souls, two thousand being warriors. Having carefully observed the river, Smith and Newport returned to Jamestown. 240 STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. Their presence there was needed, for ^\'^ngfield had proved himself utterly unfit to govern the coloU}-. He would not allow the colonists to build either houses for themselves or a fortification for the common defence against the savages. While they were in this helpless condition they were suddenly attacked by a force of four hundred Indians, and were saved from destruction only b}' the fire of the sliipping, whicli filled the savages with terror and put them to flight. It is believed that the cause of Wingfield's singular conduct was his jealousy of Smith whose talents he feared would attract the support of the settlers. ACQUITTAL OF CAPTAIN SMITH. The fort was now built without delay, cannon were mounted, and the men trained in the exercise of arms. When the ships were in readiness to sail to England, it was intimated to Smith that he would consult his own interests by returning in them, but he refused to do so, and boldly demanded a trial upon the charges whicli had been preferred against him. The council did not dare to refuse him this trial, and the result was his triumphal acquittal. More than this, he succeeded so well in exposing the malice of his enemies that the president, as the originator of the charges against him, was compelled to paj' him two hundred pounds damages, which sum Smith generousl}' applied to the needs of the colonv. His seat in the council could no longer be denied him, and he took his place at the board to the great gain of the colony. Newport sailed for England about the middle of June, leaving the settlement in a most pitiable condition. The provisions sent out from England had been spoiled on the voj^age, and the colonists were too indolent to cultivate the land, or to seek to obtain supplies from the Indians. Sickness broke out among them, owing to the malarious character of their location, and b}' the beginning of the winter more than half their number had died. Among these was Bartholomew Gosnold, the originator of the London Compau}-, who had come out to Virginia to risk his life in the effort to settle the countrv. He was a man of rare merits, and, together with Mr. Hunt, " the preacher," who STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 241 was also one of the projectors of the company, had contributed successfully to the preservation of harmony in the colon3\ In the midst of these sufferings it was found that Wingfield was preparing to load the pinnace with the remainder of the stores and escape to the West Indies. He was deposed by the council, who appointed John Ratcliffe in his place. The new president was not much better than his predecessor. He was incapable of discharging the duties of his ofi&ce, and was perfectly satisfied that Smith should direct the affairs of the settlement for him. From this time Smith was the actual head of the government. Food was the prime necessity of the colony, and as it was now too late to raise it, Smith exerted himself to obtain it from the Indians. He purchased a supply, and towards the close of the autumn the wild fowl which frequent the region furnished an additional means of subsistence. EXPLORING THE WILDERNESS. The danger of a famine thus removed. Smith proceeded to explore the country. In one of these expeditions he ascended the Chickahominy as far as he could penetrate in his boat, and then leaving it in charge of two men, struck into the interior with an Indian guide. His men dis- obeyed his instructions, and were surprised and put to death by the Indians. Smith himself was taken prisoner, and deeply impressed his captors by his cool courage and self-possession. Instead of begging for his life, he set to work to convince them of his superiority over them, and succeeded so well that they regarded him with a sort of awe. He aston- ished them by showing them his pocket compass and explaining to them its uses, and excited their admiration by writing a letter to his friends at Jamestown informing them of his situation, and of the danger to which they were exposed from a contemplated attack of the Indians. One of the savages bore the letter to its destination. Smith had been captured by Opechancanough, a powerful chieftain of the Pamunkey Indians ; but as the curiosit}- of the neighboring tribes was greatl}- aroused by his presence, he was led in triumph from the Chickahominy to the villages on the Rappahannock and the Potomac, It liMt^M J42 POCAHONTAS INTERCKDING FOR TIIK LUE OF CAITAIN JOHN SMITH. STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 243 and theu taken through the towns to the residence of Opechancanough, on the Pamunkey. Here the medicine men of the tribe held a three days' incantation over him to ascertain his character and design. All this while his demeanor was calm and fearless, as if he entertained no appre- hension for his safety. He was regarded by the savages as a superior being, and was treated with kindness, though kept a close prisoner. ADMIRATION FOR POWHATAN. His fate was referred to Powhatan for decision, as the other tribes feared to bring the blood of such an extraordinary being upon their heads. Powhatan was then residing at Werowocomoco, which lay on the north side of Fork River, in what is now Gloucester county, Virginia. He received the captive in great state, surrounded by his warriors. "He wore," says Smith, "such a grave and majestical countenance as drove me into admiration to see." Brought into the presence of Powhatan, Smith was received with a shout from the assembled war- riors. A handsome young squaw brought him water to wash his hands and another gave him a bunch of feathers to dry them. Food was theu set before him, and while he applied himself to the repast a consultation was held by the savages as to his fate. Smith watched the proceedings closely and was aware from the gestures of the council that his death had been determined upon. Two great stones were then brought into the assembly and laid before the king. The captive was seized and dragged to the stones, forced down, and his head laid upon them. Two brawny savages stood by to beat out his brains with their clubs. During these proceedings Pocahontas, a child of ten or twelve years, " dearly loved daughter " of Powhatan, touched with pity for the unfortunate stranger, had been earnestly pleading with her father to spare his life. Failing in this, she sprang forward at the moment the executioners were about to despatch their victim, and throwing herself by his side, clasped her arms about his neck and laid her head upon his to protect him from the impending stroke. This remarkable action in a child so young moved the savages with profound 244 STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. astonishmeut. The}' regarded it as a manifestation of the will of Heaven in fiivor of the captive, and it was determined to spare his life and seek liis friendship. Smith was released from his bonds, and was given to Pocahontas to make beads and bells for her, and to weave for her ornaments of copper. The friendship which the innocent .child of the forest conceived for him grew stronger every daj^, and ceased only with her life. Powhatan took him into his favor, and endeavored to induce him to abandon the English and cast his lot with him. He even *''~^'"* sought to obtain his aid in an attack -*# ■" , these offers, and bv his decision of ^ . hostility of the savages from his i^^^ A^^^^il^Si friends at Jamestown, and in win- .-^/Ji. ^^~? (M' .A^^^^ ning their good will for the English. .-i>£bv-^ii|^" ' In a short while the Indians allowed 'L ''^r^ him to return to Jamestown, upon i' ! -: hatan two cannon and a erindstone. \l Si V 1) r? I'^M.ij , Upon arrivinaf at Jamestown he '^' ^ ■ ^1 /3lf 'W'' ■ ''' « '" ' showed the Indians who had accom- panied him two of the largest can- non, and asked them to lift them. This was impossible ; nor could they succeed any better with the grind- stone. Smith then discharged the cannon in their presence, which so frightened them that thej' refused to have anything to do with them. Hav- ing evaded his promise in this manner. Smith bestowed more suitable presents upon his guides, and sent them home with gifts for Powhatan and Pocahontas. The savage king was doubtless well satisfied to let the "great guns" alone after hearing the report of his messengers concern- ing them, and was greatU* pleased with the gifts .«ent him. Smith found the colony at Jamestown, reduced to forty men and STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 245 affairs in great confusion. His compauions had believed that he had fallen a victim to the hostility of the Indians, and he was greeted with delight, as the need of his firm hand had been sadly felt. He foiind that a party of malcontents were preparing to run away from the colony with the pinnace, and he at once rallied his supporters and trained the guns of the fort upon the little vessel, and avowed his determination to fire iipon the mutineers if they sought to depart. HIS CAPTIVITY A BLESSING TO THE SETTLEMENT. His firmness put an end to this danger, and the friendly relations which he had managed to establish \vith the Indians now enabled him to buy from the savages the food necessary to sustain the colonists through the winter. In many ways his captivity proved a great blessing to the settlement. He had not only explored the country between the James and Potomac, and gained considerable knowledge of the language and customs of the natives, but had disposed the Indian tribes subject to Pow- hatan to regard the colony with friendship at the most critical period of its existence. Had the savages been hostile during this winter the Jamestown colony must have perished of starvation ; but now, ever}' few days throughout this season, Pocahontas came to the fort accompanied by a number of her countrymen bearing baskets of corn for the whites. In the spring of i6oS, Newport arrived from England, bringing with him a reinforcement of one hundred and twenty emigrants. The new- comers were jo3'fully welcomed by the colonists but they proved of no real advantage to the settlement. They were either idlers or goldsmiths who had come out to America in the hope of finding gold. The refiners of the party believed they had found the precious metal in a heap of glittering earth, of which there was an abundance near Jamestown, and in spite of the remonstrances of Smith, would do nothing but dig gold. Newport, who shared the delusion, loaded his ships with the worthless earth and sailed for England after a sojourn in the colon}' of fourteen weeks. "While these fruitless labors were in progress. Smith, thoroughly 216 STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. disgusted with the folly of the emigrants, undertook the exploration of the Chesapeake Bay. He spent the summer of i6oS in visiting the shores of the bay and ascending its tributaries in an open boat, accom- panied by a few men. He explored the Chesapeake to the Susquehanna, ascended the Potomac to the falls, and explored the Patapsco. This voj'age embraced a totab distance of nearly three thousand miles, and resulted not only in the gaining of accurate information respecting the country bordering the Chesapeake, but also in establish- ing friendly relations with the tribes along its shores, and preparing the way for future friendly intercourse with them. The energetic explorer prepared a map of the Chesapeake and its tributaries, and sent it to his employers in England, by whom it was published. It is 3'et in existence and its accuracy and minuteness have often elicited the praise of sub- sequent topographers. A BETTER ADMINISTRATION. Smith returned to Jamestown on the seventh of September, and three days later was made president of the council. The good effects of his administration were soon felt. In the autumn, however, another reinforcement of idle and useless men arrived. Smith, indignant at the continued arrival of such worthless persons, wrote to the compan}- : " When you send again, I entreat you, rather send but thirt}- carpenters, husbandmen, gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, masons and diggers-up of trees' roots, well provided, than a thousand of such as we have." Upon the return of the fleet to England the governor exerted his authority to compel the idlers to go to work. It was ordei'ed that six hours in each da}^ should be spent in useful labor bj- each person, and that "he who would not work might not eat." In a short while the settlement began to assume the appearance of a regular habitation ; but still so little land had been cultivated — only about thirty or forty acres in all — that during the winter of 1608-9, the settlers were compelled to depend upon the Indians for food. Yet the prudent management of Smith kept the colony in good health. STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 247 In the spring of 1609, great changes were made in the London Company, and a more earnest interest was manifested in the colony by all classes of the English people. Subscriptions were made to the stock of the company by many noblemen as well as merchants, and a new charter was obtained. By this charter the stockholders had the power to ap- point the su- preme council in England, and to this council were confided the powers of legislation and g o V e r n ni e u t , which were re- linquished by the king. The council appoint- ed the governor of the colony, who was to rule the settlement with absoHitc authority ac- cording to the instructions of the council. He was made mas- BUILDING the first house in jamestovvn. ter of the lives and liberties of the settlers by being authorized to declare martial law whenever in his judgment the necessity for that measure should arise, and was made the sole executive officer in its admin- istration. Thus the emigrants were deprived of every civil right, and were •248 STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH A\D POCAHONTAS. placed at the lucrc}- of a governor appDiutcd by a corporation whose oul}^ object was to make money. The company, however, defeated this object by the manner in which it selected emigrants. Instead of sending (Hit honest and indnstrious laborers who were capable of building up a state, thej' sent only idlers and vagabonds, men who were neither willing nor fit to work. The common stock featnre was maintained, and thus the greatest obstacle to industry that could be devised was placed in the way of the success of the colony. Still there were many who were willing to seek the new world even under these conditions, and many others whose friends desired to get them out of the countrj-. WRECKED ON THE BERMUDAS. The company was soon able to equip a fleet of nine vessels con- taining five hundred emigrants, and a stock of domestic animals and . fowls was included in the outfit of the expedition. Lord Delaware, a nobleman, whose character commanded the confidence of his country- men, was made governor of the colonj- for life. As he was not able to sail with the expedition, he delegated his authorit}' during his absence to Newport, who was admiral of the fleet, Sir Thomas Gates, and Sir George Somers, who were to govern the colon}- until his arrival. The fleet sailed in the spring of 1609, but when off the American coast was overtaken b}- a severe storm, and two vessels — on one of which the admiral and the commissioners had sailed — were wrecked on one of the Bermuda islands. Seven ships reached Virginia, and brought the worst lot of emi- grants that had j^et been sent out to the colon}-. Smith was still acting president, and asthe commissioners had not arrived, was determined tohold his position until relieved by his lawful successors. The new emigrants at first refused to recognize his authorit}-, but he compelled them to submit, and in order to lessen the evil of their presence, divided them into bodies sufliciently numerous for safety, and sent them to make settle- ments in other parts of \'irgiuia. These settlements proved so many failures, and, unfortunately for the colon}-, Smith was so severely STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 240 woiiuded b}' an accidental explosion of gunpowder, in the autumn of 1609, that he was obliged to relinquish the government and return to England for surgical treatment. He delegated his authority to George Perc}', and sailed for England, never to return to Virginia again. It was to him alone that the success of the colony was due, but he received in return nothing but ingratitude. The departure of Smith was followed b}- the most disastrous conse- quences. There was no longer an acknowledged government in Virginia, and the settlers gave themselves up to the most reckless idleness. Their provisions were quickly consumed, and the Indians refused to furnish them with anj- more. The friendship of the savages had been due to their personal regard for Smith, who had compelled the colonists to respect their rights and to refrain from maltreating them. Now that Smith was no longer at the head of affairs, the Indians regarded the settlers with the contempt they fully merited, and hostilities soon began. Stragglers from the town were cut off, and parties who went out to seek food among the savages were deliberately murdered. PLOT TO MASSACRE THE COLONISTS. On one occasion a plan was laid to surprise the town and massacre the colonists. The danger was averted by Pocahontas, who stole from her father's camp, through night and storm, to give warning to the settlers. Failing in this effort the Indians resolved to starve the colony, and soon the whites began to experience the sufferings of a famine. Thirty of them seized one of the ships, escaped to sea, and began a course of piracy. In six months the four hundred and ninety persons left by Smith in the colony at his departure had dwindled down to sixty ; and this wretched remnant would have perished speedily had not aid reached them. On the twenty-fourth of May, 1610, Sir Thomas Gates and the members of the expedition who had been wrecked on the Bermudas reached Jamestown after a stay of nine months on those islands, during which time they had built two vessels from the wreck of their ship and 250 STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. the wood found on the island. In these they managed to reach Virginia, expecting to find the colony in a prosperous condition. The}' fonnd instead the sixt}^ men already mentioned, so feeble and full of despair as to be helpless. In the general despondency it was determined to abandon the colony, sail to Newfoundland, and join the fishing vessels which came annually from England to that island. Some of the emigrants wished to burn the town, but this was pre- vented by the resolute conduct of Sir Thomas Gates. On the seventh of June the settlers embarked, and that night dropped down the James with the tide. The next morning they were astonished to meet a fleet of vessels entering the river. It was Lord Delaware, who had arrived with fresh emigrants and supplies. The fugitives hailed the arrival of the governor with delight, and put about and ascended the stream with him. A fair wind enabled them to reach Jamestown the same night. FOUNDING OF A STATE. On the tenth of June, 1610, the foundations of the colon}- were solemnly relaid with prayer and supplication to Almighty God for suc- cess in the effort to establish a State. The authoritv of Lord Delaware silenced all dissensions, and his equitable but firm administration soon placed the settlement on a more successful basis than it had yet occu- pied. The labors of each day were opened with prayer in the little church, after which, from six in the morning till ten, and from two in the afternoon until four, all engaged in the tasks demanded of them. The good effects of the new system were soon manifest in the increased comfort and prosperity of the colony. In about a year the health of Lord Delaware gave wa}^, and he delegated his authority to George Percy, whom Smith had chosen as his successor, and returned to Eng- land. Fortunately for the colony, the company, before the arrival of Lord Delaware in England, had sent out Sir Thomas Dale with supplies. He reached Jamestown in May, 161 1, and finding Lord Delaware gone, assumed the government. He brought with hiiu a code of laws, pre- STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 251 pared and sent out by Sir Thomas Smith, the treasurer of the company, without the order or sanction of the council, and which established martial law as the rule of the colony. Though he ruled with such a stem hand. Dale rendered good service to Virginia by recommending to the company to maintain the settlement at all hazards as certain of yielding them a rich reward in tlie end. ARRIVAL OF MANY EMIGRANTS. This energetic appeal so greatly encouraged the council, which had been considerably disheartened by Lord Delaware's return, that in the summer of 1611 Sir Thomas Gates was sent out to Virginia with six ships and three hundred emigrants. He carried also a stock of cattle and abundant supplies. The emigrants sent out with him were of a better character and more industrious than any that had yet left Eng- land for Virginia. Gates assumed the government, and matters begun to prosper again. The colony now numbered seven hundred persons, and was deemed so prosperous that Dale, with the approval of the governor, led a number of the men to the vicinity of the falls of the James, and there established another settlement, which was called Henrico, in honor of the Prince of Wales. Among the changes for the better was the assignment to each settler of a few acres of land for his own cultivation. This "incipient establish- ment of private property " produced the happiest results, and from this time there was no scarcity of provisions in the colony, which became so powerful and prosperous as to be no longer exposed to the mercy of the savages. The Indians themselves were quick to notice this change, and some of the neighboring tribes by formal treaty acknowledged them- selves subjects of King James. The whites, however, did not always respect the rights of the Indians. Late in 1613, Pocahontas was betrayed into the hands of a foraging party under Captain Argall. Argall kept her a prisoner, and demanded of Powhatan a ransom. For three months Powhatan did not deign to reply, but prepared for war. In the meantime Pocahontas was ^^^^^'^■■'^.!TJ^^^ .'0-j •n'PES OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. STORY OF CAPTAIN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 253 instructed in the faith of the Christians, and at length openly embraced it, and was baptized. Her conversion was hastened by a powerful senti- ment, which had taken possession of her heart. She had alwa3-s re- garded the English as superior to her own race, and now her affections ivere won b}'- a 3'oung Englishman of good character, named John Rolfe. Rolfe, with the approval of the governor, asked her hand of her father in marriage. Powhatan consented to the iinion, but refused to be present at the marriage, as he was too shrewd to place his person in the bands of the English. He sent his brother Opachisco and two of his sons to witness the marriage, which was solemnized in the little church at Jamestown, in the presence of Sir Thomas Dale, the acting governor. The marriage conciliated Powhatan and his tribe, who continued their peaceful relations with the colony. King James, however, was greatly displeased at what he deemed the presumption of a subject in wedding a princess. Pocahontas was soon after taken to England by her husband, and was received there with great attention and kindness. She remained in England for a little more than a year, and then prepared to return to her own countr\-. x'Vs she was about to sail, she died at the age of about twenty-two, A. D. 1616. She left a son, who subsequently became a man of distinction in Virginia, and the ancestor of some of the proud- est families of the Old Dominion. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR; THK wars between the English and French in Am-rica were but a prelnde to the great struggle which was to decide which of these powers shonld control the destinies of the uen- world. The English, as we have seen, were growing stronger and more nnnierous along the Atlantic coast, and were directing the new settlements farther into the interior with each succeeding year. The French held Canada and the valley of the Mississippi, bnt their tenure was that of u military occupation rather than a colonization. Between the possessions of these hostile nations lay the valley of the Ohio, a beautiful and fertile region, claimed by both, but occupied as yet by neither. The French had explored the country, and had caused leaden plates engraved with the arms of France to be deposited at its principal points to attest their claim ; and had opened friendly relations with the Indians. The region had been frequently visited by the traders, who brought back reports of its remarkable beauty and fertility and of its excellent climate The British government regarded this region as a portion of Virginia, and one of the chief desires of the Earl of Halifax, the prune minister of England, was to secure the Ohio valley by planting an Eno-lish colonv in it. A company was organized in Virginia and Maryland for "this purpose and for the purpose of trading with the Indians, and ^vas warmly supported by the Earl of Halifax. It was named the Ohio Company, and at length succeeded in obtaining a favorable charter from the king.' who, in March, 1749- ordered the governor of Virginia to assign to the Ohio Company five hundred thousand acres of land lying betw'een the Monongahela and Kanawha rivers, and along the Ohio. The company were required to despatch, within seven years at 254 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 255 least, one hundred families to the territory granted them, to locate with- out delay at least two-fifths of the lauds the}- desired to occupy, and to build and garrison a fort at their own cost. Thej- were granted an exemp- FRENCH EXPLORERS BURYING LEADEN PLATES. tion from quit-rents and other duties for ten years, and this freedom from taxation was extended by the company to all who would settle in their domain. A number of Indian traders had located themselves west of the 256 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. Alleghanies, and in order to supply these with the articles needed for their traffic with llie Indians, the Ohio Company built a trading post at Wills' Creek, within the limits of Maryland, on the site of the prjsent city of Cumberland. Here one of the easiest of the passes over the Alleghanies began, and by means of it the traders could easily trans- port their goods to the Indian couutrj' we.st of the mountains and return with the furs their traffic enabled them to collect. Being anxious to explore the country west of the mountains, the company employed Christopher Gist, one of the most experienced Indian traders, and instructed him " to examine the western country as far as the falls of the Ohio, to look for a large tract of good level laud, to mark the passes in the mountains, to trace the courses of the rivers, to count the falls, to observe the strength and numbers of the Indian nations." RETURNED IN SAFETY. Gist set out on his perilous missiou'on the last da}- of October, 1750, and crossing the mountains reached the Delaware towns on the Alleghany river, from which he passed down to Logstown, a short distance below the level of the Ohio. "You ai'e come to settle the Indian lands ; you shall never go home safe," said the jealous people ; but in spite of their threats they suffered him to proceed without molestation. He traversed the country to the Muskingum and the Scioto, and then crossing the Ohio explored the Kentucky to its source, and returned to Wills' Creek in safety. He reported that the region he had traversed merited all the praise that had been bestowed upon it ; that it possessed a pleasant and healthy climate, and was a land of great beauty. The soil was fertile and the streams abundant and excellent. The laud was covered with a rich growth of the most valuable and beautiful trees, and abounded in small level districts and meadows covered with long grass and white clover, on which the elk, the deer and the buffalo grazed in herds. Wild turkeys and other game abounded, and the country offered every attraction to settlers who were willing to improve it. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 257 Gist also reported that the agents of the French were actively- engaged in seeking to induce the western tribes to make war upon the English and prevent them from obtaining a footing west of the moun- tains. The purposes of the English were well known to the French who viewed them with alarm, as the successful occupation of the Ohio valley by the English would cut off the communication established by the French between Canada and the Mississippi. This the French were resolved to prevent at any cost. The Indians regarded both of the white nations as intruders in their country. They were willing to trade with both, but were averse to giving up their lands to either. " If the French," say they, "take possession of the north side of the Ohio, and the English of the south, where is the Indian's land ?" THE FRENCH IN THE OHIO VALLEY. The possession of the Ohio valley was thus of the highest importance to the French. Their fortified post of Fort Frontenac gave them the command of Lake Ontario, which they further secured by constructing armed vessels for the navigation of the lake. They retained their hold upon Lake Erie by strengthening Fort Niagara, which La Salle had built at the foot of that lake. They entered into treaties with the Shawnees, the Delawares and other powerful tribes between the lake and the Ohio, and steadilj^ pushed their way eastward towards the mountains. They began their advance into the valley of the Ohio by building a fort at Presque Isle, now the city of Erie, in Pennsylvania, another on French Creek, on the site of the present town of Waterford, and a third on the site of the present town of Franklin, at the confluence of French Creek with the Alleghany. These rapid advances eastward alarmed the English government, which instructed the governor of Virginia to address the remonstrance to the French authorities and to warn them of the consequences which must result from their intrusion into the territory of the English. To do this it was necessar}- for the governor to despatch his communication to the nearest French post b}^ the hands of some messenger of sufficient resolution to overcome the natural dangers of such an undertaking, and 17 L>r.S THK FRl'.Nni AND INDIAN WAR. of sufficient intelligence to gain information respecting the desigr^s and strengtli of the French, and Governor Dinwiddie was somewhat at a loss to find such a person. Fortunately the man needed was at hand, and the attention of the governor being called to him, his excellency decided to intrust him with the delicate and dangerous mission. The person selected for this task was a j^oung man in the twentj-- second year of his age, George Washington by name. He was a native of Westmoreland Count)-, Virginia, where he was born on the twent}-- second of Februar)', 1732. He was a great grandson of the Colonel lohu Washington, whom we have noticed as the leader of an expedition against the Indians in the time of Sir William Berkeley. His father, Augustine Washington, was a wealthy planter, but his death, when George was eleven j^ears old, deprived his son of his care, and also of the means of acquiring an education. WASHINGTON'S EARLY LIFE. He soon acquired all the learning that it was possible to gain at a country school, from which he passed to an academy of somewhat higher grade, where he devoted himself principally to the study of mathematics. His half-brother, Lawrence, who was fourteen years older than himself,, had received a careful education and directed the studies of his 3'ounger. brother, to whom he was devotedlj^ attached. Though deprived of the care of his father at such an early age, it was the good fortune of George Washington to possess in his mother a guide well qualified to fill the place of both parents to her fatherless children. She was a woman of rare good sense, of great decision of character, and one whose life was guided by the most earnest Christiau urinciple. Her tenderness and sweet womanlj' qualities won the de- voted love of her children, and her firmness enforced their obedience. From her, George inherited a quick and ardent temper, and from her he learned the lesson of self-control, which enabled him to govern it. As a bo}', Washington was noted for his truthfulness, his courage and his generosity. He was both liked and respected b}' his school- mates, and such was their confidence in his fairness and good judgment THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 259 that lie was usually chosen the arbiter of their boyish disputes. He joined heartily in their sports and was noted for his skill in athletic exercises. He was a fearless rider and a good hunter, and by his fondness for manly sports developed his naturally vigorous bod}' to a high degree of strength. He was cheerful and genial in temper, though reserved and grave in manner. He earl}^ acquired habits of industrj'- and order, and there are still existing many evidences of the careful and systematic manner iu which he discharged every duty assigned him at this early age. At the age of fourteen it was decided that he should enter the navy, and his brother Lawrence, who had served with credit in that branch of the royal service, had no diflBcult}' in obtaining for him a midshipman's warrant. The ship he was to join lay in the Potomac, and his trunk was sent on board ; but at the last moment his mother, dreading the effect of the temptation of a seaman's life upon a boy so young, appealed to him by his affection for her to remain with her. Washington was sorely disappointed, but he yielded cheerfully to his mother's wish. HOME AT MOUNT VERNON. The marriage of his brother Lawrence gave to the young man a second home at Mount Vernon, where he passed a large part of his time. Here he was brought into constant contact with the most cultivated and refined societ}- of Virginia, an association which had a happy influence upon the formation of his character. There also he formed the acquaintance and won the friendship of Lord Fairfax, the grandson of Lord Culpepper, and the inheritor of Culpepper's vast estates in Virginia, which comprised about one-seventh of the area of the state of Virginia as it existed prior to the separation of West Virginia in 1861. Lord Fairfax conceived a great fondness for the young man, and took a deep interest in his future welfare. Washington, iipon leaving school, had chosen the profession of a ■surveyor as his future avocation, and soon after his first meeting with Lord Fairfax was employed by that nobleman to surve}'- the lands belong- ing to him, many of which had been occupied by settlers without right or title. It was an arduous and responsible task, and Washington, who 260 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. was just entering his seven teentli year, seemed almost too young for it ; but " Lord Thomas " had satisfied himself of his young friend's capability for it, and the result justified the opinion he had formed. His work was done with care and accuracy, and his measurements were so exact that they are still relied upon. His life as a survej'or was in many respects a hard one, but he enjo3'ed it. It gave new vigor to his naturally robust coustitution and his splendid figure, and while 3'et a youth he acquired the appearance and habits of mature manhood. He also learned forest life in all its various phases, and by his constant intercourse with the hunters and Indians, gained a knowledge of the character and habits of these wild men which in after 3'ears was of infinite value to him. HIS FAVORITE BOOKS. During his surveying expeditions Washington was a frequent visitor at Greenway Court, the seat of Lord Fairfax, where, in addition to the other attractions, there was a well-selected library, of which the )'oung man regularly availed himself His reading was of a serious and useful nature; "Addison's Spectator" and the "History of England" were among his favorite works. Though the heir to a considerable estate, Washington supported himself during this period by his earnings as a surveyor. " His father had bequeathed to the eldest son, Lawrence, the estate afterwards called Mount Vernon. To Augustine, the second son, he had given the old homestead in Westmoreland County, and George, at the age of twenty- one 3'ears, was to inherit the house and lands in Suffolk Count}'. As )'et, however, he derived no benefit from this landed property. But his 1 industry' and diligence in his laborious occupation supplied him with abundant pecuniary means. His habits of life were simple and eco- nomical ; he indulged in no gay and expensive pleasures." In 1 75 1, in order to prepare for any emergency to which the hostilit}- of the French and Indians might give rise, the colony of Virginia was divided into military districts, each of which was placed in charge of an adjutant and inspector, with the rank of major, whose duty it was to THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 261 keep the militia in readiness for instant service. Washington had at an early day evinced a great fondness for military exercises, and as a boy had often drilled his school-fellows in the simplest manoenvres of the troops. As he advanced towards manhood, his brother Lawrence, Adjutant Muse, of Westmoreland, and Jacob Vambraam, a fencing master, and others, had given him numerous lessons in the art of war. Though but nineteen years old, he was regarded by his acquaintance as one of the best-informed persons upon military matters in the colony, and at the general desire of those who knew him he was commissioned a major in the colonial forces, and placed in command of one of the military districts. SENT ON IMPORTANT MISSION. He discharged his duties with ability and zeal, and gave such satis- faction that when Governor Dinwiddle, in 1752, divided the province into four military districts. Major Washington was placed in command of the northern district. The counties comprehended in this division he promptly and statedly traversed, and he soon effected the thorough discipline of their militia for warlike operations. He was discharging the duties of this position when selected by the governor of Virginia to bear his message to the commander of the French forces on the Ohio. Governor Dinwiddle intrusted to his young envoy a letter addressed to the commander of the French forces on the Ohio, in which he demanded of him his reasons for invading the territory of England while Great Britain and France were at peace with each other. Washington was instructed to observe carefully the numbers and positions of the French, the strength of their forts, the nature of their communications with Canada and with their various posts, and to endeavor to ascertain the real designs of the French in occupying the Ohio valley, and the probabilities of their being vigorously supported from Canada. "Ye're a brawlad," said the governor, as he delivered his instructions to the young major, " and gin you play your cards weel, my boy, ye shall hae nae cause to rue your bargain." Washington received his instructions on the thirtieth of October, 262 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. .1753, and on the same day set out for Winchester, then a frontier post, from which he proceeded to Wills' Creek, where he was to cross the mountains. Having secured the services of Christopher Gist as guide, and of two interpreters and four others, Washington set out on his journey about the middle of November. They crossed the mountains and journeyed through an unbroken country, with no paths save the Indian trails to serve as guides, across rugged ravines, over steep hills, and across streams swollen with the recent rains, until in nine days they reached the point where the Alleghany and Monongahela unite and form the Ohio. Washington carefully examined the place and was greatl}^ impressed with the advantages offered for the location of a fort by the point of land at the junction of the two rivers. The judgment expressed by him at the time was subsequently confirmed by the choice of this spot by the French for one of their most important posts — Fort Duquesne. INTERVIEW WITH FAMOUS CHIEF. Washington had been ordered by the governor to proceed direct to Logstown, where he was to hold an interview with the Delaware chief, known as the Half King, to acquaint the Indians with the nature of his mission and ascertain their disposition towards the English. While he was at this place he met several French deserters from the posts on the lower Ohio, who told him the location, number and strength of the French posts between Quebec and New Orleans by way of the Wabash and the Maumee, and informed him of the intention of the French to occupy the Ohio from its head to its mouth with a similar chain of forts. The Half King confirmed the story of the deserters. He had heard that the French were coming with a strong force to drive the English out of the land. A " grand talk " was held with the chiefs in council by Washington, and they answered him, by the Half King, that what he had said was true ; they were brothers, and would guard him on his way to the nearest French post. The}^ wished neither the English nor the French to settle in their country ; but as the French were the first intruders, they were willing to aid the English in their efforts to expel THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 263 them. They agreed to break ofif friendly relations with the French ; but Washington, who knew the Indian character well, was not altogether * satisfied with their promises. On the thirtieth of November he set out from Logstown with his companions, attended by the Half King and three other Indians, and on the fourth arrived at the French post at Venango. The officer in command of this fort had no authority to receive his letter and referred him to the Chevalier St. Pierre, the commander of the next post. They treated the English with courtesy and in- vited Washington to sup with them. When the wine was passed they drank deeply and soon lost their discretion. The sober and vigilant Washington noted their words with great attention and recorded them in his diary. " They told me," he writes, "that it was their absolute design to take possession of the Ohio, and by G — d, they would do it ; for, that although they were sensible the English could raise two men for their one, they knew their motions were too slow and dilatory to prevent any undertaking of theirs. They pretend to have an undoubted right to the river, from a discovery made by one La Salle sixty years ago ; and the rise of this ex- pedition is to prevent our settling on the river or waters of it, as they heard of some families moving out in order thereto." The French officers then informed Washington of their strength south of the lakes, and of the number and location of their posts between Montreal and Venango. The French exerted every stratagem to detach the Indians from Wash- ington's party and they met with enough success to justify Washington's distrust of them. All had come to deliver up the French speech-belts, or, in other words, to break off friendly relations with the French. The Delaware chiefs wavered and failed to fulfil their promise ; "but the Half King clung to Washington like a brother, and delivered up his belt as he had promised." THE HALF KING. 264 THR FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The party left Veuaugo on the seventh of December, and reached Fort Le Boenf, the next post, ou the eleventh. It was a strong work, defended bj'' cannon, and near bj'^ Washington saw a number of canoes and boats, and the materials for bnildiug others, sure indications that an expedition down the river was about to be attempted. He obtained an interview with St. Pierre, the commander, an officer of experience and integrity, greatly beloved as well as feared by the Indians. He received the young envoy with courtes}' but refused to discuss an}- questions of right with him. " I am here," he said, "by the order of my general, to which I shall conform with exactness and resolution." On the fourteenth, St. Pierre delivered to Washington his answer tc the letter of Governor Dinwiddle, and next daj^ the part}' set out on its return. They descended French Creek in canoes, at no little risk, as the stream was full of ice. At Venango, which was reached ou the twenty- second, the}^ found their horses, which were so feeble that it was doubtful whether the}' would be able to make the journey home. THROUGH THE WOODS ON FOOT. " I put myself in an Indian walking-dress," says Washington, "and continued with them three days, until I found there was no possiblitv of their getting home in any reasonable time. The horses became less able to travel every day ; the cold increased very fast, and the roads were becoming much worse by a deep snow continually freezing ; therefore, as I was uneasy to get back to make report of my proceedings to his honor the governor, I determined to prosecute my journey the nearest way through the woods on foot." Taking Gist as his only companion, and directing their way by the compass Washington set out on the twenty-sixth day by the nearest way across the country, for the head of the Ohio. The next day an Indian who had lain in wait for them fired at Washington at a distance of only fifteen steps, but missed him, and was made a prisoner by him. Gist was anxious to kill the savage on the spot, but Washington would not allow this, aud they kept the fellow until dark, and then released him. They travelled all night and all the next day in order to make sure of escaping THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 265 from the enemies they felt certain their freed captive would set upon their trail. At dark on the twenty-eighth they reached the Alleghany, and spent the night on the banks of that stream. The next morning they set to work with one poor hatchet to construct a raft, on which to pass the river which was full of floating ice. They completed their raft about sunset and launched it upon the stream. It was caught in the floating ice, and Washington was hurled ofi" into the water and nearly drowned. Unable to reach the opposite shore, they made for an island in mid-stream and passed the night there. The cold was intense, and Gist had his fingers and several of his toes frozen. The next morning the river was a solid mass of ice, hard enough to bear their weight. Thej' at once crossed to the opposite bank and continued their journe\', aud on the sixteenth of January 1754, were at Williamsburg, where Washington delivered to the governor of Vir- ginia the repl}' of the French commander, and reported the results of his journey. RETURNS EVASIVE ANSWER. The French commander returned a courteous but evasive answer to Governor Dinwiddie's communication, aud referred him for a definite settlement of the matter to the Marquis Duquesne, the governor of Canada. It was clear from the tone of his letter that he meant to hold on to the territory he had occupied, and the governor of Virginia was satisfied that Major Washington's report of his observations that St. Pierre was about to extend the line of French posts down the Ohio. The authorities of Virginia resolved to anticipate him, and in the spring of 1754 the Ohio Compau}^ sent a force of about forty men to build a fort at the head of the Ohio, on the site to which Washington had called attention. In the meantime, measures were set on foot in Virginia for the pro- tection of the frontiers. A regiment of troops was ordered to be raised, and it was the general wish that Major Washington should be appointed to the command. He declined the commission when tendered him, on 266 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. the ground of his youth and inexperience, and was made lieutenant- colonel, the command of the regiment being conferred upon Colonel Joshua Fry. Washington was ordered to repair to the west to take charge of the defence of the frontiers, and in April, 1754, reached Wills' Creek with three companies of his regiment. Just at this moment news arrived that the party sent to build a fort at the head of the Ohio had been driven away by the French. A force of one thousand men, with artillery, under Captain Coutrecoeur, had descended the Alleghany and had surrounded the English. One hour was given them to surrender, and being utterly unable to offer any resistance, they capitulated upon condition of being allowed to retire to Virginia. Immediately^ upon the withdrawal of the English, the French forces occupied the unfinished work, completed it, and named it Fort Duquesne. Tliis was a more important act than either party believed at the time. It was the beginning of the final struggle by which the power of France in America was broken. In the history of Europe this struggle is known as the " Seven Years' War ;" in our own history as the French and Indian War." WASHINGTON HURRIES FORWARD. Hostilities were now inevitable, and Washington, who was on his march to the Ohio when the news of the aggression of the French was received, resolved to push forward without delay. Colonel Fry had fallen sick, and the direction of affairs on the border had passed entirely into the hands of the young lieutenant-colonel. He intended to proceed to the junction of Red Stone Creek and the Monongahela, the site occupied by the present town of Brownsville, to erect a fort there and hold it until he could be reinforced. His force was poorh- provided with clothing and tents, and was deficient in military supplies of all kinds. The country to be traversed was a wild, unbroken region, withoiit roads or bridges, and through it the artillery and wagons were to be transported. The little force moved slowl}- and with difficult)', and Washington pushed on in advance with a small detachment, intending to secure the THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 267 position on the Monongahela and await the arrival of the main body, when the whole force could descend the river in flat-boats to Fort Duquesne. On the twentieth of May he reached the Youghiogheny and there received a message from his ally, the Half King, telling him that the French were in heavy force at Fort Duquesne. This report was con- firmed at the Little Meadows by the traders, and by another message from the Half King on the twenty-fifth of May, warning Washington that a force of French and Indians had left Fort Duquesne on a secret expedition. Washington was sure that this expedition was destined to attack him, and advanced to the Great Meadows and took possession there. On the morning of the twenty-seventh Gist arrived and reported that he had seen the trail of the French within five miles of the Great Meadows. In the evening of the same day a runner came in from the Half King, and with a message that the French were close at hand. Taking with him forty men, Washington set off for the Half King's camp, and by a difficult night march through a tangled forest, in the midst of a driving rain, reached it about daylight. The runners of the Half King found the French encamped in a deep glen not far distant, aud it was decided to attack them at once. THE FRENCH SURPRISED AND ROUTED. The Half King aud his warriors placed themselves under Wash- ington's orders, aud the march was resiimed towards the French camp. The French were surprised, and an action of about a quarter of an hour ensued. The French lost ten men killed, among whom was their com- mander, Jumonville, and twenty-one prisoners. This was the first blood shed on the American continent in the long struggle which won America for the free institutions of the Anglo-Saxon race. Washington was very anxious to follow up the advantage he had gained, and had already appealed to the governoi-s of Maryland and Pennsylvania for assistance, but no aid reached him. Unable to advance in the face of the rapidly increasing forces of the French, he threw up a 268 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. stockade fort at Great Meado^vs, which he named Fort Necessit}-, from the fact that the provisions of the troops were so nearly exhausted that the danger of a famine was imminent. On the third of July, six hundred French and one hundred Indians suddenly appeared before the fort and occupied the hills surrounding it. The attacking party were able to shelter themselves behind trees and could command the fort from their safe position, while the English were greatly exposed, and it was evident to the most inexperienced that the fort was untenable. Nevertheless, the work was held for nine hours under a heavy fire, and amid the discomforts of a severe rain-storm. At length De Villiers, the French commander, fearing that his ammu- nition would be exhausted, proposed a parley and offered terms to Washington. LOSSES ON BOTH SIDES. The English had lost thirty killed, and the French but three. The terms of capitulation proposed by De Villiers were interpreted to Wash- ington, who did not understand French, and in consequence of the inter- pretation, which was made by " a Dutchman little acquainted with the English tongue," Washington and his officers " were betrayed into a pledge which they would never have consented to give, and an act of moral suicide which they could never have deliberately committed. " The}^ understood from Vaubraam's interpretation, that no fort was to be built beyond the mountains on lands belonging to the King of France ; but the terms of the articles are ' neither in this place nor be3'^ond the mountains." The Virginians were allowed to march out of the fort with the honors of war, retaining their arms and all their stores, but leaving their artiller)'. This they did on the next morning, July fourth, 1754. The march across the mountains was rendered painful by the lack of provisions, and after much suffering the troops arrived at Fort Cumberland in Maryland. Although the expedition had been unsuc- cessful, the conduct of Washington had been marked b)^ so much prudence and good judgment that he received the thanks of the general assembly of Virginia. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 269 Governor Dinwiddie had already thrown many obstacles in the way of the defence of the colony, and he now refused to reward the provincial officers with the promotions they had so well earned. In order to avoid this he dissolved the Virginia regiment, and reorganized it into inde- pendent companies, no officer of which was to have a higher rank than that of captain. It was also ordered that officers holding commisssions from the king should take precedence of those holding commissions from the colonial government. Washington, feeling that he could no longer remain in the service with self-respect, resigned his commission and withdrew to Mount Vernon. Soon afterwards Governor Sharpe, of Marjdand, having been appointed by the king commander-in-chief of the forces of the southern colonies, proposed to Washington, through a friend, to return to the army and accept the rank of colonel, but with the actual authority of captain. Washington declined the offer with characteristic dignity. "If you think me," he wrote, "capable of holding a commission that has neither rank nor emolument annexed to it, you must maintain a very contemptible opinion of my weakness, and believe me more empty than the commission itself." THE IMPENDING CONFLICT. In the meantime, although peace still remained nominally unbroken between Bngland and France, each nation was perfectly convinced of the certainty of a conflict in America, and each began to prepare for it. France sent large reinforcements to Canada, and the English went on rapidly with their plans for the conquest of that country. The British government was very anxious that the colonies should bear the brunt of the struggle, though it was fully determined to send a royal army to their assistance, and urged upon them to unite in some plan for their common defence. For the purpose of carrying out the wishes of the home government, a convention of delegates from seven of the colonies assembled at Albany, New York, on the nineteenth of June, 1754. "The Virginia government was represented by the presiding officer, Delance3% the 270 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. lieutenant-governor of New York;" but New Hampshire, Massacliu- setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York and Maryland were repre- sented by their own delegates. The first object of this convention was to secure the friendship of the powerful confederac}^ of the Six Nations, on the northern border, and this was successfully accomplished. The leading man of this convention was Benjamin Franklin. He was a native of Boston, and the son of a tallow chandler. While still a youth he had removed to Philadelphia, and by the force of his own genius had risen from poverty and obscurit}' to great prominence among the public men of Pennsylvania, and the literary and scientific men of his da}'. PUBLIC-SPIRITED FRANKLIN. He had chosen the avocation of a printer ; and bj- his industry, energj' and integrity had accumulated propert}' enough to make him independent. He was among the most active men in America in pro- moting the advancement of literary, scientific and benevolent institu- tions, and had already won a world-wide reputation by his discoveries in science, and especially by his investigations in electricity and lightning. He was not inexperienced in public affairs. He had served as clerk to the general assembly of Pennsylvania, as postmaster of Philadelphia, as a member of the provincial assembl}^ of Pennsylvania, and in 1753 had been appointed bj^ the king postmaster-general of the American colonies. In each of these positions he had served with distinction, and now, at the ripe age of forty-eight, he had come to take part in the most import- ant convention ever held in America. Franklin had long been of the opinion that the true interests of the colonies required their union in all measures relating to their common welfare. Believing that the force of circumstances would soon drive them into such a union, he sought to accomplish that end through the medium of this convention. Accordingly he presented to the convention a plan for thermion of all the American colonies, which union he intended should be perpetual. He proposed that while each colonj' should retain the separate and independent control of its own affairs, all should unite in a perpetual THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 271 union for the management of their general affairs. This confederacy- was to be controlled by a general government, to consist of a governor- general and a council. The seat of the federal government was to be Philadelphia, which city he regarded as central to all the colonies. The governor-general was to be appointed and paid by the king, and was to have the power of vetoing all laws which should seem to him objection- able. The members of the council were to be elected triennially by the colonial legislatures, and were to be apportioned among the colonies according to their respective population. REGULATIONS FOR THE COLONIES. "The governor-general was to nominate military officers, subject to the advice of the council, which, in turn, was to nominate all civil officers. No money was to be issued but by their joint order. Each colony was to retain its domestic constitution ; the federal government was to regu- late all relations of peace and war with the Indians, affairs of trade, and purchases of lands not within the bounds of particular colonies ; to establish, organize and temporarily to govern new settlements ; to raise soldiers, and equip vessels of force on the seas, rivers, or lakes ; to make laws, and levy just and equal taxes. The grand council were to meet once a year to choose their own speaker, and neither to be dissolved nor prorogued, nor continue sitting longer than six weeks at any one time, but by their own consent." This plan met with considerable opposition, was thoroughly dis- cussed, and was finally adopted by the convention. It was not altogether acceptable to the colonies, each of which dreaded that the establishment of a central government would result in the destruction of the liberties of the individual provinces. Connecticut promptly rejected it, New York received it with coldness, aud Massachusetts showed a more active opposition to it. Upon its reception in England it was at once thrown aside by the royal government. The union proposed by the plan was too perfect and would make America practically independent of Great Britain, and so the board of trade did not even bring it before the notice of the king. 272 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. Franklin regarded the failure of his plan of union with great regret. In after j-ears he wrote : " The colonies so united would have been suflB- ciently strong to defend themselves. There would then have been no need of troops from England ; of course, the subsequent pretext for tax- ing America, and the bloody contest it occasioned would have been avoided. But such mistakes are not new ; histor}^ is full of the errors of states and princes." The plan for the union of the colonies having failed, the British government resolved to take into its own hands the task of carrying on the war, with such assistance as the colonies might be willing to aflford. A million of pounds was voted for the defence of the British possessions in America, and four strong fleets were sent to sea, together with numer- ous privateers, which nearly destroyed the French West Indian trade. ARRIVAL OF GENERAL BRADDOCK. In 1755, Maior-General Edward Braddockwas appointed commander- in-chief of the English forces in America. He had served under the Duke of Cumberland, in liis expedition into Scotland against the Pre- tender Charles Edward, in 1746, and was regarded as one of the most promising officers in his majesty's service. Braddock sailed from Cork, in Ireland, early in January, 1755, and on the twentieth of February arrived at Alexandria, in Virginia. He was soon followed by two regi- ments of infantry-, consisting of five hundred men each, the largest force of regulars Great Britain had ever assembled in America. A conference of the colonial governors with the new commander- in-chief was held at Alexandria, and a plan of campaign was decided upon. Four expeditions were to be despatched against the French. The first, under Braddock in person, was to advance upon Fort Duquesne ; the second, under Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts, was to attempt the capture of Fort Niagara ; the third, under Willam John, the Indian agent among the Mohawks, and a man of great influence over them, was to be directed against Crown Point ; and the fourth was to capture the French posts near the head of the Bay of Fundy, and expel the French from Acadia. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 273 It was now evideut that the war was about to commence in good earnest, and tlie colonies exerted themselves to support the efforts of the mother country to the extent of their ability. General Braddock was thoroughly proficient in the theory of his profession, but his experience of actual warfare had been limited to a single campaign, and that a brief one. He possessed the entire confi- dence of his superiofs in England, and his faith in himself was bound- less. He believed that the regulars of the British army were capable of accomplishing any task assigned them, and entertained a thorough con- tempt for the provincial troops that were to form a part of his command. Soon after his arrival in Virginia he offered Washington a position on his staff as aid-de-camp with the rank of colonel, which was promptly accepted. AN INCOMPETENT COMMANDER. Had General Braddock been a different man the presence of Wash- ington in his military family might liave been of the greatest service to him, for the experience of the young colonel would have made him an invaluable counselor. Braddock was in a strange country, and was charged with the conduct of a campaign in which the ordinary rules of warfare as practiced in Europe could not be adhered to. He knew nothing of the difficulties of marching his ami}- through a tangled wil- derness and over a mountain range of the first magnitude. Unfortunately for him, he was not aware of his ignorance, and would neither ask for nor listen to advice or information upon the subject. "He was, I think, a brave man," says Franklin, "and might proba- 1)1} have made a figure as a good officer in some European war. But he had too much self-confidence, too high an opinion of the validity of regular troops, and too mean a one of both Americans and Indians." During one of his interviews with him Franklin undertook to impress upon him the necessity of guarding against the danger of Indian ambuscades. "He smiled at my ignorance," says Franklin, "and replied : ' These savages may indeed be a formidable enemy to your raw American militia; but upon the king's regular and disciplined troops, sir, it ir, impossible they should make any impression.' " IS 274 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The army assembled at Wills' Creek, to wliicli place General Brad- dock repaired in his coach. The bad roads had put him in a passion, and had broken his coach, and he was in no mood upon his arrival to pursue a sensible course. He was advised to employ Indians as scouts on the march, or to use them to protect a force of Pennsylvauiaus who were making a road over the mountains for the passage of the army, but he refused to do either. Washington urged him to abandon his wagon- WILLS- CREEK NARROWS, MARYLAND. train, to use pack-horses in place of these vehicles, and to move with as little baggage as possible. Braddock ridiculed this suggestion. Neither he nor any of his oiiicers would consent to be separated from their cum- brous baggage, or to dispense with any of the luxuries they had been used to. A month was lost at Wills' Creek, and in June the army began its march. It was greatly impeded by the diflSculty of dragging the wagons and artillery over roads filled with the stumps of trees and with rocks. Such little progress was made that Braddock, greatl}- disheartened, privately asked Washington to advise him what to do. As it was known THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 275 that the garrison at Fort Duquesne was small, Washington advised him to hasten forward with a division of the army, in light marching order, and seize the fort before reinforcements could arrive from Canada. Braddock accordingly detached a division of twelve hundred men and ten pieces of cannon, with a train of pack-horses to carry the baggage, and pushed on in advance with them, leaving Colonel Dunbar to bring up the main division as promptly as possible. A famous hunter and Indian fighter, named Captain Jack, who was regarded as the most experienced man in savage warfare in the colonies, now offered his ser- vices and those of his men to Braddock to act as scouts. Braddock received him with frigid courtesy, and refused his offer, saying that he " had experienced troops upon whom he could rely for all purposes." THE ARMY'S SLOW ADVANCE. Instead of pushing on with energy with his advance division, Braddock moved very slowly, gaining but a little more than three miles a day. "They halt," wrote Washington, "to level every mole hill and to erect a bridge over every brook." On the eighth of July the army reached the east bank of the Monongahela, about fifteen miles above Fort Duquesne, having taken about double the necessary time in the march from Wills' Creek. On the same day Washington, who had been ill for some days, and was still unwell, rejoined Braddock. Early on the morning of the ninth of July the march was resumed. The Monongahela was forded a short distance below the mouth of the Youghiogheny, and the advance continued along the southern bank of that river. About noon the Monongahela was forded again, and the army was planted upon the strip of land between the rivers which form the Ohio. Washington was well convinced that the French and Indians were informed of the movements of the army and would seek to interfere with it before its arrival before the fort, which was only ten miles distant, and urged Braddock to throw in advance the Virginia Rangers, three hundred strong, as they were experienced Indian fighters. Braddock angrily rebuked his aide, and as if to make the rebuke 276 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. more pointed, ordered the Virginia troops and other provincials to take position in the rear of the regulars. The general was full}^ convinced of the ability of his trained troops to take care of themselves. They made a gallant show as they marched along with their gay uniforms, their burnished arms and flying colors, and their drums beating a livelv march. Washington could not repress his admiration at the brilliant sight, nor his anxiety for the result. In the meantime the French at Fort Duquesne had been informed by their scouts of Braddock's movements, and had resolved to ambus- I DISASTROUS DEFEAT OF GENERAL RRADDOCK. cade him on his march. Early on the morning of the ninth a force of about two hundred and thirty French and Canadians and six hundred and thirty-seven Indians, under De Beaujeu, the commandant at Fort Duquesne, was despatched with orders to occupy a designated spot and attack the enemy upon their approach. Before reaching it, about two o'clock in the afternoon, they encountered the advance force of the English army, under Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas Gage, and at once attacked them with spirit. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 277 The English army at this moment was moving along a narrow road, abont twelve feet in width, with scarcely a scont thrown out in advance or upon the flanks. The engineer who was locating the road was the first to discover the enemy, and called out : "French and Indians ! " Instantly a heavy fire was opened upon Gage's force, and his indecision allowed the French and Indians to seize a commanding ridge, from which they maintained their attack with spirit. There, concealed among trees, they were almost invisible to the English, who were fully exposed to their fire, as they occupied a broad ravine, covered with low shrubs, immediately below the eminence held by the French. HEAVY FIRING AND FIERCE YELLS. The regulars were quickly thrown into confusion by the heavy fire and the fierce yells of the Indians, who could nowhere be seen, and their losses were so severe and sudden that they became panic-stricken. They were ordered to charge up the hill and drive the French from their cover, but refused to move, and in their terror fired at random into the woods. In the meantime the Indians were rapidly spreading along the sides of the ravine and continuing their fire from their cover among the trees with fearful accuracy. The advance of the English was driven back, and it crowded upon the second division in utter disorder. A reinforcement of eight hundred men, under Colonel Burton, arrived at this moment, but only to add to the confusion. The French pushed their lines forward now and increased the disorder of the English, who had by this time lost nearly all their of&cers. Braddock now came up and gallantly exerted himself to restore order, but ''the king's regulars and disciplined troops" were so utterly demoralized that not one of his commands was obeyed, and his defeat was complete. The only semblance of resistance maintained by the English was by the Virginia Rangers, whom Braddock had insulted at the beginning of the day's march. Immediately upon the commencement of the battle they had adopted the tactics of the Indians, and had thrown themselves behind tiees, from which shelter they were rapidly picking off the 278 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. Indians. Washington entreated Braddock to allow the regulars to follow the example of the Virginians, but he refused, and stubbornly endeav- ored to form them in platoons under the fatal fire that was being poured upon them by their hidden assailants. Thus through his obstinacy many useful lives were needlessly thrown away before he would admit his defeat. The officers did not share the panic of the men, but behaved with the greatest gallantr}'. They were the especial marks of the Indian sharp- shooters, and many of them were killed or wounded. Two of Braddock's aides were seriously wounded, and their duties devolved upon Washington in addition to his own. He passed repeatedly over the field, carrying the orders of the commander and encouraging the men. When sent to bring up the artiller}', he found it surrounded b}^ Indians, its commander, Sir Peter Halket, killed, and the men standing helpless from fear. Springing from his horse, he appealed to the men to save the guns, pointed a field-piece and discharged it at the savages, and entreated the] gunners to rally. FOUR BULLETS THROUGH HIS COAT. He could accomplish nothing by either his words or example. The men deserted the guns and fled. In a letter to his brother, Washington wrote : "I had four bullets through my coat, two horses shot under me, yet escaped unhurt, though death was levelling my companions on every side around me." Braddock had five horses shot under him, and at length himself received a mortal wound. As he fell, Captain Stewart, of the Virginia troops, caught him in his arms. He was borne from the field, though he begged to be left to die on the scene of his defeat. His fall was for- tunate for the army, which it saved from destruction. The order was given to fall back, and the "regulars fled like sheep before the hounds." The French and Indians pressed fonvard in pursuit, and all would have been lost had not the Virginia Rangers themselves been in the rear, and covered the flight of the regulars with a determina- tion which checked the pursuers. The artillery, wagons, and all the THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 279 camp train was abandoned, and the savages, stopping to plunder these, allowed the fugitives to recross the river in safety. Having seen the general as comfortable as circumstances would permit, Washington rode all that night and the next day to Dunbar's camp to procure wagons for the wounded, and soldiers to guard them. With these he hastened back to the fugitives. Braddock, unable to ride or to endure the jolting of a wagon, was carried in a litter as far as the Great Meadows. He seemed to be heart- broken and rarely spoke. Occasionally he would say, as if speaking to himself, with a deep sigh, " Who would have thought it ?" It is said that he warmly thanked Captain Stewait for his care and kindness, and apologized to Washington for the manner in which he had received his advice. He had no wish to live, and he died at Fort Necessity on the night of the thirteenth of July. He was buried the next morning before daybreak as secretly as possible for fear that the savages might find and violate his grave. Close by the national road, about a mile west of Fort Necessity, a pile of stones still marks his resting place. ALARMING DISASTER TO THE ENGLISH. The losses of the English in the battle were terrible. Out of eighty-six officers, twenty-six were killed and thirty-six wounded. Upwards of seven hundred of the regulars were killed and wounded. The Virginian Rangers had suffered terrible losses, for they had not only borne the brunt of the battle, but had lost man}' of their number by the random fire of the frightened regulars. Dunbar, who succeeded Braddock in the command, still had fifteen hundred effective men left to him ; but he was too badly frightened to attempt to retrieve the disaster, which a competent officer might have done with such a force. He broke up his camp, destroyed his stores, and retreated beyond the mountains. Dis- regarding the entreaties of the colonists not to leave the frontiers exposed to the savages, he continued his retreat to Philadelphia, and went into winter quarters there, to get ready for future operations. The effect of these reverses upon the colonists was most marked. When they understood that Braddock's splendid force of disciplined 280 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. regulars had been routed by a mere handful of French and Indians, their respect for the invincibility of British troops was destroyed ; and their confidence in their own prowess was greatlj' increased by the proud reflection that the only thing that had been done to save the arni}^ of Braddock from total destruction had been accomplished b}' the pro- vincials. Washington's conduct was a subject of praise in all the colonies, and brought his name conspicuously before the whole people of America. In a sermon preached a few months after Braddock's defeat, the Rev. Samuel Davies, a learned clergyman, spoke of him as " that heroic 3routh, Colonel Washington, whom I cannot but hope Providence has hitherto preserved in so signal a manner for some important service to his country." FRONTIER HAS NO DEFENCE. The retreat of Dunbar left the frontier of Virginia and Pennsyl- vania at the mere}' of the savages, who maintained a desultory but destructive warfare along the entire border. The defence of this exposed region was intrusted to Colonel Washington ; but he had so few men as to make his undertaking a hopeless one. The frontier settlements of Virginia were destroyed ; the beautiful valle}- of Shenandoah was ravaged with merciless fury, and the more protected regions were kept in a state of constant uneasiness and alarm. Governor Dinwiddle was repeatedly appealed to to furnish more men, but refused, and endeavored to excuse his delinquency b}- saying: "We dare not part with any of our white men to any distance, as we must have a watchful eye over our negro slaves." Pennsylvania met the troubles with greater vigor and resolutioc About thirty miles above Fort Duquesne, on the Alleghany River, was the Indian village of Kittanning, the home of a noted chief named Cap- tain Jacobs. Together with the Delaware chief Shingis, he had, at tlie instigation of the French, kept up a continual warfare upon the frontier settlements. A military force for the defence of the frontier was raised bv the colony and placed under the command of Benjamin Franklin as colonel. He soon resigned, and was succeeded by Colonel John THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 281 Armstrong, a man better suited to the position, and who subsequent!}- became a major-general in the war of the Revolution. Armstrong resolved to destroy Kittanning and the tribe inhabiting it as the best means of putting a stop to their outrages, and called for volunteers for the enterprise. Three hundred men responded. Toward the last of September, 1756, they crossed the mountains on horseback, and in a few days reached the vicinit}' of Kittanning. Dismounting, and leaving their horses in charge of a guard, they silentl}- surrounded the village. The Indians spent the night in carousing within hearing of the whites, and retired to rest at a very late hour. Just before daybreak the whites attacked the village and set it on fire. It was com- pletely destroyed, and Jacobs and all but a handful of his men were slain. The few survivors fled farther west, and the Pennsylvania frontier was relieved of the sufferings it had so long endured. While the events we have related were transpiring in the Ohio valley other expeditions were despatched against the French. One of these was directed against that part of x\cadia, or Nova Scotia, which still remained in the hands of the French. It lay at the head of the Bay of Fundy, and was defended by two French forts. This region was the oldest French colony in North America, having been settled sixteen years before the landing of the Pilgrims, but was regarded by the English as within their jurisdiction. BURNING OF KITTANNING BY GEN. ARMSTRONG. 282 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. lu Maj^ 1755, au expedition of three thousand New England troops was despatched from Boston, under Colonel John Winslow, to attack these forts and establish the English authorit}- over the French settle- ments. Upon reaching the Bay of Fundy, Winslow was joined by three hundred English regulars under Colonel IMonckton, who assumed the command. The forts were taken with comparatively little effort, and the authorit}' of England was extended over the whole of Nova Scotia. The Acadians agreed to acknowledge the authority of their new masters, and to observe a strict neutrality between France and England in the war; and the English on their part promised not to require of them the usual oaths of allegiance, to excuse them from bearing arms against France, and to protect them in the exercise of the Catholic religion. PEACEFUL AND HAPPY COMMUNITY. The Acadians numbered about seventeen thousand souls. They were a simple and harmlesss people, and were enjoying in a marked degree the blessings of industry and thrift. They had begun their settlements bv depending upon the fur trade and the fisheries for their support, but had abandoned these pursuits for that of agriculture, which was alread\- yielding them rich rewards for their skill and labor. Thej^ were proud of their farms and took but little interest in public affairs, scarce!}' knowing what was transpiring in the world around them. It is hard to imagine a more peaceful or a happier community than this one at the time they passed under the baleful rule of England. Crime was unknown among them, and the}- seldom carried their disputes before the English magistrates, but settled them by arbitration of their old men. They encouraged early marriages as the best means of pre- serving the morality of their people ; and when a young man married, his neighbors turned out in force and built him a house, and for the first year of his marriage aided him to establish himself firmly, while the bride's relatives helped her to furnish the home thus prepared. Thus the people were taught to regard and practice neighborly kindness as one of the cardinal Christian virtues. They were devoted Catholics and practiced their religion without bigotry. They were attached THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 283 ro the f die of France by language and religion, and would have been glad to see her authority re-established over them ; but they submitted peace- fully to the rule of the English and faithfully observed the terms of their surrender. Unfortunately for the Acadians their possessions soon began to excite the envy of the English. lyawrence, the governor of Nova Scotia, expressed this feeling in his letter to Lord Halifax, the English premier. "They possess the best and largest tract of land in this province," he wrote ; " if they refuse the oaths, it would be much better that they were away." The English authorities had prepared a cunningly devised scheme for dispossessing these simple people of their homes, and they now proceeded to put it in execution. The usual oaths of allegiance had not been tendered to the Acadians upon their surrender, as it was known that as Frenchmen and Catholics they covild not take them, as they required them to bear arms against their own brethren in Canada, and to make war upon their religion. WOULD NOT BOW TO BRITAIN. It was resolved now to offer the oaths to them, and thus either drive them into rebellion or force them to abandon their homes. When lliis intention was known, the priests urged them to refuse the oaths. "Better to surrender your meadows to the sea," they declared, "and 3'our houses to the flames, than, at the peril of j^our souls, take the oath of allegiance to the British goverument." As for the Acadians them- selves, "they, from their very simplicity and anxious sincerity, were uncertain in their resolves ; now gathering courage to flee beyond the isthmus, for other homes in New France, and now yearning for their own houses and fields, their herds and pastures." The ofi&cers sent by the English authorities to enforce their demands conducted themselves with a haughtiness and cruelty which added greatly to the sorrows of the Acadians. Their titles to their lands were declared null aud void, and all their papers and title-deeds were taken from them. Their property was taken for the public service without compensation, and if they failed to furnish wood at the times •284 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. required, the English soldiers "might take their houses for fuel." Their guns were seized, and they were deprived of their boats on the pretext that they might be used to communicate with the French in Canada. At last, wearied out with these oppressions, the Acadians offered to swear' allegiance to Great Britain. This, however, formed no part of the plan of their persecutors, and thej^ were answered that by a British statute persons who had been once offered the oaths, and who had refused thcni, could not be permitted to take them, but must be treated as Popish recusants. BANISHMENT OF THE ACADIANS. This brought matters to a crisis, and the English now resolved to strike the decisive blow. A proclamation was issued, requiring " the old men, and young men, as well as all lads over ten years of age," to assemble on the fifth of September,i755, at a certain hour, at designated places in their respective districts, to hear the "wishes of the king." In the greater number of places the order was obe3-ed. What happened at the village of Grand Pre, the principal settlement, will show the course pursued b}' the English in all the districts. Four hundred and eio'hteen of the men of the place assembled. They were unarmed, and were marched into the church, which was securel}- guarded. Winslow, the New England commander, then addressed them as follows: "You are convened together ^-^ manifest to you his majesty's final resolution to the French inhabitants of this his province. Your land." and tenements, cattle of all kinds, and live stock of all sorts, are for- feited to the crown, and von yourselves are to be removed from this his province. I am, through liis majesty's goodness, directed to allow you libert}- to carr}- off }-our money and household goods, as man}- as you can, without discommoding the vessels \-ou go in." He then declared them, together with their wives and children, a total number of nineteen hundred and twenty-three souls, the king's prisoners. The announcement took the unfortunate men b}' surprise, and filled them with the deepest indignation ; but the)' were unarmed and THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 285 uuable to resist. They were held close prisoners in the church, and their homes, which they had left in the morning full of hope, were to see them no more. They were kept without food for themselves or their children that day, and were poorly fed during the remainder of their captivity. They were held in confinement until the tenth of September, when it was announced that the vessels were in readiness to carry them awa}-. They were not to be allowed to join their brethren in Canada lest the}^ should serve as a reinforcement to the French in that province, but were to be scattered as paupers through the English colonies, among people of another race and a different faith. On the morning of the tenth the captives were drawn up six deep. The English, intending to make their trial as bitter and as painful as possible, had resolved upon the barbarous measure of separating the families of their victims. The young men and boys were driven at the point of the bayonet from the church to the ship and compelled to embark. They passed amid the rows of their mothers and sisters, who, kueeling, prayed Heaven to bless and keep them. Then the fathers and husbands wex^e forced by the bayonet on board of another ship, and as the vessels were now full, the women and children were left behind until more ships could come for them. "OUR SOLDIERS HATE THEM." They were kept for weeks near the sea, suffering greatly from lack of proper shelter and food, and it was December before the last of them were removed. Those who tried to escape were ruthlessly shot down by the sentinels. "Our soldiers hate them," wrote an English officer, " and if they can but find a pretext to kill them, they will." In some of the settlements the designs of the English were sus- pected and the proclamation was not heeded. Some of the people fled to Canada ; others sought shelter with the Indians, who received them with kindness ; others still fled to the woods, hoping to hide there till the storm was over, The English at once proceeded to lay waste their homes ; the country was made desolate in order that the fugitives might be compelled through starvation to surrender themselves. ■280 THK FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. Seven thousand Acadiaus were torn from their homes and scattered among the English colonies on the Atlantic Coast, from New Hampshire to Georgia. Families were utterly broken np, never to be reunited. The colonial newspapers were filled for man}' years with mournful advertisements, inquiring for a lost husband or wife; parents sought their missing children, and children their parents in this way. But of all these inquiries few were answered. The exiles were doomed to a parting worse than death, and their captors had done their work so well that human ingenuity could not undo it. Some of those who had been carried to Georgia attempted to return to their homes. They escaped to sea in boats, and coasted from point to point northward until they reached New England, when they were stemh' ordered back. Their homes were their own no longer. THOUSANDS FLED TO CANADA. Alore than three thousand Acadians fled to Canada, and of these about fifteen hundred settled south of the Ristigouche. Upon the surrender of Canada the}' were again subjected to the persecutions of the English. "Once those who dwelt in Pennsylvania presented a humble petition to the Earl of London, then the British commander-in-chief in America, and the cold-hearted peer, oflfended that the pra^^er was made in French, seized their five principal men, who in their own land had been persons of dignity and substance, and shipped them to England, with the request that they might be kept from ever again becoming troublesome bv being consigned to service as common sailors on board ships of war. "No doubt existed of the king's approbation. The lords of trade, more merciless than the savages and than the wilderness in winter, wished verj- much that every one of the Acadians should be driven out ; and when it seemed that the work was done, congratulated the king that the ' zealous endeavors of Lawrence had been crowned with an entire success.' I know not if the annals of the human race keep the record of sorrows so wantonly inflicted, so bitter and so perennial, as fell upon the French inhabitants of Acadia. ' We have been true,' the}- said of themselves, ' to our religion, and true to ourselves ; yet nature THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 287 appears to consider lis only as the objects of public vengeance.' The hand of the English official seemed under a spell with regard to them ; and was never uplifted but to curse them." While these sorrows were being heaped upon the helpless Acadians by England, the provincial forces were serving the cause elsewhere with more credit to their manhood. As has been stated, the expedition against the French fort at Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, had been intrusted to General William Johnson. His army consisted principalh^ of troops from Massachusetts and Connecticut. They were joined at Albany by a regiment from New Hampshire. The troops rendezvoused at the head of boat navigation, on the Hudson, in Juh-, 1755, under the command of General Lymau. They numbered about six thousand men. A fort was built and named by the troops in honor of their commander, Fort Lyman. FIVE THOUSAND MEN UNDER JOHNSON. In August, J ohuson arrived with the stores and artillery, and assumed the command of the expedition. He ungenerously changed the name of the fort to Fort Edward. Leaving a strong force to garrison it, he moved with five thousand men to the head of Lake George, from which he intended to descend the lake in boats. The French had been informed of Johnson's movements b}' their scouts. Baron Dieskau, the governor of Canada, placed the entire arms- bearing popiilation of the Alontreal district in the field and resolved to prevent Johnson from reaching Crown Point by attacking him in his own countr3^ With a force of two hundred French regulars and about one thousand two hundred Indians, he set out across the countr}- to attack Fort Edward. Upon arriving in the vicinity of the fort the Indians learned that it was defended by artillery, of which they were greatly afraid, and refused to attack it. Dieskau was, therefore, com- pelled to change his plan, and resolved to strike a blow at Johnsons' camp, which he was informed was without cannon. In the meantime the scouts of the English had detected the move- ment against Fort Edward. Ignorant of the change in Dieskait's plans 288 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. Jolinson sent a force of one tliousaud men, under Colonel Epliraim Will- iams, of Massachusetts, and two hundred Mohawks, under their famous chief Hendrick, to the relief of the fort. Their march was reported to the French, who placed themselves in ambush ' along the road they were pursuing, and attacked them as soon as they had fairl}- entered the defile. The English were at once thrown into confusion. Hendrick was shot down at the first fire, and Williams fell a few moments later. The Eng- lish and Mohawks then began a rapid retreat to their camp, closely pursued by their assailants. The saund of the firing was soon heard in Johnson's camp, and as it drew nearer it became appar- ent that the detachment was re- treating. The troops were gotten underarms, and the trees in front of the camp were hurriedly felled to form a rude breastwork. A few can- non liad just arrived from the Hudson, and these were placed to command the road by which the French were approaching. These 3j arrangements were just completed THK ^.u.l^.\ili•,^ I'i- 1 HE HUDSON. w'heu the fugitives of Williams' command appeared in full retreat, with the French and Indians but a few hundred yards behind them. Dieskau urged his men forward with the greatest energy,intending to force his way into the English camp along with the fugitives. The artil- lery was carefull}' trained upon the road by which he was advancing, and the moment the fugitives were past the guns they opened with a terrific fire of grape, which caused the Canadians and Indians to break in con- fusion and take to the woods for shelter. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 289 The regulars held their ground, aud nuiiutaiued a determined con- test of five hours, in which they were nearly all slain. The Indians and Canadians did little execution, as they stood in dread of the artillery. At length Dieskau, seeing that his effort had failed, drew off his men, and retreated. He was pursued for some distance by the English. Towards evening he was suddenly attacked by the New Hampshire regi- ment, which was marching from Fort Edward to Johnson's assistance. The French were seized with a panic at this new attack, and abandoning their brave commander fled for their lives. Dieskau, who had been severely wounded several times, was taken prisoner. He was kindly treated, and was subsequentlv sent to England, where he died. THE WRONG MAN REWARDED. General Johnson wasslightlv wounded at the commencement of the battle, and withdrew from the field, leaving the command to General Lyman, to whom the victory was really due. Notwithstanding this Johnson did not even mention Lyman's name in his report of the battle, but claimed all the honor for himself. He was rewarded by the king with a baronetcy, and the gift of twenty-five thousand dollars. General Lyman was not even thanked for his services. Johnson made no effort to improve his victory. The expediti(ni against Crown Point, which might now have been undertaken with a better prospect of success, was abandoned, and Johnson contented him- self with building a useless log fort at the head of Lake George, which he named Fort William Henry. Late in the fall he placed a garrison in this fort, and then returned to Albany, where he disbanded his army. The expedition under Governor Shirley, against Fort Niagara, was equally unsuccessful. By the month of August Shirley had advanced no farther than Oswego. Here he received the news of Braddock's defeat, which so disheartened him that, after building and garrisoning two forts at Oswego, he returned to Albany. By the death of Braddock, Shirley succeeded to the chief command of all the royal forces in America. 19 290 THI-: FRKNCH AND INDIAN WAR lu December, 1755, Shirley held a confereuce with the colonial gov eruors, at New York, to decide upon the campaign for the next 3'ear. It was agreed that three expeditions should be undertaken in 1756 : one against Niai-gara ; a second against Fort Duquesne, and a third against Crown Point. In the meantime Lord Loudon was appointed by the king commander-in-chief of the forces in America. He sent over General Abercrombie as his lieutenant. Abercrombie arrived in June with several regiments of British regulars. He relieved General Shirley from command, but nothing was to be done until the arrival of the com- mander-in-chief, who did not reach America until July. Lord Loudon was a more pompous andslower man than Braddock, and more incompetent. A force of seven thousand men was assembled at Albany for the expedition against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and Loudon at once repaired thither and assumed the command. The colonists were confident that something of importance would now be accomplished ; but they were destined to disappointment. The commander-in-chief and his subordinates spent their time in settling the relative rank of the royal and provincial ofi&cers. ROBBED OF WELL-EARNED HONORS. Notwithstanding the fact that all that had been accomplished during ] the war had been gained by the colonial force.s, there was an iniquitous regulation which gave the precedence to the lowest officer holding a royal commission over one holding a higher rank from any of the col- onies. This led to many disputes, and the colonists saw themselves robbed of the honors thej- had so fairly won. This was only one of the many wrongs by which Great Britain succeeded in alienating the people of America from their attachment to her. In the meantime Dieskau had been succeeded as Governor of Canada by the Marquis de Montcalm, the ablest of the rulers of New France. He was a man of genuine abilit}- and of indomitable energy. He reached Quebec in 1756, and at once set out for Ticonderoga, which he placed in a state of defense. Perceiving the exposed condition of the English forts at THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 291 Oswego lie resolved to capture tliem. Collecting a force of five thousand Frenchmen, Canadians and Indians, he crossed the lake from Frontenac, and reached Oswego on the fifth of August. He soon drove the English out of Fort Oswego ; but Fort Ontario, the second work, opposed a more vigorous resistance to him. The garrison held out until their commander. Colonel Mercer, was killed, and they had lost all hope of receiving aid from Albany, when they capitulated. An immense amount of military stores, one hundred and thirty-five pieces of cannon, and all the boats and vessels Shirley had prepared for the expedition against Niagara fell into the hands of Montcalm. The Iroquois had viewed the erection of the forts at Oswego b}' the English with great jealousy, and in order to conciliate them Montcalm wisely destroyed the works, and withdrew into Canada. CAPTURE OF THE FORTS. Loudon had detached a force under Colonel Webb to the assistance of the Oswego forts, but it was sent so late that it was met on the way by the news of the capture of the forts. Colonel Webb, in dismay, fell back rapidly, and obstructed the road to Albany. Having failed to accomplish anything against the enemy Lord Loudon now undertook to subjugate the colonies of New York and Pennsylvania. He was firmly convinced that the colonists needed to be taught submission to the will of the royal commander, and as he had been made a sort of viceroy of all the colonies, he thought the present a fitting occasion to teach them this lesson. He demanded of the cities of Albany, New York and Philadelphia free quarters for his troops during the winter. The mayor of New York refused the demand "as contrary to the laws of England and the liberties of America." " G — d d — n my blood," said the viceroy to the mayor ; "if 3-ou do not billet nn- officers upon free quarters this day, I'll order here all the troops in North America under my command, and billet them myself upon the city." There was no reasoning with " the master of twenty legions," and the magistrates were obliged to get up a subscription for the free support, 2f)'2 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. during the winter, of an army that had passed a wliole campaign with- out coming in sight of the enemy. In Philadelphia the matter was settled very much in the same way. Albany was also obliged to submit,] but the magistrates took occasion to tell the royal officers that they didj not want their services, as they could defend their frontier themselves. "The frontier was left open to the French ; this quartering troops! in the principal towns, at the expense of the inhabitants, by the illegal' authority of a military chief, was the great result of the campaign." It was becoming clear to the colonists that their safet}^ from the depreda- tions of the French and savages was not to be gained by the royal troops, but by their own efforts. WASHINGTON IN THE FIELD. A congress of governors was held at Boston in January, 1757, and it was resolved that there should be but one expedition this year, and that this should be sent under the Earl of Loudon against Louisburg. The frontier posts, especially Forts Edward and William Henry, were! to be defended, and Washington, with the Virginia troops, was to guard the border of that colony against the expeditions of the French from Fort Duqnesne. The last was a difficult and almost impossible duty, for the French from Fort Duqnesne could choose their point of attack anywhere on the long and exposed frontier, while the force under Washington was utterly inadequate to the task of watching the entire line. Leaving Bouquet to guard the frontier of Carolina against the Cherokees, and Webb to hold the countrj'^ beteen Lake George and the Hudson, Lord Loudon, on the twentieth of June, 1757, sailed from New York with six thousand regulars to attack Louisburg. He proceeded to Halifax, where he was joined by position, which j he believed would enable him to hold i'. even with his small force. The situation xi.\r,.\R.\ F.\l LS. of Quebec was peculiar. It lay on a peninsula, between tlic river St. Charles op the north and the Si. Lawrence on tlie south and ea-^l. On these THE FRP:NCH and INDIAN WAR. :]11 sides it was perfectly protected b}' the river, leaving the west side alone exposed. The lower town was sitnated on the beach', while the npper stood on the cliffs two hnndred feet above the water, and above this still rose the castle of St. Lonis. Above the city the high promontory on which the npper town was built stretched awav for several miles in an elevated plain, and from the river to this plain the rocks rose almost perpendicularly. Every landing-place was carefully guarded, and the whole range of cliffs seemed bristling with cannon. The French commander did not believe it possible for an army to scale tliese cliffs. Montcalm located his camp below the city, between the St. Charles and the Mont- GENERAL jAMi;s WOLFE. morenci rivers, and covered the river front of his position with many floating batteries and ships of war, which presented a formidable appearance. The naval superiority of the English at once gave them the command of the river. Tlie French were driven from Port Levi, opposite the city, and upon it Wolfe erected batteries, from which he bombarded the lower town and soon laid it in ashes. The npper town and the citadel were beyond the range of his gnns, and could not be injured by this fire. Wolfe now decided to storm the French camp on the opposite side pf the St. Lawrence, and in the month of July attacked them from the 312 THE FRKNCH AND INDIAN WAR. airection of the IMontmoreuci, but owing to the haste of the first division, which advanced to the assault before it could be properly supported by the second, the attack was repulsed with a loss of five huudred men. This repulse greatly disheartened the English commander, whose sensitive spirit suffered keenly under the dread that his enterprise was doomed to failure. He obtained news of the capture of Fort Niagara and the occupation of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and eagerlj' watched for the approach of the promised assistance from Amherst. EXPEDITION IN GREAT JEOPARDY. It never came, and Wolfe saw that he must take Quebec by his own efforts or not at all. He attempted several diversions above the cit}' in the hope of drawing Montcalm from his intrenchments into the open field, but the latter merely sent De Bougainville with fifteen hundred men to watch the shore above Quebec and prevent a lauding. Wolfe fell into a fever, caused by his anxiety, and his despatches to his govern- iient created the gravest uneasiness in England for the success of his enterprise. Though ill, Wolfe examined the river with eagle eye's to detect some place at which a lauding could be attempted. His energy was rewarded by his discovery of the cove which now bears his name. From the shore at the head of this cove, a steep aud difficult pathway, along which two men could scarcely march abreast, wound up to the summit of the heights aud was guarded b}- a small force of Canadians. Wolfe at once resolved to eff"ect a landing hei"e and ascend the heights b}- this path. The greatest secrecy was necessar}^ to the success of the undertaking, and in order to deceive the French as to his real design, Captain Cook, afterwards famous as a great navigator, was sent to take soundings and place buo3^s opposite Montcalm's camp, as if that were to be the real point of attack. The morning of the thirteenth of September was chosen for the movement, aud the day and night of the twelfth were spent in preparations for it. At one o'clock on the morning of the thirteenth a force of about THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 313 five thousand men under Wolfe, with Monckton and Murray, set off in boats from the fleet, which had ascended the river several days before, and dropped down to the point designated for the landing. Each officer was thoroughly informed of the duties required of him, and each shared the resolution of the gallant young commander, to conquer or die. As the boats floated down the stream, in the clear, cool starlight, \\'oire spoke to his officers of the poet Gray, and of his "Elegy in a Countr)- Churchyard." "I would prefer," said he, "being the author of that poem to the glory of beating the French to-morrow." Then in a musing voice he repeated the lines : " The boast of heraldr)-, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Await alike the inevitable hour ; The paths of glor\' lead but to the grave." THEY SCALE THE HEIGHTS. In a short while the landing-place was reached, and the fleet, follow- ing silently, took position to cover the landing, if necessary. Wolfe and liis immediate command leaped ashore and secured the pathway. The light infantry, who were carried b}- the tide a little below the path, clambered up the side of the heights, sustaining themselves by clinging to the roots and shrubs which lined the precipitous face of the hill. The}' reached the summit and drove off the picket-guard after a slight skirmish. The rest of the troops ascended in safety by the pathway, and a battery of two guns was abandoned on the left to Colonel Howe. Having gained the heights, Wolfe moved forward rapidh' to clear the forest, and by daybreak his army was drawn up on the Heights of Abra- ham, in the rear of the city. Montcalm was speedil}- informed of the presence of the English. " It can be but a small party come to burn a few houses and retire," he answered incredulously. A brief examination satisfied him of his danger, and he exclaimed in amazement : " Then they have at last got to the weak side of this miserable garrison. We must give battle and ;^ll THK FRKNCll AND INDIAN WAfvi. crush them before mid-day." He at once dispatched a messens>;er for De Bougainville, who was fifteen miles up the river, and marched from his camp opposite the city to the Heights of Abraham, to drive the English from them. Tlie opposing forces were about equal in numbers, though the English trot)ps were superior to their adversaries in steadiness and determination. The battle began about ten o'clock and was stubbornly contested II was at length decided, in favor of the English. Wolfe, tliough wounded several times, continued to direct his army until, as he was leading them to the final charge, he received a musket ball in the breast. He tottered and called to an officer near him : "Support me ; let not my br.ive fellows see me drop." He w^as borne tenderly to the rear, and watc: was brought him to quench his thirst. NO^A^, GOD BE PRAISED. I DIE HAPPY. At this nu)nient the officer upon wlunn he was leaning cried out; "They run ! thev run !" "Who run?" asked the d3'ing hero eagerlj'. "The French," said the officer, "give waj' everywhere." " \\'hat?" said Wolfe, summoning up his remaining strength, '' do they run already ? Go, one of you, to Colonel Burton ; bid him march Webb's regiment with all speed to Charles River to cut off" the fugitives." Then, a smile of con- tentment overspreading his pale features, he murmured : " Now, God be praised, I die happ3%'" and expired. He had done his Mhole duty, and with his lite had purchased an empire fin- his couutrv. Monckton, the second in rank, having been wounded, the command devolved upon General Townshend, a brave officer, but incapable of fol- lowing up such a success with vigor. He recalled the troops from the pur- suit and contented himself with the possession of the battlefield. At this moment De Bougainville arrived with his division, but Townshend de- clined to renew the engagement. Montcalm had borne himself heroically during the battle, and had done all that a brave and skillful commander could do to win the victor}'. As he was endeavoring to rally his troops at their final repulse, he was THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 315 wounded for the second time, and was carried into the city. The surgeon informed him that his wound was mortal. "So much the better," he answered cheerfully ; "I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." De Ramsey, the commandant of the post asked his advice about the defence of the city. " To your keeping," answered Montcalm, "I com- DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE BEFORE QUEBEC, mend the honor of France. I will neither give orders nor interfere any further. I have business of greater moment to attend to. My time is short. I shall pass the night with God, and prepare myself for death." He then wrote a letter to the English commander, commending the French prisoners to his generosity, and at five o'clock on the morning of the fourteenth his spirit passed away. Succeeding generations have paid his memory' the honor it deserves, and on the spot where the fate of Quebec was decided the people of Canada have erected, to conimem- MO TIIK 1-RI':Nl'II and INDIAN WAR. oraU- the luToisin of llu' conqueror and the conquered, a noble niouu- nicul inscribed uilli ihc names of W'oi.l-'K and MoNTCALAl. KING GEORGE III. The French lost five hundred killed aud one thousand prisoners, while the loss of the English was six hundred in killed and wounded. l"'ive days afterward, on the eighteenth of September, the city aud gar- rison of Quebec surrendered to General Townshcud. The capture of this great stronghold was hailed with rejoicings in both America and Eng- land. Congratulations were showered upon Pitt, who modestly put THE FRENCH AND INlJlAN' WAR. :'.17 them aside with the reverent remark : " I will aim to serve my country ; hut the more a man is versed in l)iisiness, the more he finds the hand of Providence everywhere." In April, 1760, De Levi, the French commander at Montreal, attacked Quebec with a force of ten thousand men, hoping to reduce it before the arrival of reinforcements from England. Murray, the English commander, marched out with three thousand men to attack him, and in a severe battle, on the twenty-sixth of April, was defeated and driven back to the city with a loss of one thousand men. The French then laid siege to Quebec, but on the ninth of May an English fleet arrived to its relief, and De Levi was obliged to withdraw to Montreal. SURRENDER OP" MONTREAL. In September, Montreal itself was invested b}' a powerful foi'ce under General Amherst. Seeing that there was no hope of resi.stance, the French commander surrendered the town on the eighth of Septem- ber, 1760. With this capture Canada passed entirely into the hands of the English. Detroit and the other posts on the lakes were soon given up by the French, and the dominion of France in America was confined to the valley of the Mississippi. There were no further hostilities between the English and French. The French and Indian war was closed by the treaty of Paris, on the tenth of February, 1763. By this treaty Great Britain obtained all the French territory east of the Mississippi, with the exception of the island of New Orleans, the northern boundary of which was the rivers Iberville and Amite, and Lakes Manrepas and Pontchartrain. I'lorida was ceded to England by Spain in exchange for Havana. France ceded to Spain the island of New Orleans and all Louisiana west of the Mississippi. Thus Great Britain was mistress of the whole of the vast region east of the Mississippi, with the exception of the island of New Orleans, from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. The region west of the Mississippi was claimed by Spain. In all the vast continent of America France retained not one foot of ground. ;U8 nil' I'kl'.NcH AND INDIAN WAR. In the meantime the Iiuliaius of the southwest luul become involved in war with the whites. Tlie Cherokees. who liad always been friendly to the English, had done j^ood service durinj;- the earh' part of the war b)^ protecting the frontiers of Virginia, ami had served also in Forbes' expedition against Fort Duqnesne. They received for their services no rewartl or pay from an\- sonrce, and as they were setting ont for their homes neither General Forbes nor the colonial authorities supplied them with either food or money. To avoid starvation on their march, the)' were compelled to plunder the barns of some of the settlers, and this led to a conflict which rapidly spread into a border war. CHEROKEES PROVOKED TO WAR. Littleton, the governor of South Carolina, exertedhimself to prevent the restoration of peace, and with success, as he desired the credit of exterminating the Cherokees. He was opposed by the legislature and people of the colony, but in 1750 he sent a force into their country, which committed such ravages that the Cherokees, driven to despair, resolved upon a war of extermination. They made a league with the IMuscogees, and sent to the French in Louisiana for military stores. The Carolinians asked aid of General Amherst, who sent them a force of twelve hundred men, principall)' Highlanders, under General Mont- gomery. Reinforced by a body of Carolinians, Montgomery invaded the Cherokee country in 1760, and laid it waste. This tribe had made great advances in civilization, and had settled in villages, and engaged in the cultivation of their lands. Their liomes were made desolate, and they were driven to the mountains. Montgomery then rejoined Amherst, in the north, in obedience to orders ; but the Indians for many years main- tained a desultory warfare along the siuithwestern border. The surrender of Canada to the English was viewed with the greatest disfavor by the Indians of the north and west, who were attached to the French, and were unwilling to submit to the rule of the English. Immediatel}' after the surrender the English occupied all the French THE FRKNCII AND INDIAN WAR. :'!19 posts along the lakes, and in the Ohio valley, with small garrisons. The contrast between these and the French, who had formerly held these forts, soon impressed itself forcibl}^ upon the minds of the savages. The French had been friendly and kind to the Indians, and had sought to convert them to Christianity ; the English were haughty and domineer- ing, and insulted their priests, and denounced their religion, FATE OF THE RED MEN. The French had prohibited the sale of rum to the Indians ; the English introduced it, and finding it profitable continued it, with a reck- lessness of consequences which did not escape the keen observation of the savages. The demoralization of the red man was rapid, and drunk- enness and its attendant vices wrought sad changes in them. The tribes were bitterly hostile to the men who were ruining their people, and all were alarmed l)y the rapidity wnth which emigration had been pouring over the mountains since the capture of Fort Duquesne. They saw that they were about to be driven from their homes, and forced westward, before the advancing tide of the whites. The most determined opponent of the English rule was Pontiac, a chief of the Ottawas. He was a Catawba by birth, had been brought from his native country as a prisoner, and had been adopted into the Ottawa tribe, whose chief he had become by his bravery and skill. He was the idol of his own people, and his influence over the neighboring tribes was boundless. He was styled " the king and lord of all the country of the northwest," and bitterly resented the English occupation of liis dominions. The first English officer who came to take possession of the French forts was received by him with the stern demand, " How dare you come to visit my country without my leave ? " This " forest hero " now resolved to unite all the tribes of the north- west in a last determined effort to drive out the English, and regain the independence of the red man. The plan of operations which he adopted was most comprehensive, and was the most remarkable exhibition of genuine leadership ever given by an Indian. He began negotiations 320 Till'. FRKNCH AND INDIAN WAR. with the neighboring tribes, and induced the Delawares, Shawnees, the Senecas, Miaiuis, and many of tlie smaller tribes, occupying the great region of the upper lakes, the valley of the Ohio, and a portion of the Mississippi valle}', to join his people in their effort against the English. He sent a prophet to all the tribes to declare to them that the Great Spirit had revealed to him "that if the English were permitted to dwell in their midst, then the white man's diseases and poisons would utterly destroy them." The conspiracy was pressed forward with energy, ami though it was more than a year in forming, it was kept a profound secret and was undiscovered. PLOT TO SEIZE THE FORT AND MASSACRE THE GARRISON. The principal post on the upper lakes was Detroit. It was sur- rounded b}'' a numerous French population engaged in agriculture and trading. It was the centre of the trade of this region, audits possession was of the highest importance to the English. Pontiac was anxioiis to obtain possession of this fort and sent word to Major Gladwin, the com- mandant, that he was coming on a certain day, with his warriors, to liave a talk with him. The chief was resolved to make this visit the occasion of seizing the fort and massacring the garrison, and he and his warriors selected for the attempt cut down their rifles to a length which enabled them to conceal them under their blankets, in order to enter the fort with their arms. The plot was revealed to Gladwin b\- an Indian girl, whose aff"ections had been won by one of the English officers, and when Pontiac and his warriors repaired to the fort for their "talk" Gladwin made him aware that his conspirac}' was discovered, and ver}^ unwisely permitted him to leave the fort in safety. Pontiac now threw off the mask of friendship and boldly attacked Detroit. This was a signal for a general war. In about three weeks time the savages surprised and captured every fort west of Niagara, with the exception of Detroit and Pittsburg. The garrisons were, with a few exceptions, put to death. Over one hundred traders were killed and < O o <■ o (-. CO W H P < U P o o H LP. 321 322 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. scalped in the woods, and more than five hundred families were driven, with the loss of many of their numbers, from their settlements on the frontier. Pontiac endeavored, without success, to capture Detroit, and u large force of the warriors of several of the tribes laid siege to Pittsburg, the most important post in the valley of the Ohio. The ravages of the Indians were extended over the wide territory between the Ohio and the Mississippi, and the settlements in that region were for the time com- pletely broken up. General Bouquet, with a force of five hundred men, consisting chiefly of Scotch Highlanders, was sent from eastern Pennsylvania to the relief of Fort Ligonier, which was located at the western base of the mountains, near Pittsburg. Their march lay through a region which had been desolated b}^ the Indians, and they were obliged to depend upon the stores they carried with them. Upon reaching Fort Ligonier, Bou- quet found the communication with Pittsburg cut off, and could learn nothing of the fate of the fort or garrison. VICTORY FOR THE HIGHLANDERS. Leaving his cattle and wagons at Ligonier, he pushed forward with his men in light marching order, determined to ascertain if Pittsburg still held out. He had to fight his way through the Indians, who turned aside from the siege of the fort and ambushed the Highlanders at nearly every step. They were overwhelmingly defeated by the gallant High- landers, for Bouquet was now a veteran Indian fighter, and had learned to fight the savages with their own tactics. Their rout was complete, and Bouquet reached Pittsburg in safety, to the great joy of the garrison. Bouquet's victory was decisive. The Indians were utterly dis- heartened and fled westward ; and from that day the Ohio valley was freed from their violence. The tide of emigration once more began to flow over the mountains, and this time it was to know no cessation. The tribes concerned in Pontiac's conspiracy lost hope, and were overawed by THE FRENCH AND INOIAN WAR. 323 the preparations of the English for their destruction, and began to with- di^aw from the confederacy and make peace with the whites. Pontiac soon found himself deserted by all his followers, even by his own people ; but his proud spirit would not brook the thought of submission. He would make no treat}^ ; he was the mortal foe of the English, and would never acknowledge their rule. Leaving his home and his people, he set out for the country of the Illinois, for the purpose of stirring up the more distant tribes to war. A proclamation from Lord Amherst offered a reward for his murder, and he soon fell, the vic- tim of the hired assassin. The long war was over. It had brought both loss and gain to the colonies. It had involved them in an expenditure of sixteen million dollars, of which sum but five million dollars had been refunded by the English governmeut. Thus the debts of the colonies were greatly in- creased. Thirty thousand men had been killed, or had died from wounds or disease during the war, and the sufferings of the settlers along the extended and exposed frontiers had been almost incalculable. FORTUNES MADE FROM WAR. On the other hand, the war had greatly increased the business of the colonies, especially in those of the north. Large sums had been spent in America by Great Britain for the support of her armies and fleets, and many fortunes were built up by enterprising men during this period. Above all the Americans had been taught their own strength, and the value of united action. They had often proved their superiority to the regular troops of the English army, aud had learned valuable lessons in the art of war. In the long struggle Washington, Gates, Morgan, Montgomery, Stark, Putnam and others were trained for the great work which was to be required of them in future years. The colonies were bound together by a common grievance, arising out of the haughty contempt with which the royal commanders treated the provincial troops, and sacrificed their interests to those of the regulars. The lesson that the colonies could do without the assistance 324 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. of Eugland, aud that their true interests demanded a separation from her, was deeply implanted in the minds of many of the leading men. Another gain for the colonies was a positive increase in their liberties resulting from the war. The necessity of .securing the cordial co-opera- tion of the Americans during the struggle caused the royal governors to cease their efforts to enforce arbitrarj^ laws, during the existence of hostilities, as the enforcement of such measures would have alienated the colonists, and have prevented them from raising the needed supplies of men and money. The colonial assemblies were careful to take ad- vantage of this state of affairs. The}^ made their grants of supplies with great caution, and retained in their own hands all the disbursements of the public funds. They thus accustomed the people to the practices of free government, and taught them their rights in the matter, so that when the war closed the royal governors found that they were no longer able to practice their accustomed tyranny. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: WHICH MADE OUR COUNTRY FREE AND INDEPENDENT. GREAT BRITAIN imposed heavy taxes upon the American colo- nies and the colonies strenuously denied the right of the mother country to tax them without granting them some form of repre- sentation in her government. They claimed the right to have a voice in the disposal of their property, and they regarded the design of Parli- ament as but a new proof of the indisposition of the mother country to treat them with justice. In order to enforce the various restrictions upon the trade of the colonies, Great Britain established in America a large force of custom officers, who were given unlawful powers for this purpose. Parliament enacted that any sheriff or officer of the customs, who suspected that merchandise imported into the colony in which he was stationed had not paid the duty required by law, might apply to the colonial courts for a search warrant, or "writ of assistance," and enter a store or private dwelling and search for the goods he suspected of being unlaw- fully imported. These writs were first used in Massachusetts in 1761, and aroused a storm of indignation from the people, who felt that their most sacred rights were being violated by them. They were resisted, and the case was carried before the courts in order to test their validity. James Otis, the attorney for the crown, resigned his office rather than argue in behalf of them, and with great eloquence pleaded the cause of the 325 ?v2(i THE AMERICAN RICVOLUTION. pcopic. His speech created a profoiiud inipressiou throughout the colouies, and aroused a determiuation in the hearts of his felloAv- citizeus to oppose the other enactments of Parliament which they felt to be unjust, This trial was fatal to the writs, which were scared}' ever used afterwards. "Then and there," sa3's John Adams, "was the first opposition to arbitrary acts of Great Britain. Then and there American Independence was born." The spirit of opposition soon manifested itself in the New England colonies. The manufactures, trades and fisheries of that section were almost ruined, and the people had no choice but to defend themselves. Associations were formed in all the colonies pledging themselves not to purchase of English manufacturers anything but the absolute necessities of life. Families began to make their own linen and woolen cloths, and to preserve sheep for tlieir wool. Homespun garments became the dress of the patriot parlv, and foreign cloths were almost driven out of use. It was i-esolved to encourage home manufactures in every possible way and associations were formed for this purpose. These measures became ver}' popular, and were adopted by the other colonies in rapid succession. THE HEROIC PATRIOT, SAMUEL ADAMS. Among the advocates of resistance to British oppression was Samuel Adams, of Boston, a man in wlioni the loftiest virtues of the old Puritans were mingled with the graces of more modern times. Modest and unassuming- in manner, a man of incorruptible integrit}^ and sincere piet}^ he was insensible to fear in the discharge of his duty. Under his guidance the people of Boston met and protested against the new plan of taxation, and instructed their representatives in the general court to oppose it. But England persisted in levj'ing heavy taxes, and in March, 1765, the measure known as the "Stamp Act" passed the House of Commons by a vote of five to one, and was adopted almost nnaninunislv by the House of Lords. This Act imposed a duty on all paper, vellum and parchment used in the American colonies, and declared all writings on THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 327 paper not stamped to be null and void. Officials who were appointed to collect taxes were objects of scorn and execration, and it was not unusual for the populace to hang them in effigy as a mark of their detestation. SAMUEL ADAMS. The non-importation associations finally limited their opposition to the use of tea, and the East India Company in England found itself burdened with an enormous stock of tea, which it could not dispose of as usual in consequnece of the cessation of sales in America. The company therefore proposed to pay all the duties on the tea in England and ship it to America at its own risk, hoping that the fact of there being no duty to pay /;/ America would induce the colonists to purchase it. This plan met with the determined opposition of the king, who 328 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. would not couseut to reliuquisli the assertion of his right to tax the Americans. Lord North could not understand that it was not the amount of the tax, but the principle involved in it, that was opposed by the Americans, and he proposed that the East India Company should pay HANGING A STAMP ACT OFFICIAL IN EFFIGY. three-fourths of the duty in England, leaving the other fourth — about three pence, or six cents, on a poiind — to be collected in America. His lordship was told plainly that the Americans would not purchase the tea on these conditions, but he answered : " It is to no purpose the making objections, for the king will have it so. The king means to try the question with the Americans." A fast-sailing vessel reached Boston about the first of November, 1773, with the news that several ships laden with tea had sailed from THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. :529 England for America. On tlie third of November a meeting was held at Faueuil Hall, and, on motion of Samuel Adams, it was unanimously resolved to send the tea back upon its arrival. A man in the crowd cried out : " The only waj- to get rid of it is to throw it overboard." The first of the tea ships reached Boston on the twenty-fifth of November, 1773. A meeting of the citizens was held at Faneuil Hall, and it was ordered that the vessel should be moored to the wharf, and a guard of twent}-- five citizens was placed over her to see that no tea was removed. THROWING THE TEA OVERBOARD IN BOSTON HARBOR. On the sixteenth of December another meeting was held. Samuel Adams arose and gave the signal for action that had been determined upon by saying : " This meeting can do nothing more to save the coun- try." Instantly a shout rang through the room, and a band of forty or fifty men " dressed like Mohawk Indians," with their faces blackened to prevent recognition, hastened from the meeting to the wharf where the ships were moored. A guard was posted to prevent the intrusion of 330 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. spies, and the ships were at once seized. Three hundred and forty-two chests of tea were broken open and their contents poured into the water. The affair was witnessed in silence b}' a large crowd on the shore. When the destruction of the tea was completed, the "Indians " and the crowu dispersed to their homes. Paul Revere was dispatched by the patriot leaders to carrj^ the news to New York and Philadelphia. The British government, still resolved upon coercing the colonies and collecting what the Americans believed to be unlawful taxes, sent a strong force of troops under General Gage for active service in Massa- chusetts and wherever else they might be needed. The Continental Congress assembled in Philadelphia and resolved upon an appeal to arms in justification of the position the colonies had assumed. In March, 1775, news reached England that all the colonies had endorsed the action of the Continental Congress and had pledged themselves to support it. LANTERNS SWING FROM THE CHURCH TOWER. General Gage now resolved to take a decisive step. He learned tha the patriots had established a depot of provisions and military stores at Concord, eighteen miles from Boston, and resolved to seize these supplies at once. The military force under his command at Boston numbered three thousand men, and he felt himself strong enough, not only to seize these stores, but also to arrest John Hancock and Samuel Adams, who were lodging at Lexington. Accordingly, on the night of the eighteenth of April, 1775, he detached a force of eight hundred men under Lieu- tenant-Colonel Smith, and shortly before midnight had them conveyed across Charles River to Cambridge, from which place they began their march to Concord. Gage had conducted the whole movement with the greatest secrecy, but his preparations had been detected by the patriot leaders in Boston, and Hancock and Adams had been warned of their danger. The British had hardl}' embarked in their boats when two lanterns were displa^'ed from the tower of the Old North Church. Paul Revere, the chosen messenger, who had been awaiting this signal, at once set off from Charlestown and rode in haste to Lexington THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 331 to warn tte patriots of the approach of the British troops. At the same time William Dawes left Boston lay the road over the Neck, and rode at full speed towards Lexington, arousing the country as he went along with his stirring tidings. Other messengers were sent forward by these men, and the alarm spread rapidly through the country. THE B"?lTTLE of LEXINGTON, APRIL 19, 1775. From Cambridge the British pushed forward rapidly towards Lex- ington. They had not gone far when they heard in advance of them the firing of alarm guns and the tolling of bells. The British officers were astonished at the rapidity with which their movement had been dis-, covered ; but they could not doubt the meaning of these signals. The country was being aroused, and their situation was becoming serious. Lieutenant-Colonel Smith sent a messenger to General Gage for rein- 332 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. forcements, and ordered Major Pitcairn to push forward witli a part of the force and seize the two bridges at Concord. Pitcairn obcN'ed his orders .Dromptlj-, and arrested every one whom he met or overtook save a countryman, who escaped and reached Lexington in time to give the alarm. Pitcairn's division reached Lexington at daybreak on the nineteenth of April. They found seventy or eighty minute men, and several other persons, assembled on the common. They were ignorant of the inten- tions of the British, and supposed they merely wished to arrest Adams and Hancock, who had left the village upon the first alarm. "TOO FEW TO RESIST: TOO BRAVE TO FLY." As he saw the group, Pitcairn ordered his men to halt and load their muskets, and called out to the .\mericans : " Disperse, ^-e villains, ye rebels, disperse ; lav down ynur arms ; why don't }-on lay down 3-our arms and disperse ? " The Americans stood motionless, and silent, " witnesses against aggression ; too few to resist ; too brave to fly." Pit- cairn, seeing that his order was not obej'ed, discharged his pistol and ordered his men to fire. A few straggling shots followed this order, and then the regulars poured a close heavy volley into the Americaus, killing seven and wounding nine of them. Parker, the commander of the minute men, seeing that the affair was to be a massacre instead of a battle, ordered his men to disperse. The British then gave three cheers for their victory. In a little while Colonel Smith arrived with the remainder of his command, and the whole party then pushed on towards Concord. The alarm had already reached Concord, and in a little while news was received of the massacre at Lexington. The minute men prompth' assembled on the common, near the church, and awaited the approach of the enemy. The minute men from Lincoln came in at an early hour, and a few from Acton. About seven o'clock the British were seen advancing in two divisions, and as it was evident that they were about four times as numerous as the Americans, the latter retreated to the THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. • 333 summit of a lull on the opposite side of the Concord river, and there awaited the arrival of reinforcements, which were coming in from the surronnding countr}-. The British occupied the town, and posting a force of one hundred men to hold the North Bridge, began their search for arms and stores. The greater part of these had been secreted, but the soldiers found a few that could not be removed, and gave the rest of their time to plundering the houses of the town. " This slight waste of stores," says Bancroft, "was all the advantage for which Gage precipitated a civil war." MINUTE MEN HURRY TO THE FRONT. Between uine and ten o'clock the American force had increased by the arrival of the minute men from Acton, Bedford, Westford, Carlisle, Littleton and Chelmsford, to about four hundred and fifty. Below them, in full view, were the regulars plundering their homes, and from the town rose the smoke of the fires the soldiers had kindled for the destruction of the few stores they had managed to secure. Not knowing whether they meant lo burn the town or not the officers of the minute men resolved to advance and enter Concord. Barret, the commanding officer, cautioned the men not to fire unless attacked. As their approach was discovered the British began to take up the planks of the North Bridge, and to pre- vent this the Americans quickened their pace. The regulars then fired a voile}-, which killed two of the minute men. The fire was returned, and two of tlie soldiers were killed and several wounded. These volleys were followed bj' some desultory skirmishing, and about noon Colonel Smith drew off his men and began to retreat by the way he had come. One of those killed at the Inidge was Isaac Davis, the captain of the minute men of Acton. He had bidden his young wife a touching good- bye, as he ran to lead his men to the fight. A little later his dead body was brought to her door. With the retreat of the British from Concord the real work of the day began. The country was thoroughly aroused, and men came pour- ing in from every direction, eager to get a shot at the regulars. The road 334 THE AMERICAN R INVOLUTION. b}- which the ro\'al forces were retreating was narrow and crooked, and led through forests and thickets, and was bordered by the stone walls which enclosed the farms. At ever}' step the militia and minute men hung upon the enera}-, and kept up an irregular but fatal fire upon them from behind trees, fences and houses. Flanking parties were thrown DEATH OF ISAAC DAVIS. out to clear the wa}-, but withoiit success. The number of the Ameri- cans increased at every step. Each town took up the strife as the regulars entered its limits. Far and wide the alarm was spreading through the countr}', and the people were getting under arms. By noon a mes- senger rode furiously into the distant town of Worcester and shouted the alarm. Instantl}- the minute men of the town got under arms, and after joining their minister in pra3'er, on the common, took up the march for Cambridge. The whole province was rising, and the enemies of the fugitive regulars were increasing every moment. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 335 Smith hurried his conimaud through Lexington at a rapid rate, and a short distance bej'ond the town met Lord Percy advancing to his assistance with twelve hundred infantry and two pieces of artillery. Percy formed his men into a square, enclosing the fugitives, who dropped helplessly on the ground, "their tongues hanging out of their mouths like those of dogs after a chase," and with his cannon kept the Ameri- cans at bay. He could not think of holding his position, however, and after a halt of half an hour resumed the retreat, first setting fire to some houses in Lexington. The loss of the Ameri- cans during the day was forty -nine killed, thirty - four wounded and five,,^| missing. The British lo- p in killed, wou^ed and /M missing two hundred and seventy-three men, or more than fell in Wolfe's army in the battle of the Heights of Abraham. Many of the officers, including Colonel Smith, were wounded. The news of the conflicts at Lexington and Concord spread rapidly through New England, and was sent by express messengers to New York and the colonies farther .south. In New England it produced a general uprising of the people, and in ten days Boston was blockaded by an irregular army of twenty-thousand provincial troops, whose encamp- ments extended from Roxbury to the Mystic River, above Charlestown, a distance of ten miles. John Stark, who had served with gallantry in the old French war, was on his way to Boston in ten minutes after he was informed of the fighting. GENERAL ISRAEL PUTNAM. 336 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Israel Putnam, a veteran soldier, and as true a hero as ever lived, was ploughing in his field when the courier rode by with the tidings of the battle. He left his plough, sprang on his horse, and after arousing his neighbors rode from his home, in Connecticut, to Cambridge, without even stopping to change his clothes. The Massachusetts Congress tool: energetic measures for tlie support of the army before Boston, and in r few da3^s this force began to assume a more regular character. BURGOYNE'S CONTEMPT FOR THE PATRIOT ARMY. Washington having been placed in command of the army, hurried to Boston from Philadelphia, accompanied by Generals Lee and Schu}-ler. He found about 15,000 men, made up of unorganized, irregular companies. Yet this force " with calico frocks and fowling- pieces " hemmed in within the narrow limits of Boston the splendid army of ten thousand men, commanded by such generals as Howe, Burgoyne and Sir Henry Clinton, which Gage had concentrated in Boston. Burgoyne could not repress his astonishment upon reaching Boston. " What ! " he exclaimed, " ten thousand peasants keep five thousand king's troops shut up ! Well, let us get in and we'll soon fine elbow room." Genei^al Gage now determined to extend his lines and to occupy Dorchester Heights, overlooking South Boston and Bunker Hill, ar eminence rising beyond Charlestown, on the north of Boston. Thi execution of this design was fixed for the eighteenth of June, and i: the meantime Gage's intention became known in the American camj To prevent it, it was resolved, at the instance of the Massachusett Committee of Safety, to seize and fortif}' these eminences, beginning 1 with Bunker Hill. The more prudent opposed this undertaking as too rash ; it was certain to bring on a general engagement of the opposing forces and the Americans were too poorly provided with arms and ammu- nition to hope for success. Others insisted that no time should be lost in securing the Heights. Putnam was confident the}- could be held with proper intrench- THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 337 ments, and that thus protected, the troops could be relied upon to hold their position. The great scarcity of ammunition rendered the under- taking one of peculiar daring, and it was necessary to select for the commander an officer whose firmness and discretion could be depended upou. The choice fell upon Colonel William Prescott, of Massachu- setts, and a brigade was placed under his orders. MARCHED AWAY IN THE DARKNESS. Soon after the sun set on the sixteenth of June a force of about eleven hundred men, armed principally with fowling pieces, and can-ying their scanty stock of powder and ball in their old-fashioned powder horns and pouches, assembled on Cambridge Common. Lang- don, the President of Harvard College, one of the chaplains of the army, offered up an impressive prayer, and then the ordef was given to march, and the column moved off in the darkness. No one knew the object of the expedition, but the presence of several wagons loaded with intrenching tools made it evident that the movement was one of import- ance. Charlestown Neck was strongly guarded, but the detachment passed it in safety and reached the summit of Bunker Hill without being observed. The Committee of Safety had suggested that Bunker Hill should be secured, but Prescott's orders from General Ward were to fortify Breed's Hill, a lower eminence, but nearer to Boston, and commanding the harbor more perfect!}'. It was a more exposed position than the other, but Prescott decided to obey his orders. The early morning light revealed to the astonished royalists the half-finished redoubt on Breed's Hill and the Americans still busily at work upon it. The British sloop- of-war "Lively," lying off the present navy yard, without waiting for orders opened a steady fire upon the redoubt, and her example was soon followed by the other war vessels and the floating batteries in the harbor. A battery of heavy guns was posted on Copp's Hill, in Boston, and opened on the redoubt. This fire was well calculated to demoralize a raw force such as that 22 338 THE AMKRICAN RKVOLUTION. witliin the redt)ul)t, but it produced uo effect upou the Americaus, who went on witli their task quietl}' aud with energy. Gridley soon with- drew from the hill, aud Prescott, tluis deserted, and without an engineer, prepared to extend his line to the best of his abilit3^ He prolonged it from the east side of the redoubt northward for about twent}' rods towards the bottom of the hill ; but the men were prevented from completing it b}' the heavj' fire of the British artiller}-. One man ventured beyond the redoubt earl}- in the da}', aud was killed by a shell. Prescott ordered him to be instantly buried, lest the sight of his body might dishearten the men. To inspire the troops with confidence, Prescott sprang upon the parapet and walked slowly up and down the work examining it and issuing his orders. HOUSE-TOPS CROWDED WITH PEOPLE. In the meantime the firing had aroused the people of Boston, who crowded the house-tops, aud every available point from which a view of the action could be obtained. General Gage reconnoitred the Ameri- can position from Boston through his glass, and observed Prescott, who was standing on the redoubt inspecting the work. " Who is that officer in command ? " he asked of Councillor Willard, who was b}' his side. "Will he fight?'' Willard had recognized Prescott, who was his brother-in-law, and replied : " He is an old soldier and will fight to the last drop of his blood." Gage thereupon determined to dislodge the Americans from their position without loss of time, and summoned a council of his officers at his headquarters, in which it was decided to cross Charles River, effect a landing at Moulton's Point, and attack the works in front. Generals Clinton and Grant advocated an attack from the direction of Charles- town Neck, which would have resulted in the capture of the whole American force ; but Gage refused to place his attacking column between the American arm}' at Cambridge and the detachment on the hill. The bustle in Boston as the British prepared for the attack could be distinctly seen by the Americans, and urgent messages were sent to THE AMP:ricAN revolution. 339 I Geueral Ward for reinforcements and provisions. Putnam hurried to Ward's headquarters to urge this demand ; but Ward, who was greatly oppressed by the scarcity of powder in the camp, hesitated to weaken the main body, and it was not until eleven o'clock on the morning of the seventeenth of June that he gave orders for the regiments of Stark and Reed to advance to Prescott's assistance. The arrival of these troops greatly cheered the little band under Prescott, who had been working all night, and were greatly in need of food. READY FOR THE DEADLY FRAY. In the meantime Prescott had posted the Connecticut troops behind a rustic breastwork which he had constructed on the north of the re- doubt. A stone fence ran down the side of the hill towards a swamp in this direction. Behind this the Americans placed a post and rail fence which they had torn up, and filled the interval between them with the new mown hay, thus forming a rude shelter. A part of the reinforce- ments joined Knowlton at his breastwork, and the remainder halted on Bunker Hill to enable Putnam to hold that point, the possession of which he considered essential to the safety of the force on Breed's Hill. About two o'clock General Warren arrived. He held the commission of a major-general, and both Prescott and Putnam offered to relinquish the command to him, but he refused it, saying he had come to serve as a volunteer, and took his place in the ranks at the redoubt. At noon twenty-eight barges filled with regulars, under the com- mand of the British Generals Howe and Pigott, left Boston, and crossing the harbor, landed at Moulton's Point, under the cover of a heavy fire from the shipping. General Howe now discovered that the American position was stronger than he had supposed, and sent over to General Gage for reinforcements. While awaiting their arrival he refreshed his men with provisions and grog. His reinforcements having arrived. General Howe found himself at the head of over two thousand veteran troops splendidly equipped in every respect. Opposed to him were about fifteen hundred imperfectly armed Americans. Gage had threatened 340 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. that if Charlestowu Heights were occupied by the provincials he would burn the town of Charlestowu. He now proceeded to execute his bar- barous threat, and fired the town by means of shells from the battery on Copp's Hill hoping that the flames and smoke would screen the approach vTTLE OF BUNKER : .. of his attacking party under General Howe. A change of wind pre- vented this, however, and carried the smoke in the opposite direction. About half past two o'clock on the afternoon of the seventeenth of June, General Howe gave the order to advance. One di\'ision. under General Pigott, was ordered to storm the redoubt, while the other was led by General Howe in person against the rail fence, for the purpose of turning the American left flank and cutting off" the retreat of the force in the redoubt. Prescott passed along his line as he saw the advance of I THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 341 the enem\^, and encouraged his men with his cheering words. " The red coats," he said, " will never reach the redoubt if you will but with- hold your fire till I give the order, and be careful not to shoot over their heads." Putnam had come down to the rail fence to encourage the men posted there, and as he saw the advance of the enemy, called out to the troops : "Wait till you see the white of their eyes ; aim at their waist- baud ; pick off the handsome coats." SPLENDID VALOR OF THE AMERICANS. The British advanced in splendid style up the side of the hill, firing rapidly as they moved on. The Americans awaited their advance in a deep silence. As Pigott's division came within forty j^ards of the redoubt, the defendei's levelled their guns and took a steady aim. A minute or two later Prescott gave the command, " Fire !" A sheet of flame broke from the rampart and tore great gaps in the English lines, which reeled and staggered back down the hill. The ofiicers exerted themselves gal- lantly to rally the men, and once more the line advanced. This time the Americans suffered them to come nearer, and again drove them back with a fatal fire before which whole ranks went down. They broke in such confusion that Pigott himself ordered a retreat. The division under General Howe was equall}- unfortunate. It was suffered to advance within thirty yards of the rail fence, and was then driven back by a fire which broke it in confusion. The British retired to the shore from which they had started. Greatly astonished, but not disheartened by his repulse. General Howe reformed his line, and after an interval of fifteen minutes moved off again against the works, his plan being the same as that of the first assault. This time the Americans reserved their fire as before, and once more sent the whole British line reeling and broken down the hill. Officers on the English side who had been in many engagements subse- quently declared that they had never seen such firing in any battle in which they had been engaged. A deafening cheer from the patriot line greeted the repulse of the enemy. " If we can drive them back once 342 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. more," cried Prescott, " tliey cannot rally again." A shout from the redoubt answered him. " We are ready for the red coats again ! " General Clinton had witnessed the repulse of the regulars from his position on Copp's Hill, and was filled with astonishment and indigna- tion at the sight. Without waiting for orders he crossed over to Charles- town with reinforcements, and offered his services to General Howe as a volunteer. Many of the English officers were opposed to another attack ; but as it was learned that the ammunition of the Americans was very low, Howe resolved to storm the works with the bayonet, and this time to break through the open space between the redoubt and the rail fence breastwork. His men were ordered to lay aside their knapsacks, and many of them threw off their coats also. A raking fire of artillery drove the Americans from the breastwork, extending from the redoubt into that work, for shelter, and the order was given to the regulars to advance with fixed ba^^onets. DESPERATE HAND-TO-HAND FIGHTING. The Americans were nearly out of ammunition, and in the whole command there were not fift}' men with bayonets to their guns. They met the advance of the enemy with a sharp fire, but their powder hav- ing given out, were not able to check them. Pressing on the British assailed the redoubt on three sides with the bayonet. A desperate hand- to-hand struggle followed ; the Americans fighting with clubbed guns and with stones. It was impossible to hold the work, however, and Prescott gave the order to retreat. The men fell back in good order. The aged General Pomeroy, who was serving as a volunteer in the ranks, clubbed hi''- gun and retreated with his face to the regulars, keeping them at bay by his determined action. The detachment at the rail fence, under Knowlton, Stark and Reed, held their position until their comrades had withdrawn from the redoubt, and then retreated in good order down the hill, thus preventing the eneni}' from cutting off the retreat of Prescott's party. One of the last to leave the redoubt was General Warren, who had borne himself DEATH OF MAJOR PITCAIRN. 3^3 344 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. with great gallantry in the engagement. He had scarcely left the trenches when he fell shoL through the head, thus consecrating the spot with his blood, and leaving to his countrj- a noble memory which shej has ever held in grateful honor. Putnam had gone to the rear before the final attack of the enemy] to collect men for a reinforcement. On his return he met the retreating pro\-incials passing over Bunker Hill. Without orders from anj' one, he rallied such as would obey him, and for the first time during the day assumed the command. With these forces, and a detachment which arrived there too late to take part in the battle, he withdrew to Prospect Hill where he began to fortify his position. The British made no effort to pursue him, but contented themselves with occupying Breed's and Bun- ker Hills. In this battle the Americans lost four hundred and fifty men I killed, wounded and prisoners. The British, out of a force of less than three thousand, lost one thousand and fifty-four, including eighty-three i oflScers, thirteen of whom were killed. Among the killed was Major Pitcairn, who had ordered his men to fire on the patriots at Lexington. The victory was dearlj^ bought by the British. HELD THEIR GROUND AGAINST GREAT ODDS. In its moral effects the battle was worth as much to the Americans I as a success. It taught them that undisciplined provincials could hold their ground against the king's regulars, and inspired them with a con- fidence iu their own ability to maintain the struggle. They had held their ground against t\\4ce their number, and were driven from it only when their ammunition failed. General Gag^ t'as deeply impressed with this lesson, and made no attempt to assume the oflfensive. When the news of the battle reached England the ministers were greatly dis- satisfied with their \4ctory. Gage was recalled, and General Howe was appointed his successor. The winter of 1775-76 was passed b^^ the army before Boston in inaction. There was not ammunition enough in the camp to enable Washington to attack Boston, and the British were well content to THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 345 remain witliiu their lines witliont seeking to raise the siege. The American arm}^ was without heavy guns, and was short of ammunition. Matters were gloomy, indeed. - The people were very anxious that Boston should be attacked, but such a course was impossible. As late as the tenth of February, 1776, Washington wrote: "Without men, without arms, without ammunition, little is to be done." ARRIVAL OF CANNON AND AMMUNITION. Colonel Knox, an American of&cer, offered to transport cannon from Fort Ticonderoga, on Lake Chaniplain. Towards the close of February the stock of powder was considerably increased, and a little later Colonel Knox arrived from Ticonderoga with the cannon and ammunition from that post. He had transported them on sledges across the long stretch of countr}- between Lake Chaniplain and Boston, and had overcome difhculties in the accomplishment of this task which seemed at first insurmountable. The arrival of these guns gave Washington a fair supply of heavy ordnance and put an end to the long delay which had prevailed in the American camp. The regular army had been increased to fourteen thousand men, and had been reinforced by six thousand militia from ]\Iassachusetts. All now was bustle and activity. The newly arrived cannon were mounted to command the cit}-, and Washington was at length able to attempt the long desired demonstration against the enemy in Boston. As early as December, 1775, Congress had urged him to undertake the capture of Boston, and had authorized him to destroy the city if he could expel the British in 1. jther wa}', and John Hancock, who was a large property owner, regardless of the fate of his possessions, had written to him: ''Do it, and ma}- God crown your attempt with success." Wash- ington resolved to seize the eminence on the south of Boston, known as Dorchester Heights. It commanded the town from that quarter and also the shipping in the harbor. Its possession b}' the Americans would force Sir William Howe either to evacuate the city or risk a general engagement for its recovery. ;>-t(; THK AMERICAN REVOLUTION. On the evening of the second of March a heavy fire was opened npon the British lines by tae American batteries and also npon Boston. A number of honses were set on fire, and the attention of the British was fnlh' occnpied in extiugnishiug the flames. The bombardment was renewed the next night. At dark on the evening of the fonrth of March the Americans renewed their fire with redonbled \"igor, and were replied to with spirit by the British, and dnring the whole night the roar of cannon went on, covering the movements of the .\mericans from observation by the enemy. THE AMERICANS CAPTURE BOSTON. A conncil of war was held, and it was resolved by the British to abandon the town. As snch a step reqnired some time. Howe secured the safety of his army by declaring that he would burn the town if his troops were fired on during their embarkation. A deputation of the citizens proceeded to the American camp and informed General Wash- ington of Howe's determination, and in order to save the city from further suftering the British were allowed to depart in peace. They consumed eleven days in their embarkation. They embarked about fifteen hundred Tories with them, and after plundering a number of stores and private houses, and robbing the inhabitants of a considerable supply of provisions, they embarked on the seventeenth of March, and dropping down the bay anchored at Nantasket Roads. They had scarcely left the city when the American army, under Washington, marched in and occnpied the place. The long siege of ten months was at an end, and Boston was again free. The patriot army was received with enthusiasm,, and matters soon began to resume their accustomed condition. By the capture of Boston the Americans obtained possession of two hundred and fifty pieces of artillery, four mortars, aud a con- siderable quantity of ammunition. pro\-isions and clothing, which the British could not carry away. In the meantime Congress had sent General Charles Lee to the south to take command of the troops assembling to oppose Sir Henry THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 347 Clinton, -who was waiting off tlie month of the Cape Fear river for the arrival of the fleet of Sir Peter Parker from Ireland. This fleet joined Clinton in May, and a little later Congress learned by means of inter- cepted letters that Charleston, in Sonth Carolina, was the object of attack. The command of the strong militar}^ force which the fleet brought was to be held by Sir Henry Clinton, to whom the general direction of the expedition was intrusted. Lee hastened at once to Charleston. He found there a force of about six thousand men, from the Carolinas and \'irginia ; but the city was not defended by a single fortification. Had Clinton assailed it at once, it must have fallen into his hands, as he arrived in the harbor on the fourth of June, the very day that Lee reached the city ; but he delaj^ed his attack until he could fortify his own position, and so gave Lee time to erect works for the defence of the city. BOMBARDMENT OF FORT MOULTRIE. The key to the American position was Fort Moultrie, a small work built of palmetto logs, and situated on the southwest point of Sullivan's Island. It was commanded by Colonel William Moultrie, whose name it bore. In front of it lay the British fleet under Sir Peter Parker. Sir Henry Clinton had taken position with two thousand men on Long Island, which was separated from Sullivan's Island by only a narrow creek, and was building batteries to cover his passage of the creek. His plan was to allow the fleet to breach the walls of Fort Moultrie and then to cross his troops to Sullivan's Island under the cover of his batteries, and carry the fort by storm. Lee, who was ignorant of the capacity of the soft, spongy palmetto wood for resisting the force of cannon shot, regarded the effort to hold Fort Moultrie as madness. He stationed a force under Colonel Thomp- son on Sullivan's Island opposite Clinton to dispute his passage of the creek, and took position on the mainland with the rest of his force where he could support either Moultrie or Thompson, as might be necessary. On the twenty-eighth of June the enemy's fleet opened fire on Fort Moultrie, which replied with spirit, and for ten hours the cannonade was 348 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. maintained with great vigor by both sides. The enemy's balls buried themselves in the soft, spongy wood of the palmetto logs, and thus did SERGEANT JASPER AT FORT MOULTRIE, little injury to the fort ; but the well directed fire of the American guns inflicted great damage upon the fleet. The British were finallv compelled to withdraw with heav3-loss, and THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 349 abandoned and set fire to one of their ships. During the engagement the flag of the fort was shot away, and fell outside the walls. Sergeant Jasper, of the South Carolina forces, at once sprang over the wall and amidst a heavy fire secured the flag, tied it to a pole, and set it up again on the ramparts. This done, he rejoined his comrades at the guns. A few days later Governor Rutledge presented Jasper with his own sword and oftered him a lieutenant's commission. Jasper accepted the sword, but declined the commission on the ground that he could neither read nor write. FLEET HURRIED AWAY TO NEW YORK. Clinton made repeated efforts to cross the creek and storm the fort during the battle, but was as often driven back by the batteries under Thompson. At length, the fleet having withdrawn, he embarked his men, and soon after sailed for New York to join the troops assembling near that city. It was a surprise to no one when the first definite action looking towards independence was taken. On the fifteenth of May, 1776, the general assembly of Virginia instructed the delegates of that colony in Congress to offer a resolution in favor of the separation of the colonies from England, and the formal declaration of their independence. On the thirtieth of May Massachusetts instructed her delegates to support this resolution. On the seventh of June Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, offered a resolution in Congress, "That the united colonies are, and ought to be, free and independent States, and that their political con- nection with Great Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved." The resolution was seconded b}' John Adams, of Massachusetts, and was debated with great earnestness. It was adopted by a bare majority of one — seven colonies voting for it, and six against it. In accordance with the resolution, a committee was appointed to draw up a declaration of independence, and, in order that the delegates might have an opportunity to ascertain the wishes of their constituents, the consideration of the subject was postponed until the first of July. Two other committees were also appointed. One of these was charged with 350 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. the preparation of a plau for uniting the colonies in a single government; the other was to report a plau for securing alliances with foreign nations. The committee charged with the preparation of a declaration of inde- pendence consisted of Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Roger Sherman and Robert R. Livingston. On the twenty-eighth of June the committee reported the declaration to Congress. It was written by Thomas Jeffersou, and, with a few verbal alterations, was adopted by the committee as it came from his hand. It reviewed in a clear and comprehensive manner the cause which had impelled the colonies to take up arms for the defense of their liberties, and which now induced them to sever the ties that bound them to Great Britain and strike for independence. LIFE, FORTUNE AND SACRED HONOR. The declaration concluded in these memorable words : " We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of all the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authoritv of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states; that the}- are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of a Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes and our sacred honor." The declaration was debated in Congress, and a few passages, which it was feared might offend the friends of the colonies in Great Britain, were stricken out. The vote was then taken by colonies, and though some of the delegates voted against it, the declaration THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 351 received tlie votes of all the colonies with the exception of New York, which accepted it a few da3'S later. On the fourth da}' of Jul}', 1776, the Declaration of Independence was formally adopted by Congress, and was ordered to be published to the world, and to be read at the head of the regiments of the army. Congress was in session in the hall of the state house in Phila- delphia. In the spire of this venerable building hung a bell, inscribed with the words of Scripture: "Proclaim liberty throughout all the laud unto all the inhabitant? thereof" On the morning of the fourth of July vast crowds assembled around the building, as it was known that Congress would on that day take definite action upon the declaration. The bell-ringer stationed himself in the tower, ready to proclaim the good news the moment it sliould be announced to him, and had posted his little sou at the door of the hall to await the signal of the doorkeeper. IT RANG OUT FOR LIBERTY. When the announcement of the vote was made, the doorkeeper gave the signal and the boy ran quickly to the tower. The old man heard him coming, and clutched the bell rope with a firm grasp. The next instant the glad cry of the boy's voice was heard. "Ring! ring!" he cried, and then the deep sonorous tones of the bell went rolling out of the tower, and were answered with a mighty shout from the assembled throng without. The declaration was received by all the states and by the army with enthusiasm. Thus the thirteen united colonies became the thirteen United States. It should not be forgotten that the declara- tion did not make the colonies independent states, or states in any sense. It was simply their announcement to the world that they had, each for itself, by the exercise of its own sovereign power, assumed the independence which rightfully belonged to it. It had been evident for some time that the next effort of the British would be to get possession of the city of New York. Their fleet already held the harbor, and should they succeed in securing the Hud- sou they would be able to establish a direct communication with Canada, 352 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. aud to Isolate New England and New York from the Middle States and the South. Reinforcements were sent to Washington from Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia and Delaware. These gave the American com- mander a force of about twenty-five thousand men ; but scarcely seven- teen thousand were fit for duty, the remainder being disabled by sickness. Washington erected two forts on Manhattan Island, one just above Kingsbridge, named Fort Washington, and the other j ust below it, named Fort Independence. Kingsbridge furnished the onl}- communication between the island of Manhattan and the main- land, and these forts were erected for its defence, as well as to hold the enemj^'s vessels in check should they attempt to ascend the Hudson. On the New Jersey side of the river, opposite Fort Washington, athird work was erected, and named Fort Lee. Other forts were built higher up the Hudson to hold the river against the enem}'' and maintain the communication between the Northern and Southern States. One of these, called Fort Montgomery, was located at the entrance to the Highlands, opposite the promontory of Anthony's Nose ; another was built six miles higher up the river, and was known as Fort Constitution. For the defence of the heights of Brooklyn, which commanded the cit)' of New York, Washington caused a line of works to be erected on a range of hills a short distance south of Brooklyn, and established there GENERAL NATIL'\NIEL GREENE THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 353 an intrenched camp. General Nathaniel Greene was placed in command of this position, and exerted himself with vigor to strengthen it. When he had matured his plans he was suddenly taken ill, and was obliged to relinquish the command to General Sullivan. The British fleet lay in Gravesend Bay, just without the Narrows, and Washington was for a while uncertain whether they would make their first attempt against the force on Long Island, or attack the city of New York. It soon became evi- dent that the capture of the lines on Long Island would be their first care, and Sul- livan was reinforced with six battalions, all that could be spared from New York, and on the twenty- fourth of August, General Putnam was placed in com- mand of the forces on Long Island. On the night of the twenty-sixth of August GENKK.^L JOHN sui.i.n'AN. the British crossed over from Staten Island to Long Island, and prepared to give battle. Their plan was to engage the attention of the Americans by a direct attack with two divisions, while Sir Henry Clinton, v/ith a third division, was to turn the left flank of the Americans and gain their rear. They hoped, if these movements were successful, to surround and capture the entire force under Putnam. Clinton began his march about nine o'clock on the night of the twenty-sixth, guided by a Long Island Tory. About day- light on the morning of the twenty-seventh of August, the enemy made their attack upon the front of the American position, and engaged their 23 354 Till'. AMKRICAN REVOLUTION. attention in this direction, while Clinton, bj' a rapid march, gained their rear. For ;i while the Americans fought well, bnt finding themselves almost surrounded, and in danger of being captured, thej' abondoned the field and retreated within the intrenchments at Brooklyn. The Hessian troops behaved with great barbarity during the engagement, and a num- ber of the Americans were cruelly and wantonly bayoneted by them. A part of the engagement was fought in the beautiful region now occupied by Greenwood cemetery, a most attractive burial place. SEVERE AMERICAN LOSS. Washington hastened to Brooklyn as soon as informed of the battle, and arrived just in time to witness the defeat of his troops. He was powerless to repair the disaster, and could only look on in helpless agony. " My God ! " he exclaimed, with tears: "What brave fellows I must lose this day ! " The American loss was very severe in this battle. Out of a force of five thousand men engaged, the}' lost two thousand men, a large num- ber of whom were prisoners. The British had sixteen thousand men engaged, and lost four hundred. Had they followed up their victory by an immediate assault upon the American intrenchments, the}' must have carried them ; but General Howe believed that Washington had a much stronger force for their defence than was the case, and encamped in front of the intrenchments, intending to begin operations against them the next day. The twentj'-eighth, however, was a da}' of drenching rain, and the enemy were unable to do more than break ground for a battei'y. On the twenty-ninth a dense fog hung over the island ; but it lifted for a moment, and enabled the Americans to detect an unusual commotion among the British shipping. It seemed plain that the enemy were preparing to enter the East River with their fleet, and so separate the force on Long Island from that in New York. Washington at once summoned a council of war, and it was decided to retreat from Long Island without delay. It was a THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 355 hazardous attempt, for the army under General Howe was so close to the American lines that the conversations of the men could be heard, and the British fleet might at any moment seize the East River. To with- draw a force of nine thousand men across a wide, deep river, in the face of such an army and ileet, was a task which required the greatest skill. ENTIRE ARMY ESCAPED THE ENEMY. It was successfully accomplished, however. Every boat in and around New York and Brooklyn was impressed, and though the orders for the retreat were not issued until noon on the twenty-ninth, every- thing was in readiness for the retreat by eight o'clock that evening. At midnight the troops took up their silent march from the intrenched line to the ferry, where the boats, manned by Glover's regiment, which was composed of fishermen from Marblehead, awaited them. B}^ eight o'clock the next morning the entire army, with all its cattle, horses and wagons, was safe upon the New York side of the river, and beyond the reach of the enemy. Howe was greatly mortified at the escape of the American ami}', for he had regarded it as a sure prize, and prepared, with the aid of his ships, to seize the upper part of Manhattan Island, and confine the Americans to the city of New York, where their surrender would be inevitable. Before proceeding to the execution of this plan, he resolved to make another effort to induce the Americans to abandon their cause, as he rightly believed their defeat on Long Island would be followed by a season of great depression. A few da3's after the retreat he released General Sullivan, who had been taken prisoner in the battle, on parole, and sent a letter by him to Congress, asking that body to send an informal committee, whom he would receive as private gentlemen, to confer with him on some measure of reconciliation. Congress, willing to hear what he had to propose, sent Dr. Franklin, John Adams and Edward Rutledgc to confer with him. They met Lord Howe at a house on Staten Island, opposite Amboy. The only terms his lordship had to propose were the unconditional submission of 3oO THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. the Americans to tlie roj^al mere}-. He was informed that the Americai would consent to treat with Great Britain only as " a free and iudependei nation," and that it was useless to propose any other basis for a settle- ment. Lord Howe thereupon expressed his regret that he should be obliged to distress the Ameri- cans. Dr. Franklin thanked him for his good feeling, and remarked: " The, Americans will en- deavor tt5 lessen the pain you may feel by taking good cai^e of themselves." The report of the inter- view was made pub- lic by Congress, and had a happy effect. It convinced all classes that England had no terms to offer them but such as embraced a shameful surrender of their benjamin fr.anklin. liberties, and this they indignantly rejected as free men. Fearful that Howe would seek to shut him up in New York, Washington left a force within the cit)' to hold it, and encamped with the main body of his army on Harlem Heights, at the northern end of the island, from which he could secure his retreat into Westchester County. The army was reduced to less than twenty thousand men, and THE AMERICAN REVOLUTON. 367 vas disheartened by tlae defeat on Long Island. It was seriously debated vbether New York sbould be defended or not; and it was proposed to )urn the city to the ground, in order to prevent the enemy from securing comfortable winter-quarters in it. Congress ordered that the city should lot be destroyed, but it was evident that it could not be held. Washington was anxious to learn the intentions of the enemy, \'ho still remained on Long Island, and Captain Nathan Hale, a ;alented young officer of the Connecticut line, volunteered to enter their ines and procure the desired information. He proceeded to the British :amp, obtained the information wanted, and was returning in safety- ,vhen he was arrested by a party of the enemy, among whom was a Tory relative, who recognized him. He was taken to Howe's head- quarters, and the next morning, September 22d, without any form of :rial, was hanged as a spy. He met his death with firmness, saying: ' I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." SKILLFUL TACTICS OF WASHINGTON. In the meantime the British had seized the islands at the mouth of :he Harlem River, and had erected a battery on one of them. On the ifteenth of September they crossed in force to Manhattan Island, at Kipp's Bay, about three miles above the cit}-. They easily drove back ;he force stationed there to resist their landing, and secured their position. Washington at once sent General Heath to hold the enemy in :heck, and ordered Putnam to evacuate the city of New York, and retire to Harlem Heights, without the loss of a moment. Putnam obeyed his orders promptly, and retreated from the city ilong the line of the Bloomingdale Road, now the upper part of Broadway. His march was retarded by a crowd of women and children fleeing from the citj^ and was exposed to the fire of the enemy's ship: in the Hudson. B3' great exertions he managed to save his command, but was obliged to leave his heavy artillerj^ and three hundred men in the hands of the enemv. The British at once took possession of New York, and threw up a line of intrenchments above the cit}', from the 358 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Hudson, at Bloomiugdale, to the East River, at Kipp's Bay. The Americans now held the upper part of the island, and erected a double line of earthworks from river to river, about four miles below Kingsbridge. On the sixteenth of September, the enemy made an attack upon the American advanced posts, but were handsomely repulsed by the Virginia and Connecticut troops. Major Leitch, the commander of the Virginians, and Colonel Knowlton, the commander of the Connecticut regiment, and one of the captains at Bunker Hill, were killed. In spite of these losses the spirit of the troops, which had been much depressed by the recent disasters, were greatly cheered. A lull of several weeks followed, during which the Americans suffered greatl}^ from sickness. They were without proper hospital accommodations, "and they lay about in almost every barn, stable, shed, and even under the fences and bushes." BATTLE OF WHITE PLAINS. Howe now began to move his army toward Long Island Sound, for the purpose of marching across the mainland to the Hudson and cutting off the retreat of Washington from Manhattan Island, and at the same time sent his fleet up the Huson. His intention was understood by Washington, who left three thousand men to defend Fort Washington, and with the main body of his army fell back to the line of the Bronx, near the village of White Plains. Here he was attacked on the twent}'- eighth of October by General Howe, who was advancing from the direction of New Rochelle, and who was still hopeful of gaining the American rear. A spirited encounter ensued, in which each party lost about four hundred men; and the British intrenched themselves in front of the American position. Apprehensive of an effort on the part of the enemy to storm his line, Washington caused the troops to spend the night in strengthening the works which covered it. They labored with such diligence that the next morning the British commander decided that the line was too strong to be attacked, and determined to wait for reinforcements. That night Washington silently abandoned his lines at White Plains, and withdrew THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 359 to the heights of North Castle, five miles distant. Howe, unwilling to follow him further, marched to Dobb's Ferry on the Hudson, and encamped. The American war had now entered its darkest period for the Americans. New York was lost to them, they had been driven from New Jersey, and their army seemed melting away. During the painful retreat across New Jer- sey, Washington had exerted himself to the utmost to call in the other detachments of his army. General Schuyler was directed to send him the Pennsylvania and 'New Jersey troops in his command; but the en- listment of these troops were rapidly expiring, and they could not be in- duced to renew them. General Charles Lee was ordered to cross the Hud- with all speed, but he that were criminal. He GENERAL CHARLES LEE. join the commander-in-chief son and moved with a slowness and carelessness remained about a fortnight on the east side of the Hudson, and then began his march with such slowness that he did not reach Morristown until the eighth of December. On the thirteenth, while lying carelessly apart from his troops, at a small inn at Baskingridge, he was captured by a troop of British cavalry. The command passed to General Sullivan, and in a few days he had united his forces with those of the commander-in-chief. General Lee had an abiding confidence in his own ability, and was reluctant to lose his independent comraaud by joining Washington. His natural self-conceit ;}G0 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. had been greatly increased by his success at the sduth, and he was firmly convinced that he alone was capable of guiding the American cause through the diflEculties which encompassed it. Influenced by this feeling, he disregarded the authority of the commander-in-chief, and .subjected him to great inconvenience. He was not untrue to the cause he had embraced, but hi.s patriotism was of a different t3-pe from that which animated Washington. The enlistments of a large part of the troops expired on the first of December, and nothing could induce them to remain in the armj-. Whole regiments abandoned the service, and the handful of re-inforce- ments which was obtained from Philadelphia fell far short of supplying their place. The people were disheartened, and it seemed that the cause was hopeless. A force of six militia regiments in Massachusetts and Connecticut was on the point of marching to Wa.shington's assist- ance, when the fleet of Sir Peter Parker entered Newport Harbor and landed a force on the island of Rhode Island, which took possession of Newport. In view of this invasion, it was deemed best to retain the New England militia at home. MILITARY OPERATIONS IN NEW JERSEY. Washington's force now numbered about six thousand men fit for duty. As the enlistments of many of them would soon expire, it was of the highest importance that something should be done to revive the confidence of the couutrv' before these men should be lost to the armj-. The circumstances in which Washington was placed required a blow to be struck in some quarter. A victory would be productive of the most important moral results; a defeat could do no more than ruin the cause, and a polic}' of inaction was sure to accomplish that. An opportunity at once presented itself The British had ceased their pursuit, and though the)' held New Jersey in strong force, had scattered their detachments through the State. General Howe was in New York, and Lord Cornwallis was at the same place, and was about to sail for England. Both commanders believed the American army to THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 361 be too seriously crippled to assume the offensive during the winter. The Hessians, who constituted the advance guard of the roj'al forces, were stationed along the Delaware. Colonel Donop had his headquarters at Burlington, and Colonel Rahl was at Trenton with a force of fifteen hundred men. Rahl was a brave and competent officer, but he enter- tained such a thorough contempt for the Americans that he neglected to protect his position by earthworks or other defenses. The Hessians kept the country in terror ; they were inveterate thieves, and plundered both patriot and royalist without mcrcj-. They had earned the deep and abiding hatred of the American soldiers by bayoneting the wounded in the battles in which they had been engaged. CROSS THE DELAWARE AT MIDNIGHT. Washington now determined to recross the Delaware and attack the Hessians at different points. A force of twentj-'fof-r hundred picked troops under his own command was to cross the river a few miles above Trenton and attack the enemy at that place; and the same time another detachment iinder Reed and Cadwallader were to cross over from Bristol and drive the Hessians under Colonel Donop out of Burlington. These attacks were to be simultaneous, and wei'e ordered to be made at five o'clock on the morning of the twenty-sixth of December. The division of Washington was accompanied by a train of twenty- four field pieces under Colonel Knox. The river was high and full of floating ice, and the weather was cold and stormy. A detachment of boats had been collected for the service, and was manned by Colonel Glover's regiment of Marblehead fishermeu, who had ferried the army over the East River in the retreat from Long Island. The march was begun just after dark on Christmas night, and Washington hoped to reach the New Jersey shore by midnight; but the passage of the river was difficult and tedious by reason of the floating ice and the high wind which repeatedly swept the boats out of their course; and it was four o'clock before the artillery was landed. The march was at once resumed. Washington, with the main body, moved by a wide circuit to gain the 362 THE AMERICAN RFIVOLUTION. uorlh of the town, while a detachment under Sullivau was ordered to ad- vance by the river road and attack the enemy from the west and south sides. A blinding storm of hail and snow delayed the advance of the troops, but also concealed their movements from the enemy ; it was WASHINGTON CALLS ON COLONEL RAHL. eight o'clock before Trenton was reached. The attack was at once begun, and was pressed with vigor. The Hessians were completely taken by surprise ; they flew to arms promptly, but by this time the Americans had gained the main street, and were sweeping it with a battery of six THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 363 pieces. Colonel Rahl was mortally wounded while leading his grena- diers to the charge, and his men, seized with a panic, endeavored to retreat. Finding that they were surrounded, about one thousand of them threw down their arms and surrendered. The remainder succeeded in escaping and ioining Colonel Donop at Burlington. The magnanimity of Washington was shown on this occasion by his paying a friendh^ visit to Colonel Rahl, who was lying at Trenton on his djang bed. Washington expressed his sympathy for the wounded officer, who, upon his death, is believed to have been buried in the grave- yard of the First Presbyterian Church, where his supposed remains were found fifty years later. ONE THOUSAND PRISONERS, INCLUDING OFFICERS. The Americans lost two men killed, and two were frozen to death on the march. Several were wounded. They took one thousand prisoners with their arms. Thirty-two of the captives were officers. Washington now learned that the ice was so thick in front of Bristol that Reed and Cadwallader had not been able to get their cannon over the river, and had not attacked the enemy at Burlington. He therefore deemed it best to withdraw into Pennsylvania, as Donop's force was still intact at Burling- ton, and the enemy had another column at Princeton, a few miles distant. On the evening of the twenty-sixth he returned to his camp bej'ond the Delaware. The next day he learned from Reed and Cadwalla- der, who had crossed the Delaware on the twenty-seventh, that Donop had called in all his detachments along the river, and had retreated in haste to New Brunswick and Princeton. The news of the victory at Trenton was received with delight in all parts of the country, and men began to take hope. Several regiments, whose terms of enlistment expired on the last day of December, were induced to remain longer. Great was the astonishment of General Howe when he learned of the battle at Trenton. He could scarcely believe that a handful of militia had captured a strong force of veteran troops led by such a commander as Colonel Rahl, 364 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. The war in America had been watched with the deepest interest in Europe, and especially by France. The French government had been convinced long before the outbreak of the Revolntion that the treatment wliicli the colonies were receiving from Great Britain would ultimately cause their separation from her ; and ten years before the war began the Duke de Choisenl, the prime minister of Louis X\', liad sent Baron De Kalb to examine and report the state of feelings of the colonists towards Great Britain. De Kalb was a shrewd observer, and furnished his government with ample proofs that England was alienating the Americans bj' her treatment of them. Choiseul conceived the hope that, by offering the Americans free trade with France, they would be made to resent the course of England even more decidedly-. SERIOUS ALARM AMONG THE AMERICANS. When the Revolution began the French go\ernment was fully prepared for it, and was ready to avenge the loss of Canada by aiding the new republic in its efforts to throw off the authority of Great Britain. It was merel}^ waiting to see whether the Americans were able to main- tain the stand the}' had taken. Tlie news of the defeat on Long Island, the loss of New York, and the retreat through New Jersey, filled the friends of America with serious alarm, and it was generally believed in Europe that the Americans would not be able to withstand the superior force of the mother countr}-. In the eai-ly spring of 1777 it was known in Europe that the American army, which it was supposed had been driven in hopeless disorder over the Delaware without the means of continuing the war, had snddenl}' rallied and beaten a force of veteran troops at Trenton, and again at Princeton, and had recovered New Jersej' from the enemy. This intelligence produced the most profound astonishment in Europe, and was received in France with genuine satisfaction. The Americans were extolled as a race of heroes, and the prudence and good general- ship of Washington were spoken of with the highest praise. The French government now felt justified in aiding the patriots. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 365 but it proceeded with cautiou. American privateers were secretly fitted out, with the connivance of the government, and were permitted to sell their prizes in Frencli ports, and the protests of the British ambassador against such acts were unheeded. The government made secret grants of arms and military stores to the Americans, and three ship- loads were sent out in the spring of 1777. Two of these vessels were captured bv the English, but the t h i r d r e a c li e d America in safety, and its cargo went to supply the de- / ficiencies of the armj- at Morris- town . In the spring of this j-ear the commissioners sent to France by Congress reached that c o u n t r 3" . THK MARQUIS I)E L.'XFAYETTE. They had full power to enter into an alliance with the French king. They were granted several private interviews by the Count de Vergennes, the French Prime Minister, and were secretly encouraged to hope for the success of their mission. As j-et, however, France was not pre- pared to declare war against Great Britain. ■Miti THK AMERICAN RKVOLUTIOX. Tliougli the goverument delayed its action, there were generous hearts iu France who were determined to give all the aid and comfort in ' their power to the struggling patriots. One of these was the youthful Marquis de Lafayette, the heir of a noble uame, the possessor of wealth and a high social position, and the husband of a beautiful and accom- plished wife. He had heard at a dinner party given bj- the French oflBcials at Ma5'ence to the Duke of Gloucester, a brother of the king of i England, the story of the war then going on in America, and its causes, i related by the lips of the ro3'al guest. LAFAYETTE ESPOUSES THE AMERICAN CAUSE, His generous heart at once went out in sympathv to the patriots, cind he resolved to leave his family and all its advantages at home and ; go to the aid of the Americans. He revealed his intention to the Count i de Broglie, a Marshal of France, who regarded his enterprise as Quixotic i and refused to aid him. Finding him determined, the count introduced ] his j-oung friend to the Baron De Kalb, an officer of experience and merit, who had visited America as Choiseul's agent in the last reig:i. De Kalb introduced Lafayette to Silas Deane, then the only American Commissioner in France. The news of the loss of New York and of New Jersey arrived about this time, but did not lessen the ardor of Lafaj-ette ; and, though the newly arrived commissioners, Franklin and Lee, candidly told him that they could not encourage him to hope for a successful issue of their cause, he avowed his determination to proceed. He purchased a vessel, which was loaded with arms and supplies by the commissioners. The French government attempted to prevent him from sailing, but he suc- ceeded iu getting oflf, accompanied by De Kalb and several others. He reached Philadelphia, ofiFered his services to Congress without pay, and was commissioned as a major-general in the American army, though not yet twenty years old. About the middle of Ma}-, Washington broke up his camp at Morris- town and occupied the heights of Middlebrook iu order to watch the THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 367 British to better advantage. Howe made repeated efforts to draw him from this strong position into the open field, where the superior discipline of the royal troops would give him an advantage, but Washington out- generaled him completely, and Howe, finding it impossible to bring on an engagement, withdrew his army to Staten Island. While these movements were in progress the British sustained a serious loss in the capture of General Prescott, one of their principal officers, who had earned the dislike of the Americans by his arbitrary and contemptuous treatment of them. He was commanding the British forces at Newport, and had his headquarters on the outskirts of the town. On a dark night in July a companj- of picked men, under Colonel Barton, crossed Narragansett Bay in whale boats, and passing silently through the British fleet landed near Prescott' s quarters. The sentinel at the door was secured and the astounded general was roused from his bed and hurried away without being allowed time to dress. He was conveyed within the American lines, treated humanely by his captors and was afterwards exchanged for General Charles Lee. BRITISH GENERALS FLEET SAILS FROM NEW YORK. Washington now learned of the invasion of New York by the army of General Burgoyne, to which we shall refer further on. It was evident that Burgoyne was tr3'ing to reach the Hudson. Washington's spies in New York informed him that Howe was preparing to send off the larger part of his force by water, and the commander-in-chief was perplexed to know whether Howe intended ascending the Hudson to co-operate with Burgoyne, or to transport his arm}- to Philadelphia by water. Toward the last of July Howe sailed with his fleet from New York and stood out to sea. Ten days later his ships were reported off the mouth of the Delaware. Washington now felt confident that his design was to attack Philadelphia, and crossed the Delaware with his army and marched to Germantown to await the development of the enemy's plans. About the same time the British fleet stood out to sea again. Its destination was 368 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 369 uncertain, and Washington held his army in readiness to march at a minute's notice to the threatened point. While awaiting the movements of Sir William Howe, Washington LAFAYETTE AND WASHINGTON, visited Philadelphia, where Arnold was in command and was engaged in fortifying the city, to consult with Congress and push forward the measures for the defence of the place. While there he met the newly 24 370 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. arrived Lafaj^ette. Washiugton was an acute judge of men, and at his first interview with Lafayette was deeplj- impressed with the noble and earnest character of the young soldier, and conceived for him a warm regard, which ended only with his life. In the midst of the uncertaintj' attending Howe's movements Wash- iugton received urgent appeals from Schuyler for assistance. He sent liini two brigades from the Highlands, and ordered Colonel Morgan to ioin him with his riflemen, who were regarded as more than a match for the Indians of Burgoyue's army. Arnold was also sent to assume com- mand of a division in the northern arm}^ as he was familiar with the country. Putnam was ordered to prevent Sir Henry Clinton, who had been left at New York, from ascending the Hudson and forming a junc- tion with Burgoyne, and General Lincoln, commanding the militia of Massachusetts, was directed to march with a portion of his force to Schujder's assistance. AMERICAN ARMY ON THE MARCH. As nothing had been heard of the British fleet, Washington was about to move from Germantown into New Jersey once more, when news was received that the enemy had ascended the Chesapeake to its head, and had landed their forces at Elkton, in Maryland, about sixty miles from Philadelphia. The Delaware had been obstructed and fortified a short distance below Philadelphia, and Howe had ascended the Chesapeake in order to seciire an undisputed landing. He intended to march his army across the country towards Philadelphia, while the fleet should return to the Delaware and aid the armv in reducing the forts on that river. He had eighteen thousand men with him, and effected his landing in Elkton without opposition on the twenty-fifth of August, and at once began his advance towards Philadelphia. Washington had but eleven thousand eff"ective men with him, and was in no way prepared to undertake a campaign in the open country. Nevertheless, he advanced at once to dispute the progress of the enemy, and by forced marches succeeded in reaching the vicinity of Wilmington THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 371 lefore tte arrival of the British. Upon examining the country he lecided to contest the passage of the Braudywine Creek, and stationed is army along its left bank. The British ^vere advancing by the main road to Philadelphia, •hich crossed the Brandywine at Chadd's Ford, and as Washington apposed their main effort would be made at this point, he stationed the reater part of his army to cover it. On the eleventh of September the tritisli army reached the creek. Howe ordered General Knyphausen to lake a feint at Chadd's Ford as if he were aboiit to force a passage, 'hile he sent Cornwallis with a strong column to pass the creek higher p and turn the American right flank. This plan was successfully arried out. Washington was deceived by the officer sent to ascertain F the enemy were threatening his right, and was left in ignorance of !ornwallis' movement until it was too late to prevent it. Being out- auked, the American army was compelled to fall back with a loss of svelve hundred men. The troops did not know they had suffered a sverse, but supposing they had merely experienced a check were in igh spirits and were read}- for further action. LAFAYETTE AND PULASKI DISTINGUISH THEMSELVES. Lafayette was wounded in this battle, and Pulaski so greatly dis- uguished himself that he was subsequently rewarded by Congress with le rank of brigadier-general and the command of the cavalry. Sir William Howe did not push his advantage, but remained for NO days near the battle-field. Washington in the meantime retreated ) Chester, and then to the Schuylkill, which he crossed on the twelfth f September, and proceeded to Germantown, where the army went into imp. The men were in excellent spirits, and a day or two later i/^ashington recrossed the river and moved towards the enemy, whom e encountered about twenty-five miles from Philadelphia on the xteenth. A violent rain storm prevented the two armies from engaging, and ijured the arms and ammunition of the men so much that Washington 372 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. deemed it best to withdraw to Pott's Grove, on tlie Scbuj-lkill, about thirty miles from Philadelphia. At the same time he detached General Wa^Mie, with a force of fifteen hundred men, to gain the enemy's rear and cut off their wagon train. A Tory carried information of this move- ment to the British commander, and Waj-ne was himself surprised at t Paoli Tavern, on the twentieth of September, and defeated with a loss of three hundred men. It being impossible to save the city of Philadelphia from capture the i militar}- stores were removed, and a contribution was levied upon the people to supply the army with clothing, shoes and other necessaries during the winter. Congress, in view of the great danger wliich threatened the countr}-, conferred dictatorial powers upon Washington for sixt}' da3's, and then extended this time to a period of four months. Congress then adjourned to meet at Lancaster, from which, a few days later, it transferred its session to York, beyond the Susquehanna. AMERICANS HOLD THE FORTS. How^e crossed the Schuylkill by a night march, and on the twenty- sixth of September entered Philadelphia. The bulk of his ami}- was stationed at Germantown, and a small detachment was left to hold the city. The Americans, though the}'^ had lost Philadelphia, still held the forts on the Delaware, a short distance below the mouth of the Schuylkill. The work on the Pennsvlvania side was called Fort Mifflin, and was built on a low mud island. ImmediateU^ opposite at Red Bank, on the New Jersey shore, Avas Fort Mercer. Both w-orks were armed with' heavy guns, and commanded the river perfectly. The channel was obstructed with heavy logs fastened together and sunk in the stream so securely as to render their removal difficult. Above these obstructions were several floating batteries. After landing the British army at Elkton, Lord Howe carried his fleet down the Chesapeake, and entering the Delaware took position below the forts to await co-operation of the army in the attack upon them. Washington having learned that Howe had withdrawn a part of THP: AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 373 his force from Germautowu to aid in the operations against the fort, resolved to surprise the remainder. A night march of fourteen miles brought the American arm}' to Gennantown at sunrise on the morning of the fourth of October. A heavy fog hung over the countrj- and prevented the commander-in-chief from seeing either the position of the eneni}' or that of his own troops. BRITISH SURPRISED AND ROUTED. The British were taken by surprise, and driven in disorder. The victory seemed within the grasp of Washington, when the Americans abandoned the pursuit to attack a stone house in which a few of the enemjr had taken refuge. While thus engaged the}' were seized with an unaccountable panic, which threw them into confusion. The British rallied, and, assailing the Americans in their turn, drove them from the field with a loss of one thousand men. Washington was greatly mortified bv this failure. He wrote to Congress: "Every account confirms the opinion I at first entertained, that our troops retreated at the instant when victory was declaring herself in our favor.'' Howe now drew in his army nearer to Philadelphia, and prepared for an immediate attack on the forts on the Delaware. These held that river so securely that the British fleet was not able to bring supplies up to the city. The provisions of the army were nearly exhausted, and if the forts could not be reduced it would be necessary to evacuate Phila- delphia in order to obtain food. On the twenty-second of October, Count Donop was sent with a force of twelve hundred picked Hessians to storm Fort Mercer, at Red Bank, while the fleet reduced Fort Mifflin. Donop's attack was repulsed with a loss of four hundred men, the Hessian commander himself being among the slain. In the attack on Fort Mifflin, the British lost two ships and the remainder were more or less injured by the fire of the American guns. Shortly after this repulse, the British erected batteries on a small island in the Delaware, which commanded Fort Mifflin, and on the tenth of November opened a heavy bombardment of the fort from these works 374 thp: ami-:rican rI'.volution. aud fnim tlicir fleet. Tlie bombardment was continued until the night of tlie fifteenth. The work.s being nearly destroyed. Fort Mifflin was abandoned on the night of the sixteenth, and on the eighteenth the garrison was witlidrawn from the fort at Red Rank. Tlie British now removed the obstructions from the river, and their fleet ascended to Philadelphia. General Howe constructed a strongly fortified line from the Schuyl- kill to the Dela- ware, a b o \' e Philadelphia, aud went into wiuter quarters with his army behind the.se defences. The season I being too late for active operations, Washington with- drew his army to Valle)' Forge on che Schuylkill, a b o u t t w e n t y miles from Phila- delphia, and went into winter quarters. From this position he could protect Congress, sitting at York. In the northern department the year had been marked by the most important events. Sir Guy Carleton was succeeded in the command of the British forces in Canada, b}^ General Burgoyne, an officer of ability aud integrilw He was stronglv reinforced and soon had under his command a finelv equipped arnivof ten thousand men. Burgoyne gave a great " war feast " to the Indians, who, in answer to his appeal on this occasion, promised to aid him, thinking that with his fine large army he would be able to whip the rebels in a short time. VAI.I.F.V FdRGE, PENXSVI.VAVI.A. WUKKP. WASHINGTON'S ARMY WENT INTO WINTER (.UAKTERS. \ THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 375 About eight thousand of Burgoyne's troops were British and Hes- sian regulars, the remainder Canadians and Indians. The army was plentifully supplied with artillery of the most improved pattern, which was under the immediate command of General Philips, a veteran who had served with great distinction in the Seven Years' War. The second in command of the army was General Frazer, an officer of acknowledged skill, who was greatl}' beloved by the troops. Baron Reidesel, the commander of the Hessians, was also an old soldier. Altogether, the force under Burgoyue was the most splendid body of troops Great Britain had yet assembled m America. With this army Burgojme was to advance by wa}' of Lake Cham plain to the Hud son, while a detachment under General St. Legei was to move eastward b^ way of Oswego and descend the Mohawk to the Hudson. The peo- ple of the whole region were profoundly excited, Washington's headquarters at valley forge. and they were determined that the British army should never leave their country. Much of this feeling was caused by the outrages of the Indians in Burgoyne's army, who prowled about the country', murdering and plundering the people who were exposed to their fury. One of their crimes roused the whole northern region to action. A beautiful young girl, Jenny McCrea by name, was visiting a friend near P'ort Edward. She was betrothed to a young Tory who had fled to Canada some time since, and was now serving as a lieutenant in Bur- goyne's army. When her friends removed from Fort Edward to Albany, to avoid the danger which threatened them, she lingered behind in spite 376 Tin-: .\mi:ri,a\" rkn-oiation. of their invitation to accompany them, hoping to meet her lover nuder the advance of Biirgoyne's forces. The house in which she was staying was attacked by a party of Indians, and she was taken prisoner. Anxious for her safety she prom- ised her captors a liberal reward if the j^ would conduct her to her lover in the British camp. On the way they quarrelled over the promised GENER.AL BLRGOVNi: .ADDRESSING THE INDIANS. reward, and in their rage murdered the poor girl and carried her scalp into the British camp. Burgovne was horror-struck at the atrocious deed, and promptly disavowed it ; but the news of the murder roused a stern desire for vengeance throughout the northern department. The terrible scenes of the old French War were not forgotten, and the people were fearful they would now be revived under British influence unless Burgoyne's army were destrov'ed. Thousands flocked to the .\merican gamp, with such arms as they could procure, eager to crush the enemj-. In the meantime St. Leger had moved from Oswego into the valley THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 377 of the Mohawk, and liacl laid siege to Fort Schuyler or vSamvix, on the site of the present city of Rome. The fort was commanded b}' Colonel Gansevot)rl. The siege was begun on ihe third of August, and a few days later news was received by the little garrison that General HERKIMER MORTALLY WOUNDED. Herkimer, with eight hundred militia, was advancing to their assistance. On the si.xth of August Herkimer reached a place called Oriskany, where, owing to the impatience of his men, he fell iuto an ambnsh of Tories and Indians. The fight which ensued was one of the most 378 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. desperate of the war; quarter was neither asked nor given bj' either party. Herkimer was mortally wounded, but continued to cheer on his I men, until a successful sally from the fort compelled St. Legerj to recall the force engaged with Herkimer to defend his own camp. The American militia then retreated, carrying with them their com-J mauder who died a few da}^s later. Fort Schuyler was left in a critical condition, and Arnold was sent at his own request to its relief He caused! the strength of his force to be greatlj^ exaggerated, and spread a report, that Burgo^-ne had been defeated. The Indians deserted St. Leger rapidly! upon hearing these reports, and that commander hastily abandoned his I camp, and retreated into Canada with the remainder of his force. BURGOYNES ARMY IN STRAITS. Burgoj'ne had now reached the Hudson, and had full command of] Lakes George and Champlain; but the people of the country were hostilej to him, and he found it hard to procure either cattle or horses. Though! his camp on the Hudson was but eighteen miles from Lake George, this lack of animals made it almost impossible to transport his supplies across the intervening countr}-, and his army was beginning to run short of provisions. To obtain horses and provisions, Burg03'ne, early in August, sent a force of five hiindred Germans and a detachment of Indians and Tories, under Lieutenant-Colonel Baum, to seize the stores collected b}- the Americans at Bennington, \'ermont, and to collect such horses and cattle as the}' could on the march. He was told that the people of the neighborhood were largely devoted to the king, and that the stores were unguarded. The news of the approach of this force spread rapidh* through the countr}', and the Green Mountain Boys, as the Vermont militia were termed, flew to arms. Colonel Stark, who had retired from the Con- tinental arm}'' on account of having been neglected in the recent promo- tions, was in the neighborhood, and was ofi^ered the command of the gathering forces. He accepted it promptly, and issued a warning to the THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 379 people along the route of the British to drive off their horses and cattle, and to conceal their grain and wagons to prevent their capture by the enemy. A messenger was sent with all speed to Manchester to Colonel Seth Warner, urging him to march at once with his regiment to Ben- nington, where he was needed. Baum had advanced to within six miles of Bennington when lie heard of the approach of the militia under Stark. He halted, intrenched his position, and sent to Burgoyne for reinforcements. Colonel Breyman with five hundred Hessians and two pieces of artillery was despatched to his assistance and he made all possible daste. MILITIA EAGER TO FIGHT. Stark was prevented from making an immediate attack upon Baum by a furious rain-storm, which also delayed the march of Breyman and Warner. During the night of the fifteenth of August Stark was joined by the militia from Berkshire, Massachusetts. They were anxious to engage theenemv at once, and were impatient at the delay caused by the storm. One of their number. Parson Allen, approached Stark. "General," said he, " the people of Berkshire have often been called out to no purpose ; if you don't give them a chance to fight now they will never turn out again." Stark remarked his earnestness, and said, with a smile, " You would not tiirn out now, while it is dark and raining, would you?" " Not just now," answered the parson. "Well," said Stark, "if the Lord should once more give us sunshine, and I don't give you fighting enough, I'll never ask you to turn out again." The morning of the sixteenth came bright and clear, and Stark at once began his advance upon the enemy. Arriving in sight of the Brit- ish works, he pointed them out to his men. " There are the red coats ! We must beat them to-day or Molly Stark sleeps a widow to-night." A spirited attack was made upon the British lines, both in front and in the rear, and after two hours' hard fighting they were carried by storm. Baum fell mortally wounded and his men laid down their arms. The Indians and Tories had escaped to the woods at the opening of the battle. 380 nil': AMl'.KICAN REVOLUTION. The fighting had scarcely ended when the force under Colonel Brey- raan appeared and at once engaged the Americans. At the same moment Warner's regiment, which had pnshed forward all night in the rain, reached the field. The battle was continued until nightfall, when Lrcy- man abandoned his artillery and made a hurried i"etreat to Burgoyne's camp on the Hndson. The Americans had fourteen killed and forty wounded. They took six hundred prisoners, one thousand stand of arms and four pieces of cannon. BURGOYNE DESERTED BY THE INDIANS. Burgoyne now found himself in a most critical condition. He had reached the Hudson, but his troops were short of provisions ; his efforts against Fort Schuyler and Bennington had failed, and his force was being reduced by the desertion of the Indians. Burgoyne was a man of humanity and true soldierl}^ spirit, had no sympathy with the bar- barous policy of his government in employing the savages against the Americans, and had sternly cut short their cruelties. The Indians had taken offence at his course and were leaving his army in great numbers. He made no effort to detain them, preferring to lose their services I'ather than allow them to continue their atrocities. On the other hand, the American army was daily growing stronger. The militia were flocking to it in great numbers, and reinforcements were received from the Highlands. The militia of New Hampshire and Massachusetts were threatening Ticonderoga, the capture of which post would cut off his communications witli Canada. The contrast between the present condition of the British army and that of a few weeks before w'as marked indeed. The next great event of the war was the surrender of General Burg03-ne, wdio was so hard pressed b}' the American troops, led h\ Arnold, that they were compelled to laj* down their arms. The capture of Burgoyne's army was hailed with delight throughout the country. Count Pulaski, a celebrated Polish officer w ho ha,d espoused the American cause, succeeded in raising an independent bod}' of cavalry THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 381 for operating on the southern coast. This was in March, 1779. The American forces in the Southern States were commanded by General Benjamin Lincoln. The Tories were ver^- numerous and ver}' active in this region, and the feeling between them and the patriots was one of the bitterest hostility, and often manifested itself in bloody and relentless conflicts. Seven hundred Tories under Colonel Bovd set out in February, 1779, to join Colonel Campbell at Augusta. On the fourteenth they were attack- ed at Kettle Creek bv a force of patriots under Colonel Pickens, and were defeated with heav}' loss. Pickens hung five of his prisoners as traitors. General Lincoln now sent General Ashe with two thousand men to drive the British out of Augusta. Upon hearing of his approach Col- onel Campbell evaciiated Augusta and fell back to Brier Creek, a small stream GENERAL BENJAMIN LINCOLN. about halfway to Savannah. Ashe followed him, but without observing proper caution, and on the third of March was surprised and routed b\- Campbell, with the loss of nearly his entire force. This defeat encour- aged General Prevost to attempt the capture of Charleston. He marched rapidly across tlie country to Charleston, and demanded its surrender. Lincoln, who had been reinforced, no sooner heard of this movement than he hastened, by forced marches, to the relief of Charleston and compelled Prevost to retire to St. John's Island, opposite the mainland. The British threw up a redoubt at Stone Ferry to protect the crossing to this island. It was attacked on the twentieth of June by the forces of General Lincoln, who were repulsed with heavy loss. A ^-^^ 382 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION'. little later Prevost withdrew to Savannah. The intense heat of the weather suspended military operations iu the south during the remainder of the summer. In September, 1779, the French fleet, under Count D'Estaing, arrived off the coast of Georgia from the West Indies, and the admiral agreed to join Lincoln in an effort to recapture Savannah. The Ameri- can army began its investment of the city on the twenty-third of Septem- ber, and everything promised favorably for success ; but D'Estaing became impatient of the delay of a regular siege, and declared that he must return to the West Indies to watch the British fleet in those waters. Savannah must either be taken by assault, or he would withdraw from the siege. To please him, Lincoln consented to storm the British works, and the assault was made on the ninth of October, but was repulsed with severe loss. D'Estaing himself was wounded, and the chivalrous Count Pulaski was killed. Liucoln now retreated to Charleston, and the French fleet sailed to the West Indies, having a second time failed to render any real assistance to the Americans. This disaster closed the campaign for the year in the south. PLUNDERING EXPEDITIONS SENT OUT. In the meantime Sir Henry Clinton had been ordered by his govern- ment to harass the American coast, and in accordance with these instruc- tions despatched a number of plundering expeditions from New York against exposed points. One of these was sent in May, under General Mathews, into the Chesapeake. Mathews entered the Elizabeth river, plundered the towns of Norfolk and Portsmouth, and burned one hun- dred and thirty merchant vessels and several ships of war on the stocks at Gosport, near Portsmouth. He then ascended the James for some dis- tance and ravaged its shores. He destroyed in this expedition two mil- lions of dollars' worth of property, and carried ofi" about three thousand hogsheads of tobacco. Towards the close of the summer of 1779, Washington resolved to inflict upon the Indians a severe punishment for their outrages upon the GALLANT CHARGE OF COUNT PULASKI. 383 384 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. w ites, aud especially fi)r massacres of Wj^oming and Cherry Valley in the previous year. Early in August, General Sullivan was sent into Western New York with three thousand men, with orders to ravish the country of the Six Nations. He was joined by General James Clinton, with two thousand men, and on the twenty-ninth of August attacked and defeated a force of seventeen Inindred Indians and Tories at Newtown, now Elniira. Sullivan followed up his victory by pushing forward into the Indian country and laying it waste with fire and sword. In the course of a few weeks he destroyed more than forty Indian villages aud burned all the cornfields and orchards. The beautiful val- ley of the Genesee was made a desert, and to avoid starvation the Indians aud their Tory allies were obliged to emigrate to Canada. They were quieted but for a time by the terrible vengeance of the Americans, and soon renewed their depredations, and continued to the end of the war. EXPLOITS OF AMERICAN PRIVATEERS. Congress had made great efforts to increase the force of the nav}% and the number of American men-of-war had been materially enlarged. Many of them had been captiired, however, by the enemy, and the navy was still weak and unable to render much service to the cause. The privateers were unusually active, and were hunted with unre- mitting vigilance by the English war vessels. They managed to inflict great loss upon the commerce of Great Britain, however. A number of American cruisers were fitted out in France, and kept the English coast in terror. John Paul Jones, a native of Scotland, who had been brought to Vir- ginia at an earl 3- age, was one of the first naval officers commissioned bj' Congress. He was given command of the " Ranger," a vessel of eighteen guns, and b}^ his brilliant and daring exploits kept the English coast in a state of terror, and even ventured to attack exposed points on the coast of Scotland. In 1779 he was given command of a small squad- ron of three ships of war fitted out in France, and sailing from L'Orient, proceeded on a cruise along the coast of Great Britain. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 385 On the the twenty-third of September he fell in with a fleet of merchantmen convoyed by two English frigates and at once attacked tliem. The battle began at seven in the evening, and was continued for three hours with great fur^^ Jones lashed his flagship, the "Bon Homme Richard," to the English frigate "Serapis," and the two vessels fought muzzle to muzzle until the "Serapis" sur- rendered. The other Eng- lish vessel was also cap- tured. The battle was one of the most desperate in the annals of naval war- fare, and Jones' flagship was so badly injured that it sunk in a few hours after the fighting was o\er. Jones was absent from home for about three years, during which time his ex- ploits were numerous and of the most astonishing character. He was de- nounced as a pirate bj' the English, who became so alarmed b}- his achieve- ments that many peopledid not feel safe even in London. JOHN PAUL JONES. Some of the timid ones looked out on the Thames, half-expecting to see the terrible fellow lay their cit}^ under tribute. At one time he landed on the coast of Scotland, and, appearing at the residence of the Earl of Selkirk, captured a large amount of silver plate and booty. But he treated the Earl's household with great courtesy, and the plate that was seized at the time is now in the possession of the members of the Selkirk 25 386 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. fouiily. Paul Joues returned to Pliiladelpliia February 18, 1781, aud received a heart}- welcome. Congress gave him an appropriate medal and a vote of thanks. South Carolina was so completely subjugated that earl}'' in June Sir Henry Clinton sailed for New York, leaving Lord Coniwallis to complete the conquest of the State. The country abounded in Tories, who exerted themselves actively to assist the British commander in his efforts to hold the Carolinas in subjection. Large numbers of them joined the British army, and " loyal legions " were formed in various parts of the country. The onl}^ resistance kept up b}' the Americans was maintained by partisan corps of patriots led by Marion, Sumter and Pickens. The exploits of these daring bauds caused the British commander to feel that he could not hold the Carolinas except b}'^ the aid of a strong force, and kept him in a state of constant uneasiness. On the sixteenth of August Sumter defeated a large body of British and Tories at Hanging Rock, east of the Wateree river. Large numbers of negroes deserted their masters and fled to the British. THE WAR GOES ON IN THE SOUTH. In order to offer a definite resistance to the British, and to collect a regular army to oppose them, the Baron De Kalb was sent to take com- mand of the troops in the south, and all the regulars south of Pennsyl- vania were ordered to join him. De Kalb managed to collect about two regiments, aud with these moved slowly southward. A lack of provisions forced him to halt three weeks on Deep river, one of the upper tributaries of the Cape Fear. Matters were so bad in the south that Congress resolved to scud General Gates, the conqueror of Burgoyne, to take command of the army in that quarter. General Charles Lee, who knew that Gates was not the man to retrieve such losses, predicted that "his northern laurels would soon be changed into southern willows." Gates hastened southward and overtook De Kalb at Deep river, and assumed the command. De Kalb THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 387 advised liim to move into South Carolina by a circuitous route tlirough the county of Mecklenburg, which was true to the patriot cause, and where provisions could be easily obtained. Gates declined to take his advice, and marched towards Camden by the direct route, which led through barren and almost uninhabited re- gion. He was sure that his wagons from the north laden with provis- ions would over- take the troops in two days ; but he was mistaken ; the wagons did not make their appear- ance, and the troops suffered greatly from hiiu- ger and disease. His army increas- ed every day by reinfor cements from Virginia and North Carolina. On the thirteenth of August he reached Clermont, about twelve miles from Camden. His force now amounted to nearly four thousand men, nearly two-thirds of whom were Continentals. Upon the approach of Gates, Lord Rawdon, the British commander in this part of the State, fell back to Camden, where he was LORD CORNWALLIS. 388 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. joined by Cornwallis, who had just arrived from Charleston, and who assumed the command. On the night of the fifteenth, Gates moved nearer to Camden, and at the .same time Cornwallis advanced to attack Gates, whom he hoped to surprise. The advanced guards encountered each other in the woods, and the two armies halted until morning. The battle began with dawn, on the sixteenth of August. The militia fled at the first charge of the British, but the Continentals, under the brave DeKalb, stood firm, though attacked in front and flank. At leneth DeKalb fell mortallv wounded, and the Continentals gave way. The American army was completely routed, and was broken up into small parties and scattered through the country. These continued a disorderly retreat, closely followed for about thirty miles by Tarleton's cavalry, who cut them down without mercy. AMERICAN TROOPS' SUFFERING. We must now return to the army under Washington. As the spring opened, the sufferings of the troops at Morristown increased. Food was so scarce that the troops were driven to desperation. Two regiments of Connecticut troops declared their intention to abandon the army and march home, or wrest provisions from the people of the surrounding country by force. Washington was compelled to exert all his influence and authority to restore order. It was with great difficulty that pro- visions were procured, and the wants of the troops supplied. The dan- ger caused by this state of affairs was so great that Congress author- ized Washington to declare martial law. The news of these troubles in the American camp induced Knyp- hansen to undertake an expedition into New Jersej-. He landed at Elizabethtown, with five thousand men on the sixth of June, and marched towards Springfield. His advance was warml)' contested by the militia of the region, but he penetrated as far as the village of Connecticut Farms. Being unable to advance farther he caused the village to be sacked and burned ; and Mrs. Caldwell, the wife of the minister of the village, was murdered by some of the British troops. The militia of the THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 389 reo"ion, gathered in force and Knyphauseu was obliged to make a hasty retreat to Elizabethtowu. The mnrder of Mrs. Caldwell aroused the most intense excitement throughout New Jersey. It was denounced as one of the most infamous deeds of the war, and gave rise to a fierce and general spirit of "NOW PUT WATTS INTO THEM, BOYS." vengeance. Her husband, an eloquent and highly esteemed minister, animated his countrymen by his stirring sermons, and he soon had the satisfaction of seeing that his labors were not in vain. After the return of Sir Henry Clinton to New York, Washington moved a part of his troops towards the Highlands. Knyphausen again advanced from Elizabethtowu towards Springfield, hoping to gain 390 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTON. the passes beyoud Morristowu before bis inarcb sbould be discovered. His advance was detected, bowever, and General Greene, wbo was in command of the American forces, prepared to resist bim. A sbarp figbt ensued, in which Greene succeeded in checking the British advance. The New Jersej'' regiment, of which Caldwell was chaplain, .was engaged in the battle. I The wadding^ of the men gave out, and Caldwell, mounting his horse, galloped to the Presb3'^terian church, and returned with an armful of Dr. Watts' hymn books, which he distributed among the troops, with _the pious injunction, " Now put Watts into them, boys !" The militia came flocking in to the support of General Greene, and Knyphauscu, finding it impossible to advance farther, burned Springfield and fell back to Elizabethtown. Some weeks later Washington, anxious to strike a decisive blow at the enemy, invited the French commanders, De Tiernay and Rocham- beau, to meet him at Hartford, to arrange a plan for an attack upon New York. The meeting was held, but it was decided to ask the co-operation of the French admiral in the West Indies, as the fleet at Newport was not strong enough to cope with the British fleet at New York. Until the answer of the admiral was received nothing could be done. A TRAITORS PLOT. While absent at Hartford, a plot was discovered which involved the fair name of one of the most brilliant officers of the American ami}-. General Benedict Arnold had been disabled bj' the wounds he had received at Quebec and Saratoga from undertaking active service, and through the influence of Washington had been placed in command of Philadel- phia after its evacuation bj' Clinton in 1778. There he lived in a style far beyond his means, and became involved in debts, which he was unable to pay. To raise the funds to discharge them he engaged in privateering and mercantile speculations. These were generally unsuccessful, and merely increased his difficulties. His haughty and overbearing manner involved him in a cjuarrel with the authorities of THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 391 Pennsylvania, who accused him before Congress of abusing his official position and misusing the public funds. He was tried by a court-martial and was sentenced to be repri- manded by the commander-in-chief. Washington performed this dis- agreeable task as delicately as possible, but did not lose his confidence in Arnold. He knew him as an able officer, but, as his acquaintance with him was limited, was most likely ignorant of the faults of Arnold's character, which were well known to the mem- bers of Congress from Connecticut, who had no confidence in him. To them he was known to be natural!}' dishonest, regardless of the rights of others, and cruel and tyrannical in his dealings with those under his au- thority. Arnold never forgave the disgrace in- flicted upon him by the sentence of the court martial, and cherished henedict Arnold. the determination to be revenged upon Washington for the reprimand received from him. While in Philadelphia, Arnold had married a member of a Tory family, and was thus enabled to communicate readily with the British officers. He opened a correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton, signing himself Gustavus. He kept up this correspondence for several months, and then made himself known to the British commander. In the meantime, h.e was appointed by Washington, in August, 1780, to the 392 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. command of West Point, the strongest and most important fortress in America. He did this with the deliberate intention of betraying the post into the hands of the enemy. The correspondence had been conducted on the part of Sir Henry Clinton by Major John Andre of the British army, a ^-oung man of amiable character and more than ordinary accomplishments. He wrote under the assumed name of John Anderson. He was an especial favorite of Sir Henry Clinton, and was beloved b}' the whole army in which he served. Soon after the appointment of Arnold to the command of West Point, Andre voluntered to go up the Hudson and have an interview with him for the purpose of completing the arrangements for the betrayal of that fortress. A MEETING IN THE DARK. His offer was accepted by Clinton, and he ascended the Hudson as far as Haverstraw in the sloop of war " Vulture." He was set ashore and was met near Haverstraw on the west bank of the Hudson by General Arnold, on the twenty-second of September. The meeting took place about dark, and the night had passed before the arrangements were completed. Much against his will. Andre was compelled to pass the next da}- within the American lines. During the twenty-third the "Vulture," haWng attracted the attention of the Americans, was fired iipon and forced to drop down the river. Andre found the man who had set him ashore unwilling to row him back to the sloop, and he was com- pelled to return to New York by land. He changed his uniform for a citizen's dress, and, provided with a pass from Arnold, under the name of John Anderson, set out for New York along the east bank of the river, which he deemed safer than the opposite shore. All went well until Andre reached the vicinity of Tarrvtown. There he was stopped by three young men, John Paulding, David Williams and Isaac Van Wart. Thej- asked him his name and destination, and he, supposing them to be Tories, did not use the pass given him bv Arnold, but frankly avowed himself a British oflB.cer travelling on THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 393 iinportaut busiuess. To liis dismay lie then learned that his captors were of the patriotic party, and he offered them his watch, purse, and any reward they might name if they would suffer him to proceed. They refused to allow him to stir a step, and searched his person. Thej^ found concealed in his boots, papers giving the plan of West Point, and an account of its garrison. Andre was taken b}' his captors before Colonel Jamison, the com- mander of the nearest American post. Jamison recognized the hand- writing as that of Arnold, but, unwilling to believe that his commander could be guilty of treason, he detained the prisoner, and wrote to Arnold informing him of the arrest of Andre and of the papers found upon his person. The papers themselves he forwarded by a special messenger to Washington, who was on his return from Hartford. ESCAPED DOWN THE RIVER. Arnold received Colonel Jamison's letter as he sat at breakfast with some of his officers. He concealed his emotion, and excusing himself to his guests, called his wife from the room, told her he must flee for his life, and hastening to his barge, escaped down the river to the " Vulture," and was received on board by the commander of that vessel. From his place of safety he wrote to Washington, asking him to protect his wife, who, he declared, was innocent of an}- share in his plot. When he learned that Arnold was safe, Andre wrote to Washington, and confessed the whole plot. He was at once brought to trial upon the charge of being within the American lines as a sp3^ The court-martial was presided over by General Greene, and Lafayette and Steuben were among its members. Andre asserted that he had been indiiced to enter the American lines by the misrepresentations of Arnold. He denied that he was a sp}', and though cautioned not to say any- thing that might criminate himself, he fraukly confessed the whole plot. He was sentenced, upon his own confession, to be hanged. Clinton made great exertions to save him, and Washington, wliose sympathy was won by the amiable character of Andre, was anxious to spare him. The circum- 894 ESCAPE OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 395 stances of the case deniauded that the law should be executed, and Andre was hanged at Tappan, near the Hudson, on the second of October, 1780. Cono-ress voted to each of his three captors a pension of two hundred dollars for life and a silver medal. The plot of Arnold had been discovered bj- the merest chance, and the American cause had narrowly escaped a crush- ing disaster. The loss of West Point would have given the British the en- tire control of the Hud- son, and have enabled them to separate New England from the Middle and Southern States. It might have proved fatal to the cause, and certain- ly would have reduced Washington to great ex- 1-' tremities. Arnold re- ceived for his treachery the sum of ten thousand pounds sterling and a commission as brigadier- general in the English MAJOR andr6. service. He was regarded with general contempt by the English officers, who refused to associate with him, and were greatly averse to serving under him. The year 1781 opened with a military expedition under the command of the traitor Arnold, now a brigadier-general in the British service. Early in January he was sent by Sir Henry Clinton, with sixteen hun- dred British and Tories, from New York to the Chesapeake to ravage the shores of Virginia. After plundering the plantations along the lower 396 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. bay aud the James. Arnold ascended tlie river, and landing his troops marched to Richmond. Thomas Jefferson, then Governor of Virginia, called out the militia, but only a handful responded. Arnold occupied Richmond, bnmed the public buildings and some private dwellings, and then re-embarked and dropped down the river to Portsmouth. Wash- ington was anxious to capture him, aud sent Lafayette with a force of twelve hundred men southward by land to prevent Arnold from escap- inor overland to ioin Coruwallis in the Caroliuas, and at the same time the French fleet sailed from Newport for the Chesapeake to prevent the escape of the traitor by water. A NAVAL ENGAGEMENT. The British Admiral Arbuthnot followed the French fleet and brought it to an engagement off the mouth of the Chesapeake. The French were worsted aud obliged to return to Newport, and Admiral Arbuthnot entered the bay and reinforced Arnold \vith two thousand British troops under General Philips, who assumed the command at Portsmouth and fortified his position there. From his camp he sent out detachments to ravage the country in all directions. Lafayette, in the meantime, upon hearing of the failure of the plan, halted in Annapolis, in Maryland. Arnold, upon being superseded by Philips, returned to New York. Earlv in January Comwallis, who was at Winnsborough, South Carolina, sent Colonel Tarleton, with a force of one thousand cavalry and light infantry, to cut off" Morgan's division from the column under General Greene. Morgan was between the Broad and Catawba rivers at the time, and upon hearing of Tarleton' s approach began to retreat towards the Catawba. Tarleton pushed on with such speed that Morgan saw he must be overtaken. He accordingly halted and took position at the " Cowpens." about thirty miles west of King's Mountain, and rested his men. Tarleton arrived in front of this position on the seventeenth of Januarv, and made an impetuous attack upon the Americans. At first THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 397 lie drove the militia before liini, but Morgan, keeping his Continentals well in hand, suddenly wheeled upon him and drove him from the field. The two forces were about equal. Morgan lost but eighty men, while the loss of the British was over six hundred. Tarleton escaped from the field with onl}' a few of his cavalry. Cornwallis moved forward as soon as he heard of Tarleton' s defeat. He supposed that Morgan would be encumbered with his wounded and prisoners and would be slow in leaving the scene of his victor}', and he hoped bv a rapid march to come up with him, crush him and rescue the prisoners before he could join General Greene. Morgan was much too wary to be caught in such a trap. He felt sure Cornwallis would seek to avenge Tarleton's defeat, and, leaving his w^ounded under a flag of truce, he resumed his retreat with all speed immediatelj^ after the battle, and, hurrying toward the Catawba, crossed that river. HELD BACK BY HIGH WATER. Two hours after he had passed it the advance of Cornwallis' army reached the bank of the river, biit, owing to a sudden rise in the stream, were unable to cross it. The British were detained in this manner for two daj's, during which Morgan rested his men and sent off his prisoners to a place of safet}-. Two days after the passage of the Catawba, Morgan was joined bj?- the troops under General Greene, who had heard of the victory of the Cowpens, and was advancing to the assistance of his lieutenant. Greene was not yet strong enough to meet the British, and he continued the retreat toward the Yadkin. He moved slowly, and his rear giiard was still engaged in the passage of the Yadkin when the advance guard of Cornwallis reached that stream, on the third of February. Cornwallis had burned all his heavy baggage, and had reduced his army to the strictest light marching order, in the hope of being able to intercept Greene. A skirmish ensued on the banks of the Yadkin, and, night coming on, the British commander deferred the passage of the stream until the next day. During the night a heavy rain swelled the river so high that 39S THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. it could not be forded, and the Americans had secured all the boats on the other side. Greene, profiting by this delay, hurried on to cross the Dan into \'irginia, where he could receive reinforcements and supplies. Morgan was left to cover the retreat of the army, but, falling ill, was obliged to relinquish the command of the rear guard to Colonel Otho H. Williams. Comwallis passed the Yadkin as soon as possible and strained even,- nen-e to prevent Greene from crossing the Dan. He supposed the Americans would not be able to cross at the lower ferries, but would be obliged to pass the river higher np where it could be forded. He there- fore urged his arm}" to its utmost exertions to secure these fords before the arrival of the Americans. Perceiving Cornwallis' error. Colonel Williams retreated toward the upper fords, and so confirmed the British commander in his delusion. Having led the British sufficiently out of the way, Williams wheeled about, and by a rapid march of fort}- miles in twenty-fours down the river, rejoined Greene, who had moved with all speed to the lower ferries, where, in anticipation of his retreat, he had collected a suppl}- of boats. The Dan was passed on the fifteenth of February, and the American armv was safe from its pursuers. MORTIFIED AT HIS FAILURE. An hour or two later Cornwallis, who had discovered his mistake and had marched with speed from the upper fords, appeared on the oppo- site bank of the river, onh- to see his adversary safelj- bej-ond his reach. The river was too deep to be forded, and Greene had all the boats in his possession. Comwallis was deeply mortified at his failure to intercept Greene. He had pursued him for over two hundred miles,and had made great sacrifices to come up with him, but the American commander had managed to elude him and had successfully carried out one of the most brilliant retreats in histor}-. The Americans regarded their escape as providential, and not without cause. Their way across the Carolinas might be tracked by the blood from their feet ; and t\rice, when the enemy had come within gunshot of them, THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 899 tlie risiug of the waters of the Catawba and the Yadkin, which they had passed in safety, had held back the British and enabled them to escape. After resting his men for a few da^-s on the banks of the Dan, Cornwallis fell back to Hillsborough. Washington was well pleased with the achievements in the South of his most trusted lieutenant. He was very anxious to attempt something \decisive with his own army, if he could secure the aid of a French army SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. and fleet. Two enterprises offered themselves to him — an attack upon New York, which had been greatlj' weakened by detachments sent from its garrison to the South, and an expedition against Cornwallis. That commander had left Wilmington on the twentieth of April, and had advanced, without encountering any serious resistance, to Petersburg, Virginia. He arrived there on the twentieth of Alay, and was joined by the troops under General Philips, who had been been plundering the country along the James river. The plan of Washington was to blockade Cornwallis in the York 400 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. liver by means of tlie Freuch fleet, and at the same time besiege him in Yorictoxvn ^vith the army. The siege was begun on the twenty-eighth of September, 17S1. Sixteen thousand men were present under Wash- ington's orders. Works were erected completely enclosing those of the British, and on tlie ninth of October the cannonade was begun. It was continued for four days, and the British .)utuorks were greatly damaged, and several of their vessels in the river were burned by means of red- hot shot thrown into them by the French vessels. On the fourteenth, two of the advanced redoubts of the enemy were stormed and taken, cnie by the Americans, the other by the French. From the position thus gained a very destructive fire was maintained upon the English hues, which were broken in many places, while many of their guns were dis- mounted and rendered useless. On the fifteenth, Cornwallis found him- self almost out of ammunition, and unable to maintain his position but for a few days longer. In this strait the British commander resolved upon the desperate alternative of crossing the York to Gloucester, abandoning his sick and wounded, and baggage, and endeavoring to force his way northward by extraordinary marches to New York. It was a hopeless undertaking, but Cornwallis resolved to make the trial. On the night of the sixteenth of October he crossed a part of his army from Yorktown to Gloucester, but a sudden storm delayed the passage of the river. He sent to Washington an offer to surrender, and the terms were soon arranged. On the nineteenth of October, Cornwallis surrendered his army of seven thousand men as prisoners of war to Washington, as commander of the allied army, and his shipping, seamen and naval stores to the Count de Grasse, as the representative of the king of France. This ended the war, and the attempt of Great Britain to subjugate the American colonies. FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CjVIL WAR. THE great war was uow over, and the republic took its place in the family of nations; but it was terribly weakened by its efforts. Its finances were in the most pitiful condition, and it had not the money to pay the troops it was about to disband, who were really suffering for food and clothing. Considerable trouble arose on this account, but Wash- ington succeeded in effecting an arrangement to the satisfaction of the soldiers. The army was disbanded soon after the close of the war, and on the 23d of December, 1783, Washington resigned his commission and retired to his home at Mount Vernon, Virginia. It was found that the articles of confederation were inadequate to the necessities of the republic, and after much discussion a new constitu- tion was framed by a federal convention at Philadelphia, in 1787, and was adopted by the States. It went into operation on the 4th of March, 1789, the city of New York having been designated as the seat of the national government. Washington was unanimously chosen the first President of the United States, and John Adams vice-president. They went into oflSceon the 30th of April, 17S9. The first measures of Washington's administra- tion greatly restored the confidence of the people in the government. Alexander Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury, inaugurated a series of reforms, which were eminently beneficial. The debts of the old confederated government and of the States themselves were all assumed by the United States; a bank of the United States (which went into operation in February, 1794) was incorporated, and a national mint was established at Philadelphia. An Indian war in the West was prosecuted to a successful termination, and the neutrality of the republic with regard to the parties engaged in the wars springing out of the French revolution was faithfully maintained. 26 401 402 FROM THK REVOLUTION TO THK CIVIL WAR. Washington and Adams were re-elected in 1792. The French repnb- lic made great eflforts to embroil the United States in a war with England, bnt they were met with firmness by Washington, who demanded the recall of M. Genet, the French Minister. His demand was complied with by F'rance. In 1794 a treaty was negotiated with England, in settlement of the qnestions left unsettled by the revolntion. In 1792 a formidable ontbreak, in opposition to the excise law, known as the whisky insurrection occurred in Western Pennsylvania. It was suppressed by the Federal government in 1794. Three new States were admitted into the Union during Washington's administration : Vermont, in 1 791 ; Kentucky, in 1792 ; and Tennessee, in 1796. WASHINGTON'S •• FAREWELL ADDRESS." Washington was urgent]}- importuned to be a candidate for a third presidential term, but declined a re-election, although it was certain there would be no opposition to him. His action in this respect has become the settled polic}^ of the government. In September, 1796, he issued a " Farewell Address " to his countrymen, warning them of the dangers to which their new system was exposed, and urging them to adhere firmly to the principles of the constitution as their only hope of liberty and happiness. The third presidential election occurred in 1796, and was marked by a display of bitterness between the opposing parties never surpassed in the subsequent political history of the country. It resulted in the election of John Adams, the federalist candidate, to the presidency. Thomas Jefferson, liaviug received the next highest number of votes, was declared elected vice-president, in accordance with tlie law as it then stood. President Adams was opposed, with great bitterness, by his political enemies during his whole term. The president convened Congress in extra session on the 15th of May, 1797, to consider the relations of this country with France. The French Director}' had for some time been pursuing a systematic course of outrage upon American ships and citizens, and had carried t FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 403 these outrages to an extent which left little doubt of its determination to ruin the commerce of this country. Three envoys were sent to France by President Adams to attempt a peaceful settlement of the quarrel. The Directory refused to receive them, but they were given to understand that the pa3nuent of a large sum of money by their government would greatly assist the settlement of the matter. The commissioners refused to entertain such a demand, and were ordered to quit the country. Great indignation prevailed throughout the United States when these insults to the American commissioners became known. PROMPT MEASURES OF OUR GOVERNMENT. The government took prompt measures to raise an army and navy adequate to the struggle which seemed imminent. Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of the army, with the rank of lieutenant- general ; and hostilities actually began at sea, where the cruisers of the United States won several brilliant victories over French ships-of-war. The energy and determination thus manifested by the United States had a happy effect in bringing about a settlement of the quarrel. Napoleon became First Consul of France; negotiations were reopened, and a treat}' of peace between the two countries was definitely concluded on the 30th of September, 1800. During the existence of hostilities with France two laws were enacted by Congress, which are generally knowij as the "alien and sedition laws." They empowered the president to send cut of the country such foreigners as should be found conspiring against the peace and safety of the republic, and restricted the liberty of speech and of the press enjoyed by the people. These la\vs were very unpopular, and brought about the over- whelming defeat of the federalist party, by which they were enacted. During President Adams' term the seat of government was removed to Washington, District of Columbia, in 1800. In the fourth contest for the presidency the votes of the republican party were equally divided between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr 404 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVH. WAR. each of wliuni received seventy-tLree votes. Tliis threw the election into the house of representatives, where Jefferson was cliosen president, and Bnrr vice-president. This circumstance also occasioned an amendment to the coustitntion (adopted finally in 1804), requiring the electors to vote separately, as at present, for president and vice-president. PRESIDENT THOMAS JEFFERSON. Mr. Jefferson was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1801. His first term was marked by wisdom and vigor. The domestic affairs of the nation prospered, and the finances were managed in a masterly manner bj^ Albert Gallatin, the secretarj- of the treasur}-. The insolence and the piracies of the Barbar}^ States of Africa were punished by a naval expedition to the Mediterranean. The principal event of this term was the purchase from France, and the annexation to the domain of the republic, in 1S03, of the vast terri- tory of Louisiana, out of which have been formed the states of Louisiana, Arkansas, ^lissouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, North and South Dakotah, Wyoming, Montana, and part of Idaho. Li 1804 Mr. Jefferson was re-elected to the presidenc}% receiving every electoral vote but fourteen. Burr was succeeded in the vice- presidenc}- b}' George Clinton. He was then defeated for Governor of New York, chiefly through the influence of Alexander Hamilton, whom he challenged, and shot in a duel on the nth of July, 1804. In 1806 Burr was arrested and tried for a supposed attempt to separate the Western States from the Union. He was acquitted of the charge, and his innocence is now generally admitted. American commerce was much injured by the retaliatory decrees and orders in council of the French and British governments, under the authority of which American ships were seized and confiscated, in utter defiance of the rights of nejitrals. Great Britain gave additional cause of offence by asserting a right to impress American seamen into her navy, and to stop American vessels on the high seas and search them for deserters from her ships-of-war. These searches were generallj- con- FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 405 ducted in the most aggravating manner, and hundreds of American sailors, owing no allegiance to King George, were forced into the British service. In June, 1807, the American frigate " Chesapeake," on her way to the Mediterranean, was stopped off the Chesapeake bay by the British OFFICERS OF THE CHESAPEAKE SURREMDERING THEIR SWORDS. frigate "Leopard," whose commander produced an order from the British admiral requiring him to search for deserters. The American vessel refused to submit to the search, and was fired into by the " Lsopard," and being in a helpless condition, was forced to strike her colors, with a loss of twenty-one of her crew. Four m;n were taken from her and sent on board the " Leopard." Three of these were afterwards proved to be native-born Americans. When the attack was made the "Chesapeake" was quite unprepared for resistance, and Com- lOfi FROM THE RKVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR modore Barron, believing it would be only a waste of life to attempt to cope with his adversarj', struck his colors after a single gun had been fired. As already stated, the four men were taken from the " Chesa- peake," the "Leopard" sailed for Halifax, and the American frigate returned to Norfolk. Our government blamed the commander of the "Chesapeake" for making so feeble a resistance and he was suspended for several years. It was plain that the men on board his ship were chagrined at the surrender. OUTRAGE THAT CREATED INDIGNATION. This outrage aroused a feeling of the most intense indignat on throughout the United States, and the fedral government demanded reparation of England, which was evaded at the time, but was finally made in iSii. On the nth of November, 1807, England issued an order in council, forbidding neutral vessels to enter the ports of France until thev had first touched at a British port and paid a duty ; and the next month Napoleon replied to this b}' a decree dated at Milan, ordering the confiscation of every vessel w^hich should submit to be searched by or pay anj' duties to the British authorities. These two piratical acts, each of which was sup- ported by arbitrary power, meant simph^ the destruction of all neutral com- merce, and that of America in particular. In December, 1S07, Mr. Jefferson advised Congress to laj' an embar- go, detaining all vessels, American and foreign, in the ports of the United States, and to order the immediate return home of all American vessels abroad. This measure, which was a most singular expedient, was adopted, and gave rise to such intense dissatisfaction and heav}- loss that it was repealed in February, 1809. At the elections in 1S08, James Madison of Virginia, the democratic candidate, was chosen president, Mr. Jefferson having refused a third term. Mr. Madison was inaugurated o:i the 4th of March, 1S09. The measures of Mr. Jefferson's second term, and especially the embargo, had given rise to considerable opposition to the democracj% and this opposition FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. I()7 was now directed against tlie new administration with no little bitterness, and followed it persistently until its withdrawal from power. Great Britain, instead of discontinuing her outrages upon American seamen and commerce, increased them, and steadily disregarded the protests and representations of the United States. In March, iSoS, Congress passed an act prohibiting all commercial intercourse between the United States and Great Britain and France. Napoleon met this act by an offer to withdraw the restrictions he had placed upon neutral commerce if Bngland would do likewise ; but England would give no such pledge. In iSii the French emperor fulfilled his promise, and the United States withdrew the prohibition of trade with France. WAR DECLARED AGAINST GREAT BRITAIN. England, however, refused to withdraw her orders in council until it was too late, and the federal government, having exhausted all peace- ful means of redress, was driven to obtain it by the sword. On the 3d of June, 18 1 2, the United States declared war against Great Britain. Congress authorized the President to increase the regular army to 25,000 men, and to call for 50,000 volunteers. The call was responded to promptly in some of the States, tardily in others, for the country was far from being united in support of the war. Hostilities began in the northwest. Previous to the war the Indians of that region, instigated by British emissaries, attacked the frontier settlements under the leadership of the famous Shawnee chief Tecumseh. General Harrison (afterwards president), the Governor of the Territory of Indiana, as soon as he learned of this, organized a considerable force of western militia, and inarched against the savages, whom he defeated with terrible loss in a sanguinary battle at Tippecanoe, on the banks of the Wabash river, on the 7th of November, 181 1. Though defeated in this battle, Tecumseh was not conquered. He passed the next six months in reorganizing his forces, and with the beginning of the summer of 1812 renewed hostilities. General Hull, the Governor of Michigan, was sent against him with a force of 2,000 408 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. men. He had just begun his march when war was declared against England. Hull was then ordered to discontinue his expedition against the Indians and take part in the contemplated invasion of Canada. His force was too weak even to hold its position at Detroit, but no reinforce- ments could be sent him. General Brock, with a superior force, advanced against Detroit, and ou the i6th of August, 1S12, Hull surrendered the town and his forces THE "WASl"' BOARDING THF. "FROLIC." to the British Avithout striking a blow. This placed the whole Michigan frontier in the hands of the British. An invasion of Canada from the Niagara frontier was undertaken by the American forces in the autumn of 1812, but resulted in a most disastrous failure. These defeats on laud were partly atoned for b}' the successes of ihe American navy at sea. The navy had been utterl}- neglected by the government previous to the war, and consisted of but a small squad- ron of frigates and other vessels. These were generally of an excellent character, however, and were manned by ofl&cers and crews of skill and FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THK CIVIL WAR. 409 valor. On tlie igtli of August, 1812, the frigate " Constitution," Cap- tain Hull, captured the English frigate " Guerriere," reducing the latter to a total wreck. This was the first time in half a century that an English ship-of-war had struck her flag to a vessel of equal force. On the i8th of October, the sloop-of-war " Wasp," Captain Jones, captured the British brig "Frolic." On the 25th of October, the frigate "United States," captured the British frigate "Macedonian;" and on the 29th of December, the "Constitution," Captain Bainbridge, captured the British frigate "Java." Privateers went to sea in great numbers during the year, and by the close of 181 2 had captured over 300 English merchant vessels. MANY ENGAGEMENTS \A^ITH THE ENEMY. The American government renewed its efforts to conquer Canada in 1813. An army, under General Harrison, was collected near the head of Lake Erie, and was styled the x^rmy of the West ; an Army of the Centre, under General Dearborn, was stationed along the Niagara frontier ; and an Army of the North, under General Wade Hampton, was posted in northern New York, on the border of Lake Champlain. There were numerous engagements between these forces and the enemy, but nothing definite was accomplished during the first half year. In April, General Pike, with a force of 1,700 men, captured York (now Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada, but was himself killed by the explosion of a mine fired by the enemy. The town was not held, however, and the success of the attack was fully balanced b}- a terrible disaster which befell the western army at the river Raisin, in January, in which a detachment of 800 men, under General Winchester, was defeated and massacred by the British and Indians (the latter of whom were now the open allies of the British), under General Proctor. In May, the British made an attack on Sackett's Harbor, on Lake Ontario, but were repulsed. In the same month an American force, under General Boyd and Colonel Miller, captured Fort George, in Canada, inflicting upon the British a loss of nearly 1000 men. Nothing 410 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. definite was accomplished on the Niagara frontier, owing to the qnarrels between Generals Wilkinson and Hampton ; and the grand invasion of Canada, from which so much had been expected, never took place. The year was not to close without some compensating success for the Ameri- cans. The British held Lake Erie with an armed squadron, which by its presence greatly hampered the operations of the western army under General Harrison. Lieutenant Oliver H. Perry, of the United States navy, volunteered to recover the lake, and caused to be built a squadron of vessels inferior in size and armament to the English fleet. GALLANT DEEDS OF OUR ARMY AND NAVY. On the loth of September, 1813, he attacked the enemy's squadron near the upper end of Lake Erie, and defeated and destroyed it. This victory won back Lake Erie and the shores of Ohio and Michigan for the Americans. It was followed by the advance of the western army into Canada. On the 6th of October General Harrison attacked the British and Indians, under Proctor and Tecumseh, and routed them in the battle of the Thames. Tecumseh was slain, and Proctor was saved only b}' the speed of his horse. At sea this year the American brig " Hornet," Captain Lawrence, captured the " Peacock," on the 24th of Februar}-. Captain Lawrence having been placed in command of the frigate " Chesapeake," engaged the British frigate "Shannon," off Boston, on the ist of June. Lawrence was killed and the "Chesapeake" was captured. On the 5th of Septem- ber the American brig " Enterprise," Lieutenant Burrows, captured the British brig " Boxer," Lieutenant Bh'the. Both commanders were killed in the fight. The campaign of 1S14 was more important. The war in Europe having closed, large numbers of Wellington's veteran troops were sent over to America. They reached this country during the latter part ot the year. On the fifth of July the American army under General Brown defeated the British at Chippewa. On the twenty -fifth of the same month General Brown won a second victory over the British at FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 411 Lnndv's Lane, or Bridgewater. Towards the close of the summer Sir George Prevost, the British commander in Canada, having been rein- forced from Wellington's army, invaded the State of New York at the head of 14,000 men. He was accompanied b^^ a fleet of considerable strength, which moved tip Lake Champlaiu. He was met at Plattsburgh on the 3d of September by a small American force nnder General Macomb, which disputed his passage of the Saranac. At the same time an American squadron under Commo- dore MacDonough engaged the British fleet at the entrance to Platts- burgh bay, and routed it with the loss of every vessel except a few gunboats, which escaped. The American army repulsed every effort of he British to pass the Saranac, and Sir George Prevost, disheartened by his double disaster, retreated into Canada, having lost his fleet and 2,500 of his troops. Thus ended his ill-fated expedition. BRITISH FLEET IN CHESAPEAKE BAY. In the summer of 1814 a British fleet under Admirals Cockburn md Warren ravaged the shores of the Chesapeake bay, committing the m st horrible barbarities upon the helpless people. In August, these vess> Is landed a force of several thousand British troops under General Ross, at Benedict, on the Patuxent. Ross at once advanced upon the city of Washington, which was defenceless, and on the 24th of August defea ed a small force of American militia which sought to bar his way at Bladensburg. He then resumedhis advance and occupied Washington' hat evening, the federal government having withdrawn from the city. He burned the capital, the president's house, the navy yard, and sever?' of the buildings occupied by the executive departments of the govemn nt, and retreated to the Patuxent, and re-embarked on his ships. " Few more shameful acts are recorded in our history," say an P-^nglish writer of note, " and it was the more shameful in that it was done under strict orders from the government at home." General voss then ascended the Chesapeake to Baltimore, and landed his tro( ps at North Point, near that city, while the fleet made a sharp attack upon PERRY'S VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE. 412 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 413 Fort McHenr}', which guarded the entrance to the harbor. The fleet was repulsed by the fort, and Ross was killed in a skirmish near North Point on the twelfth of September. His successor at once re-embarked the army, and abandoned the effort against Baltimore. At sea during 1814 the American frigates " Essex " and " President" were captured by superior forces of the enemy, while the British sloops- of-war "Epervier," "Avon," "Reindeer," " Cyane," "Levant," and "Penguin" were captured by American cruisers. During the remainder of the year 1814 nothing of importance occurred. On the eighth of January, 1S15, a British force of 12,000 of Wellington's veteran troops attacked the city of New Orleans, but were defeated with the loss of their commander and 2000 men, by 5000 Americans under General Jackson. This battle was fought after a treaty of peace between the United States and Great Britain had been signed in Europe, but before the news had reached America. A VICTORY OF GREAT IMPORTANCE. The victory was most important to the Americans, for had the result been different, there can be little doubt that England would have disregarded the treaty, and have clung to a conquest which would have given her the control of the mouth of the Mississippi. In such an event either the war would have been renewed, or the destinj^ of the great West would have been marred forever. The restoration of peace in Europe upon the downfall of Napoleon removed many of the vexatious issues that had produced the war, and disposed the British government to be just in its dealings with America. Negotiations for peace were begun in the summer of 1814, and a treaty of peace was finall}^ signed at Ghent, on the twenty-fourth of December, 1814. By the terms of the treaty the two governments agreed upon a settlement of the boundary between the United States and Canada, and to mutually restore all territory taken during the war, and arranged some minor details respecting their future intercourse, but nothing was said of the impressment of American seamen, the chief 414 FROM THK RKVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 415 cause of the war. Inasmuch, however, as Great Britain has never since then attempted such outrages, this question also may be regarded as having been settled by this war. During the struggle with England the pirate states of northern Africa — Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers — had resumed their outrages iipon American commerce. In the spring of 1815 a strong naval expedition under Commodore Decatur was sent to the Mediterranean, and forced these states to make indemnity for their piracies, and to pledge them- selves to cease to molest American vessels in future. TRYING TO REMEDY GRIEVOUS EVILS. The federalist party had from the first opposed the war with England, and during its continuance had given it no aid save what was forced from them by the laws. The strength of this part}' lay in the New England States, where the losses of the war fell heaviest. To remed}- the evils which the federalists declared the government had recklessly brought upon the country, a convention was held at Hartford, Connecticut, in 18 14. This body recommended certain measures to the legislatures of the Eastern States, limiting the power of the general government over the militia of the States, and proposed several amendments to the federal constitution. The news of the treaty of peace put a stop to all further proceedings of the convention, which resulted in nothing but the destruction of the federalist party, which came to be regarded by the people at large as having been untrue to the republic in its hour of need. Mr. Madison was re-elected president in 18 12, and had the satisfac- tion of conducting the war which had been begun during his adminis- tration to a siiccessful close. He declined to be a candidate for a ihird term, and James Monroe, of \'irginia, was nominated by the democratic party, and elected by a large majority in 1816. Mr. Monroe had been secretary of state during the greater part of Mr. Madison's adminis- tration. 416 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. The return of peace found the country burdened with a debt $80,000,000, and with almost a total absence of specie in its mercantile transactions, the majority of the banks having suspended the paymeul of gold and silver during the war. In 181 7 Congress, to relieve thJ general distress, established a bank of the United States at Philadelphia with a charter for twenty years and a capital of $35,000,000. The note of this institution supplied the demand for a circulating medium uniform value throughout the country, and did much to relieve tl financial distress of the period. Two new States were added to the Union during Mr. Madison'j administration — Louisiana in 1812, and Indiana in 1816. ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT MONROE. Mr. Monroe was inaugurated in March, 181 7. He had been exceec ingly popular as secretary of state, and the good will of the peoplj followed him into the presidential chair. His administration proved so acceptable to all parties that he was re-elected in 1S20 by every ele<; toral vote but one. Five new states were admitted into the Union durinj his presidency. They were Mississippi in 1817, Illinois in 1818, Ala bama in 1819, Maine in 1820, and Alissouri in 1S21. For some years the opposition to African slavery- in America haJ been spreading through the Northern States, and had been steadil] gathering strength. When the territory of Missouri presented its peti- tion to Congress in 1820 for admission into the Union as a State with a constitution sanctioning slavery, there was a very general determination on the part of the free states to oppose the admission of another slave- holding state. The southern members of the confederac)', on the other hand, insisted upon the right of Missouri to choose its own institutions, and threatened to withdraw from the Union if this right was denied her by excluding her from the Union. A bitter contest with regard to the subject of slavery now developed itself between the two sections of the Union, and continued from this time until it culminated in the civil war. The country was agitated in FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 417 everj' portion, and the best men of the land expressed the fear that the Union would be torn in pieces by the violence of the contending parties. Henry Clay succeeded in procuring the passage of a series of measures known as the Missouri Compromise. Slavery was forever prohibited in that portion of the republic lying north of 36° 30' N. latitude, and Mis- souri was subsequently admitted with her slaveholding constitution. The compromise was regarded as a final settlement of the slavery qiies- tion, and secured about thirty years of quiet and repose for the country. During Mr. Monroe's presi- dency the Spanish colonies in North and South America de- clared their independence of Spain, and successfully main- tained it for several years. In 1 82 2 they were recognized by the United States. In his annual message to Congress in 1823, Mr. Monroe gave utter- ance to the followingprinciple, which has since been distinctly recognized by his successors as the unwavering policy of the United States : "That as a principle the American continents, by the free and independent position which they have assumed and main- tained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects of future coloni- zation by an}- European power." This declaration is commonly known as the " Monroe Doctrine." Mr. Monroe declined to be a candidate for re-election in 1824. There was no choice b}^ the popular vote this year, and the election passed into the House of Representatives, b}^ which John Ouincy Adams, of Massachusetts, was chosen president. He was inaugurated 27 HEXkY CLAY. 418 FROM THK RKVOLUTIOX TO THK CIVIL WAR. on ill!.' .fth of March, 1S25. '^^^'^ principal event of this administration was the adoption of a hi^h tariff for the purpose of protecting American manufactures from the competition of foreii.^n importations. This act was sustained b\- the northern people, who were engaged in manufac- tures, and for whose bsnefit it was adopted ; but was bitterly denounced by the South, which, being an agricultural section, naturally desired the liberty of bu3dng her goods where they could be procured best and cheapest. The division of sen- timent thus produced grew more distinct ever\- da}-, and brought about considerable trouble in the end. One of Air. Adams' strongest supporters was Daniel Web- ster, whose powerful advocacv of the measures proposed b\- the administration revealed his superb intellectual and oratori- cal gifts. In 1S2S Andrew Jackson, of "i^^^^^^^^g^^^^g^p^ Tennessee, was elected president bv the votes of the democratic DANIEL WEBSTER. party. He was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1829, '^"^ began liis career by advising Congress, in his annual message, not to continue the Bank of the United States, the directors of which sought a renewal of its charter. He declared the law creating the bank unconstitutional. This message inaugurated a long and ^ bitter contest between the administration and the friends of the bank, the latter party embracing almost the entire mercantile community. In 1832 Congress passed a bill renewing the charter of the bank ; it was vetoed by the President, and an effort to pass it over his veto failed. The charter of the bank therefore expired by law in 1S36. I FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVH. WAR. 419 The tariff question assumed formidable proportions during this administration. In 1832 Congress increased the rate of duties. South Carolina at once declared her intention to resist the efforts of the govern- ment to collect the increased duties in her ports, and prepared to maintain her position by force of arms. The great leader of this opposition to the government, which was known as the "Nullification Movement," was John C. Calhoun, who had a short time previous resigned the vice- presidency of the United States to become a senator from South Carolina. His principal coad- jutors were Robert Y. Hayne, senator from South Carolina, and George McDuffie, the Gov- ernor of the State. The party of which these brilliant men were the leaders declared that a state might nullify any law of Congress which it believed to be unconstitutional. The danger to the country was very great, and it seemed that open war would ensue between the federal govern- ment and South Carolina ; for JOHN C. CALHOUN. President Jackson, who had been re-elected in 1832, declared his determination to enforce the law, and to treat the action of South Carolina as treason. He sent a ship of war to Charleston harbor, ordered General Scott to proceed to that port with all the available troops under his com- mand, and issued a proclamation denying the right of a state to nullify the laws of Congress, and warning all persons engaged in sustaining the action of South Carolina in its unlawful course that they would be held liable to prosecution under the laws for the crime of treason. The bank question came up again, just as the nullification excite- 420 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. --=' 'mm •-'.''^"'^Am ment died out. The law of Congress required the public funds to be deposited in the bank of the United States, the charter of which was about to expire bj^ limitation. The president, in December, 1832, recom- mended the removal of these funds b}' Act of Congress, but that body refused to take this step. The president then ordered the secretary of the treasury, Mr. McLane, to remove the funds and deposit them in specified State banks. Mr. McLane refused to do so, and was transferred to the State Department, which was then vacant. \Vm. J. Duane was then ap- pointed secretary of the treas- ury-, but he, too, refused to remove the funds, and was promptl}' deprived of his office, which was conferred upon Roger B. Taney, who executed the president's order, and transferred the funds to the banks desig- nated by the executive. This was a severe blow to the bank of the United States, and was fol- lowed by a great stringency in financial circles. The presi- dent lost many friends, and was The Senate bv a vote of 26 yeas PROFESSOR N'ORSE. denounced throughout the country, to 10 noes passed a resolution censuring his course. He was sustained by the House of Representatives, whose indorsement, considering the origin of that body, was more important than the censure of the Senate. In March, 1837, the Senate did justice to the president's motives, and expunged its resolution of censure from its journal. In 1832, Samuel F. B. Morse, a native of Massachusetts, invented the electric telegraph. He spent some 3'ears in perfecting his invention, and in 1S3S applied to Congress for a small appropriation to assist him in building a line of wire to demonstrate the usefulness of his discovery. FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 421 He was obliged to wait five years for a favorable answer, and it was not until lie had given up all liope of receiving aid from Congress that that body, on the last day of the session of 1843, appropriated the sum of thirty thousand dollars to construct a telegraph line between Washing- ton City and Baltimore, a distance of forty miles. The line was com- pleted in 1844. During President Jackson's administration the national debt was paid. The State of Arkansas was admitted into the Union in 1S36, and was followed by Michigan in 1837. The governments of France, Spain, Naples, Portugal and Holland were compelled to pay fair indemnities for their spoliation of American commerce during the wars of Napoleon, and important commercial treaties were negotiated with foreign countries. The Seminole Indians of Florida resisted the efforts of the government to remove them to reservations west of the Mississippi, and a war ensued with them, which lasted until 1842, and cost $40,000,000. PRESIDENTS VAN BUREN AND HARRISON. In 1836, Martin Van Buren, of New York, the candidate of the democratic party, was elected president. He was inaugurated in March, 1837, and his administration had scarcely begun when the country was plunged into the severe financial crisis of 1837. The troubles resulting from this disaster lasted throughout his whole term of office, and the principal measures of his administration were designed to remedy them. The most important of these measures was the establishment of the sub-treasury of the United States, the wisdom of which has been amply demonstrated by its successful operation since that period. In 1840, William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, the candidate of the whig party, was elected president. He was inaugurated in March, 1841, but was taken sick almost immediately afterwards, and died on the 4th of April. By the terms of the constitution John Tyler, of Virginia, the vice-president, became president. The whigs were in favor of a national bank, and Congress passed several acts chartering such an institution, all of which were vetoed by the president, whose 422 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. views upon the subject accorded with those of the democratic party rather than with the whigs. In consequence of these acts, he was aban- doned by the party which elected him, and was supported by the democ- racy, with which he thenceforth identified himself. During Mr. Tyler's term the question of the northwestern boundary between the United States and British America was settled by a treaty with Great Britain, which was ratified by the Senate on the 20th of August, 1S42. During this administration, also, the republic of Texas, which had won its independence from Mexico, was annexed to the United States as a state of the Union. The annexation was opposed by the whig party and by the northern states in general, which regarded it as an effort to extend the area of negro slavery. Texas was admitted into the Union on the ist of March, 1845. ^^'^ Tyler's last official act was to approve the bill for the admission of the states of Iowa and Florida into the Union on the 3d of March, 1845. TRIUMPH OF THE DEMOCRATIC PARTY. In 1S44, James K. Polk, of Tennessee, was elected president. This was a democratic triumph. He was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1S45. Mr. Polk found the country involved in a dispute with Mexico respecting the boundary of Texas. This dispute resulted in war between the United States and Mexico, the latter country' proving the aggressor. Hostilities began on the Rio Grande between the army of General Taylor and the Mexican army of General Arista, in April, 1846. General Taylor defeated the Mexicans at Palo Alto, on the 8th of May, 1846, and again at Resaca de la Palma, the next day. On being rein- forced, he crossed the Rio Grande, and drove the Mexicans into the interior of their countr}^ capturing their strong city of Montere)', in September, 1846, and defeating their best army under President Santa Anna himself at Buena Vista, on the 23d of February, 1847. Another army, under General Wiufield Scott, was directed against Vera Cruz and the City of Mexico, and troops were dra\vn from Taylor's army in the spring of 1847 to reinforce it. This brought Taylor's opera- FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 423 tions to a close. Scott landed his forces near Vera Cruz on the Qtli of March, 1847, and captured it, after a vigorous siege, on the 29th. Moving into the interior, on the direct road to the capital, he defeated the enemy in a series of hard-fought battles, at Cerro Gordo, on the iSth of April ; Contreras and Churubusco, on the 20th of August ; Molino del Rey, on the 8th of September, and Chapultepec, on the 12th of Sep- tember. On the 14th of September, 1847, he entered the City of Mexico in triumph, and held it until the close of the war. In 1846, General Stephen Kearney conquered New IMexico, while Commodore Stockton and Colonel Fremont drove the Mexicans out of California and occupied that prov- ince. Kearney marched from New Mexico into California, arriving there in January, 1847 ; and on the Sth of February assumed the office of governor, and proclaimed the annexa- tion of California to the United States. About the same time Colonel Doniphan, with 1000 Missouri vol- unteers, made a forced march across the plains, and on the 28th of Feb- ruary defeated a force of 4000 Mexi- cans, and captured the important city of Chihuahua. He then contin- ued his march to Monterey and the Rio Grande. A treaty of peace between the United States and the Mexican republic was signed at Guadaloupe-Hidalgo, on the 2nd of February, 1848. Mexico yielded the boundary of the Rio Grande, and ceded California and New Mexico to the United States, and the latter power agreed to pay Mexico for the territory taken from her the sum of k 424 FLOM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. $15,000,000, aud to assume the debts due b}- Mexico to American citizens, to the amount of $3,750,000. Great Britain claimed the territory of Oregon as a part of British America, and the federal government insisted that it was a part of the territory of the republic, and even declared its intention to go to war with Creat Britain rather than sacrifice it. Nevertheless, as a measure of peace, the administration of Mr. Polk proposed to England the 49th parallel of north latitude for a boundary, the original claim of the United States having extended to the line of 54° 40'. As this compromise gave Great Britain all of \'anconver's Island, it was accepted. Free-trade ideas prevailed during this administration to an extent suflScient to secure a modification of the high protective tariff of 1S46. In May, 1S4S, Wisconsin was admitted into llie Union as a state. AGITATION OF THE SLAVERY QUESTION. In the fall of 1S4S Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, was elected president by the whig party. He was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1S49. The slavery question now presented itself again to the country, and this time in a most aggravated form ; for both the friends and enemicir of that system had grown more powerful since the temporary settle-- ment in 1S20. A strong anti-slavery party had grown up at the north, which was avowedly determined to oppose the extension of slavery beyond its existing limits, and which was believed by the south to be working for the overthrow of slavery in the states in which it already existed. The contest was resumed in Congress in 1846, while measures were on foot looking to peace with Mexico, bj' a proposition from David Wilmot, a representative from Pennsylvania, providing that in the territory which might be acquired by the war then going on, there should! be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except for crime. This measure, known a.s the " Wilniot Proviso," passed the House of Repre- sentatives by a large majority, but the Senate adjourned before a vote upon it could be rer.ched. FROM THK REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 425 The next year the House readopted the proviso, which was rejected by the Senate. The House then abandoned it. The proviso was bitterly denounced by the southern states, which chaimed that, inasmuch as they had furnished the larger nunil)er of troops by which the war was fought and the territory wo'i, their instilutions should receive equal protection THl''. I'OST OFFICl'. NKW VciKK IN 1878. in the new territory with those of the north. The dispute became very bitter, and made the presidential election of 1S48 one of the most memor- able in the history of the Union. Fresh excitement was added to the controversy by the events in California. I Gold was discovered in California in February, 1848. As soon as this discovery was made known, a large emigration to the Pacific coast began from the eastern states and from all parts of the world. In a few months the population of the territory was over 100,000. Early m 1849 426 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. it was fouud that an organized government was an absolnte necessity. There were inhabitants enongh to entitle the territorj' to adniissiou into the Union as a state ; and in September, 1849, a convention was held at Montere}-, which adopted and submitted to Congress a consti- tution prohibiting slaver}^ The southern states took strong ground against the admission of California as a free state, and even went so far as to threaten to withdraw from the Union if slavery was excluded from the territories. A disunion con- vention was held at Nashville, Ten- nessee, in 1850, by the extreme party in the south. The south demanded of Congress not only the rejection of the free consti- tution of Cali- fornia, but an amendment of the constitution of the HYDRAULIC MINING IN CALIFORNIA. United States which should equalize the power of the free and the slave states in the general government. New Mexico now asked admission into the Union, and Texas set up a claim to a western boundary which included a large part of New Mexico. These minor questions very greatly complicated the main issue. The country was plunged into an excitement greater than that which had prevailed in 1820, and for a while it seemed that the Union would surely be destroj^ed. Finally a settlement known as the "compromise of 1850," was pro- posed in the Senate by Henry Clay, and carried through Congress by his efforts, aided bv the moderate men of both sections. This com- FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 427 promise admitted California as a free state ; erected Utah and New Mexico into territories, leaving the question of the admission or exclu- sion of slavery to the people thereof when they came to form state constitutions, arranged the western boundary of Texas, abolished the slave trade in the District of Columbia ; and substituted a new law for the rendition of fugitive slaves in place of the old act which was ineffective. The compromise was bitterly op- posed by the extremists of both sec- tions, those of the north denounced the concessions to Texas in the boundary question, and fiercely as- sailed the refusal of Congress to forbid slavery in the territories. The fugitive slave law was not only denounced as unchristian and un- constitutional, but was opposed and nullified on the part of the free states by a series of personal liberty acts, which were as unlawful as the disunion measures of the pro-slavery party. The Southern extremists resented the admission of California as a free state, and the refusal of Congress to sanction and protect slavery in the territories. Still, as it was plain that the compromise embodied the only settlement possible at the time, the great body of the nation accepted it in good faith, and the government honestly executed the fugitive slave law in all cases in which its aid was invoked, putting down the resistance to it by force. In the midst of the struggle over the compromise. General Taylor died, on the 9th of July, 1850, and was succeeded by Millai'd Fillmore, of New York, the vice-president, who opened his administration with a change of cabinet ministers. The new president gave his heart v support to the compromise measures, while pending, and his instant STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS. 42S FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. approval upon their passage. The priucipal events of his temi were the invasion of Cuba by Lopez, in 1S51, which was defeated by the Spaniards; the visit of Louis Kossuth to the United States, in 1851 ; the disputes with England concerning the fisheries, in 1852, which were satisfactorily settled ; and the expedition of Commodore Perry to Japan, bv means of which an important treat}- was negotiated with that country, and the Japanese ports opened to the commerce of the world. The slaver}^ question entered largel}- into the presidential campaign of 1852, and so greatly weakened the whig party that the democrats were enabled to elect their candidate, Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire. General Pierce was inaugu- rated on the 4th of March, 1853. His administration is memorable for the violent po- litical contests which prevailed I during its term. One of its first measures was the settle- ment of a dispute with Mexico bv purchasing the territory CHARLES SUMNER. of Arizona. In 1853 Jefferson Davis, the secretary of war, inaugurated the surveys for a railway to the Pacific by sending out an expedition of engineers of the United States army for that purpose. In 1853 Stephen A. Douglas, a senator from Illinois, introduced a bill organizing the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, lying west of the Missouri river and north of the line of 36° 30' N. latitude, in which region the Act of 1S20 forever pro- hibited slavery. This new bill repealed the Missouri compromise act of 1820, and reopened the slavery question in that region. The administration of FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 429 Mr. Pierce and the leaders of the democratic party supported the measure, which was opposed by the great mass of the people of the free states without regard to party, as a violation of the plighted faith of the nation. The bill was hotly debated in Congress, but passed the Senate by a vote of 37 to 14, and the House by a vote of 113 to 100, and received the executive approval on the 31st of May, 1854. The passage of the bill was followed by great agitation throughout the country. It greatly increased THE MORMON HAND-CART COMPANY CROSSING THE PLAl NS the Strength of the anti-slavery party, which now began to be known as the republican party, and drove many democrats into its ranks. The act left the territories free to decide between slavery and free labor, and thus opened the way for a long and bloody warfare in Kansas, which was begun by the pro-slavery party for the purpose of obtaining possession of the territory, and was continued until the outbreak of the civil war. An effort was made by President Pierce to purchase Cuba from Spain, but that power declined to sell the island. An expedition of filibusters, under General William Walker, succeeded in conquering 430 FROM TIIF. REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. the Central Americau state of Nicaragua. Walker sent an envoy to Washington, who was formally recognized by the president. Prominent in the agitation on the slaverj- question was Charles Sumner, United States senator from Massachusettes. A cowardly attack on him in the Senate chamber by Preston F. Brooks of South Carolina did much to inflame the angry feeling of the anti-slaver}- party. In the fall of 1856, the democrats elected James Buchanan, of Penn- MOUNTAIN MEADOW MAbb.VLKb. s\'lvania, president. In this campaign John C. Fremont, the candidate of the republican or anti-slaver\- party, received a popular vote oi 1,341,264, and 114 votes in the electoral college. Mr. Buchanan's administration was entirelv southern in its sym- pathies, and was marked by a constant struggle in Congress and throughout the country over the slaverj' question. The war in Kansas went on with great bitterness through this whole term the power of the federal government being generally cast against the free settlers, who were forced to take extraordinary measures for their defence. An eflfort FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 431 was made to force a pro-slavery constitution upon the territory, and it split the democratic party into two wings — the larger of which, led by Stephen A. Douglas, united with the republicans in opposing this con- stitution ; while the smaller, led by the extreme southern men, in Congress, received the aid of the administration, and favored the adoption of the constitution. In 1858, Minnesota was admitted into the Union as a state, and was followed by Oregon in 1859. In 1857, the Mormon settlers of Utah territory took up arms against the authority of the general government. The rebellion continued for some time, and a military force was sent across the plains to suppress it ; but the troubles were settled without bloodshed. COLD-BLOODED MASSACRE AT MOUNTAIN MEADOW. On the eighteenth of September, 1S57, one hundred and thirty-six emigrants, who were said to have offended the Mormons, were massacred in cold blood at Mountain Meadow, Utah. Many years later Bishop Lee, of the Mormon Church, was accused of having ordered this wholesale murder. Brigham Young was exonerated in 1875. Bishop Lee was con- victed, sentenced to death, and shot March 23, 1877, nearly twenty years after the dastardl}- crime was committed. In October, 1859, John Brown, with a small band of followers, seized the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, and endeavored to incite the slaves of Virginia to insurrection. Brown and his men were cap- tured by the United States troops, several of them being killed by the soldiers in the fight. The survivors were surrendered by the federal government to the State of Virginia for trial, and were convicted and hanged. The "John Brown raid " was regarded by the South as incon- testable evidence of the determination of the North to destroy the institutions of the South under the cover of the Union, while at the North a formidable party denounced the execution of Brown as a mur- der, and assailedthe South most bitterly for it. THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. THE presidential election of i860 turned mainly upon the question of slavery in the territories. The democratic partj^, already weakened by the Kansas question, now finally split into two frag- ments. The larger wing nominated Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, as its candidate. It held that Congress had no power either to sanction or forbid slavery in the territories, and that the question could be decided onl}' by the people thereof, who were the most interested in it. The smaller wing chose John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, as its candidate, and declared it to be the express duty of Congress to sanction and pro- tect slavery- in all the territories of the republic, and maintained that the constitution, of its own force, carried slavery into them. The republican party nominated Abraham Linco'n, of Illinois, as its can- didate. This part}- denied all iuteutiou to interfere with the domestic insti- tutions of au}' of the states of the Union, but avowed its determination to prevent the introduction of slavery into the territories by Congres- sional legislation, and denounced as false the doctrine that the consti- tution established slaver}' in au}- part of the Union. It asserted the right of every community to manage its domestic affairs in its own way, and denounced the invasion of Virginia by John Brown as wicked and unjustifiable. A fourth part}-, known as the constitutional union party, nomi- nated John Bell, of Tennessee, and adopted the following vague and indefinite platform. "The Union, the Constitution, and the enforce- ment of the laws." The contest was bitter beyond all precedent. It resulted in the election of Abraham Lincoln by a plurality in the popular vote, and a majority of fifty-seven votes over all his competitors in the electoral college. The southern states had threatened to withdraw from the Union in the event of the election of a president hostile to slavery, and now 432 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 433 proceeded to put their threats into execution. As soon as the election of Mr. Lincoln was definitely ascertained, the legislature of South Carolina summoned a convention of the people of that state, which met on the 17th of December, i860. This convention adopted an ordinance of secession, and withdrew the state from the Union on the 20th of December. The secession of South Carolina was followed by that of the following states : Mississippi, on the 9th of January, 1861 ; Florida, January loth ; Alabama, January nth ; Georgia, January 19th ; Louisiana, January 26th, and Texas, February ist. The secession of Georgia was ad- vocated by Robert Toombs, one of the ablest men of the state, who was ver}' pronounced in all his opinions. The forts, arsenals and other pub- lic property of the United States in the states named, were seized b}' the state authorities and held by their troops, except Fort Sumter, in Char- leston harbor, and Fort Pickens, on Santa Rosa Island, near Pensacola, Florida. Fort Sumter was occu- pied by a garrison of eight}- men, under Major Robert Anderson, who had originally occupied Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan's Island. On the night of December 25th, i860, Anderson evacuated Fort Moultrie and threw his command into Fort Sumter. m The federal government was at this time almost helpless. The ami}', but 16,000 strong, was posted on the Indian frontier, and the available vessels of the navy were nearly all in foreign waters. Many of the most prominent officials, including several of the cabinet min- isters, were in open sympathy with the seceded states, and the presi- dent seemed only anxious to delay any definite action in the matter ROBERT TOOMBS. 434 Till-: r.Rl'.AT CIVIL WAR. until the inauguration of his successor. His recommendations to Con- gress were not equal to the emergency. He was in favor of conceding to the South everything but separate independence ; not seeing that the leaders of the secession movement would accept nothing but separation, and by his timidity lost the advan- tages which the government would have obtained b}' a bold, firm course. , Still he refused to : \'ickl to the prcs- • sure brought to bear upon him for the purpose of in- ducing him to sur- render Fort Sum- ter to the state of South Carolina. He also refused to sell the fort to !| ^ the state, or to order Anderson back to Fort Moul- trie, as he was urged to do. Various plans were proposed in i Congress, and by I MAJOR ANni.KSON. the States for a settlement of the national troubles, but none were attended with success. A convention of delegates from the border states met at Washington in February, 1861, for the purpose of devising a plan of settlement, but adjourned after a session of three weeks, without having accomplished anything. Early in January, 1S61, the steamer "Star of the West" was despatched to Charleston b}- the government with reinforcements and supplies for Fort Sumter. She attempted to enter the harbor on THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 435 the 9th, and was fired upon aud turned back by the South Carolina batteries. On the 4th of February, i86i, a convention of delegates from the six seceded states met at Alontgomery, Alabama, and organized the new republic of the confederate states of America, and on the 8th elected Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, president of the provisional government. FORT MOULTRIE, CHARLESTON HARBOR. On the 4th of March, i86i, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated president of the United States. The first act of the new administration was to send an expedition to Charleston harbor for the relief of Fort Sumter. This expedition sailed from New York and Norfolk on the 7th of April, and Governor Pickens of South Carolina was at once informed of its departure. The confederate government thereupon ordered General Beauregard, commanding its forces at Charleston, to reduce Fort Sumter. THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. The bombardment was begun on the morning of the I2th of April, and was continued until the afternoon of the 13th, when the fort surrendered- Upon the fall of Fort Sumter President Lincoln issued a proclamation for 75,000 troops to aid in suppressing the rebellion against the laws of the United States. The northern and western states responded to it with enthusiasm. The state of \"irginia now sided with the South, and seceded from the Union on the 17th of April, and was followed b}' Arkansas on the 6th of INIaj', North Carolina on the 20th of May, and Tennessee on the Sth of June. These states subse- quently became members of the confed- erate states Harper's Ferry and the navy yard at Portsmouth, in Virginia, were seized by the state forces. The western part of Virginia refused to act with the eastern counties, and proclaimed its independence of the old state. It was sustained in this action bj' the federal government, and organized the state of West Virginia, which was admitted into the Union in 1S63. Kentucky and Mif- sonri wished to renuiiu neutral in the contest, but neitherthe federal nor con- federate governments were willing or able to respect their neutrality. The prominent points in \'irginia were occupied by the confederate forces, and the federal government assembled an army near Washington and others on the Ohio and at commanding points in the West. \'igorous measures were introduced and carried out with firmness for the purpose of checking the disaffection in Maryland, Missouri and Kentucky. Hostilities began in Western A'irginia. The confederate force in that section was defeated at Philippi on the 3d of June, and at Rich Mountain on the Sth, by the federal troops under General McClellan, JEKFERSOX n.WlS. INAUGURATION OF JEFFERSON DAVIS AT MONTGOMERY, ALA. 437 438 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. and drivtMi cast of the mouutaius, with the loss of its commander, General Garnett. On the loth of Jnnc a federal colnmn advanced from Fortress Monroe, and attacked the confederates nnder General Magrnder, at Bethel Chnrch, on the peninsnla below Richmond. This was bnt the opening- o( hostilities in the East. The federal government had collected near Washington a strong army nnder General McDowell, and was pre- paring for an advance npon the confederate army, nnder General Bean- regard, at Manassas Junction, in Virginia. A colnmn of 20,000 federal troops, nnder General Patterson, was sent into the valley of Virginia to prevent llie confederate force nnder General Johnston, stationed a> Harper's Ferry, from assisting Beauregard. GREAT ROUT OF THE FEDERALS AT BULL RUN. On the 17th oi July General McDowell, with over 50,000 men, advanced from \\"ashiugton upon Beauregard's army, which held the line of Bull Run, in advance oi Manassas Junction. Johnston, npon learning of this movement, skilfully eluded Patterson's army, and marched to Bull Run with the bulk of his forces. On the 21st of July McDowell attacked the confederates, now about 31.000 strong, but his aruiv was routed and driven back upon Washington with a heavy loss. The confederates made no effort to advance upon Washington and the federal government set to work to repair its reverses. The com- mand of the federal army was conferred upon General McClellan, and a call was issued for 500,000 fresh troops. .\ powerful force known as the army of the Potomac, was organized near Washington. The confede- rate government in the meantime had been removed to Richmond, \'irginia. in May, and that city remained the capital of the confederacy until the close of the war. The remainder of the year was passed bv both sides in Virginia, in preparing for a fresh struggle in the following- spring, and in the winter o( 1861-62, the confederate government sent a force under General T. J. Jackson to hold the valley of \'irginia. On the 2ist of October, a federal force of 2,000 men under Colonel Baker TlIK f.RIvVT CIVIL WAR. 439 was defeated in au attempt to drive in the southern left wing at Lees- hurg, on the Potomac. Colonel Baker was killed. In Missouri, General Lyou, an energetic officer, collected a force of Union troops, and drove the governor and state forces out of St. Louis and Jefferson City into the southwestern part of the state. On the loth of August, Lyon attacked the Missouri forces under General Price, which had been reinforced by several thoiisand confederate troops under General McCulloch, at Wilson's Creek, near Springfield. The Union army was repulsed and General Lyon was killed. On the 20th of September, General Price captured Lexington, Missouri, after a short siege. General Fremont was now appointed to command the federal forces in Missouri, but before lie could accomplish anything was removed and succeeded by General Ilalleck, wild drove Price's army out of Missouri into Arkansas. The year closed with Missouri in possession of the federal forces. THE SOUTHERN COAST BLOCKADED. The confederates early in tlie summer of 1S61 occupied Columbus, on the Mississippi river, and Bowling Green, in the central part of Ken- tucky. A small force was stationed at Belmont, on the Missouri shore, opposite Columbus. It was attacked by a federal column from Cairo under General Grant on the 7th of November. Grant was repulsed and forced to return to Cairo. At the outset of the war the federal government proclaimed the whole coast of the southern states in a state of blockade. In order to make this effective, it was necessary to secure the principal liarbors on the coast, and during the war successive expeditious were sent against them. The first of these was despatched in August, 1861, and captured the works at Hatteras Inlet, on the North Carolina coasti ill us securing an entrance to Albemarle and Pamlico sounds. On the 7th of November Port Royal, in South Carolina, was reduced. The confederate government for some time cherished the hope of receiving assistance from France and England, and for the purpose of securing this aid, commissioners were sent to those countries in the fall THE ARREST OF MASON AND SLIDELL ON THE BRITISH STEAMER "TRENT ' 440 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 441 of 1861. They were arrested on board the English mail-steamer "Trent "on the high seas, b}' Captain Wilkes of the United States steamer " San Jacinto," and taken to Boston, where they were imprisoned. Great Britain demanded their release, and thej^ were liberated by the federal government, which disavowed the action of Captain Wilkes. The commissioners repaii"ed to lyondon and Paris, bnt neither Great Britain nor France would receive them in their official capacity. INSURRECTION AGAINST THE CONFEDERATES. The eastern portion of Tennessee did not sympathize in the secession movement, but remained loj'al to the Union. In the autumn of 1S61 the East Tennesseeans rose in insurrection against the confederate government, and burned the bridges of the railways connecting Virginia with the more southern states. During the war East Tennessee remained a constant menace to the confederacy. The year 1862 found both governments with powerful armies, pre- pared to prosecute the war upon a gigantic scale. Hostilities opened in' the west. General George H. Thomas, on the 19th of January, 1862, defeated General Zollicofifer at Mill Spring, in western Kentuck\'. This success drove back the right of the confederate line in that state. It was followed by other successes. General U. S. Grant, aided b}- a fleet of gunboats tinder Commodore Foote, captured Fort Henrv, on the Ten- nessee river, on the 6th of February, and Fort Donelson, on the Cum- berland, on the i6th. These were the most important successes of the war, and compelled the confederates to abandon their position in Ken- tucky. Bowling Green and Columbus w^ere evacuated, and Nashville fell into the hands of the federal army under General Buell. General" Beauregard, commanding the confederate forces at Colum- bus, fell back to Corinth, an important railroad centre in northern Mississippi, and was subsequently joined there by the armv of General Sidney Johnston, which had performed a successful flank march from Nashville, after the loss of Fort Donelson. General Grant had advanced to Pittsburgh Landing on the Tennessee, and was encamped there 442 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. awaiting the arrival of Buell's arm}- from Nashville. On the 6th of April he was attacked at Shiloh Church, near Pittsburgh Landing, b}- the army of General Siduej- Johnston, and after a desperate struggle was driven back to the Tennessee. General Johnston was mortallj-' wounded at the close of the day, and the command fell to General Beauregard, who failed to follow up his success. During the night Grant was rein- forced bv Buell's army, and the next morning attacked Beauregard, and drove him back to Corinth. Another success was won bv the Union arms about the same time in the capture of Island No. lo, below Columbu.'^, which occurred on the ISLAND NO. 10. 7th of March. The Union fleet then descended the Mississippi to Fort Pillow, where its progress was barred by the confederates. General Halleck now assumed the command of the forces of Grant and Buell, and laid siege to Corinth, which was evacuated by the confederates on the 29th of Mav. The loss of Corinth compelled the confederates to evacuate Fort Pillow. They did so on the 4th of June. The Union fleet then descended the river to Memphis, and on the 7th of June attacked and destroved the confederate flotilla above that city. ]\Iemphis at once surrendered, and the Mississippi was opened as far as \'icksburg. After the loss of Corinth the confederates assembled an army of 50,000 men in East Tennessee, and in the hope of restoring their falling fortunes invaded Kentucky. They moved in two columns — one from Knoxville, under General E. Kirby Smith, and the main body from A THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 443 Chattauooga, under General Bragg. General Buell fell back from Nash- ville into Kentucky, and reached Louisville in time to prevent its capture. On the 30th of August General Smith won a victory over a federal force at Richmond, and occupied Frankfort and Lexington, and threatened Cincinnati. Learning that a strong force was assembling for the protection of Cincinnati, General Smith fell back, and joined Bragg, at Frankfort on the 4th of October. RETREAT OF GENERAL BRAGG. Finding it impossible to hold Kentucky, Bragg fell back slowly taking with him a train of wagons forty miles long, loaded with plunder. He was followed leisurely by Buell, who made no serious effort to inter- cept his retreat. On the 8th of October an indecisive battle was fought at Perryville, and Bragg resumed his retreat to Murfreesboro', Tennessee, about thirty miles beyond Nashvilk-. There he was attacked on the 31st of December by the federal army, which had been taken from Buell and placed under command of General Rosecrans. Rosecrans was driven back with heavy loss. He took up a new position on Stone river, and on the 2nd of January, 1863, was attacked by Bragg, who met with a terrible repulse. Bragg then fell back to Tullahoma, about thirty miles from Murfreesboro'. In the meantime, while Bragg was in Kentucky, the confederates had attempted to drive Grant's army out of northern Mississippi. On the 19th of September their army under General Price was defeated at luka, and on the 4th of October, Price and Van Dorn, having united their forces, attacked Corinth, which was held liy an equal federal force under General Rosecrans. They were repulsed with great slaughter, and driven southward for thirty miles. ■ Towards the close of the year General Grant undertook an expedition against Vicksburg, Mississippi, biit it proved a failure. As we have stated, the confederates were driven out of Missouri into Arkansas at the close of 1861. General Van Dorn was placed in com- mand of their army, and on the 7th of March, 1862, attacked the federal p* -?^> , - r -. ; .- »■ •A '■ 1 I THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 445 army iiuder General Curtis at Pea Ridge, in the northwestern part of Arkansas. Curtis was driven back the iirst day, but taking up a new position during the night, repulsed the confederates on the 8th. Van Dorn and Price with their troops were soon after ordered east of the Mississippi, and bore the bruut of the campaign in northern Mississippi in the summer and fall of 1862. The federal government continued its efforts to capture the promi- nent points on the southern coast. A powerful expedition under General Burnside was sent to the coast of North Carolina. On the 8th of February it captured Roanoke Island, commanding Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, and on the lOth defeated and destroyed the confederate squadron in Albemarle sound. On the 14th of March Newbern was taken, and on the 25th of April Fort Macon, at the mouth of Beaufort harbor, oue of the strongest works on the coast, surrendered after a short siege. Witii the exception of the mouth of the Cape Fear, the whole North Carolina coast was now in possession of the Union forces. Important points were cap- tured on the Florida coast by expeditions from Port Royal. EXPEDITION AGAINST NEW ORLEANS. An expedition was sent against New Orleans under Commodore Farragut and General Butler. Having failed to reduce Forts Jacksou and St. Philip, on the lower Mississippi, by a bombardment, Farragut forced his wa}- by them with his fleet on the morning of April 24th, and destroyed the confederate fleet, two of which were ironclads, in the river above. He then ascended to New Orleans, which was surrendered to him on the 25th. On the 28th Forts Jackson and St. Philip surrendered. The loss of New Orleans greatly disheartened the south, and placed the lower Mississippi in the hands of the federal forces. On the nth of April Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the Savannah river, surrendered to the federal forces after a bombardment of fifteen days. This capture closed the port of Savannah to the confederates. Matters in Virginia were of the highest importance. On the 8th of March General Johnston evacuated his position at Centreville, and fell 440 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. back to the Rapidau. McClellau uow determined to assail Richmond from a new direction,and moved his army b}- water from Washington to Fortress Monroe, intending to advance upon the confederate capital bv way of the peninsula between the York and James rivers. On the 41]] GENERAL GEORGE B. McCLELLAN. and 5th of April he attacked the position of General Magruder at York- town, bnt was repnlsed, and Magruder maintained his line at all points until the arrival of Johnston's army from the Rapidan put an end to his danger. McClellan then laid siege to Yorktown. THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 447 In the meantime a conflict, most important in its resnlts, had occurred in Hampton Roads, at the mouth of the James river. The con- federates had prepared a powerful ironclad ram, called the " Virginia," which, on the 8th of March, steamed out of Norfolk into Hampton Roads, and destroyed the "Cumberland" and " Congress " men-of-war, and threatened to destroy the whole federal fleet. The "Virginia" withdrew at nightfall, and returned the next morning to complete her work. Dur- ing the night of the 8th, however, the federal ironclad "Monitor" arrived at Fortress Monroe on her trial trip from New York. On the appearance of the "Virginia" on the 9th, the "Monitor" at once engaged her, and drove her back to Norfolk with heavy loss. This was the first engagement ever fought between ironclads, and revolutionized the naval system of the entire world. M'CLELLAN DEFEATED AT SEVEN PINES. On the 3d of May Johnston's army fell back from the lines of York- town towards Richmond. McClellan at once moved forward in pursuit. An encounter occurred at Williamsburg on the 5th, but Johnston accom- plished his movement without further molestation, and took position behind the Chickahominy in front of Richmond. The federal army advanced to the north bank of that river. The city of Norfolk was abandoned upon the retreat from the peninsula, and the ironclad " Virginia " was blown up. McClellan, towards the last of May, threw his left wing across the Chickahominy. It was attacked by General Johnston on the 31st of May, and was defeated with heavy loss at Seven Pines. General Johnston was wounded in this engagement, and was suc- ceeded by General R. E. Lee, who determined to drive McClellan away from the Chickahominy. McClellan in the meantime had been promised the assistance of McDowell's army of 40,000 men, which had been retained before Washington for the protection of the capital, and he prepared to attack Richmond immediately upon the arrival of this force. 448 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. To prevent the execution of this plan General Jackson was ordered to drive the federal forces out of the valley of Virginia, and threaten Washington. He accomplished this object bv one of the most brilliant campaigns of the war. He crossed the mountains and drove back tiie LIEUTEN.\XT-GENERAL T. J. (STONE\V.-\LD J.^CKSON. army of General Fremont at the village of McDowell in West \'irginia, on the 8th of May, and returning to the valley with all speed defeated Bank's army in a series of encounters, and drove him across the Potomac. General McDowell's march to McClellan's assistance was THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 44y suspended by the federal government, and he was ordered to co-operate with Fremont in an effort to destroy Jackson. Jackson, by a rapid and skilful march, eluded his pursuers until he had reached a point from which his line of reti^eat was safe, and then turned upon them and defeated Fremont at Cross Keys on the Stli of June, and Shields at Port Republic the next day. Having thus pre- vented the junction of his enemies, he hastened to the Chickahominy to assist General Lee in his attack upon IMcClellan. SANGUINARY BATTLE OF COLD HARBOR. - General IMcClellan, upon the failure of McDowell to join him, became alarmed for the safety of his communications with his base at the head of the York river, and resolved to abandon them and establish a new base on the James river. Before he could accomplish this his right wing at Mechanicsville was attacked bj- General Lee on the 25th of June, and driven in upon his centre at Cold Harbor. He was attacked at the latter place the next day by the combined forces of Lee and Jack- son, and was driven across the Chickahominy into the strongl}^ fortified position of his left wing. He now destroyed his communications with the York river, and on the 28th began his retreat to the James, through White Oak Swamp. On the 29th his rear-guard, under General Sumner, repulsed au attack of the confederates at Savage Station. On the 30th the battle of Frazier's Farm was fought, in which IMcClellan held his ground until his army was safely out of the swamp. On the ist of Juh' the confed- erates made their final attack upon the impregnable position of the federal army at Malvern Hill, and were repulsed with severe loss. The federal army now took position at Harrison's Landing, on the James river, under the protection of the fleet, which had ascended the James. The federal government acted with great vigor in its efforts to repair its losses. Six hundred thousand fresh troops were raised in three months, and a large army was collected in northern Virginia under General Pope. A few weeks later McClellan was drawn from his posi- 29 450 THE GREAT CIVII. WAR. ^^Z- -^^.-^'S'j; tion on the James, aud ordered to reinforce Pope. General Lee had sent Jackson's corps to the Rappahannock to watch Pope, and Jackson had defeated the advanced forces of that army at Cedar Mountain on the 9th of August. Upon the withdrawal of McClellau from the James, Lee joined Jackson with his whole force, and attacked Pope, hoping to defeat him before he could be joined by McClellan. He penetrated to his rear, destroyed his depot of supplies at Manassas, and defeated him in a series of battles on the 28th, 29th and 30th of August — the last en- gagement, the second battle of Bull Run, being one of the best fought fields of the war — and drove him within the lines of Washington. Having defeated Pope, Lee crossed the Potomac, and entered Maryland. On the 6th of Sep- tember, he occupied Frederick, and on the 15th, Jackson's corps captured Harper's Ferry and its garrison of 11,000 men. General McClellan was restored GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE. to the Command of the army of the Potomac after Pope's defeat. He reorganized the beaten force on the march, and promptly advanced against Lee, whom he encountered at South Mountain, where the latter had taken position to await the issue of Jackson's attack on Harper's Ferry. McClellan attacked him on the 14th of September, and forced him to fall back. Lee took position behind Antietam creek, where he was joined by Jackson's troops on the morning of the 17th. On the 17th McClellan attacked the confederate army, and the battle lasted throughout the da}'. Lee held his position that day and through- out the iSth, and during the night of the i8th retreated into Virginia. 461 462 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. McClellan followed leisurely, and moved towards the Rappahannock. On the yth of November he was removed from his command, and was succeeded b}' General Bumside. Burnside moved towards Fredericksburg, and Lee took position on the heights in the rear of that town. He was attacked in this position b}' the federal arm}' on the 13th of December, and repulsed every assault. Burnside retreated across the Rappahannock, and the campaign closed. BURNSIDE SUCCEEDED BY HOOKER. The defeated commander was now removed at his own request, and was succeeded b}- General Hooker. Towards the last of April, 1863, Hooker, whose army numbered 120,000 men, and was in splendid condi- tion, crossed the Rappahannock to attack Lee, who liad been weakened by the withdrawal of Longstreet's corps for service in lower \'irginia. The southern arm}' numbered 50,000 men. Lee, whose situation, peril- ous in the extreme, demanded the utmost boldness, attacked Hooker and drove him from the intrenched position he had taken at Chancellorsville to the banks of the Rappahannock, on the 2d and 3d of May. He then turned upon the cohimn of General Sedgewick, which had crossed the Rappahannock and carried his old position at Fredricksburg, and defeated it and compelled it to recross that stream on the 4th, and then moved against Hooker again. The federal commander-, however, retreated across the Rappahannock with his main body on the night of the 5th, having lost 12,000 men. Tlie confederates bought their victor}' dearly in the loss of General (Stonewall) Jackson, one of their ablest leaders, who was mortally wounded in the first day's attack. The confederates followed up their victory by an invasion of the north by the army of General Lee, 80,000 strong. The Potomac was crossed on the 2 2d of June. The federal army followed, moving east of. the mountains, and on the march General Hooker, unable to agree with the war department on a plan of operation, resigned his command, and ■was succeeded by George G. Meade. Both armies now moved iipon Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, where. THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 453 iguorain of each otlier's designs, they met on the ist of July. Eacli took up a strong position with the town between them, and on the 3d the confederates made a tremendous attack upon the federal line, and were repulsed with terrible loss. On the night of the 4th Lee withdrew from GENERAL GEORGE G. MEADE. Gettysburg, and retreated to the Potomac, which he recrossed on the 13th and 14th without serious opposition from the federal army. He retreated slowly to the Rapidan, followed by the army of the Potomac. The two forces passed the winter on the banks of this stream. 454 Tin-: GREAT CIVIL WAR. The retreat of General Lee was covered by cavalry under command of General James E. B. Stuart, who was afterwards killed in a battle against Sheridan at Yellow Tavern. In the west and southwest the federal arms were equally suc- GENERAL J. E. B. STUART. cessful. The army of General Grant crossed the Mississippi below Vicksburg on the ist of May, and thrust itself boldly between the arm}- collected at Jackson by General Joseph E. Johnston and that at Vicksburg. On the 14th of Ma}- Johnston was driven from Jackson, THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 455 and Grant then turned upon Pembertou, defeated him at Champion Hills on the i6th, and again at the Big Black on the 17th, and drove him within the defences of Vicksburg, which were invested by the federal army. On the 4th of July Vicksburg, with its garrison of 30,000 men, sur- rendered to General Grant, and on the 8th Port Hudson, lower down the Mississippi, surrendered to General Banks. These victories deprived the confederates of their last hold upon the Mississippi, and with the defeat of Lee's army at Gettysburg, were decisive of the war. After the battle of Stone river there was no movement of importance until the fall, when Rosecrans advanced against Bragg, who had occupied Chattanooga. Bragg fell back into Georgia, where he was heavily reinforced, and then wheeled upon Rosecrans, who had followed in pursuit, and defeated him at Chicka- mauga on the 19th and 20th ofSeptem- general joiin c. pemberton. ber. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which was at once invested by Bragg's army. The federal forces were reduced to great hardships by a scarcity of provisions. After the fall of Vicksburg Rosecrans was relieved of his command. General Thomas succeeded him in command of the army of the Cumberland, and General Grant was given the supreme command of the western armies, and ordered to relieve the army of the Cumberland. He was heavily reinforced for this purpose, and about the middle of Novem- ber was before Chattanooga with his forces. On the 23d of November General Thomas, by a sudden sortie from Chattanooga, captured the important position of Orchard Knob. On the 24th Hooker stormed and carried Lookout Mountain, and on the 25th Bragg' s army was driven from its last position at Mission Ridge. Bragg retreated into Georgia, and was soon after succeeded by General Joseph E. Johnston. 456 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. lu the summer of 1863, General Burnside, with a force of 25,000 men, entered East Tennessee from Kentucky, and occupied Knoxville. After the battle of Chickamauga, Bragg sent Longstreet's corps to drive the federals out of East Tennessee. Lougstreet succeeded in confining THE CAPTURE OF LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN. Burnside to the defences of Knoxville, and besieged him there. Though reduced almost to starvation, Burnside held out resolntel)-, and after the relief of Chattanooga, Grant sent Sherman's army to his assistance. Upon the approach of his forces Lougstreet raised the siege of Knoxville and retreated into Virginia. On the 1st of January-, 1S63, the confederates recaptured Galveston, THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 457 which had fallen into the hands of the federal forces in the autumn of 1862. Their efforts to recover Arkansas were not successful. A powerful naval expedition, under Admiral Dupont, was sent ' against Charleston. On the 7th of April, Dupont endeavored to force GENERAL JAMES LONGSTREET. his way into the harbor, but was driven back by the southern batteries. Early in July, a force of land troops, under General Gilmore, laid siege to Fort Wagner on Morris' Island. It was evacuated on the night of the 6th of September, just as the final assault was about to be made by the 458 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. besiegers. From the position thus gained a heavy fire was maintained on Fort Sumter by federal guns, and shells were thrown into Charleston. On the ist of January, 1S63, President Lincoln issued a proclama- tion declaring all the slaves within the limits of the southern states free from that date. The year 1864 opened with an expedition from New Orleans, under THE ATTACK u.N 1-uKl SL.MiLK BY THK MONITOK FLEET. General Banks and Admiral Porter, to the rich region known as the Red river country. Banks was defeated at Sabine Cross-Roads, on the 8th of April, and was forced to retreat. He repulsed an attack at Pleasant Hill on the 9th, but continued his retreat, and the expedition proved a total failure. In March, General U. S. Grant was made a lieutenant-general and given the chief command of the armies of the United States. He estab- THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 459 lished his headquarters with the army of the Potomac, and assumed the immediate direction of affairs in Virginia. General W. T. Sherman was at the same time placed in command of the western armies, and charged with the direction of the campaign against General Johnston in Georgia. GENERAL SHERMAN AT THE OUTBREAK OF THE WAR. On the 4th of May the army of the Potomac, 140,000 strong, crossed the Rapidan under General Grant's orders. On the 5th it encountered the confederate army, under General Lee, in the Wilderness, and a severe battle ensued, which was continued the next day. Failing to force Lee 460 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. back by a direct attack, Grant turned his right flank, and moved to Spottsylvania Court House. Lee reached that point before him and took position on the heights around it. Between the 9th and 12th of May Grant made several determined efforts to dislodge Lee, but failed to do so, and on the 2 1 St renewed his flauk movement in the direction of the North BATTLE OF COLI , . Anna river. Arriving there on the 23d he found Lee's army in position behind that stream. Finding the con federate position too strong to be attacked, he moved on the 26th, to the Chickahomiuy. Lee followed him and occupied r strong position at Cold Harbor. On the 3d of June Grant attempted to carry the southern works by storm, but was repulsed with a loss of 13,000 men, making his total loss of 6o,coo men since the opening of the cam- paign. He again moved around Lee's right, and, crossing James river, at Wilcox's Landing, on the 15th and i6th of June, advanced upon Petersburg, and attacked that city. Being unable to carry the confederate works, he laid siege to Petersburg. His right extended across the Appo- THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 461 mattox and rested on the James, and was subsequently prolonged to the north side of the James. His left was gradually extended during the year, for the purpose of seizing the Weldou road, one of Lee's lines of communication with North Carolina. The federal plan of campaign included the occupation of the valley of Virginia and the seizure of the railway connecting Virginia with East Tennessee and Georgia. General Sigel, with an army of 10,000 men, was charged with the execution of this task, but was defeated by General Breckinridge at New Market, on the 15th of May, and driven down the valley. General Hunter succeeded him in the command, and forced his way to the vicinity of Lynchburg. General Lee became alarmed for the safety of that place, and sent General Early to its relief with 12,000 men. Early drove Hunter into West Virginia, and hasten- ing down the valley, crossed the Potomac, and on the 7th of July occu- pied Frederick, Maryland. TROOPS HURRIED TO THE CAPITAL. On the 9th he defeated a small force that sought to stop his auvance at the Monocacy river, and marched upon Washington, which was defended by a small garrison. Grant hurried reinforcements to the capital, and when Early arrived before its defences, he found them occupied by too strong a force to justify him in attacking them, and retreated across the Potomac. An army of 40,000 men was now assem- bled in the valley of Virginia by the federal government, and placed under General Sheridan. He defeated Early at Winchester on the 19th of September; at Fisher's Hill on the 226.; and at Cedar Creek on the 19th of October, destroyed his army and laid waste the entire valley of the Shenandoah. On the 7th of Alay the western army, under General Sherman, 100,000 strong, advanced from Chattanooga upon the confederate army, 50,000 strong, under General Johnston, which was posted at Dalton, Georgia. By a flank movement, Sherman dislodged Johnston from his position and compelled him to fall back to Resaca. He then attacked 4t)-J THE GRKAT CIVIL WAR. Johnston at Resaca on the 14th and 15th of May, but without success. To avoid being outflanked. Johnston fell back to Dallas. After some verv lieavv fighting at New Hope Church, Sherman turned Allatoona SHERID.\N-S CAVALRY CHARGE AT CEDAR CREEK. Pass, and Johnston fell back to a line embracing Pine, Lost, and Kene- saw mountains. Between the 15th of June and the 2nd of July, Sherman made several attempts to force this line, but failing, moved to the left and THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 468 turned it. Johnston at once fell back behind the Chattahoochee, and within the lines of Atlanta. He had prepared this important city for a siege, and was resolved, as soon as Sherman had passed the Chatta- hoochee, to attack him and force him to a decisive battle. The federal ijI I ml MAJOR-GENF.RAL J. M. SCHOFIELD. army had already lost over 30,000 men since the opening of the cam- paign, while Johnston had lost less than 8,000. Before the confederate commander could execute his plan, he was removed by the confederate president, who was personally unfriendly to him, and was succeeded by General Hood, a gallant but incompetent com- 464 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. mander. Hood attacked Sherman on the 20th and 22nd of Jul}-, before Atlanta, and was each time defeated witli lieavy loss. He Avas out- generaled by Sherman, and was forced to evacuate Atlanta on the 31st of August, and on the 2nd of September Sherman occupied the city. MAJCiR GENERAL JAMES B. McPHERSON. Hood now endeavored to draw Sherman out of Georgia by an inva- sion of Tennessee, but the latter left General Thomas, who held Nash- ville, to manage the confederates, and embarked in another enterprise. Hood moved from the Tennessee river on the 19th of November, and, THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 465 defeating a federal force under General Schofield at Franklin, on the 30tli, advanced to Nashville, and laid siege to that place, which was defended by General Thomas with an army of 40,000 men. On tlie 15th COMMODORE DAVID C. FARRAGUT. and 1 6th Thomas attacked the confederates, defeated them, and drove them across the Tennessee in utter rout. In the meantime Sherman cut his communications with Chatta- nooga, set fire to Atlanta, and, on the 14th of November, began his 30 466 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. "march to the sea," through Georgia, at the head of a splendid army of 60.CXX) men. His march was accomplished without difficulty, as there was no enemy of any consequence in his front, and he devoted his energies to ravaging the couutrv through which he passed. In about SINKING OF THE •• AL-ABAM.A'- BY THE K;;a..--..\RGE.-' four weeks he reached the coast, on the 13th of December, stormed and captured Fort McAllister, and on the 22d of December, occu- pied Savannah, which had been evacuated by the confederates. Dur- ing a skirmish between the forces of Sherman and General Johnston, General MacPhersou, a brave and gallant federal officer, was killed. In the summer of 1S64, Admiral Farragut forced his way with his fleet by the forts defending the entrance to Mobile Bay, and on the 5th THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 467 of August, defeated the confederate fleet iu tlie lower bay in one of the hardest fought uaval battles on record. The forts subsequently surrendered to the land forces accompanying the expedition, but the city of Mobile was not taken for some months afterwards. In December an expedition was sent against Fort Fisher, at the mouth of the Cape Fear river, but was unsuccessful. On the 19th of June, the famous confederate cruiser " Alabama," which had destroyed a large number of merchant vessels owned in northern states, was defeated and sunk by the United States steamer, "Kearsage" off Cherbourg, France. In the fall of 1864, President Lincoln was re-elected over General McClellan, the candidate of the democratic party. On the 31st of October, tlie state of Nevada was admitted into the Union. BRILLIANT PROSPECTS FOR THE FEDERALS. The year 1865 opened with brilliant prospects for the Union cause. The confederates v/ere at the end of their resources, and the Union forces had recovered a large part of the soutb. On the 3d of February an informal conference was held between President Lincoln and several commissioners from the confederate government, in Hampton Roads, but resulted iu nothing, as President Lincoln refused to entertain any propositions that were not based upon the unconditional submission of the southern states. The attempt to capture Fort Fisher was renewed by Admiral Porter and General Terry in January, 1865, and on the 15th the fort was carried by assault after a desperate struggle. The confederates then abandoned their other works at the mouth of the Cape Fear. The capture of Fort Fisher closed the port of Wilmington to the confed- erates, and cut them off from all communication with Europe. On the 22d of February, Wilmington was captured by the Union forces. Towards the end of January, Sherman, who had given his army a month's rest on the coast, resumed his advance through South Carolina towards Virginia, to co-operate with Grant in bringing the war to a I 468 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. close. He pushed forward with energy through a country rendered almost impassable by the winter rains, and on the 17th of" February occupied Columbia, South Carolina, which was nearly destro^-ed by fire. Charleston was eyacuated bj- the confederates on the same day, and on the iSth Avas occupied by the federal forces. On the 12th of March Sherman reached Fayetteyille, North Carolina, and moyed from that place towards Goldsboro'. The confederate goyemment gathered a force of 35,000 men under General Johnston in Sherman's front. Johnston Ayith this force attacked Sherman at Ayerasboro' on the i6th of March, and at Beuton- ville on the 19th, but was unable to stay the progress of the federal army, which on the 2 2d of March occupied Golds- boro'. Johnston then withdrew towards Raleigh. The army of General Grant resumed opera- THE L-JiST C.^\ ALRY CHARGE OF THE WAR. tions towards the lastof March, being joined by 10,000 cavalry from the valley of Virginia, under General Sheridan. Lee's right wing was turned on the 30th of March, and was defeated at Five Forks on the ist of April. On the night of the second of April General Lee evacuated Richmond and Petersburg, and retreated towards Amelia Court House, from which he moved towards Lynchburg. Richmond and Petersburg were occupied b}- the federal forces on the morning of the third, and the main body of the army hurried on in pursuit of Lee, who was oyertaken, cut off from Lynchburg, and compelled to surrender at Appomattox Court House orr THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 469 the 9th of April. Johnston's army surrendered on the 26th of April to General Sherman. The other southern forces promptly laid down their arms, the last to surrender being the army of General E. Kirby Smith, in Texas, on the 26th of May. The rejoicings of the north over the close cjf the war were cut short by the assassination of President Lincoln by John Wilkes Booth, at Ford's theatre, in Washington, on the night of the 14th of April. On the loth of May Jefferson Davis was captured at Irwinsville, Georgia, and sent as a prisoner to Fortress Monroe. FROM THE CIVIL WAR DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME. THE war was now at an eud. It had cost the couutrv a million of men, and an enormons sum in monej-. The efforts of the govern- ment were now devoted to the reconstrnction of the Union. President Johnson held that the southern states had never been out of the Union, and tried to restore them to their former places without consulting Congress. That body, upon assembling in December, 1865, repudiated the president's action, and demanded that the southern states should adopt the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to the federal constitution abolishing slavery, aud admitting the negro to the rights and privileges of a citizen, before being admitted into the Union. A prolonged struggle, which lasted for several years, ensued between the conquered states and Congress, the former being sustained by the president, who declared the action of Congress unconstitutional. The states of the south were finally compelled to accept the terms of Congress, and upon ratifving the amendments, were at length restored to the Union. The quarrel between President Johnson and Congress resulted in an effort to remove the former by impeachment. He was tried before the Senate on charges preferred by the House of Representatives in the spring of 1S6S, but was acquitted. The thirteenth amendment to the federal constitutioli, abolishing slavery, was adopted bj^ the states in 1865. The fourteenth amendment, guaranteeing civil rights to all, without distinction of race or color, and basing representation on the number of inhabitants, was adopted in 1868. The fifteenth amendment, guaranteeing the right of suffrage to all, irrespective of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was adopted in 1870. ■J70 FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO THK PRESENT TIME. 471 The public debt was enormous at the close of the war, amounting to nearly $2,700,000,000. Measures were set on foot for its reduction, and the national finances were adjusted upon a plan satisfactory to the nation. The heavy rate of taxation was gradually reduced, and the country recovered rapidly from the effects of the war, the south sharing in the general prosperity. OLD WORLD AND NEW CONNECTED BY CABLE. In 1866 a telegraphic cable was successfully laid between America and Ireland. This great work was accomplished onl\- after repeated and costly failures extending through a period of nine 3'ears. Its final success was due to the energy and perseverance of Cyrus W. Field, of New York. In the fall of 186S Ulysses S. Grant, of Illinois, the successful commander of the Union armies during the civil war, was elected presi- dent. He was inaugurated in March, 1869. In the summer of 1869 the great Pacific railway from the Missouri river to San Francisco was completed. BRITISH GOVERNMENT PAID $16,250,000. During the civil war a number of confederate cruisers, built, equipped and manned in British ports, went to sea, and committed great ravages upon the commerce of the United States. After the close of the war the American government demanded compensation from Great Britain for these losses. The British government refused at first to enter- tain the demand, but after some years agreed to submit the question to the arbitration of a board chosen from the neutral nations. This board met at Geneva, in Switzerland, on the 15th of April, 1872, and on the 27th of June submitted its award in favor of the United States. Great Britain was required to pay the United States damages to the amount of $16,250,000. A great fire broke out in Chicago on the 8th of October, 1871, and raged for tw^o days. The area burned over was 2124 acres, or nearly three and one-third square miles. The number of buildings destroyed 472 FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME. was 17,450. The loss was from $196,000,000 to $200,000,000. It was the most destructive conflagration of modem times. On the 9th of November, 1872, a fire occurred in Boston, and swept over an area of 65 acres in the heart of the business section of the city. It destroyed 776 buildings, inflicting a loss of $78,000,000 upon the city. lu the fall of 1872 General Grant was re-elected president by an THE BURNING OF CHICAGO. overwhelming majority over Horace Greelej", the candidate of the liberal republican and democratic parties'. A deplorable result of the struggle, which was conducted with iutense bitterness, was the death of Mr. Greeley on the 29th of November, 1872. On the 4th of March, 1872, President Grant entered upon his second term of office. Early in the same year a troublesome war began with the Modoc Indians, who were dissatisfied with the reservations assigned i FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME. 473 .■"5*^?' them bv the government in the northern part of Oregon. They took refuge in a difficult region known as the "lava beds," where they main- tained a successful resistance of several months. Efforts were made to settle the war by treaty, and during one of these conferences the Indians suddenly turned upon the peace commissioners, and killed all but one. At the same moment, General Canby, commanding the United States troops operating against the savages, who was also present, was shot down, and died instantl}'. The war was then pressed with vigor. The Indians were forced to surrender, and those who had been con- cerned in the murder of the peace commissioners and General Canby were hanged on the 3d of October, 1873. A revolution broke out in the island of Cuba in 1S6S, and for several years the patriot forces successfully held their ground against the Spanish troops. The HORACE GREELEY, government of the United States faithfully endeavored to observe neutrality between the contending parties, and to prevent the sending of supplies or men to the island. In spite of the precautions of the government, however, several expeditions did succeed in getting to sea and reaching Cuba. One of these embarked on the .steamer "Virginius" in the fall of 1873. The steamer, though carrying the American flag and sailing in English waters at the time, was captured by the Spanish man-of-war "Tornado" off the coast of Jamaica and taken into the port of Santiago de Cuba. The commander of the steamer, 471 FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO THE PRi: