V -^ .^^'^ j^f/{T??:^h^ -f- •> ^ .<^ ,v^ -^ ^ ^. -^<^. 'S^ "^ .0 S • ■^ '. ! B %.. >.. .4 ^i .^^' %, ^ 1 oX I * o ^ - '<- - /." .x^^% -I ^ - c^ ^ . ^^A \^^^. .:5 % t/> <^v .^0 ^ ■>', 0' \. I < ' * ^ X ,0- ,0- n %^' ^ ■^; .- ,x^ .V \' '^j^m:§ : . ..n '^^^ -> .<^- ,0- o ^,:'-^ -N^ o--^- ^r ^ "^^ ^* -O a I A WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE OUTLINE STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA >A^itn an Index to the Cnaracters m Snakespeare s Plays Prepared for Students by MARY E. FERRIS-GETTEMY, M. L. Former Principal of tKe High School Galesburg, Illinois GALESBURG. ILLINOIS THE MAIL PRINTING COMPANY 1904 Shake^^^^^^^ LIBRARY of CONGRES? Two Copies fieceived DEC 2 jyU4 Couyriairt tniry 'IJ\SS Oj XXc. Not COPY B. COPYRIGHT 1904, BY MARY E. FERRIS-GETTEMY GALESBURG, ILLINOIS TO MY PUPILS WHO WERE A NEVER-FAILING INSPIRATION TO THEIR TEACHER IN SHAKESPEARE, THESE STUDIES ARE AFFECTION- ATELY DEDICATED BY — The Author, FOREWORD This study has been prepared to assist the teachers of Shakespeare in our own high school, and to furnish in a small volume some helpful suggestions and studies for the use of the pupils. It is designed to accompany any edition of his plays. The sidelights to the studies of individual plays are de- signed merely to awaken interest in the study, and to call attention to, and throw light upon some special features of the play, and to suggest lines of study that may be applied to other plays. The work here presented has been tried with pupils in the class room and they thoroughly enjoyed and appreciated it. The master critics, Gervinus, Ulrici, Coleridge, Dowden, Brandes, Hudson and others, have so illumined the pages of Shakespeare, that he who reads must see, and the rich treasures which they reveal are now considered common property. It has been the aim throughout this study to give credit for suggestions received from these very helpful Shakespearean scholars. Especial thanks are due to Dr. Denton J. Snider for giving me ''Carte blanche" use of his commentaries ; it is but just to him to say that without the inspiration received from his interpretation of this master mind, this little venture would never have been launched ; if it proves helpful to any in the study of this great searcher of the hearts and intents of men, its mission is accomplished. M. E. F.-G. Galesburg, Illinois, November, 1904. HOW TO USE THE BOOK IN CLASSES As stated in the preface, the object of this Httle book is to form a basis of study to accompany any edition of Shakespeare's plays. At the beginning of Part III will be found some general suggestions for the study of any play, also for the especial plays which follow ; these suggestions together with the questions on the text and on the plays, and the schemes for outline books, indicate to some extent, how the book may be used ; it has been suggested that more specific hints may be helpful to those who have had but little experience in teach- ing this subject. The studies of the four plays given are somewhat pro- gressive and should be pursued in the order here presented. First Year Before reading the first play, it might be well to spend a few recitations on Part I, Chap. I, so that pupils may first get some idea of the growth of the English Drama up to the time of Shakespeare, and get interested in the subject before beginning the study of the play. When the play is taken up, call attention to its mechanism ; then refer to the topic. Mechanical Structure (page 80) ; pu- pils should learn this at once and carry it with them through the play, they will then have no trouble in the future in tracing the development of any play. Portions of Chap. II as far as Topics to be Noted, etc., may be assigned daily in connection with the study of the play, spending a few minutes at the beginning of the recita- tion in talking about them. The topics in the remainder of the chapter may profitably be taken up as suggested by the text of the play; The Merchant of Venice is especially suggestive on the topics of Religion and Music. vi HOW TO USE THE BOOK IN CLASSES vii What to do with Ethical Principles (Part II, Chap. I) with first year pupils must depend somewhat upon the class ; if the teacher finds it too difficult for them, touch it lightly, first bringing out the thought in the study of the play, gradually developing the principles. The Dramatic Structure is of great importance in get- ting a grasp on the play ; the pupil should first read the play through by himself ;* then at the beginning of the class study take up the topic Structure (Part II, Chap. II) and apply to the play. ( See suggestions on The Merchant of Venice, Part III.) If the threads and movements of the dramatic structure are constantly referred to in the course of the study, they will soon give no more trouble than the mechan- ical structure of acts and scenes ; by this means the pupil will soon be able to give the office of any character in the play. By assigning one or two topics daily upon the Class- ification of the Drama this will soon be mastered ; always illustrate by the play in hand; First Legendary and His- torical — wdiich is The Merchant of Venice?. Second, Tragedy and Comedy — which is The Merchant of Ven- ice? Third, Real and Ideal — which is The Merchant of Venice? Fourth, Pure or Tragi-Comedy — which is The Merchant of Venice? The pupil can now classify the drama The Merchant of Venice Legendary, Comedy — Real, Tragi-Comedy, and give reasons. While making a study of a real, tragi-comedy, it is well to assign for home reading a play of another class, thus showing the contrast; a general favorite is the Ideal Pure Comedy As Yon Like It; should there be time for more than one play, the Real Pure Comedy Twelfth Night, and the Ideal Tragi-Comedy Winter's Tale are popular selections. In the first year the historical division of the drama need not be dwelt upon to any extent. *With beginners who have never read a play of Shakespeare, it may be wise to read the first play with them. viii STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA The questions (Part II) may assist in assigning lessons from the text. Second Year In connection with the Roman Historical play, Julius Caesar, thoroughly review Parts I and II, emphasizing the features of the Historical Drama, bringing out the points of difference between it and the Legendary Drama, call particular attention to the use of the supernatural element in the form of superstitious beliefs, omens, classical allus- ions, etc. Notice that while threads and movements are readily traced, the dramatic structure is looser, while the mechanical structure shows the fidelity of the legendary drama. Third Year In connection with the Ideal Tragedies, Macbeth and Hamlet, again thoroughly review Parts I and II, emphasiz- ing the ethical element of the author's works ; in fact, these two plays should be studied throughout from an ethical standpoint ; apply classification on page 88 to the plays : show how Nemesis follows the guilty doer of an evil deed, bringing him to his destruction. Call attention to Topics to be Noted (Part I, Chap. II) especially Morals, Relig- ion and the Supernatural, the form and use of the Su- pernatural is brought out in the studies of these plays in Part III, Chap. 11. Show how these two plays in a certain sense, form a connecting link between the historical and the legendary dramas. For home reading the pupil is now prepared to read the Ideal Tragi-Comedy The Tempest, or any of the strong Real Tragedies. Blank pages for notes have been inserted at the close of the study of each play. As in any other subject, so in Shakespeare, nothing will awaken the interest and fire the enthusiasm of pupils, like fresh coals from the altar of an enthusiastic teacher. CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTORY STUDY I. The Drama— defined; origin Ethics of The English Drama Development Mystery-Play THE DRAMA PAGE PAGE 3 Morality-Play . 9 4 Interlude .... 13 5 The Modern Drama 16 6 Early Comedy, Early Tragedy . 16. 17 6 Crudity of the early Drama 18 II. SHAKESPEARE AND THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA The theater in Shakespeare's time Shakespeare's senior contemporaries Shakespeare; sketch of his life Chronological table of plays As a dramatist Characterization Topics to be noted in the study of plays Morals .... Religion, The Bible . 19 23 24 43 45 48 51 53, 54 The Supernatural . Humor .... Music .... Universal knowledge Law Medical knowledge Nature Typography Vocabulary II. PRINCIPLES AND STRUCTURE OF THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA I. ETHICS OF THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Ethical principles .... 67|Plan of Shakespeare's Ethical World II. Plot. Sources of plot Dramatic structure Threads Movements STRUCTURE 74 Mechanical structure 76 Acts; always five 76 Scenes ..... 78 Graphic illustration of plot, opposite ix I. 57 60 62 63 63 63 64 66 66 70 81 8l STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA III. CLASSIFICATION LEGENDARY OR ROMANTIC, AND HISTORICAL Legendary . . . . . Historical . . . . . Tragedy, Comedy . . . . Classification of Legendary Drama 87 Classification of Historical Drama Tabular classification of Shakespeare's Plays ...... Summary ...... Questions on the Text of I and II III. 93 THE STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE Study of an Individual Play Date Source of Plot Theme . Theme traced Structure SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY , . lOOlEntrance and Exits of Characters II. STUDIES OF SPECIAL PLAYS A STUDY OF THE MERCHANT OF VENICE SIDELIGHTS 106 106 107 108 111 Some legal aspects The Bible in The Merchant of Venice Questions ..... Schemes for outline book Topics for essays and discussion A STUDY OF JULIUS CAESAR SIDELIGHTS The Three Roman Plays Coriolanus; Antony and Cleopatra; Julius Cissar Julius Ciesar, source of plot Caeser in the play Brutus in the play Tragedy and Comedy of the play Ethical standpoint of the play The Caesar of history Some features of the play The supernatural element Superstitious beliefs of the times Weird Sisters Hecate . The Porter Theme . Basis of the Drama Ethical Standpoint u cture 125 125 126 127 127 128 128 131 Structure .... Time analysis Questions .... The supernatural element Cassius and the conspiracy Brutus Antony Scheme for outline book Topics for essays and discussion A STUDY OF MACBETH SIDELIGHTS 143 Questions 144 (a) Review . . . . 144 (b) The Drama . . . . 145 (c) The supernatural elements . 146 lA) Characterization 148 (I) Macbeth . 149 (II) Lady Macbeth 150 (III) Banquo 150 Scheme for outline book 151 Topics for essays and discussion CONTENTS XI A STUDY OF HAMLET SIDELIGHTS Denmark made famous by Hamlet 171 (0 Evolution of the play 171 I. The "Sphinx" .... 171 II. Points of interest about the play . 173 III. Length. Ghost . 173 IV. Ethical principles 174 V. Insanity .... 175 VI. National characteristics 175 The foreign element; Fortinbras 175 VII The Family Institution 179 (d) The contradictory Hamlet 181 Source of plot .... 1S3 (e) The play; basis .... 184 (f) Hamlet's position 185 Sch The conflict 186 Top Structure ..... 187 Questions and topics . . . . 189 Review: the play 189 (a) Characterization (b) (a) The Ghost .... 190 (c) Revelations of the Ghost 192 (d) (b) Horatio and the Ghost . 192 Hamlet in relation to other characters Hamlet and the Ghost • Hamlet and the King . Hamlet and his Mother Hamlet and Ophelia Hamlet and Polonius Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guilderstern Hamlet and Horatio Hamlet Hamlet's insanity The King. Final grand tragedy Miscellaneous Scheme for outline book Topics for essays and discussion • Hamlet and Macbeth Comparative study The plays .... Hamlet and Macbeth, the men The King and Macbeth The Queen and Lady Macbeth A Small Shakespearean Library Index to the characters in Shakespeare's plays General Index ..... 193 193 194 196 198 200 202 204 205 206 207 209 212 213 2l4 214 216 216 217 219 223 253 OUTLINE STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA ERRATA Page 20, line 2, read: London's first theatre. Page 25, line 2 from bottom, read: Edmund Malone. Page 73, table, read: Moral (Subjective). Page 102, Act II, Scene i, characters should be Portia and Morocco only. Bassanio enters middle of Scene 2. Jessica appears in Scenes 3,5, 6, and not in 7. Page 182, last paragraph, line i, read: Reflective Hamlet instead of Intellectual. Page 183, last paragraph, line 25, should be Grammaticus. Page 194, line i, omit first The. Diagram facing page 81, Act V, Scene 2, read foil for toil. I INTRODUCTORY STUDY I The Drama The Drama is that form of literature which represents man in action ; the characters manifest themselves through their own words and deeds; we see them in the process of development; we see the motives prompting each act ; we see man receiving the reward or the penalty of his own act as a natural consequence of the act itself; if the deed is evil, we see it working out its own de- struction, and while we may feel sympathy for the indi- vidual, we rejoice in the ultimate destruction of the evil. The Drama shows man his own deed and its conse- quences in the form of the deed itself and its results; hence the Drama has truly been called the highest form of art, since it represents man, not in the cold pulseless marble of sculpture, nor in the artificial coloring of the canvas, but in the flesh and blood of actual life. Here we see the sub- jective conflicts of the passions of man worked out in the objective and often bloody conflicts of real life. All art has religious thought for its basis and the drama forms no exception to this general rule. The early dra- matic poetry of the Hindoos and Persians was "gin ^£ ^ religious nature, while the most perfect of the ancient dramas, the Greek, originated in religious fes- tivals. The religious element is instinctive in man ; he is distinguished from the brute by the endowment of a spirit- 3 4 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA ual nature. In the dim ages, with this religious force strug- gling within him, it was but natural that it should seek out- ward expression in the dramatic form. The mass of the church is really only a drama portraying the fall and re- demption of man. The history of fiction shows that intuitively, man likes to get a grasp on the whole of life at 'once; time is too slow for him : the history of the drama shows that he likes to see the life-problem worked out before his very eyes from be- ginning to end ; of this he never tires. This inborn ten- dency of man's religious nature, and his desire to see the life-problem worked out, show why the drama came to be, and why it has maintained itself through honor and through dishonor, during all the centuries. It is a necessity of man's nature. Man's nature is ethical, hence the true drama is ethical. It moves in the Ethical World and must be governed by its laws. We recognize the Ethical World as that spiritual and Ethics rnoral realm in which the moral forces of good and of the evil are arrayed against each other in constant con- Drama flict; objectively, we see this conflict going on all about us: we see avarice taking advantage of the weak and grinding the poor; subjectively, we realize in our own inner conflict that, "There is a law in our members that when we would do good, evil is present with us." The struggle in our own individual ethical world is often fierce and it is only by continually overcoming that we at last gain that victory which brings peace : in this conflict, we are sustained by the realization of the Divine Order as expressed in the tri-fold law of the Ethical World. "That the evil deed contains with- La^ in itself the elements of self-destruction; that "The of the deed returns upon the doer ;" that ultimately "Good Ethical triumphs over evil." "What Marlowe only vaguely World £g|^ — |.j^^^ |.j^g j^^j-Q ^^g ^j^g author of his own catas- THE ENGLISH DRAMA 5 trophe, Shakespeare clearly perceived and distinctly ex- pressed."^ To get the real spirit of the drama, and more especially of the Shakespearean drama, these principles must constantly be kept in mind. Anciently, Nemesis was the goddess who kept things proportioned. If a man acquired an excess of property it was Nemesis' business to see that he suffered loss ; later she became the goddess of retribution. She crept into the art world and has become a favorite there. Moulton says that 'Tn ancient thought Nemesis was an ar- tistic bond between sin and retribution." That is, it is the simple principle that "Whatsoever a man soweth that shall he also reap." "He that soweth to his flesh shall of the flesh reap corruption." In other words, the fleshly deed contains within itself the elements of destruction and the evil doer suffers the penalty of his own deed. No more striking illustration of Nemesis can be given than the case of Shylock : hedged in at every turn by his own thought and word he is, Haman-like, hanged on his own gallows ; he be- comes the avenger of his own evil thought. If we would understand Shakespeare, the greatest of all dramatists, we must study his work in this light and not as a mere play- thing to amuse and while away the passing hour. The English Drama Hudson says that "the English Drama is not clearly traceable to any foreign source. It was an original inde- pendent growth. "t Still, it also was of ecclesiastical origin, having its rise in the mass of the church of the early centuries. Its original object was religious instruction. In its early days, there were almost no books ; the common *The Drama, Vol. XIII, page 54. fLife, Art and Characters, Vol. I, page 53. 6 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA people could not read : the play was a device of the clergy for instructing them in Bible truths and stories. As the new birth of religious thought and emotion in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, gave rise to new forms and subjects in art as expressed in painting and music, so the same thought became the mainspring of the drama. The development of the modern English Drama may be traced through three quite distinct stages, although they naturally blend more or less into each other : the eve op ]y['j.^^jg ^j. Mystery-Play, the Morality-Play, and the Interlude. Originally, a distinction was made between Mystery-Plays and Miracle-Plays. The Mystery-Play portrayed Bible stories of the creation and fall of man through his redemption, etc., while the Miracle- Plays, probably of later date, were based upon the legends of saints, martyrs, etc. In England, however, one term usually sufficed for both. Mystery-Play These plays were based upon the idea of supernatural power. Snider thus summarizes their general characteristics and plan.* "The Mystery-Play seeks to give, in a religious frame-work, the entire history of man from the Creation till the Judgment Day, as it is presented in historic continu- ity by the Old and New Testaments. The Lord and the Devil are the two chief characters, who appear in person on the stage, and carry on their conflict. The Devil is comic in these old plays, so are all of his demons, cohorts, earthly representatives, such as Herod. To the simple minds of the people, the bad, in attempting to overthrow the good, is foolish, ludicrous, comic. Evil, in its complete circle, is self- destructive ; so our ancestors laughed at the devil, on the stage at least. It often required several days to give an en- *Tragedies, Introduction, page x. THE ENGLISH DRAMA 7 tire Mystery, which is not so much one play, as a series of plays ; the Coventry Mystery, for example, is composed of forty-two plays, or, more properly, long dialogues. The dealings of Providence with his children are the great fact which is emphasized ; the side of divine order is presented overwhelmingly ; in it man is passive, or at best a child ; and future bliss is made the motive of this world's deed." In the Mystery-Plays no attempt was made to portray humanity, — only the spiritual conflict which man passes through, until finally redeemed. These plays Perform- were at first written by the clergy and performed ^"^^ in abbeys or cathedrals ; soon they were taken ^ up by companies and performed in the open air Play on staging, then on platforms on wheels, mov- ing from street to street and from town to town. For the performance of some mysteries, the cart had a se- ries of three platforms, one above the other : the upper one represented Heaven, the middle one Earth and the lower one Hell. Of course, God and his angels occupied Heaven ; the Devil and his demons occupied Hell, while poor hu- manity worked out its problems between the two, often in danger of being dragged into the bottomless pit through the yawning mouth of the dragon which formed the en- trance, and which emitted smoke and flame whenever oc- casion required. A gorgeous Heaven was the pride of the company ; one that could afford silk hangings and fruit bearing trees was considered truly fortunate. As we can readily imagine, when these plays got out of the hands of the clergy and were performed on the street as moving pageants, passing from square to square, their sacred character was in danger; still, however, the conditions of the times and the darkness from which the minds of the people had scarcely emerged, dulled the sensitive nature to what to us would be nothing more or less than absolute 8 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA blasphemy ; they were not in the least shocked by the fol- lowing items in their accounts : Paid for a pair of gloves for God. Paid for gilding God's coat. Paid for keeping fyer at Hell's mouth llld. Soon, in order to relieve the dullness of the play, coarse jesting scenes were introduced. In The Deluge, Mrs. Noah is represented as a vixen who refuses to obey her husband, scolds him and has to be flogged; refusing to leave her gossiping friends to go into the ark, she is at last dragged through water up to her neck by her husband and sons and forced to enter. These plays were acted regularly at Christmas, Easter and at the Corpus Christi festivals. A curious specimen of the Corpus Christi play was discovered not long since ^ in the library of the Trinity College in Dub- Play of ^i^ j -^ ^^ supposed to be as old as the reign the of Edward IV, which closed in 1483. Hudson Blessed gives the following description of it.* "It is Sacra- called the Play of the Blessed Sacrament and is founded on a miracle alleged to have been wrought in the forest of Arragon, in 1461. In form it closely resem- bles the miracle plays founded on Scripture, the Savior being one of the characters, the others being five Jews, a bishop, a priest, a merchant and a physician and his servant. The mer- chant having the key of the church, steals the Host and sells it to the Jews who promise to turn Christians in case they find its miraculous power verified. They put the Host to various tests. Being stabbed with their daggers, it bleeds, and one of the Jews goes mad at the sight. They next attempt nailing it to a post, when one of them has his hand torn off ; whereupon the physician and his man come in to dress the *Life, Art and Characters, page 57. THE ENGLISH DRAMA 9 wound, but after a long comic scene, are driven out as quacks. The Jews proceed to boil the Host, but the water forthwith turns blood-red. Finally, they cast it into a heated oven, which presently bursts asunder, and an image of the Savior rises and addresses the Jews, who make good their promise upon the spot. The merchant confesses his theft, declares his repentance and is forgiven." The object of this play was to strengthen the people in the doctrine of the church, that the elements of the sacra- ment were converted into the actual body and blood of the Savior. (Transubstantiation.) Morality-Play Naturally, in time, humanity must assert itself, and by degrees allegorical personages came to be mixed up with Scriptural characters, enforcing moral lessons, until finally the whole play consists of the virtues and vices as abstract principles arrayed against each other ; in the conflict the vir- tues triumph over the vices in the end; the drama now be- comes ethical. The Devil was a favorite character in the Mysteries and was retained in the Moralities, while to strengthen the humorous element a character called the Vice was intro- duced. The Vice always accompanied the Devil ; the two bore a leading part in the play. The Devil was usually made as evil-looking as possible, with a hideous face, horns, hoofs and tail. The Vice followed him about the stage, tor- menting him in every possible way, striding his back, beat- ing him until he roared ; and the louder he roared the better pleased was the audience, until finally the Vice was carried off to Hell on the Devil's back. Ben Johnson, in his Staple of News, gives an imag- inary conversation between acts, in which he amusingly il- lustrates the interest centered in these characters. Fearing 10 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA there may be no Vice in the play, at the end of the first act Gossip Tattle thus relieves her mind : *'My husband, Tim- othy Tattle, God rest his poor soul, was wont to say there was no play without a Fool and a Devil in it; he was for the Devil still, God bless him. The Devil for his money, he would say ; I would fain see the Devil." "But was the Devil a proper man?" was asked. Whereupon Gossip Mirth re- plies, "As fine a gentleman of his inches as ever I saw trusted to the stage or anywhere else; and loved the com- monwealth as well as ever a patriot of them all. He would carry away the Vice upon his back quickly to Hell wherever he came, and reform abuses." At the end of the second act, when asked, "How like you the Vice in the play?" Gossip Tattle complains, "But here is never a fiend to carry him away. Besides, he has never a wooden dagger. I would not give a rush for a Vice that has not a wooden dagger, to snap at everybody he meets." Mirth replies, "That was the old way. Gossip, when Iniquity came in like Hokus- Pokus in a juggler's jerkin, with false skirts, like the Knave of Clubs." It will readily be seen that the moral play must introduce entirely new features in the writing of a play; the story and characters must now be conceived, the plot originated. After a time historical characters were substi- tuted for abstract virtues, as, Aristides took the place of Justice ; then when the Reformation became of all absorb- ing interest, the play began to take sides politically: real characters were shown through various slight disguises, and instead of the old allegorical plays we see the begin- nings of a drama of power. Man is shown in his conflict with "the World, the Flesh, and the Devil;" he is shown to be a responsible being morally, and the individual is moved from within. The play deals with motives as well as with acts. The conflict portrayed is a moral one in which Vir- THE ENGLISH DRAMA 11 tue always triumphs over Vice. But as Snider says, ''the moral play is a bloodless allegory, it takes the moral sub- stance by itself without sensible form." Everyman The Morality, Everyman, published in London about the year 1500, furnishes a fine illustration of this "bloodless allegory." The Dramatis Personse is in itself very sug- gestive : Messenger Knowledge God Confession Death Beauty Everyman Strength Fellowship Discretion Kindred Five Wits Cousin Angel Goods Doctor Good Deeds The play opens with a prologue by the Messenger, in which he announces the theme. "The summoning of Everyman called it is, For ye shall hear, how our Heaven King Calleth Everyman to a general reckoning." Then God appears and charges "all creatures" with being "drowned in sin." "They be so encumbered with worldly riches. That needs on them I must do justice." He then commands Death to go to Everyman and show him the pilgrimage which he must take. "Which he in no wise may escape." When Everyman receives the summons, he at once pleads unreadiness and begs for time ; but Death is inex- orable; then Everyman begins to cast about for company to 12 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA help him on his journey; he in turn, calls upon Fellowship and Kindred, who at first give a ready consent, but when they learn that they are going upon a journey from which there is no returning, they forsake him. In his despair he recalls that, "All my life I have loved riches;" he now calls upon his Goods and Riches. Goods replies : "I lie here in corners trussed and piled so high, And in chests I am locked so fast, Also sacked in bags, thou mayest see with thine eye I cannot stir." Nevertheless Everyman tells him that he is sent for "To give a straight account general Before the Highest Jupiter of all," and he begs Goods to go with him, "For, peradventure, thou mayest before God Almighty My reckoning help to clean and purify." Goods informs him that "My condition is man's soul to kill^ If I save one, a thousand do I spill," and that it is only to Everyman's "damnation" that he has so loved Riches instead of giving part to the poor; with a derisive laugh, he then leaves the poor man to wail, "Oh, to whom shall I make my moan. For to go with me on that heavy journey?" At last he recalls his ''Good Deeds." "But, alas ! she is so weak." Good Deeds replies : "Here I lie in the cold ground; Thy sins have me so sore bound, That I cannot stir." THE ENGLISH DRAMA 13 Good Deeds calls her sister Knowledge to their assist- ance ; she leads Everyman ''To Confession, that cleansing river." Confession gives him "a precious jewel called pen- ance." Through confession and penance Everyman gains absolution, and feels that he is now ready to go on his journey. By the advice of Good Deeds and Knowledge, Strength, Beauty, Discretion and Five Wits are now called in ; Five Wits advises that the blessed sacraments be admin- istered by the priest because "No remedy find we under God, But only priesthood." Everyman then receives the sacraments and is in haste to go ; overcome with weakness he exclaims, "Friends, let me not turn again to this land, Not for all the world's gold; For into this cave must I creep. And turn to the earth, and there to sleep." Whereupon Discretion, Strength, Beauty and Five Wits desert him ; Knowledge waits to see him depart. He now commends his soul to God and passes on, accompanied by Good Deeds only. An Angel sings a song of welcome "into the heavenly sphere ;" the Doctor pronounces the epilogue in which he charges all to bear in mind "that all at last do Everyman forsake, save his Good Deeds : (them he) there doth take."* The Interlude Man naturally craves things tangible, and about the first of the 16th century the drama begins to take on a new *This old Morality has recently been revived, republished, and again put upon the stage in London; it has also received a hearty welcome in the United States, where it has been presented in the larger universities and cities. 14 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA form. This form had its origin in the natural desire for amusement. Short farces were introduced between the acts of the Miracle and Morality plays for the entertain- ment of the audience, and were also acted in the intervals of a banquet. This custom gave the term "Interlude" to these amusing pieces. John Hey wood, jester of Henry VIH, seems to be the first to develop this idea into a complete drama. His characters were no longer qualities of mi4id or morals, but were taken from real life, they were given the names of men and women, but the Vice^ who seemed quite indispensible, was retained as a personage. Perhaps his most famous production was the Four P's, designed to illustrate the wit and manners of the times : a Palmer, a Pardner, a Poticary, and a Pedlar ^ „, have a discussion as to who can practice the Four P's ^ greatest frauds upon the credulous or the ignor- ant, and finally lay a wager as to who can tell the greatest lie. The Palmer says he never saw a woman out of tem- per; of course he is pronounced the greatest liar of all. At this time the influence of the Reformation was begin- ning to be felt in England and reverence for the Roman Church was weakening, so we must not be surprised to hear the Pardner say "1 say yet again, my pardons are such, That if there were a thousand souls upon a heap, I would bring them all to heaven as good sheep, With small cost without any pain, These pardons bring them to heaven plain : Give me but a penny or two-pence, And as soon as the soul departeth hence, In half an hour, or three-quarters at most The soul is in heaven with the Holy Ghost." He displays many relics, calling attention to one in the following language : THE ENGLISH DRAMA IS "Nay, sirs, here may ye see The great toe of the Trinity; Who to this toe any money voweth And once may roll it in his mouth, All his life after I undertake He shall never be vexed with the toothache." To which the Poticary replies, "I pray you turn that relic about ; Either the Trinity had the gout, Or else, because it is three toes in one, God made it as much as three toes alone." As may readily be seen, amusement was the sole object of the Interlude. The element of instruction, either spiritual or moral, has dropped out, Vice is enjoyed as much as Vir- tue, nay, oftentimes more. When the play has lost Hs ethical element, we must expect it to descend to a coarse- ness unendurable to the refined mind. Summary For convenience, the chief points in these stages of the development of the English Drama may be briefly summar- ized, as follows : The Mystery-Play portrays the conflict between Good and Evil as abstract principles. The conflict is spiritual, Good triumphs in the end. The object is instruction in Bible stories and the principles of religion, and to cultivate the spiritual nature in man. The Morality-Play portrays the strife between the moral forces in man. Good triumphs over the Evil. The pri- mary object is instruction, and to cultivate the moral nature in man. The Interlude is decidedly human, it portrays the follies and passions of man in action, the element of instruction drops out. Amusement is the sole object, it matters not whether Vice or Virtue triumphs. 16 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA The Modern Drama The true drama must reveal the divine order as shown in the Mystery-Play, it must show the moral germ in the individual, as in the Morality-Play, it must show the purely human side of life, as in the Interlude. Comedy It can readily be seen that from the Interlude to Comedy proper is but a step. In 1551 appeared a genuine comedy in five acts, divided into scenes. The play was en- Ralph titled Ralph Roister Bolster, and was written „ . by Nicholas Udall, an educated man, at one Doister ^ ' . ' . time head master of Westminster School. His name is distinguished in the literature of his time. The names of the characters in this play still show traces of the Morality. The hero and heroine are Ralph and a widow. Dame Custance; Ralph's friend, Matthew Merrygreek, plays an important part; minor characters are Trupenny, Madge Mumblecrust, Talkapace, Alyface, Good Luck, etc. Ralph is desparately in love with the widow ; writes her letters which she returns. Matthew Merrygreek, evidently the Vice of the play, full of fun and merry mischief, plays the go-be- tween and at last succeeds in getting the widow to listen to the following letter written by Ralph: "Now by these presents I do you advertise That I am minded to marry you, in no wise For your goods and substance ; I could be content To take you as ye are; if ye mind to be my wife, Ye shall be assured for the time of my life, I will keep ye right well : from good rainment and fare Ye shall not be kept; but in sorrow and care Ye shall in no wise live; at your own liberty, Do and say what ye lust; ye shall never please me But when ye are merry; I will be sad THE ENGLISH DRAMA 17 ~^— When ye are sorry; I will be very glad When ye seek your heart's ease ; I will be unkind At no time; in me shall ye much gentleness find." The merry and fun-loving Matthew saw in the writing a temptation which he was unable to withstand, and this is what the fascinating widow listened to: "Now by these presents I do you advertise That I am minded to marry you in no wise. For your goods and substance I could be content To take ye as you are. If ye mind to be my wife, Ye shall be assured, for the time of my life I will keep ye right well from good rainment and fare; Ye shall not be kept but in sorrow and care. Ye shall in no wise live at your own liberty; Do and say what ye lust, ye shall never please me; But when ye are merry, I will be all sad; When ye are sorry, I will be very glad; When ye seek your heart's ease I will be unkind; At no time in me shall ye much gentleness find." It is needless to say that Ralph does not win the widow. She marries another suitor, Good Luck, by name. The merit of this comedy marks the progress in the development of the drama. Tragedy Tragedy soon follows in the play G orb o due or Ferrex and Porrex, which was played before Queen Gor- Elizabeth in 1562. Gorboduc, King of Great boduc Britain 500 B. C., divides his kingdom be- tween his two sons, Ferrex and Porrex. A quarrel ensues, Porrex kills Ferrex; the mother avenges his death by kill- ing Porrex in his sleep ; war follows, the country is wasted and the kingdom left without a head. The play was writ- ten, at least in part, by Thomas Sackville, 1562 ; as a work of dramatic art, it is less faithful to real life than Udall's 18 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA comedy, but still we see that the drama is working up to its modern form. Crudity of the Drama It however lacked the unity and artistic finish which was left for Shakespeare's keen dramatic perception to bring forth. Sir Philip Sidney, who died in 1586, in his Defense of Poetry says : ''Our Tragedies and Comedies are not without cause cried out against, observing rules neither of honest civ- ility nor skillful poetry. You shall have Asia of the one side and Arfic of the other, and so many under-kingdoms that the player, when he comes in must ever begin with telling where he is, or else the tale will not be conceived. Now you shall have three ladies walk to gather flowers, and then we must believe the stage to be a garden ; by and by we hear news of a shipwreck in the same place ; then we are to blame if we accept it not for a rock. Upon the back of that, comes out a hideous monster with fire and smoke, and then the miserable beholders are bound to take it for a cave ; while in the meantime two armies fly in, represented with four swords and bucklers and then what hard heart yet will not receive it for a pitched field? Now of time they are much more liberal. But besides these gross absurdities, all their plays be neither right tragedies nor right comedies, ming- ling kings and clowns not because the matter so carried it, but thrust in the clown by head and shoulders, to play a part in majestical matters with neither decency nor discre- tion." This statement not only shows the crude state of the drama quite up to Shakespeare's time, but also gives some idea of the crudity of the stage itself, the lack of anything like scenery and of all the modern helps to the interpreta- tion of a play. Sir Philip's keen perception of the faults of the drama was almost prophetic of the wonderful order which was soon to be brought out of this chaos, but how little he dreamed how soon. THE THEATRE IN SHAKESPEARE'S TIME 19 II Shakespeare and the Shakespearean Drama The Theatre in Shakespeare's Time. The presentation of the Mystery and Morality plays in- side and outside of chapels and cathedrals, and their street wanderings has been spoken of. As the plays for amuse- ment became more popular, strolling bands of actors went about and played before courts or in the palaces of the no- bility, especially during the Lenten season when they were not allowed to play in the larger cities and towns. Choir boys and the young people of the Guilds gave amateur performances in public halls, which, if we may trust Ham- let, caused some jealousy among the professional actors. Finally nearly every court had its "Master of Revels." As the Reformation began to take root in England, the church began to look somewhat doubtfully upon dra- £(^g^,f matic performances, and finally Parliament for- of the bade Miracle-Plays lest something might be pre- Refor- sented which would conflict with the doctrines mation q£ ^j^^ church ; Moral-Plays, however, were per- mitted, and one can readily see that this tended to secularize the drama, and with the change in religious thought, espe- cially with the development of Puritanism, came a change in the attitude of the authorities towards amusements in general, and while Elizabeth, in 1574, granted a permit to "Lord Leicester's Servants" to play anywhere for the amusement of herself or her lieges, they were not permitted to play without the Lord Mayor's especial permit for every individual performance. Under these increasing restric- tions we can see that play-wrights and actors were almost driven to take some steps towards greater independence. 20 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA The play must have a house of its own, and in 1576 according to Halliwell the first theatre, called The Theatre, was built. The Curtain was built soon „ ., after, and others followed in rapid succession. riuiJt , . ^ To escape restrictions, they were all located without the city corporation, on the marshy ground on the south side of the Thames but easily accessible from the city itself. Blackfriars, where many of Shakespeare's plays were first presented, was built not earlier than 1596, while the Globe was built in 1599 from the material of The The- atre, which had to be torn down. This was known as Shakespeare's theatre, since he was a large share owner, and had control of it; it was doubtless built for him, we always think of it as his theatrical home. In the immediate vicinity of the theatres were located all sorts of questionable places of amusement and disreputable houses; Brandes tells us that "close to the Globe Theatre lay the bear garden, the rank smell of which greeted the nostrils even before it came in sight. The famous bear, Sackerson, mentioned in the Merry Wives of Windsor, now and then broke his chain and put the female theatre goers shrieking with fright." Notwithstanding all of these disadvantages, the theatre grew to be immensely popular and was patronized by all classes of people, from the nobility down to the "ground- lings," who paid a penny for standing room in the pit. Elizabeth, who was very fond of the play, did not go to the public theatres but had her own court entertainments in the palace. During Shakespeare's own time the London the- atres had increased to twelve or thirteen in number, but these were not all open at the same time, some only in sum- mer, others in winter, some in the evening, the majority only in the day-time. Theatres were of two classes, pubHc and private, but the term did not at all imply an exclusive audience, any THE THEATRE IN SHAKESPEARE'S TIME 21 rp^^j nobleman could hire any theatre for his own players Classes to perform in. The chief difference was one of con- of struction, the public theatre being on the old Inn-yard Theatres pj^j^^ -(-j^g j-Qof covering only the stage, or at most ex- tending over the scaffolding at the sides which thus provided for high priced seats. The pit was entirely exposed to sun and weather, the floor was simply the hard earth, which gave rise to the term, "groundlings ;" these theatres could only be used in summer and in the daytime. The private theatres were entirely enclosed and afforded entertainment in the even- ings and in winter; Blackfriars was private, but the Globe was public. This was the plainest kind of structure, oc- tagonal in form with the smallest kind of windows. The performance began promptly at three o'clock and lasted Perform- without interruption from two to three hours, ance Black hangings on the stage indicated tragedy, of a blue hangings, comedy. There were no actresses ^'^y in those days, boys acted the parts of women; women themselves did not appear on the stage until after the Restoration. Respectable women in the au- dience wore masks, only the wealthy could afford seats in the boxes or little appartments at the side of the stage; while the more favored occupied places on the stage itself, seated on stools* or chairs, or reclining on the rush covered floor over which they had spread their cloaks ; here might be seen nobles, fops, and upstarts, also rival actors and dramatists to whom the courtesy of the profession al- lowed free admission ; even this favored class talked, smoked, and drank, through the performance, guyed the actors, who had to work their way through the crowd to get *In Beaumont and Fletcher's "The Knight of the Burning Pestle," a citizen and his wife have stools on the stage ; they assume in part, to direct the play which is constantly interrupted by their conversation. 22 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA to their places on the stage; and still Shakespeare's char- acters never smoke and the habit of smoking is nowhere al- luded to in his plays. The groundlings in the pit played cards, smoked, drank beer, cracked nuts, ate apples, often throwing them at the more favored occupants of the stage. Of real scenery there w^as none. The beginning of the performance was announced by the bugle ; at the third Lack of blast the curtain parted, disclosing a barren stage Scenery hung with a tapestry at the back, which served year in and year out, being patched in a rough way when necessary, or the rents hidden by rude pictures. A day scene was indicated by a light blue flag hanging from the roof which was exchanged for a darker one to indicate night ; a table with pen and ink constituted a counting room ; two chairs, and the scene changed to an inn ; a bed pushed forward and behold ! a sleeping apartment. We can thus see that the audience must depend entirely upon the acting for the bringing out of the play, in fact the acting was everything and so was in danger of being overdone. Shakes- peare evidently gives his own idea of a correct performance in Hamlet's instructions to the players. Inigo Jones, who died in 1562, was the first to introduce movable scenery. That Shakespeare had higher conceptions of what the stage should be, is evidenced in the prologue to Henry V where he apologizes for the lack which he feels. "Pardon, gentles all, The flat unraised spirit that hath dared On this unworthy scaffold to bring forth So great an object: can this cockpit hold The vastly fields of France? Let us, ciphers to this great accompt On your imaginary forces work. Suppose within the girdles of these walls Are now confined two mighty monarchies." Some improvements were made in stage settings during SHAKESPEARE'S SENIOR CONTEMPORARIES 23 the latter part of Shakespeare's time, but we fancy he would scarcely recognize his own plays in their gorgeous settings of to-day.* Shakespeare's Senior Contemporaries The three dramatists aside from Shakespeare, who had most to do with bringing order out of this confusion, were George Peele, Robert Greene and Christopher Marlowe. These were all university men. Peele took an Oxford de- gree in 1577, Greene boasted of a Cambridge degree in 1578 and one from Oxford in 1588. Marlowe took Cam- bridge degrees in 1583-1587. Space forbids any review of the works of these writers. Peele contributed but little of real value to the drama, if we except his first production. "The Arraignment of Paris:' He was a poet rather than an artistic dramatist and we may say that his chief contri- bution to the drama was poetry. He lived a profligate life of debauchery and riot. Greene wrote a number of plays of more or less merit, but none great enough to Crrccnc survive Shakespeare ; he also lived a profligate life and in 1592 died in a most wretched condition. Under the touch of Marlowe's genius, the drama began to assume the form which was so soon to be brought to such perfection by Shakespeare. In his Edward II we get a breath of Shakespeare's Eiglish histor- ical plays : his Faustus rises to the heroic ; it is said that Goethe in his admiration of it exclaimed, "How greatly it is all planned !" By some, Marlowe is considered to be "the first of the English dramatists to understand that thought and expression should be in harmony. 'f *For fine pictorial illustrations, we would refer the student to Shakespeare: Poet, Dramatist and Man, by Hamilton W. Mabie. f See quotation from "The Drama" on page 4. 24 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA His genius was so great, that it is to be regretted that the man in him was not great enough to rise above the vol- uptuousness and infideHty of his environments. His tragic death occurred before his thirtieth birthday, hence his work seems ahriost that of a prodigy. Thus was the dramatic soil of England cultivated, and made rich and mellow for the growth of Shakespeare's mar- velous genius, a genius which was all his own. Shakespeare All literature must in a certain sense reflect the age in which it is produced : Taine says : ''This great age alone could have cradled such a child." Dowden says of Shakes- peare, "If he became the most learned man of all genera- tions, in one department the lore of passions, it was not be- cause he was of this age or that." ''Rare old Ben Jonson" immortalized himself more than he did his friend when he said, "Shakespeare was not of an age, but for all time." Strange indeed it seems that this man who has given the world the most marvelous revelations of the thoughts and Shakes- intents of men, made no effort to record his own peare no personal life. Not one letter of his own writing has autobi- been found and only one written to him. It would ographer ^^^^^-^ ^g though this great soul, while revealing to men their own souls, was oblivious of its own greatness. In giving the absolutely known facts of Shakespeare's life gathered from records, it should be borne in mind that Scarcity ^^^^ actual records of the lives of private individuals of are always few, even in our own day ; and Shakes- Records peare was only a private individual ; he was never engaged in affairs of Church or of State ; he was in mature life simply an actor, a theatrical manager and a play- wright : he belonged to a profession which was frowned upon by a very large and constantly increasing branch of the SHAKESPEARE 25 church— the Puritans ; a ban was laid upon the theatres and they must be built without the pale of the city of London. Notwithstanding the apparent scarcity of reliable mater- £^j.j ial, the biographers of Shakespeare are legion ; it Biog- will serve our purpose to here mention a few of the raphers earliest and latest of the great number. John Aubrey, an English antiquary, who was exceed- ingly fond of hunting up old books, curious legends, tra- John ditions, etc., visited Stratford probably about 1680, Aubrey, to collect material for a sketch of Shakespeare for 1626-1697 his "Lives of Eminent Men." His chief source of information is said to be William Beeston, an aged actor, who died in 1G82. Aubrey has been called an Arch-gossip, but while considered very unreliable, later research has con- firmed many of his statements. In 1709, ninety-three years after Shakespeare's death, Nicholas Rowe, dramatist, poet and translator, published Nicholas ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ biography of the great dramatist;"^ Rowe, this consisted in great measure of traditions gath- 1673-1718 ered by Betterton, a famous actor of Shakes- peare's plays, who visited Stratford for the express purpose of learning all of fact or fancy that he could concerning his great master. Betterton lived from 1635 to 1710, close to Shakespeare's time ; Judith Quincy, Shakespeare's younger daughter, lived until 1662, and Lady Barnard (Elizabeth Hall) his granddaughter, until 1670. Betterton was an actor in the theater of which Sir William Devenant was manager, who, in his youth knew Shakes- peare personally. Mr. Edw^ard Malone, a highly cultured and scholarly man and a very careful and industrious Shakespearean stu- *Edited Shakespeare in 1709. 26 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Edmond dent, thoroughly investigated all public and pri- Malone vate records of Stratford and official papers pre- 1741-1812 served in London offices, and thereby not only brought to light much valuable matter concerning Shakes- peare and his family, but also exposed forgeries which had been foistered upon an over-credulous public. These consti- tute the principal earlier sources of information. It has been left for our own age to do a more valuable work than has hitherto been accomplished. Mr. James Or- j. o. chard Halliwell-Phillipps, an English antiquarian Halliwell- and famous Shakespearean scholar, through his Philhpps, indefatigable research and labor, has laid all lovers I 20-1 9 ^£ ^j^^ World- Poet under lasting obligations. The latest edition of his Outlines of the Life of Shakes- peare consists of a thousand pages, and contains a reprint of all the extant archives and legal documents which throw light upon the great dramatist's career. And now as though this were not enough, another very patient and devoted Shakespearean student, Mr. Sidney Mr. Lee, tells us that he has carefully gone over the en- Sidney tire ground of former research; he has thoroughly ^^ investigated all obtainable records, both public and private ; he has sifted former biographies ; he has studied the conditions and modes of thought of the times in which Shakespeare lived, and the result is a new Life of Shakes- peare (1898) ; a modest book of only 445 pages including the appendix, which contains much valuable matter. Air. Lee brings to his work the spirit of interested, but perfectly honest investigation, and writes his story in a candid unim- passioned manner that may be considered entirely trust- worthy. His book is the biography for fact with but little of embellishment; from it the material for this brief sketch has been largely gleaned. In 1900 Mr. Hamilton Wright Mabie, a charming writer SHAKESPEARE 27 of our own country, published a most delightful story of j^j. Shakespeare; Poet, Dramatist and Man. To be- Hamiltongin to read it means to finish it. We must ever be Wright grateful to Mr. Mabie for securing the many in- Mabie teresting and valuable photographs which make his book so realistic. From the evidence of those who have searched the rec- ords, the following items may be relied upon as a basis of Facts fact upon which to construct a sketch of the life of from our William Shakespeare. Records Baptised in Stratford-on-Avon, Warwickshire^ England, April 36, 1564. Parents, John and Mary Arden Shakespeare. Attended Grammar School in Stratford, 1571 ( ?) — 1577 (?): Bond against impediments of marriage to Anne Hath- away, given by Funk Sandells and John Richardson, 1582. Susanna, daughter of WilHam and Anne Hathaway Shakespeare, baptised May 26, 1583. Hamnet and Judith, twins, son and daughter of William and Anne Shakespeare, baptised Feb. 2, 1585. From 1585 to 1596 only one mention of his name occurs in the Stratford records ; this is in connection with a mort- gage of Asbies, a property in which he had an interest. Left Stratford and drifted to London 1586 ( ?) . Soon associated with Richard Field, a native of Strat- ford, as author and publisher. In December, 1594, was a member of a most influential company of players, originally licensed as "Earl of Leices- ter's Company," promoted to "The King's Players" in 1603. In May, 1603, he was one of its leaders. Under the auspices of this company, Shakespeare's plays were first presented to the public. In 1599 the Globe theater was built on the Bankside, 28 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Southwark, and was occupied by Shakespeare's company until his retirement. He was a shareowner in the profits of this theater. In 1609-10 his company also played in Black- friars. Shakespeare's company played in many important towns in England. Mr. Lee gives an itinerary from 1593 to 1614. He began to write plays about 1591 and continued to do so for about twenty years. 1593. Venus and Adonis published. 1597. May 4, purchased new palace, Stratford. From that time onward continued to buy valuable prop- erty in and about Stratford. 1605. Paid 440i for unexpired term of tithes. 1599. Obtained Coat of Arms. 1613. Purchased property in London. Spent his last years in Stratford. Signed his will March, 1616. Died April 23, (O. S.), 1616. Buried in the Church of the Holy Trinity, Stratford, near the north wall of the chancel, April 25, 1616. When these dry bones of fact are jointed together, rounded out and clothed with the flesh and blood of legend, tradition, ancestry, environment, the customs and modes of thought of the times ; and the great dramatist himself has breathed into the body the breath of life, we can but feel that Mr. Corson is justifiable in saying that we really do know a great deal about Shakespeare. The marvel is — ^not that we know so little, but that we know so much about the real man. A noted EngHsh poet, Michael Drayton (1563-1631), a native of Warwickshire and a personal friend of Shakes- Environ- peare, styled Warwickshire "the heart of England." ment of Through this ''heart" flows the Avon, where reposes Nature ^j^ Stratford, as peaceful as the gentle river made so memorable bv her famous Bard. SHAKESPEARE 29 Mr. Hamilton Mabie says "The charm of Stratford-on- Avon is two-fold ; it is enfolded by some of the loveliest and most characteristic scenery, and it is the home of the great- est English literary tradition." Mr. William Winter says, "The luxuriance of the coun- try — its fertile fields, its brilliant foliage, its myriads of wild flowers, its pomp of color, and of physical vigor and bloom, do not fail to announce to every mind, how-so-ever heedless, that this is a fit place for the birth and nurture of a great man."* In the niidst of this wealth of nature, William Shakes- peare was born, presumably on April 23 (O. S), 1564; by g. , inference, as by custom the rite of baptism was ad- ministered on the third day after birth. Notwith- standing the room in which the great poet first saw the light is rhown to visitors, it is not definitely known in which of the two Henley Street houses the important event actually occurred. Shakespeare was a very common name in Warwickshire. Mr. Lee tells us that "The archives of no less than twenty- The four towns and villages there contain notices of Name Shakespeare families in the sixteenth century, and as many as thirty-four Warwickshire towns or villages were inhabited by Shakespeare families in the seventeenth cen- tury. Among them all, William was a common Christian name." He also tells us that "the name of the Poet's father Spelling is entered sixty-six times in the council books of of the Stratford and is spelt in sixteen ways : the com- Name monest form is Shaxpeare ;" also that "the name has been proved capable of four thousand variations;" he ^Shakespeare's England. 30 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA further states that of the three signatures to the Poet's will, the first two have faded almost beyond recognition, but that the third is Shakespeare; also that the dedicatory epistles to Venus and Adonis and Lucrece are signed Shakespeare by the author himself. There is every reason to believe that Shakespeare's an- cestors for several generations were good, substantial yeo- . men, well-to-do land owners; it is not strange that among so many Warwickshire Shakespeares, so many Richards, Johns. Williams, etc., his lineage cannot be traced with absolute certainty. There is no doubt that his „ , father was John Shakespeare, who came to Stratford from Snitterfield about 1551. According to tradition, he was engaged in various kinds of trades and business, and in early life was very prosperous ; he bought the Henley street property and another with "garden and croft""^ He was a highly respected citizen, and at various times filled nearly all the offices of the town; later, a turn in the tide of his affairs brought great pecuniary embarrassment. His wife, Mary Arden, was the daughter of a wealthy farmer of Wilmcote, a nearby parish; her family was one The of the oldest and most highly respected in War- Poet's wickshire; it is said that she could trace her lineage Mother ^a^^j^ fQj- gix centuries. At her father's death she came in possession of a handsome property. Very little is known of the personality of Mary Arden Shakespeare; her death on September 9, 1608, is recorded in the parish reg- ister ; it is pleasant to think that she lived to realize that her son William was on the high road to honor and success ; we feel that she was a beautiful type of pure, sweet woman- hood; surely, no one had higher ideals of women than her illustrious son ; it is scarcely a stretch of the imagination *A small enclosed field. SHAKESPEARE 31 to fancy that Hamlet's ideal mother was none other than Mary Arden, and that Brutus' Portia might have been the wife of John Shakespeare; somewhere in Shakespeare's life must have come the woman almost to be reverenced. Two sisters, dying in infancy, left William the oldest of four brothers and one sister, Gilbert, Richard, ^ ^ Edmond and Joan ; another sister, Anne, died at the age of seven. Of Shakespeare's boyhood but little is really known; there is abundant evidence that he had at least a fair educa- Boyhood tion for those times when men prominent in public and Ed- affairs so frequently had to make their mark ucation ^j-^en signing public documents. He attended the grammar school of Stratford, probably from about seven to fourteen years of age, when the father's failing fortunes made it necessary for the boy to leave school in order to assist in the support of the family. The quality of this grammar school is known ; the chief instruction was in Latin and Hterature ; the method was such that bright boys acquired a fair knowledge of many Latin authors, and we may well fancy that the brilliant mind of William Shakespeare let nothing slip. His education was by no means confined to his ''school- ing." In 1568, when he was but four years of age, his Dramatic ^^t^^^' serving as baiHff and chief alderman, wel- Atmos- comed to Stratford the actors of the Earl of Wor- phere of cester's company and of the Queen's company. The Stratford p^opi^ of Stratford seemed to be lovers of the _drama, and it is said that they enjoyed frequent visits from the traveling companies of actors ; the town was small and the coming of the players would be looked forward to and talked about with great interest; this naturally created quite a dramatic atmosphere about the wide-awake growing boy. 32 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Kenilworth, the residence of the Queen's favorite, the Earle of Leicester, was only fifteen miles distant ; what more natural than for John Shakespeare to take his bright boy of eleven to witness the open air festivities, the pageants, the masques, etc., which were given to entertain Elizabeth dur- ing her visit to the castle in July, 1575 ; some have thought that they could detect traces of these fantastic gaieties inThe Midsummer Night's Dream. (11-2). Shakespeare's dramas give abundant evidence that his boyish eyes were ever open to the richness and beauty of his Environ- natural surroundings ; he knew by name and habit, ment of every plant and animal that adorned and animated Nature his native town and surrounding country; he was thoroughly familiar with all of the games and sports of Eng- lish youth and manhood : his writings all bear undeniable testimony to the fact that everything which came into the life of the developing youth was educating; nothing escaped his keen observation. He grew up in a time when the Bible was the all absorb- ing book of the sober-minded; he undoubtedly acquired a Know!- g'^G^.t deal of familiarity with it by a kind of absorp- edge tion, enough to attract him to it as a field of study of the in maturity, as his writings abundantly show ;* this Bible. i^y j^Q means implies that he was especially relig- iously inclined. He speaks unadvisedly, who writes Shakespeare down as uneducated, because his education was largely obtained in the broad university of nature and of human nature; no other school could have endowed him so perfectly with the ability to read and to touch the human mind and soul through all the ages as long as the heart of humanity throbs. Of his youthful pranks we have no reliable evidence ; no *See The Bible in Shakespeare by William Burgess. (1903) SHAKESPEARE 33 doubt they were as numerous as those of the average bright, The active lad, but few have come down to us and they Poaching are merely recorded legends. We are indebted to Legend Rqwc for the well known poaching story. He says that "Shakespeare fell into the company of some wild fel- lows who were in the habit of stealing deer, and who drew him into robbing a park owned by Sir Thomas Lucy of Charlecote, Stratford; being prosecuted for this, he lam- pooned Sir Thomas in some bitter verses which made the Knight so sharp after him that he had to steal off and take shelter in London." These verses have not been found, not- withstanding the humorous lines quoted by some biogra- phers beginning, A parliament member, a justice of peace, At home a poore scarecrowe, in London an asse, If Lucy is Lowsie, as some volke miscall it, Synge Lowsie Lucy, whatever befall it." Mr. Lee says "No authenticity can be allowed the worth- less lines beginning 'A parliament member, etc' " We are also told that "The record of the names of them that made riot upon Sir Thomas Lucy, Esq., fails to reveal any Shakes- peare." Many credit the story, many do not. There was a law of Parliament against deer-stealing, with penalty at- tached, and it is stated that after his premises were invaded, Sir Thomas had still more stringent poaching laws enacted. However, in those days poaching was considered more in the light of a lawless sport than a flagrant crime, as is evi- denced from the fact that it was of such common occurrence. Even could the legend be proved to be fact, it could scarcely be written down against the culprit's character in riper years: he was doubtless guilty of boyish indiscretions, (who can plead "not guilty?") otherwise he would not have been the perfectly natural character which he depicts. We only waste words over these idle, though possibly credible tales; 34 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA what should concern us is, not, "did he never fall," but "how did he overcome ?" What is the product of his years of dis- cretion? Most truly Dowden says "In the characters of the weak or the wicked whom he condemns, Shakespeare denies no beautiful or tender trait." Surely the tolerance and char- ity which he everywhere shows towards all of his characters should be a mantle large enough to cover his own youthful shortcomings. That Shakespeare early lost his heart, is evidenced by the fact of his marriage before he was nineteen years of age, to -. . Anne Hathaway of Shottery, a nearby hamlet; she Marriage •' ... died in August, 1623, and the inscription on her tombstone states that she was "aged sixty-seven years," which would make her eight years older than her husband. Romance hovers over the Anne Hathaway cottage and the foot path winding through meadows that were flower gar- dens, or overhung by the white blooming chestnut, which young William followed from Stratford to Shottery. Very little is known of the personality of Anne Hathaway Shakes- peare ; her father seems to have been a well-to-do yeoman who died shortly before this daughter's marriage, leaving a will in which the widow^ and all of the seven children were remembered; everything actually known indicates that the Hathaways were good, respectable people and on the most friendly terms with the Shakespeares. The parish register records the baptism of Susanna, daughter of William and Anne Shakespeare, 26th May, ^, .,, 1583. The other children of the marriage were Children ^ Hamnet and Judith, twins, christened February 2, 1585. Hamnet died eleven years later. Susanna was mar- ried to Dr. John Hall, June 5, 1607 ; the following year the poet's only granddaughter, Elizabeth Hall, was born. On February 10, 1616 Judith married Thomas Quiney, a wine merchant of Stratford, who was four years younger than SHAKESPEARE 35 herself; there is no evidence that her father objected to the marriage on this account. The children of this marriage were three sons ; the oldest died in infancy ; the second lived to be about twenty years of age (1617 or 1618-1638 or 1639) ; the third about the same age (1619 or 1620-1638 or 1639). Judith herself lived to be nearly seventy-seven years of age. Dr. Hall died November 25, 1635. Mrs. Hall was buried beside her husband in the Stratford Churchyard : the inscription on her tombstone reads, ''Here lyeth ye body of Susanna Hall, wife to John Hall, Gent, ye daughter of William Shakespeare, Gent. She deceased ye 11th July, A. D. 1649, aged QQ. Witty above her sex, but that's not all, Wise to Salvation was good Mistress Hall, Something of Shakespeare was in that, but this Wholy of him with whom she's now in blisse. Then, passenger, ha'st ne're teare, To weepe with her that wept with all ? That wept, yet set herself to cheere Him up with comforts cordiall. Her love shall live, his mercy spread When thou hast ne're a teare to shed." Elizabeth Hall married Thomas Nash, a man of prop- erty, who died April 4, 1647, leaving no children. Two years later the widow married John Barnard, who was afterward knighted by Charles II, after which she was known as Lady Barnard; she died childless in 1669 or 1670, and thus the immediate family of the great Poet became extinct. In London It is evident that Shakespeare early fell in with the stroll- ing players who visited Stratford and vicinity and thus his dramatic instinct was awakened. His father's failing fortunes and an opportunity to earn a better livelihood for his family than Stratford afforded, 36 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA were sufficient reasons for turning his attention to London as a business point: just when he went is not certainly- known, probably about 1586. Aubrey says that "William being naturally inclined to poetry and acting came to Lon- don and was actor in one of the play houses and did act exceeding well. He began early to make essays in dra- matic poetry which at that time was very low and his plays took well. He was a handsome, well-shaped man, very good company and of ever ready and pleasant smooth wit. Ben Johnson and he did gather humours of men daily wherever they came." Hudson says, ''As for the well known story of Begin- ^^^ being reduced to the extremes of picking up a ning little money by taking care of gentlemen's horses in that came to the play, I cannot perceive the slightest London likelihood of truth in it." Coleridge says, "That Shakespeare never turned his genius to stage writing, as Theobald phrases it, before he became an actor, is an asser- tion of about as much authority as the precious story that he left Stratford for deer stealing and that he lived by holding gentlemen's horses at the door* of the theater and other trash of that arch-gossip Aubrey." It is quite prob- able that Shakespeare began by serving as a sort of appren- tice to some actor which was a common custom at that time. At all events he early worked his way into his legitimate profession — what was in him would out; everything goes to show that about 1590 at twenty-six years of age, the founda- tions of his future were well laid, and that shortly after, his senior contemporaries began to show themselves , , quite jealous of his performances. Robert Greene, Jealousy ^ profligate and deserted by his friends, died in 1592; in his Groatsworth of Wit he denounces "certain gentlemen who spend their wits in making plays" and says, "Yes, trust them not, for there is an upstart Crow among them beauti- fied by our feathers, that with his tyger's heart wrapt in a SHAKESPEARE 37 player's hide, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blanke verse as the best of you; and being an absolute Jo- hannes Factotum, is in his owne conceit the only Shake- scene in the countrie." Greene's publisher, Henry Chettle,- in a preface to his Kind Hartes Dreame thus apologizes for this unkind fling at Shakespeare: "I am as sorry as if the original fault had beene my fault, because myselfe have scene his (i. e. Shakespeare) demeanour, no lesse civil that he (is) excellent in the qualitie he professes, besides divers of worship have reported his uprightness of dealing, which argues his honesty, and his facetious grace in writing that approves his art." There is certainty on some points, — that he soon acted parts on the stage ; that he soon began to re- cast and to write plays ; there is evidence that he took the parts of some of the characters in his own plays ; the Ghost in Hamlet and Adam in As Yon Like It have been men- tioned ; he soon acquired stock in the player's company. It was the custom of companies to buy outright the plays from the dramatic writers, thus the dramas passed entirely Recast- out of the control of the authors and became the ing absolute property of the companies, and hence could Plays |-jg retouched and re-cast at the will of the manager; this was sometimes done before the play was put upon the stage at all, and often with each subsequent performance. This kind of work naturally furnished a fine apprenticeship for a dramatic genius like Shakespeare, and accounts for the questionable authorship of so many of the plays which bear his name. It is thought that he began by retouching the second and third parts of Henry VI, the Altemus edition underscores the lines attributed to this new dramatic light: even at this early date in his history there is little mistak- ing Shakespearean ear-marks. Shakespeare first tried his hand at genuine Comedy, and Love's Labour's Lost is generally conceded to be his first 38 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA entirely original drama. This is a light, humorous ,,,^y. play, but shows that the author was a keen observer Writing ^ -^ ' of contemporary life in all its phases. In Romeo and Jnliet his first tragedy, he shows his master hand ; if his place as a dramatist was not assured before, it was unques- tioned from this time on. The Tempest is generally sup- posed to be his last complete play; it was performed in 1613, but was probably written some time before. It is impossible in a brief sketch to follow Shakespeare through his London life. It is known that he resided near Resi- the theaters ; a memorandum of the famous actor, dence in Alleyn (quoted by Malone), states that in 1596 he London |Q(^ge(^ ^itsiv the Bear Garden in Southwark, still he counted noblemen among his friends. As his mind became more centered upon play writing, the business of acting grew distasteful to him ; it is probable that he retired from the stage about 1604. His interest in Stratford never ceased, and notwithstand- ing the inconveniences of travel, it is thought that he always made yearly visits to his early home. Everything ijj goes to show that he was provident and a good busi- Stratford ness manager, and when he accumulated money, it and vvas to Stratford that he turned for investment, Business showing that he looked upon the home of his boy- hood as the home of riper years. In 1597, but little more than a decade after he left his native place with no capital but an active mind, he returned and bought New Place, one of the finest properties in Stratford : he gradually fitted it up and finally was able to place his family in a home which meant luxury. After this purchase, he con- , tinned to make repeated investments in and about ments Stratford : his townsmen began to look upon him as their monied man ; the only letter extant addressed to him, contains the request for a loan. His financial pros- SHAKESPEARE 39 perity was the legitimate result of his theatrical business; he accumulated because he was not a charlatan, a debauchee and a spendthrift like the majority of his dramatic contem- poraries. He now relieved his father from financial embarrass- ment, and in 1599 succeeded in obtaining a coat of arms Coat of from the College of Heraldry, which his father had Arms for some time been striving for : his social position was now secure. As early as 1608 he stood godfather to the son of a friend in Stratford. In September, 1611, the principal men of the town raised a fund for the purpose of getting „ f J ci bill through Parliament for improving the condi- tion of the highways : Shakespeare's name appeared among the donors : by this time he had fully identified him- self with the interests of the community and settled down in what may be termed "active" retirement. He gathered his family about him in New Place where he entertained not only his friends, but notables who came to the town. Here Judith was married shortly before her father's death, and here Mrs. Susanna Hall lived and cared for her mother until her death, in 1623 ; from here she buried her husband in 1635 and from here her own remains were carried to be laid by his side in Trinity churchyard in 1649, when the home reverted to Lady Barnard, who by her will, ordered the place to be sold. In January, 1616, Shakespeare felt his health failing and made his will ; it remained unsigned until the following „,.,, .March: by it his daug-hter, Susanna, was made mis- Will and -^ . . Death tress of New Place in strict entail, with the care of her mother, and was also given the greater portion of the entire estate. He passed away on April 23, 1616, his fifty-second birthday (?) and was buried near the north wall of the chancel in the Church of the Holy Trinity, 40 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Stratford, April 25. There his remains have lain undis- turbed ; undoubtedly they would long ere this have been re- moved to repose with the illustrious dead of Westminster, had it not been for a superstitious fear inspired by the fol- lowing inscription carved in the stone tablet above his tomb : "Good frend for Jesus' sake forbeare To digg the dust enclosed here; Blest be the man that spares these stones, And curst be he that moves my bones." In 174-1 a monumental statue was placed in the Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey, the expenses being defrayed by public subscription.* The immediate cause of Shakespeare's death is- un- known. Mr. William Winter says that "The story that he died of drinking too hard at a merry meeting with C^3 llSP Or „ , Drayton and Ben Jonson is idle gossip." Mr. Lee says that "the popular legends of his achievements as a hard drinker may be dismissed as unproven." We know that he died in the luxury of his own home, surrounded by his family, in honor and affluence, and had the right, as part owner of tithes and lay-rector, to claim burial within the church of his native town, things which could be said of but few of his dramatic or literary contemporaries. While Shakespeare's fame increases with the centuries, there were by no means wanting those of his own day to Testi- appreciate the character and genius of their great mony of contemporary. He is always spoken of as genial Contem- and gentle in manner, mild in temper, a strong, firm poraries friend, but no bitter foe. Rowe records the tradi- tion that when Ben Jonson, in 1598, at the age of twenty- five offered his first comedy, Every Man in His Humor, to the actors' company, it was rejected; Shakespeare, who was *For an account of autographs, portraits, memorials, etc., see Lee's Life of Sh.akespeare, Chap. XVIII. SHAKESPEARE 41 nine years his senior, with a reputation fairly well estab- lished, got the decision reversed, and himself took the char- acter of "Old Knowell" in the play, when it was put upon the stage. He rose superior to the contentions of contem- porary dramatists and in the "War of the Theaters" he took no part. In 1598 Francis Meres, a very learned divine, in his Palladis Tamia, treats Shakespeare as the "greatest literary Francis man of the day," he says : "The muses would speak Meres Shakespeare's fine filed phrase if they could speak English." Richard Barnfield, a rival poet writes, "And Shakespeare, thou whose honey flowing vein -^^^"^'"'^ thy praises doth obtain, Barn- q-j^y ^ame in Fame's immortal Book have placed, n^'S clirn aY . Will seffd H. to Er>d. H will not kill KftTrt. HAwtet's clinYxy; H, kills Pol. BecP'-pes ^LLi'lty inffiv/cJu^ iDaKes Queen race hev deed. Q-_wi II not T^pent . C linoiv Gnost cipoear, ayer'S a^r-nve to ->»ec^ei.in pisfch of- Hamlets irres- o/u ti on. miet baffles n c r d-n t 3 o n d on iixS tr'Ies prove Hamlet 'an e by means vt f-nti'd.s 'I'ttted. OS eric T&.Ttt X Cru I faensi'^rn e d ty K i n d ell as evidence. races ^>ls deec. ill not repent. 2>^ 111 ^Tv^t. :.-5 t .-0=3 ivl Queen in Forms Kin^ or de&th or U Po I on I us. Hamlet ou.twits. Rose ncT'ant^ O'nd |ll Gui I cIp. n.^tfe-f ?-) send w Tan . 1 J Cl sr^ r [ ^ I -. T — ^ Ki no decides to t^d H -a nn let to End J,,. tin n 15 death vvsrJi 11 — ;%> 101 IVI Ophelia, insane. L_a,er'te5 retij.T*n m ai»m3. , VVitn esses heT'l condition ot exp I an at I o-n to Vf Hovd,'tio. Sa^riTets^ e 1 1 e r j7-i^ annoixnc- in6 n I s Tetu.T-f) to E nd^^'<^(i,- Km-B and Laer'-lVII tes pl-g-n to Ki/T ' H a m 7 e t . C)pheli i dTO\ FTvTrr"pTTT~an dispcs I ticn en Ghost -revea's the. deed . Chafdes H to revend^ CT-ave-drOoer's Scene Hamfet arid Horatio appea-T' ^ Ophelia's funer-al. ' a. oi ^ ^' Hamlet sees Gho&t. TJpTTeTTa's^T^eTaTToTrs irr|td Hamlet. Laertes •T'et^irnS to 7'Vance Ham/et inPor'med of 7 r jGH os_t_. ^ lyb ?^ '"m a n d "a n d, T2^o r ne- hv5 sent to Worwav. Ham/et luftifics. hi Se'i Std^HQ-'l&tio.^ Cornbs^t \^'iin "boils between Hamlet and 'Lacr-f es, L's t.oil potso -ed. L. sfab^ H. ^H. stabs L, v/i'tn Lis toil. Queen ^f^'inks pois- oned cu-p and dies . L, exposes plot. amTet Sta'bs Kind. T l/^ppeaT'anee- of . X .nd dies. H a -m I e t die , bvas rr)&cl& L. che S . Jfo 2. Kir e.sr. rti 3^ n> '> -! -1 Q the Et h 'Ca/ -Wof I d restored throx-cgh the des-t7'u<.ct SCOfdant elernents, arid to the Kiri^dom of Oenm of" all tne r" o\.i6 h For>t in b7»ei.s, t he r-riedi^te-d indivdiaa/. I on ark Act IV DRAMATIC STRUCTURE 81 This act works out the consequences of the re- sults of the decision in Act III. New characters may be introduced to work out the second movement. In Hamlet^ Laertes Consequences ^^^^^ ^^^ p^^^^ ^^ Polonius. In Tragedy, the guilty doer of the deed plunges deeper and deeper into crime. The plot works to the final close : justice prevails, the discordant element is destroyed : harmony Act V is restored either through the destruction of Close the individual as in Tragedy, or through con- formity to the laws of the Ethical World in Comedy. A change of place naturally divides the acts into scenes. Originally, in some of Shakespeare's earliest plays there „ were no scenes, doubtless because of the barrenness Scenes of the stage. As stage scenery was introduced, the plays were recast and arranged in scenes. In a few in- stances, the arrangement of the scenes in acts differ in dif- ferent editions. In Hamlet, Hudson places seven scenes in Act III and four in Act IV^, while Rolfe puts four in Act III and seven in Act IV. We prefer the latter arrangement, as the first movement evidently closes with the closet scene. A graphic illustration of the plot brings it out vividly ; one of Hamlet is here presented. Classification Shakespeare's dramas are frequently classified chrono- logically, thereby showing his mental growth and why some of his plays are so much deeper and more perfect than others. Dowden's classification has previously been given. Since we are studying these plays from a dramatic stand- point we shall follow Snider through the old classification of Tragedy, Comedy and History. 82 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Legendary or Romantic, and Historical The Drama proper portrays life; it shows man working" out his own destiny according to the Divine Order. It must 6e universal ; and while incidentally it must be given time and place, it cannot be hampered by time and place, neither can it be limited by historical fact; while the life of nations offers a tempting field for the dramatist, it by no means satisfies the province of the drama. We have seen that for the basis of his plots, Shakespeare selects either some old legend or romance or some story from history, hence his plays naturally fall under the general heads of Legendary or Romantic, and Historical. Omitting Pericles, since its authenticity is so greatly questioned, there are twenty-one Legendary and fifteen Historical plays. L Legendary The Legendary Plays are based chiefly upon legend, still legend is frequently so blended with historical fact that the form of the play and the manner of treatment must to some extent, determine its place. Macbeth has a partial basis of history but the manner of treatment places it with the Legendary Plays. As the Legendary is to portray the life of man, it is essentially domestic, and in general the collision is primarily in the Family with the State in the background. In Hamlet, one might at first question this point, since the murdered man was not only husband and father but King, but Hamlet himself treats the collision as domestic. He is trying to revenge the death of his father, rather than the death of the King of Denmark. He con- stantly grieves over the conduct of Gertrude because she is a woman and his mother, not because she is Queen of Den- mark. The Legendary drama is not limited by time and has a tendency to complete itself in a single play ; the termination HISTORICAL DRAMA 83 is quite definite, the individual works out the result of his own deed, and in the end perishes or is saved through medi- ation, and .the play has either a tragic ending or a happy one. 11. Historical ''The Historical drama is the drama of nationality: it deals with the institutions of the State ; and for its material Histor- looks to the records of the nation and to the deeds ical of the national heroes ; hence the emotion to which it appeals is patriotism." The Historical drama then, is based upon historical fact, the collision is in the State with the Family in the background ; it is necessarily limited by time and place and only as it manifests the World-Spirit can it be considered universal. As it deals with the life of the State, the complete drama may require more than a single play, as, the Lancastrian and Yorkian tetralogies require a consecutive series ; again the termination is often double, Tragedy and Comedy combined, one party fails, the other succeeds. Since the law of history does not always coincide with the law of the drama, we must expect the structure of the Historical drama to be somewhat looser than that of the Legendary drama; however, since there is al- ways conflict, threads can be readily traced, and usually a little study will reveal the movements, although the climax is not always quite so evident. In King John we readily trace the English thread and the French thread. In the first movement the conflict is external; England is victorious over France; in Arthur in England, John sees a foe to his crown and the struggle is now internal, the motive changes and the second movement begins. In Julius CcEsar the first movement shows the internal conflict in Rome and the struggle against the man Caesar ; the man out of the way, in the second movement the conflict is external and against the 84 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA spirit of Caesar. Just before he falls on his sword Brutus exclaims, "O Julius Caesar thou art mighty yet, Thy spirit walks abroad and turns our swords Into our own proper entrails." The Legendary and Historical are so closely related that there may be a difference of opinion as to exactly where the line is to be drawn. The old Roman story of Coriolanus is probably a myth, but the theme of the drama is political and represents an epoch of Roman history, and is treated in a political way, and it is readily seen that the Family is sacri- . , ficed for the State. Snider says, "The chief char- Charac- acteristic of the Historical drama is that it rises teristic of above the mere individual and shows the guilt and HIstoricalpunishment of whole nations and whole epochs. Drama ^j^^g nianifesting how the deed in history returns to the land with a whip of scorpions, even after the lapse of generations." The difference between Legendary and Historical dramas shows that it is the Legendary which gives rise to true Tragedy and Comedy ; according to the law of ^ the Ethical World, which is also the law of the Drama, discord must be destroyed and harmony restored. This may come about in two ways : if the motive of the foul deed so takes possession of the guilty doer that he pursues his purpose to the bitter end, that end must bring death to him. Nemesis follows him, his deed must return upon his head, and the play becomes Tragedy. If, however, when brought fact to face with his deed, he sees it in all its enormity and repents, he need not perish ; harmony is re- stored without the necessity of the death of the individual ; the discordant principle is destroyed while the indi- vidual is saved, and the play turns to Comedy ; hence we see that the principle of Comedy is mediation, which COMEDY 85 implies salvation; this principle constitutes the real differ- ence between Tragedy and true Comedy. ''The best thought of the modern world is salvation which springs from the mediatorial spirit." Comedy, then, in a way, may be as ser- ious as Tragedy, and the term must not be interpreted as synonymous with comical in its limited sense of ''funny ;" farcical it may be, but that is only a light phase of Comedy. In both Tragedy and Comedy the conflict is double, in- ternal as well as external. In the internal conflict when the Conflict individual passes through that "sorrow of the soul" Double which results in that true repentance which drives him to forsake sin and rise from the conflict glorified, we have Comedy. Hamlet says to Horatio, "Thou hast been as one, In suffering all, that suffers nothing, A man that Fortune's buffets and rewards Hath ta'en with equal thanks." A man who had fought the battles of life and had come out triumphant over all, in short a perfect, mediated charac- ter — man redeemed. When King Claudius is passing through this internal conflict, he discusses repentance and thoroughly compre- King hends what it signifies when he says, Claudius' ..t- <• i j -> rorgive me my foul murder? That cannot be ; since I am still possessed Of those effects for which I did the murder, My crown, mine own ambition, and my Queen. May one be pardoned and still retain th' offence? Try what repentance can? what can it not? Yet what can it when one cannot repent?" and so he moves on to death ; had he repented and made res- toration, the play would have turned to Comedy. 86 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA This serious phase of Comedy portrays harmony dis- turbed by foul deeds, but restored through the struggle First which ends in repentance and forgiveness. Phase A second phase of comedy does not imply crime ; harmony may be disturbed through caprice or folly which Second may be disciplined out of a man, and thus harmony Phase is restored. In All's Well, Bertram is disciplined out of his caprice and the family relation is restored. A third phase of Comedy shows the individual as the victim of blunder or misunderstanding, and harmony is re- Third stored by having the ethical atmosphere cleared of Phase the confusion arising therefrom, as in the Comedy of Errors, where all the trouble arises through mistaken identity ; of course the situations are comical in the extreme ; we can say that this phase gives rise to the modern farce, where comedy becomes indeed ''comic" in the present sense of the word. In all cases harmony is restored without the destruction of the individual. According to the basis of the action, we have Comedy of Character and Comedy of Situation; the first is subjective, having its origin in the mind; the second is ohjec- , five, having- its origin in external conditions or situ- ter and , ' *=> ,^ . Situation ations. The audience is supposed to understand the situations, while the individual may, or may not, understand them ; the voluntary individual does understand them and carries his part through, joining the audience in the laugh. As in Tragedy, so in Comedy there is collision or conflict ; the movernent through this action is carried on by means of threads and movements. The comic individual Comic ^^^ j^jg assistants forming one thread; his oppon- ents usually grouping about a central figure, another Structure thread ; always two and sometimes more threads may be traced ; these threads move through one LEGENDARY DRAMA: CLASSIFICATION 87 phase of action, the colUsion, which constitutes the iirst movement. Mediation now steps in and a transition to an- other phase of action takes place, and we have a second movement ; mediation accomphshed, we meet its results worked out in a third movement or solution, in which all discordant elements disappear and harmony is restored; broken families are restored as in Comedy of Errors; de- lusions vanish, Midsummer Night's Dream; blunders and errors are rectified, Winter's Tale. In some instances all of these points combine in one play. We may trace Nemesis in Comedy as well as in Trag^edy, where we also see both pun- ishments and rewards. The outcome of Comedy is "the destruction not of the individual, but of his deceptions, and the dissolution of his whims and absurdities." I. Legendary Drama: Classification Both Tragedy and Comedy contain natural or real ele- ments brought into play with the supernatural or ideal ele- ments ; this gives rise to the division of the play into Real and Ideal. (a) Tragedy. When the motives and actions are confined to the natural or real world, as in Romeo and Juliet, we have Real Real ^ J i ragedy. "When Tragedy seeks the realm of the supernatural in order to express and develop the motives of the tragic in- dividual we term the play Ideal." The ghost urges Trjpo] Hamlet to action and pushes him on. Macbeth is constantly under the spell of the Weird Sisters. (b) Comedy. 1. In Comedy mediation may be confined to the real or natural world, as, Portia in the Merchant of Venice saves Real and Antonio in the realm of real life where the conflict Ideal takes place; while in As You Like It, in the ideal 88 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA realm of the Forest of Arden, all discordant elements disappear, all become reconciled and harmony is restored, then all return to the real or institutional world. 2. Pure and Tragi-Comedy. Comedy of Situation and Comedy of Character give rise to Pure Comedy and Tragi-Comedy. Sometimes the humorous or comic prevails altogether; the individual through accident, caprice or folly becomes en- tangled in a maze of difficult or ridiculous situa- tions, without any crime or real guilt ; this gives rise to Pure Comedy. When a dark thread of guilt runs through the first movement, but the mind and the hand of the prospective Tragi- criminal are arrested, mediation enters, and that Comedy ^hich at the outset promised Tragedy, is converted into Comedy ; sometimes that which began in folly deepens to crime and the outlook is tragic, mediation steps in and saves the individual ; thus we have Tragi-Comedy. The climax shows whether the guilty doer of the deed will repent and determines the play to be Tragedy or Tragi- Comedy. The middle movement shows whether mediation takes place in the Real or in the Ideal realm, and determines the Comedy to be Real or Ideal ; the threads show whether it is Pure or Tragi-Comedy ; one dark thread of guilt throws the play out of the realm of Pure Comedy. This classifica- tion may be tabulated as follows : I . Legendary Tragedy \ Real Ideal Real ] Pure r^ 1 J ^"*''^'*' ] Tragi- Comedy Comedy f Prologue Coriolanus Roman t? % ur r t i- r^ ,rj^ . ,j trom Republic j Julius Caesar 4 \ I to Empire \ Antony and Cleopatra L Epilogue Titus Andronicus English Mediated) \ 10 j r Prologue King John [ Richard II Lancastrian Tetralogy-] Henry IV 2 parts ( Henry V Yorkian Tetralogy ] rjX^JiVi ^^''' Epilogue Henry VIII SUMMARY 91 Summary A summary of the preceding statements, in their appli- cation to individual plays, may be helpful to the student. Drama 1. That form of Hterature which represents man in action. 2. Shows man his deed in the form of the deed itself. 3. Makes man a responsible being controlled by the law of conscience. Hence — 4. Law: The deed returns upon the doer. (Nemesis.) I. Legendary 1. Based chiefly upon legend. 2. Unlimited by time, place or historical fact. Hence 3. Free in plot and incident. 4. Deals with the life of man. Hence — 5. Collision : Domestic — In the Family, State in the background. 6. Complete in a single drama. n. Historical 1. Based upon historical fact or historical legend. Hence 2. Limited by time and place, also by plot and incident. 3. Deals with the life of the State. Hence — 4. Collision in the State ; Family in the background. 5. May require a series of plays to complete the drama : termination often double. Structure looser than the leg- endary drama. Legendary L Tragedy 1. Ends in the death of the guilty individual. 2. The deed contains within it the elements of death. 92 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Hence — 3. His death springs from his own deed. 4. Subjective, — something from within brings him to destruction ; he cHngs to his deed, and, hence — 5. Harmony can be restored only by the destruction of the discordant element or individual. 6. Law: Tragedy declares that man must live in ac- cordance with the principles of the Ethical World or perish, (a) Real: Confined to the realm of real or natural life: Romeo and Juliet. (b) Ideal: Seeks the realm of the supernatural in or- der to express and develop the motives of the tragic indi- vidual: Macbeth (Weird Sisters.) n. Comedy 1. That form of the drama into which the element of mediation enters, and, hence — 2. The individual is saved by conforming to the law of the Ethical World. 3. Harmony is restored without the necessity of the destruction of the individual. 4. Law : Comedy declares that man having once vio- lated the principles of the Ethical World may through mediation, be restored to harmony and live. (a) Real: 1. Society in a state of conflict ; individuals collide in support of an ethical principle or in violation of it. 2. Harmony restored through mediation in the sphere of real life : Portia rescues Antonio in the court room. (b) Ideal: 1. Conflict, as in Real Comedy. 2. Mediation takes place in an ideal realm where con- flict does not exist: Forest of Arden in As You Like It; SUMMARY 93 all discords vanish ; when harmony is restored, all may re- turn to the Institutional World. (c) Pure Comedy: 1. The individual is given over to outer accident or chance, or to inner accident or caprice ; follows his whim rather than his reason. 2. Conflict with the rational world disciplines him out of his folly and restores him in a harmonious way : Comedy of Errors and Twelfth Night. (d) Tragi-Comedy : 1. Folly deepens to violence, caprice sinks to guilt; the outlook is tragic; the individual must perish unless he un- dergoes a spiritual change. 2. The element of mediation enters and saves the in- dividual, also saves the play from becoming Tragedy: Mer- chant of Venice, (Real), Winter's Tale (Ideal). Mediation may be effected through the repentance of the individual or through the intervention of another, or medi- ator. The nature of the threads determines whether the Com- edy is Pure or Tragi-Comedy; a dark thread of guilt pro- duces Tragi-Comedy; if all threads show only folly or mis- takes we have the Comic only. The nature of the middle movement, or mediation de- termines the play to be Real or Ideal. In Tragedy or Tragi-Comedy the climax determines the play to be Tragedy or Comedy. Questions on the Text of I and II. The Drama 1. Define the Drama and state why it has proved last- ing. 2. What was the origin of the Drama ? 94 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 3. Define the Ethical World. State its three laws. 4. Define Nemesis. The English Drama. 1. State its origin. 2. Through what three stages may its development be traced? Describe each. 3. What was the object of each of these forms? 4. Why must the Modern Drama combine the princi- ples of each of these three forms? 5. Who was the first writer of the Interlude and when did he live? 6. What was the first real Comedy? When and by whom written? 7. What does Sir Philip Sidney say of the manner of the presentation of a play in his own time? When did he live ? The Theatre in Shakespeare's Time. 1. Where were the theatres located? Why? 2. Describe the theatre and the manner of presenting a play. 3. Name the two classes of theatres and their points of difference. 4. What was called Shakespeare's Theatre, and to which class did it belong? 5. When and by whom was movable scenery first intro- duced ? 6. Where does Shakespeare express his ideas of a cor- rect performance? 7. Who were the three most prominent of Shakes- peare's senior contemporaries ? How did they compare with him in education and character? 8. State briefly the condition of the Drama in England when Shakespeare began his dramatic career. QUESTIONS: SHAKESPEARE 95 Life of Shakespeare. 1. To what extent do we know the absolute facts of Shakespeare's life? State authorities. Account for the pro- fuse allusions to nature in his works. 2. About when did he leave Stratford for London, and what is really known of his first few years there? 3. About when did he begin to establish a reputation, and what was the character of his first work as a play- wright? What were the existing customs concerning play- writing ? 4. What business ability did he display? 5. Where did he spend his later years ? Where was he buried, and how do you account for the fact that his re- mains have never been removed to Westminster, there to repose with England's famous dead? 6. In what condition was his literary work left at his death? When was the first folio (complete collected works) published ? 7. About what time were his most serious and profound works written? Name four of these dramas. Were his last plays Tragedy or Comedy? Name four of his latest plays. 8. Why is he conceded to be the greatest dramatist of all ages and peoples? 9. According to Saintsbury, what are three distinguish- ing points in Shakespeare ? 10. What three distinct purposes? 11. How do you account for what sometimes seems to us a vein of coarseness in his plays? 12. What was Shakespeare's contribution to dramatic art? Characterisation 1. Name his strong points in characterization. 2. Are his women strong or weak? 96 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 3. What can you say of his weak characters? 4. Is he a character builder in the sense of the mod- ern novel? 5. How has his wonderful insight into character of all kinds been accounted for ? Morals and Religion 1. What is the general moral tone of Shakespeare's plays? In what light does he paint vice? 2. What is the final outcome of Falstaff's life? 3. What stamp does Antony put upon his own char- acter ? 4. What is Coleridge's estimate of the morality of Shakespeare's works? 5. What are the evidences that he was familiar with the Bible? 6. Mention some religious views expressed in his plays. 7. What can you say of his aptness in the use of the Bible? 8. What did Shakespeare do for the moral tone of the Drama ? Supernatural Element 1. What use does Shakespeare make of the prevailing beliefs in the supernatural? 2. Can you distinguish between his use of the super- natural as a motive and as an embellishment? Which is the Weird Sisters in Machethf Read Midsummer Night's Dream with this point in view. 3. What forms of the supernatural are found in his plays? As you read, see if you find any instances where you think this element is used to excite fear. 4. What can you say of the supernatural as a motive power? 5. State Mr. Moulton's three propositions. 6. Give his summary. PRINCIPLES OF THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 97 Humor 1. To what extent does humor prevail in Shakespeare's plays ? 2. What seems to be his motive in its use? 3. What is the character of both his wit and his humor? 4. How does he show the effects of this element when carried to excess in the case of Falstaff ? Music 1. How does Shakespeare show his own appreciation of Music? Notice the use which he makes of it in his dif- ferent plays. 2. How is the effect of music shown in The Merchant of Venice? Universal Knowledge 1. What evidences do his works show of a knowledge of Law? 3. Of the Human Mechanism from a medical stand- point ? 3. Of Physical Science? -t. Of Plant-Hfe? Of Animal-Hfe? 5. Of Typography? 6. What is said of Shakespeare's vocabulary ? Principles of the Shakespearean Drama 1. State the ethical principles of the Shakespearean Drama. 2. Give the principles of Shakespeare's Ethical World. 3. Give the plan, grand divisions ; define. 4. With what principal institutions does he deal? 5. State what you can of the Family as a leading in- stitution in his plays. 6. Of the State. 7. Define the W orld-Historical Spirit or World-Spirit. Illustrate. 8. Explain the moral or subjective division of Shakes- peare's Ethical World. Give the law. 9. What is the negative phase? Name and describe the different classes of individuals. 98 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Structure Define plot; incidents of plot; incidents of story. Sources of Plot 1. What are Shakespeare's chief sources of plot in the Historical plays? How does he treat history? 2. Sources of plot in the Legendary plays? 3. How does he handle his material? 4. Is there any evidence that any of his plots are orig- inal? 5. In what does his originality consist? Dramatic Structure 1. Define and illustrate Threads and Movements. 2. In general, how many movements in Tragedy? Name them. Illustrate. 3. Name and define the movements in Comedy. Mechanical Structure 1. What may be considered the framework of a play? What gives rise to the division into Acts? Into Scenes? 2. How many Acts in all of Shakespeare's plays? Name them and state what is accomplished in each. Classification 1. Define the Historical Drama. 2. Define the Legendary; compare the two. 3. Define Tragedy. State its law. 4. Define Comedy. State its different phases. 5. State the principle of Comedy. 6. What constitutes the difference between Tragedy and Tragi-Comedy ? 7. What point determines it and where found? 8. What do you understand by the term Mediation? 9. Define the Real and Ideal in both Tragedy and Comedy. Illustrate. 10. Define and compare Pure and Tragi-Comedy. Il- lustrate. 11. In classifying a play as historical must it be abso- lute history? 12. What will you look for in a play to enable you to classify it? Ill THE STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE I Suggestions for Study One may enjoy a picture without knowing the principles of art, or a selection from Wagner without understanding the principles of music, but the true appreciation which gives a joy at times rising to ecstacy, is granted only to those who imderstand the principles upon which the art is based, — that which makes the wonderful production pos- sible. So one may enjoy Shakespeare, in a way, without knowing the principles of dramatic art, by simply giving his plays a casual reading; but the wonders of the great dramatist open understandingly, only to the mind of him who is interested enough to give the individual plays a care- ful and thorough study. Lawyers read Shakespeare for law; physicians for med- ical science ; statesmen for lessons in statesmanship ; theo- Shake- logians may here find the theory of salvation; speare s rhetoricians may learn how to write ; orators may tility study their art ; society may find its standard of conduct; women may find the standard of true wifehood and womanhood. To know Shakespeare is to know man; to know society in all its grades and phases ; in fact to know the world ; then is it not worth while to make a careful study of this Prince of Authors? To beginners we would suggest, begin by reading some of the lighter comedies, as, Love's Labour's Lost, As You Like It, etc., simply to get interested in Shakespeare and to 99 LcfC. 100 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA become familiar with his style, etc. If you can appreciate the play better by reading the story first and learning some- thing of the characters, by all means do so. Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare tell the stories of the legendary plays. If you would know Shakespeare, even a little, make a thorough study of a few of the stronger plays, The Merchant of Venice, Julius Ccssar, Hamlet, etc. Once having made this study, you can get very much more out of other plays by a mere reading. Whether you pursue this more thorough study further with other plays, will depend largely upon how greatly interested you have become in the work, and somewhat upon the time which you can devote to the study. Professor William Taylor Thorn says, "For a class of boys or girls, I hold that the most effectual and rapid and profitable method of studying Shakespeare, is for them to learn one play as thoroughly as their teacher can make them do it. Then they can read other plays with a profit and a pleasure unknown and un- knowable without such a previous drill and study." Some suggestions may be given to aid in the study of an individual play, but even these must be modified some- what to suit different plays, and the different classes of plays. Tragedy, Comedy, Historical. Also, the plays of Shakespeare's early years, as a whole, are much looser in structure than those of his riper years. In this outline of study we make no attempt to construct a Procrustean bed to which every play must be fitted, but only to make sugges- tions which may be helpful to pupils, and to teachers whose time is over crowded, or to those studying withbut a teacher. The Study of an Individual Play. 1. Provide yourself with a note book and blank book for written analysis outline. THE STUDY OF AN INDIVIDUAL PLAY 101 2. A diagram showing the entrance and exits of the characters is a great aid in getting a grasp on the entire play ; it should be made in full at the beginning of the study and the names entered and followed out, as they appear in the play ; the vertical columns show the characters ■ in each scene ; the horizontal lines trace them through the entire play ; the lines by their length indicate approximately the time each character is in the scene. To illustrate, the fol- lowing diagram carries the characters in the Merchant of Venice through two acts. 3. Read the play through carefully, for pleasure and to get the story, cast of characters and situations. We would not advise entering the names in the diagram until the second reading. 4. Classify the play, in each case giving your reasons. Your first reading will doubtless enable you to do this. O rt U u o rt o ti u a H W M 1— 1 1—1 o 6 > • fH o M H < M Q 1— 1 o M iJ O o 1— 1 O G- £5 :- r - o M > > :- :^ ^ - o O X h' "!'■ 1 '> '%. 1 1 "> 'I 1 > 1 1 1 >• 1 :2 :d 1 1 1 - 1 ::: - ::: 1 M .w 1 1 1 CO y > o t/5 U <5 W o CO W H : u • < : « • = .2 fl 3 c/3 eq o c w O o rt .5 o |1h rt "u 0) J CO a H o o u rt O o 6 a o a; rt u 'tc m a; o be rt 102 THE STUDY OF AN INDIVIDUAL PLAY 103 Illustration — Merchant of Venice. 1. Legendary; state why? 2. Comedy; state why? 3. Real; state why? 4. Tragi-Comedy ; state why? 5. State the theme of the play? 6. Give legendary source of plot? 7. Scenes of action (Where did the principal scenes of action take place?) 8. Class of society chiefly involved? 9. Time, or probable time? 10. Basis of the play, Bassanio's indebtedness. f r Between the right of I Ethical S property and the exist- /-. n-^j Cence of the individual I r Between Shylock and I Objective -j Antonio; Antonio's bond L t to the Jew. II. Action^ L Media- ( Antonio saved by Portia, the repre- torial -j sentative of the family. Family es- Action ( tablished by Antonio's money. r) r • ( Conflict, betweenthepracticalJewish Kehgious ) u J 1 • 1 r-ii • • n £i- ^ "^ world and the practical Christian L/Onrlict i u r i • ( world ot the time. 104 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA First Movement: Conflict — Property; Love; Religion. 12. Dramatic Structure 1st Th read Property Conflict 2nd Th read Love Conflict Three phases, Portia Jessica Nerissa I I I \ I (<3;) Antonio, Bassanio (<^) Salarino, Salanio, Gra- tiano [ {c) Leonardo i {a) Shylock ( (^) Tubal, Gobbo, Jessica (<^) Portia, Nerissa, B assanio /i\ i Prince of Morocco 1 Prince of Arragon (<3:) Jessica, Lorenzo {b) Launcelot J («) Nerissa, Gratiano 3d Thread J Shylock Religious Conflict ( Antonio Second Movement: Mediation Threads as in j Property, I^ove, First Movement ) Rehgion Mediatorial spirit of love — Portia. Love for Bassanio; pleads mercy for his friend, Antonio , denied — meets demand for justice; exacting exact justice — Antonio saved. Shylock forced to become Christian and deed his property to Lorenzo and Jessica after his death- Third Movement: Return. All return to Belmont the place of love and harmony. Jessica and Lorenzo, Portia and Bassanio. Nerissa and Gratiano. Antonio's ships safe. In tracing the characters in the various threads they may be grouped according to their importance, as Group a, Group b, etc. STUDIES OF SPECIAL PLAYS 105 13. The plot may be traced through the various acts and scenes by the aid of a graphic illustration. 14. Make a time analysis if you can? 15. Make a list of the characters, tracing the dramatic purpose or office of each in the play? as, Portia, mediator in the property conflict. In the family thread show the triumph of love as the basis of marriage over the claims of title or wealth. The play may then be followed out, each act by scenes, tracing the characters and their motives, their play upon each other, etc., showing the inter-play of the incidents of the story with the incidents of the plot in the working out of the final result. It is very interesting to search for biblical allusions ; note the use of music, make a list of quotations on different topics. Write character sketches. The field is so rich that there is almost no limit to the lines of thought which may be worked out. II Studies of Special Plays. In preparing these studies, it is presumed that if these particular plays are studied in the high school, they will be taken in the order here presented, and that the pupils in the second and third years are prepared to discuss more thor- oughly the principles and structure of the drama and its dif- ferent forms than in the first year ; the text of Parts I and II should be thoroughly reviewed with the study of each play. We would again impress the advantage to the pupil, of making a table of entrance and exits of characters ; by means of this table, a character can always be located in the play. The graphic illustration of plot enables one to get the structure of the play at a glance. Outline books may be made very attractive and interesting by putting in pictures illustrating the subject; these may often be found in old magazines ; the beautiful Perry pictures and the Brown pic- tures are easily obtained, large sizes for a penny, small sizes for half penny each. 106 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Questions on the play by acts and scenes are not given because it is thought best to leave this in the hands of the teacher. For the same reason only a limited number of schemes for outline books is presented ; the questions on the text of Parts I and II and on the play furnish abundant ma- terial by way of suggestion, for as many different schemes as may be required for a large school. If other plays are stud- ied, those given are suggestive of a line of procedure. A Study of The Merchant of Venice Side Lights This play was probably written about 1596 or 1597. By this time Shakespeare had become a prosperous business man ; his mind was quite centered upon money affairs. He bought New Place in Stratford in 1597. The play deals with the wealthy classes. Brandes suggests that The Mer- chant of Venice was' the natural product of the Poet's trend of mind at that time. Source of Plot. In this play Shakespeare weaves his story from two old, old stories ; the story of the pound of flesh may be traced back to the dim past of the Oriental Myths ; coming into Europe, the laws of the Twelve Tables of Ancient Rome savor of it; we are told that they gave the creditor the right to take payment in the flesh of the insolvent debtor, and in case of several creditors, the flesh could be divided pro rata, if one got more than his share he forfeited all; this was also an ancient custom of other nations. The casket story has been traced back to the Greek writings of a Syrian monk about the year 800 ; it also had various literary wanderings, and probably Shakespeare was not the first to combine it with the bond storv. Besides these THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 107 two stories, the play is enlivened by two episodes, the elope- ment of Jessica and the ring episode; these were also old; but under the magic touch of this master-mind how they are all woven together and what a wonderful creation we have ! Theme The theme of the play is the relation of man to property ; this gives rise to the Property Conflict. Money is the real basis of all action ; the drama hinges as it were upon An- tonio's money ; so long as he is considered solvent all goes well ; when his argosies are supposed to be lost, the dramatic action changes and works out the result of this loss. The play deals with three typical forms of property in the posession of three leading characters, while the fourth, Bassanio, is the spendthrift who cannot keep money at all, and has to depend upon borrowing from friends, which causes all the difficulty. Shy lock's wealth consisted of money and jewels; easily secreted, easily transported, insecure, since it presents great temptations to the thief; money always at command Wealth ^° ^^ loaned and reloaned, offering a temptation to take advantage of another's necessities ; jewels, which always have a high market price. This form of prop- erty is the type of the miser who hoards for the sake of hoarding, who loves money for the sake of money, not for the comfort that it will buy, not for the sake of trade or commerce, nor for culture, not even for the happiness of the home. Antonio's wealth was invested in his argosies, subject to losses at sea from storms and from pirates ; he carried on trade with all nations and came in touch with the ^^ . , whole commercial world. This form of property should typify breadth of mind and a spirit of gener- ositv, as it does in Antonio's case. 108 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Portia's wealth consisted of landed estates and palaces, the inheritance of generations ; not easily transported, not easily subject to loss, thieves could not rob her, nor J^^^f^ storms dispossess her to any appreciable extent; wealth and culture was her natural atmosphere ; she could dispense her ducats as lavishly as she chose and feel no loss. This form of wealth typifies permanence, refine- ment, culture. A secondary theme is the relation of Judaism to Christi- anity ; of the Jew of that age to the Christian of that age ; this gives rise to the Religious conflict. In this con- eigious^.^^ Shylock is a type of Judaism under the old Mosaic law which demanded justice to the exact letter of the law, "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth ;" Antonio is a type of Mediaeval Christianity, in which hatred of the Jew manifests itself in the spirit of persecution. Portia typifies the spirit of true Christianity; love, and justice tempered with mercy. The theme of love hovers over the entire drama like an enveloping action ; it relieves the strain of the tragic element, and sweetens and enlivens the entire play from its beginning to its end, where it closes in the very ecstacy of the unalloyed joy of perfect love. Notwithstanding all of this prominence, from the dramatic standpoint, love is really a minor theme. In the first place, by her father's decree, Portia is to be won by the choice of the caskets, not by actual love, although Nerissa tries to console her by the assurance that „ she "will, no doubt, never be chosen by any rightly, but by one who you may rightly love." Secondly, Bassanio has squandered borrowed mone}^, and must devise some means of relief from pecuniary obligations, he says, " 'Tis not unknown to you, Antonio, How much I have disabled mine estate, THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 109 my chief care Is to come fairly off from the great debts Wherein my time something too prodigal Hath left me gaged. To you, Antonio, I owe the most, in money and love, And from your love I have a warranty To unburden all my plots and purposes How to get clear of all the debts I owe. In Belmont is a lady richly left; And many Jasons come in quest of her. my Antonio, had I but the means To hold a rival place with one of them, 1 have a mind presages me such thrift, That I shall questionless be fortunate !'' Evidently Bassanio's primary object in striving to win Portia is to get the means with which to discharge his pecuniary obligations ; he feels encouraged to make the effort because they had incidentally met once, we have no reason to suppose more than once, when "from her eyes I did receive fair speechless messages," but "The four winds blow in from every coast Renowned suitors." The Princes of the Earth came from all directions, with their magnificent retinues to win the lovely lady; for she is not only "richly left" but "She is fair and fairer than that word Of wondrous virtues : Her name is Portia, nothing undervalued To Cato's daughter, Brutus' Portia :" It will take much money "To hold rival place with one of them." 110 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA He is in dire need of the material wealth which a marriage with Portia will bring ; if in addition to this, his life will be enriched by union with a wealth of character and love, what an unanswerable argument accompanies the re- quest for a loan ; he is already heavily in debt to Antonio, if his friend will but provide him with the means to join the royal suitors for fair Portia's hand and heart, "I shall questionless be fortunate;" but if he does not win, Antonio will suffer no further loss, for "That which I owe is lost; but if you please To shoot another arrow that selfsame way, Which you did shoot the first, I do not dotibt, As I will watch the aim, or to find both, Or bring your latter hazard back again And thankfully rest debtor for the first." So Antonio will run no risk in making this loan, and if Bassanio's "plots and purposes How to get clear of all the debts I owe" succeed, as he has a "mind" they will, then he can pay all. Thus we see that while Bassanio wanted to borrow money to enable him to ply his suit for Portia, he wanted to win Portia primarily, to get money which would enable him to discharge his debts. Jessica was prompted to elope with Lorenzo quite as much to escape the tyranny of her father, as for love. The love of Gratiano and Nerissa is an incident of story and not of plot. With what wonderful skill our artist weaves the climax of the threads of the charming love theme into that of the money theme, making it one complete whole. Bassanio wins his Portia; at the same time Gratiano and Nerissa pledge their troth ; they have scarcely had time to announce THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 111 their triumphs of love, when Salerio arrives from Venice bringing the letter from Antonio telling of his losses ; Lorenzo and Jessica make good their escape from Venice with no intention of following Bassanio, ''But meeting Salerio by the way, He did entreat me past all saying nay, To come with him along." Salerio confirms Lorenzo's statement, saying "And I have reason for it. Signer Antonio Commends him to you." Thus we see the last of the three pairs of lovers brought to Portia's house, (which seems a veritable ''Forest of Arden") by Antonio, who is the link uniting all of the various threads of the play, and upon whom the entire dramatic action de- pends. Structure In the iirst movement all seems to go well; Bassanio, with no money to enable him to ply his suit of love at Bel- First mont, has no hesitancy in applying to his friend Move- Antonio, to whom he is already greatly indebted ; ment from Shylock the money is obtained on the strength of Antonio's bond ; here the religious conflict first manifests itself. Bassanio gains his bride through the right choice of caskets. All is dependent primarily, on the wealth of An- tonio's argosies at sea, the news of Antonio's loss changes the whole action of the play ; the first movement depends upon the fact of Antonio's property, hence the supposed loss of the argosies constitutes the climax. The second movement, Mediation, depends upon the supposed loss of Antonio's property; here Portia, as media- Second ^o^' saves the life of Antonio, thereby saving the Move- play from becoming Tragedy ; thus in the Property ^^^^ conflict, the life of man triumphs over property; 112 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Shylock is compelled to leave his property to Jessica in the end, and in the Religious conflict he is compelled to "be- come a Christian" and Christianity triumphs. Here Shylock, the only discordant element in the play, drops out. The third movement, the Return, deals only with the theme of love ; here all meet in Portia's house in Belmont, Third where all the little tricks causing little momentary Move- discords are exposed ; identities are revealed, and "^ent all revel in the harmonious atmosphere of moon- shine, music and love. In the Property conflict, it will readily be seen that the play is Comedy, since not only the individual is saved, but the property also. In the Religious conflict, it is Comedy for Christianity, since Shylock is compelled to become a Christian. In the Love conflict, the comedy is self-evident. Nemesis follows Shylock, but not to the extent of taking his life. His deeds return upon his own head ; his life is spared through enforced surrender of his property at his death, and of his religion. However much we may despise his spirit of revenge and his love of his ducats more than his love for his daughter, we cannot but feel that his end is pathetic. For hints on Threads refer to "Study of an Individual Play." The principal characters arrange themselves diflfer- ently according to the view-point which we take of them. The following seems to be the order of their Importance in Story : Bassanio, Antonio, Shylock, Portia. Dramatic Importance : Antonio, Shylock, Portia, Bassanio. Strength : Shylock, Portia, Antonio, Bassanio. Beauty of Character: Portia, Antonio, Bassanio, Shylock. Portia serves the dramatic purpose of mediator and forms the connecting link between the business world and the family. Jessica and Launcelot seem to form the con- THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 113 necting link between the Jewish religion and the Christian, by deserting the one for the other. Some Legal Aspects Much criticism has been passed upon the method of con- ducting the trial in the Merchant of Venice ; it has been said that it conforms to no court practice, and that such viola- tion of court procedure, even for dramatic effect, is scarcely excusable, even in Shakespeare. Shakespeariana for January, 1893, contains a very in- teresting experience of Mr. John T. Doyle, which throws new light on this point. It was published at the request of Mr. Lawrence Barrett, who considered it of too great value to be lost. It first appeared in the Overland Monthly for July, 1886. Mr. Furness has reproduced it in his Variorum edition.'^ The chief criticisms passed upon the trial in the Mer- chant of Venice are that no jury is impaneled; no witnesses called; the presiding Duke is fully informed of all of the facts in the case beforehand, and has sent them to Bellario of Padua, and called upon him to come and render judg- ment; certainl}^ very strange proceedings according to our modern courts of justice. Mr. Doyle states that in 1851-52 he spent several months in Nicaraugua; probably at that time the least known and least frequented of the Spanish-Amercian States, quite cut off from the rest of the world, it doubtless kept up the old Spanish court practices. The affairs of his company were in a much entangled condition, and he soon found himself involved in half a dozen law suits. One day in Grenada, a dapper little man accosted him on the street saying "The Alcalde sends for you ;" he paid little attention, when a by- *The Merchant of Venice, page 417. - 114 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA stander told him that he had received a legal summons to court, and that he would better go at once, which he did; when he arrived at court, the Alcalde had the plaintiff sum- moned, who made his charges against the company, and the court proceedings were almost identical with the case of Shylock, even from the summons on the street to the col- lection of the fee. The decision was in Mr. Doyle's favor; soon after, he received an 'Tntimation" that Don. Buena- ventura (the Dr. Bellario in the case) expected a "gratifica- tion" of probably two hundred dollars ; this was simply the fee, which in practice was always collected from the winner in the case. His other cases proceeded in the same manner. Mr. Doyle says that after this experience he re-read the case of Shylock and concluded that Shakespeare was perfectly familiar with old Spanish court customs, and that those of Venice were probably the same, as they came orig- inally from the same source. At least it was no strain of poetic license to transfer Spanish customs to Venice for dramatic effect. Mr. Doyle further states that the disposi- tion of Shylock's estate was still a stumbling block to him, but that later, he witnessed a case in a Mexican court which was settled in a manner quite like that of Shylock, and he then felt that Shakespeare knew perfectly well what he was about, and that we need no longer feel that in this case he shows a lack of knowledge of correct legal proceedings. The Bible in the Merchant of Venice Find in the play, passages parallel to the following quo- tations from the Bible, or which evidently were suggested by them : . „ ., , Merchant ^'"^ of Venice 1. Whosoever will save his life shall Act I lose it. Luke IX, 24 ; also Matt. X, 39. Scene 1 THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 115 2. Whosoever is angry with his broth- Act I er without a cause shall be in danger of the Scene 1 judgment: and whosoever shall say Raca (vain fellow) shall be in danger of the council, but whosoever shall say thou fool, shall be in danger of hell fire. Matt. V, 22. 3. See story of Jonathan shooting the Scene 1 arrows. I Samuel XX, 18-22, 35-38. 4. And Jesus gave them leave. And Scene 3 the unclean spirits went out and entered into the swine^ etc. Mark V, 12, 13. See also Luke VIII, 33 ; John I, 46. 5. For the story of the Patriarchs ; the Scene 3 mother's trick to secure the first place for her favorite son; this son's trick to get the best of the bargain with his uncle Laban, see Genesis XXI, 3 ; XXX, 25-43. 6. Then the devil said ... It is Scene 3 written, He shall give his angels charge concerning thee, etc. Matt. IV, 6 ; Ps. XCI, 11, 12. 7. Ye make clean the outside of the Scene 3 cup and of the platter, but within they are full of extortion and excess. Matt. XXIII, 25 ; also Luke XI, 39. 8. For calling names, see again Matt. Scene 3 V, 22. 9. If a man say, I love God, and hat- Scene 3 eth his brother, he is a liar. I John IV, 20. 10. Whatsoever ye would that men Act II should do to you, do ye even so to them. Scene 1 Matt. VII, 12; also Luke VI, 31. Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. Leviticus XIX, 18. 116 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 11. How to perform that which is Act II good I find not, for the good that I would, Scene 2 1 do not; when I would do good, evil is present with me. Romans VIIj 18, 19, 20. 12. Honor thy father and thy mother. Scene 3 Exodus XX, 12. Cursed be he that setteth light by his father or his mother. Deut. XXI, 18-21. See also Deut. XXVI, 6. 13. They that plow iniquity and sow Scene 5 wickedness, reap the same. Job IV, 8 ; also Proverbs XXII, 8 ; Hosea X, 12, 13 ; Gal. VI, 7. 14. With my staff I passed over this Scene 5 Jordan and now am become two bands (symbol of increase or thrift). Genesis XXXII, 10. 15. Who can find a virtuous woman? for her price is far above rubies. The Scene 6 heart of her husband doth safely trust in her. Prov. XXXI, 10, 11. 16. Be not wise in your own conceits. Scene 7 Proverbs XII, 16. 17. The soul of Jonathan was knit to Scene 8 the soul of David, and Jonathan loved him as his own soul. I Samuel XVIII, 1. 18. Thy love to me was wonderful, Scene 8 passing the love of women. II Samuel I, 26. 19. The words of the Lord are pure Scene 9 words: as silver tried in a furnace of earth, purified seven times. Ps. XII, 6. 20. A prating fool shall fall. Prov. Scene 9 X, 8, 10. THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 117 21. I, the Lord thy God am a jealous Act III God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers Scene 5 upon the children, etc. Exodus XX, 5. 22. Whosoever hateth his brother is a Act IV murderer. I John III, 5. Scene 1 23. With the merciful thou wilt show Scene 1 thyself merciful. II Sam. XXII, 26. Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy. Matt. V, 7. See also Ps. XLI, 1. 24. He shall come down like rain upon Scene 1 the mown grass, as showers that water the earth. Ps. LXXII, 6. See also Deut. XXXII, 2, and Ps. LXV, 10. 25. By the works of the law shall no Scene 1 flesh be justified. Gal. II, 16. 26. And the Lord shall return his blood upon his own head, etc. I Kings II, 32. See also II Sam. I, 6 ; Josh. II, 19 ; Deut. XIX, 10 ; Matt. XXVII, 25. 27. The soul of Jonathan was knit Scene 1 with the soul of David,' and Jonathan loved him as his own soul. I Sam. XVIII, 1. 28. Now Barrabas was a robber. John Scene 1 XVIII, 40. 29. For by thy words thou shalt be justified and by thy words thou shalt be Scene 1 condemned. Matt. XII, 37. 30. And Daniel convicted them of false Scene 1 witness. And from that day forth was Dan- iel had in great reputation. The Apocrypha. Book of Susanna ver. 61-64. 118 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 31. The heavens declare the glory of Act V God and the firmament showeth his handy Scene 1 work .... There is no speech nor language where their voice is not heard. Ps. XIX, 1, 3. When the morning stars sang together. Job. XXXVIII, 7. 32. Neither do men light a candle and Scene 1 put it under a bushel, but on a candle-stick, and it giveth light unto all that are in the house. Let your light so shine before men that they may see your good works, etc. Matt. V, 15, 16. They that enter in may see the light. Luke VIII, 16. 33. And when the dew fell upon the camp in the night, the manna fell upon it. Scene 1 Num. XI, 9. Our fathers did eat manna in the desert. John VI, 31. See Ps. LXXVIII, 24, 25. 34. Compare the friendship of Antonio for Bassanio with that of Jonathan for David. I Sam. XVIII, 1-4 ; XIX, 1-7 ; XX, 4-22 ; II Sam. 1, 26. 35. Compare Portia with the virtuous woman in Proverbs XXXI, 10-31. Questions 1. Why is the play called The Merchant of Venice? With what class of society does it deal? 2. What is the theme of the play? 3. Why may Shakespeare's financial condition have suggested the writing of the play? THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 119 4. Compare the scenes in Venice with the scenes in Bel- mont. 5. Name the two secondary themes in the order of their dramatic importance. 6. What two old stories and what two episodes did Shakespeare weave into the play? 7. What three forms of property are considered, and of what may each be considered a type? 8. Name the four leading characters of the play in the order of story; of dramatic importance; of strength; of beauty of character. 9. What dramatic purpose do the following serve : Nerissa? Gratiano? Lorenzo? Launcelot? 10. What brings out Jessica's native modesty? 11. What is the dramatic purpose of the Lorenzo and Jessica episode? It helps to work out which of the three themes? What effect would it have on the drama if omitted ? 12. What is the only really discordant element in the play and when does it drop out ? Why at this point ? 13. In the Religious conflict of what are the following types — Shylock? Antonio? Portia? 14. In what way do Jessica and Launcelot seem to serve as a connecting link between Judaism and Christianity? 15. What are the two strong inducements for Jessica's elopement ? 16. What is Shylock's most forcible argument for fair treatment from the Christians? Where found? 17. Had Portia any precedent for requiring Shylock to take the exact pound of flesh, no more, no less? 18. Where in the play does Portia appear the strong- est? Where the most womanly? 19. Give Bassanio's characteristics. Was he worthy of Portia ? 120 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 20. The dramatic problem is solved in Act IV, why- does the play not end there ? What is the purpose of Act V ? 21. What dramatic purpose does the ring episode serve ? 22. In the play which is stronger, the element of friend- ship or the element of love? 23. What purpose does music serve in the play? 24. Show how the play is Comedy ; First, In the Property conflict, Second, In the Religious conflict. Third, In the Love conflict. 25. To what extent is the play Tragedy and to what extent Comedy for Shylock? Where is the "Nemesis" of the play? 26. Why is the play Tragi-Comedy ? 27. What is the climax of the play ? Why ? 28. Give an incident of plot; an incident of story. Is the choice of Portia by means of the caskets an incident of plot or of story? 29. Does the play satisfy these three conditions? 1. Does it tell a dramatically complete story? 2. Is the story worked out by means of purely human and probable characters? 3. Is it worked out in a way to be pleasing to the audiences of Shakespeare's day and of our own day? 30. Is there any dramatic purpose in having Jessica and Lorenzo drift to Belmont when they elope? Why does the play in the end bring all of the principal characters ex- cept Shylock, together in Belmont? Why is not Shylock there also? 31. Is it a popular acting play? Why? THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 121 Scheme for Outline Book (a) I. The Drama. (a) Define and give origin. (b) State briefly the origin and development of the English Drama. (c) Describe the theatre and manner of presenting a play in Shakespeare's time. II. Name the three most important senior contempor- aries of Shakespeare and compare him with them in char- acter and education. III. Merchant of Venice. (a) Classify the play. Why is it Tragi-Comedy ? (b) With what class of society does it deal? What is the theme of the play? Why are the busi- ness scenes laid in Venice? (c) What are the secondary themes of the play? IV. Show how the play is Comedy in each of the three themes or conflicts. V. Compare Shylock's treatment of Antonio with An- tonio's treatment of Shylock. VI. Compare Portia the judge, with Portia the woman. VII. Give a memorized quotation from each of the fol- lowing persons and tell where found — Portia, Antonio, Bas- sanio, Shylock, Gratiano, Nerissa. VIII. How is music used in the play? IX. Read As you Like It. Name the animals men- tioned in the play. Give two good quotations from each Act. What is the supernatural element in the play? 122 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Scheme for Outline Boo??: (b) I. The Drama. (a) Define the Drama and give its origin. (b) In about ten lines give the most important points in the development of the English Drama. Name the three essential elements of the Modern Drama. (c) Write a tabular classification of the Shakes- pearean Drama. Define terms. (d) Where was Shakespeare's life spent? Divide into three periods in point of time. State two important facts in each period. XL Merchant of Venice. (a) Classify the play The Merchant of Venice. Give reasons. (b) Make a table of the entrance and exit of char- acters. (c) What is the real theme of the play? The second- ary themes ? What is the climax ? (d) Name four characteristics of each of the follow- ing persons, giving quotations to prove your statements: Portia, Antonio, Shylock, Bassanio, Jessica. Give Gratiano's characteristics from his own words. (e) Name the characters in the order of story, in the order of dramatic importance. (f) Read As You Like It. Name the animals men- tioned in the play. Give two good quotations from each Act. What is the supernatural ele- ment in the play? THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 123 Suggestive Topics for Essays and Discussion 1. The City of Venice, Why selected as the scene for the business action of the play. 2. The character of Portia. 3. Portia as a daughter; as a lawyer. 4. The character of Jessica compared with Portia. 5. The three women in the play compared in character and dramatic purpose. 6. The choice of the caskets. Object of Portia's father in making such a requirement. 7. The choice of the caskets ; the three suitors, their characters. Does Portia in any way influence their choice? 8. The religion of Shylock and Antonio as manifested in their daily life. 9. The pathetic side of Shy lock's situation. 10. The three Love-stories, compare them in their dra- matic importance. 11. The character of Nerissa ; her part in the play. 12. Antonio as a business man^ a Christian, a friend. 13. The character of Bassanio ; was he worthy of Por- tia? 14. The character of Gratiano; compare with Antonio. 15. The Re-union at Belmont. IG. Antonio the man. 1. Bassanio's estimate of Antonio. 2. Shylock's estimate. 3. Antonio as he manifests himself in the play. Combine these three points and work out his character. 17. Which makes his own religion the more attractive, Antonio or Shylock? JULIUS C^SAR ■ 125 A Study of Julius C^sar Sidelights The Three Roman Plays In his three Roman plays, Shakespeare shows Roman life dramatized : Coriolanus portrays the struggle of classes ; Julius CcBsar the struggle of principles; Antony and Cleo- patra the struggle of individuals ; still in all of these plays the characters are so marvelously drawn that our interest centers in them rather than in the State. Dowden considers the theme of Coriolanus to be the "ruin of a noble life through the sin of pride." Mr. Moulton Corio- thinks this very unjust to Coriolanus ; he says that lanus his ''deeds are not actuated by personal ambition/* Theme that he is only actuated by "the passion of service," his only ambition is to serve the State; according to this interpretation "Patriotism" must be the theme. We may certainly consider the theme of Antony and Cle- Antony and opatra to be "the ruin of a brilliant mind Cleopatra Theme and earnest soul, through lack of moral force or power." Julius Ccesar is a drama of the State. It is a conflict be- r ,. r. r^y twccu thc wom out Republic and the in- Jultus Ccesar Theme . t i • commg one-man power. Its theme is "Down with tyranny and the tyrant." Brutus hated tyranny, Cassius hated the tyrant. This drama was probably written about 1(301, or just about the time of the conspiracy of Essex and Southampton ^ a£:ainst the life of Elizabeth, for which Essex lost Date ^ his head and Southampton was sent to the tower; Brandes thinks that this might have directed Shakespeare's 126 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA thought to poHtical intrigues, and have suggested the writ- ing of Julius Ccesar. In Julius Ccesar, Shakespeare has almost transcribed Pkitarch ; in none of his other plays has he followed the Source source of his plot so closely; if the student will of Plot read the lives of Caesar and Brutus in North's Plu- tarch,* and then read his Julius Ccesar, he will find not only the story, but the incidents with a few slight variations, the superstitions, the omens, and in many cases the very lan- guage of Plutarch ; but what a transformation ! The great master has endowed the narrative of Plutarch with dramatic life, the characters are no longer men in a book, but are alive before us, speaking for themselves. No more striking illus- tration can be found of the contrast between the narrative and the dramatic forms of literature. That Shakespeare has chosen in this great play to pre- sent Plutarch's weak Csesar, instead of the grand Caesar of Shakes- history has been ever a great puzzle to critics. Some peare's have even gone so far as to say that he could have Caesar -]^^^ ^^^ j^g^ conception of the true character of this great "World-hero." A careful study of this play, and al- lusions to Caesar in other plays, shows the incorrectness of this conclusion. Hamlet, philosophizing upon the return of the body to Mother Earth, says : "Imperious Csesar, dead and turn'd to clay. Might stop a hole to keep the wind away : O, that that earth which kept the world in awe Should patch a wall t' expel the Winter's flaw." Here Shakespeare recognizes the man who could keep "the world in awe," and surely he could be no weakling. Mr. George Brandes thinks that had Shakespeare made the Caesar of history the real hero of the play, he would have *See "Shakespeare's Plutarch" Skeat : (Macmillan). JULIUS C^SAR . 127 given us a far more wonderful drama, and that by not doing so, he lost a great opportunity. Since the great dramatist takes his material from whatever source he pleases, and handles it as he pleases, we shall treat the play in this study as though it were all his own: we will study it a.s. Shakes- peare and not as Plutarch. In the play Csesar appears only three times ; in Act I, Scene 2, in a public place to witness the race ; in Act II, Caesar Scene 3, he appears in the home ; in Act III, Scene in the 1, he goes to the Senate House where he is assass- ^^^y inated. Throughout the entire play the interest centers in Bru- tus ; it almost seems as though the play were written to show Brutus how this man of high ideals and noble impulses is in the at last overcome through over-confidence in his ^^^y ideals, and in men's acceptance of them, and a lack of political insight or judgment; he can theorize, but when he comes to deal with men in the outside world, he fails. A little more careful reading shows that the conflict is not with Csesar the individual, but with Csesar the "Institutional person," and that the spirit of Csesar is more powerful after the assassination than before; Brutus sounds the key-note when he says, "We all do stand up against the spirit of Csesar, And in the spirit of man there is no blood; O that we then could come by Caesar's spirit, And not dismember Caesar." Thus we see that Brutus and Cassius^ the "Institutional persons," stand for the Republic, the government in which Institu- the people have a voice. Csesar, the "Institutional tional person," stands for the one-man power; or may we persons ^^-^ f^gj ^j^^^ ^j^^ Csesar of history saw the failure of the Republic, and that the salvation of Rome lay in the better government which could only be obtained by taking the 128 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA power out of the hands of factions which were using it only for self-aggrandizement, and placing it in the hands of one man who would study the good of the State. History shows that Caesar was cut down in the midst of the grandest plans for the State, and the golden age of Rome was the Age of Augustus when the spirit of the great Julius reigned. The life which moves through struggle to the repose of peace, is Comedy. Studying the play in this light, we see that while it is a great tragedy for individuals, as a rp . drama of government, it is really a great comedy for and the State of Rome: the misrule of the Republic has Comedy been crushed and harmony is restored through Oc- of the tavius, the bearer of Caesar's spirit ; for a short while, ^^ until this spirit is violated, Rome is at rest under the rule of the Empire. The gates of the Temple of Janus, which were kept open in time of war and were closed in time of peace, were shut three times during the reign of Augus- tus, while in the entire previous history of the State, they had been closed but twice, so constantly had she been at war, and as Rome was "Mistress of the World/' this meant that peace prevailed throughout the entire civilized world. What a fitting time to usher in the "Prince of Peace" who was born during the reign of Augustus ! Ethical Standpoint of the Play Some points discussed in this topic have been already touched upon, enough to familiarize the pupil with the line of thought. This drama has full sweep in Shakespeare's Ethical World. Domestic life, or the Institution of the Family, has but small place, but it is shown in its most beautiful, most per- fect form in the relations between Brutus and Portia. The ^reat conflict is in the State, seemingly between two fac- tions; really between the spirit of old RepubHc, which had JULIUS C^SAR 129 degenerated into the misrule of factions and anarchy, and the Phoenix which was to rise from its ashes, in the form of a wise government, although administered by one man. This spirit of ''the survival of the fittest" which we see triumphing in the rise and fall of nations, is the World- Spirit of Shakespeare's Ethical World. Some indi- ?\ ' vidual must be the bearer of this spirit ; but back of the individual must be a greater power — the People. The corner-stone in the foundation of our own national structure was the spirit of freedom ; this spirit could not en- Influence dure the enslaving of man by his fellow-man ; when of the the final conflict came, Lincoln was the bearer of People ^j^-g spirit, but back of him was the People, without this support he would have been powerless ; the mor- tal Lincoln, like Caesar, suffered martyrdom at the hands of misled fanaticism, but the spirit of Lincoln, the World- Spirit of freedom and justice, lives on and can never die. What was it but the cry of the People that settled the recent great conflict caused by the coal strike (1902) ; both capital and labor had to make concessions at the demand of the People. In this most popular of Shakespeare's historical dramas, we must by no means overlook this most powerful element rpj^g — the People. Notice how careful Csesar is to keep in People in touch with the People when he refuses the crown. Julius After the assassination, the first thought of Brutus Casar ^^^ Cassius is to pacify the People; Antony is so successful in his appeal to the People that Brutus and Cassius are compelled to flee, and why? because the spirit of CcBsar and the spirit of the People are one. Weary of the misrule, the bloodshed, the anarchy of the worn-out Republic, the time had come for this World-Historical-Spirit to assert itself, and bring peace and rest to Rome. Perhaps this may explain why Shakespeare has chosen to begin his 130 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA drama with the very last events of Caesar's life; to show that he was mightier in his death than in his life; his object seems, not to be to write a drama of the objective events of the life of this great man, but to show him as the bearer of this great World-Spirit before which governments rise and fall. Rome had always hated the name of King; this World- Spirit of freedom was right, but Rome had failed in execu- tion. The spirit of freedom, if it does not produce the best gov- ernment for the people, results either in the tyranny of factions, or in that license which finally ends in anarchy. The politician, Cassius, in his hatred of the tyrant, utterly failed to comprehend the present needs of Rome; perhaps he was too narrow to comprehend anything so broad. Brutus in his hatred of tyranny, equally failed, for while he recognized Caesar as only the bearer of a spirit, his vision was not clear, and he did not recognize in this spirit the great World- Spirit of history, and fancied that by killing the body he could kill the spirit ; naturally hating bloodshed, how gladly would he have killed the spirit ''and not dismember Caesar," had it been possible. He strikes the blow that only awakens the spirit of Caesar within the People, for Antony only arouses to action the World Spirit already there. Brutus and Cassius having arrayed themselves against this spirit, meet their fate at Philippi, and thus the deed re- turns upon the doer, and Nemesis is satisfied. The C^sar of History When only eighteen years of age, Caesar commanded the fleet that blockaded Mitylene, and for personal bravery, won the crown of oak leaves. At the age of twenty-four T "ixr he was captured by pirates, obtained his release by payment of fifty talents, manned their vessels, captured and JULIUS C^SAR 131 crucified the pirates, as he had told them he would do. At twenty-six he was made MiHtary Tribune and at thirty-six, Pontifex Maximus. When Catiline was charged with con- spiracy, Csesar opposed the death sentence without trial, and his life was threatened. Triumphant in Spain, upon his return he was granted a triumph, and elected Consul, 60 B. C. He now out-generaled the bad management of the Senate, by getting the passage of an agrarian law which provided for the veterans of Pompey's army, and gave land to needy citizens ; relieved the tax col- lectors who had paid too high for their privileges ; thus showing his statesmanship by satisfying his rival, Pompey, pleasing the people, reconciling the capitalists, and weaken- ing the power of a despotic Senate. At the expiration of his term of office he was given com- mand in Gaul with three legions. Now began his famous Gallic campaigns which were marked by personal bravery and wise judgment ; always victorious, he made friends of the enemy, created new Roman provinces ; and when ordered to lay down his command, he dared to brave the Senate and cross the Rubicon with his army, which made him in the eyes of Rome, a traitor to his country. Succeeding in mak- ing himself master of Rome, he made himself secure by de- feating Pompey at Pharsalia, 48 B. C. ; crushed the rebellion of Pharnaces, made memorable by his laconic report "Veni, Vidi, Vici ;" defeated Cato and Scipio in Africa, 4:6 B. C, and Pompey's sons at Munda in Spain, March, 45 B.C. In September he was made dictator for life, and March 15, 44 B. C, was assassinated. "The most brutal and the most pa- thetic scene that profane history has to record." Goethe says "the most senseless deed that ever was done." The decaying Republic was Csesar's opportunity ; instead of standing for liberty, for freedom, it meant only anarchy. 132 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Works of When C^sar took the helm, Rome was still reeking Peace with the blood of proscriptions ; no life was really safe ; the populace consisted of slaves and hordes of captives taken in war from all the tribes of Europe, Asia and Africa surrounding the Mediterranean ; all of these swarms of cap- tives, freedmen and slaves, without thought of labor, were fed at the public crib. Caesar at once planned great works of public construction and improvements, reducing pauperism by giving employment to the idle. He encouraged agricultural colonies in the newly ac- quired territory ; passed bankrupt laws which relieved the debtor and at the same time spared the creditor. Physically he is said to have been an athlete in early life, very fond of the bath, enjoying a plunge in the Tiber ; an Personal expert horseman, in his Gallic campaigns riding his charac- own horse which no one else could mount; enjoyed teristics excellent health until the last year of his life when he became a victim to the ''falling sickness" to which Cassius alludes. History writes him down as a humanitarian, and an author worthy of imitation. "No military narrative has approached the excellence of the history of the war in Gaul." He was a most wise statesman; one of the world's most famous generals, and as generous in peace as he was brave in war; no blood flowed in Rome by his direction when he stood at the helm ; he was great enough to forgive his ene- mies, a thing in that age of the world, unexampled in history. Structure The structure of the play is simple and easily traced. As in most of Shakespeare's tragedies, the first movement Move- is stronger, "the organization and the action more ments complete." As the play works up to the climax each step links into the preceding with an intensity of interest, while the consequences which follow the climax, in the JULIUS C^SAR 133 fourth and fifth acts are more disjointed, looser in structure and hence the intensity of interest lags a trifle. In the first movement the action is in Rome, portraying her internal conflict ; it ends in the assassination of Caesar ; the spirit of Caesar drives the conspirators out. The second movement is external to Rome ; when outside of the State the conspira- tors fight the spirit of Caesar until overcome, they fall upon their own swords and die by their own hands. The suggestions already given disclose the threads : first the World- Spirit represented by Caesar and his friends ; al- though Antony's friendship is purely for the indi- vidual Caesar ; he has no conception of the spirit which Caesar represents, as is shown by his later life and by his death; still he forms the connecting link between Caesar and Octavius, the bearer of Caesar's spirit. Second thread: the conspirators who array themselves in opposition to the World-Spirit, led by Cassius and Brutus ; for convenience we may call the threads, Caesar's thread and The conspir- ator's thread. These points are only suggestive ; the pupil should work out the movements more fully and complete the threads. Time Analysis According to history, Caesar's last triumph was cele- brated in October, 45 B. C. The feast of Lupercal occurred Feb. 15, 44 B. C. The assassination of Caesar, March 15, 44 B. C. ; his funeral, March 19 or 20 ; Octavius arrives at Rome in May; theTriumvirate is not formed until Novem- ber, 43 B. C. ; a year later, Oct., 43 B. C, two battles are fought at Philippi, twenty days apart. The play opens with the feast of Lupercal, Feb. 15, 44 B. C, and closes with the battle of Philippi, Oct., 42, B. C, a period of two and a half years. One of the Commoners says : ''We make holiday to see Caesar and rejoice in his triumph." It is usually inferred that Shakespeare combines 134 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA the October triumph with the feast of Lupercal. He com- bines the two battles of Philippi and makes the other events follow in rapid succession. Mr. Daniels finds that the action on the stage covers six days with intervals. The interval of one month between Scenes ,2 and 3, Act I, since this evi- dently occurs on the same night as Scene 1, Act II, in which Lucius says, "March is wasted fourteen days." Act III follows the next day without interruption. Then follows quite a long time between Act III and Act IV, Scene 1. During the spring and summer of 42 B. C, Brutus and Cas- sius were in Asia Minor, in Sardis and vicinity, there must have been another long interval between Scenes 1 and 2 ; between Acts IV and V, long enough for the army to march from Sardis to Philippi. This time analysis may be pre- sented to the eye in tabular form. JULIUS C^SAR TIME ANALYSIS DAY ACT SCENE I I MI Feb. 15, 44 B. C. Feast of Lupercal. Interval, one month. II I III March 15, 44 B. C. Early morning. III II-III March 15, 44 B. C, Ides. Assassination. Historical interval, i year 8 months. IV IV I Nov. 43 B. C. Meeting of Triumvirate. Interval, several months V IV II-III Sardis— 42 B.C. Interval, at least long enough for the army to march from Sardis to Philippi. IV V Oct. — 42 B. C. Battle of Philippi. JULIUS C^SAR 135 Questions for Class Study and Suggestive Topics for Outline Books. 1. What period of Roman history does this drama rep- resent ? 2. What is the theme of the play? 3. What is the real conflict? i. If Shakespeare designed to make this a drama of Julius Caesar, why did he simply make use of his death in- stead of his life ? 5. Do you think the play is properly called Julius CcBsarf Why, or why not? 6. Why does the play open with the People f 7. Name the places in the play in which the People appear and show the dramatic purpose which they serve. 8. Compare Calpurnia and Portia in their domestic re- lations and character. 9. What dramatic purpose do they serve? 10. Does Portia betray her secret? 11. Portia has been called Shakespeare's most modern woman. Why ? 12. The Supernatural Element. 1. What use is made of the supernatural in the play? Is it introduced merely to enliven and to awaken interest, or has it a dramatic purpose in the movement of the play? If so, what? 2. How does nature seem to sympathize with the spirit of the play ? 3. Make a list of the supernatural manifestations, omens, etc., and state where found, and who speaks of them or sees them. 4. Can you feel that the whole atmosphere of the play is electrical? 13. Cassiiis and the Conspiracy. 1. Why does Cassius plan the conspiracy? 136 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 2. Make a list of the steps and arguments by which Cassius wins Brutus. 3. By which he wins Casca. 4. Compare Brutus and Casca and show why each was necessary to make the conspiracy a success. 5. How does Cassius show his ability in making up the band of conspirators? 6. Is he a true patriot? 7. Estimate his character as a man. 14. Brutus. 1. At the very opening of the play, to which party does he belong? 2. Why does Cassius select Brutus as the first to be persuaded to join him? 3. What traits of character does Brutus show in his conversation with Cassius in Act I, Scene 2? 4. In discussing plans with the conspirators (Act II, Scene 1) what characteristics does he show? 5. What reasons does he give for joining the con- spirators ? 6. After the assassination does he manifest the spirit shown in his words, "O, that we could come by Caesar's spirit and not dismember Caesar" ? 7. What effect did joining the conspirators have upon Brutus as a man? 8. According to Titinius, whose fault was it that the battle of Philippi was lost? 9. In his famous oration, to what elements in the People did he appeal? 10. Was he a politician? Give reasons. 11. Was he a statesman? Give reasons. 12. Was he a general? Give reasons. 13. Was he a true patriot? Give reasons. JULIUS C^SAR 137 14. What characteristics does he show in his atti- tude toward Portia? 15. What in his treatment of the boy Lucius all through the play? 16. What was Brutus' philosophy concerning sui- cide? According to his own theory, was he courageous or cowardly in taking his own life? 17. Brutus is usually considered the great character of the play, was his life a failure or a success? Why? 18. Brutus has been called the "Sphinx" of the play. Why ? 19. Make a list of the contradictions in his charac- ter. 20. Make a synopsis of his oration. 21. What point do you think had the greatest effect upon the People? 22. Brutus said, "As I slew my best lover for the good of Rome, I have the same dagger for my- self when it shall please my country to need my death." Is this his reason for falling upon his sword after the battle of Philippi ? 15. Make a list of the points upon which Cassius and Brutus differed ; who always yielded to the other ? Whose judgment was better? 16. The tent scene, or quarrel between Brutus and Cas- sius, has ever been considered one of the finest scenes in the play. Can you see why? What is the object of it? How does it bring out each of the characters? Does it forward the dramatic movement of the play? 17. According to history, Portia suffocated herself with hot coals on account of grief on hearing of the death of Brutus; in the play do you see any dramatic purpose in placing her death first? 138 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 18. Make a list in parallel columns, of the characterist- ics of Brutus and Cassius. 19. Antony. 1. What traits of Antony's character are revealed at the opening of the play ? 2. What traits does he display in conversation with Brutus and Cassius after Caesar's death? 3. When Antony says, "And Caesar's spirit longing for revenge," etc., does he comprehend that Caiisar's spirit is the World-Spirit of history which cannot be crushed? 4. In his famous oration, to what did he appeal in the People? 5. Give the steps and arguments by which he reached his result. 6. When Brutus appealed to the People, he carried them with him ; when Antony followed, he im- mediately won them to his side ; had Antony have spoken first, would they have turned from Antony to Brutus? 7. In settling affairs in the triumvirate, (Act. IV, Scene 1), what traits of character does Antony show ? 8. What, when he finds Brutus slain by his own hand? 9. Antony could win the People, could he win indi- vidual men? Cassius could win individual men, could he sway the People? 10. Was Antony a true patriot? 20. Who is the political man of the play? The moral man? The non-moral man? 21. What is the dramatic purpose of Act III, Scene 3 ? JULIUS C^SAR 139 22. The Word ''Honor'' in the play. 1. By whom and when is this word and its deriv- atives, honest, honorable, etc., used in the play? To whom does the word seem to belong? 2. While reading the play, comit the number of times this word is used. 23. The word ''Spirit" in the play. 1. Trace this word in the play and show its sig- nificance ; could it be left out or anything substi- tuted for it? 2. Count the number of times it occurs. 24. Why does the ghost of Csesar appear to Brutus be- fore the battle of Philippi ? 25. Can you see that this drama is Comedy for Rome? 26. How is Nemesis satisfied? 27. Make a graphic illustration of the rise and fall of any character, as. Suit your figure to your character. Scheme for Outline Book 1. The Drama. (a) Define and give origin, (b) In parallel columns state the distinctive feat- ures of the Legendary and Historical Drama. (c) Define the term World- Spirit. 2. Make a graphic illustration of the plot of Julius Ccesar. 3. Make a list of the supernatural manifestations, omens, etc., in the play, stating who sees them or speaks of them. Give act and scene. 140 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 4. Make a list of the events in the play which differ from the events in history. 5. Give an analysis of Antony's oration, and show his method of moving the people. 6. Show the course of Brutus in the play by graphic il- lustration. 7. Give at least two quotations from each of the fol- lowing persons which indicate their character: Caesar, Cas- sius, Brutus, Portia, Antony. Give act and scene. 8. Give at least three estimates each, of Caesar and Bru- tus from the mouths of others. Act and scene. Home reading .... Coriolanus. 1. Write the story of the play in the class-room. 2. Give theme. 3. State its place in Roman history. 4. State the importance of the domestic, or family thread in the play. 5. Give two quotations showing strength from Vo- lumnia, and two from Coriolanus. 6. Why do both of these plays open with the People? Suggestive Themes for Essays and Discussion 1. The People in the play. 2. The Supernatural in the play. 3. Portia and Calpurnia. 4. Cassius and the Conspiracy. 5. Caesar in the play. 6. The Caesar of History and Shakespeare's Caesar. 7. Brutus the Sphinx of the play. 8. Caesar the Patriot. 9. Brutus and Cassius as Patriots. 10. Antony as a Patriot. 11. Portia, the Woman. JULIUS C^SAR 141 12. The word Honor in the play. 13. The word Spirit in the play. 14. The Man Antony, compared with the Man Brutus. 15. Calpurnia's and Caesar's Superstitions. IG. Brutus as an orator compared with Antony. 17. Lepidus, his character and dramatic purpose in the Drama. 18. Cesar's treatment of his enemies. 19. Caesar's attitude toward the people. 20. The Elements of the Drama of Julius Ccesar, which make it so popular. 21. Quarrel between Cassius and Brutus. 22. Brutus' Inconsistencies. 23. The Significance of the Assassination of Political Leaders. 24. An Estimate of the Drama Julius Ccesar. MACBETH 143 A Study of Macbeth Sidelights Some Features of the Play This drama was probably written about 1606. It breathes the atmosphere of Scotland; the crowns of England and Scotland had recently been united in James I ; possibly the spirit of the times might have suggested to Shakespeare the writing of this, his only Scottish play. The mutilated con- dition of the text as it appeared first in the folio of 1623, doubtless accounts for some apparent faults in the artistic work of this drama. The dramatic action is so rapid, that although it contains so much, it is one of the shortest of Shakespeare's plays ;* it Dramatic has only 3109 lines, while Hamlet contains 3930. Action The interest so centers in Macbeth and Lady Mac- beth that it almost seems a play of but two characters ; and yet in the first or vital Act, Macbeth speaks only 26 times, and in all but 878 words : Lady Macbeth speaks only 14 times, 864 words in all ; in the entire play she speaks less than 60 times and Macbeth less than 150; many of these speeches are very short, some times only a word. We marvel at the ability which develops two of the most won- derful characters in all literature in so short a space. This drama has such a strong historical background, that at first one is almost inclined to classify it as Historical, Classifi- but the treatment is purely that of Ideal Tragedy, cation which takes it out of the realm of history. For his historical material, as in his English plays, *The Comedy of Errors is the shortest play, 1778 lines. (Globe Ed.) 144 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Shakespeare draws upon Holinshed; as this story is given in most of the school editions of the play we will °"^^^ . not repeat it here. His handling of his material is a constant source of wonderment and admiration. What ac- tion he puts into every dry bone ; what dramatic life into every character, until the effect of the whole seems nothing short of electrical ! The Supernatural Element Hamlet and Macbeth are Shakespeare's only Ideal Trag- ' edies ; that is, the only tragedies in which the supernatural enters as an element by which "to express and develop the motives of the tragic individual." It is only in these dramas feat — the objective — ghost — appears ; — th^ is , that the spirit - of the dead again assumes the body ; ov) that the supernatural assumes a form visible to those for whom it has no especial message. The drama of Macbeth is dominated by the supernatural from the beginning until near the end, when Macbeth parts from the Weird Sisters with a curse ; in fact, the con- flict seems to be between the supernatural and the natural worlds ; so much so, that these elements may be considered the two threads of the play. We can get but little idea of the true significance of this play without making an especial study of this supernatural Supersti- element. We must bear in mind that when this drama tious was written, the English as well as the Scottish peo- Beliefs pie, still believed in all sorts of supernatural mani- of the festations. They believed that evil spirits caused Times storms at sea and convulsions of nature on land ; that they took possession of human beings and caused them to commit crimes and destroy the peace of families ; if Queen EHzabeth's stomach did not behave well and kept her awake at night, it was because she had fallen under the spell of witchcraft. King James was so firm a believer in this form MACBETH 145 of superstition that he wrote a Textbook of Witchcraft and Its Developments, and before he came to the throne of Eng- land he had caused no less than 600 old women to be burned as witches. The real witches were often supposed to guide the affairs of men; they were often pictured as inhuman hags, brewing all sorts of hideous mixtures in hellish cauldrons, and so when Shakespeare introduces this element in his play, he is only making it effective by the use of the common superstitions of the times. At its ver}^ opening, the play is thrown under the spell of the Weird Sisters, lln a desert place, with the elements of Weird nature in commotion, they meet to sound the key- Sisters note of the drama ; to announce that their next meeting will be to meet Macbeth "upon the heath. ^ ''When the battle's lost and won." "Fair is foul and foul is fair;" To Banquo the Weird Sisters are only objective: he says *'to me you speak not." To Macbeth they are subjective as well as objective; he already has them within; his first words in the play, just as he is about to see the witches on the heath, "So foul and fair a day I have not seen," but indicates his kinship with them; they do not drop the seeds of temptation into his mind, but only start into active life what is already there; these evil creatures are only typical of the nest of vipers which Macbeth is nursing to hfe in his own breast. "They met me in the day of success." Having crushed a rebellion, an unholy ambition takes possession of him and he becomes a rebel at heart ; the thought of the crown is by no means new to him, the Weird Sisters make the possibility a reality ; the murder of Duncan 146 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA will hasten kingship ; the resolution is taken and the plan laid; while waiting for the bell to call him to the deed (Act II, Scene 1), he sees the dagger with the handle towards him, he denies its reality and muses, "Now o'er the one half-world Nature seems dead, and wicked dreams abuse The curtained sleep ; witchcraft celebrav"-""^ Pale Hecate's offerings." The appearance of Hecate, the queen of the witches, has caused much comment by critics ; by some it is considered quite unnecessary, while others go so far as to say that this feature of the play can- not be Shakespeare's own work ; since the critics differ so widely in their views and interpretations, we may be allow- ed to interpret for ourselves. When Macbeth has a moment's pause, his thoughts turn to the witches ; but now, kingship in view, Hecate, Queen of the witches, naturally appeals to his soul. Again in Act III, Scene 2, "O full of scorpions is my mind, dear wife ! Thou know'st that Banquo, and his Fleance, lives." "There's comfort yet; they are assailable. "e'er to black Hecate's summons The shard-borne beetle with his drowsy hums Hath sung night's yawning peal, there shall be done A deed of dreadful note." Here again, when he sees a possible future obstacle, with murder in his heart, his mind calls up the Queen of the witches. Has not Macbeth himself prepared us for her ap- pearance at the next meeting of these uncanny creatures? Has she a mission? First she chides them for daring "To trade and traffic with Macbeth In riddles and affairs of death," without calling upon her; then mark her words, MACBETH 147 "And, which is worse, all you have done Hath been but for a wayward son. Spiteful and wrathful ; who, as others do. Loves for his own ends, not for you."' (Act HI, Scene 5.) Here she gives Macbeth his place, she proclaims him a "son," one of themselves. What could be more definite? She it is who foresees his next coming and plans for it ; she charges them to be ready with their vessels, charms, etc., for on the next day "he will come to know his destiny," then she will away to prepare for the "great business" of the mor- row, to "raise such artificial sprites" "As by the strength of their illusion Shall draw him on to his confusion, He shall spurn fate, scorn death, and bear His hopes 'bove wisdom, grace, and fear ; And you all know security Is mortals' chiefest enemy." Hecate it is, w^ho as Queen of evil, plans Macbeth's final destruction ; she gives the keynote to the announcements made by the apparitions as they rise one after the other from the cauldron, all of which only tend to make him feel "secure," which indeed proved his "chiefest enemy." How perfectly Macbeth recognizes the spirits of darkness when he addresses them as "secret, black, midnight hags" and asks them what they do ; and how truly they echo back his own black heart when they make answer, "A deed without a name." Having been made to "feel secure," Macbeth still cannot feel satisfied until he knows whether "Shall Banquo's issue ever Reign in this kingdom?" and when they would have him "Seek to know no more" and he "will be satisfied," they will "grieve his heart," and the show of eight kings with Banquo's ghost following, 148 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA passes before his horrified eyes ; convinced, he would still be reassured, he asks "What, is this so?" Whereupon they as- sure him that it is, and with a dance vanish with Hecate. How in the dance, they deride him as they vanish in air, leaving him room for no further questioning. Macbeth has been drawn "on to his confusion," has been doomed to work out his own complete destruction by Hecate and her sub- jects; and now leaving him to himself, having accomplished their work, they vanish to appear no more. Can we feel that Hecate is an accident, that she has no dramatic purpose in this wonderful drama which is based upon the realm of blackest darkness of which she is Queen? Some have thought the contents of the cauldron too hell- ish for Shakespeare's work ; but is it any blacker than the heart which, not satisfied with the blood already shed, find- ing that Macduff has fled to England, will "Give to the edge o' the sword His wife, his babes, and all unfortunate souls That trace him in his line. No boasting like a fool ; This deed I'll do before the purpose cool. But no more sights!" (Act IV, Scene 1.) He now has the contents of the cauldron all within his own black heart — he can without hesitation, take the life- blood of innocent women and babes, and needs no longer call upon the demons of darkness for information or help. The Porter Not only Hecate, but the maudlin, half-drunken Porter, has been criticised as a character unworthy of Shakespeare, and quite out of place in the play. But "there's method" in the Porter. Though he does not comprehend the situation in his mind, he seems to intuitively realize it in his soul, as he seems to fancy himself porter at hell-gate, and that he is to admit to "the everlasting bon-fire" one "who committed MACBETH 149 treason enough for God's sake, yet could not equivocate to heaven." Now between the time of the first knocking and the entrance of Macduff and Lenox, Macbeth and his wife must have time to cleanse themselves of the evidence of their guilt; they must wash off their blood stains, undress and "Get on your night-gown, lest occasion call us And show us to be watchers." The porter must be a half-wit who can talk against time: had he been a bright, wide-awake fellow, attending promptly to his business, the visitors would have been admitted long before the evidence of guilt could have been washed away or concealed, and the drama must have ended. Has not, then, the foolish Porter a most decided dramatic purpose? Theme Every great deed brings with it a great responsibility and a great temptation, which the doer of the deed must meet. If the man is greater than his deed, he comes out a Hero ; if the deed is too great for the man, he yields to the temptation, his course is downward, and unless arrested. Nemesis follows him tmtil his end is that of a tragic indi- vidual. Macbeth's deed is greater than the man, and he can- not withstand the temptation. Subjective conflicts he has, it is true, but they are prompted by fear of the evil that may re- sult, rather than by his intuitive love of the good. "That but this blow Might be the be-all and the end-all here; But here, upon this bank and shore of time, We'd jump the life to come." While haunted by the ghost of Banquo, his words declare that he is a man so bold "that dare look on that which might appal the devil." He reaches his climax and is given over to the spirit of evil, and declares that 150 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA "I will to-morrow And betimes I will, to the Weird Sisters : More shall they speak; for now I am bent to know, By the worst means, the worst." A laudable deed has implanted an unlaudable ambition, 'T have no spur To prick the sides of my intent, but only Vaulting ambition, which o'erleaps itself. And falls on the other." (Act I, Scene 7.) And thus we see in Macbeth, a noble, though morally weak character, wrecked by an unholy ambition and pride. Dowden calls this "the tragedy of the twilight and the setting in of thick darkness upon a human soul." Basis of the Drama Before the play opens, Macbeth has performed a worthy deed and an unholy ambition has been implanted in his heart; this forms a basis for the drama. This ambition is still shadowy in the mind of Macbeth ; he ^must have some- thing to give it definiteness ; this is the mission of the Weird Basis of Sisters ; they meet him ''in the day of success" and Action foretell his future greatness, and the thought be- gins to take form and gives him a basis of action; he at once informs Lady Macbeth, and with her, thought at once takes the form of action ; there is no hesitancy here, and the action of the drama starts with full force. The foul deed is Ethical done, and the harmony of the Ethical World is dis- stand- turbed. The deed contains within itself the elements pomt Qf death ; harmony must be restored either through the repentance of the doer of the evil deed, or he must move on to destruction. When brought face to face with his deed and contemplating further action, he is ready to call upon the powers of darkness, "I will to-morrow. And betimes I will to the Weird Sisters. More they shall speak, for now I am bent to know, MACBETH 151 By the worst means, the worst. I am in blood Stepped in so far that, should I wade no more, Returning were as tedious as to go o'er." (Act III, Scene 4.) And so he madly rushes on to his death ; and the law of Tragedy which declares that "Man must live in accord with the Ethical World or perish," is satisfied. Harmony is restored to the State in the person of Malcolm, the rightful claimant of the crown. Thus the Drama which is Tragedy for the individual, results in Comedy for the State. Striicture'^ One who has studied the foregoing plays should now be able to' trace the structure of a Shakespearean drama. A few hints upon this play have already been given. The movements, Guilt and Retribution, are not difficult; the su- pernatural thread is easily traced ; the second thread, that of the natural world, at first thought, seems a little involved. Before the play opens, an heroic and laudable deed has been done ; Macbeth is 'the hero ; aided by Banquo, he has Second put down a rebellion; he has seen retribution follow Thread the rebel ; he is a man of courage and of action ; he is stronger than the weak King whom he serves, but he is not greater than his deed ; having crushed a rebel, he in turn becomes a rebel, and an unholy ambition takes possession of his soul ; he is ready to respond to the witches, "So foul and fair a day I have not seen." The crown of Scotland was elective within the hereditary nobility : Macbeth was first cousin to Duncan and as near the throne by blood as he. Were not his claims as strong by blood and by right of manhood stronger? The thought of *See Snider's Commentary on Macbeth. 152 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA kingship was not new to him ; he has thought that at least he might be made Prince of Cumberland, that is, Crown- prince. In tracing the second thread, that of the natural world, we see that it starts in this heroic deed with two strands : first the temptation which the great act brings with Strands ^^' ^^^ second, Opposed to this, the penalty, or retri- of bution as shown in the fate of the Thane of Caw- Second dor ; Macbeth must believe in both ; we see how he Thread yigj^^g ^q the first, and as a necessary consequence works out the second. He is by his very nature a man of action. ''The very firstlings of my heart, shall be the first- lings of my hand." The reflective Hamlet could never, like Macbeth, have so rushed on to blood. 'Tis true, that not being yet entirely given over to the "Evil One," he, pauses a moment, the subjective conflict be- gins: "If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me." But he has no moral courage to follow the promptings of his better nature. The first strand of this thread of the natural world con- sists of the deed which involves Macbeth, Lady Macbeth, and indirectly Banquo. Note that Fleance scarcely appears as an active character in the play, he only speaks twice, and then, a matter of no importance; still Fleance forebodes trouble. The second strand, the retribution, involves Dun- can as the victim, and the other characters are easily traced. With these suggestions the threads should be fully traced and the action worked out through the movements. Study Questions and Suggestive Topics for Discussion AND Outline Books (A) Review 1. Define Tragedy. State its law. 2. Define Ideal Tragedy. MACBETH 153 3. Define Ethics. 4. Explain the term Ethical World. 5. Give the principles of Shakespeare's Ethical World. 6. Show how these points apply to this drama. (B) The Play 1. Where is the scene of the play laid? 2. Make a map of Scotland showing ,the scene of the tragedy. (An excellent one is given in Macbeth of the Sil- ver series of English Classics, Silver, Burdett & Co.) 3. Give the historical basis of the plot. 4. With what class of society does the play deal? 5. What is the ethical basis of the drama? 6. What is the basis of the action? 7. In this drama, how is the harmony of the Ethical World disturbed? How restored? How is harmony re- stored to the State? 8. Why does the drama open on a desolate, barren heath, with nature in commotion? 9. Time analysis. Mr. Daniel gives "Time of the play, nine days represented on the stage, and intervals." See if you can trace them. 10. Give a name or title to each act. (C) The Supernatural Elements First Movement. Guilt (a) The Weird Sisters: the tempters. 1. What is the dramatic purpose of the opening scene ? Why not leave it out and first introduce the reader and the audience to the witches in Scene 3, when they first appear to Macbeth and Ban- quo? 2. What is the significance of their closing speech? "Fair is foul, and foul is fair. Hover through the fog and filthy air." 154 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 3. How do you interpret their conversation in Scene 3 before Macbeth and Banquo appear? 4. Can you see any reason for making the witches sexless ? 5. Banquo sees them first and addresses them, but they do not speak until Macbeth questions them. Why do they not reply to Banquo? 6. What is their mission in this first movement which drives Macbeth to guilt? What office do they perform? 7. At what time in Macbeth's career do they appear to him? 8. What is the effect of their visitation? 9. When they vanish, what is Macbeth's attitude toward them? How does Banquo regard them? (b) The Dagger. 1. When does Macbeth see the air drawn-dagger? W^hy does he see it? 2. How is he affected by it? 3. How does he interpret it? 4. Is there any particular significance in his refer- ence to Hecate at this point? 5. What is the dramatic purpose of the dagger? (c) The Ghost. 1. At what point in Macbeth's career does he see Ghosts ? 2. Why is he not haunted by the ghost of Duncan as well as by that Banquo? 3. Why does Banquo's ghost appear a second time? Is it subjective or objective? 4. How is Macbeth affected by it ? MACBETH 155 5. Is there any dramatic purpose in having this manifestation at the banquet in the presence of the nobiUty? 6. Do you think Macbeth betrays his guilt? (d) Nature, omens, etc. 1. Make a list of the disturbances of nature, in this movement, stating when they occur and by whom mentioned. 2. Make a list of the birds of omen, by whom men- tioned and when? 3. In what connection and by whom is the ozvl men- tioned ? 4. What is the dramatic purpose of Scene 1, Act II ? Why does the Old Man appear? 5. Do you see any special significance in Duncan s horses? 6. Give any other superstitious allusions. Second Movement. Retribution 1. This movement is introduced by Hecate's appear- ance, Act III, Scene 5 ; then follows the cavern scene. Act IV, Scene 1. The first Movement is introduced by the witch scene. Act I, Scene 1 ; in Scene 3 they again appear and hold their conversation before Macbeth and Banquo arrive. Can you trace any similarity of method in these scenes in the two movements ? 2. Compare the introductory conversation of the witch- es in the two scenes ; can you see any reason why the second is so much more fiendish than the first? 3. Their first meeting with Macbeth was on a desolate, barren heath, their second in a cavern. Why ? 4. What is the significance and dramatic purpose of Hecate? Is she an avenger? How will she punish Mac- 156 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA beth? When and by whom is she first mentioned in the play? 5. Give her plan. Does she utter any words of truth? 6. Can you see any dramatic purpose in the hellish con- tents of the cauldron? 7. Make a list of its contents, the animals mentioned, in a separate list. 8. Is there any significance in the mention of the Jew, Turk, Tartar and ''birth-strangled babe?" 9. Interpret the apparitions, first "An armed head;" second, "A bloody child ;" third, "A child crowned, with a tree in his hand." ' 10. At this point in Macbeth's career he dares defy- these fiendish creatures. Why? 11. Why is he so horrified at the show of Kings? 12. Some interpret the lines "Some I see That two-fold balls and treble scepters carry" as referring to the union of the English and Scottish crowns and the subjugation of Ireland. Can you see any reason? 13. Why do the witches deride Macbeth at the last? Why is this their last appearance? 14. Why does the supernatural element drop out of the play entirely at this point ? General Questions 1. Why do the Weird Sisters or subjects in the witch- world, lead in the temptation to "Guilt" in the first move- ment, while Hecate the Queen, plans the "Retribution" in the second? 2. Trace the course of the Weird Sisters consecutively through the play as a dramatic element. MACBETH 157 3. How does this element add to the interest of the play? Suppose it were left out, and Macbeth were influ- enced and impelled simply by natural impulses what would be the effect upon the play ? Characterization (I) Macbeth First Movement 1. In this movement, from first to last, Macbeth is un- der the spell of the supernatural ; he responds to the witches, not satisfied with what they tell him, he asks for more; when they have vanished he says, "Would they had stayed." He sees the air-drawn dagger. He hears the voice cry, "Sleep no more, Macbeth does murther sleep." "Macbeth shall sleep no more." To him the ghost of Banquo appears. Why is this ? Is it due to any natural characteristic of heart or mind? 2. Macbeth calls the witches Weird Sisters, they call themselves Weird Sisters, otherwise they are spoken of as witches ; can you see any significance in this ? 3. Why does he so at once respond to the Weird Sis- ters? In what lies the secret of their influence over him? 4. Had Macbeth any claim to the Scottish crown? Is the thought of the murder of Duncan new to him? 5. Interpret his speech (aside) beginning "Two truths are told, etc." (Act I, Scene 3.) 6. "If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me, without my stir." What subjective conflict is he having ? 7. What obstacles does he see lying in his way to the crown ? "Yet let that be Which the eye fears, when it is done, to see." 158 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Interpret. Did the time come when he was afraid to think what he had done and did not dare ''look on't again." 8. Why does he hasten to confide the news to Lady Macbeth by letter, instead of waiting to tell her when he was to see her so soon? Do you see any dramatic purpose in it ? 9. Does the promise of the crown at all imply the neces- sity of the murder of the king? 10. What are his arguments against committing the deed: what does he acknowledge to be his only cause? 11. How does he argue with Lady Macbeth? 12. Give the steps in his subjective conflict from his first meeting with the Weird Sisters until Macduff and Lennox enter after the murder? Does he in any way hold the Weird Sisters responsible for what he does? 13 Having performed a laudible deed, why does he yield to this black temptation instead of responding to Dun- can's spirit of love and gratitude? 14. In Act II, Scene 2, where is Macbeth when he calls "Who's there ? What, ho !" Why does he call ? Is it before or after he has committeed the deed ? 15. Would he have committed the deed had it not been for Lady Macbeth? 16. Is his subjective conflict caused by remorse or fear of consequences? If the latter, would you call it conscience? 17. "Wake Duncan with thy knocking! I would thou couldst!" Is Macbeth sincere? 18. In Act II, Scenes 2 and 3, compare Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. 19. When lady Macbeth calls for help, how does Mac- beth respond ? How do you account for his indifference ? 20. Can you see that at the banquet, Macbeth calls up the spirit of Banquo both times that it appears ? MACBETH 159 21. Macbeth once seated upon the throne with but little opposition, why does he not rest? "There's not a one of them but in his house I keep a servant fee'd." Explain. What state of mind does this show? Second Movement 1. At the opening of the play, or first movement which develops guilt, the Weird Sisters meet Macbeth in the day of his "success." He has now all that they promised, he is King, with seemingly but little opposition. Banquo is dead ; Fleance has not been heard from ; Duncan's sons have exiled themselves ; but Macduff the powerful Thane of Fife, re- fuses to respond to his bidding, at least Macbeth hears so; his peace of mind is disturbed ; he resolves to consult the Weird Sisters and the second Movement, Refribution, be- gins. Evidently the first meeting with these creatures of dark- ness is objective, that is, it comes to him from without, he does not consciously will it; although he has that within which responds to their call; the second is subjective; the thought originates in his mind, the interview is of his own seeking. Why ? 2. How does Macbeth know where to find the Weird Sisters ? 3. He visits them in their cavern, when the interview closes they vanish, he says, 'Where have they gone?" Evi- dently hearing some one, he calls "Come in, without there !" and Lenox enters, he is sure Lenox must have seen them as they passed, but, "No indeed, my Lord." Where was Macbeth? 4. What point in his mental career has Macbeth reached when he can sav 160 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA "I am m blood Stepp'd in so far, that should I wade no more, Returning were as tedious as go o'er." 5. In this final interview, what are the two prophecies which finally "By the strength of their illusion . . . draw him on to his confusion." 6. When the prophecies of the Weird Sisters accord with Macbeth's desires, what is his attitude toward them? When contrary to his desires what does he do? 7. Compare the two interviews, what does the first pre- dict? What the second? 8. When and why does he discard the Weird Sisters al- together? Has he made his own witch- world? 9. After the final interview he hears no more voices, he sees no ghosts, the supernatural world seems to have lost its hold upon him. Why ? 10. After the interview what did he do? 11. Compare his attitude toward Lady Macbeth in the second movement with that in the first. How is he afifected by her death ? 12. Why does he murder Lady Macduff and her child- ren? Does he give a reason? 13. At what point in his career does he resolve to mur- der them? 14. Is the rebellion against him a natural outcome of his course of conduct ? From an ethical standpoint show how it must follow. 15. In what does he put confidence at last? 16. Why does the news of the Queen's death come in conjunction with the news of the approaching army? 17. How is he affected by the news that "Birnam wood now is moving"? MACBETH 161 18. What does he mean by "they have tied me to a stake?" Who has tied him? 19. Does he fear Macduff? 20. Does Macbeth reach a point where he defies retri- bution? What is the spiritual condition of a man who reaches this point? 21. Is there any ethical reason why Macbeth should come to his death at the hands of Macduff? 22. Show in Macbeth's case how "the deed returns upon the doer" and the law of Tragedy is fulfilled. General Questions 1. Trace Macbeth's career and his subjective conflicts through the first movement and through the second and compare. 2. Is he suspected of the murder of Duncan? If you think so, give your proof. 3. Is he suspected of the murder of Banquo? 4. He is willing to use the murderers for his own pur- poses ; , at the same time in what catalogue does he class them ? 5. Make a list of the murders committed by Macbeth, which take place in the presence of the audience. Why are not Duncan and the grooms murdered on the stage? 6. He "murthers sleep" — Is he guilty of any other "sub- jective" murders? 7. What was Macbeth's philosophy of life and death? References : Act I, Scene 7 ; Act II, Scene 3 ; Act III, Scene 2 ; Act V, Scenes 3 and 5. 8. What is the lesson of Macbeth's life and death ? 9. Which shows the greater affection the one for the other, Macbeth or Lady Macbeth? 10. Make a list of the times Macbeth uses the word fear or alludes to fear in the play. 162 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 11. How many times does he use the word blood or bloody f 12. How many times used by Lady Macbeth? How many by others ? (H.) Lady Macbeth First Movement 1. We are first introduced to Lady Macbeth reading the letter from her husband ; in her remarks, how does she in- terpret him and what does she determine to do? 2. From this can you determine her function or dra- matic purpose in the play? Dramatically, in what relation does she stand to Macbeth and the Weird Sisters? 3. The Weird Sisters are not objective to Lady Mac- beth, that is, she does not see them physically as Macbeth does. Are they subjective? Are they within her? i. Does she work in conjunction with them or in op- position to them ? 5. Her first speech as a key note to her character indi- cates what? 6. In her next soliloquy upon what spirits does she call? When she would unsex herself what does she really be- come ? 7. Interpret her greeting of Macbeth. 8. How does Macbeth greet her? Compare. 9. What responsibility does Lady Macbeth crave? 10. Has she a conscience? 11. Compare Macbeth's first greeting of his wife with the speech beginning, ''Bring forth men-children only." Is there any change in his attitude toward her? In the last speech do you think he really admires her? 12. Does she show courage? If so, what kind? At what point does she begin to show nervousness? When does she first use an endearing term for Macbeth? MACBETH 163 13. How does she bear herself after the deed has been committed ? 14. Macduff says, ''Our royal blaster's murdered" and Lady Macbeth replies, "Woe, alas! What, in our house?" Interpret. 15. How do you account for her fainting and having to be carried out? 16. She next appears when Macbeth is planning the murder of Banquo ; does she comprehend him ? AVhy does he not as before, seek her aid in his plans? 17. What characteristics does she show in the banquet scene? Compare with the ''knocking at the gate" scene. Does she Icnow of Banquo's murder ? 18. Why does she quiet the guests and urge them to sit, the first time that Macbeth sees the ghost, and urge them to go the second time? 19. When Macbeth decides to visit the Weird Sisters, and discusses his crime, how does she meet him? 20. Compare her attitude toward Macbeth before and after the murder. .21. By the close of the first movement do you notice any softening of her nature? Second Movement 1. Lady Macbeth has no active part in this movement; can you explain why she so suddenly drops out? 2. What dramatic purpose does she serve in Act V? 3. Why does the Gentlewoman refuse to tell the doctor what Lady Macbeth says in her night-walking? 4. What has brought her into this condition ? 5. Give the points which she is evidently reviewing in her mind. 6. Is there an}^ evidence that she is implicated in any of the murders except that of Duncan? 164 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 7. Compare Lady Macbeth with herself, before and after the murder of Duncan. 8. Scene I, Act V, is called the "night-walking scene." Name it from Lady Macbeth's mental condition ; what does it portray? General Questions 1. Make lists of Lady Macbeth's characteristics as shown before and after the murder, placing the strongest first. 2. In preparation for her bloody work, Lady Macbeth calls upon the "spirits" to unsex her; here she murders her womanhood. Complete the list of these "subjective" mur- ders. 3. From the characteristics shown in the first move- ment, would you expect Lady Macbeth to break down "unto death" as she does at the last? Why does Shakespeare make her do so? 4. Did Lady Macbeth truly repent? If so, why was she not saved? Do you find any evidence of conscience conflict ? 5. From an ethical standpoint, what brings her to her tragic end ; was it love for her husband, or ambition for herself, or what was it? What do you think of her as a wife ? 6. Show in Lady Macbeth's case, how the "deed re- turns upon the doer," and the law of Tragedy is fulfilled. 7. What is the first really womanly expression that Lady Macbeth makes? 8. Did she take her own life? Is there any evidence? (Ill) Banquo 1. What is Banquo's first impression of the witches? He sees them, hence they are objective; are they subjective? MACBETH 165 2. What is his attitude toward them? Is he quite sure himself? Discuss his speech beginning "Good Sir, why do you start, etc." 3. Interpret their message "Lesser than Macbeth, etc." 4. Interpret his speech "That trusted home, etc." Do you see any evidence that Banquo thinks the message of the Weird Sisters to Macbeth may tempt him to -crime ? 5 "A heavy summons lies like lead upon me, And yet I could not sleep. Merciful powers. Restrain in me the cursed thoughts that nature Gives way to in repose!" (Act II, Scene 1). What cursed thoughts? Why does he dream of the witches ? 6. Act III, Scene 1. Does Banquo suspect Macbeth's guilt? What is his attitude now toward the witches? What does he mean by "But hush ! no more." ? 7. Is it a natural thing for a man to use his last hour before a royal banquet for a ride? What is the dramatic purpose of Banquo's ride? 8. In Act III, Scene 3, why introduce the Third Mur- derer? Some think it is Macbeth himself. Do you see any evidence? If so, is he recognized by the others and is there a dramatic purpose in it? 9. Banquo is killed. Why does Fleance escape? What is the dramatic purpose in having him escape ? 10. From the ethical standpoint of tragedy, can you see why Banquo should come to this tragic end? Of what has he been guilty? 11. Had he conquered the "cursed thoughts" to which he referred in Act 11, Scene 1 ? 12. If we know that a crime has been committed, are we held accountable if we take no steps to expose it? 13. Discuss sins of omission and sins of commission. 166 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA General Questions. 1. Was it wise for Malcolm and Donalbain to flee the countr}^ ? 2. In Act IV, Scene 3, what is the object of the con- versation between the doctor, Malcolm, and Macduff just before Ross enters? 3. What is Macduff's greatest inspiration to lead an army against Macbeth? 4. What dramatic purpose does Ross play? Does he seem to have any especial mission ? 5. Is the play relieved by any traces of sweetness, or charms of nature, any traces of humor or of religion? Find the word angel. How many times does it occur? 6. Compare the night of the murder with the night before the assassination of Caesar. 7. Compare the motives for the killing of Caesar and the killing of Duncan. 8. By whom is the institution of the Family repre- sented in this play? Compare the domestic relations of the families of Brutus and Macbeth. 9. Compare Macbeth and Lady Macbeth with Brutus and Portia. 10. What is the moral lesson of the drama? Scheme for Outline Book. (I). The Drama. (a) Define Tragedy. State its law. (b) Define Real and Ideal Tragedy. (c) Define Ethics. Explain the term Ethical World. (d) Give the principles of Shakespeare's Ethical World and show how this drama illustrates them. MACBETH 167 (II) The Play. (a) Classify and give reasons. (b) State the basis of the plot and of the action. (c) The first act or the Exposition may be called "The Temptation." Name the other acts. (d) Work out the plot by means of a graphic illus- tration. (e) Make a diagram of the entrance and exits of characters. (f) Trace the supernatural element through the play and show how Macbeth is influenced by it. (g) Trace the steps in Macbeth's career of crime, .showing how he is affected by the murder of Duncan, (h) Make lists of the characteristics of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, (i) What is the theme of the play? The moral? (j) In the drama, how is the harmony of the Ethical World disturbed? How restored? How is harmony restored to the state? (k) Give five quotations from Macbeth which show his misgivings concerning his deed. Give five from Lady Macbeth showing her will-power, and that she herself is a Weird Sister. Give five common sayings. Home Reading 1. Romeo and Jidiet. 2. Much Ado About Nothing. 3. A Winter s Tale. 4. Henry IV. Part I. In each of these state 1. What is the deed which caused disturbance in the Ethical World? Who commits it? 168 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 3. The result of bringing the individual face to face with his deed. 4. One quotation from each act of the play. Topics for Essays and Discussion 1. The supernatural as an element in the play. 2. Macbeth, his relations to the supernatural. 3. Lady Macbeth's relation to the Weird Sisters. 4. Banquo, the Man, and his relation to the Weird Sisters. 5. Macbeth, the Man. 6. Lady Macbeth, the Woman. 7. The Cauldron and the Apparitions. 8. History at the time of the action of the play. 9. History at the time of the writing of the play. 10. Duncan, the Man, King and Victim. 11. Macbeth and Banquo compared. 12. Macbeth ; his Ambition ; his Deed and its effect upon him. 13. Macbeth and Lady Macbeth compared. 14. Macbeth before and after the Deed. 15. Lady Macbeth before and after the Deed. 16. The first and second prophecies of the Weird Sis- ters. 17. Blood in the play. 18. Fear in the play. 19. Sympathy for Macbeth and for Lady Macbeth. 20. Macduff and his family. 21. Macbeth's philosophy of Life and Death. 22. The superstitious elements in Macbeth and Julius CcBsar compared. That is, convulsions in nature, appari- tions, omens, etc. 23. The Night- Walking scene. 24. The Rapid action of the Play. MACBETH 169 25. The Moral Lesson of the Play. 26. The Merits of the Play as a Drama. 27. Nemesis in the Play. (Contrast the manner of Macbeth's and Lady Macbeth's death.) 28. Motives for killing Caesar and Duncan compared. 29. Shakespeare's knowledge of animal life as shown in the drama of Macbeth. (Comparative allusions to animals and plants.) HAMLET 171 A Study in Hamlet Sidelights Not Denmark's famous astronomer, Tycho Brahe, nor her great sculptor, Thorvaldsen, nor her deservedly re- nowned writer, Hans Christian Andersen, no, not all com- bined, have contributed so much to make her world- renowned as her Hamlet, whose only existence is in Shakes- peare's wonderful drama. It is safe to say that more has been written upon Hamlet than upon any other one piece of the world's literature : indeed, it has been stated that the Hamlet literature equals that of the entire literature of some of the smaller European peoples.* Hamlet, Shakespeare's most psychological drama, evi- dently went through many changes before it reached its Evolu- present form. Entered at the Stationers, in 1602, tion of printed in 1603, the title page of the edition of 1604 the play bears the statement ''enlarged to almost as much again as it was." By this time the poet had reached his maturity in every sense of the term; he had accumulated a competence and had settled his family in New Place, Strat- ford. He had not passed thus far through life free from heart sorrow ; his only son, Hamnet, died in 1596 : the death of his father in 1601 would naturally turn his thoughts to the life beyond. His contact with the outside world had disclosed life in all its phases ; scandals in high life were by no means rare ; he was now passing through the dis- appointing experience of all who have high ideals in youth ; to whom the world, when they first step out into its ac- tivities, looks fair and trustworthy. To what extent his *See Brandes' Shakespeare. 172 STUDIES IN THE- SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA own soul-experiences, combined with the immoral atmos- phere of his environments, might heve caused the mental mood which gave birth to this wonderful reflective drama, is of course mere conjecture, but at the same time it is not without interest. This we know, that the Poet is now in his most reflec- tive mood ; his mind is attuned to the creation of the re- flective Hamlet; how much of his own soul-questionings upon purity, life, death and immortality, he has put into this play, we may feel rather than know ; certain it is, we find here what we find in no other play ; one critic says that what Shakespeare gave Hamlet "of his own nature was its unfathomable depth." Hamlet has been called the ''Sphinx of literature," but the riddle has never been solved, and therein lies the charm ; The when a riddle is solved it has lost its interest. Sphinx The most profound minds have brought their keenest insight to bear upon Hamlet the Adan and Hamlet the Drama, but they can only agree upon the most vital points, if indeed they agree upon these, and hence it is well to read with caution the criticisms which some, even emi- nent critics, pass upon others who differ from them in their interpretation or their methods. The play is always new; it never grows old, because it grows along with us ; in youth we read it with interest and Interest ^^^^ ^^^ quick blood of the impulsive Hamlet; as in the we have seen more of life, we ourselves, become Play reflective Hamlets, and we turn to it again and again, and it unfolds to us its depths of the philosophy of life and immortality, with an interest and a beauty hereto- fore unthought of. Helps we may have, and helps we may need, to enable us to delve below the surface and to read be- tween the lines of this most profound of Shakespeare's dramas, and then each must solve the riddle for himself. HAMLET 173 Mr. Barrett Wendell well says : "After all, the chief thing is not that we should define the play, but that we should know it; and Hamlet is a play which everybody ought to know. It is surely the work in English literature to which allusions are most constant and most widely intelligible,"* and hence we may say "The play's the thing to study." A Few^ Points of Interest About the Play and its Contents Length This is Shakespeare's longest drama. f it contains 3930 lines; (Globe Edition) (more than twice the length of the shortest play, Comedy of Errors, with 1778 lines) of these lines Hamlet speaks 1420, or more than one-third of the en- tire play, and almost three-fourths as many lines as the en- tire play of Macbeth. Besides his "aside" remarks, he re- flects in seven soliloquies, ranging in length from 12 to 58 lines each ; he also expresses himself to others in many long speeches. Ghost This is the only play in which Shakespeare has intro- duced the objective Ghost: that is, in which the dis-embodied spirit again assumes its body and is seen by those for whom it has no especial message. The Poet has taken great pains to make the Ghost objective. Act I contains the accumu- lated Ghost-lore of the ages. Phases of the Drama The play itself is Ideal Tragedy ; look closely and you will find in it a perfect Real Comedy; then we have the ^'play within the play" which is Real Tragedy. *William Shakespeare, page 251. fThe statement has been made that Antony and Cleopatra is the longest play; comiting the lines will settle the point. 174 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Play Acting Hamlet's instructions to the players give Shakespeare's idea of the proper acting of a play. The Dramatist gives some London customs of his own time ; theatres were closed during Lent and players traveled about the country, per- forming at courts and wherever they had opportunity; young people of the Guilds gave dramatic entertainments which grew to be so popular that they became a menace to the regular actors. Ethical Principles In the King- we see how unbridled lust and ambition drives the individual on to the worst crime ; the voice of conscience silenced, the guilty individual hesitates at nothing until finally, caught in his own trap, his deed returns upon his own head and he meets his tragic end. Again in the Queen we see how virtue, simply as a negative quality is only sham, and falls an easy prey to hypocrisy and lust, and through lack of vital principle is overpowered and works out its own destruction. Still again, in Ophelia we see how Love and Purity, unsupported by con- science and strength, neglecting opportunities to act, fall an easy prey to the worldly wise and the schemer, cannot har- monize with their environments, and go out in darkness ; thus even the highest principles must be active, when merely passive they are not self-sustaining. The soul is held just as strongly responsible for omission as for commission. In Ethical elements, we find the institutional person ; the moral person ; a whole family utterly devoid of conscience : Ethical ^^^ mediated institutional person ; the perfectly Char- mediated moral person, who has fought life's bat- acters ties and so completely overcome that he has put all things under his feet and risen to the heights where "in suf- fering all that suffers nothing." HAMLET 175 Here we find theories of life from the purely worldly- wise standpoint. The theory of life, death and immortality Theories from the German or Christian standpoint, showing of Life the influence of the Reformation, and Death Insanity The play shows two phases of insanity. Hamlet's which if feigned, so closely resembles that form which manifests itself in melancholy moods, that it is studied by physicians as genuine. Of the insanity of Ophelia there is no question ; this form manifests itself in pathetic song, flower decora- tions, etc., and finally goes out in darkness. National Ch ar act eristics We are shown the manners and customs of Denmark, and have a good picture of life at the court. French thought and life are brought out in contrast with German thought and life. We are shown the relations between Denmark and Norway, and England, and the condition of Poland. Let not the student think that this by any means ex- hausts the list of gems found in this wonderful drama; let him verify these points and he will then be prepared to search for more. The Foreign Element Norway, Represented by Fortinbras This element hovers over the drama from beginning to end; although Fortinbras himself appears in person only to claim the promise of permit to pass through Denmark on his way to Poland, and on his return, just in time to accept the crown of Denmark which falls to him by election. The play opens with the din of warlike preparations ''whose sore task does not divide the Sunday from the week," "this sweaty haste Doth make the night joint laborer with the day." 176 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA It devolves upon Horatio "who knows things" to explain why, and we learn that the Prince of Norway, young Fort- inbras "of unimproved mettle hot and full ; hath in the skirts of Norway here and there, sharked up a list of lawless resolutes," and comes in warlike array against Denmark to recover certain lands which had been won from his father by King Hamlet, in a "dared combat" in which the elder Fortinbras was slain. There could be no just cause for this action, however, because the provisions of the combat were perfectly fair to both sides ; according to the laws of her- aldry, the winner was to receive the reward. During the minority of young Fortinbras, Norway, his old bedridden rmcle was in authority ; taking advantage of Fortin- ^^^ condition, the hot-headed young jack-a-napes, bras' unbeknown to the old man, gathers up a band of out- rebellion laws and proceeds against Denmark; thus we see that Fortinbras is first in rebellion against his own govern- ment, and second in rebellion against Denmark, since he was violating the "law of compact" in making the raid. King Claudius who always plans doubly, gets ready to meet him ; but, diplomat that he is, he first sends ambassadors to old Norway to see if the matter cannot be settled peaceably. Here we see a fine stroke of dramatic purpose on the part of the Poet. Rebel that the young hot- head is, we would expect that when called to account by the old. uncle, he would show his mettle and again take advan- tage of the old man's condition, and in defiance of authority, pursue his own course, but no, "he in brie'f, obeys ; Receives rebuke from Norway; and, in fine, Makes vow before his luicle never more To give th' assay of arms against your Majesty. Whereon old Norway, overcome with joy, Gives him three thousand crowns in annual fee." HAMLET 177 and shows such impHcit faith in the young man's sincerity Forrin- '^^'^^^ ^'^^ allows him to keep his armed soldiers to go bras against the Poles "with an entreaty" that he may mediated have "quiet pass" through Denmark on his way thither ; by giving this permit, Claudius also shows his faith in the young man. Thus Fortinbras who has destroyed the harmony of the Ethical World by his armed rebellion, restores harmony by his repentance, and thus becomes a mediated character, and is thereby fitted to restore harmony to the state of Denmark by accepting her crown when the final grand ca- tastrophe robs her of both King and Prince. We also see that if Fortinbras had not repented, but had carried his arms against Denmark, the King must have given his at- tention to war instead of to Hamlet, and the play would have been spoiled, or the plot must have been constructed on a different basis. Fortinbras is pre-eminently an Institutional person ; his spirit is primarily the spirit of nationality, of government, consequently he is a man of action ; he will fight for Fortin- what he supposes to be the rights of the state, al- bras an though the gain may not be worth the powder spent . in acquiring it; here he presents a most striking person contrast to Hamlet. He first appears in person in the play to ''claim the conveyance of a promised march over Claudius' kingdom. We notice that the Poet has brought him in just as Flamlet is about to embark for England, with the king still alive. Hamlet's soliloquy at this point shows what a painful reminder this is of his own inaction, and he boards the vessel full of bloody thoughts but weary, weary of his burdens. Let us now look back a little, and see how this Fort- inbras, who scarcely appears as a personality in the play, is linked with the state, with the King, and with Hamlet. 178 STUDIES IN TPIE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA A King must be active, not a mere figure-head, or things will go wrong, as was shown in the case of old Norway. Fortin- Fortinbras' very activity brings him into conflict bras with the state of Denmark; his repentance restores and the harmony both in the Ethical World and the ex- State ternal world, and he thus becomes fitted to restore harmony to the state of Denmark in the end, by becoming her king. It is through Fortinbras that the King is enabled to show his diplomatic statesmanship ; he thus in the drama links Fortin- Claudius to the business world. This is the only bras instance in which the Poet has shown Claudius in and the state relations, engaged in affairs of state ; all of ^^^S his other acts in some way relate to Hamlet. We are first introduced to the King in the room of state to give audience to three groups of persons ; Volti- mand and Cornelius, who are there strictly on business of State; Laertes, who has a personal request to make, and Hamlet, a member of the family; the King shows his busi- ness-like mind by addressing himself to business first; he gives the ambassadors their commission to old Norway. "Giving to you no further personal power To business with the King more than the scope Of those dilated articles allow." They are by no means to be Ministers Plenipotentiary ; he will be "every inch a King." Thus he will try what diplomacy will do toward the settlement of the difficulty be- fore resorting to force of arms. Hence it will be seen how necessary Fortinbras is to bring out the full character of the King. As the Institutional person whose mind is wholly cen- tered upon affairs of State, and who carries this thought into violent action, Fortinbras presents a most marked con- trast to Hamlet. HAMLET 179 Denmark's King and Hamlet's father has been murdered ; the lost crown is but a secondary consideration with Ham- Fortin- ^^^> "^^^^ ^^^ murder of his father he never can get bras courage to revenge. In the combat by which Nor- and way lost the land, Norway lost her King, and Fort- Hamlet inbras lost his father, but Fortinbras in contrast to Hamlet, seems not to think of his father, but cares only to regain the lost ground for the State. His coming to Den- mark just as Hamlet is about to embark for England, serves only to '^set up a glass" in which Hamlet ''can see the inmost part" of himself. Hamlet here recognizes the man who possesses the qualities which he lacks ; the active man of the state ; the man with the ability to govern ; and the Poet brings Fortinbras back from Poland just in time to receive Hamlet's dying blessing upon his election to the crown of Denmark, which Hamlet foresees. It is readily seen that this foreign element serves a very important dramatic purpose in the play. The Family Institution The institution of the Family is represented first, by the Royal family, and second, by the Polonius family. Be- The tween these two families there is a marked contrast ; Royal the Royal family are all guilty of crime, from the Family King, who hesitates at nothing in order to ac- complish his purpose, to Hamlet, who acts upon the impulse of the moment and kills Polonius ; but even in the vile King, the voice of conscience still speaks ; and the Queen sees in her soul "Such black and grained spots As will not leave their tinct." Gertrude's mother-instinct has not been entirely crushed by her lack of moral principle ; in fact it is her one redeeming trait. Hamlet is the victim of conscience. 180 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA The Polonius family, on the contrary commit no great crime; they all make a fair outward showing to the world, rpi^g but they are utterly devoid of true moral principle; Polonius of conscience they have none ; even Polonius' advice Family to Laertes which is catchy and sounds well, is purely worldly-wise and contains not a line, which if closely followed would make the young man a nobler moral character. In his charges to Reynaldo, Polonius encourages the very vices in his son which he sends Reynaldo to spy out. He can malign Hamlet's character, use Ophelia as a trap to catch him, give his own daughter lessons in deceit, but conscience never gives him a prick, and he goes on until lack of principle works out his destruction. Laertes is the true son of his father ; he too, can malign Hamlet; he can raise an armed rebellion upon mere sus- picion of the King's guilt; he can at once fall in with the King's plot to take Hamlet's life, and to make assurance doubly sure, he can poison his foil; but all of these things ''are not near his conscience," for conscience he has none. Alas ! that poor Ophelia, sweet and gentle, should have been so unfortunate as to have her lot cast in this con- scienceless family, but here we find her; she can hear her father and brother besmirch Hamlet's character and scarcely enter a protest ; she cannot even defend her lover in whom she, herself, sees no fault; she can become a tool in the hands of her father to entrap Hamlet and bring him to destruction; at last her mind gives way under the strain of her great loss and she goes out in darkness, but her broken, pathetic snatches of song, contain no twinges of remorse for her unjust treatment of Hamlet ; conscience conflict there is none. In this family the mother-element is entirely lacking; this calls forth our sympathy for Ophelia and we feel like condoning what we otherwise could not excuse. The redeeming quality of this family is their de- HAMLET 181 votion to each other ; the son and daughter, having no higher ideas of Hfe than the father, are devoted to him, obedient and ever ready to defend him; but we can readily see how selfishness and cunning, without conscience, can work only destruction in the end. The Contradictory Hamlet. In the wide range of literature, where can be found a character which is indeed such a sphinx? One who is so constantly contradictory. He is sane and he is insane. He is active and he is inactive. He is strong of purpose, and he is weak of will. He loves Ophelia, but he is cruel to her. He recoils against blodshed, but he can kill Polonius and send Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to their death. He is im- pulsive, yet he is reflective and deliberate. He is a quick wit, a merry jester and a profound theologian. Small wonder that the subjective conflict rages so fiercely. His outward appearance is by no means uniform. Hamlet's various phases are so distinct that they may be classified. f I. As he appears to the world before his 1. Outward! father's death. Hamlet i 2. As he appears at court after his mother's [ marriage. 2. Inner f i. The Instinctive or Impulsive. Hamlet J 2. The Imaginative. Four ' 3. The Moral and Religious. Phases ' [ 4. The Intellectual or Reflective. The inner or subjective Hamlet manifests these four phases ; at times he comes strongly under the spell of one characteristic and then of another, thus seemingly contra- dicting himself, when in reality he is perfectly natural. It almost seems that the Poet, in Hamlet, wishes to present the whole range of the human mind. 182 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 1. The Impulsive Hamlet would "haste to know" the circumstances of his father's murder. "That I, with wings as swift As meditation or the thoughts of love, May sweep to my revenge." 2. The Imaginative Hamlet thinks he sees his father "In my mind's eye, Horatio." 3. The Moral Hamlet is so crushed by the conduct of his mother that he wishes "The Everlasting had not fixed His cannon 'gainst self-slaughter." But since the "Evarlasting" has fixed this law, the religious Hamlet withholds his hand and refrains from taking his own life. The moral Hamlet conflicts with the outer world, he finds "the time is out of joint," and when he realizes that it devolves upon him to set it right, he rebels. 4. The Reflective Hamlet cannot act. "Thus conscience does make cowards of us all ; And thus the native hue of resolution Is sickled o'er with the pale cast of thought: And enterprises of great pith and moment With this regard their currents turn awry, And lose the name of action." When the Impulsive Hamlet stops to argue with the Re- flective Hamlet, the latter always gets the better of the ar- gument and action is either delayed or altogether fore- stalled. The Impulsive Hamlet can act ; the Intellectual Hamlet, though he cannot plan deliberate action for himself, can thwart the plans of others ; even the deep laid plans of the King and the schemes of the wily Polonius fail through Hamlet's keen insight and quick wit; he seems intuitively to read their very minds. HAMLET 183 Notice the effect of action upon the inactive Hamlet. It seems as though he were standing at one side and watching Effect ^^^^ drama of his own life enacted. He determines of "to put an antic disposition on" and then it seems Action sport to him to work out the result. He enjoys baffling the King to such an extent that for the time he seems to lose sight of his original intent. It is such a pleasure to throw sand in the eyes of Polonius that he tantalizes "the tedious old fool" just for the pleasure of watching his bewilderment. He "sets up a glass" for his mother where she "may see the inmost part of" her, and the active mill grinds until the Ghost must appear to stop it : he kills Polonious and, presto ! — the Impulsive Hamlet has at last downed the Reflective Hamlet and conscience con- flicts are over, now, "Let it work; For 'tis the sport to have the engineer Hoist his own petar: and it shall go hard But I will delve one yard below their mines, And blow them at the Moon. O, 'tis most sweet When in one line two crafts directly meet !" (Act III, Scene 4.) And so he can send Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to death and say ''They are not near my conscience;" and he can at last face death itself feeling that "there is a special provi- dence in the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not to come ; if it be not to come, it will be now ; if it be not now, yet it will come; the readiness is all." Source of Plot Suggestions for the plot are found in the legend of Hamblet in Saxo Cramaticus, and in other old tragedies. This story is usually given in the school editions of the play. Former reference to Shakespeare's use of materials renders it unnecessary to say more on this point here ; an illustration, however, is interesting. In the Saxon story 184 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN PRAMA this reflection is voiced upon the hasty marriage of the widow. "Thus it is with all the promises of women; they are scattered like chaff before the wind and pass away like waves of the sea. Who then will trust to a woman's heart, which changes as flowers shed their leaves, as seasons change and as new events wipe out the traces of those that went before?" Shakespeare says, "Frailty, thy name is woman." The Play Before the play opens, a most foul and horrible deed has been committed ; the Ethical World is disturbed, its harmony must be restored : this forms the basis Basis r js for a drama. The manner of the deed is such that no positive evi- dence of it exists, mystery begins the play. We may say Basis of that even the deed itself is not objective. The Play sudden and mysterious death of the King and the hasty marriage of the Queen give the only objective basis for a plot. Hamlet seems to be the only one upon whom these events have made any very decided impression. The mystery connected with this death must be revealed in order to give a basis for any action ; the Ghost reveals Hamlet's ^^^ deed to Hamlet and charges him to revenge it; Basis Hamlet now has a starting point from which to of Action work. The King's guilty conscience and Hamlet's peculiar manner cause him to feel that Hamlet suspects him of foul King's P^^y ' ^^^^ gives him a basis for action ; Hamlet and Basis of the King are now arrayed against each other and Action action begins. The crime was both regicide and fratricide; the King of Denmark had been murdered ; the brother, the husband The and father had been murdered. Claudius states his Crime motive, HAMLET 185 "The effects for which I did the murder, My crown, mine own ambition and my Queen." He was impelled by both ambition and lust. Hamlet was to revenge the deed. Which? Regicide or fratricide? Was his grief because the King had been murdered and his uncle, by his marriage, had de- „ ^ frauded him of the throne, or was it because his Revenge father had been murdered and his mother had been false to her marriage vows ? The answer to this question is not difficult to find, and it gives the keynote to Hamlet's character. The hereditary right to the throne lay in Gertrude ; the King's claim was by right of marriage; consequently, King's Claudius' claims, as Gertrude's husband, were as claim to just as those of her former husband ; had she re- the crown mained a widow, Hamlet would undoubtedly have succeeded his father, since the crown was to a certain extent elective and Hamlet was a great favorite. It is not till the very end of the play, when he is trying to justify changing the commission, thus sending Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to their death, that he says, "He hath killed my King and stained my mother. Popped in between the election and my hopes." It is readily seen that all through the first movement, that it is Hamlet's moral nature which is stirred to its very depths, ambition for power nowhere appears. The Ghost reveals to Hamlet the manner of his father's death and charges him to revenge the deed, at the same Hamlet's ^^"^^ imposing two restrictions; no matter what Posi- method he may take to accomplish the work, he tion must first, "taint not thy mind," and second, *'nor let thy soul contrive against thy mother aught." He must do nothing which he cannot justify before the people, and 186 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA we think we are safe in saying, nothing- which will involve his conscience ; nor must he in any way implicate his mother; she must be left to her conscience, which will sufficiently "prick and sting her." If we observe carefully, we see that Hamlet was pretty thoroughly hedged in. Justice of the Demand There was no court of justice before which Claudius could be arraigned ; as King, he himself, would form the highest court ; if the murder was avenged or revenged, it must be done by the nearest of kin. We must then take the position that the deed required of Hamlet was the right thing to do ; not only the Ghost, but justice required him to kill Claudius; two obstacles lie in his way, one objective Obstacles ^^^ the other subjective; first the restrictions im- to posed : how can he kill Claudius, having no ex- Overcome ternal evidence to prove that he murdered the King, and justify himself in the eyes of Denmark? second; how can he, mentally and physically constituted as he is, deliber- ately plan and in cool blood take the life of another, even though justice demands it? The impulsive Hamlet can thrust his dagger through the arras ; the reflective Hamlet cannot shed blood. Careful study of the play shows that Hamlet never discusses the first proposition ; we may see that the Poet never gives him the opportunity to meet the requirements of the Ghost. Indeed we almost feel that the impossible has been laid upon him ; but since Hamlet him- self does not seem to worry about this side of the question, we will consider his course of action through the play from his own standpoint, the subjective; in doing so "Put your- self in his place ;" try, for the time being, to be Hamlet yourself. The Conflict The objective conflict, or the action of the play, is neces- sarily slow, since it depends upon Hamlet to take the initial HAMLET 187 Object- step, and the reflective man always acts deliberately, ive the more reflective, the greater the deliberation : what a contrast to Macbeth here, who says, "From this moment The very firstlings of my heart shall be The firstlings of my hand. And even now To crown my thoughts with acts, be it thought and done," and messengers are dispatched immediately, ''Before this purpose cool" to the castle of Macduff to do the horrible deed. The King has his subjective conflict, but his mind is quite transparent ; we can easily read him ; the interest of Subject- the play centers in Hamlet with his subjective con- ive flict. These questions are still queries. Was Hamlet insane? If not, why did he feign insanity, what was to be gained by it? Why did he not kill the King? Was he a man of ac- tion? Was his conflict with his will, or was it with his conscience, his moral or religious nature? In studying the play, decide these questions if you can ; if you answer them, then the riddle of the sphinx is solved. Structure The structure of Hamlet is not difilicult to trace; only a few points need be added to the hints already given. Hamlet kills Polonius, he commits the very deed he is trying to avenge — he kills a father ; he thus makes himself a guilty individual; after the deed, note the great change in Hamlet in the second movement. In the Hamlet thread, Hamlet stands almost alone so far as actual assistance is concerned, still there are those l^j^g who are naturally grouped in his thread of the Hamlet play. The King has more active workers; the Thread threads should be grouped according to the impor- 188 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA tance of the function of these helpers in the working out of their thread. To illustrate : First movement, King's thread : Group (a) Claudius and Gertrude, Th"^^ H Group (b) The Polonius family. Other groups follow. This grouping refers to the deed, a group simply for the purpose of state is readily seen — the courtiers who have little or nothing to do with Hamlet. In the second movement it will be seen that Laertes takes the place of Polonius. Since Hamlet's subjective conflict is as strong, if ont stronger, than his external conflict, we may consider that his thread in the first movement has an Subject- internal phase ; again, we find two strands in the ive external set of influences, one driving him on to the Conflicts deed, the other, the lack of external evidence, with- holding him. These conflict with the internal influences, his moral and spiritual nature, and the subjective conflict, at times, is so strong as to well-nigh drive him to suicide. The King has not only his external conflict with Hamlet, but his internal conflict with himself; it is interesting to note that the King plans and sets influences to work. Hamlet allows influences to work upon him, but at the same time he manages to thwart them before they culminate in results. His own action is prompted by chance circum- stances thrown in his way, rather than by any deliberate planning. The threads in the subjective conflicts may be traced as clearly as those in the external conflicts. The student should by all means, work out the movements and threads fully, showing the dramatic purpose, or the part which each character serves in the play. HAMLET 189 Questions for Class Study and Suggestive Topics for Discussion and for Outline Books Review 1. Define Nemesis. 2. The modern English Drama combines the principles of the Mystery and Morality plays and the Interlude ; trace these three elements through the Hamlet drama. 3. State changes which have taken place in the manner of presentation of a drama since Shakespeare's time. 4. According to Saintsbury, what are the three dis- tinguishing points in Shakespeare? 5. What are his three distinct purposes ? 6. Review carefully the Principles and Structure of the Shakespearean Drama. The Play Classify the play, giving reasons. How is the Ethical World disturbed? How is its harmony restored? State the basis of the plot. Give the basis of Hamlet's action and of the King's 1. 3. 3. 4. 5. action. 6. Group the principal characters according to their relation to the State, the Family, the Deed committed, the Ethical World, in the following outline form : Characters State Family Deed Ethical World Ghost Form- er King Husband to Gertrude Father to Hamlet Victim Plans restoration of Harmony Claudius King- Husband to Gertrude Uncle and Step- father to Hamlet Guilty Doer Disturber of Harmony 190 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 8. Work out the structure of the play fully. 9. Show how Shakespeare's three distinguishing traits : 1. ''Restraint in the use of sympathy with suffering ;" 2. ''Restraint in the use of interest in voluptuous excess/' and 3. "Humor," are illustrated in this play. 10. Show how his three distinct purposes, 1. "To tell a dramatically complete story;" 2. "To work that story out by the means of purely human and probable characters ;" 3. "To give such form and ornaments to the work- ing out of the play as might please the play- goers of his day ;" are illustrated in this play. 11. Act I in this play is very remarkable in its fullness; the groundwork of the play is so fully laid, so much infor- mation is given, the keynote of the characters is so thor- oughly sounded; work the Act out carefully with reference to these points. 12. Work out the plot by movements. Acts and Scenes by means of graphic illustration. Characterization (a) The Ghost First Movement. Guilt The first act has well been called the Ghost's Act; while the groundwork of the play is very fully laid in this act, this groundwork depends upon the revelation of the Ghost and the interest centers in him. 1. The Poet has taken great pains to make the Ghost objective ; it appears twice to the guards but has no message for them ; to Horatio, the scholar and friend of Hamlet, it will not speak. Why is this? Is there any especial pur- pose in it? HAMLET 191 2. What is the office of the Ghost in the play? 3. When the Ghost reveals the deed, which does he emphasize, his murder as a King or the moral question of virtue ? 4. Why does Horatio link the appearance of the Ghost with affairs of State, while Hamlet at once suspects "some foul play," evidently with reference to his father? 5. What character does the Ghost give himself? 6. Why does he command Hamlet to revenge his mur- der, instead of requiring him to bring Claudius to justice? Were Revenge and Justice synonymous terms in those days ? 7. After the Ghost disappears in Scene 1, notice the change in the mental attitude of the Ghost seers ; how they lapse into a poetic frame of mind, and Marcellus recalls the beautiful Christmas legend, which seems to clarify the at- mosphere, both mental and physical, and introduces the re- ligious thought, which, to a great extent, colors the whole play. How can you account for this change? 8. Make a list of the points of belief concerning Ghosts. 9. When Hamlet is making Horatio and Marcelkts swear secrecy, why does the Poet make the Ghost follow them in "the cellerage," requiring them to "swear?" 10. Why does the subjective Ghost appear to Hamlet in the "closet scene?" Why is it not objective then as well as in the opening of the play? 11. Why does not the Queen hear it speak? 12. Would you have the Ghost in this scene objective to the audience ? 13. What would be the effect if it were objective to the Queen ? Second Movement Why does the Ghost not appear in this movement? 192 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Revelations of the Ghost 1. Time when Ghosts are released and allowed to "walk." 2. His own identity. 3. Belief in purgatory and final redemption. 4. While spirits may return, they may not tell tales. 5. His own unnatural death. 6. Beliefs in Denmark concerning his death. 7. Guilt of Claudius and the Queen. 8. His own love for Gertrude. 9. Unchangeable nature of virtue and vice. 10. Manner of his death. 11. Effect of henbane upon the blood. 12. Circulation of the blood. 13. Died without the offices of the church. Verify these points. (b) Horatio and the Ghost 1. Why was Horatio called to watch for the Ghost? 2. What does Horatio's expression What, has this thing appeared again to-night?" indicate ? Some editions give this speech to Marcellus ; Whom do you think would most naturally say it? 3. How does the Poet pave the way for Horatio to tell Hamlet of the appearance of the Ghost? 4. Was it dramatically necessary that Bernardo should go with Horatio and Marcellus when they went to inform Hamlet of the Ghost's appearance? 5. Why does he not witness the last visitation of the Ghost? 6. Why will not the Ghost talk to Hamlet in the pres- ence of Horatio and Marcellus? 7. Why is Horatio afraid to let Hamlet go away alone with the Ghost? HAMLET 193 8. What was Horatio's mental attitude toward Ghosts at first? 9. How did this attitude change after the appearance of the Ghost? (c) Hamlet in Relation to Other Characters (I.) Hamlet and the Ghost 1. In what frame of mind is Hamlet when Horatio and the others enter to inform him of the appearance of the Ghost? Can you see any dramatic purpose in the Poet's having them enter just at this time? 2. In what expression does Hamlet first show that he has the ghost within him, ready to meet the objective Ghost? How does he show this all through the conversa- tion in Act I, Scene 2 ? 3. Does he show any fear ? 4. Why does he at once enjoin secrecy? 5. Interpret the last four lines of this scene. 6. Act I, Scene 4. Note the perfectly natural conversa- tion with which the scene opens. 7. What is Hamlet's attitude toward the Ghost when he first sees it? Does he recognize it? Interpret his first expression. Does he express fear or reverence or irrever- ence? 8. Interpret his expression **I do not set my life at a pin's fee." 9. Show how in the latter part of the scene the Ghost takes complete possession of him. 10. Scene 5. Why does Hamlet say, 'I'll go no fur- ther?" 11. In calling upon Hamlet to revenge, to what ele- ment in Hamlet's nature does the Ghost first appeal? 12. In what state of mind does the Ghost leave Hamlet? 13. Give Hamlet's vow and study it carefully. 194 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 14. The The strict keeping of this vow will change his life in what particulars? 15. In what frame of mind does he meet Horatio and Marcellus ? 16. Does he show any indication that his reason is affected by his interview with the Ghost? 17. Why will he not tell Horatio and Marcellus what the Ghost revealed? 18. Why is he so anxious for secrecy? 19. How do you interpret his expression "How strange or odd soe'er I bear myselfr— As I perchance hereafter shall think meet To put an antic disposition on," etc. ? 20. His final conclusion is that "The time is out of joint: O cursed spite, That ever I was born to set it right!" Interpret this speech. Does it shed any light on his future action ? 21. Is it any indication of his character? (II.) Hamlet and the King First Movement. Guilt 1. Note tliat we are first introduced to Hamlet in the Family relation. In what frame of mind is he? 2. He begins by talking in riddles. Interpret his first two remarks if you can. 3. What is the King's attitude toward Hamlet? The Queen's ? Are they sincere ? 4. What is Hamlet's philosophy of grief? What the King's ? 5 Does the Queen in any way sound the keynote to the King's speech? 6. Is the King sincere? Does he really wish Hamlet to remain at home? HAMLET 195 7. What would have been the result had Hamlet re- turned to Wittenberg? 8. Does the King at first think Hamlet insane? 9. What means does he take to find out positively? 10. How does Hamlet appear and talk to the King? Does he talk like a really insane man? 11. Does Hamlet read the King's mind? 12. How does Hamlet plan to entrap the King? 13. Who shows the greater system and deliberation in planning, Hamlet or the King? Which succeeds? 14. W^hy does the King "fright with false fire?" 15. Do you see any evidence that after the play, the King is convinced with regard to Hamlet's insanity? 16. Why does not Hamlet kill the King when he finds him alone on his knees? 17. Is Hamlet really sincere when he decides not "To take him in the purging of his soul, When he is fit and seasoned for his passage." or is he trying to excuse himself?" Second Movement — Retribution 1. Give the King's reasoning about sending Hamlet to England. 2. Interpret Hamlet's talk to the King about the body of Polonius? 3. What excuse does he make to Hamlet for sending him to England? 4. When in the Queen's closet, how did Hamlet know that he was to be sent to England? 5. "I see a cherub that sees them." Interpret. 6. At the close of this conversation, why, when Rosen- crantz and Guildenstern have passed out, does the King disclose his plans for the death of Hamlet? 196 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 7. What effect does the news of Hamlet's return have upon Laertes in his relation to the King? 8. Is there any evidence that the King had forestalled Hamlet's possible return by another plan to get rid of him? 9. Do you find any evidence that Hamlet saw the King to ''recount the occasion of my sudden and more strange re- turn?" or that he ever had any real conversation with him after his return? 10. How many times did they come into actual personal contact? On what occasions? 11. In case the scheme with Laertes failed, what did the King plan next ? 12. Would the King's plans have succeeded without Laertes poisoned foil? 13. Was Hamlet really killed through the King's agency or Laertes' agency? 14. All through the play we see that the King depended on his plans and Hamlet depended on his wits, — which "o'er mastered" the other, the "plans" or the "wits?" (III.) Hamlet and His Mother. 1. How was Hamlet affected by the discovery that his mother was false to his father and to her true womanhood? Do you wonder that in his very heart he should feel, "Frailty thy name is woman?" 2. How many times in this play does Hamlet meet his mother and under what conditions? 3. Who plans the closet scene and for what purpose? 4. In what mood is Hamlet when he goes to his moth- er's closet? 5. Does he obey the injunction of the Ghost to "Leave her to heaven. And to those thorns that in her bosom lodge To prick and sting her?" HAMLET 197 6. Is he afraid of him? When he says, "And — would it were not so, — you are my mother;" what are his inmost thoughts and feehngs ? 7. When Hamlet thrusts through the arras, does he really think he is going to kill the King? Would he not recognize Polonius' voice when he called ''Help?" 8. When Hamlet sets up to his mother "a glass Where you may see the inmost part of you." how does he succeed ? What ability does he show ? Do you think he would be able to convince a jury now-a-days? 9. When she confesses that he has turned her eyes into her very soul, and begs him to "speak no more," why does he not stop? 10. Why does the Ghost appear to Hamlet at this point ? 11. What effect does Hamlet's vision have upon the Queen ? 12. What does the Queen mean when she says "This bodiless creation ecstacy Is very cunning in" ? 13. Do you notice any change in Hamlet's attitude toward his mother after the visitation of the Ghost? 14. How does he feel toward her at the close of this part of the conversation? 15. Do you consider his last charge to his mother an evidence of sanity or insanity? 16. Do you think the Queen thought him insane? 17. Does she keep her pledge to Hamlet? 18. When she realizes that she is dying, to whom does she give her last thought? 19. Did Hamlet truly love his mother? 20. Did she truly love him? 21. Did he forgive her? 198 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 22. He so sweetly and tenderly says, "And when you are desirous to be blest I'll blessing beg of you." Did she give him the opportunity? (IV.) Hamlet and Ophelia First Movement 1. Study carefully Hamlet's vow after the Ghost leaves him ; do you find in it any key to his treatment of Ohpelia ? 2. Was Hamlet's personal appearance when he visited Ophelia in her closet any evidence of insanity? 3. Was he trying to make her think him insane? 4. For symptoms of love, refer to conversation between Rosalind and Orlando in As You Like It, last part of Scene 2, Act III. 5. Account for Hamlet's letters to Ophelia. Do they sound like Hamlet, the intellectual scholar from Witten- berg? 6. In the interview between Hamlet and Ophelia planned by Polonius, in what mood is Hamlet when Ophelia enters ? 7. How do you interpret Hamlet in this interview? (a) Does he really love Ophelia? (b) How do you account for his severe talk? (c) Is he gentlemanly? (d) Can you read between the lines and trace any evidence of tenderness ? (e) Some think he is heartbroken because he knows that he must give her up, and at her treatment of him, and that he is forcing himself to go to these extremes in order to keep up and not break down completely. What do you think of this view? HAMLET 199 8. Why does he suddenly interrupt his Hne of talk with the inquiry, "Where's your father?" 9. Interpret his speech beginning "I have heard of your paintings too." What has made him mad? 10. "All but one shall live" refers to whom? 11. Does he wish to make Ophelia believe him insane? 12. Does she believe him insane? 13. Has Polonius succeeded in convincing the King that Hamlet is mad because of "neglected love?" 1^. Is it natural for Hamlet to seek Ophelia's company at the play ? 15. Does he show any evidence of insanity here? Does Ophelia really love Hamlet? Give her estimate of him. Second Movement In the second movement, Ophelia has lost both father and lover; the father slain by the lover's hand, and Hamlet sent from the country ; left thus alone, she is unable to bear the strain of her environments, her mind completely gives way; the Poet leaves us in no doubt about her mental con- dition. 1. Is there any dramatic purpose in having her brought to the Queen by Horatio? 2. What is the burden of her song? Why did not the Poet make her sing of her lover? 3. How are the King and Queen affected by her con- dition ? 4. Can you see any dramatic purpose in having her brought to them in this condition at this time? 5. What is the dramatic purpose in bringing in Laertes in armed rebellion at this point and of having him confront Opehelia ? 200 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 6. Can you see any dramatic purpose in having the news of her death brought to Laertes, just as the King has finished disclosing his plot to take Hamlet's life? 7. Was Ophelia's death accidental or did she commit suicide? 8. ^ Do you find anything in her songs or her talk which indicate that her insanity took the form of suicidal intent ? 9. In the Priest's remarks at the grave did he show the spirit o| ,true Christianity, or of religious formalism? 10. jHow do you account for Hamlet's leap into the grave khd struggle with Laertes? Do you regard it as evi- dence of great love for Ophelia? 11. Which of the four inner Hamlets is manifested here ? (V.) r Hamlet and Polonius Polonius sounds the keynote to his own character in his interview with Reynaldo when he says "Your bait of falsehood Takes this carp of truth, and thus do we . . . With windlaces and with assays of bias By indirection find direction out." He is the scheming, witty politician, utterly devoid of con- science or of true moral principles. Cunning is his only basis of action. "And I do think, or else this brain of mine Hunts not the trail of policy so sure As it hath used to do — that I have found The very cause of Hamlet's lunacy." This is the man who is prying out Hamlet's secret; one who has nothing whatever in common with Hamlet's nature. 1. Why does Polonius warn OpheHa against Hamlet? 2. Do you find any evidence that Polonius is justifiable in slurring Hamlet's character as he does? HAMLET 201 3. Does Polonius think Hamlet's personal appearance when he visits Ophelia in her closet, an evidence of insan- ity or of intense love? 4. Do you think Polonius justifiable in finally conclud- ing that Hamlet is insane, and because Ophelia has repulsed him ? MjH 5. What do you think of his plans for detecting mam- let? 6. Why does Hamlet call him a fishmonger? ^ 7. Does Hamlet read Polonius? Why does^e say, "Have you a daughter ?" before Polonius mentions Ophelia ? 8. He talks in riddles until Polonius leaves him, when he says "These tedious old fools" ; what does he mean by this? 9. Compare Hamlet and Poloniu§^in this conversation. 10. Has Polonius accomplished anything in this inter- view? 11. When giving Ophelia directions about meeting Hamlet, he says "We're oft to blame in this . . . . that with devotion's visage And pious action we do sugar o'er The devil himself." What does he mean ? Is there any dramatic purpose in put- ting these words into his mouth at this time? 12. What underhanded cunning does he now show? 13. Which has outwitted the other, Hamlet or Pol- onius ? 14. Do you find any evidence that Polonius is doubtful about Hamlet's insanity? 15. Does Polonius succeed in convincing the King? 16. Do you think the King really thinks Hamlet insane at all? 17. What is Polonius' plan next? 202 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 18. Interpret the conversation between Hamlet and Polonius after the play, when Polonius comes in to tell Hamlet that the Queen would speak to him. 19. "They fool me to the top of my bent." Interpret. 20. Why does the Poet have Hamlet left alone at this point? Note carefully Hamlet's short soliloquy. Note his frame of mind when he sees the king on his knees, and when he goes to meet his mother. 21. In the closet scene which Polonius thinks he has so cunningly planned, do you think that Hamlet really ex- pected to kill anyone when he "makes a pass through the arras" or was it simply a random thrust made in the heat of the moment? 22. Do you see any object in having Polonius killed at the very beginning of this interview? Why not carry him through the play? 23. Does Hamlet show any regret for what he has done? Note that he has just refused to kill the King when he found him alone. "Take thy fortune Thou finds't to be too busy is some danger" Interpret. Do you agree with Hamlet? 24. Did Polonius deserve his fate? 25. Can you justify Hamlet? (VI.) Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern First Movement 1. How does Hamlet receive Rosencrantz and Guilden- stern at first? What seems to be his spirit? 2. Compare the way in which he handles them with his handling of Polonius. 3. What does he mean when he says "by my fay I can- not reason." "I am most dreadfully attended." Has he as- sumed an unnatural role until he is at last in a maze of doubt about himself? HAMLET 203 4. Why does he make Rosencrantz and Guildernstern confess that they were sent for by the King ? Are they keen enough for him? 5. Why does not Hamlet make them tell why they were sent for instead of telling why himself? (Note how naturally the coming of the players is in- troduced.) 6. When Polonius enters, Hamlet foresees his errand ; Why does he say "When Roscius was an actor at Rome?" 7. Why does he refer to Jephthah ? 8. Thus far have Rosencrantz and Guildenstern ac- complished anything? 9. In the conversation after the play, does Hamlet show any desire to make Rosencrantz and Guildernstern think him insane? 10. Compare his talk with them with his talk with Polonius ; what is his real state of mind ? Second Movement 1. Hamlet is now sent to England in charge of Rosen- crantz and Guildernstern. Why at the time of starting does he send them ''a little before?" 2. What did he mean when he told the Queen, "Let it work; for 'tis sport," etc.? (last of closet scene.) 3. Does Hamlet -suspect the contents of the commis- sion? 4. How can the Hamlet who could not kill the King when he found him alone, deliberately send his two friends ( ?) to their death ? 5. Does he have any conscience conflict over this? 6. Did Rosencrantz and Guildernstern know the con- tents of the commission? 7. Does Horatio condemn Hamlet for the deed? 204 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 8. Why did not the Poet allow him to live to hear of their death? 9. Do you think Hamlet was justifiable in thus chang- ing the commission? (VII.) Hamlet and Horatio 1. What is the real dramatic purpose of Horatio in the play? 2. What really active part does he take? 3. Is he a man of action in the play? 4. Note his appearance in the play. First Movement First, at the opening of the play, a connecting link between the objective Ghost, and the subjective Ghost in Hamlet. Second, in the middle of the play, to witness the play to "catch the conscience of the King." Second Movement First, merely introduces Ophelia in Act IV in her wrecked mental condition. Second, accompanies Hamlet through Act V to the final grand tragedy. 5. He appears only once except in connection with Hamlet. How does he aid Hamlet? - 6. Has Hamlet confided to him the secret of his father's murder ? 7. Does he aid Hamlet in laying any plans for re- venge ? Does he make any suggestions ? 8. Do we learn anything of Hamlet's experience that is of dramatic value, that without Horatio, we would have no good way of finding out? 9. Why is he so sure that Hamlet will lose the wager with Laertes ? HAMLET 205 10. How do you account for the visit of Hamlet and Horatio to the church-yard? 11. Would Horatio have taken his own life in the end had it not been for Hamlet? 12. Why was it dramatically necessary that he should survive the grand catastrophe? 13. In recounting "how these things came about" state to what each point refers : what were "the carnal, bloody and unnatural acts?" etc. 14. Show that Horatio is a perfectly mediated char- acter, — that his life is a life of triumph, — not as some would have it, that he is good simply because he is too weak to be anything else. 15. Can you see that his office at the last is to aid in restoring harmony to the state of Denmark, which accord- ing to the ethics of the Drama, only a mediated character could do? IG. Give Hamlet's estimate of Horatio. (D.) Hamlet In answering the following points, quote references giving author, act and scene. ( 1. His appearance before his father's Outward Hamlet-^ death; ( 2. After his mother's marriage. I 1. The Instinctive or Impulsive. -r TT 1 \ ^' The Imaginative. Inner Hamlet . g ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ Religious. 4. The Intellectual or Reflective. 1. Trace each of these Hamlets individually through the play. 2. In the subjective conflicts, which of these Hamlets finally gets the mastery, and determines the final issue of his life ? 206 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 3. Was Hamlet a well balanced character? 4. Was his life a failure? Why or why not? 5. Between Hamlet's "Adieu" to the Ghost and the "play" there is supposed to be an interval of about two months ; what was he doing all this time, when he was so anxious to ''sweep to my revenge?" 6. Can you show the gap between a sense of duty and its fulfillment? willing and doing? disc-ernment and re- solve? resolve and action? 7. Had Hamlet been actuated by ambition for his lost crown, would he have hesitated to kill the King? 8. Does ambition for worldly honors contain the seeds of death? 9. Hamlet is the great "soliloquizer" of all of Shakes- peare's characters. Why is this? 10. Trace Hamlet through his soliloquies, giving the circumstances, theme, and arguments of each. 11. How many times and under what circumstances does he chide himself for inaction? What" reasons does he give? Is he just to himself? 12. For how many deaths is Hamlet responsible? Do you think he was in any way responsible for Ophelia's sad end? If so, in what way? 13. From an ethical standpoint, did Hamlet come to his tragic end because he did not kill the King or because he did kill Polonius? 14. Make a list of Hamlet's characteristics. Give ref- erences. Hamlet's Insanity 1. To whom did he feign insanity? 2. To whom was he always rational? 3. Did he always appear the same to the same persons? 4. Who believed him insane? 5. Who believed him sane? HAMLET 207 6. What did he think about it himself? 7. What did Shakespeare think his condition of mind to be? 8. What is your own opinion? 9. What would be the effect upon the drama to leave out the insane element entirely, and have Hamlet work against the King in a perfectly rational way, as the King plans against Hamlet? Do you think it would in any way detract from the interest? If so, how? 1 1. That he was insane. 10. J 2. That he feigned insanity. Try to prove 1 3. That he was rational and did not feign I insanity. 11. One never knows what turn the insane mind may take at any moment. Do you think an artist could base an artistically constructed drama upon the vagaries of, an in- sane man? (E) The King 1. \Yhat statesmanlike ability does Claudius show? 2. What incidents in the play bring out his ability? 3. Had it not been for his corrupt moral character what kind of a King do you think Claudius would have made? Compare Hamlet with him in this particular. 4:. When we are first introduced to the King, why does he preface business by such extended remarks about his family affairs? Do you see any special significance in it? Show how this entire speech gives the keynote to his char- acter. 5. Did Gertrude know of the character of her hus- band's death? 6. Did Claudius advise with Gertrude in the making of his plans? (Compare with Macbeth.) 7. What purpose does Gertrude serve in the play? How is she related to the State? How is she linked with 208 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA the acts of Claudius? To what extent is she his partner in crime ? 8. In planning, how did Claudius always try to make sure of success in the end? 9. Did he have great confidence in Polonius? 10. What do you think of his plan to bring Rosencrantz and Guildernstern to court? 11. Since Hamlet was so little disposed to act, why should the King fear him so much? 12. Analyize carefully the King's discussion of his crime, of prayer, of repentance. What is his theory of each ? 13. What difiference does he see between courts of jus- tice in "this world" and ''above." * 14. What is the result of his conscience conflict? 15. Do you see any evidence that after all he, like the drowning man, clings to a straw of hope? 16. When Laertes returns in arms, what diplomacy does Claudius show in handling him? 17. When he receives news that Hamlet has returned, show that he used the same policy in planning his death that he used in the murder of King Hamlet. 18. In separate columns make a list of Claudius' good and bad qualities. 19. Trace the King's crime. ,20. Note how Claudius' original deed contained in it the element of death; it not only brings him to death, but Elements all connected with him ; first the scheming, plotting of Polonius, slain by Hamlet, thus Hamlet becomes a Death criminal, and Laertes has a father's murder to re- venge ; second, Ophelia, who allowed herself to be used as a tool against Hamlet, after a pathetic life, comes to a pa- thetic end ; the final grand tragedy sweeps out the P , remaining guilty ones. First the Queen, who was Tragedy the cause of the original deed, comes to her death by drinking of the bowl poisoned by her own guilty HAMLET 209 husband ; second, the King, stabbed by Hamlet himself with the foil poisoned to make Hamlet's own death sure, and then forced by Hamlet to drink of his own poisoned bowl ; if the foil fails, the poison must take effect; thus even in his death his own method of double planning comes back upon his own head. Next Laertes, stabbed by Hamlet with Laer- tes 'own foil envenomed by himself to ensure Hamlet's death ; and lastly Hamlet struck down by Laertes, whose father he had slain. We are led to exclaim, "O wonderful conception of the Poet!" The two guilty families are entirely swept out, and only the two mediated characters, Horatio and Fortinbras, remain to restore harmony to the State; Horatio to explain and set matters right before the people, and Fortinbras to assume the government. 21. Thus we see how Claudius' deed sweeps all con- nected with him to death, but this does not relieve the in dividual of the responsibility of his own individual deed; show in each case how the deed returns upon the doer, that is, how Nemesis follows the guilty individual. (G.) Miscellaneous 1. What is the dramatic purpose of Act I, Scene 3 ? 2. Of Act H, Scene 1? 3. Give the family characteristics of the Polonius family. 4. Give the individual characteristics of each. 5. Can you condemn Ophelia for perfect obedience to her father? Compare her with Jessica. 6. As a character in the play what purpose does she serve ? 7. Is there any dramatic purpose in making revenge instead of justice the basis of Hamlet's action? What ob- stacles were in his way? 8. Compare Hamlet and Laertes as men of action. 210 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 9. Why does the Poet send Hamlet to school to Wit- tenberg and send Laertes to Paris ? Can you imagine Laer- tes in Wittenberg? 10. What conld Hamlet gain by feigning insanity? 11. Do 3^ou base your estimate of Hamlet's character upon what he says of himself or upon what others say of him? 12. The King has committed a deed which he knows ought to be undone through repentance; he discusses the duty of repentance. Hamlet has left undone a deed which he knows he ought to do, he discusses the duty of revenge. Compare the arguments of the two, point by point. 13. State the theories of the immortahty of the soul given in the play — make a list of quotations on this subject. IL What is the dramatic purpose of the Norway epi- sode ? Do you think the drama would be weakened by leav- ing it out? Why or why not? 15. Where is the play relieved by traces of humor? 16. Can you imagine that Hamlet might have been at all humorous before his life was saddened? 17. Account for the grave diggers' scene; has it any dramatic purpose? 18. Can you see any place where the play might have been relieved by music? Compare with the Merchant of Venice. What use does Hamlet make of the recorders? 19. This drama is full of very familiar quotations. Make a list of them by act and scene. 20. Memorize the Christm.as legend given by Marcel- lus ; the soliloquy beginning ''To be or not to be." Ham- let's discourse on the grandeur of man, and as many others that you would like to remember, as you can. 21. Compare the Hamlet drama with other plays which you have read in completeness of dramatic structure ; HAMLET 211 in the use of the supernatural as an element of the play ; in theories of life, death and immortality; in points of in- formation on various topics. 22. The Hamlet drama has been called "The Sphinx of Literature" and Hamlet himself has been called a "Sphinx." Why? 23. What is the theme? 24. What is the moral? 25. What was the germ thought which prompted the Poet to write the play ? 2G. Gervinus says, "Intuitions conceived in passion vanish with the emotion. Human will changes and is in- fluenced and enfeebled by delays. But we might ask, "In Hamlet's case, why the delay?:" 27. Schlegel says "Hamlet is a tragedy of thought." Is the real tragedy the objective conflict which we see end- ing in the final grand catastrophe which sweeps out the conflicting elements in one fell swoop, or is it the tragedy of Hamlet's life? Is the life of this young man of such noble impulses and grand qualities, wrecked because he was required to perform a deed which was so revolting to his moral nature, that he could not make his reason and his will drive him to it? 28. Does Shakespeare ever make the moral element secondary to any other? Are we all Hamlets? Whichever way we turn we meet with difficulty. 29. At what period of Shakespeare's life was this drama written? Had he solved the problem himself, we wonder ? 30. What have you gained from the study of Shakes- peare ? 31. Have you gained power to enable you to better in- terpret the thoughts of great writers? 212 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA Scheme for Outline Book This outline book scheme is presented here because it shows the work which has been done by classes in the third year of the high school. When this scheme was given one section of the class was studying Hamlet with one teacher, and another section was studying Macbeth with another teacher, the same scheme was given to both sections. Hamlet — Macbeth 1. The Drama. (1) Legendary. (a) Tragedy. (1) Real. (2) Ideal. (b) Comedy. (1) Real. (2) Ideal. (2) Historical. Classify the play. 2. Classification of {Hamlet or Macbeth) according to the outline of the drama given above and show how it be- longs under each division. 3. Give the basis of the plot. 4. Show the basis of the action. 5. Group the principal characters of the play accord- ing to their relationship to the following in outline form : (1) The State. (2) The Family. (3) The Deed committed. (4) The Ethical World. 6. Make a diagram of the entrance and exit of the characters. 7. Give the references in the play, by act and scene, and the lines containing it, to the supernatural, and state the use made of it in the play. HAMLET 213 8. Quotations : Give two on each of the following and five others of your own choice : (1) Patriotism. (2) Friendship. (3) Love. (4) Beautiful sentiments. (5) Religious sentiments. . Home Readings Group I Group II. 1. King Lear. 1. Romeo and Juliet. 2. Tempest. 2. Much Ado About 3. Cymbeline. Nothing. 4. Richard III. - 3 A Winter's Tale. 4. Henry IV, Part 1. Do the following with each play of the group read : (1) Who causes the catastrophe? (2) What was the misdeed of the individual? (3) State the result of bringing the individual face to face with his misdeed. (4) Quotations: One from each act of each of the plays read. Topics for Essays and Discussion 1. Hamlet's Insanity. 2. Hamlet and the Ghost. 3. The Moral Hamlet. 4. The Impulsive Hamlet. 5. The Reflective Hamlet. 6. Hamlet and his Mother. 7. Hamlet and Ophelia. 8. Hamlet and Polonius. 9. Hamlet as a Man of Action. 10. Hamlet as a man of Inaction. 214 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 11. Hamlet and Laertes (compared). 12. Hamlet's Transformation. 13. Ophelia. 14. The Queen. ' 15. The King. 16. Polonius. 17. The Ghost and Ghost-seer. 18. The Closet Scene. 19. The Norway Episode. 20. Love, Friendship and Duty. 21. The Religious thought in the Play. 22. Hamlet and Macbeth — The Men. 23. Claudius and Macbeth. 21. Gertrude and Lady Macbeth. 25. Hamlet's Revenge and the King's Repentance. 26. Theory of Life from Polonius' Standpoint. 27. Theory of Life from the French Standpoint Com- pared with the German. 28. The Play of Hmnlet as a Drama. (In fullness and completeness compare with other plays read.) Hamlet and Macbeth. Comparative Study (A.) The Plays 1. Shakespeare's only plays geographically located in northern Europe ; that is, north of England. 2. Both deal with royalty. 3. Both contain a strong flavor of the historical. 4. Both named from the character in whom the chief interest centers. 5. Hamlet, Shakespeare's longest play. Macbeth, the shortest of his serious plays. (2109 lines Globe Ed.) Hamlet noted for the great number of lines which he speaks, Macbeth for the few lines which he speaks. HAMLET 215 6. Shakespeare's only Ideal Tragedies. 7. The only plays in which the supernatural as a mo- tive is objective. 8. In both, a deed has been done before the play opens which becomes an incentive to action. 9. Both -plays open with the supernatural element. 10. In both this element appears again at the climax of the play. Study to carry this line of comparison still further. Compare in the follozving points: 1. The character of the deed before the opening of the plays. 2. This deed in each, as an incentive to action. 3. Character of the action. 4. Character of the supernatural element. 5. The office of this element in the plays. 6. Its relation to the Ethical World. 7. The moral element in the plays. 8. The religious element. 9. The institution of the State. 10. The institution of the Family. 11. Definiteness of characterization. 12. Nature, reference to the elements ; to animals ; to plants. 13. Music in the plays. 14. Humor in the plays. 15. As an acting play. 16. Which will hold the interest of an audience better? 17. As a reading play, which is the more interesting study ? 18. Which has more strong types of character? 19. Which is more universal, that is, in which do we find more characteristics of all mankind? 216 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 20. Which is more generally quoted from? 21. Which would you rather know thoroughly ? Why ? (B.) Hamlet and Macbeth — The Men Compare in the following points: 1. Attitude toward the supernatural ; comparative in- fluence over each. 2. Ambition for power. 3. Courage, — physical and moral. 4. Intellectual culture. 5. Men of impulse and of reflection. 6. Men of action. 7. Moral and spiritual sense. 8. Their soliloquies as an index to character. 9. Do the characteristics of the two men in any way account for the length of the two plays? 10. Show that Hamlet belonged to the advancing Christian age, and that Macbeth belonged to the past heroic age. (For the latter see Mac. Act HI, Scene 4). 11. Show how inaction may have been an element in Hamlet's tragic end, and hasty action in Macbeth's. 12. Were they to exchange places, what would be the result ? (C.) The King and Macbeth Compare in the following points: 1. Nature of their foul deed. 2. Motive for the deed. 3. Manner of the deed. 4. Influences brought to bear upon the doer. 5. Effect of the deed upon the doer. 6. Effect upon the State. 7. Effect upon the Family. 8. As men of action and of deliberation. 9. Statesmanlike qualities. HAMLET 217 10. In subtile adroitness. 11. Moral nature. 12. In their family relations. 13. As Kings. 14. Make them exchange places and what would be the result ? 15. Which has more characteristics that you can re- spect or admire? What are they? 16. If it were possible to eliminate the bad qualities and keep the good, which would result in the better man? (D.) The Queen and Lady Macbeth Compare 1. In their relations to the deed. 2. In character — moral and spiritual ; in strength of character. 3. In the family relations, as wives, as mothers. 4. As Queens. 5. As to womanhood. 6. The manner of death. Can you give any ethical cause for the difference? 7. Would Claudius have committed murder to secure Lady Macbeth for his wife? 8. Which would have the most dangerous influence in society ? 9. Make a list of the characteristics in each, which you could admire. 10. Make them change places and what would result? Miscellaneous 1. Compare Banquo and Horatio. '2. Compare Banquo and Polonius. 3. Compare Lady Macbeth and Ophelia. 4. Had Ophelia been Macbeth's wife do you think he would have killed Duncan? A SMALL SHAKESPEAREAN LIBRARY 1. Complete Works A single play edition if possible. Rolfe and Hudson are al- ways standard; the notes and introductory matter are both satis- factory and reliable. The Arden Shakespearear, D. C. Heath, is good. The Aletrnus edition is inexpensive; good paper and print; contains a good introduction, and the original story or the old play upon which the plot is supposed to be founded, but no ex- planatory notes. Charlotte Porter and Helen Clarke are now edit- ing the "First Folio" edition ; this is a reprint of the original first folio of 1623, and for the first time made accessible to ordinary readers ; besides the text, it contains full notes, glossary and a great deal of very valuable matter; at present writing (Nov., 1904) five plays are out. A Midsummer Night's Dream, Love's Labour's Lost, The Comedy of Errors, The Merchant of Venice, and Mac- beth. The price is fifty cents each, published by Thomas Y. Crowell, New York. 2. Life of Shakespeare Life of William Shakespeare: Sidney Lee (1898) Macmillan, $1.75. This is a book of 445 pages, 57 of which is an ap- pendix which contains very valuable matter throwing light upon contested points. Mr. Lee has taken great pains to thoroughly investigate all sources of information, and may be considered en- tirely reliable. An abridgement of this work is published for 80 cents. Those who would read Shakespeare's autobiography into the Sonnets, should carefully and with unprejudiced mind read the results of Mr. Lee's investigation on this topic. Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare. J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps. Revised edition ; Longman's ; 1,000 pages ; contains re-prints of orig- inal documents, is thoroughly reliable, considered a "court of final resort," very valuable for reference. $6.00, 2 vol. edition. William Shakespeare. A critical study. George Brandes ; Mac- millan, 2 vols. $8.00, abridged edition $2.60. This book might more appropriately be styled "The Evolution of the Life and Writings of Shakespeare." It gives the life and writings of the great dram- 219 220 STUDIES IN THE SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA atist in their historical settings, showing him in the process of de- velopment. It is not only a book to be read, but a readable book. Shakespeare : Poet, Dramatist and Man. Hamilton Wright Ma- bie (1901), Macmillan. Third edition, 100 illustrations, $2.0a. This book is most delightful reading. Nearly all of the Commentaries on Shakespeare contain a brief sketch of his life ; Gervinus, Dowden, Hudson, etc. 3. Dramatic Structure and Interpretative Criticism Commentaries on the Tragedies, Comedies and Histories, one volume each. Denton J. Snider, Sigma Publishing Co., St. Louis ; sold by A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, $1.50 each, not net. Dr. Snider throws new light upon the structural lines of the Shakes- pearean drama; the interpretations are from an ethical standpoint and abundantly repay thoughtful study. Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist. Richard G. Moulton, Mac- millan, $1.50. Treats of dramatic structure, illustrated by studies of several plays. The Moral System of Shakespeare. R. G. Moulton (1903) Macmillan, $1.50. Interprets the Poet from an ethical standpoint; shows the unity of Shakespeare's dramas and the moral system running through his entire works. The appendix contains a plot scheme for every play. This book should be read by every inter- ested student of Shakespeare. Commentaries on Shakespeare. George Gottfreid Gervinus, Scribner, $5.25. This is an ethical interpretation of the great Poet by an eminent German critic, who is acknowledged authority in this line of thought. Once knowing this volume we turn to it again and again. Shakespeare's Dramatic Art. Hermann Ulrici, Macmillan, 2 vols.' $1.00 each. Ulrici is a most devoted and systematic Shakes- pearean student and scholar. Shakespeare, Life and Works. William C. Hazlitt (1817) Scribners, $2.50. Notes and Lectures on Shakespeare and other dramatists, be- ing Vol. IV of the complete works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge; Harpers, $2.00; also lectures on Shakespeare, Coleridge; Macmillan, $1.00. Mr. Lee considers Coleridge and Hazlitt "the best represen- tatives of the aesthetic school in this or any other country," al- though he says "Professor Dowden in his 'Mind and Art' (1874) and Mr. Swinburne in his 'Study of Shakespeare' (1880), ^as worthy followers of Coleridge and Hazlitt, remain unsurpassed." A SMALL SHAKESPEAREAN LIBRARY 221 Shakespeare, Nils Mind and Art. A critical study, Edward Dowden, Harpers, $1.75 ; also by the same author, Shakespeare Primer, Am. Book Co., 35 cents. Mr. Dowden is a generally ac- cepted interpreter of Shakespeare and is very helpful. Shakespeare, Life, Art and Character. Rev. Henry N. Hudson, Ginn & Co., 2 vols., $4.00 the set. Very appreciative and espec- ially interesting and valuable from the artistic standpoint. The Bible in Shakespeare (1903), William Burgess, Winona Publishing Co., Chicago, $1.50. The title explains the book. It is a most wonderful study. Mr. Burgess has laid all students of the "Myriad-minded" under lasting obligation. Characteristics of Women. Mrs. Jameson, Houghton Miflin & Co., $1.25. Too well known to need especial mention. Five Lectures by Bernhard ten Brink. Henry Holt, $1.25. Very interesting, not designed for reference. 4. For Referance Only A work invaluable for reference is a new and complete con- cordance by John Bartlett, 1900 pages, Macmillan, $7.50. One re- viewer says of this work : "Mr. Bartlett's great volume supplies absolute completeness and furnishes a Concordance to Shakespeare's Works that is invaluable, and that may never be improved upon Its accuracy is indisputable." 5. Development of the English Drama History of English Dramatic Literature. A. W. Ward, Mac- millan, 3 vols., $9.00. Shakespeare's Predecessors in the English Drama (1884) ; John Addington Symonds ; Scribners, $2.00. English Religious Drama.. Katherine Lee Bates; Macmillan, $1.50. Technique of the Drama.' Gustav Freytag, Scott, $1.50. For short sketches, Hudson's Life, Art and Characters ; His- tory of Elizabethan Literature, Saintsbury; Macmillan, $1.00. Development of English Literature. Welsh, S. C. Griggs, Dowden, Brooke, etc. This list comprises only a very few selections from the great number whose name is legion. Perhaps no one can be absolutely reliable upon every point, but we think these can be safely recom- mended as a neucleus for a private or school library. INDEX TO CHARACTERS AUTHORITY FOR PRONUNCIATION The Century Dictionary of names is the principal authority for pronunciation in this Index. W. indicates Webster. S. indicates The Standard. DIACRITICAL MARKINGS a (short) as in at, fat. a (long) as in mate, fate. a as in far^ father. a (aw) as in awe, fall, talk. a as in ask, class. a as in fare, hair. e (short) as in pet, less. e (long) as in mete, fleet. e as in her^ fern. i (short) as in it, pin. i (long) as in line, find. o (short) as in on, not. o (long) as in note, door. 6 (oo) as in move, room. 6 as in nor, off. u (short) as in but, tub. u (long) as in flute, use. u as in pull, book. ii German u, French u. h French, nasal. Primary accent is indicated by ' ; secondary by ". In an unaccented syllable, the variable sound of a vowel which often becomes short u, as e in prudent, is indicated by the italic, as in Webster ; the Century indicates this sound by two dots under the vowel. 225 226 INDEX TO CHARACTERS The lightening of a vowel in an unaccented syllable, as, a in courage, is indicated in the Century by one dot under the vowel; it is not indicated in this inde^c- This sound occurs in the fol- lowing words : One dot under a — Chamberlain, Lord (cham'berlan) Flaminius (fla-min'i-us) Hecate (hek'a-te) Laertes (la-er'tez) Michael (mi'ka-el) Mowbray (mo'bra) One dot under e — Artemidorus (ar"te-mi-do'rus) Benedick (ben'e-dik) Cleomenes (kle-om'e-nez) Emilia (e-mil'i-a) Nerissa (ne-ris'sa) Orleans (6r-le-anz) Pisanio (pe-sa'ne-6) both e's Proteus (pro'te-us) Thesus (the'se-us) Verges (ver'ges) One dot under a — Andronicus (an-dro-ni'kus) Antigonous (an-tig'o-nus) Antiochus (an-ti'o-kus) Antipholus (an-tifo-lus) Antony (an'to-ni) Cleopatra (kle-6-pa'tra) Coriolanus (k5"ri-o-la'nus) Deiphobus (de-ifo-bus) Gregory (greg'6-ri)_ Hermione (her-mi'-o-ne) Holofernes (hol-o-fer'nez) Imogen (im'o-jen) Leonine (ie'o-nln) _ Morocco (mo-rok'-o) 1st o Polonius (p6-l6'ni-us) Viola (vi'o-la) Volumnia (v6-lum'ni-a) Westmoreland (west'mor-land) Willoughby (wil'o-bi) One dot under u — Capulet (kap'u-let) Euphronius (u-fro'ni-us) 1st u Trinculo (trin'cu-lo) Ursula (er'su-la) INDEX TO CHARACTERS 227 Aaron, (ar'on) a Moor beloved by Tamora Abergavenny, (ab-er-ga'ni or ab"er-ga-ven'i) Lord Abhorson, (ab-hor'son) an executioner. Abram, (a'bram) or Abraham, (a'bra-ham) servant to Montague. Achilles, (a-kil'ez) Grecian commander Adam, (ad'am) old man, servant to Oliver. Adrian, (a'dri-an) Lord. Adriana, (a-dri-a'na) wife to Antipholus of Ephesus. ^geon, (e-je'on) merchant of Syracuse. ^millia, (emil'i-o) wife of ^gon. ^milius, (e-mil'i-us) a noble Roman. ^neas (e-ne-as) Trojan commander. Agamemnon, (ag-a-mem'non) Grecian gen- eral. Agrippa, (a-grip'a) friend to Csesar. Agrippa, Menenius, friend to Coriolanus. Ague- Cheek, (a'gii-chek) Sir Andrew. Ajax, (a-jaks) Grecian commander. Alarbus, (a-lar'bus) son to Tamora. Albany, (arba-ni) Duke of Alcibiades, (al-si-bi'a-dez) Athenian gen- eral. AlenQon, (a-loh-s6n) Duke of Alexander, (al-eg-zan'der) servant to Cres- sida. Alexas, (a-lek'sas) attendant on Cleopatra. Alice, al'is) attendant on Katherine. Alonzo, (a-lon'z6) King of Naples. Amiens, (a-me-an) attendant on the Duke. Andromache, (an-drom'a-ke) wife to Hec- tor. Andronicus (an-dro-ni'kus) Marcus, a trib- une. Andronicus, Titus, a noble Roman. Angelo, (an'je-l6) a goldsmith. Titus Andronicus Henry VHI. Measure for Measure. Romeo and Juliet. Troilus and Cressida. As You Like It. The Tempest. Comedy of Errors. Comedy of Errors. Comedy of Errors. Titus Andronicus. Troilus and Cressida. Troilus and Cressida. Antony and Cleopatra. Coriolanus. Twelfth Night. Troilus and Cressida. Titus Andronicus. King Lear. Timon of Athens. Henry VI. Troilus and Cressida. Antony and Cleopatra. Henry V. The Tempest. As You Like It. Troilus and Cressida. Titus Andron'icus, or (ni'kus). Titus Andronicus. Comedy of Errors. 228 INDEX TO CHARACTERS Angelo, deputy in the Duke's absence. Angus, (ang'gus) a nobleman of Scotland. Anne, (an) widow of Edward of Wales, married to Richard III. Anterior, Trojan commander. Antigonous, (an-tig'o-nus) Sicilian lord. Antiochus, (an-ti'o-kus) King of Antioch. Antipholus, (an-tif'o-kus) of Ephesus Antipholus, (an-tif'o-lus) ) of Ephesus. Vtwin brothers. Antipholus, of Syracuse. ) Antonio, (an-to'ni-o) brother to Prospero. Antonio, friend to Sebastian. Antonio, brother to Leonato. Antonio, a merchant of Venice. Antonio, father to Proteus. Antony, (an'to-ni) Marcus, friend to Coesar. Antony, Marcus, triumvir (same as above). Apemantus, (ap-e-man'tus) churlish phil- osopher. Archbishop of Canterbury. Archduke of Austria. Archibald, (ar'chi-bald) Earl of Douglas. Archidamus, (ar-ki-da'mus) Bohemian lord. Ariel, (a'ri-el) an airy spirit. Armado, (ar-ma'do) Don Adriano de, Arragon, (ar'a-gon) Prince of Artemidorus, (ar"te-mi-d6'rus) a sophist. Arthur, (ar'thwr) Duke of Bretagne. Arviragus, (ar-vir'a-gus) son to Cymbeline, supposed son to Belarius. Audrey, (a'dri) a country wench. Aufidius, (a-fid'i-us) Tullius, general of the Volscians. Aumerle, Duke of, son to Duke of York. Autolycus, (a-tol'i-kus) a thieving peddler. Auvergne, (o-varny') Countess of, Measure for Macbeth. Measure. Richard III. Troilus and Cressida. Winter's Tale. Pericles. Comedy of Errors. The Tempest. Twelfth Night. Much Ado About Nothing Merchant of Venice. Two Gentlemen of Verona. Julius Caesar. Antony and Cleopatra. Timon of Athens. Henry V. King John. 1 Henry IV. Winter's Tale. The Tempest. Love's Labour's Lost. Merchant of Venice. Julius Caesar. King John. Cymbelinie. As You Like It. Cofiolanus. Richard II. Winter's Tale. 1 Henry VI. INDEX TO CHARACTERS 229 Bagot, (bag'ot) servant to King Richard. Balthazar, (bal-tha'zar) a merchant. Balthazar, servant to Romeo. Balthazar, servant to Portia. Balthazar, servant to Don Pedro. Banquo, (bang'kwo) general in King's army. Baptista, (bap-tis'ta) gentleman of Padua. r (bar'dolf) follower of Falstaff. _ , - , ! follower of Falstaff. Bardolph, i [^ now soldier in the army. Bardolph, Lord. Barnadine, (bar'na-din) a prisoner. Bassanio, (ba-sa'ni-o) friend to Antonio. Basset, (bas'et) Red Rose. Bassianus, (bas-i-a'nus) in love with La- vinia. Bates, (bats) a soldier in King's army. Beatrice, (be'a-tris or tres) niece to Leon- ato. Beaufort, (hu'iort) Thomas, Duke of Ex- eter. Beaufort, Henry, Bishop of Winchester. Beaufort, John, Earl of Somerset. Bedford, (bed'ford) Duke of, brother to King Henry V. uncle to King Henry VI. Belarius, (be-la'ri-us) banished lord. Belch, (belch) Sir Toby, uncle to Olivia. Benedick, (ben'e-dik) a young lord of Padua. Benvolia, (ben-vo'li-6) a friend to Romeo. Berkley, (berk'li or bark'li) lord. Bernardo, (ber-nar-do) officer. Bertram, (ber'tram) Count of Rousillon. Bianca, (bi-an'ko) mistress to Cassio. Bianca, sister to Katharina. Richard II. Comedy of Errors. Romeo and Juliet. Merchant of Venice. Much Ado About Nothing. Macbeth. Taming of the Shrew. 1, 2 Henry IV. Merry Wives of Windsor. Henry V. 2 Henry IV. Measure for Measure. Merchant of Venice. 1 Henry VI. Titus Andronicus. Henry V. Much Ado About Nothing. I. Henry VI. 1, 2. Henry VI. 1. Henry VI. Henry V. 1 Henry VI. Cymbeline. Twelfth Night. Much Ado About Nothing. Romeo and Juliet. Richard II. Hamlet. All's Well That Ends Well. Othello. Taming of the Shrew. 230 INDEX TO CHARACTERS Bigot, (big'ot) Robert, Earl of Norfolk. Biondello, (be-on-del'lo) servant to Lu- centio. Biron, (be-ron') attendant on King. Bishop of Lincoln. Blanche, (blanch) niece to King John. Blount, (blunt) Sir James. Blunt, (blunt) Sir Walter, friend to King. Bolingbroke, (bol'ing-bruk) a conjuror. BoHngbroke, Henry, son to John of Gaunt. Bona, (bo'na) sister to French Queen. Borachio, (b5-ra'ch6) follower of Don John. Bottom, (bot'um) the weaver. Boult, (bolt) a servant. Bourbon, (bor'bon) Duke of, Bourchier, (bor'chi-er) Cardinal. Boyet, (bwa-ya') attendant on Princess of France. Brabantio, (bra-ban'shio) a senator. Brakenbury, Sir Robert, lieutenant of Tower. Brandon, (bran'don) sergeant at arms. Brutus, (bro'tus) Junius, tribune. Brutus, Marcus, a conspirator. Brutus, Decius, a conspirator. Buckingham, (buk'ing-am) Duke of, Buckingham, Duke of, Bullcalf, (bul'kaf) a recuit. Bullen, (buren) Anne, maid of honor, afterwards Queen. Burgundy, (ber'gun-di) Duke of. Burgundy, Duke of. Burgundy, Duke of. Bushy, (bush'i) Sir John, follower of the king. Butts, (buts) Doctor. Cade, (kad) Jack, a rebel. Caesar, (se'zar) Julius King John. Taming of the Shrew. Love's Labour's Lost. Henry VIH. King John. Richard IH. 1. Henry IV. 2. Henry VI. Richard II. 3 Henry VI. Much Ado About Nothing. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Pericles. Henry V. Richard III. Love's Labour's Lost Othello. Richard IIL Henry VIII. Coriolanus. Julius Caesar, Julius Caesar. 2. Henry VI, Henry VIII. 2. Henry IV. Henry VIII. Lear. Henry V. 1 Henry VI. Richard II. Henry VIII. 2 Henry VI. Julius Caesar. INDEX TO CHARACTERS 231 Caesar, Octavius, afterward triumvir. Caesar, Octavius, triumvir. Caithness, (kafh'ness) nobleman of Scot- land. Caius, (ka'yus) Dr., French physician. Calchas, (kal'kas) Trojan priest taking part with Greeks. Caliban, (kal'i-ban) a savage deformed slave. Calpurnia, (kal-per'ni-a) wife to Caesar. Cambridge, (kam'brij) Earl of, Camillo, (ka-mil'o) Sicilian lord. Campeius, Cardinal. Canidias, (ka-nid'-us) lieut. general to An- tony. Canterbury, (kan'ter-ber-i) Archbishop of, Caphis, (ka'fis) servant to Timon's credi- tors. Capucius, (ka-pii'shius) ambassador from Charles V. Capulet, (kap'u-let) Lord. Capulet, Lady, his wife. Carlisle, (kar-lil') Bishop of, Casca, (kas'ka) a conspirator, Cassandra, (ka-san'dro) daughter to Priam. Cassio, (kash'io) lieutenant to Othello. Cassius, (kash'ius) leading conspirator. Catesby, (kats'bi) Sir William. Cato, (ka'to) young friend to Brutus. Celia, (se'li-a) daughter to Frederick. Ceres, (se'rez) a spirit. Cerimon, (ser'i-mon) a lord of Ephesus. Charles VI, (charlz) King of France. Charles, Dauphin of France. Charles, the wrestler. Charmian, (char'mi-an) attendant on Cleo- patra. Chatham, (chat'am) clerk of, Chatillon, (sha-te-yon) Ambassador from France. Julius Caesar. Antony and Cleopatra. Macbeth. Merry Wives of Windsor, Troilus and Cressida. The Tempest. Julius Caesar. Henry V. Winter's Tale. Henry VIII. Antony and Cleopatra. Henry V. Timon of Athens. Henry VIII. Romeo and Juliet, Romeo and Juliet. Richard II. Julius Caesar. Troilus and Cressida. Othello. Julius Caesar. Richard III. Julius Caesar. As You Like It. The Tempest. Pericles. Henry V. 1 Henry VI. As You Like It. Antony and Cleopatra. 2 Henry VI. King John. 232 INDEX TO CHARACTERS Chiron, (ki'ron) son to Tamora. Cicero, (sisV-ro) a senator. Cimber, (sim'ber) (S) Metullus, conspira- tor. Cinna, (sin'a) a conspirator. Cinna, a poet. Claudio, (kla'di-6) a young gentleman. Claudio, a young lord of Florence. Claudius, (kla'di-us) servant to Brutus. Claudius, King of Denmark, uncle to Hamlet. Cleomenes, (kle-om'e-nez) a Sicilian lord. Cleon, (kle'on) governor of Tharsus. Cleopatra, (kle-o-pa'tra) Queen of Egypt. Clifford, (kliford) Lord. Clifford, his son. Clitus, (kli'tus) servant to Brutus. Cloten, (klo'ten) son to Queen; step-son to Cymbeline. Cobweb, (kob'web) a fairy. Coleville, Sir John. Cominius, general against Volscians. Conrade, (kon'rad) follower of Don John. Constable, (kun'sta-bl) of France. Constance, (kon'stans) mother to Prince Arthur- Cordelia, (kor-del'ia) daughter to Lear. Corin, ko'rin) a shepherd. Coriolanus, (ko"ri-6-la'nus) a noble Roman. Cornelius, (kor-ne'lius) a physician. Cornelius, a courtier. Ambassador to Nor- way. Cornwall, (korn'wal) Duke of, Costard, (kos'tard) a clown. Court, (kort) a soldier in King's army. Cranmer, (kran'mer) Archbishop of Can- terbury. Titus Andronicus. Julius Caesar. Julius Caesar. Julius Caesar. Julius Caesar. Measure for Measure. Much Ado About Nothing. Julius Caesar. Hamlet. Winter's Tale. Pericles. Antony and Cleopatra. 2, 3 Henry VL 2 Henry VL Julius Caesar. Cymbeline. Midsummer-Night's Dream. 2 Henry IV. Coriolanus. Much Ado About Nothing. Henry V. King John. King Lear. As You Like It. Coriolanus. Cymbeline. Hamlet. King Lear. Love's Labour's Lost. Henry V. Henry VIII. INDEX TO CHARACTERS 233 Cressida, (kres'i-da) daughter to Calchas. Cromwell, (krum'wel or krom'wel) servant to Wolsey. Curat!, (kur'an) a courtier. Curio, (ku'ri-o) attendant to the Duke. Curtis, (ker'tis) servant to Petruchio. Cymbeline, (sim'be-lin) King of Britain. Troilus and Cressida. Henry VHI. King Lear. Twelfth Night. Taming of the Cymbeline. Shrew. Dardanius, (dar-da'ni-us) servant to Bru- tus. Davy, (da'vi) servant to Shallow. Deiphobus, (de-if'o-bus) son to Priam. Demetrius, (de-me'tri-us) son to Tamora. Demetrius, friend to Antony. Demetrius, in love with Hermia. Dennis, (den'is) servant to Oliver. Denny, Sir Anthony. Dercetas, (der'se-tas) friend to Antony, Desdemona, (dez-de-mo'no) daughter to Brabantio. Diana, (di-an'a or di-a'na). Diana, daughter to the Widow. Dick, (dik) follower of Jack Cade. Diomedes, (di-o-me'dez) Grecian com- mander. Diomedes, attendant on Cleopatra. Dion, (di'on) Sicilian lord. Dionyza (di-o-ni'za) wife to Cleon. Dogberry, (dog'ber-i) foolish officer. Dolabella, (dol-a-bel'la) friend to Caesar. Donalbain, (don'al-ban) son of Duncan. Don Pedro, (pe'dro) Prince of Arragon. Julius Caesar. 2 Henry IV. Troilus and Cressida Titus Andronicus. Antony and Cleopatra. Midsummer-Night's Dream. As You Like It. Henry VIII. Antony and Cleopatra. Othello. Pericles. All's Well That Ends Well. 2 Henry VI. Troilus and Cressida. Antony and Cleopatra. Winter's Tale. Pericles. Much Ado About Nothing. Antony and Cleopatra Macbeth. Much Ado About Nothing. 234 INDEX TO CHARACTERS Don John, (jon) his bastard brother. Dorcas, (dor'kos) a shepherdess. Dorset, (dor 'set) Marquis of, son to Lady- Grey. Dromio, (dro'mi-o) (W) 1 twin brothers, of Ephesus. } servants Dromio, of Syracuse, f to the two J Antipholus's. Duke, (duke) (W) in exile. Duke of Florence. Duke of Milan, father to Silvia. Duke of Venice. Duke of Venice. Dull, (dul) a constable. Dumain, (du-man') attendant on King. Duncan, (dung'kan) King of Scotland. Much Ado About Nothing. Winter's Tale. Richard III. Comedy of Errors. As You Like It. All's Well That Ends Well. Two Gentlemen of Verona. Merchant of Venice. Othello. Love's Labour's Lost. Love's Labour's Lost. Macbeth. Edgar, (ed'gar) son to Gloster. Edmund, (ed'mund) bastard son to Gloster. King Lear. Edmund, of Langley, uncle to King. Edmund, Earl of Rutland ; son of Richard Plantagenet. Edward, (ed'ward) Earl of March, son of Richard Plantagenet. Edward, Prince of Wales, son to Henry VI. Edward IV, King of England, (Earl of March). Edward, Prince of Wales, (Edward V). Egeus, (e-je'us) father to Hermia. King Lear. King Lear. Richard II. 2, 3 Henry VI. 2, 3 Henry VI. 3 Henry VI. Eglamour, ( eg'la-mor) . Elbow, (el'bo) a simple constable. Eleanor, (el'a-nor) Duchess of Gloster. Elinor, (e-li-nor) (W) mother to King John. Richard III. Richard III. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Two Gentlemen of Verona. Measure for Measure. 2 Henry VI. King John. INDEX TO CHARACTERS 235 Elizabeth, (e-liz'a-b^th) queen of Edward IV, Lady Grey. Ely, (e'li) Bishop of, Emilia, (^-mil-ia) attendant on Queen. Emilia, wife to lago. Enobarbus, (en-6-bar'bus) friend to An- tony. Eros, (e'ros) friend to Antony. Erpingham, Sir Thomas, officer in King's army. Escalus, (es'ka-lus) Prince of Verona. Escalus, ancient lord. Richard III. Henry V. Winter's Tale. Othello. Anthony and Cleopatra. Antony and Cleopatra. Henry V. Romeo and Juliet. Measure for Measure. Escanes, (es'ka-nez) lord of Tyre. Pericles. Euphronius, (ii-fro'ni-us) ambassador from Antony and Antony to Caesar. Cleopatra. Evans, (ev'anz) Hugh, a Welsh priest. Merry Wives of Windsor. Exeter, (eks'e-ter) Duke of, uncle to King. Henry V. Exeter, Duke of, on Henry's side. Fabian, (fa'bi-an) servant to Olivia. Falstaff, (fal'staf) Sir John. Fang, (fang) sheriff's officer. Fastolfe, (fas'tolf) Sir John. Faulconbridge, (fa'kn-brij) Robert. Faulconbridge, Philip, bastard son to King Richard I. Faulconbridge, Lady, mother to Robert and Philip. Feeble, (fe'bl) a recuit. Fenton, (fen'ton) a courtier. 3 Henry VI. Twelfth Night. fl, 2 Henry IV. -{ Merry Wives of L Windsor. 2 Henry IV. 1 Henry VI King John. King John. King John. 2 Henry IV. Merry Wives of Windsor. Ferdinand, (fer'di-nand) King of Navarre. Love's Labour's Lost. Ferdinand, son of King of Naples. The Tempest. Fitz-Peter, Geffrey, Earl of Essex. King John. Fitzwater, Lord. Richard II. 236 INDEX TO CHARACTERS Flaminius, (fla-min'i-us) servant to Timon. Flavius, (fla'vi-us) steward to Timon. Flavius, Tribune. Fleance, (fle'ans) son to Banquo. Florizel, (flor'i-zel) son to Polixenes. Fluellen, (flo-el'en) officer in King's army. Flute, (flot) the bellows-mender. Ford, (ford) Master Francis. Ford, Mistress, his wife. Fortinbras, (for'tin-bras) Prince of Nor- way. , France, (frans) King of, France. King of, France. Princess of, Francisca, (fran-sis'ka) a nun. Francisco, (fran-sis'ko) soldier on guard. Francisco, lord. Frederick, (fred'er-ik) usurper, brother to Duke. Friar John (jon). Friar Lawrence (la'r^ns). Froth, (froth) a foolish gentleman. Timon of Athens. Timon of Athens. Julius Cccsar. Macbeth. Winter's Tale. Henry V. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Merry Wives of Windsor. Merry Wives of Windsor. Hamlet. All's Well That Ends Well. King Lear. Love's Labour's Lost. Measure for Measure. Hamlet. The Tempest. As You Like It. Romeo and Juliet. Romeo and Juliet. Measure for Measure. Gadshill, (gadz'hil), Gallus, (gal'us) friend to Caesar. Gardiner, (gard'ner) Bishop of Winchester. Gargrave, Sir Thomas. Garter, King-at-arms. George, (jorj) follower of Jack Cade. George, afterward Duke of Clarence. Gertrude, (ger'trod) Queen of Denmark, mother of Hamlet. Ghost of Hamlet's father. 1 Henry IV. Antony and Cleopatra. Henry VUI. 1 Henry VI. Henry VIII. 2 Henry VI. j 2, 3 Henry VI. I Richard III. Hamlet. Hamlet. INDEX TO CHARACTERS 237 Glansdale, Sir Wm. Glendower, (glen'dor) Owen. Gloster, (glos'ter) Earl of, Gloster. Duchess of, Gloster, Duke of, brother to King. Gloster, Duke of, uncle to King and Pro- tector. Gobbo, (gob'bo) Launcelot, servant to Shylock. Gobbo, Old, father to Launcelot. Goneril, (gon'er-il) daughter to Lear. Gonzalo, (gon-za'lo) an honest old counsel- lor of Naples. Gower, (gou'er) of King's party. Gower, officer in King's army. Gower, as chorus. Grand-pre, (groh-pra') a French lord. Grantiano, (gra-shi-a'no) brother to Bra- bantio. Gratiano, friend to Antonio and Bassanio. Grave-diggers. Green, (gren) servant to King Richard. Gregory, (greg'o-ri) servant to Capulet. Gremio, (gre'mi-6) suitor to Bianca. Grey, (gra) Sir Thomas, against the King., Grey, Lady, wife of Edward IV. Grey, Lord, son to Lady Grey. Griffith, (grif'ith) usher to Queen Kather- ine. Grumio, (gro'mi-o) servant to Petruchio. Guiderius, (gwi-de'ri-us) son to Cymbeline, supposed son to Balarius. Guildenstern, (gil'den-stern) (W) courtier. Guilford, (gil'ford) Sir Henry. Gurney, (ger'ni) James, servant to Lady Faulconbridge. 1 Henry VI. 1 Henry IV. King Lear. Richard II. Henry V. 1 Henry VI. Merchant of Venice. Merchant of Venice. King Lear. The Tempest. 2 Henry IV. Henry V. Pericles. Henry V. Othello. Merchant of Venice. Hamlet. Richard II. Romeo and Juliet. Taming of the Shrew. Henry V. 3 Henry VI. Richard III. Henry VIII. Taming of the Shrew Cymbeline. Hamlet. Henry VIII. King John. Hamlet, (ham'let) son to former King, nephew to Claudius. Hamlet. 238 INDEX TO CHARACTERS Harcourt, (har'kort) of King's party. Harfleur. (ar-fler') Governor of, Hastings, (hast'ingz) Lord. < Hecate, (hek'a-te) Queen of Witches. Hector, (hek'tcr) son to Priam. Helen, (hel'en) wife to Menelaus. Helen, woman to Imogen. Helena, (hel'e-na) protege of Countess. Helena, an Athenian lady in love with De- metrius. Helenus, (hel'e-nus) son to Priam. Helicanus, (hel-i-ka'nus) lord of Tyre. Henry, (hen'ri) Prince, son of John of Gaunt, afterward King Henry III. Henry IV, King of England. Henry, Prince of Wales (Hal in Henry V). Henry V, King of England. Henry VI, King of England. Henry, Earl of Richmond, a youth. Henry (Bolinbroke) afterward King Henry IV. Henry, Earl of Richmond, (Henry VII). Henry VIII, King of England. Herbert, (her'bert) Sir Walter. Hermia, (her'mi-a) daughter to Egeus. Hermione, (her-mi'o-ne) Queen to Leontes. Hero, (he'ro) daughter to Leonato. Hippolita, (hi-pol'i-ta) Queen of the Ama- zons. Holofernes, (hol-6-fer'nez) a schoolmaster. Horatio, (ho-ra'shio) friend to Hamlet. Horner, hor'ner) Thomas, an armourer. Hortensio, (hor-ten'shi-o) suitor to Bianca. Hortensius, (hor-ten'shi-us) servant to Ti- mon's creditors. 2 Henry IV. Henry V. 1, 2 Henry IV. 2, 3 Henry VI. Richard III. Macbeth Troilus and Cressida. Troilus and Cressida. Cymbeline. All's Well That Ends Well. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Troilus and Cressida. Pericles. King John 1, 2 Henry IV. 1, 2 Henry IV. Henry V. 1, 2, 3 Henry VI. 3 Henry VI. Richard II. Richard III. Henry VIII. Richard HI. Midsummer-Night's Dream Winter's Tale. Much Ado About Nothing. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Love's Labour's Lost. Hamlet. 2 Henry VI. Taming of the Shrew. Timon of Athens. INDEX TO CHARACTERS 239 Host of the Garter Inn. Merry Wives of Windsor. Hubert de Burgh, (hu'bert de berg) cham- berlain to King. King John. Hume, (hum) John, a priest. 2 Henry VI. Humphrey, (hum'fri) Prince of Gloster. ( ^ ^^^^^ ^^• Duke of Gloster. 1 ^^"^^ "^■ ll, 2 Henry VI. lachimo, (i-ak'i-mo) Italian, a villain; friend to Philario. lago, (i-a'go) Ancient (ensign) to Othello. Iden, (i'den) Alexander; slays Jack Cade. Imogen, (im'o-jen) daughter to Cymbeline. Iras, (i'ras) attendant on Cleopatra. Iris, (I'ris) a spirit. Isabel, Queen of France. Isabella, (iz-a-bel'a), sister to Claudio. Cymbeline. Othello. 2 Henry VI. Cymbeline. Antony and Cleopatra. The Tempest. Henry V. Measure for Measure. Jamy, officer in King's army. Jaquenetta, (jak-e-net'a) a country wench. Jaques, (jaks or jaks) Lord, attendant on Duke. Jaques, son to Sir Rowland de Bois. Jessica, (jes'i-ka) daughter to Shylock. Joan La Pucelle, (j6-an'la pii-sel') or Joan of Arc. John, (jon) King of England. John of Gaunt, uncle to King. John of Lancanster, son to King Henry IV. John, follower of Jack Cade. Jourdain, (zhor-doh') Margaret, a witch. Julia, (jorya) a lady of Verona. Juliet, (jo-li-et') daughter to Capulet. Juliet, beloved by Claudio. Juno, (jo'no) a spirit. Henry V. Love's Labour's Lost. As You Like It. As You Like It. Merchant of Venice. 1 Henry VI. King John. Richard II. 1, 2 Henry IV. 2 Henry VI. 2 Henry VI. Two Gentlemen of Verona. Romeo and Juliet. Measure for Measure. The Tempest. 240 INDEX TO CHARACTERS Katharine or Katherina, (kath'e-rin) the Taming of the Shrew. Love's Labour's Lost. Henry V. Henry VHL King Lear. shrew. Katherine, attendant on the Princess. Katherine, daughter to French King. Katherine, Queen. Kent, (kent) Earl of, Laertes, (la-er'tez) son to Polonius, brother to Ophelia. Lafeu, (la-fe') a sagacious old lord. Lartius, (lar'shi-us) (W) Titus, general against the Volscians. Launce, (lans) servant to Proteus. Lavinia, (la-vin'i-a) daughter to Titus. Lear, (ler) King of Britain. Le Beau, (le-bo) attendant on Frederick. Lena, Popil'ius, senator. Lenox, (len'oks) a nobleman of Scotland. Leonardo, (le"-o-nar'do) (S) servant to Bassanio. Leonato, (le-o-na'to) Governor of Mes- Much Ado About Hamlet. All's Well That Ends Well- Coriolanus. Two Gentlemen of Verona. Titus Andronicus. King Lear. As You Like It. Julius Caesar. Macbeth. Merchant of Venice. sma. Leonine, (le'o-nm) servant to Dionyza. Leontes, (le-on'tez) King of Sicily. Lepidus, (lep'i-dus) M. ^milius, triumvir. Lewis, (lu'is) the Dauphin of France. Lewis, Dauphin of France. Lewis XI, King of France. Ligarius, (li-ga'ri-us) a conspirator. Lincoln, Bishop of Lodovico, (lo-do-ve'ko) kinsman to Bra- bantio. London, (lun'don) Mayor of Longaville, (long'ga-vil) attendant on King of Navarre. Longsword, (long'sord) Wm., Earl of Salisbury. Nothing. Pericles. Winter's Tale. Julius Caesar. Antony and Cleopatra. Henry V. King John. 3 Henry VI. Julius Caesar. Henry VIII. Othello. 1 Henry VI. Love's Labour's Lost. King John. INDEX TO CHARACTERS 241 Lord, (lord) a, Lord Chamberlain, (cham'ber-lan). Lord Chancellor, (chan'sel-or). Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench. Lorenzo, (l5-ren'zo) Jessica's lover. Lovel, (luv'el) Lord. Lovell, (luv'el) Sir Thomas. Luce, (los) servant to Luciana. Lucentio, 16-sen'shio) son to Vincentio. Lucetta, (16-set'to) waiting-maid to Julia. Luciana, (16-si-a'na) sister to Adriana. Lucilius, (lii-siri-us) friend to Brutus and Cassius. Lucilius, servant to Timon. Lucio, (lu'shio) a fantastic and profligate. Lucius, (lij'shius) servant to Brutus. Lucius, Caius-, general of Roman forces. Lucius, son to Titus Andronicus. Lucius, a boy, son to Lucius. Lucius, servant to Timon's creditors. Lucius, "^ Lucullus, (lii-kurus) v lords, flatterers of, Timon. j Lucy, (lii'si) Sir Wm. Lychorida, nurse to Marina. Lysander, (li-san'der) in love with Hermia. Lysimachus, (li-sim'a-kus) governor of Mitylene. Macbeth, (mak-beth') general in King Duncan's army. Macbeth, Lady, wife of Macbeth. Macduff, (mac-duf) nobleman of Scotland. Macduff, Lady, wife of Macduff. Macmorris, officer in King's army. Malcolm, (mal-kom' or ma'kom) son of Taming of the Shrew. Henry VHL Henry VHL 2 Henry IV. Merchant of Venice. Richard III. Henry VHL Comedy of Errors. Taming of the Shrew. Two Gentlemen of Verona. Comedy of Errors. Julius Caesar. Timon of Athens. Measure for Measure. Julius Caesar. Cymbeline. Titus Andronicus. Titus Andronicus. Timon of Athens. Timon of Athens. 1 Henry VI. Pericles. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Pericles. Macbeth. Macbeth. Macbeth. Macbeth. Henry V. 242 INDEX TO CHARACTERS Duncan. Macbeth. Malvolio, (mal-vo'lio) steward to Olivia. Twelfth Night. Mamilius, (ma-mil'i-us) son to Leontes. Winter's Tale. Marcellus, (mar-serus) officer. Hamlet. Marcius, mar'shi-us) (W) son to Corio- laniis. Coriolanus. Mardian, (mar'di-an) attendant on Cleo- Antony and patra. Cleopatra. Mareshall, William, Earl of Pembroke. King John, Margarelon, (mar-gar'e-lon) (W) bastard son of Priam. Troilus and Cressida. Margaret, (mar'ga-ret) of Anjon, wife to Henry VI. 1, 2, 3 Henry VI. Margaret, of Anjon, widow of Henry VI. Richard HI. Margaret, attendant on Hero. Much Ado About Nothing. Maria, (ma-ri'a) attendant on Princess. Love's Labour's Lost. Maria, Olivia's maid. Twelfth Night. Mariana, (ma-ri-a'na) betrothed to Angelo. Measure for Measure. Mariana, friend to the Widow. All's Well That Ends Well. Marina, (ma-ri'na) daughter to Pericles and Thaisa. Pericles. Martext, (mar'tekst) Sir Oliver, a vicar. As You Like It. Martins, (mar'shi-us) son to Titus Andro- nicus. Titus x\ndronicus. Marullus, (ma-rurus) (W) a tribune. Julius Caesar. Master-Gunner of Orleans and his son, 1 Henry VI, Mecsenas, friend to Caesar. Antony and Cleopatra. Melun, (mel-uh') a French lord. King John. Menas, (me'nas) (W) a friend to Pompey. Antony and Cleopatra. Menecratus, (me-nek'ra-tus) (W) friend to Antony and Pompey. Cleopatra, Menelaus, (men-a-la'us) brother to Aga- memnon. Troilus and Cressida. Menenius, (me-ne'ni-us) friend to Corio- lanus. Coriolanus. Menteith, (men-teth') nobleman of Scot- land. Macbeth. INDEX TO CHARACTERS 243 Mercade, attendant on Princess of France. Mercutio, (mer-ku'shio) friend to Romeo. Messala, (me-sa'la) friend to Brutus and Cassius. Michael, (mrkel or mi'ka-el) Sir. Michael, follower of Jack Cade. Miranda, (mi-ran'da) daughter to Prospero. Montague, (mon'ta-gii) Lord. Montague, Lady. Montague, Marquis of Montano, Othello's predecessor in Cyprus. Montgomery, (mont-gumV-ri) Sir John. Montjoy, a French herald. Mopsa, (mop'sa) a shepherdess. Morocco, (mo-rok'o) Prince of, Mortimer, (mor'ti-mer) Edmund, Earl of March. Mortimer, Lady, wife to Mortimer. Mortimer, Sir John. Mortimer, Sir Hugh. Morton, John, Bishop of Ely. Morton, domestic. Moth, (moth) page to Armado. Moth, a fairy. Mouldy, (mol'di) a recuit. Mowbray, (mo'bra) lord, enemy to King. Mowbray, Thomas^ Duke of Norfolk. Mustard-Seed, (mus'tard-sed) fairy. Mutius, (mii'shi-us) (W) son to Titus. Love's Labour's Lost. Romeo and Juliet. Julius Caesar. 1 Henry IV. 2 Henry VI. The Tempest. Romeo and Juliet. Romeo and Juliet. 2, 3 Henry VI. Othello. 3 Henry VI. Henry V. Winter's Tale. Merchant of Venice. 1 Henry IV. 1 Henry VI. 1 Henry IV. 3 Henry VI. 3 Henry VI. Richard HI. 2 Henry IV. Love's Labour's Lost. Midsummer-Night's Dream. 2 Henry IV. 2 Henry IV. Richard II. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Titus Andronicus. Nathaniel, (na-than'yel) Sir, a curate. Nerissa, (ne-ris'sa) maid to Portia. Nestor, (nes'tor) Grecian commander. Norfolk, (nor'fok) Duke of, Norfolk. Duke of, Northumberland, (nor-thum'ber-land) Earl of Northumberland. Earl of. Love's Labour's Lost- Merchant of Venice. Troilus and Cressida- 3 Henry VI. Richard HI. Henry VIII. Richard II. 3 Henry VI. 244 INDEX TO CHARACTERS Northumberland, Earl ofj enemy of King. 2 Henry IV. Northumberland, Lady. 2 Henry IV. ( follower of Falstaff. Merry Wives of Nym, (nim) J Windsor. I soldier in the army. Henry V, Nymphs. The Tempest. Oberon, (o'be-ron) King of the fairies. Octavia, (ok-ta'vi-a) sister to Caesar, wife to Antony. Oliver, (ol'i-ver) son to Sir Rowland de Bois. Olivia, (6-liv'i-a) a rich countess. Ophelia, (6-fe'lia) daughter to Polonius. Orlando, (6r-lan'd6) son to Sir Rowland de Bois. Orleans, (or'leanz) Duke of, Orleans. Bastard of^ Orsino, (or-se'no) Duke of Illyria. Osric, (oz'rik) a courtier. Oswald, (oz'wald) steward to Goneril. Othello, (o-thel'o) a noble Moor. Overdone, (o'ver-dun) Mistress. Oxford, (oks'ford) Earl of, Midsummer-Night's Dream. Antony and Cleopatra. As You Like It. Twelfth Night. Hamlet. As You Like It. Henry V. 1 Henry VI. Twelfth Night. Hamlet. King Lear. Othello. Measure for Measure. 3 Henry VI. Richard III. Page, (paj) Mr. George. Page, Mrs., wife to George. Page, William, their son. \ Page, Anne, their daughter. J Pandarus, (pan'da-rus) uncle to Cressida. Pandulph, (pan'dulf) Cardinal. Panthino, servant to Antonio. Paris, (par'is) son to Priam. Paris, kinsman to Escalus. Merry Wives of Windsor. Troilus and Cressida- King John. Two Gentlemen of Verona. Troilus and Cressida- Romeo and Juliet. INDEX TO CHARACTERS 245 Parolles, (pa-rol'es) follower of Bertram. Patience, (pa'shens) woman to Queen Katherine. Patroclus, (pa-tro'clus) Grecian comman- der. Paulina, (pa-li'na) (W) wife to Antigo- nous. Peas-Blossoms, (pez'blos"om) fairy. Pedant, personates Vincentio. Pembroke, (pem'bruk) Earl of Percy, (per'si) Henry, son to Northumber- land. Percy, Thomas, Earl of Worcester. Percy, Henry, Earl of Northumberland. Percy, Henry, (Hotspur) his son. Percy, Lady, wife to Hotspur. Perdita, (per'di-ta) daughter to Leontes. Perciles, (per'i-klez) Prince of Tyre. Peter, (pe'ter) of Pomfret, a prophet. Peter, an officer, Peter, a servant. Peter, a friar. Peto, (pe'to) attendant on Prince Henry. All's Well That Ends Well. Henry VHI. Troilus and Cressida. Winter's Tale. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Taming of the Shrew. 2, 3 Henry VI Richard II. 1 Henry IV. 1 Henry IV. 1 Henry IV. 1, 2 Henry IV. Winter's Tale. Pericles. King John. Romeo and Juliet. 2 Henry VI. Measure for Measure. 1, 2 Henry IV. Petruchio, (pe-tro'chi-o or ki-6) suitor to Taming of the Katharina. Phebe, (fe'be) a shepherdess. Philario, (fi-la'ri-6) friend to Posthumas. Philemon, (fi-le'mon) servant to Cerimon. Philip, (fil'ip) King of France. Philip the bastard. Philo, (fi'lo) friend to Antony. Philostrate, fil'os-trat) master of revels. Philotus^ (fi-l6'tus) (W) servant to Ti- mon's creditors. Shrew. As You Like It. Cymbeline. Pericles. King John. King John. Antony and Cleopatra. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Timon of Athens. 246 INDEX TO CHARACTERS Phrynia, mistress to Alcibiades. Pierce, (pers) Sir, of Exton. Pinch, (pinch) a schoolmaster. Pindarus, (pin'da-rus) (W) servant to Cassius. Pisanio, (pe-sa'ne-6) servant to Posthu- mus. Pistol, (pis'tol) follower of Falstaff. Plantagent, (plan-taj'e-net) Richard, Duke of York. Plantagent, Richard, son of Duke of York. Poins, (poinz) attendant on Prince Henry. Polixenes, (po-liks'^-nez) King of Bohemia. Polonius, (p6-lo'ni-us) Lord Chamberlain. Pompeius, (pom-pe'yus) Sextus. Porter. Portia, (porshiii) wife to Brutus. Portia, a rich heiress, marries Bassanio. Posthumus, (pos'tu-mus) Leonatus. Priam, (pri'am) King of Troy. Proculeius, (proc"u-le'yus) (W) friend to Caesar. Prospero, (pros'pe-ro) rightful Duke of Mi- lan. Proteus, (pro'tus or pro'te-us). Provost, (pro-vo') (W) the Publius, (pub'li-us) a senator. Publius, son to Marcus the tribune. Puck, (puk) a playful fairy. Timon of Athens. Richard H. Comedy of Errors. Julius Caesar. Cymbeline. 2 Henry IV. Henry V. Merry Wives of Windsor. 1, 2 Henry VI. 2, 3 Henry VI. 1, 2 Henry IV. Winter's Tale. Hamlet. Antony and Cleopatra. Macbeth. Julius C^sar. Merchant of Venice. Cymbeline. Triolus and Cressida. Antony and Cleopatra. The Tempest. Two Gentlemen of Verona. Measure for Measure. Julius Csesar. Titus Andronicus. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Queen, to King Richard II. Queen, wife to Cymbeline. Quickly, (kwik'le) Mistress, inn-keeper in East-cheap. Richard II Cymbeline. 1, 2 Henry IV. INDEX TO CHARACTERS 247 hostess, Pistol's wife, servant to Dr. Caius. Quince, (kwins) the carpenter. Quintus, (kwin'tus) son to Titus Androni- cus. Henry V. Merry Wives of Windsor. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Titus Andronicus. 1 Rambures, a French lord. Ratcliffe, Sir Richard. Reapers. Regan, (re'gan) daughter to Lear. Reignier, (ran'ye-a) (W) Duke of Anjou. Reynaldo, (ra-nal'do) servant to Polonius. Richard, (rich'ard) Duke of York. Richard H, King of England. Richard, son to Richard Plantagenet. Duke of Gloster (Richard HI). Richmond, (rich'mond) Henry, Earl of Rivers, Lord^ brother to Lady Grey. Robin, (rob'in) page to Falstaff. Roderigo, (rod-^-re'go) Venetian gentle- man. Rogero, (ro-je'ro) Sicilian gentleman. Romeo, (ro'me-o) son to Montague. Rosalind, roz'a-lind) daughter to banished Duke. Rosaline, (roz'a-line) attendant. Rosencrantz, (ro'zen-krantz) (W) courtier. Rosse, (ros) nobleman of Scotland. Ross, Lord. Rotherham, (roth'er-am) Thomas, Arch- bishop of York. Rousillon, (ro-se-yori') countess of, mother to Bertram. Rugby, (rug'bi) servant to Dr. Caius. Henry V. Richard HI. The Tempest. King Lear. 1 Henry VI. Hamlet. Richard HI. Richard II. 2, 3 Henry VI. Richard HI. 3 Henry VI. 3 Henry VI. Richard HI. Merry Wives of Windsor. Othello. Winter's Tale. Romeo and Juliet. As You Like It. Love's Labour's Lost. Hamlet. Macbeth. Richard II. Richard HI. All's \/ell That Ends Well. Merry Wives of Windsor. INDEX TO CHARACTERS Salanio, (sa-la'ni-6) friend to Antonio and Bassanio. Salarino, (sa-la-re'no) friend to Antonio and Bassanio. Salerio, (sa-le'ri-6) messenger from Venice. Salisbury, (salz'bu-ri) Earl of Salisbury, Earl of Sampson, (samp'son) servant to Capulet. Sands, (sandz) (S) Lord. Saturnius, (sat"ur-ni'nus) (W) son to Emperor of Rome. Say, (sa) Lord. Scales, Lord, Governor of Tower. Scarus, friend to Antony. Scroop, (skrop) Richard, Archbishop of York. Scroop, Sir Stephen. Scroop, Lord. Sebastian, (se-bas'tian) brother to Viola. Sebastian, brother to King of Naples. Secretaries to Wolsey. Selecus, (se-lu'kus) attendant on Cleopa- tra. Sempronius, (sem-pro'ni-us) Lord, flatterer of Timon. Servilius, (ser-viri-us( (W) servant to Timon. Seyton, officer attending Macbeth. Shadow, (shad'o) (W) a recruit. Shallow, (shal'o) Robert, country justice. Shepherd, (shep'erd) (W) reputed father to Perdita. Shepherd, father to Joan La Pucelle. Shylock, (shi'lok) a Jew. Silence, (si'kns)) a country justice. Silius, (sil'i-us) (W) officer in Ventidius' army. Merchant of Venice. Merchant of Venice. Merchant of Venice. Richard IL Henry V. 1, 2 Henry VL Romeo and Juliet. Henry VHL Titus Andronicus. 2 Henry VL 2 Henry VL Antony and Cleopatra. 1, 2 Henry IV. Richard II. Henry V. Twelfth Night. The Tempest. Henry VIII. Antony and Cleopatra. Timon of Athens. Timon of Athens. Macbeth. 2 Henry IV. 3 Henry IV. Merry Wives of Windsor. Winter's Tale. 1 Henry VI. Merchant of Venice. 2 Henry VI. Antony and Cleopatra. INDEX TO CHARACTERS 249 Silvia, (sil'vi-a) Duke's daughter. Two Gentlemen of Verona. Silvius, (sil'vi-us) a shepherd. As You Like It. Simonides, si-mon'i-dez) King of Pentapo- lis. Pericles. Simpcox, (sim'koks) an imposter. 2 Henry VI. Simple, (sim'pl) Peter, servant to Slender. Merry Wives of Windsor. Siward, (se'ward) Earl of Northumberland. Macbeth. Si ward, his son. Macbeth. Slender, (slen'der) cousin to Shallow. Merry Wives of Windsor. Sly, (sH) Christopher, a drunken tinker. Taming of the Shrew. Smith, (smith) the weaver, follower of Jack Cade. 2 Henry VI. Snare, (snar) sheriff's officer. 2 Henry IV. Snout, (snout) the tinker. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Snug, (snug) the joiner. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Solinus, (s6-li'nus) Duke of Ephesus. Comedy of Errors. Somerset, (sum'er-set) Duke of, of King's party. 2, 3 Henry VI. Somerville, (sum'er-vil) Sir John. 3 Henry VI. Southwell, (south'wel) John, priest. 2 Henry VI. Speed, (sped) servant. Two Gentlemen of Verona. Stafford, (staf'ord) Sir Humphrey. 2 Henry VI. Stafford, William, his brother. 2 Henry VI. Stafford, Lord, of Duke of York's army. 3 Henry VI. Stanley, (stan'li) Sir William. 3 Henry VI. Stanley, Sir John. 2 Henry VI. Stanley, Lord. Richard III. Starveling, (starv'ling) the tailor. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Stephano, (stef'a-no) servant to Portia. Merchant of Venice. Stephano, a drunken butler. The Tempest. Strato, (stra'to) servant to Brutus. Julius Csesar. Suffolk, (sufok) Earl of 1, 2 Henry VI. Suffolk, Duke of Henry VIII. 250 INDEX TO CHARACTERS Surrey, (siir'i) Earl of Henry VHI. Surrey, Duke of Richard H. Surrey, Earl of. son of Duke of Norfolk. Richard HI. Surveyor, (sur-va'or) to Duke of Bucking- ham. Henry VHI. Talbot, (tal'bot) Lord. 1 Henry VI. Talbot, John, his son. 1 Henry VI. Tamora, (tam'o-ra) (W) Queen of Goths. Titus Andronicus. ^ Taurus, (ta'rus) lieutenant general to Antony and Caesar. Cleopatra. Tearsheet, (tar'shet) Doll. 2 Henry IV. Thaisa, (tha'is-sa) daughter to Simonides. Pericles. Thaliard, a lord of Antioch. Pericles. Thersites, (ther-si'tez) a scurrilous Grecian. Troilus and Cressida. Theseus, (the'siis) or the'se-us) Duke of Midsummer-Night's Athens. Dream. Thomas, (tom'as) a friar. Measure for Measure. Thomas, Duke of Clarence. 2 Henry IV. Thurio, (thii'ri-o) (W) rival to Valentine. Two Gentlernen of Verona. Thyreus, friend to Caesar. Antony and Cleopatra. Timandra, (ti-man'dra) (W) mistress to Alcibiades. Timon of Athens. Timon, (ti'mon) a noble Athenian. Timon of Athens. Titania, (ti-ta'ni-a) Queen of the fairies. Midsummer-Night's Dream. Titinius, (tl-tin'i-us) (W) friend to Bru- tus and Cassius. Julius Caesar. Titus, (ti'tus) servant to Timon's credi- tors. Timon of Athens. Touchstone, (tuch'ston) a clown. As You Like It. Tranio, (tra'ni-6) servant to Lucentio. Taming of the Shrew. Travers, (tra'vers) domestic. 2 Henry IV. Trebonius, (tre-bo'ni-us) (W) a conspira- tor. Julius Caesar. Trinculo, (trin'kii-lo) a jester. The Tempest. Troilus, (tro'i-lus) son to Priam. Troilus and Cressida. INDEX TO CHARACTERS 251 Tubal, (tu'bal) a Jew., friend to Shylock. Merchant of Venice. Tybalt, ( (tib'alt) nephew to Lady Capulet. Romeo and Juliet. Tyrrel, (tir'el) (S) Sir James. Richard III. Ulysses, (iji-lis'ez) Grecian commander. Ursula, (er'su-la) attendant on Hero. Urswick, Christopher, a priest. Troilus and Cressida. Much Ado About Nothing. Richard III. Valentine, (val'en-tm) attendant to the Duke. Valentine, a gentleman of Verona. Valeria, (va-le'ri-a) friend to Virgilia. Varrius, (var'i-us) (S) friend to Pompey. Varrius, servant to Duke. Varro, (var'o) servant to Brutus. Vaughn, (van) Sir Thomas. Vaux, (vaks). Vaux, Sir Nicholas. Velutus, Sincinius, tribune of people. Ventidius, (ven-tid'i-us) (W) friend to Antony. Ventidius, false friend to Timon. Verges, (ver'ges) a foolish officer. Vernon, (ver'non) Sir Richard. Vernon, White Rose, York faction. Vincentio, (vin-sen'shi5) old gentleman of Pisa. Vincentio, Duke of Vienna. Viola, (vi'ola) in love with the Duke. Virgilia, (ver-jil'i-a) wife to Coriolanus. Volenta, friend to the Widow. Voltimand, (vol'ti-mand) (W) courtier, ambassador to Norway. Twelfth Night. Two Gentlemen of Verona. Coriolanus. Antony and Cleopatra. Measure for Measure. Julius Caesar. Richard III. 2 Henry VI. Henry VIII. Coriolanus. Antony and Cleopatra. Timon of Athens. Much Ado About Nothing. 1 Henry IV. 1 Henry VI. Taming of the Shrew. Measure for Measure. Twelfth Night. Coriolanus. All's Well That Ends Well. Hamlet. 252 INDEX TO CHARACTERS Volumnia, (v6-lum'ni-a) mother to Corio- lanus. Coriolanus. Volumnius, (v6-lum'ni-us) (W) friend to Brutus and Cassius. Julius Csesar. Wart, a recuit. Warwick, (wor'ik) Earl of Westminster, (west'min-ster) Abbot of Westmorland, (west'mor-land) Earl of Westmorland, Earl of Whitmore, (hwit'mor) (W) Walter. Widow, (wid'o) (W). Widow of Florence. William, (wiryam) a country fellow. Williams, a soldier in the King's army. Willoughby, (wil'o-bi) Lord. Witches or Weird Sisters. Wolsey, (wul'zi) Cardinal. Woodville, (wud'vil) lieutenant of Tower. 2 Henrv VI. i 2 Henry VI. ■\ Henry V. ( 1, 2, 3 Henry VI. Richard II. j 1, 2, Henry IV. ^ Henry V. 3 Henry VI. 2 Henry VI. Taming of the Shrew. All's Well That Ends Well. As You Like It. Henry V. Richard II. Macbeth. Henry VIII. 1 Henry VI. York, (york) Duke of, cousin to King. Henry V. York, Duchess of Richard II. York, Duchess of, mother of Edward IV. Richard HI. GENERAL INDEX Action, effect of on Hamlet, 183 Actors at Stratford, 31 Act, always five; exposition, growth; climax, consequence, close, 80 Adam, Shakespeare acting the part of in As You Like It, 37 Angels, 60 Animal life, Shakespeare's knowledge of, 65 Antonio, 107, IIQ, 111; (see Mer- chant of Venice, page 225 Antony, 138; illustration of Shakes- peare's code of morals, 52 Antony and Cleopatra, 125 Arden, Mary, Shakespeare's mother, 30. Forest of, 57 Arraignment of Paris, The, play by Peele 23 Aubrey,' John (1626-1697), Shakes- peare's first biographer, 25; quoted, 36 Barnard, John, second husband of Elizabeth Hall, Shakespeare's grand- daughter; knighted by Charles II, 35; Ladv Barnard (Elizabeth Hall), 25, 35, 39 Barnfield, Richard, praises Shakespeare, 41 Barrett, Lawrence, 113 Beeston, William, actor, died 1682, 25. Betterton (1625-1710), actor, 25 Bible in Shakespeare, 54; in Merchant of Venice, 114 Black friars theatre, 20, 21 Blessed Sacrament, The play of, 8 Brandes, George, quoted, 20, 126, 171, n Caesar, Julius, study of, 125 (See Julius Caesar, page 254. Characterization, Shakespeare's, 48; characters true to themselves, 48; women, 48; characters and plot, 49; dramatic purpose of, 50 Chettle, Henry, Kind Hartes Dreame, 37 Church, attitude toward the drama, 19 Classification of Shakespeare's plays, chronological (Dowden), 43; dra- matic (Snider), tragedy, comedy, history 81; tabular, 90; summary of, 91 Coat of Arms, Shakespeare's, 39 Coleridge, quoted, 36, 52 Comedy, first genuine, Ralph Roister Doister, 16; Comedy and Tragedy FALSTAFF S discussed and compared, 84; phases of. 86; classified, 88; summary of points, 92; law of, 92 Comedy of Errors, Shakespeare's short- est play, 143 n Condell, Henry, edited first folio 1623, 42 Corpus Christi play, 8 Coventry Mystery, 7 Crudity of the early drama. Sir Philip Sidney's testimony, 18 Deer stealing, 33 Deluge, The, miracle-play, 8 Denmark made famous by Hamlet, 171 Digg's tribute to Shakespeare, 41 Dowden, classification of Shakespeare's plays, 43; quoted, 34, 45, 52, 53 Doyle, John T., case at law like that of Shylock and Antonio, 113 Drama, defined, as an art, origin of, 3; ethics of, 4 ; English drama, origin, character, 5; development, mystery- play, 6; morality-play, 9; interlude, 13; summary of characteristics, 15; modern drama, 16; crudity of the early drama, 18; restrictions on, 19; Shakespeare's dramas, 36, excluding Pericles, 89; chronological classifica- tion, 43; dramatic classification, 81; legendary, 87; historical, 88; table, 90; summary of definitive points, 91 Drayton, Michael, friend of Shakes- peare, 28 Entrance and exits of characters (table) 102 Ethical World, defined, application to life, law of, 4; plan of Shakespeare's Ethical World, divisions, institutions, 70; family, state, property, world- spirit, 71 ; tabular classification, 73 Ethical principles in Merchant of Ven- ice, Shylock, 5; in Julius Caesar, 128; Macbeth, 151; Hamlet, 174; Fortinbras, 177; final grand tragedy in Hamlet, 208 Ethics of the Shakespearean drama, 67; Nemesis, principle of sacrifice, Cor- delia, 68; Everyman, synopsis of, 11 Fairies in Shakespeare, 59 Falstaff's principle, ■ 51; condemned by Shakespeare, 52 253 254 GENERAL INDEX Family institution, 70; in Hamlet, Royal family, Polonius' family, 179 Faustus, Marlowe, 23 Fe7-rex and Porrex or Gorboduc, first tragedy, 17 ■ Fortinbras, 175-179 Four Ps, interlude by John Heywood, synopsis of, 14 Gervinus, quoted on moral influence of Shakespeare, 52 Ghost, as a motive power, 58; objective and subjective, 59; in Hamlet, 173, 183, 190, 192, 193; in Macbeth, 154 GorbLwluc, first tragedy, 17 Grammar school at Stratford, 31 Graphic illustration of plot {Hamlet), opposite page 81 Greene, Robert, senior contemporary of Shakespeare, 23; jealous of Shakes- peare, 36 Hall, Dr. John, husband of Susanna Shakespeare, 34; buried in Trinity church-yard, 39; Susanna Hall, Shakespeare's oldest child, marriage, 34; death, epitaph, 35; Elizabeth daughter of John and Susanna Hall, married first, Thomas Nash, second, John Bernard, 35 Hamlet, a study, 171; Hamlet litera ture, conditions under which the play was written, 171; Sphinx of literature, 172; points of interest Hecate, Oueen of the Witches, {Mac- beth), 146. Heminge, John, edited first folio of Shakespeare's plays, 1623, 42 Haywood, John, first author of the interlude, 14 Hudson, nvtoted, 8, 36 Humor in Shakespeare, 60; sympathy with the fool, no unkind wit, 61 Ideal elements in Tragedy and Comedy, 87, 92; ideal realms, 60 index to the characters in Shakes- peare's plays, 223 Interlude, origin, character of, 13, 14; first author, John Haywood, 14; il- lustration. Four P's, 14 Jones, Inego (1562), first to introduce movable scenery, 22 Johnson, Gerard, monument, 41 Jon£3n, Ben, Staple of News, con- versation between acts, 9, 10; Every Man in liis Humor, 40 Julius Caesar, a study, 125, the three Roman plays, Coriolanus, Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, theme, 125; Julius Caesar, date, 125; source of plot, 126; Shakespeare's Caesar. 126; Caesar in the play, 127; Brutus in the play, 127; tragedy and comedy of the play, 128; the Caesar of his- , ^ ^1 , -,„-c, £ ■ 1 4- tory, 130; structure, 132; time an- about the play, 173; foreign element, ^lysis 133 Fortinbras 175 ; the family ipstitu- Q^/g^^^^^ ' supernatural element, 135; ^'^^' ^""y^' ^^""'i-^'. -^° °u ''^ . Tq^' ~ Cassius and the conspiracy, 135; 179; the contradictory Hamlet, 181; impulsive, imaginative, moral, reflec- tive, 182; effect of action on the in- active Hamlet, 183; source of plot, 183; basis of the play and of the ac- tion, 184; Hamlet's position, 185; the conflict, 186; structure, 187; ques- , , . • ,. tions and topics, general, 189; char- ^^ sounds his praise, 41 acterization (A) the Grost, 190; (B) Kenilworth, Queens visit to, 32 Horatio and the Ghost, 19S; (C)i Hamlet in relation to other charac- ters, (I) the Ghost, 193; (II) the Laertes, son of Polonius, 178, 180, King, 194; (III) his mother, 196; 188, 209 (IV) Ophelia, 198; (V) Polonius, Law, Shakespeare's knowledge of, 63 Brutus, 136; Antony, 138; scheme for outline book, 139; themes for es- says and discussion, 140 Kemp, fellow actor of Shakespeare, 200; (VI) Rosencrantz and Guild enstern, 202; Horatio, 204; (D) Ham- let, 205; insanity, 206; (E) the King, 207; (F) miscellaneous, 209; scheme for outline book, 212; topics for es- says and discussion, 213 Hamlet and Macbeth, comparative study, (A) the plays, 214; (B) the men, 216; (C) the King and Mac- beth, 217; (D) the Oueen and Lady Macbeth, 217 Hamnet, Shakespeare's son, 27, 34, 171 Hathaway, Anne, wife of Shakespeare, 34; death, 39 Lear, followed by Nemesis, 69 Lee, Sidney, life of Shakespeare, 26, 28; quoted, 29, 33, 42 London, theatres in, 20; Shakespeare s life in, 36 Love's Labours's Lost, Shakespeare s first original drama, 37, 49; plot, 75; to be read, 99 Lucy, Sir Thomas of Charlecote, poach- ing legend, S3 Mabie, H. W., life of Shakespeare, 27; quoted, 59 GENERAL INDEX 255 MACBETH Macbeth, a study,143 ; some features of the play, rapid dramatic action, 143; su- pernatural element, 144; beliefs of the times, 144; King James a believer in witchcraft, 145; Weird Sisters, 145; Hecate, 146; the porter, 148; theme, 149; basis of the drama, 150; ques- tions and topics for discussion, (A) review, 152, (B) the play, 153, (C) supernatural elements, 153, (D) char- acterization, (I) Macbeth, 157; (II) Lady Macbeth, 162; (II) Banquo 166; general, 166; scheme for out- line book, 166; topics for essays and discussion, 168; Hamlet and Mac- beth, comparative study, 214, (see Hamlet, page 254) Medical knowledge of Shakespeare, 63 Merchant of Venice, table of entrance and exits of characters, 102; illustra- tion of study of an individual play, 103 Merchant of Venice, a study, 106; source of plot, 106; theme, 107; theme traced, 108; structure. 111; some legal as- pects, 113; the Bible in, 114; ques- tions, 118; schemes for outline book, (A) 121; (B) 122; topics for essays and discussion, 123 Meres, Francis (1598), appreciative ol Shakespeare, 41 Miracle-plays, defined, 6; performance of, 7; illustration. Play of the Blessed Sacrament, 8; forbidden by Parlia- ment, 19 Morality-play, defined, ethical nature of, 9; changes in the tone of the drama, 10; illustration, Everyman, 11 Morals, 51; Shakespeare's treatment of immoral characters, vice pardoned, not condoned, 57; Falstafif, 51, 52; Dow- den quoted, Antony, Othello, 52 Monument, Gerard Johnson, 41 Moulton, R. G., moral system of Shakespeare, 53, n; quoted (super- natural), 59 Movements, dramatic, 78; defined, 79 Music, Shakespeare's familiarity with, 62; in the Merchant of Venice, As You Like It, 62 _ Mystery-play, Snider's summary of characteristics, 6; performance of, 7; (see Miracle-plays, page 255) Nemesis, defined, illustration, Shylock, 68; in Lear, 69; Julius Caesar, 130; Macbeth, 151; Hamlet, 209 Newcastle, Duchess of, estimates of Shakespeare, 41 Ophelia, member of a conscienceless family, 180; relations to Hamlet, 198 Othello, referred to, 52, 75 Parliament, attitude toward the drama, 19; law of, against poaching, 33 SHAKESPEARE Peele, George, senior contemporary of Shakespeare, 23 Phillips, J. O. Halliwell, life of Shakes- peare, 26 Play, up to the time of Shakespeare, 14; performance of, 21; lack of scenery, 22; Shakespeare's apology (Henry V) 22; Shakespeare's plays, length, 143^ 173 n (see drama, Shakespeare, page 253) Plot, defined, 74; incidents of plot and of story, 74; Shakespeare's sources of, historical plays, 74; legendary, 75; plot and characters, relation, 49, graphic illustration of {H-amlet) op- posite 81 Poaching legend, 33 Puritanism, attitude toward amuse- ments, 19 Questions on the text of, (I) introduc- tory study, 93; (II) principles and structure of the Shakespearean drama, 97 following the study of each play, Merchant of Venice, 118; Julius Cae- sar, 135; Macbeth, 152; Hamlet, 189 Quincy, Thomas, married Judith Shakespeare, 34; Quincy, Judith, Shakespeare's younger daughter, her family, 35 Ralph Roister Doister, first comedy, brief synopsis of, 16 Records, items from; what we actually know about Shakespeare, 27 Reformation, effect upon morality-play, 10; influence of, 14, 19 Religion in Shakespeare's works, 53; in Hamlet, 54, 172; biblical allusions, 55; in the Merchant of Venice, 114 Rowe, Nicholas (1673-1781), first real biographer of Shakespeare (1709), 25 Sackville Thomas, author of first tragedy, (Garboduc), (1562), 17 Saintsbury, quoted, three distinguish- ing points in Shakespeare, 45; three distinct purposes, 47 Shakespeare and the Shakespearean drama, 19; senior contemporaries, 23 Shakespeares in Warwickshire, 29; spell- ing of the name, 29 Shakespeare, John, father of William, 30 Shakespeare, Susanna, Judith, Hamnet, children of Shakespeare, 34 Shakespeare, Gilbert, Richard, Ed- mund, Joan, Afine, brothers and sis- ters of William, 31 Shakespeare, William, sketch of his life, 24; scarcity of records, 24; facts from records, 27; early biographers, Aubrey (1626-1697), Rowe (1673- 1718), Malone (1741-1812), 25; later 256 GENERAL INDEX SHAKESPEARE biographers, J. O. Halliwell-Phillips Study of Shakespeare; suggestions, 99; lir ^^VPu^^-^' Sidney Lee ( ), H.l individual play, 100; illustration, 103: W. Mabee ( ) ; environment of special plays, 105. nature, 28; Drayton, Mabie, Wm. Supernatural in Shakespeare, 57- su- Winter quoted, 29; birth and bap tism, 29; ancestry, 30; parents, 30; brothers and sisters, 31; boyhood and education, 31; influence of Stratford and surroundings, 31, 32; poaching legend, S3; marriage, children, 34; in London, 35; residence in London, 35; Greene's jealousy, 36; re- perstitious beliefs, 57; Shakespeare's use of the supernatural, 57; nature Forest of Arden; Midsummer Night's Dream; The Tempest, 58; as a motive power, 58; Moulton's three proposi- tions, 59; forms of supernatural in Shakespeare, 59 casting plays, 37; play-writing, 38; ^^ • oi i > • interest in Stratford, investments, 38 r™™^ '", Shakespeare s time, 19; coat of arms, 39; will, death and' ,^t™""^^. P^^^^^j' etC;, 19 burial, 39; cause of death, 40; testi-;^^^^*^^? ^'^t,, S^l?'^' ^^^, T^^^*^^' ^^^ mony of contemporaries as to per-! Curtain Black Friars, Globe, 20 ;_ situ- sonal character and writings, 41;' l\^°^' ^^' classes, public and private, translations and Shakespeareana, 42;!^., j • j .- ^ Shakespeare library in Birmingham, l^^^^l^^, ^^^ dramatic structure, 76; England, nearly 10,000 volumes, Uni-L detined, 79 , , . ot, i versity of Michigan, U. S. A., 5,082 ^^P^^^^ *° ^% "°t^d m _ Shakespeare s vols., 42; writings first collected and I Pl^^^' morals, 51; religion, 53; Bible edited by Heminges and Condell f^' supernatural, 57; forms of, 59; (1623), 42; Dowden's chronological! humor 60; music 62; law, medical table of plays, 43; Shakespeare as a' knowledge, 63; physical science, na- dramatist, 45; his greatness, Taine ^ t"''^\ ^*i typography, vocabulary, 66 quoted, 24; Dowden, Ben Jonson, 24; tragedy, first, Gorboduc, 17; tragedy Snider, 45; Saintsbury, 46, 47; his ^^^ fT^j^ discussed and compared, work as an artist, 48; always loyal to' f*' defined, 84; classified, real, ideal, the institutions of state and family, ^ ^^' ^^^ °*' ^^ 52; moral system, 53; use of Bible, 54; of the supernatural, 57; humor, 60; law, medical knowledge, 63; na- ture, plant and animal life, 65 ; typo- graphy, vocabulary, 66; versatility, 99; characterization (see page 253) Snitterfield, early home of John Shakespeare, 60. Sphinx, Brutus, 137; Hamlet, 211; of literature (Hamlet), 172 Stratford-onAvon, Shakespeare's birth- place, early home, 27; home in later years, 39; death and burial, 39, 40; environments of natvire, 28 Structure, dramatic, of Shakespeare's plays, threads, movements, 76; me- chanical structure, acts and scenes, 80 I Udall, Nicholas, author of first com- edy, 16 Universal knowledge of Shakespeare, 63 University, Shakespeare's, 32 Versatility, Shakespeare's, 99 Virtue and vice compared, vice par- doned, not condoned, 51 Warwickshire, England, beauties _ of nature, Drayton quoted, 28; William Winter quoted, 29, 40 Women, Shakespeare's, 48. Witches in Shakespeare, 59; in Mac- beth (see page 2S5) 708 • .,0' O ,y ^^ 3 -1 - A- <. =^p. ^" o .^^ -n^. ."^^ % Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 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