'4S^P^^^ Mi ^f^"^^ i^»-^;-r3 :ft^4»Hi^ .•'•,:^;,'>v>-. :^m^ ^'■e ffi 3 PARKS AND PARK ENGINEERING By /" WILLIAM tY LYLE Professor of Municipal Engineering at Lafayette College Associate Member, American Society of Civil Engineers Member, Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education FIRST EDITION FIRST THOUSAND NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 1916 A^ Copyright, 1916 BY WILLIAM T. LYLE THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS ROBERT DRUMMOND AND COMPANV BROOKLYN. N. Y. ©CI.A428396 PREFACE IN an age of many books every author must make his apology for a new volume. The output of engineer- ing treatises and text-books is so great that for a time at least, in certain branches, further additions should be made only for very good and exceptional reasons. The author of this httle book beUeves that by reason of the dearth of information on the specialized subject treated, a sufficient reason exists for the publication of his manuscript, which for several years in abbreviated form he has used in his classes at Lafayette College. The magnitude of the park movement in America is only beginning to be appreciated by the average well- informed person. Our larger cities already have their parks, most of them but recently acquired, and it will not be long before all of our American cities will have them also — not merely a few small city squares, but extensive mod- ern parks, reservations and playgrounds, connected by parkways and boulevards. This book is prepared principally for the benefit of the young and inexperienced engineer of construction. The author hopes that it may be found useful to members of newly formed park associations and commissions; and that its earher articles may be of help to pubUc-spirited men who may be considering the ways and means of securing for their own communities the great benefits which flow from an ample and well-coordinated park system. It also iv PREFACE may contain valuable suggestions to engineers and others who, though not trained in the art, may be engaged in the work of development of private estates. While the master mind in the conception and design of our largest and best park systems is the landscape architect, it must be understood that the execution of his general plans is peculiarly the function of the engineer, as is also the design of the engineering features. The art of the park engineer, though a specialty, is, however, not a narrow specialty. He must be proficient in matters pertaining to the acquisition of lands, and be well versed in a great variety of engineering operations, such as earth excavation, masonry, water-works and sewerage construction, road building and lighting, and occasionally the construction of steel and reinforced concrete bridges. He must also be a good expert witness. Wherever possible the author acknowledges the kind- ness of those who have aided him with advice and informa- tion and of those who have furnished him with illustrations for his work. He is under special obligation to Mr. John C. Olmsted, Landscape Architect, of Brookline, Mass., and to Mr. Howard J. Cole, of New York, formerly Engineer in Chief of the Essex County Park Commission. William T. Lyle. March, 1916. CONTENTS Chapter I DESIRABILITY AND ACQUISITION OF PARKS PAGB The Social and Economic Need and the Economic Advantage 1 The Classification of Parks 6 Actual Results in Park Development in a Few Typical and Impor- tant Cases 7 Future Probabilities in Park Development 13 The Way to Obtain Parks 14 The Organization for Work 14 Chapter II LANDS AND SURVEYS General Requirements in the Selection of Park Lands 21 The Acquisition of Property 23 Topographical and Hydrographical Surveys 25 Chapter III DESIGN The Architectural Treatment: Requirements 36 The Engineering Design: Underdrainage and Sewers 39 Grading 51 Piling and Bulkheads 53 Masonry Walls and Steps 57 Water Pipes and Fixtures 61 Paths and Drives 62 Lighting 72 V vi CONTENTS Chapter IV LABOR AND CONTRACTS PAQB Day Labor versus Contract Work 74 Two Kinds of Contracts 75 Advertisement 76 Contractor's Examination of Plans 77 Contractor's Calculations 79 Sureties 79 Making out the Bid 81 Submitting the Proposals 82 Rejection of Bids 82 Awarding the Contract 82 Execution of the Contract 85 Payments and Extras 85 Penalty Clauses 86 Chapter V CONSTRUCTION Beginning of Operations 90 Underdrainage and Sewers 90 Grading 94 Pile Driving 107 Masonry Walls and Steps 108 Water Pipes Ill Paths and Drives 112 Lighting 126 ILLUSTRATIONS The Walnut Lane Bridge over the Wissahickon. . . . .Frontispiece FAQS Fig. 1. Swamp Land May be Utilized in Park Development 3 Fig. 2. A Typical Park System 11 Fig. 3. Submerged Land along the North River Later Filled in and now a Part of Riverside Park 15 Fig. 4. The Same Reclaimed 19 Fig. 5. Gridiron System of Survey for Parks 26 Fig. 6. Survey Notes 28 Fig. 7. Topsoil Stripping, Piling and Grading 29 Fig. 8. Modified Gridiron System of Survey for Parkways 31 Fig. 9. Gauging the Discharge of a Stream 33 Fig. 10. Topsoil PUe 37 Fig. 11. Machine for Stripping Topsoil and Grading 37 Fig. 12. Method of Providing Underdrainage for Damp or Swampy Soil 40 Fig. 13. The New Bay Ridge Parkway. Surface Water Carried in Paved Gutters 41 Fig. 14. Park Walk along Steep Terrace. Paved Gutters 45 Fig. 15. Method of Collecting Surface Water from Grass Gutters. . . 47 Fig. 16. Park Walk. Drainage in Grass Gutters 49 Fig. 17. Method of Collecting Surface Water from Paved Gutters. . 52 Fig. 18. Timber Bulkhead Forming Artificial Shore of Lake 55 Fig. 19. Drainage of Retaining Walls 55 Fig. 20. Sod Steps 59 Fig. 21. Lawn Hydrant 63 Fig. 22. Water Crane 63 Fig. 23. Design of Paths 66 Fig. 24. Correct Entrance 68 Fig. 25. Incorrect Entrance 68 Fig. 26. Rooter Plow 83 Fig. 27. Wheel Scraper 83 Fig. 28. Pulsometer 83 Fig. 29. Pile Driver— Land Machine 87 Fig. 30. Method of Giving Line and Grade for Sewers 91 vii vm ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. 31. Steam Shovel Making the First Cut 91 Fig. 32. The Same Work Farther Advanced 95 Fig. 33. Dredging at Weequahic Park, Essex Co., N. J 101 Fig. 34. Dredging at Lake Nokomis, Minneapolis 105 Fig. 35. Muck Excavation at Westside Park, Newark, N. J 109 Fig. 36. Muck Excavation at Westside Park, Newark, N. J 113 Fig. 37. Pressure Distributor for Sprinkling Roads 121 Fig. 38. Pavement Repairs at Boston 121 PARKS AND PARK ENGINEERING CHAPTER I THE DESIRABILITY AND ACQUISITION OF PARKS THE Social Need of Parks. In view of the rapid growth and the increasing densities of population of our American cities, the need of parks, breathing spaces, play- grounds and parkways is becoming more and more impera- tive. Compact urban development has created a need which should be met by the municipal governments responsible for the condition. Our cities are recognizing the necessity and moral obligation of providing places for rest, recreation and wholesome open-air amusements. Excepting in a few of our larger cities, such as New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Boston and Chicago, the movement is less than twenty-five years old, and even in these places great advances along new and better lines have been made in the last two decades. With new con- ditions new needs are born, and though our parks have supplied fairly well an urgent need, many of them in the near future will have to be remodeled in order that they may be increasingly useful, not only for an increasing population, but also to each individual in the community in need of the health advantages which it is possible for them to offer. 2 THE DESIRABILITY AND ACQUISITION OF PARKS The Economic Need. The policy of delay in the pur- chase of park lands, if it may be called a policy, is certain to be an expensive one. As an example of this may be cited the fact that for three parks covering less than ten acres in the congested portion of the East Side, New York recently paid more than it paid for Central Park, which has an area of 840 acres. As another example, Hudson County, New Jersey, has paid for its parks an average of over $3000 per acre, and for some property acquired by condemnation proceedings as high as $23,000 per acre; whereas Essex County, adjacent, has purchased 3000 acres of mountain land at a cost of only $500 per acre. Compelhng the present generation to bear the entire burden of purchase is not advocated, but by incurring a bonded indebtedness, the coming generation will bear its share of an expense which, if not incurred now, will increase to such an extent as to render, in many cases, the purchase almost impossible. The judicious selection and purchase of park lands and reservations is a far-sighted policy, which like the laying out of wide streets, is sure to be financially profitable in the long run. It is a well-known fact to the expert that some of the most imdesirable lands from the standpoint of the builder and real estate broker are the very best from the standpoint of the landscape architect. Swampy lands, foul water courses and steep slopes possess great possibiUties for park development. A double service is thus rendered — ^pri- marily, the construction of parks — secondarily and in- cidentally, the elimination of municipal nuisances which are frequently of a very dangerous character. The foul and unsightly channel and its surrounding lands are trans- formed by the construction of sewers and the proper engi- < 13 T3 C THE ECONOMIC ADVANTAGE neering operations and subsequent planting into the most attractive of parks, the channel itself providing what is an especially pleasing and refreshing feature, a beautiful water course. The accompanying illustration shows a piece of swamp land, almost worthless, which is now a part of the Weequahic Reservation of the Essex County (N. J.) Park Commission. The swamp has been dredged and the water level has been raised. It is now a very picturesque lake, surrounded by attractively planted uplands. There are in almost every county spots of natural beauty which it is the duty of the present generation to preserve. The national government recognizes this principle in its great reservations, among which are the Yellowstone, Yosemite and Mount Rainier National Parks. One of the most impardonable losses in this connection was the cutting of the " Sherwood Forest " at Philadelphia, a tract of forty acres of virgin timber actually within the city limits. This land, which afforded natural advantages of very un- usual merit for park purposes, passed into the hands of real estate operators and now is part of the two-story dwelling- house district of West Philadelphia. The Economic Advantage. The laying out of parks increases the desirability of a town as a place of residence. Municipal boards of trade are realizing this principle in increasing measure. Park development enhances the value of neighboring real estate. New parkways and boule- vards afford very desirable frontages, the very best to be had for residential purposes. Much might be written on the subject of real estate appreciation due to park develop- ment ; suffice it to mention here only a few illustrative cases. Real estate operators testify that the increased valuation in the vicinity of a properly regulated park will very soon THE DESIRABILITY AND ACQUISITION OF PARKS pay for the original investment. The assessed valuation in 1856 of the three wards adjoining Central Park, New York, was $20,500,000. In 1873 it had risen to $236,100,000. The natural increase as obtained by averaging the gain in the other wards was found to be $53,000,000, making the earning capacity of the park for the three adjoin- ing wards, $183,000,000. In three years the valuation of the wards surrounding Prospect Park in Brooklyn rose $7,000,000, which was twice the cost of the land acquired for the park. The wisdom of the '' Back Bay " improve- ment at Boston was certified in an increased valuation of surrounding property from 1877 to 1885 of $12,000,000 with a corresponding increase of revenue of $153,000. During this time new buildings were erected to the value of $10,000,000, giving a revenue of $128,000, making the total increased revenue, $281,000. In the city of Newark, prop- erty in the neighborhood of Branch Brook Park has increased in value to a marked extent, and to the Branch Brook development can be largely traced the great popu- larity of the Forest Hill residential section. THE CLASSIFICATION OF PARKS A convenient classification may be made thus: 1. National Parks; 2. State Parks; 3. County Parks; 4. City Parks; and 5. Parkways and Boulevards. The first two classes will not be treated in this discussion, since their character is principally that of great reservations of land of especial scenic and natural beauty. County Parks are usually more or less developed. They are suburban or rural in character and are usually of large area. City Parks include the old-fashioned city square and the modern city park whose development may be formal, informal, or both. When the governing board is a county park commission, THE CLASSIFICATION OF PARKS city parks are classed as county parks. The Parkway and Boulevard are connecting arteries which join the parks of a system. The Boulevard is the more formal of the two and often is nothing more than a beautified avenue, while a Parkway is much broader, often about 400 feet wide, and may be laid out in a semi-informal manner. Another classification used in some cities is, 1. City Parks; and 2. Outer Parks. The City Parks are those inside, and the Outer Parks those outside the city limits. The second division of this classification includes the reservation lands and the connecting park- ways. The accompanying map of the Essex County system, Fig. 2, page 11, shows a modern and scientific park develop- ment. But few of the original parkways as planned by Olmsted Brothers, the landscape architects, have been laid out, though some of these may come later. ACTUAL RESULTS The results of the last twenty-five years of this great movement have been especially remarkable, though a few of our older cities had parks prior to 1890. It is out- side the scope of this book to make a full statement of park accomplishments in America, which are now very extensive, almost all of our larger cities having caught the spirit of the movement. In order, however, to give some idea of its development and magnitude, a few typical and impor- tant cases will be cited. New York. The greatest pioneer work in America, though not the earUest, was the construction of Central Park. The land was purchased in 1856. The total acre- age at present is 840 and the price paid for the land was $6,300,000. The total amount spent in bringing the park 8 THE DESIRABILITY AND ACQUISITION OF PARKS to its present condition is over $30,000,000. The park system now covers several thousand acres and includes Prospect Park in Brooklyn, one of our oldest parks, the Brooklyn Forest and Bronx Park with its Botanical and Zoological Gardens. Philadelphia. The original plan in Philadelphia con- sisted of five small squares to which Independence Square was afterward added. Fairmount Park dates back to 1812, when it con- tained five acres. It was enlarged in 1855 to forty-one acres and in 1867 to its present proportions, mainly in the interests of the public water supply drawn from the Schuylkill River. The Park Commissioners were able to prevent the contamination of the river as far as their jurisdiction extended and to exercise a wholesome influence upon the Councils in the matter of proper sewer construc- tion to intercept the flow from the river. A very interesting report made by a Special Committee of the Commissioners ol Fairmount Park upon the Preservation of the Purity of the Water Supply, submitted October 11, 1867, and sent to the author through the courtesy of Mr. Carleton E. Davis, Chief of the Bureau of Water, and Mr. Thomas S. Martin, Secretary, contains full information in regard to this matter. In this connection it may be added that park lands may be located so as to combine the park needs with those of the water department. Several American cities have seen this advantage. Surface water supplies as impounded from small streams can be very satisfactorily guarded by the acquisition of the catchment area by the park department. This is one of the very best examples of municipal economy that can be mentioned. The area of the Philadelphia parks is now over 5000 acres, 1000 acres of which is in Wissahickon Park, a beauti- ACTUAL RESULTS 9 ful ravine development, one of the best features of the Philadelphia system. The development of the water fronts of the Schuylkill and Delaware Rivers is under contemplation as part of the general city plan. The author here takes occasion to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Andrew W. Crawford, Recording Secre- tary of the City Parks Association, who has furnished information as to the parks of Philadelphia and other Ameri- can cities. Chicago. The movement here dates back to 1869. One of the features of the park system is the incorporation of extensive recreation parks and playgrounds which have been secured in the past fifteen years. Preliminary plans according to Mr. Walter Wright, Secretary, Special Park Commission, are now being pre- pared for the construction of a great outer parkway system which will give Chicago a continuous belt of parks and parkways around the entire city. This work has been authorized by the State Legislature subject to the approval of the voters of Chicago, which approval was received at an election in November, 1914. Boston. This is a city of many suburbs, each separate in its local interests and government. These different municipalities have jealously guarded their local autonomy, but have wisely united to provide the general necessities, such as water, sewerage and parks. These necessities have been secured through the help of the State Govern- ment, which has created metropolitan commissioners with authority to provide them. Each municipality now has its local water supply fed from the metropolitan main lines; its local sewerage system, discharging into the metro- politan trunk sewers; and its local parks, secured either 10 THE DESIRABILITY AND ACQUISITION OF PARKS before or after the appointment of the MetropoHtan Park Commission, which provide for local needs not met by the Metropolitan Parks. Boston has parks covering a total area of 500 acres; Cambridge has developed a frontage on the Charles River; and Lynn has acquired large tracts for park and water-supply purposes. The Metropolitan Park Commission consisting of five unsalaried commissioners was created in 1892. Up to the present time it has purchased 10,250 acres of land, of which the largest tracts are the Blue Hills Reservation, twelve miles from the State House and easily reached by electric cars; and the Middlesex Fells Reservation, five miles from the State House. The metropolitan parks with their connecting parkways and seashore and river- bank reservations form a model system. Essex County. With the exception of Military Park, a tract of but a few acres in the city of Newark and a few other small squares, Essex County had no parks up to the year 1895. At a dinner in the city of Orange in January, 1894, a plan was suggested for obtaining parks and a meeting was soon after arranged and held in the rooms of the Board of Trade in Newark. Park committees from Newark and Orange were present and the plan previously suggested was approved. A committee was appointed to prepare a bill for the State Legislature which was promptly drafted and approved and then presented to the Senate at Trenton. It was passed and signed by the Governor early in May of the same year. The bill authorized the presiding county judge to appoint a CoEomission of five persons to consider the advisability of laying out a system of parks and provided an appro- priation of $10,000 to cover the salaries of assistants and Courtesy Interstate Map Co., of Newark, N. J., engravers and publishers. Fig. 2.— a Typical Park System. 11 THE FUTURE PROBABILITIES 13 traveling expenses of the members of the Commission. The first Commission completed its work in 1895, after having reported favorably to the plan for parks, and sug- gested a practical plan. A new bill was passed by the Legislature in 1895 for the creation of a second Commission to be appointed as before. This bill carried an appropriation of $2,500,000 of county funds and a referendum clause. At a special election the bill soon became operative. The necessary moneys were obtained by county bond issue by the Board of Freeholders and turned over to the Commission. Subsequent issues of bonds were authorized, the outstanding indebtedness now amounting to $6,000,000. There are now five principal parks in the system with a total area of 3200 acres, most of which is mountain reservation. THE FUTURE PROBABILITIES The park movement is thus observed to be of recent origin. The United States in many respects has passed out from the period of mushroom growth into one of com- parative stability. There are many evidences of this. FHmsy bridges are being replaced by permanent masonry structures; wooden buildings by those made of fire-proof materials; cheap city pavements by those of a permanent character; railroads are being straightened, and elevated or depressed where they pass through large cities; railroad property fine fences are being replaced by hedges after the EngHsh custom; and far-sighted business corporations are making provision not merely for the present, but for several decades to come. The policy of municipal wisdom calls for the immediate setting apart of park lands to be paid for by money raised on bond issues. This poUcy in many 14 THE DESIRABILITY AND ACQUISITION OF PARKS cases will be followed. In some respects it is along the movement on foot for the conservation of our national resources. THE WAY TO OBTAIN PARKS The methods adopted have already been stated. A brief simunary will be given. 1. Prehminary Agitation. Pubhc sentiment frequently crystallizes in the appointment of a park committee or in a resolution passed by a board of trade, 2. The Creation of a Commission. If the work involves several municipalities, as it usually does, a bill for the crea- tion of a park commission with delegated powers can be introduced into the State Legislature. 3. How the Necessary Funds are Provided. These are usually obtained from the sale of bonds, whose issue is authorized by the State Government, the indebtedness being incurred by the county or district benefited. THE ORGANIZATION FOR WORK The working organization is made up about as follows: 1. A Counsel and perhaps assistants to give legal ad- vice, to attend to claims and to examine contracts and agreements. 2. A Landscape Architect to make selection of lands for parks, parkways, reservations and playgrounds. It is the function of the landscape architect to prepare all grading and planting plans and to outline for the Architect (see 5) the general features of buildings, gateways, walls, steps and bridges. 3. A Purchasing Department to obtain options on prop- erties likely to be acquired and to arrange for the pur- THE ORGANIZATION FOR WORK 17 chase of properties already embodied in the scheme of the landscape architect. 4. An Engineering Department consisting of a chief engineer, assistant engineers, instrumentmen, chainmen, rodmen, inspectors and a chief gardener and his assistants. The police department as long as the engineering depart- ment is in existence is a part of it. When the work of land purchase and heavy construction is completed, it passes over to the Superintendent's Department (see 6). The work of the engineering department can be divided thus: a. Property surveys of lands to be acquired with the accompanying searches in the office of the recorder of deeds, and the preparation of property descriptions to be incor- porated in deeds of conveyance prepared by the counsel or his assistants. b. Topographical surveys prepared for the use of the landscape architect in the preparation of his plans. c. Designs of sewer, drainage, water-supply and lighting systems, together with the design of all the essential engi- neering features of walls and bridges. d. The preparation, letting and supervision of all contracts for construction work. This includes the direc- tion in detail of all construction operations. e. Planting and gardening operations. /. The maintenance of the work until it can be turned over to a Superintendent's Department, which need not be organized until the work is well under way or even com- pleted. g. The policing of all acquired areas. The police force consists of a chief and mounted and unmounted patrolmen with sometimes a few plain-clothes men. 5. An Architect, who prepares detail designs of various 18 THE DESIRABILITY AND ACQUISITION OF PARKS structures, such as buildings, gateways, steps and the architectural features of bridges. 6. A Superintendents Department, whose function it is to take over the work done by the Engineering Depart- ment and carry it to completion. This work consists of gardening and planting operations, construction work (generally by day labor), and the ultimate maintenance of the entire system. The pohce department eventually is transferred to this department. 7. A Clerical Force to transact the work of the Secretary and Treasurer of the Commission, to issue permits for use of playgrounds, and to keep open office. 8. A Title Guarantee Department. It is customary to employ a title guarantee company to pass on all property transactions. All of these departments may report directly to the commission, though there is some variation in this matter. CHAPTER II LANDS AND SURVEYS GENERAL REQUIREMENTS IN THE SELECTION OF PARK LANDS THIS is specifically a question of landscape architecture. It is also a matter of common sense. Many great mistakes, though not chargeable to the profession of the landscape architect, have been made in the selection of park lands. The following are the leading requirements: 1. Parks must be accessible. City parks should be so placed that all of the population can reach at least one park on foot. The larger county parks should be easily reached by carriage, automobile and trolley car. The fare on these car lines should be reasonable. Excessive charges should not be permitted. 2. It seems to be the modern idea that a park system should be a connected system, the various parks being joined by parkways or boulevards. This is regarded as a very essential matter. 3. A park should be located with regard to the other requirements of the territory in which it is placed. Central Park in New York City, although an asset of inestimable value, is so placed that it cuts off two of the main arteries of travel running north and south on Manhattan Island. 4. Parks should be planned with a distinct view of the requirements of the population to be benefited. The problem must be worked out for each individual case. The needs of the entire population must be considered with 21 22 LANDS AND SURVEYS regard to wealth, culture, nationality, age, sex, density of population, etc. Drives, parkways and boulevards will principally benefit the wealthy. A fine landscape, beauti- ful architecture and opportunities for nature study meet the cultural requirements. The inherited traits of people of different national extraction should be regarded. The matter of age must also be carefully considered; while the older person will generally expect opportunities for quiet and rest, children and young people will need play- grounds and athletic fields. It may here be said that the playground movement has recently assumed enormous proportions as one of the best opportunities for civic im- provement. The child should have his swing, sand box and wading pool; the young woman her tennis court, and the young man his baseball field and out-of-door gymna- sium. Where the population is dense, the park would seem to be the only solution of the pressing problem of rest, recreation and amusement. 5. It is a fact well known to experts that lands which are poor from the point of view of the real estate operator are often the best for park development. Low and swampy lands which are usually festering spots in cities are among this class. A very good illustration of what is meant by this paragraph is found at Philadelphia, where portions of the Tacony, Pennypack and Cobbs Creek valleys are now on the city plan to be used for park purposes. These valleys are narrow and deep. If laid out in city blocks, the grade of the cross streets would be about that of the sides of the valleys. An enormous amount of filling would thus be required, the cost of which would have to be borne by the city. The cost of this filling alone would be more than the purchase price of the tracts for park pur- poses. LAND SURVEY AND PURCHASE 23 THE ACQUISITION OF PROPERTY The Survey. Before lands are taken over for park purposes, a survey is usually made by the engineering department. This is an easy matter when the boundaries are well defined by street lines, fences, stone monuments, hedges, stone walls or a sufficient number of blazed trees. It frequently happens, however, especially in rural reserva- tions, that the landmarks, usually blazed trees, are par- tially or entirely gone. In such cases the determination of the boundaries becomes a difficult or impossible matter, and especially, as frequently happens, if the recorded deeds contain inaccurate or grossly incorrect descriptions. In all such cases the matter has to be adjusted between buyer and seller, and, if no agreement can be reached, the ques- tion is passed upon by a condemnation commission, to be described later on. In purchasing a large reservation, it is the usual practice for the engineering department to prepare a large map of the tract, locating the boundaries and the principal topographical features, such as brooks, buildings, etc. The surveys of the individual lots and, when surveys cannot be obtained, mapped deed descrip- tions are plotted on drawing paper or cardboard. These plots are then cut out and fitted together on the large map. Overlaps and underlaps are frequent in cheap rural lands and occasionally a triangular piece of land will have to be purchased twice. Options. The policy of obtaining options on property likely to be acquired is a good one. Property owners can frequently be approached when they are in a favorable mood and advantageous agreements for the sale obtained subject to a definite time limit of purchase. These options may be obtained by members of the engineering force or by the purchasing agents. 24 LANDS AND SURVEYS Direct Purchase. Property to be taken over for park purposes on which no option has been obtained can almost always be purchased at a fair market price, it being to the advantage usually of the owners to sell, since, if they refuse, the matter can be taken before a condemnation commission and a forced sale brought about. The cost of litigation is sometimes great and the part borne by the owner fre- quently a total loss. Purchases are made through the purchasing agents. Condemnations. The resort to this method of pur- chase is somewhat rare, since, as before stated, it is almost always to the advantage of the owner to sell. Condemna- tion proceedings for park lands are carried on about as follows. The method given is for the State of New Jersey: 1. A notice to one of the justices of the Supreme Court that agreement cannot be reached for the purchase of the property, together with an application to said justice for the appointment of a condemnation commission of three men to examine the land and make a just appraisement. This notice is endorsed by the justice, who assigns a time and place for the appointment of the commissioners. 2. A notice from the park commission to the owner and parties interested of the previous application for the appointment of condemnation commissioners, together with a copy containing the affidavit of the person who served the notice on the owner and parties interested, which copy is kept on file in the office of the Commission. 3. A notice from the Supreme Court justice to the park commission of the appointment of a condemnation com- mission together with directions in regard to the notifica- tion of all parties concerned in the property sought to be acquired. This document also includes the oaths, before a person duly authorized to administer them, of the THE TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY 25 condemnation commissioners faithfully to appraise the lands. 4. A notice from the park commission through its counsel to the parties concerned in the transfer of the property, of the appointment of the condemnation com- mission and of the time and place of meeting to view and examine ^the lands and rights therein in order to make an equitable appraisement. This document contains the oath of the notice server. 5. A report of the condemnation commissioners as to the value in a gross sum, of all the interests, estates, or shares in said lands, whether in possession, remainder, reversion or expectancy. 6. The certificate of the title guarantee company as to the soundness of the title. 7. The deed. THE TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY Before preparing the designs, full information must be obtained of all topographical features. The method of making the survey will depend entirely on the character of the land to be surveyed and also on the probable mode of treatment. If the tract is to be entirely regraded it will be well to make a very accurate survey, which can also be used later on in determining the amount of excavation. Thus one survey may be made to answer two purposes and much time and money be saved. The method of making the survey is a matter of judgment and no hard and fast rules can be laid down. The subject will be briefly treated under three headings: Parks, Reservations and Parkways. For Parks. The survey for city parks, and frequently for reservations also, is made by the gridiron method. The first thing to be done is to locate and properly 26 LANDS AND SURVEYS monument a suitable base-line. This base-line may be placed on one side of the tract if it has a long straight side. Hubs 3 inches square are driven every hundred feet and line and distance are marked by a tack or small nail. It is very desirable to locate this base-line where there is to be no cut or fill. Otherwise it will be disturbed and Hubs on this line no cut or Ml C: ^* <5 .^ .'^ •*^ o s: c& C ■" o o » + O) •o o- + c ^ 4+57.6 * Hu bs on this line Cm Co "* lo Gridiron Svstam of SurifQitioisParks- Fig. 5. will have to be relocated. The importance of this remark cannot be too strongly emphasized. An auxihary Une of hubs is laid off at right angles from the first one. The lines at right angles to the first Une of hubs may be desig- nated by letters, thus — A, B, C, etc. The lines at right angles to the second line of hubs may be designated by numbers — 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. Thus the corner of any square in THE TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY 27 the checkerboard layout can be indicated ; as, C-4, which is a corner 400 feet from the main base-Une and 200 feet from the auxihary base-hne. Also any point whatever on the tract can be designated, as, C +49.3 — 4 +51.6. If the tract is a square one, it will frequently be well to have monumented cross-section lines on the four sides. If of irregular shape, well-monumented lines may be located at various distances apart, such as 1000 feet, where they are not apt to be disturbed or covered up by excavation or embankment. In addition to the permanent cross-section lines, all other cross-section lines are also staked out by stakes about 1| or 2 inches square. These stakes are allowed to project from the ground 6 or 8 inches and are marked with lumberman's chalk. The letter designation is marked on one face and the number designation on a face at right angles to it. The markings are so placed that if a person walked from the beginning of a cross-section Une the dis- tances out would be visible on the face of the stake directly in front of him. After the cross-section lines are all staked out, the level parties begin their operations, which consist in obtaining the elevation of the ground at every stake to the nearest tenth of a foot. All changes in grade should also be de- termined. All topographical features must be located, such as streets, buildings, water courses and trees; also all sewers, water pipes, gas pipes and wire conduits. In locating the trees, each tree should be tagged with a copper tag I inch by 1 inch with a number stamped upon it. The diameter, kind and spread of each tree should also be determined. This information is very important to the landscape architect. If the trees are very close together, as they frequently are in the woods, instead of attempting 28 LANDS AND SURVEYS to plot each tree in the note-book, a table may be prepared with the following columns. Fig. 6. Kind. Diameter. Spread. Co-ordinates. Letter. Number. The notes are kept in a cross-section book about 6^ by 8| inches, ruled in blue lines, ten to the inch. In work of this kind it is especially important that the date should be entered on each page. A map is then prepared on a suitable scale, depending on the amount of detail to be plotted. The following scales are used; 1"=30', r'=40', 1"=50' and 1" = 100'. This map is traced and the tracing forwarded to the land- scape architect. For Large Reservations. The previous method should be used if possible. Since, however, no grading is usually contemplated except for wood roads, etc., and since it is often impossible to run straight lines, the method of survey by random lines, as nearly straight as possible, is adopted. Side shots are taken by angle and stadia. This method is not recommended when trees and other details must be located. For Parkways. The method here to be followed is that of carefully running a transit line through the middle of the ribbon-like area, placing stakes every hundred feet. THE TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY 31 All angles should be " doubled " and checked by the needle, and all distances should be checked by stadia. Side shots are obtained by angles and stadia distances. This method of survey is not as accurate as the gridiron method, but the latter in its simplest form is not adapted to park- V 'Oo 2^ V > < (2+47.2 '^0, ^ ;-* 1^ V Y 2+00 1 R + 2B V H 1+00 7 2^ 'i •< ■)*oo + 2R Modified Qrtdlran Sifstem of Surve-g for Parkwaua% Fig . 8. way work. A modified girdiron system, however, may be used when the base-line instead of being one straight line is the broken line of traverse. General Remark. In making topographical surveys it is sometimes advantageous to sketch in field. Work of this kind is usually much more accurate, especially when 32 LANDS AND SURVEYS the map must be drawn in minute detail. It is advanta- geous where there are terraces, trees, etc. Mistakes in plotting are thus avoided, since the features are within sight of the draftsman. A plane table is a useful instru- ment for this kind of work; but it can be done with a transit with vertical circle, the draftsman using a light table 2 feet square mounted on a light tripod. THE HYDROGRAPmCAL SURVEY Ponds and Lakes. The topography of the beds of ponds and lakes is obtained by the gridiron method of survey. The depths may be had in shallow ponds by use of a rod lowered from a boat, the readings being referred in measure- ment to the water level. When the depths are more than 6 feet, a sounding line is employed. A good sounding line can be made of sash-cord with a colored string tied at each foot-mark. Different colors are used to good advan- tage, the number of feet being thus readily determined. A sinker will be required to hold the lower end of the line to the bottom. Alignment of the sounding rod or rope may be had by means of rods on the shore or else by transit. The distance is obtained by stadia or else by alignment rods on a line at right angles to the other. Brooks and Creeks. The flow of streams is determined by use of a weir unless the flow is large. In the latter case, which is not conomon, a current meter or rod float must be employed. Fig. 9 shows clearly the customary method of making weir measurements. Depths over the crest are measured either by a car- penter's square or a footrule. For measuring depths the hook-gauge is never necessary except when litigation is probable. Measurements of flow may be made twice a day, or oftener when the water is rising or falling rapidly. Loaned by J. & W. Jolly, Inc. HolyoVo. Mass. Fig. 9. -Gauging the Discharge of a Stream, 33 THE HYDROGRAPHICAL SURVEY 35 In determining the discharge of a stream by means of a weir great importance should be attached to the matter of keeping the weir crest free from floating objects, which by backing up the stream may invalidate the readings even after the brush is removed. Weir frames are often washed out by freshets. To prevent this the frame should be firmly set in a trench excavated for the purpose with riprap on the down-stream side to prevent scour. Should the weir be found leaky or should leaks be apprehended, a little clay placed on the bed of the stream against the upper face will be found very satisfactory. Full hydrographical information is required by the land- scape architect in his preparation of plans for lakes and water courses, and by the engineer in connection with excavation and dredging operations and the design of outlet sewers. CHAPTER III DESIGN The Architectural Treatment THIS portion of the design is the function of the Land- scape Architect. It is embodied in the following drawings : 1. A general grading plan usually drawn and traced on the scale of the topographical survey. By superimposing one tracing on the other, a composite print can be made showing the cut or fill at every point. 2. Cross-sections of drives, paths, terraces, etc. 3. Various plans and suggestions as to masonry work, bridges, etc. 4. Planting plans. The Requirements. This book is not the place for a discussion of the principles of landscape architecture. The work is done by experts in this line of work. A few of the general principles are here suggested. First of all, the plan must be a suitable one. An English garden would be inappropriate in a mountain park and the informal treatment would be inappropriate for a city square. Second, the general principle of harmony must be observed. For instance, a cut-stone arch would be out of place in a natural ravine with wooded slopes. Third, the design should be suggestive. For example, the idea of steepness can be brought out by planting trees on the crest of the slope. Beautiful views should be preserved wherever possible 36 ' 'm'-jm^y^r'^ Courtesy Alonzo Church, Secretary. lEsssxlCountyiPark] Commission. Fig. 10.— Topsoil Pile. Courtesy Austin-Western Road Machinery Co. Fig. 11.— Machine for Stripping Topsoil and Grading. .37 UNDERDRAINAGE 39 and should not be shut off by trees. Vistas are designed by a careful inspection of the topography and timber growth. Free access should be had to all parts of the park. This does not mean that access is to be obtained necessarily by the construction of straight drives and paths. Straight lines should not be used except in formal architecture, where they may be entirely appropriate. Many unsightly objects outside the park boundaries can be hidden from the inside by the construction of border mounds with suitable planting. These mounds are very effective and are extensively used. The Engineering Design underdrainage Wherever soils are swampy or wet, underdrainage is necessary. This can be accomplished in two different ways: First, by the laying of agricultural tile. Tile is made in two patterns — horseshoe and cylindrical. Horseshoe tile may be laid on a line of 1-inch boards or else on the bottom of the trench if it is carefully graded. The tile are frequently 2 feet in length. No coupling is used, but a piece of cheese-cloth may be employed to good advantage in VvTapping the joints to prevent the entrance of earth. Cylindrical tile come in 2-foot lengths and are provided with 4-inch collars or rings to be used at the joints. The sizes commonly used are 2-inch, 3-inch, and 4-inch. The tile are porous and should be straight, hard and of uniform cross-section. In draining lands they are laid in parallel ditches joining the main at 45 degrees. Y-connections can be purchased for the purpose. The distance apart of the trenches, their depth and the size of the tile are matters which experience only can satisfactorily decide. 40 DESIGN The determining conditions are, the kind of soil, slope of the land and elevation of the water-table. The thorough- ness of drainage is another feature. Waring's rule is frequently used in the design. The mains are of porous tile up to 4 inches in diameter and above that of vitrified sewer pipe. If the line dis- charges into an open channel, the detail at the outlet is V.itrified Sewer Method of Providing Underdrainage f9r Damp orSiuamDU Soil. Surface Water should be Removed bif Inlets and Catch Basins along Upper Sides of Paths and Drioea. Fig. 12. very important. To prevent injury and dislocation to the line, the use of a 12-foot length of cast-iron pipe is recom- mended. This pipe does not have to be perfect. A piece of " seconds " can be used to good advantage. Tile drains become clogged in a few years, especially when in the neighborhood of willows and other trees which absorb much water. But the drainage process still con- tinues in some measure, due to increased porosity of the SEWERS 43 soil by the dissolving out of soluble matters after the lajdng of the tile. Furthermore, the land will never be- come as wet as it originally was on account of the fact that the surface water is rapidly disposed of by the surface-water drainage system. Secondly, land can be subdrained by the construction of stone or brush ditches. The principle of action is the same as in the case of the tile ditches. Stone or poles are placed in the bottom of the trench to provide open space for the passage of the water. To prevent clogging up with earth, the stone or poles are covered with branches or straw, on which the backfilling is deposited. General Remarks. Trenches for underdrainage are usually spaced 50 feet apart. The depth varies from 1§ feet to 4 or 5 feet. The slopes should not be less than say 0.25 of a foot in 100 feet except for the mains. SEWERS Park sewers are of three kinds: 1. Storm-water Sewers; 2. Sanitary Sewers; and 3. Combined Sewers. The methods of design and construction are in some respects different from those of municipal sewers. Sewers are usually laid along straight lines as in mu- nicipal work, but the great expense of manholes can be saved in whole or in part. Park sewers seldom he under pavements. If they become stopped, the trench can be reopened and the obstruction removed. It will be cheaper to do this occasionally (although it hardly ever becomes necessary) than to go to the great expense of placing man- holes at every change of line and grade. Park sewers are of brick or vitrified pipe. Sewers larger than 36 inches in diameter are built of brick. When the soil is treacherous, steel or spiral-riveted pipe may some- 44 DESIGN times be used to advantage where dislocations might other- wise occur. 1. Storm=water Sewers. The pecuUar features of park storm-water sewers are the methods of collecting the water, the methods of discharging it and the calculation of size. Methods of Collection. In order to collect storm water, inlets and catch-basins must be constructed. The inlet is merely an opening for the admission of water. It consists of an iron grating set in concrete over a 6-inch elbow from which the water is carried by a 6-inch chute into a catch-basin or directly into the sewer. The catch-basin is usually built of brick, of circular horizontal section and surmounted by a grating to provide for the entrance of rain water and the exclusion of sticks and leaves. It is constructed about 6 or 7 feet deep, 4 feet inside diameter, corbeled in at the top to a diameter of 2 feet. The cast-iron grating is rectangular for paved gutters and circular for grass gutters. Its height is about 8 inches. It is cast in two pieces — the lower part provided with a flange to rest upon — and a grating to hold back obstructions. A catch-basin is provided with a concrete foundation about 6 inches thick. The invert of the outlet pipe, which is 6 inches in diameter, is about 3 or 4 feet from the bottom. No outlet trap is provided, the purpose of the catch-basin being merely to catch mud and gravel and prevent its entrance into the sewer. Instead of placing two catch-basins on opposite sides of a path or drive, it is often well to dispense with one and build an inlet instead. The inlet discharges into the catch-basin and the catch-basin into the sewer. Should the inlet or its chute become stopped, it may be cleaned out by use of a garden hose. Catch-basins and inlets can be placed in paved gutters, - b£ METHODS OF DISCHARGE 47 or off to one side of the path or drive in grass gutters, which will be discussed under the heading of Grading. The dis- tance apart is a function of the amount of water to be carried. Past experience has clearly demonstrated that catch-basins and inlets are frequently placed too far apart and almost never too close together. A spacing often used is 125 feet. If a sewer carries water from a row of catch-basins along a drive, the sewer should not be placed under the drive, but rather under grass or shrubbery, where it can easily be reached in case of trouble. Method of Collecting Surface Water from Grass Gutters. Fig. 15. Sewer Methods of Discharge. If storm-water sewers discharge into other park sewers, it is not necessary to construct a manhole, as is done in city practice, providing that due care is observed in making the connection. If a storm-water sewer discharges into an open body of water, the discharge may take place below the surface of the water. This means that the outlet must be of special design. Cast-iron pipe held in place at the end by slope paving is sometimes used. Or in other cases the sewer may pass out through a shore wall which holds it in position. The turbidity of the first wash is often a source of trouble by reason of the fact that the pond or lake is rendered turbid. The first washings may be side-tracked into an 48 DESIGN outlet sewer through a pipe too small to carry the storm- water flow. Sometimes where there are springs or another adequate source of supply for the lake or pond, the entire volume of storm-water is passed ofT into the outlet sewer direct. Calculation of Size. The usual methods of calculation are employed. The coefficient of imperviousness, however, will be low, due to the character of the surfaces, which are mostly grassy. An outlet sewer from a lake need not be of sufficient capacity to carry the entire flow of the storm if this flow is admitted to the lake. The body of water may be used as a reservoir whose elevation will rise slightly at time of a storm and the surplus water will run off through the small outlet sewer after the storm is over, 2. Sanitary Sewers. These are used to carry the flow from toilet rooms which are located in shelters and pavihons. Such sewers are small. They should never discharge into park lakes and water courses. Sanitary sewers are gen- erally laid much deeper than storm-water sewers. It is very important that the grade be flat in order that the depth of flow may be as great as possible. The minimum velocity should be 1.5 feet per second. In order to lay the sewers on flat grades it may be necessary to build a few drop manholes at places where the sewers join. The size of sanitary sewers is 6 inches except for the mains. Owing to the impossibility in many cases of obtaining a proper depth of flow, say one-quarter of the diameter, flush tanks will have to be used to keep the sewer free from incrustation. 3. Combined Sewers. These are but seldom used in park engineering. Occasionally however, where a sanitary sewer is available, storm-water sewers will be connected a oj P^ ^(§ GRADING 51 to it, thus making a combined sewer. This means an enlargement of size. Difficulty is often experienced in maintaining in dry weather a proper depth of flow without flushing. The flow from these sewers should not be dis- charged into lakes and water courses unless there is a pro- vision for removing the dry-weather flow to another outlet. GRADING The grading plan is prepared after a careful examination of the topographical map and a personal examination of the site. This is the function of the landscape architect. Some of the features in the design directly affect the drain- age and other plans and will thus be explained. Grass Gutters. Instead of allowing the sides of drives and paths to act as channels or gutters for the collection and removal of water, it is customary in modern practice to provide grass gutters wherever possible. These consist of depressions 4 to 6 inches deep and 6 to 12 feet wide on the sides of drives and paths, running parallel with them. (See Fig. 15, on page 47.) In vertical cross-section the traces of these gutters should be curves which are con- tinuous with the lines cut from the adjacent slope. These gutters possess marked advantages. They intercept storm- water and prevent it from washing away the surfaces of drives and paths. Since the flow of water through them is gentle by reason of obstruction by blades of grass, there is practically no erosion and very httle sohd matter is deposited in the catch-basins. In fact in designing the drainage system some engineers dispense with basins altogether and merely use inlets. On the lower sides of driveways and paths, the gutters of course are unnecessary. There are times, however, when by reason of the steepness of the slope and its close proximity to the drive or path, grass 52 DESIGN gutters cannot be used. In such cases it will be necessary to pave the gutter so that it may carry the run-off from the slope and drive or path. Method of collecting surface water from paued gutters which are neces- sitated bu reason of steep side slopes. Inlets not satisfactory on account of large amounts of grit. Fig. 17. Figure 13, on page 41, furnished by Mr. Cabot Ward, Park Commissioner of the Boroughs of Manhattan and Richmond, New York, illustrates the proper treatment for drives when the side slopes are steep. Paved gutters here carry the surface water. Absolutely level fields cannot be drained. Slight depressions or slopes should be provided so that surface water may be promptly removed. If the work is carefully staked out, these slopes and depressions need be but slight. Lakes and ponds should not drop off abruptly at the shore line. It is safe and proper to provide a shelf at the shore Une extending out 8 to 10 feet with a drop of 1| feet. Lakes and ponds should be at least 8 feet deep if possible. If shallower, there are apt to be objectionable growths of water plants. (See Fig. 18, on page 55.) PILE FOUNDATIONS 53 PILING AND BULKHEADS Pile Foundations. These are often necessary in quick- sands and muck to support bridges, overflows, etc. Two kinds of piles are used, timber and concrete. Timber piles will answer the purpose if not too expensive and if they are driven below the water table. The soil surround- iny them may, however, afterwards become dry due to the construction not far away of deep brick sewers. If the piles dry out they are sure to rot. Wooden piles are driven by the familiar " land machine," with hammer weighing from 1500 to 2000 pounds, or else by the steam hammer. The latter is not so satisfactory in peaty soils, due to the presence of snags, which can often be shoved aside by the vigorous blows of the drop-hammer machine. Wooden piles are sometimes jetted into place by the hydraulic process which, it is almost needless to say, can be used only in sandy soils free from stones. Instead of sawing off and capping driven piles, it is better to make a foundation of concrete. This is much cheaper and is also stronger, since the concrete surrounds the piles and holds them rigidly in position. Concrete piles are also used and may be of the type that are driven or jetted into position or else of the type that are cast in a hole prepared by the driving of a metal form. Concrete piles have the advantage of durabihty, and when reinforced a marked advantage as columnar piles. They are thus especially adapted to semi-fluid peaty soils. The safe load to be borne by a pile is a difficult matter to determine. Arbitrary rules have been employed and when used by experienced engineers give results on the safe side. Considerable literature has recently been pub- lished on the subject of piles and pile driving, for which 54 DESIGN see Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engi- neers, Vols. XLVIII, p. 180; LIV, Part F, p. 3; LXV,p.467; LXX, p. 412. Bulkheads. In constructing artificial lakes, it some- times happens that a part of the shore lies in an unstable soil which cannot be excavated without flowing. To construct a firm and stable shore the following method has been used : A single row of piles close together with every fifth one omitted is driven along the shore line. Then batter piles are driven in the gaps at as great an angle with the vertical as possible. Unfortunately with a drop-hammer machine this angle cannot be made greater than about 20 degrees. The piles are then all sawed off at about 1| or 2 feet below the proposed water surface and a wale is framed into them in such a way that the thrust of the batter pile due to lateral movement of the soil is transmitted to the wale and then against the vertical piles. (See Fig. 18, page 55.) In performing this work of cutting off the piles and placing the wale in position, a trench must be excavated in order to provide room for the workmen. In order to draw the work together jack-screws are used and a bolt with suitable washers through each pile holds it close to the wale. The wale consists of an 8-inch by 10-inch timber. The piles are notched to receive it, since the bolts must not be required to take up much of the thrust. The material on the water side of the piles can then be removed by cable-way or otherwise to the full depth of the lake. Good upland subsoil is then dumped in over the piles to reinforce them and provide a firm shore. This soil of course will sink down into the soft material below and more will have to be added until no further settlement takes place. It is wise to fill in considerably above the proposed grade l^feiili^ Timber Bulkhead and Subsoil Filling to Form Artificial Siiore of Lal