,N5 R46 ICopv 1 NEW BOO ..^ JLotow 4 •*v Copyrig]itl^"_ COFXRIGHT DEFOSm Monarchical France. 3. First French Republic. State Flag, adopted by the Louisiana Convention which passed the Ordinance of Secession. The present Flag of the United States. Spain. Flag of the United States in 1803, when Louisiana was ceded to the United States by France, Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul. In 1812, when Louisiana was admitted into the Union. In 1815, when the Battle of New Orleans was fought. Confederate Flag, Act of Confederate Congress, 1863. The present State Flag, adopted by the General As- sembly of Louisiana, Act 39 of 1912. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK BY EMMA C. RICHEY EVELINA P. KEAN New Orleans The L. Graham Co . Ltd , Printers 430-432 common street 19 15 rs79 COPYRIGHT EMMA C, RICHEY EVELINA P. KEAN NEW ORLEANS. LOUISIANA (^.. ©CI,A410684 SEP 2? 1915 INTKODLCTIOX. F tlie opportunities within lier i-eacli arc intelligently realized, New Orleans will become one of the great centers of the world. Love of country is a feeling in- herent in every normal l)oy and girl. Community ])atriot- ism— an (mtgrowlh of the modern conditions of life — takes the form of great pride in one's native city, or in the city one has adopted as one's home, and inevitably leads to good results. We want to inculcate in the cliildren of our city a keen, vivid interest in its past history, in its ))resent, and in its future. Economy in government, good order, cleanliness, and honesty must be the out- come of the education of the children, if our city is to take and main- tain its place in civilization. That the growth of a city is measured by the civic interest of its ])eople is a recognized fact. New con- ditions demand that all children should be taught tliey are the coming responsible heads of the community. There was a time when the national government was controlled in-incipally by men from small towns or farms. Today, our Presidents are city men who are calling into their cabinets advisors from our great municipalities, thus proving, "He who makes the city makes the world," PREFACE. T is only nieot that the public should know how this study of New Orleans was made possible. The accomplishment of the task was at first doubtful; but the passing weeks revealed the lively disposition of the gentlemen of New Orleans to assist in making New Orleans known to the children of the Southern metropolis. To the courtesy, civic interest, and cooperation of those gentlemen whom it was our pleasure to interview and otherwise commimicate with, is due the existence of this book. Our kind readers will no doubt sometimes be surprised at the relative size of some of the illustrations. We crave their indulgence. Such discrepancies are the result of the very limited cost of the book, which preventetl all tlie illustrations being made to order, and caused dependence upon the generosity of friends of the work, for the majority of the illustrations. To the following gentlemen and organizations, we desire to ex- tend special thanks for information, advice, criticism, or illustrations: Robert Glenk, T. P. Thompson, Gaspar Cusach, Norman Walker, W. 0. Hart, J. Zach. Spearing, Judge I. D. Moore, Prof. Ellsworth Woodward, S. Locke Breaux, L. E. Bentley, E. E. Lafaye, Dr. Jos. iiolt. Dr. G. F. Patton, Dr. I. M. Cline, Dr. W. H. Robin, Stanley C. Arthur, Leonard Nicholson, George G. Earle, Sidney Lewis, Chris Reuter, Tiley ^^icChesney, the Louisiana State Museum, Southern Pacific Railroad, Association of Commerce, Board of Trade, and the officials of the city. We wish to express our appreciation of the unfailing courtesy and cooperation of the gentlemen of the New Orleans Board of Public School Directors and the Superintendents of the New Orleans Public Schools. it is our sincere wish that "The New Orleans Book" will attain the end they desire, namely, the dissemination of knowledge of New Or- leans, fostering of love of our uuique city, and development of a true civic spirit, active in times of peace, in reform, and improvement along lines conservative of the city's individuality and, yet, abreast witli real progress, — and steadfast, true, and self-sacrificing in times of trouble and trial which, in the i)rogression of the world, must necessarily come upon New Orleans in the future as in the past; but, as in the past, to be heroically borne and overcome, thus giving rise to a still nobler period. THE AUTHORS. New Orleans, La., September, 1915. CONTENTS. Chapter. Page. T. Geographical Conditions 1 IT. History of New Orleans 7 III. Drainage — Sewerage — Filtici; I'i.ant 4.'') IV. Health Conditions J 9 V. Systems of Communication .")9 VI. Trade 04 VII. Industries 7fi VIII. Manufactures SS IX. Foodstuffs !)1 X. Professions — Tr.ides 97 XI. Charitable Institutions 10;l XII. Education 107 XIII. Literature of New Orleans IS? XIV. People — Customs 128 XV. City Government 1:15 XVI. City Beautiful 1 l;i StippLEMENT. Government of Louisiana T ILLUSTRATIONS. The Flags Frontispiece Page. Cross Section Showing Land-Slope from the EivER TO THE Lake 2 Scene in Third District Showing Levee Con- struction; Material Being Brought on Cars 3 Scene in Third District Siiowrxo Levee Con- struction; Mud Pumped Tiiiioufui Elevated Sluices 3 Map of Louisiana 7 La Salle 8 Louis XIV 8 Pierre Le Motne d'Ibeuville 9 Jean Baptiste Le Moyne dic BikwillI': 10 John Law 11 Due d'Orleans 11 Map or 1728 11 Marquis de Vaudreuil 13 I^Iap op New Orleans, 17(i3 13 Charles III. of Spain 14 Louis XV. 14 Don Antonio de Ulloa 14 Don Alexandro O'Keilly 1.5 Bernado Galvez 1.5 Plan of the Great Conflagration* 16 B.VRON de Carondelet IG Don Andres Almonaster Y Eoxas 16 Cabildo as It Appears Today 17 View of the Interior of the Cabildo 17 View of the Corridor of the Cabildo 17 Etienne de Bore 18 A Flatboat 18 Map of New Orleans 19 Napoleon Bonaparte 31 Laussat 33 Thomas Jefferson 33 Copt of Jefferson's Proclamation for a Special Session of Congress to Eatify the Pur- chase of Louisiana from France 23 Cession of Louisiana to the United St.vtes. ... 33 A View of New Orleans from the Plantation . 23 Gov. W. C. C. Claiborne 34 Jean and Pierre Lafitte and Dominique You . . 35 Andrew Jackson 26 A General Map of the Seat of War in Lou- isiana AND West Florida .. .. .. .. ........... . .. . .. 37 Page. General Jacques Villere 37 Map Showing the Landing of the Buitlsh Army. 38 JIap of New Orleans, 1815 29 View, as It Appears Today, of the Bank of Louislana Building, Corner of Eoyal and CoNTi Streets, Erected in 1836 30 The Tallulah, Clipper Eng.\ged in Slave Trade to New Orleans 31 United States Mint 32 Jacksox Squ.vre .A.S It Appeared in 1838 33 Street Eailroad C.\r in 1838 33 ^L\r of Louisiana, 1849 34 Canal Street, Royal to Bourbon, 1816 34 Orleans Alley 35 Typical Homes in the A'ieux Cariie, Erected During the First Half of the Nineteenth Centt'hy 35 Coiarrv-Md) i\ \'ii:i;x Carre 36 First St. Charles Hotel 36 Second St. Louis Hotel 36 Old St. Charles Theatre 37 James H. Caldwell 37 French Opera House, Erected in 18.59 37 ^fonument in memory of members of wliite Le.'VGue, Who Fell in Co.nflict on Septem- ber 14, 1874 39 Harbor of New Orleans, 1873 39 Central Building, Cotton Centennial Ex- position. ... 40 Old Style Steamboat Landing 41 Ships at the Wharves 43 Maison Blanche Building 43 Jackson Square as It Is ToD.iY 43 Panorama View of Commercial Section, Viewed from Top of City Hall 14 Main W.\terworks Pumping Station and Drain- .\GE Power House No. 3 46 View Showing Napoleon Avenue Drainage Canal in Course of Construction 47 French M.arket Before Eenovation 51 French Market After Renovation 55 United States Post Office 59 Mule Traction . . ..... . . . .... 6.31 ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued. Latest Model of Electric Car in Use in New Orleans 63 Map of New Orleans Harbor^ Louisiana Avenue TO Alvar Street 65 Drydocks and United States Government Landings 66 Banana Conveyors 67 Map Showing Drainage System of Mississippi EiVER 69 Ferrying Cars Across the Eiver 71 Import Coffee 73 Custom House 74- Panoramic View of the Harbor 75 New Orleans Cotton Eschange 76 Cotton Warehouses and Terminal 77 Corn Crop on Reclaimed Land 78 Cane Crop on Eeclaimed Land 79 Ciialmette Sugar Refinery 80 Irrigation Pumping Plant in West Louisiana. . 81 Preparation of Soil for Rice Planting in AVest Louisiana. ... 81 Cypress Swamp 83 Tons of Sulphur Ready for Shipment 85 Mining Salt Underground 86 Jennings Oil Field 87 Otis Mahogany Plant 89 Page. Products of a Truck Farm on Reclaimed Land 91 Orange Grove 93 Loading Oysters on a Transport 94 New Orleans Court Building 98 Charity Hospital 103 .Julian Poydras 104 Margaret's Monument 105 Three Homes of the Ursulines 107' Warren Easton High School 112 McDonogh No. 14 113 Gibson Hall, Tulane Campus 115 Newcomb College 116 Loyola University 117 New Orleans Public Library 130 Charles Gayarre 133 Alcee Portier 135 Carnival Pageant in Canal Street 130 McDonogh Monument in Lafayettk Square. . . 133 Si'. Roch's Chapel 133 City Hall 136 Delgado Art Museum 149 Oaks in Audubon Park 150 Creosoted Wood Block Pavement 152 Seal of the State of Louisiana XI. Map of New Orleans Insert ERRATA. Chapter I, p. 3. Read: "Courtesy N. 0. Levee Board." Chapter II, p. 23. Under first picture read: Courtesy of La. State Museum. ' ' 24. Under picture, read: "Courtesy of La. State Museum. ' ' 26. Second column, line 20, read: "Bayou Bienvenu." Chapter V, p. 59. Read: "Systems of Communication." Chapter XII, p. 109. Second column, first line, read: "Church." 120. Read: "New Orleans Public Library." CHAPTER I. Geographical Conditions. SECTION 1. LOCATION OF NEW ORLEANS. Location. Bienville selected a few knolls rising out of a tree-covered swamp as the site for his capital, because he realized that one day his little settlement would grow into a great and prosperous city- through the advantages offered Ity the Mississippi and the agricultural possibil- ities of the country. Almost a hundred years later, Jefferson secured Louisiana for the United States. His principal object was the possession of New Orleans, which he predicted would be- come the commercial metropolis of the South. New Orleans, Louisiana, is in the south cen- tral i)art of the United States, 29 degrees, 56 minutes, 59 seconds North Latitude, 90 de- grees, 41 minutes, 94 seconds West Longitude. Although one hundred ten miles from the Gulf of Mexico, New Orleans is a seaport, for it is situ- ated on the Mississippi Eiver, which can float at this point the largest sea-going vessels. AdvaJita,ges of Location. The Mississippi River, with its tributaries, offers seventeen thou- sand six hundred fifty miles of navigable water- way, extending through twenty-two states. Be- cause of its location. New Orleans should be the center of trade between the Mississippi Valley and Central and South American countries. The Panama Canal brings a large portion of the ori- ental commerce through this port. The pros- perity of a city depends not only uj^on its com- niei-cial facilities, but also upon the resources of tile adjacent region. In this respect, New Or- leans, the gateway of the fertile Mississippi Valley, is equalled by few cities. SECTION 2. EXTENT OF NEW ORLEANS. Extent. The corporate limits of New Orleans emln-ace the whole of Orleans Parish, an area of one hundred ninety-six square miles. New York is the only city in the United States that covers more territory. The boundary line of Orleans Parish is very irregular, but it may be given ap- proximately as Lake Pontchartraiu on the north and west, the Kigolets separating Orleans from St. Tammany Parish on the north. Lake Borgne on the east and south, St. Bernard Parish on the east and south, the Mississippi Eiver on the south, and Jefferson Parish on the west. Part of Orleans Parish extends over the river, em- bracing xVlgiers and the surrounding districts. SECTION 3. TOPOGRAPHY. Topography. The topograph}' of this region has undergone great changes. This has been proven by a study of the soil and by historic records. Even in the memory of the i^resent generation, there were swamps where now stand beautiful residences. These changes have been largely effected by the Mississippi, to which mighty agency New Orleans owes its very existence. Ages ago, an arm of the Gulf of Mexico reached to the Ohio River. In this bay the river deposited its sediment until not only the bay, but much of the Gulf, was filled. As the Mississippi River carries hundreds of millions of tons of silt into the Gulf everj^ year, this process of land building continues. Even after the land was raised above the sea-level, the river did not cease its great THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK work. Swollen by the floods and melting snows along its upper course, it would annually over- flow tliis region, leaving a deposit of alluvium. from the river front, where the land is highest, and a lesser slo^je hack from the lake shore. A slight elevation extends across the city along S?????^^^^^!??^7^3!!5?^357:5^3^5^3^?3^!^ Cross section showing land-slope from the River to the Lake. — Courtesy of J<'. 0. S. & W. Board. Thus, year by year, until the levees shut out the floods, New Orleans was built up. The high- est portions now have an elevation of fifteen feet; but, in some places, the city is slightly below Gulf level. There is a gi'adual slope back Metairie Ridge, City Park, and Gentilly Terrace. The section extending between Lakes Borgne and Pontchartrain as far as the Rigolets is al- most entirely swamp land. Small tracts of this have been reclaimed for market gardens. SECTION 4. SOIL FORMATION. Soil Formation. The causes of these slopes and ridges will be understood by studying the work of rivers in building ui? their flood plains. A swiftly flowing river can carry a large amount of detritiis, but when the current is cheeked it is forced to drop its burden. The greatest check to the current of a river overflowing its flood plains occurs as it leaves its channel; consequently, the heaviest and coarsest sediment is deposited there. ■ The river banks are thus built higher by each flood and a system of natural levees is produced. The finer silt is carried farther be- fore being released. This causes a marked dif- ference in the formation and - composition of front and hack lands along a river. The forma- tion of the land along the bayous is similar to that along the river; it is high near the streams and slopes back into lowlands or swamps. This accounts for the ridges along Bavou St. John and Bayou Sauvage. The course of a former outlet of the Mississippi Eiver is marked by the ridge along Metairie and Gentilly Terrace. Present Work of the River. Levees restrain the flood waters; but tJie river has not ceased its work. The current grows sluggish along the inner curve of the river, and here a bank or "batture" is built up outside the levee. The current is correspondingly swift along an outer curve, whei'e it wears away the bank. This is occurring at Carrollton Bend and at Greenville Bend (between Westwego and Carrollton). The batture from Felicity street to below Canal street has increased so much that the levee has been moved to take in the newly formed land. Within the history of New Orleans, the site of the present Customhouse was on the river front and Tchoupitoulas street was the highroad along the bank. SECTION 5. INUNDATIONS. Causes of Inundations. New Orleans has suffered from overflows of the Mississippi and Lake Pontchartrain. Floods from Lake Pont- chartraiji. have resulted from two causes: (1) Backwater from crevasses along the river fill Lake Pontchartrain; this water, when prevented by prevailing southeast winds from reaching the Gulf, floods the region about the lake, (2) The THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK same result is produced when violent storms pile up the waters of the lake. The level of Lake Pontchartrain was raised five feet by the Bonnet Carre crevasse remaining oi^en from 1874 to 1882 ; it was raised six and a lialf feet by the storm of September, 1909. Crevasses. In the spring, the snow and ice in the upper Mississippi Valley begin to melt, thus increasing the volume of water in the river. The force of this swollen current is so great that the levees sometimes give way under the severe strain. Such a break is called a crevasse. These were of frequent occurrence in the early history of New Orleans, but diminished as- the levees were strengthened. New Or- leans was never destroyed by flood, but the daily a flairs of the city were seriousl}^ interrupted. Notable Crevasses. In 1799, there was a crevasse at Macarty's plantation, now Carroll- ton, and in 1813, another occurred higher up at Kenner's plantation. The levee in front of Ma- cart}^ 's plantation broke again in 1816; this time, the water was from three to five feet deep in the suburbs, and the citj^ itself was flooded as far as Chartres street. In 1831, a severe storm caused the lake to overflow to such an extent that the waters reached Dauphine street. This occurred again in 1837, '44, and '46. The crevasse of 1849 at Sauve's plantation, about seventeen miles above the city, was one of the most destructive. "Within twelve days, Rampart street was under water and the flood covered the rear of the city. Two thousand houses, like so many islands, were completely surrounded by water. People who could not abandon their homes were obliged to resort to boats as a means of transportation. When the waters had subsided it was found that public l)roperty, gutters, pavement, street-crossings, liridges, etc., had suffered considerable damage. SECTION 6. LEVEES. Along the River. Levees of great size and strength have lioen built along the ]\[ississippi's course through the State of Louisiana. Nowhere in the world, not even in Holland, where the people hold back the waters of the sea, are the levees as large as those built by the Parish of Orleans to check the encroachments of the "Father of Waters." Size and length. The base of these great levees is as thick through as a city block, and in ])laces the crowii or top is fifty feet wide and five feet above the highest water ever recorded at New Orleans. The largest levees are along Car- rollton Bend, called Carrollton Beach Levee, and in front of the Tliii'd District. Tlic great size of these levees is easily realized because of the un- obstructed view. There are levees of almost tlie same height before the business section, but the slope is so gradual it is scarcely perceptibl'e.. The levee at Caiuil street commences at the Scene in Third District showing levee construction, mud pumped thrpugh elevated sluices. —Courtesy N. 0. S. & W. Board. §cene in Third District showing levee construction, material being brought on cars. —Courtesy N. 0. S. & W. Board, THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK Louisville and Nashville depot and slopes up until it is two to three feet above liigii-water mark at the river front. The Orleans Levefe Board maintains twelve miles of levee on the left or east bank of the river and over thirteen miles on the right or west bank, besides the fifty-two miles of rear protection levees. BaJik Protection. The levees are protected from erosion, or wearing, by wooden revetments or by a coating of concrete. Willow mattresses, sunk below the sui'face of the water, prevent the caving of levees along banks where the current washes with greater force. The work of bank protection is relegated to the United States Gov- ernment. From 1907 up to date, the Govern- ment has expended over a million dollars in this character of work. Construction of Levees. The Orleans Levee Board is charged with the construction, repair, suiDervision, and maintenance of all levees in the Parish of Orleans. The method of construction depends largelj^ upon the facilities at hand for obtaining the necessary earth to build the levee. Frequently the dirt is brought on barges, or in cars, if there are railroad tracks near. Great cranes unload the barges or cars and place the dirt in the required position. The force of run- ning water is sometimes applied to levee con- struction. The material used to build the levee is shot through long elevated sluices by a con- tinuous stream, and the mud thus produced is deposited through troughs at regular distances along the line of construction. Low dams hold this slush within a certain area, where, after the water has drained oft", the dirt is shaped into a levee. "Where the use of machinery is not prac- ticable, the dirt has to be hauled by mules or wheeled in barrows; and the levees have to be built with wheel and drag scrapers. Protection Levees. Levees are maintained along the lake shore, the parish lines, the canal banks, and Bayou St. John, as well as along the river front. The purpose of protection levees is to prevent backwater from crevasses or lake floods from entering the city. These levees are not nearly so high as those along the river, but they aggregate about fifty-two miles in length. Swamp Reclamation. Since the construction of levees that afford effectual protection to the city, attention has been directed towards re- clamation of swamp lands. Cyjoress trees and tangled undergrowth once covered an extensive area of marsh where streets are now laid out and houses are being built. Most of the reclama- tion has been effected at the city's expense by means of the drainage canals, but the New Orleans Lake Shore Land Company has im- proved a large tract beyond Gentilly Terrace for real estate speculation. The entire area from People's avenue to the New Basin Canal and from the river to the lake is now drained. Other reclamation projects are uow being considered and, when completed, all of the swamp lands in the rear of the city will be re- claimed by drainage canals and levees. SECTION?. CLIMATE. Conditions that Affect Climate in New Or- leans. The climate of New Orleans is affected by (1) latitude, (2) nearness to large bodies of water, (3) direction of prevailing winds, (4) levelness of the surrounding country. Latitude. New Orleans is only about seven degrees north of the torrid zone, consequently the sun's rays are almost vertical during the summer months. The thirtieth parallel of lati- tude crosses Africa and Arabia through burning- deserts, but New Orleans, at the same distance from the equator, has mild and pleasing sum- mers. Nearness to Large Bodies of Water. Regions adjacent to large expanses of water are less sub- ject to extremes of temperature than inland sec- tions, because water neither heats nor cools as rapidly as land. The extensive water surface formed by the network of bayous and lakes which indent the coast of Louisiana materially affects the climate. Especially is this true in New Orleans, which is made almost an island by Lake Pontchartrain, Lake Borgne, and the Mississippi Biver. The warm Gulf stream lessens the severity of winter. Direction of Prevailing Winds. For almost six months of the year the city is swept by south- easterlv winds from the Gulf. These are satu- THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK rated witli moisture, wliicli lessens the intensity of the sun's rays by day and prevents rapid radiation by nigiit. During the winter months, the prevailing winds are from the north and northeast, but, having to cross Lake Pontchar- train, they are tempered before reaching New Orleans. The atmosphere, though laden with moisture, is not heavy nor oppressive. Breezes from the Gulf impart a fresh and vigorous tone during the summer and ■ moderate the cold in winter. Levelness of the Surrounding Country. There are no heights of land in the vicinity of New Or- leans to obstruct the winds or prevent the dis- tribution of moisture. Temperature. The summers are long, but the maximum temperature never exceeds and seldom equals that of inland cities much farther north. The highest the thermometer has ever registered at New Orleans was 102° Fahrenheit on July 13, 1901, and again on June 22, 1915. Only on five other occasions was it as high as 100° Fahrenheit. The mean temperature for July and August, the hottest months of the year, obtained from records extending over a period of forty-two years, is 82°. Excessive heat is rare and heat prostrations are few. On the other hand, the winters are exceedingl}^ mild. There is ice on an average of less than four times a year, and the ground seldom freezes. All but the most delicate plants can remain put of doors during the winter with only a covering of burlap or paper to protect them from frost. The lowest temperature ever recorded at New Orleans did not descend to zero, being seven degrees above zero on February 13, 1899. The season of greatest cold occurs during December and January. Rainfall and Moisture. There is no distinc- tive rainy season in New Orleans, as many out- siders suppose. The average rainfall is about equal for all the months of the year, increasing slightly during the summer. The inhabitants appreciate this provision of nature, for rainy days are few, and frequent showers serve to cool the atmosphere. Spring and autumn, having very moderate rainfall, are always pleasant seasons. The annual monthly rainfall averages four and five-tenths inches. Healthfulness. Few places have a more uni- formly delightful climate than New Orleans. Those who condemn it as disagreeable and un- healthful do so through ignorance of present conditions. Much of the sickness resulting from other causes has been charged to the damp, "tropical" climate of New Orleans. The re- clamation of nearby swamp lauds has reduced the high humidity which made it an undesirable place for persons suffering from some maladies. Residents of New Orleans have no need to seek mountain and seashore resorts in summer, for breezes from the gulf and lake keep their own city pleasant during the summer months, while strangers flock to the Southern metropolis to enjoy the winters, where trees are green and flowers bloom, where outdoor life is uninter- rupted and fires may be dispensed with many days in the season. SECTION 8. WEATHER BUREAU. Weather Bureau. Climate exerts so much influence over the lives, habits, and occupations of people that the United States Government has established the Weather Bureau under the Department of Agriculture. The work of this Bureau is to study the rise and fall of tempera- ture, the direction and velocity of the wind, the amount of rainfall, and the barometric pressure, in order to anticipate unusual weather con- ditions, and to give information and warning with regard to floods. New Orleans Station. There is a station in New Oi'leans fully equipped for making observ- ations and forecasts. The offices are located in the Post Office building. Observations of local weather conditions are taken twice daily at about two hundred observ- ing stations in the United States. Trained observers, using delicate instruments, determine weather changes with utmost accuracy. Com- plete telegraphic reports are immediately sent to Washington, District of Columbia, where ex- pert forecasters determine the weather con- ditions that may be expected to prevail during the next thirty-six to forty-eight hours. Reports are also sent to some of the larger stations. 6 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK wlicro similar calculations are niade for tlieir respective A'ieinities. Distribution of Forecasts. Witliin two hours after the moruiug observations have been taken, the forecasts are telegraplied from the forecast stations to nearly two thousand distributing points. Countless individuals receive the daily weather news from these points by means of telegraph, telephone, or mail. The principal features of current weather conditions through- out the country are represented on a map. Value of Forecasts. The extent to which the Weather Bureau, in the collection and publica- tion of data and the issue of weather forecasts and warnings, affects the daily life of the people, is increasing yearly. Warnings of storms and hurricanes, issued for the benetit of marine in- terests, are the most important and valuable. These are displayed at more than three lumdred points along the coasts and along the shores of Ihe (rreat Lakes. So nearly perfect has service become that scarcely a storm of marked danger lo maritime interests lias occurred for years for which ample warnings have not been issued from twelve to twenty-four hours in advance. West Indian reports are especially valuable, as the approach of those destructive hurricanes which sweep the Gulf and Atlantic coasts from July to October can thereby be accurately de- termined. Change of Temperature Warnings. The warnings of those sudden temperature changes known as cold waves are probably next in im- portance. These warnings, issued from twenty- four to thirty-six hours in advance, are scattered throughout the threatened region by flags at Weather Bureau stations, by telegraph, tele- phone, and mail service; planters, florists, ship- pers and many others profit by this knowledge. Fruit, sugar, tobacco, cranberry, and market gardening interests are protected by forecasts of frost or freezing weather. Savings to growers in a limited district through the instrumentality of such warnings has been estimated at thou- sands of dollars for one cold spell. Flood Warnings. The commerce of our rivers is greatl}' aided and lives and property in regions subject to overflow are protected by the publica- tion of river stages and the issue of river and flood forecasts. These are liased on reports re- ceived from about five hundred special river and rainfall stations. The value of this service was strongly emphasized during a great flood in the Mississippi watershed, which was one of the greatest in its history, the stages in some jilaces 1)eing the highest ever known. Yet, notwith- standing the enormous volumes of water, the forecasts and warnings were accuratels- verified as to location, stage, and date. TOPICS. Section 1. Lof-ation of New OHe.ins; Section 2. Extent of New Orleans; Section 3. Topography; Sec- tion 4. Soil Formation; Section 5. Inuiulatioiis; Sec- tion 6. Levees; Section 7. Climate; Section 8. Weather Bureau. REFERENCES: Geological Survey of Louisiana; Waring anil Cable, History and Present Conditions of New Orleans, 1880; Eeport of the Orleans Levee Board; Reports of the Weather Bureau. Chapter il. History of New Orleans. SECTION I. FRENCH DOMINATION. 1. LOUISIANA BEFORE 1718. Early Explorers of Louisiana. In 1528, Pam- pliilo de Nai'vaez led an expedition from Cuba into Florida. Defeated by the Indians, he re- treated to the coast, only to find his ships gone. They built some rude crafts and embarked from about what is now Choctawliatchee Bay. After several days' sailing, they passed the mouth of a great river and drank of its water; but the mighty current dispersed the boats, and Nar- vaez was never heard of again. Three boats reached Texas, and, after six years' detention by the Indians, several of the survivors, led by Cabeza de Vaca, the treasurer of the expedition, managed to reach a Spanish settlement in Mexico. Eleven years later, Hernando de Soto sailed from Cuba with a large force and landed on the coast of Tampa Ba^^, determined to conquer the territory explored by Narvaez. After wander- ing through what is now Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, having his army diminished by In- dian attacks and malaria, he at last, in the third year of the expedition, readied the Mississippi River at a point slightly south of Memphis. Here he crossed the river and wandered as far west as the Red River, but be- coming ill he returned to the banks of the Mis- sissippi, where he died. His followers, fearing attacks of the Indians should they hear of their leader's death, placed his body in the trunk of a tree and buried him in the great river. Unable to reach Mexico by land, they built seven brigan- tines and, led by Mos- coso, de Soto 's successor, one-half of his followers finally reached Tampico River in Mexico. Expeditions of Pere Marquette and La Salle. In 1673, having heard from the Indians, of a great river that flowed to the west, Pere Mar- quette, a Jesuit missionary, set out from Quebec accompanied by Joliet, a fur-trader, to explore and claim it for France. They went in their birch-bark canoes up the St. Lawrence River and through Lake Ontario, Niagara River, Lake Erie, St. Clair River, and Lake Huron, Macki- naw Straits and Fox River, thence down the Wisconsin to the Mississippi. They descended it as far as the Arkansas; and, convinced that it flowed south into the Gulf of Mexico instead of west, proceeded to return to Canada. Worn out by the hardships, Pere Marquette died on the banks of the Illinois River and Joliet proceeded alone to bear the news to Quebec. Inflamed with the desire of establishing France's power through the heart of the conti- nent from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to that of the Mississippi, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La MAP OF LOUISIANA. -Courtesy La. State Museum. 8 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK Salle, left Quebec, February 2, 1682, to explore the MississipiDi tlirougli its entire length. He reached the mouth on April 6th, claimed for France all the land watered by the Mississippi and its tributaries, and named it Louisiana in honor of Louis XLV., King of France. It was the desire of La Salle to establish a chain of forts from the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi. On liis return to Canada, he went to France, where the government fitted out an expedition for him. In 1684, he landed oh the coast of Mata- gorda Bay in Texas, having failed to find the mouth of the Missis- si]3pi. Soon he lost his vessels. In attempting to find the Mississippi River and reach Canada liy way of that river, he was murdered by one of his followers. France at the Close of the Seventeenth Century. France had risen, through the skill of Louis XIV. and the genius of his ministers, to the dominance of the affairs of Europe. Though an able ruler, Louis, "le Grand," was not farsighted. After the death of Colbert, the great financier, he gave no attention to the development of France's colonies, which had l)een one of the cherished plans of the able Comptroller. In 1689, the Count of Pontchar- train was en,t rusted with the finances. The treasury was de- pleted by the constant strain upon it caused by the continuous European wars, the development of the interior of France, ma- terial encouragement given to commerce and manufactures, erection of such costly struc- tures as Versailles, the Louvre and Hotel des Invalides. The nation was groan- ing under the burden of taxation which had been thus necessarily increased. In the endeavor to solve this mighty financial problem, Pontchar- train, following Colbert's policy, turned his at- tention to the development of the colonies. He l)egan with Louisiana, as yet a wild, trackless wilderness, extending from the Province of Canada on the north and the English colonies on the Atlantic, to the Eocky Mountains, the Spanish province of Mexico, and the Gulf of Mexico on the south. As the seventeenth century saw the struggle among the European nations for control of Europe, so the eighteenth century was to see the conflict for supremacy in North America carried on be- tween France and Eng- land. As a preparation for this struggle, France proceeded to establish settlements in her terri- tory along the Gulf. Early Colonization of Louisiana. Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville was chosen in 1698 to settle Louisiana. An able sea- man, brave, energetic, inured to hardshijis by his life on the frontier of Canada, Iberville was in every way suited to the accomplishment of the difficult task. With four ships and two hundred emigrants, he crossed the Atlantic, and after touching at San Domingo and Pensacola, at which latter place he found the Spaniards already established, anchored in Mobile Bay. After cruising among the islands along the coast, they reached the mouth of the Missis- sippi on March 2, 1699, and for the first time since La Salle's memorable visit, the solemn notes of the Te Deum resounded through the dismal swamps. Iberville ascended the Missis- sippi as far as Red River and returned by the same route to the mouth of Bayou Manchac, where he, accompanied by three companions and an Indian guide, left the others to continue their way by river, and entered Bayou Manchac; thence through Lakes Maurepas, Pontchartrain and BorgTie, to Mississippi Sound and Mobile Bay, LOUIS XIV. — Courtesy La. State Museum, THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK wLich he thus reached before the river party. As he had found no spot on the river free from the annual overflow, he erected a fort on the east side of Biloxi Bay (named after an Indian tribe), where is now Ocean Springs, and called it Biloxi. Iberville left Louisiana in order to take part in the war of the Spanish Succession (Queen Anne's War), and entrusted the gov- ernorship to his younger brother, Bienville. A settlement was made on Mol)ile Bay, to which the capital was removed from Biloxi. In 1704, a ship bringing twenty .girls for the colonists aiTived. Intei'nal dis- sensions, lack of funds and food, low class of iramigTants, unfavor- al)le natural con- ditions, fever visita- tions, retarded the development of the colony. Louisiana a Pro- prietary Colony 1712- 1717. Louis XIV. be- came tired of the burden of Louisiana, and granted the prov- ince, with exclusive control of the trade as far north as Illinois, to Anthony Crozat, a weal thy Paris banker, who was to give the king a share in the precious metals and stones. Cadillac was appointed governor by the proprietor, with Bienville as lieu- tenant-governor. A trading post was es- tablished at Natchi- toches and at a few other places, and ti'ade with Mexico was vainly sought. Cadillac declared war against the powerful Natchez Indians for having murdered some Frenchmen, and sent Bienville with a small force against them. He succeeded by strategy in decoying the leaders into his hands and forced them to accept his terms. De I'Epinay now became governor, but met with no better success than Cadillac. As Crozat had parted with a large part of his PIKRRR LE MOY fortune in the endeavor to make money out of Louisiana, he decided to restore the king's gift by resigning the charter. 2. PROPRIETORSHIP OF THE COMPANY or THE WEST. Company of the West. In 1717, the French Grovernment chartered a company to take over Louisiana. At the head of this company was John Law, a Scotchman, who, by his bold finan- cial schemes, had dazzled the poor re- gent, the Dvlg d 'Or- leans, and obtained great influence in the management of the government's finances. The com- ])any received a twen- ty-five-year charter, and promised during that period to send over six thousand white persons and three thousand Afri- can slaves. There were at that time seven hundred whites in Louisiana. Law's great insight into the condition of the coun- try was displa3fed in liis advertising among the people of the Low- lands of Europe for emigrants to Loui- siana; he established a band of these Ger- mans on his own land grant on the Arkansas NE DiBERviLLE. Rivcr. BieuviUe was -Courtesy La, State Museum, reinstated g V e r U r , and immediately made plans for a settlement on the Mississippi River. Founding of New Orleans, 1718. Iberville had proven the land along the left bank of the river, south of Bayou Manchac, to be a real island, surrounded by the waters of the Missis- sippi, Bayou Manchac, the three lakes, and the Giilf of Mexico. Bienville chose for the site of his settlement an elevation on this island one hundred ten miles from the river's mouth, be- 10 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 1 weoii the head of Bayou St. John and the river. This location iiresented many advantages over the surrounding country; the land was higher; it was accessible by two waterways, by the Mis- sissippi and by the lakes and Bayou St. John; it was well known to the Indians of that dis- trict as the home of the Houma Indians, hence could be a good Indian trading post. Even though this land was elevated above the rest of the country, it was subject to frequent over- flows, and Was then scarcely more than a swamp presenting elevations, and had all the disadvantages of an uncleared low- land in a semi-tropical climate. To this spot, in 1718, Bienville sent the Sieur le Blond de la Tour and fifty men to clear the under- growth and lay out the city. De la Tour arranged the settle- ment in the shape of a rectangle facing the river, and in the middle marked off a square to be used as a Place d'Armes, to the rear of this to be the church, school and government house. Barracks and a few huts were erected, and to this crude settle- ment Bienville gave the name of La Nou- velle Orleans in honor of the Eegent, the Due d'Orleans. Storms and fever visitations, prevented the immediate growth of the little settlement. New Orleans, the Capital, 1722. "When Bien- ville had requested that New Orleans be made tlie capital of the colony, the directors refused, saying it could not be safely reached by large vessels. In 1722, Bienville had his chief en- gineer, Pauger, examine the mouths of the Mis- sissiijpi; he reported eighteen feet of water in southeast pass, and suggested that if dikes were JEAS B.UTISTE LE MOYNE DE BIENVILLE. built along this pass and the others closed, the current would, by its own power, keep sand out of this pass. It was in accordance with this plan that, nearly two centuries later, Eads con- structed the jetties. Bienville had one of his vessels taken through the pass of the Balize. The directors, on receiving the reports of these investigations, yielded to Bienville and New Orleans was made the capital. According to Pere Charlevoix, who visited New Orleans in this yeai', the town consisted of a hun- dred disorderly, bar- rack-like buildings, a wooden storehouse, and two or three homes that woiild not ornament a French \illage; nevertheless, lie foresaw a great luture for this city, found its location superior to that of Pome and Paris, and declared it would be "one day ^ and per- haps that day is not far distant — an opu- lent city and the me- tropolis of a great and rich colony." Three years previous, the first negTo slaves had been introduced, five hundred in number. New Orleans ' posi- tion near the mouth, controlled the south- ern entrance to the whole country be- tween the Alleghenies and the Eockies, for the province of Lou- isiana was then only accessible by the rivers draining its vast extent, all of which contributed their waters to the Mississippi long before it reached the point opposite La Nouvelle Orleans. Failure of Law's Bank. Law's great bank in Paris failed at this time, ruining the majority of those connected with him. The poor Germans whom he had located on the banks of the Arkansas managed to reach New Orleans, and there prayed Bienville to send them back to — Courtesy La. State Museum. The mew ORLEANS BOOK 11 their homes. He persuaded Uieiii to settle along the river above the city. Thus was formed the nucleus of the German settlement on the banks of the Mississippi which is to this day called German Coast. As slaves continued to be received, laws had to be made for their governance ; Bienville drew up the Black Code, a set of laws which has been equally Avell praised and blamed. About the most important provision was that forbidding the inter- marriage of the black and wliite races, which is still enforced in Louisiana. Bienville was now recalled and Perrier appointed to succeed him. Grovernorship of Per- rier. Pori'ier accouiplished many improvements. He had a levee eighteen feet wide and nine hundred feet constructed in front long JOHN LAW. — Coiivtesy La. State Museum. of New Orleans and continued for eighteen miles above and below the city. The inliabitants fur- nished tlieir slaves to do the work and the gov- ernment fed them while they were so engaged. To protect the city against Indian inroads, a stockade with eight little forts was erected. The first sanitary measure was now undertaken, namely, as Perrier termed it, ventilating the city l)y clearing the forest between the city and Lake Pontchar train; lack of funds and means pre- vented its completion. Taxation was unknown; hence the only revenues available for public improvements were those furnished by the home government. Need of Women. There were few women of good character in the colony; conse- quently many of the better settlers, missing their homelife in France, desired to return. It thus became evident that, if the settle- ment were to be permanent, the men must have good wives to make homes for them. An experiment in Indian wives was tried; but as one dusky bride, on returning from Prance, where her marriage to a French officer had been performed at court with great pomp, grew tired of civilization and, having sought again the haunts of her tribe, was influenced by them to betray her hus- band's post, it was deemed an unwise in- novation. When Bienville left the colony, in 1724, he promised to send a band of good women over as soon as possible. In 1727, the "Casket Girls" (Filles a la cassette), so called because of each having received a box contain- ing her trousseau, arrived and were placed under the care of the Ursulines until they should be married. Education. In 1751, Bienville granted to a company of Jesuits a plantation which, by later extensions, up to 1745, occupied about the area of the pres- ent First District. Here, in 1727, the Jesuits establislied a church and mission center. Their planta- tion became the first agTicultural school of Louisiana, for here Duc D'ORLEANs. t'lcy iutroduced the — Courtesy La. state Museum. pT^lJtiy at ion of the orange, fig, sugar cane (1751), indigo plant, and myrtle, from which was obtained myrtle wax; these became staple crops and the industry and enterprise of the Fathers a good example to the other colonists. The order was suppressed through political reasons in 1763 and their great plantation confiscated by the king of Spain and sold for about one hundred eighty thousand dollars. A convent of Capuchins was established ad- joining the church, of which they took charge. ' ^ ,: ''b'"- ', , ■ ; _ . _ ', . . MAP OF 1728. — Ooui'tesy La. State Museum. 12 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK besides conducting the regular parish school. The hoys, however, had to be sent to France for a good education. The girls of New Orleans were more fortu- nate, for, in 1727, Bienville had induced the Ursuline Nuns to establish a convent there. They were first located in Bienville's former home, until their convent on Chartres and Ursii- line streets was completed in 1730; this build- ing is the oldest in the United States, west of the Alleghenies, and the school conducted by the sisters was the first in the United States to be opened for girls. Life in New Orleans in 1730. The city ex- tended from Bienville to Ursuline streets, and from the river to Dauphine street. The Place d'Armes was located in the central square facing the river, and to the rear of it was the church and convent of the Capuchins; further down, on what are now Hospital and Ursuline streets, Avere the convent of the Ursulines, the hospital, and barracks; the homes of the colo- nists clustered about the Place d'Armes and these principal buildings; the homes were built of wood and soft brick, and, like all pioneer homes, presented little comfort. Greased paper or linen was used in the windows instead of glass, and torches or the ill-smelling myrtle wax candle furnished artificial light. Nevertheless, according to the letters of Sister Madeleine Hachard, an Ursuline nun, to her family in France, the people dressed, had the same man- ners, and partook of the same foods as the people in France. Sister Madeleine wrote that the ladies knew how to paint and rouge as did those in France, and that their manners were as charming; she was much surprised to enjoy cafe an lait and chocolate for breakfast. There were now five thousand whites and two thousand blacks in the colony; the white population con- sisted of French, Germans, and Canadians; the blacks were negi'oes from Africa. Natchez War. The greed of the French com- mander at Fort Rosalie in Mississippi, for the best lands, had urged him to seize the "White Apple village from the Natchez. As a result, the Indians fell upon the fort and settlement and massacred two hundred men, taking the women and children into captivity. Perrier fitted out an expedition and marched against them; but they managed to escape by strategy. They took .their last stand at Sicily Island in the northern section of the state; here, after being forced to give up their white captives, the gTeater number of the braves escaped to the Chickasaws. In consequence of this drain upon its funds, the Company of the West gave up its charter. Lou- isiana again became a royal colonj^ Perrier was recalled and Bienville reappointed as governor. 3. NEW ORLEANS, 1731-'63. Negro Insurrection, 1732. In the attempt to put down the Natchez, the Louisianians had even armed and trained their negro slaves. The negroes then rose in revolt. The insurrection was not suppressed until the leaders had been put to death — the women on the gallows, and the men on the wheel. The heads of the men were put on posts at each end of the town to in- spire fear in probable future insurrectionists. Chickasaw War. Bienville saw the necessity of defeating the Chickasaws, the harborers of the Natchez warriors, if peace were to be re- stored in Louisiana. In 1736, he marched against them in northern Mississippi. Through English help, they were able to defeat Bien- ville's army, taking many captives; these poor unfortunates were burned by the Indians as Bienville bitterly withdrew the remnant of his army. He fitted out another expedition, which was even more overwhelm- ingly defeated. Re- pulsed by the Indians and worn out by the trials and hardships MARQUIS DE VAUDREUIL. ^f ^j^^ COloUy, the -Courtesy La. State Museum, p^thcr of LouisiaUa asked to be recalled. His request was gi^anted and the Marquis de Vaudreuil, "le grand Mar- quis," was appointed to succeed him. Improvements. De Vaudreuil 's rule was a period of development. The levees, so necessary to the good of the country, were continued and made better. In 1737, Jean Louis, a poor sailor, laid the foundation of one of the city's greatest institutions — the Charity Hospital. Its first quarters were in a building on Rampart street, between St. Louis and Toulouse. English occu- pation of the Ohio Valley drove out many of the French settlers, who then flocked to New Or- THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 13 leans. This sudden influx of people forced the government to erect more commodious barracks in the lower part of the city by the river front, ■where is now Barracks street. Sixty more girls of good character were sent over in the care of the Ursulines. New Orleans became the trade center of the colony. Hides, tobacco, indigo, rice, and a little cotton and sugar were sent to her by the other sections of Louisiana for ex- port. Cotton was introduced in 1740. As a slave could pick not more than six pounds a day, it was not extensively raised imtil after Whit- ney's invention of the gin, when, with the gin, a negro might clean a thousand pounds a day. The Jesuits brought in sugar-cane in 1751 from San Domingo and cultivated it on their planta- tion. A few years later, Dubreuil devoted a large plantation to the cultivation of sugar-cane, building thereon the first sugar mill in Lou- isiana; his plantation was located where Es- planade avenue is to-day. The method of granu- lating was unknown; the sugar produced was hard, sticky, gluey; tafia, a drink resembling rum, was made from it. The export of this sugar to France was attempted in 1765, but was given up owing to a large portion of it having leaked out of the barrels. Obstacles to Progress. One of the great hindrances to progress was the unstable con- dition of the currency, which was changed three times during this period; finally the king and Council of State of France interfered and put a stop to changes in the currency. Lack of money also militated against the colony's advance. The monopoly system, by which the government gave or sold to an individual or company the sole right to operate an industry, is of its very nature detrimental to the good of a community. The Louisiana government not only supported monopolies, but even arbitrarily regulated tlie price at which produce, such as tobacco, rice, etc. should be sold. Again, the people had no voice in their government; frequently laws and regulations were formulated in France by people ignorant of the conditions in Louisiana. Fourth French and Indian War. France and England, during these years, were approaching their final struggle for commercial, naval and colonial supremacy. Rivals in Europe, India and America, the two nations, for over half a century, had kept the world of that day in a constant state of war. In North America, France had established her power in Canada and Lou- isiana, and, by a system of forts extending from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to that of the Mississippi, had sought to make her position invulnerable ; her last step in that dii'ection had been the erection of Fort Duquesne at the junc- ture of the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers, where they unite to form the Ohio River. This position at the head of the Ohio Valley might be said to be the key to the whole system of French Forts. The English had established their control on the Atlantic coast from Maine to Florida. The Virginians realized the im- portance of Fort Duquesne and sent Major George Washington to dislodge the French. He failed, and a British army led by Braddock against it in 1755, met with crushing defeat. The war that then began is known in Europe as the Seven Years' War. At first, victory favored the French; but in 1757, William Pitt, becoming Prime Minister of England, changed the tide of victory to the English side. The war was prac- tically ended by the surrender of Quebec and Montreal to the English; the former in 1759, and the latter in 1760. Peace was not concluded until 1763, when a treaty was signed in Paris. By this treaty, France ceded to England Canada, Cape Breton Island, and Louisiana as far west as the Mississippi River, excepting the Isle of Orleans. England had captured Manila and Havana from the Spaniards, but returned them on Spain ceding Florida to her. MAP OF NEW ORLEANS, 17G3. — Courtesy La. State Museum. 14 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK Government Under French Rule. Tlie Lou- isiana province 'was governed by a Superior Council, composed originally of two members, namely, the governor and commissary. Gradu- ally the membership was extended to twelve persons. This council was the supreme legis- lative and judicial body in the colony. That does not mean that all laws for Louisiana were made in the colony; many were made in France, and all others had, of course, to accord with French law. "The Custom of Paris" became the basis of colonial law. Louisiana was divided into nine districts, each having a commandant and judge, but these were subject to the Superior Council. The people, unlike the English colo- nists, took no part in their own government: however, on the whole, considering the times, the colony was governed well and liberally. There was broader religious toleration in Lou- isiana than in most of the English colonies along the Atlantic coast. ' Changing Ownership. In 1763, the Treaty of Paris was concluded between France and England; by this treaty, England gained all the territory east of the Mississippi, except the Isle of Orleans. On November 3, 1762, Louis XV. bad, by the secret treaty of St. Ildefonso, given all Louisiana, west of the Mississippi, and the Isle of Orleans to his cousin, Charles IH. of Sjiain. Governor Kerlerec, the successor of Vandreuil, had been recalled to France, and on charge of having misapropriated the colony's funds, had been thrown into the Bastille. D'Ab- badie then became governor. It was not until October, 1764, that the French king notified the governor of the transfer of Louisiana, nearly two years previous, to Spain, and ordered him to surrender Louisiana to accredited Spanish commissioners when they should present them- selves. The people heard the tidings with dis- may, and could not be convinced that it was final. A convention assembled in New Orleans and sent Jean Milhet, one of the wealthiest mer- chants, with a petition to the king entreating him to take them back under French control. ll^^^^B^L "^ uHB^H^^^hI ® CHARLES III. OF SPAIN. — Courtesy La. SLjte Museum. LOUIS XV. — Courtesy La. State JIuseu SECTION II. SPANISH DOMINATION. 1. MANIFESTATION OF THE SPIRIT OF LIBERTY, 1766- '68. Don Antonio de Ulloa. Four years after the cession of Louisiana to Spain, the Spanish gov- ernment sent over Don Antonio de Ulloa as gov- ernor of the province. LTlloa was a distin- guished scientist, but, by his lack of judgment and tact, imfitted to occupy his new position. He wrote from Havana to Aubry, who, on the death of d'Abbadie, had succeeded to the con- trol of affairs, of his appointment as governor and early arrival in Louisiana; yet, when he reached New Orleans, he refused to present his credentials, and removed neither the French officials nor the French flag. Louisiana had a joint Spanish and French government, For seven months he absented himself from the city to await at the Balize for the coming of his Peruvian bride. He or- dered the merchants not to sell their goods until "just and intelligent persons" had insiaected them and listed the prices. Conspiracy of Octo- ber, 1768. The mer- chants called upon the Superior Council to pre- vent the enforcement of PON ANTONIO DE ULLOA. these reguktious. Led -^3ouitesy La. state JfuseuiB. W I^afreuiere, DoUCCt, THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 15 the Milliets and others, a conspiracy was formed for the expulsion of UUoa and the seizure of the city. Noyan and Villere, with their followers, secured control of the city, forcing Ulloa to flee for safety to a Spanish vessel in tlie harbor. The patriots drew up a memorial of Ulloa 's outrages and sent a copy to him in Havana. They then formed the project of organizing a republic and union of all American colonies. The plan failed. The times were not yet ready for such a change. 2. ESTABLISHMENT OF SPANISH CON- TROL, 1769-'70. . Suppression of the Revolution. Spain de- cided to keep Louisiana. It would serve as a good bulwark be- tween the English pos- sessions and valued Mexico. Don Alexan- der O'Reilly became the new governor, and with three thou- sand six hundred Spanish troops and twenty-four vessels, arrived at New Or- leans in August, 1769. The leaders of the DON' ALEXANDRo O'REILLY, couspiracy of '68 —Courtesy La. state Museum. tllOUgllt of leaving the colony. Aubry, who was in constant com- munication with d 'Eeilly, advised them not to, as they would be treated with clemency. However, events proved the contrary. They were entrapped, and five of the principals, in- cluding Lafreniere and Noyan, were shot October 25, 1769 ; six others were con- fined in various pr'isons. Change in Government. O'Reilly abolished the Su- perior Council and replaced it by the Cabildo, in which some of the memberships were held for life. The gov- ernor presided over the Ca- bildo in person. Spanish laws were substituted for the French, but as both were based on the Roman code, this did not cause much change. The Spanish language became the official tongue, though French was permitted in notarial and judicial acts in the parishes. A system of taxation was organized which provided a regular revenue for the city: a shipping tax was devoted to the con- struction and improvement of the levees. Com- merce was greatly benefited by the opening of free trade with Cuba. A census taken gives the population of New Orleans at three thousand one hundred ninety, of which one thousand nine hundred one were free persons, one thousand two hundred thirty slaves, and sixty Indians; there were four hundred sixty-eight houses. 3. SPANISH DEVELOPMENT OF NEW OR- LEANS, 1770-1800. Improvement of Trade Laws. When 'Reilly came to New Orleans, the English controlled the trade. This was soon stopped by English ships being prohibited entrance into the port. Under certain restrictions, trade was allowed with Campeachy and the French and Spanish West Indies. Trade in slaves from these islands was forbidden because of the revolutionary spirit existing there, but encouragement was given to the Guinea slave trade. Grovernor Galvez per- mitted free trade with France and the Thirteen American Colonies in 1778. Merchants from Boston, New York and Philadelphia soon opened business houses in New Orleans. Assistance Given to American Revolution. Galvez allowed Oliver Pol- lock, an American merchant, to collect arms and anununi- tion and send them by a fleet of canoes to Fort Pitt for delivery to the Americans. In 1779, Spain allied herself to the Thirteen Colonies and France against England. Galvez immediately marched against Fort Manchac, Baton Rouge, Mobile and Pensa- cola, and drove the English from these forts. The Treaty of Paris, 1783, confirmed Spain in the possession of this territory, granted free and open navigation of the Mississippi River to the sub- '^urte^sy La. state Museum, jects ©f Grcftt Britain aud 16 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK the United States, and gave thirty-one degrees North Latitude as the southern boundary of the United States. Great Fires of 1788 and 1794. The couflagi-a- tion of 1788 originated in a Spanish official's private chapel on Chartres street, near St. Louis. It destroyed the cen- tral portion of the town, where were the commercial quarter, the principal resi- dences, government house, arsenal, prison, church, and Capuchin convent. Nineteen squares were devas- tated, with a loss of eight hundred fifty- six houses. In 1794, some children acci- dentally set fire to a hay store on Royal street. Two hundred twelve homes were destroyed. The ca- thedral, recently re- built, escaped. The financial loss occasioned by this fire exceeded that of the first, and has been estimated at two million six hundred thousand dollars. Camps were opened in the Place d'Armes and on the levee to shelter the homeless population. Spanish Rebuilding of the City. The con- flagration had a most beneficial effect on the city. It was seen that the material generally used for buildings was highly inflammable and assisted tbe fire in its ravages. Carondelet urged the use of tile roofs instead of shingles, and even offered a pre- mium on them. The old city gradually rose up as we see it to- (hiy, with its Spanish- American architect- ure — walls of adobe or In'ick, white or yellow lime -washed stucco, heavy doors and windows, bal- conies, portes-co- clieres, arcades, and BARON DE CARONDELET. imipr />onrts- twO —Courtesy La. state Museum. iiiuei COLllLte, LWO- story homes replaced the former low one- story. Work of Don Almonaster y Roxas. Don Al- monaster y Roxas was the greatest benefactor of New Orleans in that period. He opened his purse freely to his city in her hour of need, for all purposes. He _ g'-tl Ctn/U^. iticn ./ l},.„0'Cf» —■ PLAN OF THE GREAT CONFLAGRATION, 1788 rented in peipetuity from the city the squares flanking the Place d'Armes, and where now stands the red Poritalba build- ings, erected a fine row of brick build- ings, which were im- mediately occupied by "boutiques," the retail stores. In 1784, he had the Charity Hospital, which had been destroyed by a hurricane five years ])revious, rebuilt in brick at a cost of one hundred fourteen thousand dollars. Three years later, he gave the Ursuline nuns a chapel of stucco brick. The rebuilding of the church was begun in 1792 at his exj^ense and, when completed two years later, became the cathedral, as Florida and Louisiana had been united into one diocese, with the bishopric in New Orleans. The cathedral was constructed of brick, and had much the same appearance as to-day. Owing to crack- ing, the belfiys, which were added in 1815, Avere changed in the fifties. Don Almonaster gave not only to charity and religion, but to the government as well. In 1795, he gave the city its town hall, or hall of the Cabildo, now com- monly known as si.uply the Cabildo; there has been one great change made m its appearance ^q^ andrk.s almonaster y Smce the time OI its —courtesy La. state Museum. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 17 CABELDO AS IT APPEARS TO-DAY, St founder— the addition of a French roof. Here, the Spanish Cabildo held its sessions and the formal transfer of Louisiana from France to the United States took place. Government's Improvements. The barracks, which had been begun l)y Kerlerec when the French settlers were driven out of other places by victorious English, were well completed and nearby a military hos- pital and chapel were built. Where now stands the Cus- tomhouse, a little wooden one was erect- ed; the "Old French Mar- ket," the "Halle de Boucheries," was also built then. By 1796, the excavation of Carondelet Canal and the ' ' old basin ' ' was com- pleted; thus New Orleans was connected with Bayou St. John and Lake Pontchartrain, and the city's drainage begun. San Domingo Refugees San Domingo caused many of the planters to come with their families and slaves to New Orleans. They brought with them the French revolutionary ideas of the period, which they easily in- troduced by means of such songs as the ' ' Mar- sellaise" and the "Ca Ira." Carondelet 's Fortifl- catioris. To protect the city against possible inroads of the Ken- tuekians and put down the developing revo- lutionary spirit with- in the city, Caronde- view in the interior of the cabildo, let had the city for- showing the emnd staircase and Wrought Iron Door, tified. Though these fortifications could not have accomplished the first piu-pose, they did secure the second; they consisted of five forts connected by a wall, in front of which was a moat. Fort St. Charles was on the lower river front and Fort St. Louis on ilic n]>per; each of iliese consisted i)f a fort and a ) larapet eigh- teen feet thick, faced with l)rick; they could each ac- e o m m o d a t e one hundred fifty men, and were armed with twelve twelve and eigiiteen-poun- ders. Fort Bur- gundy was at the corner of Canal and Rampart ; Fort The revohitions in Joseph on the present Beauregard Square (formerly known as Congo Square); and Fort St. Ferdinand at the corner of Rampart and Es- planade avenue. The wall connecting these forts was fifteen feet high, and the fosse, or moat, seven feet in depth by a width of forty feet; Caron- delet Canal kept the water in it about three feet high. Granulation of Sugar, 1794. The indigo crop had not been a success because of the unfavorable climate and the devastation of an insect that view OF' THE CORRIDOR OF THE CABILDO, Showing Massive Arches, 18 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK ETIENNE DB BORE. — Courtesy La. State Museum. fed on its leaves. Etienne de Bore decided to cultivate his entire plantation in sugar. This plantation was where CarroUton now is. He hired a skillful sugar-maker, a San Domingo refugee, to granulate the sugar. Mr. de Bore's family and friends had pleaded with him not to be so rash, but to no purpose. A number of planters went to de Bore's for the experi- ment. They gathered around the little mill to watch the process. Suddenly a cry arose, "It granulates!" De Bore's fortune was made and the famed Louisiana industry brought to light, opening wide a great door to prosperity. Commerce. By the Treaty of Paris, 1783, the Mississippi Eiver was free to Great Britain and the United States for navigation; but Spain did not intend to hold to this clause. Those Americans who had crossed over the Alleghany Mountains to seek homes in the rich valley of the Ohio took advantage of this privilege to build up a flatboat trade with New Orleans, exchanging their produce of hides, meat, flour, corn, etc., for manufactured goods. As early as 1786, some of these flatl.ioats were seized and confiscated. The enraged Westerners threatened to capture New Orleans, but waited for Congress to treat with Spain. Spain had two plans, namely, to induce the Kentuckians to come in as immigrants, or to generate among them the spirit of insurrection against the "negligence" of Congress, and thus separate the West from the East. Some Westerners did come, and located about the town of New Madrid. General James Wilkinson, a shrewd Kentuckian, sent a number of flatboats laden with western produce to New Orleans in 1787, and, by working on Governor Miro 's political fears, opened up the river trade. A FLATBOAT. Thc ucxt year he —Cfourtesy L.a. state MuBeunx. reCeiVQd trOm his agent in New Orleans the first cargo of dry goods for the Kentucky market. Trade was conducted with Pliiladelphia by means of false dealings, such as false arrests and imprison- ment. The fire of 1788 was made an excuse for permitting open trade, and Miro sent three ves- sels for various goods, especially flour. France controlled the city's Atlantic trade. The port of New Orleans was neither closed nor open; commerce could be carried on, but there was danger; all depended on the caprices of Spanish officials. In 1793, Spain granted to all her col- onies free trade with Europe and America. Carondelet succeeded Miro as governor. He endeavored through an agent, one Thomas Powers, to bribe the Kentucky leaders into sep- arating from the United States, but in vain. Spain and the United States concluded the Treaty of Madrid in October, 1795. New Or- leans was opened to the Americans as a point of deijosit for three years, free of duty or charge on produce, except a reasonable price for store rent. Should the king not wish to renew this privilege, he must assign some other point on the river where such privileges could be en- joyed. The commerce of New Orleans improved by leaps and bounds. The levee was the scene of noisy, excited bustling and business. Before the people could realize it, the three years had passed. The United States demanded that Spain evacuate her territory, as agreed in the two treaties. Morales, the intendant of the colony, closed the port of New Orleans and assigned no other place to the Westerners. American in- dignation rose high. President Adams secretly prepared an expedition to capture New Orleans. Its advance was prevented by the approaching retirement of Adams and Spain's disapproval of the intendant 's act. 4. NEW ORLEANS IN 1800. Size. New Orleans extended from the river to North Rampai't and from Canal to Esplanade avenue. Beyond these boundaries there were houses scattered here and there, as in Faubourg Ste. Marie, a suburb being developed by Gravier. The population, in 1803, was ten thousand; the Creoles were greatly in the majority in the white population. Buildings. Tlie Spanish governors lived in a plain, one-story brick house at the corner of Toulouse au,d the Eue de la. Lavee ; it faced the THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 19 river, had a parterre to one side and on tlie other Hospital and Military Hospital have also passed a latticed screened gallery; the kitchen and stables were in the well-fenced rear yard. The Orleans legislature occupied the building from 1803 until it was burnt in 1827. The Charity ^LOBU away. The Cathedral and Cabildo are still in- tact, and are splendid types of the Spanish architecture then prevalent. Bi'ick or stucco with a covering of cement were used in build- ing; the structures were massive, with arches and arched doorways, balconies and courtyards; they were to stand the wear of time and weather. The old French Market is also the product of these times, as is shown by the materials of which it is made and the large, cool arches. Many private buildings in the Vieux Carre date from this period. People. The city was cosmo- politan in its pop- ulation. There were the native Creoles, French, Spanish, English, Americans from the States, Ger- mans, Italians, refugees from San Domingo and Martinique, emi- grants from the Canaries, gipsies, negroes and In- dians. The French were the shop- keepers and farm- ers; the Span- iards, in the gov- ernment's em- ploy; the Cata- lonians, the shop and saloon - keep- ers. The Ameri- can, English, and Irish elenieiLt 20 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK formed the chief commercial class. The dairy- men and truck-farmers were mostly Canary Islanders or Islennes; the fishermen, Italians; gipsies, who had given up their wandering life, turned musicians and dancers. The "Kain- tocks," Kentucky flatboatmen, formed a large, though floating population; they brought down the river on their flatboats the raw produce of the west and, after the sale of their cargoes, would give themselves up to riotous times. The Creoles cordially disliked them, as is shown by the custom among Creole mothers of telling a naughty child, "Tu n'es qu'un mauvais Kain- tock." Jackson Square. The Place d'Anaies, now called Jackson Square, was the Canal street of 1800. Here, the troops were reviewed and the children played of an evening, on the barren ground, beneath the shadow of the wooden gallows, which stood about where General Jack- son's statue is to-day. The Cathedral, Capuchin convent, Cabildo, and government warehouses faced the square; the leading "boutiques" and restaurants were around, and to one side was French Market, where handkerchiefs, shoes and hats were sold along with meat, fruit and vegetables. The public landing was along the levee in front of the square. Here, on a holiday, the populace congregated; excitable Louisiani- ans, ever ready to defend their honor with their rapiers; Canadian trappers and hunters; At- takapas 'Cadians in home-made cottonades; in- dolent gentlemen banished for interference with the king or politics; fascinating Quadroon beauties from San Domingo; quiet, energetic Germans from German coast; brilliantly uni- formed Spanish soldiers; ex-galley slaves and convicts. Peddlers wheeled their goods about in coffin-shaped vehicles; turbaned women bal- anced large cans of milk and coffee on their heads. In the morning, the colored marcliandes kept the air resounding with cries of "callas tons ehauds," and at dusk, "belles chandelles." Streets. The streets were regTilarly laid out, and drained by wooden gutters; but there was no pavement. Pedestrians were accommodated by a wooden banquette four or five feet wide; between tlie sidewalks, the streets were, accord- ing to the state of the weather, either a marsli or a mass of dust. Wagons sank to the hub as they worked their way through them. Chartres street and the Eue de la Levee were the prin- cipal thoroughfares. Lights. The streets were lighted by oil lamps swung at the street intersections from ropes caught to the corners of the houses; their dim- ness forced the people to carry lanterns if they wished to see their way. The homes were lighted by myrtle wax candles, placed, for protection against drafts, within huge glass vases, open at the bottom to facilitate their being put over the candles. Water Supply. There were neither cisterns nor water system. The i:)eoi3le drank filtered river water, and, for household purposes, used dug wells on the premises. Servants. The servants were negro and In- dian slaves. But it was the negTo mammy who was the ideal servant as cook, nurse, and second mother to the children, despite the fact that she taught them the wretched patois, "gombo," of the Louisiana negro. This dialect consisted of a few hundred words, and lacked grammatical structure ; it was originated by the brute negroes of Africa, who found the French language too difficult. The manual work of the colony was done by slaves; people made a business of own- ing slaves, training them, and renting them out to those who did not possess any. The servants always dressed plainly; the women wore on their heads the brilliant bandannas, "tigiions." In- dian slaves were troublesome, and at length be- came so dangerous the United States govern- ment freed them; the result was a negro up- rising, which was only overcome after consider- able loss of life. Manner of Dress. The dress of the women previous to the coming of the San Domingo refugees was extremely simple and lacked taste; they wore no headgear except in winter, when a handkerchief served the purpose; their dress consisted of a short, round skirt and long basque-like overgarment; these two i^ieces were generally of different colors and much l)e- ribboned. The San Domingo women In-ouglit with them French fashions, and immediately converted the Creole ladies into adopting them. Ball dresses were made of embroidered muslins and brilliant taffetas, cut in the latest style and trimmed with fine, gold-worked laces. Much jewelry, such as ear-rings, collars, bracelets, rings and other adornments were introduced. M. Eobin, a traveler in Louisiana in 1803, wrote this about the men: "The men show themselves more enslaved to fashion than the women, going about in the hea\^' clothing of THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 21 Europe, heads sunk in liigh collars, arms and hands lost in long sleeves, chins buried in triple cravats, and legs encased in high boots with great flaps." City Guaxdians. The military had the duty of preserving order. For this purpose a small band of soldiers were kept on duty at the cala- boose, and at stated intervals paraded through the streets, or appeared on the scene of disorder after the trouble had subsided. At night, it was their duty to call out the hour and the state of the weather. Their costume was very impos- ing; it consisted of a deep blue frock, crossing over which were black leather sti-aps to uphold a cartridge box, bayonet and scabbard; knee- breeches completed the outfit. They were armed with an old flint-lock musket and short sword. Promenades and Drives. The favorite walk was along the levee; there, at the ends of the streets, were a few backless benches where the promenaders met to rest and chat. Bayou Road, leading to Glentilly and Metairie, was the even- ing driveway of the citizens. Entertainment. The city boasted of one theatre, on St. Peter street, between Royal and Bourbon; it was a long, low cypress structure. A company of San Domingo actors and actresses rendered comedy, vaudeville, and comic opera in 1799. After a few years, the troupe declined, and were replaced by local talent. Dancing. Of all amuse- ments, dancing was the most popular. In a long room, about eighty feet by thirty feet, in a wooden building on Chartres, between St. Ann and Dumaine, the light-hearted people met twice a week to enjoy the Terpsichorean art ; one evening was for adults and the other for the children. The danc- ers paid fifty cents a head. Elevated boxes along the wall accommo- VI ■ ^^^^KW^^^V ^^^H ^^I^^^^^^^^^Hfe^ J^^K '^iB ^^^H^ffi^^K^ ^li ^/^^^B^^^^ ¥» SMm^^HB^^M I- ' ' '^IhIh p-' '.^ _ jipT'^^'ifl ^^^^H^ T '/-^H Hi ■H:l- ... 1 .:M l^g NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. dated the mammas and young wall flowers; seats to the front of these were for the fair dancers ; the men were allowed to stand. The music was fur- nished by gypsy violinists. There were also the famed ' ' cordon l^leu" balls given by the beautiful quadroon women, which were far more popular with the Creole: gentlemen and visiting strangers. Duelling. There existed among the men of that day the "code d'honneur," by which a gentleman fought another for anything, from an accidental mashing of a sensitive corn to an attack on his life or character. French custom considered a man's honor satisfied by the first dro]) of blood. The Creole fought with coliche- mards, Creole rapiers, sword canes, or pistols. Tliere were three noted duelling grounds, viz.: St. Antliony Square, in rear of the Cathedral, which was then tliickly hedged in; "The Oaks," near the crossing of Gentilly Road and Elysian Fields, where the more talked-of duels took place; and "Les Trois Capalins," three sister trees, on Metairie Road. The First Newspaper. 1794 saw the first newspaper, "Le Moniteur de la Louisiane," pub- lished in New Orleans. It was not very newsy, being more of a journal of government proceed- ings. Ten years later, the first English paper, the Gazette, was edited. SECTION 3. TRAN- SITION PERIOD. Louisiana Coveted by the United States and France. The United States realized the ne- cessity of possessing Louisiana for the devel- opment of the western section, and proceeded to look to its acquisition. Napoleon, the First Consul of France, de- sired to re-establish the colonial power of France in North America, and looked with a pleased eye upon Louisiana. Treaty of Luneville, February, 1801. The peace of Luneville 22 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOlC ^BB^'^^M I ^H ^^^Em -sff^ll^H ^^^H ^^^^^^^^^ '^■t&rf^jr «^SbB ^^^^H HT'^IW^ 3 W^^'^:mk^Kk Hh ^K^i'^^EPS^H 1 LAUSSAT. — Ckjurtesy La. State Museum. closed the War of the Second CoaUtion. Na- poleon ohtained from the Austrian Emperor the cession of Tuscany in Italy, which, as the king- dom of Etruria, he transferred to the Prince of Parma, the Spanish Infanta's husband; in re- tm'n, Sixain secretly ceded Louisiana to France. The transaction became known in America in November, 1802. Unsettled Condi- tions in Louisiana. Not until March, 1803, did the French Colonial prefect, Laussat, land in New Orleans. With Gov- ernor Salcedo and the Marquis de Casa Calvo, a former gov- ernor, he began prep- arations for the re- ception of General Victor, who was to receive the formal transfer of Louisiana from Spain. Once more the people were astir. They knew not what to expect of the lately established Republican Government in France. Purchase of Louisiana by the United States, April 30, 1803. President Jefferson realized the great danger to the United States in having a foreign power in possession of the mouth of the Mis- sissippi. He ap- pointed Monroe and Livingston to treat with Na- poleon for the pur- chase of the "Isle of Orleans. ' ' Na- poleon refused this offer, but, instead, proposed to sell the whole of Louisiana for fifteen million dollars. The two eommissionei's real- ized the good qual- ity of the bargain, and made the pur- chase' April 30, 1803, trusting to Jefferson to secure its ratification by Congress. This Jefferson accomplished the following October, and ob- tained the authorization to take possession of the ceded territory. The Transfers. Instead of General Victor's arrival in July, came the news to New Orleans THOMAS JEFFERSON. %. tJH^vv^ y *|H | " V i J o \ COI'V OF .TBFF'F.RSON'S PROOLAiUTION OF A SPECIAL SESSIOX OF CONGRESS TO RATIFY THE PURCHASE OF LOUISLINA FROM FRANCE. — Courtesy La. State Museum. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 23 of the United States' purchase of Louisiana in the preceding April. On November 30, the troops were drawn up in the Place d'Armes and, in the hall of the Cabildo, Governor Salcedo de- livered the keys of the city to Laussat. Casa Calvo addressed the people in the name of the Spanish King, and released them from their allegiance to Spain; the Spanish flag- was lowered and that of France hoisted. Twentj^ days later the same cere- mony took place, with a change in the drainatis personniie; Laussat trans- ferred the province to the two American commis- sioners, Claiborne and Wilkinson; the former took charge of civil affairs and the latter of the mili- tary. With such sudden changes of nationalit}^, in which the Louisianians were handed about from one nation to another, without ever being con- sulted, is it any wonder that they appeared apathetic and uninterested? CESSION OF LOUISIANA TO THE UNITED STATES, SECTION 4. AMERICAN DOMINATION. 1. New Orleans, 1803- '15. Commerce. The United States' purchase of Louisiana had an imme- diate effect on New Or- leans trade. The first half of 1803 showed an increase in tonnage of thirty-seven per cent over that of 1802; the exports exceeded two million dollars and the im- ports two million five hun- dred thousand dollars. The flatboat trade became enormous; their mooring was above the city, along what is now Tchoupi- toulas street. Suburbs or Faubourgs. Above the Terre Com- mune. Common street, was Mme. Grravier's planta- tion, part of the former Jesuit grant. In 1788, some streets were opened and lots marked off; it grew very little at first, until the coming of the Americans; it then became the commercial center of the city. The street names commemor- A VIEW OF NEW OELEANS FROM THE PLANTATION OF MAEIGNY, 1803. — Courtesy La. State Museum. 24 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK ated the first owners, or the use the place was put to; as, for example: Uravier street, from Gravier, the original owner; Poydras street, ■from the great philanthropist, whose home was located there; Magazine street, from the Spanish name for the great tobacco warehouse that stood on Magazine and Common; Camp street, from a slave camp located there, between Poydras and Girod. The aristocratic suburb was along the Bayou St. John road. Below the Vieux Carre was the Marigny plantation, which, when in- herited by Bei'nard Marigny, was opened up as a fanlxmrg and settled liy the French. To-day it is one of the most densely poinilated ])ortions of New Orleans; Orleans Territory, March 26, 1804. Congress divided Ijouisiana into two parts; the extent of the present state was known as Orleans Ter- ritory. The President appointed a legislative council and named Claiborne governor; certain Spanish land-gTants were nul- lified and an official inspection made of all titles ; the slave trade was interdicted. The Lonisiani- ans became indignant at the last regulation; insurrectionary sen- timents were placarded on the streets, copied by crowds, and when the police attempted to remove them they were driven away. However, the trouble went no further. But slaves con- tinued to be smuggled in by way of the lakes and ditferent bayous gov. w. c. and inlets. City of New Orleans, March, 1805. New Or- leans was incorporated as a city bj- the charter of March, 1805. The people, in electing alder- men, exercised their right of suffrage for the first time. Congress's Concessions to Orleans Territory. In March, 1805, Congress allowed the people of Oi'leans Territory to elect the House of Eepre- sentatives, and promised them statehood when the population should equal sixty thousand souls. Restless Spirit in City. The spirit of the l^dpulace was restless, owing to the unsettled conditions, viz., the war between Spain and Great Britain; presence of Casa Calvo and Morales; possibility of war between the United States and Spain ; and malignant hatred of some Americans. Casa Calvo and Morales were put out of the colony and the trouble with Spain passed over. Claiborne, writing to the Presi- dent in November, 1806, said: "Were it not for the calumnies of some Frenchmen, who are among us, and the intrigues of a few ambitious, unprincipled men, whose native language is English, I do believe that the Louisianians would be very soon the most zealous and faith- ful members of our Republic." Aaron Burr's Conspiracy. In June, 1805, Aaron Burr visited New Orleans; he brought letters of introduction from General Wilkinson to the best people. Claiborne tried the ensuing winter to strengthen the city against any pos- sible outbreak of war with Spain; but Wilkinson withdrew into Mississippi a whole com- pany from the total two hundred twenty soldiers. The governor of Mississipi^i warned Claiborne to beware of a conspiracy. In September, Wilkinson took charge of the troops at Natchi- toches; there, a certain Samuel Swartwout brought him letters from Burr. On October 20, Wil- kinson wrote to President Jef- ferson about Burr's nefarious schemes. Then, he went to New Orleans, demanded of Claiboi'ne the establishment of martial law and, on the governor's refusing, took things into his own hands and defied governor and courts alike. Aaron Burr was captured near Natchez in Mississippi; being released on bond to appear for trial at the next territorial court, he left Mssissippi; he was recaptured and tried in Virginia; though he was not convicted, his treasonalile designs were defeated. West Indian Immigration. The population more than doubled itself between 1803 and 1810. The war between France and Spain caused many whites and mulattos of San Domingo to become exiles; between May 19 and July 18, 1809, thirty-four vessels from Cuba brought to New Orleans over one thousand eight hundred whites, almost as many free persons of color, and about two thousand slaves; in all, about five thousand seven hundred ninety-seven souls. Others followed from Cuba, Guadeloupe, and C; CLAIBORNE. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 25 other islands, until the total reached ten thou- sand. Very few ever left the city. The Creoles of the West Indies were united with the Creoles of Louisiana by strong ties; they had the same religion, language, and political ideas, and had met with similar misfortune. This was the period of Creole domination; the city had few G-ernian and Irish citizens; the two thousand free persons of color were an indolent class ; the floating population of sailors from all parts, bargemen, flatboatmen, and raftsmen from the wild region of the Tennessee, Ohio, and Cum- lierland Rivers, were unruly and riotous, engag- ing in riots and brawls, and giving themselves up to shameful excesses on completing their journey. Strife i3er,- vaded the town. A riot was nearly caused by a newspaper article that reflected on Napoleon. Plays were put upon the theatre boards which caused the Ursulines to appeal to the governor for protection against public derision. Batture Riots of 1806. Two riots occurred over a contest between the public and some private citizens for possession of the batture formed by the Mississippi in front of Faubourg St. Marie. In the second riot, September 15, 1807, after the Supreme Court had given its decision, the people gathered by thousands on the batture; they were only dis- persed by the patient appeals of Governor Clai- borne and the recommittal of the case to the United States Courts. In August, European and American seamen met in a skirmish on the levee. "La Lanterne Magi que" was edited for the purpose of publishing libellous attacks on the government. Claiborne asked the commander of the United States troops in Mississippi to send hiui reinforcements. Admission of Louisiana as a State, April 30, 1812. The population of Orleans Territory had now reached the 60,000-mark required by Con- gress as necessary for her admission as a state. A convention met in New Orleans in November, 1811, to draw up a constitution; it was adopted as the State Constitution, January 28, 1812, and, on the following April 30, Louisiana was ad- mitted into the Union as a state. The "New Orleans." January 10, 1812, was a red-letter day in the city 's commercial history. On that day, the "New Orleans," a steam-pro- pelled vessel, built by Nicholas I. Eoosevelt (a relative 6f Ex-President Roosevelt) arrived on her maiden trip from Pittsburg. It was only five years previous that Fulton had invented the steamboat. Outlook on City's Future, 1812. New Or- leans' future appeared assured to be prosper- ous, once international politics should be cleared. Cotton, by "Whitney's invention of the gin had become one of the world's greatest industries. Steam navi- gation closely united New Orleans with the distant parts of the Mis- sissippi Valley. State- hood confirmed the people in the possession of their government and liberty. War of 1812. Eng- land's violation of the LTnited States' rights as a neuti-al and her as- sumption of the right to search American vessels and impress seamen on board, whom she consid- ered English citizens, precipitated war between the two nations. The War of 1812 was the after- math of the Revolutionary War and settled the remaining disputed points. Defenseless Condition of New Orleans. New Orleans was left imdefended by the attempt to make Canada the seat of the war. Wilkinson was ordered to occupy that part of Florida west of the Perdido River. The Creeks massacred 350 whites at Fort Mimms, Mississippi. Drunken Choctaws roamed the streets of New Orleans. La- JEAN AND PIERRE LAFITTE AND DOMINIQUE YOU. From a Portrait by Jarvis, 1812. — Courtesy La. State Museum, 26 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK fitte and his piratical smugglers held Barataria Bay and appeared daily in the city. Crevasses occurred, as well as fires. Though Claiborne labored assiduously, it was many months before he could muster the 1,000 men called for by the President. In the meantime, Na- poleon's abdication enabled England to throw more energy into her campaigns. In August, Con- gress ordered Jack- son to proceed to New Orleans for its defense. The British had estab- lished themselves in Florida and were offering large rewards to all who would join them, especially the Bara- tarians. The Baratarians. The Baratarians were a band of French and South Americans, who claimed to be en- gaged in smuggling, not in piracy. The Lafitte brothers had obtained control over these daring characters and or- ganized them into a band. The English failed in their at- tempt to secure their assistance; in- stead, Lafitte of- fered their services to Claiborne, who refused them, as Colonel Eoss were their rendez-vous /»/>' Commodore Patterson and on their way to destroy on Barataria Bay. This was accomplished a few days later; the La- fittes escaped to the German Coast, while their followers made use of any available refuge. Andrew Jackson's Arrival. The arrival of Andrew Jackson on December 1st, created con- fidence and enthusiasm among the New Or- leanians. He immediately set to woi'k; fortified Fort St. Phillip, demolished its wooden barracks, mounted additional cannon ; inspected the countrj^ in and about the city, and instructed Gov- ernor Claiborne to have obstructed all bayous on the "Isle of Orleans" lead- ing to the Gulf. Through some un- explained over- sight. Bayou Bien- ville was not closed. By December 14th, the British fleet of eighty sail, led by Cochrane, the dreaded ravager of the Atlantic Coast, was in possession of Lake Borgne. Claiborne informed the Legislature of the arrival of the British fleet and ad- vised its adjourn- ment; the Legisla- ture did not comply with this advice, so Jackson, declaring the safety of the city required it, proclaimed martial law. Jackson later was fined $1,000 for this, but was subsequently re- imbursed by the United States Government. Jean Lafitte now offered the services of the Baratarians to Jack- son, who accepted them. Jackson's armj' was a motley crew; every man capable of bearing arms was mustered into service; it was 5,000 strong, composed of Tennessee riflemen under Generals Carroll and Coffee, Creoles and French, freemen ANDREW JACKSON", liniature presented by Andrew Jackson to Edward Livingston, March 1, 1815, painted by Jean Francois Valle in New Orleans, by Jackson's orders, — Courtesy La. State Museum. %/a.<^ %4o-> FAC-SIMILE OF NOTE F'ROM ANDREAV JAClvSON TO EDWARD LIVINGSTON. — Courtesy La. State Museum. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 27 o£ color, Ghoctaw Indians, even prison inmates. The streets resounded with "Yankee Doodle," "La Marseillaise," and "Le Chant du Depart." Advance of the British. Cochrane com- from being tarnished with the suspicion of his being in league with the British. He made a bold dash for liberty, sped past his guards, and, unscathed by the shower of bullets sent after A GENERAL MAP OF THE SEAT OF WAR IN LOUISIANA AND WEST FLORIDA. -Courtesy La. State Museum. manded the fleet and Sir Edward Pakenham the land forces; in all, 9,600 veterans of Welling- ton's famed Peninsular campaign. Eeconnois- sance of Lake Borgne revealed the unclosed entrance to Bayou Bienvenue; the Amei'ican picket stationed there was easily overpowered, and the English boats passed up the bayou into Villere's canal. At half-past eleven in the morning, Greneral Keane's division came out upon the open plain at the rear of Gen- eral Villere's plantation, seized the home, and formed their camp. There was not a foot of fortification between the En- glish camp and New Orleans. General Villere had been locked up in his home. He realized the necessity of informing Jackson of the location of the British in order to save New Orleans and save his honor him, reached the swamp forest in the rear. Here he hid in the thick moss up in the trees until the English gave up the search; his faithful dog- having followed him, he was forced to end his life in order to keep his hiding- place in the tree concealed. He reached the. city in time to in- form Jackson of the enemy's advance. General Villere 's foot race, though little known, was far more hazardous than Paul Revere 's midnight ride. The English, by halting for re- inforcements, gave Jackson time to prepare for them. That evening, he sent the schooner, Carolina, to open her broad- sides on the British camp, while he attacked by land. The fight- ing lasted until stopped by the weather. The next morning, Jackson removed two miles nearer to New Orleans, to Rod- riguez's canal; here, he estab- GEN. JACQUES VILLERE. — Courtesy La. State Museum, 28 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK lisliecl his fortifications, threw up breastworks, dug trenches, and put his ten g-uns to oppose the twenty-eight of the British. Skirmishing occurred nearly every day; but still the enemy made no great attack. Their delay strengthened Jackson's army. On December 30th, 300 Acadians arrived ; two days later, 500 men from Baton Eouge; on Janu- ary 2nd, 250 Kentuck- ians, poorly clad and armed; the citizens of New Orleans immedi- ately collected $16,000, which was spent for clothing for them, the garments being made by the women of the city. Battle of New Or- leans, January 8, 1815. General Lambert's di- vision at last arrived. The British planned to make four simultaneous attacks: one on the op- posite side of the river and three on the New Orleans side. The first attack was delayed, the time allowed the troops being too short; hence, though it was success- ful, it occurred too late to be of any help. The English formed about 400 yards from the American line, in a close column of sixty men front; burdened with heavy fascines of ripe sugar-cane, ladders, and weighty knap-sacks, they could move but slowly; with three cheers they were liter- ally led to the slaughter. The accuracy of the American fire tore out whole files of men. The British retreated and formed again, to meet with worse defeat. The soldiers could not be rallied for a third attack. Sir Edward Paken- ham and General Gibbs had fallen mortally wounded, and General Keane was severely in- jured; this left General Lambert in command. The English continued the fire from their bat- teries until two o'clock in the afternoon; but the Battle of New Orleans was over at nine- PLAN OF THE ATTACK AND DEFENCE OF THE AMERICAN LINES Below New Orleans, on the 8th January, 1815. MAP SHOWING THE LANDING Of THE BUmSH ARMY. — Courtesy La. State Museum. thirty in the morning, when the attempt to storm the American line was abandoned, one hour after the signal had been given to begin fighting. January 9-18, an ineffectual attack was made on Fort St. Philip. The only explan- THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 29 ation for the defeat of so splendid an army by so poor a one, is in the deadly marksmanship of the Ken- tucky sharp- shooters and the slowness of the Britsih advance. Effects of the Great Vic- tory. Eejoic- ing in New Orleans knew no bounds. A public recep- tion in the Place d'Armes was tendered General Jack- son, during which he was, as the victors of old, crowned with laurel; he then attended the solemn services of thanksgiving- held in the Ca- thedral. There was little to mar the gen- eral joy, as only six of the defenders had been killed and seven wounded. The kindly assist- ance that would have been given to their own was generously ex- tended to the thousands of English dead and wounded. iJI^Jl^iiBBBB ?y%r 1" J} \-\ \ \ ■■■■SB ' '"^^ 'j' -' "ll ' *'. r^BBBBBB ,' ■ \^'::/.'f*'rr~^'^~^'^\ sbbbbbB 'A' '.,vr,;-:j;/Onnn ifBiBBB 30 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK On February 13, 1815, Admiral Coclirane wrote General Jackson tliat a treaty of peace liad been signed between the United States and Great Britain on December 24, 1814. Jackson received the official news on the following March 17th. On March 16th, Claiborne wrote to Mr. Monroe, Secretary of War, as follows: "Our harbor is again whitening with canvas; the levee is crowded with cotton, tobacco, and other articles for exportation. The merchant seems delighted with the prospect before him; the agriculturist finds in the high price for his products new ex- citements to industry." The discordant elements from that time gradually became welded into one harmonious whole. The patriotism of the Creoles was no longer doubted. Fighting side by side on the battlefield developed a feeling of brotherhood between the Creoles and Ameri- cans, and union of the two people by intermar- riage cemented the bond thus established. 2. FROM 1815- '60. Commerce, 1815- '40. Steam navigation first appeared on the Mississippi in 1812. A move- ment was started after the War of 1812 to have the steamboats ply on the river. In 1817, 1,500 flatboats and 500 barges brought the produce of the great valley to New Orleans ; four years later, 287 steam- boats, 441 flatboats, and 174 barges moored along the city 's river front. The Faubourg Ste. Marie, the Ameri- can section of the city, became the trade center; be- ports and exports were valued at $17,000,000. The value of trade increased 75 per cent be- tween 1820 and 1830, and by 1835 was valued at $53,000,750; this increase was partly due to the extraordinary rise in prices throughout the country. Credit System in Business. There was an evei'-incr easing demand for cotton, and the rich agricultural resources of Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana offered great returns even for the investment of borrowed money. Thus the credit system became the rule among the cotton, sugar and tobacco planters of these sections. New Or- leans advanced them millions in money at a high rate of interest, and huge quantities of supplies which were kept on hand in the citj^ In this way. New Orleans merchants and bankers enslaved the agricultural community, who were able to buy and sell only through them. Eeckless bor- rowing and lending kept the planter in constant debt and the city without capital. Planters' notes were based on the value of their slaves and tilled lands and, regarded by results, were al- most imaginary; but the system caused a great (amount of business, which in turn called in num- berless immigrants. Population. People came in from every part of the Imion and Europe; from 33,000. in 1815, the population in- creased to 41,000 in 1820. But the morals were very lax. The Creoles at- tributed this to the immigrants; Gov- ernor Villere issued a special message lie cause of the ' ' scandalous prac- tices almost, at every instant tak- ing place in New Orleans and its r>QnCQ nf +>.Q clool- VIE^^•, AS IT APPEARS TO-DAY, OF THE BANK OF LOUISIANA BUILDING, CORNER „,, 1, ,,„ 1, „ )) a t, A L-dLlSt; Ul inn feiaCis. OF royal and CONTI streets, erected in 1826. OLIUUIUO, clUU water in front of its batture, the flatboats moored there; thence arose great storehouses for the products brought down from the valley. The Vieux Carre re- tained control of the trade in coffee, indigo, sugar, rice, foreign fruits and wines; but cotton, tobacco, pork, beef, corn, flour, and northern and British materials were received into the American section. In 1825, New Orleans im- stated, ' ' Indeed, we should be cautious in receiving all foreigners. The great increase in population was due, in large measure, to the previous simple trade quadrupling itself. However, the increase in population was not proportionate to that in com- merce, largely due to the absence of manufac- tures ; between 1830 and 1840, the trade adanved 75 per cent and the population only 20 per cent. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 31 Tn this same period, Baltimore's population ad- vanced 25 per cent, Philadelphia's 39 per cent, and New York's 67 per cent. The number of inhabitants in the Mississippi Valley increased 57 per cent, without any large towns arising. Travelers declared the extensive immorality was due to the San Domingo influence in carrying pleasures to excess and in their passion for gambling and duelling. South American fili- busters made New Orleans their headquarters. Position of New Orleans Among Cities of the United States. In 1840, New Orleans was fourth in population, New York, Philadelphia and Bal- timore taking the lead. In 1847- '48, she actually exceeded New York in exports of domestic products, and in total exports was surpassed only by New York; but her imports were far less; New York imported ten times as much and Boston over three times; her principal imports were coffee, iron, hardware, and French fancy fabrics. By 1850, Boston had taken fourth place among the cities of the United States, and New Orleans dropped to fifth. Cause of Loss of Valley's Trade. The open- ing of the Erie Canal, 1825, connecting Lake Erie, by way of Buffalo, with New York City, and of the Ohio Canal, 1832, linking the Ohio River to Lake Erie, established a short, easy, and safe com- munication between the Ohio Valley and the Atlantic coast, and thereby with Europe. It was only a natural consequence that the Ohio Valley trade should take this quicker and less hazardous course to the New York markets and thence to the ta T-, • 1 T p n ^ Clipper eiig'iig'ed in sluv Europe, mstead oi the long, dangerous one to New Or- leans and then through the Gulf of Mexico, around Florida, and across the Atlantic to Europe. The establishment of these canals opened up a direct course to the world's centers. In 1835, Ohio State sent 86,000 barrels of flour, 98,000 bushels of wheat, and 2,500,000 staves through Buffalo to the Atlantic ports. A second factor in alienating the valley trade from New Orleans was the danger to navigation on the Mississippi and Ohio Elvers; 1824- '27, property loss on the two rivers aggregated one and one- ably reduced by the Federal Government's efforts. The sinking of a steamer in 1837 caused the loss of 300 lives; numerous other tragedies occurred, giving river navigation ill-fame. Again, the cost of running steamboats on these rivers was six times as heavy as on the Great Lakes. Neither were the mouths of the Missis- sippi clear; sand bars continually formed and, ■ in this period. Northeast Pass, considered the deepest, had a depth of twelve feet. The open- ing of railroad communication after 1840 severed the last tie that bound the northern valley com- merce to New Orleans. Three Municipalities. With all good-will, it seemed impossible for the Creoles and Amer- icans to agree; jealousies, party spirit, language, customs, nationality, all militated against ac- cord. The strife culminated in 1836, in the division of the city into three municipalities: old town, "Vieux Carre" formed the first municipality; Faubourg Ste. Marie, the second; and Faubourg Marig-ny, the third. The gov- ernments were distinct and had independent ' powers, but there were a mayor and general council for the whole city. Faubourg Ste. Marie immediately took and held the lead. Slavery — Effects. The in- stitution of slavery, of its very nature, is an obstacle to industrial development. The African slave labor in and about New Orleans was also of a most inferior grade. Wild men, as were these negroes, do not become civil- ized and masters of crafts in one generation. Slavery kept out the class of im- migrants that were adepts in mechanical and productive arts, the people who rapidly develop a nation's resources. One-third of the increase in population between 1830 and 1840 was composed of slaves and free persons of color; this last class, under the conditions of the times, were a heavy burden ; the remaining two- thirds of the increase were Irish and Germans of the very poorest class. Financial Crisis, 1836- '37. The downfall of the United States Bank, establishment of mul- titudes of poorly capitalized banks, and wild specvilation in land, caused a terrible money LLULAIT. s tRule to Now Oi'leaus. — Courtesy La. State Museum third millions; these losses were later consider- crisis throughout the United. States. There were 32 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK few banks in New Orleans; with a little over $2,500,000 in their vaults, they had $7,000,000 in circulation, and were purported to have a capital of $37,000,000. Their failure prostrated the city. So strong a sentiment against banks arose that the Constitutional Convention, then in session, provided that no banking corporation should be established in Louisiana; thus the banking monopoly was given to a few houses that bore up under the financial stress and re- sumed payment of specie in 1843 with $4,500,000 in their vaults and $1,250,000 in circulation. The city, for the first time in its history, then ex- ported over 1,000,000 bales of cotton. Railroads. The first railroad was completed in New Orleans in 1830; it ran out Elysian Fields and connected the city with Milneburg. Captain Grant, the builder of the road, was the originator of the raised platform; it was not until 1858 that it was adopted throughout Eng- land and Europe. Later in the thirties there were two unsuccessful railroad schemes, namely, 'the "New Orleans and Nashville" and the "Mexican Grulf." The last was to develop the waters about Cat Island into a harbor for large vessels coming from the East to New Orleans, and thus shorten the journey between New York and New Orleans; it never got beyond the limits of the next parish. In 1837, two railroads were planned to join New Orleans to the great central railroad system of the United States in the Mis- sissippi Valley, and with Texas; the first was to stretch nortliHo Jackson, Mississippi ; the second, westerly to Opelousas, Louisiana. The state as- sisted both enteriDrises, and by 1855 the first and by 1857 the second ex- tended eighty miles from the city. City Expansion. The ancient fortifications disappeared about 1808. The city spread out above and below along the river bank. New streets were cut; they were wider than the old ones, especially those in the American quarter, and, after 1820, paved with brick or iStoiie, The battiire being formed by the river in front of the Faubourg Ste. Marie, was taken and built up for business purposes. Before the eighties, the expansion was entirely along the river, fol- lowing the line of commerce. The little town of Algiers, on the river, opposite the second municipality, began to develop its marine work- shops. Period of Architectural Improvement. Archi- tects and builders were busy erecting halls, churches, schools, stores, markets, warehouses, banks, hotels, and theatres. In 1830, the parish prison of stuccoed brick was erected in the rear of Beauregard Square; the same year, the vege- table division was added to French Market, and a little later St. Mary's, Washington, and Poy- dras markets were built. In 1835, the new United States Barracks, on the city's lower limits, were completed and called Jackson Barracks. The Charity Hospital was moved from Canal street to a building erected at a cost of $150,000, on Common street; the old structure became the State House. Two extensive cotton presses and warehouses were put up, costing, respectively, $500,000 and $758,000. A branch of the United States mint was established on the site of the former Fort St. Charles, corner of Esplanade and Peters. Banks' Arcade was built in 1833; it was an unusual structure, a glass-roofed court in the middle of the St. James Hotel in Maga- zine, iTsed for mercantile purposes. Three years later the Merchants' Exchange was completed in Royal street and a post-office established in UNITED STATES MINT. -Courtesy Southern Pacific E. 5- THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 33 it. Dakin and Gallier, architects, erected the far- famed old St. Charles Hotel in 1837, at a cost of $600,000; this firm also built the City Hall, State House at Baton Rouge, and Opera House. Diagonally opposite the St. Charles, E. 0. Pritchard put up the Verandah Hotel at a cost of $300,000. The St. Louis Hotel was constructed at the same time on Toulouse street by Depouilly. Many churches were built; the FirstPresbyterian Church on Lafa}'- ette Square, the Carondelet Meth- odist Church, cor- ner of Carondelet and Poydras, Christ Church on Canal street, and, above all, reared the lofty and beau- tiful tower of St. Patrick's Church. Mr. James H . Caldwell erected two theatres; the first on Camp street, and, in 1839, the St. Charles Theatre at a cost of $350,000. The Commercial, Atchafalaya, Canal, and City Banks were built. The present City Hall was the Second Munici- pality's Town Hall. The United States Govern- ment had the present Custom House erected; General Beauregard supervised the construction of both the Mint and the Cus- tom House. One of the towers having fallen, the Cathedral was renovated in 1850. Six years later the Jesuits erected their beautiful church in Ba- ronne street. Many charitable institutions were founded; namely, the Poydras Orphan Asylum, French Orphan Asy- lum, Fireman's Charitable As- sociation, Howard Association, Stone's Hospital, and Many others. European Immigration. New Orleans shared with New York the influx of European im- migrants to western lands; between 1845 and 1850, they averaged 30,000 per year. Man^ JACKSON SQUARE AS IT APPEARED IN 183S located in the city; in 1842, the population was said to be "largely mixed with Germans." This immigration militated against slavery because of the superior service rendered by the white immigrants. In the decade, 1840- '50, the num- ber of slaves decreased by 5,330. Mulatto Exodus. The free mulattoes were nearly one - third as numerous as the whites in 1840. They were held in contempt by all, especially by the Americans. The abolition move- ment created an antagonistic sen- timent towards them. The result was that during the decade more than 9,000 left the city. No evidence has been foimd of their ever return- ing. Their de- parture raised the proportion of whites in the community from 58 per cent to 78 per cent. City of Lafayette. In 1833, the three subiirbs, Lafayette, Livaudais, and Eeligieuses, rmited to form the City of Lafayette. The Fourth Dis- trict occupies the site of the City of Lafayette. Many of the wealthy citizens of New Orleans moved into it and built beau- tiful homes, large and airy, in the midst of gardens and large trees. They settled to the rear of the town, while the im- migrant German and Irish la- borers gathered along the river front. In 1850, the population of Lafayette consisted of 12,319 whites and 1,871 colored. Modern Improvements. Gas was first used in 1833 (Chap. XVI.). Water Supply and Drainage, (Chap. IIL). Tele- graph, (Chap. v.). Eailway, (Chap. V.). Paving, (Chap. XVL). Finances. The separation of the city into three municipalities does not seem to have improved its rtesy La. State Museum. STKEET liAILROAD CAR IV ISoS. — Courtesy La. State Museum 34 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK finances. Aggregate debt in 1852 was $7,700,000. from tlie interior were A^alued at $45,700,000; Assessments and taxation were unsatisfactory, tliey increased rapidly, and in 1851 were esti- Modern bond systems were not used. Tlie people mated to be worth $107,000,000. The tobacco demanded a change in the government of the city, trade was given new life. One-tenth of the 'XX < m^i 1 ■" I -^^-i ,-j^y>^' mp^'>' ■^ ^ MAP OF LOUISIANA, 1849. -Courtesy La. State Museum. Union of Municipalities. Tlie result was the arrivals by sea were steamships. This trade union of the three mimicipalities and the City was carried on, despite the danger facing ves- of Lafayette into one city. The city was gov- sels entering the river. In the space of a few erned by a mayor and two chambers, aldermen weeks in 1852, foi*ty ships went agTound at the and assistant alder- men; there were a comptroller, sur- veyor, and street commissioner. By April 1, 1853, this government had paid off over $4,000,- 000 of the city debt. The rotunda of the St. Charles Hotel took the position formerly held by the St. Louis Bourse and became the city's unofficial guild hall. Commerce, 1840- '60. In 1842, receipts. CANAL STREET, ROYAL TO BOIJEBGN, 1846. -^Oourtesy La. State Museum. entrance to the river. The terrible yellow fever scourges of 1853- '55 reduced the volume of the trade. This was regained, ?nd a high -water mark reached in 1857. The financial crash followed. Fifty-eight mercan- tile houses failed, and in the course of the next year forty- five more. But the failures in New Or- leans were as noth- ing to those in New THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 35 York, which recorded 1,321, and iu Boston, 376. Imports and exports were reduced $36,000,000. Obstacles to Progress. There were three great obstacles to progress, namely, inundations, epidemics, and the dangerous condition of the ORLEANS ALLEY. Ilirin I\HiHc U. U. entrance to the river resulting from shallow water and the formation of sand bars, (Chap. I.); Epidemics, (Chap. IV.); Condition of entrance to river, (Chap. VI.). Education. The Public School system was established in 1841; then occurred a period of Library development, (Chap. XII.). Homes. The homes of this period varied from the slave's cabin to the palatial mansion in the Vieux Carre The homes of the Amer- icans provided the comforts afforded by the times, but were devoid of luxuries. French mirrors, beautiful carpets, handsome furniture, fine china and silverware were found in wealthy houses in the old city. The Americans, more frugal than their neighbors, were more engrossed iu making money than in money spending. The houses were lighted of an evening by candles and oil lamps; the former were often supported in handsome candelabra (girondoles) trimmed with scintillating crystal drops; the oil lamp was ever on the center table. Young ladies dressed by the light of candles held by the slave girls at differ- ent needful angles. The furniture was covered with haircloth meant to withstand the ravages of time: Of all famed pieces of furniture of those days, the most noted is the four-posted bed, sometimes piled so high with mattresses as to- call for a miniature step-ladder with which to scale its sides ; the ' ' tester, ' ' to quote Mrs. Ripley, "was ornamented with a wall paper stuff, a wreath of imposisble red and yellow roses, big as saucers, stamped on it, and four strands of same roses reaching to the four corners of the monsti'osity"; some "swells had testers covered Avith silk." Open fireplaces with a crane served in the kitchen until about 1840, when stoves began to be. used. The households were very busy; all sewing was done at home; there were no ready-to-wear garments then; even the men's shirts, elaborately tucked and beruffled affairs, collars and cuffs, were made at home. The cast- TYPIOAL HOMES IN THE VIEUX C iRRl ERI CILD DURING THE FIRST HALF OF THE NINETEENTIi CENTURY. Note the handsome wroiight-iron balustrades. off clothes of the larger were turned out as the Sunday best of the smaller members of the family. Hotels. An important feature of New Or- leans in ante-bellum days, was the brilliant hotel 36 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK life. The habit of the planters in bringing their one of the great political centers outside Wash- families to the city for the festivities of the ington. The Okl St. Louis, like the Old St. winter season developed this mode of living. This life centered about the St. Charles Hotel, in the Second Municipality, and in the St. Louis Hotel in the old town. These were the first of the great American hotels and became mer- cantile and political, as well as social centers. Noted travelers praised the St. Charles enthusi- astically. Oakey Hall wrote of it: "Put the St. Charles down in St. Petersburg, and you would think it a palace; in Boston, and ten to one you would christen it a college; in London, and it would marvel- ously remind you of an exchange ; in Ne w Or- leans, it is all three." Lady Wortley, an En- glish litterateur and traveler, declared she had not found a finer piece of architecture in 'ILlliHIIMm 1 raY^ N ^M) 1 U bR^ 5^3 1 1 HL 1 ti ^™ 1 B ^■^n 1 1 ^p M 9 H nt-iiS^ >»i' 1 ■ H 1 1 Charles, was grander than its successor; Canova, the son of the great Italian sculptor, had decorated the splendid rotunda. It was burned ten years before its rival, and was immediately re- built. Society gathered here for some of the most famed balls in its histoiy. Here, in the winterof 1842-'43, was given the wonderful subscription ball in honor of Henry Clay, wlien 200 guests were entertained at a ball and supper at a cost of $20,000. Lake Resorts. Three lake resorts were opened up during this period, namely, Milne- burg, Spanish Fort, and one a few miles above Wes.t End. Hotels and restaurants flourished at all. Span- ish Fort occupied the COURTYARD IN VIEUX CARRE. —Courtesy Southern Pacific R. R. the new world than its wonderful dome and site of the old fort erected by Governor Caron- Corinthian portico. The St. Charles was de- delet for the defense of the entrance to Bayou stroyed by fire in St. John. It was at Milneburg that 1851, but" imme- I friends and admirers of the great En- diately rebuilt, K^ glish noveUst, "William Makepeace though on a «^^V. Thackeray, entertained him at a sump- lesser scale; the l«i^ tuous dinner, famed dome, which was sec- ond in size in the United States only to that of capitol in Wash- ington, was omit- ted from the new edifice. This ro- tunda had been the great center of the city's life. Parlor P. was FIRST ST. CHARLES HOTEL. : — Courtesy La. State Museum. SECOND ST. LOUIS HOTEL, THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 37 Clubs. Club life began in New Orleans in 1832 with the organization of the Elkin Club. Its head- quarters were in a hostelry at the mouth of Bayou St. John, which had been formerly conducted by one JT-^ ^~-- ~ ,,.,.......-., ii^Yvej LL- ^ -. i 1^: 1 k i n , hence its 11 a m e . This club numbered among its members the most p r m - inent cit- i z e n s . Tlie finan- cial crisis of 1837 caused its abandon- ment in 1838. It was suc- ceeded by the "Old Pelican Club," a r i s t - From this OLD ST. OHABLES THEATRE. — Courtesy La. State Museun cratic and narrow in the extreme chib the young men were debarred, so tliey formed the Orleans Club, about the most brilliant of the time. The club 13urchased Mr. Robb's home in St. Charles street for $40,000. Its membership reached 400 and included plant- ers, merchants, law- yers, doctors, poli- ticians, newspaper men, race horse follow- ers, etc. The great races were then being conducted at "Old Metairie," and it is stated that at the famous interstate race, when Lecompte, the Mississippi horse, beat Lexington of Ken- tucky, the betting be- came high, and one person won $20,000, to the loss of the many others. Steamboats on the River. As travel to New Orleans was possible only by water, and that required a fair amount of time, steamboats be- came commodioiTs, elegant. They were large and airy and had huge saloons extending their full length, with highly polished floors for the enjoyment of the dancers. The cuisines were of the best; the skill of the chefs being widely known. Vis- itors to New Or- leans, when i^ossible, boarded on the boat on which they had made the trip, in- stead of taking up a residence in the city; especially was this true at carnival time. The building of the railroads drove the palatial river boats out of existence. Theatres. The Or- leans Theatre, on Orleans, between Royal and Bourbon streets, was the home of the opera. It was built by subscription in 1817; John Mc- Donogh having acquired it later on, willed it to the City of Baltimore. It was destroyed by 'fire in 1868, but the famous ballroom that adjoined it was saved and used as a criminal courtroom JAMES H CALDWELL, bronze bust in Louisiana State Museum. — Courtesy La. State Museum. FKENCH OPEBA HODSE, EEECTEO IN 1S59. — Courtesy Southern Pacitic R. R. 3g THE NEW ORLEANS BOOlC from 1872 imtil the court's removal to St. Pat- rick's Hall. Opera of the first order was sung to large and appreciative audiences. Not to have a bos or seats at the opera was a cause of social ostricism. Operas were given on four nights in the week, the fashionable evenings being Tuesday and Saturday; nights when there was no opera, the drama held the boards. Ludlow introduced English plays the very first year of the theatre's existence, but English drama did not flourish until 1820, when James H. Cald- well took charge of the St. Philip street theatre. Caldwell was the personal exponent of the most progressive spirit of the city; he was an En- glishman of handsome and charming manners, brilliant, clever, able; in England he had mingled with such noted actors as the Kembels, Keans, Cooper, Booth, and the like. He organized a theatrical troupe of known talent (Booth, Barret, Eussel among the members), and came to the United States. They tried Richmond, Vir- ginia, then came to New Orleans. Booth was the leading actor and-, with Mrs. Caldwell, played in French as well as in English. In 182.3, Caldwell erected a theatre in Camp street, able to accommodate 1,100 people; to this, he moved his troupe from the Orleans Theatre. He met with great financial and dramatic success. In 1824, he lighted this theatre by means of gas. Edwin Forrest began his great theatrical career in the Camp street theatre. In 1835, Caldwell had the St. Charles Theatre built, at a cost of $350,000; it was then the largest in the United States; the building was noted for the wonder- ful chandelier, over two tons in weight and sup- 2:)orting two hundred gas-lights, that was sus- pended from the center of the building. Four years later, the Camp street theatre was closed. Mr. Caldwell was not only a promoter of theatres and the highest fojm of English drama, but also of other city improvements; he was the founder of the St. Charles Hotel and the gas works. 3. WAR TIME AND RECONSTRUCTION DAYS. , Outbreak of Civil War. The Republican party had. won in the presidential election, and tl^^upoji South Carolina passed an ordinance of secession. Casting 'her lot with the other Southern States, Louisiana seceded January 26, 1861, and sent her ablest sons to the front. New Orleans as a Strategic Point. New Or- leans sent over 5,000 of her best soldiers to the defense of the northern line of the Confederacy. The southern government seemed oblivious of the city's location; not so, the Washington authorities. Two expeditions were set afoot for securing the Mississippi to the Union; one under Grant, to descend the river, the other under Farragut and Butler to ascend it. Capture of New Orleans, April 25, 1862. Grant was slowly but surely pushing his way down stream. Farragut, with a fleet of forty- three vessels, was entering the river from the Gulf. In vain, General Lovell asked for assist- ance; none could be given him. He did his best to obstruct the passage of the Federal fleet by having cables put across the river below the city; old vessels were linked together and set ablaze. Farragut succeeded in passing the two poorly armed forts and making his way up to the city, which, because of the high water, lie was able to sweep with his gams. General Lovell, recog- nizing the nselessness of fighting, retreated. The city front blazed with the fire from the thousands of bales of cotton and hogsheads of sugar and molasses which the citizens burned to prevent the Federals obtaining. Military Rule. General Butler, with 15,000 soldiers, took charge of the city on May 1, 1862. Mayor Monroe was put out of office and a mili- tary commandant appointed in his place. The City Council was replaced by the Bureau of Finance and the Bureau of Streets and Landings. Butler's rule in New Orleans has ever been execrated by the people of the city and condemned by the out- side world as disgraceful ; he was removed before the year expired. The city's commerce had been reduced by the war to a diminutive trade in war supplies with the neighboring territory. Cotton sold in 1864 at $1.63 per pound, and sugar at 26 cents. The end of the war caused the immediate renewal of commercial intercourse with other ])arts. Reconstruction Acts. The Republican Con- gress decided that the Southern States should be regarded as conquered territory, reconstructed, and readmitted into the Union. First of all, the new freemen were to be secured in the enjoy- ment of their citizenship and suffrage. The white men of the state were virtually deprived of the use of the ballot by all the restrictions placed upon its exercise. Misrule. As is the case after most wars, a THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 39 host of undesirable individuals, seeking to make fortunes by easy means, followed in the wake of the victorious northern army. They became known as "carpetbaggers," as the southern people of a like class received the appellation of "scalawags." In New Orleans, they became the) leaders of the voting- populace — largely composed of the .newly enfranchised negroes — and thus gained control of the government. The city's property was literally stolen. By 1872, the extravagant expenditures had reached $6,961,381 and the bonded debt $21,000,000, on some of which ten per cent interest was being paid. The city issued an enormous amount of valueless "city currency" with which the officers and Public School teachers were paid. Taxation rose to 2^%oo per cent in 1871. This government main- tained itself by means of the "Metro- politan Police," especially organized for the protection of the officials, and a rigid system of espionage conducted against those opposed to their rule. Change in Government. In 1870, the city government was changed. Under the new system, there was a mayor, with a salary of $7,500 per year, and seven administrators, with salaries of $6,000; these administra- tors each had charge of one department; the depart- ments were Finance, Ac- counts, Com- merce, Im- provements, Water Works and Public Buildings, As- sessments, and Police. The administrators were appoint- ed by the gov- ernor. September 14, 1874. The citizens of New Orleans had formed the "White League" for the expulsion of the carpetbag government. To frustrate their plans, an order was issued that forbade a citizen to keep a firearm even in his MONTTiMENT IN MEMORY OF THE MEMBERS OP THE WHITE LEAGUE, Who Fell in Conflict Sep- tember 14, 1874. HARBOR OF NEW ORLEANS, IS home. It was learnt that a ship with a cargo of ammunition for the League was to arrive on September 14tli. The Metropolitan Police formed at the foot of Canal street and the levee with mounted cannon to prevent the citizens from reaching the vessel. The "White League" moved out Poydras street to the levee until they faced the Metro- politans. A skirmish followed, witli the result that the Metropolitans fled, suffering the loss of many of their members. The "White League" lost sixteen. In memory of the citizens who lost their lives, a monument was erected at the foot of Canal street, where had stood the Metropolitans' cannon. The "White League," by gradual successes, finally restored the citizens to the control of their city. Improvements. It was impossible for any progress to be made under the prevailing conditions. The city under- took the operation of the water works in 1869. Paving the streets with wood was tried and, as it proved a failure, abandoned. A drain- age system was projected in 1871, but be- cause of its costliness and the ruinous con- dition of the city's finances, was shortly after given up. The Board of New Orleans Park Commissioners bought the Upper City Park, now Audubon Park, in 1871, at a cost of $80,000. Population. From 168,755 in 1860, the population in- creased to 191,418 in 1870. This was due in great measure to the incoming of freed negroes from the coun- try districts. Expansion of City Limits. In 1870, two districts, the Fifth and Sixth, were added by the annexation of the town of Algiers, on the opposite side of the river, and of Jefferson City, a town adjoining the Fourth District, the former City of La- — Courtesy La. State Museum. 40 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK fayette. By the addition of Carrollton, in 1874, as the Seventh Municipal District, the city at- tained its present Umits. 4. MODERN PERIOD, 1874-1914. Premium Bonds. With the victory of the Eeg-ular Democracy in electing Charles Leeds as mayor in 1874, the carpetbag government may he said to have been ended. The bonded debts reached $20,000,000 in 1875. Real estate had de- preciated; business in general had greatly de- clined. A crisis had come in the city's affairs. Edward Pilsbnry was administrator of the De- ]iartment of Finance; he formed the Premium Bond plan ; by this, all the city bonds were funded into bonds of $20, bearing five per cent interest when drawn by lots. By this system the annual interest was reduced from $1,416,000 to $307,500. Pilsbury succeeded Leeds as Mayor in 1876. Board of Liquidation. In 1880, the Legisla- ture created a board to see to the liquidation, reduction, and consolidation of the city's debt. Thus the payment of the city debt was taken out of the hands of the city officials. Improvements Before the Exposition. The telephone was in- troduced in 1876, and two years later the first line was constructed. A little later, the various lines in operation were joined into the New Orleans Telephone Exchange for the pur- pose of intercommunication. The Carrollton Railroad was franchised and the New Orleans and Pacific Railroad was granted the batture in front of the park. With money derived from the gambling houses of the city, an almshouse was erected at a cost of $100,000 and named in honor of Mayor Shakespeare. The greatest of all improvements was that at the mouth of the river. In 1882, Captain Eads completed the jetties in South Pass, Ijegun June 2, 1875; from seventeen and a half feet, the water on the bar was deepened to thirty feet. The benefits to commerce were innumerable. According to the United States census of 1880, the population had increased to 217,140. Return to Aldermanic Government. The people became dissatisfied with the Bureau WBSi^^Mml^^^fi -t " ,; M 9 S CENTRAL BUILDING, COTTON system, said it was too expensive, and demanded a return to the old aldermanic form of govern- ment. So, in 1882, the Legislature passed an act changing the city's form of government. Under the new charter, the executive officers were Mayor, Treasurer, ComiDtroller, Commis- sioner of Police, and Commissioner of Public Works, each receiving a salary of $3,500. The Council was composed of thirty members. Cotton Oenteimial Exposition, 1884. An ex- position was held in New Orleans to celebrate the hundredth anniversary of the first exporta- tion of cotton; in 1784, a few bags had been sent to England from Charleston, South Carolina. The Fair grounds were in the Sixth District and comprised seventy-five acres. The main building was larger than any that had yet been erected at an exposition. The only remnant left of the numer- ous structures is Horticultural Hall in Audubon Park, which is only part of a building, portions of it having been destroyed by storms. This hall is not kept up as well as in former times because of laclv* of funds. The exposition was one of the causes of the opening of the Sixth District. Principal Improvements Before 1900. Elec- tricity for street lighting was introduced in 1884; Royal street from Canal to Esplan- ade was thus lighted. Two years later electricity supplemented gas for street lighting. CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION. St. Charlcs street -Courtesy La. State Museum, ^^g payed with asphalt in 1884. Four years later, the erection of the present Criminal Court House and parish prison was begun; St. Patrick's Hall, the former domicile of the Criminal Court, was some years later made to serve as a Public Library by the removal of the Fisk and Public Librai'ies to it. The Orleans Levee Board was organized, as well as the Public Library Board. A paid Fire De- partment replaced the Volunteer Corps in 1891. In this year, the New Orleans and Louisiana Construction and Improvement Company under- took the management of the city wharves for ten years, but their excessive charges caused the state to purchase their rights in 1896; the Legis- lature created a Board of Commissioners of the Port of New Orleans to manage the wharves. Two railroads received grants along the river front, the Illinois Central and the Louisville and THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK: 41 Nashville; the former received a grant in the Sixth District and soon erected the Stuyvesant Docks and large grain elevators; the latter was allowed to run their tracks on the levee helow Canal street and build a depot at the foot of Canal. In return for these privileges, the cor- porations had to maintain the levees within the limits of their grants. The present drainage system was begun in 1899 and put into operation in 1900, in which year, also, an ordinance was passed providing for a City Public Belt Eail- road. The neutral ground on Canal street was paved. In the centennial year, the city took an- other step toward municipal ownership of public works by taking over the control of the markets. Change in Aldermanic Form of Government. The year 1896 saw the city's government changed again. The Mayor's powers were in- creased; he had the appointment of the Com- missioners of Public Works and of Police and Public Buildings, the City Attorney and the City Engineer; his salary was raised to $6,000. The Treasurer and Comptroller were, like the Mayor, elected by the people. The Council con- sisted of seventeen members, elected by the people and were paid twenty dollars per month. Commerce and Manufactures Since 1900. For the late development of commerce and manu- factures, see Chapters VI. and VIII. Expected Benefits to Be Derived from the Opening of the Panama Canal. New Orleans expects a vast improvement in commerce as a result of the opening of the Panama Canal. Be- cause of her location at the mouth of the Mis- sissippi, practically on the Gulf of Mexico, twenty degrees further north, ten further west than the Canal Zone, it is the common opinion that the great bulk of the South American trade, especially that of the Pacific coast, will be brought to the great New Orleans port. Chap- ter VII. Present Educational Conditions. See Chapter XII. Population. The city's population in 1900 was 287,104, and increased during the decade to .339,075; it is now estimated at between 360,000 and 370,000. New Orleans is very cosmopolitan; according to the last United States census, every country in Europe is represented and several in Asia, Africa, South America, and Central America. Public Works. The city's present policy ,=JITHH OLIl STYLE STKAMBOAT LANDING. A^ THE NEW ORLEANS BOOlC tends towards municipal ownership of public works, so as to operate them at cost for the benefit of the citizens. For light and paving, see Chapter XVI.; for water and drainage, see Chapter ni. Architectural Development. During the last two decades, the city has assumed her modern appearance. It has been a period of building. All the large structures have been erected during this time. The sky-scraper, in modified form,' has invaded the city; there are the Maison Blanche, Grunewald Hotel, Monteleone Hotel, Whitney-Central, Canal Bank buildings. Steel frames are now used in the construction of large buildings. The United States Grovermnent has erected - in Camp street the magnificent, new Post Office. The state erected the elegant, marble-faced Court House in Eoyal street. Handsome schools and splendid factories are continually being built. Realty Improvements. The Cotton Centen- nial Exposition inaugurated the development of the city's real estate by drawing attention to the desirability of sites in the Sixth District ; exten- sion of the street car system, street lighting, and paving have united to open up the outlying sections. Modern development was then first begun in the Sixth and Seventh Districts. The Second District then came to the front; all the land between the cemeteries and the lake was cleared, drained, paved, and lighted; trees and palms were planted along the streets; and now Lakeview is a rapidly growing and pretty suburb. Extending northeast from City Park, really a continuation of Metairie Ridge, is Gen- tilly Terrace, one of the most beautiful of New Orleans' many garden spots. The tract of land beyond Gentilly and along Lake Pontchartrain to slightly east of Little Woods, is being de- veloped by the New Orleans Lake Shore Land Company ; between this and Chef Menteur is the Miehaud Tract, which is being improved in like manner, by drainage and splendid shell roads, so that lots now sell at the former jorice of acres. The United States Government, by the erection of the Naval and Immigration Stations, has con- tributed to the development of the Fifth Dis- trict. A great plan is now in progTess for the improvement of the Jefferson-Plaquemines Drainage District; 11,500 acres are within the limits of Algiers. Bayou Barataria is the natural drain of this district, and, with Harvey Canal, almost makes an island out of the land in the river's bend. A dam has been constructed across Bayou Barataria, where it is joined by Harvey Canal; huge pumps erected at this point SHIPS AT THE WHARVES. -Courtesy ot Board of Port Commissioners. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 43 are to lift the water across the dam into the bayou. New Orleaniaiis may enjoy farm life on the banks of Bayou Barataria and yet be within twenty or thirty minutes of the heart of the business sec- tion, hj way of the road alongside the New Or- leans Southern and Grand Isle Bailroad, the Jack- son avenue ferry and car line, Metairie Eidge is a delightful suburb out- side the city limits, in Jefferson Parish. Commission Form of Government. In 1912, by special act of the Legis- lature, the city's gov- ernment was changed, a modified form of the Commission Plan of Municipal Grovernment being adopted. See Chapter XV. Present Financial Condition of the City. The city's bonded debt increased to $37,937,568.50 in 1913. This increase is due to the city's under- taking the operation of her own sewerage and water system and the Public Belt Railroad ; the former added between $16,000,000 and $17,000,- 000 and the latter $2,- 000,000 or $3,000,000 to the city's debt. The tax receipts for 1913 were $4,904,602.26 on an as- sessment of $245,492,194. Centennial Celebra- tion of the Battle of New Orleans. January 8, 1915, the hundredth an- niversary of the Battle of New Orleans, marked also a century of peace between the two great English-speaking na- tions of the world. Great Britain and the United States. "With character- istic hospitality, New Orleans entertained rep- resentatives of King George V. of England, tlie Canadian Government, and distinguished MAISON BLANCHE BUILDING. JACKSON SQUARE AS IT IS TO-DAY. -Courtesy La. State Museum. 44 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK: Americans. The walls of the old Cathedral re- echoed the chant of the solemn Te Deum as they had one hundred years before, military and civic parades recalled the spirit of Jackson and his followers, and the ladies of 1815, as well as the heroes of battle, seemed to live again in the "tableaux vivants," presented as a fitting climax to the celebration. TOPICS: Section 1, French Domination: I. Louisiana before 1718, II. Proprietorship of the Company of the West, III. New Orleans, 17.S1-1763; Section 2, Spanish Domination; I, Manifestation of the Spirit of Liberty, II. Establishment of Spanish Control, III. Spanish Development of New Orleans, IV. New Orleans in 1800; Section 3, Transition Period: Sec- tion 4, American Domination: I. New Orleans, 1803- '15, II. From 1815- '60, III. War Time and Reconstruction Days, IV. Modern Period. REFERENCES: Bossu, Travels through that part of North America formerly called Louisiana (translated by John Eeinhold Forster) ; Charlevoix, History and General Descrip- tion of New France (edited by John Gilmary Shea) ; La Harpe, Journal Historique de I'Establissement des Francais a la Louisiane, Nouvelle-Orleans, 1831; Le Page du Pratz, Histoire de la Louisiane; Eeuben Gold Thwaites, The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents; King and Ficklen, Stories from Louisiana History; Claiborne, "Mississippi"; Bunner, History of Louisiana, 1841; Early Voyages Uj> and Down the Mississippi, Albany, 1861; B. "M. Norman, New Orleans and Environs, 1844; A. Oakey Hall, The Manhattaner in New Orleans, 1851; Jewell's Crescent City, 1873; Waring and Cable, History and Present Conditions of New Orleans, 1880; Guide and Sketch Book to New Orleans, 1885; Andrew Mor- rison, New Orleans and the New South; F. X. Martin, History of Louisiana; Phelps, Louisiana; Charles Ga3'arre, History of Louisiana; Alcee Fortier, History of Louisiana; Walter Fleming, Documentary Historj' of Reconstruction, etc.; The South in the Building of the Nation; Rightor (editor), Stand- ard History of New Orleans; T. W. Campbell, Manual of the City of New Orleans, 1900; Grace King, New Orleans — The Place and the People; Eliza Ripley, Social Life in Old New Orleans; Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society; De Bow's Review, 1846- '59 and 1867 to '68; Stanley C. Arthur, The Battle of New Orleans, published by the Lou- isiana Historical Society; New Orleans Directories; News- paper files of the Bee, Picayune, an is allowed to proceed on her way. Time and Money Saved by Modem Method of Quarantine. Careful fumigation of ships sub- ject to quai'antine, and examination of passen- gers, are all that is now necessary, if there are no suspicious cases aboard. Sometimes, even tbe fumigation is dispensed with, when the authorities have sufficient assurance that neither crew nor passengers have been exposed to in- fection. Thus, there is very little delay or added expense to interrupt commerce, as opposed to the old method, which indiscriminately held ships for weeks, proportionately increasing their cost of maintenance and crippling trade. On account of the rigid quarantine enforced at one time, a large proportion of commerce was diverted from New Orleans. Vigilance Against Yellow Fever. Any ship coming from the tropics or yellow, fever zone, during the months when that disease is preva- lent, must be detained six days after fumigation. Yellow fever symptoms become evident within six days after a person has been exposed to the disease. In order to save as much time as pos- sible, the United States officer in the foreign port often fumigates'the vessel-at the hour of leaving. Her time at sea is then deducted from the six days, and her time of detention at the quarantine station will be equal to the differ- ence. If the ship is four days at sea, she will have but two days to stay at quarantine. The fruit vessels, on account of their perishable car- goes, are not fumigated, but are required to carry physicians, who are responsible for the health of all on board, and for the enforcement of quarantine regulations. Other Cities Adopt New Orleans' Method. New Orleans was the first city to adopt this system, based on the scientific fact that certain diseases take a specific time to develop. San Francisco was second in its use, and was soon followed by New York. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK SECTION 4. SANITARY IMPROVEMENTS SINCE 1803. 53 Sanitary Improvements. As early as 1817, Governor Claiborne suggested quarantine. He was forced to abandon his plan because public opinion was so bitterly opposed to it. Many eminent physicians of the day did not believe in importation of disease, and considered quar- antine ridiculous. Governor Villere, however, was more successful, establishing a quarantine station and a Board of Health, in 1821. Both enjoyed a very checkered career, being dis- solved and re-established many times. The work of the Board of Health has been more or less continuous since 1855. Dr. C. B. White, who was president of the Board of Health in the seventies, inaugurated a sanitary campaign in New Orleans and intro- duced the disinfection of premises with carbolic acid. The Auxiliary Sanitary Association was or- ganized after the epidemic of 1878. They estab- lished a system of flushing the gutters, all open at that time, by water from public hydrants and by water lifted from the river by a steam pump erected for that purpose. They also furnished the city with boats for the removal of garbage. From that time on there has been a steady im- provement in sanitation, as is evidenced by the gradual reduction of the rate of mortality. Potent Factors in Sanitation. The most powerful factors in attaining and maintaining the present salubrity of New Orleans have been: 1. Drainage of adjacent swamps. 2. "Water supply. 3. Sewerage and Drainage Systems. 4. Effective Quarantine. 5. Activity of the State and City Boards of Health. 6. Paving of Streets. 7. Cleaning of city and removal of waste. 8. Enlightenment of masses in matters of sanitation and personal hygiene. (1, 2, 3, and 4 have already been explained; 6, considered in Chapter XVI.) SECTION 5. STATE BOARD OF HEALTH. State Board of Health. With the wonderful progress of medical science and with the realiza- tion that most diseases are preventable, epidem- ics have become a matter of history in all mod- ernized communities. Always conservative, Lou- isiana was slow to adopt preventive measures until the weight of public opinion and the testi- mony of sister states forced upon her legislators the necessity for an effective quarantine and Board of Health. A State Board was estab- lished in 1855, but reorganized in 1898; since then, with limited resources, it has steadily labored to improve conditions in Louisiana. The last five years (1910-1915), especially, have marked a wonderful advance in sanitation, re- lieving Louisiana of the stigma of insalubrity and unprogressiveness. People do not live in unhealthy surroundings through preference, but through ignorance. The health exhibit car, by teaching people how to live and how to guard against disease, has accomplished remarkable results. This work has been supplemented by laws requiring jDCople to care for their health, such as the regulations regarding public drink- ing cups, common towels, habit-forming drugs, barber shops, and others. Sanitary Inspection. In order that all sani- tary regulations may be properly enforced, the Board of Health has a regular system of inspec- tion. Score cards, containing questions which may vary according to the nature of the place to be visited, are furnished the inspector. This officer fills out the blanks, points out violations of regulations, takes samples, and makes seiz- ures. All cards are sent to the head offices, where they are filed and graded. Notices are then sent to owners or managers with a time limit set for improvement, after which, if the regulations are still violated, vigorous prosecu- tion follows. In the city of New Orleans, the state and city boards cooperate in these inspections. Many places have been closed temporarily and, though this crippled their business for the time, they 54 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK were recompensed by the advertisement gained on reopening under the approval of the Board of Health. This rigid inspection has caused great im- provement in the dairies of New Orleans. Nearly all the barn^ have been whitewashed inside, milk-houses screened, barnyards drained and cleaned, and the small-top milk pail introduced. The campaign against unsanitary markets has resulted in the screening ordinance and the erec- tion of several "model" markets, such as the Dryades and the renovated portion of the French Market. Food and Drug Laws and Regulations, and Ket Weight and Measure Laws. In 1906, the Legislature passed the first Food and Drug Law, authorizing the State Board of Health to make rule s governing the manufacture, sale and inspec- tion of foods, drugs, liquors, and waters, in so far as they might affect the public health. Further laws have since been enacted against mis- branding of foods, drugs, etc., and also requiring all foods sold in package form to bear the net weight or measure of the contents. The Food and Drug Department of the State Board of Health, therefore, looks into food adul- teration and misbranding, and regulates the sale of habit-forming drugs. Foods are adulterated if any substance has been substituted for the article, if any valuable constituent has been taken out, if any substance has been added to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength, if any poisonous or deleterious in- gredient has been added, or if it consists in whole or in part of a filthy, decomposed animal or vegetable matter. For example, milk may be adulterated by watering, by skimming, by having added to it a chemical to jsreserve it, or by becoming spoiled or putrid. All canned goods having puffed or swelled ends are adul- terated, since the contents are nearly always spoiled. Food and drugs are misbranded if the label contains any statement regarding the in- gredients which is false or misleading in any particular. For example, cotton seed oil labelled "olive oil," patent medicines bearing false cui'ative claims, or any packages labelled with incorrect weight or measure are misbranded. Habit-forming drugs, such as morphine, opium, cocaine, and their compounds, cannot be sold except under the pre- scription of a phy- sician. The sale of poisonous drugs is also regulated. The food and drug department iias an inspection force, a labora- tory, and analj'sts. It makes a spe- cialty of the analysis of city water supplies and ]niblic school supplies. The State Board of Health con- duets a bacterio- logical department. The Department of Vital Statistics is under the control of the Board of Health and is conducted by the State Registrar. Besides these varied activities, there is a force of men for the inspection of oils, which, by explosion or combustion, might endanger life or property. No burning or illuminating oil that would ignite below 125° F. can be sold in Louisiana, and all receptacles containing oil to be sold must bear the signature of a Board of Health inspector. KRENUH MARKET BEFORE RENOVATION. — Courtesy La. State Board of Health THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 55 SECTION 6. CITY BOARD OF HEALTH. Organization. The City Board of Health was estabhshed by act of the Legislature in 1898, making it distinct and separate from the state board. The act establishing the commission form of government for the City of New Orleans provides for a board of health consisting of five members, one to be the Mayor, one the Commis- sioner of Public Safety, and three other mem- bers at large to be chosen by the commission council, at least one of whom shall be a physician licensed to practice medicine in the Parish of Orleans. . Maintenance. This board is maintained by appropriation by the city council, amounting, in 1913, to about $57,000 and by revenues obtained from fees, fines, etc., amounting in the same year to about $45,700. Prevention of Contagion. One of the most impor- tant activities of the guardians of the public health is the care of com- municable dis- eases. Physicians are required by law to report all such cases to the office of the Board of Health, where, by a care- fully planned system, the exact city block in- fected and the progress o| the case is noted. The house occupied by the patient suffering from a contagious disease is posted, and quarantine maintained until the premises have been fumi- gated by officers of the Board of Health. During the period of contagion, health inspectors visit the infected pi-emises to ascertain that all re- quirements as to disinfection are observed. A house-to-house inspection of the nine blocks sur- rounding the point of infection is made. All Board of Health inspectors are empowered to arrest those who violate the sanitary ordinances. Food Inspection. As a large proportion of sickness is caused by poor or tainted food, the duty of inspecting food supplies devolves upon health officers. Dairies, bakeries, confection- eries, abattoirs, markets, restaurants, and hotels come under special supervision. Numerous and detailed ordinances requiring a high standard of sanitation, are enforced in New Orleans. As an illustration, some of those regulating the oper- ation of a dairy will be given. Before a dairy may be opened, a permit must be obtained from the Board of Health, whose duty it is to see that the buildings used for dairy purposes are well lighted, venti- lated, and con- structed; that the room used for storing milk is not near the stable nor living room ; and that the water supply is pui'e and adequate. Veteri- narians examine the cows. Samples of milk and other dairy products, taken at irregnilar intervals, are sub- jected to chemical tests to ascertain the iDresence of adulterants, pre- servatives, or im- purities. (See Chapter IX. for meat inspection.) All restaurants, hotels, and other places of similar character are subject to inspection with- out notice. Refrigerators,, storerooms, and kitchens undergo a thorough examination, and, unless they meet the required standard, the Ijlaces are closed until they have received a cleaning satisfactory to the health authorities. The owners are fined for violation of health ordinances. Bacteriological Department. Besides a chemist, the board employs the services of an expert bacteriologist, a doctor who has made the study of germs a specialty. Sometimes a FRENCH MARKET AFTER UEMOV VTION — Courtesy La. State Board of Health. 56 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK l)liysieian is doubtful as to the nature of the disease, for many germ diseases are similar in their early stages. Suppose he suspects a case to be diphtheria; he takes a culture from the patient's throat, that is, wipes it out with a little swab. This is sent to the bacteriologist, who, by a microscopic examination, can ac- curately diagnose the disease. The doctor is then enabled to jjroceed with suitable treat- ment, instead of waiting for more pronoimced symptoms to develop. This department exer- cises constant vigilance over the city water supply that there may be no contamination from that quarter. Department of Vital Statistics. This depart- ment may be justly regarded as the barometer of public health, whereby we are enabled to com- pare conditions of past years. Such a compar- ison shows a steady improvement for the last half century. MORTALITY RATE, Showing the High Death Rate of Years Ago, the Improved Conditions of the Past Decade, and the Constant Decline in Rate in Each Decade. GENERAL DEATH RATE PER THOUSAND OF POPULATION. 1809-'19 52.95 1820-'29 48.55 1830- '39 63.55 1840- '49.. 51.59 1850- '59 60.49 1860-'69 40.22 1870-'79 37.77 1880- '89 27.62 1890- '99 27.05 1900- '09 21.04 DEATH RATE OF 1913. White 14.94 Colored 29.95 White and colored 18.98 13.56 25.60 16.82 The importance of such records seems trivial to the average person, but they prove of in- calculable value in the studj' of cause and effect, to those vested with the care of public health; hence, the registration of births, marriages, and deaths has been made compulsory by law. SECTION 7. REMOVAL OF GARBAGE. Old. System. The proj^er disposal of waste matter can hardly be overrated as to its effect on the sanitary conditions of a community. The old method, jDracticed in New Orleans, of haul- ing all garbage to the river front to be loaded on boats, which carried it to a point below the city, there to be dumped into the river, has been done away with by national legislation. System in Use. The system adopted and at present in operation, is that of dumping such refuse into the outlying lowlands. All garbage must be kept in tightly closed metal cans, which are placed ujDon the banquette early each morn- ing, except Sundays. An army of carts carries it from individual premises to the Public Belt by which it is transferred to cars running out into the swamps, where it is deposited in the vicinity of Bayou Bienvenu. The High Temperature Destructor. Such a system is necessarily only temporary as the lands are gradually being drained and occupied by the surplus population of a growing city. This is duly recognized by the city authorities who have made a careful study of the subject. They have arrived at the conclusion that the use of the high temperature destructor is the most economical and effective method in every way best suited to the needs of the situation. This consists of a hugh receptacle for the garbage, where, by forced drafts, the temperature, aver- aging from 1800° Fahrenheit to 2000° Fahren- heit, destroys everything and reduces all glass THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 57 and metals to a clinker. It possesses the added advantage of consuming all obnoxious odors, so that it might be constructed in. the heart of the city without causing discomfort to the populace. power easily converted into electrical energy, can be produced. This method has been ex- plained as its adoption has been authorized by an act of the legislature and, before long, it will By the high temperature, enormous steam most likely be in operation. SECTION 8. PRESENT ACTIVITY OF THE BOARD OF HEALTH. Bubonic Plague. The efficacy of modern sani- tary and ijreventive measures was amply proven in the summer of 1914. An unknown Scandi- navian was taken ill at the home of the Volun- teers of America, and after several days, re- moved to the Charity Hospital, where his malady was pronounced bubonic plagxie. There had been eases of the plague in Havana for several years, but careful quarantine had kept it out of New Orleans, this being the first case on record. Prompt Action of the Boards. Contrary to the concealment policy practiced in former years and responsible for epidemics in New Orleans, all facts were immediately made known, other states notified, and citizens urged and instructed how to assist in the work; thus, not only the lives of the people but thousands of dollars were saved, for the sum expended in rat extermination would have been but a drop in the bucket had the contagion been allowed to spread. Other cities retained their confidence in New Orleans and business was uninterrupted. The announcement, which a few years ago would have caused a panic, sent but a slight tremor of fear through the city, and this was soon quelled by the prompt and decisive action of the State and City Boards of Health. Campaign Against Rats. As rats have the plague and rat fleas transmit it to luiman beings, there had to be a war on rats. Taking the Home of the Volunteers of America as a focus, a district with a radius of four squares was marked off as the infected area, where the rat extermination was to begin. The inmates of the Home were isolated in a perfectly rat proof building until the time required for the disease to. develop had passed. A large force was set to work in the district marked off, catching the rodents, which were immersed in kerosene to kill the fleas, and then sent to the Board of Health laboratories for bacteriological exami- nation. As the matter was of vital importance, not only to the city of New Orleans, but to the entire nation, it was deemed expedient to turn the campaign over to Surgeon General Rupert Blue of the United States Public Health Service, who had made a deep study of the plague and successfully combated it in Honolulu and San Francisco. Ratproofing. An ordinance was passed re- quiring all premises to be ratproofed that is, all buildings must be so constructed that rats can- not Jive in the walls or floors, and all rubbish, where they might find shelter, must be destroy- ed. This has resulted in cleaning up the city as well as reducing the number of rats. SECTION 9. ENLIGHTENMENT OF THE PEOPLE. Legislatures and Boards of Health can accom- plish very little without a corresponding effort on the part of the people for a decent, hygienic way of living. Such a condition can be realized only by enlightening the masses in matters of hygiene and sanitation, a work already under- taken by public-spirited physicians, by the State and City Boards of Health, and by the schools. 58 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK SECTION 10. HOSPITALS. Charity Hospital. One of the oldest insti- tutions in the United States for the care of the sick is the Charity Hospital. See Chapter XI. Hotel Dieu. The nucleus of the present Hotel Dieu was the Maison de Sante opened in 1852 by four Sisters of Charity from Emmits- burg, Maryland, at the clinic of Dr. Warren Stone. He befriended them during his lifetime and left them in possession of his property at death. The increasing demand upon the ser- vices of the gentle Sisters made the need for larger and better accommodations imperative, which resulted in their removal in 1858 to the present Hotel Dieu. With the growth of the in- stitution and advance in medical science, they have steadily enlarged their opportunities of service to suffering humanit3^ Here, besides caring for the sick, they conduct a most success- ful training school for nurses. Touro Infirmary. The Touro Infirmary was the gift to the Hebrews of New Orleans of Judah Touro, a Jewish merchant and philan- thropist, who by his industry and thrift, amassed a fortune, the bulk of which was de- voted to charitable purposes. One bequest was $40,000 for an almhouse. This was managed by the Touro Infirmary Society, which maintained a small hospital at Levee and Graiennie streets. Later, they consolidated with the Hebrew Be- nevolent Association, and the site of the present hospital was purchased. Here, modern build- ings with excellent equijament have been con- structed, in connection with which a home for the aged and infirm was"built by Julius Weis. Presbyterian Hospital. The New Orleans Sanitarium, now the Presbyterian Hospital, was opened in 1886 as a training school for nurses, the first in the South. TOPICS: 1, Early History of Sanitation in New Orleans; 2, Yellow Fever and Cholera; 3, Maritime Quarantine; 4, Sanitary Improvements Since 1803; 5, State Board of Health; 6, City Board of Health; 7, Removal of Garbage; 8, Present Activity of the Board of Health; 9, Enlighten- ment of the People; 10, Hospitals. REFERENCES: Waring & Cable, History and Present Con- dition of New Orleans, 1880; Rightor (editor), Stand- ard History of New Orleans; Augustin, History of Yellow Fever; Biennial Reports of the Louisiana State Board of Health; Biennial Reports of the Board of Health of the City of New Orleans; Sanitary Code of the State of Louisiana; Laws and Ordinances Relating to Health and Sanitation of the City of New Orleans; Kohnke, The Problem of Mosquito Destruction in New Orleans. CHAPTER V. System of Communication. SECTION 1. POSTAL SYSTEM— POST OFFICE. The post office is a government service for the dispatch of letters, parcels, etc. The proto- type of the modern postal system existed at an early date among the Persians, Romans, Aztecs, Chinese, and other peoples, in the form of an organized estahlishment of state carriers. In America, the first step in the organization of a postal system, was the appointment in 1639, in the Massachusetts colony, of an official to take charge of the delivery of letters. The American Congress, in July, 1775, appointed Benjamin ■Franklin as the first postmaster-general. Beginning of the Mail System in New Or- leans. Previous to the introduction of the mail system, post riders, stage coaches, and steam- boats carried the mail to all parts of the United States. A mail coach, owned by -two Orleanians, ran in 1804-1805 from New Orleans to Man- chac Church twice a week. A post office was established in New Orleans by the United States soon after its acquisition of Lou- isiana. Blaise Cenas was the first post- master, his commission being dated October, 1803. In 1804, the post- master made the an- nouncement that the mail would arrive in New Orleans every Monday and leave on every Tuesday. In Sep- tember, 1910, the mails began to arrive and de- part more frequently. By May, 1811, New Or- leans boasted of the fast time made by the mails. It took twenty days for a letter to reach New Orleans from Washington City; to-day, it takes about thirty- four hours. The railway mail service was inaugurated in 1864, after a successful experiment upon a few large railroad lines. It has reached a per- fection, attainable only in a country of great extent. This service is one of the earliest ex- ponents of classified civil service. Postage. Originally, postage was charged according to the distance that a letter had to be carried. At first, there were no postage stamps, and the cost was marked across the face of the letter, to be paid by the person receiving it. Some letters cost only six cents, while others cost as much as twenty cents. Heavy letters UNITED STATES POST OFFICE. 60 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK often cost tliree or four times that amount. The use of adhesive stamps was authorized by Con- gress in March, 1847. In 1856, prepayment by stamps was made compulsory. In 1863, postage on letters was three cents per half ounce, but, then, was reduced to two cents per ounce. The system of registry, adopted in 1855, did not attain any degTee of excellence until after 1860. The money-order system was established in 1864. Money-orders are exchanged with most of the important countries of the world which have money-order systems of their own. The introduction of the parcel post, January, 1913, was the result of many years of agitation for the admission to the mails of parcels of merchandise of greater weight than four pounds, and for a lower rate on this class of matter. This was the first time the Post Office Department inaugu- rated a new service and put it into immediate operation without trying it on a small scale. Under an order issued at Washington, Octo- ber 1, 1914, the postmasters of New Orleans and fourteen other cities are directed to assist in Imilding up the farm-to-table business of the par- cel post. The way is thus opened for direct deal- ing between consumers and producers. The only middleman in the transaction will be the post office and the only tolls will be the cost of the stamps. In one or two cities where the plan has been tried, newspaper accounts have indicated its partial failure. Whether it will succeed in New Orleans, with its numerous suburban ti'uck faiius, public markets, and wagon peddlers, re- mains to be seen. The wider competition it makes possible ought to discourage any tendency to excessive prices in the local markets, just as "water competition" discourages unreasonably high rail rates. The Postal Savings department was also established in 1913. The deposits for the fiscal year ending June, 1914, amomited to nearly $105,000, credited to 795 depositors. Establishment of Sub-stations. Two sub- stations were established in 1882, one in Carroll- roUton, and one in Algiers. In 1890, four other stations were added, and at present, every neighborhood has a convenient station within its boundaries. The free delivery system has been extended to tlie suburbs of the city to those who liave pro- vided the requirements of paved sidewalks, ex- tending from the former line of delivery service to their residences, of house numbers, and of mail boxes. The business districts now have five deliveries a day. The Special Delivery system was put into operation in 1895. The collection carts were introduced in 1899. Since 1860, the post office has occupied a part of the lower floor of the Custom House. This department was moved into the handsome building in Camp street, opposite Lafayette Square, in March, 1915. TOPICS: Early History of the Postal System; The Begin- ning of the Mail System of New Orleans; Postage. REFERENCES: Nelson's Encyclopedia; Newspaper Piles. SECTION 2. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Early Modes of Communication. The savage, who lights a fire so that the smoke may be seen from afar by his comrades, is using a telegraph such as all men used once upon a time. The sol- dier who waves two flags about in a peculiar maimer, is also telegraphing. The heliograph, a mii'ror reflecting the rays of the sun, flashes messages to those who can read the signals. This latter method is used to-day in some parts of California. Electricity, one of nature's most powerful forces, carefully kept its secret for ages. Now, that its use is known, man is able to achieve wonders. No one is absolutely certain as to the name of the man who first suggested the electric tele- gi'aph. Many clever inventors prepared the way. Among these are Volta, Humphrey Davy, Michael Faraday, Francis Eonald, Sir Charles Wheatstone, and Sir William Cooke. The last two mentioned made, in 1838, the first practical telegraph used in England, and from that be- ginning her whole national system of tele- gxaphic communication has sprung. In America, when there arises a demand for something vital which shall play an mportant part in national development, science comes for- ward to meet the need. When a swifter mode of communication between commercial centers THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 61 became necessary, Professor Morse was able to transform into a messenger boy of commerce that mysterious force which Benjamin Franklin had captured from the clouds. Morse's alphabet and method of telegraphing are used through- out America. The Growth of the Telegraph System. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, there was not a line of electric telegraph in the United States. To-day, there is a vast mileage travers- ing all lands and all seas. ' ' God and man have linked the nations together." The growth of the system is bounded by less than seventy-five years, most of it by the last thirty-five years. Edison invented the quadruplex system and also a means of sending six telegrams simultaneously. First Line Into New Orleans. The Washing- ton and New Orleans Telegraph Company was operated in 1848, and became one of the most important lines in the country. Four other com- panies operated lines into New Orleans between 1856 and 1866. The Western Union, organized in Rochester, New York, in 1851, had absorbed all lines South and Southwest, by 1866. Its only formidable rival is the Postal Telegraph, which was organized in 1883. Telegraph Offices in New Orleans. In former years, the gravity "bluestone" batteries were exclusively used and are still used in small towns, but in New Orleans, as in all other large cities, these have been replaced by the dynamos. There are about one hundred wires from differ- ent parts of the country entering the Western Union office in New Orleans. Single lines are used along the railroad routes, but trunk lines are employed between large cities. The wires are duplexed and quadruplexed, hence, two or four messages can be sent in opposite directions at the same time. The duplex system consists of a receiving and sending apparatus at each end, which are worked simultaneously without interference with each other. For example. New Orleans sends a message to Memphis and Mem- phis to New Orleans at the same time without mixing the signals. The quadruplex is a com- bination of two duplexes of different designs on which New Orleans can have two operators sending messages to Memphis, and Memphis to New Orleans; while Memphis can connect St. Louis or Chicago by the automatic repeating apparatus on one side, and can send messages to New Orleans, while St. Louis or Chicago is using the wire. The wires come into the office by a switchboard, an apparatus by which the chief can locate trouble on the wires between stations, and give the necesasry instructions. Ocean Cables. We owe this remarkable means of communication to Cyrus Field, who, after several failures, succeeded in putting the New World on conversational terms with the Old. New Orleans sends her cable messages for Europe to the Western Union and Postal Tele- graph offices in New York, where they are trans- ferred to the Atlantic Cable companies for trans- mission to Liverpool and then by land, in most cases, to their destination. Dispatches for east- ern Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Ocean points are sent for transmission to the Pacific Cable Company in San Francisco. The Mexican and South American cable service is handled from Galveston, Texas, but Mexico can also be reached by land lines via El Paso and Laredo, Texas. The West Indian business is done throijgh Tampa and Key West. Wireless Telegraph. Marconi's patent was applied for in England, in 1896, and obtained in 1897. Wireless stations are now operated in all seaports. The first one in New Orleans was erected by the United Fruit Company. There are now three wireless stations in New Orleans ; one, on the Hotel Grunewald, operated by the Marconi Company ; another, at the Naval Station in Algiers ; and the third, operated by the LTnited Fruit Company. TOPICS: Early Modes of Communication; The First Tele- graphic Lines into New .Orleans; Ocean Cables; Wireless. REFERENCES: Archives of Cabildo. SECTION 3. THE TELEPHONE. History tells us, as early as 1667, that Eobert Hooke made sound travel along a stretched wire. Philip Eeis of Frankfort, Germany, produced an electric telephone in 1861. In 1876, two tele- phones were patented; one by Elisha Gray, the other, by Alexander Graham Bell. These two men, imknown to each other, applied on the same day at the Washington office for their 62 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK patents. Bell 's proved the better instrument, and with many improvements is still in use. Thomas Edison has given us one of the most important things in the telephone — the carbon transmitter. How the Sound Carries. We use the tele- phone to change the air waves into electric waves, which travel along the wire quicker than sound travels from the tongue to the ear. The words strike one disc and become electric waves ; the waves strike another disc and become words again, because both discs are in tune and give off the same sound when the wave strikes them. The First Telephone in New Orleans. The iirst telei^hone put into service in New Orleans was brought from the Philadelphia Exposition, 1876, by a member of the firm of Horter and Fenner, manufacturers of saddleiy and harness. This firm connected their salesroom on Maga- zine and Gravier with their factory on Poydras and Church streets. Shortly after this intro- duction, the Louisiana Telephone Company fitted up an exchange on the top floor of the Denegre Building. Their system was known as the Magneto System. They employed boys seventeen to twenty years of age as operators. The switchboards were different from the ones used at the present time, and the connections complicated and difficult to complete. Both pevsons, when wishing to disconnect their lines, would signal the operator with a short ring. If, after the termination of a conversation, they failed to notify the operator, the connection would remain on the switchboard until some one went to a neighboring telephone and asked the operator to disconnect the lines. The first con- versation held over the telephones of this com- pany was in the nature of a concert. One instru- ment was installed at Camp and Gravier streets and the other at the Magazine market. Singers were engaged to sing into the receivers, enter- taining those at the other end of the line. This company soon had about 1100 subscribers. Great Southern Telephone and Telegraph Company. In 1883, the Louisiana Telephone Company was sold to the Great Southern Tele- phone and Telegraph Company. This company removed the telephone circuits from the house- tops and placed ^them upon cros-arms on poles. On January 20, 188.3, the boy operators were re- placed by girls, with the exception of the chief night operator and one assistant. The style of equipment was changed and the first Western Miiltiple Switchboard installed, with a capacity for 1800 subscribers. The demand for service became so great that the modern building now known as the Main Exchange, was constructed. The first private branch exchange was installed for the Cotton Centennial Exposition of 1884. In 1897, the Cumberland Telephone and Tele- graph Company acquired the Great Southern. They have made such a success that to-day they have 22,187 city subscribers, serving them through seven exchanges known as Main, Hemlock, Gal- vez. Uptown, Walnut, Jackson, and Algiers. Description of an Exchange. The exchange is a wonderful sight. The walls are lined with switchboards, which enable one to talk any dis- tance. These boards are covered with tiny holes like a bee's honeycomb, each having a number. On them are dull glass knobs no larger than a shoe button, also having numbers. In front of these boards are the clerks, generally women. At their ears they have receivers, the part of the telephone which gives the message, and under the lips a transmitter which sends the message. Both are fitted so as to leave the hands free. The moment a man lifts his telephone, one of the knobs of dull glass on the switchboard lights up. The clerk sees the light, looks at the number under it, and puts a plug in the hole in the honeycomb having the same number. As soon as this plug is put in, the telephone is connected with exchange and he tells the clerk he wants to speak to Main, 179. Quickly, she lifts another plug joined to the first one and puts it into the hole having the number the man wants. When she does this, a bell rings at Main, 179 ; the owner of that office takes up his telephone and talks to the man who has called him. When they have finished talking, they hang up the receiver, the little light goes out, the clerk removes the plugs, and the wires are disconnected. The volume of telegraphic communication has been enormously lessened by the telephone. This reduction in telegraphic business results from the substitution of long-distance calls. The telegraph remains superior for long distances, if the message is taken as a unit, but on the base of the number of words and time for exchange of messages, the telegraph is at a disadvantage. The rates for the two methods differ little for medium distances. TOPICS: The Invention of the Telephone; The Telephone in New Orleans; Description of an Exchange; Bates of Telephone and Telegraph. REFERENCES: City Aichivea; Pamphlets of Telephone; Conjpany. SECTION 4. STREET RAILWAYS. 63 Early History of Street Oar Lines. As a means of public conveyance, the omnibus was first used. The first line of street ears in the United States was the one established by the New Orleans and CarroUton Company, Septem- ber 26, 1835. It ran from the corner of Canal and Baronne streets to Carrollton, the same route now traversed by the St. Charles Belt. The charter given this company authorized them to lay one single track between the above named points. It stated that if the majority of the inhabitants, through whose property it passed, complained of it as a nuis- ance, this company, after receiving thirty days notice from the mayor, had to remove the track and put the street in the same order as Ijefore. In 1845, steam dummies were placed on this road from Carrollton to Lake Pontchartrain. From Lee Circle the cars were brought down by means of animal power. Rope cables were tried as a means of propelling the cars, but owing to the shrinking, of the rope with the changes of the barometer, had to be given up. The fare was I2V2 cents from Canal street to Lee Circle, 18% cents from the Circle to Jackson avenue, and 50 cents from the Circle to Carrollton. In February, 1893, electricity was adopted on this road. In 1899, the track was rebuilt and the Canal and Claiborne line was purchased by them. The City Eailroad Company, formed in June, 1860, commenced to run their cars in June, 1861, from Canal and Eampart via Es- planade to Bayou Bridge. These cars were built in omnibus style. By June, 1864, this company ran the Magazine and Prytania lines to Pleasant street; the Kampart and Dauphine lines to the Barracks; and the Canal street line to the City Park and the Cemeteries. The Levee and Bar- racks line was opened in 1866. This same com- pany purchased the New Orleans City and Lake, and the Crescent City railroad companies. The MIILH TRACTION'. St. Charles Street Railroad Companies, organ- ized in 1866, built the Carondelet, Dryades and Clio lines. It was the first company to issue transfers. The Orleans Railroad Company was organized in 1869, with three lines — Bayou St. John, Broad Street, and French Market. Elec- tricity was used on all the main lines by 1895. Present System. The New Orleans Railway and Light Company, organized in 1905, now operates every street railway in New Orleans, besides an electric light plant and a gas plant. It controls twenty-nine distinct lines, pene- trating every portion "of the city. The nominal fare is five cents and a imiversal system of transfers en- ables passengers to reach long dis- tances and outlying districts with- out additional cost. There are 206 miles of single track, 583 motor and passenger cars, besides work cars, wreckers, sprinklers, etc. This plant has four genei'ating stations for electricity; twenty-eight generators with a capacity of 337,000 kilowatts. The passenger traffic in 1913 was 87,058,951 revenue and 22,373,512 transfers, making a total of 109,412,463 passengers. It furnishes the electrical current for lighting and power purposes. The gas mains run everywhere, gas being used for fuel and heating as well as for lightihg. TOPICS: Early History of the Car Lines; The Present System. REFERENCES: Rightor's History; City Hall Archives. LiTEST MODEL OF ELECTRIC CAE IN USE IN NEW ORLEANS. CHAPTER VI. Trade. SECTION 1. SHIPPING. Port. The word "port" comes from a Latin word, meaning "gate." The term is used to designate a place, where goods brought to it on land, are placed on boats to be carried over water, or taken from boats to be carried by land. Tonna,ge. The amount of freight a ship can carry is called "tonnage." Her freight-carry- ing capacity is spoken of as so many ' ' tons regis- ter." This is because every ship is required to have a home port, where she is registered; the number of tons she can carry is part of her de- scription; this number is found out by ascertain- ing how many cubic feet of space she contains. A tax called "tonnage dues" is collected on her arrival in a new country. International Regulations. The rules were originally made for sailing vessels. When steam- ships were built, space had to be allowed for boilers, engines, and fuel, which space could not be used for freight. These deductions are by agreement among nations, practically the same everywhere, and amount to much more than the actual space occupied by the machinery, etc. This lessens the tonnage, and so makes the run- ning of the ship cheaper, which is a benefit to commerce. The freight on a ship is called "cargo." As a matter of fact, ships can usually take cargo equal to nearly twice their registered tonnage. Ordinarily, a 3,000 ton ship will take 5,600 tons of cargo. Control by United States Government. In the United States, all laws and rules with regard to registration, measurement, tonnage dues, and navigation, are passed by Congress and are under its authority. All navigable waters are controlled by the United States Government. Control of Wharves. The wharves and land- ings and all laws and rules affecting them, are passed by the State Legislature and are under its authority. "Wharves are constructed with the consent of the United States G-overnment at the expense of those to whom the state gives such authority. Wharves. A ship cannot lie alongside the natural shore, because when she has cargo on board she sinks deep into the water. For this reason, in some places, whai^es are built straight out so that when a ship is alongside her bow is toward the shore. These are called piers. Where piers can be built, much less "water front" is needed for the same number of ships than where piers are impracticable or impossible. The river current is too swift at New Orleans for piers, so there are wharves on the levees along the river. SECTION 2. SEAPORT AND RIVERPORT. Combined Seaport and Riverport. New Orleans has direct water comnmuicatiou as far as Pittsburg on the east, Chicago on the north, and Kansas City on the west, and deep-sea trade routes to all the principal ports of the world. Jetties. Though about 110 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, New Orleans is rightly consid- ered a seaport, for the largest ship afloat can enter the Mississippi and ascend beyond New Orleans. Until the second half of the nineteenth century, sea trade was interrupted by the forma- tion of sand bars at the mouth of the River. Silt, carried seaward by the strong current, was dropped when the waters of the Gulf retarded those of the river. Constant dredging was neces- sary to maintain a channel. This was expensive and inadequate. The commercial prosperity of the Mississippi Valley was hampered by this hindrance to navigation and several disasters occasioned actual loss. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 65 To improve these conditions the jetties were constructed by Captain James B. Eads in tlie month of the River, called the South Pass. Con- gress appropriated $1,000,000 for the work, which was begun in 1875 and completed in 1878. The jetties are walls of willow mattresses weighted with stones and held in place by piling. Debris and silt brought down by the River, gradually filled in all crevices, making firm, tight walls. These walls are connected with the River banks by dams and run parallel with each other 1,000 feet apart. The current of the mighty River, thus reduced *o a much narrower channel, becomes swifter, and, instead of depositing sedi- ment across the mouth of the River, carries it far into the deep waters of the Gulf. The force of the waters scours and continually deepens the channel, maldng dredging unnecessary. SECTION 3. HARBOR. Size of Harbor. When vessels arrive at New Orleans, they can discharge their cargoes directly upon the wharves, as the depth of the water ranges from twenty to seventy feet along- side of the wharves and up to 170 feet in mid- stream. The narrowest portion of the River opposite New Orleans has a width of 2,000 feet. The distance of New Orleans from the open sea is an added protection to ships in the harbor, for the severe storms of the Gulf do not reach so far inland, Fresh Water. New Orleans possesses an ad- vantage over most seaports in the fact that it has a fresh -Water harbor. In salt water, the hulls of ships become covered with barnacles, which injure the ship and retard navigation. As the barnacles die and fall off in fresh water, a trip to such a harbor saves the expense of having the hull cleaned. Naval Station. The United States Govern- ment maintains a Naval Station on the west bank of the River below Algiers. Political differ- ences led to the abandonment and subsequent reestablishment of this station. The common opinion is that New Orleans, the nearest United States port to the Panama Canal and the first city from the mouth of the Mississippi River, is the most favorable location for a naval base in the southern part of the United States. The Naval Station is a place of deposit for supplies, 66 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK a coaling station, and a repair plant. When the hull of a vessel has to be painted or repaired, the vessel must be raised out of the water. This is done by means of a dry dock. A dry dock is a large floating platform with walls along two sides, but open at either end. These walls con- tain compartments into which water is pumped to lower the platform below the water surface. The ship enters the dry dock when there is suf- ficient depth of water. The compartments are then emptied and the platform rises, lifting the vessel out of the water. The United States Gov- ernment dry dock at the Naval Station is capable of raising out of the water a vessel of 18,000 tons displacement. Immigration Station. Below the Naval Sta- tion is the United States luunigi'ation Station, which is the largest south of Philadelphia. Its purpose is to exclude from the country undesir- able aliens. Hence, all immigi'ants are sub- jected to physical and mental examinations, and are required to furnish proof of good character and means of support. An immigi'ant, who would probably become a burden to the com- munity, is returned to the country from which he came. Factories. As a result of transportation facil- ities to be had near the River, factories have been established along both sides of the harbor. Numerous canning factories, breweries, rice mills, cotton mills, oil and fertilizing plants, are situated on or near the River. SECTION 4. PUBLICLY OWNED WHARVES. State Ownership. The wharves at New Or- ovit, but this plan was not successful, because leans have, for the most part, always been public property, as, by the Constitution, are all land- ings in the state. Formerly, the wharves were under the control of the city and were leased the lessees did not keep them in good condition, and charged so exorbitantly for their use that business went elsewhere. The Board of Commissioners of the Port of DRY DOCKS AND UNITEO Sf ATES GOVERNMENT LANDINGS. « ' ' " ' — Courtesj' of Bpard of Ck)mniissioners of the Port of New THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 67 New Orleans. When it was determined to stop the leasing system, all of the wharves were in very bad condition and much money was needed to make them tit for use. The City, restricted by the State Constitution, was in debt for the full amount allowed by law. For this and other reasons, a new body was formed, called legally the "Board of Commissioners of the Port of New Orleans," but spoken of always as "The Dock Board." Power of the Dock Board. To this Board was given by amendment to the Constitution and by act of the Legislature (Act No. 70 of 1896), complete control of the wharves and harbor. It passes all ordinances for harbor pur- poses just as the City Council does for the city at large. Work of the Dock Board. The Dock Board took charge May 29, 1901. The members are appointed by tlie Grovemor and report to him. They serve without pay and elect all their offi- cers. The financing has been very successful, and there have been built nearly eight miles of excellent wharves, most of which are covered by steel sheds. Terminal Stations. In addition to these public wharves, there are several terminal stations controlled by different railroad lines. At Westwego, on the west side of the Eiver, the Texas and Pacific Railroad has two grain elevators and about three-quarters of a mile of wharfage. On the east side, at Stuyvesant Docks, the Illinois Central Railroad has 4,800 feet of river front occupied by wharf, occupying the distance from Napoleon avenue to Louisiana avenue. This provides berth-room for ten ships at once. There are two grain elevators back of the wharf. The Louisville and Nash- ville Railroad has a berth for one ship at St. Joseph and Calliope streets. At the Amer- ican Sugar Refinery, there is room for three ships at once. Port Chalmette. The New Orleans Terminal Company, which is owned jointly by the South- ern Railway Company and the "Frisco" Rail- road Company, has Port Chalmette, about six miles below Canal street. There, a gi'ain elevator is maintained and about half a mile of wharf, besides berth-room for several pumping plants handling creosote and crude petroleum. "Frisco Slip." This company also owns, just below the American Sugar Refinery, what is known as the "Frisco Slip," a novel departure for the provision of wharfage and berths. Im- mense concrete walls form a huge rectangle extending back into the land and open on the River end. Fine freight sheds have been constructed along the three closed sides of the rectangle. Between the walls,' the bottom is dredged so that ships can lie against the con- crete walls. "Pumping Stations." In addition to these wharves, there are numerous "pumping sta- tions," where petroleum, oil (both crude and re- fined), creosote, and molasses are handled both in and out. Power of the Dock Board Over Private Ter- minals. Under the law, the Dock Board can take possession and control of any of these so-called "private terminals" at any time it thinks the public interest so requires, by paying a fair value for the improvements. SECTION 5. HANDLING CARGO. Laborers. The men, who make contracts with ships to load and unload them, are called stevedores. The laborers, who actually do the work, are called longshoremen. One of the advantages of New Orleans as a port is that the longshoremen do their work better than at any other port. They load more cargo on a ship and store it better than elsewhere, so that voyages from New Orleans are more profitable to the ship. Liquid Cargoes. The various pumping stations handle bulk cargoes of liquid freight with great economy and speed, especially oils, creosote, and molasses. A tank ship bringing a million and a quarter gallons of molasses has been discharged in sixty hours. Grain Elevators. The grain elevators are large structures, where quantities of grain are stored. By mechanical devices, the grain is rapidly arid economically loaded upon ships, 68 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK Banana Cargoes. The liandliug of banana cargoes can hardly be improved upon. The system of mechanical conveyors taking bananas out of the ship and delivering them on the wharf, works so that nearly ten thousand bunches an hour can be taken out of a ship working four hatches. Cars are loaded at an average rate of one every four or five minutes. SECTION 6. PUBLIC BELT. Size of Modem Cargo. Not very many years ago, when ships were built of wood and a 1,000- ton ship was a large one, the wharf could easily hold all the cargo of a ship. Now, when a 3,000- ton ship is a small one, there is not room on any wharf for a whole cargo. Consequently, it has become necessary for the freight to be moved to and from the wharf quickly to prevent conges- tion when the ship is discharging, and loss of time when the ship is loading. Need for Promptness in Moving Cargo. As a comparatively small ship costs $500 a day, she loses money very rapidly if idle. If the ship owner is not to lose, the cost of her idle time has to be added to her freight charges. To over- come this disadvantage, it is necessary to have abundant means for moving cargo quickly to and from the wharves on the land side. The Public Belt Railroad. The municipally owned Pul)lic Belt Eailroad, which has been in operation since 1908, meets this necessity. The Public Belt tracks make a complete circuit of the city, connecting all trunk lines, all whai-ves and landings, and all important industries. Be- fore the operation of this system, switching charges ranged from eight dollars to twenty-two dollars per car. Now, engines, owned by the Public Belt Commission, carry goods from rail- road to railroad, from ship to railroad, from factory to ship or railroad, for the nominal sum of two dollars a car. This includes the hauling of the emj^ty car lief ore loading or after unloading, BANANA CONVEYORS. — Courtesy of Board of Commissioners of tlie Port of New Orleans. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 69 for the Public Belt does not own the cars. Over 15,000 cars a mouth are haudled by the Public Belt, and its business is constantly increasing. The route of the Public Belt is shown on the present-day map of the city. Necessity for Co-operation Between Dock Board and Public Belt. The necessity will be understood when it is remembered that a ship a little over 300 feet long, will carry, in round figures, about 6,000 tons of cargo, while one 500 feet long will carry 15,000 tons. iSix thousand tons of cargo are, on an average, 400 car loads, while 15,000 tons are 1,000 car loads. No wharf at a ship berth can hold much over 150 car loads at one time. The need, then, of having cars con- veniently placed and rapidly handled is ab- solute, if the ship is not to wait or^be carried to another berth for part of her cargo. The ex- pense of moving is several hundred dollars. Therefore, it will be a very great advantage when the ship can discharge and receive her cargo at one berth without any idle time. Necessity for Many Miles of Trackage to One Mile of River Front. As a freight car is about forty feet long, the thousand cars needed to carry a 15,000-ton cargo will occupy 40,000 feet of railroad track, or seven and one-half miles. The Illinois Central Eailroad, at Stuyvesant Docks, has twenty miles of trackage for one mile of wharfage, and is finding it necessary to put in additional tracks. To enable the Dock Board to get the greatest use out of its wharves, it is not only necessary to have perfect cooper- ation with the Public Belt Railroad, but it is also necessary for that organization to greatly increase its trackage. SECTION 7. WATERWAYS. Water Route of Mississippi River System. .One of the greatest advantages enjoyed by New Orleans is that the Mississippi Eiver and its tributaries furnish more than 16,000 miles of navigable waterway, extending into twenty-two of the forty-eight states of the Union, included between the AUeghanies on the east, the Rockies on the west, and Canada on the north. These are: Louisiana Wisconsin Mississippi Minnesota Alabama North Dakota Tennessee South Dakota Kentucky Montana West Virginia Nebraska Pennsylvania Iowa Ohio Missouri Indiana Arkansas Illinois Oklahoma Kansas Northern Texas Navigable rivers reach from New Orleans to Pittsburg on the east, to Chicago on the north, and to Kansas City on the west. The new impetus given to water-borne commerce by the improvement of water- ways, by the construction of modern inland water craft, and by the provision of suitable terminals, will make New Orleans a port of de- posit and distribution for all the states in the Mississippi Valley. Volume of Mississippi Valley Trade. Tlie commerce originating in these states is more than half the commerce of the Union. Notwith- standing their continual expansion, the rail- MAP SHOWING DRAINAGE SYSTEM OP MISSISSIPPI RIVER. — Courtesy La. State Museum. 70 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK roads cannot always handle it entirelj^ The history of railroad transportation shows that the volume doubles about every ten years. It is a matter of absolute necessity that the water- ways shall soon come into general use. Already the movement is on foot to build and operate economical barges and boats, so that freight can be handled to advantage and profit on these waterways. River Traffic. The volume of river traffic is not realized, because so few people see it. One towboat, now on the Mississippi, can bring from Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in thirty days, twenty barges of coal of 1,000 tons each. This is equal to eighty trains of fifty cars each; nearly four miles of train. Such a large quantity of coal would not come as quickly by rail. Much sugar, cotton, rice and general produce are brought by river boats now. Thei'e are at present within the State of Louisiana nearly 5,000 miles of navigable streams and canals con- nected with the port of New Orleans. During 1914 the arrivals were: Steamboats 1,640 I Luggers and gasoline boats . . . 2,245 Miscellaneous 298 Total 4,183 Steamboat Landing. Just below Canal street is the steamboat landing,where river boats of every size and description may be seen unload- ing their cargoes of sugar, rice, cotton, molasses, and general produce. On their return trips, mis- cellaneous cargoes are carried to different points at which the boats touch. LaJce Trade. The trade on Lake Pontchar- train, while small in comparison with the rail- road or sea trade, is by no means insignificant, either in volume or in its effect upon the cost of many necessities. Small boats, schooners, luggers, gasoline boats, and barges bring lumber, shingles, staves, cordwood, lathes, rosin, charcoal, sand, gravel, and shells, besides numerous other products of the countiy around the Lakes. There are, altogether, about 4,000 arrivals during the year, and the number is steadily in- creasing. When Lake Pontchartrain is connected with the Intercoastal Canal system, the volume and variety of the business will very greatly in- crease. The Lake trade finds its way into the commercial part of the city by Spanish Fort through Bayou St. John, which joins the Caron- delet or Old Basin Canal, and by West End through the New Basin Canal. The Old Basin Canal. The Carondelet or Old Basin Canal was cut in colonial times (See Chap. II.). It came under the control of the railroad companies and, as its efficiency was thereby greatly impaired, the state is suing for its con- trol. The Old Basin enjoys a monopoly of the Lake oyster trade because of its nearness to the markets. The New Basin Canal. In 1831, the New Or- leans Canal and Banking Company was char- tered for the purpose of constructing a naviga- tion canal above Poydras street from the city to Lake Pontchartrain. Despite the terrible death rate caiised by cholera and yellow fever during the year 1832, the work progressed rapidly, being completed at a much less cost than had been estimated. The Canal and Banking Com- pany were eventually separated. The canal, known as the New Basin Canal, was turned over to the state in 1838. The bank, however, has continued in business until the present day. The New Basin Canal is operated by a board and superintendent appointed by the Governor. This canal is in a prosperous condition, doing about three times as much business as the old; the plan to deepen the New Basin to eleven feet will, if carried out, further increase this advantage. Along the bank of the canal, the board main- tains a shell road, which has long been noted as one of the finest driveways in the country. Lake to the River Canals. Below New Or- leans, the Lake Borgne Canal extends from Lake BorgTie to the Mississippi River. While very useful, it has two disadvantages: it can be used only by small vessels and it is not under public control. A Lake to the River canal, to be pub- licly owned and operated, is now under consider- ation. It will extend from Lake Pontchartrain to the River and will be deeper than the Lake Borgne Canal. The preferred route is through the lower part of the city, where there will be less interruijtion to land traffic. The plan is to make the land on either side of the canal avail- able for factory sites, private warehouses, and other industries. Intercoastal Canal. The Intercoastal Canal, now under construction by the United States Government, will furnish an inland waterway from the Rio Grande to Boston. It will eliminate much of the loss from storms encountered by ships in the open gulf or sea. A plan has been THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 71 approved for the Intercoastal Canal to join the Mississippi River at a point opposite New Or- leans. The canals now leaving the Mississippi near New Orleans will likely become parts of the system, as, wherever possible, lakes, streams, and existing canals are being utilized. This link- ing together of the waterways into one con- nected system will inevitably stimulate watei'- borne commerce. In Louisiana, many large streams will be intersected by this canal ; among them, the Atchafalaya, navigable for its entire course ; the Vermilion ; the Mermentau ; the Cal- casieu, on which is situated Lake Charles ; and the Sabine. It will open up for development the valu- able coast lands with their rich deposit of allu- vium; it will solve the problem of transportation through an isolated section, and it will assist in solving the drainage question in the marsh lands. SECTION 8. PORT IMPROVEMENT. Port Improvement Planned. Realizing the necessity for the rapid and economical handling of freight, the Dock Board, in 1913, employed eminent engineers to make a thorough investi- gation of conditions at New Orleans. All com- mercial organizations, shippers, and others were called upon to make known their needs and offer suggestions. The result has been the creation of a symmetrical plan for continuous develop- ment and improvement of the facilities of the port of New Orleans. Mechanical Devices. The Dock Board has begun extensive experiments to test and try out all kinds of machinery for the handling of various kinds of goods, so as to give quick service to ships, both loading and unloading. Warehouses. The Dock Board is having warehouses and sheds erected, where freight can be brought together for the ships or c|uickly transferred to the wharves to await distribution. In other words, it will make New Orleans a "port of deposit" instead of a mere transfer station. The erection of the great cotton ware- house has been the first step in this direction. Hei'etofore, the world 'ssm'plus has been handled and kept, for the most part, at Liverpool, and any brought back to America required the pay- ment of double freight charges. (See Chapter VIL, Section 1.) Similar facilities will be jorovided for lumber, coffee, and any other uniform com- modity, that can be brought to New Orleans, and even general merchandise may be so cared for in time. SECTION 9. RAILROAD COMMUNICATION. Western Communication, The cific Railroad, the Texas Pacific Louisiana Railway and Navigation Company, and the New Orleans, Texas, and Mexico Rail- road Company, now fur- nish the medium of traffic with the west side of the Mississippi River. Re- cently-made arrange- ments will also number the Iron Mountain-Mis- souri Pacific System amongst the west bank lines. These give two Southern Pa- Railroad, the through routes to the Pacific coast, and all the states between, besides reaching all the cities west of the Mississippi River as far as St. Louis and Omaha. Eastern Communica- tion. On the east, the Louisville and Nashville, the New Orleans and North Eastern, the Illi- nois Central, the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley, ;iud the New Orleans Grreat Northern, directly or indirectly give rail- road connection with all FERRYING OARS ACROSS THE RIVER. — Courtesy of Southern Pacific R. R, THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK the United States. The Illinois Central has a double track to Chicago and reaches, with con- necting branch lines, Birmingham, Louisville, Indianapolis, Omaha, and Sioux City. Extent of Systems. These roads each have, or belong to systems that have, thousands of miles of track, and nearly all the larger cities may be reached over the lines of more than one — as, for instance, the Illinois Central, the New Orleans and North Eastern, and the Louis- ville and Nashville, run through sleeping cars to New York, as well as through freights. SECTION 10. FOREIGN TRADE. Lack of American Ships. The sea trade of New Orleans, like that of all other American ports, except Baltimore and Philadelphia, is carried for the most part in foreign shijos. At Baltimore and Philadelphia, the coastwise trade exceeds the foreign trade and, as no foreign ships are, under our laws, permitted to carry goods or passengers from one port to another, those ports have more American than foreign ships. Ships Under American Register. Hereto- fore, the only regular sailings of American ships to foreign ports, were the Southern Pacific lines to Havana. Under the laws passed in Septem- ber, 1914, the United Fruit Company is regis- tering as American the ships which were formerly under the British flag. Southern Pacific Lines. The Southern Pa- cific operates two steamship lines from New Or- leans, namely, to Havana, Cuba, and New York City. The ships carry general merchandise to Havana and bring return cargoes of raw sugar, pineapples, etc. ; general cargoes, including some cotton, are taken to New York, and general mer- chandise brought back. The United Fruit Company's Lines. These ships visit Havana and Central American ports, taking cargoes of provisions, machinery, lumber, and structural iron, bringing from all the coun- tries on the Caribbean Sea, bananas, chicle for chewing gum, rubber, coffee, and sarsaparilla. Ports. The principal ports visited by these ships are Colon and Bocas del Toro in Panama, Port Limon in Costa Rica, Cortez in Honduras, Barrios in Guatemala, and Belize in British Hon- duras. The smaller independent fruit companies visit also Bluefields and Cape Gracias, Nica- ragua, Ceiba, Honduras, Fontera, Mexico, and some lesser ports in these countries. Trade With Mexico. The trade with Mexico is liy British ships chartered to a Mexican Com- pany, bringing sisal from Progresso and taking back corn, provisions, and lumber. A Mexican Company runs Mexican ships from Vera Cruz and Tampico to New Orleans, bringing coffee, hats, and miscellaneous merchandise and taking down provisions, lumber, and machinery of all sorts, as well as railroad supplies and material. Tank ships of all nations bi'ing crude petroleum from Tampico and Tuxpan. Trans-Oceanic Lines. The trans-Atlantic trade is wholly in foreign ships, chiefly British. There are seven British lines, two German, two Spanish, one French, two Dutch, and one Danish sailing regularly. An American line and a Jap- anese line will run ships to the Pacific through the Panama Canal. The New York and Porto Rico line has a weekly ship to Porto Rico. Be- sides these regTilar lines, the port is visited by many "tramp" ships, mostly British, chartered by local ship agents to carry cargoes princi]ially to British ports. Ports of Trans -Atlantic Trade. The chief ports to which ships from New Orleans run, are Belfast, Ireland; Glasgow, Scotland; Liverpool, Manchester, and London, England; Rotterdam, Holland; Copenhagen, Denmark; Antwerp, Bel- gium; Havre and Marseilles, France; Bilboa, Cadiz, and Barcelona, Spain; Genoa, Florence, Naples, and Palermo, Italy; Trieste, Austria; and Hamburg and Bremen, Germany. Exports. In 1914, New Orleans was the sec- ond port of tite United States, being outranked only by New York. The combined value of exports and imports aggregated $283,938,066. Practically everj^ state in the Mississippi Valley sends some products through the port of New Orleans. Corn, wheat, and other grains come from the Central States. The Southern States, especially Louisi- ana, Mississippi, and Arkansas, send cotton and cotton seed products, oil cake and meal. Okla- homa and Texas supply some cotton, but the bulk THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 73 of the crop from those states is shipped from Gal- veston. As a lumber port, New Orleans stands first among American cities. In the heart of the cypress region, it exports both lumber and man- ufactured articles. The Southern yellow pine and naval stores obtained from it, pass through New Orleans en route to points in Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America. Nearly all the 1 staves used in harvesting the wine crop of '.Europe are supplied by this port, while quan- tities of oak, walnut, and poplar, as logs or lumber, are distributed to all parts of the world. Linseed i^roducts from Minnesota; tobacco from Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana; iron frtm Alabama; farm machinery from Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Wisconsin; boots, shoes, and mi&cellaneous products from the vast area con- nec\ed with New Orleans by a network of water- wayt and railroads, swell the export trade. Inports. The principal articles of import are e\)ffee, sugar, sisal grass, burlaps, bananas, nitrat? of soda, mineral oil, creosote oil, mahog- any l(tes, drugs and chemicals, fertilizers, mo- lasses, ferro-manganese, sugar beet seed, fruits and nufe, manufactures of fibers, and manufac- tures ofiiron and steel. Each of these items ex- ceeds a \alf million dollars in value. From far- away India, British ships bring burlaps, which is fourth in value on the list- of imports, and a coarser kind of bagging made from the pieces of jute unfit for burlaps. British liners carry salt, ferro-manganese, which is used in making Bessemer steel, and textiles from the world- famed looms of England, besides manufactured articles of every description. Fuller's earth, carried sometimes as ballast, is brought in great quantities; it is used for bleaching and cleaning cloth and for filtering oils. Most of it goes to the cottonseed and linseed oil mills. One of the curious paradoxes of commerce is, that the same British ship that brought 8,000 sacks of salt from Liverpool, carried to Liverpool on her re- turn voyage 5,000 sacks of salt from Louisiana mines. Notwithstanding the unlimited resources for food production within the United States, many articles for table use are brought from European ports. Unexcelled wines and liquors, the secret of whose manufacture is jealously guarded ; cheese, unequaled by American makes, from France, Holland, and Switzerland; olive oil from southern France, Italy, and Spain ; cur- rants from Patras, Greece; lemons and even garlic all the way from Italy, are unloaded upon New Orleans wharves. Diverse minerals, such 74 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK as marble from Italy, magnesite from Austria, and ferro-manganese from Luxemburg, are im- ported. Every kind of manufactured article — fine china, porcelains, and toilet articles from France; plate glass and baskets from Belgium; toys and trinkets of every description from Germany, tbe land of ingenuity, are brought to New Orleans to be distributed over many states. Triangular South American Trade. The value of coffee far exceeds that of any other im- port, being over thirty-two and a half million dollars. Three British lines bring nine-tenths of the coffee imported to New Orleans from Brazil. Rio de Janeiro and Santos are the ports of origin. These same ships take cargoes from New Orleans to European ports, and there get cargoes for Argentina and Brazil, making a tri- angular run always in the same direction. It is a fact that great quantities of American goods find their way to South America through Euro- pean ports. Though several efforts have been made to establish direct lines from New Orleans to Brazil and Argentina, it has so far been found that the existing European lines, especially the ■British, were too strongly established in that trade for the new, weak lines to break into it. While cargoes from New Orleans could easily be obtained, no return freight could be had. Cuban Trade. Great quantities of the world- famed Havana cigars are brought from Cuba to New Orleans, not for local consumption alone, but to be forwarded to all parts of the world. From Cuba, also, comes the raw sugar by hun- dred thousand tons for refineries in New Or- leans and elsewhere. Other imports from Cuba are thousands of crates of pineapples, gi'ape- fruit, oranges, and other tropical fruits. Al- ligator pears, and many other vegetables, sucli as tomatoes, okra, egg-plants, peppers, and tie like, are shipped north by the carload before any part of the United States can produce them. Panama Canal. The Panama Canal opens the door of the Pacific Ocean to the port of Lew Orleans, as the nearest port of the United States to the Atlantic end of the canal. The oppor- tunity is boundless in its possibilities. The trade of the west coast of South America, of much of the west coast of North Ame'ica, a great part of the trade of Australia, Japm, and China, the Philippine Islands, and j^arther India, as well as the East Indian Islaids, will pass through New Orleans. SECTION 11. THE UNITED STATES CUSTOM SERVICE. The Custom House. The United States Gov- ernment collects annually about three hundred million dollars in tariff, or what are called Cus- toms Duties. To look after this business, as well as to attend to all the business in connection with boats and shipping, it built the Custom House in Canal street, between Decatur and North Peters streets. It is a noble granite struc- ture of gi'aceful and dig- nified proportions. The large hall in the center of the building, com- monly called the Marble Hall, is one of the hand- somest rooms in the country. The walls are of brick, faced with granite, and in parts, on the inside, with marble. They are very massive and are fasteifid together with heavy bars of iron built iato tin brickwork. The building has settled, and will jTobably con- tinue to do so, but the constructionis so fine and it is so well balanced that no danage has been done by what settling has taken place. It was finished about 1880. General Beauregard at one tinti had charge of the wok as an officer of the Eigineer Corps of the Amy. Duies of Collector. The Custom House is in char,e of the Collector of 'Customs, who has contol, not only of the pot of New Orleans, br. of all the State of L'uisiana and Western —Courtesy of Southern Pacific R. K. MSSlSSippi. All SllipS THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 75 that arrive, are required to report at the Custom House to the Collector and file a list of what they have on board, called a "manifest." This is called "entering." A ship is not allowed to leave port without filing a manifest of what she carries away, and getting permission from the Collector. This is called "clearing." Duties of Surveyor ajid His Officers. The Collector has under him an officer called the Sur- veyor, whose duty it is to look after ships and everything pertaining to the government rev- enue outside the Custom House. The Surveyor has under him Inspectors, who do the actual work of executing the law and the orders of the Collector. Every ship that comes in is in charge of an inspector, who makes a return of every- thing she brings in. On that return, the duties are settled and paid. No man can get his own freight until he gets a "permit" from the Col- lector after having deposited cash for the duties. No ship is allowed to discharge freight, unless there is an inspector present. The Customs Inspectors also search the baggage of passen- gers coming from foreign countries. In fact, nothing can come lawfully from any country without passing under the supervision of a Customs Inspector. There are forty-five of these officers at New Oi'leans, and over thirty million dollars of duties are collected on their returns. TOPICS: Section 1, Shipping; Section 2, Seaport and River- port; Section 3, Harbor; Section 4, Publicly Owned Wharves; Section 5, Handling Cargo; Section 6, Public Belt; Section 7, Waterways; Section 8, Port Improve- ment; Section 9, Railroad Communication; Section 10, Foreign Trade; Section 11, The United States Customs Service. REFERENCES: Standard History of New Orleans, Eightor; Reports of the Board of Commissioners of the Port of New Orleans. , .^lA PANORAMIC VIEW OF THE HARBOR. — Courtesy of Board of Commissioners of the Port of New Orleans. CHAPTER VII. Industries. SECTION 1. COTTON. The Cotton Plant. Cotton belongs to the mallow family, which includes not only cotton, but also okra, hollyhocks, and a number of common weeds. There are three main kinds of cotton grown in the United States, namely, short stajDle, long staple, and Sea Island cotton. The four leading cotton parishes of Louisiana are Tensas, Point Coupee, St. Landry, and More- house. Cotton, however, can be grown in every parish. By scientific methods of planting and cultivation, the farmer now makes his cotton crop in eight or nine months, where formerly it took a year. Every nation depends largely upon the southern part of the United States for cotton. It is the crop which has a staple value in the markets of the world, its bill of lading being iini vers ally negotiable. The powerful influence it exerts on trade, its absorjotion both as product and manufacture, place it high in the scale of commercial economics. The New Orleans Cotton Market. New Orleans has always been the largest market for the sale of cotton. Up to a recent date, it ranked first in point of re- ceipts in the United States. The increase in the Texas crop and the drastic regula- tions of the Texas Railroad Commission have forced the bulk of the crop of that State through the port of Galveston, making that place the largest cotton re- ceiver. The source of the cotton supply of New Orleans is principally from Ar- kansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. A small part of the products of Texas, Georgia, Tennessee, and Alabama finds a market through this port. An immense cotton warehouse has been erected, and New Orleans has great prospects of be- coming the center for the storage of cotton, subject to the wants of the spin- ners in America and abroad. The New Orleans Cotton Exchange. The Cotton Exchange, whose membership and visit- ing membership embraces between .500 and 600, ranks as one of the three great contract markets in the world. Through this mediimi, a large per- centage of the cotton crop of the United States, marketed through various ports, is controlled by the merchants of the Crescent City. The business of the membership of the New Orleans Cotton Exchange embraces the filling of orders from every state in the Cotton Belt and the cotton manufacturing centers of the North, East, and West, as well as all the great markets and NEW ORLEANS COTTON EXCHANGK. — Courtesy of Southern Pacific R. R. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 77 the manufacturing centers of Europe. The daily transactions on the floor of the local Exchange reflect, and, in a great measure, govern, the world's sentiment in reference to the values of the great southern staple. The Advantage of Cotton Futures. The system of dealing in "cotton futures" gives manufacturers of small means equal advantages with those possessing large capital in selling their product far into the future. Without the aid of the "futures" system, it is very evident that manufacturers having small or moderate capital, would be at a very serious disad- vantage. Manufacture of Cotton. The first successful venture in cotton manufacturing was made in 1864, by N. L. Lane. The Lane Mills have grad- ually increased in size. They still retain the name of their foimder, although they have passed into other hands. These mills are now equipped with modern machinery, and the most improved methods are used in the manufacture of colored cotton goods. The Maginnis Mill No. 1 was established in 1881, and a second, called No. 2, in 1888. These mills, which were closed in 1910, and reopened July, 1914, make sheeting, drill, duck, and are specializing in cement bags. Although there have been no large cotton mills established in New Orleans in the last twenty years, there are a number of knitting mills for the manufac- ture of hosiery, jerseys, knitted underwear, twine, carpet yarns, and reeler yarns. Cotton Seed Oil — Cake. The cottou seed oil industry depends upon the state's annual production of cot- ton. The use of cotton seed is entering into the economic life of the people, and the by-products manu- factured from cotton seed, have added millions to the productive value of, the cotton lands of Lou- isiana. The Cotton Warehouse. Realizing the necessity of modern terminal and stor- age facilities, the Board of Port Commissioners has had the huge cotton warehouse erected, cover- ing an area of 100 aci'es. The annual capacity of the warehouse is at present 2,000,000 bales, which will ultimately be increased to 4,000,000 bales. Fire insurance companies have agreed to a rate of fifteen cents per $100 on all cotton stored in these reinforced concrete structures. Some of the most up-to-date features of the new ware- house are the automatic weighing machines, electric trucks, internal concrete runways, and "bale-puller"; this last relieves the strain of the pile from the bale wanted, and then with- draws the bale without disturbing the pile. The warehouse will issue a receipt for a bale of cotton, which will be recognized and accepted for full value anywhere in the world. Thus, New Orleans may become a point of deposit for the world's surplus cotton, as well as the point of export for a large part "of the cotton crop of the United States. In connection with this enterprise, another great piece of engineering work is to be accom- plished, namely, the reclamation of 250 feet from the Mississippi River in front of the cotton Avarehouse. This work will be both difficult and costly; but the acreage reclaiiued and the ad- i COTTON — Courtesy of Board of Commissioners of the Port of New Orleans, 78 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK vantage of having the warehouse along the deep water channel of the river, will more than offset the work and exj^ense. Note. — The Mexican boll-weevil came into Texas from Mexico about 1892, and has since spread throughout most of the cotton-growing sections of the adjoining states. The most important step in fighting the boll-weevil is to hasten the maturity of the cotton plant, so that the bolls formed early in the summer are well grown by the time weevils be- come very numerous, which is about the middle of July or the first of August. The boll-weevil does not do much damage to well-grown bolls, while there is an abundance of squares in which eggs have not already been laid. Safety lies in diversified farming and intensive cotton culture. The history of the Whitney cotton gin is familiar to every boy and girl. However, few are aware that to Louisiana belongs the intro- duction of the first cotton gin in 1742 by M. Dubreuil. TOPICS: The Cotton Plant; New Orleans Cotton Eeceipts; Financing the Cotton Crop; Manufactures. BEFEBENCES: Duggar's Agriculture for Southern Schools; Leigh's Book on Cotton; United States Census, 1910. SECTION 2. CORN. Coi-n belongs to the grass family. Some of the plants to which it is related are true grasses, as sugar cane and rice. Corn differs from most of its relatives, in having both a tassel and an ear, and in having these located on different parts of the plant. Races of Corn. There are only a few races of corn, the most important being pop, sweet, dent (or common), and flint. In each race, there are many varieties. Corn is planted either in elevated ridges or beds, in depressions or water furrows, or in level gi'ound, according to the soil and the farmer's judgment. Corn Crop of Louisiana. Ijouisiana is fast taking a ranking place among the leading corn states. The yield is increasing steadily, due to fertilization, deep plowing, adequate cultiva- tion, and systematic rotation of crops. Splen- did work is being accomplished by the Boys' Corn Clubs, an important branch of the Farm Demonstration Bureau, which is under the direc- tion of the United States Department of Agri- culture. Louisiana corn is harvested at a time of continued sunshine, and, if dried in a way to preclude deterioration, is preferred by the mar- kets at home and abroad. According to the last report of the Commis- sioner of AgTicultiu-e, cotton, without counting its seed, still leads, with corn a close second. The corn product of 1,963,698 acres amounted to 34,087,062 bushels valued at $21,063,484. The parish of St. Landry leads with 100,000 acres in cultivation, valued at $1,200,000. TOPICS: Corn Family; Louisiana as a Corn State. BEFEBENCES: Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for February, 1914. CORN CROP ON RECLAIMED If-^ND, THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK SECTION 3. SUGAR. 79 Sugar Cane. Sugar cane belongs to the grass family. Under the tube-like lower portions of each leaf are buds, one at each joint. These serve instead of seed to multiply the plant. Sugar cane first grew in the countries warmer than the Southern States, but has greatly changed its habit of growth as it has been carried north- ward. In the tropics, it continues to grow fifteen months or more, before being cut. Sugar cane was introduced into Louisiana from San Domingo in 1751, by the Jesuit Fathers. The cane grew well, but all attempts to manufacture sugar failed, until 1791, when Don Antonio Mendez succeeded in extracting sugar from cane. Three years later, Etienne de Bore made such a large crop of sugar that many were induced to go into the industry. Preparation and Cultivation. In Louisiana, a field to be planted in cane the next year, is planted the preceding year in corn, with cow peas sown thickly among the corn. The entire growth of cow peas is turned under by the use of immense plows. This enriches the land by furnishing vegetable matter and nitrogen. Sugar cane is then grown on that field for two or three years. A good average yield in Louisiana is twenty to thirty tons of cane per acre. The tops cannot live through the winter, but the stubble and roots remain alive and furnish a supply for a second and, some- times, for a third crop. Planting, therefore, is necessary only every second or third year. The sugar belt em- braces twenty-four par- ishes, St. Mary leading. Sugar Maidng. As the cane is cut, it is loaded by mechanical loaders into wagons of about two tons ca- pacity. These wagons are driven to the hoist- ing derricks, which load the cane on the ears. At the sugar house, these discharge the cane into a patented carrier. The cane is passed through large mills which crush it, and thus separate the juice from the woody matter or bagasse. From here, the juice runs through the sulphur tanks, where sulphur dioxide is absorbed. The bagasse is carried to the furnaces. IIere,_ it is mixed with a little crude oil and furnishes the source of fuel for operating the mill. After the juice is sulphured, it is pumped to other tanks, where lime in solution is added and the juice brought to a boil. The clear part is drawn off to settling tanks. The precipitate or solid sub- stance which has been deposited, is sent through the filter press, separating the juice from what is called the filter presscake or solid matter. (A filter press is a cast iron frame with heavy sheets, through which the juice is pumped.) The juice remains in the settling tank for half an hour; then, all the clear juice is drawn off and mi'xed with juice from the filter press. The whole is passed through the evaporators, oper- ated under vacuum, to make sugar house syrup. This syrup is then boiled in the pan to make "massecuite," or sugar crystallized. This is A CANE CROP ON RECLAIMED LAND. 80 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK run through the centrifugals, which separate the sugar and molasses. Generally, the sugar is washed with water before it is taken out of the centrifugals. The molasses and wash-waters are reboiled to make second sugar. The molasses in this is used for stock-feed and is also sold to distilleries. Refining Process. Sugar is mixed with water to make a thick magma, when it is run into the centrifugals. It is again washed with water to remove the outer coating of the crystals. The remaining part of the sugar is dissolved sep- arately, reclaritied, and put through the bone black filter. The liquor is again evaporated into syrup, and finally into "massecuite." When it comes out of the centrifugals, it is put through the driers and granulators. LouisiaJia Sugar Crop. Sugar made in Lou- isiana from the crop of cane harvested in 1913- '14, according to an enumeration just completed by the Bureau of Statistics, amounted to 480,- 346,707 pounds, valued at $16,888,509. The Chalmette Sugar Refinery. This refinery is a mighty tribute to the greatness of the sugar industry of Louisiana. It represents the very best in steel and concrete construction engineer- ing. The steel docks permit three large ships to discharge their cargoes simultaneously. The shipping facilities permit the loading and un- loading of fifty cars at the same time. The filter- ing plant has a capacity. of 6,000,000 gallons a day; the huge boiler plant generates 11,000 horse-power, and is fitted with gravity coal bins of 7,000 tons capacity and with mechanical stokers. The cooperage is one of the largest in the South. The machinery is electrically driven. The refinery has an annual capacity of 600,000 tons. More than one-third is Louisiana sugar, the remainder being imported from Cuba, Java, and the Hawaiian Islands. The Sugar Experiment Station. The Sugar Experiment Station was moved about thirtj^ years ago from Kenner to its present location in Audubon Park. The station experiments in the field, laboratory, and sugar house, publish- ing its results in bulletins. It has aided in every development of the sugar industry. The Sugar Exchange of New Orleans is the place where buyers and sellers meet daily for the purpose of trade in sugar, syrup and molasses. TOPICS: Introduction into Louisiana; Preparation and Cultivation; Sugar-Malfing; Refining Process; Louisiana Sugar Crop. REFERENCES: United Stfttes Census Reports; Crop Re- ports of 1914. tllALMETTB SUGAR REFINERY. -Courtesy of BoarJ of Commissioners of the Port of New Orleans. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK SECTION 4. RICE. 81 The History of Rice. The history of Asia from the beginning records rice as a staple human food product. When we refer to the intrinsic value of rice as a human edible, we have the emphasis of centuries of use and the development of the Asiatic peoples, esioecially the Japanese, for proof. The first rice planted in the United States was in Virginia, in 1647. The experiment was a failure, this state being too far north. In 1694, a vessel from Madagascar, owing to a storm, entered Charleston Harbor. The captain gave a planter some rough rice, from which a successful crop was grown and the seed from this was dis- tributed. Rice in Lou- isiana. Kice was first raised in Lou- isiana in an attempt to offset the ill ef- fects experienced by the wanton de- struction of the Carolina industry. Owing to the responsive soil, rice soon became a recognized staple in Louisiana. When rail lines were built through the prairie parishes of Southwest Louisiana, the Western farmers (about 1884) made their ad- vent into that section. Primitive methods of sowing, binding, and threshing, soon gave way to modern mechanical appliances. The most important era of the rice industry was in 1896 — the year in which the irrigation canal was in- troduced. In commencing operations, a canal company first makes a thorough topographical survey, which makes possible the construction of the main canal and laterals in such a manner as to allow the water to go on at the higher levels, and inundate by gravitation the lower levels. All the rice in Louisiana is irrigated by pumping, the exception being the alluvial sec- tions where the ^^ water is syphoned ^ ^} '" '' • from the river. ,"■.. Rice Culture. The ground is well lu'oken with riding |)lows and pulver- ized with large har- rows. As a rule, the seed is planted by drills, although in the alluvial lands a great many grow- ers cling to the old method of broad- casting. Unless the ground is very wet, water is turned on immediately after seeding. It is turned off again until the grain has attained a growth of four or five inches, when it is reflooded to about the same depth until a week before harvesting. This commences about the latter part of July, according to locality, and extends to about the fifteenth of November. After being threshed, the rice is either sold in the field to the agent of a mill, or consigned to one of the central rice- milling points. About one-third of the milling IRRIGATION PUMPING PLANT IN WEST LOUISIANA. — ^Courtesy of S. Locke Breaus. PUEPAEATION OF SOIL FOB KICE PLANTING IN WEST LOUISIANA. — Courtesy of S. Locke Breaux. 82 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK crop is disposed of througli the factor on the floor of the New Orleans Board of Ti'ade, which organization controls, to a great extent, the prices of rice for the entire country. Most of the rice disposed of on the Board of Trade is sold to local mills, the balance being shipped to the South Atlantic markets. Eice find its chief use as a staple article of food. Ten per cent of the Louisiana crop is used in the manufacture of beer. Description of a New Orleans Rice Mill. The rice is received at the warehouse in sacks weigh- ing 180 pounds each. These sacks are unloaded from the cars and elevated into bins by belt-con- veying machinery. From the bins, the rice is run through the separators, which remove all f oreig-n substances. It is then fed into the center of the hulling stones, where it is revolved at the rate of 250 revolutions a minute, and, through centrifugal action, the rice is forced through the perforated ends of the upper and lower stones. This process removes the hull from the grain. It is then passed through the fanning machines, which remove the hull by suction. A separator then turns back the unhulled grains to another set of stones, for about twenty-five per cent of the rice is still unhulled. The huller is a cylin- der within a metal case, which removes the oily cuticle that covers the grain. This oily cuticle is known as the rice bran. From here, the rice goes to the brushes, which are upright cylinders covered with leather. These polish the rice against a wire screen, leaving behind a white powder known as rice polish. The polishing drum, through friction, gives the highly polished appearance which is found in nearly all finished rice. The rice is then put into the clean rice separators, where the broken grains are sep- arated from the whole grains and the various commercial grades packed. TOPICS: The History of Eice; Eiee in Louisiana; Eice Culture; A Description of a New Orleans Eice Mill. REFERENCES: Bureau of Plant Industry of the Depart- ment of Agriculture. SECTION 5. TOBACCO. The crop report for the year 1913- '14 shows that 600 acres of tobacco, producing 250,000 poimds, valued at $50,000, were planted in the jmrish of St. James. The same report also shows that a few acres were planted in the parish of Evangeline, and that Ouachita parish raised some tobacco for home use. The Perique Tobacco. The Perique tobacco was first grown many years before the Civil "War by an Acadian whose name the tobacco now bears. This industry has been kept up continu- ously by the lineal descendants of Perique, and is cultivated in the same manner as any other sun tobacco. It is sown in the early part of January, replanted in March or April, the crop being harvested in the latter part of June, or the beginning of July. After harvesting, the tobacco is hung in sheds to dry. It is then stripped and placed in presses until the follow- ing March or April, when it is ready for the market. Sometimes it is not sold until three or four years old, as it improves with age. Perique finds its chief use as a seasoner for mixtures, it being an exceedingly strong tobacco. It is shipped to all American tobacco markets, to Canada, and to England. Manufacture of Tobacco in New Orleans. The first factory was established in 1857. New Or- leans has always handled a large part of the cigarette business of the South. At present, there are two immense jDlants operating here. The value of the output of cigars, cigarettes, and tobacco in 1913- '14 was $6,301,725. New Orleans' is a meeting point of the Havana and the domestic tobacco from the tobacco-growing states of Kentucky and Ohio. The United States Weather Bureau records show that the climatology of New Orleans is most favorable to the working of tobacco ; its atmospheric moisture is almost equable throughout the year, the changes being gradual. New Orleans, because of its very successful factories, is widely known as a cigar center. TOPICS: Annual Production; The Perique Tobacco; Manu- factured Tobacco. REFERENCES: Agricultural Eeport for 1913; Pamphlets of the Association of Commerce. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 83 SECTION 6. LUMBER. Louisiana's Lumber. Louisiana is the second largest lumber-producing state in the Union (Washington, first), the annual value of the product being over $50,000,000. Including by- products, the annual value exceeds $60,000,000. The state has standing timber to the amount of 120 billion feet, valued at $600,000,000. It also has over 5,500,000 acres" in cut-over lands, eighty per cent of which is now suited for agriculture. Yellow pine occurs in thirty-one parishes. In the middle and southern sections are the im- mense forests of long leaf pine which furnish a large industiy for the adjoining states. The short leaf pine is found in the northern section, in the region of the oak uplands. Almost every known variety of oak, hickory, gum, pecan, cotton-wood, ash, magnolia, maple, and the largest variety of the elm are found. The state has about 154 species of trees within its borders. Cypress. In Egypt, long before Abraham climbed the desert mountains that separate Chaldea from Canaan, cypicss was the ■wood of royalty. Gropher wood, from which Noah builded the Ark, was no other than cypress. In polytheistic Greece, in pagan Eome, and in Egypt, the wood of the cypress tree was treated with religious ven eration, and from it were carved the hideous faces of their heathen gods. In point of quality and value, the unparalleled forests of cypress surpass all others, and Louisiana possesses 75 per cent of this forest product of the United States. CjToress is adapt- able to many uses in build- ing, inside and outside, having wonderful powers of duration. In all alluvial deposits of Louisiana, per- fect cypress logs, hundreds of feet below the present level of the Gulf of Mexico, have been uncovered. In 1810, pipes for the water system were made of hewn cypress trees. Forces of the present Sewerage and Water Board have, in excavating, found these pipes iti a splendid state of reserva- tion. Millions of dollars have been invested in the timber resources. The movement for the utiliza- tion of waste accumulating in the manufacture of lumber, is destined to create an immense and important industry. Unregulated methods of lumbering and the turpentine industry are the chief causes of this waste, which can be used in the manufacture of charcoal and of paper. Lumber Industry in New Orleans. A large proportion of the lumber bought and sold in the New Orleans market is used for building by fac- tories for making boxes, furniture, coffins, doors, sash, blinds, and similar manufactured products. Many of .these factory products are shipped to the surrounding territory and to foreign coun- tries. The lumber that is shipped to New Or- leans to be treated with creosote and other pre- sonatnes, i^ A\idol\ distributed. The im- l)ortance of New Orleans as a liTmber market con- sists largely in its export- ing to a great number of foreign countries. New Oi leans is situated close to the principal lumber- ])ioducing sections. It is ■well supplied with rail- road lines and waterways, and draws shipments for export from a wide ter- ritory. In the export of yellow pine, New Orleans is in- ferior to Gulfport, Mobile, and Pensacola. In the ex- port of hardwoods, such as oak, gum, cotton-wood, ash, poplar, and other woods of that character, it far exceeds these three ports combined. If the shipment of logs, staves, headings, rail- road ties, and miscel- laneous forms of lum- ber partly manufac- tured for special uses,, CYPRESS S\\ \MV -^Courteby uf the (. oiit-ei vdtion CommissioiJ, 84 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK be added to the export of hard woods, New Or- leans far exceeds any other port in the country; such export is almost as great as that of all the Atlantic ports combined. Its export of staves varies yearly, from a little under to a little over half in numljer of the amount exported from the entire country. Great yards are maintained, in which are stored millions of staves awaiting shipment. A large proportion of these are sent abroad in full ship loads; many of these, as parts of wine casks, have the pleasure of returning home. The financing of the lumber industry is largely centered in New Orleans. The ofl&cial figiires for the year show the city handled $20,208,697 in forest products. Law Protecting Louisiana Forests. A law has been passed for the prevention of forest fires, making it a misdemeanor punishable by fine and imprisonnient. to negligently and wilfully set on fire any forest, brush, or grass land. Eailroad companies, operating through forest lands, are required to keep their right of way clear of all combustible materials. At present, there is very little reforestation in Louisiana. Acting under authority of Act 261 of 1910, the Conservation Commission en- tered into an agreement with the owners of de- nuded forest lands for the purpose of encourag- ing its reforestation. The Commission agreed on behalf of the state to protect and supervise 28,000 acres of denuded lands, set aside for the gi'owth of trees, for a period of forty years. This land is situated in the Parishes of La Salle, Winn, and Caldwell. TOPICS: Louisiana Lumber; Capital Invested; Laws Pro- tecting Forests; Reforestation. BEFEBENCES: Annual Reports of Lumbermen's Associa- tion; Lumbermen's Trade Journals; Report of April, 1914, of Conservation Commission. SECTION 7. MINERALS. I. SULPHUR. Nature has endowed Louisiana with many wonderful natural resources. Inexhaustible de- posits of sulphur, salt, oil, natural gas, many fine kaolins, and clays, can be found within its borders. Throughout the tertiary strata, there occur in varying quantities, marble, sandstone, limestone, iron, gypsum. Fuller's earth, green sand, and other less important minerals. Of these, sulphur, salt, oil, and natural gas are the only ones that have been commercially de- veloped. Sulphur. The magnificent sulphur deposits in Calcasieu Parish were discovered in 1858, in one of the unsuccessful attempts to tap the oil deposits of Southwest Louisiana. The sulphur, covering an area of sixty-two acres, is supposed to be from a sunken volcano, several hundred feet underground, lying immediately below a quicksand. Vain attempts were made from time to time to utilize this wonderful gift of Nature. Attempted Developments. A French syndi- cate leased this property from 1886 until 1870. They imported their machinery and eastings from France and expended over a million and a half dollars on their project, before they abandoned what at last proved to be a fruitless undertaking. In 1889, a New York company tried to develop the mines, but failed. In 1902, Herman Frasch, a scientist, found a practical solution to the problem, which not only de- veloped the mines of Louisiana, but revolution- ized the sulphur industry of the world. The Frasch System. The Frasch system melts the sulphur from the sulphur-bearing rock by the application of hot water and steam, and the pumping by compressed air of the con- sequent liquid sulphur to the surface, where it is run into wooden tanks and allowed to congeal. As each layer of sulphur congeals, the operation is repeated, until the piles have attained the height of sixty or seventy feet and become solid mountains of sulphur, which are broken up by means of explosives. The famous sulphur mines of Sicily, owned by the Italian government, are operated on the shaft and tunnel principle, the consequent loss of life being very great. By the Frasch system, a workman never goes beneath the surface, every operation being carried on above the ground. Annual Production. The annual production THfi NEW ORLEANS BOOK 85 of the sulphur mines for 1913- '14 was 700,000 tons, almost chemically pure, analyzing 99.9%, and was valued at $14,000,000. About 50,000 tons were exported ; the remainder of the output is used' in the United States, 70% in the manu- facture of paper. (See Note.) Sulphur is also used in the manufacture of explosives and for agricultural purposes. It is a strong aid in the making of white sugar, without the use of bone black. Sulphuric acid is one of the most im- portant acids known to the chemist. The actual waste of this great natural resource is estimated not to exceed one per cent of the production. . Shipment of Sulphur. Most of the sulphur is shipped by the company's steamers from Port Sabine, Texas, to North Atlantic seaports for distribution throughout the United States and Canada. The National Sulphur Company, located in New York, is the largest sulphur re- finery in the world. Note. — In the manufacture of paper, sulphur is burned into into gas and passed through a tank containing milk of lime, and then, finely chopped wood, usually spruce, is mixed with the resultant fluid, which induces the pirocess of de- composition in the wood, and converts it into what is known as wood pulp. This industry is now confined chiefly to New York, Massachusetts, Maine, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. TOPICS: The Sulphur Deposits of Louisiana; Attempted Developments; The Frasch System; Annual Production; Shipment of Sulphur. BEFEBENCES: Report of Conservation Commission; Report of United States Geological Survey, 1913. ■M-^ TONS OF SULPIIIU; lU'^.MtV KOlt. SillI'>rKNT. uiiservation Commission. II. SALT. Louisiana has the greatest rock salt deposits in the United States. Geologists have never been able to solve the mystery of these deposits. Some claim them to be of volcanic origin ; some, to the action of the wind and waves ; while others say they are due to the imprisonment of an arm of the sea, through alluvial deposits, and the consequent evaporation of the salt water, so en- closed. Louisiana's rock salt mines have been confined up to the present time to Avery's Island, Weeks' Island, Jefferson's Island, and Belle Isle, the last named known as the rendez- vous of Jean Lafitte. ■ Louisiana Salt Industry. The production of Salt is Louisiana's oldest industry, the first white settlers having reported meeting Indian THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK salt ti-aders. ■ Evaporated salt made from the brine springs, was quite an important industry from the time of the first settlement until after the Civil War. It was then carried on intermit- tently, until 1894, when it died out altogether, owing to the more economic methods of making salt. Rock Salt Deposits. The inexhaustible rock salt deposits of Louisiana were discovered in May, 1862. Salt was very scarce at that time, and Mr. Avery of Avery's Island determined to bore for it. A negro workman, after going down sixteen feet, told Mr. Avery that he had struck a sunken log and could proceed no further. Mr. Avery found upon investigation that it was not a log, but the great rock salt deposits that have made Louisiana famous. Avery's Island was the only active salt mine in the state until 1903, when mining operations were com- menced at Week's Island deposit. The mine at Belle Isle was worked for some time, but the shaft was destroyed by water. Mining of Salt. Rock salt is mined in very much the same manner as all the baser minerals. The first operation is the drilling of the holes for the insertion of the dynamic charges, rock salt having the resisting power of 5,000 pounds to the square inch. This is accomplished by eleven- foot drills. The salt is cut out in tunnel form, arched columns being left to prevent a collapse. These tunnels are 750 to 1,000 feet long and 80 to 100 feet wide, and of about the same height. The blasting is sometimes done at night to prevent accident, and to allow the atmosphere to clear for the next day's work. The salt is loaded on narrow-gauge mule trains, which carry it to the foot of the shaft. There, it passes through a great forty-horse-power electric motor-driven crusher in the Myles ' mine, but in the Avery's works the crushing is done at the top. After being crushed, the salt is fed by gravitation into the cage and carried to the mill, where it is fed automatically into screens and separated into the various commercial grades. If it is shipped in bulk, it is deposited by gravity into the cars, and if in small quantities, automatically fed into sacks. Annual Output. The annual output for 1913- '14 was about 400,000 tons, valued at $1,000,000. Of this annual production, only 500 tons a month were actually consumed in New Orleans, this amount being sold wholesale to jobbers. The coarser quality is used in all forms of refrigerating, curing of hides, preserv- ing of meat and fish, and the making of ice and ice cream. Salt is also used in glazing sewer pipes, as the lustrous enameling can be obtained in no other way. MINII7G SALT UNDER GROUND. — Courtesy of the Conservation Commission. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 87 The shipment of both mines originate on tlie Southern Pacific road, and, naturally, the volume of the business, with the exception of the Western shipments, come through New Or- leans. Some of the salt goes to the West Indies, Central, and South America, Liverpool, and small shipments have been made to Copenhagen. The remainder is distributed over the United States and Canada. New York, Philadelphia, and Boston shipments are routed from New Or- leans by water. TOPICS: Louisiana's Salt Industry; The Mining of Salt; The Annual Output; The Shipment. REFEKENCES: Report of Conservation Commission of April, 1914; Agricultural Report of 1914. III. OIL. This valuable substance, like sulphur and salt, occurs in proximity with the older rocks of Lou- isiana. Greologically, the oil is believed to be ob- tained from quaternary sands. Louisiana now stands sixth among the great oil-producing states of the Union. Oil was prospected for before the Civil War, but the Gulf Coast country did not at- tract the attention of the great oil op- erators uniil 1901, when the Spindle Top gusher in the Beaumont district caused a gTeat rush to that section. Annual Produc- tion. The oil output for the year 1914 in Louisiana was 14,- 309,435 barrels; valued at $12,886,- 897, being an in- crease of nearly 2,- 000,000 barrels over 1913 (1,810,607 bar- rels). The Caddo field, which was one of the most important oil-producing sections of Louisiana, declined in 1914, and was overtopped by the great wells discovered in tha Red Eiver sec- tion. This section produced, in 1914, nearly four million barrels of oil, valued at over three and a half million dollars. The new fields at Anse la Butte and Edgerly, in the coastal sections, helped swell Lou- isiana's 1914 out- put and put it in the fifth place among the oil-pro- ducing states of the Union, being ex- ceeded by, in the order named, Cali- fornia, Oklahoma, Illinois and Texas. The recent decline in the Illinois fields seems to indicate that that state will be surpassed soon by both Texas and Louisiana; thus making fourth in OIL FIELD. trmt ' —Courtesy of Southern Pacific R. K. OUipUt. IV. GAS. The gas fields of Caddo and De Soto Parishes, according to the last Government Survey report, are the greatest gas fields in the United States. The production from the eighty-four gas wells in the Caddo and eight in the De Soto fields was 22,000,000 feet, valued at $2,550,000. It is believed that, through strict measures of conservation, these fields will continue to pro- duce unlimited quantities for a great period of years. The Caddo field supplies thirty-eight surrounding cities and towns in Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas, with gas for fuel, lighting, and manufacturing purposes. A movement is being made to pipe gas into New Orleans from this field. TOPICS: History of Oil and Gas; Annual Production. REFERENCES: United States Government Survey Report of 1913. CHAPTER VIIl. Manufactures. Early History of This Industry. In the early French and Spanish days, New Orleans de- pended upon the mother countries for manu- factured goods. After Louisiana became a part of tlie United States, there was little change in the conditions prevailing in manufacturing, he- cause the city lacked skilled operatives, and commerce was more profitable. The few fac- tories in New Orleans owed their origin to the absolute necessities, and were for such repair work as could not be done anywhere else. The foundry, designed for the repair of machinery, led for many years in this industry, and from this business grew the manufacture of machin- ery, agricultural implements, boilers, etc. The development of the sugar industry jaroved a great stimulus to such manufactures. The iron industry of Alabama of recent years has also been an advantage. Gas was used as an illumi- nant here in advance of most of the Western cities; its manufacture dated back to 1833. The census of 1850 showed the weakness of New Orleans in manufactures, and in the follow- ing decade there was a still further decline. After the close of the Civil War, manufacturing began to receive more attention. The disap- pearance of slavery, the enemy of free labor, had a beneficial effect, and there was a large supply of labor, though somewhat unskilled. The year 1885 marked a period of prosperity in this industry. The census of 1900 showed that New Orleans was the largest manufacturer of cotton seed oil in the world; the largest cleaner and preparer of rice and molasses, and of various canned goods. It held a high position in the refining of sugar, the manufacturing of clothing, cigars, and a number of other commodities. New Orleans in 1914. New Orleans now ranks thirty-fifth as a manufacturing city. Gov- ernment statistics show that in the last five years, New Orleans has increased in manufac- tures more than any other city in the South. The center of population is now drifting south- ward, and the Panama Canal will increase this movement one hundredfold. At present, there are 848 factories in this city, 80,000 wage-earn- ers, and the annual production in monetary value is $78,000,000. This is greater than the combined manufactures of Atlanta and Birming- ham, or Dallas and Houston. If we include in this list, the American Sugar Refinery and the various factories of St. Bernard and Jefl'erson Parishes, which may properly be done, since the freight movement is from New Orleans, and most of the factories have their general offices established in the city, the value of the goods manufactured in the territory would easily total $150,000,000. This is greater than Atlanta, Birmingham, and Memphis combined. Within the ijrecise boundaries of New Orleans, the lead- ing commodity in value is burlap and cotton bags, rice (polished), ranking second. The real strength of New Orleans as a manufacturing city is in the diversity of goods made. The number of factories is less to-day than twenty years ago, because larger factories have been installed, and many smaller ones have been amalgamated. The amount of money invested, the number of employees, and the value of the finished products, are far greater. New Orleans as a Manufacturing Center. This city is excellently located as a manufactur- ing center, and is the distributing point for eleven Southern States. Statistics show that 62 per cent of the raw materials for manufacturing, are found in the Mississippi Valley, and New Or- leans is the gateway of the Valley. Many raw materials are shipped to and through New Or- leans from Cuba, Central America, and Mexico. Cotton, woolen goods, and tobacco products can be made to the best advantage in New Or- leans, because of the equability of the humidity. The water, which is now pumped out by the modern water plant of the city, is excellent for dyeing purposes, and for that reason colored woolen and cotton goods may easily be made here. For woolen goods, the raw material can be brought frons Texas, New Mexico, and Ari- zona, or from the Western South American countries by means of the Panama Canal. The THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 89 mauufacture of pants and ready-made elotliing already eonstitntes a large industry. Raw Materials Now Used in New Orleans. The principal raw materials now used in New Orleans by factories are hard and soft woods, cabinet woods, metals, wool, cotton, chemicals, hides and skins, sand and glass for building, brick and tile, fresh and salt shells. The hard and soft woods are found in the immediate vicinity of New Orleans. The lumber industry is one of the oldest, the reason being the ease with which lumber can be marketed. There are many finely equipped plants on the river front and on or near the two basins. One firm is the largest exporter of lumber in the world. The approximate figures for 1913- '14 of the lumber industry in New Orleans were about 32,000,000 feet of cypress, 3,500,000 to 5,000,000 feet of pine, and 15,000,000 feet of mahogany. The amount paid in salaries and wages in the wood-working industries, furniture excluded, was $250,000. The capital invested, furniture fac- tories excluded, was $4,582,000. Doors, sash, and blinds manufactures amounted to $650,000, and the box and box shooks to about $750,000. One plant makes a specialty of the ' ' Standard Fold-Up Box, ' ' which saves time, labor, and money, and for these reasons it has been adopted by 'many large fac- tories throughout the country. New Orleans is well supplied with cooperages of large capacities. These plants have modern machinery for making barrels, half -barrels, and kegs of all descriptions, principally for oil, mo- lasses, lard, liquor, sugar, produce, and fish. Mahongany, Ebony, and Rosewood. These woods are imported from Central America, and in 1913- '14, one-third of the entire amount used in the United States, amounting to about $1,000,- 000, passed through New Orleans. The largest mahogany plant in the United States is located here, giving employment to several hundred men. New Orleans, because of her age, is recog- nized as a center of antique furniture, and sev- eral plants are turning out copies of the old styles in solid mahogany, rosewood, and walnut furniture of the highest grade. There are thirty plants making case goods, chairs of medium grade, brass and iron beds, mattresses of felt and hair, springs, etc. Copper and Brass Works. The copper and brass works manufacture turpentine stills, an apparatus for the preparations of the South 's naval stores for market, alcohol and vinegar stills, steam jackets and candy kettles. There are manufactories of tanks for all purposes, towers, stacks; in fact, all kinds of sheet metal works give employment to boiler-makers, pipe- fitters, copper, and iron workers. Manufacture of Boots and Shoes. The manu- facturers of boots and shoes obtain their raw material from the leather tanneries north of the Ohio River. As early as 1850, New Orleans manufactured nearly all the shoes used in the city and surrounding country. These shoes were then custom-made, but for many years modern machinery has been used. Manufacture of Ice. Ice was introduced into New Orleans in 1826, and was regarded as a luxury. It came from Maine in sailing vessels, and, as a large part of the cargo was lost in the long voyage, the remainder commanded a high price. The supply was uncer- tain and the city was fre- quently without ice in the hottest months of summer. Gayarre says, "The first cargo of ice was dumped into the Mississippi River by the order of Mayor Macarty, who, backed by public opinion, declared that iced drinks would make consumptives of the people." The importation continued until 1868, when the manufactories of artificial ice drove out the New England product. The process, at first, was very expensive, but since 1898 has been improved and simplified. At present, there are many splendid ice plants, and the manufactured product is so cheap, that it is within the reach of the poorest families. Cotton Seed Oil Industry. The cotton seed oil industry owes its origin to New Orleans, be- cause the process of manufacturing oil from the seed was discovered here. It has always been the center of this industry, and many of the mills in the surrounding country manufacture crude oil and ship it to New Orleans to be re- fined. Outgrowths of this industry are the soap mills, fertilizers, and acid factories. Large OTIS MAHOGANY PLANT, 90 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK quantities of this oil are shipped to Southern Europe. It is also used in the manufacture of lard in the Western packing houses. The mills manufacture cotton-seed cake and meal, which are excellent as a food for cattle. Thousands of tons are exported to Europe each year for feed- ing stock. These by-products enter into the manufacture of nearly all the commercial fertil- izers now produced in the South. Manufacture of Beer. The manufacture of beer is one of the more recent industries, the first company being organized in 1882. Canning Factories. Canning is the greatest utility industry of the age. Were it not for the canneries, our present great centers must need have been small cities — for the good reason that a great city could not be fed without the help of canneid goods. It is estimated that 50 per cent of all the fruits and vegetables in the United States would go to waste except for the can- neries. It is possible to save the over-produc- tion of a good year for the famine that may come another, proving that the industry is a mighty economy and the largest conserver of foods ever discovered. The canneries in and near New Or- leans buy many of their fish, vegetables, and fruits, etc., in the New Orleans markets. New Orleans, as a distributing point for the can- neries, sends canned goods to all parts of the United States, Canada, and Europe. Thousands of cans of dried shrimp are sent annually to China, where they are considered a great table delicacy. The Future of New Orleans. New Orleans, the second largest seaport in the country, is destined to become a great manufacturing- center. The mighty Mississippi, on which ply manj^ steamboats, the steamship lines, the barge lines through canals, and the eleven trunk lines that have their terminals here, afford the manu- facturer every facility. The Public Belt Line, owned and operated by the city, has over twenty- eight miles of trackage, crossing every railroad, and covering a greater portion of the water front, giving direct touch to the steamboats and the steamships. As a center of distribution. New Orleans cannot be excelled. Skilled labor is plentiful, and the Immigration Station is now receiving large numbers of northern Europeans. Many of these are efficient laborers, anxious to secure employment. The maintenance of a fac- tory is not expensive, as coal and fuel oil can be obtained at moderate prices. Electricity for power made by the plants in New Orleans is often used, being more economical in some cases. Wood, if necessary, can be obtained from the yellow pine and cypress mills, from waste in the furniture factories, and also from cord wood obtained in the nearby yellow pine forests. The location of New Orleans gives a delightful equability of temperature and there are few days in winter, when factory doors cannot be opened. The advancement of New Orleans in the last few years is due to the men who realize the pos- sibilities of their city, and have succeeded in putting it in the front rank, where it rightfully belongs. To the future citizens of New Orleans will be given the task of keeping up this great work of civic advancement. TOPICS: Early History of Manufacture; New Orleans in 1914; New Orleans as a Manufacturing Center; Mahog- any, Ebony, Eosewood; Manufacture of Furniture; Copper and- Brass Works; Boots and Shoes; lee; Cotton Seed Oil Industry; Canning Factories; The Future' of New Orleans. REFERENCES: Archives of City Hall and Cabildo; Pamphlets of the Association of Commerce. CHAPTER IX. Foodstuffs. SECTION 1. TRUCK FARMING. Development of the Truck Farm in Lou- isiana. On account of the semi-tropical climate of tlie state and the varied altitudes, from the high hills of northern Louisiana, the foothills of the Ozark Mountains, to the alluvial soil of the lowlands along the network of prairies and bayous, Louisiana is enabled to produce a greater variety of fruit and vegetables than any other state in the Union. Fifty years ago, there was little truck raised around New Orleans and most of it was consumed locally, because the methods of packing and shipping were crude. The first shipment of truck from New Orleans to the North was about 1866, being sent by boat to Memphis and St. Louis. When the railroads and express companies furnished adequate facil- ities for forwarding shipments to northern and western markets, truck farms sprang up like mushrooms. Though the methods of handling and packing were poor, the farmers made a great deal of money, and New Orleans soon became the center of an intensive agriculture. There were no refrigerator cars, ice factories, or box factories. About thirty-five years ago, ship- pers began using refrigerator cars, and box factories were built to supply the containers for these products. Up to that time, many used second-hand sugar barrels, cutting holes in them for ventila- tion. This was unsatisfactory, as the vegetables often reached their destination in an unsalable con- dition. About twenty-five years ago, shippers began to use ice on vegetables packed in barrels, and this is still practiced. This busi- ness has increased to such an ex- tent that there are now several ice companies and cooperages that supply ice and bai'rels to the ship- pers. Methods of barreling and packing are so improved that vegetables sent great distances, reach their des- tination in perfect condition. In 1914, New Or- leans sent out about 1,300 carloads of truck. Change from Plantation System to Truck Farming.. For many years, vast plantations were devoted to the cultivation of cotton, sugar, and rice, to the exclusion of other products. These plantations were expensive to maintain, and often an overflow would leave a rich man bankrupt. Of late years, however, conditions have changed, and many of these large planta- tions have been cut up into truck farms; this has so increased the trucking industry, that to-day it is valued at millions of dollars annually, and is growing in importance each year. The result is greater prosperity to many. Principal Trucking Sections. In trucking, so increased the trucking industry, that to-day, ductivity, it being possible to raise four crops of vegetables on the same land in the same year, without any fertilization. These vegetables com- mand a higher price than those of any other parish, on account of its contiguity to the City PRODUCTS OF A TRUCK FARM ON RECLAIMED LAND. 92 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK of New Orleans, whose railroads lead to the great centers of the country. Plaquemines and Jefferson Parishes, as well as St. Bernard Parish, furnish the city with vast supplies for home con- sumption and for shipment. Among the latter are lettuce, cabbages, onions, tomatoes, beans, peas, eggi^lants, spinach, radishes, carrots, shal- lots, and kohlrabi. Cucumbers are grown in hot- beds and in the open, and, when sent North, bring good prices. Products of the Louisiana Truck Farm. Few are aware of the extent of the commercial truck sections in Louisiana. Along the Illinois Cen- tral, which leads from New Orleans, are farms on which are grown beans, cucumbers, canta- loupes, cabbages, eggplants, sweet-peppers, to- matoes, and potatoes. Not only do these, and most of the vegetables raised in the northern states grow well here, but there are many others which belong peculiarly to the South, as okra, lima beans, and globe artichokes. Such vege- tables as lettuce and turnips are often raised in kitchen gardens without any trouble to the householder. Mustard, cauliflower, and English peas gi'ow throughout the winter. Oats, rye, and barley make very profitable crops, while, owing to the extreme fertility of the soil, many kinds of grasses, valuable as cattle feed, may be harvested at a great profit. The cities and towns are cooperating with the country districts in a widespread movement for the improvement of farm lands, and the introduction of modern methods of farming. School Grardening. The school garden, as well as the home garden, can direct attention to the advantages of the cultivation of the soil; for gardening is applied nature study. Economists teach that a greater production of foodstuffs is imperative. Gardens near to or within the city are a possible means of obtaining this result. If the public schools are to adapt themselves to' the needs of the children, an occupation based on human welfare should be a subject of instruc- tion. The tilling of the soil is a fundamental neces- sity. In 1914, The Nature Study Club of the Nor- mal School decided to try to promote interest in ■ gardening by conducting a school garden contest. A highly creditable exhibit was made by several schools. This so encouraged the Club that it de- termined to carry on the work in a broader way. SECTION 2. FRUITS. Different kinds of soil produce different kinds of fruit. Louisiana, having such a varied soil, naturally admits of the cultivation of a great variety of fruit. There are some fruits, however, which grow in all sections of the state. Among these are the strawberry, blackberry, dewberry, sand pear, and fig. The last men- tioned, being so perishable, must be canned be- fore it is shipped. On account of this, few per- sons outside of the fig-growing section, are familiar with the delicious flavor of the fresh fruit. Many varieties of plum are raised, and the Japanese persimmon bears well. Grrapes succeed best in the uplands. Bananas may be grown on Louisiana soil, but are not cultivated to any extent. New Orleans does a thriving business in importing bananas from the tropics and sending them to all parts of the Union. The apple represents the greatest undevel- oped industry in the United States. A cold storage and ice refrigerating plant has been established in New Orleans with the view of making this port the greatest distributing center for the shipment of apples to South and Central America, and through the Panama Canal. The Strawberry Industry. In Tangipahoa Parish, are immense strawberry farms, that have a world-wide fame. The annual shipment of this berry amounts to millions of dollars, from a district which, thirty years ago, was an in- definable forest. History of the Citrus Fruits. . Centuries ago, there grew in the wilds of southeastern Asia and the Malay Archipelago, a ragged shrulj, which produced a small berry full of seeds and bitter- ness. After many generations of patient culti- vation and innumerable experiments, there have been evolved from this humble beginning, the monarchs of the fruit kingdom, the orange, the grape-fruit, and their satellites. China is the original home of the orange. The Citrus Fruits in Louisiana. The rich, alluvial lands of Southern Louisiana are the most favorable for the growth of the citrus fruits, which are the orange, the mandarin, the grape-fruit, the lemon, and the kumquat. It is impossible to ascertain in what year these fruits THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 93 were introduced into Louisiana, but it is gener- ally accepted that oranges were first brought to New Orleans by the Jesuit Fathers, in 1727. Later, seedling oranges became plentiful in the southern part of the State. First Louisiajia Orajige Grove. The first Lou- isiana orange grove, of which there is any record, was planted by Florentine Buras in 1860, and traces of this place still remain. About 1867, an and afford a livelihood for a large number of people. Life of the Citrus Tree. The citrus trees live to a great age. Trunks of large trees which have been lying for ballast in the holds of vessels, have, when j)lanted and properly tended, taken root and renewed their lives. Medicinal Virtues. The orange has many medicinal virtues, and the Creole mothers have ORANGE GROVE. orange grove of 125,000 seedling trees was planted fifty miles below New Orleans, and for some years was operated on a large scale, al- though modei'n horticultural methods were un- known. The grove is at present being culti- vated in a small way. The numerous commer- cial orange groves located in the district below New Orleans, cover from 5,000 to 7,000 acres always recognized orange-flower water as a remedy for fevers. In recent operations in the Brooklyn Navy Hospital, the Essence of Oranges was used as an anaesthetic in conjimction with ether. This was so satisfactory that physicians loredict its adoption for both Navy and Army, as it is much safer and less costly than the use of ether alone. SECTIONS. FISH. Fisheries. The principal fish resources of the state are the large fresh-water fish such as spoon-bill cat, buffalo fish, and catfish, which are usually brought into New Orleans by ex- press, packed in barrels with ice. The salt water fish such as sheephead, sea trout, pompano, Spanish mackerel, red fish, etc., are found along the Gulf Coast from the Pearl to the Sabine Rivers, and are brought to New Orleans by schooners and luggers. New Orleans also buys salt water fish from Mississippi and Florida. All fish are bought by wholesale dealers, who sell to the markets. Some firms handle both salt and fresh water fish, while others only the former. The fresh water fisheries are valued at $2,000,000 annually, and the value of fish received in New Orleans amounts to several hundred thousand dollars. River shrimp is considered a delicacy. 94 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK Salt water shrimi:) are usually brought to New Orleans in the same manner as salt water fish, but some of the shrimp fishermen are now using power boats. Most of these shipments are well iced, unless the weather is such as to make this unnecessary. The annual shrimp catch is valued at not less than half a million dollars. Seventy-five per cent of the product is canned in the canneries in New Orleans atfd along the Gulf Coast. There are several colonies of Chinese in Barataria Bay, whose chief occupation is the drying of shrimp. The largest platform is "Manila Village," the shrimpers, however, being a mixed popula- tion, representing almost every country of the globe. SECTION 4. OYSTER INDUSTRY. Oyster Resources. The oyster industry of Louisiana, at present, is dependent on 60,000 acres of natural reefs on which oysters are found growing freely without any cultivation; and on about 20,000 acres df leased bottoms, on which special methods are used by the lease- holder in order to promote the growth of oysters. Method of Oyster Cultivation. The method of oyster cultivation is to provide a surface to which young oysters or spats may attach them- selves. If such a surface is established in the neighborhood of a natural reef, the spats from the latter will become attached to the new location and grow there. Otherwise, seed oysters must be placed where the new bed or reef is to be formed, so that in the spawning season, a supply of spats will be provided for the stocking of the new bed. Oyster shells and other hard substances, called "cultch," are the materials used in making a new oyster bed. Value of the Oyster Industry. The oyster in- dustry is value at about $5,000,000. New Or- leans receives annually about 250,000 barrels, worth about $560,000. Oysters are brought generally in sacks by lugger and other craft. Small shipments, however, of opened oysters LOADIVG OYSTERS ON A TRANSPORT. — Courtesy of the Conservation Commissiou. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 95 in containers, are also received. Oysters are bought principally by wholesale dealers, who sell to the local markets and ship to other points. Small shops sometimes buy from the oyster- men of St. Bernard Parish. Counter oysters come from the Bayou Cook district in Plaque- mines Parish, and cooking oysters from the Timbalier field in Lafourche Parish. It is difficult to say which is the best oyster gi'ound. Some sections are better at one season and others at another, everything depending on the condition of the water, especially the degree of salinity. The Timbalier territory promises to be one of the leading sections in a few years. Fine oysters come from Bayou Chaland, but the supply is limited, as they do not multiply rapidly on these beds. SECTIONS. GAME— BIRDS. As a duck ground in winter, the coastal sec- tion of Louisiana is one of the most celebrated in America. About fifteen species of duck are present in more or less abundance during the periods of migration, in late fall and early spring and varying periods in mid- winter. The principal species are the mallard, pin-tail, grey duck, teal, canvas-back, black, and lesser scaup, or "dos-gris"; six species of geese, including the Canada goose, are also found. Other game birds are the coot or "poule d'eau," snipe, wood- cock, and rail. The upland birds are, wild turkey, quail, and dove. Game reaches New Orleans by express. During the season of 1913-1914, the game deal- ers of this city received more than 200,000 ducks, geese, snipe, and poule d'eau, the value of which exceeded $100,000. Note. — See bird exhibit at Louisiana State Museum. SECTION 6. GAME— ANIMALS. The i^rincipal game animal is the Louisiana, or white-tailed deer, which is found in well- wooded sections. The sale of deer is pro- hibited by the laws of Louisiana. Three species of hare abound — the Southern cotton- tail, marsh hare, and water hare. Few native hares or "rabbits" are received in New Or- leans. The killing of these animals for market- ing in this state is not an occupation of any con- sequence. The Conservation Commission. Eealizing the value of the fish and game preserves of Lou- isiana, the legislature of 1912 established a Con- servation Commission for their control and pro- tection. This CoixQuission has its offices in the New Orleans Court Building in New Orleans, and has varied duties and powers. It has armed patrols on the boundary lines between the waters of Louisiana and Mississippi and throughout the state, to prevent the violation of any of these laws. Their officers have the power to search or examine any cold storage, warehouse, boat, store, conveyance, or fish basket, when they have cause to believe that the law of protection is being violated. The State of Louisiana has over forty species of mammals. SECTION 7. FUR-BEARING ANIMALS. The State of Louisiana is particularly rich in fur-bearing animals, and the trapping in- dustry has reached such proportions as to make it a resource of large revenue and means of livelihood to a considerable per- centage of the population of the state. The principal fur-bearers of Louisiana, from which are taken about five million pelts a year, are otter, mink, muskrat, raccoon, opossum, skunk, fox, wolf, beaver, and civet-cat. In 1913, the trappers of the state earned $1,305,000 by their work.. 96 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK SECTION 8. MEATS. In no state of the Union can live stock be more easily raised than in Louisiana, and many farmers are turning their attention to this in- dustry. Cattle are fattened, not only on ample pasturage and forage crops, but also on the cotton seed meal and hulls, rice bran, polish, and shorts from the rice mills, and cheap molasses from the sugar factories. Thousands of these cattle are shipped annually to the Northern and Western markets. Sheep-raising is carried on very profitably, — the cut-over pine lands afford- ing splendid ranges. Hogs are easily raised, and great interest is now being manifested in this kind of farming. The Abattoir Companies. There are two large slaughter-houses from which the people of New Orleans obtain their supply of meat. The live stock reaches the yards by rail when shipped from points in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Stock shipped from points on the east side of the Mississippi Eiver is transferred by boat from the railroad ter- minals. How Purchased. All live stock is consigned to commission merchants, whose offices are located on the stockyard grounds, and who, here sell direct to the butchers. The slaughtering is done by the abattoir companies, and the beef, veal, pork, and mutton are stored in refriger- ators until called for by the butchers. Inspection — Slaughtering. Before being slaughtered, all stock is examined by inspectors of the State Board of Health and of the United States Government. After being killed, they are dressed and are ready for the refrigerators. While they are being dressed, inspection is made by a representative of the City Board of Health and by a United States inspector. All carcasses found unfit for food are condemned and tanked for by-products — grease, tallow, and fertilizer, — which are manufactured by the company. Refrigerators. The refrigerators are of the direct expansion system and are kept at a tem- perature from 30° to 35° Fahrenheit. The meat, as a rule, remains in the cooler from three to twenty days, according to the size and quality. Means of Delivery. The meat is delivered by means of wagons and auto trucks ( owned by the slaughter-house company) between the hours of 12M and 6 A. M. Western Packing House. Four large branches of Western packing companies are located in New Orleans, and do an immense wholesale busi- ness with markets, hotels, and steamships. The meat is sent here in refrigerator cars, having had both ante-mortem and post-mortem inspec- tion. It is inspected here by the city and the United States inspectors. TOPICS: History of Trucking; Sources of the New Orleans Supply; Co-Operation of the City and the Country Dis- tricts. Louisiana Fruits; Strawberry Industry; History of the Citrus Fruits; Louisiana Orange Groves. Fisheries; Oyster Eesourees; Oyster Cultivation; Value of the Oyster Industry. Game-Birds and Animals; The Conservation Com- mission. The Live Stock of Louisiana; The Abattoir Com- panies; Western Packing Houses. EEFERENCES: Agricultural Report of February, 1914; Eeport of Conservation Commission, April, 1914; News- paper Files. CHAPTER X. Professions — Trades. SECTION 1. THE BENCH AND BAR. Louisiana Laws. The Louisiana laws are all that is best of two great systems built up by the genius of man and tested by the experience of generations. Their fundamental principles approach as near the ideal as possible, for they are a texture composed of the best material from both the Common and the Eoman Civil Laws. The Common Law of England inspires men with the knowledge that the power of government must never overshadow the rights of man. The Civil Law of Rome, modified by the noblest thoughts of France and Spain, teaches that the lasting foundation for right and justice is to be found in the Golden Rule. The Civil Law will always receive the homage of scholars as a sin- gular monument of wisdom. Early History. In the early days of Amer- ican domination, it was a question whether the laws of Louisiana were the laws of France or of Spain. Until 1769, when Don O'Reilly took possession of the colony, the laws were those of France, but he issued an edict proclaiming the laws of Spain. After the cession to the United States, the question arose as to whether this edict had repealed the laws of France. This point has never been settled, but as both systems took their origin from the same source, the dilf'erence was not great. The Courts After the Cession. For a long while after the cession of Louisiana, it was an absolute necessity for the judges to understand both the French and the English language. In every court, there was a permanently employed interpreter, who translated the evidence, and, when necessary, the charge of the judge to the jury. The juries were composed of men, some of whom did not understand one word of French, while others were equally as ignorant of En- glish, The litigants had to employ two lawyers, one speaking French and the other English. All writs were in both languages. Trial by jury was new to the Louisianians. While the American lawyers were speaking, the French jurymen were excused. The English-speaking members were, in turn, excused to enjoy their cigars and promenade in the arcades. After the argument, the jury met in their chamber to decide the case, and in most instances came to a satisfactory agreement. The Code of 1808 and 1825. The original Code of 1808 was founded on the projet of the Code Napoleon. The Code of 1825 was revised in 1870, and is the pi-esent Louisiana Civil Code. Many of its articles are but translations of that Code, but there are amendments by different legislatures to many parts of it. An act of 1828 abolished the Roman, French, and Spanish laws that were not reprinted in the Code of 1825. Distinguished Jurists and Lawyers. The Bench and Bar have always stood deservedly high, but it would far exceed the limits of this chapter to attempt to record the individual achievements of all the jurists and lawyers who have left the impress of their worth on every page of the statutes and in every volume of the law reports. The sons of Louisiana thrill with pride when they hear the names of Francois A. Martin, John R. Grymes, Edward Livingston, Alfred Hennen, Christian Roselius, Pierre Soule, Etienne Mazureau, Judali P. Benjamin, Thomas J. Semmes, and Ernest B. Kruttsclmitt. Frangois X. Martin. Genius such as his re- quires neither brass nor stone to preserve his memory, for he built for himself an imperishable monument in the jurisprudence of the state. He was the first Attorney-General and a judge of the Supreme Court for thirty-one years. The legal reputation of Louisiana was founded on the genius of Judge Martin, whose decisions were able and authoritative and read like the Code. Judge Martin left a large fortune. He became blind about eight years before his death. His will was contested on the ground that a blind man could not make a valid olographic will. The Supreme Court, however, upheld the will, which left his estate to his brother, 98 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK John R. Grymes. John Randolph Grymes came to New Orleans not long before the Battle of New Orleans, in which he served as an aide to General Jackson. In the latter 's dispatches to "Washington, the name of John R. Grymes was mentioned in complimentary terms. Colonel Gr^nnes was counsel for General Jackson in the United States Bank case. He was opposed to Daniel Webster in the Gaines case. He was also attorney for the Baratarian pirates. On one occasion he went to their lair on the Gnlf Coast to collect his fee. He remained for a week, and said his stay was most enjoyable. Edward Livingston. Edward Livingston arrived in New Orleans in 1804, just after his brother Robert had completed negotiations for the purchase of Louisiana. He was a profound jurist and an accomplished scholar. He repre- sented Louisiana in the Senate, was Secretary of State under General Jackson, and Minister to France. Alfred Hennen. Alfred Hennen was one of the most distingaiished lawyers of the first part of the nineteenth century. He came to New Or- leans in 1808. Many members of the bar re- ceived their legal education in the office of Alfred Hennen, or attended his lectures at the Law School. Christian Roselius. Christian Roselius came to New Orleans in 1819 as a "redemptioner," that is, he hired his services for a stated period in payment for his transportation. Mr. Roselius was first a printer, but later studied law and gradually rose to promi- nence, becoming Attorney- General of the State. His legal reputation was so great that he was oifered a partnership by Daniel Webster, which he de- clined. It is said he pos- sessed a voice of immense volume and great carrying- power. Judah P. Benjamin. Judah P. Benjamin studied law in New Orleans in a notary's office and was ad- mitted to the bar in 1832. At first, he met with small success and devoted him- self to teaching, mean- while, keeping up his legal studies by taking notes from the law reports. He finally estab- lished a good practice, and about 1847, his repu- tation became national. Louisiana histories tell of his brilliant career before and during the Civil War. Northern writers speak of him as the ' ' brains of the Confederacy. ' ' After the war was over, Benjamin escaped to England through perils enough to make a romance. He read for the English bar and was admitted to practice in 1866, supporting himself, meanwhile, by news- paper writing. It was only after his "Book on Sales" appeared that his reputation as a lawyer became established. When he retired in 1888, he was one of the greatest lawyers of England. Thomas J. Semmes. Thomas J. Semmes, a brother of Admiral Raphael Semmes, is a name familiar to every Orleanian. He was Attorney- General of Louisiana, and a Confederate State Senator. After the close of the war he resumed practice in New Orleans, and soon became the undisputed head of the Louisiana bar, rankiiig among the greatest lawyers of his own or of any other time. He was the very- incarnation of legal learning, and intellectually a giant before whom few could stand. Ernest B. Kruttschuitt. Ernest Benjamin Kruttschnitt, a nephew of Judah P. Benjamin, was born in New Orleans, April 17, 1852, and died on his birthday, at fifty-four years of age. Mr. Kruttschnitt entered Washington and Lee College at fifteen years of age, and graduated m:w okleaxs court building. — Courtesy of Southern Pacific R. ^, THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 99 with the highest honors in 1870. He accepted the chair of History and Literature at this university, and at the same time studied law. He returned to New Orleans in 1873 and began the practice of his profession. He was soon recognized as one of the leading lawyers. His brilliancy of mind and executive ability made him the leader of the Democratic party. His advice, legal and otherwise, was usually sought when matters of great moment were in question. His services for nineteen and a half years as a member and president of the School Board were most valuable. He was the moving spirit in plac- ing the school work on a civil service basis and in establishing the Board as a business corporation. He was president of the Constitutional Conven- tion of 1898, and guided that body through its strenuous sessions. His life is written in the laws of Louisiana and in its historic court records. The Bench and Bar of To-Day. The New Orleans Bench and Bar of to-day rank among the foremost in this great land, and many of its brilliant members have compiled editions of the Codes and Digests. The Louisiana Law Associ- ation, incorporated in 1847, was reorganized in 1899, and its name changed to the Louisiana Bar Association. In the thirty-seven years of its ex- istence, the American Bar Association has three times honored Louisiana with the presidency of that eminent body. A Louisiana lawyer holds, through merit, the exalted office of Chief Justice of the LTnited States. The judges of the Supreme Courts are required by law to belong to the legal profession. TOPICS: The Louisiana Laws; Early History'; The Code of 1808 and 1825; Distinguished Jurists and Lawyers; The Bench and Bar of To-Day. REFERENCES: The New Orleans Book of 1851; Foote's Bench and Bar of the South and Southwest; The Amer- ican (after 1875, Appleton's) Annual Encyclopedia, 1861-1902. SECTION 2. HISTORY OF MEDICINE. Tlie demand for men possessing or claiming to possess the art of^ healing or alleviating the diseases and suffering of frail humanity, must have been coeval with the appearance of man on the surface of the earth. Indian Medicine Men. In America, long be- fore its discovery and colonization by the Euro- ]ieans, the Indians had their medicine men. The Natchez, so familiar to every student of Lou- isiana history, were superior to the tribes that dwelt around them. Their physicians claimed a knowledge of more than three hundred medicinal plants native to Louisiana soil, and taught the colonists the use of them. The curative powers of these plants so impressed De La Chaise that he sent a collection of them to France, with a memoir written by La Page du Pratz. The Natchez understood the art of lilood-letting, and the water cure was familiar to them. It is to these Indians that the Louisianians owe their acquaintance with the medicinal qualities of sassafras, sarsaparilla, and maiden hair. They discovered the balsam of the copal-tree to be an excellent remedy for fever, and astonished the French by their rapid cures of the most dreadful wounds produced by fire-arms. Their physicians ranked very high and were looked upon as inspired. The Natchez believed that, for every disease, the Great Spirit had provided a remedy in the shape of a plant, and, if supplicated in the proper manner, would point it out to the physician. They paid most liberal fees to the physician in case of success, but frequently put him to death if the patient died, believing that it was the doctor's fault if he did not find the remedy. Early History of Medicine. Very little is known of the history of the practice of medicine in the early colonial days, as the documents of public interest were written in foreign tongTies and have been hopelessly entombed in the archives of distant lands. Many physicians who came to this colony had the sole object of acquir- ing a fortune and then returning to their Euro- pean homes. The gradual development of medi- cine in New Orleans is of peculiar interest. The first physicians, who came with Iberville, were army surgeons. In 1722, when New Orleans became the capital, civilian physicians from various parts of France became residents of the colony and were the first to establish the con- tract system of annual payment. When Don O'Reilly took possession, his troops were pro- vided with Spanish army surgeons. Shortly 100 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK after, Spanish pliysicians came to the colony, and, like the Frenchmen, entered into the con- tract practice, which was continued long after the purchase of Louisiana. This contract system has, within the last fifty years, been almost superseded by the "Mutual Benevolent Society" practice, which exists to this very day in New Orleans. When their means permitted it, the first white residents of New Orleans sent their sons to Europe to acquire an education. A number of them studied medicine in the most celebrated schools and returned to practice in their native land. Later, some of the sons of Louisiana attended the schools of the East to acquire the English language, and while there obtained their medical education. After the purchase of Louisiana, many physicians from other states and from various European coun- tries came to New Orleans, and entered perma- nently into the ranks of the profession, proving an honor to it. The First Medical College. In 1834, a Medical College was founded liy Doctors Luzenberg, Mackie, Barton, Htmt, Cenas, and Harrison, these talented men having for a clinic the gTeat Charity Hospital. They soon rendered it un- necessary for medical students to visit other states and foreign lands to acquire the qualifica- tions and title of Doctor of Medicine. A few years previous to the Civil War, the New Or- leans School of Medicine entered into the field of education, but the war and financial troubles resulting therefrom caused the school to close after a short but brilliant career. During the war, many of the physicians proved their patriotism by abandoning their practice to follow the Confederate Army as surgeons. Their skill and the success of their operations will never be forgotten by the soldiers who wore the gray. The alumni of the schools of medicine of New Orleans have deservedly obtained such a reputation, both at home and abroad, that there is no longer need to seek outside their ranks for professors to fill any vacancy in the Medical Department of Tulane. The Homeopathic School. The School of Hahnemann has been represented in New Or- leans since 18-H. The pioneer was Doctor Taxile of Toulon, France. Dr. Jules Matthieu was the first American member of this school. Doctor W. H. Holcombe was its most prominent repre- sentative in recent years. Eminent Physicians. Physicians of the past and the present have contended with the gigantic forces of disease and devoted their scientific attainments to the preservation of the health of the community. Pages could be written of their noble lives. Doctor C. A. Luzenberg came to New Orleans in 1829 and revolutionized medical practice of that time in Louisiana. Doctor Warren Stone was the first physician in New Orleans to use chloroform for the allevia- tion of human suffering. Doctor T. Gr. Richard- son was one of the most prominent physicians in New Orleans. He served as surgeon of General Bragg 's staff during the Civil War. From 1865 to 1885, he was dean of the medical department of Tulane University. After his death in 1892, his wife erected to him a noble memorial in the splendidly fitted medical college on Canal street. Doctor Quitman Kohnke was one of the pioneers of the modern doctrine of the transmission of yellow fever by the mosquito. He illustrated his lectures on the subject by lantern slides. Had his labors in this direction received fuller recognition at the time, the experience of 1905 would have been impossible. He lived long enough to see the universal acceptance of this doctrine, and quarantine practice modified in obedience to its teachings. Medical Societies. The Orleans Parish Med- ical Society, which has a large membership, was organized in 1878, by a number of physicians who were desirous of affiliating with the State and National Associations. The Pan-American .Medical Society was organized in March, 1914, to promote a high standard of professional efficiency and to develop a more thorough under- standing among the laity, of the study and knowledge of preventive medicine. Medicine To-Day. To-day, New Orleans boasts of a gi'eat number of eminent surgeons and physicians, whose reputations are inter- national. Many of them are recognized as authorities on medical topics, and the gold medal for the greatest achievement in scientific research in 1913 was awarded to a New Orleans physician. TOPICS: Inilian Medicine Men; Early History of Medicine; Development of Medicine; The Homeopathic School. REFERENCES: Mumf ord 's Narrative of Medicine in America; Parks 's History of Medicine; Dr. Joseph .Jones's Medical and Surgical Memoirs; J. C. Warren's History of Medical Education from the Most Remote to the Most Recent Times; American Medical Association Journals; Department of Archives. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 101 SECTION 3. BANKING. History of Banking. Louisiana owes its foundation to a bank, the Mississippi Company, wliicli was tlie Royal Bank of France. Tlie failure of John Law's scheme caused great financial distress among the colonists. Banking in Louisiana- under the French domination proved a failure, but after the transfer to Spain, the system somewhat improved. When the United States took possession of Louisiana, Gov- ernor Claiborne, recognizing the poor financial conditions, established the Louisiana Bank in 1804. Julian Poydras was its president and John McDonogh a director. Two banks were established in 1811. One of these, the Louisiana Planters' Bank, was organized for the con- venience and advancement of the agricultural interests of the Territory. The success of this plan of raising money for the development of the planting interests of Louisiana led to the formation of a number of improvement banks. Among these was the Gas Company Bank, formed for the purpose of introducing gas into New Orleans. The Canal Bank was chartered for the construction of a canal in the American portion of the city, and the Carrollton Bank for the building of the New Orleans and Carrollton street railway. The Commercial Bank was or- ganized for the purpose of providing New Or- leans with waterworks. The Mechanics and Traders ' Bank was formed for the benefit of the manufacturing and mechanical interests. When the panic of 1837 struck New Orleans, fourteen out of the fifteen banks suspended specie payment, thereby forfeiting their char- ters. In 1839, the Legislature, recognizing the fact that the suspension of the banks was due to the general derangement of the monetary system, reinstated them in their charter rights. Poor financial conditions continued until 1845.' The banking history from 1845 until 1860 was devoid of incident. In 1860, Louisiana stood fourth in banking capital and second in specie holdings. During the Civil War, deposits shrunk and the banks had to accept Confederate notes. Gen- eral B. F. Butler insisted that the banks had violated their charter by suspending specie pay- ment, and introducing Confederate notes as cur- rency. During his and Banks' administration, there were frequent quarrels between the bank officials and the military authorities. A large number of claims resulted, and much litigation grew out of them. In 1877, in 1893, and in 1907, New Orleans suffered from the general depressed conditions of the money market. The New Orleans Clearing House. The New Orleans Clearing House was organized in May, 1872. In all eases of financial trouble, the Clear- ing House has proved a great advantage to the banks and the business community, for its cer- tificates are accepted everywhere, thereby re- lieving strained financial conditions. The Present Banking System. There are now twelve banks in New Orleans. The Whit- ney-Central leads with assets of $26,476,776.92. The Hibernia is second with $20,981,244.13. The oldest bank is the Canal Bank and Trust Company, established in 1831. It went into liquidation in 1843, but reorganized shortly afterwards. The contribution of the banking business to public wealth is measured by the facilities it offers for the transaction of business, and by the extension of credit in various forms. As a rule, the banks are required to keep a large reserve. In New Orleans, the conditions are liberal, the reserve being 25 °/o of their assets, of which only 8% is in cash. Insurance Companies. The largest life and fire insurance comiDanies of the United States have branch offices in New Orleans. The home companies do a large business, not only for the city and the state, but for many neighboring states. The Homestead Associations. The home- stead associations have done a vast amount of good in facilitating the purchase and building of hundreds of houses for people of moderate means. They have encouraged the spirit of economy and have enabled many families to own their homes, who would not have been able to do so but for their help, TOPICS: History of Banking; Tlie Clearing House. REFERENCES: Eightor's History. 102 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK SECTION 4. TRADES. History. Very little lias been written on this subject in New Orleans, because, before the Civil War, the crafts and trades received but scant attention in Louisiana, for the wealth of the people was invested almost exclusively in agri- culture, and New Orleans was a commercial center. Slavery had a tendency to crowd mechanics out of New Orleans, and in ante-bellum days the general desire was to have mechanical woi-k done by negi'o slaves, many of whom were skilled workmen. They often paid their owners for the privilege of hiring themselves to others, and by this means accumulated enough money to pur- chase their freedom. The white laborers from 1860 to 1865 con- sisted of men over fifty, boys, women, and men of military age, exempted because of physical weakness or wounds. Industries calling for white skilled labor were but comparatively little develo]3ed in 1860. When the War ended in 1865, the labor system of the South was disorganized. One of the results of the War was to awaken the South to a full realization of her lack of knowl- edge concerning mechanical and other industrial pursuits. By 1880, with the help of the United States Grovernment, mechanical and industrial colleges were established in the Southern States. The splendid work was begun which has re- sulted in the preparation of many men and women for industrial service in the country. These schools were ridiculed by thoughtless people and by some of the leading journals. Manual labor, among the white population, was considered more respectable, and as Northern and European capital began to flow into Louisiana, skilled labor found its way into the city. Orgajiization of Labor. The history of New Orleans' trade unionism begins in the first decade of the nineteenth century, when an as- sociation of printers was formed in 1810. From 1830 to 18.36, local imious of printei's were or- ganized in New Orleans. The immediate cause of all organizations or wage labor has been and is the rise of prices in the cost of living. Fol- lowing the natural trend, here, as elsewhere, combinations formed among the capitalists and workmen. The problems that have arisen from these combinations have steadily multiplied, and have become one of the chief features in our state and national government. Many of the problems have been solved through the efforts of trade unions. The adequate wage scale pro- tects capital, to some degree, from profitless competition. The evils of child labor have been lessened by legislation. To-day, a mechanic is not looked down upon, and jDarents are willing, even anxious, to have their children trained in some good trade, knowing "that skilled labor secui'es steady employruent. TOPICS: Trades; Past Conditions; Present Conditions. REFERENCES: Archives of the Cabildo and City Hall. CHAPTER XL Charitable Institutions. SECTION 1. HOSPITALS. A spirit of generosity has always been char- acteristic of the South and of New Orleans, in particular. The poor and the suffering, the aged and the infirm, the widowed and the orphaned, have always found and, may it be hoped, always will find a tender chord of sympathy in the hearts of Orleanians. Looking back to the his- tory of Bienville's time, we find the Ursuline nuns nursing the sick, caring for many Indian girls, and for French children orphaned by the Indian war. Charity Hospital. The oldest charitable in- stitution in the Mississippi Valley is the Charity Hospital, founded by an humble sailor, one Jean Louis, who, by trade and barter on his many voyages, had accumulated a fortune. This sum, $2,500, though small, judged according to pres- ent-day standards, was sufficient to purchase a building which was fitted up as the "Hospice des Pauvres." It stood upon the west side of Rampart Street, between St. Peter and Toulouse. The low, marshy ground rendered this a very unsuitable lo- cation for a hospital. The "Hospice des Pauvres," however, continued its humanitarian mission until destroyed by a hur- ricane in 1779. Every one felt the disaster and few were able to offer aid to the unfortunate patients who roamed the streets in search of shelter. No concerted action was taken for their relief until 1784, when Don Almonaster y Roxas, the great benefactor of the colony, erected on the same site, a new building of brick and mortar. It was called the Hospital of St. Charles, in honor of the king of Spain. Although Don Almonaster had built the new hospital at his own cost and annually bestowed upon it a sufficient sum for CHARITY HOSPITAL. its maintenance, he was bitterly opposed by members of the Cabildo. A communication from the king approved his action and declared him to be the "founder, patron, and endower" of the institution. After the transfer of Louisiana to the United States, the affairs of the hospital passed from the hands of the Cabildo to the more practical management of American mayors and council- men. A great fire totally destroyed the Hos- pital of St. Charles in 1809. All the patients were rescued and were quartered in a private residence, which continued to be used for this purpose until 1814. The square boimded by Canal, Common, Dryades, and Baronne was pur- chased as the site for a new building. Here, the institution entered upon the third stage of its career as the New Or- leans Charity Hospital. In 1830, it was re- moved to its present loca- tion in Tulane Avenue be- tween Freret and How- ard Streets, where, at the time, only .the central building was erected. Built of solid masonry, this substantial structure has withstood the rav- ages of time. It has been so added to and extended that now the whole square and parts of those adjoining are covered with the buildings of the institution. Connected with the Charity Hospital is one of the best equipped and most complete hos- pitals for children in the United States. It was donated by Mrs. Deborah Milliken at a cost of $100,000. The Sisters of Charity, trained by life service in the work, have had charge of the hos- pital since 1834. Now, however, although they still care for the sick committed to the institu- tion and train the lay nurses, the management 104 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK has been taken out of their hands and given to a "Superintendent." The ambulance service was added in 1885 and now, by means of the automobile am- bulances, a patient can be rushed from any part of the city to the hospital within a few minutes after the call has been made. Two internes always accompany the ambulance and fre- quently, in case of accident, they administer all necessary aid. Many a life that hung upon a slender thread has been saved l)y iunnediate medical assistance. The Charity Hospital is open to the medical students of Tulane University, who • thereby have exceptional opportunity for the study of actual cases. All persons who cannot afford treatment in pay institutions are received at the Charity Hospital; there are wards for the col- ored people as well as for the white, and the care of the best physicians and nurses is bestowed upon them. Cases of smallpox are not admitted, as there is a special hospital for persons suffer- ing from that very contagious disease. Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital. As the science of medicine progresses, there is a tendency among physicians to specialize in some particular branch. In order that those who can ill afford treatment by a specialist may not be debarred from such advantages, the Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital was opened in 1889, where gratuitous treatment is given. The num- bers who grasp this opportunity are large and increase from year to year, especially as so many children are found sutfering from adenoids, the removal of which greatly improves their con- dition. The United States Marine Hospital. In 1802, the United States Government established a hos- pital for sailors at New Orleans. No building was provided, and the sick, by special arrange- ment, were cared for in the Charity Hospital. The present location on Henrj^ Clay Avenue and Tchoupitoulas Street was secured by authoriza- tion of Congress in 1882. There is a group of buildings comprising the wards, office building, houses for the surgeons, and laundry, etc. Any American seaman in need of treatment is re- ceived at the hospital, as is also any foreign sea- man bringing a request from his consul. The hospital belongs to the Federal Government and is managed by the United States Public Health Service. SECTION 2. ASYLUMS. Poydras Asylum. About the time that Lou- isiana was ceded to Spain, there arrived in New Orleans a young French refugee from San Do- mingo. His only assets seem to have been a handsome face and pleasing manner. What little cap- ital he could command, was invested in peddler's stock with which he ascended the coast to try his fortune. Enterprise and thrift were well re- warded, for soon we hear Julien Poydras, the one-time peddler, spoken of as the richest man in the Spanish settlement, a successful merchant, planter, and banker. In the midst of his wealth, he did not forget the jDoverty and struggle of earlier days; he gave unstintedly oiit of his abundance to help those in need. The city of his adoption received a large part of his munificent benefactions. Here, by the donation of a large lot and house in Poydras street, he founded in 1816 the first orphan asylum in the state. The Legislature appropriated $4,000 for its benefit. It sheltei-ed fourteen children the first year; but there- after the number rapidly increased. The asylum was founded for girls, with the provision that any de- serving girl, whether an orphan or not, should be received by the institution. The business, sec- tion of the city gradually spread until it embraced Poydras Street, after which, the asylum was moved to its present location on Magazine Street and Peters Avenue. The administration is con- ducted by a board of directresses. The orphanage is supported by revenues from property left by Julien Poydras for that purpose. JULIAN POYDEAS. ■ — Courtesy La. State Museum, THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 105 St. Mary's Orphan Asylum. The history of tliis institution dates back to the year 1835. The Sisters of Cliarity have tlie care of the cliil- dren,and the only condition of admission is that of orphanage. A board manages the business affairs of the institution, which is supported partly by private contributions and partly by revenues from property. New Orleans Female Orphan Asylum. The Sisters of Charity withdrew from the Poydras Asylum to establish an institution of their own for the purpose of "receiving, harboring, nurs- ing, raising, mahitaining, and educating desti- tute female orphans under tlie age of fif- teen." The girls were to be entirely under the control of the sisters until they readied their majority, or were mar- ried. In front of the asylum is a triangle converted in to a park graced by the first mon- ument ever erected to the virtues and benefac- tions of a woman. This is the statue of "Mar- garet," whose interest- ing history is intimately connected with that of the asylum she be- friended. Margaret Haughery, of Irish origin, came to New Orleans from Bal- timore. Left alone in the world by the deaths of her husband and child, she obtained employment in the Poydras Asylum. When the Sisters of Charity removed to their own establishment, Margaret went with them to manage the dairy. Soon after, she established and conducted a profitable bakery, so as to diminish the cost of bread used by the asylum. With little education, she mastered and directed the success- ful management of a large manufactory of flour, while personally aiding in the care of the largest female orphan asylum in the city. Her charities were numerous and bestowed without ostentation. St. Elizabeth's House of Industry. In con- nection with their Female Orphan Asylum, the Sisters of Charity opened in 1855 a branch in MARGARET'S MONUMENT, In F'ront of N. O. Female Orhpan Asylum, the Model Orphanage of the City. — Courtesy Southern Pacific R. R. Napoleon Avenue to receive girls over twelve years of age. Here, they are given an industrial education, preparing them to make their way in the world. The institution, through the ex- quisite needlework, fine laundering, and other industries of the inmates, is largely self-support- ing, although valuable property belongs to the asylum. Many a young lady is proud to say that her trousseau has been made at St. Elizabeth's. St. Vincent's Infant Asylum. Another branch of the Female Asylum, conducted by the Sisters of Charity, is the St. Vincent's Infant Asylum established in 1862. The kindergarten, nurseries, an4 dormitories are in- teresting sights and models of neatness. After the age of seven years, the children are no longer retained at this asylum; the girls are sent to the asylum in Camp Street, and the boys to some other in- stitution. Asylum of Destitute Orphan Boys. A society for the ' ' Relief of Desti- tute Orphan Boys" was organized by members of the Presbyterian Church. About 1841, the build- ings erected for the good work were destroyed by fire. John McDonogh came to the rescue of the society with $100,- 000 with which the pres- ent house in St. Charles Avenue was built. Seventh Street Protestant Orphans' Home. The terrible yellow fever epidemic of 1853 left so many orphaned children that the asylums of the city were taxed beyond their capacity. To relieve conditions, the Howard Association de- voted a fund of $5,000 toward a new asylum; this was supplemented from other sources, and the outcome was the Seventh Street Protestant Orphans' Home. Both boys and girls are re- ceived by this institution. Jewish Widows' and Orphans' Home. The Hebrews of the city maintain a well kept home for the widows and orphans of their faith. In 1888, the present spacious and substantial build- 106 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK ing ou the corner of St. Charles and Peters Ave- nues was occupied by the ' ' Home. ' ' The society that controls the institution dates back to 1855. St. Anna's Asylum. St. Anna 's Asylum was founded in 1850 by Dr. W. N. Mercer in memory of his daughter, Anna. Its object is the relief of impoverished gentlewomen, but small chil- dren whose mothers are inmates of the institu- tion are also recipients of its beneficence. Episcopal Home. The Sisters of the Protest- ant Episcopal Church conduct a well managed liome for girls in Jackson Avenue. The Soldiers' Home. The Soldiers' Home, sometimes called Camp NichoUs, as it was founded during the administration of Governor F. T. NichoUs, is situated on the banks of Bayou St. John. It is a retreat for maimed and dis- abled Confederate veterans. The board of directors for the Home consists of five member.** from the Association of the Army of Tennessee, five from the Association of the Army of North- ern Virginia, and five appointed by the Governor of Louisiana. The Touro-Shakespeare Almshouse. Those whose poverty and infirmities make them objects of public charity find shelter at the Touro- Shakespeare Almshouse. Other Institutions. Several institutions for needy colored people are conducted in the city, one of the most notable being the Tomy Lafon Orphan Boys' Asylum on Gentilly Road. There are many other institutions in the city, whose object is the alleviation of suffering. TOPICS: Section 1, Hospitals; Section 2, Asylums. REFERENCES: Standard History of New Orleans, Eightor; History and Present Conditions of New Orleans (1880), Waring and Cable; Cyclopedia of Louisiana, Fortier; Guide Book. CHAPTER XII. Education. SECTION 1. COLONIAL EDUCATION. Father Cecil's School for Boys. The early history of New Orleans was so tilled with the struggle for existence that little time or energy was devoted to education. There were forests to he cleared, homes to he built, sickness and attacks of Indians to be guarded against, and an ever-increasing number of unworthy or worthless colonists to be provided for. Amidst such unsettled conditions, neither the governor nor individuals could turn their attention to schools. In 1724, Father Cecil, a Capuchin monk, opened a school for boys near the St. Louis Cathedral. He was the first teacher in Louisiana and was successful in imparting a fairly good elementary education to the youth of the day. THE URSULINES. Bienville Secures the Services of the Ursu- lines. Father Cecil was offering educational opportunities to the boys, but a generation of girls was growing up with only the limited train- ing of the home circle. Bienville realized this mended and their services secured in 1726. Al- though Bienville was no longer governor when the Ursulines arrived in Louisiana, he deserves the credit of having established the first girls' school in the colony. THREE HOMES OF THE URSULINES. and consulted the Jesuit priest. Father Beaubois, Establishment of the Ursulines. Eleven about securing teachers for the girls. The Ursu- sisters under the direction of Mother Tranche- line nuns who were conducting flourishing and pain embarked at Lorient, France, on February well patronized schools in France were recom- 22, 1727. After a long and hazardous voyage, 108 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK they reached the land of their adoption on August 7th of the same year. Joyful crowds assembled on the river banks and along the streets to welcome them, and every courtesy was extended to them. Governor Perrier and his wife were most cordial to the Sisters and saw them installed in Bienville's house, which was the best in the colony. Here, they were to re- main until their own convent could be erected. Treaty With the Company of the Indies. A treaty was drawn up between the Company of the Indies, then in control of Louisiana, and the Ursulines before the latter left France. The provisions were that in return for the care of the hospital and the education of girls, the nuns were to receive from the com,pany, a convent and a plantation and 500 livres (livre=18i/'2 cents) each, besides having the expense of the voyage paid. They were guaranteed 600 livres until they could realize something from their plantation, and this contract did not bind them to remain in the colony should they find it dis- tasteful. Removed to Their Convent. There is no record of any Sisters having returned to France. All were satisfied with their work in a strange land. Their convent on Chartres Street was com- pleted in 1734 and they took possession of it with gi'eat ceremony. The beloved Superioress, Mother Tranchepain, had ended her days of use- fulness, but Bienville, patron and benefactor of the Sisters, had returned to the colony as gov- ernor for the third time and took an active part in the ceremony. At the time of this change of residence, many day scholars, twenty boarders, three parlor boarders, and three orphans were under the care of the nuns. System of Education. Religious classes were conducted for two hours every day for the ben- efit of Indian and negro women. The Sisters, through the influence of religion and education, sought to uplift the inferior races and lead them into the ways of civilization. The daughters of the colonists were taught languages, history, literature, some science, mathematics, and the art of letter-writing. Great emphasis was laid upon instruction in music and sewing, accom- plishments required of every girl of the time. Nimble fingers that could lighten dull hours with gay music or fashion dainty garments, made their owners more attractive helpmates. Wives were scarce, though, and so readily did the girls exchange the duties of the classroom for those of the household that Sister Madeleine writes, ' ' Henceforth no girl was allowed to marry without being first instructed by the Nuns." Influence in Colony. This instruction bore fruit tliroughout the entire colony. The girls carried from the convent to the home circle polish, charm and refinement, the result of edu- cation, and seldom found in the rough surround- ings of pioneer life. Lack of School for Boys. As a result of this training, the women far surpassed the men in culture, for the latter had no means of obtaining higher education without going to Europe. The fundamentals were taught in a few primary schools, but Bienville, realizing the lack of opportunity for young men in Louisiana, petitioned the government to establish a college for boys in New Orleans. According to his letter, the sons of wealthy parents were reared in luxury and idleness, utterly ruinous to char- acter, or at great expense were sent to France to be educated, where they acquired a distaste for their colonial homes. He represented that many persons residing in Vera Cruz, would be glad of the advantages offered by such a college and would helj) to maintain it. The government, however, considered Louisiana too remote and too insignificant to warrant any such establish- ment. So it was not until after the Americans assumed control of the colony, that a college for boys was opened SPANISH SCHOOLS. Interest Manifested by Spanish Governors. In 1768, Louisiana passed under the control of Spain. Unlike the French government, the Spanish authorities manifested some interest in education. Ulloa was a highly cultured man, but failed, through his unpopularity, to benefit the colony. 'Eeilly and his successors fostered learning in the colony, but still no institution of higher education was founded. Many a debonair Spanish official married a convent-trained girl, thus forming a friendship for the Ursulines. The Nuns' school was well patronized under this regime and they received several Spanish ladies into their convent. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 109 Spanish School Founded. An effort to make the use of the Spanish language more universal in the colony, and to train the youth according to Spanish ideals, resulted in the government ordering a school to he estahlished in New Or- leans in 1772. The government selected as founder and director the distinguished scholar, Don Andreas Lopez de Armesto, with whom were associated three other eminent teachers. Despite the weight such names carried, the school was never popular, proving an utter failure. People's Distrust of Spanish Schools. The Louisianians, tossed from one king to another, felt intense resentment against the Spanish and clung with fierce pride to their own customs and languages. Although Spanish was used for all official proceedings, French was the language of the home, the chuch, and the school. Complaint was made to Spain that merchants refused to keep their books in any language but French. Even the influence of just and politic rulers like Unzaga, Galvez, and Miro, was not sufficient to stamp out this prejudice. The Spanish school was, therefore, not well attended, never having had more than thirty pupils, which number dwindled down to eight or ten after a fire had destroyed the original building. French Schools. Those who could afford to do so, sent their children to France to be edu- cated; but there were eight French schools where several hundred profited by the instruc- tion. Many refugees from San Domingo, who Oldened little schools to eke out a livelihood, received staunch support from the French families. SECTION 2. EARLY YEAES OF AMERICAN RULE. Private Schools. The influx of Americans, after the purchase in 1803, caused a greater de- mand for schools. As there was no system of free schools, this need was met by a number of teachers, who conducted private schools at mod- erate iDrices. According to the advertisements in the old newspaper files, learning flourished in the Faubourg Ste. Marie (the American quar- ter), where there were also evening schools and summer sessions. Discipline. Frequently these pioneers of education in American New Orleans were men who exacted the most rigid discipline from their scholars by means of the dunce cap, the rod, and in some extreme cases by enforced kneeling on brick dust and tacks. Course of Study. The subjects accentuated then were almost as different from the present day curriculum as was the mode of discipline. English, French, and other langaiages, writ- ing, arithmetic, geogTaphy, history, mythology, chronology are mentioned in all advertisements while "embroidery, print and crape work, French darning and every kind of fancy work, as well as plain sewing and marking" are speci- fied for girls. No young lady's education was considered complete without music and da'ncing. These were frequently taught by special teach- ers who went from house to house and also gave lessons in "deportment," that is, the correct manner of entering a parlor, of standing, of sit- ting, of addressing persons. COLLEGE OF ORLEANS. Foundation. American legislators were more impressed with the necessity for public education than the French or Spanish had been, but they made the mistake of establishing too many academies and colleges instead of elemen- tary schools. The most noteworthy of these was the College of Orleans, opened in 1805, where many prominent men received their education, among them being Gayarre, the his- torian. Course of Study and Discipline. The course of study was comprehensive, including Greek, French, Latin, English, Spanish, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, mechanics, history and literature. Interest in composition was stimu- lated by literary exercises. Poetic as well as prose composition was encourged and, occa- sionally, a paper published verses by some en- terprising student. Lessons in music, dancing, and fencing were given those who paid extra. 110 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK Life at the College of Orleans was not luxu- rious; the rising sun found the boys about their tasks ; a half loaf of dry bread constituted break- fast. Support of College. As there was no definite arrangement for tlie support of the college, its finances were very unsettled. To the small and irregular appropriations by the Legislature, were added funds from two lotteries established for this purpose. Even these sources of revenue proved insufficient to maintain a flourishing in- stitution, and the proceeds from tlie licenses granted to gambling houses was utilized. Decline. The College of Orleans flourished for about twenty years, but with the appoint- ment as principal of Lakanal, one of the parties who caused the death of Louis XVI., the school began to decline. Parents refused to commit their children to the guidance of a regicide and the College of Orleans passed out of existence. Its failure was also the result of injudicious regu- lation of the terms of admission. Parents, who could afford to do so, were required to pay for their sons' tuition; but many sons of destitute parents were admitted without charge. These pupils were dissatisfied, because they received the sobriquet of charity students from the boys. "Public Schools." In 1826, the college of Orleans was supplanted by one central and two primary schools. Tliough supposedly public schools, gratuitous instruction was limited to fifty pupils in each school. To the revenue ob- tained from the gambling houses was added about $3,000 annually from theatre licenses. SECTION 3. PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM. Louisiana was far behind the other states of the Union in organizing a system of public schools, because the idea of self-taxation for educational purposes was entirely new to its people. However, when Americans from other states began to form a large proportion of tlie population, the question of taxation for school support was agitated more fully. Accordingly, the public school system of New Orleans was inaugurated by the Legislature of 1841, which decreed that "the councils of the different municipalities of New Orleans are authorized and required to establish within their respective limits one or more public schools for the free instruction of the children residing therein, to make such regulations as they judge proper for the organization, administration, and discipline of the said schools, and to levy a tax for the maintenance of the same. Every white child residing in a municipality shall be ad- mitted to and receive instruction therein." New Orleans was at that time divided into three distinct municipalities, the Vieux Carre, Faubourg Mariguy, Faubourg Ste. Marie, (See Chapter II. ) . Although these were united under one city government in the early fifties, the schools of the three districts continued to be con- trolled by three separate boards until the Civil War. These schools did not spring immediately into popular favor; but within a few j^ears their ultimate success was assured. The people were anxious to patronize schools supported by self- imposed taxes, and where the terms of admis- sion were the same to all. The American quarter in 1844 had three schools, eleven teachers, and 615 pupils, but in the following year, to accom- modate an enrollment of 1,029 pupils, the niim- ber of schools was increased to six and the number of teachers to thirty-six. Public Schools in the State, 1845. Following the success of the new schools, the Legislature organized a similar system throughout the par- ishes, to be supported also by direct taxation. The eminent scholar, Alexander Dimitry, was aj)- pointed the first State Superintendent of Educa- tion and his influence was felt in New Orleans. Normal School, 1858. The gTowth of the system created a need for a normal scliool where efficient teachers could be trained for work in the elementary schools. This need was met in 1858 by the establishment in New Orleans of the first normal school in the South. Civil War and Reconstruction. B. F. Butler, C*ommander of the Federal army of occupation in New Orleans during the Civil War, consoli- dated the four school districts under one board and one superintendent. There were to be a uniform system of grading and uniform text- books used throughout the city, which greatly facilitated the adjustment of pupils who moved from one district to another. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 111 Education of Negroes. Troubles in educa- tional circles came with the Emancipation Proclamation. The Freedman's Bureau, created by the United States Government to assist liber- ated slaves, furnished free transportation for teachers and supplies and expended large sums for negro schools in New Orleans. Little objec- tion was raised to these schools, but the law passed by the "carpet-bag" Legislature of 1870, requiring the white schools to admit any negro children who would apply, caused great agita- tion and bitter feeling. Although there were but few actual admissions of colored children into the New Orleans schools, the furore did not subside until separate schools were provided for the two races. School Buildings. As soon as the race ques- tion in the schools was somewhat settled, atten- tion was directed to better buildings. Out of the funds left by John McDonogh for this purpose, six well-equipped schoolhouses were erected. This money has been utilized to meet the needs of increased enrollment until over thirty Mc- Donogh schools have been built. Overthrow of Reconstruction Government. The reconstruction government had spent vast sums of money for education, recklessly and in- judiciously extending educational advantages to hundreds of non-taxpaying negroes to the exclusion of the whites, who bore the burden of taxation. One of the first acts of the General Assembly, after the overthrow of "carpet-bag" rule and the assumption of power by the better element, which elected Francis T. Nicholls gov- ernor, was to provide for education. Louisiana, mercilessly crushed by four years of war and left burdened with a monstrous debt yearly in- creased by the extravagant rule of unscrupulous politicians, had been given a setback from which she rallied bravely, but the effects of which are felt even to the present time. William 0. Rogers — Warren Easton. Taking all of this into consideration and remembering the natural prejudice of Louisianians to a system of gratuitous education, the schools of New Or- leans rank very favorably with those of north- ern cities, where public schools are an inherited institution of the people and where revenue from taxation has been uninterrupted. William 0. Rogers as Superintendent of the New Orleans schools, I'endered valuable service to this system for many years. From 1887 until his decease in 1910j the position ^yas held by "Warren Easton, whose success is attested by the devotion of teachers and pupils during his long incumbency, and the universal reverence now accorded his memory. Within the past few years the schools have made wonderful advancement in organization. Management and Maintenance. Before the adoption of the new city charter, the schools were governed by a board of seventeen mem- bers, one elected from each ward in the city. Under that system each member of the board had the appointment of all teachers to schools in the ward which he represented. Since 1912, the New Orleans School Board has been distinct from and independent of the State Board. Under the new city charter, it consists of five members who serve gratuitously and have complete control of the affairs of the Public Schools. (See Chapter XV. for Mainten- ance of Schools.) Division of Schools. At present, the system includes elementary schools, secondary or high schools, and an industrial school for girls, which is soon to have its counterpart in a trade school for boys. The school year of about nine months is divided into terms, and promotions are made semi-annually, so that a retarded pupil has to repeat only one-half year's work. Elementary Schools. The elementary schools comprise kindergarten, primary grades, cover- ing four years work, and grammar grades, cov- ering four years more. Previous attendance at kindergarten is not a requisite for admission into the primary grades. Any child six years of age or over, who complies with the rules of the schools, is eligible. Departmental Teaching. The system of de- partmental teaching having been tested in sev- eral schools and found successful, was intro- duced throughout the city in 1913 in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Each teacher handling one principal subject and, according to conditions in the school, one or moi'e minor subjects, is enabled to attain greater knowledge of her specialty and more efficiency in imparting it. Arithmetic, English, History, Geography, and Literature are given more time and atten- tion in these grades than are other subjects. Some schools, thanlis to the generosity of their patrons or their own endeavor, are supplied with a stereopticon or a moving picture machine, by which historical and geographical facts can be pr^sei^ted pictorially to the increased interest 112 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK and enjoyment of the classes in these subjects. Drawing and Music are taught in the scliools as necessary elements of culture. High Schools. The city supports three splen- did high schools. The Esplanade Girls' High School for the benefit of the girls below Canal Street, the Sophie B. Wright Girls ' High School in Napoleon Avenue, and the Warren Easton Boys' High School in Canal Street. Many more girls than boys attend high school. In 1914, the number of girls admitted to the two high schools have been erected through the generosity of philanthropic citizens. The new McDonogh 14 building is as fine as any in the country. The Beauregard School in Canal Street is especially attractive because of the beautiful grounds that form a setting for its artistic architecture. The oldest public school building now in use in the city is Jackson School, named after the hero of the Battle of New Orleans. One portion was built in 1845, and around that various additions have been made. The frame buildings with WAEREN EASTON HIGH SCHOOL. — Courtesy of Board of Publio School Directors. was 1,554, while there were only 705 boys ad- mitted. The high school courses are elective and the pupils have a wide selection of subjects, as some are designed simply for a business course, others to prepare for normal or college. For graduation, the pupil must attain a certain number of points, that is, successfully complete so many subjects. The standard of graduation is being raised, so the number of points required is changed from year to year. Modern School Buildings. The three high schools are among the handsomest educational buildings in the city and their classroom ar- rangement and laboratory equipment equals that of most colleges. Many of the school houses huge rooms, wide galleries running the full length, and staircases on the outside, show they are not of very late date. Evening Schools. Three times a week, evening classes are given for the benefit of boys and girls over fourteen years of age, who have to work. There are also adult classes for those who did not receive an early education and for foreign- ers desirous of learning English. Manual Training. The aim of the present- day education is to develop the powers and activities of the child as far as practicable. To this end, manual training has been introduced for the boys of the seventh and eighth grades. The boy in measuring, planing, sawing, fitting, THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 113 and staining, has the pleasure of seeing the work advance from a piece of rough lumber to the finished product — a rack, an ornamental box, and sometimes a chair or table. Domestic Science. A domestic science and a domestic art department train the girls for the more practical affairs of life. One period, each week, is given to the girls of the seventh and eighth gTades. Under the supervision of a skilled teacher, the seventh A and eighth B girls in the domestic science department learn the chemical athletics for boys and girls help to insure straight bodies, active limbs, and well-developed lungs. Competitive games between teams selected from the different schools, assist in this Ijliysical development and create for many an interest in school affairs, which otherwise would be lacking. The boys ' games are basket-ball, in- door-ball, and base-ball, according to the season of the year. The girls play basket-ball and in- door-ball. The victorious teams are awarded trophies, which the school keeps for one year. McPONOGH NO. 14. -Courtesy of Board of Public School Directors. constituents of the materials they handle, the relative food values, and the most wholesome combinations. They are taught to plan a per- fect meal, perfect not only from an epicurean, but from a henitliful standpoint. Domestic Art. The girls of the seventh B and eighth A are taught sewing. This depart- ment has been most successful. The girls of the eighth A have made dresses for the closing ex- ercises of the grammar schools. Depaj-tment of Physical Training. As the happiness of an individual depends largely on his mental and physical well-being, proper train- ing of mind and body are essential to complete education. Daily calisthenic drills and class The "Spring Meet' in May is well attended and much enthusiasm prevails among the pupils, teachers, and parents. Department of Hygiene. To further insure the physical welfare of the community and the best possible hygienic conditions in the schools, the services of several competent physicians are secured. It is the duty of this department to instruct and supervise those in charge of the hygiene and sanitation of school buildings, to enforce the exclusion of contagious diseases from the schools, and to require from every child and teacher a certificate of vaccination. Its activities cover a much broader field in the med- ical inspection of pupils. Through, these ex.- 114 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK aminations it has been found that many chil- dren, who were thought slow or even dull, were suffering from physical defects such as poor eye- sight, hearing, or adenoids. A careful examina- tion of the pupils' teeth proved a revelation to many parents, who were unaware of any defects. In most cases, they gave their immediate atten- tion to the matter, and those who could not afford to pay a dentist were given gratuitous treatment. Department of Attendance. There is a law in the State of Louisiana compelling children Isetween the ages of eight and fourteen to attend school. In order to enforce this law, the School Board of New Orleans has appointed officers whose duty it is to see that this law is carried out and to investigate cases of truancy. If the conditions do not improve, the children are brought before the Juvenile Court. Francis T. KichoUs Industrial School. A movement for industrial or vocational education has spread over the entire country and attracted attention in New Orleans. The aim is to offer to persons whose educational opportunities are limited, one, two, or three years of training in some trade or industry. The trained worker always commands a higher salary than the raw recruit. Those, who have finished courses at a trade or industrial school, are fitted to earn a livelihood in one field or another. The Francis T. Nicholls Industrial School for Girls, occupy- ing a handsome building similar to the new high schools, has been opened to girls over fourteen years of age, who have comiDleted the sixth grade of the elementary course or its equivalent. Girls above the age of seventeen, who have not completed the sixth grade may be admitted upon the approval of the Superintendent. The courses offered are dressmaking, home economics, gar- ment making, millinery, fine laundering, art needle work, design making. Commercial Arith- metic, and English. The school has proved so pojjular that other courses will be added as soon as the need arises and provision can be made for them. Many girls, who either had no aptitude for or time to devote to higher intellectual culture, have been equipped with the means of making their way in the world, where year after year greater skill is exacted in eveiy occupation. Delgado Central Trade School for Boys. Isaac Delgado bequeathed to the Public Schools of New Orleans a fund for a trade school for boys, which as nearly as possible, must be cen- trally located. This school has not yet been erected, but a department of Educational Re- search has been established to furnish the School Board with accurate data concerning the in- dustries, trades, and commercial activities of '■ New Orleans, so that the school, when opened, may best meet the needs of the communitv. SECTION 4. TULANE UNIVERSITY AND LOYOLA UNIVERSITY. Medical College of Louisiana. The history of Tulane University dates back to the founda- tion of the Medical College of Louisiana in 1834. This College was chartered the following year, and in 1836 issued the first degTees in medicine and science ever conferred in the southwest. Some of the most famous doctors in the country have added prestige to the institution by hold- ing chairs in the different l)ra.nches. University of Louisiana, 1845. The Consti- tution of 1845 provided for the establishment of a university in New Orleans, embracing the Medical College, to which were to be added law and academic departments. The law depart- ment then, as now, gave instruction in common and in civil law, with more stress on the latter. As the civil law of Louisiana differs so widely from that of other states, few students are drawn from these sources. Tlie academic department, never popular, ceased all instruction in 1859 and was not reopened until after the restoration of civil government in Louisiana. During the years of 1863, 1864, and 1865 (war times), the Univer- sity held no sessions. Through the strenuous efforts of a new board of administrators, the academic department was oioened in 1878 and sixty students matriculated. The following year the Legislature recognized the University of Louisiana in its three departments — medical, law, and academic, and pledged state aid to the amount of $10,000 annually. Such was the foun- dation on which Tulane University was built. Paul Tulane. Louis Tulane, father of Paul Tulane, was a Frenchman who had emigTated to THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 115 San Domingo with his brother-in-law, a wealtliy planter, and slaveholder. The brother-in-law's entire family was exterminated during the in- surrection of the slaves, but Louis Tulane and his wife managed to escape in an open boat to the United States. They settled in Cherry Valley, near Princeton, New Jersey, and there Paul Tulane spent his boyhood. A cousin from France, touring the United States for his health, took the youth as "traveling companion." Most of the traveling, in those days, was done by steamboat, and the two descended the Missis- sippi to New Orleans, which so charmed the younger that he returned a few years later to make it his place of residence. Establishing dollars to the fund, which he intended to in- crease, but, as he died without a will, this inten- tion was never carried out. Tulane University, 1884. Tulane had not specified what should be done with the fund beyond that it should be devoted to the educa- tion of the white youth of Louisiana; so the ad- ministrators decided to establish an institution of higher learning. They entered into an agTee- ment with the State by which the University of Louisiana, with all its property, would become a part of the new institution, thenceforth to be known as Tulane University' of Louisiana. The $10,000 annually contributed by the state was to be withheld, but the property belonging to GIBSON- HALL, TULANE CAMPUS. — Courtesy of Tulane University. here a business for the sale of general supplies to planters and country merchants, he amassed a fortune. His charities were numerous, though so unostentatious as rarely to come to public notice. In 1873, he returned to New Jersey, where he died. Paul Tulane never forgot the city where most of his wealth had been accumu- lated; his generosity to it in the cause of educa- tion amply proved his devotion. In 1881, he donated all the property he then possessed in New Orleans, to the education of the white youth of Louisiana. A board of administrators selected from the most prominent men of the city, was chosen to execute the trust. In all, Tulane donated one million and fifty thousand the University was to be free from taxation, in return for which, the right of appointing to a scholarship was reserved to each senator and representative in the state. Colonel William Preston Johnston, a man of scholarly attain- ments and upright character, then president of the Louisiana State University at Baton Rouge, was selected as the first president of Tulane University. Courses Offered. At present, the University comprises the College of Medicine, with the schools of medicine, of pharmacy, of dentistry, of hygiene and tropical medicine, of post-gradu- ate medicine; the Department of Law, with the school of Louisiana Law and Common Law; the 116 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK College of Arts and Sciences; the College of Technology, with schools of mechanical and electrical engineering, of civil and sanitary en- gineering, of chemistry, and chemical-sugar en- gineering, of architecture and architectural engineering. A business course has been established. Location. The University at tirst occupied the buildings of the University of Louisiana, which it had absorbed. Sufficient funds were given by Mrs. Ida Eichardson to erect and equip a modern building as a memoi-ial to her hus- band, who had long been connected with the medical department. The building was erected in 1904, facing Canal street, in the square be- tween Villere and Robertson, and until 1908 was known as the Richardson Memorial Medical School. In that year, however, the building was sold to the Hutch- inson Fund and the name "Richardson Memorial" was given to a building erected on the campus of Tu- lane University. Here, the first two years' instruction in medi- cine is given the students. The build- ings of the former University of Lou- isiana became too crowded for the grow- ing institution, which was removed to the present spacious grounds in St. Charles avenue, facing the pleasant prospect of Audubon Park. The cornerstone of the main building, known as Gibson Hall, was laid in 1894. Since then, many handsome and well-equipped structures have been added and form an imposing group on the campus. Many of them are donations of gen- erous patrons of education; such is the Tilton Memorial Library, the repository of the very valuable collection of books belonging to the University. Government. The student body of Tulane University is self-governed. Each of the four classes (freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior) of the academic department select a president, vice-president, and secretary. These twelve students form the Academic Board, of NEWCOMB COLLEGC. which the president of the senior class is ex- officio i:)resident. This court of honor is entrusted with nearly all matters of discipline, except neglect of work or absence. Its judgments are referred to the president of the University, who approves or sends them on to the faculty. That body seldom does more than ask the Board to reconsider a decision. This system, inculcating a certain amount of moral responsibility in each individual, has worked with admirable success. Sophie Newcomb. Mrs. Josephine Louise Newcomb, wishing to perpetuate the memory of her daughter, Sophie, founded a college for young women. The original fund of $100,000 was entrusted to the administrators of the Tulane fund. The Sophie Newcomb Memorial College was opened in 1887 as a department of Tulane University. The courses offered are reg- ular collegiate work, the high standard of which ranks Newcomb among the best col- leges in the South. One of the most noteworthy features of the institu- tion is the School of Art, which covers a four years course, sup- plemented by post- graduate work. Draw- ing, painting, model- ing, art needle work, tapestry, jewelry, and pottery are some of the subjects comprised in this course. Newcomb pottery is far-famed for its beauty of outline and design. The exhibit of the Newcomb School of Art received the highest award at the Panama Exposition held in San Francisco in 1915. Educational Work of the Jesuits. Although the Jesuits had been in Louisiana since the earliest colonial days, they did not undertake educational work until after it became a state of the Union. The first college established with- in the present limits of the state by this illus- trious teaching order was at Grand Coteau in 1835. Twelve years later, upon the invita- tion of Archbishop Blanc, they opened the College of the Immaculate Conception on the corner of Baronne and Common Streets in New Qrlesins* Adjoining the college building rtesy of Tulane University. The new ORLEANS BOOK 117 is one of the handsomest churches in the city. Loyola University. In 1904, the Jesuit Fathers opened a select school in the uptown section of the city, in St. Charles Avenue opposite Audubon Park. To this was soon added a collegiate course. The ambition of the Society for a Catholic University in the state was realized in 1912, when the Legislature granted them full powers to confer ' ' degTees in the arts and sciences and all the learned professions, such as are granted by other universities in the United States." Marquette Hall, a magnificent building in the Tudor-Gothic style of architec- ture, has been erected and equipped with up- to-date apparatus, for laboratory work. The buildings are to be grouped in the form of an open quadrangle; Marquette Hall to the rear, Thomas Hall, already completed, on the down- town side, and a church, for which magnificent plans have been made, to occupy the third side of the quadrangle. The University now offers, LOYOLA UNIVERSITY. besides an academic course, a pre-medical course, a law course, a course in pharmacy, and a course in dentistry. Seismic Observatory. The most interesting instrument in the excellent scientific equipment of the University, is the seismograph, one of the few in the country. The seismograph is an ap- paratus, which records vibrations of the earth. A cylinder, revolving by clockwork, moves a piece of carbonized paper on which two deli- cately poised needles trace parallel lines. These needles move from side to side witli any vibra- tion, causing the lines to be wavy. The instru- ment is so sensitive to the slightest vibration that it will be affected by an earthquake anywhere in the world. A special observatory, donated by W. B. Burke in memory of his son, houses this mechanical wonder. The seismograph is pro- tected from atmospheric disturbances by the double walls of the observatory and by a special little room of glass within the larger room. The instrument does not rest upon or touch any part - - , of the building, but is supported by an inde- pendent concrete column extending eight feet un- der ground. The Jesuits own the principal seis- mic observatories in the United States, and they have been asked to co- operate with the govern- ment in the compilation of seismic data. This university has also the equally wonderful and better known aiJ- paratus,the wireless — Courtesy of Loyola University, telegraph. SECTION 5. PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. Convents. Several Catholic religious orders conduct splendid schools for girls. The Ursu- lines, the Ladies of the Sacred Heart, and the Dominicans have been qualified by the Legisla- ture to confer the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The Ursulines, having been forced to abandon their historic buildings in the. lower part of the city because the site was needed for a new levee, have erected a very imposing structure in State Street. The Ladies of the Sacred Heart have an Academy in St. Charles Avenue, just above Na- poleon Avenue. This order was founded in France in the beginning of the nineteenth cen- tury and, for over a hundred years, has success- fully been devoted to the education of young 118 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK ladies; their schools, established on all conti- nents, have gained for them world-wide renown as cultural educators and moral instructors. The aim of their education has always been to mould the character and to infuse into their pupils that exquisite culture which is the mark of true refinement. Before the convent in St. Charles avenue was established, there was one in Dumaine street. This older institution has lately been abandoned owing to the shifting of population. Parochial Schools. The Catholic Church conducts a well organized system of parochial schools. Each parish church has a school ad- joining under the direction of the parish priest and, in most cases, taught by Nuns. Uniform text-books are used throughout the city and the classes are graded according to public school standards. The unity and efficiency of the system is further increased by a general supervision of all the Catholic Parochial Schools in New Or- leans. Music, art, and, of course, religious in- struction are given special attention. A gradu- ate of Newcomb College, eminent for her art work, has been appointed supervisor of the art department. The teachers are thoroughly pre- pared for the work and the buildings are well equipped. The school adjoining the Sacred Heart Church is considered one of the most up-to-date in the city. Stereopticons and even moving pic- ture machines are utilized to illustrate moral stories, history, and practical science lessons, imparting vivid and realistic sense-impressions to the child, thereby stimulating interest. Preparatory Schools. There are several well- known preparatory schools. The Christian Brothers' College, renowned for thoroughness, the Holy Cross College, and Rugby Academy are very successful in pre-collegiate work. Soule College. Since 1856, this institution has been successfully carried on, excepting during the years of the Civil War, when the president. Colonel Soule, entered the Confed- erate Army. It ranks very high as a Inisiness college and its graduates have little difficulty in securing positions. In 1881, it became coeduca- tional to meet the demands of women for com- mercial education. SECTION 6. INSTITUTIONS FOR THE COLORED. Public Schools. The city conducts elementary public schools for the children of the negro race similar to those provided for the white children. Leland University. This institution, situated at the corner of St. Charles Avenue and Audubon Street, was established in 1870 by a retired shoe merchant of Brooklyn, New York. The founder devoted his attention to it for twelve years and was assisted by the Freedman's Bureau and the American Baptist Home Mission Society. At his death, he bequeathed his property to the in- stitution. Tuition is free except for instrumental music. The course offers both normal and col- legiate work. Straight University. The American Mission- ary Association was instrumental in establish- ing this school in 1869, which was named for Seymour Straight, a produce merchant of New Orleans, and one M its earliest benefactors. At present, the University occupies large buildings with ample grounds in Canal Street. New Orleans University. In 1869, the Freed- man's Bureau established the Union Normal school, which in 1873 the Legislature chartered as the New Orleans University. The affairs of the institution are controlled by a board of trustees. Two-thirds of the members must be- long to the Methodist Episcopal Church. SECTION 7. LIBRARIES. Library Societies. According to tradition, as early as 1801, the first public library of New Or- leans was established; but there are no authentic records to attest its existence at so early a date. In 1805, the Legislature chartered the New Or- leans Library Society, a joint stock company with an unlimited number of shares at $25 each and the ])rivilege of conducting a lotter3^ The The new ORLEANS BOOK 119 finances of tlie Society did not prosper and its ultimate fate is imcertain. A similar attempt was made in 1824, when the Touro Free Library Society of New Orleans was incorporated. Its term of usefulness was short, for it lasted only six years. The State Library. There is no record of any pul)lic library for eight years after the dis- solution of the Touro Free Library Society; but in 1838, the State Library was established by act of the Legislature, chiefly for the benefit of the legislators, but open to all citizens. From a beginning of 3,000 volumes, it increased to 50,028 in 1861. Tliese had been removed to Baton Rouge with the change of capital, con- sequently many very valuable books and docu- ments were destroyed when the State House was burned during tlie war. The volumes that were left were brought to New Orleans and deposited in the City Hall, whence they were removed to Tulaue University. "Commercial Library." This owed its ex- istence to private enterprise, but in 1842, through the generosity of B. F. French, it was turned over to the public. The Lyceum or Public School Library. The Second Municipality was bj;- far the most pro- gTessive in the educational line. In 1845, a library in connection with the schools of the district was established through the efforts of Mr. Shaw, superintendent of the public schools, Samuel J. Peters, and others. A monthly subscription of 25 cents for pupils and a yearly subscription of $5 for others, gave free access to the library, while a fee of $10 entitled the subscriber to life ownership. The Lyceum contained about 7,500 volumes and it is inter- esting to note that a few of them still bearing the mark of the Lyceum are to be found on the shelves of the present City Library. The books were placed in the newly founded and unfinished municipal hall, the same whose classic Grecian architecture now adorns La- fayette Square. The risk Library. About 1849, Mr. Alvarez Fisk bought the "Commercial Library" from Mr. French to carry out the designs of his de- ceased brother for the establishment of a public library in New Orleans. The collection then consisted of about 6,000 volumes, which, with a Imilding in Customhouse Street, he offered to the city. Very little interest or appreciation was shown for the gift and the city made no provision for its efficient operation. It was used successively by the Mechanics' Institute, the Louisiana University, and Tulane until 1897 ; then, it was that the Lyceum and the Fisk Library were consolidated to form the "Fisk Free and Public Library." The City Council has annually made an appropriation for its maintenance. This library continued to be the chief public library of the city and was fre- quently changed from one building to another until the city received a donation from Mr. Car- negie with which the present handsome struc- ture was erected. SECTION 8. THE NEW ORLEANS PUBLIC LIBRARY. Buildings. The library building was erected in 1908 at a cost somewhat over $260,000. Mr. Carnegie's gift amounted to $375,000, but as the Fisk Library was to be embodied in the new, the city refused to accept the sum unless the condition of naming it "Carnegie" be removed. The structure and grounds occupy the length of the block on St. Charles Avenue, between Lee Circle and Calliope street. The building is of gray stone and a portico suppoi-ted by graceful Corinthian columns extends beyond the main entrance. A terrace, several feet in height, gives the building an imposing setting. The interior of the main building is like one great hall sup- ported by massive marble jaillars. A domed skylight and many large windows keep it well lighted. Almost one-half of this huge room is occupied by the Juvenile Department, secluded by a low partition running from side to side. Here, the long low tables with their rows of dark shaded electric reading lamps, the small chairs, the drinking fountains, row upon row of interesting books, the carefully arranged collec- tion of pictures show that everything is planned 120 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOl^ for the comfort, entertainraent, and instruction of the little folks. On either side of the hall is the reference room, containing a large collection of valuable books which are not allowed to cir- culate, but which can be taken from the shelves and read at leisure. Just beyond the reference room is the magazine reading room, where one can peruse at will the latest cojay of 339 different mag'azines — fashion books, literary periodicals, religious publications, and magazines of science, art, invention, agriculture, education, published in all parts of the English-speaking world and some in foreign languages. Behind the main building and connected to it by a wide vestibule, is the annex where the books for circulation are kept. Two stories are stacked with well-filled shelves, having only nar- row passageways between. The books are catalogued by means of the Library of Congress cards. Each book is listed twice — first on a card bearing the title of the book followed by the author's name, and this is filed alphabetically, according to the name of the book; secondly, on a card bearing first the author's name, then the title of the book, and this is filed according to the alphabetical order of the author's name. All the books are numbered and the cards in the index bear the numbers of the books. Branch Libraries. In connection with the New Orleans Public Library there are four In-anch libraries, namely, the Eoyal Branch, Algiers Branch, Canal Branch, and the Napoleon Avenue Branch. System of Circulation. The iise of these libraries is absolutely free to all, and any one holding a card may borrow books from the cir- culating depariiuC^t. All that is necessary to obtain a card is to have some one sigTi a guar- antee that he would be liable for any fines in- curred by the borrower. Fines are incurred if the book is kept longer than the time allowed, if the book is damaged, or if it is lost. Howard Memorial Library. Just on the other side of Lee Circle from the New Orleans Pul)lic Library, is a much smaller, but handsome structure. This, too, is a library, a memorial to Charles T. Howard, erected by his daughter, Mrs. Parrot, in 1888. The plans were drawn by Eichardson, and were the last from the hand of that famous architect. The original cost of the building was $115,000, and Mrs. Parrot's gener- osity led her to bestow an endowment of $200,000 upon the library. The interior consists of a fine hall containing stacks, and a circular, domed reading room. Among the valuable articles owned by the library, are copies of the original editions of the works of Audubon and an un- rivaled collection of Louisiana maps. The Confederate Memorial Hall. Adjoin- ing the Howard Librarv is the Confederate NEW ORLEANS PUBLIC LIBRARY. — Courtesy Southern Pacific R. R- Memorial Hall liuilt in 1891 by Frank T. How- ard. The Hall with its invaluable collections, is in charge of the Louisiana Historical Associa- tion. Many and varied are the relics gathered here, — flags tattered and stained by time and battle, swords of gallant officers, the uniforms of some fallen hero, a lock of hair, the cord from a hat, — sad but soul-stirring mementoes of those heroes, who went forth gladly to give their lives for their beloved South. The Louisiana State Museum. The Louisiana State Museum, which now occupies the two his- toric buildings on either side of the St. Louis Cathedral, was created by act of the Legislature in 1906. The Cabildo contains valuable and in- teresting historical collections, including origi- *rHE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 121 nal documents and letters; maps, especially of New Orleans dating from the earliest days of the city; General Jackson's battle flag and other relics of the Battle of New Orleans; slave-sale certificates, Confederate money, and mementoes of the Civil War; pictures of scenes connected with the history of the state, portraits of the governors of the state and many other historical personages ; and collections of china, silverware, furniture, and trinkets, representing different periods in the history of the State and city. The old Presbytery is devoted to the natural history and commercial of the State. The chief agricultural products — cotton, sugar cane, rice, and corn, the lumber and mineral products, and a wonderful collection of native birds and ani- mals are scientifically classified and attractively exhibited. TOPICS: Section 1, Colonial Education; Section 2, Early Years of American Rule; Section 3, Public School System; Section 4, Tulane University and Loyola University; Section 5, Private Schools and Colleges; Section 6, In- stitutions for the Colored; Section 7, Libraries; Section 8, New Orleans Public Library. REFERENCES: Louisiana Studies, Fortier; Standard His- tory of New Orleans, Eightor; History of Education in Louisiana, Fay; Annual Eeport of the Superintendent of Public Schools; Annual Report of the New Orleans Public Library. CHAPTER XIII. Literature of New Orleans. SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION. Meaning. The word "literature" is derived from the Latin word "litera," which means a letter, written records, or writings. By litera- ture is meant "the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing." As people's emotions and thoughts are influenced by their individual character, mode of life, and social conditions, so is literature, which is the written record of these emotions and thoughts; hence literature is an important factor in understand- ing a people. Literature requires settled con- ditions in order to flourish. The North Amer- ican Lidian had no literature because his life was one continuous struggle for food and life; he had no time to record his emotions, thoughts, and deeds. The earliest form of literature is the writing of the jiriests of the ancient tribes ; their life was quiet; they led the people spiritually, in return for which, they were exempt from fighting; this condition of their life enabled them to give permanent expression to their religious beliefs and the prowess of the warriors. Litera- ture is therefore the product of peaceful times, though struggles and turmoils of different kinds are often taken for the theme. Two Kinds of Literature in Louisiana. For a full century, French was the principal language in Louisiana. The Spanish domination had no effect on the language of the colony. Even after the American occupation, French held first place for about forty years. The sons of wealthy Creole families of ante-bellum days were sent to France for their higher education; thus the French language was retained in its purity. Even to-day, the French language is generally well spoken in Louisiana. From this hag re- sulted a French as well as an English Litera- ture. SECTION 2. FRENCH LITERATURE. First Literary Effort. Literature grows slowly in new countries. In the early days of the colony, the hard conditions of life repressed any literary aspirations. "Le Moniteur," the first newspaper, was not founded until 1794. Copies of it are to be found in the archives of the city. The first literary work produced in New Orleans, in fact in Louisiana, was an epic, which appeared in 1779, during the time of the Spanish control; it was written in French by Juiien Poydras, a native of Brittany, then living in New Orleans. The poem celebrated Glalvez's capture of Baton Rouge and was entitled "La Prise du Morne du Baton Rouge par Monseig- neur de Glalvez. ' ' The work is devoid of literary merit, but is worthy of notice as the first at- tempt at a literary work in Louisiana. Juiien Poydras 's fame rests on his philanthropy and public-spirited citizenship. He came to New Orleans penniless; by peddling along the River, he gradually amassed enough money to become a merchant and planter, and thus acquired the fortune, which he spent so freely in assisting less fortunate in Louisiana. Poydras street received its name from the fact that Juiien Poydras 's New Orleans home was located there. Drama. The second literary work was a tragedy, "Poucha Houmma," by Le Blanc de Villeneufve, published in 1814. The subject is a Houmma Indian chief's sacrifice of his life so as to save that of his son. Cula-Be, the son of Chief Poucha Houmma, had escaped from the Choctaw village after killing a Choctaw. At the feast of the "Yovmg Wheat," the Choctaws sent to the Hoummas to demand the murderer. The old chief sent his son away and gave himself up instead to the Choctaws. Villeneufve endeavors through his work to prove to the world that the THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 123 Indians were not destitute of human feeling. L. Placide Canonge in 1849 wrote a one-act comedy, "Qui Perd Gagne" (Who loses gains). Dr. Alfred Mercier and Dr. C. Delery also wrote some plays. Poetry. A number of fine poems were written at different times during the last century. In 1846, Mr. Felix de Courmont published a poetical journal called "Le Taenarion." Dr. Alfred Mercier, besides his drama, wrote some poetry; "La Eose de Smyrne" and "Erato" are ranked among his best. Dr. Chas. Testut published in 1849 a volume of verse called "Les Echos." But French poetry is little known. The works of the French poets do not enjoy the wide recognition they deserve. Prose. Charles Gayarre's first work was in French, "Essai His- torique sur la Louisiaue" (His- toi'ical Essay in Louisiana). This work appeared in 1830. Charles Grayarre is one of the best known names in Louisiana, as a lawyer, legislator, and historian. He was born in New Orleans, January 9, 1805, of French and Spanish parentage; his mother was the youngest daughter of Etienne de Bor6. He was graduated at the age of twenty from the College of Orleans and then went to Phila- delphia, where he studied law with a well-known jurist, Mr. Bawle. He was elected in 1835 to the United States Senate, but his poor health prevented him taking his seat. He then spent eight years in France and returned with his health much improved. While abroad, he began the work on which his fame rests, his "Histoire de la Lou- isiane," the first two volumes of which appeared in 1846 and '47; in 1854, he completed the volume on the Spanish Domiziation, and during the Civil War that on the American Domination. After the Civil War, appeared a comedy, "Dr. Bluff," "Philip 11. of Spain," "Fernando de Lemos or Truth and Fiction," and its sequel, "Aubert Dubayet or the Two Sister Republics." He contributed many articles to prominent mag- azines and reviews. He helped to reorganize the Louisiana Historical Society and became its president. Gayarre has given a valuable ac- count of his life as a child on his grandfather's (Etienne de Bore) plantation in "A Louisiana Plantation under the Old Regime." He held man^^ political positions, such as member of the General Assembly and Secretary of State. The last years of the distinguished scholar's life were rendered painful by ill health and l^ecuniar)' embarrassments. Death claimed Charles Gayarre on Feb- i-uary 11, 1895. Besides his poems. Dr. Testut wrote two novels, "Le Vieux vSalomon" and "Les "Filles de Monte Cristo." Dr. Alfred Mercier wrote "Le Fou de Palerme," "La Fille du PrMre," and "L 'Habitation St. Ybars"; the latter is generally considered his best; it gives a vivid and accurate account of life on a large sugar plantation before the War. French Literary Society. The "Athenee Louisianais" is a society for the preservation of the French language in Louisiana. It is affiliated with the Alliance Frangaise of Paris and the United States. The society publishes a journal, "Les Compte- rendus d 1 'Athenee Louisianais," which con- tains many of the best literary efforts of its members. CHARLES GAYARRiS. — Courtesy La. State Museum, SECTION 3. ENGLISH LITERATURE. DeBow's Review. In January, 1846, appeared the first number of the "Commercial Review of New Orleans"; the Review was edited by James D. B. DeBow, who had removed in 1845 from Charleston, South Carolina, to New Orleans. Its original title is now scarcely known, it being familiarly spoken of as DeBow's Review. The Review became one of the foremost journals of the United States in the years before the War; it is a rich source of historical material about the Old South. DeBow, the editor, was a pioneer in the study of political economy, which he 124 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOIt taught at the University of Louisiana, then located in New Orleans. Besides contributing to the Eeview and the Encyclopedia Britannica, DeBow published "Encyclopedia of Trade and Commerce of the United States ' ' in two volumes, and various other works. The Review was pub- lished regularly until 1864, when it was discon- tinued ; after the war, the office was removed to Nashville, Tennessee, where the journal was published for two years, 1866- '68, and then per- manently stopped. The Review's influence on the development of the city commercially and educationally was great ; its pages are rich with the best thought not only of New Orleans, but of the entire South. Poetry. Many New Orleanians have written poetry, though few have attained distinction as poets. Before the War, the two best writers of verse were not native New Orleanians, but citi- zens by adoption. Joseph Brennan, born 1829, was an Irish patriot exiled from Ireland because of his connection with the revolutionary move- ments in 1848. He lived in New Orleans for the last ten years of his life, and for three years was connected with the "Delta." About his best poem is "The Exile To His Wife"; it is a pathetic account of his loneliness in a foreign land and his longing for his wife, for her pres- ence, her love, and tenderness; it is rich in lieauty of thought and musical rhythm. Richard Heiiry Wilde was also a native of Ireland; he was born in Dublin in 1789; he came to Mary- laud as a child and then lived in Augusta, Georgia, where,. after studying law, he was sent to Congress. In 184.3, Wilde removed to New Orleans, where he died four years later. His two best known poems are "Ode to Ease" and "The Lament of a Captive; or. My Life is Like the Summer Rose." Both poems soimd a note of sad loneliness; the last is an exquisite lyric. Colonel William Preston Johnston, a former president of Tulane University, published a volume of poems, ' ' My Garden Walk, ' ' La 1895. There have been three noted poetesses, Mrs. MoUie E. Moore-Davis, Mrs. Mary Ashley Town- send, and Mrs. Eliza Poitevent Nicholson. Mrs. Davis was the wife of Major Thomas Edward Davis; she was born in Alabama in 1852, but, when a small child, her parents moved to Texas, where she lived until her marriage caused her to reside in New Orleans. Many of her early poems were gathered into a volume entitled "Minding the Gap and Other Poems." "Pere Dagobert" and "Wanga" are among her principal later poems. There is an appealing note of truth and sympathy and sweetness in Mrs. Davis's writings; her thoughts are fresh and original. Mrs. Davis was also a novelist. Mrs. Mary Ashley Townsend was born and spent her early life in New York. Alter her marriage in 1856, New Orleans became her home. Mrs. Townsend has published three volumes of verse and a collection of sonnets; she usually wrote under the name of "Xariffa." "Creed" contains beautiful thoughts beautifully ex- pressed; for instance, the vivid simile in the verse preceding the last, in which she compares a person who has not loved to one who carelessly drops a luscious gi'ape without ever knowing its delicious sweetness; the last verse tells of the beautifying effect love has on old age. "A Georgia Volunteer" is a sympathetic musing over the grave of an unknown Confederate sol- dier. ' ' A Woman 's Wish ' ' and ' ' The Captain 's Story" are among other well-known poems. Mrs. Eliza J. Poitevent Nicholson was born in Mississippi in 1849, but removed to New Or- leans after her marriage. Mrs. Nicholson was the owner of the former ' ' Picayune ' ' newspaper. "Pearl Rivers" was the name under which she wrote. Mrs. Nicholson died in 1896. Besides many unijublished poems and poems published in newspapers, there is a volume of "Lyrics." The lovely poem, "Singing Heart," is in this volume. Mrs. Nieholsou generally wrote of the things of nature; she had a deep understanding and love of nature's workings. Drama. No great dramatic work has been produced. Judge Gayarre and W. W. Howe, and Mr. E. C. Wharton wrote a few plays, but achieved no distinction thereby. History. Judg-e Francis X. Martin was the first historian of Louisiana. Judge Martin pub- Isihed his history in 1827; he recounts the his- tory of Louisiana from the beginning of its settlement to the close of the year 1815. Judge Martin was also an eminent jurist. (See Chap- ter X., Professions — Trades.) Judge Gayarre wrote a romantic History of Louisiana. Other historical writings of Judge Gayarre are: "A Historical Sketch of the Two Lafittes," "A Louisiana Sugar Plantation of the Old Regime," "The New Orleans Bench and Bar in 1823," "Literature in Louisiana," and "The Creoles of History and the Creoles of Romance"; the last was a refutation of George THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 125 W. Cable's misrepresentation of tlie Louisiana Creoles. Professor Alcee Fortier devoted his life to the study of Louisiana historj^, people, and their language. Professor Fortier was born in St. James Parish, June 5, 1856; he was the son of Florent Fortier and Edwige Aime, the daughter of Valcour Aime. He received his early educa- tion under private tutors, in the schools of New Orleans, and at the University of Virginia. He then studied law for two years, but his father's financial reverses compelled him to give it up and accept a clerkship in a bank. Shortly after, he became a teacher in the city high school; later, he was made principal of the preparatory department of the University of Louisiana. In 1880, he was made Professor of French, at the University. The following year, he married Miss Marie Lanauze of New Orleans. From the professorship of French, he was changed some years later, to that of Romance languages. In 1913, he became Dean of the Graduate Department of the Uni- versity. Professor Fortier died at his home in Audubon Street, February 14, 1914. Professor Fortier served for ten years on the State Board of Education; he was president of the Civil Service Commission and of the Board of Curators of the State Museum. It was largely through his exertions that the Louisiana Historical So- ciety was kept from perishing; he served as its president for many years. The French government honored him by appointing him an officer of public instruction and present- ing him with the cross of the Legion of Honor. Professor Fortier was president of the follow- ing organizations: Athenee Louisianais, Modern Language Association of America, American Folk Lore Society, and Federation Alliance FrauQaise of United States and Canada, and the Public School Alliance of New Orleans. Besides his labors in the classroom, in clubs, and societies. Professor Fortier did much writing, both in French and English. "Bits of Folk Lore" appeared in 1888, followed succes- sively by "Sept Grands Auteurs du Dixneu- vieme Siecle" (Seven Great Authors of the Niiieteeath Cofttury), "Histoire de la Literature Frangaise" (History of French Literature), "Louisiana Studies," "Louisiana Folk Tales," "Voyage en Europe," "Precis de 1 'Histoire de France" (Abstract of History of France), "His- tory of Louisiana," "History of Mexico"; editor of "Encyclopedia of Louisiana,'' and of many French texts. Professor Fortier con- tributed to many magazines in the United States and in France. Judge Alexander Walker wrote in 1860 the "Life of Andrew Jackson and Battle of New Orleans"; his son, Mr. Norman McF, Walker, Ijublished in the Magazine of American History, September, 1883, an interesting paper entitled "The Geographical Nomenclature of Lou- isiana." Colonel William Preston Johnston wrote the life of his father, "Life of Albert Sidney Johnston." An- other work dealing with the Civil War is Colonel Alfred Roman's "Military Operations of General Beauregard. " W. W. Howe pulv Hshed the "Municipal Histor^^ of New Orleans" in the Johns Hop- kins University Studies in His- torical and Political Science. There are many other books of a similar character. The Novel. Charles Gayarre Avrote two so-called novels, ' ' Fer- nando de Lemos" and "Aubert Du- bayet. Charles Dimitry, the son of the able educator, wrote "The House on Balfour Street." Dr, W. H. Holcombe published "Mys- tery of New Orleans in 1890."' One of the most noted names in the literature of New Orleans is that of Lafcadio Hearn. Hearn was born in 1850 on the island of Santa Maura, one of the Ionian group ; his mother was a Greek and his father an English army surgeon; he was educated partly in England, in Ireland, and in France. Hearn came to the United States after his father's death, making his residence in Cin- cinnati ; here, he learned the printer 's trade, then became a travelling correspondent of a Cincin- nati paper; he spent a vacation in the South and, unable to cast off the spell of the Southland, removed to New Orleans. It was in New Orleans, most of his literary work was done ; he wrote at times for the Times-Democrat. His first book was "Stray Leaves from Strange Literature." "Chinesej Ghosts" relates legends of China., ALCEE FORTIER. — Courtesy La. State Museum 126 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK "Chita" is a local story based on the ter- rible storm that destroyed Last Island. Later Mr. Hearn removed to Japan, where his death occurred. Lafcadio Hearn 's writing is characterized by its brilliance and vivid col- oring. G-eorge W. Cable may be claimed as a writer of New Orleans, even though he no longer re- sides in the city. George W. Cable was born in New Orleans in 1844. After serving in the Civil War, he became a civil engineer, but ill health forced him to give it up. Cable wrote for the Picayune and in 1869 became one of its editors. Scribner's Magazine published his "Old Creole Days"; the success of this book decided him to adopt literature as a profession. After a lecture tour with Clemens (Mark Twain) through the Northern States, he removed to New England. George W. Cable has also written ' ' The Gran- dissimes," "Dr. Sevier," "The Creoles of Lou- isiana," and "The Silent South." His portrayal of the Creoles has sometimes been faulty. One of Mr. Cable's ablest works is "History of New Orleans and Its Present Condition," written for the United States census of 1880; it is a rich source of information about New Orleans. His last work is "Gideon's Band," published in 1914; in this novel, Mr. Cable portrays with mas- terful skill steamboat life on the Mississippi in the early fifties, revealing the spirit of con- flict then abroad in the great Valley. Mr. Cable has much power as a descriptive writer, de- lighting his readers with exquisite word- paintings. Besides her poems, Mrs. Majy E. M. Davis wrote several - charming novels, "In "War Times at La Eose Blanche," "An Elephant's Track," "The Queen's Garden," "The Price of Silence," " Keren-Happuch, " clever accounts of life and scenes in New Orleans, and some other stories. Mrs. Ruth McEnery Stuart was born in Avoyelles Parish, the daughter of James and Mary McEnery; she was educated in New Or- leans. Mrs. Stuart is the widow of Alfred 0. Stuart, a cotton planter, to whom she was mar- ried in 1879. Mrs. Stuart began writing in 1888; her first book was "The Golden Wedding," a portrayal of negro character; this was followed by "Christmas Gifts," a story of slave times; "Carlotta's Intended," which deals with Dago life; "In Simpkinsville, " "The Gentleman of the Plush Eocker," "George Washington Jones," and "A Christmas Gift That Went A-Begging." Mrs. Stuart also does clever mag- azine writing. Miss Grace King is among the foremost writers of New C)rleans. Knowing intimately the Creole life of New Orleans, Miss King has generally devoted her books to the portrayal of the character and manners of the Creoles, in which the best critics agree that she has en- tirely succeeded. Miss Grace Elizabeth King was born in New Orleans, November 29, 1859; her father, William Woodsen King, was a prom- inent lawyer in ante-belhim days. Miss King passed her childhood in the midst of the Creole quarter of the city and on her father's planta- tion in St. Martin Parish. She received her education in the schools of the city and from private tutors. Miss King early spoke French and Spanish fluently and was thus enabled to easily study the history of the Creoles from orig- inal documents. Miss King's first literarj^ work was done for the New Princeton Eeview, which writing she later developed into her first novel, "Monsier Motte" (1888). "Tales of Time and Place, ' ' and ' ' Earthlings ' ' followed. ' ' New Or- leans, the Place and the People," then followed; this is one of Miss King's most delightful books; it is written in an easy, charming manner, re- plete with vivid descriptions and interesting de- tails, and reveals the Creole character at its best. Other works are "Jean Baptiste Lemoyne, Founder of New Orleans," "Balcony Stories," and "De Soto and His Men in the Land of Florida." Miss King wrote a school history of Louisiana, in collaboration with Mr. Ficklin. Miss King has received world-wide recognition of her work. Mrs. Cecilia Viets Jamison is a writer of beautiful stories for children. Mrs. Jamison is a native of Canada, but New Orleans became her home after her marriage in 1878 to Samuel Jami- son, a well-known lawj^er of this city. Among Mrs. Jamison's most popular books are "Lady Jane," "Toinette's Philip," "Seraph," "This- tledown," and "The PenhaUow Family." Mrs. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 127 Jamison writes for such magazines as Appleton, Harper, and St. Xicliolas. Mr. Thos. McCaleb lias written a novel. "An- thony Melgrave, " which met with a cordial re- ception on its appearance in 1892. Miss Fannie Heaslip Lea (Mrs. Hamilton Pope Agee) is among the latest recruits to the literar}- ranks. Miss Lea has written principally for magazines; her only novel, "Quicksands," appeared in 1911. Miss Lea has just begun her literary career. TOPICS: Section 1, Introduction: Meaning, Two Kinds of Literature in Louisiana; Section 2, French Literature: First Literary Effort, Drama, Poetry, Prose, French Lit- erary Society; Section 3, English Literature: DeBow's Keview, Poetry, Drama, History, NoveL EEFERENCES: Fortier, Louisiana Studies; Fortier, Ency- clopedia of Louisiana; KeCaleb, The Louisiana Boole; J. E. Clarke, Songs of the South; Literary reviews of current magazines and newspapers. CHAPTER XIV. People — Customs. SECTION 1. PEOPLE. Composition of Population. Tlu; popiilHlion (if New Oilciiiis, like llifil of otlicM' larj^c Aiiior- iciin ciiicK, is (!()Siii()i)olitfin, tlio rosiili of ils people's CorcHK'n [)arenta«(i jukI of foreign iin- iiii^ralioii. It, must bo ])()i'n(! in niind tliat the people ol' tli(( llnijcd States aix; not native to tli(; coiintry; tlieii' anc-cfstors, followinjj; in the Wiiki'. of (!()lunil)iis, i)uslie(l their way across tlie seas and assumed control of the Americas as their forefatliers had of Eiiroix'. Accoi'diiiK' to the United Staters census of 1!>10, jhe population of New Orleans was ;5.'U),()75, (^onsistinf;- of Oreoles, Americans, negroes, and foreigners; the foreign element was tlien sliglitly moi'(( tlian 12 per cent of tlie population, and includiHl nqirosentatives of every nation of Europe and of s(iveral countries of Asia and of (!entral and South America. This percentage comi)ar'es favorably with Hu<;h cities as New York, in which the foreign element is 42 per cent of tiie entire i)opulation, (Ihicago ;53 ])er cent, and St. Louis 25 per cent. It is, however, much lai'gei- than that of Boston, where the foreign el(Mnent is only four per cent of the entire ])0])U- lation. Creoles. The (h'Cioles are the descendants of the b'rencii and Spanish settlers of Louisiana. VVIien Louisiana passed under the American flag, the Americans built up a quarter for them- selves above the Ter'i-e Commime. This Terre Commune is now Canal Street and thus marks the division between the old city and the new, and between the Creoles and the Americans. Below Canal Street is the French or Creole (juarter and above (Janal Street the American district; the line is not as strictly drawn now as in former iiines; many Creole families now live in the American section and there are numerous American residents north of Canal (downtown). ^Phe (Creoles have many charac- lei-istics of tiu; French and Spanish i)eoi)le, tem- px'red, however, by the di(f(^reut conditions of their liL'c iu A.nierica. They are (luick-t(Mni)ered, care-free, sociable, gay, jiossess the pow(u* of enjoying life, and are generally religious; they are kindly in their intercourse and possess a pleasing chann of manner. The Creoles differ in appearance from the other iidial)itants of the city; their physitpu! is sliglit, but muscular and strong, and their movcnnents light and graceful; they have olive comi)lexi(ms, dark eyes and hair. The Ci'eoles, as a rule, speak Frtuich and Fnglish. Americans. "Americans" in New Orleans generally means the people who are not descend- ants of the French and Spanish settlers. The appellation, "American," was given by the Creoles to the English-si)eaking settlers, who, from, the time of the Kevolutionary War, came at intervals to Louisiana. This name has clung to them ever since. These people rapidly ob- tained control of the comtnerce of the city and made their quarter, the Faubourg Ste. Marie, (Ihe First District), the business and i)olitical center of New Orh^ans. These Americans, un- like the Creoles, have no distinctive physical characteristics, (except that generally, their build is larger. Their temjierament is the same as that of the average American; having become acelinuited, the long sumnun-s do not cause them to lose their energy as frofjuently happens to their l)rothers from Northern States; they ad- just their mode of living to suit the conditions of the place. Though the "Americans" are a happy people, yet they are not as fond of gaiety as the Creoles; they generally prefer home ])leasures to social affairs. Latin Americans. The Latin Americans come from the West Indies, Mexico, Central and South America; they are descended from the Si)anish settlers of these countries and have the same character and appearance as the people of Spain. Though not very numerous hereio- I'ore, revolution in Mexico is occasioning the uumlier of M(!xican inuuigrauts to increase rapidly. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK .1.29 Europeans. lOvery country ol" Euro|)e is r(^l)ro,s(Mite(l in Now Orleans and in all classes, oc(!Uf)ations, and seciions of the city. Among tlie i'oroigners, the "Italians" are the moat numerous; tiiey are found in tlie dideront walks of life from tlie humble, loud-voiced v(uidor, di'iving his cart of fruit along the str(!ets and calling out the different varieties in Kngiisli iiniK)ssil)le to understand, to tlu^ wealtliy fruit ni(M'(Oiant, wlio is helping to develop tlu^ city's ocean connnerce. The (lermans are conspicuous in all avocations; tlieir ability and iiulustiy pro- cui'c them permanent success, wliether in agri- culture, trade, banking, or in the pr<)f(!Ssions. The French are perfectly at home in the Ofcole part of the city, where they Ihud- their imtive language spoken with but a slightly different accent. French opera is sung ((xclusivcily a1, the Opera House; a troupe of singers is brought from France for the winter season. The Irish are almost as numerous as the French. Irish immigration began in the early forties of the past century and has continued aloiost unintcn-- ruptedly. Trade is the avocation in which they are most conspicuous. The English in N((w Or- leans belong as a rule to a wealthier class than the other foreigners; they are largcily (engaged in foreign trade;'like the Italians and (l(!ririans, they are scattered among the other inhabitants of the city, not congregating more in one (juaiier than another. The Russians occupy sixth place on tli(^ list of foreigners in New Orleans; on the main, they are Russian Jews, who have fhsd from l)ersecution in Russia; many are engaged in con- ducting little, second-hand shops on Dryades Sirecit, and in peddling. P)esid('S thes(> national- ities, there are a few Austrians, (JrecVks, Swiss, Spaniards, P)('lglaiis, Danes, Noi'wegiaiis, Swedes, and Scotchmen. Asiatics. Among Orit^ntal nations, the (!liiiies(!, Ja[)anese, and Turks arc; tlu; more |)roniinent in New Orleans, as in other cilices of the United States, where they have congregatcMl in any numbers. The Ohinesc* have established a (piarter of their own in New Orleans; they are located on Tulane y\ venue between South Ivain- pai-t and the Oi-iminal Ooui't House. Ibire, they have small nistavi rants, junk aiul pa,wn shops, and laundries; thc^y are experts in laundering, (;sp((cially clothes requiring stiffening, and theii' little; laundry places are found everywlu^rcs in th(> city. The Jaiuuiese, the most liighly de- veloped people of iJi(! Mongolian race, operate nuiny shops for tlu; sale of .bipanese ware and curios of all kinds; some of the more interesting of tluise little stores are in Royal Stnud;, a,nd, through them, may be o])tained most d(*liglitful glimpses of the life in far-away Nippon. 'V\)i^ swarthy Turk earns his livelihood in tlu; (^'niS- cent City by peddling lincMis, ciinbroideries, lac(fS, and various y)roducts of Western Asia. Negroes. The negroes, more generally calhul the "colored people," are the descendants of the slaves of ante-bellum days, who originally came; from Africa. The "colored people" form the s((rvant class in the community. Schools and missions, maintained for their betterment, ani w((ll attended and have accomplished good n;- siilts. A kindly feeling exists l)(;twe(Mi tlurwiiitc! anenalty, a receipt stating the amount of the fine or penalty, the date, from whom col- lected, name of the person fined, and for what offense. SECTION 8. DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE COMMISSION FORM OF GOVERNMENT. Initative, Referendum, and Recall. The commission form of city government has three distinct features, namely, the "initiative," "re- ferendum," and "recall." By the "initiative," the voters may origi- nate legislation; this is done by 30 per cent of qualified voters demanding of the Council the passage of a measure; should the Council not pass it, they must submit it to the vote of the electors, a majority of whom can pass it over the opposition of the Council, Ordinances, except for the immediate pre- servation of the public peace, health, or safety, do not go into effect before ten days following their final passage; by the "referendum," the qualified electors may within those ten days de- mand of the Council to repeal the ordinance or submit it to the vote of the qualified voters. Ordinances that are passed by the majority of the electors, may be repeald only by a majority vote of the electors. Special elections for pass- ing or repealing ordiiiances, may not be held 142 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK oftener than once in a period of six mouths, nor within ninety days of a general municipal election. The charter provides that "the Mayor and Commission Councilmen may be removed from office or recalled therefrom in the manner now or hereafter provided by the Constitution." The Constitution does not provide for the "re- call' of officers, but an amendment establishing the recall was jDassed by the vote of the people Nevember 3, 1914. TOPICS: Section 1, Introduction; Section 2, Commission Council; Section 3, Departments; Section 4, City Boards; Section 5, Elections; Section 6, Taxation; Section 7, Recorders' Courts; Section 8, Distinctive Features of the Commission Form of Government. REFERENCES: Charter of the City of New Orleans, 1912; Constitution of the State of Louisiana. CHAPTER XVI. The City Beautiful. SECTION 1. CITY BUILDING. Conditions Governing the Location of Cities. In the early history of nations, cities were located where the best natural means of defense were offered. As the strength of their armies increased, natural means of defense were considered of secondary importance in the selection of a site. Commerce and indus- tries were developed during eras of peace. Consequently, cities grew and fioiTrished where easy access by water and good harbors favored trade, where swift streams afforded power to run their mills, or wlieje mineral de]3osits awaited the hand of man to convert them into wealth. The perfection of the railroad has largely removed dependence upon water com- munication: inland towns, far from navigable lakes or rivers, have sprung up as the distrib- uting points for great agricultural districts. One or more of these conditions has led to the establishment of American cities. The natural •fortifications around Quebec made that city an early center of western civilization; New York, on the other hand, possessed peculiar commer- cial advantages; the New England cities were the outgrowth of manufactures; and most of the cities of the Eocky Mountain States owe tlieir rise to the untold mineral wealth of the section and the construction of great railroads. City Building in Ancient Times, A woman. Queen Semiramis, had decided to con- struct upon the banks of the Euphrates River the greatest city in the world, and thus, for the first time known to history, a city, Babylon, was built in accordance with a definite plan. The Greeks, laboring for the attainment of knowledge and beauty, enjoyed the highest civilization of ancient times. The city of Athens, a city of exquisite beauty and long the western world's center of art and letters, was the noblest expression of their cultured civili- zation. Eome becoming by her military prowess the supreme power in the western world, drew to herself the best talent of the conquered peoples. Thus she was able to erect the mag- nificent temples and palaces that adorned her seven hilis, and to construct the military roads, solid masonry bridges, and remarkable aque- ducts that displayed engineering skill of the highest order. Value of Permanency. The works of the Greeks and Romans in great part have de- fied the ravages of time and the elements; this is the result of the work of builders to whom permanency was as much an ideal as beauty. These people, to have left such wonderful monuments attesting their existence as proud and powerful nations, must have been actuated by a tremendous civic spirit. Paris. The right building of modern cities, combining healthfulness, utility, and beauty, was first undertaken in France. In the early fifties, when Napoleon III. was emperor of France, Baron Haussmann and M. Alphand, the city engineer, drew up a wonderful plan for renovating and embellishing Paris. Crooked, narrow streets were straightened and widened into magnificent boulevards; broad avenues, connecting open space with open space, were laid out through densely populatecl districts; places, parks, and avenues were beautified with trees and masterpieces of art. Hence it has been said of Napoleon III. in regard to Paris that "he found it brick and left it marble." Pre-Eminence of Germans in City Plan- ning. The German city is to-day the best ex- ample of community life and city planning. The reasons of this may be found in the system, thoroughness, and perseverance of the Ger- man people, combined with their high stand- ard of perfection; in the splendid organization of German institutions; and in the extraordi- nary industrial progress and consequent in- crease in urban population, during the past quarter century. City planning has become both an art aad a science in Germanv. Berlin 144 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK supports a college of town planning, wliile, in Dusseldorf, there is a university where the study of city planning and administration is fostered. The German school is distinguished by a preponderance of the artistic motive which at the same time implies the practical. They plan their cities to be beautiful. Nothing in- harmonious or ugly is allowed to exist. But they also plan them to be the homes of the or- dinarjr citizens, with surroundings most con- ducive to health, contentment, and efficiency. Some Causes of German Success. The suc- cess of German cities lies in the freedom and power of the municipality. The activities of a city are practically unrestricted by the state or the central government. On the other hand, the municipality has the power over the in- dividual unknown in any American city. The city determines the width of streets, the height of buildings — German cities do not tolerate skyscrapers — the minimum garden space, the maximum area to be covered by improvements, the character of improvements in any section. Architectural plans must be submitted to the authorities to insure proportion and har- mony; factories must be located in the suburbs, upon a railroad, and on the lee side of the city; all industries occasioning noise or odors must be so placed as to be inoffense to the populace. The rights of the {individual are subservient to the welfare of ^he community, but this is never questioned, as the greatest benefit is ultimately obtained. The city owns savings banks, mortgage institutions; it oper- ates its own gas-works, electric-lighting works, water plant, street railways, and many other undertakings of a profitable nature which place it upon a firm business basis. German city planners are successful because they study the claims of the past, needs of the present, and the prospects of the future; because they plan in a broad-visioned way, allowing for develop- ment and expansion, and thus insure perma- nency; because they overlook nothing in urban life as too great or too trivial to be considered in striving for utility, harmony, and artistic effectiveness. German Cities. Dusseldorf, a city about the size of New Orleans, is typical of the suc- cessful German city. Aroused by the indus- trial activity following the Franco-Prussian War, the city undertook a comprehensive plan for improving existing conditions, opening parks, and erecting imposing public buildings, and, with intelligent prevision of the future, purchasing at agricultural prices large tracts of land in the suburbs, thereby protecting itself from speculative prices and preventing fluctu- ation of real estate values. The problem of relieving congestion and improving conditions in an old town has been scientifically attacked by Cologne. Encircling fortifications, which restricted the growth of the city, were demolished, and the site was converted into an octagonal parkway or boulevard separating the old town from the new. In the official plan for suburban devel- opment, Cologne, a city rich in relics of the past, seeks to reproduce the quaint, irregular streets and mediaeval architecture of the old town. Frankfort-on-the.Main, with its magnifi- cent public buildings, its Eathaus or city hall, its opera-house, its railway station; with its colossal undertaking of waterway improve- ment and harbor construction; with its mu- nicipal activities, and its immaculate cleanli- ness, shows what can be accomplished by a community with civic pride and civic interest. A heritage of great beauty has been left Munich by extravagant rulers. A city of splendid civic centers, with groups of public buildings, a city of carefully designed streets and remarkable vistas, like Cologne, it pre- serves in its planning the atmosphere of me- diaeval times. The Prussian capital is a thoroughly modern city. Berlin's chief attractiveness is in its imposing government buildings, its famous Unter den Linden, its beautiful sub- urbs, its orderliness, cleanliness, and efficient administration. Influence of the German Movement. Iso- lated instances of city planning existed be- fore the Germans seriously considered the sub- ject. The energy, interest, and enthusiasm with which they attacked their problem and the remarkable results obtained have awakened a general desire for better sanitary conditions, more homogeneous and artistic architecture, and more beautiful parks, attractive views, and picturesque or striking streets. Garden Cities of England. The city plan- ning movement in England has developed garden cities. The most noted of these are Letchworth and Hampstead, whose sites were The new ORLEANS BOOK 145 purciiased by companies. Neat, attractive cot- tages or apartments, stirronnded by gardens, are provided the working classes at nominal rent. The result in beauty, convenience, health, happiness, and efficiency have . fully justified the experiment. City Planning in America. Few American cities have been built along any definite plan; they have grown up haphazard, according to the press of conditions or the whims of in- dividuals. Washington, which ranks as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, is a notable exception. When a site on the Potomac was selected for the national capital. President Washington, recognizing systematic planning to be necessary for growth, prosperity, and artistic development, employed Charles L 'En- fant, a young French engineer, to lay out the city. The growth of Washington continued in accordance with L 'Enfant 's plan. The for- mal plan of rectangular blocks crossed by broad, diagonal thoroughfares, terminating at circles, civic centers, or open squares, is well adapted to a city so preeminently official and social. The architectural features of Washington's imposing buildings are enhanced by the radial avenues, affording numerous leafy vistas, as the parks and streets of the city on the Potomac are the greenest and shadiest in the world. Many American cities have drawn their inspiration in city planning from the beauty of the national capital. The Columbian Ex- position, held in Chicago in 1893, demonstrated the advantages of spacious approaches and proper grouping of well-designed buildings, and exerted a marked influence. Chicago began to form a definite idea of the "City Beautiful" and to evolve a comprehensive plan for civic embellishment. Cleveland, with characteristic enthusiasm, called upon the best talent to create for her a plan of utility and compelling beauty. The dom- inant feature in the renovation of Cleveland is the civic center. Along a broad thoroughfare are grouped the principal public buildings representative of the great functions of a city. Boston, like New Orleans, is a city with traditions. These she cherishes and embodies in her churches, her inns, her architecture. No towering skyscrapers loom up beside dark, tunnel-like alleys, or shut out the blessed sunlight and fresh air from more lowly neigh- bors. Boston further shows her belief in the salutary effect of nature's restoratives by her admirable system of public parks, and her re- gard for the value of beauty and recreation by developing and embellishing the water front along the Charles Eiver. Experts are now at work on a plan that will render New York City preeminent in civic beauty as she is now in size and wealth. Many other American cities are awaken- ing to a sense of their responsibility toward the citizen. There is a growing realization of the need not only of hygienic conditions and business facilities in cities, but, also, of beauty; for people need, not only good health and means of earning a livelihood, but, also, sources of right enjoyment and inspiration, if they are to accomplish great works. This beauty is attained by spacious and tastefully adorned streets and parks and by an architec- ture characteristic and suitable to the people and place. SECTION 2. BUILDING OF NEW ORLEANS. Original Plan of New Orleans. Bienville, having convinced the authorities of the ad- vantages of a town on the Mississippi River, sent de la Tour to plan the new city. Only a few huts built by voyageurs who had come down the River occupied the site Bienville had chosen. The engineer cleared a strip along the River and with the help of some piquers, located the streets, dividing the town into rec- tangular squares. De la Tour's plan embraced the rectangle now bounded by Bienville, North Rampart, Barracks, and the River; it provided for an open square or Place d'Armes around which were to be grouped the parish church, school, and government building, and it di- vided each square into plots or building sites to be given to settlers on condition that they should enclose the property with palisades and open along the street a ditch to serve as a drain for river water in times of inundation; Bien- ville selected a site on the outskirts for his residence, which, when occupied by the Ursu- 146 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK lines in 1727, was still "in the depth of the forest. ' ' Changes in the Shape of New Orleans. . The city did not adhere in its growth to this rectangular plan. Owing to the greater height of land being along the river front and the boat landings all being there, the stream of settlement took that eonrse also, and the rec- tangle was expanded on either side into a cres- cent, hence the name, ' ' Crescent City. ' ' Growth in population has caused further advance up and down the curving River, so that now the harbor resembles an elongated "S"; the city is now also expanding towards Lake Pont- chartrain, in fact reaches the Lake, between West End and Spanish Fort. Influence of Climate and Available Build- ing Material. Before long, the squares near the Place d'Armes were covered with rude habitations built of logs plastered with clay and thatched with palmettoes from the nearby swamp. Glass window panes were an unknown luxuiy in those days; even Bien- ville's house is described as having "the sashes covered with fine, thin linen which let in as much light as glass and more air." The prim- itive structures were gradually replaced by larger and better buildings of brick made from the abundant clay. Time hardened and strengthened this brick, and, as the framework and floors were of cypress, a wood unaffected by dampness, these buildings were remarkably durable. The first Ursuline convent, con- structed of brick and cypress in the time of Bienville, is the oldest building in the Missis- sippi Valley and is still in splendid condition. Brick houses became more prevalent, not only because of their durability, but also because they were much cooler than frame houses. Climatic conditions favored the adaptation of broad central halls, long galleries shielding from intense glare, and thick walls through which little heat could penetrate. Early French and Spanish Influence. New Orleans has an individuality, both charming and unique. The Vieux Carre, with its narrow streets and close rows of solid, somber houses with doi-mer windows and batten shutters, looks less a part of an Amer- ican city than of some Old World town trans- planted to this continent. One reason for the compactness of Old New Orleans was the need for defense against the Indians; and besides the early inhabitants brought with them ideas of French and Spanish cities, where the streets were made narrow to avoid the direct rays of the sun. Spanish architectural features pre- dominate because most of the original French buildings were destroyed by the devastating fires of 1788 and 1794. After that, the tiled roofs, still a picturesque feature of the French quarter, came into use. The solid walls of adobe or brick, paved courtyards, ponderous doors, iron-barred windows, massive arched doorways, and wrought-iron balconies over- hanging the banquettes bespeak Spanish in- fluence. On three sides of Jackson Sqiiare are the most imposing relics of that influence, namely, the old St. Louis Cathedral, Cabildo, and Presbytere facing the River, and the red brick Pontalba buildings to the sides of the Square. The courtyard, affording a cool secluded place for family rest or recreation, is one of the most attractive features of the section below Canal Street. Walled in by the gxeat houses, these paved courts broaden out behind narrow entrances through which the jjasser-by may catch delightful glimpses of palms and ferns, old-fashioned parten-es, land, occasion- ally, a graceful Spanish water jar or iron foun- tain. But the individuality of New Orleans is more strikingly emphasized by the second-story' galleries extending over the banquettes from residences, shops, cafes, or old office buildings, offering genei'ous shelter from sun and rain. There in the heart of the city, where every foot of ground bears its burden of masonry or timber, these galleries form hanging gardens, gay with feathery ferns and potted shrubs — bright color against the dingy faces of old weatherworn piles. The houses built after the Ajnerican occupation are modifications of French and Spanish styles. Brick and timber, easily obtained from the surrounding country, were the chief materials used in their con- struction. Building Ornamentation. Peculiarly char-, acteristic of New Orleans architecture are the balustrades and fences of wrought-iron in elaborate and intricate patterns. Some show conventional desigias, some flowers or trailing vines, but one of very beautiful craftsmanship represents growing corn laden with ripened ears over which the flowering tassel waves with singTilar grace. Occasionally, as on the Pon- THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 147 talba buildings and the old St. Louis or Hotel Royal, there is a distinctive pattern formed by twining initials in the delicate traceries. The balustrades, so varied in design and beauty, are the work of mastercraftsmen, and are treasured as exquisite examples of a now al- most lost art. The ingenuity and patient labor of these wondrous workers is strikingly proven by the fact that among the thousands of balus- trades to be found in New Orleans, a duplicate is seldom seen. American Influence. After the cession of 1803, the influx of Americans spread the city beyond its original limits and gradually transformed its architectural types. Some old American residences still standing in St. Charles Street and lower Carondelet, resemble those of the Vieux Carre, but with an open lawn or well kept garden instead of the closed courtyard. In the Garden District, still one of the most beautiful residential sections, fine homes with broad verandas supported by classic columns bespeak the influence of the Colonial style of the Georgian period. Large grounds enclosed by high iron fences, hedges, or walls complete the dignity and exclusive- ness of these homes. Modern Homes. To a city so accessible by rail and water, lack of material is no longer a stumbling block to diversity in build- ing. Vermont granite, Tennessee marble, steel from Pennsylvania, cypress, oak, walnut, gum, and many other useful or ornamental woods from Louisiana's forests, have contributed to the construction of the New Orleans of today. Brick, artistically finished and as durable as stone, no longer needs a coat of plaster, and is used effectively; it is especially pleasing as a background for the white pillars of the En- glish colonial residences. The cosmopolitan population, as well as variety of material, caused a defection from tlie early types of ar- chitecture. Indeed, except for public build- ings, the architecture of the city at the pres- ent day, can hardly be said to possess a type. In architecture the practical need comes first, but parallel with this is the testhetic need. Un- fortunately, both are frequently overlooked in the construction of modern dwellings, which, too often, are mere shelters for human beings or are modelled after plans totally unsuited to the climate. New Orleans, so rich in tra- ditions, so indelibly marked by a distinctive type in her earlier architecture, a type, which, in itself, gives her individuality, and charm, should, like other cities with older associa- tions, seek to perpetuate and vivify this indviduality, and increase this charm. Imita- tion of other cities is a mistake. She has her own ideals. Why should they be forgotten in her progress? One of the best examples of the French colonial type is the Newcomb pottery build- ing. It is neither large nor pretentioiis, but with its small-paned windows and iron-railed balconies adheres closely to the style it repre- sents, amply proving that an evolution of the native architecture is best suited to the natural environments. Buildings of Note. As building is the out- ward expression of the life of a community, some of the most important structures in New Orleans have been described in relation to some phase of human activity. For example, the Post Office, the Custom House, the New Court building, are representative structures, and found their place's in other chapters. Many churches are fine examples of the different architectural schools. The City Hall was built in 1850 by Gallier after the plan of the temple of Minerva on the Athenian Acropolis. A broad flight of granite steps ascend to the entrance, high above the street. Massive Grecian columns support a lofty portico, the frieze of which is adorned by a bas- relief of Justice and flgiires emblematic of the commerce of the Mississippi Valley. In the business section of New Orleans ai-e several skyscrapers — the Grunewald Hotel, Maison Blanche, the Whitney-Central build- ing, — none, however, rival the skyscrapers of New York. High buildings are unsuited to New Orleans, first, it is difficult to secure sufficiently firm foundations to bear their weight, and second, the concentration of business within a small area congests traffijc in streets which are scarcely wide enough to accommodate the usual procession of vehicles. Streets. With the exception of the section laid out by de la Tour, New Orleans has never been officially planned. The streets have fol- lowed the line of least resistance or have been opened up by speculators who exploit the at- tractiveness of a particular section for im- mediate gain rather than for the permanent benefit to the community. The result has 148 rHE NEW ORLEANS BOOK been great irregularity and lack of uniformity. In general, the streets running north and south conform in broad, sweeping curves to the dii'ection of the River, and are crossed by other streets which converge or radiate, sometimes meeting to form triangles, some- times ending abruptly at intersections. These curves become less evident in streets at a distance from the River, and the blocks of the newly developed section toward the Lake are, for the most part, rectangular. Some New Orleans streets have attained more than local fame. The narrow streets of the Vieux Carre are noted for the picturesqueness and Old World charm characteristic of that section. Canal Street, the broad thoroughfare 170 feet wide, which divides the city into two sec- tions — north and south — is the great center of the city's retail trade, the heart of its bvisiness life. St. Charles Avenue, a shady boulevard from Lee Circle to Carrollton Avenue, curves with the winding of the River and its width of 120 feet affords splendid views on either side of the residences in the midst of their lovely gardens. The neutral ground is beautified with a green sward and crepe myrtles, olean- ders, palms, and oaks. The imposing build- ings of Tulane and Loyola Universities facing Audubon Park, enhance the avenue's natural atti'activeness. Besides good architectural features, many structures are enhanced by their exceptionally advantageous locations, as, for instance, the New Orleans Public Library. It was indeed a fortuitous occurrence that caused the library to be erected where St. Charles Avenue terminates at Lee Circle, thus giving it several splendid prospects. Present Movement in Behalf of Conserva- tion and Improvement. The cry to abolish by city ordinance the galleries and balconies which shelter the sidewalks in the business section is raised in the name of progress by those who would rob New Orleans of a distinctive charm and reconstruct her according to the stereo- typed pattern of some cities in the Middle West. Artists, architects, and travellers have praised these galleries. Edward Hungerford wrote of them: "The galleries of New Or- leans! They are perhaps the most typical of the outward expressions of a town whose personality is as distinct as that of Boston, Charleston, or San Francisco. . . .She (New Or- leans) well knows the commercial value of her personality. There are newer cities and showier within the radius of a single night's ride upon a fast train. But where one man comes to one of these, a dozen alight at the old French town by the bend of the yellow river." Concurrent with the movement for the retention of galleries is the still more recent agitation for conserving fine old trees, which having taken generations to attain maturity, cannot be replaced in a single day. The Association of Commerce under the guidance of a zealous and energetic president, and the Women's Clubs are actively further- ing the cause of the "City Beautiful." The campaign, earnestly waged in behalf of more harmonious architecture and more jDleasing streets, strenuously opposes towering sky- scrapers, and urges the abolition of violently assertive and glai'ing advertisements, unsightly shoijs in residential districts, and jarosaic foi-ests of poles with their burden of overhead wires. Street improvement has resulted in more spacious thoroughfares with ample pro- vision for neutral grounds and banquettes, al- lowing free circulation of air; better pave- ment and drainage; and more lavish use of greenery, performing both a utilitarian and an iBsthetic mission by absorbing carbonic gases and by giving out oxygen, by relieving monotony, and by speaking to the hearts of men the uplifting lang-uage of nature. The city government has manifested interest and a desire to cooperate in the movement. It supports a nursery to supply trees for civic adornment and it is gradually introducing a system of ornamental street lighting. I SECTION 3. PUBLIC PLEASURE GROUNDS. Need of Open Spaces in Cities. Public health of a community as the organs of parks and squares have been called the lungs breathing are to an individual. Disease is of great cities; they are as necessary to the fostered, human life shortened by the dusty, THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 149 foul, ill-smelling atmosphere of congested dis- tricts. Since present economic conditions force people to live in such surroundings, it is the duty of the municipality to provide some means of alleviation. As many workers have neither time nor money to go long distances in search of fresh air, small parks distributed through every section of the city, supply this need. The trees and shrubs help to purify the atmosphere and afford a pleasant relief from the monotony of workshops or offices. The French Place. The French, particu- larly, make generous use of the small parks or- places usually a center around which im- taxes; New Orleans then set aside the tract as a public park. It remained unimproved for many years, until placed in the hands of a commission. The commissioners had to solve the problem of converting a swamp through which sluggish bayous wound their tortuous course, into a beautiful spot for rest and recreation. The swamps were drained, the underbrush cleared, and the muddy, stagnant bayous transformed into winding lagoons arched by artistic bridges. City Park now charms all nature-lovers. The wonderful trees of City Park, in particular the mighty live oaks, are noted; nearly every tree found in beside the live oaks, being the magnolia, pine, cedar, cypress, and camphor. In the spring, the huge wistaria vines laden with their gorgeous lavender blossoms, give an oriental touch to the landscape. portant buildings are grouped, or as parts of Louisiana is represented; the principal ones a system connected by splendid boulevards or driveways. When de la Tour planned New Orleans, he provided for an open square, the Place d'Armes, now Jackson Square, to serve the double purpose of a place of recreation for the public and, as the old name implies, a parade ground for the soldiers. The Park: Func- tion. The small parks and squares serve a purpose, but every city needs a large park, a place where people can seek rest and seclusion away from the noises and oppressive atmos- phere of the heart of the city. The park supplies a physical need for sunshine, fresh air, and quiet, by offering a means of wholesome relaxation and change; it stimulates mental activity; and through the beauties of nature ordered and arranged by the art of man, it fosters a love of the beautiful. New Orleans Parks: City Park and Audubon Park. A large portion of the area of City Park was the property of Louis Al- lard, which, being sold for mortgages, became the property of John McDonogh. The former owner, then in the decline of life, was. allowed to pass his remaining years at his old home, and was laid to rest beneath the stately oaks he had loved so well. McDonogh willed the plantation with the rest of his estate to the cities of Baltimore and New Orleans. Balti- more abandoned her claim in payment of DELGADO ART MUSEUM. The open-air rose gar- den is an object of at- tention and admiration, the year round. The Delgado Art Museum is in the center of the park, by the side of the little lake. As its name implies, it was the gift of Isaac Delgado. Very fittingly, the edifice was fashioned after a Greek temple and is itself a work of art. The ex- hibit, though still small, contains many pieces of value. Mr. Delgado made a donation to the exhibit; Mr. Morgan Whitney bequeathed to it his collection of jades, and Mrs. Chapman Hyams, hdr beau- tiful art collection valued at $250,000. A lovely prospect may be obtained of the museum, from the bridge that crosses Bayou St. John at the foot of Esplanade, through the long avenue of trees and palms that leads up to the museum. Audubon Park was formerly the Foucher plantation. Pierre Foucher obtained the upper part in 1793, and the lower part in 1825. This lower section is of peculiar historic interest. It was part of Etienne de Bore's plantation where sugar was first granulated in 1794, and where Charles Gayarre, Louisiana's eminent historian, passed his youth. The Foucher plantation was purchased by the city in 187lj 150 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK and was known as Upper City Park; in 1887, it was renamed "Audubon Park," in honor of the great nauralist. A statue in the central portion of the park, now also serves to honor his memoiy. The park was unimproved up to the Cotton Centennial Exposition; hut the exposition directed attention to the park as an important and easily improved asset to the city. Its natural advantages have been well utilized. Extending from St. Charles Avenue to the Eiver, it has an unusual expanse. The broad green swards, clusters and avenues of palms and trees, and the far-famed ^Tove of magnificent, old live oaks have an unfailing {esthetic appeal. A large artificial lake is to be constructed and will add the final touch to the beautiful landscape of Audubon Park; Two Park Commissions administer the atfairs of each joark and see to the im- provements. Squares and Playgrounds. New Orleans is singularly fortunate in the number of small parks, or open squares and playgrounds dis- tributed throughout the city. There is Jackson Square, the old Place d'Armes, famous in his- tory and romance; Lafayette Square, between the City Hall and the new Post Office ; Coliseum Place, a favorite resort for children; Annuncia- tion Square, Washington Square, and many others serve as breathing spots for residents of crowded districts. The playgrounds, equipped with swings, see-saws, merry - go - rounds, and other apparatus that delight the hearts of children, are kept up in many parts of the city. Boys and girls not only reap the benefit of sun- shine, fresh air, and ex- ercise so necessary to build up the bone and tissue of growing limbs, but they are taught or- ganization, self-control, and responsibility by means of supervised games. New Orleans has more fresh- ai r space per-capita than any ' city in the world, for no city with equal population, and but one or two with greater population, include such a large area. Flora of New Orleans. So varied is the vegetation of this semi-tropical climate that an attempt to list its trees, shrubs, and flowers would be a heavy task. Here, the hardy plants of colder climes thrive side by side with the delicate products of warmer re- gions. Four times as many varieties of trees are found in Louisiana as in the State of Cali- fornia; the most conspicuous are the many varieties of oaks, the cypress, poplar, willow, pecan, and beautiful white-flowering magnolia. Among the shrubs that adorn the parks and gardens, are the crepe myrtle and oleander of several different colors, the sweet olive, the camellia, white, pink, and red, and an endless variety of jasmines. Roses of every descrip- tion and color, thrive; the hibiscus, rhododen- dron, hydrangea, and beautiful crimson poin- setta adorn the gardens. "Parterres" are filled with a profusion of annuals, mignonette, sweet alysum, marigold, petunia, phlox, pansies, portulaca, balsams. The wistaria, which in spring is massed with delicate and exquisite clusters of lavender blossoms, and the trailing rosa montana, whose delicate deep coral sprays burst into bloom in late summer, grace many a gallery, fence, and arbor. An eminent botanist has said, "Though perhaps the flora of Louisiana lacks the tropical beauty of ''■ ■'■'■ ,> g£ V' M iiy;>ir.^5S5.'»i'i-"i^_-;\O0U BLOCK PAVEITENT. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 153 the railway company paves between tlie tracks and eighteen inches on either side, or the entire street, according to their franchise for each section. Twenty per cent of the rev- enues of the city are devoted to public im- provements; out of that must come the main- tenance of the two parks, the erection of new school buildings, paving, and many other im- IDrovements. About $400,000 a year is avail- able for public improvement and that sum has been spent for the next fifteen years to come. Over 70 per cent of it was used for paving. SECTION 5. STREET LIGHTING. Necessity of Street Lighting. Efficient street lighting serves a threefold purpose: it beautifies a city, prevents accidents, and les- sens crime. Proper arrangement of lights sup- ported by ornamental brackets or poles, adds to the artistic appearance of streets by day as well as by night. Eobbers make iise of dark streets where they can hide unobserved while waiting to attack unsuspecting persons; car- riages, not having the powerful lights of the automobiles may come to grief, or pedestrians, groping their way in darkness may meet with some acicdent. Street Lighting in the Past. Governor Carondelet, responsible for much municipal im- provement, first established a system of street lighting in New Orleans (See Page 20). The use of oil lamps, suspended from wooden posts at the street intersections, continued well into the period of American rule. The light from these penetrated but a short distance, thus blocks where trees overhimg the street, were shrouded in darkness. The sidewalks were infe- rior and those persons called forth for business or jjleasure after nightfall, carried lanterns. Through the dim-lit streets, many a gay party made its way preceded by servants bearing swinging lights that daintily slippered feet might avoid foot-falls and mud-puddles. Gas street lamps were introduced about 1833 and continued in use for over half a century. Some of the old-time residents may still remember the lamp-lighter, who at dusk made his round; as the use of electricity gradually superseded gas, he became a less familiar figure and now is seen no more. Present City Lighting. The present system of lighting costs the city about $240,000 annually. The cost of arc lights with under- ground connection, is greater than those with overhead wires; but the former are preferable because of the unsightliness of the overhead wires. Many cities require telephone, tele- graph, trolley, and lighting wires to be placed undergTound. In some parts of the city, the arc lights at street intersections, are being replaced by incandescent lights along the block. The effect is much more beautiful, and the light more evenly distributed, especially where large trees overhang the street. SECTION 6. STREET CLEANING. Need. The first requirement for a healthful and beautiful city, is cleanliness. One advan- tage of paved streets is that they are more easily cleaned; but unless cleaning is done fre- quently, a paved street will bcome as unsani- tary as any other. Dirt and refuse, breeding places for flies, rapidly collect, and germ-laden dust filters into houses and clothing and so endangers health unless the streets are kept in proper co^ditio^ by dailj;' cleaning and sprinkling. Unpaved streets seldom receive the necessary care; they are ovrlooked in the problem of street cleaning. Method. The City of New Orleans has an organized force of street cleaners. During the hours of least traffic, this white- clad army is at work. Huge brush rollers, almost half the width of the street, sweep the refuse near the curb; along the curb men are working in squads, who brush it into pile§ 154 THE NEW ORLEANS BOOJC ready to be hauled away. Other white uni- three of these si^rinklers, one after the formed men follow on water-wagons which other, go over the same street in order spread the water in great fan-like sprays to lay well the dust and flush the street over the surface of the street. Usually along the curb. SECTION 7. CIVIC VIRTUES. Kindness and Cheerfulness. By nature a social being, man should not ignore his relation to society. These very relations give rise to certain obligations; one of the greatest of these is to consider the happiness of others. The cultivation of a kindly cheerful disposition ready with little deeds of good will, sym- pathy, and hospitality to disseminate sunshine through the world is a duty both to self and to one's fellow-men. The value of a kind and cheerfiil disposition cannot be over-estimated. Order and Cleanliness. Barbarous men do not know the use of water; the savages of Africa anoint their bodies with oil; the nomads of the desert rub their skin with sand; civilized people recognize the agreeable and salutary effects of the unstinted use of soap and water. Clean thoughts and clean language are even more obligatory than bodily cleanliness, be- cause vulgarity of speech, profane or obscene language, not only offend sensitive natures, but poison minds and hearts. Personal clean- liness should be accompanied by good order in one's surroundings: the condition of a home indicates the character of its inmates. People who take pride in the attractive appearance of their jjroperty, who allow no breeding place for rats, and roaches, who are too orderly to throw trash in public places, are a desirable element in any community. Honesty and Courage. Honesty in public and private life has many phases; it implies freedom from pretense, truthfulness of speech, being worthy of confidence, fidelity to trust, reliability in the performance of duty, sincerity, uprightness, integxity, and a high sense of justice in all human relations. Without such qualities in men and women, the whole fabric of law and order would be destroyed. The stead- fast adherence to the dictates of honor, requires more moral courage than physical bravery. "When boys and girls resist the inclination to ichfiat or tell, oun truths, they are laying a foundation of character, which will develop into right citizenship. This moral courage gives also the power to bear responsibility, which, as long as men live together, will fall to the lot of all. Self-Control, Will power is needed for the governance of man's lower inclinations. Intem- perance in any form, is a lack of self-control. Those who wish to preserve vigor of body and mind, to be useful to the community in which they live, and to render patriotic service to their country, must be temperate in the iTse of alcoholic beverages, and narcotic stimulants and drugs which, especially during the period of youth, retard physical and mental growth. Self-control implies moderation in the pursuit of pleasure, the lack of which leads to waste- fulness, poverty, and dissipation. Quiet con- duct in public places and repression during performances, are necessary for the conven- ience and pleasure of others. Industry. Thrift and industry go hand in hand. Idleness is far-reaching in its results; it is largely responsible for ignorance, pov- erty, and vice; it helps to fill prisons, refoi'ma- tories, and insane asylums, throwing a heavy burden upon the municipality or the state. On the other hand industry brings self-respect, contentment, comfort, and increase in skill. All are not called upon to work in the same way; some are more proficient in lines of mental activity, while others succeed better at manual labor. But as every one has the power to work in some manner, every one must labor. The history of the world teaches the reward of labor and the punishment of idleness. For a city to be truly great, it is necessary that the citizens be industrious. Respect for Authority. Authority is law- fully constituted power of control and direc- tion. Bespect for authority is the recognition of that i:)ower and rendering it obedience. In Chapter XV., it was seen how it was neces- THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK 155 sary in a city to have persons in authority, to have a government. Since that authority is necessary, it follows that it must be recog- nized and obeyed, else why have the author- ity? Lack of respect for authority, is a chief fault of the youth of the United States, re- sulting, perhaps, from a misunderstanding of freedom. The independence of a people can- not be maintained without authority, for, in its absence, unruly persons would disregard the rights of others in the attempt to satisfy their own desires. Respect for authority im- plies respect for all persons in whom authority is vested, whether it be parents or guar- dians, teachers, or officials of the city, state or nation. Courtesy. Courtesy is an elegance of manner resulting from consideration of the needs of others. It is "the virtue of civiliza- tion." Its exercise is an indication of good breeding and intelligence, and requii'es com- pliance with the accepted rules of social inter- course. Eeverence for old age without regard to station, dress, or other circumstance, and honor and respect for women, have become the essentials of the Southern ideal of cour- tesy, an ideal made world-famous by the past generations of Southern men. In the South- land men and boys do not speak to women without raising their hats; upon a woman en- tering an elevator, they remove their hats; in the street cars, the men stand that the women may have the seats; people say "please" when asking for something, and "thank you" on receiving it; the aged are assisted across throughfares, up and down stairs. A worthy example of this thoughtfulness is the kindly assistance the conductors on the cars extend to passengers entering or leaving the cars, especially in the case of the aged, whom they assist to ascend and alight from the cars. Such courtesy is only possible by the continual per- formance of courteous acts, resulting in the formation of a habit that gains the good-will of others for the possessor and adds grace and charm to his personality. Civic Interest. Something has been said of what other cities with great civic spirit have accomplished. Every good citizen takes an interest in the affairs of his municipality, votes. pays his taxes, and lends his siipport to all movements for progress and improvements. Children can manifest civic interest by caring for public property, in particular, by not mutilating the interior or exterior of public buildings, trees, or flowers, by caring for li- brary books, by being active workers in the cause of order and cleanliness. (Chapter XV.) The Beauty of Right Living. In this chapter, many kinds of material beauty have been considered. Now, we come to view beauty which is far inore than any of those; it is not a thing of matter like the beautiful flowers, nor is it generally short-lived, for it becomes in time the heritage of the gener- ations; it is the beauty of right living. The beauty of right living is the root of hap- piness; if a person possessed every kind of material beauty in the world, and, yet, did not live rightly, that person would not .be happy. And what is right living? Ordering one's life so as to do all the good possible, and to refrain from all the evil possible. For a boy or girl to live rightly, they must be like the most useful English verbs, active and passive; active in the commission of good deeds, but passive when it comes to the commission of bad ones. Right living- gains for a person the admiration and affec- tion of family and friends, and the apprecia- tion of a worthy community. To live rightly, a boy or girl must act well not only at home and in school, but in the public thoroughfares and places, amusement resorts, etc. It implies an adherence to those civic virtues we have considered, and to other virtues, that may be known to us to be necessary, and requires con- tinued effort for its attainment. The beauty of right living is the fruit of worthy deeds and is possible of attainment by all persons, for it is independent of wealth, great intel- ligence, and physical beauty, depending solely on the good will of the individual. TOPICS: Section 1, City Building; Section 2, Building of New Orleans; Section 3, Public Pleasure Grounds; Sec- tion 4, Paving; Section 5, Street Lighting; Section 6, Street Gleaning; Section 7, Civic Virtues. REFERENCES: European Cities at Work, F. C. Howe; Personality of American Cities, E. Hungerford; History and Conditions of New Orleans, Waring and Cable; Conv missioner of Public Property, City Hall. 4 SUPPLEMENT OUTLINE OF STATE GOVERNMENT. Bill of Rights. By tlie ' ' Bill of Rights, ' ' the citzen has what are known as his civil rights secured to him, such as life, liberty, etc. The "Bill of Rights' maintains that govern- ment originates with the j^eople, rests on their will, and is established for the good of all. ' ' To secure justice, preserve peace, and promote the interests and happin6ss of the people" is the only lawful end of government. The people of the State are secure in the enjoyment of life, liberty, property, freedom of religion and of speech. The courts are thrown open to all for the enjoyment of im- partially dispensed justice. Arms are allowed to be carried when not concealed. In trials, the accused is granted an impartial jury, the assistance of counsel, and the forced attend- ance of witnesses for his defense, and is con- fronted with his accusers and is informed of the nature and cause of the accusation brought against him. No person may be compelled to give evidence against himself. There may be no excessive bail nor fines, nor cruel and un- usual punishments. "The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus" can only be suspended in time of invasion or rebellion, or whenever else the public safety may demand it. The mili- tary is subordinate to the civil power. The listing of these rights does not deny or impair any other rights of the people not mentioned in the "Bill of Rights," as contained in the Constitution of Louisiana. DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT. Division. The powers of government are divided into three distinct departments, as follows: legislative, executive, and judicial. The members of one department may not hold office in another except in a few instances, which may be expressly provided for by law. A. Legislative Department. General Assembly. The legislative power is vested in a General Assembly, composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The General Assembly meets at noon in the capital city. Baton Rouge, on the second Monday in May of the even years, for a session of not more than sixty days. Members of the Gen- eral Assembly are privileged from arrest during their attendance at the sessions and in going to and from the same, except in cases of treason, felony, or breach of the peace. They are paid five dollars per day during at- tendance, and are allowed five cents per mile going to and returning from the capital. Each house has to keep a journal of its proceed- ings, which is preserved in the office of the Secretary of State. A quoi'um consists of not less than a majority of each house. Neither house may adjourn for more than three days nor to any place, without the consent of the other. No member may during his term of office nor for one year thereaftef, be ap- pointed or elected to any civil office of profit under the State, which may have been created or the income from which may have been in- creased, during the time he was a member of the General Assembly. The House of Repre- sentatives has the sole power of impeachment and the Senate of trying cases of impeach- ment. No person may be convicted without a two-thirds vote of the Senators present. When the Governor of the State is on trial, the Chief Justice or the senior Associate Justice of the Supreme Court presides over the Senate. How a Bill Becomes a Law. A law may embrace but one subject, which must be ex- pressed in the title. In order for a bill to be- come a law, it must be read on three different occasions in each house and reported by a committee and, in its final passage, receive the n. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK affirmative vote of a majority of the members elected to the house. When a bill has been passed by both houses and returned to the house in which it originated, it is signed by the presiding officer in open house and imme- diately taken by the clerk to the other house, whose presiding officer must sign it in like manner. It is then sent to the Governor to be signed. Should the Governor refuse to sign it, he must return it with his objections, to the house in which it was originated. It may then be passed over the Governor's veto by a two-thirds vote of all the members of both houses. Should the Governor keep a bill longer than five days without signing it, it would become a law just as though he had signed it, unless the General Assembly ad- journed sine die during the interval. A bill does not become a law until it be promul- gated, that is, until ten days after publication in the State Journal, except it be a general appropriation act, or act appropriating money for the expenses of the General Assembly. A bill may not be again proposed in the house in which it was rejected without the consent of the majority of that house. House of Representatives. Representation is based on population, but each parish, and each ward of the city of New Orleans must have at least one representative; representa- tion is directed to be reapportioned after each United States census. The number of repre- sentatives may not exceed 120. The necessary qualifications of a representative are: (1) he must be an elector; (2) a resident of the State for five years; (3) for two years preceding his election, an actual resident of the parish or ward from which he is elected. A member's seat becomes vacant on his changing his resi- dence from the parish or ward from which he was elected. The term of offi'ce is four years. The House of Representatives judges of the qualifications, elections, and returns of its own members, chooses its own officers, determines the rules of the proceedings, and may punish its members for disorderly conduct or con- tempt and, with the concurrence of two-thirds of all its members elected, expel a member. It may punish also any other person guilty of disrespect, or disorderly, or contemptuous be- havior during the session; such imprisonment may not exceed ten days for each offense. All bills for raising revenue or appropriating money must originate in the House of Repre- sentatives, but the Senate may propose or concur in amendments, as in other bills. The expenses of the house may not exceed $120 per day. There is a clerk of the house and such other assistants as may be necessary. Senate. Whenever the representation in the House of Representativs be apportioned, the State is divided into Senatorial districts; no parish, except that of Orleans, may be divided in the formation of such districts; when a new parish is made, it is attached to the senatorial district from which most of its territory was taken. There may not be more than forty-one senators nor less than thirty- six, and they are apportioned among the dif- ferent districts according' to the total popula- tion contained in the several districts. A sen- ator must be at least twenty-five years of age and have the other qualifications required of a representative. The Senate, like the House of Representatives, judges of the qualifica- tions, elections, and returns of its members, chooses its own officers, except the President of the Senate, determines the rules of its pro- ceedings, and punishes its members for dis- orderly conduct and contempt, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds of all the members elected, may expel a member. It may punish any other person guilty of disrespect, dis- orderly or contemptuous behavior during the session; such imprisonment may not exceed ten days for each offense. The expenses of the Senate may not exceed $100 per day; there is a Secretary of the Senate and such other assistants as may be necessary. Limitations of Legislative Power. No money may be drawn from the treasury ex- cept as appropriated by law, nor may any such appropriation be for longer than two years. The General Assembly has no power to contract any debts, except for the purpose of repelling invasion or suppressing insurrec- tion. There are numerous restrictions on the passing of local or special laws; for instance, no law may be passed for the opening and conducting of elections, or fixing, or changing the place of voting, etc. The price of manual labor may not be fixed by law. No member may vote on a bill in which he has any per- sonal or private interest. No appropriations may be made for any church, or minister, or private charitable institution. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK m. B. Executive Department. Members. The members of the executive de- partment are the Governor, Lieutenant-Gover- nor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, and Auditor. Election and Term. The officers of this de- partment are elected at the general State elec- tion of representatives, for a term of four years. In case of the absence, resignation, death, or removal from office of the Governor, the succes- sion devolves first upon the Lieutenant-Gov- ernor, then upon the President pro tempore of the Senate. Li case of the absence, resignation, death, or removal from office of any of the other officers of the department, the Governor fills the vacancy with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Secretary of State has the right to appoint an Assistant Secretary of State. Eligibility. Any qualified elector is eligible for these offices, except those of Governor and Lieutenant-Governor; for these positions he must be at least thirty years of age, ten years a citizen of the United States, and a resident of the State for ten years preceding his election to office. No person holding office under the United States government at the time of or within six months immediately preceding the election, may be elected to these offices. The Governor and Treasurer may not succeed themselves in office, Init. become eligible again at the expiration of one or more tei*ms after they have served. Salaries. The Governor's salary is $5,000 until 1916, when it will be $7,500 per year. The Lieutenant-Governor receives $1,500 per year. The Secretary of State and the Auditor receive $5,000 and the Treasurer $4,000 per year. Duties and Powers of the Grovemor. The Governor enters into office on the third Monday in May. The Governor has the power to grant reprieves for offenses against the State, except in eases of impeachment or treason; he may, on the recommendation of the Board of Pardons, grant pardons, commute sentences, and remit fines and forfeitures. The Governor, with the advice and consent of the Senate, appoints all officers whose ielection is not provided for by the Constitution or by special act of the General Assembly. He is commander-in-chief of the militia of the State, except when they are in actual service of the United States. He must keep the General Assembly informed as to the affairs of the State and make such recommenda- tions for its consideration as he may deem ex- pedient. It is his duty to see that the laws are faithfully enforced and he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene the General Assembly, pro- vided it be for a session of not more than thirty days. Before a bill may become a law, it must be signed by the Governor; should he veto it, he must return it with his objections to the house in which it was originated; it may then, by a two-thirds vote of all the members of both houses, be passed over his veto. Should the Gov- ernor keep a bill longer than five days before signing it, it becomes a law just as though he had signed it, unless the General Assembly had adjourned sine die during the interval. The Governor may veto any distinct item of a bill making appropriations for money and the part vetoed may become a law only by an affirmative vote of two-thirds of all the members of both houses. Duties and Powers of Lieutenant-Governor. The Lieutenant-Governor enters into office with the Governor. He is ex-officio president of the Senate. When discharging the duties of the Governor, he receives the same compensation as that to which the Governor would have been entitled had he remained in office. He is a mem- ber of the Board of Pardons. Commissions. All commissions are in the name and by the authority of the State of Lou- isiana. They must be sealed with the seal of the State,^ signed by the Governor, and coun- tersigned by the Secretary of State. 'The seal of the State of Louisiana, as it has existed up to April 30, 1902, had no absolute authority of record for its existence. The first seal was chosen, supposedly, by Governor Claiborne, and was supposed to represent a pelican with a nest full of young. There was no change in this seal and no enactment providing for any seal until 1864. When Henry W. Allen became Governor of the Confederate por- tion of the State, and Michael Hahn of the Federal jjor- tion, each had his seal; both seals were a pelican — one with the head on the left and the other with the head on the right; one with a nest full of young and the other with four young. Up to that time, the inscription on the seal was "Justice, Union and Confidence"; subsequently, without any apparent authority, the inscription upon the seal was changed to ' ' Union, Justice and Confidence. ' ' In order to establish uniformity in the State seal and in its use among various departments of the government, on April 30, 1902, Governor Heard, acting under authority of Section 3471 of the Revised Statutes, directed the Sec- retary of State to use a seal, the description of which is given below, and this is the first directing order that has come from the chief magistrate and that stands of record legitimizing the seal for the State: ' ' A pelican, with its head turned to the left, in a nest with three young; the pelican, following tradition, in the act of tearing its breast to feed its young; around the edge of the seal to be inscribed 'State of Louisiana.' Over the head of the pelican to be inscribed 'Union, Justice and'; under the nest of the pelican to be inscribed 'Confi- dence.' " (W. O. Hart.) tv. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK C. Judicial Department. Courts. The judicial power of the State is vested in a Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, District Courts, City Courts, Juvenile Courts, Justices of the Peace, and other inferior courts. 1. Supreme Court. Jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has appel- late aud original jurisdiction. It has original jurisdiction, that is, the right to try eases before any other court, in determining questions affect- ing its own jurisdiction and in matters touching professional misconduct of members of the bar. It has control and general supervision of all in- ferior courts. Members. This court is composed of one Chief Justice and four Associate Justices, a majority of whom constitutes a quorum. The necessary ctualifications of a member of this court are: (1) to be a citizen of the United States and of the State; (2) to be thirty -five years of age; (3) to be learned in the law; (4) to have prac- ticed law in the State for ten years preceding his election or appointment. They are elected for a term of twelve years. In the event of the death, resignation, or removal from office of a Justice, the vacancy is filled by the selection by the court of a Judge of one of the Courts of Appeal from a different Supreme Court District than that in which the vacancy occurred; at the next congressional election it is filled by elec- tion for a full term of twelve years. On reaching the age of seventj^-five years and after a con- tinued service of fifteen years, a Justice may retire on full pay. The office of Chief Justice is filled by the Associate Justice who has served the longest time. Districts. There are four Supreme Court Districts. The first district is composed of the Parishes of Orleans, St. John the Baptist, St. Charles, Jefferson, St. Bernard, and Plaquemines; from this district two Justices are elected. The remainder of the State is similarly divided; the northern parishes form the second district; the southwestern ones, the third district; and the remaining southern parishes, the fourth district. Sessions. The Supreme Court holds an an- nual session in the city of New Orleans, be- ginning not later than the first Monday in November and ending not sooner than June .30th in each year. All processes are con- ducted in the name of the State of "Louisiana." 2. Court of Appeals. Jurisdiction. The Courts of Appeals have appellate jurisdiction upon the law and the facts in all civil and probate eases in which the Civil District Court for the Parish of Or- leans and the District Courts throughout the State, have exclusive original jurisdiction and of which the Supreme Court has no jurisdic- tion, when the matter in dispute does not ex- ceed $2,000. Judges. There are three judges in each Court of Appeals. They must be citizens of the United States, qualified electors of the State, learned in the law, have practiced law in the State for six years, and have been actual residents for two years preceding election or api^ointment, of the district from which they are elected or appointed. They serve eight years at a salary of $4,000 per year, except in the Parish of Orleans, where they receive $5,000. Vacancies are filled by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Senate. Circuits. The State is divided into two cir- cuits exclusive of the parishes whose appeals are returnable to the Court of Appeal for the Parish of Orleans. Each circuit is divided into three districts. Sessions. The places for holding sessions of the Court of Appeals are partly designated by the Greneral Assembly and partly by the Court of Appeal. The sessions last for a period of ten months, beginning on the first Monday of Sep- tember of each year and ending on the last day of June of the following year. 3. District Courts. Jurisdiction. The District Courts except in the Parish of Orleans have original jurisdiction in all civil matters where the amount in disiDute exceeds fifty dollars and in cases where the title to real estate is involved, or to office or other public positions, or civil or political rights. They have unlimited and exclusive jurisdiction in all criminal cases with a few exceptions, in all probate and succession matters, and in cases where the State, a parish, mimicipality, or other political corporation is a party defendant. Number. The State may be divided into not less than twenty, nor more than thirty-two judicial districts; there are at present thirty dis- tricts exclusive of the Parish of Orleans, which THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK V. has two District Courts, the Civil District Court and Criminal District Court. Judges. There is usually one judge in each judicial district. In the case of large districts, however, there are two, as for instance, in the First District, composed of the Parish of Caddo. In the Parish of Orleans there are five judges of the Civil District Court and two of the Crim- inal District Court. These judges are elected by the qualified voters of the district ; they must be residents of their district for at least two years preceding their election, be learned in the law, and have practiced law for five years. Their term of office is four years, except in the Parish of Orleans, in which it is two years; their salary is $3,000 per year, except in the Parish of Orleans, in which it is $4,000. Vacan- cies, when the unexpired term is less than a year, are filled by the Grovernor with the advice and consent of the Senate ; where the unexpired term is a year or more, the vacancy must be filled by a special election called by the Gov- ernor within sixty days after the occurrence of the vacancy. The district judges have power to issue the writ of habeas corpus at the instance of any person in actual custody in their respec- tive district. Jury. Cases in which the punishment may not be at hard labor, are tried by the judges without a jury; cases in which the punishment may be at hard labor, must be tried by a jury of five, all of whom must concur to render a verdict; cases in which the punishment may be capital, must be tried by a jury of twelve, all of whom must concur to render a verdict. There are juries for trying civil and criminal cases. The Grrand Jury, composed of twelve members, is impanelled in each parish twice a year; nine must agree to find an indictment. Sessions. Continuous sessions are held during ten months of the year. In districts com- posed of more than one parish, the judge sits alternately in each parish as the public business may require. Judgments must be signed after three days .from their being given and are to be enforced ten days after the signing. 4. Juvenile Courts. Courts. In the parishes, the district courts serve when necessary as Juvenile Courts, but in New Orleans there is a special Juvenile Court. Purpose. Juvenile Courts are established for the trial of all children seventeen years of age and under, charged as "neglected" or "de- linquent," and all persons guilty of the violation of laws for the protection of the physical, moral, or mental well-being of children, not punishable by death or hard labor. Cases of desertion or non-support of children, by either parent, also belong to this court. Terms "Neglected" and "Delinquent." By "neglected" child is meant any child seventeen years of age or under, foimd destitute, or with- out proper guardianship, or whose home because of neglect, cruelty, depravity, or indigence of parents or guardians, is an unfit place for a child; or having one parent undergoing punish- ment for crime, or found wandering about the streets at night without being on any lawful business. By "delinquent" child is meant any child seventeen years of age or under, found begging or receiving alms, singing, or playing a musical instrument in any street or public place, for alms; or found living in places of bad repute, visiting any saloon, pool-room, etc., at- tempting to jump on moving trains or street cars for the purpose of stealing a ride ; or found to be incorrigible or habitually using vile, obscene, or indecent language, or guilty of im- moral conduct in public places or around school- houses, or growing up in idleness or crime, or running away from home or the State institu- tion where he may be kept, or violating any law of the State, or ordinance of any village, town, city, or parish of the State. Officers. There are the judge of the court and probationary officers. These probationary officers, discreet persons of either sex, are ap- pointed by the court. Tha probation officers must attend court when cases assigned them are being heard; they have to investigate such cases and take charge of the child before or after the trial, according to the court's order; they have the power and authority of sheriffs to make arrests and perform other duties of their office. 5. Sheriffs and Coroners. Sheriffs. At the general election, each parish, except that of Orleans, must elect a sheriff for four years. He must within thirty days of his election furnish bond. The sheriff' has to see to the "keeping of prisoners, conveying con- victs, insane persons, juveniles, lepers, and other VI. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK persons committed to any instituion of the State; and must see to the service of ijrocess from another parish, and service of process or the performance of any duty within the limits of his own parish." For this, he is paid $500 a year for each representative the parish may have in the House of Representatives. He is also tax collector and receives five per cent of all sums collected. Vacancies in which a year or more of the term remains, are filled by the Governor calling a special election within sixty days of the occurrence of the vacancy. If the time ])e less than a year, the Grovernor must appoint some one for the remainder of the term. Coroners. A coroner is elected in each parish at the general election, for four years. It is the duty of the coroner to inquire into the causes of violent deaths occurring in his parish. The coroner takes the place of the sheriff when the office becomes vacant until it shall be filled, and when the sheriff is a party interested; he may not, however, perform the duties of tax collector. Coroners must be regularly licensed physicians. 6. Attorney-General. Term. There is an attorney for the State, elected by the qualified voters of the State for a term of four years. Qualifications. The attorney-general must be learned in the law and must have actually resided and practiced law as a licensed attorney in the State for five years preceding his election. Salary. The attorney-general is paid -$5,000 a year. Powers and Duties. The attornev-general appoints two assistant attorneys-general at salaries, respectively, of $4,000 and $3,500 per year. It is the duty of the attorney-general to attend to all such legal matters as the State may have an interest in or be a party to, and to prosecute and defend all suits wherein the State may be a party or have an interest. 7. District Attorneys. Each judicial district must elect a district attorney at each presidential election for a four-year term. He receives $1,000 a year and fees. He must be a resident of the district and a licensed attorney. The Governor fills vacancies in which the time is less than a year; if it be a year or more, a special election must be called within sixty days. 8. Justices of the Peace and Constables. Justices of the Peace. Each parish must elect justices of the peace for a term of four years. Justices of the peace have exclusive original jurisdiction in all civil matters, when the disputed amount is not more than $50, and original jurisdiction with the District Court when the amount does not exceed $100. Tliey also have jurisdiction in minor criminal cases. They are paid a salary fixed by the police jury of the iDarish. Constables. Each court of the justice of the peace has a constable elected for four years. He is paid a salary by the police jury of the parish. The duties of the constable are similar to those of the sheriff; he must enforce the decisions of the court. SOME GENERAL PROVISIONS. Treason. Levying war against the State, or adhering to its enemies, giving them aid and comfort, constitutes treason against the State. Official Language. English is the official longuo, but in the City of New Orleans, the Gen- eral Assembly provides for the publication of judicial advertisements in French. Lotteries. The State of Louisiana prohibits lotteries and the sale of lotterv tickets. Gambling. The constitution de- clares gambling to be a vice and that the General Assembly must pass laws to suppress it. Convicts. The State may employ convicts on pulilic v\'orks such as roads, farms, 'etc., Init they must be under the suiiorvision of State officers. They may not be hired out to in- dividuals or corporations. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK VIT. THE PARISH AS A UNIT OF GOVERNMENT. The Parish, a Public Corporate Body. The State of Louisiana is divided into parishes, as other States are divided into counties, for tlie purpose of local government. The French called these divisons of the territory "Paroisses," hence their being called parishes instead of counties. The parish is a public corporate body that may own and sell property, sue and be sued, exercise power of taxation for purposes of local government, local improvement, paying off debts, and supporting schools. But the parish is made subordinate to the State by the con- stitution, by which it was m^de. Changing Parish Lines. Parish lines may be changed only on the affirmative vote of two- thirds of the qualified electors of the parishes affected by the law. For instance, when in 1912 the Parish of Calcasieu was divided into the four parishes of Calcasieu, Allen, Jefferson Davis, and Beauregard, it was necesasry for two-thirds of the qualified electors of Calcasieu to vote in favor of the division, otherwise it could not have been made. When such a division takes place, the property and assets, debts and liabilities of the former parish, are proportioned among its divisions. Similarly, for merging two or more parishes, it is necessary to have the con- sent of a majority of the qualified voters. Parish Subdivisions. Parishes are sub- divided into Avards. When a parish is formed, the General Assembly decides the number of wards into which it may be divided, and the Police Jury arranges the limits of each ward. Issuance of Bonds. Parishes may issue bonds for purposes of public improvement when authorized by the vote of a majority of the tax- payers; such bonds m'ay not run for more than forty years nor bear more than five per cent interest, nor be sold for less than par. The total bond issue of a parish may not exceed ten per cent of the assessed valuation of the property within its limits. Taxes for the payment of in- terest and principal of such debts may not be higher than "ten mills on the dollar of assessed valuation of the property" in such parish. There is also what is known as the acreage tax for the purpose of raising money to diixin dis- tricts; it may not be inq^osed for more than forty years. The amount of the bonds issued for this purpose may never exceed in princi]ial and interest the total amount to be raised by the acreage tax during the period it is to be im- posed, and such bonds may not bear more than five per cent interest, nor be sold for less than par. Police Jury. The electors in each ward of a parish elect a member of the Police Juiy of the Parish. The Police Jury conducts the affairs of the parish ; this jury may be said to be to the parish what the city council is to the city. Other Parochial Officers. The sheriff, cor- oner, clerk of court, assessors, justice of the peace, constable, board of health, board of school directors, and superintendent of schools, are the other officials who assist in managing the affairs of the parish. Seat of Parish Government. In every parish there is what is known as the parish seat, in other States the county seat, where is located the courthouse and jail; where the Police Jury meets and the other officials, such as the sheritf, clerk of court, assessors, and superintendent of schools, have their offices. This forms a nucleus for a settlement, and in most cases, prosperous towns have thus been developed. Commission Government. In 1914, the Legis- lature passed a bill allowing the parishes to change their government from that by the police jury to the commission form. According to this plan, three commissioners are elected at large; these commissioners replace the police jury, board of health, and assessors; they have charge of i^ublic buildings, sanitation, care of paupers, construction of roads, bridges, fences; the finances and assessment of the parish are under their control, as are all parish employees. The three characteristics of commission govern- ment, recall, initiative, and referendum, are pro- vided for; by the recall, the electors may remove a commissioner from office and replace him; by the initiative, the electors may have ordinances and regulations passed; and by the referendum, the electors may compel the commissioners to submit a measure to the vote of the electors before putting it in force. This plan of gov- ernment abolishes the division of a parish iiilo wards. VIII. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK THE TOWN AS A UNIT OF GOVERNMENT. Municipal Corporations. Wlien a hamlet or unincorporated village has a population of at least 250, on two-thirds of the electors petition- ing the Governor to declare it an incorporated village, and he having verified the facts given in the petition, he must declare it incorporated as the village of , and appoint the first officials, hut, thereafter, they are elected. The Governor must declare a village to he a town whenever the local authorities inform him that its population is or exceeds 1,000, or a city when the population is or exceeds .5,000. Officials. In municipalities having a popu- lation of less than 200,000, the government is foiiued by the State and is of an aldermanic character; the governing body is composed of a mayor, aldermen, marshal, tax collector, and street commissioner. The number of aldermen varies according to whether the municipality is a village, in which case there are three; a town, five ; or a city, not less than five nor more than nine. The voters elect the mayor, aldermen, and marshal; the aldermen appoint the other officials. Powers and Duties of Municipal Officials. The management of the municipality devolves upon the mayor and aldermen, who enact ordi- nances for its governance, and improvement, levy and collect taxes. In towns, their power exceeds that in villages; in towns, they may open and maintain hospitals, have a system of street lighting, fire department, etc. "With an increase in size, additional powers are obtained. The mayor is chief executive and, in munici- palities of a population less than 5,000, judge in a court for cases of violations of the town ordinances. The marshal is the constable and chief of police. The tax collector collects the taxes. The street commissioner has to see that all alleys, streets, and roads are kept in good condition. TAXATION. Purpose. Taxes are levied for the support of the State Government and its institutions, the education of the children, preservation of public health, payment of interest and principal of the public debt, suppression of insurrection, repelling invasion, or defense of the State in time of war, providing pensions for indigent Confederate soldiers and sailors and their widows, establishing markers or monuments commemorative of the services of Louisiana soldiers on such fields, maintenance of a me- morial hall in New Orleans for the collection and preservation of relics and memorials of the late Civil War, and for levee purposes. Kinds of Taxes. (1) The poll tax is an an- nual tax of one dollar per year payable by all male inhabitants betweeij the age of twenty-one and sixty years; this tax must be paid in order to vote, and property holders may be forced to pay it; the funds collected by this measure are given to the support of the public schools in the parish within which the collection is made. (2) The property tax is a tax of six mills on the dollar of assessed valuation of the property. Property may not be assessed above its vah;e. This tax forms the State's principal source of revenue. (.3) The license tax is a tax on trades, professions, vocations, and callings. (4) The inheritance tax is a tax on inheritances, legacies, and donations; no inheritance or donation of less than $10,000 to ancestors or descendants may be taxed, and when over that amount may not be taxed for more than three per cent; col- lateral inheritance or donation to strangers may not be taxed for more than ten per cent; if the donation be to an educational, charitable, or religious institution, it is exempt from this tax. (5) The levee tax is a tax of not more than one mill on the dollar of assessed valu- ation of property, for the maintenance of the levee system in the Levee District in which the tax is levied. Exemptions. Clerks, laborers, clergymen, school teachers, persons engaged in mechanical, agTieultural, and horticultural pursuits, and manufacturers, except those of distilled alco- holic or malt liquors, tobacco, cigars, and cotton seed oil, are exempt from paying a license tax. THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK IX. No public property, nor property used for re- ligious, educational, or charitable purposes, is taxed; neither is household furniture valued at $500, or less. The constitution grants exemp- tion from taxation to many corporations, bonds, etc., under certain conditions. See Constitu- tion of 1913, Article 230. Sheriff's Sales. If taxes are not paid before the expiration of the year in which they fall due, the collector shall, after giving due notice to the delinquent, advertise for sale the prop- erty on which the taxes are due, and on the day of sale shall sell such part of the property as the debtor shall point out, for the amount of the taxes, interest, and costs; if the tax debtor fails to point out sufficient property, the tax collector shall sell the least quantity of the property which any one will purchase for the taxes, interest, and costs. The owner may re- deem the property within the space of one year by paying the price given, including costs, and twenty per cent thereon. State Board of Appraisers. The Board of Appraisers was created by the State for the purpose of assessing the property belonging to corporations, associations, and individuals, em- ployed in railway, telegTaph, telephone, sleeping car and express business throughout the State of Louisiana. This Board is composed of the Auditor and other members, corresponding in number to the Congressional Districts of the State, elected by the Governor, Lieutenant-Grov- ernor. Treasurer, Attorney-General, and Secre- tary of State, for a term of four years. The Gen- eral Assembly fixes the compensation of the Board. VARIOUS STATE BOARDS. Boards in General. The State has created several boards or commissions for the manage- ment of some special affairs of the State, and these boards form an important part of the machinery of the State government. Board of Public Education. This Board is composed of the Governor, Attorney-General, State Superintendent of Education, and one member from each Congressional District, ap- pointed by the Governor. The Board of Educa- tion has to appoint the chairman of- the State committee for examining teachers; elects a State Institute Conductor, who has general charge of summer schools and institutes; prescribes stand- ards for approved high schools, and makes ap- propriation to each high school of from $400 to $500 a year; makes recommendations to the parish board, gives special aid to departments of agriculture and home economics of the public schools, and provides courses of study for the different public schools. Louisiana State Board of Agriculture and Immigration. This Board consists of a member from each Congressional District, appointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Senate, from men engaged in the leading agri- cultural interests of the State; these members hold office for six years, or until their successors are appointed. The Governor, Commissioner of Agriculture and Immigration, President of the Louisiana State University and Agricul- tural and Mechanical College, the Vice-Presi- dent of the Board of Supervisors of the same institution, and the Director of the State experi- mental stations, are ex-officio members of this Board. The members of this Board receive no compensation, only their expenses when attend- ing meetings. This Board has control and direc- tion of all State agricultural organizations and State Farmers' Institutes, and adopts measm-es to secure proper immigration. It encourages State, district, and parish fairs and local agri-'- cultural organizations; maintains effective con- trol of the manufacture and sale in this State of fertilizers and Paris Green, and suppresses adulteration and fraud therein. It has to per- form other duties when assigned by the General Assembly. Board of Charities and Corrections. Six members, appointed by the Governor for six years, form this board, of which the Governor is ex-officio chairman. They receive no com- pensation, but the secretary, whom they ap- point, receives a salary fixed by the General Assembly. The board does not possess any administrative or executive powers, merely visitorial. It is their duty to visit all chari- table, correctional, or reformatory institutions. X. The new ORLEANS book: whether pulilie or jirivate, and make au auuual report ou their condition to the Governor and (Jeneral Assembly. Board of Liquidation of the State Debt. The State's bonded debt was $11,108,300 on January 1, 1914. The State has created a special board to assume control of this debt, pay oft" the in- terest and principal. One and three-twentieths mills, out of the six-mill tax levied by tlie State, are set aside for this purpose. Board of Commissioners of the Port of New Orleans. The Governor appoints the members of this board, tive in number, has the power to remove them and fill all vacancies. The Com- missioners have control of the bond issue for im- proving the water front, constructing wharves, sheds, roadways, etc. They must furnish the Governor with an annual detailed account of the receipts and expenditures, and this report must be published once in the official journal of the city of New Orleans. "Board of Health. The State Board of Health is composed of representative physicans from different parts of the State. It is the duty of this board to protect the people from the sale of injurious, or adulterated drugs, foods, and drinks, and against any and all adul- terations of the general necessaries of life. See Chapter V. Conservation Commission. In 1912, a Con- servation Commission was established for the purpose of preserving the natural resources of the State. This commission is composed of three members, appointed by the Govei-nor for a term of four years. It is their duty to inspect and have improved all State reservation lands and waters; they must see that the State's natural wealth is properly used and not ruth- lessly destroyed; they must tind out what are the natural resources of the State and how they may be best developed. The reforesting of lands whose timber has been used, is one of the works undertaken by the present commission. The care and enlargement of the State's great oyster beds, falls within the province of the com- mission. EDUCATIONAL AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS SUPPORTED BY THE STATE. The State supports four large educational institutions, namely: the State University at Baton Rouge, the State Normal at Natchitoches, and the two industrial schools at Ruston and Lafayette, and several charitable institutions, the two Insane Asylums, at, respectively Pineville and Jackson, the school for the deaf and blind, Charity Hospital, and other public charity institutions conducted under State authority. SUFFRAGE AND ELECTIONS. Electors. In Louisiana, electors are males over twenty-one years of age and who possess the following qualifications : Residential. He must have been a resident of the State for two years, of the parish one year, and of the precinct six months preceding the election; removal from a precinct, how- ever, does not operate against a person until six months thereafter. Educational. He must be able to write his application for registration in English or in his own tongue or, if prevented from so doing by a physical disability, the registration officer or deputy may write it at his dictation, under his oath attesting his disability. Property Qualification. The possession of property assessed at $300 and on which all taxes are paid, serves in lieu of the educational quali- fication. Poll Tax Qualification. Men between the ages of twenty-one and sixty years must pay a poll tax of a dollar a year, which tax is used to help support the public schools. Poll taxes are liens only upon assessed property. No man may vote at any election who has not paid his poll tax for two j'ears preceding that in which he desires to vote; this tax must be paid on or l)efore December 31st of each year. "Any person who shall pay the poll tax of another, or advance him money for that purpose in order THE NEW ORLEANS BOOK: XL to influeuce his vote, is guilty of bribery and punishable accordingly. ' ' Voting of Taxpayers in Political Sub- divisions. In order to vote as taxpayers, the only qualifications are those of age and resi- dence; women of age who are taxpayers, have the right to vote in such elections either in person or by an agent authorized in writing. No other person may vote at such elections un- less they be registered voters. Disbarment from. Voting. "Persons con- victed of any crime punishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary and who have not had the right of suffrage restored to them, inmates of any charitable institution except the Soldiers' Home, those confined in a public prison, inter- dicted persons, and persons notoriously insane or idiotic, whether interdicted or not," are not allowed to vote, hold any office or appointment of honor, trust, or profit in Louisiana. Manner and Time of Voting. Voting is by ballot except "in elections by persons in a rep- rentative capacity, ' ' when the vote is . viva- voce. The general State election is held once every four years on the Tuesday following the third Monday in April. The next State election will be held in 1916 and every four years there- after. Gain and Loss of Residence. Persons in the employ of the State or United States, whether civil or military, or "engaged in the navi gation of the waters of the State, or United States, or of the high seas, or while a student at an institution of learning," are not considered to have gained a residence be- cause of their presence, nor list it because of their absence. The Ballot. Ballots are furnished by the State for the general State elections. Ballots are so printed that an elector may vote a straight party ticket or vote individually. The ballots are cast in secret. Voting. No registration may take place within thirty days preceding an election. A man desiring to vote, must register as an elector and present his registration papers and two poll tax receipts for two years previous to the elec- tion in which he wishes to vote. TOPICS: Bill of Rights; Legislative Department; Executive Department; Judicial Department; Various Officials; Some General Provisions of the Constitution; The Parish as a Unit of Government; The Town as a Unit of Gov- ernment; Taxation; Various Boards; Support Given to Educational and Charitable Public Institutions; Suffrage and Elections. REFEEEHCES: Constitutions of 1913 and 1898; J. E. Ficklen, History and Government of Louisiana. SEAL OF STATE OF LOUISIANA. —Courtesy of W. 0. Hart. GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA. GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA UNDER FRENCH RULE. Pierre le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville ; 1699-1700 Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville 1701-1713 Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac 1713-1716 De 1 'Epinay (Christian name unrecorded) 1717-1718 Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville 1718-1724 Pierre Dugue de Boisbriant (ad interim) 1724 Perrier (Christian name unrecorded) 1725-1732 Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville 1733-1743 Pierre PranQois, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnal - 1743-1752 Louis Billouart, Baron de Kerleree 1753-1763 D 'Abadie (Christian name unrecorded) 1763-1765 Aubry 1765-1766 GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA UNDER SPANISH RULE. Antonio de Ulloa 1766-1768 Alexander, Count O 'Reilly 1768-1769 Louis de IJnzaga y Amerzaga . 1769-1776 Bernardo de Galvez y Gallardo 1777-1785 Estevan Eodriquez Miro 1785-1791 Francisco Louis Hortes, Baron de Carondelet 1792-1797 Gayosa de Lemos 1797-1799 Francisco de Bouligny 1799 Sebastian, Marquis de' Casa Calvo y O 'Farril 1799-1801 Juan Manuel de Salcedo. . , 1801-1803 GOVERNORS OF THE TERRITORY OF ORLEANS. William Charles Cole Clairborne 1804-1812 GOVERNORS OF THE STATE OF LOUISIANA. William Charles Cole Clairborne 1812-1816 Jacques P. ViUere •. 1816-1820 Thomas Boiling Robertson (resigned) 1820 H. S. Thibodeaux, President of the Senate (Acting Governor) Henry Johnson 1824 Pierre Derbigny (died in oflfice) 1828 A. Beauvais, President of the Senate (Acting Governor) 1829 Jacques Dupre Andre Bienvenu Roman 1831 Edward Douglas White 1835 Andre Bienvenu Roman 1839 Alexander Mouton 1843 Isaac Johnson 1846 Joseph W. Walker 1850 Paul Octave Hebert 1853 Robert Charles Wicklifee _ 1856 Thomas Overton Moore - 1860 General George F. Shepley (Military Governor) 1862 Henry Watkius Allen (under Confederate government) 1864 Michael Hahn (under Federal government) 1864 James Madison Wells, President of the Senate (Acting Governor) 1864 James Madison Wells 1866 Benjamin F. Flanders (under military authority) ■ 1867- Joshua Baker (under military authority) 1868 Henry Clay Warmoth 1868-1873 John McEnery (counted out by the Returning Board) 1873 Peter B. S. Pinchback, Lieutenant Governor (Acting Governor) 1873 William Pitt Kellogg, Governor de facto 1873-1877 Francis T. Nicholls : 1877-1880 Louis Alfred Wiltz (died in office) 1880-1881 S. Dougl^is McEnery, Lieutenant Governor (succeeded Wiltz as Governor) 1881 S. Douglas McEnery. , , 1884- Francis T. Nicholls 1888 Murphy J. Foster 1892 William Wright Heard 1900 Newton Crain Blanchard . 1904 Jared Y. Sanders 1908 Luther E. Hall 1912 1824 1824 1828 1829 1830 1830 1835 1839 1843 1846 1850 1853 1856 1860 1864 1864 1865 1865 1866 1867 1868 1884 1888 1892 1900 1904 1908 1912 XIII. INDEX. Abattoir Companies, 96 Abbadie, D', 14. Abraham, 83. Adams, President John, 18. Adulteration, 54. Africa, mention of, 20; 41; 73; 129. Agrienlture and Immigration, State Board of, IX. Alabama, State, mention of, 7; 73; 76; 88; 96. Algiers, 32> 39; Branch Library, 120. Allard, Louis, 149. Alleghenies, mention of, 10; 12; 18; 69; River, 18. Alliance Fran^aise, 123. All Saints' Day, 132 Almonaster y Roxas, Don, 16-17; 103; Widow of, 133. Alphand, engineer, 143. America, mention of, 22; .59; 60; 61; 76; 99; City planning in, 145. American Revolution, 15; 128. American, Baptist Home Mission Society, 118; Domination in Louisiana, 23-48; Folk Lore Society, 125; Influence on building of New Orleans, 147; Missionary Association, 118; Rule, 109-110; Ships, 72; Sugar Refinery, 67; 80; 88. Americans, mention of, 18; 19; 23; 30; 31; 44; 109; 110; 128. Amusements in New Orleans 1800, 21. Animals of Louisiana, 95. Annunciation- Square, 150. Anse la Butte, 87. Antwerp, mention of, 72. Appraisers, State Board of, IX. Architecture, mention of, 32; 42; See Chapter XVI., 143-148. Argentina, mention of, 74. Arizona, mention of, 88. Ark, The, mention of, 83. Arkansas River, mention of, 7; 9; State of, 30; 72; 76; 87; 96. Armesto, Don Andreas Lopez de, 109. Art, NeW|Comb School of, 116. Arts and Sciences, College of, 116. Asia, mention of, 41; 61; 73; 81; 92; 128. Asiatics, mention of, 129. "t Asphalt, 152. -^ 'J Assessment, 140-141. Assessors, Board of, 141. . ;(^ Association of Army of Tennessee, mention of, 106. Association of Army of Virginia, mention of, 106. Association of Commerce, 148. Asylums, 104-106. .'.' ' Atehafalaya, Bank of, 33; River, 71. Athenaeum, 130. f" Athenee Louisianais, 123; 125. ' "■ Athens, 143. Atlanta, 88. Atlanteans, 130. Atlantic Ocean, 13; Trade, 18; Cable Companies, 61; Coast, 6; 26; 31; Ports, 83. Attakapas 'Cadians, 20. Attendance, Department of, 114. Attorney-General, 97; 98; VI; IX. Aubry, 14. Auditor, State, III.; IX. Audubon, John James, 120; Park, mention of, 39; 40; 47; 80; 116; 117; 148; 149-1.50; Street, mention of, 118; 125. Augusta, Ga., mention of, 124. Australia, mention of, 61; 74. Austria, mention of, 72; 74; 133; People of, 129. Auxiliary Sanitary Association, 53. Avery's Island, 85j 86. Avoyelles Parish, 126. Aztecs, mention of, 59. Babylon, mention of, 143. Bacteriological Department, 55; 56. Balboa, C. Z., 152. Balize, mention of, 10; 14. Ballot, 140; XI. Baltimore, mention of, 31; 72; 105; 131; 132; 149. Bananas, 68; 72; 73. Banks, Royal Bank of Tra.nce, 101; Louisiana, 101; Lou- isiana Planters', 101; Gas Company, 101; Canal, 70; 101; Carrollton, ■ 101; Commercial, 101; Mechanics and Traders', 101; Whitney-Central, 42; 101; Hibernia, 101. Banks' Arcade, 32. Banking, 101. Banks, General, 101. Bar Association, Louisiana, American, 99. Barataria Bay, mention of, 26; Bayou, 42; 43; 94. Baratarian Pirates, 26; 98. Barcelona, mention of, 72. Baronne, Street, mention of, 63; 103. Barracks, 17; 63; Street, 13; 145. Barrett, actor, 38. Barrios, mention of, 72. Barton, Dr., mention of, 100. Bastille, mention of, 14; 133. Baton Rouge, mention of, 15; 115; 119; 122; I. Battle of New Orleans, 28; 29; 98; Centennial Celebration of, 43-44. Batture, mention of, 2; Riots, 25. Bayou Road, mention of, 21; 24; 63. Beale, Captain, 131. Beaubois, Father, mention of, 107. Beaumont, mention of, 87. Beauregard, Gen. P. G. T., 33; 74; Square (Congo), 117; 32; School, 112. Beauty of Right Living, 155. Beer, Manufacture of, 90. Belfast, 72. Belgian Block, 151. Belgium, mention of, 72; 74; People of, 129. Belize, mention of, 72. Bell, Alexander Graham, mention of, 61. Belle Isle, mention of, 85; 86. Bench and Bar, 97; 99. Benjamin, Judah P., 98. Berlin, 143-144. Bie:nvenue; Bayou, mention of, 26; 27; 56. Bienville, Jean Baptiste le Moyne de, 9; 10; 11; 12; 107; 145; House of, 146; Street, 12; 108; 145. Bilboa, mention of, 72. Bill of Rights, I. Biloxi, mention of 9; Bay, 9. Bingen, mention of, 133. Birds, 95; 151. Birmingham, mention of, 72; 88. Black Code, 11. Blanc, Archbishop, 116. Blue, Surgeon-General Rupert, 57. Bluefields, mention of, 72. XIV. INDEX— Continued. Boards: — Agriculture and Immigration, IX.; Charities and Corrections, IX.-X.; Civil Service, Commissioners of, 1S8; 139; Conservation Commission, 84; 95; X.; Health, City; 51; 53; 55-56; 57; 96; Health, State, 53-54; 57; 96; X.; Liquidation of City Debt, 40; 139; Liquidation of State Debt, X.; Orleans Levee, 4; 40; 139; Public Education, State, 111; 125; IX. Public Libraries, City, 139; Public School Directors, New Orleans, 111; 139; Sewerage and Water, 47. Bocas del Toro, mention of, 72. Boll-weevil, 78. Bonnet Carre, crevasse, 3. Booth, actor, mention of, 38. Boots, Manufacture of, 89. Bore, Etieune de, 18; 79; 123; 149. Borgne, Lake, mention of, 1; 2; 8; 26; 27; 46; 70. Boston, mention of, 31; 35; 70; 87; 128; 145; 148; Club, 130. Bourbon Street, mention of, 21; 131. Bragg, General, mention of, 100. Branch Libraries, 120. Brass Works, 89. Brazil, mention of, 74. Bremen, mention of, 72. Brennan, Joseph, 124. Brittany, mention of, 122. Brooklyn, 118; Navy Hospital, 93. Bubonic Plague, 50; 52; 57. Buffalo, mention of, 31. Building of New Orleans, 145-148. Building Ornamentation (New Orleans), 146-147. Buililings of Note, 147. Buras, Elorentine, 93. Burgundy, Fort, mention of, 17. Burke, W. B., 117. Burr, Aaron, Conspiracy of, 24. Butler, General B. F., 38; 101; 110. Cabildo, 15; 16; 17; 19; 20; 22; 23; 103; 120; 146. Cable, George W., 125-126. Caddo Parish, 87. Cadillac, Governor, 9. Cadiz, mention of, 72. " Ca Ira," mention of, 17. Calcasieu River, mention of, 71; Parish, 84. Caldwell, James H., 33; 37; 38; Mrs. J. H. Caldwell, 38; Parish, 84. California, mention of, 87; 151. Calliope Street, mention of, 67; 119. Campeachy, mention of, 15. I 'amp Nicholls, 106. Camp Street, mention of, 24; 62. Canaan, mention of, 83. t'anada, mention of, 8; 13; 25. Canadians, 12; 20. Canal Bank, 33; Building, 42; Bank and Trust Company, 101. Canals, Carondelet, 17; 45; 49; 70; Intercoastal, 70; 71; Lake to River, 70; New Basin, 4; 70. Canal Street, mention of, 3; 17; 18; 20; 40; 63; 67; 70; 100; 103; 112; 116; 118; 128; 130; 131; 146; 148; Branch Library, 120. Canal Zone, mention of, 141. Canaries, mention of, 19. * Canning Factories, 90. Canonge, L. Placide, 123. Canova artist, mention of, 36. Cape Breton Island, mention of, 1.1. Cape Gracias, mention of, 72. Capital at New Orleans, mention of, 10. Capture of New Orleans, 38. Ca])uchins, mention of, 11-12; 10; 20; 107. Cargo, 64; 67-68. Caribbean, mention of, 72. Car Lines, Street, 63. Carnegie, Andrew, mention of, 119; 139. Carnival, 129; 131. Carondelet, Baron de, 16; 18; 36; 45; 49; 153; Canal, 17; 45; 49; 70; Fortifications, 17; Methodist Church, 33; Street, 33; 147. Carolina, Schooner, mention of, 27. Carpet Baggers, 39; 111. Carroll, General, mention of, 26. Carrollton, 3; 18; 40; Avenue, 148; Bank, 101; Bend, 2; 3; Railroad, 40; 63. Casa Calvo, Marquis de, 22; 23; 24. Casket Girls, 11. Catalonians, mention of, 19; 20. Cathedral, St. Louis, mention of, 19; 20; 21; 29; 33; 34; 107; 120; 146. Cat Island, mention of, 32. Cecil, Father, 107. Ceiba, mention of, 72. Cemeteries, 63. Cenas, Blaise, 59; Doctor 100. Centennial Celebration, Battle of New Orleans, 43-44. Central American Countries, mention of, 1 ; 4] ; 87; 88; 92. Central States, mention of, 72. Chaise, de la, mention of, 99. Chaland, Bayou, mention of, 95. ( 'haldea, mention of, 83. Chalmette Sugar Refiner.y, 80. Changes in Shape of New Orleans, 146. "Chant du Depart," mention of, 27. Charitable Institutions, 103-106. Charities and Corrections, State Board of, IX. Charity Hospital, 12; 16; 19; 32; 50; 57; 58; 103; 104; X. Charity, Sisters of 103. Charivari, 133. Charles III., mention of, 14. Charles River, mention of, 143. Charleston, S. C, mention of, 40; 81; 123; 148. Charlevoix, Pere, 10. Charter of New Orleans, 136; 142.. Chartres Street, mention of, 3; 12; 16; 20; 21; 108; Cheerfulness, virtue of, 154. Chef Menteur, mention of, 42. Cherry Valley, mention of, 115. Chicago, mention of, 61; 64; 69; 72; 128; 145. Chickasaws, War with, 12. Chief Justice of Louisiana, I.; IV. China, mention of, 74; 90; 92; 125. Chinese, mention of, 59; 94; 129. Choctawhatehee Bay, 7. Choetaws, mention of, 25; 27; 122. Cholera, Asiatic, mention of, 51; 52; 70. Christ Church, mention of, 33. Christian Brothers' College, 118. Cincinnati, mention of, 125. City Attorney, 41. City Bank, mention of, 33. City Beautiful, 143-155. City Boards, 138-139. City Building, 143-145. City Engineer, 41. City Government, 135-142. City Hall, 33; 119; 130; 140; 147. City Library, 119. City Limits, 1. City Park, 2; 43; 63; 149. City Planning in America, 145. City Railroad Comiiany, 63. 1 INDEX — Continued. XV. City Treasurer, 140; 141. Citrus Fruits, 92-93. Civic Interest, 135-136; 155. Civic Virtues, 154-155. Civil Code, 97. Civil Law, 97. Civil Service Commission, 125; 138; 139. Civil War, mention of, 38; 50; 110. Claiborne, W. C. C, 23; 24; 25; 26; 30; 53; 101. Clay, Henry, 36. Cleaning, City, 53. Cleanliness, Virtue of, 154. ' ' Clearing, "75. Clemens (Mark Twain), 126. Cleveland, 145. Climate, 4-5. • Clio Street, mention of, 130; 131. Cochrane, Admiral, 26; 27; 30. Code Napoleon, 97. Coffee, General, 26; Import, 72; 73. Colbert, Minister, 8. Coliseum Place, 150. Collector of Customs, 74. College of Orleans, 109-110. Cologne, 144. Colon, mention of, 72. Colonial Education, 107-109. Columbian Exposition, mention of 145. Commerce, 18; 22; 30; 34; 41 Commercial Bank, 33, 47; 101. Commercial Library, 119. Commercial Eeview of New Orleans, 123. Commissioners of Port of New Orleans, Board of, 40; 66-67; 77; X. Commmission Form of Government, 43; in State, VII. Commission Plan of City Government, 136-137; in New Orleans, 137; Distinctive Features of, 141-142. Commissions Given by State, III. Common Law, English, 97; 115. Common Street, mention of, 23; 24; 103. Communication, Systems of, 59-63. Comus, Krewe of, 130. Company of The West or of Indies, 9; 12; 100. Comptroller, 40;41. Confederate Memorial Hall, 120; Veterans, 106. Confederacy, 38; Army of, 110; 118; Note of, 101. Conservation Commission, 84; 95; X. Conspiracy of October, 1768, 14-15. Constables, VI. Constitution of Louisiana, 25; 67; 142. Contagion, 55. Convents, 117-118. Convicts, VI. Cook, Bayou, 95. Cooke, Sir William, 60. Cooper, actor, 38. Copenhagen, mention of, 72; 87. Copper Works, 89. Corn, 78. Coroners, VI. Cortez (Port), 72. Costa Rica, 72. Cotton: Introduced, 13; Outlook in 1812, 25; Centennial Exposition, 40; 42; 62; 150; Trade in, 72; 73; Cultiva- tion of, 76-78; Exchange, 76; Futures, 77; Warehouse, 77-78; Manufacture of, 77; 88; 89. Council, Commission, 55; 67; City, 119; 132; 139. Council Elections, 137. Courage, Virtue of, 155. Courmant, Felix de, 123. Courtesy, Virtue of, 155. Courthouse, New Orleans, 42. Court of Appeals: Jurisdiction, Judges, Circuits, Sessions, IV. Credit System in Business, 30. Creek (Indians), 125. Creoles, 18; 19; 20; 21; 24; 26; 30; 31; 124; 125; 126; 128; 129; 133. Creosoted Wood Blo.ek, 152. Crevasses, 2; 3; 49. Criminal Coui-thouse, 40; 129. Crozat, Anthony, 9. Cuba, mention of, 7; 15; 24; 51; Trade with, 74. Cula-Be, 123. Cumberland iJiver, 25; Telephone and Telegrajih Company, 62. Curators of State Museum, Board of, 125. Currency, Colonial 13. Customhouse, 17; 33; 74; Street, 119. Customs, 129-134. Customs Officers, 75. Cypress, 83. " . Dakin, architect, 33. Dallas, mention of, 88. Dauphine Street, mention of, 3; 12; 63. Davis, Mrs. MoUie E. Moore, 124; 126. Davy, Humphrey, 60. De Bow, James D. B., 123; Eeview, 123. De Launey, mention of, 133. De I'Epinay, 9. Delery, Dr. C, 123. Delgado, Isaac, 149; Art Museum, 149; Tjentral Trades School for Boys, 114. "Delta," The, 124. Denegre Building, mention of, 62. Denmark, mention of, 72; people of, 129. Departmental Teaching, 111. Departments of City Government, 138. Departments of State Government, I.-VI. Depouilly, architect, 33. De Soto, Hernando, 7; Parish, 87. Destitute Boys, Asylum of, 105. Dimitry, Alexander, 110; Charles, 125. Distribution of Powers of City Government, 138. District Attorney, VI. District Courts: Jurisdiction, number of judges, jury, ses- sions, IV.-V. Districts: First, 11; Second (Municipality), 31; Third, 3; 31; Fourth, 33; 39; Fifth, 39; 42; Sixth, 39; 40; 41; 42; Seventh, 40; 42; 137. Dock Board, 67; 69; 71. Domestic Art, 113. Domestic Science, 113. Dominican Convent, 117. Drainage, 41; 42; 45-48; 49; 53. Drama, English, 124; French, 122-123. Dress in New Orleans, 1800, 20. Drugs, Habit-forming, 54; Laws, .54. Dryades Street, 103; 129. Dry Dock, 66. Dublin, mention of, 124. Dubreuil, mention of, 13. Duelling in 1800, 21. Dumaine Street, 21; 118. Duquesne, Fort, mention of, 13. Eads, Captain .James B., 40; 65. Early French and Spanish Influence on Architecture, 146. East Indian Is., 74. Easton, Warren, 111. Ebony, 89. XVI. INDEX — Continued. Edgerly, 87. , Edison, Thomas, mention of, 61. Education, 35; 107-121. Educational and Charitable Institutions, State, X. Egypt, mention of, 83. Elections, City, 139-140; State, X-XI. Electors, City, Qualifications of, 140; State, Qualifications of, X.-XI. Elementary Schools, 111. Elkin Club, mention of, 37. El Paso, 61. Elysian Fields, mention of, 21; 32. Emancipation Proclamation, mention of. 111. Encyclopedia Britannica, mention of, 124; of Trade and Commerce of the United States, 124. England, mention of, 13; 14; 15; 25; 32; 72; 73; 82; 97; 98; 125; 126. English at Battle of New Orleans, 26; 27; 28. English Literature of New Orleans, 123-127. English Turn, 52. "Entering" (port), 75. Epidemics, 35; 49-51; 53; 133. Episcopal Home, 106. Erie, Lake, mention of, 7; 31. Esplanade Avenue, mention of, 17; 18; 40; 63; 149; Girls' High School, 112. Essence of Oranges, 93. Etruria, Kingdom of, mention of, 22. Euphrates River, mention of, 143. Europe, mention of, 8; 9; 13; 18; 21; 30; 31; 32; 41; 73; 77; 90; 100; 108; 128; 129; People of, 129. Evangeline Parish, mention of, 82. Evening Schools, 112. Executive Department, State, III. Exports, 72-73. Expenditure for Paving, 152-153. Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital, 104. Faraday, Michael, mention of, 60. Farragut, Admiral, mention of, 38. Faubourg Marigny, 31; 110. Faubourg Ste. Marie, 18; 25; 30; 31; 32; 109; 110; 128. Federal Army, 110. Field, Cyrus, mention of, 61. Filter Plant, 47; 48. Finances, 1815-1860, 33-34; Today, 43. Finlay, Dr. Carlos, mention of, 51. Fire Department, 40. Firemen's Charitable Association, 33. First Presbyterian Church, 33. Fish, 93-94. Fisk Library, 119. Floods, 2. Flora of New Orleans, 150; 151. Florence, mention of, 72. Florida, mention of, 13; 16; 25; 26; 31; 93; 151. Food and Drug Laws and Eegulations, 54. Food Inspection, 55. Foodstuffs, 91-96. Fontera, mention of, 72. Forests of Louisiana, 84. Forrest, Edwin, actor, 38. Fortier, Professor Aleee, 125. Foucher, Pierre, mention of, 149. Fourth French and Indian War, 13. Fox River, mention of, 7. France, At Close of Eighteenth Century, 7; 8; mention of, 11; 12; 13; 14; 15; 18; 21; 22; 24; 72; 73; 74; 84; 97; 98; 99; 100; 107; 108; 115; 117; 123; 125; 129; 133. Francis T. Nicholls Industrial School, 114. Franco-Prussian War, mention of, 144. Frankfort-on-the-Main, 61; 144. Franklin, Benjamin, mention of, 59; 61. Frasch, Herman, 84; System of, 84. Freedmen's Bureau, 111; 118. French, B. F., mention of, 119. French, Cities, 146; Language, 109; 122; Literature, 122 123; Market, 17; 19; 20; 32; 54; Opera House, 130 131; Orphan Asylum, 33; Place, 149; Refugees, 104 Settlers, 12; 13; 19; 24; 26; 49. Frenchmmen's Day, 133. Freret Street, mention of, 108. Frisco Railroad Company, 67. Frisco Slip, 67. Fruits, 92-93. Fulton, Robert, mention of, 25. Furbearing Animals, 95. Gallier, Architect, 33; 47. Galveston, mention of, 61; 73; 76. Galvez, Bernado, 15; 109; 122. Gambling, VI. Garbage, Removal of, 56; 59. Garden Cities of England, 144-145. Gas, 87; Company Bank, 301. Gayarre, Charles, 89; 123; 124; 125; 149. Gazette, The, 21. General Assembly, Louisiana, 123; 136; I.-II. Genoa, 72. Gentilly Terrace, mention of, 2; 42; 106; Road, 21. George V., King of England, mention of, 43. Georgia, mention of, 7; 76. Germans, mention of, 9; 12; 19; 20; 28; 33; 129; Catholies, 133; Coast, 11; 20; 26; Pre-eminence in City Planning and Causes of Success, 143-144; Protestant Orphans' Home, 134. Germany, mention of, 72; 74; 134, Gibbs, General, mention of, 28. Gibson Hall, 116. Girod Street, mention of, 24, Glasgow, mention of, 72. ' "Gombo," 20. Gopher Wood, mention of, 83. Government of Louisiana, 13; 14; 25; Supplement. Government of New Orleans, 24; 40; 41; Commission Form of, 43; 1805-1915, 139. Governor of Louisiana, 67; 70; 106; 139; I., II., III.; Election, Term, Eligibility, Salary, Duties and Powers of. III., Vni., IX, Grain Elevators, 67, Grand Coteau College, 116. Grand Duke Alexis, 130. Grant, Captain, 32; General Ulysses S., 38. ' Gravier, 18; 23; 24; 151; Street, 24; 62. Gray, Elisha, mention of, 61. Great Britain, mention of, 18; 24; 30; 43. Great Fires of 1788 and 1794, 16. Great Lakes, mention of, 6; 31 Great Southern Telephone and Telegraph Company, men- tion of, 62, Greece, mention of, 73; 83; People of, 129; 143. Grunewald Hotel, 42; 61. Grymes, John R. 98. Gaudeloupe, mention of, 24. Guatemala, mention of, 72. Gulf of Mexico, mention of, 1; 4; 5; 7; 8; 9; 31; 41; 64; 65; Coast, 6; 87; 93; 94; 98; Level, 2; Ports, 50; Stream, 4. Gulfport, mention of, 83. Haehard, Sister, Madeleine, 12. Hahnemann School, 100. INDEX — Continued. xvn. Hall, Oakey, mention of, 36. Hamburg, mention of, 72. Hampstead, mention of, 144. Harbor, 65-66. Harrison, Dr., mention of, 100. Harvey Canal, 42. Haughery, Margaret, 105. Haussmann, Baron, mention of, 143. Havana, mention of, 13; 14; 15; 19; 50; 72; 82; 108. Havre, mention of, 72. Health Conditions, 45-58; City Board of, 51; 53; 55; 56; 57; 96; State Board of, 53; 54; 57; 96; X. Hearn, Lafcadio, 125. Hebrew Benevolent Association, mention of, 58. Hebrews, mention of, 105. Hennen, Alfred, 98. Henry Clay Avenue, 104. Hibernia Bank, mention of, 101. High Temperature Destructor, 56-57. High S,chool, 112. Holeombe, Dr. W. H., 100; 125. Holland, 3; 45; 72; 73 Holy Cross College, 118. Homeopathic School, 100. Homes, 1815-1860, 35. Homestead Associations, 101. Honduras, mention of, 72. Honesty, Virtue of, 154. Honolulu, mention of, 57. Hooke, Robert, mention of, 61 Horter and Fenner, mention of, 62. Hospice des Pauvres, 103. Hospitals, 58, 103-105. Hotel Dieu, 58. Houma Indians, 9 House of Representatives, Louisiana, 24; I.; II. Houston, mention of, 88. Howard Association, 33; 50; 105; Charles T., 120; Frank T., 120; Memorial Library, 120; Street, 103. Howe, W. M., 124; 125. Hungary, mention of, 133. Hungerford, Edward, 148. Hunt, Doctor, mention of, 100. Huron, Lake, mention of, 107. Hutchinson Memorial, 116. Hyams, Mrs. Chapman, mention of, 149. Hygiene, Department of, 113-114. Iberville, Pierre le Moyne d', 8; 9; 99 Ice, Manufacture of, 88 Illinois, mention of, 9; 87; Central Railroad, 40; 67; 69; 71; 72; 92; River, 7; 73. Immaculate Conception, College of, 116. Immigrants, European, 33. Immigration Station, 42; 66; 90. Impeachment, I. Imports, 73; 74. Incorporation of New Orleans, 24. India, mention of, 13; 73; 74. Indiana, mention of, 73. Indianapolis, mention of, 72. Indian Medicine Men, 99. Industry, Virtue of, 154. Influence on Architecture of Available Building Material and Climate, 146; of German Movement, 144. Initiative, 141. Inspection, Sanitary, 53; 54; of Food, 55; of Slaughtering, 96. Institutions for the Colored, 118. Insurance Companies, 101. Intercoastal Canal, 70-71. Inundations, Causes, 2; Crevasses, 3; 35. Ireland, mention of, 72; 124; 125. Irish, mention of, 19-20; 25; 33; 105; 129. Iron Mountain-Missouri Pacific Railroad System, 71, Islennes, mention of, 20. Isolation Hospital, 51. Italians, mention of, 19; 51. Italy, mention of, 22; 72; 73; 74. .Jackson, Andrew, 26; 27; 29; 30; 44; 98; 120; Avenue, mention of, 43; 63; 106; Barracks, 32; School, 112; Square, 20; 146; 149; 150; City in Mississippi, 32. .Jamaica, mention of, 49. Jamison, Mrs. Cecilia Viets, 126. Japan, mention of, 74; 126. .Japanese, mention of, 81; 129. Jean Lafitte, 25; 26; 85. Jefferson, Thomas, 1; 22; 24; City, 39; Parish, 1; 43; 88; 92. Jefferson's Island, mention of, 85. Jefferson-Plaquemines Drainage District, 42. Jenner, Dr., mention of, 49. Jennings Oil Fields, 87. Jesuits, 11; 13; 23; 33; 79; 93; 107; 116-117. Jetties, 40; 64-65. Jewish Widows and Orphans ' Home, 105-106. Jews, mention of, 129. .Johns Hopkins University, mention of, 125. Johnston, Col. William Preston, 115; 124; 125. Joliet, 7. Judicial Department, State, IV.- VI. July Fourteenth, 133. Justices of the Peace, VI. Juvenile Courts: Courts, Purpose, Terms "Neglected" and "Delinquent," Officers, V. Kansas City, mention of, 64; 69. Keane, General, mention of, 28. Kea.ns, actors, mention of, 38. Kenner Plantation, 3; Town, 80. Kentuckians, mention of, 17; 18; 28. Kentucky, mention of, 17; 73; 82; Flatboatmeu, 20; Sharp- shooters, 28. Kerlerec, Governor, 14; 17. Key West, mention of, 61. ' Kindness, Virtue of, 154. ' King, Miss Grace Elizabeth, 126; 133. Kohnke, Dr. Q., 51; 100. Kruttschnitt, Ernest B., 98. Lafayette, mention of, 33; 39; Square, 119. Lafitte (brothers), 25-26. Lafourche Parish, mention of, 95. Lafreniere, mention of, 14; 15. Lakanal, mention of, 110. Lake Charles (City), 71. Lake to River Canals, 70. Lakeview, mention of, 42. ' ' La Lanterne Magique, ' ' mention of, 25. Lambert, General, mention of, 28. Lane Mills, mention of, 77. "La Prise du Morne du Baton Rouge par Monseigneur de Galvez," 122. Laredo, mention of, 61. La Salle, 7; Parish, 84. Latin Americans, 128. Laussat, mention of, 22; 23. Law, Department of, 115; John, 9; Bank, 10; 11. Lea, Miss Fannie Heaslip, 127. Lee Circle, mention of, 63; 119; 120; 148. Leeds, Charles, 40. xvin. INDEX— Continued. Legislative Dciiartiiient, I.; Powcij Limitations oi, IL Lclainl University, 118. ' ' Le 5[oiiiteur de la Louisiane," 21; 122. L 'Enfant, Charles, mention of, 145; loO. " Les Trois Capalins, " 21. " Les Compte-renilus de 1 'Athenee Louisiauais, " 123. Letfhworth, mention of, 144. Levees: Along the River, 3; Breaks, 2; Construction, 4; Length and Size, 3; Protection, 4; Swamp Bieelama- tiou, 4; 12; 18. Libraries, Public, 40; 118-119; Societies, 118-119. Lieutenant-Governor, Election, Term, Eligibility, Salary, Duties and Powers of, III.; IX. Lights in 1800, 20. Liquidation, City Board of, 40; 139; State Board of, X. Literature of New Orleans, 122-127. Little Woods, mention of, 42. Livaudais, mention of, 33. Liverpool, mention of, 61; 71; 72; 73; 87. Livingston, Edward, 98; Eobert, 22. Location of Cities, Conditions Governing the, 143; of New Orleans, 1. London, mention of, 72. Longshoremen, 67. Lorient, mention of, 107. Lotteries, VI. Louis XIV., 8; XV., 14; XVI., 110; .Jean, 12; 103. Louisiana, Before 1718, Early Explorers, Expeditions of Marquette and La Salle, 7; Early Colonization of, 8; Proprietary Colony, 9; 10; 11; 12; Colonial Govern- ment, 13; Transfer to Spain, 14; 17; Diocese of, 16; Period of Transition; 21-23; Transfer to France; 22; Purchase by United States, 22-23; Division, 24; Creoles of, 25; Admission as State, 25; 30; Secession, 38; Yellow Fever in, 49; Trade, 72; 73; 74; Industries, 76-87 Cotton, 76; Corn, 78; Sugar, 79; Rice, 81; Lumber, 83 Forest, 84; Minerals, 84; Truck Farming in, 91; Fruit: of, 92; Fish of, 93; Oyster Industry of, 94; G^ime of, 95 Animals of, 95; Bench and Bar of, 97-99; Medicine, History of, 99-100; Banking in, 101; Trades in, 102 Education in, 107-121; Law of, 115; Historical Associa- tion, 120; State Museum, 120-121; 122; 123; Historical Society, 123; 125; All Saints' Day in, 132; Government of. See Supplement; State University, 115; 119; Bank, 101; Planters' Bank, 101; Railway and Navi- gation Compan}"-, 71; Telephone Company, mention of, 62. Louisianians, 20; 23; 24. Louisville, mention of, 72. Louisville and Nashville Railroad, 4; 40; 41; 67; 71; 72. Lovell, General, mention of, 38. Loyola University, 116-117; 148. Ludlow, mention of, 38. Lumber, 83-84; 89. Luneville, Treaty of, 21-22. Luzenberg, Dr. C. A., 100. Lyceum, 119. McCarty 's Plantation, 3. Mackie, Dr., mention of, 100. Mackinaw Straits, mention of, 7. Madagascar, mention of, 81. Madrid, Treaty of, 18. ■ ■ • -Magazine Street, mention of, 24; 62; 104; ]:!1; 151. jSIaginnis Mills, mention of, 77. Magneto System, 62. Maliogan}', 73; 89. .Mail System, 59. Maine, mention of, 13; 89. Maison Blanche Building, 42, JIaison de Sante, 58. Malaria, 50. Malay Archipelago, mention of, 92. Manchac, Bayou, mention of, S; 9; Fort, 15; Church, 59. Manchester, mention of, 72. "Manifest," 75. Manila A^illage, mention of, 94; 13. Manual Training, 112-113. Manufactures, 41;' 88-90. Marconi, Gugliemo, mention of, 61. Mardi Gras, 129; 130; 131. Marigny, Plantation, mention of, 24; Faubourg, 31; 110. Marine Hospital, United States, 104. Markets: Dryades, 54; French, 17; 19; 20; 32; 54; Maga- zine, 62; Poydras, 32; St. Mary's, 32; Washington, 32. Marquette, Pere, 7; Hall, 117. ''Marseillaise, La," mention of, 17; 27. Marseilles, mention of, 72. Martin, Fran<;ois, 97; 124. Martinique, Island of, mention of, 19. Maryland, mention of, 124. Massachusetts, Colony of, 59. Massecuite, 79; 80. Matagorda Bay, mention of, 8. Matthieu, Dr. Jules, 100. Maurepaus, Lake, mention of, 8. Mayor, mention of, 40; 41; 55; 89; 103; 137-138; 139; 140; List of, 44. McCaleb, Thomas, 127. McDonogh, .John, 37; 101; 105; 111; 131-132; Day, 131-132; — ville, 131. Meats, 96. Mechanics and Traders ' Bank, mention of, 101. Medical College, First, 100; of Louisiana, 114; Societies, 100. Medicine, History of, 99-100. Meetings of Commission Council, 137. Melpomene Canal, 45. Memphis, mention of, 7; 61; 88; 91. Mendez, Don Antonio, mention of, 79. Mercer, Dr. W. N., 106. Merchants' Exchange, mention of, 32. Mercier, Dr. Alfred, 123. Mermentau River, mention of, 71. Metairie Ridge and Road, 2; 21; 42; 43. Metropolitan Police, 39. Mexican Gulf Railroad, mention of, 32. Mexico, mention of, 7; 8; 9; 15; Cable, 61; Trade with, 72; 88; 128. Michaud Tract, mention of, 42. Middle West, mention of, 148. Milhet, Jean, mention of, 14; 15. Military Rule, 38. Milliken, Mrs. Deborah, 103. Milneburg, mention of, 32; 36. Minims, Port, mention of, 25. Minerals, 84; 87. Minnesota, mention of, 73, Miro, Governor, mention of, 18; 108. Mississippi: Company (of the West), 101; River, mentioned frequently as "the River"; River System, 69; Valley. 1; 3; 25; 30; 32; 64; 69; 72; 88; 103;" 1.36; Sound, 8. Mobile, mention of, 15; 83; 130; Bay, 8; 9. Modern Homes, 147. Modern Language Association of America, mention of, \'2~>. Monius, Knights of, 130. Monougahpla, mention of, 13. Monoiiolies, 13. .Monroe, James, 22; 30; Mayor of New Orleans, ;!8. Montcleone Hotel, mention of, 42. Aiontreal, mention of, 13. Morales, mention of, 18; 24. INDEX — Continued. XIX. Morehouse Parish, mention of, 76. Morse, B. F., mention of, 61. Mortality, Chart, rate of, 56. Moscoso, mention of, 7. Mosquito Theory, 50. Mulatto Exotlus, 33. Munich, 144. Mutual Benevolent Society, 100. Myles' Salt Mine, 86. Naples, mention of, 72. Napoleon, Bonaparte, 21-22; 25; 26; 133; III., 143; Avenue, 47; 67; 105; Branch Library, 120. Narvaez, Pamphilo de, 7. Nashville, mention of, 124. Natchez, City, mention of, 24; Indians, 9; 99; War, 12. Natchitoches, mention of, 9; 25. National Sulphur Company, 85. Naval Station, 42; 61; 65; 66. Need of Government in the City, 135. Need of Open Space in Cities, 148-149. Negroes, 10; 20; 39; 110; 111; 118; Insurrection of, 12, 129. Nereus, 130. New Basin Canal, 4; 70. Newcomb, Mrs. Josephine Louise, 116; College, 116. New England, mention of, 89; 126; 143. New Jersey, mention of, 115. New Madrid, mention of, 18. New Mexico, mention of, 88. New Orleans and Carrollton Company, mention of, 63; 101. " " and Louisiana Construction and Improvemeift Company, 40. " " and Nashville Railroad, mention of, 32. " " and North Eastern Railroad, mention of, 71; 72. " " and Pacific Railroad, mention, of, 40. " " Board of Public School Directors, 111; 139. " " Board of Trade, 82. " " Canal and Banking Companjf, mention of, 70. " " Clearing House, mention of, 101. " " Cotton Market, 76. " " Female Orphan Asylum, 105. " " Great Northern Railroad mention of, 71. " " Lake Shore Land Company, mention of, 4; 42. " " Park Commissioners, Board of, 39. " " Parks, 149-150. " " Public Library, 119-121; 148; Board of Direc- tors of, 139. " " Railway and Light Company, 63. " " School of Medicine, 101. " " Southern and Grand Isle Railroad, 43. " " Terminal Company, 67. " " Texas and Mexico Railroad Company, 71 " " Waterworks Company, 47. ' ' New Orleans, ' ' The, 25. New Princeton Review, mention of; 126. New York City, mention of, 31; 32; 33; 34-35; 52; 72; 85; 87; 124; 128; 143; 145. Niagara River, 7. Nicaragua, mention of, 72. Nieholls, Governor F. T., 106; 111. Nicholson, Mrs. Eliza Poitevent, 124. Noah, mention of, 83. Normal School, 110 North America, mention of, 8; 13; 31 North American Indian, 122. Northeast Pass, 31. Norwegians, mention of, 129. Novel, 125-127, Noyan, 15. Ocean Springs, mention of, 9. Official Language, VI. Ohio, Canal, mention of, 31; River, mention of, 1; 13; 25; 31; 89; Valley, mention of, 12; 13; 18; 31; State, men- tion of, 73; 82. Oil, 87; Inspection of, 54. Oklahoma, mention of, 72; 87. Old Basin Canal, 70. "Old Metairie" Race Track, 37. Old Pelican Club, mention of, 37. Omaha, mention of, 71; 72. Ontario, Lake, mention of, 7. Opelonsas, mention of, 32. Opera House, 33 Orange Grove, 93 Order, Virtue of, 154. O'Reilly, Alexander, 15; 97; 99; 108. Organization of Labor, 102. Original Plan of New Orleans, 145-146. Orleans, Club, mention of, 37; Isle, mention of, 9; 13; 14; 22; 26; Levee District, Board of Commissioners of, 4, 40; 139; Parish, mention of, 1; 31; 55; 139; 141; Parish Medical Society, 100; Territory, 24; 25; 138; Theatre, 37; 38. Ouachita Parish, mention of, 82. Oyster Industry, 94-95. Ozark Mountains, mention of, 91. Pacific Cable Company, 61; 71; Coast, mention of, 41; Ocean, mention of, 61. Pakenham, Sir Edward, 27; 28. Palermo, mention of. 72. Panama Canal, mention of, 41; 65; 72; 74; 88; 92; Ex- position, 116. i^an-Americ.'-.n Jledical Society, mention of, 100. Paris, City of, 129; 133; 143; Custom of, 14; Treaty of, 178:'., 13; 14; 15; 18. Parish, As a Unit of Government, The, VII.; a Public Cor- porate Body; Changing Lines of; Subdivisions; Issuance of Bonds; Police Jury; Other Officers of the; Seat of Government; Commission Form of Government, VII. Park: Function, 149; Commissions, 150. Parma, Prince of, mention of, 22. Parochial Schools, Catholic, 118. Parolli, Father, mention of, 51. Parrot, Mrs. mention of, 120. Paving, Street, 53; 151-153. Patterson, Commodore, mention of, 26. Pauger, mention of, 10. Pearl River, mention of, 93. "Pearl Rivers" (Mrs. Eliza Poitevent Nicholson), 124. Pensacola, mention of, 8; 15; 83. People of New Orleans, 128-129. People 's Avenue, mention of, 4. Perdido River, mention of, 25. Perique Tobacco, 82. Perrier, Governor, 11; 12; 45; 49; 108. Persians, mention of, 59. Peters Avenue, mention of, 104; 106; Samuel, 119. Philadelphia, mention of, 18; 30; 66; 72; 81; 123; Exposition, mention of, 62. Philippine Islands, mention of, 74. Physical Training, Department of, 113 Picayune, mention of, 124; 126. Pickwick Club, mention of, 130. Pilsbury, Edward, 40. Pitt, AVm., mention of, 13. Pittsburg, mention of, 25; 64; 69. Place d'Armes, mention of, 10; 12; 16: 20; 22; 23; 29; 145- 146; 149; 150. XX. INDEX — Continued. Plantation System, 91. Plaquemines Parish, mention of, 92; 95. Pleasant Street, mention of, 63. Poetry, English, 124; French, 123. Police, Board of Commissioners of, 1-tl; City Guardians, 1800, 21; Commissioners of, 40; 41. Political Divisions of New Orleans, 137. Poll Tax, 140; X.-XI. Pollock, Oliver, 15. Pontalba Buildings, mention of, 16; 146; 147. ■ Pontchartrain, Count of, mention of, 8; Lake, mention of, 1; 2; 3; 8; 17; 42; 45; 46; 47; 49; 63; 146; Trade on Lake, 70. Population, mention of, 12; 15; 18; 30; 33; 39; 41; Com- position of, 128. Port, Chalmette, mention of, 67; Definition of, 64; Improve- ment, 71; Limon, 72; Sabine, 85. Ports, 72; Trans- Atlantic, 72. Porto Rico, mention of, 72. Postage, 59-60. Postal Savings Department, mention of, 60; System, 59-60; Telegraph, 61. Post Office Building, 5; 42; 59; 60. Potomac River, mention of, 145. "Poucha Houmma," 122; Chief, 122. Powers of Commission Council, 137. Powers, Thomas, mention of, 18. Poydras, Julien, 101; 104; 105; 122; Market, 32; Orphan Asylum, 33; 70; 104; Street, mention of, 24. Pratz, La Page du, mention of, 99. Pre-eminence of Germans in City Planning, 143-144. Premium Bonds, 40. Prepiaratory Schools, 118. Presbyterian Church, 105; Hospifal, 58. President pro tempore of the Senate, III. Princeton, 115. Pritchard, R. 0., 33. Private Schools and Colleges, 117-118 Professions — Trades, 97; 102 Progresso, mention of, 72. Protection Levee, 4; 46. Proteus, Mystic Krewe of, 130. Prytania Street, mention of, 63. Public Affairs, Commissioner of, 138; Department of, 138. Publications of Commission Council, 137. Public Belt Railroad, 41; 43; 56; 68-69; 90; 138. Public Buildings, Commissioner of, 41 ; 42. Public Education, State Board of, 111; 125; IX. Public Finances, Commissioner of, Department of, 138. Public Pleasure Grounds, 148-151. Public Property, Commissioner of. Department of, 138. Public Safety, Commissioner of. Department of, 55; 138. Public School, Alliance, 125; System, 110-114. Public Utilities, Commissioner of, Department of, 138. Public Works, Commissioner of, 40; 41. Pumping Stations, 46; 47; 67. Purchase of Louisiana, 22-23. Quadroon, mention of, 20. Quarantine, 52; 43. Quebec, mention of, 7; 8; 13; 143. Railroads, 1815-1860, 32; Communication, 71-72. Rampart Street, North, mention of, 8; 12; 17; 18; 63; 103; 145; South, 129. Recall, 141. Reconstruction Acts, 38; 110; 111. Recorders' Courts, 141. Red River, mention of, 7; 8; 87. Referendum, 141. Refrigerators, 96. Registration, 140 ' ' Reign of Terror, ' ' 133 Reis, Philip, 61. Bellgieuses, 38. Rejiresentative of Louisiana, Qualifications of, II.; Residence, Gain and Loss of, XI. Respect for Authority, 154-155. Rex, 130. Rice, 70; 81-82. Richardson, Dr. T. G., 100; Mrs. Ida, 116; Memorial Medical School, 116; Architect, 120. Rigolets, mention of, 1; 2. Rio de Janeiro, mention of, 74. Rio Grande, mention of, 70. Riplej^, Mrs. Eliza, 35. Riverport, 64. River Traffic, 70. Robertson Street, mention of, 116 Robin, Traveller, mention of, 20, 21. Rocky Mountains, mention of, 8; 69; States, 143. Rodriguez's Canal, 27. Rogers, Wm. O., 111. Roman Code, 15; People, 59; 129; Civil Law, 97. Rome, 83; 129; 143. Ronald, Francis, mention of, 60 Roosevelt, Nicholas I., mention of, 25. Rosalie, Fort, 12. . - Roselius, Christian, 98. Rosewood, 89. Ross, Colonel, mention of, 26. Rotterdam, mention of, 72, Royal, Bank of France, 101; Street, 21; 40; 129; Branch Library, 120. Rue de la Levee, mention of, 18; 20. Rugby Academy, 118. Riussel actor, 38. Russia, 129; People of, 129. Sabine River, mention of, 71; 93, Sacred Heart, Ladies of, 117-118; Church, 118. Salcedo, Governor, mention of, 22; 23. Salt, 85. San Domingo mention of, 8; 13; 24; 31; 79; 104; 109; 125; Refugees, 17; 18; 19; 20; actors, 21. Sanitation, History of, 49; Improvements, 53. San Francisco, mention of, 52; 57; 116; 148. Santa Maura, mention of, 125. Santos, mention of, 74. Sauvage, Bayou, mention of, 2. Sauve 's Plantation, mention of, 3. "Scalawags," 39. School Gardening, 92. Scotland, mention of, 72; People of, 129. Scotti Father, mention of, 51. Sea Level, 1. Seal of State, HL Seaport, 64 Secession, 38 Second Coalition, War of, 22. Second District, 42. Second Municipality, 31; 119. Secretary of State, 123; I.; IIL Seismic Observatory, 117. Self-Control, Virtue of, 154, Semiramis, Queen, 143. Semraes, Admiral Raphael, mention of, 98; Thomas J,, 98. Senate, Louisiana, I.; II. Senatorial Districts, II. Senator, Louisiana, Qualifications of, II. September 14, 1874, 39. INDEX— Continued. XXI. Seventh Street Protestant Orphans' Home, 105. Seven Years' War (See Fourth French and Indian War). Sewerage, 43; 45-48; 53; and Water Board, 47. Shakespeare, Joseph A., mention of, 40. Sheriffs, V.-VI. Shipping, 64. Shoes, Manufacture of, 89. Sicily, mention of, 84; Island, 12. Sioux City, mention of, 72. Sisters of Charity, 103; 105. Sisters of Protestant Episcopal Church, 106. Slaves, African, 9; 11; 12; 15; Indian and Negro, 20; 102; Trade Forbidden, 24. Slavery, 31; 33. Smallpox, 49; 52. Soil, 2. Soldiers' Home, 106. Some Causes of German Success in City Planning, 144. Sophie B. Wright Girls' High School, 112. Sophie Neweomb College, 116. Soto, Hernando de, 7. Souder, Emily B. (ship), 50. Soule, Colonel, College, 118 South American Countries, 1; Trade with, 41; 74; Cable, 61; mention of, 73; 88; 128. South Carolina, 38. Southern Paeiflc Railroad, 71; Ships, 72; 82. Southern Railway Company, mention of, 67. Southern States or South, mention of, 72; 102; 103; 110; 123; 125; People of, 129. South Pass, 40; 65. Squares and Playgrounds, 150. Spain, mention of, 11; 13; 14; 15; 18; 22; 23; 24; 72; 73; 97; 101; 103; 104; 108; 109; 128; People of 129. Spanish Succession, War of, 9; Governor's Home, 18; 19 Architecture, 19; People in New Orleans, 1800, 19; Sol diers, 20; Infanta, 22; King, 23; Flag, 23 (Frontispiece) Land Grants, 24; Physicians, 99; 100; Language, 109 Domination, 14; 21; 123; 126; 128; Cities, 146; Fort, 36 70; 135; Schools, 108-109. Spanish-American War, 50. St. Anna's Asylum, 106. St. Ann Street, mention of, 21. St. Anthony's Square, mention of, 21. St. Bernard Parish, mention of, 1; 88; 91; 92; 95. St. Charles Avenue, mention of, 105; 106; 116; 117; 118; 119; 130; 147; 150; Fort, mention of, 17; Hotel, 33; 34; 36; 38; Street, mention of, 40; 147; 150; Theatre, 33; 38. St. Clair River, mention of, 7. St. Elizabeth's House of Industry, 105. St. Ferdinand, Fort, mention of, 17. St. Ildefonso, Treaty of, 14. St. James, Hotel, 32; Parish, mention of, 82; 125. St. John, Bayou, mention of, 2; 4; 10; 17; 36; 37; 45; 70 106; 149. St. Joseph, Fort mention of, 17 St. Landry Parish, mention of, 76; 78, St. Lawrence River, mention of, 71; 13. St. Louis, Bourse, 34; City, mention of, 61; 71; 91; 128; Fort, 7; Hotel, 33; 36; 147; Street, mention of, 12; 16. St. Martin Parish, mention of, 126. St. Mary's Market, mention of, 32; Parish, mention of, 79; Orphan Asylum, 105. St. Patrick's Church, mention of, 33; Hall, mention of, 38; 40. St. Peter Street, mention of, 21; 103. St. Philip, Fort, 26; 28. St. Roch's 133. St. Tammany Parish, mention of, 1. St. Vincent's Asylum, 105. State Boards, IX.-X.; Public Education, IV.; Agriculture and Immigration, IX.; Charities and Corrections, X.; Liquida- tion of State Debt, X.; Commissioners of Port of New Orleans, X.; Conservation Commission, X. State House, mention of, 33; 119. State Journal, mention of, II. State Library, 119. State Normal, X. State of Louisiana, 3; See Louisiana. State Superintendent of Education, 110. Steamboats, 1815-1860, 37. Stone, Hospital, 33; Dr. Warren, 58; 100. Straight, Seymore, University, 118. Strawberry Industry, 92. Street Railways, 63. Streets, in 1800, 20; Lighting, 40; 153; Paving, 147-148; Cleaning, 153-154. Stuart, Mrs. Ruth McEnery, 126. Suffrage, X.-XI. Sugar, Introduced, 11; Granulation, 17; 18; Trade, 70; 73; Change, 80; Cultivation and Manufacture, 79-80; Ex- periment Station, 80. Sulphur, 84-85. Superintendent of Education, New Orleans, 111. Superior Council, 14; 15. Supreme Court, 25; 97; 99; II.; Jurisdiction, Members, Dis- tricts, Sessions, TV. Switzerland, mention of, 73; People of, 129. Tampa, mention of, 61; Bay, 7. Tampieo, City, mention of, 72; River, 7. Tangipahoa Parish, mention of, 92. Tax, Kate of, 141. Taxation, 140-141; State Board of Appraisers, VIII. -IX. Taxile, Dr., mention of, 100. Tehoupitoulas Street, mention of, 2; 104; 151. Technology, College of, 116. ''Te Deum, " mention of, 8; 44, Telegraph, 60-61. Telephone, 40; 61; 62. Temperature, 5. Tennessee, River, 25; State, 73; 76; 96. Tensas Parish, mention of, 76. Terminal Stations, 67. ' ' Terre Commune, ' ' mention of, 23 ; 128. Testut, Dr. Charles, 123. Texas, mention of, 7; 8; 32; 61; 72; 88; 124; Crop, 76; Railroad Commission, 76; 87; Texas and Pacific Rail- road, 67; 71. Thackeray, William Makepeace, mention of, 36 Thanksgiving Offering, 132-133. "The Oaks," 21. Thevis, Father, 133. Thirteen Colonies, mention of, 15. Third District, mention of, 133. Thomas Hall, mention of, 117. "Tignons," 20. Tilton Memorial Library, 116. Timbalier Oyster Field, 95. Times-Democrat, mention of, 125. Tobacco Trade, 34; 73; 82; 88. Tomy Lafon Orphan Boys' Asylum, 106. ' ' Tonnage, ' ' 64. Tonti, Chevalier de, mention of, 49. Topography, 1. Toulon, mention of, 100. Toulouse Street, mention of, 12; 18; 103; 131. Tour, Le Blond de la, 10; 145; 149. Touro, Judah, 58; Infirmary, .58; Society, 58; Touro-Shake- speare Almshouse, 106. XXII. INDEX— Continued. Town as a Unite oi Governiiieiit, The; Muuifipal Corpora- tions; Officials, VIII. Tuwnsend, Mrs. Mar}^ Ashley, 124. Trade, 64-75; Laws, 15; of Valley, 69-70; of Lake, 70; For- eign, 72-74. Trades — Professions, 97-102. Tranehepain, Mother, mention of, 107; 108. Traus-0,ceanie Steamship Lines^ 72. Treason, VI. Treasurer, 40; 41; State, IIL; IX. Treasury, Department of United States, mention of, 52. Trieste, mention of, 72. Trinidad, mention of, 152. Truelc Farming, 91-92. Tulane, Paul, 114-115; Avenue, mention of, 103; 129; Univer- sity, 114-116; mention of, 100; 104; 119; 124; 148. Turks, mention of, 129. Tuscany, mention of, 22. Twelfth Night Revelers, 132. Typhoid Fever, 50. Typhus, 52. Ulloa, Don Antonio, mention of, 14; 15; 108. Union of Municipalities, 39. Union Normal School, mention ofj 118. United Fruit Company, mention of, 61; 72. United States, mention of, 4; 5; 16; 18; 20; 21; 22; 23; 24; 25; 42; 50-51; 70; 73; 76; 90; 128; 130; Bank, 31; 98; Mint, 32; 33; Census, 40; Public Health Service, 51-52; 57; 96; 104; Post Office, 59; Control of Trade, 64; 65; Immigration Station, 66; Customs Service, 74-75; De- partment of Agriculture, 78. University of Louisiana, 114-116; mention of, 124; 125; X. University of Virginia, mention ofj 125. Unzaga, Governor, mention of, 109. Ursulines, 11; 12; 13; 16; 103; 107; 109; 117; 131; 145; 146; Street, mention of, 12. Vaca, Cabeza de, 7. Vacancies in Commission Council, 137. Vaccination 49. Valley Trade, Loss of, 31. Varieties Theatre, 130. A'^audreuil, Marquis de, 12; 45. Venezuela, mention of, 152. Vera Cruz, mention of, 72; 108. Verandah Hotel, 33. Vermilion Eiver, mention of, 71. Victor, General, mention of, 22. Vieux Carre, 19; 24; 30; 31; 35; 110; 131; 146; 147; 148. Villeneufve, Le Blanc de, 122. Villere, 15; General Jacques, 27; 30; 53; Street, mention of, 116. Virginia, State of, mention of, 24. Vital Statistics, Department of, State, 54; City, 56. A'olksfest, 133-134. Volta, inventor, mention of, 60. Voting, 140; Disbarment from, XI. A^olunteers of America, mention of, 57. Walker, Judge Alexander, 125; Norman, 125. War of 1812, 25-30. Warren Easton Boys' High School, 112. Washington, George, mention of, 13; 145; City, 5; 52; 59; 145; Patent Office, 62; And Lee College, mention of, 98; Avenue, mention of, 131; Market, mention of, 32; Square, mention of, 150; And New Orleans Telegraph Company, 61. Water Supply, in 1800, 20; System, 43; Works, 48; 53. Waterways, 69-71. Weather Bureau, New Orleans Station, 5; Distribution of Forecasts, Value of Forecasts, Changes of Temperature, Warnings, 6; 82. Webster, Daniel, mention of, 98. Weeks' Island, mention of, 85; 86. Weight and Measure Laws, 54. Well-governed Home, 135. ' ' West, The, ' ' mention of, 18. West End, mention of, 36; 70; 146. ' ' Westerners, ' ' mention of, 18. Western Multiple Switchboard, 62. Western Packing house, 96. Western Union, 61. West Indian, 6; Immigration, 24; Port, 49; 61. West Indies, mention of, 15; 25; 49; 87; 128. Westwego, mention of, 67. Wharton, E. C, mention of, 124 Wharves, 40; 64; 66-67. Wheatstone, Sir Charles, mention of, 60. White, Dr. C. B., mention of, 53; Dr. Joseph H., mention of, 51. White Apple Village, 12. White League, 39. Whitney-Central Bank Building, mention of, 42; 101; Morgan, mention of, 149. Wilde, Richard Henry, 124. Wilkinson, General James, mention of, 18; 23; 24; 25. Winn Parish, mention of, 84 Wireless Telegraphy, 61. Wisconsin River, mention of, 7; State, mention of, 73. Wortley, Lady, mention of, 36. Wrought-iron, 146-147. "XarifEa" (Mrs. Mary Ashley Townsend), 124. ' ' Yankee Doodle, ' ' mention of, 26. Yazoo and Mississippi Valley Railroad, mention of, 71. Yellow Fever, 49; 50; 51; 52; 70. Yellow Pine, mention of, 73; 152.