^ Qass ^j^i ( Book .<£x:=i^ -^ PRESENTED Wf FIRST STEPS IN GENERAL HISTORY. A SUGGESTIVE OUTLINE. BY ARTHUR OILMAN, M. A. MTTHOR OF "first STEPS IN ENGLISH LITHRATURB," " SEVKJt HI* TORIC AGHS," ETC * feel that I want tlie light which history gives rne, — that I cannot da without it. The ages are not dead; they cannot be. If ztte listen tftajf will s^ah to us. —'^li^ktKffa4ii^ 'GkuisQ^ KAi^iCU.' , ' ' ' NEW YORK :• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY FSOM THE PRESS OF A. S. BARNES & CO. Copyright, 1874, by Aethur Oilman. F, 25Ap'0^ It * • « ' • PREFACE. HE object of this Suggestive Outline of General History is to stimulate the student to make thorough investigations, and at the same time to furnish a guide which shall indicate the general path to be pursued. Each country is taken up separately, and its his- tory sketched before attention is turned from it, thus fixing the mind upon but one subject at a time. Views of contemporary events are given in tables that establish the historical connection of the na tions ; and maps, that are purposely free from de- tails, exhibit the geographic relations of the coun- tries. The Index will be found of service in tiacing the progress of great movements that have affected more countries than one. The dates between commas, following proper names, indicate the years of birth and death of the person mentioned. iv Preface. It is hoped that those using this book will find it practicable to associate with it the study of biogra- phy, geography, and literature, by causing the lives of the chief actors upon the stage at given times, and the epochs themselves, to be made the subjects of themes by the pupil. By thus making the Gracchi, Peter the Hermit, the Children's Crusade, the Wars of the Roses, Dundee of Claverhouse, the Campbells of Argyle, Oliver Cromwell, Prince Eugene, George Wash- ington, the subjects of essays, the pupil may be taught to look more minutely into topics that can be merely hinted at in an outline. The study of history may thus be made one of the most interest- ing and entertaining in the whole curriculum. In carrying out such a plan the books mentioned in the Bibliography^ at the end of this volume, will prove important aids. The history of the United States will be found to be more detailed than in text-books prepared by foreigners. The author has aimed at an impartial presenta- tion of every subject treated. Cambridge, Massachusetts, February, 1874. TABLE OF CONTENTS. ♦ - PAGB Preface iii Chap. I. Definition of Terms i Aryan and Semitic Races 3 Six Great Ancient Monarchies 4 II. A Branch of the Semitic Race 7 The Hebrew Kings 9 Revolt of the Ten Tribes 10 Judea conquered 14 III. Greece 16 The Trojan War 18 Principal Cities 19 Persian Wars 23 Age of Pericles 27 Peloponnesian War 28 Conquest by Macedonia 30 Greek Civilization 32 IV. Rome 33 The Republic 35 Punic Wars * 38 Macedonian Wars 42 Universal Empire 43 The Triumvirates 48 Decline of Rome 53 Fall of Rome 57 V. The Middle Age 58 Rise of Feudalism 5^ The Feudal System described 61 vi Contents. VI. The Middle Age , 63 Character of Chivalry 63 The Crusades 65 Council of Clermont 71 Influence of the Crusades 79 VII. Italy 81 Early History 82 Rise of Cities. 86 Guelfs and Ghibellines 86 Revival of Letters » 91 Napoleon's Campaigns 93 Spirit of Revolution 94 VIII. Germany, before 1254 98 Migration of Nations loi Carlovingian Dynasty 105 Saxon Dynasty 1 10 Franconian Dynasty ill Hohenstaufen Dynasty 115 IX. Germany, from the end of the Hohen- staufen Dynasty 121 Switzerland 122 Hussite Wars 124 House of Austria 125 The Reformation 127 League of Smalcald 13 1 Thirty Years' War 133 Austria 134 Napoleon's Wars 137 Slesvig-Holstein 139 Prussia 139 %.. France as a Feudal Monarchy 147 Early History 148 Carlovingian Dynasty 150 The Normans .... 151 House of Capet 154 House of Valois 162 Contents. vii The Hundred Years' War 163 The Maid of Orleans 167 XI France, FROM 15 15 TO 1874 170 House of Valois, continued 170 The Vaudois I73 House of Bourbon I77 Louis XIV 181 War of the Fronde 182 War of the Spanish Succession 185 National Assembly 19° The Republic 191 The Directory 193 The Empire revived by Napoleon 1 196 The Bourbons restored 19^ The House of Orleans 200 The Republic 201 The Empire revived by Napoleon III 203 The Republic 205 XII. Spain 207 Nationality begun 210 War in the Netl^rlands 215 Belgium 217 War of the Spanish Succession 219 War with Napoleon 1 22c Amadeus 225 XIII. Scandinavia, Holland, Russia, and Switz- erland. 226 Denmark and Sweden 227 Gustavus Adolphus ^ 228 Charles X 231 Oscar II 234 Denmark 234 Holland 236 Russia 237 Poland dismembered 240 Wars of Napoleon 241 viii Contents. Crimean War , 243 Switzerland 243 XIV. Great Britain, previous to 1485 246 The Roman Age 251 The Saxon Period 253 England Proper 255 The Danes 256 The Saxons restored 258 The Normans 259 The Plantagenets 263 Magna Charta 264 The House of Lancaster 269 The Maid of Orleans 270 The House of York 272 X\ Great Britain, from 1485 to 1874 752 The House of Tudor 275 The Reign of Elizabeth 284 The House of Stuart 287 America settled 288 The Commonwealth 290 The House of Stuart restored 291 The Revolution of 1688 293 The House of Brunswick 297 Wars with the United States 299 The Peninsular War 300 The Reign of Victoria 302 The Crimean War 304 The Conference at Geneva 307 XVI. The United States of America 308 Discovery and Colonization 310 The Aborigines 314 Early Settlements 314-326 XVII. The United States of America 327 Indian Wars 327 King William's War, 1689-1697 328 Queen Anne's War, 1702-17 13 329 Contefits. ix King George's War, 1 744-1 748 332 tiench and Indian War, 1 754-1 763 333 The Revolutionary War, 1 775-1 783 335 Tea taxed 338 Correspondence between the Colonies 339 The Old Continental Congress 339 Lexington and Concord 341 XVIII. The United States of America...' 342 Washington Commander-in-Chief 342 Richard Henry Lee's Resolutions 343 Declaration of Independence 344 Independence acknowledged by France .... 345 The War in the South 346 Independence acknowledged by Great Bri- tain 348 The Constitution framed 348 Washington's Administration 350 List of Presidents and States 351 The War of 1812 353 The Monroe Doctrine 355 Strife between the North and South 356 Nullification 356 The Mexican War 358 The Discovery of Gold in California 359 The Missouri Compromise repealed 360 Secession of Eleven States 361 Civil War 363 Peace and New National Life 365 Bibliography 367 INDKH: 377 MAPS AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. Table of Ancient Chronology . Map of Ancient Greece .... Map of the Roman Empire . Table of Modern Chronology Map of Europe (The positions of the Bar- barians being indicated in red) Map of Britain .to face p. 246 to face p. 7 to face p. 16 to face p. 33 to face p, 81 to face p. 147 FIRST STEPS IN GENERAL HISTORY. CHAPTER I. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS j AND PRELIMINARY RE- MARKS. HE word History is of Greek origin, signi- fying in that language a learning or know- ing by inquiry, and in English a record of past events. Since the world was created by God, and has always been governed by Him, it follows that the record of History must exhibit the devel^ opment of His plans. In order to do this it must not only present facts, but must show their relations to each other, and their mutual influence. The records of History may take the form of Biography^ which is the history of the life of a per- son j of Annals, in which events are arranged in chronological order under consecutive years ; of Chronicles, in which events are narrated simply in the order of their occurrence ; or of Memoirs^ which are composed from personal experience. Man can hardly live in a civilized state without 2 Definitions of Terms, H fstory, for it is involved in all studies, and is one of the first-fruits of his spiritual nature. As simple narrative it is entertaining to the feeblest intellect, and, as it investigates and weighs motives as well as deeds, it requires a calm and impartial spirit, and giv^es opportunity for the exercise of the strongest mind and the most trained imagination. It is adapted to please, instruct, and make better the one that pursues it, for while many of its passages are more exciting and wonderful than the strangest fiction, moral and elevating lessons may be drawn from every page. There must be a motive behind all human action, and it is a token of the nobility of mankind that thoughts of profit and loss are not and never have been the most potent influences in the historic movements of the world ; but that the grand ex- citing agents, leading to deep, thorough, all-pervad- ing efforts, have always been invisible and infinite. We find that religion was the incentive of the Crusades, of the Reformation, of the English Rev- olution ; and that thoughts of right, freedom, and country inspired the patriots who threw themselves into the Revolutions of France and America. We intend to get in this volume only our first and most general ideas of the history of the world, and we shall be obliged to restrict our attention mainly to those portions that are of the greatest in- terest to ourselves. As individuals of the English- speaking people, we a^e naturally attracted towards The Aryan and Semitic Races. 3 the history of those nations that have places in the lineage of the English race. The Aryan and Semitic Races. — At a remote period in the past, two great races appeared on " the vast table-lands of Central Asia, the two great races to whose existence is due all, or nearly all which makes man most distinctively man." They were " the stately, thoughtful Semitic race, to which belong within but a few days' journey such volcanic centres of religious enthusiasm, as Mecca, Sinai, Jerusalem, and to which it was given to express for- ever the most unfathomable depths of religious emo- tion and the loftiest heights of holy aspiration ; and the noble, ever-progressing Aryan race, the progen- itor of Persian and Pelasgian, and Celt and Teuton the discoverer of well-nigh every thing which is great and beneficent in the arts of w^ar and peace ; the race from whose bosom came Charlemagne and Al- fred, Dante and Shakespeare, Michael Angelo and Raphael, Newton and Descartes; the parent in the modern world of the metaphysical subtlety of Ger- many, and the vivid intelligence of France, and the Imperial energy of England, the parent in the an- cient world of the lofty spiritualism of India, ' of the glory that was Greece, and the grandeur that was Rome.' " ^ In these eloquent words we have brought before us two of the great races of the world, with theii distinctive traits. The Semitic is named for Shem 1 Farrar's Families of Speech^ pp. 4, 5. 4 Definitions of Terms. the son of Noah, and embraces about forty millions of men at the present time. It is represented in history by the inhabitants of Syria and Mesopo- tamia, of Phenicia and Canaan ; and of Arabia and a portion of Africa. The Aryan race receives its name from a San- skrit word meaning " noble," by which the Hindoos indicate themselves in their most ancient writings, the Vedas, and which is preserved in the modern native name of Persia, Airan or Iran. This race is represented by the inhabitants of India, Persia, Greece, Great Britain, Italy, Spain, France, Portugal, Russia, Germany, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Ice- land, Norway, and by most of the people of America, there being some four hundred millions of them now on the globe. These two great races have always been antago- nistic to each other, and in the contests the Aryans have almost invariably triumphed. Of the Semitic race but one member has left to us a literature. The Hebrew nation was intrusted with the preservation of the inspired books of the Bible, which give to man his knowledge of the one true God, the faith of Judaism, Islamism, and Chris- tianity, and of these three religions only. For this r<]ason, though the history of the Aryan race is our own, that of the Semitic possesses an unique inter- est and a value that we cannot overestimate. The Six Great Ancient Monarchies. — Be- fore considering more particularly the history of the The Six Great Monarchies. 5 Semitic races, a few words are necessary with refer- ence to the " Six Great Monarchies of the Ancient World," which are mentioned by historical writers. These were Babylonia, Assyria, Chaldea, Media, Per- sia, and Parthia. Babylonia appears in the Bible as the " Plains of Shinar," and its chief city is said to have been founded by the mighty hunter Nimrod about 2247 B. C. A century or more later, the city of Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, was founded by Ninus, who conquered the Babylonians. The Assyrian empire ended with the fall of Sardanapalus, who was over- come by the Medes about 840 b. c. Chaldea was the name of the south-west portion of ancient Babylonia, bordering on Arabia, a district comprising the most fertile plains of that country. It was the ancestral home of the patriarch Abra- ham, who went forth to the westward from " Ur of the Chaldees.'*' This people became masters of Babylon about 747 b. c. They were remarkable for their astronomical wisdom, and for the observa- tions made for many centuries at the temple of Be- lus. Their fall occurred when Babylon, " the golden city," was destroyed by the Medes under Cyrus, 538 B. C. Media was a province of Assyria which revolted and became independent about 875 b. c, though the exact date is probably not known. Its sep- arate existence terminated 558 b. C, when it was united to Persia by Cyrus. 6 Definitions of Terms. Persia^ the Elam of the Bible, was settled by peo- ple who came in the great Aryan emigration from beyond the Indus, and were subdued by the Assyr- ians in the ninth century before Christ. Cyrus be- came their ruler about 558 b. c. as stated above. Alexander the Great overcame the Persians in sev- eral battles, and made it a Grecian monarchy b. c. 331. Native tradition makes Zoroaster, the author of the Zend-Avesta, the founder of the religion of Iran, and the first king about 2200 B. c, though there is much dispute about the dates that have been asaociated with the sage's name. Parthia was a country near the Caspian Sea in Western Asia. Its people claimed to be of Scyth- ian origin, their name meaning "exiles," though modern writers think them directly connected with the Iranian tribes. They became subjected to the Persians. In the year 53 B. c. a Roman army under Crassus invaded Parthia, and was defeated. The Parthians disappeared from history as a war- like people A. D. 226. ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY, Hburew Nation. jao. Ten Tribes disappear. Isaiah the Prophet. Joel the Prophet. Habakkuk. 598. Jerusalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar. ?86. Babylonish Captivity. Daniel the Prophet. Nehemiah the Prophet. Malachi died during the 4th century. ^3«. Alexander the Great was in Jerusalem. 170, Jerusalem taken by Antiochus. 166. Mattathia and Judas Maccabeus gained Jewish freedom. 63. Judea becomes a Ro- man province. Roman Colony. The Advent. 70. Destruction of Jerusa- lem by Titus. I -50. Jerusalem rebuilt by Hadrian, and called .^lia (. jpitolina. Greece. 776. Olympian games. 743. ist Messenian War. 685. 2d Messenian War. 621. The code of Draco. 594. Solon archon at Ath- ens. 510. Pisistratus banished- 490. Battle of Marathon. 480. Thermopylas. 479. Battle of Plat.^a. 464. 3d Messenian War. 431. Peloponnesian War. 429. Death of Pericles. 399. Elean War. 395. Corinthian War 380. Olynthian War. 37S. Theban War. 362. Battle of Mantineia. 335. Alexander subdued Athens, and de- stroyed Thebes. 251. Achaean League was revived. 146. Corinth destroyed. Greece a Roman Province. c. 21. Augustus visited Greece. 52. St. Paul in Corinth. [22. Hadrian visited Greece. 396- Greece invaded Alaric. by ROMB- 753- Rome founded. 715. Numa PompUius. 672. Tullus Hostilius. 614. Ancus Martins died. 578. Servius Tullius. 534. Tarquin the Proud. 509, Tarquins expelled. 496. Battle of Lake Rigil lus. Cincinnatus dictator The Twelve Tables es- tablished. Military tribunes ao- ated. 45S 449 444. 391. Gauls invaded Rome. 387. Gauls burned Rome. 343. Samniau War began. .265. I St Punic War. 222. Battle of Telanion. 218. 2d Punic War. 214. ist Macedonian War 202. Battle of Zama. 200. 2d Macedonian War 172. 3d Macedonian War. 168. Battle of Pydna. 149. 3d Punic War. 146. Carthage destroyed. 134. ist Servile War. 102. 2d Servile War. 90. Social War. 88. ist Pontian War. 86. 2d Pontian War. 74. 3d Pontian War. 73. 3d Servile War. 60. First Triumvirate- 48. Battle of Phars^lus. A. D. 14. Augustus died. 37. Tiberius died. 79. Vespasian died 138. Hadrian died- 180. Marcus Aurelius died. 364. Empire divided. 402. Alaric invaded Italy, 410. Sacked Rome. 421 Genseric in Africa. 451. Attila defeated at Cha- lons. 455. Vandals at Rome. 476. Odoacer overthrew the Empire of Ron].e. ^^p 1^ r^m ^^"^^ ^grgH^MMMMB nprt^ PtH**'^ '-jflffP^'^^ WBQB9 1^W^\ *i 1^3 1^ ®^^^'^^^^K ^^^P ^^n ^ ^M P^S l^^^g ^^nMffl^^Oss^^^SWfJP^ ^^-^^jOBBt te^^^^U ^M iiS ^Mx^' SUfejag 9 CHAPTER IT. A BRANCH OF THE SEMITIC RACE. HE most complete history of a people of the Semitic race is that of the Hebrews, contained in the Bible, generally called sacred his!\)ry. It is a remarkable record — in fact the most wc ^^derful the world has ever known. It is an inspirev' picture of religious patriotism, show- ing the passiv nate enthusiasm of a comparatively insignificant commonwealth for independence and the preservation of its national existence, an en- thusiasm based upon its God-given law, and its thrilling history. Such a people would be interesting in the high- est degree without the extraordinary circumstances that render the history of the Hebrews unique and precious. To them belongs the distinction of hav- ing given the world its Saviour, whose Advent marks the Era in history from which all events now date. The Bible, constituting, as we have seen, the only specimen of Semitic literature, is the source of our earliest information of this people. It takes us back to " the beginning," tracing the simple pas- 8 A Branch of the Semitic Race. toral lives of the father of our race and his de scendants of many generations, but omitting all de- tails that are not necessary to its religious purpose. On its pages we read of the pure pleasures of Adam and Eve when " High in Paradise O'er the four rivers the first roses blew," and we see them drop their first tears as their sin banishes them from what might have been their perpetual home. Following the simple history, we find Abram, the son of Terah, about 2000 years before the Advent, coming with Sarai, his wife, from the plains of Mesopotamia, on the eastern side of the Euphra- tes, to the land of Canaan or Palestine. His de- scendants herded their fruitful flocks on the rich pastures of the land of promise through their long lives, until, by invitation of Pharaoh, they pitched their tents in the valley of the Nile. The story of their wonderful increase in Egypt, of the death of Joseph, the suffering and slavery that followed, the deliverance of the entire nation by Moses, the most remarkable leader of the world, and of their forty years' wandering through the wilderness before they were again settled in their old home, is too well known by the youngest to be enlarged upon here. It was about 1430 b. c. that the delivered nation of some ♦,o()o.ooo souls was settled in Palestine, The Hebrezv Kin;ys. g having received from God at the hand of Moses a law. which in its moral and religious parts is as well adapted to the wants of men now as it was then. Serving one God and governed by His law and will as interpreted by His priests of the orders instituted bv Moses, the Hebrews lived until the days of Samuel, the first of the prophets, when they demanded a king, in order that they might be hke the nations about them. After the death of Moses, Joshua led the people, and the two or three centuries after his death are marked by heroic struggles with Moabites, Ammonites, Amalekites, and Philistines, during which the people were gov- erned by judges, of whom were Deborah, Gideon Jephthah, and Samson. ' The Hebrew Kings. - The first king, Saul, was anomted by the prophet Samuel, and, after a stormy reign of forty years, was succeeded by his son-in- law, David, who was a mighty warrior. He was the greatest king who ever ruled the nation, and reigned from 1058 b. c. to 1018 b. c, when he was succeeded by his youngest son, Solomon. Solomon was a man of great wisdom and wealth, of noble and far-reaching intellect, large and ready sympa- thies, joined to a fascinating, graceful, and noble presence that impressed all who came near him. rnheriting a well organized kingdom and a firmly established throne, and being endowed with powers adapted to improve all opportunities of achieving commercial greatness, he brought his people to the lO A Branch of the Semitic Race, highest position they ever reached among the na« tions. He built the great Temple, erected costly palaces for his accommodation, and made silver ir Jerusalem as stones. When he went from his hall of judgment to the Temple he marched between two lines of soldiers, each with a burnished shield of gold. If he went on a royal progress it was in snow-white raiment, riding in a stately chariot of cedar decked with silver and gold and purple and carpeted with the costliest tapestry worked by the daughters of Jerusalem. A body-guard attended him composed of "three-score valiant men," the tallest and handsomest of the sons of Israel in the freshness of their youth, arrayed in Tyrian purple, their long black hair sprinkled every day with gold dust. Forty thousand stalls of horses for his char- iots, and twelve thousand horsemen, added to his magnificence.^ The reigns of David and Solomon, ending 978 B. c, constitute the Golden Age of Hebrew history, one showing the greatest progress in the arts of war, the other in the arts of peace. These kings are both authors of books of the Bible — the Psalms of David and the Proverbs of Solomon being each unique in its character among the other parts of Scripture. The Revolt of the Ten Tribes. — The mag- Tiificence and extravagance of the reign of Solomon were followed by disaster. The ten tribes of Israel 1 Prof. Plumtre in Smith's Bible Dictionary, Revolt of the Ten Tribes. II revolted from under the government of his son and successor, Rehoboam, and established the kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam. Nineteen kings ruled the tribes of Israel from that time until 720 b. c, when the country was conquered by Salmanasar, king of Assyria, and the mass of the people was carried captive into the mountainous regions 0/ Media, completely disappearing from history. After the death of Solomon twenty kings ruled the kingdom of Judah, lintil the year 586 b. c, when Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon stormed Jerusalem, burned the Temple, and took the wealthiest and most important of the inhabitants captives to his own dominion. The Babylonish captivity was seventy years in duration. Most of the Jews settled down and acquired property, many were called to court, and some were raised to high positions in the state. Still there were those who *'hanged their harps upon the willows," ^ wept when they remembered Zion, and poured forth their lam- entations in the words of Jeremiah, — " Remember^ O Lord, what is come upon us ; con- sider, and behold our reproach, our inheritance is turned to strangers, our houses to aliens. We are orphans and fatherless, our mothers are as tvidows." " We have given the hand to the Egyptians, and to the Assyrians, to be satisfied with bread. ^^ " The joy of our heart is ceased ; our dance is turned into mournifig." 1 PFalm cxxxvii. 12 A Branch of the Semitic Race. " Turn thou unto us, O Lord, and 7ve shall be turned ; reneiiu our days as of old " The prophet who gave these words to the people's sorrowing feelings did not go to Babylon, but retired to Egypt. Ezekiel, however, raised his mysterious prophetic voice among the mourning captives, con- firming the declarations of Jeremiah, comforting the exiles with assurances of a future restoration, and of great prosperity, especially during the reign of the prophesied Messiah. Daniel, too, was raised up in Babylon, as an extraordinary example of piety, wisdom, and royal favor. This captivity tried the people " as gold is tried," in the words of Zechariah, and resulted after the restoration in vast good to the nation. Dean Mil- man says that " Jewish opinions acquired a new and peculiar coloring " from the intercourse with the Babylonians, and the national character, as well as the vernacular dialect, was modified. There was a conversion from the old sin of idolatry, a new rev- erence for Moses and the Law, and a development of commercial enterprise after this captivity. The commercial spirit was fostered by the " Dispersion " that ensued upon the return of the nation to Canaan. This term is applied to those Jews who went to foreign countries and remained settled there. Cent- uries later they were influential in the rapid pro- mulgation of Christianity, and they are the class to ivhich St. James addressed his Epistle. The Babylonish captivity was brought to an end dfter the Captivity. \ 3 by the exertions of the prophet Daniel, who had risen to the position of supreme head of the Pashas under Cyrus the Persian. This king conquered Babylon in 538 b. c, and afterwards allowed the Jews to return to Canaan, as Ezra and Nehemiah have relctted in the books bearing their nameji Forty-two thousand are said to have thus returned. Under the direction of Nehemiah they rebuilt the Temple, re-established its magnificent ritual wor- ship, and arranged the sacred books into a canon. For a century the people enjoyed quiet. They subsequently came under the government of Alex- ander the Great, and for a period of one hundred years were ruled by the Ptolemies of Egypt. Dur- ing the period from the return to the year 166 b. c, the nation suffered many vicissitudes. The last of the prophets, Malachi, died in the fourth century before the Advent, and the difference of views on the subject of the interpretation of the oral law led to the rise of the sects of the Saducees and Phari- sees. The Greek language became common in Judea, and the Septuagint version of the Penta- teuch was prepared in that tongue, under the direc- tion of Ptolemy Philadelphus, in that respect the King James of Egypt. At this time, too, the antagonism between the Samaritans and the Jews became permanent, and the former established their temple on Mount Ger- Izim. Simaria originally included all the tribes over which Jeroboam made himself king, but after they 14 A Branch of the Semitic Race. were carried to Babylon other nations were placed in their cities. These were probably Assyrians, and idolaters, but they made overtures at the time of Ezra to be allowed to take a part in the rebuilding of the Temple. This was refused, and a feud arose between them and the Jews, which grew every year more inveterate. In the year i66 b. c, all foreign allegiance was successfully renounced, the people having, under the leadership of Matathia and Judas Maccabaeus, his son, asserted anew, and with patriotic spirit, their right to a separate national existence. JuDEA CONQUERED. — In the year d-i, b. c, Jeru- salem was captured by the Roman general Pompey, and Judea became a part of the Roman province of Syria. The Temple was plundered by Crassus 54 B. C, but he was vanquished the next year, and the Roman rule was intermitted until 37 b. c, when Herod the Great, a noble Idumean, with the aid of the Romans, entered Jerusalem in triumph. His administration was vigorous and splendid, being for thirty years undisturbed by war, though it was marked by atrocious cruelties, among which was the slaughter of the innocents in the village of Bethlehem, recorded by St. Matthew. Herod's death occurred the year of our Saviour^s birth, when he was succeeded by Archelaus, his son. In the year 38 a. d., during the reign of Herod Agrippa, the Roman Emperor Caligula issued an edict ordering divine honors to be paid him. This Judea conquered. 1 5 was followed by terrible civil commotions, massa- cres, intestine wars, and finally, in the year 70 a. d., by the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. The details of this siege are too heartrending to be dwelt upon, resulting as it did in the loss of over a million and a quarter of lives after a heroic but in- sane effort to resist the Romans. The city was razed to the ground, many of its inhabitants perished in gladiatorial fights before the Romans and Greeks, and the nation became dis- persed, as it now is, throughout every country of the world — wonderful alike in its superb prosperity, and in its overwhelming destruction ! " O'er yudah's land thy thunders broke, O Lord I The chariots rattled o'er her sunken gate^ And heaps her ivory palaces became ; Her princes wore the captive's garb of shame^ Her temples sank amid the smoldering flame ** CHAPTER III. GREECE. jjHE territory of Greece was only 250 mileg ^^ in extent from north to south, and 180 ^ml miles from east to west at the point of its greatest width. It is a country of mountains and hills, of fertile plains watered by numerous streams and lakes, possessing a coast line remarkable for its deep bays and the facilities it gives its inhabit- ants for commerce and maritime affairs. Its earliest history is involved in mystery of which the myth-makers have taken the fullest ad- vantage, giving the world a system of mythology that has always been a subject of study, as well as a source whence the poets of subsequent ages have drawn many of their choicest embellishments. Inheriting from their ancestors, the Pelasgi, a love for art, that was not diminished by the beauties of the varied natural scenery amid which they dwelt ; their taste in architecture, painting, and sculpture was so cultivated that its products have been the admiration of a world never able to rival them. Endowed with a language remarkable even among the Aryan tongues for its plastic and eupho- Begimiing of Grecian History, 17 nious qualities ; rich in roots ; picturesque in its modes of expression ; simple, sublime, playful, ma- jestic, subtle and clear, noble and pathetic, it was naturally made the medium for the expression of a wonderful literature. Being no less fitly adapted for the purposes of oratory, it was used with great force and fluency by Demosthenes, Pericles, Aris- tides, and other statesmen, whose speeches are still accepted as models of that style of composition. Calling themselves autochthones^ from a belief that they were born on the soil of the land they inhab- ited, and that the gods who dwelt on Mount Olym- pus were their ancestors, they were attached to their country by the charms of imagination as well as by the motives of patriotism that always inspire the dwellers in a land of rocks and mountains. In short, every circumstance was favorable to the de- velopment of a great civilization, such as we now look back upon with admiration. Grecian History begins. — Grecian history proper begins with the first celebration of the Olym- pian games, 776 b. c, which was about a half century before the Assyrian captivity of the Israelites. If it were not invading the bounds of mythology, it would be a pleasant task to recount here the story of the Argonautic expedition in search of the Golden Fleece ; the dramatic plot of the Trojan war which " Brought Woes numberless upon the Greeks, and swept To Hades many a valiant soul ; " 2 1 8 Greece. and to follow Meleager, Theseus, Atalante, and the other heroes in the Hunt of the ferocious Kaly- donian Boar. It was a heroic age, and has been vaunted in prose and verse from its own day to ours ; the Iliad of Homer having been studied by the youth and manhood of the civilized world, and hav- ing been made the foundation of many other pro- ductions of genius and imagination. The Trojan War. — The Trojan war is said to have occurred in the year 1184 b. c. after this wise. Venus promised Paris, the son of Priam, king of Troy, and Hecuba, that he should have to wife the handsomest woman in the world, Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta, In the absence of her husband, Paris carried Helen to his home in Troy, and to obtain her, the princes of Greece, under command of Agamemnon, a brother of the injured husband, undertook an expedition that resulted in the restoration of Helen and the destruction of Troy, after a siege of ten years. " Great Hector of the beamy helm, the son of Priam," led the Trojans, and under him was -^neas, son of Anchises, whose wanderings subsequent to this war gave Virgil the subject of his master-piece. After the Trojan war, Greece was the scene of great disturbances and political revolution, in which new races drove old ones from the places they had inhabited, only to be in turn dispossessed, and thus colonies were formed which in some cases rivaled the parent country. Four Principal Cities. I9 Principal Cities. — The four principal cities of Greece, Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes, are all represented to have been founded not far from 1500 B. c. The pastoral region of Arcadi'a dates from about the same period. The kingdom of Mac- edonia, farther north than the others, was founded 814 B. c, and to it the Grecian states became sub- ject in the time of Alexander the Great, 330 b. c. At various dates between 200 B. c. and 100 b. c, Macedonia and the whole of Greece were swallowed up by the all-embracing Roman empire, and thus the history of ancient Greece was brought to an end. Let us now look a little more in detail at the re- lations of the communities just mentioned, for they never formed a united state. The most powerful at any given time exerted the predominant influ- ence, Sparta, Athens, and Thebes ruling for the most part. Sparta is mentioned in Bryant's translation of Komer's Iliads as " The hollow vale Of queenly Lacedaemon." It was the capital of Laconia, and the chief city of the Peloponnesus, now the Morea, the peninsula which formed the southern part of ancient Greece. This part of the country is said to have been con- quered by the Dorians about eighty years after the Trojan war. The Dorians were the reputed de- scendants of Deukalion and Pyrrha, the pair who, after the flood had swept away the rest of the hu- . 20 Greece, man race, were landed on Mount Parnassus. Deu- kalion had a son Hellen, ancestor of the Hellenic race, and father of ^olus, Dorus, Achaeos, and Ion, after whom the chief tribes of Greece were named. The Dorians transmitted to their Spartan de- scendants their own characteristic traits, substantial dignity, and rough gravity, which marked the man- ners, dialect, laws, customs, and even the architect- ure of the Dorians, which is represented by the plain, strong, and unadorned column. Such char- acters as the Spartans are never permanently the same, but tend to relax, and the Doric Greeks found themselves, 884 b. c, in a state of degeneracy. To that period the patriotic Lycurgus belongs, for, in spite of modern skepticism, we may still have faith in his existence. His leading idea was the elevation of the state above the individual, and he divided the people into three classes : I. The Spar- tans of Dorian descent, who were all warriors, were the only ones eligible to office, and were supported from the lands around the city ; II. The LacoJiians^ freemen with no political power, the farmers, and craftsmen ; and III. The Helots^ or serfs, who were bound to the soil of their masters. Since the state owned the people and used them for the public material good alone, all feeble and deformed children, being unnecessary, were de- stroyed, and the vigorous were educated in public in such a way as to make hardy citizens, shrewd statesmen, and strong warriors, to the entire neg- Sparta, 2 1 lect of science and poetry. In this they achieved success, and their great men were celebrated only for military genius. After the laws of Lycurgus had been confirmed by the oracle at Delphi, he caused the Spartans to bind themselves by an oath never to change them until his return from a journey he proposed to make. Upon this he went away and was never again heard of. As might have been expected, the Spartans were frequently involved in war. Three times they en- ea^ed in war with their neis^hbors in Messenia, the first conflict extending from 743 b. c. to 723 b. c, the second from 685 b. c, to 668 b. c, and the third from 464 B. c. to 455 b. c. These struggles resulted in greatly increasing the territory and pop- ulation of Sparta, and in reducing the Messenians to the condition of helots. The Spartans were also deeply involved in the Persian war, as we shall see before we close this chapter. In the Peloponnesian war, 431 b. c. to 404 b. c, the Spar- tans were victorious, and were afterwards, under the lead of Agesilaus, engaged in the Elean (399-398 B. c), the Corinthian (395-387 B. c), the Olyjtthian (380-379 B. c), and the 77^^^^/^(378-362 b. c.) wars. At the battle of Mantineia, the Theban general, Epaminondas, was killed (362 B. c), the greatness of Thebes was lost, and the power of Sparta was also broken. The next year Agesilaus died. Sparta joined what is known as the Achcean League, in the 22 Greece. year 191 b. c. This confederacy is of interest to us because it is said to have been the model after which our own form of government was created. It was formed about 281 b. c, by four towns for mutual protection, and the number grew, until, in 191 B. c, it included almost every Peloponnesian city, besides Athens and several cities of north- ern Greece. For half a century thereafter it main- tained the independence of Hellas, and delayed the inevitable day of submission to Rome, which came, however, 146 b. c, and the name of the League was given to the province. Athens^ the great rival of Sparta, exerts an in- fluence in the world still, because instead of con- fining itself to the education and improvement of the body, it paid the greatest attention to the cul- tivation of the mind, and has left its monuments in an imperishable literature, and in forms of architectural and statuesque beauty that cannot be forgotten. Until the death of Codrus, 1068 b. c, it was governed by kings, afterwards by nine elected officers, who were called Archons. These in con- junction with the nobles constituted the supreme court of the Areopagus established by Solon 600 B. c. The interference of Solon was brought about by the struggles and party-spirit caused by the pro- mulgation of the cruel code of Draco, 621 b. c, which was designed by the nobles to oppress the commons. Solon was one of the Seven Wise Men who delighted in embodying their wisdom in such TJie Persian Wars. 23 short expressions as '' Avoid excess," " Know thy- self/' and " Consider the end." The wise laws of Solon aimed at the gradual erection of a democracy, but their design was frustrated for a time by the tryant Pisistratus and his sons, who managed to grasp the sole power, and to hold it from 560-510 b. c. At first they ruled with much glory; agriculture, commerce, lit- erature, and the fine arts received a great impulse j the city was adorned with temples and public buildings ; and the lyric poet Anacreon was even a resident at court. Upon the banishment of this family in 510 b. c, the government under Clis- thenes became essentially democratic, and the prac- tice of ostracism was introduced, by which the people expressed their wishes in respect to the banishment of citizens. The Persian Wars. — The brilliant period of the Persian Wars now followed, in which two branches of the great Aryan race came in conflict Darius the Persian, who had ascended the throne 521 B. c, came in contact with the Greeks through his conquest of Macedonia, at the time of his ex- pedition against the Scythians. Cyrus had pre- viously brought some of the more remote Greek cities under Persian control, and about 501 b. c. the Ionian colonies revolted, calling upon the mother- country for aid. Darius not only suppressed this revolt, 495 b. c, and put an end to the ancient prosperity of Ionia, but proceeded to make prep- 24 Greece. arations for the conquest of Greece itself. The first expedition sent out for this purpose in 492 B. c, proved abortive, but this did not deter Darius from organizing a much more extensive army, and a fleet of six hundred galleys, which were sent across the ^Egean, and landed on the plain of Marathon in Attica in the year 490 b. c. An Athenian army of ten thousand heavily armed soldiers, under ten generals, of whom were Miltiades, Themistocles, and Aristides, was sent out to meet the invaders, whose force was over one hundred thousand men. The chief command devolved upon Miltiades, who managed his small force so eflect- ively that with a loss of less than two hundred men, he utterly routed the Persians, who lost sixty- four hundred, and fled to their ships. The city of Athens had been thoroughly excited by its danger, and was now thrilled with patriotic enthusiasm, for the power of its arms and democratic institutions had stood a test more trying than even the leaders had supposed them capable of enduring. This victory was an exhaustless source of stimulation to Attic patriotism for centuries, nor has it yet lost its power, for, in the words of Doctor Johnson, " the man is little to be envied whose patriotism would not gain force upon the plain of Marathon." It is to be remarked, that though the Spartans had been invited to come to the help of the Athenians, their contribution of two thousand men did not arrive until the victory had been won, owing to a The Persian Wars. 25 delay caused by religious scruples on the subject of starting on such an expedition at the time of new moon. Miltiades was called the savior of his country ; but having failed in an expedition to the island of Paros, the next year, he was, at the suit of Xanthip- pus, the father of Pericles, fined, and died not long after in prison. He was buried by Cimon his son. Aristides the Just was banished, and Themisto- cles was left the sole leader of the Athenian re- public. He was shrewd and able, and seeing that the only means by which his city could gain su- periority was by creating a navy, he increased the fleet, and prepared to meet the new force that the Persians were making ready. Darius was filled with unbounded resentment at his defeat, and used the vast resources of his kingdom for three years in collecting an army that he thought invin- cible. Before his arrangements were complete he died, but his favorite son, Xerxes, entered fully into his plans, and in the spring of 480 B. c. set out with a force said to have comprised a million seven hundred thousand foot, eighty thousand horse, and a fleet of many hundred vessels. In this extremity the Spartans joined forces with the Athenians. A congress was held at Corinth, and rt was decided to send an army to the narrow pass of Thermopyl(R^ to guard the approach to Athens and the Peloponnesus from Thessaly. Leonidas, the Spartan king, commanded this body in person. 26 Greece, It included three hundred of his own people, and about four thousand from other cities. In the face of the vast Persian array, this handful of men valiantly attempted their task, but through the ef- forts of a traitor they were at last attacked on both sides, and all slain. The Persians were driven back four times, and lost twenty thousand men. They were now masters of Boeotia, and marched to Athens, which they destroyed by fire. " Fear on King Xerxes fell, when, like spirits from the tomb. With shout and trumpet knell, he saw the warriors come. But down swept all his power, with chariot and with charge ; Down poured the arrows' shower, till sank the Spartan targe. Thus fought the Greek of old ! " Themistocles now availed himself of the fleet that his foresight had provided, and at the naval battle of Salaniis gained so complete a victory that Xerxes in despair commenced a hasty retreat through Thessaly, Macedon, and Thrace. He left an army in Thessaly, however, which attacked the people of Attica in the spring of 479 b. c. The Greeks ral- lied under Pausanias, a Spartan, and Aristides, and gained so complete a victory at Platcea that the Persians were glad to save a part of their forces by a hasty flight. For the succeeding ten years there were conflicts between the Greeks and Per- sians, but in 469 B. c. a jDeace was concluded which ended the Persian rule. Pausanias, in spite of his previous valor and pa- triotism, proved a traitor, and offered to betray his The Age of Pericles. 27 country to Xerxes. His plot was discovered, but it cost Sparta her prestige, and Athens now as- sumed the supremacy. Themistocles also was cor- rupted by Persian gold, and was justly ostracized; but being received with favor by Artaxerxes, he spent his last days in princely luxury in Asia Minor. The Age of Pericles. — There now became prominent at Athens two men whose fathers had also been intrusted with power, Cimon, the son of Miltiades, and Pericles, the son of Xanthippus. They represented respectively the aristocratic and the democratic parties in Athens. Pericles was a man of intellectual pursuits, was accustomed to ad- dress popular assemblies, was eloquent, of majestic appearance, wisdom, and prudence. Cimon was a military man, having first attracted attention at the battle of Salamis, after which he was prominent in military affairs. His aristocratic tendencies caused him to oppose the democratic party on the question of restricting the power and jurisdiction of the Are- opagus, and as he had shown sympathy with Sparta at the insurrection of the helots, he was ostracized about 459 B. c. He died ten years later, and left to the Athenians a pleasure-ground which after- wards became the seat of the Academy of Plato. He probably had an honest desire to serve his country, but was upon the wrong side in Politics. The banishment and death of Cimon left Pericles free to carry out his plans for the aggrandizement of Athens, and he so completely succeeded in rais- 28 Greece. ing her to the rank of the most refined and elegant city of the time, that the period is known both as the " Golden Age," and the " Age of Pericles." He popularized intelligence, provided plays, proces- sions, and festivals for the people, gave employ- ment to skilled artisans by the erection of temples and other grand buildings ; he encouraged the cul- tivation of the arts of sculpture and design, he pro- vided for the poor and for men of genius; and while thus beautifying and improving his city at home, he also acquired great renown for her name abroad. The luxury he encouraged contained in itself the seeds of decay, and before Pericles died, the pres- tige of Athens began to pass away. The Peloponnesian War. — The prosperity of Athens caused jealousy on the part of the Spartans, and about the year 430 b. c. the Peloponnesian states formea an alliance to oppose the Athenians and their allies, who were favored by the democratic party in all the states. A pretext for war was not long wanting, and with varying fortunes the conflict was continued until the year 404 b. c, when the power of Athens had vanished, and it was placed under the government of the " Thirty Tyrants," illustrious aristocratic Athenians, who were the al- lies of Sparta, These reverses did not, however, arrest the prog- ress of art and literature, which were very highly cultivated until the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B. c, a period of two centuries. At this time Athejiian Art and Literature. 29 the dra?na had its origin in Atliens. It grew out of the hymns that were sung in honor of Bacchus, and was created and perfected, as we now see it, b} yEschylus^ who was one of those men who with a single stride outdo all previous efforts, and appear to make greater attainments impossible for the fut- ure. He was followed by Sophocles^ who drew, human nature as it ought to be, and Euripides^ who drew it as it was. Thus the three greatest pure tragic poets of the world were contemporary. Comedy was cultivated at the same time, and among the names famous on the list of its writers are those of Phrynicus, Aristophanes, and Menander. History was written by Thucydides and Xenophon. Plato founded the Academic school oi philosophy ^ and Aristotle the Peripatetic school. Oratory was practiced by Solon, Pisistratus, Miltiades, Aristides, Themistocles, Protagoras, -^schines, and Demos- thenes, either for the practical purposes of legisla- tion, for legal argument, or for use in the schools of the Sophists. The three great styles of Grecian architecture were the Doric, characterized by simple outline and mas- sive strength ; the Ionic, less pure and severe, but graceful and enriched with the most perfect sculpt- ure ; and the Corinthian, more florid and splendid. They may be remembered from the Spartan sim- plicity of the Dorians, the greater grace and soft- ness of the lonians, and the sensuousness of the people of Corinth. 30 Greece. Sculpture 2Xi^ painting vi&x^ also highl}' cultivated, the former by Phidias and Praxitiles, the latter by Parrhasius, Zeuxis, and Appelles. The Conquest by Macedonia. — In the year 359 B. c. the Great Philip ascended the throne of Macedon. He was a shrewd statesman and a sa- gacious general, and saw that the disunited condi- tion of the states of Greece gave him an opportu- nity to extend his dominion to the southward, and a pretext for aggressive movements. In spite of the efforts of Demosthenes and the valor of the Thebans, Philip gained the battle of Chaeronea, 338 b. c. ; the Athenians and their allies were defeated, and Greece was never again free. It was at this juncture that Demosthenes delivered the orations against the Macedonian king which have given the name Phil- ippic to violent personal discourses ever since. Upon the death of Philip the Greeks revolted from the rule of his son Alexander the Great, but the effort was unsuccessful, and the country was under Macedonian rule until Macedon itself was overcome by the Romans, 146. b. c. In the year 251 b. c. the Achcean league vizs re- vived, and an unsuccessful effort made again ^o throw off the Macedonian yoke. During the Alex- andrian period science and criticism were rather studied than art and orator}^, — Euclid composed a work on geometry which comprised all the dis- coveries of his predecessors and some of his own ; Archimedes exclaimed " Eureka," as he discovered Connth. 3 1 in the bath the mode of determining specific grav- ity ; and Hippocrates raised medicine from the realm of superstition to that of science. The tenets of tlie Stoics were estabhshed by Zeno, who taught in the porticoes {stoas) of Athens ; those of the Cynics by Antisthenes and his pupil Diogenes in the gymnasium of Cynosarges ; and those of the Epicureans by Epiciwus and his followers. The last taught that happiness was the end of existence ; the Cynics that happiness is to be obtained by ab- stinence ; and the Stoics practiced indifference to all sentiments equally. Corinth was for a long period the close ally of Sparta, and in the Peloponnesian war furnished the greater part of the fleet used against the Athenians. During the Corinthian war, from 395 to 387 b. c, she was in league with the other states, but in the strife between Thebes and Sparta she was faithful to the latter. After the battle of Chaeronea it was garrisoned by the Macedonians, and, later, was the centre of the Achaean league lormed against the Romans, 146 b. c, for which cause that people de- stroyed the city. After remaining in ruins a cent- ury, Corinth was rebuilt by Julius Caesar 46 b. c, and became prosperous and powerful. It was then famous for its mental activity, commercial and man- ufacturing enterprise, and for its wealth and profli- gacy. St. Paul dwelt in Corinth two years a. d. 52, and afterwards wrote two or three epistles to the Christians there. 32 Greece. Ths late President Felton has eloquently charac- terized the spirit of Greek civilization in the follow- ing words : — " During the long existence of the Athenian Kepublic, amidst the interruptions of foreign and domestic wars, — her territory overrun by Hellenic and Barbaric armies, her forests burned, her fields laid waste, her temples leveled in the dust, — in those tumultuous ages of her democratic existence, the fire of her creative genius never smoldered. " She matured and perfected the art of historical composition, of political and forensic eloquence, of popular legislation, of lyric and dramatic poetry, of music, painting, architecture, and sculpture ; she unfolded the mathematics theoretically and practi- cally, and clothed the moral and metaphysical sci- ences in the brief, sententious wisdom of the myriad- minded Aristotle, and the honeyed eloquence of Plato. " Rome overran the world with her arms, and though she did not always spare the subjects, she beat down the proud, and laid her laws upon the prostrate nations. Greece fell before the universal victor, but she still asserted her intellectual suprem- acy, and as even the Roman poet [VirgilJ con- fesses, the conquered became the teacher and guide of the conqueror." CHAPTER IV. ROME. HE history of the " Mistress of the World, ' from the foundation of Rome by Romulus 753 B. c, to its destruction by the Vandals A. D. 455, covers twelve centuries. The history of Greece, which we have just considered, from the first Olympiad, 776 b. c, to the loss of the national freedom, 146 b. c, extends only through one hall that period. The one exhibits the despotism of force, the other the supremacy of intellect. This contrast is apparent in the respective languages of the countries as well as in their history. The one is " the voice of Empire and of Law, of War and of the State, the best language for the measured re- search of History, and the indignant declamations of moral satire : rigid in its construction, parsimo- nious in its synonyms ; yet majestic in its bareness, impressive in its conciseness ; the true language of history, instinct with the spirit of nations, and not with the passions of individuals ; breathing the maxims of the weld, and not the tenets of the schools ; one and uniform in its air and spirit, whether touched by the st^ri:: and haughty Sallust 3 34 Rome. by the open and discursive Livy, by the reserved and thoughtful Tacitus." The other, " the shrine of the genius of the Old World ; as universal as our race, as individual as luurselves ; of infinite flexibility, of indefatigable strength ; with the complication and distinctness of nature herself to which nothing was vulgar, from which nothing was excluded ; speaking to the ear like Italian, speaking to the mind like English ; at once the variety and picturesqueness of Homer, the gloom and intensity of ^schylus j not compressed to the closest by Thucydides, not fathomed to the bottom by Plato, not sounding with all its thunders, nor lit up with all its ardors under the Promethean touch of Demosthenes himself" Divisions of Roman History. — It simplifies our investigation of the long period of Roman his- tory when we know that when the Gauls sacked the city, 389 B. c, they destroyed all the records, and that the trustworthy history really begins no earlier than 281 B. c. We may consider that there are three periods to be remembered. I. The mythical and traditional age of the Kings, 753~5io ^- c. ; IL The heroic age of the Republic, 510-27 b. c. ; and III. The Golden Age of the Eifiperors, 27 b. C.-455 A. D. The legends of the age of the kings take us back to Romulus and Remus, sons of Mars and the ves- tal virgin Rhea Silvia, and point us to the wonder- yu) sLe-wolf which preservei their lives. They tell The Republic. 35 us of the puny beginnings of the great nation, of the death of the less fortunate brother, and of the ascen- sion of Romulus to heaven, in |he presence of the people, in a storm of thunder and lightning. They tell us of the rape of the Sabine women, and of the dramatic but peaceful end of a threatened war. They relate the wise reign of Numa Pompilius, his conferences with the nymph Egeria, from whom he received his system of ritual worship ; the enlarge- ment of the territory by the wars of Tullus Hostilius, and Ancus Martius : of the decision of the war with Alba Longa by the combat between the Horatii and the Curiatii, and of the beginning of the distinc- tion between native-born " patricians," and the ** plebeians," or citizens born in other cities. The early traditions tell us also how Tarquinius Prisons founded the Capitol, and built the great sewers that still astonish the visitors to their ruins. They recount the murder of Tarquin and of his sucessor Servius Tullius \ and the successful wars, violent tyranny, and final banishment of the last of the kings, Tarquinius Superbus. The Republic. — The expulsion of the Tar- quins, and the establishment of the Republic, date from 509 B. c. The supreme authority was placed in the hands of two officers called at first prcetors, afterwards consuls. The first to hold the office were the stern Lucius Junius Brutus, and Tar- quinius Collatinus, and during their term the state was threatened from dangers both without and 36 Rome. within. The exiled king had found an asylum in Etruria, and, obtaining the aid of Porsenna, lars or lord of Clusium, marched upon Rome. Macaulay has given us the story of this unsuccessful effort, in the stirring lay of " Horatius," whose name was long remembered, and his deeds magnified for ages. " And still his name sounds stirring Unto the men of Rome, As the trumpet blast that cries to them To charge the Volscian home : And wives still pray to Juno For boys with hearts as bold As his who kept the bridge so well In the brave days of old." In the year 496 b. c. is said to have occurred the fabulous battle of the Lake Regillus, also celebrated in one of Macaulay's lays. The next year the op- pression of the patricians having become unendur- able, the plebeians rose against them, and insisted upon a share in the management of public affairs. This they obtained, but the concession did not cause a cordial feeling to be established between rhe two classes, and the internal feuds weakened the state to such an extent that the Etruscans, Aquians, and Volscians made inroads upon it. So sorely were the Romans bestead by these troubles that they felt the necessity of a strong hand at the helm, and called Cincmiiatus from the plow to the office of sole Dictator. In sixteen days, according to the heroic legend, this wonderful man had con- quered a peace, and returned to his farm ! The Gauls, 37 There was no code of written laws in Rome at this time, and the plebeians, always on the alert, de- manded that one should be drawn up, 462 b. c. In 457 B. c. the number of tribunes of the people was increased to ten, and three years later three sena- tors were sent to Athens to study the laws and con- stitution of the Greek states. This was at the time of Pericles. Upon the return of these am- bassadors a commission of ten patricians called de- cemviri was appointed, 451 b. c, to draw up a code of laws, and to supersede all other magistrates for the time. At the close of two years the decemviri completed their work, and engraved the laws on Twelve Tables^ which were ever after the basis of Roman law. In the mean time the decemviri had 6ecome so brutal and cruel that, incited by the incident illustrated by Macaulay in his lay of " Vir- ginia," the plebeians arose in frenzy and subverted their authority. The poet says, — " Of all the wicked Ten still the names are held accursed, And of all the wicked Ten Appius Claudius was the worst He stalked along the Forum like King Tarquin in his pride : Twelve axes waited on him, six marching on a side.*' In these lines the most influential of the " Ten " is likened to the worst of the hated Tarquins, prob- ably a just comparison. The Gauls. — It is said that the Gauls, who now threatened Rome, had crossed the Alps as early as the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, and had 38 Rome. long lived on the plains north and east of the Ap- pennines. In the year 391 b. c, they are said to have crossed these mountains also, and having be^ come incensed at the Romans for slaying one of their chiefs, they marched, under the lead of Bren- nus, upon the capital itself, destroying its buildings by fire, and sweeping away its people by indiscrim- inate massacre. This story is partially fictitious, though the Gauls did invade Rome at this and at several other dates during the century. The city was also involved in wars with the Samnites from 343-290 B. c, which resulted in their acknowledging Roman supremacy. During this period the relative power of the ple- beians had increased by degrees, until the last ves- tiges of the privileges of the patricians had disap- peared, and the republic consisted of the Roman citizens, both patricians and plebeians ; the Latins \ and the allies, as the subjects of Rome were called. After the Samnite wars, Rome became involved in contests with the other peoples of southern Italy, and by the year 264 b. c. they were all under her yoke. The Punic Wars. — We now approach what are called the Pimic wars, in which the Romans came in conflict with a branch of the Semitic race. The Phenicians under Queen Dido are said to have founded the city of Carthage on the coast of Africa, 878 B. c, and to have given it its name, which means "new city," to distinguish it from the parent The Punic Wars. 3g city, Tyre. However much truth theie may be in this legend, we know that Carthage was older than Rome, and, at a distant period, far more important. It was a commercial rather than a military city, and possessed a line of trading depots all along the southern coast of the Mediterranean, upon its isl- ands and in Spain. The political organization of the city is not understood, but it is supposed to have resembled that of Sparta, though uniting the elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. At this time the Romans and Carthaginians had become jealous of each other, and were ready for war on any pretext. The purposes of commerce made it necessary for the Carthaginians to control the islands of the Mediterranean, and the pretext for a war was found when the inhabitants of Sicily invoked the help of Rome against Carthage. The Roman people were willing and eager to enter upon the conflict, and thus the first Punic war was begun 265 B. c. It resulted in the confirmation of the claims of Rome upon Sicily 242 b. c, and in the payment of the expenses of the war by Carthage. The loss of money made it impossible for the Carthaginians to pay their mercenaries, and they were immediately involved in wars at home, while Rome began simultaneously to increase materially the limits of her territory, notwithstanding the great loss of men she had experienced. Twenty-two years of peace followed, and both peoples were enabled to recruit their armies and repair their 40 Rome. losses. They were both equally desirous of a pre- text for re-opening hostilities, and the second Punic war was declared by Ha7inibal of Carthage, one of the greatest generals of the world. During the peace, following the wise counsels of Hamilcar^ the father of Han7iibal, the Carthaginians had con- quered the Spanish peninsula and established a new empire there, and it was at the close of the campaign in that country that Hannibal, after the death of his father, and of his brother-in-law Has- drubal, had come in conflict with a Roman ambas- sador, Quintus Fabius, at Saguntum. The Romans, during the peace, had also, as has been stated, enlarged their territory. They had taken both Sardinia and Corsica, had overcome the Ligurians and Illyrians, and, after the terrible battle of Telamon, 222 b. c, had forced the Gauls to recog- nize their supremacy, thus acquiring the wide plains of Lombardy, known as Gallia Cisalpina. Hannibal had in his infancy been dedicated by his father to eternal hatred of Rome, and this fact exerted a powerful influence upon his life, for a prophecy known becomes often a means of its own fulfillment. Fortified by this baptism of hate, and by his own firm purpose, the young general led a large army towards Rome, crossing first the Pyr- enees, and then, probably by the Little St. Ber- nard, the Alps, and encamping in Italy, 218 B. c. 4fter minor battles he engaged the Romans under Flaminius, at Lake Trasimene, north-east of Rome, The Punic Wars. 41 and utterly routed them. For a while Hannibal was opposed by Fabius Maximus, whose policy of delay has ever since been known as Fabian. He was superseded by his impatient countrymen, and Lu- cius ^milius Paulus, a man of rashness and impet- uosity, taking the command, precipitated batde at CamtcE, south-east of Rome, which resulted in the destruction of eighty senators and forty-seven thou sand Roman citizens. This victory left the Carthaginian army shattered, and the rest that Hannibal allowed it at Capua demoralized it still more, giving the enemy an op- portunity for recuperation. After the Carthagen- ians had lost most of their possessions in Spain, the command of the army of Rome, sent to oppose them, was accepted by Puhlius Cornelius Scipio, a young man of but twenty-four years, scarcely in- ferior to Hannibal. His campaign was successful, and in the year 204 b. c. he " carried the war into Africa," forced Hannibal to leave Italy for the pro- tection of Carthage, and finally, at the battle of Zama, 202 b. c, routed the Carthaginian army, and obliged Hannibal to accept terms of peace. He was thereafter called Scipio Africanus. A peace of fifty-two years ensued, during which Carthage became prosperous again, and the Romans jealous, which led to the third Punic war, 149-146 B. c. The persistent influence of the censor Cato was manifested at this time, for, having made up his mini that the prosperity of Carthage was dan- 42 Rome. ^erous to Rome, he was accustomed to add after every vote he made in the senate, " I vote, more- over, that Carthage be destroyed." At first the in- habitants were disposed to accede to the demands of Rome, but at the last they determined to protect their homes to the uttermost. The Romans made a son of Scipio dictator, and, after a desperate resist- ance, he reduced Carthage, and utterly destroyed it, denouncing a curse upon any who should attempt to rebuild it. The Roman province that included the territory of Carthage was called Africa. Wars with Macedonia. — Besides the three Punic wars, the Romans were involved in three with Macedonia. The yfrj-/ lasted from 214 to 205 b. c, and grew out of complications arising from a treaty made by Philip with Hannibal after the battle of Cannae. The Romans were fully occupied at the time with wars at other points, and this war was not of importance in its results. The second Mace- donian war, from 200 to 197 B. c, arose from a re- quest that the Athenians made that the Romans would give them aid in their struggle against Philip. The war was closed by the terrible battle of Cynos- cephalce, 197 b. c, in which the Macedonian army was completely defeated, and a few years later a Roman protectorate was established over the whole of Greece. The third Macedonian war was precipi- tated by Perseus, the eldest son of Philip, who de- sired to make one more effort to conquer Rome ft began 172 b. c, and was terminated by the battle The Universal Empire of Rome. 43 oiPydna, i68 B. c. In this battle Perseus was de- feated and taken prisoner, and, though treated mercifully, was led, with his wife and children, through the streets of Rome in the triumphal pro- cession. The empire was divided into four mde- pendent districts, with republican institutions, and thus its unity and strength were broken. The Universal Empire of Rome. —The Greek historian PolyUus, who was living at the time, dates the full establishment of the universal empire ol Rome, from the battle of Pydna, and, in fact, the whole «V///W world recognized the Roman senate as the supreme tribunal. But the seeds of degen- eracy had been sown already. Though the distinc- tions of plebeians and patricians had long ago been abolished, there were classes in society very dis- tinctly marked by lines not recognized by law. These were the very rich, the very poor, and those who boasted long and illustrious pedigrees. The Greek influence also was polishing and enervating the once stern Roman, as the literature, art and religion, dress, luxury, and sensuousness of that country became prevalent. The immorality and degeneracy of the wealthy was speedily communi- cated to the masses, the ancient frugality, honor, and virtue were forgotten, and the curse of office- seeking, extravagance, and gladiatorial shows, rap- dly educated the people in immorality, hurtful, in- iemperate luxury, cruelty, and recklessness. Against this the stern Cato urged all possible arguments, 44 Rome. using his pen in praise of agriculture, the basis of the former greatness, and in contrasting the an- cient simplicity and purity with the existing condi- tion of affairs. He succeeded in causing the banishment of three Greek philosophers, and in prohibiting the dissolute Bacchic festivals which had been carried on in the name of religion. But the days of Rome's true greatness were ended, and no radical reform was ever again permanently effected. The provinces were governed by praetors or proconsuls, who generally took more care of their own advancement than of the public good, and the taxes were farmed out to wealthy publicans who had ample scope for extortion and oppression. At times the misruled people revolted and caused Rome much trouble. The Numantians of Spain are a case in point, and they were finally tortured to death by Scipio, the destroyer of Carthage, b. c. The Gracchi. — The same year Tiberias Sem- pronius Gracchus died in Rome. His father had been a consul, and his mother was Cornelia, a daughter of Scipio Africanus. His mother en- couraged him to enter politics, and he, noticing the oppression of the poor by the rich, determined to be the friend of the helpless people. He proposed various radical schemes for the more equal distribu- tion of wealth, which only resulted in excitement, and he was assassinated in front of the temple of Jupiter. He left a brother, Caius Sempronius Other Roman Wars. 45 Gracchus, who also befriended the people, but was likewise unsuccessful. He was an orator of terse eloquence and natural ardor, being ranked by man} critics higher than Cicero. Other Wars. — After the war with yugurtha the Numidian, 111-106, and the death of that usurper by starvation in the Mamertine prison in Rome, the Cimbri, who had long roamed over the region watered by the Danube, and the Teiitones their allies, involved the Romans in terrible wars of extermination, 113-101 b. c. These barbarians were defeated in the latter year by Marius, a repre- sentative of the people, 140,000 having been killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners. The next decade was marked by internal dissensions, resulting in the Social War, 90-89, the appointment of Sylla as perpetual dictator, instead of Marius, which was a triumph of the moneyed aristocracy. The Romans, among their other luxuries, pos- sessed large numbers of slaves, who had been taken in war, and were of all classes of society. These are said to have been often treated with the utmost barbarity, and as a consequence, during the period we are now considering, they rose against their masters at various times. The first Servile War was in Sicily from 134 to 132 b. c. ; the second in the same island from 102 to 99 b. c, in which thou- sands were killed on both sides ; and the third at Capua, where about seventy trained gladiators, under the lead of Spartacus the Thracian, broke 46 Rome, loose, found a hiding-place in the crater of Vesu- vius, organized, and held the supremacy of a por- tion of Italy for two years, 73-71 b. c. Spartacus de-^ sired to give the slaves the liberty he had promised them, by going beyond the Alps, but they were eage/ for plunder, and would not leave Italy. His army comprised at one time one hundred thousand men, but, after bloody conflicts, with varying fortunes, the slaves were defeated by the praetor Crassus, and Spartacus was killed. A body of five thousand escaped and fled to the north, hoping to reach Gaul, but they encountered Pompey returning fronj Spain, flushed with victory, who cut them to pieces, and claimed the credit of having ended the Servile war. Pompey was also successful in wars to the east- ward. Rome was engaged in three wars with Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus, in Asia Minor. He is said to have put to death eighty thousand Romans in various parts of Asia Minor, because opposed by them in his interference in the affairs of Cappadocia and Bythinia. The first war, 88-84 B. c, occurred in consequence of this mas- sacre, and Sylla, who was sent in command of the army, overcame the Pontians, destroying the city of Athens in the process of the war, Zd b. c. The second war was brought on three years later, by Mithridates, who had repented of the terms he had made with the Romans. Peace was "established B. C. 81, after a victory of the Pontians, and Mithri- The Triumvirates. 47 dates was left in a somewhat more favorable posi- tion than before. In the year 74 b. c. he was influenced to begin the third war with Rome, and after a few years of fighting, he was confronted by Pompey, who had just swept the pirates from the Mediterranean in a brilliant naval campaign, and the war was brought to a close. Pontus was an- nexed to Rome. Afterwards Pompey went farther east, reduced Syria, Phenicia, and Palestine to Roman provinces, and returned to Rome 61 b. c. His victories were celebrated with great pomp, and he deposited vast sums of money in the public treasury, gaining im- mense popularity. The Triumvirates. — Before Pompey's return the orator Cicero had made himself forever famous, B.C. 61, by his decided patriotism and courageous eloquence in unmasking the desperate designs of the conspirator Catiline^ who had intended to over- throw the government. Two other men had also r.ttained great prominence in Rome. Caius Julius Caesar, 100-44 b. c, a man of a thoroughly cultivated mind and great energy ; and Marcus Licinius Cras- sus, who had defeated the gladiators under Sparta- cus. Cicero acted as a mediator between Pompey and Ccesar, and they united with Crassus, forming what is known as the first Triti7nvirate, and agreed to allow no political measure displeasing to either of them to be adopted. Many citizens were put '.o death, and Cicero, who had offended his friend 4^ Rome. Cicsar, was banished. Gaul was assigned to the special attention of Caesar, Spain to Pompey, and Syria to Crassus. Pompey remained in Rome, where he exercised dictatorial power; Crassus went to Syria, where he was killed, his army being de- stroyed by the Parthians ; and Julius CcBsar x&ductd the Belgians, Gauls, and Helvetians, b. c. 51, acquir- ing great fame by his genius, tact, and extraordinary exploits. The death of Crassus left the supreme power to' be struggled for by his two associates. Pompey, full of confidence, neglected ordinary precautions, Ccesar crossed the Rubicon, exclaiming "The die is cast," and marched on Rome. Pompey fled, but afterwards collected a force with which he con- fronted Csesar near Pharsalus, in Thessaly, and was defeated August 9th, b. c. 48. Pompey escaped to Egypt, where he was assassinated. The most ex- traordinary honors were now heaped upon Caesar, and he became sole master of the Roman world. He did not abuse his power, but used it with mild- ness, improving and embellishing the city, building roads, canals, and harbors, and giving the people all they desired and needed, except freedom. Two former friends of Pompey, Junius Brutus and Caius Cassius, though befriended by Caesar, conspired against him, and assassinated him, on the ides (15th) of March, b. c. 44. Thus fell the man of whom Mark Antony said in an oration : — " Here was a Csesar ! When comes such another ? " The Age of Augustus. 49 The words of Antony infuriated the people, forced the murderers to flee, and led to the formation, b. c. 43, of the second triumvirate by himself, Caesar Oc- tavianus, and Marcus ^milius Lepidus. These men inaugurated their entrance upon the control of the republic by murder, confiscation, and extortion, their victims including over two thousand, among whom was the orator Cicero, who had returned from banishment, and was a faithful supporter of Octa- vianus. The empire was divided among the tri- umvirs ; Lepidus, who had the least power, receiv- ing Africa, Antony the eastern provinces, and Octa- vianus remaining in Italy. As soon as possible Lepidus was deprived of all power, and Octavianus strengthened himself at home, while Antony lived in luxury, gained by extortion in the East, with the dis- solute Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. In the year 31 B. c. war was declared with Egypt, and the struggle for the absolute government of the Roman world was decided at the naval battle near Actium, on the v/est coast of Greece, by the Roman general Agrippa. Antony and Cleopatra fled, and both died by their own hands ; the next year Egypt became the first province of the Empire, and in the year 29 b. c. Oc- tavianus became emperor, receiving the name Au- gustus two years later. He closed the temple of Janus, and proclaimed universal peace. The Age of Augustus. — The reign of Augus- ais lasted forty-five years, and was marked by many beneficial acts. He was, like other great rulers, 4 50 Rome. very sagacious in the choice of advisers. Among these were Agrippa, who had laid the foundation of the empire, and Maecenas, who had been equally useful at the same time in quelling a disturbance at Rome. Agrippa was generous and upright, a friend of the arts, and a good counselor. He restored some of the ancient aqueducts, erected the Pan- theon, and left his mark upon other public works that are still objects of admiration and wonder. Maecenas is celebrated for his patronage of letters, and after he retired from court occupied himself with literature and literary men, keeping open table for men of genius at his house on the Esquiline hill. He was especially intimate with Horace. Augustus bestowed great attention to the moral and religious improvement of the people, and neg- lected nothing tending to increase their material prosperity, encouraging agriculture, art, and litera- ture. He was of great address and tact as a poli- tician, keeping his plans to himself, and using men and their passions and talents to forward his de- signs. His effort was to make his country and reign glorious by the arts of peace, and he did not endeavor to make conquests abroad. In this he was successful, and his reign was the Golden Age of literature. Horace, Virgil, and all the most cele- brated Latin poets and scholars were his friends. Among these were Gvid, author of the Metamor- pheses ; Cornelius Nepos, the biographer ; Titus Liv- ius, the historian j and Sallust, who wrote true ac- counts of the wars against Jugurtha and Catiline. The PnBtorian Guard. 51 The Advent of the Saviour. — The greatest event in the history of the world, the Incarnation of Jesus Christ, occurred during this reign, in Bethle- hem of Judea. It was four or five years before our era. Thus was formed and consolidated the system of government that has had the greatest influence upon modern civilization. Augustus died of the in- firmities of age, A. D. 14, and was succeeded by his step-son Tiberius. During his reign the crucifixion of our Saviour occurred at Jerusalem. The PRiETORiAN Guard. — Aided by his general Sejanus, Tiberius concentrated the Praetorian body- guard near Rome, and they became the real sov- ereigns of the empire. The emperor withdrew to the island of Capreae to indulge his sensuality, and Sejanus ruled with frightful cruelty. He died a. d. 37, and was succeeded by Caius Caligula, one of the most despicable and blood-thirsty tyrants who ever lived. After him Claudius Nero reigned from 54 to 68 A. D. He was also cruel, causing persecutions of the Christians, whom he accused of setting fire to the city, and destroying the poet Lucan^ and the Stoic philosopher Seneca, Nero was followed by Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, a. d. 68-70, and by Vespasian a. d. 70-79. With Vespasian^s (9-79 a. d.) accession a better era dawned, and Rome did not again fall to the moral degradation it had experienced. At the time of his accession the empire was at war with the Jews, who, 52 Rome. driven to desperation by the procurators sent to rule Judea, had rebelled, and driven the Romans from Jerusalem. Vespasian had himself directed the siege from the year 67 until his elevation to the sovereignty, when his son Titus assumed command. The Jews fought with insane desperation, and suf- fered unspeakable distresses, until the city was taken in the autumn of 70, and, with the magnifi- cent temple, and a million of the inhabitants, was destroyed. Jewish independence was forever lost, the people were scattered, and the arch of Titus was erected in Rome to commemorate the facts. During the reign of Vespasian, Agricola, the father-in-law of Tacitus, the historian, governed Britain from 77 to 85, bringing it all under the power of Rome except the north of Scotland. The year of Vespasian's death, 79 a. d., was also marked by the first recorded eruption of Vesu- vius, which buried Herculanaeum and Pompeii, and caused the death of the elder Pliny, who pursued his physical investigations with too much boldness, and was suffocated. Titus, who succeeded to his father's throne, spent a large share of his property in reliev- ing the sufferings of the survivors. Titus also com- pleted, A. D. 81, the vast building called the Coli- seum, which his father had begun. The next emperor was the tyrant Domitian, brother of Titus, who was assassinated a. d. 96, after a cruel reign of fifteen years, marked by perse- cutions of Christians, and the banishment of noble The Decline of Rome, 53 philosophers, such as Epictetus. Domitian was the last of the Twelve Ccesars. From the death of Trajan to that of Marcus Au- ^"^ ius, A. D. 180, was the happiest period in the his- tory of the Roman emperors. The rulers were the venerable and mild Nerva, Trajan, surnamed the best, Hadrian, the patron of literature, Antoninus Pius, the loving and charitable, and Marcus Aure- liiis, the stoic philosopher. The reign of Trajan was marked by the final conquest of the Dacians, who dwelt north-east of the Danube, which event is com- memorated by a column now standing in Rome. Both he and Hadrian adorned Rome with statues, fountains, arches, porticoes, temples, aqueducts, bridges, and other costly edifices. The Castle St. Angelo, on the Tiber, was the mausoleum of Ha- drian. The Decline of Rome. — The empire was in a vditQ of decline from the death of Marcus Aurelius, A. D. 180, until its division by the sons of Constan- (me the Great into the Eastern and Western Empire, 364 A. D., and its final destruction by the Vandals, A. D. 455. During this period many men ruled, some of them for but a few months, and at times the empire was in a state of wretched confusion. Septimius Severus was acknowledged emperor in June, 193, and was personally engaged in campaigns in the east, where he conquered Byzantium ; in Gaul, where he defeated Albinus, governor of Brit- ain at Lyons ; in Parthia and in Egypt, finally 54 Rome. dying in York, Britain, a. d. 210, whither he had gone to conquer the Caledonians. His sons com- memorated his campaigns by a triumphal arch in Rome, which at the beginning of the present cen- tury was occupied by a potter as his shop ! Caracalla, his son, ruled until 217, and proved himself one of the most brutal of those we are now considering. Alexander Severus, 222-235, like Septimius Severus, was friendly to the Christians, who had very much increased in numbers in Rome. We have mentioned the first of the persecutions of Christians under Nero, a. d. 64 ; the second was in the reign of Domitian, a. d. 95 ; the third in that of Trajan, a. d. 106 ; the fourth under Hadrian, A. D. 118 ; the fifth under Severus, 199 ; the sixth in the reign of Maximius, 235 ; the seventh in the reign of Decius, 250 ; the eighth in the reign of Valerian, 257 ; the ninth under Aurelian, 272 ; and the tenth under Diocletian, 302. Decius ascended the throne in the year 249, and commenced the next year the most fearful persecu- tion the Christians had yet endured, burning their homes, and putting them to death by torments of the rack and fire. Valerian reigned from 253 to 260, and was put to death by the king of Persia, and the state of Rome became the prey of barbarians, who, seeing its tottering condition, invaded it on all sides. Aurelian^ 270-275, restored some degree of quiet to the city; and in the year 273 made Zeno- bia, queexi of Palmyra, prisoner, and celebrated a Reign of Constantine, 55 triumph more grand than had been witnessed for years. Diocletian^ a man of humble origin, enjoyed a comparatively prosperous reign of twenty-one years, 284-305, and resigned his power voluntarily. His reign was marked by the terrible persecution of the Christians, which lasted ten years, when the poor people were destroyed by various horrible tortures, and were even bound with ropes, and cast in droves into the sea. In the year 324 Constantine the Great became sole ruler, and his reign, which lasted until a. d. 337, is remarkable for the establishment of Chris- tianity as the religion of the Roman Empire. He bad been employed in Gaul, but, taking advantage of the dissension at home, marched into Italy, where he was greeted as emperor. It was on this march that he is said to have seen in the heavens a flaming cross inscribed in Greek words, *' In this conquer," which led to his inscribing his shields and banners with the cross. Though he was only bap- tized on his bed of death, he favored Christianity as a politician and statesman, punishing all attempts to interfere with the religious liberty of Christians. In 325 he convened the celebrated Council of Nice, and declared Christianity to be the official religion. The capital was established at Byzantium, which was called Constantinople, in his honor, and there he intended to establish an absolute despotism of the most thoroughly oriental and magnificent char- $6 Rome. acter. He was preparing for a war against Persia when he died. In the year 364 his two sons divided the empire, as had been temporarily done in the reign of Dio- cletian, A. D. 296, Valens taking the Eastern Em- pire, with his capitol at Constantinople ; and Val- entinian the Western Empire, with the capital at Rome. In thaJt wonderful hive, the interior of Asia, com- motions were now going on which led to the migra- tion of nations^ the influx of the ferocious Huns into Europe, and the downfall of the Western Empire. A portion of this tribe crossed the Volga, the Don, and the Sea of Azov, in 375. In 395 the Goths under Alaric invaded Greece, and devastated Thrace. In 402 Alaric advanced towards the west, and in 403 he so much frightened the Romans, that they promised to pay him an annual tribute. This not being paid he advanced upon Rome in 408, but though the city capitulated, Alaric was induced, by large payments, to depart. In 409 and 410 he took the city twice, and the second time pillaged and partly burned it. He died soon after at Cosenza, in southern Italy. Thus weakened by the attacks of the Goths under Alaric, Rome was again threatened, a. d. 451, by Attila the Hun, who was defeated in a frightful battle near Chalons, France. The next year however, with recruited ranks, Attila invaded Italy from the north, and so alarmed the Romans The Fall of Rome. 57 that they sent an embassy headed by the Pope, Leo I., with rich presents, and he was prevailed upon to depart. And now a third tribe of barbarians was to menace Rome. The Vandals, after sweeping through central Europe, founded the powerful kingdom in Spain from which Andalusia derives its name. Eager for conquest, they crossed to Africa, led by Genseric, their ablest monarch, surprised Carthage and made it the capital of a new Vandal empire that extended over the whole coast. In the year 455 Genseric landed an army near the mouth of the Tiber and marched toward Rome, entering it in the month of June. For fourteen days the city was devoted to fire and pillage, and large collections of its valuables were carried away to Carthage. The feeble life of Rome was finally ended by Odoacer, a son of one of the ministers of Attila, in the year 476. Thus fell the great Western Empire, conquered by a race of Teutonic barbarians, who, infusing new blood into a demoralized people and mixing with them, gradually accepted the civilization of their conquered foes, and laid the foundation of the su- premacy of the German and English-speaking na- tions. CHAPTER V. THE MIDDLE AGE. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. E have seen the intellectual civilization of Greece, and the Roman empire of force, rise and fall, and now we have to consider a remarkable period of about a thousand years, which is no less interesting in its general results than in the details of its events. The Middle Age between ancient and modern national life has been called the Dark Age, and though in some respects the aptness of the name cannot be questioned, the period was one of transition rather than of death. Seeds were growing of which the product is seen in after centuries. Rise of Feudalism. — The Middle Age may be said to extend from the fall of the Western Empire, A. D. 476, to the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492. The great feature of the period is the heroic struggle of the Crusades, lasting from 1095 to 1 26 1, which cost Europe two millions of lives, some of them very valuable, and much of its ma- terial resources. The Middle Age is thus divided into three periods, the first marked by the rise of Feudalism from the conflicts of the conquerors of Rome and their neighbors ; the second by the Cru- Classes in the Middle Age. 59 %aaes themselves ; and the third by the decay of Chivalry and the beginning of modern history. Individualism of Barbarism. — The spirit of ancient civihzation led to the exaltation of the idea of the nation, while among the people of the Middle Age the individual life made itself more felt, and variety rather than unity is the predominant trait of the civilization that has grown up since. The Greeks and Romans lived in cities. It was cities that made leagues, that fought and were conquered. In the Middle Age we find cities indeed, but we also see the feudal chief intrenched in his castle, where he has home life, and surrounded by his vassals who live in villages about him. In the Spartan subordination of every thing to the state we see the ancient principle carried to its extreme, and in the institutions of knight-errantry the ultra free- dom of the new organization of society is perhaps equally apparent. The mediate condition, in which the citizen though free is still subordinate to the state which rules and protects him, is the better form of society that has resulted from the conflict between unbounded restraint and unlimited free- dom. Classes in the Middle Age. — Society was divided into three classes, the Warriors, who gov- erned ; the Teachers, who studied, preached, and counseled ; and the Producers, who supported the others, and being pretty closely confined to work, are little heard of in history. The occupations of 6o The Middle Age. the people of Germany, tliose who overthrew the empire of Rome, were principally the chase and pasturage. They had kings and chiefs who were elected, but were exceedingly restricted in territorial limit, as well as in power, though these limits weie extended in the cases of rulers of high birth and extraordinary personal valor. The individualism of barbarism, and the condi- tion of chaos in which the great surgings of the tribes kept central Europe, of course made any thing like settled society impossible, for it must be founded upon a degree of submission to restraint, and some regularity of life. A New Civilization. — However, various rea sons led to efforts towards a new civilization, and we find that some of the barbarians themselves made feeble attempts to reduce their customs to the form of laws. The memory of Roman civilization in the regions where that people had planted colo nies, led to the collection of Roman laws to be applied to Gothic folk. The Church was not everywhere dead, and in Spain, at least, it was influentiai in the direction of civilization. And besides these the influence of great men, which was naturally strong at the period, was exerted in some cases, as in tiiose of Charlemagne, Egbert, and Alfred, in favoi ot schools, learning, libraries, and the Church. These efforts proved successful only aftei the establishment of the Feudal System had made the knights and the castles centres, multiplied iudef- Castles and Villa (^es. 6 1 £> initely over Europe, about which dependents were gathered, and by which the overwhehning influence of the cities was done away. ."Rise of the Feudal System. — The Feudal system very naturally grew up somewhat as follows : When a warrior had conquered a peace he consid- ered the domain of the conquered his lawful prey, and after appropriating to himself a share, usually generous, he divided the remainder among the members of his suite to be held by them during life as a fief or loan. Thus he not only rewarded his vassals, as the recipients of his bounty were styled, for the services they had rendered, but also held them firmly for the future. He became the senior, domiftus, or lord, and he was in most cases bound to some higher ruler, to whom he rendered his own service, and that of his vassals in war. The system was modified as the lord became weak, or the vassal strong, in which case the title of the latter to his estate was made hereditary, the weak lord being forced to buy the fealty of the powerful vassal in this, the only way possible. This system obtained among the Huns, Goths, Vandals, Franks, and Lombards, during the earlier portion of the period we are considering, and did not disappear until near the end of the time of the Crusades. Castles and Villages. The lord lived in a castle, and his vassals in a village near his walls, behind which they expected to find protection for their wives and children in times of danger. The vis- 62 The Middle Age. itor who enjoys the scenery of the Rhine now finds pleasure in the sight of many of these castles that adorn the hills peacefully enough in the nineteenth century, but which bristled with all the pomp and circumstance of war eight or ten hundred years ago. Hundreds of them still exist. They were comparatively comfortless honies, but almost im- pregnable fortresses, and they are charmingly pict- uresque in their ruins. We must not forget that there was besides the lord and his vassals, a class of slaves, some of whom had been prisoners taken in war, and others, persons who had lost their freedom by sentence of the law. Over twenty-five thousand of this class were recorded in the Domesday Book at the time of the Norman Conquest in England. CHAPTER VI. THE MIDDLE AGE. — CHIVALRY AND THE CRUSADES. E have now considered the first stage in the growth of modern civilization. The organization of the Feudal system has shown that the germs of the constituent parts of a government existed, and now, in the second stage, we are to see the experimental combinations of these elements, which we shall follow as they take shape at the end of what we call the Middle Age. The Character of Chivalry. — In a general sense, Mr. Hallam says, chivalry may be referred to the age of Charlemagne. Among the feudal tenants there were some who were called Cabal- larii, of which word chevaliers is a corruption. They were equipped with a coat of mail and served on horseback, by way of distinction, probably, for more than ordinary valor, skill, strength, or courage. They were knights, and their personal qualities, which were of vast importance in the warfare of the time, were the grounds of their elevation, and we shall find that when a change in the mode of war made personal prowess of less relative importance, chivalry and its usages declined. Growing out of 64 The Middle Age. the Feudal system and working throughout the period of the Crusades, Chivalry performed a most important office in settling the civilization of Europe upon its present basis. The knight by his own force gained his distinc- tion, and his aim at first was to promote justice and gallantry, but the Crusades gave him the no- bler purpose to defend God's laws against the Infidel, — a purpose which, to his credit be it said, he seems to have accepted with alacrity, and to have cheerfully battled for it against any odds. There was in early times no particular ceremony required in making a knight, any one already admitted to the order being authorized to confer its privileges upon proper subjects. The greater the rank and prowess of the knight who conferred them, the more highly were they appreciated by the recipient. Though chivalry and its usages were thus simple at first, they became very complicated and ceremonious, and, though possessing no religious character, they were at a later period completely imbued with it. The spirit of chivalry demanded of the knight the practice of loyalty to his superiors, liberality to his dependents, and of courtesy and justice to all. When its usages had been framed into a system it was continued and encouraged by the education given to the young knight, by the gay scenes of the tournaments, which were wonderfully attractive in the Middle Age, by the privileges accorded to the knights, and by its connection with military service. The Crusades, 65 From it sprung the religious military orders, such as the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, also called Knights of Malta, or Hospitallers ; the Templars, or Knights of the Temple ; and the Teutonic Knigbls of the Hospital of St. Mary in Jerusalem. Two causes, among others, led to the decay of Chivalry ; the use of gunpowder in war, which made personal ability of little value, and difficult to guage; and the fact that the privileges of knight- hood were, on the Continent at least, almost entirely restricted to the orders of nobility, which v/eak- ened the motive that in early times stimulated the young to fit themselves for its honors. When, how- ever, chivalry disappeared, it left us as its con- sequence the gentleman and the lady, who to be perfect must be no less than the best of the knights, loyal, liberal, courteous, just, and inspired by the enthusiasm of religious faith. The true Christian gentleman and lady inherit all the virtues of chiv- alry, and practice them with an intelligence and a breadth of feeling that the men and women of the Middle Age were incapable of experiencing. The Crusades. — We are now prepared to ex- amine the "heroic event of Europe" — the Cru- sades — which were a thoroughly national event in ",ach country, as well as a universal event through- out the Continent. It is a very interesting question how the Crusades originated, and why they thus stirred up every people for so long a period. In the first place, we must remember that from 5 66 The Middle Age. the earliest Christian times the faithful had been in the habit of visiting the places in the Holy Land made sacred by the life of our Saviour, as an act of penance, a satisfaction for sin, and a means of promoting personal devotion. The empress He- lena, mother of Constantine the Great, had done this, and her pilgrimage was marked by churches that she caused to be erected. Her son built a church over the supposed site of the Holy Sepul- chre, and the number of pilgrims vastly increased. They were encouraged by every possible means, and the neglect of pilgrimages was at a later period regarded as impiety. The pilgrim received from his priest a scrip and staff, and a coarse woolen gown marked with a cross ; he was sprinkled with holy water, and ac- companied a short distance on his way by a proces- sion. He was entertained in hospitals and monas- teries erected for the purpose, and when h»e reached Palestine he visited all the places associated with our Saviour's life, miracles, and death ; he bathed in the Jordan, gathered a palm branch in the plains of Jericho, and returned satisfied that his sins were pardoned, and his virtues were increased. The numbers of pilgrims during the Middle Age were so great as to make considerable commerce, and the merchants of Genoa and Venice, as well as the Arabs in Jerusalem, derived great gain from them. The Holy City was taken by the Turks in 1073, and the Christians were taxed, plundered^ A Castle and a Palmer. 6^ persecuted, or slaughtered. Stories of these troubles were brought back by returning pilgrims, some of whom had been unable so much as to enter the city whose streets they so longed to tread, but no exaggerations were sufficient to deter the deluded people of Europe from continuing their pilgrim- ages. A Castle and a Palmer. — It was a heroic infatuation, and, that we may the more perfectly appreciate the sentiments of the people, let us enter one of their stately and picturesque abodes, and live for a few moments with them. The castle frowns from some lofty rock upon the village beneath. A broad river flows placidly by, and, like a silver band, sends back to our eyes the rays of the rising or the setting sun, and *' The air Nimbly and sweetly recommends itself Unto our gentle senses." Riding up the ascent, our horses are led by an attendant through the spacious arched doorway, and we alight in the open quadrangle. We pass through the great banqueting hall, ornamented with antlers, casques, and bucklers of various previous ages, and crowded with memories of gay and gen- erous revels, into the apartment of state. The walls are decorated with ancient arras, wrought by ancestral dames, which for generations had been carefully preserved. The floor is of polished oak. The ceiling is of the same wood paneled and dec- 68 The Middle Age. orated with gold and gorgeous colors, and emblar zoned with the arms of many a daring ancestor, and the great bay-window at the side is filled above with gayly colored glass, while through the lower parts we gain a full view of the tilt yard, where many a tournament has been held under the eyes of the ladies who stand about us now. We are in the midst of the household. The knight and his lady greet us with good cheer, and make us as familiar as the customs allow, with the sons and daughters, and with the chaplain who stands near them in the greatest humility, almost apologizing for his existence. Behind us, as we look from the window, is the great fire-place, prom- ising good cheer when winter's blasts shall roar without. Over the chimney is this motto, carved in oak, " There is only this : To fear God and keep His commandments," expressing the simple faith of the family. Suddenly a squire enters, and after a word with the knight, leads the way to the court. There, surrounded by a number of the people from the village, stands a palmer from the Holy Land. " His gaunt frame was worn with toil ; His cheek was sunk, alas the while ! And when he struggled at a smile, His eye looked haggard, wild." We are in the presence of one who has visited the holy shrines, who bears the cockle-shell on his hat, and the palm branch in his hand. His " Dieu le veult." 69 shoulder is marked with a red cross, and he is urg- ing those about him to assume it likewise. With impassioned oratory he tells the story of his pil- grimage, how passing over hundreds of miles on foot, and suffering every hardship, he at last saw the walls of the Holy City, and hoped to enter its gates and get the blessed sight of the places that had for months been the end of his earthly ambi- tion ; when, lo ! the gates swung on their huge ftinges in his face, and he was barred out, because, forsooth, he lacked the piece of gold that the greedy infidel Turk demanded of all comers. Suffering and weary he had dragged himself homeward, de- termined to tell to all the story of his wrongs, when he had met one, the Hermit Peter, a sufferer, too, who was wandering over Europe exciting all nations to rally and turn the Saracen from the rightful heritage of Christendom. Taking the red cross from Peter, our Palmer had carried abroad the fervor of his enthusiastic indignation, and now crying ^^ Dieu le vetilt /" " God wills it ! " he is urg- ing the men before us to follow in the Crusade that has been undertaken for the restoration of Jerusa- lem to Christian folk. Can we wonder, that stirred by his words, the men recollect the story of Calvary as their preach- ers have delivered it to them, and indignant at the " infidels," gladly take the cross upon their shoul- ders and join the ranks that are surging over Europe to the eastward ? No ! They have heard of the 70 The Middle Age. peace and bliss promised to the soldier in this holy war, and with the poetess of Portugal they joyfully cry, — "Well, then, let us haste to Bethlem — Thither let us haste and rest : For, of all Heaven's gifts the sweetest Here is peace — the sweetest, best." Peter THE Hermit, 1050 ?-iii5. — Our glimpse of life in a castle of the Middle Age shows us how the people were stirred to undertake the Crusades. Let us now look at the details of the struggle. Peter the Hermit, whom we have just mentioned, a native of Amiens in France, from a soldier had become a priest, and had undertaken the pilgrim- age. Paying his gold at the gate he had entered Jerusalem, and had found a home with a Christian there. At the Church of the Resurrection he one day was praying for help in the effort he purposed to make, to get the princes of the West to give him aid that he might protect the Christians of Palestine. He fell asleep, and in a vision was encouraged by the Saviour to hasten on his journey and to per- severe in his design. No doubt Peter's excited imagination led him to believe he saw this vision. Armed with a letter from Simeon, the patriarch of Jerusalem, Peter went to the Pope, Urban II., to whose eyes his recital brought tears, who imme- diately sanctioned the general scheme of the Cru- sade, and sent the Hermit to preach the deliverance of the Holy Land through all the countries of The Council of Clermont, 71 Europe. An old writer says, " We saw him at that time passing through the towns and villages, preach- ing everywhere, and the people surrounding him in crowds, loading him with presents, and celebrat- ing his sanctity with such high eulogiums, that I never remember to have seen such honors rendered to any other person. In every thing he said or did it seemed as if there was something of divine. While out of doors he wore ordinarily a woolen tunic, with a brown mantle, which fell down to his heels. He had his arms and his feet bare ; ate little or no bread, and lived upon fish and wine." Thus Peter began to preach in the year 1094. The Council of Clermont. — The next year Urban convened a council at Clermont in France, at which he made an oration setting forth the miseries of the Christians in the Holy Land, tell- ing his hearers that their brethren were trampled under the feet of infidels ; that the plains of Pales- tine, the land flowing with milk and honey, were desolated with fire, plunder, and the sword ; and that God's altar was desecrated by the gross and filthy abominations of a race of heathen. He added that the Redeemer had rendered that land illustri- ous by His advent, honored it by His residence, consecrated it by His passion, repurchased it by His death, and signalized it by His sepulture. " From you," said he, " above all people she looks for com- fort, and she hopes for aid. Take, then, the road before you \v. expiation of your sins, and ^p^ as* 72 The Middle Age. sured that after the honor of this work shall have passed away, imperishable glory shall await you even in the kingdom of heaven ! " Then it was that, interrupting the prelate in his speech, the peo- ple at once exclaimed in various dialects, " God wills it ! " and he, taking advantage of the fact, gave them the words as their future battle-cry. The Truce of God, — The first result of the ex- citement before the first Crusade, was the exten- sion of the Truce of God. This institution was an effort on the part of the Church to mitigate the evils arising from the private wars of feudal times. After the famine of 1028-1030, the bishop of Aquitaine proclaimed a universal peace, but as it could not be enforced, it was limited to the seasons of Advent, Lent, the days from Thursday evening to Sunday evening of each week, and to certain festivals. The Council of Clermont now extended the periods to the time from Advent to Epiphany, and from Lent to eight days after Whitsuntide. By thus taking advantage of the fact that the people's attention was attracted to other than personal quarrels, a good end was accomplished. Peter's eloquence acted first upon the mass of the people, then upon the higher nobility, and at a tater period the sovereigns themselves were moved, and joined in the Crusades. First Crusade. — The final day of meeting for the first great expedition was fixed for August 15, 1096, but Peter was impatient of delay, and started, The First Crusade. 73 in company with a great rabble of ungovernable marauders directed by Walter the Penny/ess, early in the spring. The character of this company, and the acts it committed, made it impossible even to reach the Holy Land, and Peter returned melan- choly and dispirited. In spite of this discouraging event, the organized party started at the time appointed, under the com- mand of Godfrey de Bouillon^ 1058 ? - 1 100, Duke of Lorraine, who conducted his great army in admi- rable order through Hungary and entered the do- minions of the Greek emperor in the spring of 1097. Another division of this party commanded by Hugh, count of Vermandois, passed through Italy, and ar- rived at Constantinople, and joined Godfrey at Chalcedon. These were joined by forces under other commanders, among whom were Bohemond I., prince of Tarentum ; the celebrated Tancred, king of Sicily, whose virtues have been the theme of many a song; and Raymond, 1 156-1222, count of Toulouse, a proud, bold, and resolute warrior. The various divisions of the body engaged in this first Crusade remained long enough in the neighborhood of Constantinople to permit petty differences to arise which took away much of the enthusiasm with which they left their homes. After leaving Constantinople, the city of Nice was taken in 1097, after a long and difficult siege, and the army crossed the desert of Phrygia, stopping at Tar- sus, Marash and Aintab ; they arrived at Antioch, 74 The Middle Agt, which was forced to capitulate in 1098, and a great massacre ensued. The Crusaders, however, did not find peace, for they were in turn besieged, and suf- fered terribly from the Persians, who were finally discomfited. They decided to rest for a time in Antioch, and during this delay a pestilence broke out which carried off multitudes every day, and when at last the army advanced, it was in a desul- tory way, and much time was consumed in passing through Tripoli, Sidon, Acre, and Emmaus, before Jerusalem was reached. The Holy City appeared to their eyes on a beau- tiful summer morning, in the year 1099, and " All had much ado," says Fuller, in his Holy War, " to manage so great a gladness " as they experienced when faith was recompensed, hope fulfilled, and fear and doubts were no more. They knelt and prayed, they shouted, they even cast themselves down and kissed the blessed earth in their trans- ports of joy. They were hardly restrained from attempting an immediate assault, which would have been a wild and useless effort, for, as was soon apparent, the garrison was much stronger than the reduced force of the Crusaders. Jerusalem attacked. — The attack was there- fore judiciously postponed until July 14, and in the mean time all the most effective engines of war were made ready. Upon the appointed day the city witnessed one of the desperate battles of the Crusade, but night caused the hostilities to cease The Second Crusade. 75 before the city was taken. Promptly the nex morn- ing Godfrey and his army recommenced the assault, and at length he, Tancred, Raymond, and others entered the city at different points. The Turks fought at first in the streets and then retreated to the mosques, where they were followed and massa- cred in great numbers. The slaughter over, the warriors wiped the blood from their swords, and prostrating themselves with bare feet and heads at the holy places, filled the air with the sound oi hymns and prayers. Thus, begun in enthusiasm, and carried on in fit ful and distressing warfare, the bloody massacre ot the Turks successfully closed the first Crusade. Godfrey de Bouillon was made king of Jerusalem, with the title of Defender of the Holy Sepulchre. Second Crusade. — The war was still continued between the Christians and Mussulmans, and in 1 145 Europe was again aroused by entreaties from the East. Accordingly, in 1146, the saintly Bernard, 1091-1153, following the example of Peter the Her- mit, preached the second Crusade. He was an or- ator, an enthusiast, and a reformer, whose purity of life and religious zeal were very impressive in that age. He persuaded Louis VH., 1078-1137, of France, and Conrad HI., 1093-1152, of Germany, to assume the cross in person, in spite of all oppos- ►ng efibrts made by them at their respective courts. Conrad started first, and was soon followed by Louis. They took the old route through Hungary, ^6 The Middle Age. Constantinople, Nice, and Antioch. Aided by the orders of Knights Templars and Hospitallers, which had been organized in 1124 and 11 18 respectively, they made an unsuccessful attempt on Damascus, and returned to Europe in 1149. Third Crusade. — The third Crusade is more interesting than the second, from the men who were prominent in it. They were, first, the celebrated Saladin, 1137-1193, who defeated the Christians at Tiberias, July 4, 1187, stormed Jerusalem on the second of October, and took almost every fortified place in Palestine. The news of these disasters caused the death of Pope Urban III. of grief, and so thoroughly afiected his successor, Gregory VIII., that he immediately preached a new Crusade. The first to take the cross was the aged Frederic Bar- barossa, emperor of Germany, who conducted a magnificent army by the route through Hungary and Greece in 1189. His death resulted from an imprudent bath in a river, before he reached the Holy Land, and his army accomplished little after- wards. Philip II., 1 165-1223, of France, took the cross, and the redoubtable i^iiVy^^rc? I., 1157-1199, called Coeur de Lion^ did the same. They met at Vezelay in France in the summer of 1190, and marched together to Lyons, where they separated to meet again before Acre, in the summer of 1191. After a siege the Turks surrendered Acre, and the event was followed by cruel massacres of which the rec- The Assassins. jj ords of the Crusades furnish us so mrany. After the reduction of Acre, the French king, being out- shone by Richard on the field, returned to his do- minions, probably thinking that during the absence of his English rival he could obtain some advantage over him at home. Proceeding toward Jerusalem Richard's army was attacked by Saladin near Jaffa, but without success, and though the Crusaders con- tinued their march its results were unimportant, and in 1194 Richard returned to England, having accomplished little more during the four years of hia absence than to effect a truce with Saladin in 1192, by which the Christians were to be allowed access to the holy places at Jerusalem. The Assassins. — This was the period when the conscientious murderers, the Assassins, who were named from the small dagger they used called hassassm, made their appearance under the direc- tion of the " Old Man of the Mountains," or the "Ancient," their chief. They were a fanatical horde to whom their leader's word was the sole law, and they carried out his will with dauntless energy. . Fourth Crusade. — After the death of Saladin m 1 193, and the termination of the truce, the Pope, Celestine III., preached a fourth Crusade. He was only able to arouse Henry of Germany, who sent a body of his vassals to the Holy Land, where they Accomplished very little, and large numbers were slaughtered. This did not deter Pope Innocent III. from urging "^oulkes of Nueilly, an orator of less 78 The Middle Age. enthusiasm than either St. Bernard or Pete^ the Hermit, to preach in favor of the movement, nor did it hinder the French from organizing in 1202 one of the most powerful expeditions ever brought to the field of the Crusades. The expedition never reached the Holy Land, though it occupied two years in aimless war. Children's Crusade. — Following this was the strange crusade of the children in 12 12, undertaken in response to calls from the Christians for aid from Europe.^ Fifth Crusade. — The renewed efforts of Pope Innocent III. resulted in 12 17, in the fifth Crusade, which was led by Andrew II., king of Hungary, and failed. Sixth Crusade. — Frederic II., an excommuni- cated prince, grandson of Frederic Barbarossa, having, by the advice of the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, married lolante, daughter of the king of Jerusalem, started in 1228, on what is known as the sixth Crusade. He succeeded in acquiring Jerusalem, Joppa, Bethlehem, Nazareth, Acre, Tyre, Sidon, and much of the intervening ter- ritory, and crowned himself king of Jerusalem. Seventh Crusade. — The seventh Crusade was from 1248 to 1254, and was undertaken by the chivalrous warrior Louis IX. (called St. Louis of France), in consequence of a vow made during ill- ness. He led his forces first to Egypt, where he ^ See Gray's Children's Crusade. The Eighth Crusade. 79 was made prisoner by the Saracens, with twenty thousand of his army. Louis was ransomed, and spent four years in Palestine mediating between Christian and Mohammedan princes, and repairing the fortifications of those towns yet remaining in the hands of the Christians. Eighth Crusade. — Syria was, after the depart- ure of St. Louis, invaded by the Moguls, under the son and successor of Genghis Khan, who had over- run the greater part of Asia. In 1270, St. Louis, again assumed the cross, and was soon surrounded by immense numbers of those who wished to follow him to the Holy Land. Prince Edward of England, afterwards Edward I., also organized a small body for the same purposes. Louis died on the way to Palestine, but Edward reached the scene of the his- toric struggles in May, 127 1, and the very mention of his name proved a charm that healed dissensions, and caused the Christians to rally to his standard. He was weakened by a fever, and afterwards at- tacked by an assassin, and showed in each case such undaunted courage, that the Saracens were glad to make peace with him, and ratified a ten years' truce. The prince returned to England, and the eighth and last Crusade was ended. The Crusades had grown out of the spirit of Chivalry, as it was directed by the leaders of the Church. They resulted in the extension of ideas, and in greater freedom of thought, as well as in opening new channels for trade and for activity 8o The Middle Age. in other directions, and the enlargement of the social sphere. In short, they were expanding in- fluences in every line of human thought and activ- ity. Guizot says the Crusades also caused a change in the elements of the social state, by re- ducing the ruling forces and chief agents in history, from the clergy, kings, citizens, husbandmen, and serfs, to only the government and the nation. The individualism of the barbarians had been modified, and the Roman and Grecian ideas of the Nation and of government had been also modified, and we now have neither absolute despotism nor perfect democracy, but limited monarchies and republics. Though the Crusades were over, the spirit of Chivalry was by no means lost or dead. Its most brilliant period in England, as we shall see, was from 1300 to 1400, during the reigns of the three Edwards and Richard the Second. MODERN EV] Italy. 1054. Pope Leo IX. died. 1073. Wars of Investitures. 1073. Hildebrand became Pope. 1085. Hildebrand died. 1 1 20. Rise of Lombard cities. 1 125. Venetian Wars. 1 144. Lombardian Wars. 1 1 54. Wars of Frederic I. 1 183 Peace of Constance. 1236. War of Frederic II. be- gun- 1265. Dante born ; died 1321. 1282 Sicilian Vespers. 1304. Popes at Avignon till 141S. 1304. Petrarch born ; died 1374. 1313. Boccaccio born; died 1375- 1350. Civil wars — till 1500. 144S. Lorenzo de' Medici. 1452. Savonarola born; died 149S. 1475. Leo X. born ; died 1521. 1483. Raphael born ; died 1520. 1508. League of Cambray against Venice. »-. 1531. Leo X. Pope. 152 J. Wars of Charles V. in Italy. 1540. Order of Jesuits founded. 1693. 1701. 1706. 1796. 1797. 1798. Duke of Savoy defeated at Rlarsaglia by the French. War of Spanish Succes- sion. Battle of Turin. Napoleon invaded Italy. Treaty of CamjJO P'ormio. Pius VI. deposed by Na- poleon. 1800. Napoleon crossed the Alps. 1805. Beauhamals Viceroy. 1830. Mazzini led Young Italy. 1859-60. Victor Emmanuel's ^ campaigns. 1865. Florence made the capital. 1870. Rome made the capital. Germany. 1017. Henry in. born ; d. 1056. 1050. Henry IV. born ; d. 1106. 1076. Henry IV. deposed. 1084. Henry IV. took Rome. 1 121. Frederic Bavbarossa. 113S. Hoheustau'eii Dynasty. 1 140. Battle of Weinsberg. 1163. Berlin founded. 1195. Two Sicilies acquired. 1273. House of Hapsburg. 12S2. The Sicilian Vespers. 1356. The Golden Bull made the fundamental law of Germany by Charles IV 414. Council of Constnnce- 438 House of Austria. 4S3. Martin Luther born. 4SS. Suabian League. 508- League of Cambray. 517. The Reformation began. ^21. Diet of Worms. Peasants' War. Augsburg Confession. League of Smalcald. 525 5.30 531 618. Thirty Years' War begun. 620. Battle of Prague. 632. Battle of Lutzen. ;C>4S. Peace of Westphalia. 678. Peace of Nimeguen. 697. Peace of Ryswick. 704. Battle of Blenheim. 713. Peace of Utrecht. 714. Peace of Radstadt. 716. l>attle of Belgrade. 722. Pragmatic Sanction. 756. Seven Years' War began. 757. Battle of Prague. 797. Frederic William III. 805. Batde of AusterlitK. 813. Rising against France. Si 5. Bldcher at Waterloo. S30. Francis Joseph born. S48. Popular agitation S61. William I. enthroned 866. German-Italian War 870. War with France France 035. The Truce of God. 073- Jerusalem taken by Turks 096. First Crusade. 099' Jerusalem taken 146 Second Crusade, preach- ed by St. Bernard 1S7. Third Crusade. 195. Fourth Crusade, preach- ed by Foulkes 20S. Albigensian Crusade 217. Fifth Crusade 228. Sixih Crusade 24S. Sex'enth Crusade 270. Eighth Crusade 328. House of Valois 338. Hundred Years' War. 340. Battle of Sluys. 346. French defeated at Crecy. 356. At Poictiers. 358. The Jacquerie arose 415. Battle of Agincourt. 429. Jeanne d'Arc at Orleans. 451 English expelled from France. 496. Charles VIII. lost Naples 515. Absolute Monarchy. 513. Battle of the Spurs. 562. Huguenots take up arms. 572. St. Bartholomew's Day. 5S9. House of Bourbon. 590. Battle of Ivry. 6to. Henry IV. murdered. 620. Navarre annexed to France. 628. Rochelle taken. 629. Riciielieu's administra'n. 648. Wars of the Fronde. 685. Edict of Nantes revoked. 697 Peace of Ryswick. 715. Louis XIV. died. 74S. Treaty of Aix-la-Cha- pelle. 763. Peace of Paris. 789. National Assembly. 792. Days of September. 795. The Directory. 799. The Consulate. S04. The Empire established by Napoleon. 514. Bourbons restored. 830. House of Orleans 84S. Republic S32. The Empire re\aved. 870. War with Prussia- 573. Napoleon III. died rs. 1 000-1874. Various Countries Kingdom of Aragon. Bohemia conquered. Poles in Hungary. Crusaders took Nice Knights Hospitallers Knights Temjilars. David I. of Scotland Kingdom of Granada. Tart.irs in Poland. Baliol and Bruce contend. Scotland devastated by Edward I Battle of Morgarten. John of Bolieniia killed Moscow burned. Tamerlane in Russia The Calmar Union Tamerlane overran Syria. Cardinal Ximines born. Ferdinand and Isabella. Inquisition in Spain- Charles I. of Spain. Gustavus Vasa crowned. Philip II. crowned. War in the Netherlands Pacification of Ghent- Dutch Republic founded Quebec settled. Gustavus Adolphus be- gan to reign Battle of LUtzen. Christina crowned Peter the Great crowned Charles XII. born Battle of Blenheim. St. Petersburg founded. War between France and Poland. Godoy of Alcudia bom. The Hats and Caps sub- verted. Belgium given to France. . Battle of Copenhagen Netherlands united. Belgium independent Maximilian accepted the crown of Mexico. , Amadeus accepted the Spanish crown. Oscar 11. of Sweden. England. 1002. Massacre of St. Brice. 1013. The Danish Dynasty. 1042. The Saxons restored. 1066. The Norman line. T154. The Plantagenets. 1189. Richard I. CceurdeLion 215. The Magna Charta signed 262. The Barons' War. 265. r>attle of Evesham. 284. Prince of Wales created. 314. Battle of Bannockburn. 328. Chaucer born ; died, 1400. 346. Battle of Crecy. 356. Battle of Poictiers. 3S4. John Wiclif died. 399- House 0/ Lancaster- 450. Jack Cade's insurrection. 455. Wars of the Roses begun. 461. House of York. 485. The House of Tudor, 456. Star Chamber Court. 509. Henry VIII. 513. Battle of Flodden. 536. Monasteries destroyed. 547. l>attle of Pinkie Cleugh. 558, Elizabeth came to throne. 564. Puritan party formed. 603. The House of Stuart. 605. Gunpowder Plot. 611. Bible revised. 639. The National Covenant. 649. The Commonwe.\lth. 66o. The Stuarts restored. 679. Habeas Corpus Act. 689. Stt^art and Nassau. 702. War with France. 714. House of Brunswick. 715. South Sea Bubble. 746. Battle of Culloden. 757. Victory at Plassy in India. 775. War w'ith the U. S. 7S3. Peace of Paris. 798 Battle of the Nile. 805 Battle of Trafalgar. 80S. Peninsular War begun. 829. Romanists relieved. 537. Victoria crowned. S54. Crimean War. 856. War in China and Persia. 857. War in India, massacres. S72. Conference of Geneva The United States. looi. Norsemen said to have discovered America. 1492. Columbus at the Bahamas 1497. Cabot visited Labrador. 1501. Portuguese in America. 1504. The French in America. 1513. Ponce de Leon in Florida 1534. Cartier visited Canada. 1531. Pizarro at Panama. 1536. Cortez in California. 1603. Champlain in Canada- 1607. Jamestown founded. 1620. New England settlements 1636. Rhode Island settled. 1660. Mississi]-)iii discovered. 1675. King Philip's War. 1689- King William's War. 1690. First American Congres3- 1702. Queen Anne's War. 1744. King George's War. 1754. French and Indian War 1759- Quebec taken by Wolfe- 1770. Boston Massacre. 1775- Revolutionary War. _ 17S1. Battle of Eutaw Springs 1787. Constitution framed. 181 2- War with Great Britain. 1815. Hartford Convention. 1S20. Missouri Comi)romise 1822. Monroe Doctrine. 1846 Mexican War- 1S54. Compronn'se repealed 1861-1865. Civil War. i86g. Pacific Railroad finished CHAPTER VII. ITALY. TALY, the home of the arts, the patron of literature, renowned for its bright skies, balmy air, and charming landscapes, pro- tected on the one side by the majestic Alps, and washed on the other by the blue waves of the Med- iterranean, presents us a history marked by a suc- cession of struggles, that appear even at the pres- ent moment to be undecided. Presenting us on one hand republics loving lib- erty, it gives us also examples of monarchies the most absolute. Now we see a number of independ- ent cities bound by a feudal league, and again all ties are sundered, and in the confusion that ensues we find no clew to lead us to an understanding of the true state of the civil affairs. Always a people marked by traits essentially its own, it is never a homogeneous nation governed by one sovereign, and obeying one set of laws. Its history is intri- cate and involved, and refuses to be divided into any but the most fragmentary periods, which de- pend upon no grand idea, and apparently add noth- ing to man's capability for improvement and growth. Even its units — its states, republics, and cities, we 6 82 Italy, find are rent with internal dissensions which, upon the approach of danger, only increase in violence, the people growing more bitter in their mutual hate, instead of making common cause against the threatening foe. The seat of a Church, the clergy of which, in the middle ages, formed almost the only educated class, and kept the lamp of learning aglow during the thousand years of darkness and ignorance. It is from this country that England received its great literary impulse at the time of Elizabeth, for civilization, literature and art were more early developed in Italy than in any other part of Western Europe. " Now tell us what is Italy ? " men ask : And others answer, "Virgil, Cicero, Catullus, Csesar." What beside ? To task The memory closer, — " Why, Boccaccio, Dante, Petrarca." The Popes. — ^ Besides the want of political unity in Italy, the student is embarrassed in attempting a clear general view of its history by the fact that a line of more than two hundred and fifty pope::, reaching from the earliest date to the present time, has exercised both spiritual and temporal authority, thus complicating the events in a way that we do not find paralleled in any other country. These have, however, in some instances added to the material prosperity of Italy, and through her, of the world, as we shall see. Early History. — The history of Italy is the continuation of that of Rome after the dismember- ment of the empire in 476. Odoacer, who called Early History. 83 himself king of Italy, was slain after a reign of thirteen years, during which he showed himself more mild and judicious than we are wont to im- agine the " barbarians " to have been. Theodoric, king of the Ostro-Goths (Eastern Goths, as distin- guished from the Visi-Goths, or Western Goths) followed, but was conquered by the Byzantines, who ruled the land by Exarchs, or viceroys, until 568, when the Longobards (long beards) made an invasion, and established in northern Italy a pow- erful kingdom, governed by feudal and Teutonic institutions. Venice, Rome, Ravenna, and lower Italy, however, retained their independence. Thus at this early date the country was partly free and partly controlled by foreign influence. In 754 the Lombards were overcome by King Pepin of France, who annexed the kingdom to the Frankish empire, and gave Ravenna to the pope. Twenty years later his son Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of Italy, and for a little more than a generation the Carlovingian dynasty ruled. In 951 Otho I., king of Germany, conquered Lom- bardy, and in 961 was crowned Roman emperor, and for half a century the German dominion was comparatively undisturbed, though the Saracens had entered southern Italy in 842, and having been overcome by the Byzantines, that portion of the country was ruled by the Eastern empire for about a century. During this period the sovereigns were endeavor- 84 Italy. ing to restrict the power of the ecclesiastics, and thus an antagonism was cultivated, which the clergy fostered, resulting in frequent insurrections and civil wars. The family of Este grew strong, and laid the foundation of the subsequent influence of the Guelfs in Italy and Germany. From the Guelf branch the Brunswick line of British sovereigns is descended. The eleventh century is marked by the expulsion of the Saracens from southern Italy by the Nor- mans, and by the remarkable pontificate of Gregory VII., better known by his surname, Hildebrand. HiLDEBRAND, 1073-1085. — This pope, though a native of Rome, was educated in the schools of the celebrated monastery of Cluny, and there acquired the habits of austerity which characterized him through life. At the request of Pope Leo IX., 1002-1054, he left this retreat, and became very influential at the Vatican. He was crowned pope, July 10, 1073, and immediately began a life-long struggle against the rights of " investiture" of the clergy by temporal princes, which he considered the source of simony, and of many other evils under which Europe was then groaning. It had been customary for feudal lords to " invest " the ecclesi- astical dignitaries with their authority by the formal presentation of a ring and a shepherd's crook, just as the lay vassals received a banner as the mark of their allegiance, and Hildebrand wisely thought that if the pope were the one to give the ring and the crook to priests, his authority would be much Hil deb rand. 85 greater over them. Then too, he would always be able to use the priests against the temporal princes, and as these facts were well understood, the con- flicts about " investitures " very naturally arose. Hildebrand strove with great energy to enforce the details of discipline, and issued sentence against prominent offenders in Germany. His interference with Henry IV., 1050-1106, led that monarch to declare Gregory deposed, and the pope in return excommunicated the emperor. Though Henry pretended to think lightly of this act, public opinion forced him to seek absolution, and the haughty pope obliged him to stand barefoot and clothed only in the hair-cloth shirt of the pen- itent, exposed to the inclemency of the weather without his castle walls, in January, 1077, for three days, before the bar of excommunication was re- moved. The pope's treatment so exasperated Henry that he proclaimed a new pope, and, after a siege of three years, took possession of Rome. Hildebrand found safety in the castle St. Angelo, but the wretched condition of the city so deeply affected him that he died, May 25, 1085. His last words were, " I have loved justice and hated wick- edness : therefore I die in exile." His leading idea was that the spiritual power, being the highest in Christian society, ought to rule ; and in carrying out this view he used both spiritual and carnal arms^; he made the priesthood more dependent upon and tributary to the pope than it had been; and he 86 Italy. without doubt expected Rome to rule the world by the power of religion. Rise of Cities. — After the death of Hildebrand Italy was agitated with disputes about " investitures '* for many years, during which the power of the popes waned, and the free cities, which are in some respects to be likened to those of ancient Greece, arose. Besides Genoa, Venice, and Modena, there are in the region about Milan, Pavia, Brescia, Man- tua, and Lodi, the ancient seats of liberty. About Verona, are Vincenza, Padua, and Trevisa. About Bologna, are Imola, Faenza, and Ferrara. The cities of Tuscany group themselves about Florence and Pisa. Further south are Rome and Naples. These cities were frequently at war with each other with varying results, but still they rivaled kingdoms in the extent of their commerce and manufactures, their progress in art and science, the magnificence of their public edifices, and the greatness of their public and private wealth. GuELFS AND Ghibellines. — Milan became the centre of the league of the Lombard cities and the popes, against the efforts of the family of Hohen- staufen (called also the house of Suabia) of Ger- many, of which was Frederic I., 1121-1190, called Barbarossa. Those taking the emperor's side were called Ghibellines, from Waibling, the original seat of his dynasty ; and the pope's partisans Guelfs, from the Bavarian dynasty of Welf, the most power- ful opponents of the imperial rule in Germany. Af The Two Sicilies. 87 a later period the Guelfs became the leaders of the aristocratic, and the Ghibellines of the popular party. Arnold of Brescia, a disciple of Abelard, distin- guished for a persuasive eloquence, was the first to oppose the power that Hildebrand had set up. He preached with vigor and wit against the union of secular and religious offices, declaring the antago- nism of the Church to the world. He was one of the reformers before the Reformation, a class to which Savonarola, 1452-1498, Huss, i376?-i4i5, and Wiclif, 1524? -1384, in their several countries, belonged, and being in advance of his age, a most atrocious wickedness, he was hanged in the Piazza del Popolo at Rome, his ashes being thrown into the Tiber to hinder " the stupid people from wor- shiping his relics." The Two Sicilies. — The island of Sicily and the kingdom of Naples, called the Two Sicilies, were conquered about the beginning of the eleventh century by the Normans, who came in great num- bers to fight as mercenaries. In 1195 they were united to the dominions of the Hohenstaufens, but in 1258 they came again under the rule of Charles of Anjou, count of Provence, brother of Louis IX. of France. This prince was hated by the Italians, and a conspiracy against him was ripe, when on Easter Monday, March 30, 1282, as the French were engaged in festivities, one of their soldiers was rude to a Sicilian bride who passed him. This enraged a 88 Italy. young Sicilian, who stabbed the Frenchman, j^nd a tumult ensued resulting in the massacre of eight thousand of the Frenchmen. It was called the Sicilian Vespers, from the fact that the first stroke of the vesper bell was to have been the signal for the beginning of the murderous work. After this event, the Two Sicilies passed through changing fortunes, being at one time together, at another sep- arated ; once under the Spanish monarchy (1501) ; then under the French again (1806) ; afterwards under Ferdinand IV. of Spain (1815) j and undei Austria, in 1820. In 1847, upon the election of Pope Pius IX., insurrections broke out in Sicily. Palermo rose in 1848, and then followed the mer- ciless bombardments of Ferdinand I., that gave him the sobriquet Bomba. In i860, Sicily claimed in- dependence, and Garibaldi, 1807-1882, sailing from Genoa, on the sixth of May of that year, carried it the aid that enabled it to defeat the king, Francis II. Garibaldi entered the capital on the seventh of September, and on the twenty-first of October the people, by an almost unanimous ballot, voted in favor of the annexation of the Two Sicilies to the new kingdom of Italy. Garibaldi resigned his powers to Victor Emmanuel, and retired to Caprera. Popes at Avignon. — A notable event in the his- tory of the popes, is their residence at Avignon, in France, from 1304 to 1418. Clement V., 1264-1314, was raised to the papacy through the influence of the powerful Philip le bel, 1268-1314, of France, Popes at Avignon. 89 and it was the same monarch who led him to take the unprecedented step of removing the papal chair to Avignon. Five popes made the same place their residence from 1309 to 1377, and during the great schism from 1378 to 1418, one of the rival popes al- ways resided there. It was a brilliant period in the history of the city, on account of the fact that sover- eigns came there to be crowned, which also brought many other visitors. It was there that Petrarch saw his Laura, whom he has immortalized in sonnets. The rapacity of the popes at this time caused much investigation of their claims to temporal sovereignty, and hastened the decadence of their power. Venice rose into distinction as a republic early in the fourteenth century, as Genoa was losing her po- litical independence, though the Venetians boast immemorial freedom. The city was a commercial power before Genoa and Pisa had entered mercan- tile pursuits, and she was in a position to be en- riched by the Crusades. Civil Wars. — For a century and a half, or from 1350 to 1500, there is no general history of Italy, for the cities were ruled by local families, and the period is marked by a succession of dissensions and civil wars. Early Literature. — The first period of the liter- ary history of Italy includes Dante, 12 05-1 3 21, author of the Divine Comedy ; Petrarch, 1304-13 74, the lyric poet; and Boccaccio, I3i3~i375> author of the Decafneron, in prose. It is interesting to us be* 90 Italy. cause our Chancer visited Italy, is supposed to have seen Petrarch, and was at least much influenced by the literature of the country. The de' Medici Family. — After a brief decline the literature of Italy revived and enjoyed a bril- liant period under the de' Medici family. Rising to distinction by commerce, this family became the patrons of art and literature, prominent politicians, and occupants of the papal chair. Cosmo de' Med- ici, 1389-1464, inherited vast wealth and many honors from his father Giovanni, was called the Father of his Country, and began the remarkable epoch of the family. His life was an almost unin- terrupted career of prosperity. He invited to his court many Greek scholars who had been driven from Constantinople at its fall, by the Turks, and gave them a liberal support. He founded an acad- emy for the study of the philosophy of Plato, and a library of Greek, Latin, and Oriental manuscripts, which inaugurated a new era in modern learning and art His grandson, Lorenzo the Magnificent^ 1448-1492, pursued the same course, and so far succeeded in popularizing voluptuous refinement, and in smothering personal independence, that a re- action began under the lead of Girolamo Savonarola, 1452-1498. This preacher was so eloquent, enthusi- astic, direct, spiritual, and earnest, that the whole city of Florence was excited. Dissipation ceased, gold and ornaments were sacrificed by the women, licen- tious books were burned, and the overthrow of the The Revival of Letters. 91 Medici seemed certain. The result was, however, the martyrdom of Savonarola, who must be looked upon as a forerunner of the great Reformation. The Revival of Letters. — Upon the death of Lorenzo, Italy was invaded by Charles VIII., 1470- 1498, of France, and the Medici were banished until 15 13, when Giovanni was made pope, as Leo X., 1475-152 1, and the family was restored to its former splendor. This pontiff endeavored to unite the princes of Christendom against the Turks, and to drive the French and Spaniards from Italy. During his occupancy of the papal chair the Ref- ormation in Germany occurred, 15 17, in connection with which he has been accused by the Protestants of obstinate refusal to settle disputed points peace- fully, and by Catholics of a want of forcible prompt action which might, they judge, have checked the movement in the outset. Leo encouraged Raphael, 1483-1520, the artist, and Michael Angelo, 1474-1564, whose artistic genius had been awakened in the Platonic academy of Lorenzo de' Medici, by the opportunities he there enjoyed of studying the antique sculpture that formed the germ of the Florentine gallery. Raphael had exercised his genius upon the great cathedral of St. Peter's, but dying in 1520, the work was car- ried forward by Michael Angelo, who also died long before its completion. To collect money for ihe completion of this building, Leo published an .ndulgence to all who should contribute for the pur- 92 Italy. pose, and fulfill other conditions. It was this that brought Luther into open conflict with the papacy and gave him the immediate incentive to attack the spiritual supremacy. In literature this was the age of the historian Guicciardini, 1482-1540, and of Machiavelli, 1469- 1527 j of the poet Ariosto, 1474-1533, author of Orlando Fiirioso ; of Vittorio Colonna, 1490-1547, the so called " divine," by whose death-bed Michael Angelo mourned ; and of many other authors of less note. This literary life in Italy exerted a pow- erful influence upon English authors, and a brilliant period in England followed, adorned by William Shakespeare and others. Leo X. offered rewards for the discovery of an- cient manuscripts, increased the library of the Vati- can, published Pagnini's version of the Bible, and in other ways, practicable only to a powerful sov- ereign, advanced literature, science, and art. From the death of Leo X. to the year 1700, Italy was at peace, and its various states pursued com- mercial traffic and industry, though upon a more restricted scale than formerly, for, among other reasons, the discovery of the eastern route around the Cape of Good Hope, by Vasco da Gama in 1497, had changed the currents of trade. During a part of the reign of Louis XIV., from 1675 ^^ 1696, France held Savoy and Piedmont, and the earlier years of the next century Austria and Spain obtained rights over other portions of Napoleoiis Campaign:*. 93 the country. The Medici and Farnese families be- came extinct, and the political and social life of the people became apathetic and degraded. Napoleon's Campaigns. — We are now approach- ing the period of Napoleon's, 1769-182 1, campaigns. Just after his marriage with Josephine, in 1796, he started to undertake the conquest of Upper Italy from the Austrians. He was successful, and in a few weeks compelled Sardinia to implore peace, drove the Austrians to the Tyrol, took possession of Milan, Mantua, and the principal cities of Lom- bardy, sent to France fifty millions of francs, and commissioned a body of savans to collect for trans- portation the artistic treasures of northern and central Italy. This was followed by three other campaigns, and by the treaty of Campo Formio^ signed October 17th, 1797, which gave Lombardy and other smaller tributaries to France. Thus the Cisalpine republic was formed of Milan, Mantua, and parts of Parma and Modena. In 1798 Genoa became the Ligurian republic, and the Papal States the Roman republic. In 1799, Naples be- came the Parthenopean republic. When, however. Napoleon was busy with his Egyptian campaigns, Italy was taken from him by the Austrians, Turks, Russians, and British, and this led him to enter upon the memorable campaign of 1800, by the magnificent passage over the Alps, »vhich resulted in a restatement of the former treaty, at Luneville, February 9, 1801. In 1809, 94 Italy. Austria made another advance against Napoleon in Italy, but being repulsed, his supremacy was not contested until his power had been weakened in the Russian campaign of 1814. After Napoleon's fall the entire country was divided anew, and the Papal States reverted to the Pope, the kingdom of Naples to the Bourbons, and the Lombardo- Venetian king- dom to Austria. The Spirit of Revolution. — Oppression fol- lowed this restoration of the former rulers, and a reaction resulted of a very grave nature. The Car- bonari (charcoal-burners), a secret political society, was formed, and it is said that in March, 1820, six hundred and fifty thousand members had been initiated. • The order almost entirely disappeared from Italian and European history after the French revolution of 1830. They demanded constitutional rights, and leaned more and more towards republicanism, though they seemed to have had no idea of a united national life. In 1830 the French Revolution incited Giuseppe Mazzini, 1808-1872, a young patriot who had just reached his majority, to instigate political conspira- cies, and to suggest the idea of a nation to Charles Albert, 1 798-1849, father of Victor Emmanuel, 1821-1878, when he came to the throne of Pied- mont in 1 83 1. Mazzini put himself at the head of a league formed from the Carbonari, called Young Italy, the object of which was the formation of a re- publican nation. This led to a still greater associa- The Spirit of Revolution. 95 tion called Young Europe, which summoned all the continental nations to rise at once against the des- potic rulers. Mazzini imposed upon all members faith in God as the supreme ruler of the universe, in His laws as the expression of His will, and in humanity as the sole interpreter of those laws. He desired the people to supplant the kings, — freedom to take the place of servitude, — equality to replace monopoly, and intelligent religious ideas to triumph over mediaeval ecclesiasticism. Freedom, love, unity, religion — these were words he often used, and used properly. He was not able to live in Italy, and resided in Paris, Geneva, and London, until he was permitted under an assumed name to return to his native country, where he died in 187 1. In 1840 he founded in London a Sunday-school for Italian children, in which he was one of the teachers. In 1846, Pope Pius IX. entered upon his long pontificate, and his wise and liberal measures gave rise to hopes that proved unfounded. Disappoint- ment resulted, and the great revolution of 1848 was inaugurated in Sicily, Milan, Naples, Piedmont^ and Rome, and concessions were made to the people. Charles Albert became the champion of national independence, and even the pope gave his blessing to the volunteers who went to his army in Lom- bardy. Suddenly, however, Pius IX. changed his mind, and censured what he now called an "unjust and hurtful war." The revolution went forward, \he pope fled to Gaeta, and Mazzini was piu- 9^ Italy. claimed president of the republic of Rome, Feb- ruary 8, 1849. In July, however, he was obliged to withdraw, and sailed for Marseilles without a passport, and went thence to Lausanne, Switzerland. A period of terrible tryanny followed, and the dun- geons of Naples and Rome witnessed shocking cruelties. In 1859, Victor Emmanuel, who had succeeded his father to the throne of Sardinia in 1849, proclaimed his intention to aid in the deliverance of Italy from the yoke of Austria. In 1855 he had won laurels at the battle of Tchernaya in the Crimean war, in 1859 he had married his daughter Clotilde to Prince Napoleon, and now forming an alliance with Napoleon III., he opened the campaign against Austria. The two princes entered Milan together after the battle of Magenta, June 4, 1859, and sub- sequently the Austrians were defeated at Soiferino, which led to the peace of Villafranca, July 11, 1859, and ended the war. By the vote of the people, Tuscany, Parma, Modena, Sicily, Naples, and the Papal States, except Rome, were annexed to Sardinia. Garibaldi directed the revolution of the Two Sicilies, and entered Naples with Victor Emmanuel, November 7, i860, and in the follow- ing February the Italian senate gave the title of King of Italy to Victor Emmanuel. The capital was removed to Florence in 1865, and subsequently, in 1870, to Rome. By these movements the pope lost his temporal power. Pius IX. died in 1878, and was succeeded by Leo XIII. Italy, 97 Victor Emmanuel closed the convents and mon- asteries in the city of Rome, and reduced the mu- nicipal affairs to order. He proved himself an enlightened and judicious ruler. On the death of Victor Emmanuel, in 1878, his eldest son took the throne as Humbert II. Thus we have traced the outline of the history of Italy from the destruction of the empire, through its various fortunes, — its depressions and eleva- tions — its revolutions, and its oppression, until we find it assuming more the appearance of a homo- geneous nation than it has had since the days of the Caesars. CHAPTER Vlir. GERMANY. TO THE END OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN DYNASTY, I254. OR many reasons the history of Germany possesses a special interest to us. The people who overcame the Roman empire were mainly of German origin, and so also were the Angles and other tribes which crossed the Channel and helped to build up the British nation. Their individualism was the foundation of the love and establishment of personal liberty, so important an element in English and American civilization. Our sources of information respecting the early history of the German tribes are hardly trustworthy, being native tradition and Latin historians, the one from its very nature indefinite and tending toward exaggeration — the other possessing but little facility for obtaining correct statements of fact, and having a want of the proper appreciation of a people whom they were fain to deem barba- rians with few virtues that a Roman ought to re- spect. In early times the nation was characterized by a love of nature and manly exercise ; while at pres- German Dynasties. 99 ent, enjoying the blessing of a healthy physical constitution, its people carry the cultivation of the mind to such an extent that they are said to sepa- rate ideas from facts, in the subtlety of their met- aphysical refinements. Their early literature was uttered, first by the bards in war-songs and tradi- tions ; next, by the clergy in the school and mon- astery ; and then by princes and minnesingers. When the Reformation wrought its intellectual as well as spiritual regeneration, German literature be- came national, and the language was permanently cry'stallized in the simple grandeur of Luther's translation of the Bible. This period was followed by scores of years mainly noteworthy for their barrenness, and then there came a poetic and philosophic revival that gave German literature its most brilliant names, and extended its influence throughout France, England, and America, with a power that has not since been weakened. The Ger- man mind claims our homage, whether we look at its attainments in the domain of poetry, prose, the drama, science, philosophy, or the arts, an homage that we, in whose veins flows Teutonic blood, ought not to be slow in bestowing. Dynasties. — Since the overthrow of Rome, six principal dynasties have controlled the destinies of the German empire, — the Carlovingian (48 1-5 11); the Saxon (919-1024) ; the Franconian (1024^ 1 125); the Suabia7i (from the ancient Suevi), or Hohenstaufen (i 138-1254) ; the house of Hapslmrg LofC. 100 Germany. with interruptions (12 73-1 438) ; and the house of Austria (143 8- 1873). The Ancient Germans. — When the Romans conquered Gaul they heard of a people beyond the Rhine whom they called Germani, probably because they were a pure and unmixed race. They are de- sciibed as having gigantic and powerful bodies, bioad and strong chests, yellow hair, white skin, aud piercing blue eyes. The children were almost naked, and even the adults of both sexes left the greater portion of their hardy bodies uncovered, their usual dress being a broad short mantle fast- ened by a girdle, or the skins of wild animals. They loved the freedom of the open country, and did not even build connecting villages, but engaged in their favorite occupations of war and the chase, leaving the pursuits of the agriculturist and the herdsman, as well as domestic occupations, to the women, who in many cases pursue them still. It is said that the men venerated the mothers of their children, but they did not entertain for them the more delicate and gallant sentiments so prominent among the more chivalric Romance nations. It would not be worth our time to attempt to trace, even in outline, the early history of the tribes that are called German, of which the names of more than fifty are recorded. They were nominally sub- iected to Rome by Julius Caesar and the generals of Augustus, but when the attempt was made to con- vert this nominal dominion into a real possession^ The Migration of Nations. loi evtri the name of dominion was lost, and the Romans under Varrus were defeated in the Teu- toburger forest by the Germans under a young and valiant leader named Herman?!, a. d. 9. Other armies were sent from Rome to meet a like defeat, 1 and the father-land was left free forever from Roman' rule. The Migration of Nations. — Towards the end of the fourth century, when Valens, 328 ?-378, was emperor of the East at Constantinople, the Huns^ a tribe of Mongolian origin, until then un- Aeard of, came into Europe from the frontiers of China, by way of the Sea of Azov, and began what IS called the Migration of nations. They first over- came the Goths, and for half a century occupied themselves in hunting, pasturage, and pillage, in what is now southern Russia, Poland, and Hungary. Here they came in contact with the Romans, and lost some of their original brutality and savage fierceness. We have already learned how the Huns, led by Attila, devastated the Roman territory, and threatened the capital itself, a. d. 452, before the death of their chief checked their progress, and led, subsequently, to the loss of the whole tribe in the pastoral lands of southern Russia. The other tribes who, during the migration of nations, overran Europe, were the Vandals under Genseric, the Ostro- Goths ox East Goths, whose great leader was Theodoric ; and the Visi-Goths or West Goths, who included the Franks and BurgundianSj I02 Germajiy. their greatest leader being Alaric, who died in 410. The homes of the former were at first on the shores of the Black Sea, whither they are supposed to have gone from near the Baltic, while the West Goths lived in the Dacian province, and on the banks of the Danube. Under the teaching of their renowned bishop, Ulfilas, 3ii?-38i, most of the Goths be- came converts to Christianity at some date not far from A. D. 350. The Mceso- Goths, of whom histo- rians speak, were those who, under the protection of Rome, settled in Moesia, and devoted themselves to the peaceful pursuits of agriculture. The Vandals were considered by Pliny to be one with the Goths. They first appeared on the north- ern coasts of Germany whence they migrated, first to the south-east, then, at about a. d. 400, passed over Germany, and crossed the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Pyrenees into Spain. They went into Africa, a. d. 429, and founded a powerful kingdom which was utterly destroyed by the Romans a. d. 535. They had previously (a. d. 455) sacked Rome, and the manner in which they injured and destroyed works of art there, gave rise to the term vandalism. The Visi- Goths and i\\Q Ostro- Goths were dis- tinguished about the year 330. The former, under Alaric, invaded Greece, pillaged Rome, a. d. 410, extended their sovereignty into France and Spain, and became somewhat civilized. They declined under the successors of Alaric, before the Franks, The Migration of Nations. 103 and were finally conquered by Clovis, a. d. 507, a line of Visi-Gothic kings, however, ruled in Spain down to the year 711. The Ostro- Goths made frequent incursions into Roman territory alone, and hi conjunction with the Visi-Goths. In 2i^6 they were severely defeated by the Romans in attempting to cross the Danube, and afterwards settled in Phrygia and Lydia. In 450-453 they were with the Huns on the occasion of the great expedition of Attila against Gaul, and thousands perished at the battle of Chalons-sur- Marne, 451. They afterwards settled in Pannonia, and threatened the Eastern empire. After ravaging eastern Europe they established themselves under Theodoric in Italy, their kingdom there lasting from 493 to 553. The emperor Justinian put an end to their power, a. d. 553, and they disappeared from history, having been absorbed with the Huns, Van- dals, Burgundians, and Franks in an indiscriminate mass. It is worth noting that Boethius, 470-524, the Roman philosopher, who wrote The Consolations of Philosophy^ and was much venerated during the Middle Age, was a favorite of Theodoric. Boethius was executed by that king after an imprisonment at Pavia. The Burgundians were at first settled on the Oder and the Vistula, afterwards extended to the Rhine and the Neckar, and in 407, with the Suevi, Vandals, and others, invaded Gaul, where they em- braced Christianity. In 451, under the command 104 Germany. of Gundicar, one of their kings^ they urtsuccessfully opposed the progress of Attila. Their brilliant career and terrible defeat is preserved in a passage of the German NibelungefiUed ^ the " most interest- ing and remarkable monument of early Teutonic genius." In 534, the Burgundians passed under the rule of the Franks, though, under the name of the Kingdom of Aries, they had a subsequent na- tional existence. The Franks (free-men) were composed of tribes who were known on the Rhine at the time of Au- gustus, as Sigambri, and of others. They inhabited a region of Germany still called in English Franconia (Franken, in German). In the third and fourth centuries they were led into Gaul in great numbers, and in the year 486 their king, Clovis, 465-511 (from which Ludwig, Louis), conquered the Ro- mans, making himself master of the country be- tween the Seine and the Loire. Subsequently he subjected the territory between the Meuse and the head of the Maine, and in 507 he had become mas- ter of the country from the Loire to the Pyrenees, having killed Alaric in a battle near Poictiers. He made Paris his capital, and established the " Mero- vingian " dynasty, so called from his grandfather, Meroveus, 411 ?-457, who had aided in the defeat of Attila in 451. This line comes more appropriately under the history of France. The Saxons were another of the tribes from Asia that were engaged in the Great Migration. They The Carlovingian Dynasty. 105 were probably the first to move, and consequently their position at a very early period was as far west as the Atlantic coast. They may have been de- scended from the Scythians, who are called in the Persian tongue Sakai. They were much dreaded by the Romans because of their exploits at sea. Their territory was north of that of the Franks, from the Baltic, and the Skager Rack, as far south and east as beyond the western borders of Bohemia. They rivaled the Franks, and were in constant con- flict with them, but were finally overcome by Charle- magne, after one of the most terrible wars mentioned in history. The Carlovingian Dynasty. — Charlemagne resolved, in 772, to begin this war for the extension of the Christian religion, and the security of his frontiers, but was delayed in carrying out his pur- poses because the pope demanded aid against De- siderius, king of the Lombards. He crossed the Alps in 773, by the Great St. Bernard and Mount Cenis, with two armies, and overthrew the Lom- bards, who acknowledged him as their king. In 775 he was called to the north to subdue the Sax- ons; in 776 he was called back to Italy ; in 777 the Saxons again required his attention ; in 778 he was obliged to interfere between the Moors and Arabs in Spain ; but the Saxons would not remain con- quered, and he hastened back to repulse them, for they had not only made an insurrection, but had advanced almost to Cologne. In 781 he went to lo6 Germany. Italy again, but the irrepressible Saxons called him back in 782 to quell an uprising, which he did, though it demanded in his cruel judgment the ex- ecution of forty-five hundred prisoners in one day. From 783 to 785 there was a still more general and furious rebellion under Wittekind the Saxon, and Alboin^ king of the Lombards. They were both overcome, and baptized, by the terms of their sub- mission, after which they disappeared from history, though their praises were long sounded in German songs. Subsequent insurrections led to further conquests, and the empire became greatly enlarged as well as more thoroughly consolidated. In the year 800 Charlemagne went to Rome to support Pope Leo III. against some rebellious sub- jects, and, while worshiping in St. Peter's Church on Christmas Day, was crowned by Leo, as king of the Romans, amid the acclamations of the people, to whom the act did not appear premeditated. This added to the prestige of the great monarch, though not to his power. He soon after married Irene^ 752 ?-8o3 .^ queen of Byzantium, who wished to strengthen her hold upon the throne of the East- ern empire, hoping thus to unite it to the Western. The project failed, Irene was overthrown, and died in exile. Charlemagne died January 28, 814, and was bur- ied at Aix-la-Chapelle, in a church that he had himself built. He crowned his only remaining son, Louis, called le debonnaire, shortly before his death, Charlemagne. 107 with his own hands, in order to show that the crown was not dependent upon the pope. His last words were, " Lord, into thy hands do I commit my soul ! " He was robust and strong, of great stature, with a round head, large, animated eyes, and a large nose. His bearing was manly and dignified, his countenance cheerful and joyous, and his step firm. He was not only physically worthy to be an em- peror, but he had ability to govern, a desire to make his subjects good and intelligent, both by precept and example. He gave them bishops, churches, schools, and teachers of learning and piety. He attended to details, which is a sign of greatness, gave much time to his family, caused his sons to learn the sciences and chivalric accomplishments, and his daughters to work in wool, sewing, and spinning. In every way he was a wonderful man, worthy to be, as he was, Charles the Great, and Charles the First, both of the French and German and Roman empires. His empire extended from the North Sea and the Baltic to the Mediterranean ; and from the Atlantic on the west to the Adriatic on the east. He ruled the vast territory thus vaguely indicated, by means of subordinates re- sponsible to him, and brought order out of anarchy in the states he conquered. Twice in the year he convened the people in a national assembly on the Champ de Mars, in Paris, which still holds its name. This custom was of ancient German origin. He enriched his residence at Aix-la-Chapelle with mar- lo8 6 trmany. bles taken from the cities of Italy, just as another emperor of France did at the beginning of our own century. During his reign paper was first made from cotton, organs were made to go by water, and carpets were introduced from Turkey. Clocks, too, with wheels were first made in the East, and one was given to Charlemagne by the Caliph Haroun al Raschid. The emperor also added to the grand- eur and solemnity of religious worship, and intro- duced the Gregorian chant. He also gave to the cities of Halle, Hamburg, Deventer, Ingolstadt, and Aix-la-Chapelle, either their foundation or their im- portance ; and he beautified and enlarged Metz, Mayence, Strasburg, Padderborn, Ratisbon, Magde- burg, and other places. He kept the various peo- ples united and in submission to him by the terror of his arms and the prestige of his name; but they were not sufficiently civilized to see the necessity of union, and the signs of decadence were visible before his death. The Danes, called also Normans, threatened his empire by sea, and, it is said, caused him bitter tears as he foresaw the trouble they would give his successors. These were men of inferior capacity. The first Louis le Debo7inaire^ 778-840, or Good-natured, very soon (in 807) divided the empire among his three sons, giving Lothaire, 795 ?-855, the central power, Bavaria to Louis, 805-876, and Aquitaine to Pepin, 802 ?-839 ?. His nephew, Bernard, was king of Italy. By a second marriage he had a son Successor of Charlemagne. 109 Charles, 823-877 (called the Bald), and in order to provide for him he proposed to take a portion from the other sons. This led to a war between father and sons, and to the death of the good-natured emperor, when the war was continued by the sons and resulted in a new division of the empire. Lothaire remained emperor, with dominion over Italy, Burgundy, and Lorraine ; Charles the Bald received western Franconia (France) ; and Louis the German the lands on the right bank of the Rhine, Spire, Worms, and Mayence. Louis II., 805-876, called the German, was suc- ceeded by Charles TIL, 832-888, called the Fat, who ruled most of the former empire of Charlemagne, but, proving weak and almost imbecile, he was deposed by the German princes, who elected his nephew, Arnulf as his successor. This prince, a grandson of Louis the German, entered upon his duties with the vigor of a valiant and worthy king. He overcame the JVormans or Northmen, at Lou- vain, and calling to his aid the terrific Magyars, a Kalmuc race of Asiatic wanderers, called also Huns and Hungarians, overcame the Sclavonians of Po- land, Bohemia, and the territory of Pannonia. Ho also reconquered Italy, which was contested for by a number of pretenders, and died in the midst of his victories in the year 899. His son, Louis III. called the Fourth, and the Child, was unable tc oppose the Hungarians, who desolated Germany until his death in 911, and with him the Carlovin gian line ended. 1 10 Germany, The Saxon Dynasty. — The nobles, through whom Charlemagne had ruled, now assembled and elected Otho, duke of Saxony, to the throne. This illustrious man declined on account of his great age, and on his recommendation Duke Co7trad of Franconia was accepted in his stead. Upon his death in 918, the Saxon dynasty, which lasted till 1024, began in the person of Henry /., 876-936, called the Fowler, duke of Saxony, and son of Otho. Conrad had proved a man of merit, and had succeeded in maintaining the unity of Germany, and adopted only the most wise and energetic measures. The reign of Henry began amid inter- nal agitations, which he quelled, and then prepared to meet the Sclavonians and Hungarians who had invaded his territories. These he overcame in the years 928 and 929, and in 933 at the battle of Museburg in the vicinity of the Saale, or at Witten- burg, for the authorities differ on the subject. Henry thus extended the limits of his empire, built cities in Saxony and Thuringia, and proved himself one of the greatest of all German princes. He died in 936, was succeeded by his son Otho, 912- 973, called the Great, who was hailed with joyful acclamations. He was a fierce and powerful mon- arch, and held his people by force rather than, as his father had done, by mildness. He crowned him- self with the imperial crown of Charlemagne, and emulated that monarch's prowess with considerable success. The bishop Hatto, whose name is asso- The Franconian Dynasty, 1 1 1 ciated with the legend of the "Mouse Tower" on the Rhine, upon which Southey has founded a bal- lad, lived during this reign, though the story of his having been devoured by rats is thought to be of a much later period. Otho the Great was followed by Otho II., 955-983, called the Red from his com- plexion, and the Bloody from his cruelty ; Otho III., 980-1002, a refined and learned prince ; and by Henry II., 972-1024, duke of Bavaria, of a col- lateral family called the Holy, and the Lame, and then the house of Saxony ended. Like the Carlo- vingian line, it had begun in strength and ended in weakness, for during the reign of Henry the Holy, civilization had declined, and the cities founded by Henry I. had ceased to flourish. The Franconian Dynasty. — Under the cir- cumstances just referred to, the eight representative dukes of the German states looked for a strong man to take the imperial power. They convened on both sides of the Rhine, on the plains between Mentz and Worms, near Oppenheim, on the one side the Saxons, eastern Franks, Bavarians, Sua- bians and Bohemians, on the other the Rhenish Franks, and those of Lower and Upper Lorraine. The choice, after a long and very interesting con- ference, fell upon Conrad the Suabian, of the Fran- conian house, who gave great satisfaction by saying on his way to the coronation, " To exercise justice, whether it be convenient to meornot, is my first duty" He endeavored to act upon the principle thus an- 112 Germany, nounced, and he restored internal order, established commerce, and municipal institutions, raised the imperial power, restricted the dominion of the nobles, and added to the German domain. He died in 1039, and was succeeded by his son Henry in., called the Black, 1017-1056, who again looked back to the bright example of the Great Charle- magne, and attempted with unusual success to follow it. He was crowned at Rome, Christmas, 1046 : he deposed three rival popes, enforced the Truce of God, which his father had also attempted to do ; brought Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary under his sway ; discouraged simony and the immorality of the clergy ; presided over three Councils of the Church at Rome, JR helms, and Mentz ; and by many other deeds proved himself a great, intelligent, over- pious, vigorous, and dignified monarch, the most absolute Germany has had. His successor, Henry IV., 1056-1106, was referred to in the last chapter. His calamitous reign lasted fifty years, from 1056- 1106, years of the deepest interest, for they include the times of the greatest papal power, the disputes about " investitures," the desperate war with the Saxons, 1073, the revolt of the Suabians under Rodolf, the death of the great pope Hildebrand, the rising of Henry's own children against him, and the beginning of the Crusades, In 1074 Henry was in danger of losing his crown in consequence of having been defeated by the Saxons, over whom he had intended to extend his Reign of Henry IV. 113 au;hority. In his extremity he appealed to the pope for aid. This gave Hildebrand an excuse for interfering in German affairs, but before the aid arrived, Henry, having defeated the Saxons, rather ungenerously turned upon the pope, disobeyed his orders regarding the sale of benefices, and, in 1076, actually deposed him. We know that this dispute resulted in the humiliation of Henry at first, and in the subsequent overthrow of Hildebrand' s power, and in his death from mortification. We need v/aste little sympathy upon either pope or emperor. While Henry was engaged in Italy, his enemies elected Rodolf of Suabia to the imperial throne (1077), and he was obliged to return very promptly to subdue the revolt. For the next three years the richest portions of Germany were devastated by the conflicting armies. Henry conquered and gave the duchy of Suabia to the bold and ambitious Frederic of Biiren, who married his daughter, and took her to a new castle which he built upon the pinnacle of Mount Staufen, whence the name, afterwards so prominent in history, Hohen-staufen. It was after the defeat of Hildebrand, and his withdrawal to the Castle St. Angelo in 1084, that the successor of Rodolf, Herman of Luxemburg, raised a standard of revolt, but he was very shortly overcome. A few years later Henry's son, Conrad, joined his father's enemies, and was crowned king. This fact nearly deprived Henry of his reason, and he retired to one of his castles in Lombardy, where he spent several '8 1 14 Germany. years in seclusion. In 1096 he returned to Ger- many, was received with every demonstration of good-will and sympathy, his son was deposed, and died in iioi. His second son, Henry, afterwards joined the papal party against his father, who was imprisoned and compelled to resign the throne. Henry IV. died in 1106^ at Liege, in France, hav- ing escaped from prison, and was succeeded by this treacherous son, as Henry V. Despite his previous alliance with the papal party, Henry V., 1081-1125, followed the example of his father, and defied Pope Pascal II., declaring the rights of investiture to belong to the crown. Nearly a dozen years were wasted in the wars that ensued, and a compromise was effected (ratified by the Concordat of Worms, 1122), by which the investi- ture by ring and crosier was given to the pope. The result was received with joy thoughout Europe, and the remainder of Henry's reign passed in peace with Rome, though there were constant dissensions in the empire. He died childless in 1 125, though he had married Matilda, daughter of Henry I. of England, and with him the Suabian or Franconian line ended. His possessions fell to his nephews, Frederic and Conrad, of Hohenstaufen, but the princes elected Lothaire, the Saxon emperor, in opposition to his wishes. Frederic and Conrad, though not sympathizing with each other, declined to acknowledge the rights of Lothaire^ 1075-1137, called the Second, who in order to strengthen him- The Hoheif^aufens. 115 self, made large gifts to Henry, duke of Bavaria, of the Giielfs, and thus laid the foundation of the destructive jealousy between the Guelfs and the Hohenstaufens (called also Ghibellines), which foi centuries worried both Italy and Germany. Lo thaire obliged Frederic and Conrad to yield, and give him aid in his Italian campaigns, but, as he died in 1137, he did not long enjoy the results of his success. The house of Anhalt began at this time to excite considerable interest. Albert the Bear, 1106-1170, had received from Lothaire the landgraviate of North Saxony, to which he added territory con- quered from the Vandals, and that of Brandenburg, which he is considered to have founded. At the same time the name of Berlin first appears, and Vienna was founded by Leopold of Austria. The Hohenstaufen Dynasty. — After an in- terregnum of a year the Hohenstaufen duke, Con- rad, 1093-1152, called the Third, of Franconia, was elected emperor, but he was obliged to enforce his claims first against Henry the Proud, a son-in-law of Lothaire, and next against Henry's brother, Count Guelf of Althorf. The latter marched against Conrad in 1140, whom he met near Weins- berg, and was vanquished. This battle is note- worthy as that at which the watch-words Guelf and GhihelBie were first used as war-cries ; and also be- cause, when the women of Weinsberg were allowed to leave the city previous to its destruction, carrying 1 16 Germany, their dearest jewels, each bore out a husband or a near relative, which remarkable sight very naturally deeply moved the emperor, and he spared the city and its people. Conrad was about to follow up this success by an Italian campaign, when he was summoned by St. Bernard to follow Louis VII., 1120-1180, of France, in taking the cross for the second Crusade. He died soon after his return from Palestine, in 1 152, having recommended as his successor the valiant Duke Frederic^ 1121-1190, of Suabia, called from his bright yellow beard Barbarossa, who had accompanied him on the Crusade. Frederic Barbarossa. — This emperor proved one of the most powerful and brilliant that Germany has ever had. He was of the Ghibellines on the pater- nal, and of the Guelfs on the maternal side, which gave ground for a hope that he would cause the old rivalry of the houses to be forgotten. One of his earliest acts was the restoration of Bavaria to the Guelf, Henry the Lion (11 54), who already possessed Saxony and Bavaria, and thus became the most powerful German prince. For some years Henry and Frederic enjoyed an apparently cordial friendship, but the growing power of Henry led to jealousies between him and the neighboring princes, and finally, when he declined to accompany Fred- eric upon his Italian campaign in 11 75, complaints were publicly brought against him \ he was tried, and, in 1180, deposed from his dignities and pes* Frederic Barbarossa. \\^ sessions, and declared outlawed. Henry did not acquiesce in this decision without a struggle. His chief city, Brunswick, was invested, and he reduced to the extremity of throwing himself at the feet of Frederic, who pardoned his old friend, but advised him to withdraw from Germany and to remain for three years with his father-in-law, Henry II., 1133^ 1 189, of England. His estates of Brunswick and Lunenburg remained in his possession, while he was in exile in the land that his descendants have now ruled for more than a century and a half. During this exile his son William was born, who became the founder of the chief branch of the house of Hanover, to which Queen Victoria belongs. Henry died at Brunswick, 1195. Frederic crossed the Alps six times at the head of large armies, at first treating the Italians with great severity. On one occasion (1158) he razed Milan, and very seriously injured many other cities. Later in his reign he gave his subjects in Lombardy more privileges, but they were always ready to throw off their allegiance, and gave him constant annoyance. In 1189 he settled the affairs of his kingdom, proclaimed universal peace, resigned the government to his son Henry, and started with one hundred thousand men, and his second son Fred- eric, founder of the order of Teutonic Knights, upon the third Crusade. He died on the road, and was buried at Tyre. In comparison with Frederic the other sovereigns Ii8 Germany. of Europe at the time were of little importance. He is still the hero of popular German songs and ro- mances, which represent him, like King Arthur of England, as not dead, but to come again to restore the empire to its former glory. The reign of Henry VI., 1165-1197, need not de- tain us long. He was first involved in a conflict with Henry the Lion, wljo returned from a second exile in England just before Frederic's death, but this was settled by the marriage of the son of the duke, and Agnes, a cousin of the emperor, a union that gave another promise of ending the contests of Guelf and Ghibelline. In 1192 Richard, 1157- 1199, Coeur de Lion of England w^as shipwrecked on the coast of Italy on his return from the Holy Land, and was detained by Henry as prisoner foi more than a year. Henry next endeavored to se cure the Two Sicilies as the inheritance of his wife, but his cruelty on his expedition to the south, and his rapacious plundering, which may well be likened to the acts of the Goths and Vandals on similar occasions, rendered him so odious to the Italian nobles, that his sudden death in 1197 in Sicily, is attributed to poison. At the time of his death he was contemplating the conquest of the Greek empire, a new crusade, and other important enter- prises. His death was the signal for new conflicts of Guelfs and Ghibellines, and a state of anarchy re- sulted, lasting till 1273, only interrupted by the reign of his son, Frederic II. j from 1194 to 1250. This Frederic II. 1 19 prince emulated the example of his grandfather with some degree of success. He was crowned emperor in Rome in 1220, and devoted himself to the wel- fare of Italy, founding the University of Naples, and patronizing men of learning, poets and artists. He however failed in cementing a union of his scattered and vast domains. Having reluctantly pledged himself to lead the sixth Crusade, he did not start until the pope had threatened him with excommunication. After one vain attempt he started, and in 1228 extorted a truce of ten years from the Moslem ruler, and obtained concessions of several cities and much territory. After an absence of fifteen years in Italy and Palestine, Frederic returned to find that his son Henry, whom he had left as viceroy, had risen against him, under the advice of the Lombard cities. Though this offense was pardoned, Henry engaged in a new rebellion for which he was imprisoned at Apulia for life, and died after a confinement of seven years. The remainder of Frederic's life was occupied with his troubles in Italy. He was sev- eral times excommunicated, but the increasing dis- like of the popes took from this sentence, once so terrible, the most of its sting. He died in 1250 in Italy in the midst of his wars. He had been mar- ried at Worms in 1235, to Isabella of England. Frederic II. was remarkable for his personal ac- complishments. He understood Greek, Latin, Ital- ian, French, German, and Arabic, was thoroughly I20 Germany. acquainted with natural history, was a minnesinger, and a writer on philosoiohy, and was famed for his skill in all knightly exercises. No potentate had existed since Charlemagne and King Alfred who so much loved and promoted civilization, and he showed this in many ways that cannot be enumer- ated. CHAPTER TX. GERMANY. FROM THE END OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN DYNASTY, I273, TO THE PRESENT TIME. HUS far we have contemplated Germany as a great central power in European poHtics, wielding an influence that no other state possessed. It lost its prestige, however, as well as much of its territory, upon the downfall of the Ho- henstaufen dynasty, and its history presents little of interest until after the era of advance which is marked by the invention of printing, in 1440. At the period we are now studying, the German state comprised six archbishoprics, those of Me?ifz, Cologne, T7'eves, Magdeburg, Breme?t, and Salzburg ; there were four electors, one king, one duke, one count palatine, and one margrave, or count of the marches; six grand dukes, — Bavaria, Austria, Carinthia, Brunswick, Lorraine, and Brabant-Lim- burg ; about thirty counts, and some sixty imperial cities. After the death of Frederic II., 1 194-1250, sev- eral rival kings reigned amid much disquiet, and in 1273 the princes held an imperial diet at Frank- 122 Germany fort, to choose an emperor who should be accept' able to all. Their choice fell upon Count Rodolf^ 12*18-1291, oi Hapsburg^ then living in Switzerland, a prince of valor, prudence, and integrity, who had been godfather of Frederic II., and during the inter- regnum had lived on his own family estates, display- ing the natural simplicity and frankness of a noble man. He was for" a long time governor and protector of Zurich and Strasburg, and other places. He sup- pressed the feuds of his knights, established his authority, and acquired Austria from the king of Bohemia, but he was so careless of his Italian pos- sessions that he ceded to Gregory X. the rights of imperial interference in the affairs of the states of the Church. He compared Italy to a lion's den, in which traces might be found of the emperors who had entered it, but very few of those who had quitted it. He died in 1291, universally lamented for his honesty. He was succeeded by Adolphus of Nassau, who died in 1298, and gave way to Al- bert I. of Austria, son of Rodolf, a severe and des- potic ruler, who was murdered in 1308. The Swiss republic was founded the year of his death. Switzerlajid. — This little mountain land, origi- nally the home of the Helvetii and the Rhoetians, had been inhabited by the Burgundians, Alemanni, and Goths in early times, but since 12 18 had been distracted by wars. Rodolf had favored the inde- pendence of its towns, but Albert attempted to make the country more dependent upon the crown, Guelfs and Ghibellines reconciled. 123 which aroused three patriots, and through them the whole of the Swiss people, who on January i, 1308, arose, and expelling the Austrian officers, destroyed their castles. To this year belongs the legend of William Tell, whose shooting of Gessler has been celebrated for centuries, though the event appears not to have been recorded by the historians of the period. Switzerland and Austria were, however, for the next two hundred years involved in constant wars. Guelfs and Ghibellines reconciled. — Henry VII. of Luxemburg was elected emperor in 1308, and died in 1313. His only act of importance was effecting a reconciliation between the Guelfs and Ghibellines on a visit to Italy, to which no em- peror had gone iox three quarters of a century. Henry was met upon his arrival by the epic poet Dante, 1 265-1321, who presented him a letter and a Latin discourse upon the imperial dominion, which, being a Ghibelline, he highly extolled. The next few reigns are marked by anarchy and wars. During the reign of Charles IV. of Luxem- burg, the laws of the empire were established by a document called, from its seal of gold, the Golden Bull. Charles visited Italy, where he fomented discord between the opposing factions. He was flattered by Petrarch, who, following the example of Dante in his address to Henry VII., implored him to restore Italy to the empire. It was at this time that Rienzi, 1313-1354 n^ade an effort to realize the J 24 Germany. bright dreams of Italian unity, which have fatally inspired so many patriots from Dante to Mazzini and Garibaldi. Under Wenceslaus, king of Bohe- mia, Charles's son, the Swiss were again oppressed, and at the battle of Sempach, 1386, the Austrians under Leopold were overcome by a small Swiss force, through the self-sacrificing valor of a noble- man, Arnold von Winkelried, who opened a pas sage for his countrymen through the opposing lines by grasping as many of the enemy's spears as he could, and receiving them into his body, over which his fellows passed to victory. The Hussite Wars. — In 1410 Sigismund, 1366- 1437, a brother of Wenceslaus, was elected to the throne. He was handsome, graceful, a man of in- telligence and of political ability, but avaricious, im- petuous, and undecided. In 1414 he caused Pope John XXIII. to convene a council at Constance, which proved one of the most brilliant and impor- tant ever held. Charles IV. had erected a univer- sity at Prague, which became one of the most cele- brated in Europe, of which yo/m Huss, 1376 ?-I4t5, was at this time the rector. He was among the most learned and zealous of the Bohemian professors, had embraced and promulgated the principles of John Wicklif, and had been excommunicated by the pope. Much contention arose between his par- tisans and those of the emperor, and in these jferome, i378?-i4i6, a professor of theology at Prague, took a prominent part. Huss was called House of A ustria. 125 to Constance to answer for his teachings to the Council, being promised a safe conduct, but was faithlessly condemned to be burned at the stake instead of being allowed to return. The sentence was carried out July 6, 14 15, and eleven months later, his disciple Jerome was publicly burned at Constance likewise. These cruelties led to the Hussite wars, 1415- 1434, for the first years directed by a self-taught commander, John Ziscka, i36o?-i424, one of the greatest leaders who had, up to that time, appeared in Europe. A few months before his death in 1437, Sigismund I. was recognized as king of Bo- hemia. He had been king of Hungary fifty-one years, and was now for twenty-eight years emperor of Germany. House of Austria. — The house of Austria was founded by Rodolf of Hapsburg, and was there- fore of Swiss origin^ being named, as is supposed, from the castle of Habichtsburg (Hawks castle) on the Aar. The line, as we have seen, was inter- rupted by the reigns of sovereigns of the houses of Luxemburg and Bavaria, but since the death of Sigismund, and the election by the princes of his son-in-law, Albert H., in 1438, it has ruled the German Empire and Austria for the greater part of the time. Siiabian League. — The first sovereign of this line, who attracts our attention is Maximilian I., 1459-15 19, who had been precgdgd by Albert II., 1 26 Germany. just mentioned, called the Great ; and by Fred* eric IV., 1415-1493, called the Pacific, who had reigned more than half a century, 1440-1493. In this last reign, the Suabian League was formed in 1488, by the princes of Wurtemburg, Brandenburg, Munich, and other nobles, for the purpose of re- pressing feudal quarrels. Prussia, or Eastern Pome- rania, as it was called, became subject to Poland in 1466. Maximilian came to the throne at a time that was ripe for revolution, and his accomplishments, courage, impetuosity, and chivalric nature, well fitted him to be the agent in the production of great re suits. He appears before us in 1473 as a claimant for the hand of Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, to whom he had, as appears by her statement to the assembled states, been long plighted in troth by a written promise, by an inter- change of rings, and by the bonds of a love that she could not break. Thus called forth by love and honor, his life appears like a transcript from the pages of chivalry, but it was chivalry of a new period and style. A New Era. — The relations of things in the world were fast changing. Gunpowder and bullets had raised civilized peoples farther than ever above barbarians, and had changed the tactics of war \ printing and paper had given thought new facility of expression ; geographical and commercial prog- ress had made new channels for travel j political The Reformatio Jt. 127 economy presented itself in a new and improved form, and international intercourse was more refined and civilized. Under such circumstances was the reign of Max- imilian passed from 1493 to 15 19. On account of his want of persistence he was not able to carry out numerous schemes that he planned, and there are but two facts that need claim our attention, before we pass to the reign of his successor, the famed Charles F., 1500-1558 (called the First, of Spain). The first is the division of the kingdom into ten " circles," and the establishment of the At^/ic council (aula, a hall) of the Imperial Chamber, for the settlement of disputes among the members of the empire, in 15 12. The ten circles were Ba- varia, Suabia, Franconia, The Rhine, Westphalia, Lower Saxony, Lower Rhine, Brandenburg, Austria, and Burgundy. Switzerland successfully resisted efforts to coerce it into a union Vv^ith the imperial chamber, and its independence was admitted. The Reformation. — The other event was the opening of the great reformation with which the name of Martin Luther is connected, as the prime mover. There had been for a long time a demand for the purification of the Church from abuses that had gradually grown up. The publication of the Bible in 1462, was a powerful agent in the enlight- enment of the people, and their cry for reform in- creased. The Council of Constance^ in 1414-1418, and that of Bash, 1431-1449, had not responded 128 Germany. to this demand, and in 1516, when the pope sent his agent Tetzel, i45o?-i5i9, to preach indulgence to those who gave money for the building of the church of St. Peter at Rome, an outbreak occurred. Martin Luther. — Tetzel traveled about in pomp and luxur}'-, and preached his doctrines of absolution for money in such extreme terms as to arouse Martin Luther^ 1483-1546, who had been for some years a theological lecturer at the Uni- versity of Wittenberg, to publish, 15 17, a series of ninety-five theses, in which he opposed the traffic in indulgences, and challenged a public dispute on the subject. In 15 18 Luther appeared before the Diet of Augsburg to justify himself before a papal Nuncio, Cajetan, 1469-1534, who demanded an unconditional retraction of his sentiments. To this Luther, who was of an impulsive and fearless na- ture, would not accede. Matters were in this state when Maximilian died. Diet of Worms. — His successor was his grand- son Charles, who, being the son of Joan of Castile (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella) and Philip of Austria, united the crowns of Spain, Burgundy, and Germany. The first act of Charles V. was to arrange for the settlement of the contentions in the Church. He called Luther to the Diet of Worms, 152 1. There, before a splendid assembly of princes and prelates, Luther proclaimed his adherence to the word of God, exclaiming, '"''Here I stand. I can take no other course. God hel^ j?ie / Amc7tr The Peasants' War. 129 In December, 1520, he had, in a public manner, burned a bull of the pope in which his writings were denounced, an act which not only cut him off from the expectation of leniency from Rome, but caused him to be respected by the people to such an extent that his doctrines spread with a rapidity possible only in an age ripe for change, as we have shown this one to have been. At first Luther in- tended to remain a loyal subject of the Church, but now he was out of it, and the reformed religion was established. Religious Disturbances. — After the Diet of Worms, Luther was confined in the castle of Wart- burg, where he began to make that translation of the Bible which, more perhaps, than any other lit- erary work, fixed the language of Germany. While in this safe and quiet retreat, his partisans were becoming involved in riotous proceedings in pur- suance of what they probably supposed to be his wishes. To check these movements, Luther left his place of refuge, appeared in Wittenberg in March, 1522, and remonstrated with the people. His efforts were not successful, and the peasants, looking, like the Fifth monarchy men of the time of Cromwell, in England (1650), for the setting up of a heavenly kingdom which would, of course, prove a panacea for all earthly troubles, engaged in what has since been called the Peasants' War^ 1525. This terrible contest raged from January i to the end of June, and caused the loss of over one 1 30 Germany, hundred thousand peasants' lives, and the de struction of many monasteries and castles of the nobles. Thuringia, Franconia, Suabia, the Rhine- land, and Lorraine were devastated and marked by masses of smoking ruins. The peasants were slaughtered without mercy in the most barbarous, faithless, and wholesale manner. Their burdens afterwards were greatly increased. The new church, however, gained strength, and in 1 530 J the Augsburg Confessioii was signed by those princes who protested against a certain reso- lution opposed to innovations in religion, passed by the Diet of Spire in 1529. It w^as during the storm of these days that Luther composed his remarkable hymn, " Eht feste Burg ist tenser Golt,"" which in its translation still inspires Christians of all nations and names. Charles V. had not been idle during this time, but in 1524 had entered upon a campaign in Italy that resulted in the establishment of his power there^ after the reduction of Milan, Rome, Pavia, and other cities. The French, who had held northern Italy, were driven out^ and their king, Francis I., 1494^ 1547, was sent as prisoner to Madrid. At the be- ginning of this war the celebrated Bayard, 1476-1524 the chivalric chevalier sa7is peur et sans reproche^ wa? killed. In 1535, Charles, as protector of all Christendom, embarked with a great army for Tunis to punish League of Smalcald. 1 3 1 the pirate Haradin Barbarossa, who was under the countenance of the Turkish sultan Soliman. He captured Tunis, put two thousand Turks to the sword^ routed the pirate in a land battle, and liber- ated twenty-two thousand Christians who were lan- guishing in African prisons. He also had several wars with France ; was obliged to go to Ghent, in Flanders, to suppress a riot ; and repulsed the Turks in an advance they made into Hungary. League of Smalcald. — In 153 1, when it ap- peared that Charles intended to accomplish by force what he had been unable to bring about by peaceable means, the Lutheran estates, led by the elector yohn Frederic of Saxony, and landgrave Philip of Hesse, formed in the Thuringian forest, what is known as the League of Smalcald^ for mut- ual defense against religious and political interfer- ence. It lasted from February 27, 153 1, to the overthrow of the army of the League by Charles, at the battle of Miihlberg, April 24, 1547, fourteen months after the death of Luther at Eisleben. The war, which was called " Holy/' was continued, how- ever, until it was closed in 1555, by the " Religious Peace of Augsburg," when the Protestants obtained a degree of toleration. In October, 1555, Charles convened a splendid assembly at Brussels, and abdicated his throne, giv- ing to his son, Philip IL, 1527-1598, dominion over the Netherlands, Spain, Naples, and the New World. To his brother Ferdinand he assigned his 132 Germany. Austrian and German jurisdictions, and then re- tired to the convent of Yuste, in western Spain, where he passed the remainder of his life in luxury and quiet. Rise of the Jesuits. — Ferdinand I. continued to tolerate both Protestant and Catholic, but the new religion did not make the rapid progress which might have been predicted from the enthusiasm with which it was at first received, owing both to the petty dissensions that arose among its leaders, and to the rise of the order of J^esuits, founded in 1540, by the profound and zealous Ignatius Loyala, 149 1- 1556. In a quarter of a century this order in- creased to the great number of ten thousand, all firmly bound to their central head, free from eccle- siastical functions, and forming a band of the most devoted missionaries the world has ever seen. It spread abroad the Catholic religion with the most uncompromising zeal, the most remarkable tact, the most insinuating diplomacy. It made use of the eloquence of a Bourdaloue, the self-sacrificing enterprise of a Xavier, a La Salle, or a Marquette, in polished France, in Japan and China, on the St. Lawrence, and the Great Lakes, as well as on the rich prairies of the Mississippi Valley. Such an order, having but one work, and suffering nothing to interfere with its performance, is able to accom- plish almost anything, and to the Jesuits, rather than to any other single cause, the present wide- spread condition of the Catholic Church is due. The Thirty Years War. 133 After three centuries, they are to-day banished from a large portion of what was the German empire. The Thirty Years' War. — From 16 18 to 1648, Germany was the theatre of a succession of wars known as the Thirty Years^ War. They arose from the differences of reh'gious faith. The Protest- ants organized under Frederic IV., the Elector Palatine, May 4, 1608, and the Catholics, July ii, 1609, under the Duke of Bavaria. On the latter day Rudolf II. had granted the free exercise of their religion to the Protestants of Bohemia, and in 1617, they built for themselves churches which were razed to the ground or closed by the archbishop, who was supported by the emperor. The Protestants be- came indignant, armed themselves, and on May 23, 1618, appeared in the Council hall at Prague, and, after a brief parley, threw three members of the board from the windows, and justified their course by quoting the destruction of Jezebel, and the pre- cipitation of traitors from the Tarpeian Rock at Rome. The conflict began. The Jesuits were ex- pelled from the country, and with varying fortunes ravaging wars were kept up until the peace of Westphalia, in 1648, put an end to the struggle, giv- ing the advantage to the Protestants, and leaving the empire bereft of its trade, industry, and com- merce, with its literature decayed, its cities poor, and the grandeur of its nationality gone. Two remarkable men must be mentioned before we leave the period of the Thirty Years' War 134 Germany. The first is Gusfavus Adolphus, 1594-1632, son of Charles IX., and grandson of Gustavus Vasa, of Sweden, who entered the war in beiialf of the Prot- estants in 1630, and was killed November 6, 1632, at the battle of Liitzen. He was a leader of deep piety, and by strict discipline and moral influence gained success as a warrior. His army entered this his last battle singing Luther's hymn, ^^ Ein festd B^rg ist unser Gott^^ and achieved victory despite the loss of their beloved king, by their resistless impetuosity. The second remarkable leader to be mentioned was Albert vo7i Wallenstein, 1583-1634, a man born to command, who led the imperial forces against Gustavus, and was by him overcome at Nuremburg in August, 1632, as well as at Liitzen, in the follow- ing November. Of Protestant lineage, he was early converted to the Catholic faith at the school of the Jesuits at Olmiitz, in 1595, though he was through life too liberal to please his own party. His career was marked by success, and by its concomitant, jealousy of his peers/and he was assassinated Feb- ruary 25, 1634. Austria. ^— After the Thirty Years' War Ger- many never regained its once proud position, and the two kingdoms of Austria and Prussia rose into great importance. Austria {CEsferreick, eastern kingdom), anciently Noricum. and a part of Pan- nonia, was annexed to the Roman empire in the beginning of the first century of our era, was after Wars witJi France. 135 wards overrun b}^ the Huns, and about the year 800 was taken from them by Charlemagne. We have seen that it has furnished rulers to Germany for a long period, and that its influence had been greatly increased in 1438. It was subject to the king of Bohemia, but was surrendered by Ottocar to Rodolf, count of Hapsburg, in 1273. In the next century the foundation of its greatness was laid by Albrecht I., 1 248-1308, and it was still further strengthened by Maximilian I., 1459-15 19, under whom the court at Vienna began to be the seat of art and science. Wars with France. — Leopold I.^ 1640-1705, had been crowned king of Hungary before the death of his father, Ferdinand III., 1608-1657, but was obliged to hold that country against violent attacks of the Turks, which caused much bloodshed for a series of years. He was also engaged in three protracted wars with Louis XIV., 1638-17 15, of France. The first two of these were terminated by the treaties of Nimeguen, 1678, and Ryswick, 1697, and the third was bequeathed to his sons Joseph I., 1 705-1 7 1 1, and Charles VI., 1711-1740. This last war, which was ended by the peace of Utrecht, 1 7 13, was participated in also by England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Portugal, and Savoy, against France. It was marked by the battle of Blenheim, 1704, won by the English Duke of Marlborough, and resulted, after the treaty of Utrecht, 17 13, in increasing very materially the tertitory of Austria. 136 Germany. Prince Eugene. — A new war with Fiance re- sulted in the peace oi Radstadt^ 17 14, after a battle won by forces commanded by Prince Eugene, 1663- 1736, a grand-nephew of Cardinal Mazarin of France, who had also fought in the previous cam- paign with Marlborough. Eugene long held in Austria the position that Wellington afterwards held in England, and is considered one of the five- greatest generals of modern times, the others being Wellington, Napoleon, Marlborough, and Frederic the Great. Eugene was sent after the peace of Radstadt to act against the Turks on behalf of the Venetians, and further distinguished himself by gaining the battles oi Peterwardein, August 6, 17 16, and the battle of Belgrade, in the same month of 1717. In 1718 peace was concluded, and he was rewarded by a vast estate, a pension, the vicar- generalship of Italy, and by distinguished honors. He died in 1736, and his funeral was one of the most magnificent ever known. Maria Theresa. — Charles VI., having no male issue, settled the succession on his daughter, Maria Theresa, 17 17-1780, by an ordinance called the Pragmatic Sanction, which was confirmed by Great Britain, France, and most of the European powers. This queen raised Austria to a height of power it had not previously attained, though her title of Empress of Germany was little more than nominal, as in fact the empire was divided into so many parts as not to be worthy of a united name. She I War with Napoleon. 137 was at the outset opposed in her succession by Prus- sia, Bavaria, Saxony, Naples, and Sardinia, wliich, instigated by France, laid claims to part of her dominions on the ground that the male line of the Ilapsburgs was extinct. She was engaged in a Seven Years' War with Frederic the Great, 17 12-1786, of Prussia, which gained glory for Prussia, and was no advantao:e to Austria. She was succeeded bv her sons Joseph II., 1741-1790, and Leopold II., 1747- 1792, and in 1792, Francis II., son of Leopold II., became emperor but in 1804 he resigned even the name of Emperor of Germany, and in 1806 took the title of Francis I., 1 768-1835, emperor of Aus- tria. The empire, which had for a long period not existed, was now considered formally dissolved. War with Napoleon. — In 1809 Francis I. entered upon a disastrous war against Napoleon I., which ended in the treaty of Vienna, and cost him a large portion of his territory, and so utterly pros trated him that he allowed the French emperor U marry his daughter Maria Louisa, and even entereo into an allia.nce with him against Russia. After hi; son-in-law's Russian campaign, Francis joined the other great powers, not only in the overthrow of the French empire, and the banishment of Napoleon, but also in subsequent efforts to suppress libera, movements throughout Europe. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, by which Europe was remodeled.. the power of Austria was greatly increased. She was ruled from 1804 to 1835 ^y Francis I., who en- 138 Germany. deavored to restrain his subjects by all the appli ances of standing armies, secret police, and literary censorship through his minister. Prince Metternich, 1 773-1859, though giving them all the advantages of commerce^ industry, and the arts, consistent with his policy of paternal absolutism. His successor, Ferdinand I., 1793- , proved weak and inefficient, and when the revolutionary spirit of 1847-48 began to disturb Austria, he was led to resign in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph, 1830 , who is the present emperor. The first efforts of this prince, upon coming to the throne, were directed towards Hungary, which country had been excited to revolution upon receiv- ing the news of the events of February, 1848, in Paris. Here the emperor came in conflict with Louis Kossuth, 1802 , who had been a leader of patriotic revolt in the time of Francis I. In 1849, Kossuth was overcome, and sought refuge in Turkey, while Count Batthyanyi and thirteen generals who had voluntarily surrendered, were executed. In 185 1 Kossuth was liberated from the mild sheltering custody of the Sultan, at the suggestion of the United States and brought to our country in the war steamer Mississippi, Captain John Collins Long, as the nation's guest. After visiting many of our cities he returned to Europe in 1852, and was associated with Mazzini and other revolutionists in efforts that have proved abortive. January i, 1859, Napoleon III. of France de Slcsvig-Holstem. 139 dared his dissatisfaction with the Austrian poHcy in Italy, and taking part with Victor E?nmamiel, entered upon a campaign, in which brilHant battles occurred at Magenta^ June 4th, and So(fermo, June 24th, resulting in the defeat of the Austrians. The war ended with the armistice of Villafranca, July II, 1859, which was confirmed by the treaty of Zurich. Slesvig-Holstein. — In 1866 Austria and Prus- sia became involved in disagreements on the sub- ject of their joint administration of the duchies of Slesvig2iX\<^ Holstein, which resulted in what is called the German-Italian war, and broke up the confed- eration of German states organized in 1815, after the fall of Napoleon I. The disputed duchies were by the treaty of /V/z^^/^, August 23, 1866, given to Prus- sia; Venetia and the iron crown of Lombardy were transferred to Italy; Austria paid Prussia forty mill- ion dollars, and the king of Prussia and the emperor of Austria agreed to keep peace between themselves, their heirs, successors, states, and subjects, "for- ever." During this war serious battles were fought at Sadowa, Laufen and various other places. Prussia. — Berlin, the capital of Prussia, was founded in 11 63 by a colony from the Netherlands, but neither it, nor the state of which it is the cap- ital, was of much importance until the reign of the Great Elector Frederic William, 1620-1688. The Teutonic Knights returning from Palestine in 1225, jndertook to conquer Prussia, founded the cities 140 Germany. of Thorn and Konigsberg, and made it one of the most flourishing countries of the time. It was subsequently ruled by Albert of Brandenburg, 1490- 1568, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, who embraced Lutheranism and held Prussia as a fief of Poland. He founded the University of Konigsberg in 1544. Prussia was established as a monarchy by the Great Elector Frederic William, mentioned above. It had been ravaged during the Thirty Years' War, and the treaty of Westphalia, 1648, deprived it of a portion of its territory, but its army was in good condition, and by an alliance with Charles X., 1622- 1660, of Sweden, in 1655, the elector achieved the independence of his country. In 1672, Louis XIV. who was making aggressive movements on the Rhineland and the Netherlands, was opposed by the elector, who, owing to a want of cooperation, was obliged, however, to make concession to France in 1673. Subsequently when the king of Sweden incited by Louis, advanced upon Berlin, he was completely routed, and obliged to fly through Pom- erania. A treaty made in 1679 proved very advan- tageous to Prussia, and the elector devoted himself to the prosperity of his dominions. He strength- ened the universities at Frankfort and Konigsberg, and projected one at Halle ; he welcomed to his dominions many thousands of French Protestants banished from France by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes^ and in every way sustained the Frederic the Great. 141 dignity of his country as well as that of its sovereign, among the nations of Europe. ' The Great Elector was followed by his son Fred- » eric III., 1657-17 13, who, married to a sister of George I. of England, was crowned king as Fred- eric I., in 1 701. He became elector in 1688, on his father's death, and pursued his policy of ag- grandizing the kingdom, keeping up a stately and brilliant court. Helping William of Orange, 1650- 1702, on the one hand, to obtain his English throne, and the emperor of Austria, on the other, against the Turks, his soldiers fought at the battle of the Boyne, 1690, and were participants in the great victory of Belgrade, 1688. He founded the Univer- sity of Halle that his father had projected, as well as the Berlin academies of Science, and of Sculpt- ure and Painting. Frederic the Great. — His son, Frederic Will- iam I., 1 688-1 740, maintained the peace of Prussia almost uninterrupted during twenty-seven years, and died leaving the crown to Frederic II., called the Great, 17 12-1786, his eldest son by Sophia Doro- thea, daughter of George I., 1660-1727, of England. Frederic had been brutally treated by his father, but was reconciled to him before his death in 1740. He inherited a kingdom having a population of two millions, with six m.illion thalers in the national treasury, and died leaving seventy-two millions of thalers, and a contented and happy population of over six millions. 1'42 Germany. Immediately upon the death of the father of Maria Theresa, Frederic entered her dominions, routed her armies, and retired in triumph. He fol- lowed up this success by a series of brilliant exploits that exhibited him as a military despot, with the single ambition of enlarging and firmly establishing his kingdom. After acquiring Silesia from Maria Theresa, he marched into Bohemia in 1744, took Prague, and threatened Vienna. In 1745 he de- feated the Austrians at Hohenfriedburg, June 4th, at Sorr, September 30th, at Kuseldorf, took Dresden December 15th, and made a treaty there December 22d. Thus he had humbled Austria and doubled the number of his subjects. After a peace of eleven years he threw off France and allied himself with England. Austria united with France, and an at- tempt was made to crush out Prussia, but with almost foolhardy boldness Frederic entered the contest undaunted, and after seven years of terrible fighting, during which the battles of Prague, 1757, Leuthen, 1757, Zorndorf, 1758, Kunersdorf, 1760, and Liegnitz, 1761, occurred, he made, at Huberts- burg, in 1763, a treaty with Maria Theresa, and re- turned to Berlin in triumph. During the absence of Frederic, the Russians and Austrians, under Gen- erals Lasci and Totleben, marched upon Berlin, and overpowering it, caused its surrender October 4, 1760. For a week they held possession of the city, and besides destroying its magazines, arsenals, and founderies, they extorted large sums of money from Frederic the Great. 143 the citizens. During his campaigns, too, Frederic had himself suffered various disasters. The re mainder of his life was employed in the restorarfoti of the wastes of war. The strictest economy was practiced at court, and every means resorted to tb^t. would help in the accomplishment of this end. Towards the close of his life he embodied in a treaty with the United States the most elevated principles of international amity, and sent to our Washington from Potsdam his sword, inscribed, " From the old- est general in the world to the greatest." Frederic the Great was an author, and enjoyed intellectual excitement. He supported freedom of speech, and an untrammeled press. Personally, Frederic favored the French school of literature, and sought and prized Voltaire, 1694- 1778, who was a resident at his court, very highly, but the literary annals of Germany of the period are illustrated by, the names of Klopstock, Lessing, Wieland, Herder, Goethe, Schiller, Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, and of others whose works pos- sess a deeper value. The subsequent kings of Prussia have been Frederic William II., 1744-1797, Frederic William III., 1770-1840; and Frederic William IV., i795- 1861, and William I., 1797 . The first of these had an unpopular and unprofitable reign, in sad contrast with the power and brilliancy of the one it succeeded. It opened with the relaxation of the be-ieficial discipl'ne and economy of Frederic the 144 Germany. Great's time, and was marked by irresolution, vacil- lation, and many misfortunes. Frederic William III., 1 770-1840, came to the throne in 1797, and seeing the mistakes of his father, tried to follow the example of Frederic the Great. He was engaged at first in restoring order in the state, and satisfied with the extent of his territory, did not join England, Russia, and Austria against Napoleon, but after the battle of Austerlitz, December 2, 1805, he entered into a treaty with France, which gave him Hanover, but involved a declaration of war against Prussia by England. In 1806, Napoleon marched against Prussia himself, and gaining victories at Jena and Auerstadt, Oc- tober 14, 1806, occupied Berlin. The most of the monarchy was subdued by the French, and for six years it was kept in painful subjection. The period, however, is that from which the efficient military organization of Prussia dates, which lately proved powerful in France. It was the period of the foun- dation of the new University of Berlin, the estab- lishment of a new system of public instruction, the abolition of serfdom, the freedom of the cities, and the beginning of Prussia's present greatness. In 18 13 Frederic issued a proclamation for a general rising against France, and Field-marshal Bliicher, 1 742-1819, was put in command. This sturdy hero had fought in the Seven Years'* War, ind now entering with energetic patriotism upon the work of giving freedom tc his father-land, he Waterloo. 145 achieved victory after victory in Germany, crossed the Rhine and entered Paris, March 31, 18 14, con- cluding a treaty there the following month. The Congress of Vienna, 1815, conferred on Prussia greater power than it had possessed before the wars. In 1815, also, Bliicher took the field against Napoleon, who had returned from his exile at Elba, and it was his timely appearance on the field that decided the battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815. He pursued the flying Frenchmen, and entered Paris a second time with the Duke of Wellington. Bliicher was generously rewarded by a grateful people, who still consider him one of their greatest heroes. The last twenty-five years of the reign of Frederic William III. were passed in peace. He was succeeded in 1840 by his son, Frederic William IV., 1795-1 861, who beginning active life during the stirring scenes just described, and being thoroughly educated in philosophy, military science, political economy, and art, gave promise of a bril- liant career when he came to the throne. These promises he failed to fulfill, though he tenaciously adhered to the idea of forming Germany into a single powerful state. The chief noteworthy events in his reign are connected with the popular excite- ments which, in Prussia, as almost everywhere else in Europe, followed the French Revolution of 1848. These commotions resulted in the adoption of the Dresent constitution, which has, however, been con- siderably modified at various times. In 1857, 10 146 Germany. Frederic William was seized with remittent insanity and in 1858, resigned the duties of state to his brother, William I., who in 1861 became king. During the reign of William I. two very impor- tant wars have occurred, each of which have re- sulted greatly to the advantage of Prussia. The first of these, the German-Italian war, 1866, has already been referred to on page 139. The second was precipitated by Napoleon III., in 1870, and resulted in the flight of the French emperor to Eng- land, where he died in exile in 1873 ; the terri- ble siege of Paris, its reduction, the assumption by William of the title of Emperor, January 18, 187 1, and the complete humiliation of France. These wars, planned and carried out by the joint wisdom and skill of the emperor and his prime minister, Prince Von Bismark-Schcenhausen^ 18 14 , have placed Prussia in the foremost rank among Eu- ropean nations. OUTLINE MAP OF EUROPE. Drawn and Engraved for Oilman's History. The positions of the Barbarian tribes, and the general routes of the Crusaders, are indicated in red. .UEXANORl^ ^AM/^^^Sal^M CHAPTER X. FRANCE. AS A FEUDAL MONARCHY. E have now to consider t?ie history of a na- tion noted for refinement of manners, for the advance it has made in science and the fine arts, for the elegance and polish of its court, for the exactness of its language and litera- ture, for the perfection to which it has carried the art of war, for the extent and varied nature of its commerce, and for the delicacy and finish of its manufactured products. It is a country that has given the world some of its greatest military lead- ers, some of its most eloquent orators and distin- guished preachers, some of its most elegant writers, as well as many men and women who have been prominent in other walks of life. It has been cel- ebrated for a love of change ever since the days of Julius Caesar, for its people are easily inspired by a sentiment, and carried away by the enthusiasm of patriotism, religion, or honor. Periods of French History. — The history of France is very readily divided into twelve periods. They are: I. The Aferovingian Dymasty, 487-752 ; 148 France, II. The Carlovingian Dynasty^ 752-987 ; III. The House of Capet, 987-1328 ; IV. The House of Valois, 1328-1589 ; V. The House of Bourbon^ T589-1792 ; YI. The Republic, 1792-1804; VII. The Empire, 1804-1814 ; VIII. The Boicrbons^ 1814-1830 ; IX. The House of Orleans, 1830-1848 ; X. The Republic, 1848-185 2 ; XI. The Empire^ 1852-1870 ; and XII. The Republic, 1870 . Form of Government. — The history of France properly begins with the accession of Hugh Capet the Great, 987, and since that date the government of the country has been, I. A Feudal Monarchy, 987-1515 ; 11. An Absolute Monarchy, 15 15-1789 ; and III. During the period from 1789 to the present time, an Empire, 2l Republic, and a Kingdom, by turns. Early History. — The territory of France was known to the Romans as Gaul, and Caesar said it was divided among the Aquitanians, Celts, and Bel- gians. In the fifth century it was ravaged by the Burgundians, Visi-Goths, and Franks. The Burgun- dians were of German origin, who, after living on the banks of the Oder and Vistula, found a home in south-eastern France. The Visi-Goths, coming from a region still farther to the east, occupied Aquitania and the peninsula of Spain. The Franks, of whom we have spoken in a previous chapter, as living in what is now a part of Germany, settling first in Flanders, under Clovis, grandson of Mero vingiu5, taking advantage of the decadence of the Early History, 149 Roman power, in 487, extended their authority over the territory occupied by the Romans, being the central portion of France, and thus laid the founda- tion of future growth. In 496 Clovis defeated the Alemanni, near Cologne, and at the entreaty of his wife Clotilde, daughter of Chilperic, king of the Burgundians, was baptised at Rheims, with three thousand of his warriors. A few years later with the ardor of a new convert, averring that he was pained to have the Arian Visi-Goths hold posses- sion in Gaul, Clovis set out on an expedition against Aquitania, overthrew Alaric 11. , and killed him with his own hand in a battle near Poictiers, 507. Thus Clovis acquired all the country from the Loire to the Pyrenees, being with his other posses- sions, the whole of Gaul with the exception of the province of the Burgundians, and a strip on the Mediterranean still occupied by the Visi-Goths. Clovis established thus the Feudal Monarchy, made Paris his capital, and occupied a palace from which the Romans had lately removed. The government was an elective and hereditary monarchy, for though the Franks chose the new king at the death of his predecessor, they selected him from the Merovin- gian family. Clovis, who was a harsh and cruel ruler, died in 511, leaving the kingdom to his four sons, who established their capitals at Paris, Or- leans, Soissons, and Rheims, the last city being afterwards replaced by Metz. In 524 he territory 0/ the Burgundians was added. 1 50 France. and thus Clothaire I., the youngest son of CloviS; whose capital was at Soissons, had for a few years a larger kingdom than his father. He died in 561, leaving his estates to be divided among his four sons, which led to civil war, and the decline of the kingly power. In these struggles two sisters, daughters of the king of the Visi-Goths, Brunehaut and Fredegonde, who had married two of the sons of Clothaire, became infamous for their ambition and barbarity. Maires du Palais. — The kings were accus tomed to appoint one of their lords over the officers of the palace, but at this period the nobles them- selves elected one of their number to the office which was that of Mayor of the Palace. This caused an antagonism between them and the sovereign. The relative power of the Mayor constantly in- creased, until after a series of rois faifiea?its, lazy kings, one of the mayors, Pepin d'Heristal, ex- ercised despotic sway over both king and people. Pepin was succeeded by his son, Charles Martel, in 714, who ruled with the same vigor that his father had exercised. He died in 741, and Pepin, 714- 768, le Bref, the Short, the father of Charlemagne, became ruler in his place. Pepin the Short took even the semblance of authority from the Mero- vingians, and was crowned king at Soissons in 752, with the sanction of the pope. The Carlovingian Dynasty, 752-986. — Thus the Carlovingian dynasty was established on the Carlovingian Dynasty. 151 throne of France. Pepin the Short reigned from 752 to 768, during which years, besides enlarging his own dominions, he founded the temporal sover- eignty of the popes by giving to them the govern- ment of the city of Rome, and other Italian cities. This led to the coronation of Pepin by two succes- sive popes, and established the custom followed by his successors, of being crowned at Rome. The successors of Pepin, Charlemagne, 742-814, Louis the Good-natured, 778-840, Charles the Bald, 823- 877, Louis the German, 846-879, and Charles the Fat, 832 .''-887, have all been mentioned in the chapter on Germany^ since they belong to the line of kings of that country as well as to that of France. After the death of Charlemagne the power of the kings had gradually grown weaker, that of the nobles greater, the country was afflicted by commo- tions, and upon the death of Charles the Fat the empire fell to pieces. In 888, Eudes or Hugh, count of Paris, was crowned king of France, and Arnulf, 887-899, became emperor of the Germans. Hugh was constantly engaged in war, and, dying in 898, was succeeded by Charles III., 879-929, called the Simple, who, after a reign of twenty-five years, was deposed in 922, and died in prison in 929. His wife was Edgiva, daughter of Edward I. of England. The Normans. — The Northmen, Norsemen, or Normans, who inhabited Scandinavia, and who called themselves Vikings (dwellers on bays), or Sea kings, 152 France. had in the time of Charlemagne ravaged the coasts of France, and led by the Dane Gottfried, had overrun Friesland, but the great Frank was too powerful for them, and they were subdued until after his death. The dissensions and weakness of his successors led them boldly to engage again in their piratical adventures. They were not satisfied with plundering the sea-coasts, but having, in 843, firmly planted themselves at the mouth of the Loire, swarmed up the rivers and devastated the interior of the country. Several times they ascended the Seine, attacked and plundered Paris, and so intim- idated simple Charles III., that in 912 he gave to Rollo, their chief, the hand of his daughter, with the territory of the present Normandy as dowry. Rollo was a man of great stature. He became the first duke of Normandy about 911, and the ancestor of William the Conqueror, 1027-1087, who became king of England in 1066. The Northmen accepted Christianity in France, built magnificent churches, and became one of the most prosperous and well regulated peoples in the kingdom. Rollo adopted the Feudal system of government, the usages of which William afterwards introduced into England. The reign of Charles III. was troubled by many revolts, and after he had been deposed, two of his nobles, Robert, brother of Hugh, and Rodolf, duke of Burgundy, attempted, without success, to unite the people under their government. In 936 ambas- sadors were sent, offering the crown to Louis, 921- House of Capet. 1 53 954, son of Charles III., who with his mother was living in England, at the court of Athelstane, his uncle. The young prince accepted the honor, and was crowned king as Louis IV., at Rheims, in 936, the same year that Otho the Great took his seat on the throne of Germany. Louis afterwards married Geberge, sister of Otho, and received aid from him in his contests with the Normans. The fierce Hun- garians twice invaded and devastated France during the reign of Louis (in 937 and 954), who was killed by a fall from his horse while preparing to resist them in the last mentioned year. His son, Lothaire, 941-986, succeeded him im- mediately, supported by his mother, and by Hugh, count of Paris. Hugh died two years later, 956, after having held the balance of power during all of his adult life. His wife was a sister of Otho the Great, and consequently a sister of Geberge, the wife of Louis IV., and the family relationship was further continued, for Lothaire and Hugh Capet, count of Paris, each married daughters of Otho the Great, though the fact did not keep peace in the families. Lothaire and Otho quarreled very «oon about the right of governing Lorraine (Lothar- mgia), and, by giving up his rights, Lothaire gained fhe hatred of Hugh Capet. This fact is very im- portant, because it led to the establishment on the throne of France of the line of kings descended from Hugh Capet. Lothaire died in 986, and was succeeded by his son, Louis V., 966-987, who died 154 France. the next year, upon which the nobles assembled at Senlis, and elected Hugh Capet king by a unani- mous vote. This feudal chief was a fit representative of the new order of society introduced by Feudalism, which, during the tenth century, had grown up and displaced the great central power erected by Char- lemagne. During this period the land had been desolated by the Saracens, Germans, and Nor- mans ; commerce and the industrious classes disap- peared ; the country was dotted with the strong feudal castles, surrounded by a few miserable habi- tations of the baron's serfs, with here and there a broken down and humiliated city. Desolation was general, and gave the people ground for thinking — perhaps for hoping — that with the year looo the curtain would forever fall upon the dreary scenes of this world. The Feudal Monarchy, 987-1515 ; the House of Capet, 987-1328. — Thus the Feudal system was established in France ; a system which, extending itself through France, Italy, and Germany, at last covered the whole of Europe, and prepared the foundation of the great states that afterwards arose. Hugh Capet ruled the Duchy of France, as the Royal Domain ; and, as fiefs of the crown, the duchies of Normandy, Burgundy, Aquitainia, the counties of Champaign, and Toulouse and Flanders. Fifteen kings of this line reigned, ending, in 1328, the year of the birth of the Erglish poet The Hous,. of Capet. 155 Chaucer, with Charles IV., 1294-1328, the Hand- some, king of Navarre. The period includes all of the Crusades, 1095-1271, though for a long period France took no part in them, her kings pro- tecting and holding together their own possessions, while the Northmen were conquering southern Italy and ruling England, and while all the other princes of Christendom were intent on destroying the power of the Saracens. During the reign of Hugh Capet, France was desolated by wars between him and their neighbor- ing rulers, and between his powerful vassals. His son, Robert the Wise, 971-1031, ruled with modera- tion, love, and wisdom, which caused him to be greatly lamented, in spite of his cruel burning of "heretics" in the spirit of his age. In the reign of his son, Henry I., loii .?-io6o, the Truce of God, 1035, was published. Henry was followed by his son, Philip I., called the Fair, 1052-1108, and his long reign was marked by great events at home and abroad. In 1032 the Normans established them- selves in northern Italy, and in 1066, in England. Shortly afterwards Henry of Burgundy founded the kingdom of Portugal, 1095. ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^g^ c)f Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII., and of his grand projects for the universal supremacy of the Church, or, in other words, the power of the pope. It was the time when the election of popes was taken from Jhe sovereigns and given to the new College of Cardinals, and when the war of investitures oc- 156 France. curred, for Philip I. was involved in the conflict be- tween Gregory VII. and Henry IV. of Germany, 1077. It was also the time of the beginning of the Crusades, though Philip took no part in them. In 1087 William the Conqueror died at Rouen, where he had come to fight against Philip, who had taken the part of his rebellious son Robert. Philip was succeeded by his son, Louis VI., 1078- 1137, who entered upon his honors with a country filled with cities, well-peopled, and industrious, with a literature, and a clergy advancing scientific and literary education as they understood it ; and being himself a chivalrous knight, was well named Wide-awake, by his people. Louis reduced the ::ountry to some degree of order, gave the cities corporate rights, and improved their condition ; founded the class of free burghers (free citizens), and abolished serfdom on his own estates. During all his life, Louis VI. was in conflicts with powerful neighboring sovereigns, of whom the most redoubtable was Henry I., 1068-1135, of England, against whom he called out a force of two hundred thousand militia-men, a fact that proved a ready spirit of national patriotism to have inspired the people. It is said that the banner of the abbey of St. Denis, called the Aurifiamme, or Oriflamme, from its gilded standard, was first used as the national ensign during this uprising of the people. During his reign the schools of philosophy called Nb??iinal' 'stic and Realistic flourished, to which belonged re- TJiomas a Becket. 157 spectively Abelard, 1079-1142, and St. Bernard, 1091-1153, of Clairvaux. The next king was Louis VII., 11 20-1 180, whc was constantly at war with Henry II. of England He lost his popularity by the deplorable result of the second Crusade, and it is said that he lived " too long for his own glory and for the prosperity of France." During his reign, T/iomas a Beck:;!, iii9?-ii7o, was murdered at the foot of the altar of Canterbury Cathedral in England, and Frederic Barbarossa commenced the frightful wars against the cities of Lombardy associated with the names Guelfs and Ghibellines. Philip II., called Augustus, 1166-1223, succeeded his father in 1180, and inagurated a series of perse- cutions and other arbitrary acts. He found that the neighboring kings held considerable portions of France, as the English king, Normandy; the king of Aragon, parts of Languedoc and Provence ; and the emperor of Germany, the Rhenish provinces. These, however, he recovered, and made his scep- tre rule from Belgium to the Mediterranean, and from the Atlantic to the Rhine. He took the part of the sons of Henry II., 1133- 1187, against their father, and afterwards engaged with one of these. King Richard, 1157-1199, Coeicr de Lion, and Frederic Barbarossa, in the third Crusade, 1182. Frederic was drowned, as we have learned, and tiie other two leaders quarreled, which re- sulted in the 'eturn of Philip to France. Upon the 158 France. death of Richard, in 1199, Philip supported the claims of Prince Arthur, ii87?-i203, of Brittany, against John, to the English dominion in France. Arthur was assassinated, but Normandy, Maine, Touraine, and Poitou were recovered to the crown of France. Shakespeare's play, King John, is inter- esting in this connection. He represents the death of the prince as caused by an attempt to escape from the castle at Northampton by jumping from a high wall, and makes him exclaim as he falls, — " Oh me ! my uncle's spirit is in these stones : — Heaven take my soul, and England keep my bones ! " Philip now cited King John to appear before him as his feudal sovereign, to be tried by the twelve peers, pretending to revive the court of Charlemagne that had long existed in romance. These peers were sometimes called Paladins^ a name connected with palatinate, and the counts " palatine" or " of the palace?' By thus citing John, a war was brought on, in which the French were victors, and the re nown of Philip and the Capetian dynasty became very great. The fourth Crusade occurred in 1 202-1 204, and was followed by the terrible crusade against the Albigenses^ 1 208-1 229, in which Philip had no active part. He was occupied all his life in the vigorous prosecution of war, and in building up his kingdom. Besides restoring his lost territory, he established the new duchy of Brittany ; defined the duties of vassals and the rights of feudal lords, unti] Albigenses. 159 his reign became arbitary and capricious ; founded the University of France ; embellished Paris, paved some of its streets, built a palace near the Louvre, and continued the work on the cathedral of Notre Dame. His son, Louis VIII., reigned three years, con- tinued the war against the Albigenses, died in 1226, and was succeeded by his oldest son, Louis IX., 1 2 15-1270, called Saint Louis ^ under whom the crusades against the Albigenses ended. These people, living in the district of Albigeois, in Lan- guedoc, now in the department of Tarn^ were gov- erned by Count Raymond, 1156-1222, of Toulouse. Their religious faith was opposed to that of Rome, and the pope, after sending " commissaries " (fore- runners of the Inquisition) to investigate and chas- tise, excommunicated Raymond in 1208. A number of knights under Simon de Montfort, 1150?-! 2 18, assisted by Raymond of Toulouse, who had at last given up his opposition to the church, entered upon a war that was marked by determination and cruelty. It opened with the assault upon the ancient town of Bhiers, in 1209. The sect continued to exist until about 1242, when it seems to have become extinct as an open profession. Simon de Montfort died in 12 18, Count Raymond in 1222, and in 1229 Raymond VII. ended the war by ceding a con- siderable portion of Languedoc to France. Louis IX. was but eleven years of age at the i6o France. death of his father, and was carefully educated by his mother, Blanche of Castile, who was regent during his minority. The great vassals took the opportunity of the childhood of their king to rebel, and endeav^ored to regain some of the power they had lost during the two previous reigns. The ef- fort was unsuccessful, though the rebels were as sisted by Henry III., 1206-1272, of England. Louis acquired the sobriquet Saint by his moderation and amiability, for he appears never to have forgotten his mother's desire that he should avoid deadly sin. To these good traits he added a deep superstition, and a belief in the necessity of exterminating her- etics. In 1248 Louis set out upon the seventh Crusade, and, in 1270, upon the eighth, which re- sulted in his death in Africa on the way to the Holy Land. Between these unfortunate expeditions, Louis gave himself up to the improvement of his kingdom. In 125 1 he assembled a parliament {parler, to speak) to make laws for the land, and he issued some laws under the title of fEtablissement (establishment). V>y prag?natic sa?ictio7t he forbade the raising of money for the court of Rome with- out the king's authority, thus laying the foundation of the freedom of the French Church. He made travelers more safe, established at Paris an asylum for the blind, built the beautiful Sainte Chapelle. and encouraged the theological school oi la Sorbonjte^ founded by Robert, 1201-1274, de Sorbon. His last moments were employed in giving good Christian Progress under the Capetians. i6l counsels to his son and heir, Philip III., called the Bold, 1245-1284. This king augmented the domin- ion of France, but he acquired no glory for her, either at home or abroad. In 1282 the Sicilian Vespers occurred, and opened a war in which Spain, Italy, and France were involved, by which French rule in Sicily was overthrown. During this reign, in 1273, the house of Hapsburg was founded in Austria. Philip the Fair, 1268-13 14, succeeded his father, and still further aggrandized his kingdom. He engaged in wars with Edward I., 1 239-1307, of England, 1298, with the people of Flanders, 1302, and with the Knights Templar, whom he persecuted and destroyed, and became the most powerful sov- ereign in Europe, and a most detestable despot. The remaining Capetian kings were three sons of Philip IV., Louis X., 1289-13 16, Philip V., 1294- 1322, and Charles IV., called the Handsome, 1294- 1328, and John, a son of Louis X., who reigned a few days in 13 16. The period of the Capetian kings was one of notable progress. Besides the Crusades, which we have elsewhere considered, it saw the rise of many free communities, marked by the erection of cen- tral belfries for coi>venience in calling the people together ; it saw the beginning of the customs of chivalr}^, which gave rise to the use of family names and arms ; then literature was cultivated by men -ailed in the north trouveres, and in the south troubadours^ by chanteres or menestrels^ who accom- II 1 62 France, panied their recitations with instruments, and oy writers of biography and of chronicles. It was an age of improvement in architecture and painting. Tournaments, previously unknown, came into vogue. The m litary religious orders of Hospitallers and Templars arose, and the mendicant orders of Do- minicafis, or preaching friars {freres, brothers), and Franciscans, Gray friars, or Cordeliers. The Crusades also enlarged the sphere of the merchants and manufacturers, taught the people the art of war, the sciences of navigation and ge- ography, and gave them information on the subject of history. More than this, they gave fighting men a motive higher than they had ever known before, — they inspired them with an idea. The House of Valois, 1328-1529. — Thirteen sovereigns of the house of Yalois ruled France after the Capetian dynasty came to an end. The first of the line was Philip, 1293-13 50, of Valois, called VI., a cousin-german of Charles IV. and of Ed- ward III. of England ; Edward III. being a son of Isabella, sister of the last three kings of the Capetian line. Thus the new house of kings was but a branch of the old. The first seven of the line were in the direct line of descent, the crown passing from father to son, until 1498, and these earlier kings were in contrast with the inefficiency of the last six of the line. The first period was marked by bloody wars with England, which proved disastrous to France, and Hottse of Valois. 163 the second period was that of the wars with Italy and Austria, and the religious civil wars in which the Guises and the de' Medicis were prominent. The Hundred Years' War, 1338-1453. — The Hundred Years' AVar was a struggle on the part of England for the crown of France. In 1337 Ed- ward III. assumed the title King of England and France, and was acknowledged by James van Arte- velt of Flanders, and by Louis IV. of Bavaria, while John of Bohemia, neutral himself, led the emperor and the German princes to abide neutral in the coming struggle. The ground of Edward's claim was, that Charles IV. 's heir was a woman, who, by the Salic law, could not inherit the crown, though he claimed a woman might transmit it. He therefore insisted that his mother, Isabella, though excluded from the throne, was able to transmit the title to him. This theory was new. Hostilities opened in 1338, and in 1340 the English achieved a great victory over the French fleet, off Sluys in Holland. In 1345 Van Artevelt was murdered in Ghent at a time when he was trying to induce the populace to cast off their sovereign, the Earl of Flanders, in favor of Edward, Prince of Wales, better known from the color of h^s armor as the Black Prince. In 1346 Edvard III. took this prince with him to France, whither he went with the greatest army he had yet raised, and the Black Prince won his spurs at Crecy, August 26th. He killed at that battle 1 64 France. John of Luxemburg, king of Bohemia (who had abandoned his neutrahty), and assumed his armorial ensign, three ostrich feathers, with the motto Ich dim, " I serve," which succeeding princes of Wales have retained. At this terrible battle thirty or forty thousand French are said to have been slain. The defeat was followed by the surrender of Calais, after a siege of eleven months, and that by a truce which lasted from 1347 to 1355, during M'hich Philip VI. died. Having accepted of Humbert III. the province of Dauphiny, in 1349, Philip had given it to his eldest son, who was called Dauphin, a title which was held by the eldest son of the French kings until 1830. In 1350 John IL, 13 19 ?-i364, called the Good, ascended his father's throne, but with little more than the name of king, for the great vassals had acquired considerable independence, and the third estate (the bourgoisie, or the free citizens) had also gained more importance. The great vassals and the third estate were not on good terms, and their quarrels made them a prey of the kings, who, bv the year 15 15, had established themselves as absolute monarchs. John II. proved a violent and arbitrary king, and his despotic acts led to civil commotions, to the decay of trade, and gave Edward III. an excellent opportunity as well as an excuse for invading France with a fair prospect of success. Accordingly he sent the Black Prince to ravage the country with a for- The yacqiierie. 165 midable army, and that young man, now twenty-six years of age effectually performed his commission. He fell upon France like a devastating storm, and in 1356 overthrew a superior force led by King John himself, supported by his four sons, twenty-six dukes or counts, and a hundred and fifty bannerets. In the true spirit of chivalry the Black Prince hesitated not a moment, and achieved a brilliant victory, de- stroying the flower of the French army, and captur- ing King John and his youngest son. In 1360, the king was released from captivity, but in 1364 he returned to London and died. The disasters that followed the capture of John II. led to the oppression of the country people, both by the third estate, and the lords and soldiers, who called them in disdainful and sarcastic commenda- tion, yacques Bonhovime (Jim Good-fellow). There was a proverb of the time to the effect that yacques Bonhonune would not spend money except when worn out by blows, and that in such case he was obliged to pay. The peasants, called when united, the yacquerie,rosQ in 1358, burned chateaux, tor- tured and killed their inhabitants, and indulged in the usual excesses of people wild from oppression. In a few months, however, the great lords united and put down the yacquerie, crowning the leader with a red-hot iron tripod, beheading him, and putting to death thousands of those under him. Upon the captivity of his fatter, Charles V., called the \Vise, 133 7-1380, began to reign, and 1 66 France. under him France regained much of the ground she had lost. He was " wise" in taking lessons from the experience of his father, as well as in the selection of his subordinates. His chief general was Bertrand du Guescelin, 13 14 ? -1380, whom Provi- dence seems to have raised up to save France. A new war with England opened in 1370, but du Guescelin was uniformly victorious, the Black Prince was defeated, and a treaty was signed at Bruges in 1375. Edward III. died in 1377, his son having died in 1376, and Charles V. and du Guescelin both followed in 1380. Literature, and the arts of peace, did not flourish during this reign, but it was the age of Petrarch and Dante in Italy, and of Chaucer and Wiclif in Eng- land. Froissart lived at the time, and has left naive and picturesque chronicles. Literary men were largely engaged in the empty and curious discus- sions of the schoolmen. The reign of Charles VI., called the Beloved, 1368-142 2, who was lunatic for the last thirty years of his life, was marked by the wars of the royal houses of Orleans and Burgundy, and by new scenes in the Hundred Years' War. The leaders in the wars of the rival royal houses were Louis, duke of Orleans, and John, duke of Burgundy, called With- out Fear. These princes strove for the govern ment, taking advantage of the king's derangement, and the country was distracted by the civil war. At this crisis Henry V. of England landed on the coast TJie Maid of Orleans. i6y ot Normandy, gained the celebrated battle of Agin- court, October 15, 141 5, and signed a treaty at Troyes, giving most of the territory to the English 1420. Henry V. died 1422, and Charles VI. a few months later. The Maid of Orleans. — Charles VII., 1403- 1461, called the Victorious, on the death of his father, assumed the title of king, but his sister Cath- erine, who was wife of Henry V. of England, had at St. Denis proclaimed her son, aged one year, king of France and England, as Henry VI. A war en- sued of course ; the English were triumphant at first ; the greater portion of France recognized the young king, but as his rule, or that of his minister, grew ingreasingly burdensome, his French subjects be- came restive. They thought they were receiving punishment from heaven, and looked to God for help. Then, in 1429, a young peasant girl, yeaiine D^Arc, twenty years of age, announced that she had received a commission from God to deliver France — and she actually did turn the tide of events by delivering the city of Orleans, which was in a state of siege. Charles was crowned at Rheims, and Jeanne, saying that her mission was accomplished, Degged leave to retire to the sheep and the cattle. This the king would not allow, and two years later she was taken, in 143 1, by the English, and burned alive in the market-place at Rouen. The execution of the Maid of Orleans had little 1 68 France. effect upon the king, but after a few years of indiffer- ence he appeared to awake, and entered upon the war with so much vigor that in 145 1 the English were expelled, and by 1453 the whole of France, excepting Calais, was restored. Charles died in 146 1 of hunger, from a miserable fear of being poisoned by the Dauphin, his son. The Dauphin came to the throne as Louis XT., 1423-1483, and his reign, though cruel, was able. He returned to the old policy of centralization and strength, and making his yoke bear evenly upon all classes, they all were irritated. He first directed his energies against the aristocracy, and succeeded in crushing the most troublesome of the feudal houses. He was also successful in increasing the material prosperity of his country, by improving roads and canals, and by encouraging manufactures and com- merce, but he never was popular. He left the crown to his son, Charles VIII., 1470- 1498, whom he had instructed only so far as to tell him, that he who knows not how to dissimulate, knows not how to reign. Charles was of a some- what weak mind, and, desiring to emulate the chivalric and romantic deeds of Charlemagne, started for Italy in 1494, with the idea of reuniting it into one strong kingdom. He crossed the Alps, passed down to Naples, entered the city in triumph, gave himself up to debauch, lost both Naples and Sicily, and died of an apoplexy. During his reign, the Wars oj the Roses were in progress in England, 1455-1486. A Promise of Progress. 169 The duke of Orleans, 1462-15 15, now came to the throne as Louis XII. He was a great grand- son of Charles v., and was educated under the direc- tion of Louis XL, whose daughter, Jeanne, he had been forced to marry in 1486.^ From her he was divorced in 1449, ^^^d married Anne of Brittany, widow of his predecessor, Charles VIIL, an un- happy union. He interfered in the management of Italy, and, like Charles, won and lost Naples. Just before his death he married Mary, sister of Henry VIII. of England, his second wife having died. He has been called the Father of his People, a title that he hardly deserved. He died a quarter of a century after the discov- ery of America, and just before the full daylight of the Great Reformation, at a time when every thing pointed to a future of great intellectual develop- ment, and of progress in every sphere of human activity. ^ Read Scott's Quentin Durward. CHAPTER XI. FRANCE. A.S AN ABSOLUTE MONARCHY, AND UNDER OTHER FORMS OF GOVERNMENT. )E reached in the last chapter the end of the Middle Age in France. The Feudal system had given way to the monarchy, the lower ranks had been raised, the parliament had been instituted, and the feudal principle itself had very naturally faded in the face of the new public sentiment. Spain and England, as well as France had passed out of the old order into the new, and were governed by monarchs, and Europe was prepared for the emancipation of human thought from the bondage of superstition. Let us now trace the history of France under the new regime, from 15 15 to 1789. House of Valois, continued, 1328-1589. — Fran- cis I. of Angouleme, 1494-1547, who succeeded Louis XII., was his cousin-german, and, having married his daughter Claude, was, at his death, the natural heir of the crown. His first efforts were directed to the establishment of the claims of his house upon Italy, efforts which were continued b} The Chevalier Bayard. 171 his successors, and proved repeatedly disastrous. He was educated by his mother, Louise of Savoy, in all the literature of romance, and taking its, heroes for his models, he wished to tread the paths of Amadis of Gaul, Roland of Roncesvalles, and of Charlemagne and his other Paladins. These myths were well adapted to inspire him, as they have ex- cited many another since, but by putting them into real life, Francis showed their incompatibility with the modern era that had already begun. It is to them that Scott alludes in Marmioji, when he says : — " Oh, for a blast of that dread horn, On Fontarabian echoes borne, That to King Charles did come, When Roland brave and Olivier, And every Paladin and Peer, On Roncesvalles died." In 1515 he went to Italy with a large army, a part of which was commanded by the Chevalier Bayard, 1476-15 24, the chevalier sans peiir et sans r^proche. The Italians were overcome by Bayard at Marignano, near Milan, and Francis, after having been knighted on the field by the Chevalier, re° turned to his kingdom in triumph. Three years later Charles I. of Spain, became Charles V. of Germany, and Francis was a competitor for the imperial sceptre. They both sought the aid of Henry VIII. of England, Charles by private wiles, and Francis by the gorgeous gayeties of the Field of 1/2 Franc t. the Cloth of Gold, at Guines, near Calais, in 1520. Henry was so much courted by the two monarchs, that he adopted the proud motto, " Whom I sup- port is master.''^ In 1521, just after the Diet of Worms, war was opened between Charles V. and Francis I. by the latter, who seized Navarre, which had been under the government of France before the accession of the house of Navarre. Henry VHI. took the part of Charles V., and in 1522 declared war against Francis. The struggle resulted in the death of Bayard, 1524, the loss of Italy, and much other territory of France, the captivity of Francis, who was carried to Madrid, 1525, and the hard treaty of Madrid^ 1526, which was broken the same year. The pope absolved Francis for breaking this agree- ment, and a Holy Ania7ice between Henry VIII., Francis I., and the governments of Rome, Venice, Florence, and Genoa, was formed in 1527 against Charles V. After an exhausting war a peace was made in 1529, called the Woman's Peace, by the mother of Francis and the aunt of Charles, at Cainbray. This was humiliating to France. War broke out again in 1534, between Francis I. and the Duke of Milan, which involved Charles V., and was concluded by the treaty of Nice in 1538. In 1542, the insatiable Francis I. launched five armies against Charles, and gained in 1544 a victory at Cerisoles, in Piedmont, which proved a sufficient balm for the wounds his " honor " had previously suffered. Reign of Francis I. 173 This reign is remarkable for the advancement of art and literature, of which Francis I. was the patron. He reigned at the time when the influence of Italy was felt in every country of Europe. The elegant arts had been fostered, as we have already learned, by the de' Medici and their successors to such an extent that Italy was far in advance of all the countries about her. Francis had the taste or the sagacity to give countenance to many scholars and artists who without it could not have overcome the obstacles which confronted them. During this reign women became for the first time constant at- tendants at court, and thus was laid the foundation of the profligate manners which in succeeding reigns disgraced the court of France. In his family-life Francis I. was far from happy. His reign witnessed the beginning of the wars of religion that long distracted France. They began in the operations against the Vaudois, a people num- bering several thousands, living on the borders of Provence in Dauphiny and Piedmont. In 1546 their villages were desolated, and they almost extir- pated. Francis died in consequence of his debauched life, in 1547, the year also of the death of Henry VIII. of England. He left France an absolute monarchy with increased limits, and with all the feudal houses either extinct, or too feeble to rival the crown. The next kings were Henry II., 15 19-1559, who 1 74 France, succeeded his father, on his death in 1547 ; and Francis II., 1543-1560, who came to the throne in 1559. He was the husband of Mary Queen of Scots. Henry II. continued the wars in Italy, and his father's wars of rehgion. In the latter he was supported by the brothers Guise and Anne de Montmorenci, 1493-1567, who were unrelenting in their cruelties. Great atrocities are said to have been perpetrated at Paris, Lyons, Bordeaux, and elsewhere. The contest with Germany for the Italian kingdoms did not result to the advantage of France, and, but for his own delay, Philip II. would have taken Paris itself. Following his father's ex- ample, Henry led a life of dissipation. His son, Francis II., 1543-1560, found the people in a state of ignorance, the court most scandalous, the finances embarrassed, and the conflict of Romanism and Calvinism so violent, that it was ready to burst forth with volcanic force and desolation at any moment Francis II., who was a son of Catherine de' Medici, was under the direction of his wife's uncles, Francis, duke of Guise, 15 19-1563, and Charles of Guise, cardinal of Lorraine, 1525-1574, and they instituted such measures against the Cal- vinists as to arouse the king of Navarre, afterwards King Henry IV., and his brother, Louis of Conde, 1530-1569, who became the leaders of the Protest- ant party, and were aided by the Admiral de Colig- ny, 1517-1572. The cardinal of Lorraine designed a court for the trial of religious offenders, which SL Bartholomew' s Day, 175 was called the Chamber of Fire, because the flames were its only sentence. In the midst of these events, and just as the prince of Conde had been sentenced to death, Francis died, and his brother, Charles IX., 1 550-1 5 74, came to the throne at the age often years. No change occurred in public affairs. In 1562 the Protestants, called also Huguenots, took up arms again under Coligny and Conde ; the duke of Guise opposed them, but was assassinated, and Catherine de' Medici, in 1563, concluded a treaty, by the terms of which the Huguenots were allowed freedom of conscience. The peace was illusive, and efforts to subdue the Huguenots subsequently proved unsuccessful. It was at this juncture, in 1572, that occurred what is known in history as the Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day. Arrange- ments appear to have been made for a surprise, and at midnight the bell of the church of St. Germain I'Auxerrois, opposite the palace, rang out the signal of death. Coligny was murdered, and, it is said, thirty thousand others perished. Many of the Huguenots fled to Rochelle, and to the mount- ains. Conde and the, king of Navarre saved their lives by going to mass. In 1573 a treaty was made giving the Protestants some privileges in Montau- ban, Nismes, and Rochelle. After this terrible day remorse tormented the young king, and in its ago- nies he died, May 30, 1574. His brother, the duke of Anjou, 1551-1589, came to the throne as Henry III., and his reign ends I "J^ France. the supremacy of the family of Valois. Henry had been king of Poland, but upon his brother's death fled from Cracow by night. His mother had man- aged to put him upon the throne of Poland, in order that her power might not be broken in France, and though disconcerted by his return, still ruled, for he gave himself up to the dissipations which had been so congenial to the later kings of his line. The kingdom was very soon divided into three parties, the Huguenots^ the Royalists^ and the members of what was called the Holy League^ 1576- 1593. The last party was formed to oppose the claims of the king of Navarre, who, in spite of them, became the king of France as Henry IV. The League was directed by Henry, duke of Guise, 1 550-1588, and the year of his death he entered Paris amid the adulations of a wild populace, who called him the new Gideon, and inaugurated an enthusiastic rebellion. They raised barricades in the streets, as they have done often since, and caused the king to try again the virtue of flight. This wild tumult, which Guise himself likened to the raging of infuriated bulls, is known in history as the Day of the Barricades. The people soon looked upon the duke of Guise as king, and Henry caused his assasination. This new horror, added to others, exasperated the Parisians, and Henry, in despair, joined himself in 1589 to the king of Navarre, whom he had only lately vigorously opposed. Catherine de' Medici The Hottse of Bourbon. 177 was now dead. The two kings marched on Paris, Henry III. was assassinated in his camp, and the king of Navarre became Henry IV. of France, and the first of the Bourbons. The House of Bourbon, i 589-1 792. — The new house of French kings received its name from Bouibon, in the district of Bourbonnais, on the Loire, in the centre of France. It derived its right to the throne from St. Louis ^ who reigned from 1226 to 1290, whose sixth son, Robert, married in 1272 the heiress of the seiginory of Bourbon. It existed in several branches, that of Vendome being the one to which Henry IV. of Navarre belonged. The Orleans branch is descended from Philips duke of Orleans, 1 640-1 701, a son of Louis XIII. and Anne of Austria, Louis XIII. having been the eldest son of Henry IV. of Navarre. Philip, duke of Orleans, was the grandfather of king Louis Philippe, 1773- 1850, who left a large family. The house of Bourbon was not established with- out a severe contest. At first Henry was obliged to retire from Paris to the south, and the League proclaimed the Cardinal Bourbon, 15 20-1 590, king, as Charles X., with the duke of Mayenne, 1554- 161 1, as lieutenant-general. Having raised an army, Henry advanced upon Paris, 1590, met Mayenne near Dreux, on the plain of Ivry, and overthrew him. Macauxay's thrilling ode, "The Battle of Ivry," refers to this victory. He then invested the capital, which suffered the usual privations of a 12 178 France, siege, and was finally reduced. Still Henry was not acknowledged. In 1593, acting under the directions of his discreet minister, the baron de Rosny, afterwards the duke of Sully, 1559-1641, Henry solemnly abjured Protestantism a second time, and on the night of the twenty-second of March, 1594, his troops entered the city in silence, and though the civil war was not ended, the capital and chief cities were given up to the new king. His conversion was considered unreal by the members of the opposite faction, and an attempt upon Hen- ry's life in December, by a pupil of the Jesuits, led to the banishment of the order in 1595. The same year Pope Clement VIII. absolved the king, with great ceremony, at St. Peter's, Rome, declaring him king of France and Navarre. This was followed by the submission of Mayenne. The Edict of Nantes. — In 1598, Henry issued the celebrated Edict of Nantes^ by which he insured to the Protestants freedom of worship and impartial justice, and the long wars of religion were ended. Aided now by Sully, he established financial re- forms, fostered agriculture, trade, literature, fine arts, and architecture, reconquered the portion of his kingdom that had been alienated, made severe laws against the duel, which was a terrible scourge at the period, and laid plans for the entire reorgan- ization of Europe. He was troubled through all his reign by the question of religion, which would not be settled, and TJie Duke of Sully. 179 nineteen different attempts were made upon his life; which were most of them attributed to this cause. In 1600 he divorced his wife, Margaret of Valois, and married Maria de' Medici, daughter of the grand duke Francis of Florence, and was faithless to both. His second wife was more irritated by his infidelities than the first had been, and she made his last years very bitter. By the management of Sull)^ France had retained the support of Elizabeth of England, but she died in 1603, and James L, 1566-1625, was a weak dependence. An amour of the king brought on a war with Germany and Spain, which was unpopular, and when he was about to set out on the campaign, he was assassinated by Francis Ravaillac, 1579-1610, who expected to make himself a popular idol by the act. In this he was mistaken, for the people were thrown into consternation, and cried out, "We have lost our father ! " Henry was a " father " of bad morals, but he left his country in a very flourishing condition, and undoubtedly had her greatness near his heart. Again France was cursed by a regency, for her new king, Louis XIIL, 1601-1643, was a child, and his mother, Maria de' Medici, held the reins of government for fifteen years. She exerted her power through an Italian, named Concini, whom she loaded with honors, thus exciting the greatest indignation among the princes and nobles of old French families. In 16 14 these formed a league, and became masters of a part of France. After a 1 80 France. brief civil war a peace was arranged, and the mal- contents were rewarded with places and pensions. In 1615 the king married Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III. of Spain. In 16 17 he caused the murder of Concini, and exiled his mother from court. Being, however, too inefficient to govern the country alone, he recalled her in 1624, and took as his prime minister, her counselor, the Cardinal de Richelieu, 1585-1642, who ruled France until the king's death, making him, as was said, the first man in Europe, but the second in his own kingdom. Cardinal de Richelieu. — The new prime mover in French affairs entered upon his career with three well defined objects. I. He was deter- mined to make the power of the crown absolute. II. He wished to annihilate the Calvinists as a political party. III. He aimed to reduce the power of Austria, in Germany and Spain, and to extend that of France. His motives were political, not religious, a fact which must be kept in mind as we study his acts. In the pursuance of his first object, Richelieu succeeded by the use of the most unscru- pulous means. In 1631 Maria de' Medici was obliged to fly to Flanders, and the other opponents of the king were put out of the way by execution or banishment. Richelieu accomplished the over- throw of the Protestants by taking the field himself against their city, Rochelle, which capitulated, after a memorable siege, in 1628 ; and by engaging in Louis XIV. l8l a second campaign against tlie duke of Rohan the next year. The third object of Richelieu was more difficult of accomplishment, but toward it all his former successes pointed. It was the period of the Thirty Years' War in Germany, and of the Revolution in England that put Cromwell at the head of affairs, and was therefore a time favorable for the ag- grandizement of P>ance. Richelieu intrigued with Wallenstein, the prince of Orange, and Gustavus Adolphus in Germany, with the Protestants of Switz- erland, and is even supposed to have had some influence in the movements of the Puritans and Covenanters, which led to their final predominance in England, from 1649 to 1660. In his third effort, Richelieu succeeded as he had done in the two former cases, and while Germany came out of the Thirty Years* War with her nationality gone, France found herself in the forefront of European peoples, holding the " balance of power." Louis XLV. — After the king had been married twenty-two years, in 1638, his first son was born. He was received by the people with great demon- strations of joy, was called the God-given, and at the age of five years became king as Louis XIV., 1638-1715, with Anne of Austria as regent, and Cardinal Mazarin, 1602-1661, as prime minister. Louis XIV. reigned seventy-two years, though for eighteen years he was little more than a puppet in the hands of Mazarin, who left him at his death in 1 82 France. 1 66 1, a kingdom well organized and under perfect control. No minister took the place of Mazarin, and all reports were made directly to the Grand Mo?iarqiie, as Louis was called. At the death of Louis XIII., the French army under the duke d'Enghein, afterwards Great prince of Conde, 1621-1686, was engaged against the Spanish in Flanders, and it signalized the acces- sion of the new king by the victory of Rocroi, May 19, 1643. This victory was followed by others, and they all led to the peace of Westphalia^ and the end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648. They had also another effect, for Mazarin was obliged to resort to unpopular methods in raising money to meet the war expenses, and the people of Paris rebelled. Their rising is known as the war of the Fronde, and the revolters as Frondeurs, or Croakers. Fro?zde, means a sling, and a Frondeur, is one who, always croaking against the government, is said to sling his repeated accusations at it. War OF THE Fronde, 1648-165 2. — Again bar- ricades were erected in Paris. The royal family was forced to flee, and, cut off from all resources, was reduced to privation, and even obliged to pledge the crown jewels. In 1649, Conde, who acted on both sides at different times, brought the court back to Paris, but he became so arrogant that he was arrested and imprisoned for a year. Meantime Mazarin became an object of detestation, was exiled from Paris, and Conde was set free. The Triple Alliance. 183 In a few months, however, Mazarin was brou2-ht back by the queen, and in 1652, Conde was march- ing on Paris. Then the young king assumed his authority, exiled Mazarin a second time, peace re- sulted directly, and the Frondeurs became things of the past. As soon as possible after this peace, Louis recalled Mazarin, and the fickle people re- ceived him with demonstrations of joy. In 1655 Louis strengthened himself by making an alliance with Oliver Cromwell. Though Louis put no one in the place vacated in 166 1 by Mazarin, he had two able ministers, Colbert, 1619-1683, in the financial department, and Louvois^ 1641-1691, in that of war. From the death of the cardinal, Louis devoted himself very strictly and methodically to the affairs of his kingdom, and became, what he intended to be, the real director of France. Colbert inproved the public resources, and made the country financially prosperous, while Louvois carried out his master's ambitious designs with efficiency, sometimes giving a little extra vigor to the king's orders. In 1665, upon the death of the king of Spain, Louis laid claim to the crown of that country, and to support it, invaded Flanders, a district often before distracted by wars that were not its own. His successes were very rapid, and though they ended with the peace of Aix-la~Ckapelle, 1668, they alarmed Europe by visions of a universal French monarchy, and the Triple Alliance of England, Hoi- 1 84 France. land, and Sweden, was formed to effect the peace. It was very much in the favor of the French. Louis determined to break up this AlUance, and his first step was the effecting of a treaty with Charles II., 1670, by which he became a pensioner of France, and promised to be her ally against the Dutch. In 1672 Louis invaded Holland at the head of a large army, accompanied by Louvois, Conde, Turenne, 1611-1675, and others of his great captains. His successes were remarkable, and the Dutch sued for peace j but the demands of Louis were so great that the Dutch spirit was aroused, and they determined to die rather than submit. William of Orange, 1650-1702 (afterwards William IH. of England), was elected commander- in-chief, the dykes were cut to let the ocean into the lowlands, and preparations were made to transport the whole nation to the East Indies if necessary. Germany sent aid, England could not resist the de- mands of its own people that the Protestants should be helped, and even Spain prepared to reinforce the prince of Orange. Still the war went on with the advantage on the side of the French, and in 1678, the peace of Nimeguen only confirmed their successes. In 1680, however, Louis laid claim to certain German territory, which, after a few months of fighting, resulted in the treaty of Eatisbon^ 1684, which gave him Luxemburg. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. — After this peace, Louis turned his attention to religious War of the Spanish Succession. 185 affairs, and, under the direction of his wife, Madame de Mai?ttenon, who having been a Protestant, be- came a most zealous Catholic, repealed the Edict of Nantes in 1685. The Huguenots had been left defenseless after the fall of Rochelle and their other cities, and new bodies of troops were sent among them that were guilty of the outrageous cruelties that have so often disgraced the name of religion. The people were hunted, tortured, and murdered. Thousands fled to the mountains, forty thousand found refuge in England, and many sub- mitted to the tenets of the Romish Church. The prince of Orange was 1686, succeeded in arraying against France, by the League of Augsburg, Holland, Austria, Spain, Bavaria, and Savoy. In 1688, when he became king of England, that country joined the League, and at the same time James II. came to France and ended his life a de- pendent of Louis XIV. After nine years of war both parties were sufficiently exhausted to welcome the peace of Ryswick., 1697. War of the Spanish Succession. — In 1700, Charles II. died, leaving the crown of Spain to Philip, duke of Anjou, which led Louis to undertake the war of the Spanish Succession, against a coali- tion formed by Austria, England, Holland, Hanover, and Portugal. The allied forces were commanded by the duke of Marlborough, 1650-172 2, and Francis of Savoy, called Fri?tce Eugene, 1663-1736, -md they won battle after \ attle, during the twelve 1 86 France. years of the war. Among their victories the most celebrated are those of Blenheim^ on the Danube, 1704 ; of Turin, 1706 j of Lille, in Flanders, 1708 \ and Malplaquef^ 1709- Ii^ 1711? owing to the acces- sion of a Tory ministry in England, and the in- fluence of Lord Bolingbroke, Marlborough was recalled, and his country withdrew from the contest, though prince Eugene carried on his operations with vigor and even at one time threatened Paris. The French made small gains in 17 12, and in 17 13 peace was concluded at Utrecht^ by the terms of which England received Nova Scotia, Newfound- land, and the Hudson's Bay territory from France, and Gibraltar from Spain ; the Spanish possessions in America were left to Spain ; and the island of Sardinia was given to the duke of Savoy, with the title of King. The emperor of Germany did not sign this treaty, but he made one the next year with France, at jRadstadt, by which he obtained the Spanish Netherlands, and Milan, Naples, and Sicily. In 17 1 5, Louis XIV. died, bereft of his grandeur, bat he had established a most perfect absolutism in France, which endured three quarters of a century after his death. Literature and Art. — This was the golden age of French literature and art, which were fostered by the king, by Colbert, and by the queen, Maria Theresa. Tragedy was cultivated by Racine, 1639- 1699 ; comedy, by Moliere, 1622-1673 ; the fable, by La Fontaine, 1621-1695; oratory, by Bossuet, The Golden Age. 187 1627-1704; Bourdaloue, 1632-1704, and Massillon, 1663-1742; philosophy by Rochefoucauld, 1613- 1680, La Bruyere, 1639-1696, and Malebranche, 1631-1715 ; history by Fleury, 1640-1723, and Rol- lin, 1661-1741; and other styles by Fenelon, 1651- 17 15, Madame de Sevigne, 1626-1696, and Madame de Maintenon, 1635-1719. Some of the military leaders have already been mentioned. Among the students of art were Man- sart, 1645-1708, Perrault, 16 13-1688, and Blondel, 1705-1774, in architecture ; Poussin, 1594-1665, Claude Lorraine, 1600-1682, Le Sueur, 1617-1655, Le Brun, 1619-1690, and Nicholas, 1605-1668, and Pierre Mignard, 1610-1695. In 1663 the academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres was founded ; in 1666, that of the Sciences, and in 1667, the Academy of Art. Men of science, art, and letters were encouraged and rewarded, and the foundation of many institutions laid that still exert a great influence. In addition to this, harbors, canals, fortifications, and other internal improve ments, were made on a vast scale. Thus, in regard to material affairs, it was a golden age, though its moral aspect is frightful, for super- stition and profligacy, though rebuked by such men as Bourdaloue, Bossuet, and Fenelon, were very prominent among high and low. Another Child-king. — Again France suffered from a regency, for Louis XV., 1710-1774, was but five years old at the time of the death of his great- 1 88 France, grandfather, whom he succeeded. The duke of Orleans, 1 640-1 723, was appointed regent by Louis XIV. He was the husband of Henrietta, daughter of Charles I. of England, both being grandchil- dren of Henry IV. The king was declared of age on the death of the regent, was married to Maria, daughter of the ex-king Stanislaus of Poland, in 1725, and in 1733 opened the Polish war for the crown of that country, which continued two years. Stanislaus did not gain his crown, but acquired the duchy of Lorraine, which he ruled until his death in 1766. In 1740, upon the death of Charles VI. of Austria, France was involved in the wars which resulted in establishing the claims of Maria Theresa, 1717-1780, to the crown. This struggle has already been referred to. One of the battles was fought at Dettingen, in Bavaria, June 16, 1743, between the English under George II., and the French under Marshal Noailles, 1678-1766, and the duke of Grammont, and the French were vic- torious. Marshal Saxe, 1696-1750, also achieved victories in the Austrian Netherlands, and when peace was concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748, the honor of the nation had been vindicated, and she received back Loiiishirg^ the Gibraltar of America, which had been captured in 1745, by New Eng- landers In 1743 the king lost his able and judicious minister, the Cardinal Fleury, 1653-1743, and he dete/ mined to follow the example of Louis XIV., Lr'Uis tJie Fifteenth. 189 by ruling without a prime minister, though his energy soon passed away, and he paid more atten- tion to dissipated enjoyment than to matters of state. In 1756 war broke out with England brought about by disputes on the subjects of bound aries in America and India, and it involved most of the European nations until the peace of Paris, 1763. It cost France Canada, Nova Scotia, her possessions east of the Mississippi, and Grenada, Dominica, and Tobago, in the West Indies. Thus, shorn of his greatness, Louis XV. died, in 1774, from the results of his dissipations. His ex- travagance and costly wars had emptied the public treasury, but the middle classes had gradually ac- quired wealth and social influence. In literature his reign was an age of license and skepticism, and the names of Rousseau, 1712-1788, Montesquieu, 1689- 1755, Voltaire, 1694-1778, Condillac, 17 15-1780, D'Alembert, 17 17-1773, and Diderot, 1714-1784, are prominent among those of influence. Buffon, 1707-1788, Necker, 1 732-1804, and Bernardin de St. Pierre, 173 7-1 814, wrote in a nobler spirit. In 1774, Louis XVI., 1754-1793' grandson of his predecessor, came to the throne, an awkward, amiable, undecided young man, of simple tastes, and earnest piety. His wife was Marie Antoinette, 1755-1793, daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria, [ust after the accession of this young couple, the English colonies in America declared themselves independent, and sent r, gents to Paris for aid and IQO France. sympathy. The good-natured Louis did not wish to go to war, but public opinion forced him to con- clude a treaty with the United States, which was done in 1778, and was tantamount to a declaration of war with England, which event, indeed, quickly followed. The war proved very expensive, and laid a burden upon the people, which, already ex- cited by the American example of freedom, they were not willing to bear quietly. The National Assembly. — In 1789 the king assembled the States General at Versailles, the strength of which proved to be in the tiers kaf, third estate, or commons, who on the seventeenth of June declared themselves a National Assembly^ and adjourning to the Tennis Court, vowed, with uplifted hands not to separate until they had given a new constitution to France. They proceeded on the principle of the supremacy and independence of the people, and very soon metamorphosed the na- tion. On the fourth of August they abolished all privileges, and declared citizens equal before the law. They swore to a new constitution, caused it to be accepted by the king, and adjourned, Septem- ber 30, 1 79 1. Revolution. — Meantime Paris was in the most terrible state of confusion. A National Guard was formed, comprising nearly all the citizens capable of bearing arms, with the Marquis de Lafayette, 1757-1834, as commander. Camille Desmoulins, 1762-1794, discoursed to the people on the rights The Republic. 191 of man ; crowds wearing the red, white, and blue cockade paraded the streets, and on July 14th, the Bastile was besieged and razed to the ground. A body of dragoons was called from Flanders, and on its arrival at Versailles was received at a banquet by the royal body-guard. The king, queen, and dauphin were imprudently present, and were toast- ed ; the red-white-and-blue cockades were trampled under foot, and the white ones of Bourbon were honored. The palace was besieged by a mob, and the royal family carried to Paris, and imprisoned in the palace of the Tuileries. The frightened nobles emigrated to foreign countries, whence they were called emigres ; the jacobin club, the Cordelier club, and other democratic organizations, increased in violence, and the names of Marat, 17 74-1 793, Danton, 1 759-1 794, Talleyrand, 1 754-1 838, Robes- pierre, 1 759-1 794, suggest thoughts that cannot here be pursued. Lafayette, as commander of the National Guard, and member of the fast waning Constitutional club, strove to restrain the passions of the people, without success. The Republic, 1792-1795. — In the spring of 1 79 1, the king, in order to define the strictness of his confinement, attempted to visit St. Cloud, but, being thwarted by the mob, determined to try to escape from the Tuileries and from Paris to the Drotection of the emigres on the frontiers. Starting out in a clumsy carriage he was recognized at a place one hundred and fifty miles from the city. 192 France. and taken to Paris by the National Guards. He was then strictly guarded. France was invaded by the Germans, the people were still more excited, they stormed the Tuileries, and massacred the Swiss Guards. The royal authority was pronounced sus- pended on September 20th ; France was declared a republic, and on January 11, 1793, after a stormy deabte, Louis XVI. was condemned to the guillotine. His head fell on the 21st, amid the wild shouts of the people. The early part of the month has been called the Days of September. It was a period of horrid butchery, executed by contract and by wholesale ; three thousand persons were killed singly and in masses, and the so-called reign of Libei'iy was be- gun. In less than a month the queen also was beheaded, and her son, Louis XVII. , 1785-1795, perished two years later. It is impossible to give the details of the events of the period here. The execution of the French king was intended as a menace to all kings, and the people were summoned to follow the example every- where. The yacobins excluded the more moderate Glro7idists from the national councils, and, under Robespierre, Couthon, 175 6-1 794, and St. Just., 1 7 68- 1 794, carried on the Reign of Terror^ which, after resulting in the execution of so many victims that an acqueduct was necessary to carry off the stream of blood, ended in 1794, by a reaction, which caused the ex^^cution of the three monsters just mentioned. The Directory. 193 The Directory, i795-i799- — The Reign of Terror was succeeded by a period of light, trivial, gay and licentious infidelity, after which a new constitution was adopted, and in i795 the executive power was given to five men, called The Directory. These were deposed by Bonaparte in 1799, and The Consulate established composed of three mem- bers, of whom he was the first. In May, 1802, he was made consul for ten years, in August his term was extended to the limit of his life, and in 1804, The Empire was established with Bonaparte, as emperor Napoleon I. The history of France from the establishment of the Directory, is little more than a narrative of the deeds of her wonderful ruler, to whom we now turn. Napoleon Bonaparte.— ^^"^oX^oxv Bonaparte, 1769- 182 1 was of a Tuscan family that had for several generations been settled on the island of Corsica. He was in Paris during the scenes of 1792, but re- turned to Corsica in August, and was obliged to flee from that island soon after. Asking the Conven- tion for employment in 1793, he was sent to Toulon, then in a state of siege. The city was reduced in December, and Bonaparte was placed at the head of the artillery of the army in the south, with the rank of brigadier-general. October 4, i795, the National Guard was dispersed by him, when it at- tempted to interfere with the sessions of the Con- tention in the Tuileries. In March, 1796, he mar- ried Josephine Beauhar-Ms, 1763-1814, and a lew n 194 France. days afterwards started for Italy, where he had been appointed to command the French army. He was confronted by the Austrian and Piedmontese force, and overthrew them, gaining a number of bat- tles. Among others that of Lodi, May loth. He took possession of the principal cities, and, like the barbarians of old, mercilessly pillaged them, send- ing money, pictures, statues, manuscripts, and other treasures to France, and performing the work with French minuteness and scientific judgment. After five campaigns, Austria was obliged to sue for peace, and a treaty was signed at Campo Formio, October 17, 1797. Napoleon never more bril- liantly displayed his genius than in this campaign. In December he returned to Paris, where he was welcomed with enthusiasm. In 1798 he sailed for Egypt with an army of thirty thousand men, and a body of savans whom he took to study the antiquities of the country. Capturing Malta on the way, and escaping Nelsoiiy 1 758-180 5, who was searching for him with an English fleet, he took Alexandria by storm July 5th, defeated the Mamelukes at the battle of the Pyra- mids on the 2ist, took Cairo, Rosetta, and Damietta, and spent some months subduing the remainder of the country and directing his scientific corps in its Investigations. Meantime Nelson had destroyed the fleet upon which he depended for his return to France, and he decided to conque; Palestine. Un- successful in this attempt, he returned to Egypt, Napoleon I. 195 and leaving his army under General Kleber, he suddenly appeared in Paris in October, 1799. Finding the Directory unpopular, he decided to imitate Cromwell, and on the tenth of November, he dissolved it, causing a new constitution to be drawn up, under which he was made Consul, with almost dictatorial powers, as we have already stated. In the new government he surrounded himself with able men. Talleyrand, 1 754-1838, was foreign sec- retary, Fouche, 1 763-1820, was minister of police, Gaudin, 1756-1844, was minister of finance, and Cambaceres, 1 753-1824, was minister of justice. In January, i8oo, Bonaparte removed to the Tuil- eries from the Luxemburg palace, amid the accla- mations of the people. He then quickly reduced the system of public finance to order, declared that opinions were not amenable to law, opened the churches, recognized Sunday as a day of rest, and made many other salutary regulations. France was still at war with England, Austria, and the Porte, but Bonaparte offered to make peace with the two former nations, in autograph letters which were coldly received ; the British minister, Lord Grenville, 1 759-1834, expressing a want of confidence in the stability of the government of France. Bonaparte thereupon entered vigorously upon war by pouring his army down upon Italy from the passes of the Alps. Starting May 17th, he entered Milan June 2d, and met the Austrians on the field of Marengo on the 14th, gaining a decisive 196 France. victory. This was followed by the battle of Hohen- linden, gained by General Moreau over the Aus- trians, December 3d, after which the peace of Luneville was concluded, February 9, 1801, on the basis of the treaty of Campo Formio. In March, the French were defeated in Egypt by the English, and after the treaty of Amiens, March 27, 1802, nothing remained to the French but the fruits of the scientific investigations, which were of great importance. The Empire revived, 1804-1814. — In February, 1804, a plot was discovered against the life of Bona- parte, and he was betrayed by his fright into the murder of the duke d'Enghien, 1772-1804, a grand- son of the prince of Conde, whom he suspected of being privy to the conspiracy. It also led Bonaparte to revive the empire, though he managed to make it appear that he was desired by the people to become emperor. He assumed the new title at St. Cloud, May 18, and crowned himself and Josephine at Notre Dame, in the presence of the pope, Decem- ber 2, 1804. The next spring he crowned himself at Milan, May 26, with the iron crown of the Lon- gobard kings. In 1806 his brother Joseph was crowned king of Naples, and in June another brother, Louis, was made king of Holland. England, Russia, Austria, and Sweden were now united against Bonaparte, because he had broken the treaty of Luneville, and with amazing celerity he brought his army to bear upon the Aus- trians at Ulm, causing their capitulation, October The Empire revived. 197 17, 1805. Four days after, his fleet was destroyed by Nelson at Trafalgar. The emperor entered Vienna in triumph, November 13th. On the second of December he met the aUies commanded by the emperor of Russia, and defeated them TiXAiisterlitz in Moravia. Tlie peace of Presburg followed, Decem- ber 26th. In 1806 and 1807 Bonaparte was engaged with the Russians and Prussians, whom he defeated at J^ena, October 14, 1806, and humbled by the treaty of Tilsit, July 7, 1807. He then made his brother Jerome king of Bohemia. On the twenty-first of November, in 1806, he issued from the capital of Prussia his Berlin Decree, by which he declared the ports of Europe closed against England. He then attacked Portugal, and took Lisbon, November 29, 1807. The English sent Arthur Wellesley, after- wards the duke of WellingtoJt, 1769-185 2, against him, without success. In 1809 there was a general rising of the nations against Bonaparte, who was equal to the emergency, and, after other successes, prostrated the Austrians at Wagram, near Vienna, July 6th, and dictated the terms of the peace of Schoenbrunn, called also the peace of Vienna, October 14, 1809. In December he divorced his faithful wife, Josephine, and on the eleventh of March, 1810, married Maria Louisa, 1791-1847, daughter of the emperor of Aus- tria. He was now at the acme of his career, and employed his powder in increasing the internal great- igS France. ness of France, the remains of which are seen on every hand at the present day. In 1812 the sixth coahtion was formed against Napoleon, by England, Russia, Spain, and Portugal. He was at the time engaged with Wellington in the peninsula of Spain, but suddenly withdrawing troops from that quarter, he marched towards Rus- sia with an army of six hundred thousand men. Defeating the enemy at Borodino, September 7th, he pushed towards Moscow, entered the city with exultation, found it on fire, and himself in a frozen country without supplies. He returned with great loss, met the Russians at Lutzen, May 2, 1813, and at Bautzen on the 20th, was victorious, but found his power fast waning, and at the battle oi Leipsic, October 19th, he was defeated. His conquests were quickly taken from him, and the allies entered Paris, March 31, 18 14. The next day the French senate declared the throne vacant, and Bonaparte abdicated the crown at Fontainebleau, April 4th, agreeing to live on the island of Elba, with the title of emperor, the sovereignty of the island, and an income of six million francs. Louis XVIII., 1755- 1824, next brother of Louis XVI., was made king, and thus the Bourbons were restored. Bourbons restored, 1814-1830. — In Septem ber, after the abdication, about five hundred repre- sentatives of the nations met in what is called the Congress of Vienna. Among them were Alexander I. of Russia, the king of Prussia, the duke of Wei- The Bourbons restored. 199 lington, Prince Metternich of Austria, and Talley- rand. After settling the bounds of the nations, they adjourned June 9, 18 15. Meantime Bonaparte heard that the restored Bourbons were making blunders in managing affairs, and escaping from Elba, appeared at Paris, March i, 1815. He was Welcomed, the empire was revived, the Congress of Vienna was interrupted, and all Europe pre- pared for war. On June 18th, the decisive battle was fought at Waterloo, in Belgium, near Brussels ; Wellington and the aDies were victorious, and Bonaparte, abdicating a second time, surrendered himself to the English, who imprisoned him on the island of St. Helena, a thousand miles from the coast of Africa, where he died, May 5, 182 1. On the return of Bonaparte, Louis XVHI. with- drew to Ghent, and after the battle of Waterloo, returned to Paris under the protection of Welling- ton. During his reign the Carboftari were increas- ing in numbers everywhere, and the echoes of the French Revolution seemed to be reverbera- ting thoughout Europe. Wishing his country well, Louis was able to do little for it, and dying Septem- ber 12, 1824, he left the crown to his brother, Charles X., 1757-1836. Charles attempted to re- store the ancient absolutism, and by attacking the freedom of the press, and destroying the types of some liberal newspapers, he excited the people of Paris in July, 1830, to such a degree, that barri- "^ades were made in the streets by men, women, 200 France. and children, and the national guard under La- fayette, was called out to restore order. Charles fled to Versailles on the thirteenth of July, ab- dicated August 2d, and sailed for England on the 17th. His subsequent life was that of a pri- vate gentleman at Edinburgh and elsewhere. The Cou7it of Chamhord, 1 820-1 883, his grandson, was then called the Duke of Bordeaux. The House of Orleans, 1830-1848. — The duke of Bordeaux was proclaimed king as Henry v., in accordance with the terms of the abdication of his grandfather, and the " legitimists " of France still give him the title. He was, however, not ac- cepted by the Chamber of Deputies, who summoned Louis Philippe^ duke of Orleans, 1 773-1850, to the throne. He was the eldest son of Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, 1 747-1 793, who called himself Egalite (equality), an associate and dupe of the Jacobins. He had been educated by Madame de Genlis, 1 746-1830, was a member of the Constitu- tional and Jacobin clubs, had been obliged to flee from France in 1793, had been a school-teacher in Switzerland, and a wanderer in England and Amer- ica. He was still destined, after eighteen years of experience as a "citizen-king," to die an exile in England. The first years of the reign of Louis Philippe were occupied with efforts to unite the incompatible elements of his nation — the legitwiists^ who sup- Dorted Henry V., the Bonapartists^ and the repiibli The Republic. 20i mnsi He made Talleyrand minister to England, and consented to the terms of the Congress of Vienna; he put down insurrections in 183 1, at Lyons, and in 1832, at Paris, and in La Vendee, the last being in favor of the present count of Chambord, and then he became involved in wars with the Moors, which continued durins: his reio-n. In the latter wars he was engaged with Abd-el- Kadir, emir of Mescara in Algiers, who in 1847 was captured, carried to France, and kept as prisoner until liberated by Louis Napoleon in 1852, after which he was permitted to live in Constantinople. At home, the king endeavored to avoid extremes, and keep peace at any cost, but in February, 1848, the cries of his people for " reform " were too loud to be resisted, and he was forced to abdicate the throne, and under the name of Smith to flee to England. During the last days of his reign, barri- cades were thrown up in Paris, the people, talking of " Liberie, Egalite, Fraternite,'' embraced the theories of Socialism, and finally the Republic was proclaimed. The Republic 1848-1852. — Upon the estab- lishment of the new Republic the history of France became again associated with the Bonaparte family, for Louis Napoleon, 1808-1872, a son of Louis Bonaparte, ex-king of Holland, brother of Napoleon I., came to Paris professing to be a good republican. In response to an invitation, he promised to leave the country, but afterwards managing to be elected 202 Finance. to the Assembl}' took his seat in that body, June 13, 1848. This wonderful man was a son of Hortense Beauharnais, daughter of the good empress Jose- phine, and had been educated by his mother, who did not live with her husband. He appears always to have believed that it was his destiny to rule France. He was engaged in the revolution of 183 1 in Ital3^ In 1836 he made an attempt <"0 gain power in France by a coup d'etat at Strasbourg, which was a ridiculous failure. He was captured and sent to the United States, and after living in idleness a while, he went to South America, and then returned to Europe on account of his mother's final illness. He retired after her death to Eng- land, but in 1840 made another grotesque failure in attempting to win the throne, at Boulogne. He was captured, and sentenced to imprisonment in the fortress of Ham, about seventy miles north-east of Paris. Thence he escaped to England in 1846, and was ready to appear, as just stated, when the new republic was proclaimed. Paris was in a state of still greater excitement during the first session of the convention, which opened in March. The people and the national guard were in conflict, the city was declared to be in a state of siege, cannon were brought to bear upon the people, the good archbishop of Paris was killed while attempting to make peace. General Cavaignac^ 1802-1857, late governor-general of Algeria, was The Crimean War. 203 made dictator, and in October quiet was restored. In December an election of president for four years was held, the candidates being Cavaignac, Ledru- Rollin, 1808 , and Louis Napoleon. The last was successful, and before the term had expired, he had by a coup d'etat caused it to be extended to ten years, and also had managed to have the empire proclaimed again, which was done December 2, 1852, with himself emperor, as Napoleon III. The Crimean War. — By the next year the new emperor had so far established his throne that England was led to make an alliance with him against Russia, who was oppressing the Sultan of Turkey, and in 1854 the Crimea7i war broke out between Russia on the one side, and England and France on the other. The allied forces encoun- tered the Russians under prince Menschikoff^ 17S9- 1869, first on the banks of the river Alma, and defeated them September 20th. Seizing Balaklava five days later, the siege of Sevastopol was begun October 9th, and the battles of Inkermann, Novem- ber 5th, Redan, June 18, 1855, Tchernaya, August i6th, and the final storming of the Malakoff and the Redan, September 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th, gave vic- tory to the allies, who left the Crimea a few weeks later. Peace was established by the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856. In 1858 it became apparent that the emperor of France was upon terms of growing friendship with Victor Emmanuel, 1820-1878, king of Sardinia, and 204 France. Austria endeavored to strengthen herself in Lom- bardy, by measures of unwonted liberality. Naples, too, was alarmed. In April, 1859, the Austrians made aggressive movements, and the emperor went to the scene of conflict in person. The Austrians were routed at the great battles of Magenta, June 4th, and Solferino, June 24th, but it appearing doubtful that the French ground could be long held, and as Prussia threatened to interfere, Napo- leon suddenly effected a truce, which was followed by the peace of Villafranca, July nth. Lombardy was given to Sardinia, and Venetia was confirmed to Austria. In 1861 Napoleon recognized Victor Emmanuel as king of Italy. Expedition to Mexico. — In 186 1 Napoleon or- ganized an expedition against Mexico, in con- nection with Spain and England, who, however, withdrew the next year. In 1863 he induced the Archduke Maximilian of Austria, 183 2-1 86 7, to accept the Mexican crown, and he entered the capital June 12, 1864. The attempts of the em- peror proved abortive, Maximilian lost his life, and the French troops were withdrawn in 1867. In 1864 Napoleon had agreed to withdraw his iroops from Rome, and that promise was accom- plished in 1866, but in a few months they were sent back to repulse Garibaldi, who had invaded the papal territory. The Franco-Prussian War. — In 1870 Napo- leon III., taking as a pretext the proposition that The Republic once more. 205 Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, 1835 should be king of Spain, declared war against Prussia, July 15th. Leaving the Empress Eugenie, 1826 , as regent, and taking with him the prince imperial, he hastened to the seat of war, arriv- ing at Metz July 28th, where he assumed command of the army. Commencing offensive operations Au- gust 2d, he achieved the victory of Saarbruck, which was followed in quick succession by the defeats of Weissenberg, Woerth, Forbach, and Sedan. After the battle of Sedan, Napoleon gave himself up, was sent temporarily to Wilhelmshohe in Cassel, and afterwards to Chiselhurst, Kent, England, where he died January 6, 1873. During this short, but sharply contested war, Paris suffered one of the most terrible sieges of modern times, lasting one hundred and thirty days, and the efficiency of the Prussian army was exhib- ited in a manner that gained universal admiration. Hardly had the news of the fall of Sedan reached Paris, when the streets resounded to cries of Vive la Republiqiie^ and a provisional government was formed of which Louis Adolph 77iiers, 1797 — 1877, was made the head. He introduced in the Assem- bly, February 28, 1871, the preliminaries of a treaty of peace, which were sorrowfully ratified, March ist, by which France promised an immense money in- demnity to Prussia, and gave up large portions of \lsace and Lorraine. In March, 871, Paris was for some days unde? 2o6 France. the Communists, but order was established by Marshal MacMahon, 1808 , after a siege, Thiers was then made President of the French Re- public, and held the office until May 24, 1873, when he resigned, and was succeeded by MacMa- hon. In the following November the term of office of the new president was determined to be seven years. CHAPTER XII. SPAIN. E turn now from France to the peninsula of Spain, a land of lost greatness, of free- dom and grandeur that are no more ; a land upon which nature has lavished her richest gifts ; a land visited by the traveler mainly for the sake of the rich and elaborate beauty of art that speaks of a grandeur long since passed away. It is the home of gallant men and graceful women, the last lingering place of the savage bull-fight and the direful Inquisition, the land of the Moor and the Alhambra, the land of that Isabella who gave her jewels to send to the west the discoverer of America. It is a country of poetry and of chivalry, which make its history attractive as well as in- structive. Divisions of Spain. — As a nation, its history properly begins with the union of the crown of Cas- tile and Aragon, 1469, by the marriage of Ferdi- nand the Catholic, 1452-15 16, of Aragon, with Isa- bella of Castile and Leon, 1451-1504. Previous >.o that event the country had existed in several di- visions, with separate rulers. Of these the central 2o8 Spain. was Castile ; the north-east was Aragon, north-west of which was the province of Navarre^ which we have had to refer to already as a part of France. To the north-west of Castile was Leon, and direct!)' north, on the bay of Biscay, was Asturias. Besides these there were in the south and on the Mediterra- nean, Andalusia^ Granada^ Valencia^ and Catalofiia. Madrid, the present capital, is situated in Castile. The Roman Period. — Spain was known to the (xreeks as Iberia, and to the Romans as Hesperia^ from its western situation. We have seen that the Carthagenians established colonies there, the chief of which was New Carthage, now Cartagena, which became a celebrated emporium. This excited the Romans to attempt to conquer, and at last actually to subdue, almost the entire country. Augustus founded cities there, among which were Caesar Augusta (Zaragoza), Pax Julia (Beja), and Pax Au- gusta (Badajoz). Spain became one of the princi- pal centres of Roman civilization, and, under Con- stantine, Christianity was made the nominal relig- ion of the whole province. The Goths. — Upon the dissolution of the Roman Empire, the Suevi2i-^^ other Germanic tribes came to Spain, and the Romans called to their aid the Visi-Goths, who were established just over the Pyrenees. The Vandals, who were living in what is now Andalusia, as well as the other prin- cipal tribes in Spain, were subdued by the Visi- Goths (except a portion of the Vandals who colo- Christian Kingdoms. 209 nized Africa under Genseric), and Toledo was made their capital. Tpie Moors, 711-1492. — Early in the eighth century, the Moors, or, as they are also called in Spanish history, the Arabs or Saracens, came from Africa and conquered nearly the whole of Spain, as well as a portion of southern France, and es- tablished their capital at Cordova, which they made one of the greatest centres of commerce in the world. The Moors were afterwards in the su- premacy in Granada. They ruled Cordova by emirs from 711 to 755, and by kiftgs from 755 to 1238. Granada was afterwards ruled by Moorish kings from 1238 to 1492, at which date all Moors and Jews were banished from Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella. Christian Kingdoms. — Meantime repeated ef- forts had been made to establish Christian states. One of these was made by Felayo, who is said to have maintained himself some twenty years in the mountains of Asturias. He died in 737, and histo- rians trace the descent of the royal family of Spain from him. In 758, a second Christian kingdom was founded in the north-east, to which Charlemagne gave his aid previous to the slaughter of Roncesval- les. The third attempt resulted in founding the kingdom oi Navarre, which, though it acknowledged temporarily the supremacy of Charlemagne and of Louis the Good-natured, was never subdued, and be- came at the beginning of the eleventh century one 14 210 Spain. of the most powerful of the Spanish kingdoms. It was from 1285 to 1328 united to France, but in 15 12 it was permanently united to Aragon. In 1026 Sancho III., king of Navarre, became king of Castile^ to which Leon and Asturias were added in 1035. At the same time Aragon became a kingdom. Spain, 1512-1874. — It has been already stated that the present Spanish nationality arose from the union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon, by the marriage of Ferdinand V. and Isabella in 1469, but the Moors were still established at Granada, on the south, and the kingdom of Navarre was independ- ent on the north. In 1470 the pope gave to the king authority to establish the Inquisition in Castile, with unlimited power over all religious delinquents, a measure that was not consonant with the more tender feelings of Queen Isabella. In 1491-1492, by a vigorous war, Ferdinand accomplished the overthrow of the Moors at Granada. Their down- fall is commemorated in a ballad, written both in Spanish and Arabic entitled, " Woe is me, Alhama ! " This historic composition thrilled the Saracens as the " Marseillaise " stirs the modern French, and they were forbidden to sing it within the city, upon pain of death. One stanza refers to the mourning in the Alhambra thus : — ** And men and women therein weep Their loss so heavy and so deep ; Granada's ladies, all she rears Within her walls, burst into tears, Woe is me, Alhama ! " Christopher Columbus. 21 1 Granada surrendered after a long siege and a heroic resistance, January 2, 1492, and on the thirteenth of March, the edict was issued thence, expelling all Jews from Spain. The number thus sent out is estimated by various authorities at from 160,000 to 800,000. Abdallah, the last of the Moorish kings, retired to Africa. Christopher Columbtts. — For seven years an Italian navigator, Christopher Columbus, 1445- 1506, who since 1470 had lived in Spain, at Lisbon, and Palos, had been endeavoring to get aid from the royal treasury to sail on a westward voyage of discovery. He was full of enthusiasm. He believed that by sailing in that direction over the Atlantic, he would reach Asia. Discoveries had been made in the south-west, and he thought that new lands might still be laid open. He was inspired, too, with a desire to aid in the universal spread of the Gospel, which his Bible-reading taught him was to be accomplished. He was also convinced that the " earthly paradise," described by Dante,^ was situated in the western ocean, and his hopes of sailing near that blessed spot inspired him at least on his last voyage. He had vainly tried to induce the rulers of Genoa, Portugal, Venice, France, and England, to give him help, and now, after he had reluctantly turned his back upon Spain, and was about to leave her shores forever, the queen, in the face of remonstrances, offered her private jewels to 1 See Miss M. F. Rossetti's A Shadow of Dante. 212 Spcdn. defray the expenses of the expedition, little thinking that it was to be one of the most remarkable events of her reign. A messenger was sent to Columbus ; he returned, and stipulations were signed by Fer- dinand and Isabella, April 17, 1492. The expedition sailed on the third of August, and on the twelfth of October, the land of the New World was revealed to the sight of the weary voy- agers. With solemn thanksgiving, Columbus planted the cross on the island of San Salvador, one of the Bahamas, and took possession of it in the name of his royal patrons. This discovery led to the romantic enterprises of Cortez, Pizzarro, and others, which drew many away from Spain, and, added to the loss of so many thousands of industrious Moors and Jews, struck a blow at the cultivation of the soil, and at the commercial and manufacturing prosperity of Spain, which reduced her from the proud position she enjoyed among the nations of Europe, to a subordinate place. To these causes, however, must be added the despotic measures of the sovereigns, and the persecutions of the Inquisition. The down- ward tendency did not show itself, however, until after two brilliant reigns. Ferdinand gave Spain its weight in the coun- cils of Europe ; he consolidated it into a single na- tionality, and left a memory that is deeply rever- enced in his own country, while impartial observers pronounce him the ablest prince of his age. Much Charles L 213 of the greatness of the reign is due to his affection ate and noble wife, and if her wishes had been more fully carried out, the reign would have been still more brilliant and humane. She allied herself to the Cardinal Ximenes, 1436- 15 1 7, and with his aid reformed the laws, encour- aged literature and the arts, reformed the religious orders, and established a firm discipline in the Church. Ximenes founded the university of Alcala, endowed it from his private funds, and printed the wonderful " Complutensian " polyglot Bible, two no- ble monuments to his liberality and piety that must go far to relieve his name from the odium that at- taches to it for his ultra zeal in endeavoring to con- vert the Moors to the Christian faith. Charles I. — Juana, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, married Philip, archduke of Austria, and became the mother of Charles Z, 1500-15 5 8, who succeeded to the throne of Spain in 15 16. He boasted, with ground, that the sun never set on his dominions^ for they included undivided Spain, Naples, the boundless territories in America, and afterwards the empire of Germany. No prince of his time was his equal in power, wealth, or extent of domain. But he was not the man to improve his possessions, and to profit by the advantages of his position. Notwithstanding the immense contributions to his treasury from Mexico, Peru, and Chili, his wars with France, against his own subjects in Germany 214 Spain, and the Netherlands, and with the pope, with Al- giers and Tunis, obliged him to burden the people with heavy taxes, in addition to the large debt which he contracted. In 1555 he abdicated the throne of Spain in favor of his son, Philip II., 15 2 7-1 598. This king at the time of his accession had been twice married, first in 1543, to Maria, daughter of the king of Portugal, and secondly, in 1554, to Mary, queen of England, 15 16-1558. After Mary's death he proposed to marry her sister Elizabeth, 1533-1603, but being rejected, he married in 1559, seven months after the death of his second wife, Isabella daughter of Henry II. of France, then fourteen, about the age of Philip's unfortunate son Don Carlos. After the death of Isabella, he mar- ried in 1570, Anne, daughter of Maximilian II., of Austria. The principal aim. of Philip's life was the sup- port and extension of the Roman Church, and this led to most of his wars, as well as, through them, to the acceleration of the decline of Spain. Singularly, however, his first conflict was with the pope, who with the Sultan, and Henry II. of France, had descended upon Spain's dominions in Italy. The duke of Alva, 1 508-1 582, protected Naples, and compelled the pope to sue for peace, which was concluded in 1557. Egmont, 1522-1568, William of Orange, 1533-1584, and others under Philip's immediate direction, prosecuted the war in the north of France, where the French were defeated War in the Netherlands. 215 in a brilliant victory in 1557, at St. Quentin, which led to the treaty of Cateau-Cambrisis, 1559, after months of negotiation. France ceded to Spain Savoy, Corsica, and nearly two hundred forts in Italy and the Netherlands, and the reputation of Philip as a sovereign and diplomatist was very much raised. War in the Netherlands. — The rigorous gov- ernment exercised in the Netherlands by Philip II., through his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, 1522- 1580, aided by Cardinal Granvelle, the president of the council, very soon excited the people to hatred of their foreign ruler. They rose in insurrection in 1567, and the duke of Alva was sent from Italy to bring them back to their allegiance. William of Orange, called also the Silent, on ac- count of his taciturnit}'-, had been a resident in France, where he had received secret intelligence of the plans of Philip, and on returning to the Nether- lands he became the leader of a party devoted to the maintenance of the chartered liberties of the country. He did not allow the oppressive enact- ments of Philip to take effect in Holland and Zee- land, which were under his hereditary jurisdiction. He was at first supported by counts Egmont and Hoorne, who were, however, soon captured by Alva, and in the great square of Brussels, surrounded by three thousand soldiers, Egmont was beheaded in the presence of a multitude that was horrified at the 2 1 6 Spain. spectacle. His fate was made the subject of a tragedy by Goethe. Though determined, William was reasonable in his plans, and when the Giceicx, *' beggars," at one time, and the Calvinists, at another, resorted to rash and violent measures, he resisted them. In 1567 he withdrew to Germany, whence he returned at different times with armies. In 1572 he was made Stadtholder for the king, or lieutenant-governor, the people desiring to show that their quarrel was not with Philip, but with Alva. The severity of Alva drew the whole of the Netherlands into war, and his measures to suppress the revolution failed so signally, that he was recalled in 1574. His suc- cessor carried on the war, but was directed to rely upon milder measures than those of Alva. The siege of Leyden, which had been begun in 1573, was still carried on, and the people, after bearing with heroism the trials of hunger and privation, were re- lieved October 3, 1574. The University of Leyden was founded by the prince of Orange in commemo- ration of the event. . Peace was not established, but William succeeded in forming a league between the northern and south- ern provinces in 1576, proclaim.ed as the Pacifica- tion of Ghent, which endured for three years. In the year 1579 William formed the northern states into the Union of Utrecht, which was the foundation of the Dutch Republic, while affairs in the southern provinces became more confused. Belgium, 217 Meantime the Protestants and Romanists were everywhere becoming more bitter in their opposi- tion to each other^ and while Elizabeth of England gave constant aid to the former, the Romanists looked upon Philip as their supporter. Thus the queen sent her favorite, Leicester, 1 532-1 588, with an army to Holland in 1585, and PhiHp sent the "Invincible Armada" against England in 1588, though both missions proved vain. In 1581 the provinces already " United " assembled at the Hague, and declared their independence of Spain. In 1598 Philip III., 1578-162 1, came to the throne, and was succeeded in 162 1 by Philip IV., 1605-1665, his son. In 1648, by the peace of Westphalia, after the Thirty Years' War, the inde- pendence of the United States of Holland was for- mally acknowledged. Belgium. — The southern provinces, called Bel- gium, remained under Spain until 17 13, when by the treaty of Ryswick they were given to Austria. During the war of the Spanish Succession the French took possession of Belgium, but it was given to Austria by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748. In 1797 the treaty of Campo Formio gave Bel- gium to France, but in 18 15, on the fall of Napo- leon, it was united to Holland. The spirit and sentiments of the peoples were different, and the dissatisfaction that was long held down, burst forth into a revolution in 1830, just after the days of July 2i8 Spain. in Paris had placed Louis Philippe upon the throne of France. Belgium was declared independent October 4, 1830, and Leopold L, 1 790-1865, prince of Saxe- Coburg, was declared king July 12, 1831. He was a brother of the late duchess of Kent, Louisa Vic- toria of Saxe-Coburg. He married in 18 16 the Princess Charlotte Augusta, daughter of George IV., and in 1832, the Princess Louise, daughter of Louis Philippe. He was one of the wealthiest men in Europe. In 1833 Holland acknowledged the independence of Belgium. Religious differences have disturbed the country at various times, especially in connection with the school system. These were quieted in 1847, and ended in 1850, and the country has enjoyed pros- perity, with only the premonitions of a revolution at the time of the troubles in Paris in 1848. The present king is Leopold II., born in 1835. Spain. — In 1665 Charles II., 1661-1700, came to the throne. He was a son of Philip IV., and the last of the Austrian line. He was involved in a disastrous war with France, for his brother-in-law, Louis XIV., laid claim in 1667 to a part of Flan- ders, in his wife's name. Colbert provided the funds, the young nobility thronged around the king and Turenne, 1611-1675, and in a few weeks French Flanders was taken from Spain. In the be- ginning of 1678, the Great prince of Conde, 162 1- 1686, was sent with another army and conquered War of the Spanish Succession. 219 more territory, which alarmed England, Holland, and Sweden. These nations entered into an alli- ance, and compelled Louis XIV., by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, to surrender the greater part of his conquests. The reign of Philip V., 1683-1746, was also disastrous. He was a grandson of Louis XIV., and the fact that that monarch made another effort to unite the crowns of France and Spain, now claiming the latter in his own right as nephew of Philip IV., led to the long War of the Succession^ 1 700-1 7 13. Leopold I. of Germany also claimed the crown as nephew of Philip IV. In this war England took the side of Germany, because Louis XIV. had recognized the claims of James III., The Pretender^ 1688-1765, to the throne which his sister Anne, 1664-17 14, obtained on the abdication of James II. Holland opposed France from a desire to curb her growing greatness. The results of this war we already know. The peace of Utrecht con- firmed Philip in his right to the throne, but his country had been ravaged by three foreign armies, besides having been obliged to sustain its own forces, and was ready to appreciate peace. The king was deficient in energy, was afflicted with melancholy, and allowed the Princess des Ursins, a favorite of his first wife, to rule for him, until he married Elizabeth of Parma, when she and her prime minister, Atberojii, 1664-175 2, assumed the power. Notwithstanding some mistakes in foreign and home polic}'', reforms were instituted, and the reign was not wholly bad. 220 Spain. Ferdinand VI., 17 13-1759, the next king, reigned from 1745 to 1759, and though he inherited his father's hypochondria, he endeavored to promote his reforms. He was succeeded by his brother, Charles III., 17 16-1788, who had been king of the Two Sicilies, under whom Spain revived. Agricul- ture improved, commerce and trade were prosper- ous, and the population increased. During this reign the territories of Louisiana and Florida were ceded to Spain by France, in 1762, and the Jesuits were banished from all the dominions of Spain in 1767, and sent to the pope. Two years later the Jesuits were banished from Portugal, and in 1763, at the request of France, Spain, Naples, and Parma, the order was, by Pope Clement XIV., declared suppressed in all the states of Christendom. In 1788, Charles IV., 1748-1819, came to the throne, though the government was controlled by Godoy, duke of Alcudia, 1767-185 1. In 1792, when Louis XVI. was brought to trial by the French Convention, Godoy declared war against France, which was ended to the disadvantage of Spain in 1795. The next year he made a league with France, and declared war against England which was concluded by the peace of Amiens, in 1802, by the terms of which Louisiana was given to France, During this war the ports of Spain were blockaded by England, and Godoy, becoming unpopular, was obliged to withdraw from court for a time. In 1803 France and England re-opened IVar IV it J L En Hand. 221 "t) war, and in 1804, Spain declared war with England on account of the seizure by that country of ships coming from America with three million dollars of treasure. Horatio Nelson^ 1758-1805, the greatest naval officer of England's history, was sent with a fleet to the Mediterranean, and blockaded Toulon. A French fleet, however, escaped from the port, and joined the Spanish squadron at Cadiz, in Jan- uary, 1805. Nelson pursued tliem to the West Indies, and back to Europe, without success, but he encountered them off Cape Trafalgar, October 2ist. The battle he fought that day cost him his life, but resulted in a victory that destroyed the naval power of Spain. The popular feeling against Godoy increased in bitterness, and he was arranging to fly to Mexico with the royal family, when on the eighteenth of March, 1808, Charles IV. abdicated in favor of his son, the prince of Asturias, who became Ferdinand VII., 1 784-1833. Godoy fled to Paris, where he died. Not content with one abdication, Charles resigned his throne a second time. May i, 1808, to his " friend and ally," Napoleon I. The next day the people of Madrid rose against the French in the city under Murat, 1771-1815, and compelled them to withdraw. Napoleon declared his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, 1768-1844, king of Spain, June 6th, but when he reached the country, July 20th, he found insurrection had broken out in many places. He withdrew August 2d, ani in December Spain was 222 Spain. restored to the French, Joseph assumed authority, and Napoleon himself entered on the fourth of the same month. The royal family was imprisoned in the palace at Chambery south-west of Geneva, until the end of 1813. Meanwhile the English had made peace with the Spanish people July 4, 1808, and having recognized Ferdinand VII., sent armies under Wellington and others to oppose France, whose forces were com- manded by Soult, 1769-1852, Massena, 1758-1817, Ne}", 1769-1815, and other marshals. Before 1812 the French had acquired most of the strongholds and important places in Spain, and Wellington, dissatisfied with the treatment he received from his own people, had once retired to civil service. In 18 1 2, however, the tide turned, Wellington carried the fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo, January 12th, and took Badajoz by storm April 6th, and gained one of his greatest triumphs at Salamanca in July. He occupied Madrid, defeated the French at Vittoria, in June, 18 13, in the Pyrenees, and elsewhere, and entered France October i8th. The next year the war was concluded by the fall of Paris, March 31st, and Wellington returned to England, where he was covered with honors, and rewarded with a pension of ;^I0,000. The French reverses caused Napoleon to liberate Ferdinand VII. in 18 13, who after having assented to a new constitution which had been proclaimed at Cadiz in 18 12, started for ^'^alencia. He there I Queen MaiHa Isabella. 223 announced, on the fourth of May, that he would not be bound by the new constitution, averring that he had not previously been aware of its purport, but that he should frame another on a liberal basis. Like Rehoboam of old, he had two kinds of counsel- ors, and took the counsel of those who advised him to adopt the despotism of his fathers. An insurrec- tion broke out in 1820, which compelled Ferdinand to proclaim the constitution of 181 2, to form a new ministry, free the press, and suppress the Inqui- sition. To these reforms he probably never in tended to adhere, and in 1823 obtained help from France, and his absolute power was established September 28, 1823, after a few months of war. His subsequent reign was disturbed by several in- surrections, but he took little interest in public affairs. Having lost his third wife, he married, in 1829, his niece, Maria Christina, 1806 , who became the mother of the present ex-queen Maria Isabella, in 1830. During the reign of Ferdinand in 18 19, Florida was sold to the United States for five million dollars, and in 1826, Spain lost her last hold on American main-land. In 1833, after having long been in poor health, the king died. His wife had been queen-regent for a year, and upon his death continued to rule in oehalf of her daughter, whose claims to the crown she supported against Don Carlos, second son of Charles IV., 1 788-1855, during a war of seven years. In this struggle the queen was aided by 224 Spain. Espartero, 1792-1879, who in 1840 became regent in the place of Maria Christina, who had been obliged to abdicate and retire to France. In 1843 Isabella was declared of age ; Espartero, who had judiciously directed her education, withdrew, and the queen mother returned to Madrid. In 1846 Isabella was married to her cousin, Don Francisco de Assis, and her sister was married to the duke de Montpensier, 1824 , son of Louis Philippe. In 1854 the queen-mother, who never had the respect of the people, was forced to leave the country again, and has not resided there since that year. At this time O'Dojmell^ 1808-186 7, and other Carlists, or former supporters of Carlos, made an insurrection, which was unsuccessful, and they were banished only to be called back almost imme- diately. In 1856 O'Donnell, who had been as- sociated in the ministry with Espartero, by the queen, organized a coup d'etat, and was for a few days dictator. O'Donnell was forced to renounce his authority, and Narvaez, 1800-1868, became minister, October 12, 1856. The next year Espar- tero withdrew from active public life. In 1859 Spain called upon Morocco for satisfac- tion for damage done to her commerce by pirates, which was refused, the sultan disclaiming responsi- bility in the premises. War was therefore declared, O'Donnell was placed in command, and after a successful campaign, peace was made April, i860, by which Morocco agreed to pay a large indemnity, Revolutionary Movements, 225 and ceded also portions of her territory to Spain. In 186 1, in conjunction with France and England, Spain sent an expedition against Mexico, which resulted in the union of the republic to Spain, by proclamation of the last president, Santa Anna, May 20, 1862. In 1868 a popular revolution broke out, the queen was obliged to flee to Paris, where she has since resided. General Serrano, 1810 , was made president of the council of ministers, and commander-in-chief of the army, and General Prim, 1814-1870, minister of war. In 1870 the second son of Victor Emmanuel, Amadeits, 1845 , was offered the crown, which he accepted, and arrived in Spain December 30th, the day that General Prim died from the wounds of an assassin. In May, 1872, General Serrano was sent to suppress another Carllst insurrection in Navarre. Amadeus was obliged to abdicate February 11, 1873, and a repub- lican government was inaugurated, of which Emilio Castelar, 1832 , was made president, Septem- ber 7, 1873. This government was, in turn, ended by a revolution, and in January, 1874, Serrano was made chief of the Executive power, while a movement was in progress to call to the throne Alphonso, 1857 , prince of Asturias, eldest son of Isabella II. The prince ascended the throne in January, 1875, as Alphonso XII. 15 CHAPTER XIII. SCANDINAVIA, HOLLAND, RUSSIA, AND SWITZERLAND. HE ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and a portion of Denmark, was Scandinavia. The early inhabitants were a hardy and enterprising people, known in a general way as Normans, who made plundering expeditions to the southward, invading France, England, and the countries of the Mediterranean. They also made voyages to Ireland, Scotland, Iceland, Greenland, and the coasts of New England, coming to America about the year looo. The Danes conquered England, and ruled it from 1013 to 1041, after having given trouble to most of the kings of that country from the days of Egbert, who ruled from 802 to 839. Again, after having lived on the coasts of France, the same people, as Normans, overcame the English under King Harold, in 1066. In connection with the government of the duchies of Slesvig and Holstein, Denmark has been fre- quently prominent among the continental nations since the days of the great Queen Margaret, 1353- 141 2, who gave Slesvig to the duke of Holstein in 1386. Gustavus Vasa. 227 In the earliest times Denmark and Sweden ex- isted as distinct countries, and subsequently Nor- way, which has always been the least influential of the three nations, came into notice. Their history grows in importance from the reign of Queen Mar- garet just mentioned, who was a daughter of Val- demar III. of Denmark, and wife of Haken VIII. of Norway, and has been called the Semiramis of the North, in allusion to the greatness of the some- what mythical queen of Assyria. At the time of her accession to the Danish throne, 1387, the king of Sweden, Albert of Mecklenburg, 1412, had i| become so unpopular with his people, that they de- clared the throne vacant, and offered the crown to Margaret. She defeated and captured Albert, put him in prison, and in 1397 entered Stockholm in triumph. By a document which she brought for- ward, called from the place where it was executed, the Calmar Union, it was stipulated that the three j kingdoms should forever remain united. It re- " quired all of her wisdom and ability to form this union, and upon her death, in 1412, it was broken on account of the jealousies of the different nations of which it was composed. Norway, however, con- tinued united with Denmark until 1814. Gustavus Vasa, 1490-1559. — Towards the end of the fifteenth century, Sweden had revolted from the Danish rule, though in 15 19 she was overcome again by the cruel Christian II., called the Nero of *he North. His cruelties drove the people almost 228 Scajidinavia. to despair, for he murdered in one day eighty-four of the chiefs of families and other prominent citi- zens, among whom was the father of Gustavus Vasa. Gustavus had been imprisoned, but escaped, and afterwards raised an army by his eloquent appeals, as he went from hamlet to hamlet, and from house to house, all filled with their leader's zeal to destroy the tyrant Dane. Victory crowned their efforts, and Gustavus Vasa was, in 1527, crowned king of Swe- den, and founded a new dynasty. Gustavus Adolphus, 1594-1632. — The sixth Swedish king of the new line, Gustavus Adolphus, has already been mentioned in connection with the Thirty Years' War. He was a grandson of Gus- tavus Vasa, and, like that king, a supporter of Prot- estantism. His reign began in 16 11, on the death of his father Charles IX., in the midst of religious disturbances, and the most marked event in it was his taking part with the Protestants of Germany in 1630-1632. Upon his accession, Gustavus Adolphus selected as his prime minister. Axel, Count Oxenstierna^ 1583-1654, who had been educated for the Church, and fully gave himself to the extension of Protest- antism, but proved also one of the most sagacious statesmen of his country. He was called to the exercise of his political wisdom directly, for Sigis- nmnd IH., the king of Poland, who had abjured Protestantism, made a claim to the crown of Swe- den, becfu^e he was of an older branch of the Vasa Gitstavtis AdolpJms. 229 family. The Swedes, offended at his change of faith, had declared that Sigismund had forfeited all claim to their crown, and though he gained the aid of Russia, Gustavus opposed him with success in a brilliant war of eight years, that, upon the interven- tion of England and Holland, was closed in 1629, by a S-X years' truce. Having by his exploits in the Polish war not only established a military reputation, but also become the champion of the reformed faith, the young king found himself looked to for aid by the oppressed people of Bohemia, and by the subjects of Ferdinand II. of Germany. Oxenstierna opposed him at first in his plans for interference with German affairs, but when he found that the zeal and compassion of Gustavus would not permit him to be a cool spec- tator, he made the most vigorous preparations for the invasion of Pomerania. This country, situated on the Baltic to the north of Prussia, fell into the hands of the Swedes, after a sharp campaign of a few months, with Stettin, its chief city. Ferdinand made most advantageous offers of peace, but they were rejected by Gustavus, who said he had not entered upon the war for his own aggrandizement, but for the protection of his fellow Protestants. The progress of the Swedish army was hailed with joy by the people, and Gustavus was marching towards Vienna, with every prospect that it would fall into his hands, when Ferdinand recalled the celebrated Wallenstein, who suddenly turned the 230 Scandmavta. tide of aftairs. I'he two great generals met at Liitzen, November 6, 1632, and AVallenstein was routed by the impetuous and well-drilled soldiers of Sweden, though the king himself was killed in the early part of the battle. Gustavus Adolphus was one of the best of kings, and accomplished more good for his country than any of her other rulers. He was sincerely mourned, and a monument to his memory was erected at Liitzen two hundred years after his death. Oxen- stierna carried on the war with judgment, and after suffering a terrible defeat at Nordlingen, in Bavaria, in 1634, he made alliances with Holland and Eng- land, which enabled him to bring the war to a suc- cessful termination in 1648, when the peace of Westphalia guarantied freedom to the Protestants, and added largely to the territory of Sweden. The young Queen Christina, 1626-1689, assumed the reins of power in 1644, and in 1650 caused her- self to be crowned as ki7jg, and she had many traits of character that were rather masculine than wom- anly. Her actions were so at variance with con- ventionality, that she has been thought insane, and the record of her life has the interest of an unpleas- ant but absorbing romance. She was thoroughly educated, and invited to her court many learned men, who dedicated their works to her. Among these were the philosophers Descartes^ 1596-1650, and Grofius, 1 583-1 645. Desiring more personal freedom, or rather license, Christina abdicated in Charles XI I. 231 1654, and spent the remainder of her life in Brus- sels, Rome, and Paris, in the pursuits of science, art, and gay pleasures. The next sovereigns were Charles X., 162 2-1660, Charles XI., 1655-1697, and Charles XII., 1682- 17 18, with whom the male line of the Vasas expired. Their reigns were marked by wars, especially by wars with Denmark, which resulted in favor of Sweden. Charles XII., however, who has been called the Madman of the Northy was engaged at the beginning of his reign, in 1700, by Denmark, Poland, and Russia, who had made a league to dis- member his kingdom. In this they were thwarted, and for seven years Charles waged successful war against them. He defeated the Russians, overran the most of Poland, and obliged the diet to proclaim his favorite, Stanislaus I., 1677-1766, king, and in 1707, establishing his head-quarters near Leipsic, received ambassadors from the principal powers of Europe, who looked at his career with wonder. In 1708-9, he was engaged in a disastrous Russian campaign, which resulted in his flight to Turke}', where he remained until 17 14. Then, suddenly marching across the continent through Hungary, he took the field against Prussia, Denmark, Saxony, and Russia, in a campaign that proved of no advan- tage to him. In 17 16 and 17 18 his love of war icd him to invade Norway, and ke^p up a war with Denmark, and in the midst of one of his sieges he was shot, when inspecting the trenches. 232 Scandinavia. During the reigns of Ulrica Elenora and Fred- eric I., from 1719 to 1751, the country i'xurle some progress in commerce and industry In 1751 Adolphus Frederic II., 17 10-177 1, wa^" brought to the throne by the influence of the empress of Rus- sia, Catherine II., 1 729-1 796. He had been bishop of Liibeckj and was descended from the Vasa far^- ily. He reigned twenty years, and was succeeded in 1771, by his son Gustavus III., 1746-1792, an extravagant and dissolute prince. The country was divided into two parties, the Hats or those who were in the interests of Russia, and the Caps^ who fa- vored France ; or " France and Commerce," and " Russia and Agriculture," The Hats, we^e in the ascendency, but both parties were dislikee\ by the people, and Gustavus subverted their power by a sudden movement, August 21, 1772, and made bis own more despotic. His abuse of power caused him to be assassinated, though he was at one ti.Tic the idol of the people. He claimed to have be-^.i the first to acknowledge the independence of the United States, though he was probably not very sincere in his approval of our country. He was succeeded by his son, Gustavus IV., 1778- 1837, and the duke of Sudermania, 1748-1818 ; his uncle, afterwards Charles XIII., was regent until 1796. The regent was the first prince in Europe to recognize the French republic of 1792, but the leading idea of Gustavus was legitimacy , and he op- posed Napoleon in all possible ways, and involved Bernadotte. 233 his -country in many difficulties with England, Russia, and Prussia, as well as with France. In 1809 he was forced to abdicate, and his uncle be- came king. Charles XIII. ruled wisely during the downward career of Napoleon I,, and Norway was added to Sweden during his reign. He was suc- ceeded by Bernadotte, 1764-1844, a French offi- cer, who took the title Charles XIV. He was a brother-in-law of Joseph Bonaparte^ had ardently supported the French republic, but afterwards, in 1809, had a misunderstanding with Napoleon. He owed his elevation to his miltary reputation, and to the suffrages of the diet. He entered his new do- minions in November, 18 10, and announced his de- termination to rule for the best interests of Sweden, a resolution to which he faithfully adhered, and though involved in the wars against Napoleon, he managed his country so well, that its internal pros- perity during his reign was very marked. His rela- tions with Napoleon I. are worth study, as throwing light upon the character of the ruler of France. His son, Oscar I., 1 799-1859, came to the throne in 1844, and ruled also for the good of his people, encouraging liberal measures, and making himself popular by not giving way to Russia, as his father had done. During the Crimean war he preserved an "armed neutrality." In 1857 he resigned in favor of his eldest son, who was prince regent untij 1859, when he became Charles XV., 1826-1872. He was a great grandson of the Empress Josephine, his fathej 234 Scandinavia. having married a daughter of Eugene Beauhar- nais. He was succeeded by Oscar II. Denmark. — By the Union of Caimar, 1397, Den- mark was united with Sweden and Norway, by Queen Margaret, and the union was not broken un- til the time of Gustavus Vasa. After that period the relations of the three countries were frequently disturbed by wars, in which the duchies of Slesvig and Holstein were often involved. In 1801, after a long and prosperous peace, Den- mark allied herself with Russia, Prussia, and Swe- den, and involved herself in war with England, dur- ing which Admiral Nelson destroyed the navy of Denmark, off Copenhagen, April 2, 1801, and forced that country to recede from the alliance, which was called the Armed Neutrality. Armed Neutrality. — The treaty of Utrecht, 17 13, embodied the principle that the character of a ves- sel determined the character of her cargo, or, in other words, that free ships make free goods, a doc- trine that England would never allow. When the Empress Catherine II. of Russia proclaimed the principle in 1781, England withstood her, and the second effort in 1801 was also unsuccessful. At the congress of Paris, 1856, it was agreed by Aus- tria, France, England, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey, that a neutral flag protects enemies' goods, except those contraband of war, and that neutral goods, except those contraband of war, are not liable to capture under an enemy's flag. Norway. 235 The present king of Denmark is Christian IX^ 1818 , who was a prince of Slesvig-Holstein. During the reign of his predecessor, Frederic VII., 1808-1863, the " Slesvig-Holstein question," one of the most intricate in the politics of Europe, was made prominent by a revolt of the duchies against Denmark, in 1849. In 185 1 they submitted, but the question was opened in 1863 by a son of the duke of Augustenburg, who opposed the claim of Christian IX. to their allegiance. By the treaty of Vienna, 1864, Denmark renounced its claim to the duchies, and Austria and Prussia were not able to agree upon the subject of their government. In 1865, however, these powers agreed at Gastein, that Austria should control Holstein, and Prussia Slesvig, which arrangement was unsatisfactory to France and England. In 1866 Austria ceded her claims to Prussia. In 1869 t^^ Crown Prince of Denmark was mar- ried to Louisa, daughter of Charles XV. of Sweden, an event that was looked upon as promising a union of the countries in the future. Norway. — After the Calmar Union^ Norway was united to Denmark, until 1814, when it was ceded to Sweden. The Norwegians being more democratic than the Swedes, the union was for a long period not cordial. Oscar I. caused a better feeling by liberal acts, and by giving Norway a na- tional flag, which his father, Bernadotte, had re- fused to I How. In 1865 a new constitution was 236 ' Hclland. adopted, which caused demonstrations of joy in both countries, and more completely united them. The diet is now composed of two chambers, elected by the people, the king acting as executive under the advice of a council of state. Oscar II., 1829 , brother of Charles XV., was crowned king of Nor- way, July 18, 1873. Holland. — The kingdom now called in English the Netherlands, or Low Countries, in French the Pays-Bas, is restricted to Holland alone, though previous to 1830 it also included Belgium. Its name arises from the nature of the country, which is formed of the natural accumulations of sediment and sand at the delta of the Rhine, the Scheldt, and the Meuse, the waters of the sea being kept out by a vast system of dykes. The inhabitants have always been rioted for their industry, trade, and commerce. The religion of the majority of the people is Protestant, and the Sfovernment a constitutional monarchv. At the time of the secession in 1830, of the ten southern prov- inces, a war of nine years' duration began, aftei which, in 1840, the sovereign, William L, 1772- 1843, abdicated in favor of his son, William II. 1 792-1849, and during his reign the French Revo lution so excited the people with ideas of freedom that a new constitution was granted them. The present king, William III., 181 7 , has ruled die country well, and the burdens of the people are light. In 1862 the slaves were emancipated in the Russia, 237 Dutch West India islands, the masters being com- pensated. The Dutch had long had a monopoly of the navi- gation of the lower Scheldt, and, in 1839, secured the right to levy toll on all vessels, but in 1863, by treaty, this right was bought up by the powers navigating the rivers, acting nominally through Belgium. Russia. — The inhabitants of Russia form one of the most interesting of the branches of the Indo- European or Aryan races. They are a part of the Slavonic race, and from being a nation of barbar- ous savages, have grown within a century and a half to be one of the most important and w^ealthy people of the world. The greatness of Russia dates from the time of Peter the. Great, 1672-1725, who removed its capital from Moscow to the splen- did city that bears his name, in 17 12. The progress of the nation has been unequaled for rapidity, and in connection with its growth new political ques- tions are constantly arising, which have caused the neighboring nations " legitimate anxiety with re- spect to its future intentions." " In the case of this great Slavonic nation, there has been, as it were, a regurgitation of the Aryan wave. Emigrating originally to the westward, they filled the immense regions which they have so ong occupied, and are now flowing back again over the paths they traveled in their first departure. Persia has been long subjected to their influence • 338 Russia, at this moment all Turkestan is practically theirs. Since Peter the Great, in 1722, took Derbent, on the Caspian^ from Persia, they have been con- stantly pushing their encroachments farther and farther towards the East." ^ Mr. Farrar continues, pointing out the fact that as the Teutonic branch, traveling by sea, has forced India to acknowledge British dominion, so the Slavonic branch, going by land, has overflowed Persia from the north, and reached the borders of Affghanistan, and that thus the two divisions of the Aryan race bid fair soon to come face to face from opposite heights of the great Himalayan range. At the present moment, indeed, intelligence from the Old World indicates that the " Central Asian ques- tion" is growing in importance, and it is already one of the most deeply interesting before the wcild. Peter the Great came to the throne in 1689. He was coarse and sensual, and of ungovernable pas- sions, and yet his whole public life was devoted to the civilization of his people, so that we may well agree with good Bishop Burnet, who exclaimed, "After I had seen him often, and had conversed much with him, I could not but adore the depth of the providence of God, that had raised up such a furious man to so absolute an authority over so great a part of the world." The first efforts of Peter were directed towards the establishment of a navy, and being shut out of 1 farra^'s Families of Speech, 1870. Peter the Great. 239 the Baltic by Sweden, he took possession of a part of the Black Sea, where he caused engineers, archi- tects, ship-builders, and artillery-men to be brought together from Prussia, Holland, Austria, and Venice. He sent many of the younger nobility to other countries to learn the intricacies of naval art, and in 1697 started on a tour of the kind himself, going first to Holland, where he worked during the day in the ship-yards as a common laborer, and employed his evenings in the public affairs of his kingdom. He next visited England, where he worked in the celebrated Deptford dock-yards, near London, and occupied the house of John Evelyn, author of the Diary. One of Evelyn's servants wrote to him, "There is a house full of people. The Czar lies next your library, and dines in the parlor next your study. He dines at ten o'clock, and six at night, is very seldom at home a whole day, very often in the king's yard or by water, dressed in several dresses. The king [William IH.] is expected there this day ; the best parlor is pretty clean for him to be entertained in." The people evidently considered Peter a strange sort of king, and even Bishop Burnet said, " He seems designed by nature rather to be a ship-carpenter than a prince." Thus, patiently and thoroughly, he toiled for himself and his people, and ended by accomplishing more than any other prince, polished or unrefined, ever did. He gave to his country all the arts of civilization they now enjoy, began a revolution in the habits and 240 Russia. manners of the people, and founded schools, acad- emies, libraries, and museums, thus showing a just appreciation of the proper basis of civilization, though he seems to have neglected the religious education of his people. His right to the title " Great " is better than that of Alexander, Charle- magne, or Napoleon, for it is based on the perma- nent blessings of peace, and not on the destructive aggrandizement of war. Russia has come in contact with the other nations of Europe in connection with the " dismemberm.ent of Poland," 1772-1795, the wars of Napoleon, 1805- 1814, and the war in the Crimea, 1853-1856. Dismemberment of Poland. — Religious disputes, a plague which in 1770 carried off two hundred and "fifty thousand of the people, and civil wars, had so weakened the kingdom of Poland, that when Fred- eric the Great made a proposition to divide it be- tween Russia, Prussia, and Austria, it was unable to resist effectually, and the three powers seized eighty- two thousand square miles of its territory. The country was aroused, and under the lead of Joseph .Poniaiowski, 1762-1813, and Thaddeus Kosciuszko} 1 745-18 1 7, they made an unsuccessful effort to re- tain their homes and their independence against Russia and Prussia, who now seized one hundred and eighteen thousand square miles of Polish terri- tory. In this campaign the battle of Warsaw oc- curred, October 4, 1794, and after the surrender of 1 Read Thomas Campbell's Pleasures of Hope^ First Part. The Wars of Napoleon. 241 the city the Russian general, Suwarroff, 1729-1800, butchered in cold blood thirty thousand Poles of all ao-es and conditions. Kosciuszko was carried a prisoner to Russia, where he was kept for two years. In 1795 the remainder of Poland was distributed to Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Russia obtained one hundred and eighty-one thousand square miles, Prussia, fifty-six thousand, and Austria, forty-five thousand. Russia in the Napoleonic Wars. — In 1805 Russia remonstrated with France against the execution of the duke d'Enghien, and entered with Austria, England, Sweden, and Naples, the alliance against Napoleon. The Russians and Austrians were routed at Austerlitz in 1805, and the Russians and Prussians at Eylau, in 1807. The treaty of Til- sit, in 1807, made both England and Sweden ene- mies of Russia, but her peace with France en- dured until 18 10, when Alexander set aside one of the articles of the treaty, and in 18 12 Napoleon marched into Russia with an army of five hundred thousand men. He was at first successful, and Moscow fell into his hands, but early in 1813 Prus- sia joined Russia, and later in the year Austria did the same. The battle of Leipsic, fought October T 6th- 1 9th, called the battle of the Nations, in which the allies brought two hundred and forty thousand men against Napoleon's army of one hundred and sixty thousand, decided the issue of the war in favor of the allies. By the Congress of Vienna the shares t6 242 Russia, of Poland were re-arranged, two hundred and twenty thousand five hundred square miles being assigned to Russia, twenty-six thousand to Prussia, and thirty-five thousand five hundred to Austria. The Crimean War. — In 1853 the Emperor Nicholas I., 1796-1855, desirous of gaining pre- ponderance in Turkey, as he had been for ten years at least, made the dispute about the guardianship of the holy places at Jerusalem, the protectorate of the Danubian principalities, and certain authority over the members of the Greek Church in Turkey, the pretext for declaring war with the Porte. He had compared Turkey to a man in a state of de- crepitude on the point of death, and proposed to England to divide the estate in advance. Fearing the preponderance of Russia would give her the balance of power in Europe, France, Eng- land, and Sardinia united against her, and sending powerful armies to the C?imea in 1854 and 1855, they took from Russia a small strip of land, and her naval superiority in the Black Sea. In 186 1 an imperial manifesto was read in all the churches of Russia, providing for the emancipation of the serfs, of whom there were twenty-two millions, partly belonging to the crown, and partly to the nobles, but all attached to the soil. The late czar, Alexander IL, 18 18-1882, aimed to pursue the policy of Peter the Great, Cath- erine IL, and of his father. He sold, in 1867, his possessions in Russian America to the United The Reformation. 243 States for ;^i, 400,000. The relations of the two countries at present are very harmonious. Switzerland. — We have seen that, in 1306, the Swiss people rose and proclaimed their inde- pendence of Austria. A war followed which ended in 13 1 5, at the battle of Morgarten, where the Swiss were victorious. It was one of the most remarkable and brilliant in the annals of the country. Other wars with Austria followed, and in 1386 Leopold II. was defeated at the battle of Sempach, which is considered as having established the liberty of the country, and is still annually cel- ebrated July 9th. The Grisons. — The largest and most thinly settled of the Swiss cantons, lying to the eastward, is called the Grisons in French, Graubiinden in German, from the fact that in the years 1400, 1424, and 1426, when the people made leagues against the dukes of Suabia, they were clothed in gray. They formed an alliance with the Swiss cantons in 1472, and were admitted to the confederation as the fifteenth canton, in 1803. The languages of the inhabitants form a curious study, being partly Ger- man, and partly allied to Latin and Italian. The Reformation. — At the beginning of the six- teenth century, there was a literary public in Swit- zerland, the outgrowth of her high schools, and of the spirit of the age. E?'asmus, 1467-1536, who lived at Basle, was the leader of those inquiring spirits who were investigating classical literature, 244 Switzerland. and acquiring enlightened views on religious topics. Ulric Zivingli, 1484-153 1, began to preach at the period, and in 1523, Ziirich accepted his opinions. Other cantons followed, and in 153 1 war broke out between the Protestants and the Catholics of the Forest cantons. The former were defeated, and Zwingli himself was killed at the battle of Cappel, October nth. A few years later yohn Calvin, 1509^ 1564, settled at Geneva, and the Reformation doc- trines spread through western Switzerland, and Geneva acquired a moral and intellectual influence that it has never lost. During the Thirty Years' War, the Confederation was neutral, and its independence was acknowl- edged by the treaty of Westphalia, 1648. It en- joyed a century of tranquillity, during which the power of the people declined, and that of the aris- tocracy increased, to such an extent as to cause serious uneasiness, and a memorable insurrection broke out in 1781, which led about a thousand of the inhabitants to apply to Great Britain for aid, and for permission to settle in Ireland, whither many of them went in 1783. In 1798 the French seized Switzerland, meeting with little opposition, and proclaimed the Helve- tian republic. This was overthrown by Siiwarroff, and until 1815 the government was in a very un- settled state. Its independence was then con- firmed. In 1846 Geneva was stirred by a religious revolution, based upon the efforts of a league of Geneva. 245 the Romanists to place the education of their you-th in the hands of the Jesuits. In 1847 the Jesuits were expelled. In 1848 a new federal constitution was adopted, under which the government is now conducted. CHAPTER XIV. GREAT BRITAIN PREVIOUS TO I485. O department of history that we have al- ready entered, possesses so much interest for us, citizens of a great English speaking- nation, as that which we now approach. To the people of the United States, England is the Mother- country — a land which, even in separating them- selves from her, the fathers of New England pro- claimed that they loved. The judicial Hallam exclaims in view of the history of his native country : " No unbiased observer who derives pleasure from the welfare of his species, can fail to consider the long and uninterruptedly increasing prosperity of England as the most beautiful phenomenon in the history of mankind." " In no other region have the bene- fits that political institutions confer, been diffused over so extended a population ; nor have any people so well reconciled the discordant elements of wealth, order, and liberty." ^ These blessings and this greatness, Mr. Hallam traces to the con- stitution of England, which he says, manifests, " after the lapse of several centuries, not merely 1 The Middle Ages, chapter VIII. BRITAIN, AT THE TIME OF THH HEPTARCHY. Drawn and Engraved for Oilman's History. England's Greatness. ^,, 247 no symptom of irretrievable decay, but a more ex- pansive energy." Tiiat the constitution gives and has given great religious, as well as political free- dom, and thi.t the people have enjoyed the exercise of a comparatively pure religious faith, is one of the causes of the prosperity of the English people. In all of their greatness and goodness we may rejoice, for their history is our history, and the civilization of America is only a new phase of that in the Mother-country, — worked out under new circumstances, and having all of her long expe- rience for a guide. We can adopt as our own the words of Allston : -^— " While the manners, while the arts, That mold a nation's soul, Still cling around our hearts, — Between let Ocean roll, Our joint communion breaking with the Sun : Yet still from either beach The voice of blood shall reach, More audible than speech, * We are One.' " An able German writer gives the people of Eng- land the credit of being more thoroughly acquainted with their own annals, than are the people of any other country, and says that " they live in the past with all the intense feelings of the present." ^ He also says of their intellectual cultivation, that it " is of a very peculiar character, and, like the British constitution, combines in the most singular man- 1 ScMegel, Philosophy of History^ p. 435. 248 Great Britain. ner the most heterogeneous elements." " A power- ful aristocracy ^ and many parts of the feudal consti* tution of the Middle Age, are there established in a sort of harmony, or at least permanent equipoise, with the more modern elements of commerce and democracy. The heroic spirit of chivalry, and the whole moral character of the Middle Age, were long paramount in England ; and hence in the poetry of no country, if we except the Spanish, is that spirit so conspicuous." " The struggle between the houses of York and Lancaster during the fifteenth century, which, in the rugged and almost savage sternness of those heroic characters, bears no little resemblance to the contests of the Guelfs and Ghibellines, form the heroic and traditionary, though not very remote period of British history — an era which witnessed, too, the high military glory that England acquired in the many battles and chivalrous engagements fought on the French soil. The great national poet of England, who has taken the subject of many of his dramas from that glorious period of his country's annals, maintains a sort of skeptical medium — a kind of poetical balance between the romantic en- thusiasm of the older times, and the clear-sighted penetration of the modern ; and it is in this pecul- iar combination of qualities that the originality of his genius, his unfathomable depth and high intel- lectual charm, partly consists."^ "Down to the 1 See Macaulay's History of England, vol. i. p. 41. 2 See Shakespeare's Historical Plays. Divisions of English History. 249 most recent times, this marked predilection for the romantic world of the Middle Age and the chival- rous days, as well as the bold genius of poets burst- ing through all vulgar trammels, have been the dis- tinctive characters of English poetry, and have partly tended to make it so great a favorite with all the nations of Europe." Another very strong and prominent trait in the civilization of England, is the deep religious spirit which matured its constitution, and out of which grew its national Church, so admirably adapted to keep before the people the life of the Founder of Christianity, and to educate them in the unquestioning faith which He demanded. Based upon the Bible, the Magna Cha7'ta of religious lib- erties, the Protestantism of Great Britian has af- fected the international policy of every country of Europe ; has deeply imbued its own literature ; and has given to its people their purest and most noble characteristics. The faithful study of the Bible, which has always been habitual in England, is second to no other single influence that has con- tributed to establish her reputation among the na- tions. Divisions of English History. — The middle of the fifteenth century was marked in all European countries by the disappearance of old forms of gov- ernment and society, and the foundation of new ones. The progress of events shows us the grad- aat rise o{ feudalism out of the earlier barbarism 250 Great Britain. and, after the stirring up of the peoples by the Cm* sades, the rise of powerful nobles, who, at the pe- riod just mentioned, were rapidly succumbing before the centralization of power in the hands of nion- 4irchs. The next step was the modification of the authority of the king by the influence oi iho. people^ or the establishment of republics. Diplomacy ; Balance of Power. — The fifteenth centurv was also the time when somethins: like Di- plomacy began to be known. The relations of na- tions had previously been governed by no laws, but at this period they began to be regular and permanent, and the idea of the balance of power, which had been acted upon by the Greek cities, was formulated and recognized. This is the origin of the coalitions of European states which have come under our notice in connection with the ambitious designs of Charles V. of Germanv, and Louis XIV. and Napoleon in France, that threatened to give those monarchs what the other states considered an undue influence in European politics. Taking the reign of Henry VII., 145 7-1509, which began in 1485, as the one marking the begin- ning of the new state of public affairs, we find that English history before his accession is capable of natural division into seven periods. I. The Roiian age, B. c. 55-A. D. 449 : II. TJie Saxon age, 44.9- 827 ; III. England proper, 827-1013 ; IV. The Danish Dynasty, 1013-1041 ; V. The Saxons re- stored, T042- 066 ; VI. The NormanS; 1066-1154 The Roman Age. 251 and VII. The Plafitagenet line, 1 154-1485. The Norman Dynasty includes the Plantagenet line, and that house in turn includes the branches of Lan caster and York, which were all of Norman descent. The modern period of English history, from 1485 to the present time, with reference to its ruling houses, may be considered in five divisions. I. The House of Tudor, 1485-1603 ; II. The House of Stuart, 1 603-1 649 ; III. The Coinmonwealth, 1649- 1660 \ IV. The House of Stuart restored, 1660- 17 14; and V. The House of Brunswick, 17 14-18 74. The Roman Age, b. c. 55-A. d. 449. — The ear- liest inhabitants of Britain have left their remains in spear-heads, arrow-heads, axes, and hammers of stone, and in rude ornaments that are now found in the barrows and cro77ilechs in which they were buried, but we cannot tell who the people were, or whence they came. The country was little known until about 55 b. c, when Julius CcBsar, who had been engaged in subduing Gaul to Rome, crossed the Channel and invaded Britain. He landed not very far from Dover, and then came in contact with the inhabitants for the first time. He found them a vigorous Celtic people of warlike habits, supporting themselves by pastoral occupations. They wore little clothing, and it was made of the skins of beasts ; their bodies were stained blue and green, their beards were shaven, but their moustaches were permitted to grow at will. Their worship was directed bv Druids, v/ho were considered in- 252 Great Britain. spired, and lived in the woods and wilds. They venerated the oak and the mistletoe, and possessed many traits that in modified and purified forms still characterize the English people. Four or five hundred years before the arrival of Cffisar, the mariners of Tyre and Sidon, called Phe- nicians, had visited the coasts of Cornwall seeking tin, which the natives took from the earth, and gave to the traders in the form of ingots. This trade led to settlements, made by the Gauls, and to the aggressive movement of Caesar. He entered England twice, in 55 and 54 b. c, and took nomi- nal possession of the country, but retired without accomplishing more, and for nearly a century the Romans were not seen in the country. The Emperor Claudius invaded Britain a. d. 43, and, after having been sixteen days on the island, returned and celebrated a triumph at Rome. A war followed, and the Roman general, Agricola, became the real conqueror of Britain about the year 84. Britain was then a Roman province, and towns, roads, and bridges, were built all over the country, of which the remains are still extant. It is said that Christianity was introduced during the period, by the father of Caractacus, who was con- verted at Rome by the preaching of St. Paul, about the year 50. The first martyr is said to have been St. Alba?i, who was put to death in 304. In 383 the Britons revolted, and the army left the island, though Rome kept up its nominal jurisdic- Saxo7i Period. 253 tion until the year that it was taken by the Goths, 410, when even that slight connection was broken, and the land was in a state of anarchy until 449. Saxon Period, 449-827. — While the Goths were overrunning the Roman empire. Teutonic tribes came from their homes near the mouth of the Elbe, to the shores of Britain. They were savage and had not been influenced by the Roman language or civilization, and when they conquered Britain they destroyed most of what had been built up there. The principal tribes that then came over were the Angles, Saxons, and Elites, As the Romans had done, they began their con quest at Kent, and there the Jutes settled. They came from Jutland in Denmark. The Saxons landed next, in 477, in Sussex, the land of the South- Saxons. In 495 they also began a kingdom in that part of Wessex now called Hampshire. They came in contact, so the records say, with King Arthur at Badbury, in Dorsetshire, who defeated them in 520. During the same century the Angles from ^//^e/*?;?, in Slesvig, in two divisions, the North-Folk, and the South-Folk, founded the two counties that still bear their names, while another branch called March-men, men of the Marches or borders, grad- ually established themselves as a kingdom in cen- tral England. The Angles acquiring the largest ter- ritory, finally gave their name to the whole island. Thus the seven kingdoms of Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, Northumbi'ia, East Anglia, and Mercia, were 254 Great Britain. formed, and when spoken of collectively they were called the Heptarchy^ from the Greek words eTrra, seven, and o.p^^ kingdom, though they did not form a united seven-fold sovereignty as the title might indicate. At this time the present territory of Scotland, then called Caledonia, was inhabited by the Picts {picti, painted) and Scots. Though there was no recognized central ruler in the Heptarchy, it was always the case that one of the kingdoms comprised in it held what has since been called the balance of power. At one time it was held by Kent, at another by Mercia, at another by Northumbria, and at last Wessex rendered all the other states tributary to itself, and its king, Eg- bertf about the year 827, began to call himself King of England. The Saxon age was not barren in products of the intellect. A missionary from Rome, St. Augustine, had come to England in 596, with forty assist- ants, and they had preached with good effect. A church was built at Canterbury in 604 ; the churches of St. Paul and St. Peter were erected in London, the latter on the present site of Westminster Abbey ; the University of Cambridge was founded in 644, and the whole country had become nominally Chris- tian by 670. Presently the English Church became strong enough to send out missionaries itself, of whom was St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany, who died in 755. The poet C^dmon composed his paraphrase 0/ England Proper. 255 Bible history at this time, and the Venerable Bede wrote a number of books that had a good influence, among which were some school-books, and works of an expository nature on the Bible. Other im- portant writers were Alcuin, 725 ?-8o4, John Scotus Erigena, and the unknown author of the very interesting epic of Beowulf. The mind of the scholars of the time was strong and reverent, and gave promise of future achievements. England Proper, 827-1013. — With the suprem- acy of Egbert, king of Wessex in 827, the history of the English natmi, as such, really begins. Egbert was well adapted for the work of bringing the dif- ferent tribes together under one government. He had lived in France at the court of Charlemagne for some years, and had acquired the art of war among other accomplishments. After he had been a few years on the throne, the Danes, or northern pirates, first appeared in considerable bodies. As early as 794 they had come over and destroyed the church of Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, but now they became a foe that caused constant anxiety, and led to the death of Egbert in 837. He had estab- lished the royal family, of which Victoria is the thirty-sixth in lineal descent. The Normans or Danes continued to invade England, and large portions of territory fell into their hands. In 871 Alfred, 849-901, called the Great, a grandson of Egbert, came to the throne. The greater portion of his reign was passed in 256 Great Britain. severe contests with the warriors of the North, in most of which he was victorious, and he died leav- ing his country in comparative peace, enjoying many blessings that were the fruit of his arduous labors. He was one of the best rulers England has ever had, and spent himself for his people very much as Peter the Great did for the Russians, eight hundred years later, with this difference, that Alfred had the relig- ious interests of his country at heart, and accom- plished much good in that department of effort. He founded the English militia and the royal navy, re- paired ruined cities and churches, arranged a code of laws, and improved the administration of justice. During the reigns of eight kings who succeeded Alfred, the country suffered constant invasions from Denmark, which became so oppressive, that in 991, by the advice of the archbishop of Canterbury, the king, Ethelred H., agreed to pay the Danes ten thousand pounds, called Da7iegelt^ to buy immunity. This sum was raised by a tax on land, the first one recorded in English history. Three years later the Danes returned, and were bought off by the pay- ment of sixteen thousand pounds. In 997 they returned again, were victorious wherever they went, and were paid twenty-four thousand pounds to make peace in 1002. Ethelred treacherously broke this truce by planning a massacre of the foreigners who had settled in England, and many were killed on the feast of St. Brice, November 13, 1002. The Danes, 1013-1041. — The Danes were now The Danes. 257 inflamed with anger. Their devastations became more frequent, and their demands more extortion- ate. They received aid from the Normans, who were of the same blood, and Sweyn, a Dane, who had married in England and adopted the Christian faith, was able to establish himself as king, late in the year 1013. Ethelred retired to Normandy with his wife Emma, who was a sister of Richard, duke of Normandy. Sweyn died February 3, 1014, and his son Canute was declared king by the army, while a part of the people recalled Ethelred, who died, however, in 1016, leaving his son Ed??itmd Xo carry on the war for the succession. Edmund died the same year, and Canute, 995 ?-io35, the Dane, now sole ruler of England, married Emma, in order to make the succession of his line secure. Canute was a lineal descendant of Alfred the Great, and emulated the good example of that monarch. In 1030 he made a pilgrimage to Rome, and on his return wrote a letter addressed to "all the nations of the English," — for he called himself not only emperor of England, but also king of the Swedes, Danes, and Norwegians, in which he said, ^'Be it known to you all, that I have dedicated my life to God, to govern my kingdom with justice, and to observe the right in all things. If, in the time that is past, and in the violence and carelessness of youth, I have violated justice, it is my intention, by he help of God, to make full compensation." He died in 1035, and was buried in Winchester 17 558 Great Britain, among the earlier kings, whose estates he had con quered. Canute was succeeded by his sons Harold Z, and Hardicanute, the last representatives of the Danish line. They had a sister, Gunhilda, who was married to the Emperor Henry III., 1017-1056, of Germany. The Saxons restored, 1042-1066. — Upon the death of the last of the descendants of Canute, the people chose as Yvc\g Edward^ ioo4?-io66, called the Confessor^ who was a son of Ethelred and Emma, and had been educated in Normandy. He pro- fessed a desire to be permitted to remain in that country, but was not allowed to do so. He was supported by Earl Godwin^ 1053, of Wessex, a powerful noble, with an intense feeling of nation- ality, who desired to see the minor differences of the people forgotten. During all the reign, he and his sons were more prominent than the king. God- win obliged Edward to marry his gentle, beautiful, and learned daughter Editha, who was soon neg- lected and persecuted by her husband. This was the reign of a king whose education, tastes, and habits, were not those of the people, for Edward knew little of his early English home. He introduced the Norman courtiers, and their lan- guage, and laid the foundation of a hatred between them and his people. At last, when the king took the part of a Norman visitor against his own sub- jects, they of the earldom of Godwin, that patri- otic noble rebelled against the king he had put The Normans. 259 upon the throne. Godwin was driven, with his sons, to other lands. Godwin and Sweyn went to Flanders, while Harold^ the other son, went to Ire land, 105 1. The Norman influence had begun to show its power by causing the banishment of the proudest family of English birth. Three years later, however, in 1054, Godwin and Harold returned, and succeeded in driving out the Norman courtiers and soldiers connected with King Edward, but the earl died the next year. In 1065 Edward finished an abbey on the present site of Westminster, where his shrine now remains. He died shortly after its consecration, January 5, 1066, and was succeeded by Godwin's son, Harold II. The right of Harold to the crown was immedi- ately contested by Wiltiam^ 102 7-1087, son of Robert, duke of Normandy, a descendant of Rollo the first duke. William asserted that Harold had promised to support his claims, and preparations for war were immediately begun. The conflict was opened in April, with no decisive results, and the summer was gone before William was ready for in- vasion. On the twenty-seventh of September he embarked for England, with a fleet of nearly a thou- sand small vessels. The week before, his allies, the Norwegians, had invaded Harold's territory near York, and were defeated by the English, the very iay that William sailed from Normandy, in a battle ^Dught at Stamford-bridge on the Derwent. The Normans, 1065-1154.^ — The news of the 26o Great Britain. arrival of William was quickly carried to Harold, and, with his usual impetuous promptness, he marched to the south, came in sight of the Nor man camp October 13th, and the next day fought the six hours' battle that resulted in his death, at a place called Senlac, near Hastings. It was a well- contested battle, and placed a new line of kings upon the throne. We must not magnify its results. There had long been a tendency in England to- wards Norman civilization, which was now in- creased, but it must be remembered that the four kings of the new line held their power by a tenure that was not very strong. The line was composed of the following kings : — William /., 1027-1087. William 11.^ — Henry /., Adela 1056 ?-i 100 1068-1 135 I Stephen^ 1105-1154. William is called the Conqueror or Acquirer. He was politic enough to desire his new people to think they had called him to the throne. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day, 1066, the people being previously asked if they would have him for king. Surrounded by Norman troops, they had apparently little freedom, and are said to have replied with one voice in the affirmative. Conflicts between the Normans and English began before the ceremony was over, and notwithstanding William's faithful promise to rule impartially, he re-established the odious .Da?iegelt, and divided William II. 261 the country among his favorites, thus establishing the oppressive features of the Feudal System, and laying upon the people the burdens that the Magna Charta was afterwards intended to lighten. The Danes, being of the same blood with the Normans, were favored, while many of the English became outlaws, ranging the forests as Robin Hood is said to have done, and making the richer classes their prey. Of course these social revolutions were not effected without severe struggles, and the reign of William was a constant succession of scenes of bloodshed. In 1087 he went to France to make war on the king, Philip I., who had been an ally of William's son, Robert, in his struggle for the duchy of Normandy. William made a dash at the city of Mantes, captured it, ordered it set on fire, and was ■'atally injured by an unexpected movement of his own horse as he trod upon some of the burning embers. He died at Rouen, September 9th. During the reign of William II. the Crusades be- gan, and Robert, duke of Normandy, mortgaged his lands to the king of England in order to obtain money to join in that enterprise, and thus he put an end to disputes concerning the right to govern the duch}^. William II. was called Le Rouge, or Ruddy-face, which has been translated Riifiis, under the impression that his hair was red. He was a crafty, rapacious, and dissolute king, and his reign was marked by constant misrule and oppres- sion. He died in iioo, and was succeeded by his orother, Henry I. 262 Great Britam. Duke Robert now returned from the Crusade with money to redeem his mortgaged duchy, derived from the marriage portion of a wife whom he had married in Italy. A treaty was made between the brothers, but it was soon broken, and a war ensued, resulting in the defeat of Robert, who in 1106, was confined for the remaining twenty-eight years of his life in Cardiff castle. Henry disliked his Eng- lish subjects, but had constant trouble in retain- ing his Norman possessions. He died from over- indulgence at the table, in 1135. His exceptional intelligence has given him the title Beauclerc, or fine scholar. His daughter Maud married, first Henry V., emperor of Germany, and afterwards Geoffrey Plantagenef, 1113-1151, count of Anjou. She was, by her father's desire, to have been his successor, but though acknowledged by the people, she was defeated by her cousin Stephen of Blois. Stephen, who now came to the throne, was a favorite nephew of Henry I., a son of his sister Adela, and Stephen, count of Blois. He married a niece of Godfrey of Boulogne, and inherited the earldom of that name. He was also allied to the royal family of Scotland. The claims of Maud, and the usurpation of Stephen, led to a bloody war that distracted the country for nineteen years, and was ended in 1153 by a treaty in which Henry was acknowledged as the successor to the crown. Ste- phen died the next year, and Henry son of Maud ascended the throne. The Plantagenets, 263 The Plantagenets, 1 154-1485. — The Plan- tagenet line which was now begun, ruled England for more than three centuries, in the persons of fourteen kings, eight of whom are called by the fam- ily name, the others being better known as of the houses of Lancaster and York, Henry 11. ( 1 133-1 189. ) Richardl. (1157-1199.) John. (1166-1216.) Henry III. (1206-1272.) Edward I. ( 1 239-1307. ) Edward II. (1284-1327.) Edward III. (1312-1377.) Edward the Black Prince. I Richard II. ( 1 366-1400. ) Henry II. had married Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis VII. of France, which gave him an excuse for acquiring large portions of France. He also conquered Ireland, fortified by a papal Bull, and gained some ascendency over Scotland. He lessened the power of the nobles, and brought the Church into subjection to the civil powers, after the murder of Thomas a Beckef, 1 119?-! 170, the archbishop of Canterbury. He did not use his power despotically, and improved the administration of justice. His sons and his wife rebelled against him, making his last days miserable. Richard Z, called Cceur de Lio?i, started for the Holy Land soon after his coronation, and follow- 264 Great Britain. ing his favorite pursuit, performed prodigies of valor that have made his name more noted in ra mance than in history. He married Bertngaria of Navarre, on his way out, and returning was cap- tured by the Emperor Henry VI., who kept him imprisoned in the Tyrol for some time. Mean- while his brother John ruled England, and Philip II. of France, who had been with him in the Holy Land, occupied Richard's possessions in Normandy. Upon his return in 1194, he forgave John, and made war upon Philip. In the war he was suc- cessful, but died at its close. It was natural that during the reign of so chiv- alrous a king, the troubadours and ballad singers should have flourished, and the gentle outlaws of Sherwood forest should live their protest against the fashionable Normans and their haughty mis- rule. Robin Hood is represented to have been of about the same age as Richard the Lionheart. CFpon the death of Richard, the crown should have fallen to Arthur of Brittany, and in his name Philip of France claimed the English possessions in France,^ and finally, in 1204, succeeded in taking them for himself, as Arthur had been put out of the way in some manner by his unnatural uncle. The Magna Charta. — After his wars in France, jfohn was involved in contests with his own nobles, and they, in 12 15, forced him to sign what is called. the Magna Charta^ still the fundamental basis of 1 See Shakespeare's King John, act I. sc. I. The Barons' War. 265 British liberties. This was done on the meadow of Runnymede^ near Windsor, June 15th. Henry III.^ the eldest son of King John, suc- ceeded to the crown at the age of nine, and his reign is the longest in English history ^ except that of George III., and it was crowded with troubles. He endeavored to abolish the Magna Charta, and the nobles and chief land-holders rose to protect their privileges. The struggle that ensued, 1262- 1268, is called the Barons^ War. It increased the power of the nobles, which was placed under con- trol by a joint meeting with the burgesses, that afterwards developed into the Parliament. During these wars, Simon de Montfort^ earl of Leicester, i2o6?-i265, a brother-in-law of the king, was a prominent leader against him. Edward I., Henry's eldest son, succeeded him, and avoided troubles with the barons. He had accompanied St. Louis on the last Crusade, was not in England when Henry died, and did not reach home until 1274, when he was received with rejoic- ings. His ambition seems to have been to get the whole of Great Britain under his sway, and it led him into a war of nearly ten years with Wales, which ended with its subjugation ^ in 1282 ; and into another with the Scotch under the patriots William 1 Only three kings have reigned more than fifty years, — Henry III., Edward III., and George III. 2 See, in this connection, Grey's spirited verses, entitled, Th Bard. 266 Great Britain, Wallace^ i2 7o?-i3o5, and Robert Bruce, 1274*- 1329, that ended with his own death in 1307. In order to hold the Welsh, he had in 1284 created his eldest son Prince of Wales, a title which is still given to the heir apparent. The Prince of Wales became Edward II, on his father's death, and prosecuted the war in Scotland, but so inefficiently that he was defeated by Bruce with immense slaughter at Bamtockburn, June 24, 13 14, and lost all that his father had gained in that country. He married Isabella, sister of Charles IV. of France, and she took up arms against him. He was taken prisoner, and put to death in 1327, in a castle on the banks of the Severn. His son, Edward III, reigned fifty years, and was one of the most powerful monarchs England has had. He invaded Scotland, but not being able to break the spirit of the people, and having cap- tured King David Bruce, made an agreement with him that upon his death without male issue, the Scottish crown should pass to England. Upon the death of Charles IV. Edward claimed the crown of France likewise, in the name of his wife, and entered upon wars to support his pre- tense. Beginning in 1335, he achieved a brilliant success at Crecy, in 1346, and, after a truce of several years, at Poictiers, in 1356. In the last en- gagement King John was captured and taken to England. During the absence of Edward in France, David Bruce invaded England, but was captured Chaucer and Wiclif, 267 by the queen, so that the two kings were in cap- tivity at the same time. His reign was brilliant in its wars, but unsatisfactory in their results. The king finally quarreled with his parliament, and the Black Prince led the opposition. The Prince died in 1376, and Edward in 1377. The reign of Edward III. was the period of the culmination of the spirit of chivalry which was embodied in the Black Prince. It was noted as the time of Chaucer, 1328-1400, and yohn Wiclif, i324?-i384, and of the author of the Vision of William C07icerning Piers the Plow?nan, 1362, all of whose writings breathe a freer spirit of religious feeling than was felt by earlier authors, a spirit that was also apparent in laws against ecclesiastical, but especially against papal, oppression. The accession of the son of the Black Prince, Richard II., at the age of eleven, occasioned a regency, and the affairs of the kingdom were man- aged by his uncles, the dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester, the former of whom is better known as John of Gaunt, 1340-1399, from his birthplace, Ghent, in Flanders. The nobles were rebellious, and the people, led by such men as Wat Tyler, rose in unsuccessful rebellions, that originated in the heavy taxes the previous wars had made neces- sary, and resembled the yacquerie in France.-^ The family quarrel for the crown led directly to the Wars of the Roses, 1455-1485, between the houses of Lancaster and York. 1 See ante, p. 165. 268 Great Bfitain. A war had been in progress almost since the beginning of the reign, in which Percy, earl of Northumberland, his son, called Harry Hotspur, and John of Gaunt, and the earl of Douglas, had been engaged. In 1388 a battle was fought at Otterburn, in Northumberland, in which Douglas, the Scottish leader, was killed, and Hotspur was taken prisoner.^ In 1399 John of Gaunt died, and his eldest son, Henry Bolingbroke, 1366-14 13, assumed his title and estates. The same year King Richard led an army into Ireland to endeavor to compel the more complete allegiance of the people. His cousin Henry took advantage of his absence, and sailed from Brittany for England, nominally to claim his inheritance. He landed in Yorkshire July 4th, and was called to the throne in September, Richard hav- ing been deposed by the parliament. It is not known what became of Richard after this, though it is supposed that he was murdered. The reign thus ended, was, as we have seen, very much disturbed by wars at home, in Scotland, France, and Ireland, and it was made still more excited by the religious movements that had been begun by Wiclif, which were carried on with energy. They led to the statute of 1382, against Lollards, as Wiclif s followers were called, and to the condem nation of his doctrines by a synod of Churchmen. - I See the Ballad of I'he Battle of Otterburn, the Ballad of Chevy Chase, g.nd The Spectator, Nos. 70 and 74. 1 House of Lancaster. 269 House of Lancaster, 1 299-1461. — Three kings of the house of Lancaster now followed : — Henry IV., 1366-1413, ^^«^j- 34^- Copenhagen (1807), 234, JBO, Corunna fiSog), 300 Cowpens (1781), 347. Crecy(i346), 167. Culloden (1746), 298. 378 Index. Cynoscephalse (b. c. 197), 42. Eutaw Springs (1781), 347. Exeter (1497), 276. Flodden(i5i3), 279 Hastings (1066), 260. Inkerman (1854), 305. Ivry(iS9o), 177, Jena (1806), 144, 197. Killiecrankie (1689), 295. King's Mountain (1781), 346. Leipsic (1813), 198. Lexington (1775), 341. Lodi (1796), 194. Lutzen (1632), 230. Magenta (1859), 139, 204. Malplaquet (1709), 186, 296. Marathon (b. c. 490), 24. Marengo (1800), 195. Marignano (1515), 171. Marston Moor (1644), 2S9. Morgarten (1315), 243. Naseby (1645), 289. Nations, of the (1813), 241. New Orleans (1815), 354. Nile, the (1798), 300. Oudenarde (1708), 296 Pinkie (1547), 282. Plassy (1757), 299. Plataea (479 b. c.)* 2&- Poictiers (1356), 165. Pyramids (1798), 194. Ramillies (1706), 296. Saratoga (i777)» 345- Sedan (1870), 205. Sempach ( 1386), 124, 243. Solferino (1859), i38> 204. Spurs, the (1513), 279. Tehemaya, the (1855;, 305. Thermopylae (b. c. 480), 25. Tippecanoe River (1811), 353. Towton (14.61), 272. Trafalgar (1805), 197, 221, 300. Trenton (1777J, 344. Wagram (1809), 197. Waterloo (18 1 5), 145, 199, 301. Worcester (1651), 290. Zama (b. c. 202), 41. Zutphen (1586.), 283. Bayard, The Chevalier, 130, 171. Becket, Thomas 4, 157, 263. Belgium, 217 Beowulf, Epic of, 255. Berengaria, Queen, 264. Berlin Decree, The, 197. Berlin founded, 139. Bernadotte (Charles XIV,), 233. Bernard, Saint, 75, 116, 157. Beziers, Massacre of, 159. V Ible, The Authoi ized Version, 288. Bible, The Genevan Version, 288. Bible, The, its record, 8. Bible, The, translated in England, 281. Bible, The, translated in Germany, 129. Bismarck, Prince von, 146. Black Prince, The, 163, 166. Black Sea, Russia established upon,^ 239- Blennerhassett, Harmon, 353. Bliicher, Marshal, 144. Bohemia, 229. Bonaparte, Napoleon, 193. Bossuet, 186. Bourbon, House of, 177. Bourbons, The, restored, 198. Bourdaloue, 1S7. lio wring, Sir John, 305. Braddock, General, 333. Bright, John, 303. Brown, John, 360. Bruce, Robert, 266, 287. Brunehaut and Fredegonde, 150. Brunswick, House of, 117, 297. Bubble, The South Sea, 298. BuUen, Anne, 278. Burgoyne, General, surrenders, 345. Burgundians, The, 103. Burleigh, Lord, 284. Burnet, Bishop, on Peter the Great, 238. Burr, Aaron, 352. Cabot, John and Sebastian, 312, 51 "t- Cade, John (1450), 271. Caedmon's Paraphrase, 255. Caesar, Augustus, 49. Caesar, Julius, 47, 48, 251. Calais, taken by England (1347) 283. • Calais lost by England (1588), 283. Calhoun, John C-, 356. California ceded to the United Statesi 359- Calmar Union, The, 227, 234. Calvert, George, 319. Calvin, John, at Geneva, 244. Cambray (Woman's Peace), 172. Cambridge Common, 342. Cambridge, Mass., formerly New* town, 320. Canute of England, 257. Capet, House of, in France, 154. Captivity of the Jews, ii. Caractacus, 252. Carbonari, The, 199. Carlists in Spain, 224. Carlos, Don, 223- i Index. 379 Carlovingian dynasty in France, 150. Carlovingian djmasty in Germany, 105. Carlyle, Thomas, on the battle of Lexington, 341. Carolinas, The, 322. Carteret, George, 322. Cartier, James, 313. Carver, John, Governor, 318. Castelar, Emilio, 225. Castles and Villages, 6t Catherine II. of Russia, 232. Catiline's conspiracy, 47. Cecil, Sir William, Lord Burleigh, 284. Chaldea, 5. Chalmers, Thomas, 303. Chamber of Fire, The, 175. Chambord, Count de, 200. Champlain visits Canada, 313. Charlemagne, 83, 107, 151. Charles I. of England, i8S, 2S7, 28S. Charles I. of Spain, 213. Charles V. of Germany, 127, 279. Charles X. of Sweden, 140. Charles XII. of Sweden, 231. Charles the Bold, 126. Charles the Fat, 109. Charleston taken by the British, 346. Chartists, The, in England, 303. Chaucer, Geoffrey, 267. Chevalier, The (1715), 297. Chevy Chase, Ballad of, 268. Children's Crusade, The, 78. Chivalry characterized, 63. Christian IX. of Denmark, 235. Christina crowned king, 230. Church, The English, 278. Cincinnatus dictator, 36. Cities, The, of Greece, 19. Cities rise in Italy, 86. Ciudad Rodrigo, 222, 301. Civilization of Greece, 32. Civilization of America, 366. Civilization in the United States, 30S. Coalition against Napoleon (1S12), 198. Cobden, Richard, 303. Coligni, Admiral de, 174. Colonization of America, 314, 325. Columbus, Christopher, 211, 311. Commonwealth, The, 290. Communists in Paris, 206. Compromise, The Missouri, 356, 358. Conde, Louis, 174- Confederate States of America, 362. Congress, The first Amercan, 32.S. Congress, The Old Continental, 339. Connection t settled, 320 Constantine the Great, 55. Constantinople, The fall of, 90. Constitution of the United States framed, 348. Consulate, The, in France, 193. Corinth J 31. Corinthian war. The, 21. Corn Laws in England, 303. Cornwallis repulsed, 346. Correspondence between the Colo- nies in America, 339. Cortez, 313. Council of Clermont, 71. Covenant, The Solemn League and, 2 89. Covenanters persecuted, 291. Classes in the Middle Age, 59. Claverhouse, Graliam of, 291. Clermont, Council of7 71- Clovis, 149. Curwen, Samuel, his Journal, 343. Cranmer, Archbishop, 282. Crecy, 266. Cromwell, Oliver, 289. Cromwell, Sir Thomas, 27S. Crusades, The, 65, 72, 117, 119, 156, 265. Crusades, Effects of the, 80. Crusades affect England, 261. Danes in England, 226, 256. Danes threaten the empire, 108. Danegelt, its origin, 256. Danegelt, revived, 260. Daniel, The Prophet, 13. Dante, 89, 123. Dauphin, origin of the title, 164. David, King of the Hebrews, 10. Davis, Jefferson, 360. Davis, Jefferson, elected president of the Confederate States, 362. Days of July ( 1S30), 217. Days of September (1793), 192. Debt, The National, of England, 296. Deerfield burned, 330. Delaware settled, 31 8. Delhi, Massacre of, 306. Denmark, 234. Denmark, her navy destroyed by Nelson, 234. Descartes at the court of Queen Christina, 230. Diplomacy, its origin, 250. Directory, The, in France, 193. Dominicans, 162. Don Carlos of Spain, 223. Douglas, Stephen A., ^6o- 380 Index. Drake, Sir FraKcis, 3iS> 323- Druids, The, 251. Dudley, Robert, earl of Leicester, 285. Edward III., 162, 263, 266. Edward the Confessor, 258. Edward the Black Prince, 263. Egbert, King of England, 227^ 254, 255- Egmont, Count, 214. Egypt, Napoleon in, 194. Elector, The Great, 140. Elizabeth, Queen (1558-1603), 217, 280, 284. Emigration in the United States, 366. Empire, The, in France (1804), 193, 196. England desirous of peace with America (1778), 345. England, her long prosperity, 246. English, The, their character^ 247. English, their patriotism (1500), 277. Erasmus at Basle, 243. Espartero of Spain, 224. Eugene, Prince, 136, 185. Evelyn, his Diary, 239. Exhibition, The Great {1851), 304. Festivals, English, 278. FeudaHsm, The rise of, 58, 60, 61. Feudalism in England, 249, 261. Feudalism in France, 154. Field of the Cloth of Gold, 172, 279. Fifth Monarchy Men, 129, 292. Fisher, John, burned, 281. Five Nations, The, 329. Florida discovered, 312. France, 147- Francis Joseph of Austria, 138. Franconian dynasty in Germany, 1 1 1. Franklin, Benjamin, 344. Franks, The, 104. Frederic Barbarossa, 116, 157. Frederic the Great, 137, 141. Frederic II. of Germany, 119. Free Church in Scotland, 303. Fugitive Slave Law, The, 360. Gadsden, Christopher, 339. Gama, Vasco da, 275, 312. Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 88, 96. Garrison, William Lloyd, 358. Gates, General Horatio, 345. Gaul and its people, 148. Gaunt, John of, 267. Genseric the Vandal, 57. Geneva, Conference of (1S72), 307. George IL, 188. George IV., 218. Georgia settled, 324. German dynasties, 99. Germani, The, 100. Germany, 98. Ghent, Pacification of, 216. Glencoe, Massacre of, 295. Glendower, Owen, 269. Godfrey of Bouillon, 73. Godoy, Duke of Alcudia, 220. Godwin, Earl of Wessex, 258. Goethe, 143. Gold discovered in California, 359 Golden Bull, The, 123. Goths in Spain, 208. Goths, Huns, and Vandals attack Rome, 56. Government of the United States, 349- . Gracchi, The, 44. Grant, General U. S., 364. Great Britain, 246. Greece, 16. Greek drama. The, 29. Greek language, The, 16. Gregory VI I. , Hildebrand, 84. Grey, Lady Jane, 282. Grisons, The, why so called, 243. Gunpowder Plot, The, 287. Guelfs and Ghibellines, 86, 115, 248. Gueux, The, 216. Guise, The brothers, 174. Gunpowder, its influence, 126. Gustavus Adolphus, 133. Gwynned, Owen, 310. Habeas Corpus Act, The (1679), 292, Hale, Edward Everett, 311. Hamilton, Alexander, 350. Hancock, John, 339. Hannibal of Carthage, 40. Hapsburg, House of, 122, i6r. Harper's Ferrj', attacked by Jchn Brown, 361. Hartford Convention, The, 354. Hats and Caps, The parties, in Swe- den, 232. Hatto, Bishop, no. Havelock, General, 306. Hayne, Robert Y., 358. Hebrew law, 9. Hebrew nation, The, 4, 7. Henry IV. humiliated, 85, 113, 123 Henry VII. of England, 275. Henry VIII., 171, 278, 280, 281. Henry, Patrick, 336, 339. Heptarchy, The, 254. ^ Index. 381 Herculaneum and Pompeii destoyed, Hildebrand, 84, 113. History defined, i. Hohenstaufen, origin of the name, 113- Holland, 236. Holy Alliance, The, 172. Holy League, The, 176. Hospitallers, 162. Hotspur, Harry, 26S. Houston, General Sam, 359. Hudson, Henry, 316. Hugh, count of Paris, 151. Huguenots, The, 175, 1S5. Human action. The motive of, ?. Hungarians invade France, 153. Ich dien, Motto of the Prince of Wales, 164. Iliad, The, of Homer, 18, Impressment of seamen, 353. Independence, Declaration of, 344. Independence of U. S- acknowledged by France, 190, 209- Independence of U. S- acknowledged by Spain, 299. Independence of U. S. acknowledged by Sweden, 232. India, Lord Clive in, 299. Indian tribes classified, 314. Indian warfare, 330. Inquisition in Spain, 210. Ireland united to England and Scot- land (iSoi), 300. Iron Crown, The, of Lombaruy, 196. Isabella II. of Spain, 223. Italy, 81. Jackson, General Andrew, 354. Jacobin and other clubs, 191, 192. Jacquerie, The, 165, 267. James I., 179. Jamestown, the oldest English town in America, 288, 315. Jay, John, 339. Jefferson, Thomas, 344. Jeffries, George, 293. Jerome of Prague, 124. Jerseys, The, 322. Jesuits, The rise of, 132. Jesuits banished from Spain, 220. Jesuits banished from Switzerland, 245- Jesuits, Order of, suppressed, 220. judea conquered by Rome, 14. Jugurtha starved, 45. Junius, Letters of, 299. lutes in Kent, 25^. John, King of Bohemia, 163. John, King of England, 15S. Kalb, Baron de, 344. Kent, Tile Duchess of, 218. Kossuth, Louis, 138. Kosciuszko, Thaddeus, 240, 344. Lancaster, House of, 269. Laud, Archbishop, 289. Law, John, and the Mississippi Bub- ble, 324. Lafayette, Marquis de, 190, 344. Lee, Charles and Richard, 339. Lee, Richard Henry, 343- Lee, Geneial Robert E., 364. Leo X., 91. Leopold II. of Belgium, 218. Liberty, Reign of, in Paris, 102. Liberty understood by Roger Will- iams, 321, 326. Lincoln, Abraham, elected president, 361. Lincoln, Abraham, assassinated, 364. Locke, jolm, 323. Lollards, The (t382\ 268. London Compai:v, The, 28S, 315. Lorenzo tlio Magnificent, 90 Lorraine (Lo.haringia), 153. Louisbur?, iSS. Louisburg captured, 332. Louisbiirg captured a second time 334-. Louisiana and Florida, 230, 223. Louisiana settled, 324. Louisiana bought, 352. Louis IX. of France, 78, 159, 265. Louis XIV., 92, 181. Louis XVI., 1S9, 192, 344. Louis Philijipe, 21S. Louvois, 183. Loyalists retire from Boston, 343. Loyola, Ignatius, 132. Luther, Martin, 12S. Lycurgus of Sparta, 20. MacMahon, Marshal, 206. Madman of the North, The, 231 ■ Magellan, Ferdinand de, 313 Magna Cliarta,The, 249 Magna Charta, The, signed (12 15) 264. Maires du Palais, 150. Malakhotf, The, 305. Maria 'J'heresa, 136, 142, i3S, 189. Marie Antoinette, 1S9. Marion, Francis, 346. Marlborough, Duke of, 185 396. Marat, loi. 382 Index. Margaret, the Semiramis of the North, .i^-]. M artel, Charles, 150. Maryland settled, 319. Mary of England, 214. Mary Queen of Scots, 174, 280, 2S5. Massachusetts settled, 316. Massacre at Fort William Henry, 334- Massacre, The Boston, 338. Massasoit, 327. Massillon, 187. Maximilian I. of Mexico, 204. Mayflower, The, 317. Mazarin, Cardinal de, 181. Mazzini, Giuseppe, 94. McCuUoch, General Ben, 359. Media, 5. Medici, The de', 90. Medici, Maria de', 179, 180. Metternich, Prince, 138. Mexico, France sends an expedition to, 204. Missouri Compromise repealed, 360. Middle Age, The, =;S. Migration of Nations, 56, loi. Milton, John, 290. Moliere, 186. Monarchies, The Six Ancient, 4. Monasteries destroyed, 280. Monroe Doctrine defined, 355. Montesquieu, 189. Montfort, Simon de{i265), 159,265. Montmorenci, Anne de, 174. Montpensier, Duke of, 224. Moore, Sir John, 301. Moors in Spain, 209, 210. Moscow burned, 198. Moses, a remarkable leader, 8. More, Sir Thomas, 278. Moultiie, Wilham, 346. Nana Sahib, 306. Nantes, Edict of ( 159^), 140, 17S. Nantes, Edictof revoked {1685), 104. Napoleon I., .137. i44i i93- Napoleon I. in Italy, 93. Napoleon I. interferes in Spain, 221. NaiDoleon I. opposed by Gustavus IV., 232. Napoleon III. (Louis), 138, 146, 201. Napoleon III. his coup d'etat^ 203. Napoleon III. made Emperor, 203. Napoleon III. enters the Crimean war, 203. Napoleon III. becomes an ally of Victor Emmanuel, 203. Napoleon III. sends an expedition to Mexico, 204. Napoleon III. defeated by Prussia 205. Napoleon III. dies in exile, 205. National Assembly (1789), 190. National Life, Period of, in Americ* 34.8. Nation, The English formed, 255. Navarre, Henry of (Henry IV ), 174. 177- Nelson, Horatio, 194, 221, 300. Nero of the North, The, 227. Netherlands, why so called, 236. Newfoundland discovered, 312. New Hampshire settled, 318. New Jersey, 321. New York settled, 316. Ney, Marshal, 222. Nightingale, Florence, 305. Norway, 235. _ Norman line in England, 259. Normans, The, in France, 151. Normans, The, in England, 226. Norman, The, invade England, 2551 Nullification, 356. Oates, Titus, 292. Odoacer, 57, 82. Oglethorpe, James, 315, 324. Ohio Company, The, 533. Orange, William of, 141, 181, iS4« 185, 214, 215, 292 Oriflamme, The, 156. Olympian Games, The, 17. Olynthian war. The, 21. Orleans, The Maid of, 167, 270. Orleans, House of, 200. Oscar II. of Sweden, 234. Ostro-Goths, The, 103. Otis, James, 335, 337. Oxenstierna, Count, 228. Paladins, The, 158. Paris made capital of France, 149 Paris taken by Wellington, 222. Paradise, The Earthly, 211, 311. Parliament, 160. Parliament, The Barebones, 290. Parliament, The Long, 290. Parliament, The Rump, 289. Parthia, 6. Parties in France (1S30), 200. Parties in Sweden (1772), 232. Parties in the United States, 349. Patriotism of the Hebrews, 7. Pays-Bas. 236. Philip II. of Spjain, 214, 313. Philip II. marries Rlary I., -!83. Philip, The Indian King, 327. Pheniclans in England, 252. Index. 383 Peace. See Treaty. Pelayo in Asturias, 209. Pennsylvania settled, 323. Penn, William, 319, 322, 323. Pericles, The age of, 27. Persia, 6. Peter the Great, 237. Peter the Hermit, 70. Petrarch, 89. Pickens, Andrew, 346, Piers Plowman, Vision of, 267. Pius IX., pope, 95. Pizzarrq, Cortez, and others visit America, 212, 313. Plague, The Great, 292. Plantagenets, The, 263. Plot) The Gunpowder, 287. Plot, The Rye House, 293. Plymouth Company, The, 288. Poictiers, 266. Poland, 228. Poland, Dismemberment of, 240. Pomerania invaded by Gustavus Adolphus, 229. Poniatowski, Joseph, 240. Porteous Riot, The, 298, Potatoes and Tobacco, 315, Power, Balance of, 250, 254, 356. Praetorian guard, The, 51. Pragmatic Sanction, The, 136. Pragmatic Sanction of St. Louis, 160. Prayer, Book of Common, 282. Presidents of the United States, 351. Pretender, The (James III.), 219. Pretender, The Younger (1745), 298. Prussia, 139. Ptolemy Phlladelphus, 13. Pulaski, Count, 344. Pulaski killed, 346. Puritans, Rise of the, 2S5. Puritans become important, 288. Puritans settle at Plymouth, 317. Quebec founded, 313. Quebec taken (1759), 299. Quebec taken by Wolfe, 334. Queen Anne's war in America, 329. Racine, 186. Raleigh, 315, 322. Raphael, 91. Reformation, The, 127. Reformation in Switzerland, 243. Reform in England, 301. Reigns of over fifty years, 265. Republican Rome, 35. Republic in France (1870), 205. Republic in France (1848), 201. Republic in France (1792), 191 Republic, The Helvetian, 244. Revere, Paul, 340. Revival of letters, The, 91. Revolution in Italy, 94. Revolution of 1649, 181. Revolution in France (17S9), igo. Revolution in France (1848), 145 Revolution, The Fiench, atiects Holland, 236. Revolution, The French, affects England (1848), 303. Rhode Island settled, 321. Richard CcEur de Lion, 76, 118, 157, 263. Richard III King (1483), 273. Richelieu, Cardinal de, iSo. Ridley, Bishop, 282. Rights, Declaration of, in England, 294. Rights, Declaration of, in America, ^ 337, 34°- Robin Hood, 264. Robinson, John, 288, 317. Rochelle, Seige of, 180. Rollo the Norman, 152. Romanists executed, 285. Romans, The, in Britain, 251. Rome, 33. Rome supreme, 43, Rome's decline, 53. Romulus and Remus, 34. Rousseau, 189. Rump Parliament, The, 290. Russell, Earl, 301. Russia, its interesting history, 237. Rutledge, John, 339. Rye House Plot, The, 293. Salic law, The, 167. Santa Anna of Mexico, 225, 35S. Savannah founded, 315. Savannah taken by the British, 346. Savannah evacuated, 348. Saviour, The, His birth, 14. Savonarola. Girolamo, 87, 90. Saxons, The, 104. Saxon dynasty, The,in Germany,iio. Saxons in England, 253. Saxonlinein England restored, 258. Scandinavia, its early inhabitants, 226. Schamyl of the Caucasus, 304. Scheldt, Navigation of the, 237. Schenectady burned, 32S. Schiller, 143. Scipio Africanus, 41. Scotland and England united (1707), 296. 384 Index. Scott, General Winfield, 354, 357, 359- Sebastopol, Siege of, 304. Secession of Southern States, 361. Semiramis of the North, The, 227. Semitic race, 3. Semitic literature, 7. Separatists, The, 288. Sepoy Mutiny, Tlie, 306. Serfs emancipated in Russia, 242. Serrano, General, 225. Shakespeare, William, 286. Sherman, General, William T., 364. Sicilian Vespers, The, 88, i6i. Sicilies, The Two, 87. Sidney, Algernon, 293. Sidney, Sir Philip, 285. Slavery in the United States, 355. Slesvig-Holstein, 139, 226, 235. Smalcald, The League of, 131. Smith, John, 316. Social Compact, The, of the Ply- mouth Pilgrims, 317. Solomon, King of the Hebrews, 9. South, War in the (1779), 346. Spain, 207. Spain, divisions of, 207. Spain, Romans in, 208. Sparta, 19. Spartacus the gladiator, 45. St. Pierre, Bernardin de, 189. Stamp Act, The, 336. Star Chamber court, 277. Star Chamber court revived, 289. Star Chamber court abolished, 290. Stark, General John, 345. States in the Federal Union, 351. Steuben, Baron, 344. Stuart, The House of, 287. Stuart, The House of, restored, 291. Suabian League, The, 125. Sully, Duke of, 178. Sumter, Fort, bombarded, 362. Sumter, Thomas, 346. Suwan-nff, General, 241. Switzerland, 122, 243. Tappan, Arthur, 35S. Taylor, General Zachary, 359. Tea Party, The Boston, 338. Tea taxed, 337. Tecumseh killed 354. Templars, 162. Ten Tribes, The, revolt of, 10. Terror, Reign of in Paris, 192. Teutonic Knights, The, 115. Teutones and Cimbri defeated by Rome, 45. Texas admitted to the Union, 3sg. 'I'hackeray, W. M., 201. Theresa, Maria, 73S. Thiers, Louis Adoii)h, 205. Third estate, Tlic, 164. Timrod, William, 35;. Tobacco and potwV'CS, 315. Tory and Whig, ' 'he titles, 292. Tournaments, 16, ■ Treaty ot — Aix-la-Chapell. (1668, 1748), 183, iSS, 217, 219, ,-gr, 3J2, 334. Amiens (1S02), 2-f". Campo Formio (i7s"'li i94i 217 Cambray (1529), 172. Cateau Cambresis{i5S9), 215. Gastein ( 1865), 235. Ghent (1814), 216, 300, 354. Luneville (iSoi), 196. Ninieguen ( 1678), 135, 184. Paris (1783), 348. Radstadt (1714), 186. Ratisbon {1684), 184. Ryswick (1697), 135, 185, 296, 339, 334. Tilsit (1807), 241. Utrecht (1713), 135, 1S6, 296, 329, 331. 334- Vienna (1809), 197. Westphalia (1648), 140, 182, 217, 230, 244 Woman's Peace (1529) (Cambrav) 172. Zurich (1859^ 139. Triple Alliance, The, 183. Tiiumvirates in Rome, 48. Troubadours, The, 161. Troubadours in England, 264. Truce ot God, 'Ilie, 72, 112, 15^ Tudor family. The, 275. Tuscaroras, The, 331. Twelve Tables, The, 37. United States, The, 30S. United States, its wars with England 299. Union, The American proposed, 379 Union, The Calmar, 227, 234. Utrecht, Union of, 216 Valley Forge, 345. Valois, The House of, 162, 170. Vandals, The, 102. Vasa, Gustavus, 227. Vaudois, persecuted, 173 Venner, Thomas, executed, aga. Vera Cruz, Siege of, 359. Vespasian, 51. Victor Emmanuel, 94, 96. Victoria J-, n;, 303. Index. 385 Vienna, rise of, 135. Vienna, Congress of, 137, 145, 198, 241. Villrifranra, Armistice of, 138. Virginia, South Carolina, and Massa- chusetts, in the Revoliltion, 337 Visi-Goths, The, 102. Vohaire, 143. Wnldenses, The, 291. Wales, Prince of, origin of the title, 266. Wallace, William, 266. Walienstein, Alba-t von, 133, 230. Walpole, Sir Robert, 298. Warbeck, Perkin, 276. Wars. American, of 1812, 352, 353 Barons', 265. Chinese, 305. Civil (U. S.), 362,363- Coincident, 334. Colonial (America), 327 Crimean, 96, 242, 304. Elean, 21. Franco- Prussian (1870), 204 French and Indian, 333. Fronde, of the, 182. German-Italian, 146 Hundred Years', 163 Hussite, 124. Indian (America), 327 Investitures, of, 84, 155 King George's, 332. King William's, 328. Macedonian, 42. Messenian, 21. Mexican, 35S. Napoleonic, 241. Netherlands, in the, 215 Peasants', 129. Peloponnesian, 21, 28 Peninsular, 300. Persian, 21, 23. Polish, 18S. Pontian, 46 Punic, 38. RevolutioH; ;r ths English (1688), 293- Revolution ofljvj French (1791), 399. 25 Revolutionary (America), 335. Roses, of the, 168, 248, 267, 274. Seven Years', 137, 144, 333, 334. Succession, Austrian, 298, 334. Succession, Spanish, 185, 219, 329, 334- Theban, 21. Thirty Years', 133, 140, 181, 217, 228, 244. Trojan, iS. Warwick, Beauchamp, earl of (King* maker), 270, 272. Washington and Frederic the Great, 143- Washington, George, 333, 339, 342, 344-. WasJiington retires, 348. Washington's presidency, 350. Webster, Daniel, 358. Wellington, Duke of, 145, 197, 23a 300. _ Westminster Abbey, 254. Whig and Tory, The titles, 292. Wiclif, John, 124, 267. Wilkes, Jolin, 299. William the Conqueror, 152, 259 William III. of England, 239. William III. of Holland, 236 William I. of Prussia, 143. Williams, Roger, 321. Williamstown attacked, 332- Winthrop, John, 318 Winthrop, John, Junior, 320 Wolsey, Cardinal, 278 Worms, Concordat of, 114. Worms, Diet of, 128, 172. Writs of Assistance, 335. Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 283. Xerxes defeated, 26. Ximin^s, Cardinal, 213. York, The Dukes of, 271 York, The House of, 271 Yorktown besieged (1781), yiH,, Young Europe, 95. Young Italy, 94. Ziscka, John, 125. Zwingli, Ulrich, 344.