■ ■. : '■: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
Glass __ 
 Book_. 
 
Hall of Representatives.. ..Washington. 
 
 Bridge and Rapids near falls of Niagara. 
 
BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 EXHIBITING ITS 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, DIVISIONS, CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 
 
 INSTITUTIONS, 
 
 AGRICULTrRE, 
 COMMERCE, 
 
 HAM FACTURES, 
 RELIGION", 
 EDUCATION, 
 POPULATION", 
 
 NATURAL CURIOSITIES, 
 
 RAILROADS, 
 
 CANALS, 
 
 PUBLrc BUILDINGS, 
 
 .MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, 
 
 FINE ARTS, 
 
 ANTIQUITIES, 
 
 AND PRESENTING 
 
 LITERATURE, 
 
 MINERALOGY, 
 
 BOTANY, 
 
 GEOLOGY, 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 PRODUCTIONS, 
 
 &c. &e. fcc. 
 
 A VIEW OF THE REPUBLIC GENERALLY, 
 
 AND OF THE 
 
 INDIVIDUAL STATES; 
 
 [View on the Mississippi.] 
 TOGETHER WITH A CONDENSED 
 
 HISTORY OF THE LAJVD, 
 
 FROM ITS FIRST DISCOVERY TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 THE BIOGRAPHY 
 
 OF ABOUT THREE HUNDRED OF THE LEADING MEN 
 
 A DESCRIPTION OF THE 
 
 PRINCIPAL CITIES AND TOWNS; 
 
 WITH 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES, 
 
 RELATING TO THE RELIGION, COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, AND VARIOUS OTHER TCPICfc 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 GRENVILLE MELLEN. 
 
 W I T H ENGRAVINGS 
 Or CURIOSITIES, SCEXERT, AMMALS CITIES, T0W.N3, PCBLIC BUILDINGS, &C 
 
 HARTFORD: 
 PUBLISHED BY H. F. SUMNER 6c CO. 
 
 1S3S. 
 
Hall of Representatives.... Washington. 
 
 Bridge and Rapids near Falls of Niagara. 
 
A 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 EXHIBITING ITS 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, DIVISIONS, CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 
 
 INSTITUTIONS, 
 
 AGRICULTURE, 
 
 COMMERCE, 
 
 MANUFACTURES, 
 
 RELIGION, 
 
 EDUCATION, 
 
 POPULATION, 
 
 NATURAL CURIOSITIES, 
 
 RAILROADS, 
 
 CANALS, 
 
 PUBLIC BUILDINGS, 
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, 
 
 FINE ARTS, 
 
 ANTIQUITIES, 
 
 LITERATURE, 
 
 MINERALOGY, 
 
 BOTANY, 
 
 GEOLOGY, 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 PRODUCTIONS, 
 
 ice. &C. &.C. 
 
 AND PRESENTING 
 
 A VIEW OF THE REPUBLIC GENERALLY, 
 
 AND OF THE 
 
 INDIVIDUAL STATES; 
 
 [View on the Mississippi.] 
 TOGETHER WITH A CONDENSED 
 
 HISTORY OF THE LAJVD, 
 
 FROM ITS FIRST DISCOVERY TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 THE BIOGRAPHY 
 
 OF ABOUT THREE HUNDRED OF THE LEADING MEN 
 
 A DESCRIPTION OF THE 
 
 PRINCIPAL CITIES AND TOWNS; 
 
 WITH 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES, 
 
 RELATING TO THE RELIGION, COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, AND VARIOUS OTHER TOPICS. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 GRENVILLE MELLEN. 
 
 WITH ENGRAVINGS 
 OP CURIOSITIES, SCENERY, ANIMALS CITIES, TOWNS, PUBLIC BUILDINGS, &C 
 
 HARTFORD: 
 PUBLISHED BY H. F. SUMNER & CO. 
 
 1838. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S35, by 
 
 GRENVILLE MELLEN. 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts 
 
 STEREOTYPED BY 8HEPARD, OklVER, ft CO. 
 
 Not Z, Water Street, Boston. 
 
 Martinson Sc Co., Printers. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In presenting this volume to the American public, the introduc- 
 tory remarks in which we shall indulge will be few and general, 
 as the book is one of that kind that speaks with singular plainness 
 for itself, and seems to us to require little upon the prefatory page 
 in the way of explanation, either with reference to its character 
 considered collectively, or in detail. 
 
 The chief object in preparing this work has been to furnish 
 something which should be found to embrace those subjects which 
 are of abiding interest and importance to all classes. It has been 
 a wish to present such matters, as well as could be done in the com- 
 pass allowed, as are of interest to all classes of readers, and an ac- 
 quaintance with which is desirable for our own citizens especially. 
 
 Directed by these intentions, it is hoped that the efforts to bring 
 a valuable and attractive volume before the public may have prov- 
 ed successful ; and that, viewed with reference to the subjects of 
 which it treats, this may be called, emphatically, a book for this 
 country, exhibiting, at one view, a picture of the Republic in its 
 physical, political, and social conditions, so drawn and colored as 
 to present in pleasant relief its most striking and peculiar features. 
 
 Simplicity was a leading object in the preparation of the work. 
 By such object it was natural to be guided, when it was remem- 
 bered that the pages were designed for the general eye and for all 
 classes. This quality was allowed to govern, in a great degree, both 
 in the thought and style ; and if, in any case, it may have been 
 carried to a point beyond the fortunate one, it will be believed, we 
 presume, that the fault, if it be such, is upon the better side. 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 Ill some instances interesting historical accounts are retained and 
 enlarged upon, from a consideration of the universally popular cha- 
 racter which such accounts generally possess. It is not known, 
 however, that they are referred to or dwelt upon in such a manner 
 as to induce the charge of credulity beyond that very pardonable de- 
 gree which all well disposed and good natured, and we may add, 
 well informed, writers and readers are ever ready to meet. 
 
 Frequent references are made to able and prominent writers, in 
 connection with the several important subjects which are here intro- 
 duced ; and such extracts are given, as, it is thought, will best illus- 
 trate and enforce them. This course, with most readers, is an ac- 
 ceptable one, and in a work of this nature it is the best that can be 
 pursued, frequently, to accomplish, within reasonable limits, the 
 design of the undertaking. 
 
 To enlarge would seem to be useless. The volume must speak 
 for itself, and bear its recommendation within. It is hoped, with 
 the several sketches of the Republic which it intends to present, 
 under its different aspects, it may prove an agreeable and instruc- 
 tive one to the community. 
 
 We had intended to have annexed a list of the writers consulted 
 and extracted from in the course of the volume ; but we believe 
 the references in the pages will supersede the necessity of a more 
 particular notice. It would be unjust, however, not to mention 
 our especial obligation to the excellent View of the United States 
 by Mr. Hinton, of which we have made the freest use throughout 
 the volume. 
 
 Boston, November, 1834. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Chap. I. Mountains 13 
 
 Chap. II. Valleys 27 
 
 Chap. III. Prairies and Plains 32 
 
 Chap. IV. Rivers 38 
 
 CHAr. V. Cataracts and Cascades 63 
 
 Chap. VI. Lakes 75 
 
 Chap. VII. Springs 87 
 
 Chap. VIII. Caverns 97 
 
 Chap. IX. Islands 108 
 
 Chap. X. Capes and Peninsulas 114 
 
 Chap. XL Bays, Harbors, Sounds, and Gulfs 116 
 
 Chap. XII. Oceans 122 
 
 Chap. XIII. Soil 127 
 
 Chap. XIV. Climate 140 
 
 Chap. XV. Minerals 155 
 
 Chap. XVI. Animals 165 
 
 Chap. XVII. Botany 235 
 
 Chap. XVIII. Geology 249 
 
 Chap. XIX. Natural Curiosities 257 
 
 PART n. 
 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Chap. I. Political and Geographical Division 263 
 
 Chap. IL Cities and Towns ?73 
 
CONTEXTS. 
 
 VI 
 
 Chap. III. Agriculture 
 
 Chap. IV. Manufactures 
 
 Chap. V Commerce 
 
 Chap. VI. Rail-roads 
 
 Chap. VII. Canals .... 
 
 Chap. VIII. Government 
 
 Chap. IX. Slavery .... 
 
 Chap. X. Indian Tribes 
 
 Chap. XI. American Antiquities 
 
 Chap. XII. Religion . 
 
 Chap. XIII. Manners and Amusements 
 
 Chap. XIV. Penitentiary System 
 
 Chap. XVI. Literature and Education 
 
 CnAP. XVII. Fine Arts 
 
 Chap. XVIII. Banking System 
 
 CnAP. XIX. Biographical Sketches 
 
 Chat. XX. History 
 
 Pago. 
 
 339 
 353 
 
 361 
 369 
 379 
 337 
 405 
 411 
 436 
 445 
 453 
 465 
 473 
 4S6 
 490 
 498 
 552 
 
BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 PART I. 
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CHAPTER I.— MOUNTAINS. 
 
 Though embracing in its extent several elevated ranges of great length, 
 and breadth, the territory of the United States cannot be considered as a 
 mountainous country. The land along the whole line of the seacoast 
 is level for a considerable distance into the interior. The breadth of this 
 level tract expands from fifty miles in the north-east extremity, gradually, 
 as we advance to the south-west, till in the state of Georgia, it has attained 
 an extent of near two hundred miles. Beyond this the land gradually 
 rises into mountains, which are much more remarkable for their length 
 and breadth, than their height. They sometimes consist of numerous 
 parallel ridges rising successively behind each other ; at other times they 
 run into knots ; and sometimes they recede from their parallel direction 
 into what are called spurs. These ranges or belts of mountainous country, 
 though receiving a v er of different appellations, are most visually 
 
 known by the name of the Alleghanies. The long continuity of this chain 
 has obtained it the name of the Endless Mountains, from the northern 
 savages. The French and Spaniards, who first became acquainted with 
 it in Florida, applied to it through its whole extent the name of Apalachian, 
 which is still retained by a considerable river of that country. 
 
 The general course of the Alleghanies is about north-east and south- 
 west ; east of the Hudson they are scattered in irregular groups, without 
 any very marked direction. 
 
 The range of the Rocky or Chippewan Mountains divides the waters 
 which flow east into the Missouri and Mississippi, from those which flow 
 west into the Pacific Ocean, and are a continuation of the Cordilleras 
 of Mexico. Their longitude is about one hundred and twelve west, and 
 they terminate in about seventy north latitude. Along the coast of the 
 Pacific is another range which seems to form a step to the I ! 
 Mountains. It extends from the Cape of California along the coast to 
 Cook's Inlet, generally rising to no great height in the southern portion. 
 In the northern part, La Perouse states that it is ten thousand feet high, 
 and at its northern extremity is Mount Elias, eighteen thousand feet high, 
 and the loftiest peak of North America. 
 
 2 
 
14 
 
 BOOK OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The White Mountains in New England, largely considered, are the 
 principal ranges running north-east and south-west, projecting from the 
 main ridge that forms the boundary of the United States, and separates 
 the waters of the St. Lawrence from those that run south through the 
 Northern States. The highest ridge is that called the White Mountain 
 Ridge in New Hampshire, running from south to north, the loftiest sum- 
 
 ^L&f*^«i 
 
 teMm 
 
 White Mountains. 
 
 mits of which are Monadnock, a hill of an abrupt and striking character, 
 Sunapee, Kearsarge, Carr's Mountain, and Moosehillock. Towards the 
 north of the state, these eminences rise to a much higher elevation, and 
 are known specifically by the name of the White Mountains. 
 
 While Mountains. 
 
 These are the loftiest mountains in the United States, east of the Missis- 
 sippi. They lie between the Connecticut and Androscoggin rivers on 
 the north-east and west, and the head-waters of the Merrimack on the 
 south sixty or seventy miles from the coast ; yet their white summits 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 15 
 
 are visible from many miles at sea. They extend about twenty miles 
 from south-west to north-east, and their base is eight or ten miles broad. 
 
 Mount Washington is the highest of all the White Mountains, being 
 six thousand two hundred and thirty-four feet above the level of the sea. 
 Next to Mount Washington in height is Mount Adams, then Jefferson, 
 then Madison, all more than five thousand feet high ; there are several 
 besides these, though none so elevated. The country around and among 
 the mountains is very wild and rough, and the mountains themselves are 
 difficult of access. The east side of Mount Washington rises at an 
 angle of forty-five degrees. The lower part of the mountain is covered 
 with thick woods of spruce and fir trees, with deep beds of moss beneath. 
 Heavy clouds of vapor often rest upon the mountain, and fill the moss 
 with water, which cannot be exhaled or dried up by the sun on account of 
 the woods, and therefore it breaks out in numerous springs which feed 
 the streams from the mountain. The trees are short and stunted higher 
 up the mountain ; soon there are only bushes ; then instead of bushes are 
 vines ; the last thing that grows is winter grass mixed with moss ; the 
 summit is entirely bare of vegetation. There is a plain from which the last 
 height of Mount Washington rises to the height of fifteen hundred feet. 
 This elevation or pinnacle is composed of huge grey rocks. Reaching the 
 top much fatigued and out of breath, the traveller is instantly master 
 of a boundless prospect, noble enough to pay him for his labor. The 
 Atlantic dimly seen through a distance of sixty-five miles, the Vermont 
 Mountains on the west, the southern and northern mountains of New 
 Hampshire, Lake Winnipiseogee, ponds, streams, and towns, without 
 number, all form a great impressive picture. 
 
 The road from the seacoast to the mountains passes along the head 
 stream of the Saco, which rises among these mountains, and breaks 
 through them at a place known by the name of the Notch, a narrow defile 
 extending two miles in length between two large cliffs, apparently rent 
 asunder by some vast convulsion of nature. 
 
 ' The sublime and awful grandeur of this passage baffles all description. 
 Geometry may settle the heights of the mountains ; and numerical figures 
 may record the measure; but no words can tell the emotions of the soul, as 
 it looks upward, and views the almost perpendicular precipices which line 
 the narrow space between them ; while the senses ache with terror and 
 astonishment, as one sees himself hedged in from all the world besides. 
 He may cast his eye forward or backward, or to either side ; he can 
 see only upward, and there the diminutive circle of his vision is cribbed 
 and confined by the battlements of nature's ' cloud-capped towers,' which 
 seem as if they wanted only the breathing of a zephyr, or the wafting of 
 a straw against them, to displace them, and crush the prisoner in their 
 fall. Just before our visit to this place, on the 26th of June, 1828, 
 there was a tremendous avalanche, or slide, as it is there called, from the 
 mountain which makes the southern wall of the passage. An immense 
 mass of earth and rock, on the side of the mountain, was loosened from 
 its resting place, and began to slide towards the bottom. In its course, 
 it divided into three portions, each coming down, with amazing veloci- 
 ty, into the road, and sweeping before it shrubs, trees, and rocks, and 
 filling up the road, beyond all possibility of its being removed. With great 
 labor, a pathway has been made over these fallen masses, which admits 
 
1(5 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the passage of a carriage. The place from which the slide, or slip, was 
 loosened, is directly in the rear of a small, but comfortable dwelling-house, 
 owned and occupied by a Mr. Willey, who has taken advantage of a 
 narrow, a very narrow interval, — where the bases of the two mountains 
 seem to have parted and receded, as if afraid of coming into contact, — to 
 erect his lone habitation : and, were there not a special Providence in the 
 fall of a sparrow, and had not the finger of that Providence traced the 
 direction of the sliding mass, neither he, nor any soul of his family, would 
 ever have told the tale. They heard the noise, when it first began to 
 
 . and ran to the door. In terror and amazement, they beheld the 
 mountain in motion. But what can human power effect in such an 
 emergency? Before they could think of retreating, or ascertain which 
 way to escape, the danger was passed. One portion of the avalanche 
 crossed the road about ten rods only from their habitation ; the second, 
 a few rods beyond that ; and the third, and much the largest portion, took a 
 much more oblique direction. The whole area, now covered by the 
 slide, is nearly an acre ; and the distance of its present bed from its 
 former place on the side of the mountain, and which it moved over in a 
 few minutes, is from three quarters of a mile to a mile. There are 
 many trees of large size that came down with such force as to shiver 
 them in pieces ; and innumerable rocks, of many tons' weight, any one df 
 which was sufficient to carry with it destruction to any of the labors of 
 man. The spot on the mountain, from which the slip was loosened, is now 
 a naked, white rock; and its pathway downward is indicated by deep 
 channels, or furrows grooved in the side of the mountain, and down one 
 ef which pours a stream of water, sufficient to carry a common saw-mill. 
 
 ' From this place to the Notch, there is almost a continual ascent, gene- 
 rally gradual, but sometimes steep and sudden. The narrow pathway pro- 
 ceeds along the stream, sometimes crossing it, and shifting from the side 
 of one mountain to the other, as either furnishes a less precarious foothold 
 for the traveller than its fellow. Occasionally it winds up the side of the 
 steep to such a height, as to leave, on one hand or the other, a gulf of 
 
 in depth; for the foliage of the trees and shrubs is impervious to the 
 sight. The Notch itself is formed by a sudden projection of rock from 
 
 mountain on the right or northerly side, rising perpendicularly to a 
 
 I height, — prol ably seventy or eighty feet, — and by a large mass of 
 rock on the left side, which has tumbled from its ancient location, and 
 taken a position, within twenty feet of its opposite neighbor. The length 
 of the Notch is not more than three or four rods. The moment it is 
 p I, the mountains seem to have vanished. A level meadow, over- 
 grown with long grass and wild flowers, and spotted with tufts of 
 shrubbery, spreads itself before the astonished eye, on the left, and a 
 swamp or thicket, on the right, conceals the ridge of mountains which 
 extend to the north : the road separates this thicket from the meadow. 
 Not far from the Notch, on the right hand side of the road, several springs 
 from the rocks that compose the base of the mountain, unite in the 
 thicket, and form the Saco river. This little stream runs across the road 
 into the meadow, where it almost loses itself in its meandering among the 
 bogs, but again collects its waters and passes under the rock that makes 
 the southerly wall of the Notch. It is here invisible for several rods, and 
 its presence is indicated only by its noise, as it rolls through its rugged 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 17 
 
 tunnel. In wet seasons and freshets, probably a portion of the water 
 passes over the fragments of rock, which are here wedged together, and 
 form an arch or covering for the natural bed of the stream. 
 
 ' The sensations which affect the corporeal faculties, as one views these 
 stupendous creations of Omnipotence, are absolutely afflicting and painful. 
 If you look at the summits of the mountains, when a cloud passes towards 
 them, it is impossible for the eye to distinguish, at such a height, which is 
 in motion, the mountain, or the cloud ; and this deception of vision pro- 
 duces a dizziness, which few spectators have nerve enough to endure for 
 many minutes. If the eye be fixed on the crags and masses of rock, that 
 project from the sides of the mountains, the flesh involuntarily quivers, 
 and the limbs seem to be impelled to retreat from a scene that threatens 
 impendent destruction. If the thoughts which crowd upon the intellectual 
 faculties are less painful than these sensations of flesh and blood, they are 
 too sublime and overwhelming to be described. The frequent alterations 
 and great changes, that have manifestly taken place in these majestic 
 masses, since they were first piled together by the hand of the Creator, are 
 calculated to awaken " thoughts beyond the reaches of the soul." If the 
 " everlasting hills" thus break in pieces, and shake the shaggy covering 
 from their sides, who will deny that 
 
 " This earthly globe, the creature of a day, 
 
 Though built by God's right hand, shall pass away ? — 
 
 The sun himself, by gathering clouds oppressed, 
 
 Shall, in his silent, dark pavilion rest ; 
 
 His golden urn shall break, and, useless, lie 
 
 Among the common ruins of the sky ; 
 
 The stars rush headlong, in the wild commotion, 
 
 And bathe their glittering foreheads in the ocean ?" 
 
 ' Reflection needs not the authority of inspiration to warrant a belief, that 
 this anticipation is something more than poetical. History and philosophy 
 teach its truth, or, at least, its probability. The melancholy imaginings 
 which it excites are relieved by the conviction that the whole of God's cre- 
 ation is nothing less 
 
 " Than a capacious reservoir of means, 
 Formed for his use, and ready at his will ;" 
 
 and that, if this globe should be resolved into chaos, it will undergo a new 
 organization, and be re-moulded into scenes of beauty, and abodes of hap- 
 piness. Such may be the order of nature, to be unfolded in a perpetual 
 series of material production and decay — of creation and dissolution — a 
 magnificent procession of worlds and systems, in the march of eternity.'* 
 
 A few weeks after the slide mentioned in the above description, a dis- 
 aster occurred which occasioned the destruction of the interesting family 
 to which allusion is there made. 
 
 The afternoon had been rainy, and the weather continued so till eleven 
 o'clock in the evening, when it cleared away. About the same hour, a 
 great noise was heard, at the distance of several miles like the rushing 
 down of rocks and much water from the mountains. The next morning, 
 the people, at Conway, could perceive that some disaster, of no ordinary 
 
 * J. T. Buckingham. 
 3 2* 
 
18 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 character, had happened, by the appearance of the mountains on each side 
 of the road. On repairing to the spot, they found the house of Mr. Wil- 
 ley, standing near the Notch, unhurt, but destitute of any of the family. 
 It is supposed that they left it in their fright, and were instantly swept 
 away, and buried under the rocks and earth which were borne down by 
 the freshet. This family consisted of Mr. Willey, his wife, five children, 
 and two hired men, all of whom were suddenly swept from time to eter- 
 nity, bv this lamentable disaster. Had they remained in the house, they 
 would probably have been safe. 
 
 The central and western parts of Maine are mountainous. The highest 
 mountains are the Katahdin, situated near the centre of the state, the 
 Speckled, Bald, Bigelow, and Ebeeme mountains. The range between 
 the rivers Hudson and Connecticut, and this last and lake Champlain, 
 is called the Green Mountains, an appellation which it has received 
 from its perpetual verdure, being covered on its western side with hem- 
 lock, pine, spruce, and other evergreens. These mountains are from 
 ten to fifteen miles wide, much intersected with valleys, and abound- 
 ing in springs and streams. Vegetation decreases on approaching their 
 summits ; the trees diminish in size, and frequently terminate in a shrub- 
 bery of spruce and hemlock, two or three feet high, with branches so 
 interwoven as to prevent all passage through them. The sides of the 
 mountains are generally rugged and irregular ; some of them have large 
 apertures and caves. Their tops are coated with a compact and firm moss, 
 which lies in extensive beds, and is sometimes of a consistency to bear the 
 weight of a man without being broken through. These mosses absorb a 
 great deal of moisture, and afford wet and marshy places, which in the 
 warm season are the constant resort of water fowl. The loftiest summits 
 are Killington Peak, near Rutland ; Camel's Rump, between Montpe- 
 lier and Burlington, and Mansfield Mountain, a few miles farther north, 
 all which are more than three thousand five hundred feet above the level 
 of the sea. Ascutney, a single mountain near Windsor, is three thousand 
 three hundred and twenty feet in height. 
 
 The range called Green Mountains in Vermont, enters the west part 
 of Massachusetts from the north, and forms the Hoosac and Tagkan- 
 nuc Ridges, which run nearly parallel to each other south, into Connecticut. 
 The most elevated peaks of the Tagkannuc Ridge are Saddle Mountain in 
 the north, four thousand feet high, and Tagkannuc Mountain in the south, 
 three thousand feet. No summits of the Hoosac Ridge much exceed half 
 these elevations. Mount Holyoke, in the neighborhood of Northampton, 
 commands a prospect of the highest beauty; the waters of the Connecticut 
 w ii'l about its base, giving fertility and wealth of vegetation to the surround- 
 ing country. On its top a shanty is erected, in which refreshments are kept for 
 the visitors who at favorable seasons make this excursion in great numbers. 
 
 There are two distinct chains belonging to the Alleghany range in the 
 state of New York, the Catskill and the Wallkill. The Catskill, which is 
 the most northern, is the continuation of the proper Alleghany or western 
 chain ; the eastern is called, by some geographers, "Wallkill. 
 
 A visit to the Catskill is a favorite excursion of northern travellers, and 
 several days may be spent very agreeably in examining the grand and 
 romantic scenery of the neighborhood. Pine Orchard is a small plain, 
 *wo thousand two hundred and fourteen feet above the Hudson, scattered 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 19 
 
 with forest trees, and furnished with an elegant house of great size. Im- 
 mediately below is seen a wild and mountainous region, finely contrasting 
 with the cultivated country beyond, which presents every variety of hill 
 and valley, interspersed with town, hamlet, and cottage. 
 
 The hills of Weehawken are on the west side of the Hudson, nearly 
 opposite the city of New York. 
 
 Weehawken. 
 
 The Highlands of the Hudson, or Fishkill Mountains, which first appear 
 about forty miles from New York, are marked for their sublimity and 
 
 Highlands. 
 
 grandeur, and interesting from their connection with many great events 
 of the revolution. This chain is sixteen miles in width, and extends twenty 
 miles along both sides of the Hudson. The height of the principal has 
 
20 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 been estimated at one thousand five hundred and sixty-five feet. The 
 Peruvian Mountains consist of a lofty tract in the northern part of New 
 York, being round the sources of the Hudson, and separating the waters 
 of Lake Champlain from those of the St. Lawrence. They received their 
 name from the supposition that they contained mineral treasures. Their 
 loftiest summit, called Whiteface, is about three thousand feet above the 
 level of Lake Champlain. 
 
 The Apalachian chain in Pennsylvania spreads to its widest limits, and 
 covers with its various ranges more than one half of the state. The 
 greatest width of the chain equals two hundred miles. It consists of pa- 
 rallel ridges sometimes little distant from each other, and at other times 
 with valleys twenty or thirty miles broad lying between them. The range 
 nearest the coast is called the South Mountain, and is a continuation of 
 the Blue Ridge of Virginia. This, however, is hardly a distinct ridge, 
 but only'an irregular series of rocky, broken eminences, sometimes disap- 
 pearing altogether, and at others spreading out several miles in breadth. 
 These eminences lie one hundred and fifty or two hundred miles from the 
 sea, and their height does not exceed one thousand two hundred feet above 
 the surrounding country. Beyond these are the Kittatinny or Blue Moun- 
 tains, which extend from Maryland to New Jersey across the Susquehanna 
 and Delaware. Farther westward are the ridges bearing the names of the 
 Sideling Hills, Ragged Mountains, Great Warrior Mountain, East Will's 
 Mountain, till we come to the Alleghany Ridge, the highest range, and 
 from which this whole chain has in common language received the name 
 of the Alleghany Mountains. The highest summits are between three and 
 four thousand feet above the level of the sea. West of the Alleghany are 
 the Laurel and Chesnut Ridges. 
 
 These mountains are in general covered with thick forests. The Laurel 
 Mountains are overgrown on their eastern front with the tree from which 
 they are named. The wide valleys between the great ridges are filled 
 with a multitude of hills, confusedly scattered up and down. The tops of 
 the ridges sometimes exhibit long ranges of table land, two or three miles 
 broad ; some of them are steep on one side, and extend with a long slope 
 on the other. These mountains are traversed by the great streams of the 
 Susquehanna chain, and the head-waters of the Ohio. 
 
 The WaUkill, which crosses the Hudson at West Point, forty miles 
 below the Catskill, is the continuation of the Blue Ridge, or Eastern Chain, 
 which is the most general appellation for the extensive ridge which fronts 
 the Atlantic. The eastern and western ranges run parallel to each other, 
 south-west, till on the frontiers of North Carolina and Virginia they unite 
 in a knot which has been called the Alleghany Arch, because the principal 
 chain embraces there in a curve all its collaterals from the east. A little 
 farther to the south, but still in North Carolina, a second knot unites all the 
 collateral ridges from the west, and forms a culminating point of heads of 
 rivers. The second bifurcation stretches south-west and then west, and 
 the name of the * Cumberland Mountains through the whole state of Ten- 
 
 * Among the Enchanted Mountains, a name given to several spurs of the Cumber 
 land Ridge, are some very singular footprints marked in the solid limestone rock. 
 These are tracks of men, horses, and other animals, as distinctly marked as though but 
 yesterday impressed in clay or mortar. Their appearance often indicates that the feet 
 which made them had slidden, as if in descending a declivity of soft clay. The 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 21 
 
 nessee, while the proper Alleghany Chain, left almost alone, continues its 
 course to the south-west, and completes the boundary of Georgia and the 
 two Carolinas. From the Alleghany Arch, there are three principal ridges 
 or ramifications of the Alleghany, running north-east and nearly parallel 
 to each other, namely, the Alleghany Proper, the North Mountain, and 
 the Blue Ridge. Of the last ridge the highest summits are the Otter 
 Peaks. The elevated district of South Carolina presents seven or eight 
 mountains running in regular directions, the most distinguished of which 
 is the *Table Mountain. Mr. Jefferson, with peculiar felicity of illustra- 
 tion, called the range of the Alleghanies the spine of the United States ; 
 separating the eastern from the western waters, and the whole of the terri- 
 tory from the Mississippi to the Atlantic into three natural divisions, mate- 
 rially differing from each other in climate, configuration, soil, and produce ; 
 namely, the coast, the mountains, and the western territory. 
 
 In extent, in elevation, and in breadth, the Rocky Mountains far exceed 
 the Alleghanies of the Eastern States. Their mean breadth is two hun- 
 dred miles, and where broadest, three hundred. Their height must be 
 very great, since, when first seen by Captain Lewis, they were at least one 
 hundred and fifty miles distant. On a nearer approach, the sublimity of 
 the prospect is increased, by the appearance of range rising behind range, 
 each yielding in height to its successor, till the most distant is mingled 
 with the clouds. In this lofty region the ranges are covered with snow in 
 the middle of June. From this last circumstance, these ranges have been 
 
 Table lands at the foot of the Rock; 
 
 sometimes denominated the 8hini7ig Mountains — an appellation much 
 more appropriate than that of the Rocky or Sto?iy Mountains, a property 
 
 human feet have uniformly six toes, with the exception of one track, which is thought 
 to be that of a negro. One of the tracks is sixteen inches long, and thirteen inches 
 wide from toe to heel, with the hall of the heel five inches in diameter. On the shore 
 of the Mississippi is a similar impression of the human feet in a mass of limestone. 
 No satisfactory explanation has been given of these singular appearances. 
 
 * Table Mountain, in Pendleton district, near the north-west corner of South Caro- 
 jua, is thus described by Dr. Ramsay. ' Its height exceeds three thousand feet, and 
 
22 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 possessed by all mountains, but peculiar to none. The longitudinal extent 
 of this great chain is immense, running as far north-west as sixty degrees 
 north latitude, and perhaps to the Frozen Ocean itself. The snows and 
 fountains of this enormous range, from the thirty-eighth to the forty-eighth 
 degree of northern latitude, feed, with never-failing supplies, the Missouri 
 and its powerful auxiliary streams. 
 
 In endeavoring to explore these Alpine heights, and the sources of the 
 Red and Arkansaw rivers, Captain Pike and his party were bewildered 
 amidst snows, and torrents, and precipices. The cold was so intense, that 
 several of the party had their limbs frostbitten, and were obliged to be aban- 
 doned to their fate, by Pike and his surviving companions. In a lateral 
 ridge, separating the valley of the Arkansaw from that of the Platte river, 
 in north latitude forty-one degrees, is a remarkable peak, called the 
 Great White Mountain ; so remarkable, indeed, as to be known to all 
 the savage tribes for hundreds of miles round, and spoken of in terms of 
 admiration by the Spaniards of New Mexico, and which formed the boun- 
 dary of their knowledge to the north-west. The altitude of this peak was 
 taken on the base of a mile by Pike, and found to be ten thousand five 
 hundred and eighty-one feet above the level of the meadow at its foot ; 
 and the height of this latter was estimated at eight thousand feet above 
 the level of the sea ; in all, eighteen thousand five hundred and eighty-one 
 feet of absolute elevation ; being six thousand feet higher than the peak of 
 Teneriffe, by Humboldt's measurement ; or two thousand eight hundred 
 and ninety-one feet short of that of Chimborazo, admitting the elevation of 
 this last to be twenty-one thousand four hundred and seventy-two feet. 
 Captain Pike and his companions liover lost sight of this tremendous peak, 
 unless in a valley, for the spac of ten weeks, wandering amongst the 
 mountains. What is the elevation at the sources of the Missouri can only 
 be matter of mere conjecture. The level of the river, where they left their 
 canoes, could not be less than six thousand feet above the sea ; but how 
 high the mountains rose above this point the narrative does not inform us, 
 and hardly gives us any data to decide. The central chain, as usual, is 
 marked in the map as highest, and covered with snow during the whole 
 year. The latitude is between forty-five and forty-seven degrees ; and 
 between these parallels, in Europe, the lower limit of perpetual congelation 
 is fixed at from nine to ten thousand feet above the level of the sea ; and 
 it can hardly be supposed that the summits of this snowy range were less 
 than eight thousand five hundred or nine thousand feet high, making a 
 reasonable allowance for the greater coldness of the American continent. 
 Captain Clarke allows this central range to be sixty miles across, and that 
 
 thirty farms may be distinguished at any one view from its top by the unaided 
 eye. Its side is an abrupt precipice nine hundred feet deep, and nearly perpen- 
 dicular. The valley underneath appears to be as much below the level as the top of 
 the mountain towers above it. This precipice is called the Lover's Leap. To those 
 who are in the valley it looks like an immense wall stretching up to heaven. At 
 its Imse lie whitening in the sun the bones of various animals that had incautiously 
 advanced too near its edge. Its summit is often surrounded with clouds. 
 
 ' The gradual ascent of the country from the seacoast to this western extremity of 
 the Slate, added to the height of this mountain, must place its top more than four 
 thousand feet above the level of the Atlantic ocean. Large masses of snow tumble 
 down from the side of this mountain in the winter season, the fall of which has beeu 
 heard seven miles. Its summit is the resort of deer and bears. Wild pigeons reson 
 to it in such flocks as sometimes to break the limbs of the trees on which they alight.' 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 23 
 
 the shortest road across the different ranges is at least one hundred and 
 forty miles, besides two hundred miles more, before we can reach a navi- 
 gable river. In their first passage across these tremendous mountains, the 
 American party suffered every thing which hunger, cold, and fatigue, could 
 impose, during three weeks. They were compelled to melt the snow for 
 their portable soup; many of their horses (which they used for conveying 
 their baggage, or for riding,) were foundered by falls from precipices ; the 
 men became feeble through excessive toil, and sickly from want of food, as 
 there are no wild animals in these inhospitable regions ; and, but for an 
 occasional meal of horse flesh, the whole party must have perished. In 
 returning home from the mouth of the Columbia, their state was little bet- 
 ter. Having again come in sight of the mountains, in the middle of May, 
 they attempted to pass them but in vain, on account of the snow, which 
 lay from six to ten feet deep, and were obliged to return, and rest in the 
 plains to the twenty-fourth of June. These mountains are, therefore, a 
 far more formidable barrier to the Pacific, than the Alleghanies to the back 
 country, and can be passed with great difficulty only for three months in 
 the year, namely, from the latter end of June to the latter end of Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 We are indebted to the Missouri Advocate for the following account of 
 General Ashley's discoveries in this quarter. He considers it quite possi- 
 ble to form a route across this formidable barrier to the Pacific Ocean. 
 The route proposed, after leaving St. Louis, and passing generally on the 
 north side of the Missouri river, strikes the river Platte, a short distance 
 above its junction with *he Missouri ; then pursues the waters of the Platte 
 to their sources, and, in continuation, crosses the head-waters of what Gen- 
 eral Ashley believes to be the Rio Colorado of the west, and strikes, for 
 the first time, a ridge or single connecting chain of mountains, running 
 from north to south. This however presents no difficulty, as a wide gap 
 is found apparently prepared for the purpose of a passage. After passing 
 this gap, the route proposed falls directly on a river, called by George Ash- 
 ley the Buenaventura, and runs from that river to the Pacific Ocean. The 
 face of the country, in general, is a continuation of high, rugged, and bar- 
 ren mountains ; the summits of which are either timbered with pine, quak- 
 ing-asp, or cedar; or, in fact, almost entirely destitute of vegetation. Other 
 parts are hilly and undulating; and the valleys and table-lands (except 
 on the borders of water-courses, which are more or less timbered with cot- 
 ton-wood and willows,) are destitute of wood ; but this indispensable arti- 
 cle is substituted by an herb, called by the hunters wild sage, which grows 
 from one to five feet high, and is found in great abundance in most parts 
 of the country. The sterility of the country generally is almost incredible, 
 lhat part of it, however, bounded by the three ranges of mountains, and 
 watered by the sources of the supposed Buenaventura, is less sterile ; yet 
 the proportion of arable land, even within those limits, is comparatively 
 small ; and no district of the country visited by General Ashley, or of 
 which he obtained satisfactory information, offers inducements to civilized 
 people, sufficient to justify an expectation of permanent settlement. The 
 river visited by General Ashley, and which he believes to be the Rio Colo- 
 rado of the west, is, at about fifty miles from its most northern source, 
 eighty y- a rds wide. At this point, General Ashley embarked and descend- 
 ed the river, which gradually increased in width to one hundred and eighty 
 
24 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 yards. In passing through the mountains, the channel is contracted to 
 fifty or sixty yards, and so much obstructed by rocks as to make its descent 
 extremely dangerous, and its ascent impracticable. After descending this 
 river about four hundred miles, General Ashley shaped his course north- 
 wardly, and fell upon what he supposed to be the sources of the Buenaven- 
 tura ; he represents those branches as bold streams, from twenty to fifty 
 yards wide, forming a junction a few miles below where he crossed them, 
 and then emptying into a lake (called Grand Lake,) represented by the 
 Indians as being forty or fifty miles wide, and sixty or seventy miles long. 
 This information is strengthened by that of the white hunters, who have 
 explored parts of the lake. The Indians represent, that at the extreme 
 west end of this lake, a large river flows out, and runs in a westward di- 
 rection. General Ashley, when on those waters, at first thought it proba- 
 ble they were the sources of the Multnomah : but the account given by 
 the Indians, supported by the opinion of some men belonging to the Hud- 
 son Bay Company, confirms him in the belief, that they are the head-waters 
 of the river represented as the Buenaventura. To the north and north- 
 west from the Grand Lake, the country is represented as abounding in 
 suit. The Indians west of the mountains are remarkably well disposed 
 towards the citizens of the United States ; the Eutaws and Flatheads are 
 particularly so, and express a great wish that the Americans should visit 
 them frequently. 
 
 A large number of lateral ranges project to the south-east, east, and 
 north-east of the main range. Where the Missouri enters the plains, is 
 the most eastern projection ; and from where the Jaime leaves the snowy 
 range, there is a lateral range, running more than two hundred miles 
 south-east, which is intersected by the Bighorn river. As these mountains 
 have not yet been explored by the eye of geological science, it is impossible 
 to say any thing respecting their component parts ; but, from every thing 
 that we can learn from Pike and Clarke, they seem to be chiefly granitic. 
 No volcanoes have yet been discovered amongst them ; but strange unu- 
 sual noises were heard from the mountains, by the American party, when 
 stationed above the falls of the Missouri. These sounds seemed to come 
 from the north-west. ' Since our arrival at the falls,' says the narrative, 
 ' we have repeatedly heard a strange noise coming from the mountains, a 
 little to the north of west. It is heard at different periods of the day and 
 night : sometimes when the air is perfectly still and unclouded, and con- 
 sists of one stroke only, or of five or six discharges in quick succession. It 
 is loud, and resembles precisely the sound of a six pounder at the distance 
 of three miles. The Indians had before mentioned this noise like thun- 
 der, but we had paid no attention to it. The watermen also of the party 
 say, that the Pawnees and Ricaras give the same account of a similar 
 noise made in the Black Mountains, to the westward of them.' Again, 
 near the same place, it is afterwards said : ' They heard, about sunset, two 
 discharges of the tremendous mountain artillery.' Not a -word more 
 occurs upon the subject ; but we know that similar explosions take place 
 among the mountains near the head of the Washita, and among the moun- 
 tains of Namhi, near the sources of the Red river. 
 
 In our present state of ignorance respecting these mountains, it is impos- 
 sible to give a solution of this phenomenon, though it may proceed from 
 some distant volcano, which, like Stromboli, may be in a state of constant 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 25 
 
 activity, but more irregularly. It is well known that the sounds of volca- 
 noes are heard at very great distances, as at Guatimala, where the sound 
 of the volcano of Cotopaxi was distinctly heard, though more than two 
 hundred and twenty miles distant. Some indications of volcanoes had 
 been seen by the American party, when ascending the river, about sixty 
 miles below the mouth of the Little Missouri, where they passed several 
 very high bluffs on the south side, one of which had been lately a burning 
 volcano, as the pumice stones lay very thick around it, and emitted a 
 strong sulphureous smell. Similar appearances are mentioned by Macken- 
 zie, as taking place among the Rocky Mountains on their eastern side, in 
 north latitude fifty-six and one hundred and twenty degrees west longi- 
 tude. ' Mr. Mackav,' says he, ' informed me, that in passing over the 
 mountains, he observed several chasms in the earth that emitted heat and 
 smoke, which diffused a strong sulphureous stench.' From all these 
 circumstances combined, it is natural to infer that the sound proceeds from 
 some very distant and unknown volcano. 
 
 On the west side of the Mississippi, and about midway between the 
 Rocky Mountains and the Alleghanies, lies a broad range of mountains, 
 called the Ozarks, six or seven hundred miles in length, about one hundred 
 broad, and having an elevation varying from one to two thousand feet 
 above the sea. This range of low mountains, which is penetrated by two 
 branches of the Mississippi, the Arkansas and Red river, was nearly alto- 
 gether unknown till within these few years. It is parallel with the range 
 of the Alleghanies, making an angle of about forty degrees with the great 
 range of the Andes. As far as the Ozarks have yet been explored, the 
 granites and older primitive rocks are found at the lowest part, being sur- 
 mounted by those of more recent formation. The reverse of this is oh- 
 ed in the Rocky Mountains. A similar range of broken and hilly country 
 commences on the Ouisconsin river and extends north to Lake Superior. 
 It is called the Wisconsin or Ouisconsin Hills. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS OX MOUNTAINS. 
 
 Mountains are supposed by naturalists to have different origins, and to date 
 their commencement from various periods. Those which form a chain, and are 
 covered with snow, are accounted primitive, or antediluvian. They greatly ex 
 ceed all other mountains in height; in general their elevation is very sudden, 
 and their ascent steep and difficult. They are composed of vast masses of quartz, des- 
 titute of shells, and of all organized marine matter ; and appear to descend almost per- 
 pendicularly into the body of the earth. Of this kind are the Pyrenees, the Alps, the 
 Himmaleh ranges, the Atlas, and the Andes. Another class are of volcanic origin. 
 These are either detached or surrounded with groups of lower hills, the soil of which is 
 heaped up in disorder, and consists of gravel and other loose substances. Among 
 these are Mount ^Etna and Vesuvius. A third class of mountains, whether grouped or 
 isolated, are such as are composed of stratified earth or stone, consisting of different 
 substances of various colors. The interior consists of numerous strata, almost hori- 
 zontally disposed, containing shells, marine productions, and fish bones in great quan- 
 tities. The strata of mountains which are lower and of more recent date, sometimes 
 appear to rise from the side of primitive mountains which they surround, and of which 
 they form the first step in the ascent. 
 
 The mountains in Asia are the most elevated and imposing in the world. Of these 
 the Himmaleh chain is the highest; one of its peaks. Dhawalaghiri. reaching the alti- 
 tude of twenty-eight thousand and ninety-six feet, and several exceeding twenty-four 
 thousand. Africa has some extensive chains of mountains, but the altitudes of only a 
 few have been ascertained. Mont Blanc is the highest summit of Europe, reaching an 
 elevation of fifteen thousand seven hundred and thirty-five feet. The Andes of South 
 4 3 
 
26 BOOK OF THF UNITED STATES. 
 
 America present the most striking and stupendous features ; cataracts, volcanoes, and 
 immense chasms of an almost perpendicular descent. Chimborazo, the highest point ol 
 the Andes, reaches twenty-one thousand four hundred and sixty-four feet ; in many 
 places the peaks rise to upwards of twenty thousand feet, though in others they sink to 
 less than one thousand. 
 
 In general, all the chains of mountains in the same continent, seem to have a mutux 
 connection more or less apparent ; they form a sort of frame-work to the land, and ap- 
 pear in the origin of things to have determined the shape which it was to assume ; but 
 this analogy, were we to generalize too much, would lead us into error. There are 
 many chains, which have very little, or, rather, no affinity to each other. Such are the 
 mountains of Scandinavia and of Scotland, mountains as independent as the character 
 of the nations who inhabit them. 
 
 TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL ELEVATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1. Long's Peak, the highest of the Rocky Mountains, Missouri Territory, . . 12,000 
 
 2. James's Peak, ... do. ... do. .. . 11,500 
 
 3. Inferior peaks of the Rocky Mountains, varying from 10,700 to ... 7,200 
 I 4. Mt. Washington, the highest of the White Hills, New Hampshire, . . 6,234 
 
 5. Inferior peaks of the White Hills, varying from 5,328 to 4,356 
 
 6. Mooshillock Mt., Grafton County, New Hampshire, 4,636 
 
 ; 7. Mansfield or Chin Mt., Chittenden County, Vermont, 4,279 
 
 8. Camels' Rump, ... do ... . do 4,188 
 
 9. Shrewsbury Peak, Rutland County, . . do 4,034 
 
 10. Saddleback Mt., Berkshire County, Massachusetts, 4,000 
 
 11. Table Mountain, Pendleton District, South Carolina, 4,000 
 
 12. Peaks of Otter, Bedford County, Virginia, 3,955 
 
 13. Killington Peak, Rutland County, Vermont, 3,924 
 
 14. Round Top, the highest of the Catskill Mountains, New York, .... 3,804 
 
 15. High Peak, one of the highest of do. . do. . . do 3,718 
 
 16. Grand Monadnock, Cheshire County, New Hampshire, 3,7 IS 
 
 17. Manchester Mountain, Bennington County, Vermont, 3,706 
 
 18. Ascutney Mountain, Windsor ... do. .. do 3,320 
 
 19. Ozark Mountains, Arkansas Territory, average height, 3,200 
 
 20. Wachuset Mountain, or Mount Adams, Worcester County, Mass., . . 2,990 
 
 21. Whiteface Mountain, Essex County, New York, 2,690 
 
 22. Kearsarge Mountain, Hillsborough County, New Hampshire, .... 2,469 
 
 23. Alleghany Mountains, average height, 2.400 
 
 24. Porcupine Mountains, Chippeway County, south of Lake Superior, . . 2,200 
 
 25. Cumberland Mountains, average height, 2,200 
 
 26. Moose Mountain, New Hampshire, 2,008 
 
 27. New Beacon, the highest of the Highlands, New York, . .... 1 £58 
 
27 
 
 CHAPTER II.— VALLEYS. 
 
 The Valley of the Mississippi is the largest in the world ; and differs 
 from any other of very great extent, in the peculiar distinctness of its outline. 
 It is bounded south by the gulf of Mexico, west by the Rocky Mountains, 
 north by the great lakes of British America, and east by the Apalachian 
 Mountains. Its general surface may be classed under three distinct aspects ; 
 the thickly timbered, the barren, and the prairie country. This valley 
 extends from the twenty-ninth to the forty-ninth parallel of north latitude, 
 and exhibits every variation of temperature from the climate of Canada to 
 that of Louisiana. It is a wide extent of level country, in which the various 
 rivers, inclosed between two chains of mountains three thousand miles apart, 
 find a common centre, and discharge their waters into the sea by a single 
 channel. Geologically considered, this immense valley presents every 
 where the aspect of what is called secondary formation. Its prevailing 
 rocks are carbonate of lime, disposed in the most regular lamina, masses of 
 limestone, in which seashells or organic remains are imbedded, retaining 
 their distinct and original form. At every step, is presented the aspect of 
 a country once covered by lakes or seas. The soil, stones, and exuviae of 
 lake or river formation, are, to all appearance, of comparatively recent 
 origin. In the alluvial soils, to the depth of from twenty to an hundred 
 feet, are found pebbles, smoothed by the evident attrition of waters, having 
 the appearances of those masses of smoothed pebbles that are thrown on the 
 seashore by the dashing of the surge. Leaves, branches, and logs are 
 also found at great distances from the points where wood is seen at present, 
 and at great depths below the surface. In the most solid blocks of lime- 
 stone, split for building, deers' horns and other animal exuviae are found 
 incorporated in the solid stone. 
 
 ' From its character of recent formation,' says Mr. Flint, ' from the 
 prevalence of limestone every where, from the decomposition which it has 
 undergone, and is constantly undergoing, from the prevalence of decompo- 
 sed limestone in the soil, probably, results another general attribute of this 
 valley — its character generally for uncommon fertility. We would not be 
 understood to assert, that the country is every where alike fertile. It has 
 ts sterile sections. There are here, as elsewhere, infinite diversili's of 
 soil, from the richest alluvions, to the most miserable flint knobs ; from 
 the tangled cane brakes, to the poorest pine hills. There are, too, it is 
 well known, towards the Rocky Mountains, wide belts that have a surface 
 of sterile sands, or only covered with a sparse vegetation of weeds and 
 coarse grass. But of the country in general, the most cursory observer 
 must have remarked, that, compared with lands, apparently of the same 
 character in other regions, the lands here obviously show marks of singular 
 fertility. The most ordinary, third rate, oak lands, will bring successive 
 crops of wheat and maize, without any manuring, and with but little care 
 of cultivation. The pine lands of the southern regions are in many places 
 cultivated for years, without any attempts at manuring them. The same fact 
 is visible in the manner in which vegetation in this country resists drought. 
 
28 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 It is a proverb on the good lands, that if there be moisture enough to bring the 
 corn to germinate, and come up, they will have a crop, if no more rain falls 
 until the harvest. We have a thousand times observed this crop continuing 
 to advance towards a fresh and vigorous maturity, under a pressure of 
 drought, and a continuance of cloudless ardor of sun, that would have 
 burned up and destroyed vegetation in the Atlantic country. 
 
 ' We have supposed this fertility to arise, either from an uncommon pro- 
 portion of vegetable matter in the soil ; from the saline impregnations 
 mixed with the earth, as evidenced in the numberless licks, and springs of 
 salt water, and the nitrous character of the soil, wherever, ,as in caves, or 
 under buildings, it is sheltered from moisture ; or, as we have remarked, 
 from the general diffusion of dissolved limestone, and marly mixtures over 
 the surface. In some way, spread by the waters, diffused through the soil, 
 or the result of former decomposition, there is evidently much of the quick- 
 ening and fertilizing power of lime mixed with the soil.' 
 
 The greatest length of the Valley of the Missouri is twelve hundred 
 miles, its greatest breadth seven hundred. In the direction of the western 
 rivers, the inclined plain of the Missouri extends eight hundred miles from 
 the Chippewayan Mountains, and rather more than that distance from 
 south to north, from the southern branches of the Kansas, to the extreme 
 heads of the northern confluents of the valley. Ascending from the lower 
 verge of this widely extended plain, wood becomes more and more scarce, 
 until one naked surface spreads on all sides. Even the ridges and chains 
 of mountains partake of these traits of desolation. 
 
 The celebrated valley called the American Bottom extends along the 
 eastern bank of the Mississippi to the Piasa Hills, four miles above the 
 mouth of the Missouri. It is several miles in width, and has a soil of 
 astonishing fertility. It has all the disadvantages attending tracts of recent 
 alluvion, the most valuable parts of it being liable to be swept away by the 
 current of the Mississippi. ' But the inexhaustible fertility of its soil,' says 
 Major Long, 'makes amends for the insalubrity of the air, and the incon- 
 venience of a flat and marshy situation, and this valley is undoubtedly 
 destined to become one of the most populous parts of America. We were 
 formerly shown here a field that had been cultivated, without manure, one 
 hundred years in succession, and which when we saw it, (in August, 1816,) 
 was covered with a very luxuriant growth of corn.' 
 
 The Olno Valley is divided by the river into two unequal sections, leaving 
 on the north-west side eighty thousand, and on the south-east one hundred 
 and sixteen thousand square miles. The river flows in a deep ravine five 
 hundred and forty-eight miles long in a straight line, and nine hundred 
 and ninety-eight by the windings of the stream. In its natural state the 
 Ohio valley, with the exception of the central plain, was covered with a 
 forest. Open savannahs commence as far east as the sources of the 
 Muskingum. Like the plain itself, those savannahs expand to the west- 
 ward, and on the Illinois open into immense prairies. This valley may be 
 regarded as a great plain inclining from the Apalachian system of the north- 
 west, obliquely and deeply cut by the Ohio and its numerous confluents, 
 into chasms from an elevation of four hundred feet to nearly the level oi 
 the streams. On the higher parts of the valley, the banks of the river rise 
 by bold acclivities which wear almost a mountainous aspect. This bold- 
 ness of outline imperceptibly softens in descending the Ohio, and on 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 29 
 
 approaching the Mississippi, an extent of level woodland bounds the hori- 
 zon. Ascending the rivers of the south-east slope, the scenery becomes 
 more and more rugged, until it terminates in the ridges of the Apalachian 
 chains : if the rivers of the north-west slope are followed, on the contrary, 
 we rind the landscape broken and varied near the Ohio, but around their 
 sources flat and monotonous. 
 
 The Valley of the Hudson varies extremely in its width, being in some 
 places contracted to the immediate neighborhood of the stream ; in others 
 extending forty miles. On the borders of the river the land is generally 
 elevated. The Mohawk is bordered by two long ranges of hills, presenting 
 
 Valley of the Mohawk. 
 
 little variety of aspect. In the early part of its course it flows through 
 extensive flats. The valleys of the Susquehanna and its branches are 
 remarkably irregular. These streams traverse the whole width of the 
 Apalachian chain of mountains, sometimes flowing in wide valleys between 
 parallel ranges for fifty or sixty miles in a direct course, and at other times 
 breaking through the mountain ridges. The valleys between the different 
 ranges of the great chain extending throughout Pennsylvania are often 
 twenty or thirty miles in width with a hilly or broken surface. 
 
 The only large valley in North Carolina lies between the Blue Ridge, 
 and a parallel range called the Iron, Bald, and Smoky Mountains. It runs 
 north-east and south-west, is one hundred and eighty miles in length, and 
 from ten to forty in width. 
 
 The valleys of the small rivers of Tennessee are singularly beautiful and 
 fertile, surpassing all others of the same description in the Western States. 
 The valleys of the Cumberland and Tennessee differ little from the allu- 
 vions of the other great rivers of the west. 
 
 The Valley of the Connecticut is one of the most celebrated valleys of the 
 United States for its fertility and beauty. It is a large tract of land extend- 
 
 3* 
 
30 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ing from Long Island sound to Hereford Mountains in Canada, five miles 
 beyond the forty-fifth degree of latitude. In the largest sense, it is from five 
 to forty-five miles in width, and its surface is composed of a succession of 
 hills, valleys and plains. The interval lands begin about twelve or fourteen 
 miles from the mouth of the river. These are formed by a long and con- 
 tinued alluvion. The tributary streams of the Connecticut run every 
 where through a soft and rich soil, considerable quantities of which, par- 
 ticularly the lighter and finer particles, are from time to time washed into 
 their channels, by occasional currents springing from rains and melted 
 snows. Wherever the stream moves with an uniform current these parti- 
 cles are carried along with it; but where the current is materially checked, 
 they art; in greater or less quantities deposited. In this manner a shoal is 
 formed al first, which afterwards rises into dry land; this is almost invari- 
 ably of good quality, but those parts which are lowest are commonly the 
 best, as being the most frequently overflowed, and therefore most enriched 
 by successive deposits of slime. Of these parts, that division which is 
 farthest down the river is the most productive, consisting of finer particles, 
 and being more plentifully covered with this manure. In the spring these 
 grounds are almost annually overflowed. In the months of March and 
 April, the snows, which in the northern parts of New England are usually 
 and the rains, which at this time of the year, are generally copious, 
 raise the* river from fifteen to twenty feet, and extend the breadth of its 
 waters in some places a mile and a half or two miles. Almost all the slime 
 conveyed down the current at this season, is deposited on these lands, for 
 here, principally, the water becomes quiescent, and permits the earthy 
 particles to subside ; this deposit is a rich manure ; the lands dressed with 
 it are preserved in their full strength, and being regularly enriched by the 
 hand of nature, cannot but be highly valuable. Nor are these grounds 
 . nished by their beauty. The form of most of them is elegant; 
 a river passing through them becomes, almost of course, winding ; the 
 earth of which they are composed is of a uniform texture, the impressions 
 made by the stream upon the border are also nearly uniform ; hence this 
 border is almost universally a handsome arch, with a neat margin, fre- 
 quently ornamented with a fine fringe of shrubs and trees. 
 
 Nor is the surface of these grounds less pleasing ; their terraced forms and 
 undulations are eminently handsome, and their universal fertility makes a 
 cheerful impression on every eye. A great part of them is formed into 
 meadows which are here more profitable, and every where more beautiful 
 than lands devoted to any other culture ; here they are extended from five 
 to five hundred acres, and are every where covered with a verdure pecu- 
 liarly rich and vivid. The vast fields also which are not in meadow, 
 exhibit all the productions of the climate, interspersed in parallelograms, 
 divided only by mathematical lines, and mingled in a charming confusion. 
 In many places, large and thrifty orchards, and every where forest trees 
 standing singly, of great height and graceful figures, diversify the land- 
 scape. Through its whole extent this valley is almost a continual succes- 
 sion of delightful scenery. The Connecticut is one of the most beautiful 
 rivers in the world ; the purity, salubrity and sweetness of its waters, the 
 frequency and elegance of its meadows, its absolute freedom from aquatic 
 vegetables, the enchanting elegance and grandeur of its banks, sometimes 
 consisting of a smooth and winding beach, here covered with rich verdure. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 31 
 
 there fringed with bushes, now crowned with lofty trees, and now formed 
 by the intruding hill, the rude bluff, and the shaggy mountain ; these are 
 Objects which no description can equal. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON VALLEYS. 
 
 Valleys are formed by the separation of chains of mountains or of hills. Those 
 which are formed between high mountains, are commonly narrow and long, as if 
 they had originally been only fissures dividing their respective chains, or for the 
 passage of extensive torrents. The angles of their direction sometimes exhibit sin- 
 gular symmetry. In the Pyrenees there are said to be valleys whose salient and re- 
 entrant angles so perfectly correspond, that if the force which separated them were to act 
 in a contrary direction, and bring their sides together again, they would unite so exactly 
 that even the fissure would not be perceived. There are some highly situated valleys 
 containing rivers and lakes which have no outlets or streams. Most high valleys have 
 their surface upon a level with the summits of the secondaiy mountains in the neigh- 
 borhood. The lower valleys widen as they recede from the secondary mountains from 
 which they originate, and gradually lose themselves in the plains. Their opposite angles 
 correspond regularly, but are very obtuse. 
 
 The sort of narrow passage by which we enter into these high valleys is called a 
 pass or defile. Between Norway and Sweden is one of these passes, formed by several 
 masses of rock cut by nature into the shape of long parallelograms, and which have 
 between them a passage shut in by perpendicular walls. This pass is near Skiasrdal ; 
 another of the same kind is at Portfeld, or the Mountain of the Gate. These openings 
 exactly resemble those by which the Hudson passes through successive chains of moun- 
 tains, which seem desirous of checking its course. The Cordilleras of the Andes present 
 the most stupendous passes of this kind that are known ; they are from four to five 
 thousand feet deep. 
 
 The valleys of the Hudson and Connecticut are equalled by few in the old world for 
 natural beauty and romantic scenery. Of the valleys of Europe, that of the Rhine is 
 most celebrated ; and is only more interesting than the Hudson on account of its old 
 historical associations, its populous cities, and the picturesque ruins and massive monu- 
 ments of architecture which frown upon its banks. 
 
32 
 
 CHAPTER III.— PRAIRIES AND PLAINS. 
 
 One of the most remarkable features of the western country consists in 
 its extensive prairies or savannahs, which prevail in all the vast region 
 between the Alleghany and the Rocky Mountains, and also to the west ot 
 the Rocky Mountains. When seen from the summits of the Mexican and 
 the Rocky Mountains, they seem absolutely boundless to the view. They 
 are not to be considered merely as dead flat, but undulating into gentle 
 swelling lawns, and expanding into spacious valleys, in the centre of which 
 is always found a little timber, growing on the banks of the brooks and 
 rivulets of the finest water. Pike, who viewed them from the summit of 
 the Blue Mountain, under the source of the Arkansaw, says, ' the un- 
 bounded prairie was overhung with clouds, which seemed like the ocean 
 in a storm, wave piled on wave, and foaming ; while the sky over our 
 heads was perfectly clear, and the prospect was truly sublime.' In these 
 vast prairies the soil is dry, sandy, with gravel ; but the moment we ap- 
 proach a stream, the land becomes more humid, with small timber. It is 
 probable that these steppes or prairies were never well wooded, as, from 
 the earliest ages, the aridity of the soil, having so few water-courses run- 
 ning through it, and these being principally dry in summer, no sufficient 
 nourishment has been afforded to the growth of timber. In all timbered 
 land, the annual discharge of the leaves, with the continual decay of 
 old trees and branches, creates a manure and moisture, which are preserv- 
 ed from the heat — the sun not being permitted to direct his rays perpen- 
 dicularly, but to shed them only obliquely through the foliage. But in 
 Upper Louisiana, a barren soil, dried up for eight months in the year, pre- 
 sents neither moisture nor nutriment for the growth of wood. 
 
 These vast plains of Louisiana, near the upper courses of the Ar- 
 kansaw, with its tributary streams, and the head-waters of the Kanzas. 
 White and Grand Osage rivers, may become in time like the sandy 
 deserts of Africa ; ' for,' says Pike, ' I saw in my route, in various places, 
 tracts of many leagues, where the wind had thrown up the sand in all the 
 fancied forms of the ocean's rolling waves, and on which not a single speck 
 of vegetation appeared.' From this circumstance Pike deduces the follow- 
 ing remark : ' From these immense prairies may arise a great advantage 
 to the United States, namely, the restriction of our population to some 
 certain limits, and thereby a continuation of the Union. Our citizens being 
 so prone to rambling, and extending themselves on the frontiers, will, 
 through necessity, be compelled to limit their extent on the west to the 
 borders of the Missouri and Mississippi ; while they leave the prairies, in- 
 capable of cultivation, to the wandering and uncivilized aborigines of the 
 country.' These prairies, from the borders of the Mississippi, on the east, 
 to the base of the Mexican Alps on the west, rise with a continually in- 
 creasing acclivity for many hundred miles, till, at the base of the mountains, 
 they attain an elevation of eight thousand feet, as we are informed by Pike, 
 which is greater than the elevated level of the great desert of Gobi, on the 
 north-west of China, estimated by Du Halde to be five thousand five 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 33 
 
 hundred and eleven feet above the level of the sea, or the great arid 
 desert, to the north of the cape of Good Hope, traversed by the Orange 
 river, and lately visited by the Rev. Mr. Campbell, the elevation of which 
 is estimated by Colonel Gordon at six thousand five hundred and sixty-one 
 feet above the level of the sea. In addition to the aridity of the Louisiana 
 prairies, they are so impregnated with nitre, and other salts, as to taint the 
 waters that flow in various directions. Pike says, that for leagues togeth- 
 er, they are covered with saline incrustations ; and a number of tributary 
 streams descending into the Arkansaw and Kanzas rivers are perfect sa- 
 lines ; and beyond the river Platte, as we are informed by Colonel Lewis, 
 the lands are not only destitute of timber, but even of good water, of which 
 there is but a small quantity in the creeks, and even that is brackish. The 
 same saline incrustations pervade the prairies on the Upper Missouri ; and 
 the same want of timber, little or no dew, with very little rain, continues 
 till the neighborhood of the mountains. 
 
 The calcareous districts, which form the great portion of the region west 
 of the Alleghanies, present certain tracts entirely divested of trees, which 
 are called barrens, though capable of being rendered productive. The 
 cause of this peculiarity has not been accurately examined. Those parts 
 of this region which are elevated three or four hundred feet, and lie along; 
 deeply depressed beds of rivers, are clothed with the richest forests in the 
 world. The Ohio flows under the shade of the plane and the tulip tree, 
 like a canal dug in a nobleman's park ; while the lianas, extending from 
 tree to tree, form graceful arches of flowers and foliage over branches of 
 the river. Passing to the south, the wild orange tree mixes with the odori- 
 ferous and the common laurel. The straight silvery column of the papaw 
 fig, which rises to the height of twenty feet, and is crowned with a canopy 
 of large indented leaves, forms one of the most striking ornaments of this 
 enchanting scene. Above all these, towers the majestic magnolia, which 
 shoots up from that calcareous soil to the height of more than one hundred 
 feet. Its trunk, perfectly straight, is surmounted with a thick and expand- 
 ed head, the pale green foliage of which affects a conical figure. From 
 the centre of the flowery crown which terminates its branches, a flower of 
 the purest white rises, having the form of a rose, and to which succeeds a 
 crimson cone. This, in opening, exhibits rounded seed of the finest coral 
 red, suspended by delicate threads six inches long. Thus, by its flowers, 
 its fruit, and its gigantic size, the magnolia surpasses all its rivals of the 
 forest. 
 
 The following excellent description of the prairie country is from the 
 pen of Mr. James Hall. ' That these vast plains should be totally des- 
 titute of trees, seems to be an anomaly in the economy of nature. Upon 
 the mind of an American, especially, accustomed to see new lands clothed 
 with timber, and to associate the idea of damp and silent forests with that 
 of a new country, the appearance of sunny plains, and a diversified land- 
 scape, untenanted by man, and unimproved by art, is singular and striking. 
 Perhaps if our imaginations were divested of those associations, the subject 
 would present less difficulty ; and if we could reason abstractly, it might 
 be as easy to account for the existence of a prairie as of a forest. 
 
 ' It is natural to suppose that the first covering of the earth would he 
 composed of such plants as arrived at maturity in the shortest time. 
 Annual plants would ripen, and scatter their seeds many times before trees 
 § 
 
34 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and shrubs would acquire the power of reproducing their own species. In 
 the mean time, the propagation of the latter would be likely to be retarded 
 by a variety of accidents — the frosts would nip their tender stems in the 
 winter — fire would consume, or the blasts would shatter them — and the 
 wild grazing animals would bite them off, or tread them under foot ; while 
 many of their seeds, particularly such as assume the form of nuts or fruits, 
 would be devoured by animals. The grasses, which are propagated both 
 by the root and by seed, are exempt from the operation of almost all 
 these casualties. Providence has, with unerring wisdom, fitted every pro- 
 duction of nature to sustain itself against the accidents to which it is most 
 exposed, and has given to those plants which constitute the food of animals, 
 a remarkable tenacity of life ; so that although bitten off, and trodden, and 
 even burned, they still retain the vital principle. That trees have a similar 
 power of self protection, if we may so express it, is evident from their 
 present existence in a state of nature. We only assume that in the earliest 
 state of being, the grasses would have the advantage over plants less hardy, 
 and of slower growth ; and that when both are struggling together for the 
 possession of the soil, the former would at first gain the ascendancy ; 
 although the latter, in consequence of their superior size and strength, 
 would finally, if they should ever get possession of any portion of the soil, 
 entirely overshadow and destroy their humble rivals. 
 
 ' We have no means of determining at what period the fires began to 
 sweep over these plains, because we know not when they began to be 
 inhabited. It is quite possible they might have been occasionally fired by 
 lightning, previous to the introduction of that element by human agency. 
 At all events, it is very evident that as soon as fire began to be used in this 
 country by its inhabitants, the annual burning of the prairies must have 
 commenced. One of the peculiarities of this climate is the dryness of its 
 summers and autumns. A drought often commences in August, which, 
 with the exception of a few showers towards the close of that month, con- 
 tinues throughout the season. The autumnal months are almost invariably 
 clear, warm, and dry. The immense mass of vegetation with which this 
 fertile soil loads itself during summer, is suddenly withered, and the whole 
 surface of the earth is covered with combustible materials. This is especially 
 true of the prairies where the grass grows to the height of from six to ten feet, 
 and being entirely exposed to the sun and wind, dries with great rapidity. 
 A single spark of fire, falling any where upon these plains at such a time, 
 would instantly kindle a blaze, which would spread on every side, and 
 continue its destructive course as long as, it should find fuel. Travellers 
 have described these fires as sweeping with a rapidity which renders it 
 hazardous to fly before them. Such is not the case ; or it is true only of a 
 few rare instances. The flames often extend across a wide prairie, and 
 advance in a long line. No sight can be more sublime than to behold in 
 the night a stream of fire of several miles in breadth, advancing across 
 these wide plains, leaving behind it a black cloud of smoke, and throwing 
 before it a vivid glare which lights up the whole landscape with the bril- 
 liancy of noonday. A roaring and cracking sound is heard like the rushing 
 of a hurricane. The flame, which in general rises to the height of about 
 twenty feet, is seen sinking and darting upwards in spires, precisely as the 
 waves dash against each other, and as the spray flies up into the air ; and 
 the whole appearance is often that of a boiling and flaming sea, violently 
 
PHYSICAL trEOGRAPHT. 35 
 
 agitated. The progress of the fire is so slow, and the heat so great, that 
 every combustible object in its course is consumed. Wo to the farmer 
 whose ripe cornfields extend into the prairie, and who suffers the tall grass 
 to grow in contact with his fences ! The whole labor of the year is swept 
 away in a few hours. But such accidents are comparatively unfrequent, 
 as the preventive is simple, and easily applied. 
 
 ' It will be readily seen, that as soon as these fires commenced, all the 
 young timber within their range must have been destroyed. The whole 
 state of Illinois, being one vast plain, the fires kindled in different places, 
 would sweep over the whole surface, with a few exceptions, of which we 
 are now to speak. In the bottom-lands, and along the margins of streams, 
 the grass and herbage remain green until late in the autumn, owing to the 
 moisture of the soil. Here the fire would stop for want of fuel, and the 
 shrubs would thus escape from year to year, and the outer bark acquire 
 sufficient hardness to protect the inner and more vital parts of the tree. 
 The margins of the streams would thus become fringed with thickets, 
 which, by shading the ground, would destroy the grass, while it would 
 prevent the moisture of the soil from being rapidly evaporated, so that even 
 the fallen leaves would never become so thoroughly dry as the grass of the 
 prairies, and the fire here would find comparatively little fuel. These 
 thickets grow up into strips of forests, which continue to extend until they 
 reach the high table-land of the prairie ; and so true is this, in fact, that 
 we see the timber now, not only covering all the bottom-lands and hill 
 sides, skirting the streams, but wherever a ravine or hollow extends from 
 the low grounds up into the plain, these are filled with young timber of 
 more recent growth. But the moment we leave the level plane of the 
 country, we see the evidences of a continual struggle between the forest 
 and the prairie. At one place, where the fire has on some occasion burned 
 with greater fierceness than usual, it has successfully assailed the edges 
 of the forest, and made deep inroads ; at another, the forest has pushed out 
 long points or capes into the prairie. 
 
 ' It has been suggested that the prairies were caused by hurricanes, 
 which had blown down the timber and left it in a condition to be consumed 
 by fire, after it was dried by laying on the ground. A single glance at the 
 immense region in which the prairie surface predominates, must refute 
 this idea. Hurricanes are quite limited in their sphere of action. Although 
 they sometimes extend for miles in length, their track is always narrow, 
 and often but a few hundred yards in breadth. It is a well known fact, 
 that wherever the timber has been thus prostrated, a dense and tangled 
 thicket shoots up immediately, and, protected by the fallen trees, grows 
 with uncommon vigor. 
 
 ' Some have imagined that our prairies have been lakes ; but this hy- 
 pothesis is not tenable. If the whole state of Illinois is imagined to have 
 been one lake, it ought to be shown that it has a general concavity of sur- 
 face. But so far from this being true, the contrary is the fact ; the highest 
 parts of the state are in its centre. If we suppose, as some assert, that each 
 prairie was once a lake, we are met by the same objection; as a general 
 rule, the prairies are highest in the middle, and have a gradual declivity 
 towards the sides ; and when Ave reach the timber, instead of finding banks 
 corresponding with the shores of a lake, we almost invariably find valleys, 
 ravines, and water-courses depressed considerably below the general level 
 of the plain. 
 
36 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1 Wherever hills are found rising above the common plane of the country, 
 they are clothed with timber ; and the same fact is true of all broken lands. 
 This fact affords additional evidence in support of our theory. Most of the 
 land in such situations is poor ; the grass would be short, and if burned at 
 all. would occasion but little heat. In other spots, the progress of the fire 
 would be checked by rocks and ravines ; and in no case would there be 
 that accumulation of dry material which is found on the fertile plain, nor 
 that broad, unbroken surface, and free exposure, which are necessary to 
 afford full scope to the devouring element. 
 
 'By those who have never seen this region, a very tolerable idea may 
 be formed of the manner in which the prairie and forest alternate, by 
 drawing a colored line of irregular thickness, along the edges of all the 
 water-courses laid down on the map. This border would generally vary 
 from one to five or six miles, and often extend to twelve. As the streams 
 approach each other, these borders would approach or come in contact ; and 
 all the intermediate spaces not thus colored would be prairie. It would be 
 seen that in the point formed by the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi, 
 the forest would cover all the ground ; and that, as these rivers diverge, 
 and their tributaries spread out, the prairies would predominate.' 
 
 Between the Platte river, and the head-waters of the Colorado and 
 Sabine rivers, there is an extensive desert tract, which has been called the 
 Great American Desert, stretching from the Ozark Mountains to the Chip- 
 pewan. Over this desert the members of Long's expedition travelled 
 nearly a thousand miles. The intense reflection of light and heat, from 
 this tract, added much to the fatigue and suffering of their journey. ' We 
 often met with extensive districts covered entirely with loose and fine sand, 
 blown from the adjacent hills. In the low plains along the river where 
 the soil is permanent, it is highly impregnated with saline substances, and 
 too sterile to produce any thing except a few stinted carices and rushes.' 
 As we approached the mountains, we felt or fancied a very manifest 
 change in the character of the weather, and the temperature of the air. 
 Mornings and evenings were usually calm, and the heat more oppressive 
 than in the middle of the day. Early in the forenoon, a light and refreshing 
 breeze often sprung up, blowing from the west or south-west, which again 
 subsided on the approach of night. This phenomenon was so often observed, 
 that we were induced to attribute it to the operation of the same local 
 cause, which in the neighborhood of the sea produces a diurnal change in 
 the winds, which blow alternately to and from the shore. The Rocky 
 Mountains may be considered as forming the shore of that sea of sand, 
 which is traversed by the Platte, and extends northward to the Missouri 
 above the great bend. The rarefaction of the air over this great plain, by 
 the reverberation of the sun's rays during the day, causes an ascending 
 current, which is supplied by the rushing down of the condensed air from 
 the mountains. * * * * For several days the sky had been clear, and in 
 the morning we had observed an unusual degree of transparency in every 
 part of the atmosphere. As the day advanced, and the heat of the sun 
 began to be felt, such quantities of vapor were seen to ascend from every 
 part of the plain, that all objects at a little distance appeared magnified, and 
 variously distorted. An undulating and tremulous motion in ascending 
 lines was manifest over every part of the surface. Commencing soon after 
 sunrise it continued to increase in quantity until the afternoon, when it 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 37 
 
 diminished gradually, keeping an even pace with the intensity of the sun's 
 heat. The density of the vapor was often such as to produce the perfect 
 image of a pool of water in every valley upon which we could look down 
 at an angle of about ten degrees. This aspect was several times seen so 
 perfect and beautiful as to deceive almost every one of our party. A herd 
 of bisons, at the distance of a mile, seemed to be standing in a pool of 
 water, and what appeared to us the reflected image was as distinctly seen 
 as the animal itself. # Illusions of this kind are common in the African 
 and Asiatic deserts, as we learn from travellers and from the language of 
 poets.' 
 
 The Pine Plains are a district of sandy alluvion, bounded by the gra- 
 velly soil of Guilderland and Duanesburgh on the south-west, and by the 
 river alluvions of Niskayuna and Watervliet, on the north-east, and cover- 
 ing an area of about seventy square miles. This tract is included in a 
 triangle formed by the junction of the Mohawk with the Hudson, and of 
 which the Helleberg, a lofty chain of highlands, visible from the plains at 
 the distance of twenty miles, forms the south-western boundary. Situated 
 near the centre of a state, computed at forty thousand square miles, and 
 containing a population of nearly two million souls, this tract presents 
 the topographical novelty of an unreclaimed desert, in the heart of one of 
 the oldest counties in the state, and in the midst of a people characterized 
 for enterprise and public spirit. Several attempts have lately been made 
 to bring this tract into cultivation, and from the success which has attended 
 the introduction of gypsum, and other improved modes of agriculture, it is 
 probable the whole will, at some future period, be devoted to the cultivation 
 of the various species of grasses, fruit trees, and esculent roots ; three 
 branches of agriculture to which its sandy soil seems admirably adapted. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON PLAINS AND PRAIRIES. 
 
 Plains like valleys are of two classes ; the high plains, which are found between 
 two chains of mountains, are frequently of great extent, and are placed as it were 
 upon the shoulders of secondary mountains ; such are the elevated plains of Tar- 
 tary, of Persia, and probably of the Interior of Africa. The plains of Quito are twelve 
 thousand feet above the level of the sea ; those of Karakorum, in Chinese Mongolia, are 
 probably as elevated. The low plains, whose soil is composed of sand, gravel and 
 shells, seem formerly to have been the basins of interior seas. Such are the plains on 
 the north side of the Caspian, the large plain to the south of the Baltic, and that through 
 which the river of the Amazon flows ; the Tehama of Arabia, the Delta of Egypt, and 
 others of a similar nature, which seem to have been once covered by the waters of the 
 ocean and its gulfs. The immense plains covered with grass, called prairies in the 
 United States, are the steppes of Asia, and the pampas of South America. 
 
 * It is common in our own country, says the London Monthly Review, for ground mists 
 to assume the appearance of water, to make a meadow seem inundated, and to change a 
 valley into a lake ; but these mists never reflect the surrounding trees and hills. Hence 
 the mirage must consist of a peculiar gas, of which the particles are combined by a 
 stronger attraction of cohesion than the vapors of real water ; the liquor silicum of the 
 alchemists is described as exhibiting in some circumstances this glossy surface, yet as 
 being equally evanescent. 
 
33 
 
 CHAPTER IV.— RIVERS. 
 
 All the rivers of the United States, of the first magnitude, have their 
 sources, either in the Rocky Mountains, or in elevated spurs projecting 
 from the sides of that range. Many of the rivers which descend from the 
 western sides of the Allcghanies are of inconsiderable volume, and by no 
 means remarkable for the rapidity or the directness of their course. Those 
 which flow from the eastern and southern sides of these mountains are 
 worthy of extended description, even in the same pages with the great tri- 
 butaries of the Mississippi. They afford the advantages of a good inland 
 navigation to most parts of the states. 
 
 I. RIVERS WHICH FLOW INTO THE MISSISSIPPI, AND THE GULF OF MEXICO. 
 
 The Mississippi with its branches drains the great central basin which 
 lies between the Alleghany and the Rocky Mountains. This river has its 
 rise in the table-lands within the territories of the United States, in north 
 latitude forty-seven degrees and forty-seven minutes, at an altitude of 
 thirteen hundred and thirty feet above the Atlantic, though the country at 
 its source appears like a vast marshy valley. Mr. Schoolcraft fixes it in 
 Cassina Lake, which is situated seventeen degrees north of the Balize on 
 the gulf of Mexico, and two thousand nine hundred and seventy-eight 
 miles, pursuing the course of the river. Estimating the distance to Lake 
 La Beesh, its extreme north-western inlet at sixty miles, we have a result 
 of three thousand and thirty-eight miles as the entire length of this won- 
 derful river. Mr. Schoolcraft, in his very interesting Journal of Travels, 
 observed that he believed there was no one then living, beside himself, 
 Avho had visited both the sources and the mouth of this celebrated stream. 
 As the description furnished by this gentleman is the clearest and most 
 complete that we find, we have taken the liberty to transfer it to our pages, 
 without mutilation : — 
 
 1 In deciding upon the physical character of the Mississippi, it may be 
 advantageously considered under four natural divisions, as indicated by the 
 permanent differences in the color of its waters — the geological character 
 of its bed and banks, — its forest trees and other vegetable productions, — its 
 velocity, — the difficulties it opposes to navigation, — and other natural ap- 
 pearances and circumstances. 
 
 ' Originating in a region of lakes, upon the table-lands, which throw their 
 waters north into Hudson's Bay, — south into the gulf of Mexico, — and 
 east into the gulf of St. Lawrence — it pursues its course to the falls of 
 Peckagama, a distance of two hundred and thirty miles, through a low 
 prairie, covered with wild rice, rushes, sword grass, and other aquatic 
 plants. During this distance, it is extremely devious as to course and 
 width, sometimes expanding into small lakes, at others, narrowing into a 
 channel of about eighty feet. It is about sixty feet wide on its exit from 
 Red Cedar or Cassina Lake, with an average depth of two feet; but from 
 the junction of the Leech Lake fork, increases to a hundred feet in width, 
 with a corresponding increase of depth Its current, during this distance 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 39 
 
 is still and gentle ; and its mean velocity may be estimated at a mile and 
 a half per hour, with a descent of three inches per mile. This is the 
 favorite resort of water-fowl, and amphibious quadrupeds. 
 
 ' At the falls of Peckagama, the first rock stratum, and the first wooded 
 island, is seen. Here the river has a fall of twenty feet ; and from this to 
 the falls of St. Anthony, a distance of six hundred and eighty-five miles, 
 exhibits its second characteristic division. At the head of the falls of 
 Peckagama, the prairies entirely cease ; and below, a forest of elm, maple, 
 birch, oak, and ash, overshadows the stream. The black walnut is first seen 
 below Sandy Lake river, and the sycamore below the river De Corbeau. 
 The river, in this distance, has innumerable well wooded islands, and 
 receives a number of tributaries, the largest of which is the river De Cor- 
 beau, its great south-western fork. The Pine, Elk, Sac, and Crow rivers, 
 also enter on the west, and the St. Francis and Missisawgaiegon, on the 
 east. The course of the river, although serpentine, is less so, than above 
 the falls of Peckagama, and its bends are not so short and abrupt. Its 
 mean width may be estimated at three hundred feet until the junction of the 
 De Corbeau, and below that at two hundred and fifty yards. Its naviga- 
 tion is impeded, agreeably to a memorandum which I have kept, by thirty- 
 five rapids, nineteen ripples, and two minor falls, called the Little and the 
 Big Falls, in all of which the river has an aggregate descent of two hun- 
 dred and twenty-four feet in fourteen thousand six hundred and forty 
 yards, or about eight miles. The mean fall of the current, exclusive of 
 the rapids, may be computed at six inches per mile, and its velocity at three 
 miles per hour. In the course of this distance it receives several small 
 turbid streams, and acquires a brownish hue, but still preserves its transpa- 
 rency, and is palatable drink-water. A few miles above the river Cor- 
 beau, on the east side, we observe the first dry prairies, or natural meadows, 
 and they continue to the falls of St. Anthony. These prairies are the 
 great resort of the buffalo, elk, and deer, and are the only parts of the banks 
 of the Mississippi where the buffalo is now to be found. Granite rocks 
 appear at several of the rapids, in rolled pieces, and in beds ; and in some 
 places attain an elevation of one or two hundred feet above the level of the 
 water, but the banks of the river are generally alluvial. 
 
 ' At the falls of St. Anthony, the river has a perpendicular pitch of 
 forty feet, and from this to its junction with the Missouri, a distance of 
 eight hundred and forty-three miles, it is bounded by limestone bluffs, 
 which attain various elevations from one to four hundred feet, and present 
 a succession of the most sublime and picturesque views. This forms the 
 third characteristic change of the Mississippi. The river prairies cease, 
 an d the rocky bluffs commence precisely at the falls of St. Anthony. 
 Tsine miles below it receives the St. Peter's from the west, and is succes- 
 sively swelled on that side by the Ocano, Iowa, Turkey, Desmoines, and 
 Salt rivers, and on the east by the St. Croix, Chippeway, Black, Ouiscon- 
 sin, Rock, and Illinois. One hundred miles below the falls of St. An- 
 thony, the river expands into a lake, called Pepin, which is twenty-four 
 miles long and four in width. It is, on issuing from this lake, that the 
 river first exhibits, in a striking manner, those extensive and moving sand- 
 bars, innumerable islands and channels, and drifts and snags, which con- 
 tinue to characterize it to the ocean. Its bends from this point onward are 
 larger, and its course more direct ; and although its waters are adulterated 
 
40 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 by several dark colored and turbid streams, it may still be considered trans- 
 parent. The principal impediments to navigation in this distance are the 
 Desmoines, and Eock river rapids. The latter extends six miles, and op- 
 poses an effectual barrier to steam-boat navigation, although keel-boats and 
 barges of the largest classes, may ascend. This rapid is .three hundred 
 and ninety miles above St. Louis. 
 
 ' The fourth change in the physical aspect of this river is at the junction 
 of the Missouri, and this is a total and complete one, the character of the 
 Mississippi being entirely lost in that of the Missouri. The latter is, in 
 fact, much the larger stream of the two, and carries its characteristic ap- 
 pearances to the ocean. It should also have carried the name, but its 
 exploration took place too long after the course of the Mississippi had been 
 perpetuated in the written geography of the country, to render an alteration 
 in this respect, either practicable or expedient. The waters of the Mis- 
 sissippi at its confluence with the Missouri, are moderately clear, and of a 
 greenish hue. The Missouri is turbid and opake, of a grayish white 
 color, and during its floods, which happen twice a year, communicates, 
 almost instantaneously, to the combined stream its predominating qualities, 
 but towards the close of the summer season, when it is at its lowest stage 
 of water, the streams do not fully incorporate for twenty or thirty miles, 
 but preserve opposite sides of the river ; and I have observed this pheno- 
 menon at the town of Herculaneum, forty-eight miles below the junction. 
 
 ' The water in this part of the river cannot be drank until it has 
 been set aside to allow the mud to settle. The distance from the mouth 
 of the Missouri to the gulf of Mexico is one thousand two hundred and 
 twenty miles, in the course of which it receives from the west, the Merri- 
 mac, St. Francis, White, Arkansas, and Red rivers ; and from the east, 
 the Kaskaskia, Great Muddy, Ohio, Wolf, and Yazoo. This part of the 
 river is more particularly characterized by snags and sawyers, falling-in 
 banks and islands, sand-bars and mud-banks ; and a channel which is 
 shifting by every flood, and of such extreme velocity, that it was formerly 
 thought it could not be navigated by vessels propelled with sails. Subse- 
 quent experience has shown this conjecture to be unfounded, although a 
 strong wind is required for its ascent. It is daily navigated in ships of 
 from four hundred to eight hundred tons burden, from the Balize to New 
 Orleans, a distance of one hundred miles, and could be ascended higher 
 were it necessary ; but the commerce of the river above New Orleans is 
 now carried on, in a great measure, by steam-boats. The width of the 
 river opposite St. Louis is one mile ; it is somewhat less at New Orleans, 
 and still less at its disembochure. A bar at its mouth prevents ships draw- 
 ing more than eighteen feet water from entering. This river is occupied 
 by different bands of the Chippeway Indians from its sources, to the Buffalo 
 Plains in the vicinity of the upper St. Francis, the precise limit being a 
 matter of dispute, and the cause of the long war between them and the 
 Sioux. The Sioux bands claim from thence to the Prairie des Chiens, and 
 the Foxes and Sacs to the river Desmoines. From this vicinity to the 
 gulf of Mexico the Indian title has been extinguished by the United States' 
 government, either through purchase, treaty, or conquest, and we have now 
 the complete control of this river and all its tributary streams, with the 
 exception of the upper part of Red river. The wild rice is not found on 
 the waters of the Mississippi south of the forty-first degree of north lati- 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 41 
 
 tude, nor the Indian reed, or cane, north of the thirty-eighth. These two 
 productions characterize the extremes of this river. It has been observed 
 by McKenzie, that the former is hardly known, or at least does not come 
 to maturity, north of the fiftieth degree of north latitude. The alligator is 
 first seen below the junction of the Arkansas. The paroquet is found as 
 far north as the mouth of the Illinois, and flocks have occasionally been 
 seen as high as Chicago. The name of this river is derived from the 
 Algonquin language, one of the original tongues of our continent, which is 
 now spoken nearly in its primeval purity by the different bands of Chip- 
 peways.' 
 
 The navigation upon this river is very great. Ships seldom ascend 
 higher than Natchez. It is navigable for boats of the largest size as far as 
 the Ohio. The number of steam-boats upon the Mississippi is about three 
 hundred. Their size is from five hundred and forty tons downwards. 
 The passage from Cincinnati to New Orleans and back has been made in 
 nineteen days. From New Orleans to Louisville the shortest passage has 
 been eight days and two hours, the distance being one thousand six hun- 
 dred and fifty miles, and against the current. The steam-boats have 
 generally high-pressure power, and many fatal explosions have happened 
 upon these waters. The first steam-vessel here was built in 1810.* 
 
 * The following very graphic description of a flood on the Mississippi, is from the pen 
 of the celebrated naturalist, Audubon : 
 
 ' There the overflow is astonishing ; for no sooner has the water reached the upper 
 part of the banks, than it rushes out and overspreads the whole of the neighboring 
 swamps, presenting an ocean overgrown with stupendous forest trees. So sudden is the 
 calamity, that every individual, whether man or beast, has to exert his utmost inge- 
 nuity to enable him to escape from the dreaded element. The Indian quickly removes 
 to the hills of the interior, the cattle and game swim to the different stripes of land that 
 remain uncovered in the midst of the flood, or attempt to force their way through the 
 waters until they perish from fatigue. Along the banks'of the river the inhabitants 
 have rafts ready made, on which they remove themselves, their cattle, and their provi- 
 sions, and which they then fasten with ropes or grape vines to the larger trees, while 
 they contemplate the melancholy spectacle presented by the current, as it carries off their 
 houses and wood-yards piece by piece. Some who have nothing to lose, and are usually 
 known by the name of squatters, take this opportunity of traversing the woods in canoes, 
 for the purpose of procuring game, and particularly the skins of animals, such as the 
 deer and bear, which may be converted into money. They resort to the low ridges 
 surrounded by the waters, and destroy thousands of deer, merely for their skins, leaving 
 the flesh to putrefy. 
 
 ' The river itself, rolling its swollen waters along, presents a spectacle of the most 
 imposing nature. Although no large vessel, unless propelled by steam, can now make 
 its way against the current, it is seen covered by boats laden with produce, which, run- 
 ning out from all the smaller streams, float silently towards the city of New-Orleans, 
 their owners, meanwhile, not very well assured of finding a landing-place even there. 
 The water is covered with yellow foam and pumice, the latter having floated from the 
 rocky mountains of the north-west. The eddies are larger and more powerful than ever. 
 Here and there tracts of forests are observed undermined, the trees gradually giving 
 way, and falling into the stream. Cattle, horses, bears, and deer, are seen at times 
 attempting to swim across the impetuous mass of foaming and boiling water ; whilst 
 here and there a vulture or an eagle is observed perched on a bloated carcass, tearing 
 it up in pieces, as regardless of the flood as on former occasions it would have been of 
 the numerous sawyers and planters with which the surface of the river is covered when 
 the water is low. Even the steamer is frequently distressed. The numberless trees 
 and logs that float along, break its paddles and retard its progress. Besides, it 
 is on such occasions difficult to procure fuel to maintain its fires ; and it is only 
 at very distant intervals that a wood-j'ard can be found which the water has not 
 earned off. 
 
 6 4* 
 
42 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The Missoiiri rises in the Rocky Mountains in nearly the same parallel 
 with the Mississippi, and about a mile distant from the head-waters of the 
 Columbia. The most authentic information we have yet had of the sources 
 of this mighty river is from its first intrepid American discoverers, Lewis and 
 Clarke. What may properly be called the Missouri, seems to be formed 
 
 ' Following the river in your canoe, you reach those parts of the shores that are pro- 
 tected against the overflowing of the waters, and are called levees. There you find the 
 whole population of the district at work, repairing and augmenting those artificial barriers 
 which are several feet above the level of the fields. Every person appears to dread 
 the opening of a crevasse, by which the waters may rush into his fields. In spite of all 
 exertions, however, the crevasse opens, and water bursts impetuously over the planta- 
 tions, and lays waste the crops which so lately were blooming in all the luxuriance of 
 spring. It opens up a new channel, which, for aught I know to the contrary, may carry 
 its waters even to the Mexican gulf. 
 
 ' But now, kind reader, observe this great flood gradually subsiding, and again see 
 the mighty changes which it has effected. The waters have now been carried into 
 the distant ocean. The earth is every where covered by a deep deposit of muddy loam, 
 which, in drying, splits into deep and narrow chasms, presenting a reticulated appear- 
 ance, and from which, as the weather becomes warmer, disagreeable, and at times 
 noxious, exhalations arise, and fill the lower stratum of the atmosphere, as with a dense 
 fog. The banks of the river have almost every where been broken down in a greater or 
 less degree. Large streams are now found to exist, where none were formerly to be 
 sepn, having forced their way in direct lines from the upper parts of the bends. These 
 are, by the navigator, called short cuts. Some of them have proved large enough to pro- 
 duce a change in the navigation of the Mississippi. If I mistake not, one of these, known 
 by the name of Grand Cut-off, and only a few miles in length, has diverted the rivet 
 from its natural course, and has shortened it by fifty miles. The upper parts of the 
 islands present a bulwark consisting of an enormous mass of floated trees of all kinds, 
 which have lodged there. Large sand-banks have been completely removed by the 
 impetuous whirls of the waters, and have been deposited in other places. Some appear 
 quite new to the eye of the navigator, who has to mark their situation and bearings in 
 his log-book. The trees on the margins of the banks have in many parts given way. 
 They are seen bending over the stream, like the grounded arms of an overwhelmed 
 army of giants. Every where are heard the lamentations of the farmer and planter, 
 whilst their servants and themselves are busily employed in repairing the damages 
 occasioned by the floods. At one crevasse, an old ship or two, dismantled for the pur- 
 pose, are sunk, to obstruct the passage opened by the still rushing waters, while new 
 earth is brought to fill up the chasms. The squatter is seen shouldering his rifle, and 
 making his way through the morass, in search of his lost stock, to drive the survivors 
 home, and save the skins of the drowned. New fences have every where to be formed ; 
 even new houses must be erected, to save which from a like disaster, the settler places 
 them on an elevated platform, supported by pillars made of the trunks of trees. The lands 
 must be ploughed anew; and if the season is not too far advanced, a crop of corn and 
 potatoes may yet be raised. But the rich prospects of the planter are blasted. The 
 traveller is impeded in his journey, the creeks and smaller streams having broken up 
 their banks in a degree proportionate to their size. A bank of sand which seems firm 
 and secure, suddenly gives way beneath the traveller's horse, and the next moment the 
 animal has sunk in the quicksand, either to the chest in front, or over the crupper 
 behind, leaving its master in a situation not to be envied. 
 
 'Unlike the mountain torrents and small rivers of other parts of the world, the Missis- 
 sippi rises but slowly during these floods, continuing for several weeks to increase at 
 the rate of about an inch in the day. When at its height, it undergoes little fluctuation for 
 some days, and after this subsides as slowly as it rose. The usual duration of a flood 
 is from four to six weeks, although, on some occasions, it is protracted to two months. 
 
 ' Every one knows how largely the idea of floods and cataclysms enters into the 
 speculations of the geologist. If the streamlets of the European continent afford illus- 
 trations of the formation of strata, how much more must the Mississippi, with its ever- 
 shifting sand-banks, its crumbling shores, its enormous masses of drift-timber, the source 
 of future beds of coal, its extensive and varied alluvial deposits, and its mighty mass of 
 waters rolling sullenly along, like the flood of eternity !' 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 43 
 
 by three considerable branches, which unite not far from the bases of the 
 principal ranges of the mountains. To the northern they gave the name 
 of Jefferson, to the middle Gallatin, and to the southern Madison. All 
 these streams run with great velocity, throwing out large volumes of 
 water ; their beds are formed of smooth pebble and gravel, and their waters 
 are perfectly transparent. One hundred and a half miles beyond the forks 
 of the Missouri are the forks of Jefferson river ; two subordinate branches 
 of which are called "Wisdom and Philanthropy, one coming from the 
 north-west, and the former from the south-east. Wisdom river is fifty 
 yards wide, cold, rapid, and containing a third more water than the Jef- 
 ferson ; it seems to be the drain of the melting snows on the mountains, 
 but is unnavigable on account of its rapidity. One hundred and forty-eight 
 miles farther up is the extreme navigable point of the river in north lati- 
 tude forty-three degrees thirty minutes and forty-three seconds. Two 
 miles beyond this is a small gap or narrow entrance, formed by the high 
 mountains which recede on each side, at the head of an elevated valley, 
 ten miles long and five broad, so as to form a beautiful cove several miles 
 in diameter. From the foot of one of the lowest of these mountains, which 
 rises with a gentle ascent of half a mile, issues the remotest water of the 
 Mississippi. At the source, we are told that the weather is so cold at the 
 end of August, that water standing in vessels exposed in the night air has 
 been frozen to the depth of a quarter of an inch. 
 
 After the junction of the three branches before mentioned, the river 
 continues a considerable distance to be still a foaming mountain torrent. 
 It then spreads into a broad and comparatively gentle stream full of islands. 
 Precipitous peaks of blackish rock frown above the river in perpendicular 
 elevations of a thousand feet. The mountains whose bases it sweeps 
 are covered with pines, cedars and firs; and mountain sheep are seen 
 bounding on their summits where they are apparently inaccessible. In 
 this distance the mountains have an aspect of inexpressible loneliness and 
 grandeur. In the meadows and along the shore the tree most common is 
 the cotton-wood, which with the willow forms almost the exclusive growth 
 of the Missouri. 
 
 About forty-seven miles below the spot where the Missouri issues 
 from the mountains to the plains, a most sublime and extraordinary spec- 
 tacle presents itself, emphatically denominated the Gates of the Rocky 
 Mountains. In ascending the stream it increases in rapidity, depth, and 
 breadth, to the mouth of this formidable pass. Here the rocks approach it 
 on both sides, rising perpendicularly from the edge of the water to the 
 height of one thousand two hundred feet. Near the base they are com- 
 posed of black granite; but above, the color is of a yellowish, brown, and 
 cream color. Nothing can be imagined more tremendous than the frown- 
 ing darkness of these rocks, which project over the river, and menace the 
 passenger with instant destruction. For the space of five miles and three 
 quarters, the rocks rise to the above degree of elevation, and the river, 
 three hundred and fifty yards broad, seems to have forced its channel 
 down the solid mass ; or, to use Volney's expression respecting the falls 
 of Niagara, literally to have sawed a passage through this body of hard 
 and solid rock, near six miles in length, being incased as it were, during 
 all this distance, between two walls of one thousand and two hundred feet 
 high. During the whole distance the water is very deep, even at the 
 
44 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 edges ; and for the first three miles, there is not a spot, except one of a 
 few yards, in which a man could stand between the water and the tow- 
 ering perpendicular precipice of the mountain. 
 
 The river, for the distance of about seventeen miles, becomes almost a 
 continued cataract. In this distance its perpendicular descent is three 
 hundred and sixty-two feet. The first fall is ninety -eight feet ; the second, 
 nineteen ; the third, forty-seven ; the fourth, twenty-six. Next to the 
 Niagara these falls are the grandest in the world. The river continues 
 rapid for a long distance beyond, but there is not much variation in its 
 appearance till near the mouth of the Platte. That powerful river throws 
 out vast quantities of coarse sand, which contribute to give a new face 
 to the Missouri, which is now much more impeded by islands. The 
 sand, as it is drifted down, adheres in time to some of the projecting points 
 from the shore, and forms a barrier to the mud which at length fills to the 
 same height with the sand-bar itself. As soon as it has acquired a 
 consistency, the willow grows there the first year, and by its roots gives 
 solidity to the whole ; with further accumulations the cotton-wood tree 
 next appears, till the soil is gradually raised to a point above the highest 
 freshets. Thus stopped in its course, the water seeks a passage elsewhere, 
 and as the soil on each side is light and yielding, what was only a penin- 
 sula becomes gradually an island, and the river compensates the usur- 
 pation by encroaching on the adjacent shore. In this way the Missouri, 
 like the Mississippi, is continually cutting off the projections of the shore, 
 and leaving its ancient channel, which may be traced by the deposits of 
 mud and a few stagnant ponds.* 
 
 During the whole length of the Missouri below the Platte, the soil 
 is generally excellent, and although the timber is scarce, there is still 
 sufficient for the purpose of settlers. But beyond that river, although the 
 soil is still rich, yet the almost total absence of timber, and particularly 
 the want of good water, of which there is but a small quantity in the 
 creeks, oppose very powerful impediments to its occupancy. The prai- 
 ries for many miles on each side of the river produce abundance of good 
 pasturage.. 
 
 Above the mouth of the Osage, the immediate valley of the Missouri 
 gradually expands, embracing some wide bottoms in which are many 
 settlements gradually increasing in the number of inhabitants. The 
 Manito Rocks, and some other precipitous cliffs, are the terminations of 
 low ranges of hills, running in quite to the river. These hills sometimes 
 occasion rapids, and opposite the Manito rocks a small group of islands 
 stretches obliquely across the river, separated by narrow channels in 
 which the current is stronger than below. This group is called the 
 Thousand Islands. Some of the channels are obstructed by collections 
 of floating trees, which usually accumulate about the heads of islands, 
 and are here called rafts. After increasing to a certain extent, portions 
 of these rafts become loosened, and float down the river, covering nearly 
 its whole surface, and greatly impeding and endangering the progress of 
 the ascending boats. 
 
 Council Bluffs, the seat of an important military establishment of the 
 United States, about six hundred miles up the Missouri, is a remarkable 
 
 * Lewis and Clarke. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 45 
 
 bank, rising abruptly from the brink of the river to an elevation of one 
 hundred and fifty feet. From the hill tops, a mile in the rear of the 
 Bluffs, is presented a most extensive and beautiful landscape. On the 
 east side of the river, the Bluffs exhibit a chain of peaks, stretching as far 
 as the eye can reach. The river is here and there seen meandering in 
 serpentine folds along its broad valley, chequered with woodlands and 
 prairies, while, at a nearer view, you look down on an extensive plain, 
 interspersed with a few scattered copses or bushes, and terminated at a 
 distance by the Council Bluffs. 
 
 Taken in connection with the Mississippi into which it flows, this river 
 is the longest on the globe. * Its whole course, from its mouth in the 
 gulf of Mexico to its source in the Rocky Mountains, is four thousand 
 four hundred and twenty-four miles, including its windings; and for four 
 thousand three hundred and ninety-six miles of this course it is navigable. 
 From the point of its confluence with the Mississippi to fort Mandan, it is 
 one thousand six hundred and nine miles; to the foot of the rapids at 
 Great Falls two thousand five hundred and seventy-five miles ; two thou- 
 sand six hundred and sixty-four to where it issues from the mountains; 
 two thousand six hundred and ninety to the Gates of the Mountains; 
 three thousand and ninety-six to the extreme navigable point of Jefferson 
 river; and three thousand one hundred and twenty-four miles to its 
 remotest source. In this immense com upwards of fifty 
 
 large rivers, and one hundred and fifty smaller streams. Its principal 
 tributaries are the Roche Jaune, or Yellowstone, the Kansas, .Platte, 
 Osage, Gasconade, Little Missouri, Running Water, Charaton, White, and 
 Milk rivers. 
 
 The Yellowstone is the largest of these tributaries. Its sources are in 
 the Rocky Mountains, near those of the Missouri and the Platte, and it 
 may be navigated in canoes almost to its head. It runs first through a 
 mountainous country, but in many parts fertile and well timbered; it then 
 waters a rich, delightful land, broken into valleys and meadows, and 
 well supplied with wood and water, till it reaches near the Missouri open 
 meadows and low grounds, sufficiently timbered on its borders. In the 
 upper country its course is said to be very rapid, but during Rife two last 
 and largest portions, its current is much more gentle than that of the 
 Missouri. On the sand-bars and along the margin of this river grows the 
 small leafed willow; in the low grounds adjoining are scattered rose 
 bushes three or four feet high, the red-berry, service-berry and redwood. 
 The higher plains are either immediately on the river, in which case they 
 are generally timbered, and have an undergrowth like that of the low 
 grounds, with the addition of the broad leafed willow, gooseberry, 
 purple currant and honeysuckle; or they are between the low gro: 
 and the hills, and for the most part without wood, or any thing except 
 
 *' The American Fur Company have sent their steam-boats tnmty-one hmdrt if milt s 
 above the mouth of the Missouri, and in high water, steam-boats "of light draft can 
 ascend two thousand and six hundred miles. The .Mississippi is navigable by steam between 
 six and seven hundred miles above St. Louis. These rivers pass through an exceedingly 
 fertile country ; and when a just system of internal improvement shall be carried into 
 operation, not only New Orleans and the great valley of the Mississippi will be benefit- 
 ted, but every portion of the United States will feel the invigorating influence of such a 
 course.' — St. Louis Republican. 
 
46 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 large quantities of wild hyssop, a plant which rises to the height of about 
 two feet, and, like the willow of the sand-bars, is a favorite food of the 
 buffalo, elk, deer, grouse, porcupine, hare, and rabbit.^ 
 
 The Platte is in fact much more rapid than the Missouri, and drives 
 the current on the northern shore, on which it is constantly encroaching. 
 At some distance below the confluence, the Missouri is two miles wide, 
 with a rapid current of ten miles an hour in some parts, the rapidity 
 increasing as we approach the mouth of the Platte ; the velocity of which, 
 combined with the vast quantity of rolling sands which are drifting from 
 it into the Missouri, renders it completely unnavigable, unless for fiats or 
 rafts, though the Indians pass it in small flat canoes made of hides, and 
 the Americans have contrived to navigate it by means of keel-boats, which, 
 being constructed to draw but little water, and built upon a small keel, 
 are remarkably well adapted for sailing up rapid and shallow streams. 
 The Platte runs a course of fifteen degrees of longitude, from west to east, 
 or more than eight hundred miles. 
 
 The Kansas River has a considerable resemblance to the Missouri, but 
 its current is more moderate, and its water less turbid, except at times of 
 high floods. Its valley, like that of the Missouri, has a deep and fertile 
 soil, bearing forests of cotton-wood, sycamore, and other trees, interspersed 
 with meadows ; but in ascending, trees become more and more scattered, 
 and at length disappear almost entirely, the country at its sources being 
 one immense prairie. 
 
 The River Osage, so called from the well known tribe of Indians inhabiting 
 its banks, enters the Missouri one hundred and thirty-three miles above its 
 confluence with the Mississippi. Its sources are in the Ozark Mountains. 
 Flowing along the base of the north-western slope of a mountainous range, 
 it receives from the east several rapid and beautiful tributaries. In point 
 of magnitude this river ranks with the Cumberland and Tennessee. It 
 has been represented as navigable for six hundred miles, but this Major 
 Long considers an exaggeration, on account of the great number of shoals 
 and sand-bars in its current. In the lower part of its course it traverses 
 brpad and fertile bottom-lands, bearing heavy forests of sycamore and cot- 
 ton trees. 
 
 Charaton River is seventy-five yards wide at its mouth, and navigable 
 at high water one hundred and fifty miles. Half a mile from its conflu- 
 ence with the Missouri, it receives the Little Charaton, also a considerable 
 stream, and navigable for* many miles. The Charaton has its source near 
 the De Moyen river of the Mississippi, and traverses a country which is 
 of great importance, both on account of the fertility of its soil, and its inex- 
 haustible mines of gold. 
 
 The Arkansas River rises in the Rocky Mountains in north latitude 
 forty-two degrees, near the borders of the territory of the United States and 
 Mexico. It is about two thousand miles in length, running in a direction 
 east south-east. Tributary streams are little known ; they are remarkable 
 for being deeply impregnated with salt. That part of Arkansas that tra- 
 verses the Missouri territory is skirted, in great part, by extensive prairies. 
 Spurs of the Masserne Mountains often reach the river. It may be re- 
 marked as singular, that to the extent of upwards of three hundred miles 
 
 * Lewis and Clarke 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 47 
 
 in the lower part of the Arkansas, its valley is confined merely to the 
 stream of the river ; the waters of the Washita on one side, and White 
 river on the other, rising almost from the very margin of the Arkansas. 
 The land upon the Arkansas, in the Missouri territory, is in great part 
 alluvial ; and where not subject to overflow, excellent. The timber cor- 
 responds nearly to that of the state of Mississippi, in similar relative situ- 
 ations. 
 
 Red River rises about one hundred miles north-east of Santa Fe, in 
 Mexico, at the base of a range of the Rocky Mountains, called the Caous, 
 and after a very serpentine course of about two thousand five hundred 
 miles, enters the Mississippi in thirty-one degrees fifteen minutes north 
 latitude. There are many streams rising in the same mountains, flow- 
 ing separately for three or four hundred miles, and then uniting to form 
 the Red river. Of the regions in which the upper waters of these 
 streams lie, but little is known. They are principally inhabited by the 
 Pawnees. When the river enters Louisiana, its south bank is for a long 
 distance the boundary between the United States and Texas. A great part 
 of its course is through defightful prairies of a rich red soil, covered with 
 grass and vines which bear delicious grapes. About a hundred miles 
 above Natchitoches commences what is called the Raft ; a swampy ex- 
 pansion of the alluvion to the width of twenty or thirty miles. The river 
 divides into a great number of channels, many of them shallow ; and for 
 ages these channels have been becoming clogged with a mass of fallen 
 timber carried down from the upper parts of the river. 
 
 At this place its navigation is effectually obstructed, except in a high 
 stage of water, when keel-boats of ten or fifteen tons burden may pass it 
 through devious channels, or bayoux, and ascend several miles above. 
 That part of the river situated above the Raft is rendered impassable for 
 boats of burden, by shoals and sand-bars in a moderate stage of" water.* 
 
 The Washita, tributary to Red river, is navigable many miles. That 
 portion of it situated within the valley of the Mississippi, denominated 
 Black river, admits of constant navigation for boats of burden. White river 
 is navigable in a moderate stage of water between three and four hundred 
 miles. Of the rivers tributary to the Missouri, it is remarkable, that their 
 mouths are generally blocked up with mud, after the subsiding of the 
 summer freshet of that river, which usually takes place in the month of 
 July. The freshets of the more southerly tributaries are discharged early 
 in the season, and wash from their mouths the sand and mud previously 
 deposited therein, leaving them free from obstructions. These freshets 
 having subsided, the more northerly branches discharge their floods, form- 
 ed by the melting of the snow, at a later period. The Missouri being thus 
 swollen, the mud of its waters is driven up the mouth of its tributaries. 
 These streams having no more freshets to expel it, their mouths remain 
 thus obstructed till the ensuing spring.! 
 
 The St. Peter has its rise in a small lake about three miles in circum- 
 ference, at the base of a remarkable ridge, distinguished by the name of 
 
 * Appropriations have recently been made by Congress for the removal of obstruc- 
 tions in the Arkansas and Red rivers. The officer employed on that service is confi- 
 dent in the practicability of removing the Raft by means of boats. 
 
 t Long's Expedition. 
 
48 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Coteau des Prairies. It enters the Mississippi nine miles below the falls 
 of St. Anthony. Its length in all its windings is about five hundred miles, 
 Its course is exceedingly serpentine, and is interrupted by several rocky 
 ridges, extending across the bed of the river and occasioning falls of con- 
 siderable descent. During the times of spring freshets and floods, this 
 river is navigable for boats from its mouth to the head of Big Stone Lake, 
 about fifteen miles from its sources. For a distance of about forty miles on 
 the lower part of the river, it is from sixty to eighty yards only wide, and 
 navigable for pirogues and canoes in all stages of the water ; higher up, 
 its navigation is obstructed in low water by numerous shoals and rapids. 
 The aggregate descent of the St. Peter may be estimated at about one 
 hundred and fifty feet, the general level of the country at its source having 
 an elevation of about fifty feet above the river. The chief of its tributaries 
 is the Blue-earth river, which flows in from the south a hundred miles 
 west of the Mississippi by a mouth fifty yards in width. It is chiefly noted 
 for the blue clay which the Indians procure upon its banks, and which is 
 much employed in- painting their faces and other parts of their bodies. 
 The river St. Peter's enters the Mississippi behind a large island, which 
 is probably three miles in circumference, and is covered with the most luxu- 
 riant growth of sugar-maple, elm, ash, oak, and walnut. At the point of 
 embouchure it is one hundred and fifty yards in width, with a depth of ten 
 or fifteen feet. Its waters are transparent, and present a light blue tint on 
 looking upon the stream. From this circumstance the Indians have given 
 it the name of Clear-water river. 
 
 Red River of the north rises near the sources of the St. Peter's ; and by 
 a northern and winding course runs nearly two hundred miles in our ter- 
 ritorial limits ; and then passes into the British dominions of Upper Cana- 
 da, and empties into Lake Winnepeck. Its principal branches are Red 
 Lake river and Moose river, the latter of which streams rises within a 
 mile of fort Mandan on the Missouri. Red river is a broad, deep, and 
 very interesting stream, abounding with fish, and the country along its 
 banks with elk and buffaloes. 
 
 The name Ohio is an Indian appellation, signifying ' the beautiful river.' 
 This epithet is not bestowed upon it for the whole of its course, but com- 
 mences at the confluence of the two principal streams, at Pittsburg ; above 
 the junction it is called the Alleghany. The remotest source of the Alle- 
 ghany is in the state of Pennsylvania, in north latitude forty-one degrees 
 and forty-five minutes, and west longitude seventy-eight degrees. It is 
 composed of two small streams. At Pittsburg, the Alleghany being joined 
 by the Monongahela, the confluent stream receives the appellation of the 
 Ohio. The Monongahela is formed by the confluence of two streams, both 
 rising from the Alleghany chain, in the north-west angle of Virginia, and 
 running parallel to each other for sixty miles in a direct line. The abso- 
 lute course of the Monongahela is more than two hundred miles, but not 
 above one hundred and thirty in a direct line from south to north. It seems 
 a larger and deeper stream at Pittsburg than the Alleghany, which in the 
 dry season has not above seven feet water where deepest. The waters of 
 the Alleghany are always clear and limpid, while those of the Mononga- 
 hela, on the contrary, become muddy and turbid, whenever there are a few 
 days of successive rain in that part of the Alleghany Mountains where it 
 rises. Each of the streams is four hundred yards wide at the conflux ; 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 49 
 
 •and after the junction, the united stream is more enlarged in depth than in 
 breadth. 
 
 The Ohio, formed by the junction of the Monongahela and Alleghany, 
 appears to be rather a continuation of the former than the latter, which 
 arrives at the confluence in an oblique direction. From Pittsburg to the 
 mouth of the Ohio is one thousand and thirty-three miles by the course 
 of the stream. It receives a vast number of tributary streams on both 
 sides, in its progress to the Mississippi. For the space of three hundred 
 miles below Pittsburg, the Ohio runs between two ridges of hills, rising 
 from three hundred to four hundred feet in height. These appear fre- 
 quently undulated at their summits, but at other times seem to be perfectly 
 level. They sometimes recede, and sometimes approach the banks of the 
 river, and have their direction parallel to that of* the Alleghany chain. 
 These ridges gradually recede farther down the river, till they disappear 
 from the view of those who descend the Ohio. It is not till this river has 
 burst its passage through a transverse chain, at the rapids, near Louisville, 
 that it rolls its waters, through a level and expanded country, as far as : ! " 
 Mississippi. The general appearance of the river is beautiful, placid, gentle 
 and transparent, except in the times of high water. There are two seasons 
 of periodical inundations ; namely, winter and spring. According to some, 
 the vernal inundations of this river commence in the latter end of March, 
 and subside in July ; and, according to others, they commence early in 
 February, and subside in May. It must be observed, however, that this 
 period is forwarded or retarded as the rivers thaw sooner or later, which 
 may reconcile these apparently discordant statements. 
 
 The Ohio is then swelled to a prodigious height, varying in different 
 places, as it is more or less expanded in breadth. It is a favorable circum- 
 stance for the country in the upper course of the Ohio, that it has very 
 high and steep banks; having gradually hollowed out for itself a deep and 
 comparatively narrower bed, being, like all its southern tributary streams, 
 inclosed as it were in a groove between them, which prevents the general 
 level of the land from being overflowed for many miles, and thereby ren- 
 dered marshy and unwholesome, as in the lower Missouri, and in the lower 
 part of the Ohio. Yet high as these banks are, the Ohio is both a dan- 
 gerous and troublesome neighbor to the towns which are not sufficiently 
 far removed from them. That part of the town of Marietta situated at the 
 junction of the Muskingum with the Ohio, though elevated forty-five feet 
 above the ordinary level of the stream, has been twice inundated, and con- 
 sequently abandoned by the inhabitants. The town of Portsmouth, at the 
 mouth of the Great Sciota, and two hundred and eighteen miles below 
 Marietta by water, though elevated sixty feet above the usual surface of 
 the river, is also subjected to the same misfortune, which has materially 
 affected the prosperity of the place. At Cincinnati, the breadth of the 
 river is five hundred and thirty-five yards, and the banks fifty feet in per- 
 pendicular height, yet these are annually overflowed. The winter floods 
 commence in the middle of October, and continue to the latter end of 
 December. Sometimes, in the course of the summer, abundant rains fall 
 among the Alleghany Mountains, by which the Ohio is suddenly raised, 
 but such occurrences are rare. In the times of these two periodical floods, 
 which taken together last for near half the year, ships drawing twelve 
 feet water may sail with perfect ease from Pittsburg to New Orleans, a 
 
50 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 distance of near two thousand and two hundred miles. In these seasons 
 the passage to the falls may be accomplished in nine or ten days, but it ia 
 generally effected in twelve days. The difficulty of navigating the Ohio 
 during the dry season, is only confined to the upper part of its course, or 
 between Pittsburg and Limestone, a space of four hundred and twenty-five 
 miles by water ; and this, not so much owing to the shallowness of the 
 stream, as to its being divided by islands ; for the depth of the Monongahela 
 branch of the Ohio alone, at Pittsburg, is twelve feet. Michaux counted 
 no less than fifty of these islands in the distance of three hundred and 
 ninety miles ; some of them only containing a few acres, and others exceed- 
 ing a mile in length. 
 
 The Tennessee rises in the Alleghany Mountains, traverses East Ten- 
 nessee, and almost the whole northern limit of Alabama, re-enters 
 Tennessee, and crosses almost the whole width of it, into Kentucky, and 
 
 fiasses into Ohio, fifty-seven miles above its junction with the Mississippi, 
 t is near twelve hundred miles in length, and is the largest tributary of 
 the Ohio. It has numerous branches, and is navigable for boats one thou- 
 sand miles ; most of the branches rise among the mountains, and are too 
 shallow for navigation, except during the floods, which take place occa- 
 sionally, at all seasons of the year, and admit flat boats to be floated down 
 to the main stream. 
 
 The Muscle Shoals are about three hundred miles from its entrance into 
 the Ohio. At this place the river spreads to the width of three miles, and 
 forms a number of islands. The passage by boats is difficult and dangerous, 
 except when the water is high. 
 
 From these shoals to the place called the Whirl or Sztck, two hundred 
 and fifty miles, the navigation all the way is excellent, to the Cumberland 
 Mountain ; where the river breaks through. This mountain is sometimes 
 so steep, that even the Indians cannot ascend it on foot. In one place, 
 particularly, near the summit of the mountain, there is a remarkable ledge 
 of rocks, of about thirty miles in length, and two hundred feet high, with 
 a perpendicular front facing the south-east, more noble and grand than any 
 artificial fortification in the known world, and apparently equal in point 
 of regularity. The Whirl, as it is called, is about latitude thirty-four 
 degrees. It is considered a greater curiosity than the bursting of the river 
 Potomac through the Blue Ridge. 
 
 The river, which above is half a mile wide, is here compressed to one 
 hundred yards, or eighteen rods. Just at the entrance of the mountain, a 
 large rock projects from the northern shore, in an oblique direction, which 
 renders the channel still narrower. This causes a sudden bend, by which 
 the waters are thrown with great force against the opposite shore. From 
 thence they rebound about the point of the rock, and produce a whirl of 
 eighty yards, or two hundred and forty feet in circumference. By the 
 dexterity of the rowers, canoes drawn into this whirl have sometimes 
 escaped without damage. In less than a mile below the whirl, the river 
 spreads to its common width, down to Muscle Shoals ; and thence runs in 
 a regular and beautiful stream to its confluence with the Ohio. 
 
 The Wabash rises in the north-eastern part of Indiana, and flows south- 
 westerly nearly across^the state, when it turns to the south, and flows into 
 the Ohio, forming towards its mouth the western boundary. Its length, 
 from its mouth to its extreme source, exceeds five hundred miles. It is 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 51 
 
 navigable for keel-boats, about four hundred miles, to Ouitanon, where 
 there are rapids. From this village small boats can go within six miles 
 of St. Mary's river ; ten of Fort Wayne ; and eight of the St. Joseph's of 
 the Miami-of-the-lakes. Its current is gentle above Vincennes ; below the 
 town there are several rapids, but not of sufficient magnitude to prevent boats 
 from ascending. The principal rapids are between Deche and White 
 rivers, ten miles below Vincennes. White river and Tippecanoe river are 
 branches of the Wabash. 
 
 The Cumberland rises in the Cumberland Mountains in Kentucky, and 
 after a course of nearly two hundred miles in that state, passes into Ten- 
 nessee, through which it makes a circuit of two hundred and fifty miles, 
 when it re-enters Kentucky and falls into the Ohio, about fifty miles above 
 the entrance of that river into the Mississippi. From the source of this 
 river to its conflux with the Ohio, the distance in a direct line is three hun- 
 dred miles, but by the course and windings of the stream, it is near six 
 hundred miles, five hundred of which it is navigable for batteaux of four- 
 teen or fifteen tons burthen. 
 
 The Muskingum rises in the north-eastern part of Ohio, and flows 
 southerly into the Ohio river. It is two hundred miles in length, and is 
 navigable for boats one hundred miles. It is connected by a canal with 
 Lake Erie. The Sciota rises in the western part, and flows southerly into 
 the Ohio. It is about two hundred miles long, and is navigable one hun- 
 dred and thirty. There are rich and beautiful prairies on the river, and its 
 valley is wide and fertile. A canal passes along this valley, and extends 
 north-easterly to Lake Erie. The Licking and Kentucky rivers take their 
 rise in the Cumberland Mountains, and flow north-westerly into the Ohio. 
 They are each about two hundred miles in length. The latter is navigable 
 for one hundred and fifty miles, and has a width of one hundred and fifty 
 yards at its mouth. The current is rapid, and the shores are high. For 
 a great part of its course, it flows between perpendicular banks of limestone. 
 The voyager passing down this stream experiences an indescribable sensa- 
 tion on looking upwards to the sky from a deep chasm hemmed in by 
 lofty parapets. Among the other tributaries of the Ohio are the Great and 
 Little Miami, Saline,^ Green river, Big Sandy, Kanhawa. 
 
 The Illinois rises in the north-eastern parts of the state of that name, not 
 more than thirty-five miles from the south-western extremity of Lake Mich- 
 igan, and interlocking by a morass with the river Chicago, which empties 
 into that lake. Its two main head-branches are Plein and Kankakee. 
 Thirty miles from the junction of these rivers, enters Fox river from the 
 north. Between this and the Vermilion, enter two or three inconsiderable 
 rivers. The Vermilion is a considerable stream, which enters the Illinois 
 from the south, two hundred and sixty miles above the Mississippi. Not 
 far below this river, and two hundred and ten miles above the Mississippi, 
 commences Peoria lake, which is no more than an enlargement of the river, 
 two miles wide on an average, and twenty miles in length. Such is the 
 'depth and regularity of the bottom, that it has no perceptible current whatever. 
 It is a beautiful sheet of water, with romantic shores, generally bounded 
 by prairies ; and no waters in the world furnish finer sport for the angler. 
 
 On the north side of the Illinois, the rivers that enter on that shore, 
 
 * On the banks of this stream, about twenty miles from the Ohio, are extensive salt- 
 works, owned by the United States' government. 
 
52 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 have their courses, for the most part, in mountainous bluffs, which often 
 approach near the river. For a great distance above its mouth, the river 
 is almost as straight as a canal; has in summer scarcely a perceptible cur- 
 rent, and the waters, though transparent, have a marshy taste to a degree to 
 be almost unfit for use. The river is wide and deep ; and, for the greater 
 part of its width, is filled with aquatic weeds, to such an extent, that no 
 person could swim among them. Only a few yards width, in the centre 
 of the stream, is free from them. It enters the Mississippi through a deep 
 forest, by a mouth four hundred yards wide. Perhaps no river of the 
 western country has so fine a boatable navigation, for such a great dis- 
 tance ; or waters a richer and more luxuriant tract of country. 
 
 Rock River is one of the most clear and beautiful tributaries of the Mis- 
 sissippi. It has its source beyond the northern limits of Illinois, and in 
 a ridge of hills that separates between the waters of the Mississippi and 
 those of Lake Michigan. On its waters are extensive and rich lead 
 mines. Its general course is south-west, and it enters the Mississippi, not 
 far above the commencement of the military bounty lands. Opposite the 
 moutli of this river, in the Mississippi, is the beautiful island, called from the 
 name of the river, and on which is a military station of the United States. 
 
 Kaskashia River rises in the interior of Illinois, nearly interlocking with 
 the waters of Lake Michigan. It has a course, in a south-west direction, 
 of between two and three hundred miles, for the greater part of which 
 course, in high stages of water, it is boatable. It runs through a fine 
 and settled country, and empties into the Mississippi a few miles below 
 the town of the same name. 
 
 The Ouisconsin is the largest river of the North-West territory that 
 flows into the Mississippi. It rises in the northern interior of the country, 
 and interlocks with the Montreal of Lake Superior. It has a course of 
 between three and four hundred miles, has a shallow and rapid current, 
 which is, however, navigable by boats in good stages of the water, and is 
 eight hundred yards wide at its mouth. There is a portage of only half 
 a mile between this and Fox river. It is over a level prairie, across 
 which, from river to river, there is a water communication for periogues 
 in high stages of the water. Fox River has a course of two hundred and 
 sixty miles. It runs through Winnebago lake. It has a fine country on 
 its banks, with a salubrious climate. Chippeivay is a considerable river 
 of the Mississippi, and enters it just below Lake Pepin. It is' half a mile 
 wide at its mouth, and has communications by a short portage with Lake 
 Superior. The other chief rivers of this territory, tributary to the ' father 
 of waters,' are St. Croix, Rum, St. Francis, and Savanna. 
 
 Among the smaller tributaries to the Mississippi are the Obian, Forked 
 Deer, Big Hatchet, and Wolf ri-vers, all of which flow into it from Ten- 
 nessee ; and the Yazoo and Big Black, from the state of Mississippi. 
 The last named rivers are only navigable for boats. 
 
 Beside the rivers which flow into the Mississippi, and are thus emptied 
 into the Gulf of Mexico, there are a few small streams which disembogue 
 immediately into the gulf. The Alabama River rises in the mountainous 
 parts of Georgia, in two head-streams named the Coosa and Tallapoosa, 
 and running south-westerly through the centre of the state of Alabama, 
 unites with the Tombeckbee ; both the streams then take the name of Mo- 
 bile, and flowing south for a short distance fall into Mobile Bay. The 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 53 
 
 Tombeckbee is formed of two main branches rising in the mountains of 
 the Mississippi. It has a boat navigation in the lower part of its course. 
 The Alabama has a boat navigation for one hundred and fifty miles from 
 the bay. Pearl River rises near the centre of the state of Mississippi. A 
 number of branches unite to form the main river, which is afterwards in- 
 creased by the Chuncka and other streams. It passes through a pleasant 
 and fertile country, and derives much importance from being one of the 
 chief points of communication between the state through which it flows 
 and the Gulf of Mexico. The Pascagoula rises in latitude thirty three 
 degrees, and after travelling for two hundred and fifty miles a tract of pine 
 country, broadens at its mouth into an open bay, on which, at a town of 
 its own name, is a resort for the inhabitants of New Orleans during the 
 sickly months. Most of the rivers of Florida which flow into the gulf 
 have their sources in Georgia. The most important of these is the Ay- 
 palachicola. The topography of this country is as yet very imperfect, and 
 the very numerous streams which intersect it have borne a variety of 
 names. Most of them are barred at their mouth with sand. 
 
 II. RIVERS WHICH FLOW INTO THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 The River St. Croix forms a part of lhe eastern boundary of Maine, 
 and is little navigable except by rafts ; most of it consists of a chain of 
 small lakes. From Calais to the sea, thirty miles, its navigation is unob- 
 structed. 
 
 The River Penobscot is the largest in the state of Maine. It rises in 
 the highlands separating Maine from Lower Canada. Between the junc- 
 tion of its two upper branches is Moosehead lake, about forty miles 
 long, and fifteen wide. From the Forks, as they are called, the Penobscot 
 Indians pass to Canada, up either branch, principally the west, the source 
 of which is said to be not more than twenty miles from the waters which 
 fall into the St. Lawrence. The whole navigable course of the river for 
 sloops, is forty-six miles from the head of the bay, to near the head of the 
 side ; and from the Forks to the sea is one hundred and thirty-four miles. 
 This river has very numerous branches, navigable by rafts and abounding 
 in mill sites. 
 
 The Saco rises in the -White Mountains of New Hampshire, enters 
 Maine at Fryeburg, and flows in an irregular course south-east to the sea; 
 it is one hundred and sixty miles long, and has numerous falls which 
 afford excellent mill sites and manufacturing stations. 
 
 The Androscoggin rises in Umbagog lake, among the highlands which 
 form the north-west boundary of Maine, and descending through a suc- 
 cession of lakes enters New Hampshire at Errol; it re-enters Maine at 
 Gilead, and flows east and south till it joins the Kennebec at Merrymeet- 
 ing bay. Its length is one hundred and forty miles ; the whole course is 
 broken by rapids and falls, which prevent the transportation of any thing 
 except timber and logs. 
 
 The Kennebec also rises in the highlands, near the sources of the An- 
 droscoggin, and flows nearly south to the sea ; falls and rapids render the 
 navigation difficult above the tide at Augusta, from which place it is navi- 
 gable for vessels of one hundred tons, and from Hallowell and Gardiner 
 for ships to the sea. Th« country watered by the Kennebec generally 
 
 5* 
 
64 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 consists of excellent land ; it is one of the best grazing districts in New 
 England ; and there are upon the banks of the river a number of flourish- 
 ing and handsome towns. 
 
 The Merrimack rises in New Hampshire, and has two principal branches : 
 one of them being the outlet of lake Winnipiseogee. The north or longer 
 branch is called the Pemigewasset, and has its source near the Notch of 
 the White Mountains. At its junction with the outlet of the lake this 
 stream takes the name of Merrimack, and flows south seventy-eight miles 
 to Chelmsford, where it enters Massachusetts, through which it runs east 
 to the sea. Its whole course is about two hundred miles. There are 
 numerous falls in the New Hampshire portion. Though not equal to the 
 Connecticut for fine scenery, the Merrimack is a noble and beautiful 
 stream. Its waters are pure and salubrious, and on its borders are many 
 flourishing towns. Its name in the Indian language signifies a sturgeon. 
 Its width varies from fifty to one hundred and twenty rods ; it receives 
 many minor streams and rivers, which form the outlet of several small 
 lakes. Its obstructions have been partly remedied by locks at different 
 places, and there is a good navigation for vessels of two hundred tons to 
 Haverhill. Two chain bridges cross the river at Newburyport, and Salis- 
 bury. 
 
 The Piscataqva has its rise and its whole course in New Hampshire. 
 It is formed by the junction of several small streams in a wide and deep 
 bed ; the longest of these streams is Salmon Fall river, which forms part 
 of the boundary between New Hampshire and Maine. 
 
 The Connecticut is the largest river of the New England States. It 
 rises beyond the high-lands which separate the states of Vermont and 
 New Hampshire from Lower Canada. It has been surveyed to the head 
 spring of its northern branch, about twenty-five miles beyond the forty- 
 fifth degree of latitude, from which to its mouth it flows upwards of three 
 hundred miles through a well inhabited country. Its navigation is much 
 interrupted by falls. It receives several rivers, as the Chicapee, Deerfield, 
 Miller's, and Farmington. At Hartford it meets the tide, whence it passes 
 on in a winding course, till it falls into Long Island sound, between Say- 
 brook and Lyme. This river is navigable for sloops, as far as Hartford, 
 fifty miles distant from its mouth ; and the produce of the country, for two 
 hundred miles above it, is brought thither in flat-bottomed boats, which are 
 so light as to be portable in carts. 
 
 The Hudson, or the North River, is formed by the confluence of the 
 Hudson proper and the Mohmvk, which unite below Waterford, ten miles 
 above Albany. The Hudson takes its rise in the forty-fourth degree of 
 north latitude, from the foot of the mountains which separate the waters 
 of the St. Lawrence from those of Lake Champlain, and the Mohawk in 
 the table-land surrounding Oneida lake. The Mohawk river rises to the 
 north-east of Oneida lake, about eight miles from Sable Water, a stream 
 of Lake Ontario. It runs first twenty miles south to Rome ; then south- 
 east one hundred and thirty-four miles ; and, after receiving many tribu- 
 tary streams in its course, falls into the Hudson by three mouths. It is a 
 large stream of water; and is now navigable for boats from Schenectady 
 to Rome, one hundred and four miles distant. From Albany to Schenec- 
 tady is a portage of sixteen miles, on account of the falls and rapids, which 
 render the river unnavigable. These falls and rapids, denominated tho 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 55 
 
 Cohoes, are three miles from the junction of the Mohawk with the Hud- 
 son. The river is one thousand feet wide at these falls ; the rock over 
 which the stream descends is forty feet perpendicular height ; and the 
 whole height of the cataract, including the descent above, is seventy feet. 
 Properly speaking, the North river is no other than a narrow gulf of the 
 sea, entering inland at New York, and penetrating across the double chain 
 of the Alleghany Mountains, as far as the confluence of the above men- 
 tioned streams, one hundred and seventy miles from the sea. This is 
 what distinguishes the Hudson from all -other rivers in the United States. 
 In no other does the tide ascend beyond the first range ; but in the North 
 river, it crosses the first chain at West Point, sixty miles north of New 
 York ; and the second at Catskill, after having burst the beds of granite 
 which opposed its passage, and cut them into a thousand different shapes. 
 Hence the deep valley of the Hudson has derived a most singular and 
 magnificent aspect ; the western bank being, in some places, five hundred 
 feet of perpendicular height above the level of the river.* 
 
 * ' The river expands into a noble bay, four or five miles wide, called the Tappan 
 Sea, about thirty miles from New York, at the top of which, ten miles farther on, the 
 banks approach each other so closely, that the channel through which the river has at 
 a distant period forced its way by some violent convulsion, is not perceived until you 
 almost enter it. Here we suddenly found ourselves in a narrow pass between precipi- 
 tous mountain tops, rising on both sides from the water's edge to an elevation of twelve 
 or fifteen hundred feet. These mountains or hills, as we should call them, are what are 
 called the Highlands of the Hudson; and the entry to them seemed to us the most 
 remarkable point on the river, not to be contemplated without feelings of the deepest 
 interest. The river course continues to run in this defile among romantic hills covered 
 with wood, sweetly inlaid with plateaus of green pasture, and of table-land for about 
 twenty miles. The farm-houses and villages look as if they hung on the cliffs, or rose 
 by terraces from the water's edge. The river is of various breadths, from a mile and a 
 half to two miles. The projecting rocks often force it to change its direction, so much, 
 indeed, that you frequently appear to be sailing in a lake, from which you cannot dis- 
 cover an outlet. 
 
 'After leaving the Highlands, the banks of the river are comparatively low, one 
 hundred, or one hundred and fifty feet in height. The hills through which we had 
 passed incline to the right, and do not break off till they reach the St. Lawrence. The 
 river, for sixty or seventy miles, frequently opens into beautiful lakes and bays, with 
 projecting and marked shores. Great part of this district, which is called the Valley 
 of the Hudson, consists of good land and tine corn-fields, and is <nu: of the richesl parts of 
 the state of New York. The town of Newburg on the one side, the village of Fishkill 
 on the other, the noble terrace of Hyde Park, the Dutchess County, famed tor its fertility, 
 are all situated in the southern part of this reach. On the upper part of it. the grand 
 range of mountains called the Catskills, about three thousand feel high, which are a 
 spur from the Alleghanies, and the populous city of Hudson, strikingly placed on a fine 
 promontory, are the most prominent objects. From Hudson to Albany, about forty 
 miles, the Hudson has more the appearance of a river than below. It is here orna- 
 mented with many islands, the shores become less steep, the country rich looking, and 
 more peopled. Villas on the banks appear more frequently in approaching 1 Albany, 
 the view of which, from the river, is very striking. The oldest part of the city reaches 
 to the water's edge, but a great part of it is on a fine elevation on the face of a hill. 
 
 'Whether the glorious scenery of the Hudson be superior to that of the Rhine, the 
 Danube, or any of the European rivers, which many of the Americans who have tra- 
 velled in Europe maintain, I, who have not seen the greatest of those rivers, do not 
 pretend to say ; but I am very much mistaken, if there be any where continuously in 
 Great Britain, so remarkable a combination of natural beauty and romantic scenery as 
 on the Hudson between New York and Albany. Nowhere in the British dominions can 
 so great a variety of interesting and pleasing objects be seen in the course of a single 
 day. The Trosachs, though in miniature, resemble the passage through the Highlands 
 of the Hudson, in all respects but one, the grandeur of the bounding objects. The 
 
56 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Along the shore of the Hudson, a mural precipice extends twenty miles. 
 It commences at Weehawken, four miles north of the city of Jersey, gradu- 
 ally rising towards the north, and mostly occupied by forests. It is known 
 by the name of the Palisadoes. 
 
 Palisadoe Rocks. 
 
 Raritan River, in the northern part of New Jersey, is formed by two 
 branches which unite about twenty miles above New Brunswick. It 
 becomes navigable two miles above that city, at a place called Brunswick 
 Landing. Flowing by New Brunswick, and gradually becoming broader 
 and deeper, it passes Amboy and then widens into Raritan bay, which is 
 immediately connected with the ocean. It is navigable for sloops of eighty 
 tons as far as New Brunswick, seventeen miles. 
 
 The Delaware issues by two streams, called the Coquago and the Rap- 
 padon, the union of which, forty miles in a direct line from their sources, 
 form the Delaware, from the Katskill Mountains, in the county of Dela- 
 ware, state of New York. Running first south, it next turns to the south- 
 east, forming, for the space of sixty miles, the boundary between Penn- 
 sylvania and New York ; and thence, forms again the line of separation 
 between the former state and that of New Jersey, for upwards of one hun- 
 dred miles more to Trenton, where there are falls, but of no great height. 
 Thence, with increased breadth, it pursues a course of thirty-six miles 
 farther, to Philadelphia, where it is a mile broad. Thence it proceeds to 
 Newcastle, forty miles below Philadelphia, where it is two miles broad. 
 Thence it spreads out into a spacious bay, and falls into the Atlantic, 
 seventy miles below Newcastle, by an outlet of twenty-five miles. The 
 whole course of the river, from the Atlantic to its source, is three hundred 
 and fifty miles ; and two hundred and eighty from the head of Delaware 
 bay, including the windings. Its two chief tributary streams are the Lehigh 
 and Schuylkill. The navigation betwixt the Delaware and Chesapeak is 
 now improved by means of a canal. 
 
 The River Stisquehannah, of all those of the eastern states, most resem- 
 
 lofty mountains of the Highlands of Scotland impart a character of sublimity to those 
 justly celebrated works of nature, which is here to a certain extent wanting.'— Stuart's 
 A merica 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 57 
 
 bles the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence, on account of its numerous and 
 distant branches. The north-east branch, which is the remotest source, is 
 formed by the junction of two small streams that issue from the lakes of 
 Caniadebago, Ustavantho, and Otsego, in the state of New York. It runs 
 south and south-west in such a winding course, (receiving in its progress 
 the TJnadilla and Chenango rivers from the north,) that it crosses the boun- 
 dary line between New York and Pennsylvania no less than three times. 
 It forms a junction with the Tioga, in forty-one degrees and fifty-seven 
 minutes north latitude; and thence pursues a south-east course of seventy- 
 miles to Wyoming ; whence, making a sudden bend at a right angle, it 
 runs a south-west course of eighty miles, and unites with the west branch 
 at Northumberland. The river, now increased to the breadth of half a 
 mile, flows south through the mountains, a course of forty miles, to its 
 junction with the Juniata, when, turning to the east for ten miles, it 
 emerges from the mountains . above Harrisburg, and after a south-east 
 course of eighty miles, falls into Chesapeak bay. The western branch of 
 the Susquehannah is formed by many streams, beyond the Alleghany 
 Mountains ; and its most southern source is within a very few miles of the 
 Conemaugh, or Kiskeminitas, which falls into the Alleghany a little above 
 Pittsburg. After running a very winding course of two hundred miles, 
 principally among the mountains, it oins with the east branch at Northum- 
 berland. The Jimiata rises in the Alleghany Mountains, and, pursuing an 
 eastern and very serpentine and mountainous course, falls into the Susque- 
 hannah, after running two hundred miles. The whole course of the 
 Susquehannah, from Chesapeak bay to the head of the north-east branch, 
 is four hundred and fifty miles ; and, including all its branches, it waters a 
 traci; of forty thousand square miles. Where it falls into the sea it is fully 
 a mile broad ; at Harrisburg it is nearly of the same breadth, and from 
 three to five feet deep. There are seven falls in this river, which, with the 
 numerous islands and rocks, render it navigable only for a few miles by 
 large vessels. 
 
 The River Potomac rises on the north-west side of the Alleghany Moun- 
 tains, and after running a north-east course of sixty miles to Cumberland, 
 is joined eighteen miles below, by a branch coining from the south-west. 
 Thence fifty-four miles farther, it receives the waters of Licking Creek, 
 and passes the north mountain into a fine limestone valley, which it waters 
 in a very winding course of forty-five miles in a south-east direction. Here 
 it receives a considerable number of tributary streams, particularly the 
 Conecocheague at Williamsport, and the Shenandoah at tl aity of the 
 
 valley, and just above the Blue Ridge, through which the combined stream 
 has effected a singularly magnificent passage. About thirty miles farther, 
 it descends one hundred and forty feet in the course of eight or ten miles, 
 to the level of tide-water, which it meets at Georgetown. It is here a 
 quarter of a mile wide ; but expands to a mile opposite Washington, and 
 enters the Chesapeak bay by a passage seven and a half miles broad. 
 This is one of the most important of the Atlantic rivers. It is navigable 
 for vessels of any burden to Alexandria, one hundred miles distant ; and 
 from thence, for ships of considerable burden, to Georgetown. A lock 
 navigation has been constructed round the first falls, of which there are 
 four in the whole. The largest of these falls is at Matilda, six miles above 
 Georgetown, where the stream, nine hundred feet broad, after flowing 
 8 
 
58 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 through a valley skirted with hills wild as those of the Rhone in Vivari, 
 (says Volney,) falls at once, like the Niagara, from the height of seventy- 
 seven feet, into a deep chasm of solid micaceous granite. From this it 
 
 Passage of the Potomac through the Blue Ridge. 
 
 escapes, several miles farther down, by a widening of the valley in the 
 lower country. The whole course of the Potomac is three hundred and 
 forty miles. 
 
 York River is formed by the junction of the Mattapony and Pamunky. 
 Beyond the junction, the Mattapony is navigable for seventy miles ; and 
 thirty miles higher up is its source in the Blue Mountains. The Pamunky 
 is formed by the junction of the North and South Anna rivers, which rise 
 in the north-west about fifty miles distant. The mouth of this river is 
 three miles wide ; and at high tide there is four fathoms water, twenty-five 
 miles above Yorktown, where it is a mile and a half wide in the wet 
 season, but has a channel of only seventy-five fathoms in the dry season. 
 
 James' River is one of the most important rivers in the state of Virginia. 
 It rises in the Alleghany Mountains, near two hundred miles to the west 
 of Richmond ; and, after widening and contracting alternately in a very 
 winding course, it enters Chesapeak bay fifteen miles west of Cape Henry; 
 its whole length being three hundred miles. Its principal tributary streams 
 are the Rivanna, the Appomatox, the Chickahomany, the Nansemond, and 
 the Elizabeth, on which last is situated the town of Norfolk. This river, 
 anciently called the Powhatan, affords harbor for vessels of any burden, in 
 Hampton Road, seventy miles below Richmond. Vessels of two hundred 
 and fifty tons may go up to Warwick ; and those of one hundred and fifty 
 to within a mile of Richmond. 
 
 The Roanoake is formed by the junction of the Dan and Staunton. It 
 runs one hundred and twenty-five miles south-east till it enters Albemarle 
 sound. Its whole course is two hundred miles. It is navigable by sloops 
 sixty miles; the low lands on the banks are subjected to annual inun- 
 dations. 
 
 Cape Pear River is the largest in North Carolina. It rises one hundred 
 miles above Fayetteville; and thence running two hundred miles eastward, 
 falls into the Atlantic ocean at Cape Fear, where it is three miles wide, 
 
PHYSICAL GEOURAPlfY. 59 
 
 and eighteen feet deep at high tide. It is navigable by vessels drawing ten 
 feet water, up to Wilmington, a little below the confluence of its two prin- 
 cipal streams. 
 
 The Great Pedee rises in the Blue Mountains, on the borders of North 
 Carolina and Virginia, where it has the name of Yadkin river. Its whole 
 course is upwards of three hundred miles, half of which is in North Caro- 
 lina. It is navigable by ships to Georgetown ; and for smaller vessels, one 
 hundred miles higher up. 
 
 The Santee is the largest river in the state of South Carolina, and is 
 formed by the junction of the Congaree and Wateree rivers. The whole 
 course of the Santee, including that of the Catawbaw or Wateree, is three 
 hundred and fifty miles. It is navigable up to the point of junction by 
 ships of burden. 
 
 The Savannah River which forms the boundary between South Carolina 
 and Georgia, is a bold and deep stream, and is formed by the junction of 
 the Keowee and Tugeloo, two small streams issuing from the Blue Ridge, 
 two hundred and fifty miles from the sea. It runs in a straight south-east 
 course all the way to its mouth, seventeen miles below Savannah. It is 
 navigable for ships of any burden to within three miles of Savannah; for 
 vessels of two hundred and fifty tons to Savannah ; and for boats of one 
 hundred feet keel, to Augusta, above which the rapids commence ; after 
 passing them, the river can be navigated in small boats, eighty miles higher, 
 to the junction of the tributary rivers. 
 
 III. RIVERS OP THE PACIFIC AND THE GREAT LAKES. 
 
 The waters that rise on the western declivities of the Rocky Mountains 
 flow into the Columbia, the Multnomah and the Lake Bueneventura. Co- 
 lumbiaox Oregon river rises within a mile of the head-waterg of the Missouri. 
 It collects its tribute for a wide extent along the western dividing ridges of 
 the mountains, and on emerging from them becomes at once a broad and 
 deep stream. After receiving Clark's and Lewis' rivers, each a large 
 stream, from the east, it widens to nine hundred and sixty yards, and forms 
 a great southern bend through the second chain of mountains. One hun- 
 dred and thirty-six miles below, are the great falls, when- the river descends 
 in one rapid, fifty-seven feet. Below these falls, it winds first to the north- 
 west and then to the south-west, and passes through the third chain of 
 mountains, where it is again compressed to the width of one hundred and 
 fifty yards. Below this rapid, at one hundred and eighty miles from the 
 sea, it meets the tide, beyond which it has a broad estuary to the sea. Sixty 
 miles below the rapids, Multnomah, a very large and unexplored tributary, 
 falls in from the north-east. The mouth of the river is in latitude forty-six 
 degrees and twenty-four minutes, and the tide there rises eight feet and a 
 half. The Columbia and its tributaries abound in the finest salmon, which 
 issaid to form the principal food of the savages west of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. Seals and other aquatic animals are taken in -this river in great 
 numbers, and the skins shipped to China constitute the chief article of 
 trade from this great river. A number of the head streams of the Missouri 
 interlock with the waters of the Columbia. The whole course of the river 
 is about one thousand five hundred miles. As this river waters an immense 
 territory which has recently become a subject of great interest, we have 
 
60 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 subjoined, in a note, a partial account of its navigation, from the interesting 
 work of Mr. Ross Cox.^ 
 
 * We set off a little before sunrise; and about an hour afterward entered the first lake 
 fonned by the Columbia. It is between eleven and twelve leagues long, and about one 
 and a half in breadth ; the current smooth and steady, and pretty free from snags or 
 sunken trees. The shores are bold and well wooded with a variety of timber of fine size ; 
 and in the distance we first caught a view of the most western chain of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains covered with snow. A head wind, during the greater part of the day, considerably 
 retarded our progress ; and we encamped late, near the upper end of the lake, where a 
 few Indians visited us. They appeared to be very poor, and brought about a dozen 
 beaver skins to trade, which we told them we could not purchase, as we were obliged to 
 cross the mountains ; but that our party, going downwards in the autumn, would stop a 
 few days with them, and trade all the skins they had. They were rather disappointed ; 
 but a little tobacco, and some trifling presents, sent them away in good humor. 
 
 Shortly after embarking on the morning of the 18th, we left the lake, and entered 
 that part of the river called the straits, which separates the upper from the lower lake. It 
 is only a few miles in length, and quickly brought us to the upper lake, which is not so 
 long as the first. The high hills in its immediate vicinity were covered with snow, the 
 chilling influence of which we sensibly experienced by the cold blasts from the shore. 
 Encamped at sunset at the upper end of the lake, on a fine sandy beach. During the 
 day we struck on two sand-banks, and were slightly injured by a sunken tree. Saw no 
 Indians. 
 
 19th. About two miles above our encampment of last night, the Columbia becomes 
 very narrow, with steep and thickly wooded banks, covered with immense quantities of 
 fallen trees. The current is very strong, and, owing to the great height of the water, the 
 men at intervals had scarcely any beach on which to walk in dragging up the canoes. 
 Our progress was consequently slow ; and we put ashore for the night about fifteen 
 miles above the lake. 
 
 At nine o'clock on the morning of the 20th we reached the second Dallas, or narrows, 
 which are formed by a contraction of the channel of the river into a very small compass. 
 There are high and slippery rocks on each side, which make it a work of great danger 
 and difficulty to pass them. The baggage was all carried by the men, and the canoes 
 were towed up with strong lines, after being in great danger of filling, from the frightful 
 whirlpools close along the shore. The Aveather became much cooler from the proximity 
 of the mountains. Several patches of snow were observable on the beach during the 
 day, and towards evening some rain fell. 
 
 From dawn of day until noon on the 21st, we did not make three miles, owing to the 
 impetuosity of the current, the shelving banks, and the extreme weakness of our men, 
 several of whom were knocked up. We were detained at one place upwards of four 
 hours to repair our shattered canoes, and encamped about six o'clock on a low gravelly 
 point. We had several smart showers during the afternoon. 
 
 22d. About two, P. M. arrived at a place called the Upper Dallas, where the river is 
 again confined for a considerable distance between a line of high slippery rocks. Got 
 about half way through this channel, and stopped for the night in a small nook formed 
 by the rocks, on which we lay scattered and exposed to severe rain during the night. 
 
 We rose wet and unrefreshed on the morning of the 23d, and in five hours passed the 
 Dallas, the upper part of which consists of a chain of whirlpools, which compelled us to 
 carry both canoes and baggage some distance over the rocks ; in the execution of which 
 duty, some of the men narrowly escaped with their lives. Those who carried our canoe, 
 from mere exhaustion fell several times, by which it was much damaged ; and we were 
 detained until three, P. M. to get it repaired. Encamped at dusk on a sandy beach, for 
 which we had been some time on the look-out. The rain continued during the evening 
 and the night to pour down in torrents. 
 
 Our progress on the 24th was equally slow. The various tributary streams which we 
 passed on this and the last two days, and which take their rise from the surrounding 
 mountains, had by the recent rains been swollen into torrents, the waters of which, as 
 they rushed with headlong force into the Columbia, repeatedly drove us back with irre- 
 sistible strength, and at times we were in danger of filling. On two occasions, where 
 the opposite shore of the Columbia consisted of perpendicular rocks, we were obhged 
 after various fruitless attempts to pass the minor streams, to unload and carry tha 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY; 61 
 
 The rivers which flow into the great lakes are, for the most part, small 
 and unimportant. A permanent communication between their waters and 
 those of the Mississippi might be formed by means of a short canal from 
 the Fox or Chicago rivers, both of which empty into Lake Michigan. 
 The Fox river rises near the Ouisconsin branch of the Mississippi, and 
 afterwards flows within one and a half miles of its channel, separated 
 from it only by a short portage over a prairie. During the season of high 
 water, the intervening ground is overflowed, so that loaded boats may pass 
 over it. 
 
 Saganaw River is a large and deep stream, with bold shores, and nume- 
 rous tributaries, which water a large extent of very delightful and fertile 
 country. The banks of this stream are inhabited by detached bands of 
 Chippeway and Ottaway Indians, who have long derived an easy subsis- 
 tence from the abundance of game and fish to be found in their neighbor- 
 hood. The Saganaw empties into a fine. bay of the same name, which is 
 by far the largest of the numerous inlets which indent the very irregular 
 shores of Lake Huron. 
 
 The Gemiessee rises in Pennsylvania, and runs north across the west 
 part of New York into Lake Ontario. Five miles from its mouth, at 
 Rochester, are falls of ninety-six and seventy-five feet in descent; above 
 these falls the stream is navigable for boats nearly seventy miles, where 
 two other falls occur, of sixty and ninety feet, one of which is formed by 
 the slope of land which extends from Lewiston on Niagara river. Black 
 River receives its name from the color of its water. It rises in the high- 
 lands, north of the Mohawk, and its branches interlock with those of the 
 Hudson; it pursues a northerly course of one hundred and twenty miles, 
 and falls into Lake Ontario, near its outlet. It is a deep but sluggish 
 stream, and the navigation is interrupted by falls ; a series of which, called 
 the Long Falls, extend fourteen miles. The land upon this stream is 
 generally a rich:, dark colored mould. The Oswegatchie consists of . two 
 branches, which unite fotir miles above their entrance into the St. Law- 
 rence. The east branch is about one hundred and twenty miles long, and 
 the west nearly one hundred ; they are very crooked streams. The 
 Oswego issues from Oneida Lake, and runs north-westerly into Lake On- 
 tario ; it is about forty miles long and is a rapid stream ; its navigation is 
 assisted by locks and canals. The Maumee rises in the north-eastern 
 part of Indiana, and flows through the north-western part of Ohio into 
 Lake Erie; it is broad and deep, but has an obstruction from shoals 
 and rapids thirty-three miles above its mouth. The Sandusky rises in 
 the northern part of Ohio, and flows northerly into Lake Erie ; it is one 
 hundred miles in length, and is navigable. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON RIVERS. 
 
 The beds of rivers are the lowest parts of great chasms, formed by the same revo- 
 lutions which produced the mountains. Running waters unceasingly wear away their 
 beds and banks in places where their declivity is very rapid ; they hollow out and deepen 
 their channels in mountains composed of rocks of moderate hardness ; they draw along 
 stones, and form accumulations of them in the lower part of their course ; and thus 
 their beds are often gradually elevated in the plains, while they are deepened and 
 
 canoes and baggage some distance along the banks until we reached a smooth space of 
 current, when we crossed, and by that means surmounted the difficulties of their respec- 
 tive embouchures. —Adventures on Columbia River. 6 
 
62 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 depressed in the mountains. But these changes, though continually going on for thon- 
 sands of years, could only give form to the banks of rivers ; they in no wise created 
 the banks themselves. Many great rivers flow with an almost imperceptible declivity. 
 The river of the Amazons has only ten feet and a half declivity upon two hundred 
 leagues of its course, making one twenty-seventh of an inch for every thousand feet. 
 "When a river is obstructed in its course by a bank of solid rocks, and finds beneath 
 them a stratum of softer materials, its waters wear away the softer substance, and thus 
 open for themselves a subterraneous passage, more or less long. Such are the can ies 
 which have formed the magnificent Rock Bridge in Virginia, an astonishing vault 
 uniting two mountains, separated by a ravine two hundred and seventy feet in depth, in 
 ■which the Cedar Creek flows. In Louisiana, trees, or rather whole forests, have been 
 observed to fall on a river, covering it nearly with vegetable earth ; and thus giving 
 rise to a natural bridge which for leagues has hid the course of the river. 
 
 Rivers in running into the sea present a great variety of interesting phenomena ; many 
 form sand-banks, as the Senegal and the Nile ; others, like the Danube, run with such 
 force into the sea, that one can for a certain space distinguish the waters of the river 
 from those of the sea. The waters of the little river Syre in Norway are discernable for 
 a considerable distance in the sea. It^is only by a very large mouth, like that of the 
 Loire, the Elbe, or the Plata, that a river can peacefully mingle with the sea. Rivers 
 even of this nature, however, sometimes experience the superior influence of the sea, 
 ■which repels the waters into their bed. Thus the Seine forms at its mouth a bar of 
 considerable extent; and the Garonne, unable to discharge with sufficient rapidity the 
 waters which it accumulates in a kind of gulf between Bordeaux and its mouth, exhibits 
 this aquatic mountain, stopped by the flow of the tide rolling backwards, inundating 
 the banks, and stopping vessels in their progress both up and down. This phenome- 
 non, termed the Mascaret, is only the collision of two bodies of water moving in oppo- 
 site directions. The most sublime phenomenon of this kind which presents itself is that 
 of the giant of rivers Orellana, called the river of the Amazons. Twice a day it 
 pours out its imprisoned waves into the bosom of the ocean. A liquid mountain is 
 thus raised to the height of one hundred and eighty feet ; it frequently meets the flowing 
 tide of the sea, and the shock of these two bodies of water is so dreadful that it makes 
 all the neighboring islands tremble; the fishermen and navigators lly from it in the 
 utmost terror. The next day, or the second day after every new or full moon, the time 
 When the tides are highest, the river also seems to redouble its power and energy ; its 
 waters and those of the ocean rush against each other like the onset of two armies. 
 The banks are inundated with their foaming waves ; the rocks drawn along like light 
 vessels, dash against each other, almost upon the surface of the water which bears them 
 on. Loud roarings echo from island to island. It has been said that the Genius of the 
 River and the God of the Ocean contended in battle for the empire of the waves. The 
 Indians call this phenomenon Pvruroca. 
 
 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE RIVERS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Names. 
 Missouri 
 Mississippi 
 Arkansas 
 St. Lawrence 
 Mackenzie 
 Del Norte 
 Nelson 
 Columbia 
 Red River" 
 Platte 
 
 Length 
 4,400 
 3,000 
 2,100 
 2,000 
 2,000 
 2,000 
 1,500 
 1,500 
 1,500 
 1,500 
 
 Names. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Ohio 
 
 1.350 
 
 Kansas 
 
 1,200 
 
 White River 
 
 1,200 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 1,100 
 
 Alabama 
 
 650 
 
 Savannah 
 
 600 
 
 Potomac 
 
 550 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 410 
 
 Hudson 
 
 324 
 
 Delaware 
 
 300 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Maranon 
 La Plata 
 Madeira 
 Orinoco 
 Tocantins 
 
 4,500 
 3,000 
 2,500 
 1,800 
 1,800 
 
 Ucayale 
 
 St. Francisco 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Xingu 
 
 Topajos 
 
 1,600 
 
 1,500 
 1,400 
 1,400 
 1,300 
 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 
 Names. 
 
 Length. Names. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Volga 
 
 . 2,040 
 
 Elbe 
 
 570 
 
 Danube 
 
 1,710 
 
 Loire 
 
 540 
 
 Don 
 
 1,050 
 
 Vistula 
 
 500 
 
 Dnieper 
 
 1,080 
 
 Dniester 
 
 480 
 
 Kemi 
 
 780 
 
 Tagus 
 
 580 
 
 Rhine 
 
 670 
 
 Dwina 
 
 480 
 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 
 Nile 
 
 2,687 
 
 Orange 
 
 900 
 
 Senegal 
 
 950 
 
 Gambia 
 
 700 
 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 
 Yangtse Kian 
 
 3,300 
 
 Burrampooter 2,040 
 
 Lena 
 
 2,470 
 
 Irrawaddy 
 
 2,040 
 
 Amour 
 
 2,360 
 
 Cambodia 
 
 2,000 
 
 Obi 
 
 2,260 
 
 Euphrates 
 
 1,820 
 
 Yenisei 
 
 2,150 
 
 Hoang Ho 
 
 2,900 
 
 Ganges 
 
 2,040 
 
 Meinam 
 
 1,600 
 
63 
 
 CHAPTER V.— CATARACTS AND CASCADES. 
 
 The Falls of Niagara have been very frequently and minutely described, 
 though it must be acknowledged, as has been well said by the celebrated 
 Audubon, that all the pictures you may see, all the descriptions you may 
 read of these mighty falls, can only produce in your mind the faint glimmer 
 of a glow-worm compared with the overpowering glory of the meridian sun. 
 ' What !' said he, 'have I come here to mimic nature in her grandest enter- 
 prise, and add my caricature of one of the wonders of the world to those 
 which I here see ? No. — I give up the vain attempt. I will look on these 
 mighty cataracts, and imprint them where they alone can be represented,— 
 on my mind!' The following very full and accurate description by Mr. 
 Schoolcraft, is the best with which we are acquainted. 
 
 ' On the first of May, I visited the celebrated Falls of Niagara. * Keep- 
 ing the American shore, the road lies over an alluvial country, elevated 
 from ten to twenty feet above the water of the river, without a hill or a 
 ledge of rocks, and with scarce an undulation of surface, to indicate the 
 existence, or prepare the eye for the stupendous prospect which bursts, 
 somewhat unexpectedly, into view. The day was clear and warm, with a 
 light breeze blowing down the river. We stopped frequently on our ap- 
 proach to listen for the sound of the Fall, but at the distance of fifteen, ten, 
 eight, and even five miles, could not distinguish any, even by laying the 
 ear to the ground. It was not until within three miles of the precipice, 
 where the road runs close to the edge of the river, and brings the rapids 
 in full view, that we could distinctly hear the sound, which then, owing to a 
 change in the wind, fell so heavily upon the ear, that in proceeding a short 
 distance, it was difficult to maintain a conversation as we rode along. On 
 reaching the Falls, nothing struck me with more surprise, than that the 
 Baron La Hontan, who visited it in August, 16S8, should have fallen into 
 so egregious a mistake, as to the height of the perpendicular pitch, which 
 he represents at seven or eight hundred feet. Nor does the narrator of the 
 discoveries of the unfortunate La Salle, Monsieur Tonti, approach much 
 nearer the truth, when he states it at six hundred feet. Charlevoix, whose 
 work is characterized by more accuracy, learning, and research, than those 
 who had preceded him, and who saw the Falls in 1721, makes, on the con- 
 trary, an estimate which is surprising for the degree of accuracy he has 
 attained. "For my own part," he says, "after examining it on all sides, where 
 it could be viewed to the greatest advantage, I am inclined to think we 
 cannot allow it less than a hundred and forty or fifty feet." The latter, 
 (one hundred and fifty,) is precisely what the Fall on the Canadian side is 
 now estimated at. There is a rapid of two miles in extent above, and 
 another of seven miles, extending to Lewiston, below the Falls. The 
 breadth across, at the brink of the Fall, which is serrated and irregular, is 
 
 * This is an Iroquois word, said to signify the thunder of waters, and the word as still 
 pronounced by the Senecas, is O-ni-dd-gdrdk, being strongly accented on the third sylla- 
 ble, while the interjection 0, is so feebly uttered, "that, without a nice attention, it may 
 escape notice. 
 
64 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 estimated at four thousand two hundred and thirty feet, or a little more 
 than three fourths of a mile. The Fall on the American shore is one hun- 
 dred and sixty-four feet, being the highest known perpendicular pitch of 
 so great a volume of water. The fall of the rapid above, commencing at 
 Chippewa, is estimated at ninety feet, and the entire fall of Niagara river 
 from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, a distance of thirty-five miles, at three 
 hundred feet. Goat Island, which divides the water into two unequal sheets, 
 has recently been called Iris, (in allusion to the perpetual rainbows by 
 which it is characterized) by the commissioners for settling the boundaries 
 of the United States, acting under the treaty of Ghent. 
 
 ' In approaching this cataract from Lewiston, the elevated and rocky 
 description of country it is necessary to cross, together with the increased 
 distance at which the roar is heard in that direction, must serve to prepare 
 the mind for encountering a scene which there is nothing to indicate on 
 approaching from Buffalo ; and this impression unquestionably continues to 
 exercise an effect upon the beholder, after his arrival at the Falls. The first 
 European visiters beheld it under this influence. Following the path of 
 the Couriers de Bois, they proceeded from Montreal up the St. Lawrence, 
 to Fort Caderacqui, and around the shores of Lake Ontario, to the alluvial 
 tract which stretches from the mouth of Niagara river, to the site of Lew- 
 iston. Here the Ridge, emphatically so called, commences, and the number 
 of elevations which it is necessary to ascend in crossing it, may, without a 
 proper consideration of the intermediate descents, have led those who for- 
 merly approached that way into error, such as La Hontan and Tonti fell 
 into. They must have been deprived also of the advantages of the view 
 from the gulf at the foot of the Falls, for we are not prepared to admit the 
 possibility of a descent without artificial stairs, or other analogous laborious 
 and dangerous works, such, as at that remote period, must have been looked 
 upon as a stupendous undertaking ; and could not, indeed, have been 
 accomplished, surrounded as the French then were, by their enemies, the 
 jealous and ever watchful Iroquois. The descent at the present period, 
 with every advantage arising from the labors of mechanical ingenuity, 
 cannot be performed without feeling some degree of personal solicitude. 
 
 It is in this chasm that the sound of the water falls heaviest upon the ear, 
 and that the mind becomes fully impressed with the appalling majesty of 
 the Fall. Other views from the banks on both sides of the river, and from 
 the Island of Iris in its centre, are more beautiful and picturesque; but it 
 is here that the tremulous motion of the earth, the clouds of irridescent 
 spray, the broken column of falling water, the stunning sound, the lofty 
 banks of the river, and the wide spreading ruin of rocks, imprint a character 
 of wonder and terror upon the scene, which no other point of view is capa- 
 hle of producing. The spectator, who, on alighting at Niagara, walks 
 hastily to the brink, feels his attention imperceptibly riveted to the novel 
 and striking phenomenon before him, and at this moment is apt either to 
 overrate or to underrate the magnitude of the Fall. It is not easy to erect 
 a standard of comparison; and the view requires to be studied, in order to 
 attain a just conception and appreciation of its grandeur and its beauties. 
 The ear is at first stunned by the incessant roar, and the eye bewildered in 
 the general view. In proportion as these become familiarized, we seize 
 upon the individual features of the landscape, and are enabled to distinguish 
 between the gay and the sombre, the bold and the picturesque, the harsh 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 65 
 
 and the mellow traits, which, like the deep contrasted shades of some high 
 wrought picture, contribute to give effect to the scene. 
 
 ' It was some time before I could satisfy myself of the accuracy of the 
 accredited measurements of the height of the Fall, and not until after I had 
 made repeated visits, and spent a considerable time in the abyss below. 
 There appears a great disproportion between the height and the width of the 
 falling sheet, but the longer I remained, the more magnificent it appeared 
 to me ; and hence it is, that with something like a feeling of disappoint- 
 ment, on my first arrival, I left the Falls after a visit of two days, with an 
 impression of the scene which every thing I had previously read, had failed 
 to create. At the time of my visit, the wind drove the floating ice out of 
 Lake Erie, with the drift-wood of its tributary rivers, and these were con- 
 stantly precipitated over the Falls, but we were not able to discover any 
 vestiges of them in the eddies below. Immediately in front of the sheet of 
 falling water on the American side, there was also an enormous hank of 
 snow, of nearly an hundred feet in height, which the power of the sun had 
 not yet been fierce enough to dissolve, and which, by giving an Icelandic 
 character to the landscape, produced a fine effect. It appeared to me f 
 owe its accumulation to the falling particles of frozen spray. 
 
 ' What has been said by Goldsmith, and repeated by others, respecti 
 the destructive influence of the rapids* above to ducks and other wa 
 fowl, is only an effect of the imagination. So far from being the case, 
 
 Bridge and Rapids above the Falls. 
 
 wild duck is often seen to swim down the rapid to the brink of the Falls, 
 and then fly out, and repeat the descent, seeming to take a delight in the 
 exercise. Neither are small land-birds affected on flying over the Falls, in 
 the manner that has been stated. I observed the blue-bird and the wren, 
 
 The grandeur of these rapids is worthy of the cataract in which they terminate. 
 In the greater branch, the river comes foaming down with prodigious impetuosity, and 
 presents a surface of agitated billows, dashing wildly through the rocks and islands. 
 This scene of commotion continues till within about thirty yards of the Fall. There 
 the great body of the stream resumes its tranquility, and in solemn grandeur descends 
 into the. cl-udy and unfathomable abyss. Never was there a nobler prelude to a sub' 
 lime catastrophe. — Colonel Hamilton. 
 
 9 6* 
 
66 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 which had already made their annual visit to the banks of the Niagara, 
 frequently fly within one or two feet of the brink, apparently delighted 
 with the gift of their wings, w r hich enabled them to sport over such fright- 
 ful precipices without danger. We are certainly not well pleased to find 
 that some of the wonderful stories we have read of the Falls, during boy- 
 hood, do not turn out to be the truth ; but, at the same time, a little attention 
 is only necessary to discover that many interesting facts and particulars 
 remain unnoticed, which fully compensate for others that have been over- 
 strained or misstated. Among these, the crystalline appearances disclosed 
 among the prostrate ruins, and the geological character of the Fall itself, 
 are not the least interesting. 
 
 ' The scenes where nature has experienced her greatest convulsions, are 
 always the most favorable for acquiring a knowledge of the internal struc- 
 ture of the earth. The peaks of the highest mountains, and the depths of 
 the lowest ravines, present the greatest attractions to the geologist. Hence 
 this cataract, which has worn its way for a number of miles, and to a very 
 great depth, through the stony crust of the earth, is no less interesting for 
 the geological facts it discloses, than for the magnificence of its natural 
 scenery. The chain of highlands, called the Ridge, originates in Upper 
 Canada, and running parallel with the south shore of Lake Ontario, forms 
 a natural terrace, which pervades the western counties of New-York, from 
 north to south, affording, by its unbroken chain, and the horizontal position 
 of its strata, the advantages of a natural road, and terminates in an unex- 
 plored part of the county of Oswego, or thereabout. It is in crossing this 
 ridge, that the falls of the Niagara, of the Gennessee, and of the Oswego 
 rivers, all running into Lake Ontario, are produced ; together with those of 
 an infinite number of smaller streams and brooks. Through this, the 
 Niagara has cut its way for a distance of seven miles, and to a depth of 
 more than two hundred feet, disclosing the number, order of stratification, 
 and mineral character, of the different strata of secondary rocks, of which 
 it is composed. 
 
 ' These rocks, (sandstone, slate, and limestone,) however their properties 
 ma be found modified by future discoveries, will probably be found, with 
 a proper allowance for local formations and disturbances, to pervade all 
 ection of country, which lies between the Niagara and Seneca rivers, 
 between lakes Ontario and Seneca, and between the Alleghany river and 
 the south shore of Lake Erie, as general boundaries. All this section of 
 country appears to be underlayed by a stratum of red sandstone, such as 
 appears at the Gennessee Falls, but which is imbedded at various depths, 
 as the country happens to be elevated above, or depressed below the level of 
 the Niagara stratum, in which no inclination is visible. No order of strati- 
 fication could have been effected by nature, which would have afforded 
 greater facilities to the wasting effects of falling water, so visible as these 
 Falls. The slate which separates the calcareous from the sandstone rock, 
 by a stratum of nearly forty feet in thickness, is continually fretting away, 
 and undermining the superincumbent stratum of limestone, which is thus 
 precipitated in prodigious masses into the abyss below. The most con- 
 siderable occurrence of this kind, that has recently taken place, is that of 
 the Table Rock,* on the Canadian shore, which fell during the summer of 
 
 * The Table Rock was a favorite point of view for many years, and the day prece- 
 ding the night on which it fell with tremendous noise, a number of visitors had .stood 
 with careless security upon it. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. g~ 
 
 ISIS, disclosing a number of those crystallized substances, whici) have 
 already been alluded to. By these means, the Falls, which are supposed 
 by the most intelligent visitors to have been anciently seated at Levviston, 
 have progressed seven miles up the river, cutting a trench through the 
 solid rock, which is about half a mile in width, and two hundred feet in 
 depth, exclusive of what is hidden by the water. The power, capable 
 of effecting such a wonderful change, still exists, and may be supposed 
 to operate with undiminished activity. The wasting effects of the water, 
 and the yielding nature of the rocks, remain the same, and manifest the 
 slow process of a change, at the present period, as to position, height, 
 form, division of column, and other characters, which form the outlines of 
 the great scene; and this change is probably sufficiently rapid in its opera- 
 tion, if minute observations were taken, to imprint a different character 
 upon the falls, at the close of every century.' 
 
 The Great Falls of the Missouri are the grandest in all North America, 
 those of Niagara excepted, and though inferior to these in volume of water, 
 depth of descent, and awful grandeur, yet they are far more diversified and 
 beautiful. These Falls are within sixty geographical miles of the eastern- 
 most range of the Rocky Mountains. Here the river, two hundred and 
 eighty yards, or eight hundred and forty feet wide, is pressed in by a per- 
 pendicular cliff on the left, one hundred feet high, and extending for a 
 mile up the river ; on the right, the bluff, or high steep bank, is also per- 
 pendicular for three hundred yards above the lulls. For ninety or one 
 hundred yards from the left cliff, the water falls in one smooth even sheet 
 over a precipice of eighty-seven feet eight inches, according to Captain 
 Lewis; but ninety-eight feet, according to Cass, and Captain Clarke. 
 The remaining part of the river precipitates itself with a more rapid cur- 
 rent; but being received as it falls by the irregular and projecting rocks be- 
 low, forms a splendid prospect of perfectly white loam, two hundred yards 
 in length, and eighty in perpendicular elevation. This spray is dissipat- 
 ed into a thousand different shapes ; sometimes flying up in columns of 
 fifteen or twenty feet, which are then oppressed by larger masses of the 
 white foam, on all which the sun impresses the brightest colors of the 
 rainbow. As it rises from the fall, it beats with fury against a ledge of 
 
 rocks extending across the river, al hundred and fifty yards from the 
 
 precipice. From the perpendicular cliff on the north, to the distance of 
 one hundred and twenty yards, the rocks rise only a few feet above the 
 surface of the water; and when the river is high, the stream finds a pas- 
 sage across them ; but between the southern extremity of this ledge and 
 the perpendicular cliff on the south, the whole body of water runs with 
 great rapidity. At the distance of three hundred yards is a second abut- 
 ment of solid perpendicular rock, sixty feet high, projecting at right angles 
 from the small plain on the north for one hundred and thirty-four yards in- 
 to the river. Below this, the Missouri regains its usual breadth of three 
 hundred yards, but there is a continued succession of rapids and cascades. 
 At the second grand fall, the river, four hundred yards wide, precipitates 
 itself, for the space of three hundred yards, to a depth of nineteen feet 
 perpendicular, and so irregularly, that Captain Lewis termed it the 
 Crooked Fall. 
 
 Above this fall, the Missouri bends suddenly to the northward, where, 
 four hundred and seventy-three yards wide, it is suddenly stopped by one 
 
PS BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 shelving rock, which without a single niche, and with an edge as straight 
 and regular as if it had been formed by art, stretches itself across from one 
 side of the river to the other. Over this the Missouri precipitates itself in 
 one even, uninterrupted sheet, of four hundred and seventy-three yards 
 broad to the perpendicular depth of forty-seven feet eight inches ; whence, 
 dashing against the rocky bottom, it rushes rapidly down, leaving behind 
 it a spray of the purest foam across the river. At the distance of less 
 than half a mile, another of a similar kind is presented. Here a cascade 
 stretches across the whole river, for a quarter of a mile, with a descent of 
 fourteen feet seven inches, though the perpendicular pitch is only six feet 
 seven inches. For the space of one thousand one hundred and seventy- 
 seven yards above this cascade the river descends fifteen feet. Immediate- 
 ly above this, one of the largest springs in America falls into the river. 
 Its water is cold, of the most perfect clearness, and of a bluish color, 
 which it preserves, even for half a mile after falling into the Missouri, not- 
 withstanding its rapidity. This fountain rises in the plain, twenty-five 
 yards from the river, on the south side. In its course to the river, it falls 
 over some steep, irregular rocks, with a sudden descent of eight feet perpen- 
 dicular, in one part of its progress. The water boils up from among the 
 rocks, and with such force near the centre that the surface seems higher 
 than the earth on the sides of the fountain, which is a handsome turf of 
 green grass. The water is pleasant to the taste, not being impregnated 
 with lime or any adventitious substance. For the space of a mile and 
 one thousand one hundred and sixty-six yards above the mouth of this 
 spring, the descent of the river is thirteen feet six inches. 
 
 During the upper part of its course, this river is remarkable for a suc- 
 cession of rapids, cascades, and cataracts, and in a course of about three 
 miles it has a descent of no less than three hundred and fifty-two feet. 
 
 On the Mississippi River are several sets of rapids. One called Les Ra- 
 pides des Moines, is eleven miles long, and consists of successive ledges 
 and shoals, extending from shore to shore across the bed of the river. One 
 hundred miles higher up is another, about eighteen miles in length, and 
 consisting of a continued chain of rocks, over which the water flows with 
 turbulent rapidity. 
 
 About thirty miles from its source, the Mississippi, after winding through 
 a dismal country, covered with high grass meadows, with pine swamps in 
 the distance, which appear to cast a deeper gloom on its borders, is sudden- 
 ly pent up in a channel about eighty feet wide, where it has a descent of 
 twenty feet in three hundred yards. This fall is called Peckagama. Im- 
 mediately at the head of the falls is the first island noticed in the river. 
 It is small, rocky, covered with spruce and cedar, and divides the channel 
 nearly in its centre. 
 
 St. Anthony's Falls are situated on the Mississippi river, more than two 
 thousand miles above its mouth. Above the falls, the river has a width of 
 five or six hundred yards. Immediately below, it contracts to a width of 
 two hundred yards ; and there is a strong rapid for a considerable distance 
 below. This beautiful spot in the Mississippi is not without a tale to hal- 
 low its scenery, and heighten the interest, which, of itself, it is calculated 
 to produce. In the narrative of Long's Second Expedition, we find the 
 following romantic story, related by an old Indian, whose mother was an 
 eye-witness to the transaction: 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 69 
 
 1 An Indian of the Dacota nation had united himself early in life to a 
 youthful female, whose name was Ampota Sapa, which signifies the Dark 
 Day; with her he lived happily for several years, apparently enjoying eve- 
 ry comfort which the savage life can afford. Their union had been bles- 
 sed with two children, on wdiom both parents doated with that depth of 
 
 St. Anthony '8 Falls. 
 
 feeling which is unknown to such as have other treasures besides those 
 that spring from nature. The man had acquired a reputation as a hunter, 
 which drew around him many families, who were happy to place them- 
 selves under his protection, and avail themselves of such part of his chase 
 as he needed not for the maintenance of his family. Desirous of strength- 
 ening their interest with him, some of them invited him to form a connec- 
 tion with their family, observing, at the same time, that a man of his talent 
 and importance required more than one woman to wait upon the nume- 
 rous guests whom his reputation would induce to visit his lodge. They as- 
 sured him that he would soon be acknowledged as a chief, and that, in this 
 case, a second wife was indispensable. 
 
 'Fired with the ambition of obtaining hi2;h honors, he resolved to in- 
 crease his importance by an union with the daughter of an influential man 
 of his tribe. He had accordingly taken a second wife withoiil ever having 
 mentioned the subject to his former companion; being desirous to intro- 
 duce his bride into his lodge in the manner which should be least offen- 
 sive to the mother of his children, for whom he still retained much regard, 
 he introduced the subject in these words : "You know," said he, " that I 
 can love no woman so fondly as I doat upon you. With regret have I seen 
 you of late subjected to toils which must be oppressive to you, and from 
 which I would gladly relieve you, yet I know no other way of doing so, 
 than by associating with you in the household duties, one who shall relieve 
 you from the trouble of entertaining the numerous guests, whom my grow- 
 ing importance in the nation collects around me. I have, therefore, re- 
 solved upon taking another wife, but she shall always be subject to your 
 control, as she will always rank in my affections second to yon." 
 
 ' With the utmost anxiety, and the deepest concern, did his companion 
 
70 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 listen to this unexpected proposal. She expostulated in the kindest terms, 
 entreated him with all the arguments which undisguised love and the 
 purest conjugal affections could suggest. She replied to all the objections 
 which his duplicity led him to raise. Desirous of winning her from her 
 opposition, the Indian still concealed the secret of his union with another, 
 while she redoubled all her care to convince him that she was equal, to the 
 task imposed upon her. When he again spoke on the subject, she pleaded 
 all the endearments of their past life; she spoke of his former fondness 
 for her, of his regard for her happiness and that of their mutual offspring; 
 she bade him beware of the consequences of this fatal purpose of his. 
 Finding her bent upon withholding her consent to this plan, he informed 
 her that all opposition on her part was unnecessary, as he had already se- 
 lected another partner, and that if she could not receive his new wife as 
 a friend, she must receive her as a necessary incumbrance, for he had re- 
 solved that she should be an inmate in his house. 
 
 'Distressed at this information, she watched her opportunity, stole 
 away from the cabin with her infants, and fled to a distance where her 
 father was. With him she remained until a party of Indians with whom he 
 lived, went up the Mississippi on a winter hunt. In the spring, as they 
 were returning with their canoes loaded with peltries, they encamped near 
 the Falls. In the morning as they left it, she lingered near the spot, then 
 launched her light canoe, entered into it with her children, and paddled 
 down the stream, singing her death-song. Too late did her friends per- 
 ceive it ; their attempts to prevent her from proceeding were of no avail ; 
 she was heard to sing in a doleful voice the past pleasures which she had 
 enjoyed, while she was the undivided object of her husband's affection; 
 finally her voice was drowned in the sound of the cataract ; the current 
 carried down her frail bark with an inconceivable rapidity ; it came to the 
 edge of the precipice, was seen for a moment enveloped in spray, but never 
 afterwards was a trace of the canoe or its passengers seen. Yet it is 
 stated by the Indians, that often in the morning a voice has been heard to 
 sing a doleful ditty along the edge of the fall, and that it dwells ever on 
 the inconstancy of her husband. Nay, some assert that her spirit has 
 been seen wandering near the spot with her children wrapped to her bosom. 
 Such are the tales or traditions which the Indians treasure up, and 
 which they relate to the voyager, forcing a tear from the eyes of the most 
 unrelenting.' 
 
 There are many other falls in the United States, which have been the 
 subject of no extended descriptions, but which would excite admiration 
 in any quarter of the world. In New York, the Great Falls of the 
 Genesee, about half a mile below Rochester, are ninety feet perpendicu- 
 lar, and a few rods above is another of five feet, surmounted by a rapid. 
 On the same river are several other falls. Trenton Falls are on West 
 Canada Creek, a tributary of the Mohawk, fourteen miles north of Utica ; 
 they consist of several grand and beautiful cascades, some of them forty 
 feet in descent. The river here passes through a rocky chasm four miles 
 in length, presenting the greatest variety of cascades and rapids, boiling 
 pools and eddies. The rock is a dark limestone, and contains abundance 
 of petrified marine shells. Glen's Falls are upon the Hudson, eighteen 
 miles above Saratoga, and are a grand rapid, falling sixty-seven feet in a 
 course of one hundred and seventy yards. Jessup's Falls and Hadley Falls 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 71 
 
 are beautiful cataracts on the same stream, a few miles above. Claverack 
 Falls are upon a stream near the city of Hudson ; they descend down a 
 precipice of dark rocks into a deep chasm shaded with forest trees. The 
 cataracts near Ithaca comprise four hundred and thirty-eight feet of descent 
 in a mile ; the fall of the Cohoes on the Mohawk is seventy feet. 
 
 At Bellows Falls, five miles from the town of Walpole, on the Connec- 
 ticut, the whole descent of the river, in the space of half a mile, is forty-four 
 feet ; and it includes several pitches, one below another, at the highest of 
 which a large rock divides the stream into two channels, each about ninety 
 feet wide. When the water is low, the eastern channel is dry, being crossed 
 by a solid rock, and the whole stream falls into the western channel, where, 
 being contracted to the breadth of sixteen feet, it flows with astonishing 
 force and rapidity. A bridge has been built over these falls, from which 
 an advantageous view is had of their interesting and romantic scenery. 
 Some years ago a canal, over half a mile long, was dug through the rocks 
 around the falls, for the passage of flat-bottomed boats and rafts. Not- 
 withstanding the velocity of the current, salmon used to pass up the fall 
 in great numbers. Amoskeag Falls, in the Merrimack, consist of three suc- 
 cessive pitches, falling nearly fifty feet. The Housatonic Falls, in the 
 north-west part of Connecticut, are the finest in New England. 
 
 Source of Passaic Falls. 
 
 The Passaic Falls, in Paterson, New Jersey, twenty-two miles north- 
 west of New York, are highly picturesque and beautiful. The 
 river Passaic rises in the northern part of New Jersey, and after a 
 circuitous course, falls into Newark Bay. At the town of Paterson, about 
 twenty miles from its mouth, is the Great Fall, where the river, about one 
 hundred and twenty feet wide, and running with a very swift current, 
 reaches a deep chasm, or cleft, which crosses the channel, and falls perpen- 
 dicularly about seventy feet, in one entire sheet. One end of the cleft is 
 closed up, and the water rushes out at the other with incredible rapidity, 
 in an acute angle to its former direction, and is received into a large basin. 
 It thence takes a winding course through the rocks, and spreads again into 
 a very considerable channel. The cleft is from four to twelve feet in 
 breadth, and is supposed to have been produced by an earthquake. When 
 
72 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 this cataract was visited by a late British traveller, the spray refracted two 
 beautiful rainbows, primary and secondary, which greatly assisted in pro- 
 ducing as fine a scene as imagination can conceive. It was also 
 heightened by the effect of another fall, of less magnificence, about ninety 
 feet above. 
 
 The spirit of utility, in its stern disregard of the picturesque, has diverted 
 the current of the Passaic into so many channels for the supply of manu- 
 factories, that the cascade is now an object of interest only during the wet 
 season. 
 
 The Potomac, which forms the boundary between the states of Mary- 
 land and Virginia, is navigable to the city of Washington ; above which it 
 is obstructed by several falls, of which the most remarkable are Little Falls, 
 three miles above Washington, with a descent of thirty-seven feet : Great 
 Falls, eight and a half miles further up, with a descent of seventy-six feet ; 
 which have been made navigable by means of five locks : Seneca Falls, 
 six miles above, descending ten feet : Shenandoah Falls, sixty miles 
 higher up the river, where the Potomac breaks through the Blue Ridge at 
 Harper's Ferry : Houre's Falls, five miles above the Shenandoah. 
 
 In addition to the cataracts above enumerated, we may notice the Falling 
 Spring, in Bath county, Virginia, which forms a beautiful cascade, stream- 
 ing from a perpendicular precipice, two hundred feet high ; and the Tuccoa 
 Fall, in Franklin county, Georgia, which, though one of the most beautiful 
 that can be conceived, is scarcely yet known to geographers. It is one 
 hundred and eighty-seven feet in height, and the water is propelled over a 
 perpendicular rock. When the stream is full, it pours over the steep in 
 one expansive magnificent sheet, amid clouds of spray, on which the pris- 
 matic colors are reflected with a most enchanting effect. 
 
 The cascades of the Catskill Mountains are very romantic and beautiful. 
 The Kaaterskill is formed by the union of two branches, one rising in two 
 lakes, about one and a half miles east of the western cascade, the other 
 about half the distance in a northerly direction. The best view of the 
 western fall is from below, the foliage above being so thick as in a great 
 measure to obscure it. Below the fall the banks of the stream, which are 
 nearly three hundred feet in height, rise almost perpendicularly from the 
 surface of the water. The following description is from the pen of Mr. 
 H. E. D wight. 
 
 ' The rocks on each side of the stream project so as partially to eclipse 
 the sides of the fall. They have fallen from time to time, in such a man- 
 ner as to form seventeen natural steps, rising one above another. We 
 stationed ourselves on these steps, to enjoy the scenery around us. Before 
 us the stream fell in a beautiful sheet, exhibiting its transparent waters, 
 when, striking the inclined plane, it rushed down with headlong fury, 
 bearing on its surface a foam of silvery whiteness. On the right and 
 left, the banks rose over our heads in silent grandeur, as if on the point of 
 detaching their projecting masses into the ravine where we were standing 
 while below us, the water was visible for about thirty rods, descending in 
 the form of a rapid, when, bending around the point of a projection of the 
 mountain, it disappeared from our view. The spray was so thick as to 
 make a dense cloud, on which the sun, shining with great brilliancy, and 
 being nearly vertical, imprinted a perfect rainbow. This bow, which was 
 not more than eight feet in diameter, formed a circle around us slightly 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 73 
 
 elliptical, near the centre of which we stood. As we approached the fall, 
 the spray thickened, the splendor of the colors increased, and the shrubs, 
 the rocks, and the water, were tinged with its choicest hues. To complete 
 the view, a small rivulet, caused by the late rains, fell about two hundred 
 feet, in the form of a cascade, down the precipice, on the southern bank of 
 the stream, displaying its crystal waters through the green foliage which 
 adorned it. We remained here enjoying the prospect for some minutes, 
 when, drenched with spray, we reluctantly bade it adieu, with all those 
 emotions which the sublimity and beauty of such a scene would naturally 
 awaken. 
 
 CatskiU Falls. 
 
 ' I visited the eastern cascade immediately after viewing the western 
 fall on the Kaaterskill, when the column of water was swollen to eight or 
 ten times its common size, and shall describe it, as it ,: i] ared. The 
 
 rock over which the water descend--, projects in such a manner that the 
 cascade forms part of a parabolic curve. After striking a rock below, it 
 runs down an inclined plane a few rods in length, when it rushes over 
 another precipice of one hundred feet. The column of water remained 
 entire for two thirds the descent, and its surface was covered with ">. rich 
 sparkling foam, which, as it fell, presented to the eye a brilliant emanation. 
 Here it was broken, and formed a continued succession of showers. Large 
 globules of water, of a soft, pearly lustre, enriched with a prismatic reflec- 
 tion, shot off in tangents to the curve of the cascade, and being drawn by 
 the attraction of gravitation, united again with the stream. The sun, 
 shining through a clear atmosphere, imprinted on it his glittering rays, 
 appearing like a moving column of transparent snow. The spray, rising 
 to the height of several hundred feet, was continually agitated by a strong 
 wind, which gave birth to a number of rainbows. They were elevated 
 one above the other, and increased in brilliancy towards the base of the 
 cascade, where, as well as at the lower fall, an iris spread its arch of glory, 
 tinging the rocks and foliage with its brightest colors. 
 
 ' The ground below these cascades continued descending at an angle of 
 forty-five degrees, forming a hollow like an inverted cone, of one thousand 
 10 7 
 
74 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 feet in depth. This was lined with lofty trees, whose verdant tops, vary- 
 ing from the dark hemlock to the li<rht maple, were bending with the 
 wind. Through this waving forest the cascade appeared at various dis- 
 tances, sparkling with the rays of the sun, and forming a fine contrast to 
 the sombre rocks which surrounded it. From this cavity, at the distance of 
 several miles, a peak rose to an elevation of two thousand, feet, while the 
 mountains on the right and left, impressed their bold outlines on the sky 
 beyond them. 
 
 ' The best view of this scene, is a few rods from the base of the lower 
 fall. These cascades are both of them in a direct line, and by standing in 
 this position can be united in one. By raising your eyes, a fall of four 
 hundred feet appears precipitated from the precipices above, apparently 
 ready to overwhelm you, while the rocks above overhang the abyss in 
 wild sublimity, threatening you with destruction. 
 
 'The appearance of the upper cascade, in the middle of winter, is very 
 interesting. The rock over which the stream descends, projects in such a 
 manner, that the icicles, which form in that season, meet with no interrup- 
 tion in their descent towards the base of the fall. The water, which strikes 
 the rocks below, begins to congeal and rise (between the column of water 
 and the rock) towards the icicles above. These project towards the base, 
 increasing in magnitude from day to day, while the column from below 
 is greatly enlarged by the water and the spray, which, immediately con- 
 gealing, in a short time surround the stream. A column of ice, resemb- 
 ling a rude cone, of between two and three hundred feet, is thus formed, 
 through the centre of which the stream pours its current, dwindled, by the 
 congelation of its waters, to one tenth its common size. When illumined 
 by the rays of the sun, it presents a transparent column glowing with bril- 
 liancy, reflecting and refracting its rays in such a manner as to present all 
 the colors of the prism- It remains some weeks, a striking example of the 
 power of hoary frost, when, partly dissolved by the genial warmth of 
 spring, it falls, scattering its thousand fragments on the rocks around it.' 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON CATARACTS AND CASCADES. 
 
 Rivers which descend from primitive mountains into the secondary lands often form 
 cascades and cataracts. Such are the cataracts of the Nile, of the Ganges, and some other 
 great rivers, which, according to Desmarets, evidently mark the limits of the ancient 
 land. Cataracts are also formed by lakes, and of this description are the Falls of Nia- 
 gara ; but the most picturesque falls are those of rapid rivers, bordered by trees and pre- 
 cipitous rocks. Sometimes we see a body of water, which, before it arrives at the 
 bottom, is broken and dissipated into showers, like the Staubach ; sometimes it forms 
 a watery arch, projected from a rampart of rock, under which the traveller may pass 
 dry shod, as the Falling Spring of Virginia ; in. one place, in a granite district, we see 
 the Trolhetta, and the Rhine not far from its source, urge on their foaming billows 
 amongst the pointed rocks ; in another, amidst lands of calcareous formation, we see 
 the Czettina, and the Kerka, rolling down from terrace to terrace, and presenting some- 
 times a sheet and sometimes a wall of water. Some magnificent cascades have been 
 formed, at least in part, by the hands of man : the cascades of Velino, near Terni,have 
 been attributed to Pope Clement VIII. ; other cataracts, like those of Tunguska in Sibe- 
 ria, have gradually lost their elevation by the wearing away of the rocks, and have now 
 only a rapid descent. The Falls of Staubach are the highest ever known, being nme 
 hundred feet according to trigonometrical measurement. 
 
75 
 
 CHAPTER VI.— LAKES. 
 
 Lake Superior is the largest body of fresh water in the world, being 
 four hundred miles in length, one hundred at its greatest breadth, and, ac- 
 cording to the most moderate computation, over twelve hundred miles in 
 circumference. Its shores are rocky and uneven, and it has a rocky bot- 
 tom. Its waters are pure and transparent, and it has been remarked, that, 
 although during the summer, the waters on its surface be warm, neverthe- 
 less, by letting a cup down about a fathom, water may be taken up nearly 
 as cold as ice. In abounds in fish, particularly sturgeon and long trout, 
 many of which are from fifty to seventy pounds weight, and constitute the 
 principal food of the Algonquin Indians on its borders. This lake has 
 five large islands, * one of which, called Isle Royal, is not less than a hun- 
 dred miles in length, and in some places forty in breadth. More than forty 
 rivers discharge themselves into it, the two largest called the Nipegon and 
 the Michipicooton, from the north and north-east sides. A small river which 
 runs into it, not far from the Nipegon, falls from the top of a mountain 
 more than six hundred feet perpendicular; appearing at a distance, to use 
 Mr. Carver's homely comparison, like a white garter suspended in the air. 
 On the banks of one of the rivers which fall into its south side, virgin 
 
 * One of these, the Island of Yellow Sands, derives its chief interest from the tradi- 
 tions and fanciful talcs which the Indians relate concerning its mineral treasures, and 
 their supernatural guardians. They pretend that its shores are covered with a he 
 shining yellow sand, which they would persuade us is gold, but that the guardian spirit of 
 the island will not permit any of it to be carried away. To enforce his commands, he, 
 has drawn together upon it, myriads n[' eagles, hawks, and other birds of prey, who by 
 their cries warn him of any intrusions upon the domain, and assist with their claws I 
 beaks to expel the enemy. He has also called from the depths of the laki 
 of the most hideous forms, who lie thickly coiled upon the golden sands, and his's 
 ance to the steps of the invader. A greal many years ago, it is pretended, thai - 
 people of their nation were driven, by stress of weather, to take shelter upon the en- 
 chanted island, and being struck with the beautiful and glitteri ace of the 
 treasure, they put a large quantity of it into their canoes, and attempted to carry it off, 
 but a gigantic spirit strode into the water, and. in a voice of thunder, commanded th m 
 to bring it back. Terrified with his amazing size, and threatening aspei i. they obeyed, 
 and were afterwards suffered to depart without molestation, but they have never since 
 attempted to land upon it. 
 
 'Listen, white man — go not there, 
 
 Unseen spirits stalk the air; 
 
 Ravenous birds their inlluence lend, 
 
 Snakes defy — and kites defend. 
 
 There the star-eyed panther prowls, 
 
 And the wolf in hunger howls ; 
 
 There the speckled adder breeds, 
 
 And the famished eagle feeds ; 
 
 Spirits keep them — fiends incite, 
 
 They are eager for the fight, 
 
 And are thirsting night and day, 
 
 On the human heart to prey ; 
 
 Touch not then the guarded lands 
 
 Of the Isle of Yellow Sands.'— Journal of Travel* 
 
7G BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 copper has been found. The storms which occur on this lake are felt 
 as severely as on the Atlantic, the waves run equally high, and the naviga- 
 tion is perhaps more dangerous.* When the wind blows from the east, 
 the waters are driven against the high rocks of the northern and western 
 shores, where they form a thick vapor resembling rain ; and this action of 
 the wind creates an irregular ebb and flow. This never exceeds ten or 
 twelve inches ; but the strong traces of the water on the rocks of the shore 
 show, that, at no very remote period, they were elevated six feet above the 
 present level. Mackenzie states, that some years ago the waters suddenly 
 Avithdrew near the Great Portage; then rushed back with great velocity 
 above the common mark; and, after rising and falling during several hours, 
 they settled at their usual level. 
 
 Notwithstanding its being fed by so many rivers, Lake Superior has but 
 one outlet by the Straits of St. Mary. At the upper end of these straits, 
 there is a rapid which cannot be ascended, but has sometimes been descend 
 ed, although the descent requires both skill and caution, and perhaps not a 
 little good fortune. A canal has been cut by the North- West Company, 
 along the northern banks, for the purpose of facilitating their commerce, and 
 they have here a considerable establishment ; but their chief fort and store- 
 houses are situated at Kamenestiquia, on the banks of a river which flows 
 into Lake Superior, on the north-west side, and affords an easy communica- 
 tion with the interior. The Strait of St. Mary, it is supposed, does not dis- 
 charge one tenth of the waters which the lake receives from its numerous 
 rivers ; part of the remainder escapes by evaporation, but how the whole is 
 discharged is yet a secret. It does not appear, however, that an exact cal- 
 culation has hitherto been made, either of the quantity discharged or the 
 quantity received. This lake lies between forty-six and fifty degrees north 
 latitude, and eighty-four and ninety-three degrees west longitude. 
 
 Lake Huron, into which you enter by the Straits of St. Mary, is next in 
 magnitude to Lake Superior. It lies between forty-three and forty-six de- 
 grees north latitude, and between eighty and eighty-five degrees west longi- 
 tude; in shape it is nearly triangular, and its circumference is about a thou- 
 sand miles. On the Canada side of this lake is an island one hundred miles 
 in length, and no more than eight in breadth ; it is called Manataulin, sig- 
 nifying a place of spirits, and is considered as sacred by the native Indians. 
 About the middle of the south-west side of the lake is Saginaw Bay, 
 about eighty miles in length, and twenty broad ; Thunder Bay, so called 
 
 * Charlevoix observes, ' when a storm is about to rise on Lake Superior, you are ad- 
 vertised of it two or three days previous. At first you perceive a gentle murmuring on 
 the surface of the water, which lasts the whole day without increasing in any sensible 
 manner ; the day after, the lake is covered with pretty large waves, but without break- 
 ing all thai day, so that you may proceed without fear, and even make good way, 
 if the wind is favorable; but on the third day, when you are the least thinking of 
 it, the lake becomes all on fire, the ocean in its greatest rage is not more tost, in which 
 case you must take care to be near shelter, to save yourself. This you are always sure 
 to find on the north shore, whereas on the south you are obliged to secure yourself the 
 second day at a considerable distance from the water side.' Although we are not pre- 
 pared to corroborate this remark, yet something of the kind has this day been witnessed, 
 for notwithstanding the prevalence of a calm during the whole day, with the exception 
 of about two hours in the morning, when the wind was however light, the lake towards 
 evening has been in a perfect rage, and we effected a landing with greater hazard than 
 lias yet been encountered. At the same time scarce a breath of air was stirring, and 
 the atmosphere was beautifully clear. — Schoolcraft. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 77 
 
 from the continual thunder heard there, lies about half way between Sag- 
 inaw Bay and the north-west corner of the lake : it is about nine miles 
 across either way. The fish are the same as in Lake Superior. The 
 promontory that separates this lake from Lake Michigan is a vast plain, 
 more than one hundred miles long, and varying from ten to fifteen miles in 
 breadth. At the north-east corner, this lake communicates with Lake Mi- 
 chigan by the Straits of Michilimackinac. It is very remarkable, that al- 
 though there is no daily flood or ebb to be perceived in the waters of these 
 straits, yet from an exact attention to their state, a periodical alteration in 
 them has been discovered. It has been observed that they rise by gradual, 
 but almost imperceptible degrees, till in seven years and a half they had 
 reached the height of about three feet; and in the same space of time they 
 gradually fell to their former state; so that in fifteen years they had com- 
 pleted this revolution. This, however, is not well established.* 
 
 Lake Michigan, formerly called Lake Illinois, and Lake Dauphin, ex- 
 tends from the western angle of Lake Huron in a southerly direction, and 
 is separated from Lake Superior by the tongue of land which is described 
 above. It lies wholly within the territory of the United States, between 
 the parallels of forty-two and forty-six degrees. Its waters are said to be 
 unfathomable. At the southern extremity of Lake Michigan is Chicago 
 Creek, by which, in the rainy season, the head-waters of the Illinois com- 
 municate with the lake ; but the bar at the mouth of the creek does not ad- 
 mit boats draAving above two feet of water. A number of streams flow 
 into the lake, on both the western and the eastern sides. It abounds, like 
 the others, with excellent fish. 
 
 ' Lake Michigan,' says Mr. Schoolcraft, 'from its great depth of water, its 
 bleak and unguarded shores — and its singular length and direction, which is 
 about four hundred miles from north to south, appears to be peculiarly ex- 
 posed to the influence of the currents of the atmosphere, to whose agency 
 we may attribute, at least in part, the appearances of a tide, which are 
 more striking upon the shores of this, than of any of the other great lakes. 
 The meteorological observations which have been made, in the Transalle- 
 ghanian states, indicate the winds to prevail, either north or south, through 
 the valley of the Mississippi ; but seldom across it, so that the surface of 
 this lake would be constantly exposed to agitation, from the atmosphere. 
 These winds would almost incessantly operate, to drive the waters through 
 the narrow strait of Michilimackinac, either into Lake Huron or Lake Mi- 
 chigan, until, by their natural tendency to an equilibrium, the waters thus 
 pent, would react, after attaining a certain height, against the current of 
 the most powerful winds, and thus keep up an alternate flux and reflux, 
 which would always appear more sensibly in the extremities and bays of 
 the two lakes; and with something like regularity, as to the periods of os- 
 cillation ; the velocity of the water, however, being governed by the vary- 
 ing degrees of the force of the winds.' 
 
 * There is reason to conclude, that a well conducted series of experiments will prove 
 that there are no regular tides in the lakes, at least that they do not ebb and flow twice 
 in twenty-four hours like those of the ocean ; that the oscillary motion of the waters is 
 not attributable to planetary attraction ; that it is very variable as to the periods of its 
 flux and reflux, depending upon the levels of the several lakes, their length, depth, di- 
 rection and conformation — upon the prevalent winds and temperatures, and upon othe, 
 extraneous causes, which are in some measure variable in their nature, and unsteady i.a 
 their operations. — Schoolcraft. 
 
 7* 
 
78 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Lake St. Clair lies about half way between Lakes Huron and Erie, and 
 is about ninety miles in circumference. Jt receives the waters of the 
 three great lakes, Superior, Michigan, and Huron, and discharges them 
 through the river or strait called Detroit, into Lake Erie. It is of a circu- 
 lar form, and navigable for large vessels, except a bar of sand toward the 
 middle, which prevents loaded vessels from passing. 
 
 Lake Erie is situated between forty-one and forty-three degrees of north 
 latitude, and between seventy-nine and eighty-three degrees west longi- 
 tude. It is two hundred and eighty miles long ; opposite Cleveland, in the 
 state of Ohio, it is about sixty miles broad, to the eastward it is above 
 seventy. The average breadth is from fifty to sixty miles ; and its medium 
 depth from forty to one hundred and twenty feet. The water is pure and 
 wholesome, and abounds with fish ; such as sturgeon, white-fish, trout, 
 and perch. The lake does not freeze in the middle, but is frequently 
 frozen on both sides ; and sometimes in winter, when the wind is variable, 
 the ice exhibits a singular phenomenon ; a south wind blows it all to the 
 Canada shore, and a north wind again dislodges it, and brings it back to 
 the American side. There are a number of islands in the west end of 
 the lake, containing from eight hundred to two thousand acres of land, and 
 the scenery amongst them is charming ; but all these islands are so infest- 
 ed with snakes, that in the height of summer it is really dangerous to land. 
 This is the more to be regretted, as the fine timber which grows upon them 
 indicates that the soil must be uncommonly fertile. But, in defiance of 
 the snakes, many of the islands are rapidly settling, and are found to be 
 very healthy and agreeable places of residence. This and the other lakes 
 are navigated by vessels of from seventy to eighty tons, which carry 
 goods and provisions as far as the head of Lake Superior, and bring back 
 furs and peltry. The navigation is good through the whole distance, 
 except in Lake St. Clair, where the water is shallow, and vessels are some- 
 times obliged to lighten. 
 
 Lake Ontario is situated between forty-three and forty-four degrees of 
 north latitude, and between seventy-six and eighty degrees west longitude. 
 It is about two hundred miles in length and forty in width ; its form nearly 
 oval, and its circumference about six hundred miles. It abounds with fish 
 of an excellent flavor, among which are the Oswego bass, weighing three 
 or four pounds. Near the south-east part it receives the waters of the Oswe- 
 go river, and on the north-east it discharges itself into the St. Lawrence. 
 It is never entirely closed by ice, and is computed from some soundmgs to 
 be five hundred feet deep. The Ridge Road, or Alluvial Way, is a re- 
 markable ridge extending along the south shore of this lake, from Roches- 
 ter on the Gennessee to Lewiston on the river Niagara, eighty-seven miles. 
 It is composed of common beach sand and gravel stones worn smooth, and 
 these are intermixed with small shells. Its general width is from four to 
 eight rods, and it is raised in the middle with a handsome crowning arch, 
 from six to ten feet. Its general surface preserves a very uniform level, 
 being raised to meet the unevenness of the ground which it covers. At the 
 rivers Gennessee and Niagara, its elevation is about one hundred and twenty 
 or thirty feet ; and this is its elevation above Lake Ontario, from which 
 it is distant between six and ten miles. There seems to be no way of 
 accounting for this ridge, without supposing that the surface of Lake 
 Ontario was one hundred and thirty feet higher at some former period than 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 79 
 
 it is at present. There is a similar ridge for one hundred and twenty- 
 miles, on the south side of Lake Erie. 
 
 Lake Champlain lies between the states of New York and Vermont, and 
 communicates with Lower Canada by the river Sorelle, which falls into the 
 St. Lawrence forty-five miles below Montreal. It is about ene hundred 
 and twenty miles in length, and of various breadths : for the first thirty 
 miles, that is, from South river to Crown Point, it is nowhere above two 
 miles wide ; beyond this, for the distance of twelve miles, it is five or six 
 miles across, it then narrows, and again at the end of a few miles expands. 
 That part called the Broad Lake, commences about twenty-five miles north 
 of Crown Point, and is eighteen miles across in the widest part. Here 
 the lake is interspersed with a great number of islands, the largest of 
 which, named South Hero, is fifteen miles in length, and averages four in 
 breadth. The soil of this island is very fertile, and more than seven hun- 
 dred people are settled upon it. The Broad Lake is nearly fifty miles in 
 length, and gradually narrows till it terminates in the river Sorelle. Lake 
 Champlain, except at the narrow parts at either end, is in general very 
 deep ; in many places sixty and seventy, and in some even a hundred 
 fathoms. The scenery along various parts of the lake is extremely beau- 
 tiful, the shores being highly ornamented with hanging woods and rocks, 
 and the mountains on the western side rise up in ranges, one behind the 
 other, in the most magnificent manner. 
 
 Remains of Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point, important positions 
 during the old French wars, are found at two great bends of this lake. 
 On the 11th of September, 1S14, Commodore McDonough, commander 
 of the American fleet, gained a complete victory over the British fleet in 
 Cumberland Bay, directly in front of the town of Plattsburg. 
 
 This lake opens a ready communication between New York and the 
 country bordering on the St. Lawrence. Through the town of White- 
 hall, which stands at the head of the lake, a considerable trade is carried 
 on across Champlain with Lower Canada. On the British end of the 
 lake, one hundred and fifty miles from Whitehall, stands the garrison 
 town of St. John's. 
 
 Lake George, which discharges itself into Lake Champlain, is the most 
 beautiful sheet of water in the whole country. It is thirty-six miles long, 
 and from two to four broad. It is situated in the eastern part of the state 
 of New-York. Its waters are deep and remarkably transparent, and from 
 their extreme limpidness, the French gave them the name of the Lake of 
 the Holy Sacrament. The shores consist of abrupt and shelving points, 
 and are bounded by two long ranges of mountains,* sometimes rising boldly 
 
 * The mountains are all primitive : they form a double barrier, between which the 
 lake, scarcely a mile wide, but occasionally expanded into a large bay, winds its way. 
 They are steep and precipitous to the very water's edge. They are "still clothed with 
 grand trees, and possessed by wild animals — deer, rattlesnakes and bears. They give, 
 in some places, the most distinct and astonishing echoes, returning every flexion of the 
 voice with the most faithful response. We saw them hung with the solemn drapery of 
 thunder clouds, dashed by squalls of wind and rain, and soon after decorated with rain- 
 bows, whose arches did not surpass the mountain ridges, while they terminated in the 
 lake, and attended our little skiff for many miles. The setting sun also gilded the moun- 
 tains and the clouds that hovered over them, and the little islands, which in great num- 
 bers rise out of the lake, and present green patches of shrubbery and trees apparently 
 springing from the water, and often resembling, by their minuteness and delicacy, the 
 clumps of a park, or even the artificial groups of a green-house. Fine as is the scenery 
 
80 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 from the water, and at others ascending - with a gentle and graceful sweep, 
 exhibiting naked and weather-beaten cliffs and wild forests, intermixed with 
 fine cultivated fields, lawns and pastures. The village of Caldwell stands 
 on the south-eastern side of the lake, and is much visited by travellers who 
 come to enjoy the fine scenery in the neighborhood. A steam-boat plies 
 upon the lake in summer. 
 
 The islands of the lake are said to be three hundred and sixty-five in 
 number. They are of every form and size, and contribute greatly to the 
 romantic beauty of its surface. Some of them are covered with trees, 
 others are thinly wooded, and others are abrupt and craggy rocks. Dia- 
 mond Island abounds in crystals of quartz. Long Island contains one 
 hundred acres, and is under cultivation. At a place called the Narrows, 
 the lake is contracted, and its surface is covered with a most beautiful clus- 
 ter of islands which extends for several miles. Some of them are covered 
 with trees, some show little lawns or spots of grass, heaps of barren rocks, 
 or gently sloping shores ; and most of them are ornamented with pines 
 hemlocks, and other tall trees, solitary or in groups, and disposed with the 
 most charming variety. Sometimes an island will be found just large enough 
 to support a few fine trees, or perhaps a single one, while the next may 
 appear like a solid mass of bushes and wild flowers ; near at hand, per- 
 haps, is a third, with a dark grove of pines, and a decaying old trunk in 
 front of it; and thus, through every interval between the islands, as you 
 pass along, another and another labyrinth is opened to view, among little 
 isolated spots of ground, divided by narrow channels, from which it seems 
 impossible for a man who has entered them ever to find his way out. Some 
 of the islands look almost like ships with their masts ; and many have an 
 air of lightness, as if they were sailing upon the lake. 
 
 After passing the Narrows, the lake widens again, and the retrospect is 
 for several miles through that passage with ranges of rounded mountain 
 summits appearing at a great distance between them. The lake contains 
 abundance of the finest perch, bass, and other fish ; tfout are found in a 
 stream flowing into the southern part. Near the southern shore, are the 
 ruins of Fort William Henry and Fort George, celebrated in the early wars 
 of the French. 
 
 The state of New-York contains a vast number of small lakes. There 
 is scarcely a stream in the northern part of this state, but that has its 
 source in one of these, or runs through several in its progress, whether to 
 
 at the southern end of the lake, and in all the wider parts of it, within the compass of the 
 first twelve miles from Fort George, its grandeur is very much augmented, after passing 
 Tongue Mountain aud entering the narrow part, where the mountains close in upon you 
 on both sides, and present an endless diversity of grand and beautiful scenery. It is a 
 pleasing reflection, that even after this part of the United States shall have become as 
 populous as England or Holland, this lake will still retain the fine peculiarities of its 
 scenery ; for they are too bold, too wild, and too untractable, ever to be materially soften- 
 ed and spoiled by the hand of man. 
 
 The deer are still hunted with success upon the borders of this lake. The hounds 
 drive them from the recesses of the mountains, when they take refuge in the water, and 
 the huntsmen, easily overtaking them in an element not their own, seize them by the 
 horns, knock them on the head, and dragging their necks over the side of the boat, cut 
 their throats. There is a celebrated mountain about fourteen miles from Ticonderoga, 
 called Buck Mountain, from the fact that a buck, pursued by the dogs, leaped from its 
 summit, overhanging the lake in the form of a precipice, and was literally impaled 
 alive upon a sharp pointed tree, winch projected below. — Journal of Science. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 81 
 
 the great lakes or to Hudson's river. Seneca Lake, in the western part of 
 the state, is about thirty-five miles in length, from two to four in breadth, 
 and of great depth. The water of this lake has a gradual periodical rise 
 and fall, once in several years, the cause of which has never been ascer- 
 tained. The view from the height of land between Seneca and the adjacent 
 lakes is extensive and agreeable. Cayuga Lake is thirty-eight miles long 
 from north to south, and from one to four miles wide ; in some places the 
 shore of this lake is precipitous, but in general it is a gentle declivity from 
 the surrounding country to the water. The waters are somewhat shallow, 
 but sufficient for navigation. Several steam-boats ply upon them, and are 
 often crowded by water parties in the fine season. A bridge of a mile in 
 length crosses the north end of the lake. 
 
 Oneida Lake is a beautiful sheet of water, twenty miles long and four 
 broad. It is famous for the abundance and excellence of its fish. ' I 
 made a small excursion along the border of this lake,' says Mr. Schultz, 
 'and although the shore was low, yet I found a firm, dry, white sandy 
 beach to walk upon ; some other parts of it, however, I was informed, were 
 low and swampy. I was much amused in the evening by a singular illu- 
 mination upon the lake, which I was at first wholly unable to account for. 
 The water at this part of the lake, it seems, is very shallow for nearly half 
 a mile from the shore, and being perfectly transparent, and the bottom a 
 white sand, the smallest object may be readily distinguished. The Indians 
 have a method of taking salmon and other fish by means of an iron frame 
 fixed in the bow of the canoe, projecting forward three or four feet, and 
 elevated about five ; upon this they kindle a bright fire of pine knots, and 
 while one person sits in the stern with a paddle to impel the boat forward, 
 another stands in the bow with a sharp spear ready to strike the fish who 
 
 fday about the light. Ten or twelve of these canoes moving about irregu- 
 arly on the lake, on a fine calm evening, with the reflection of their 
 lights, like so many lines of fire, i stending from each object to a centre on 
 which you stand, afford a most pleasing prospect, and far exceeds in my 
 opinion the most brilliant display of artificial fireworks.' 
 
 Among the smaller lakes of New York are Onondago, Skeneatiles, 
 Oivasco, Canandaigua, Otsego, Caniadebago, Oswegatchie, Cross, Hem- 
 lock, Hanyaga, Cancsus, Crooked, and Chatauque. The latter is the most 
 western of all these lakes, near the north-east extremity of Lake Erie; 
 it is only eight miles distant from its shore, and the descent to Lake Erie 
 is by an easy slope. From this small lake issues one of the branches of 
 the Alleghany river, called Conewango, which is navigable for small craft 
 in all its extent. 
 
 New Hampshire contains several fine lakes, the largest of which is 
 Winnipiseogee, situated east of the centre of the state, and towards the 
 west side of Strafford county. It is a picturesque sheet of water, of 
 irregular form, twenty-two miles in length, and varying in breadth from 
 one to ten miles. Several long capes stretch into it from both si 
 almost dividing it into several parts. From the southern extremity of this 
 lake to the north-west corner, there is good navigation in the summer, and 
 generally a good road in the winter ; the lake is frozen about three months 
 m the year, and many sleighs and teams, from the surrounding towns, 
 cross it on the ice. 
 
 J)r. Dwight has described this lake, as it appears from the top of Red 
 
82 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mountain, with his usual felicity. ' Immediately at the foot of the height 
 on which we stood, and in the bottom of the immense valley below, spread 
 south-eastward the waters of the Winnipiseogee in complete view ; except 
 that one or two of its arms were partially concealed by intervening penin- 
 sulas. A finer object of the same nature was perhaps never seen. The 
 lakes, which I had visited in my northern and western excursions, were all 
 of them undivided masses, bordered by shores comparatively straight. This 
 was, centrally, a vast column, if I may be allowed the term, twenty-three 
 
 Winnipiseogee Lake. 
 
 miles in length, and from six to eight in breadth, shooting out with inimi- 
 table beauty a succession of arms, some of them not inferior in length to 
 the whole breadth of the lake. These were fashioned with every elegance 
 of figure, bordered with the most beautiful winding shores, and studded 
 with a multitude of islands. Their relative positions, also, could scarcely 
 be more happy. 
 
 ' Many of the islands are large, exquisitely fashioned, and arranged in a 
 manner not less singular than pleasing. As they met the eye, when sur- 
 veyed from this summit, they were set in groups on both sides the great 
 channel, and left this vast field of water unoccupied between them. Their 
 length was universally at right angles to that of the lake ; and they ap- 
 peared as if several chains of hills originally crossing the country in that 
 direction, had, by some convulsion, been merged in the water so Ioav, that 
 no part of them was left visible, except the oblong segments of their sum- 
 mits. Of those, which, by their size and situation, were most conspicuous, 
 I counted forty-five, without attempting to enumerate the smaller ones, or 
 such as were obscured. The points, which intrude into this lake, are* 
 widely different from those of Lake George ; bold, masculine bluffs, imping- 
 ing directly upon the water. These, in several instances, were spacious 
 peninsulas, fitted to become rich and delightful residences of man, often 
 elevated into handsome hills, and sloping gracefully into the lake.' 
 
 Umbagog Lake is situated partly in the north-east corner of the state, and 
 is next in size to Winnipiseogee; it lies chiefly in Maine. The others of 
 New Hampshire are Ossipee, Sanapee, Squam, and Neivfound. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 83 
 
 There are several large, and a vast number of small lakes in the state of 
 Maine. Moosehead Lake, the largest in New England, is the source of 
 the east branch of the Kennebeck, and is fifty miles in length by ten or 
 fifteen in breadth. Sebago Lake, in Cumberland county, is twelve miles 
 long. Chesuncook Lake is twenty miles long and three broad. In Ver- 
 mont, besides Lake Champlain, which separates this state from New York 
 on the west, there are other lakes of minor importance, deserving of 
 notice. Lake Memphremagog, thirty-five miles in length and three wide, lies 
 chiefly in Canada, and communicates with the St. Lawrence by the river St. 
 Francis. Willoughby Lake, six miles long and one wide, discharges its 
 waters into Memphremagog by the river Barton. This lake furnishes fish 
 resembling bass, of an excellent flavor, weighing from ten to thirty pounds. 
 
 A number of small lakes occur towards the sources of the Mississippi. 
 Lake Pepin is an expansion of this mighty river, about one hundred miles 
 below the Falls of St. Anthony. It has been very fully and beautifully 
 described by Mr. Schoolcraft. 
 
 ' It is twenty-four miles in length, with a width of from two to four miles, 
 and is indented with several bays, and prominent points, which serve to 
 enhance the beauty of the prospect. On the east shore, there is a lofty 
 range of limestone bluffs, which are much broken and crumbled, some- 
 times run into pyramidal peaks, and often present a character of the 
 utmost sublimity. On the west, there is a high level prairie, covered with 
 the most luxuriant growth of grass, and nearly destitute of forest trees. 
 From this plain several conical hills ascend, which, at a distance, present 
 the appearance of vast artificial mounds or pyramids, and it is difficult to 
 reconcile their appearance with the general order of nature, by any other 
 hypothesis. This lake is beautifully circumscribed by a broad beach of 
 clean washed gravel, which often extends from the foot of the surrounding 
 highlands, three or four hundred yards into the lake, forming gravelly | 
 upon which there is a delightful walk, and scalloping out the margin of 
 the lake with the most pleasing irregularity. In walking along these, the 
 eye is attracted by the various colors of the mineral gems, which are pro- 
 miscuously scattered among the water-worn debris of granitic and other 
 rocks, and the cornelian, agate, and chalcedony, are met with at every step. 
 The size of these gems is often as large as the egg of the partridge, and the 
 transparency and beauty of color is only excelled by the choicest oriental 
 specimens. There is no perceptible current in the lake, during calm 
 weather, and the water partakes so little of the turbid character of the 
 lower Mississippi, that objects can be distinctly seen through it, at the depth 
 of eight or ten feet. 
 
 ' In passing though Lake Pepin, our interpreter pointed out to us a high 
 precipice, on the east shore of the lake, from which an Indian girl, of the 
 Sioux nation, had, many years ago, precipitated herself in a fit of disap- 
 pointed love. She had given her heart, it appears, to a young chief of 
 her own tribe, who was very much attached to her, but the alliance was 
 opposed by her parents, who wished her to marry an old chief, renowned 
 for his wisdom and his influence in the nation. As the union was insist- 
 ed upon, and no other way appearing to avoid it, she determined to sacri- 
 fice her life in preference to a violation of a former vow, and while the 
 preparations for the marriage feast were going forward, left her father's 
 cabin, without exciting suspicion, and before she could be overtaken threw 
 
84 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 herself from an awful precipice, and was instantly clashed to a thousand 
 pieces. Such an instance of sentiment is rarely to be met with among 
 barbarians, and should redeem the name of this noble-minded girl from 
 oblivion. It was Oola-Ita.' 
 
 Cassina or Red Cedar Lake derives some importance from having been 
 designated as the true source- of the Mississippi river. It is about eight 
 miles long and six in breadth, and presents a beautiful sheet of transparent 
 water. On its banks are elm, maple, and pine trees, fields of Indian rice, 
 rushes and reeds ; in other places there is an open beach of clean pebbles. 
 Pike, carp, trout and cat-fish are caught in its waters. Towards its western 
 extremity is an island covered with trees, from which it derives its name, 
 though no red cedar is found around its shores. 
 
 Turtle Lake, Little Wmnepeg Lake, Leech Lake, Swan Lake, Sandy 
 Lake, Muddy Lake, Lake Peckagama, and White Fish Lake, are all near 
 the source of the Mississippi. A narrow belt of high land separates Turtle 
 Lake, the most northern source of the Mississippi, from Red river Lake, 
 one of the sources of the Red river which runs into Hudson's Bay. Otter 
 Tail Lake is the most southern source of Red river ; and from thence is a 
 portage of only half a mile to a branch of Raven river, which falls into the 
 Mississippi. The whole tract of high country, at the sources of the Missis- 
 sippi and Red river, is full of marshes, morasses, and small lakes, whose 
 waters afford never failing supplies to these streams. 
 
 The Lake of the Woods is of a circular figure, with a cluster of islands 
 in the centre. The navigating course through the lake, is seventy-five 
 miles; but, in direct distance, it is not above two-thirds of that extent in 
 diameter. Its scenery is wild and romantic in a high degree. Its surface, 
 is covered with islands. From this lake there is a long succession of small 
 lakes, and numerous portages, to the north-west end of Lake Superior, the 
 chief of which is Rainy Lake. Two'small lakes, Lake Riddle, which gives 
 rise to the Big Horn river, and Lake Eustis, which is the source of the 
 Jaune, or Yellow Stone river, are situated amongst the Rocky Mountains, 
 in west longitude one hundred and twelve degrees, and north latitude forty- 
 two degrees. 
 
 In the state of Louisiana are the lakes of Maurej>as and Pontchartrain. 
 The first of these is of a circular figure, twelve feet deep, and fourteen 
 miles in diameter. In the time of high floods, it has a communication 
 with the Mississippi, by means of the river Amite, or Ibberville ; and this 
 inundation, which lasts only four months annually, occasions what is erro- 
 neously called the island of New Orleans, to be then an island in fact, for 
 at no other time is it environed with water, the city of New Orleans being 
 situated on a peninsula.^ Lake Maurepas communicates with Lake Pont- 
 
 * From Lake Maurepas, to Fort Bute, or Manshac, on the Mississippi, is sixty com- 
 puted miles, following the course of the Amite ; and Manshac is one hundred and one 
 miles above New Orleans, by the windings of the Mississippi. From Manshac to the Amite, 
 there is a natural canal of twenty-one miles, navigable for vessels drawing four feet 
 water, when the Mississippi is high ; thence the Amite is navigable all the way to Mau- 
 repas and Pontchartrain lakes, and thence to the sea. This natural canal, which is dry 
 for ten months in the year, is very absurdly termed the river Ibberville, for in the dry 
 months, the surface of the Mississippi is twenty-four feet lower than the bed of this 
 natural canal. The river Amite itself, even from where the Ibberville joins in the inun- 
 dations, is not navigable above four months annually, for the first ten miles ; but 
 three miles farther down, it has from two to six feet water ; and all the remaining part 
 of its course to Lake Maurepas, there is from two to four fathoms water. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAl'HV. 85 
 
 chartrain, by a stream seven miles long, and three hundred yards wide, 
 and divided by an island extending from the lake to within a mile of Pont- 
 chartrain, into two branches, of which the southern is the safest and 
 deepest. Lake Pontchartrain is nearly of a circular form, forty miles in its 
 greatest length, and thirty miles in its greatest breadth, and eighteen feet 
 deep. From this lake to the sea is ten miles, by a passage called the 
 Regolets, four hundred yards wide, and lined with marshes on each side. 
 
 On the west side of the Mississippi are the lakes of Great and Little 
 Barataria. The Catahoola Lake, sixteen miles long, and four broad, is the 
 source of a stream of the same name, which, uniting with the Washita and 
 Bayou Tenza rivers, form the Black river. This lake, during the dry 
 months, is covered with the most luxuriant herbage ; and is then the resi- 
 dence of immense herds of deer, and water-fowl, which feed on the grass 
 and grain. The other lakes of Louisiana are Calcasin, Borgne, and Bis- 
 tineau. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON LAKES. 
 
 Extensive accumulations of water, surrounded on all sides by the land, and having 
 no direct communication with the ocean, or with any sea, are called lakes. Lakes are 
 of four distinct kinds. The first class comprehends those which have no issue, and 
 which do not receive any running water. These are generally very small, and do 
 not merit much attention. The second class comprises those lakes which have an out- 
 let, but which do not receive any running water. These lakes are fed by a multitude 
 of springs ; they are naturally on great elevations, and are sometimes the sources of 
 great rivers. The third class of lakes is very numerous, consisting of all such as receive 
 and discharge streams of water. Each of the lakes of this class may be looked upon as 
 forming a basin for receiving the neighboring waters ; they have in general only one 
 opening, which almost always takes its name from the principal river which flows into 
 it. These lakes have often sources of their own, either near the borders, or in their 
 bottom. The great lakes of North America are of this class, which in pomt of extent 
 resemble seas, but which, by the flow of a continual stream of fresh river water, preserve 
 their clearness and sweetness. The fourth class of lakes present phenomena much 
 more difficult to explain. We mean those lakes which receive streams of water and 
 often great rivers, without having any visible outlet. The most celebrated of these is 
 the Caspian Sea; Asia contains a gn al many others besides. South America contains 
 the Lake Titicaca, which has no efflux, though it is the receiver of another lake. These 
 collections of water appear to belong to the interior of great continents ; they are placed 
 on elevated plains, which have no sensible declivity towards the sea, and thus afford 
 no outlet. With respect to those situated in a hot climate, evaporation is sufficient to 
 carry off their excess of water. 
 
 The physical phenomena which certain lakes present, have always excited the asto- 
 nishment of the multitude. Those of the ]» nodical lakes are the most common. In Eu- 
 rope these are nothing but pools, but between the tropics these pools sometimes cover 
 spaces of several hundred leagues in length and breadth. Such are the famous lakes of 
 Xarages and Paria, inscribed on maps of America, and expunged from them by turns ; 
 it is probable that Africa contains a great many of this description. The depth of lakes 
 varies infinitely, and cannot form a subject of general physical geography. The popular 
 opinion, however, that there are lakes without a bottom, is erroneous. Those which 
 have been considered as such, owe this character solely to the existence of currents 
 which carry along with them the lead attached to the sounding line. The waters of 
 lakes, being derived from springs and rivers, partake of their different qualities. There 
 are some lakes, whose waters are extremely limpid, such as the lake of Geneva, and 
 that of Wetter in Sweden ; in the latter, a farthing may be perceived at the bottom of 
 the lake, at one hundred and twenty feet depth ; but the lakes whose waters are motion- 
 less, saline, or bituminous, may be looked upon as equally unwholesome with those of 
 marshes. 
 
 8 
 
86 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE MOST CELEBRATED LAKES. 
 WESTERN HEMISPHERE. 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 Square miles. 
 
 Lake Superior, . 
 
 a 
 
 . . 22,400 
 
 Lake Michigan, 
 
 ti 
 
 . . 12,600 
 
 Lake Huron, 
 
 « 
 
 . . 15,800 
 
 Lake Erie, . . 
 
 « 
 
 . . . 4,800 
 
 Lake Ontario, . 
 
 tt 
 
 . . 4,450 
 
 Great Slave Lake, 
 
 tc 
 
 . . . 12,000 
 
 Great Bear Lake, 
 
 a 
 
 . . 4,000 
 
 Square miles. 
 Lake Tchad, Africa, .... 11,600 
 Lake Ladoga, Russia, .... 5,200 
 Lake Onega, Russia, .... 3,300 
 
 Wetter Lake, Sweden, 945 
 
 Lake of Constance, Switzerland, . 456 
 
 Surface. 
 Winnepeg Lake, . " . . 
 Lake Maracaibo, . " 
 
 Square 
 
 miles. 
 7,200 
 6,000 
 
 Athabasca Lake, . " . . 
 
 
 3,200 
 
 Lake Titicaca, . " 
 
 
 5.400 
 
 Lake St. George, . " . 
 
 
 340 
 
 Lake Champlain, . " 
 Lake of the Woods, " . . 
 
 • • 
 
 350 
 1,600 
 
 HEMISPHERE. 
 
 Geneva Lake, Switzerland, 
 
 Square 
 
 miles. 
 . 400 
 
 Loch Lomond, Scotland, . 
 
 
 27 
 
 Windermere Lake, England, 
 
 , 
 
 11 
 
 Killarney Lake, Ireland, 
 Loch Leven, Scotland, 
 
 . 
 
 14 
 
 , 6 
 
87 
 
 CHAPTER VII.— SPRINGS. 
 
 I. SALT SPRINGS. 
 
 In the United States, salt springs are very numerous. They sometimes 
 flow naturally, but are generally formed by sinking wells in those places 
 where salt is known to exist, as in marshes, salt licks, and other similar 
 places. The country on the Arkansas river furnishes some salt ; it differs 
 however, from most other places in the United States, by existing in pools, 
 and forming incrustations on the soil of plains and prairies. There is no 
 salt obtained in Arkansas by boring, the usual mode of procuring it in 
 other localities. There are numerous salt springs in Missouri ; the work- 
 ing of many of them, however, has been suspended or relinquished, on 
 account of the reduced price of salt. Large quantities of the article are 
 still made at Boon's Lick, and near St. Genevieve and Herculaneum. 
 
 Salt springs are worked at Sciota ; the quantity yielded, however, is 
 comparatively small. There are no salt-works on the Tennessee river; 
 but on the Holston, one of its tributaries, are extensive salt springs, situat- 
 ed near Abingdon, Virginia, and known by the name of King's and Pres- 
 ton's salt-works. These springs yield a considerable quantity of salt. 
 Preston's works have been rendered less productive, by being diluted by a 
 spring of fresh water flowing into the midst of the salt. 
 
 Salt springs are very numerous in Kentucky, Ohio, and Virginia. 
 Springs holding salt in solution are common in various parts of the bitu- 
 minous coal region of Pennsylvania. They are generally weak near the 
 surface, but deep springs, disclosed by boring, are often strong. One of 
 these, which contains as much salt as the ordinary water of Salina, was 
 discovered by boring, about twenty miles from Montrose, bordering on the 
 state of New-York. The most considerable saline springs are on the 
 banks of the Conemaugh and Kiskeminitas, about thirty miles east of Pitts- 
 burg. These rivers for many miles wind through rocky ravines, border- 
 ed by hills of three and four hundred feet in height, that rise with steep 
 acclivities, presenting mural precipices of grey sand-stone, in places jutting 
 over the road and torrent. Large quantities of salt are made at these 
 springs. 
 
 In the town of Salina, in the state of New-York, about one hundred 
 and thirty miles west of Albany, are situated the most extensive works in 
 the Uiiited States for the manufacture of salt from natural brine. The 
 indications of that substance along the margin of Onondaga Lake are sup- 
 posed to have been similar to those found on the salt licks, so common in 
 the interior of the country, and the knowledge of their existence was de- 
 rived from the aborigines. 
 
 ' One of the earliest settlers in the county of Onondaga,' says a writer 
 in Silliman's Journal, ' has informed me, that to procure salt for his fami- 
 ly, about forty years since, he, with an Indian guide in a canoe, descended 
 a small river that discharges into the lake at its south-eastern termination, 
 along the shore of which he passed, a short distance to the right, and, as- 
 cending a rivulet (now Mud Creek) a few rods, arrived at the spring or 
 
88 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 natural discharge of salt water, which was obtained by lowering 1 to the 
 bottom, then four or five feet beneath the surface of the fresh water of the 
 lake, an iron vessel, which, filling instantly with the heavier fluid, was 
 drawn up and the brine poured out. In this way, he got enough to make 
 on the spot, by boiling, and without any separation of the earthy impuri- 
 ties that were held with the salt in solution, a small quantity of brownish 
 colored and very impure salt. Since that time other springs have been 
 discovered at various and almost opposite points on the shores of the lake, 
 and many wells have been sunk to procure brine for the manufactories at 
 the villages of Liverpool, Salina, Syracuse, and Geddesburg. The wells 
 did not exceed eighteen feet in depth, and in the strength of the water 
 which they respectively afforded there was great difference, which varied 
 much with the seasons, with this remarkable circumstance, that it some- 
 times diminished fifteen to twenty per cent., and in some instances, one 
 third, as the adjoining lands, on the advance of summer, became drained; 
 and the lake, which in the spring overflowed the wells, had subsided six 
 or eight feet.' The salt springs of Salina are found on the margin of an 
 extensive marsh.* 
 
 II. MINERAL SPRINGS. 
 The minei-al springs in the state of New York, in excellence and variety, 
 are unsurpassed in any part of the world. The most famous are called by 
 the general name of the Saratoga and Ballston Springs, and are embraced 
 in an extent of about twelve miles in the county of Saratoga. The first 
 spring discovered in the neighborhood of Ballston stands on a flat. It 
 formerly flowed out of a common barrel, sunk around it, without any other 
 protection from the invasion of cattle, who often slacked their thirst in its 
 fountain. Afterwards the liberality of the citizens was displayed in a 
 marble curb and flagging, and a handsome iron railing. The curb and 
 flagging were finally removed, leaving the railing, which still serves the 
 purposes of ornament and protection. The spring flows now, probably 
 
 * Every fact which tends to disclose that hidden operation of nature, by which the 
 sail springs of the west are produced, is interesting to the geologist. I took a speci- 
 men of the rock, called water limestone, from a hill adjoining Nine-mile Creek, a few 
 miles west of the Onondaga salt springs. If this specimen be pulverized and examined 
 ever so minutely, it presents nothing to the senses resembling common salt (muriate of 
 soda.) I do not mean that the elementary constituents cannot be found in it, but I do 
 not propose here to have any reference to a chemical analysis of the rock. On exposing 
 a fresh fracture of a specimen from this rock, for two or three weeks in a damp cellar, 
 it shoots out crystals of common salt, sufficient to cover the whole surface. It may be 
 proper to state, that I have made the trial only in very cold weather ; during which 
 time a fire was sometimes made in the cellar room. I do not know, however, that these 
 cirrumstances had any influence on the result. This proves conclusively, that one 
 rock at least, reposing over the floor of the salt springs, contains in itself the materials 
 for the spontaneous manufacture of salt. I say the floor, because I have ascertained 
 that all the salt springs along the canal route from Lenox to Montezuma, are supported 
 on the same continuous rock. 
 
 It has long been a prevailing theory, that a vast mine of salt exists in the vicinity of 
 these springs, which is continually dissolving, and thus yields the supply of salt water. 
 Much time and money has been spent without success, in boring to great depths, wiih 
 expectation of discovering this mass of rock salt. But if such rocks as that of Nine- 
 mile Creek be found of sufficient extent, the origin of the salt water of the west will 
 find a more satisfactory solution. And there may be many kinds of rocks, beside the 
 water limestone, which contain the elementary constituents of common salt. — SiUiman , t 
 Journal 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 89 
 
 from the place where it originally issued, some feet below the surround- 
 ing surface, which has been elevated by additions of earth, for the purpose 
 of improving the road in which it stands. 
 
 Near this spring, in boring about six or eight years ago, an excellent 
 mineral fountain was discovered at a considerable depth beneath the surface. 
 Its qualities are said to be superior to those of the spring already mention- 
 ed, and, by many, its waters are preferred to any other in the village. 
 
 The United States' Spring is situated at the east end of the village. 
 Near this fountain, a large and commodious bathing-house has been erect- 
 ed ; to which, not only the waters of this, but of a number of other adjacent 
 springs, are tributary, for the purpose of bathing. Between the springs 
 already mentioned, there was discovered in the summer of 1817, a mineral 
 spring, called the Washington Fountain. This latter spring rose on the 
 margin of the creek in front of the factory building ; it flowed through a 
 curb twenty-eight feet in length, sunk to the depth of twenty-three feet, and 
 was liberated at the top in the form of a beautiful jet d'eau ; but the spring 
 disappeared in 1821. Numerous attempts have since been made to recover 
 it, but they have proved fruitless. The principal ingredients of these waters 
 consist of muriate of soda, carbonate of soda, carbonate of lime, carbonate 
 of magnesia, and carbonate of iron; all of which, in a greater or less de- 
 gree, enter into the composition of the waters, both here and at Saratoga. 
 
 The justly celebrated springs of Saratoga are about six miles north-east 
 of Ballston Spa. They are situated on the border of a valley, which 
 bounds the village on the east, and form the continuation of a series of 
 springs which first appear in Ballston about twelve miles to the south, and 
 extend easterly in a semicircular line to the Quaker village. In the imme- 
 diate neighborhood are about a dozen springs, the most celebrated of which 
 are the Congress, the High Rock, the Flat Rock, the Hamilton, the Wash- 
 ington, the Columbian and the President. A cluster, known by the name 
 of the Ten Springs, is found at the distance of a mile to the eastward. 
 
 The Congress Spring is situated at the south end of the village. It 
 was first discovered about thirty years since, issuing from a crevice in the 
 rock, a few feet from its present location. Here it flowed for a number of 
 years, until an attempt to improve the surface around it produced an acci- 
 dental obstruction of its waters, which afterwards made their appearance 
 at the place where they now flow. It is inclosed by a tube sunk into the 
 earth to the distance of twelve or fourteen feet, which secures it from the 
 water of the stream, adjoining to which it is situated. Besides a hand- 
 some inclosure and platform for promenading, the proprietor has thrown 
 an awning over the spring for the convenience of visitors. 
 
 The High Rock is situated on the west side of the valley, skirting the 
 east side of the village, about half a mile north of the Congress. The rock 
 inclosing this spring is in the shape of a cone, nine feet in diameter at its 
 base, and five feet in height. It seems to have been formed by a concre- 
 tion of particles thrown up by the water, which formerly flowed over its 
 summit, through an aperture of about twelve inches in diameter, regularly 
 diverging from the top of the cone to its base. This spring was visited in 
 the year 1767 by Sir William Johnson, but was known long before by the 
 Indians, who were first led to it, either by accident or by the frequent 
 footsteps of beasts, attracted thither by the saline properties of the water. 
 A building was erected near the spot previous to the revolutionary war, 
 12 «* 
 
90 BOOK OF THE UNrTED STATES. 
 
 afterwards abandoned, and again resumed; since which, the usefulness of 
 the water has, from time to time, occasioned frequent settlements within its 
 vicinity. The water now rises within two feet of the summit, and a com- 
 mon notion prevails that it has found a passage through a fissure of the 
 rock, occasioned by the fall of a tree ; since which event, it has ceased to 
 flow over its brink. 
 
 Between the Red spring in the upper village, and the Washington in 
 the south part of the lower village, are situated most of the other mineral 
 springs in which this place abounds. At three of the principal springs, 
 the Hamilton, Monroe and Washington, large and convenient bathing- 
 houses have been erected, which are the constant resort for pleasure as well 
 as health, during the warm season. 
 
 The mineral waters, both at Ballston and Saratoga, are supposed to be 
 the product of the same great laboratory, and they all possess nearly the 
 same properties, varying only as to the quantity of the different articles 
 held in solution. They are denominated acidulous saline and acidulous 
 chalybeate. Of the former, are the Congress, (which holds the first rank,) 
 the Hamilton, High Rock, and President, at Saratoga; and of the latter, 
 are the Columbian, Flat Rock, and Washington, at Saratoga, and the Old 
 Spring and United States, at Ballston. The waters contain muriate of 
 soda, hydriodate of soda, carbonate of soda, carbonate of lime, carbonate of 
 magnesia, oxide of iron, and some of them a minute quantity of silica 
 alumina. Large quantities of carbonic acid gas are also contained in the 
 waters, giving to them a sparkling and lively appearance. The Congress, 
 in particular, the moment it is clipped, contains nearly one half more than its 
 bulk of gas ; a quantity unprecedented in any natural waters elsewhere 
 discovered. 
 
 Doctor Steel, in his geological report of the county of Saratoga, pub- 
 lished a few years since, remarks, that ' the temperature of the water in all 
 these wells is about the same, ranging from forty-eight to fifty-two degrees 
 on Fahrenheit's scale ; and they suffer no sensible alteration from any va- 
 riation in the temperature of the atmosphere ; neither do the variations of 
 the seasons appear to have much effect on the quantity of water produced. 
 
 ' The waters are remarkably limpid, and when first dipped sparkle with 
 all the life of good champaigne. The saline waters bear bottling very 
 "well, particularly the Congress, immense quantities of which are put up 
 in this way and transported to various parts of the world ; not, however, 
 without a considerable loss of its gaseous property, which renders its taste 
 much more insipid than when drank at the well. The chalybeate water 
 is likewise put up in bottles for transportation, but a very trifling loss of its 
 gas produces an immediate precipitation of its iron ; and hence this water 
 when it has been bottled for some time, frequently becomes turbid, and 
 finally loses every trace of iron ; this substance fixing itself to the walls oi 
 the bottle. 
 
 ' The most prominent and perceptible effects of these waters, when 
 taken into the stomach, are cathartic, diuretic, and tonic. They are 
 much used in a great variety of complaints ; but the diseases in which they 
 are most efficacious, are, jaundice and bilious affections generally, dyspep- 
 sia, habitual costiveness, hypochondriacal complaints, depraved appetite, 
 calculous and nephritic complaints, phagedenic or ill-conditioned ulcers, 
 cutaneous eruptions, chronic rheumatism, some species or states of gout, 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 91 
 
 some species of dropsy, scrofula, paralysis, scorbutic affections and old 
 scorbutic ulcers, amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and chlorosis. In phthisis, and 
 indeed all other pulmonary affections arising from primary diseases of the 
 lungs, the waters are manifestly injurious, and evidently tend to increase 
 the violence of the disease. 
 
 ' Much interest has been excited on the subject of the source of these 
 singular waters ; but no researches have as yet unfolded the mystery. 
 The large proportion of common salt found among their constituent pro- 
 perties, may be accounted for without much difficulty ; all the salt springs 
 of Europe, as well as those of America, being found in geological situa- 
 tions exactly corresponding to these. But the production of the unexampled 
 quantity of carbonic acid gas, the medium through which the other articles 
 are held in solution, is yet, and probably will remain, a subject of mere 
 speculation. The low and regular temperature of the water seems to 
 forbid the idea, that it is the effect of subterranean heat, as many have 
 supposed, and the total absence of any mineral acid, excepting the muria- 
 tic, which is combined with soda, does away the possibility of its being 
 the effect of any combination of that kind. Its production is therefore 
 truly unaccountable.'* 
 
 At Albany, in the summer of 1S26, in boring for pure water for a brew- 
 ery, a mineral spring was accidentally opened. The sensible qualities of 
 this water have a great resemblance to those of the Congress Spring at Sa- 
 ratoga, but those who are acquainted with it, think it by no means so sti- 
 
 * The following letter, from the New York Journal of Commerce, bears date the Sth 
 of August, 1833. ' The number of visitors here at the present time is great beyond all 
 former example, and far exceeds the limits of comfortable accommodations. Every 
 house is full, and every thing which can answer the purposes of a bed, is occupied. 
 Many are fain to secure a lodging in the railway cars. The number is estimated at 
 three thousand, and embraces age and infancy, belles and matrons, invalids and dandies, 
 from every quarter of the Union. The public houses an i goodharvest; they 
 
 have already had a double season, and made ample amends for the dull business of the 
 last year. Ballston is also crowded, contrary to the expectations of its inhabitants, who 
 apprehended that the rail-road to Saratoga would not leave them a single visitor. The 
 rail-road, for the whole route from Albany to Saratoga, has proved to be capital stock. 
 More than five hundred persons are daily transported on the Saratoga and Schenectady 
 rail-road. It is said, that in the last three days, the fifth, sixth, and seventh, seventeen 
 hundred dollars were received from it. As the entire stock of the Company is but two 
 hundred and seventy thousand dollars, it must yield, at this rate, an enormous dividend. 
 The road is to be continued to "Whitehall, crossing the Hudson at Sandy Hill, above 
 the bridge. In anticipation of the great increase of company which the facilities of 
 travelling will hereafter bring to the Saratoga fountains, extensive arrangements are 
 making for accommodations of increased space and elegance. A large and splendid 
 hotel is to be erected on the hill immediately south of Congress Springs, a fine situation, 
 shaded with forest trees, through which extensive and beautiful walks are to be made. 
 At the north end of the village, some handsome hotels are to be built. A number of 
 pretty cottages are, it is also stated, to be erected in the vicinity, as summer residences, 
 by some wealthy citizens of Albany and New York. We may well imagine, therefore, 
 that some few years hence, the little village will present all the pomp, bustle and osten- 
 tation of a city ; and then, I fear, it will cease to be, what it now is, a quiet and rural 
 retreat. There is now, indeed, more of the ostentation of wealth and fashion, and more of 
 of city-like amusements and habits, than is consistent with the object of rural retirement 
 and healthful recreation. Besides the balls, which take place twice a week, and extend 
 to a late hour of the night, there is a theatre which is open almost every evening. All the 
 itinerant showmen and minstrels also find their way hither. Those who are disposed to 
 attend church, have occasional opportunities to hear some of our most celebrated divines 
 from different parts of the Union.' 
 
92 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 mulating. Its temperature is uniformly from fifty-one to fifty-two degrees 
 of Fahrenheit, at all seasons of the year; its specific gravity, when taken 
 with great care, and after repeated trials, was found to be as one thousand 
 and ten to one thousand. The taste of the water is purely saline, some- 
 what pungent, and not at all disagreeable; it has no sensible chalybeate 
 taste, and no perceptible smell, which could lead to the suspicion of its 
 holding sulphuretted hydrogen gas in solution. 
 
 New Lebanon Spring is situated in Columbia county, New-York, about 
 twenty-four miles south-east of Albany. It is a very remarkable fountain, 
 issuing from a high hill. The water boils up in a space of ten feet wide 
 by three and a half deep, and is so perfectly clear that the smallest objects 
 may be seen at the bottom of the spring. Much gas issues from the peb- 
 bles and sand, and keeps the water in constant and pleasing agitation. 
 The fountain is very copious, and more than eighteen barrels of water are 
 discharged in a minute. This supply is not only sufficient to furnish the 
 baths abundantly, but turns the wheels of several mills. The quantity of 
 water does not perceptibly vary at any season ; its temperature is uniform- 
 ly seventy-three degrees of Fahrenheit. The water is without taste or 
 odor, is very soft, is used for all culinary and domestic purposes, and dif- 
 fers but little from pure mountain water, except in its remarkable tempera- 
 ture. It is found very useful in salt rheums, and other cutaneous affections ; 
 it augments the appetite, and sometimes acts as a cathartic. For those 
 who wish to enjoy fine rural scenery, bold, picturesque, and beautiful, and 
 such advantages to health as this copious fountain presents, nothing can 
 be better in its kind than New Lebanon. 
 
 The Bedford Springs rise near a romantic and frequented village of 
 that name, situated among the mountains in the southern part of Pennsyl- 
 vania. They rise from a limestone rock at the base of a hill. The water 
 is pleasant and cold, and without any perceptible odor; the iron, lime, and 
 magnesia, with which it is impregnated, render it useful in chronic and 
 cutaneous disorders. Mineral springs abound among the mountains in the 
 central parts of Virginia. The Yelloio Springs, near the falls of the Little 
 Miami, in Ohio, are esteemed for their medicinal properties ; the water is 
 a strong chalybeate. The country about them possesses much attraction 
 in point of scenery, and is unusually salubrious. 
 
 Florida is remarkable for the large number of its springs ; a substratum 
 of soft and cavernous stone appearing to extend over the whole country, 
 admitting the courses of subterraneous brooks, which burst out at frequent 
 intervals in the form of springs. The most remarkable of these is the 
 fountain of Walkulla river, twelve miles from Tallahassee. It is so large 
 as to be navigable by boats directly below its sources. About a mile from 
 its head-waters the channel becomes choked with weeds, but suddenly 
 breaks on our view in the shape of a circular lake, that has been sounded 
 with a line of two hundred and fifty fathoms. It is clear as crystal, and 
 has the cerulean tinge which mark the waters of the gulf. This hue is at- 
 tributed to the presence of the sulphuret of lime. 
 
 • To a person placed in a skiff,' says Mr. Flint, ' in the centre of this 
 splendid fountain basin, the appearance of the mild azure vault above, and 
 the transparent depth below, on which the floating clouds and the blue con- 
 cave above are painted, and repeated with an indescribable softness, create 
 a kind of pleasing dizziness, and a novel train of sensations, among which 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 93 
 
 the most distinguishable is a feeling, as if suspended between two firma- 
 ments. The impression only ceases, when the boat approaches the edge 
 of the basin near enough to enable you to perceive the outlines of the 
 neighboring trees pictured on the margin of the basin. It has been assert- 
 ed, that limestone water, in its utmost purity, has less refractive powers for 
 light, than freestone water. The water of this vast spring, even in this 
 sultry climate, has a coldness almost like ice-water. The water, probably 
 from the pressure of the sulphuret of lime, is slightly nauseous to the 
 taste. Beautiful hammock lands rise from the northern acclivity of this 
 basin. It was the site of the English factory in former days. Here 
 resided the famous Ambrister. The force, which throws up this vast mass 
 of waters from its subterranean fountains, may be imagined, when we see 
 this pellucid water swelling up from the depths, as though it were a caul- 
 dron of boiling water. It is twelve miles from St. Marks, and twenty from 
 the ocean.' 
 
 III. BURNING SPRINGS. 
 
 Burning springs, or springs of water charged with inflammable gas, are 
 found in many places in the western part of the state of New-York, chiefly 
 near Canandaigua Lake. Their positions are known by little hillocks of a 
 dark bituminous mould, through which an inflammable gas escapes to the 
 surface. The following description is taken from a Canandaigua Journal. 
 
 ' These springs are found in Bristol, Middlesex, and Canandaigua. The 
 former are situated in a ravine on the west side of Bristol Hollow, about 
 half a mile from the north Presbyterian meeting-house. The ravine is 
 formed in clay slate, and a small brook runs through it. The gas rises 
 through fissures of the slate, from both the margin and the bed of the brook. 
 Where it rises through the water, it is formed into bubbles, and flashes 
 only when the flame is applied ; but where it rises directly from the rock, 
 it burns with a steady anil beautiful flame, which continues until extin- 
 guished by storms, or by design. 
 
 ' The springs in Middlesex are situated from one to two miles south-west- 
 erly from the village of Rushville, along a tract of nearly a mile in length, 
 partly at the bottom of the valley called Federal Hollow, and partly at an 
 elevation of fort}'' or fifty feet on the south side of it. 
 
 ' The latter have been discovered within a few years, in a field which had 
 been long cleared, and are very numerous. Their places are known by 
 little hillocks of a few feet in diameter, and a few inches high, formed of a 
 dark bituminous mould, which seems principally to have been deposited by 
 the gas, and through which it finds its way to the surface, in one or more 
 currents. These currents of gas may be set on fire, and will burn with a 
 steady flame. In winter they form openings through the snow, and being 
 set on fire, exhibit the novel and interesting phenomenon of a steady and 
 lively flame in contact with nothing but snow. In very cold weather, it is 
 said, tubes of ice are formed round these currents of gas, (probably from the 
 freezing of the water contained in it,) which sometimes rises to the height 
 of two or three feet, the gas issuing from their tops ; the whole, when 
 lighted in a still evening, presenting an appearance even more beautiful 
 than the former. 
 
 ' Experiments made with the gas seem to prove, that it consists principally 
 of a mixture of the light and heavy carburetted hydrogen gases, the former 
 
94 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 having greatly the preponderance ; and that it contains a small proportion 
 of carbonic acid gas. It seems also to hold a little oily or bituminous mat- 
 ter in solution. It burns with a lambent, yellowish flame, scarcely inclining 
 to red, with small scintillations of a bright red at its base. It has the odor 
 of pitcoal. It produces no smoke, but deposits, while burning, a small 
 quantity of bituminous lampblack. It is remarkable that the hillocks, 
 through whv.h the gas rises, are totally destitute of vegetation. Whether 
 the gas is directly deleterious to vegetable life, or indirectly, by interrupting 
 the contact of the air of the atmosphere, it is certain that no plant can sus- 
 tain life v/ithin the circle of its influence. 
 
 ' It is well known that this gas is found abundantly in coal mines ; and 
 being accidentally set on fire, mixed as it is in those mines with the air of 
 the atmosphere, has many times caused terrible and destructive explo- 
 sions. The writer cannot learn that it has ever been known to be generated 
 in the earth, except in the presence of coal ; and hence the inference is 
 strong that it proceeds from coal.' 
 
 There is a burning spring much resorted to by travellers, at the distance 
 of about two miles from Niagara Falls. At Dunkirk, on Lake Erie, ihefe 
 are marshy spots which emit gas, that has been used for lighting some of 
 the houses in the village. 
 
 IV. WARM AND HOT SPRINGS. 
 
 The Warm Springs of Arkansas territory are among the most interest- 
 ing curiosities of the country. They are in great numbers. One of them 
 emits a vast quantity of water. The ordinary temperature is that of boiling 
 water. When the season is dry, and the volume of water emitted some- 
 what diminished, the temperature of the water increases. The waters are 
 remarkably limpid and pure ; and are used by the people, who resort there 
 for health, for culinary purposes. They have been analyzed, and exhibit 
 no mineral properties beyond common spring water. Their efficacy then, 
 for they are undoubtedly efficacious to many invalids, that resort there, 
 results from the shade of adjacent mountains, and from the cool and oxy- 
 genated mountain breeze ; the conveniences of warm and tepid bathing ; 
 Sie novelty of fresh and mountain scenery ; and the necessity of tempe- 
 rance, imposed by the poverty of the country, and the difficulty of procuring 
 supplies. The cases in which the waters are supposed to be efficacious, 
 are those of rheumatic affection, general debility, dyspepsia, and cutaneous 
 complaints. The common supposition, that they are injurious in pulmonary 
 complaints, seems to be wholly unfounded. It is a great and increasing 
 resort for invalids from the lower country, Arkansas, and the different 
 adjoining regions. During the spring floods of the Washita, a steam-boat 
 can approach within thirty miles of them. At no great distance from them 
 is a strong sulphur spring, remarkable for its coldness. In the wild and 
 mountain scenery of this lonely region, there is much of grandeur and 
 novelty, to fix the curiosity of the lover of nature. 
 
 The Warm Springs near Green Valley, in Virginia, are used for bathing, 
 and are esteemed valuable in rheumatic complaints. The temperature of 
 these springs is about ninety-six degrees, and sufficient water issues from 
 them to turn a mill. The Bath, or Hot Spring, is about five miles distant. 
 The stream is small, but the temperature is much greater than that of the 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 95 
 
 Warm Springs, being one hundred and twelve degrees. These springs 
 flow into the Jackson, a source of the James river. 
 
 The Warm Springs of Buncome county, in North Carolina, are found 
 upon the margin of a river called the French Broad, about thirty-two miles 
 from Ashville, and five and a half miles from the Tennessee line. Several 
 springs have already been discovered, at various distances from each other, 
 within the extent of a mile. They are generally so near the bank, that 
 in moderate freshets the river enters them, and it is said that at a particular 
 spot in the bed of the stream, about ten yards from the usual bank, there 
 is a constant jet of warm water. The depth of the river varies from ten 
 to fifteen feet, and in some places it is even shoaler. The supply of water 
 in all of them is very abundant. 
 
 ' The original proprietor of these springs,' says a writer in the Journal of 
 Science, ' informed me, that he supposed the first discovery of them to have 
 been made about forty years since, at which time this part of the country 
 was altogether uninhabited, and the persons who resorted to the waters, 
 had to encamp in their vicinity. He has been personally acquainted with 
 them, for upwards of twenty years, and made the first and lowest estab- 
 lishment for bathing, near to a ferry, which is opposite to his residence. 
 Mr. Nelson further states, that he has known sundry cases of palsy, rheu- 
 matism, and cutaneous affections, &c. greatly benefited by the internal and 
 external use of the waters. The large establishment, and the one that is 
 now principally visited, is seated about half a mile higher up the river, and 
 has at the present time two large baths, whose temperature at the boils of 
 the springs is one hundred and four degrees of Fahrenheit ; but at the sur- 
 face the temperature of the old bath, which is very near to the river, is 
 one hundred degrees, while that of the new, which is higher up the bank, 
 is but ninety-four degrees. I was informed that this temperature was much 
 increased when there was a considerable swell in the river, but I had no 
 opportunity of witnessing the fact. 
 
 'A smaller stream of water, which is usually limpid and shallow, comes 
 into the French Broad on its southern side, and separates the first bathing 
 establishment from that which is now used. The stream affords the con- 
 veniences of a saw, and grist-mill, within a very short distance of the 
 establishment, and without the necessity of a mill-pond. The whole are 
 situated in a beautiful and romantic spot upon a large flat, contiguous to 
 the water, and embosomed in lofty mountains, among which the river winds, 
 while the valley in this spot appears not to exceed a mile in width, and is 
 much narrower in all others, both above and below. 
 
 ' These mountains seem to consist principally of rocks, of which a con- 
 siderable proportion in the immediate vicinity are compact limestone, both 
 blue and gray. About six miles above the springs there is said to be 
 a vein of the sulphate of barytes, a specimen of which was given me ; and 
 in the vicinity of the ferry below, there is a cavern of limestone, which may 
 be penetrated with convenience for thirty yards, and from the roof of which 
 stalactites are pendant. Near to this cave there is another, containing a 
 large quantity of yellow ochre. 
 
 ' There are said to be mines of cobalt, copper, and iron in the neighboring 
 mountains, but these are lofty and not very accessible. I found that there 
 was, from the local circumstances of the establishment, considerable humi- 
 dity during the mornings and evenings, and a pretty high temperature for 
 
96 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 several hours of the day. There were also sudden and frequent thunder 
 showers, but these were generally of short duration. These meteorological 
 observations will perhaps lead to the conclusion, that this watering-place 
 would not be advisable for persons laboring under pulmonic or dropsical 
 affections, and I did not learn that any such had been benefited by their 
 residence. 
 
 ' Persons using these waters, are in the habit of drinking from three to 
 four quarts in a day, and also of bathing twice. They generally remain in 
 the bath from a half hour to an hour, and find it so pleasant they are loth 
 to leave it. It was stated to me by a very respectable gentleman, who has 
 resorted to this watering-place for several summers past, that after drinking 
 the water freely for several days, it generally had a brisk cathartic effect 
 for a day or two, and after that produced no sensible result. This gentle- 
 man is afflicted with chronic rheumatism, and has always obtained decided 
 relief from the long continued use of the waters, both internally and exter- 
 nally. Upon the record book of the establishment there are sundry inte- 
 resting cases of benefit, imparted to persons laboring under rheumatism, 
 palsy, or loss of motion from other causes. I am inclined to believe that 
 long continued bathing in water of such an elevated and constant tempera- 
 ture, must produce some effect in such cases as have been alluded to, 
 independent of the mineral ingredients, and, conjoined with them, it will 
 probably be more efficacious. The healthy, cheap, and plentiful country, 
 in which the Buncome Springs are situated, the novel and mountainous 
 scenery and variety of company, present many attractions to the invalid, 
 the idler, and the curious.' 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON SPRINGS. 
 
 The most common ingredient of mineral and medicinal springs, is iron under a variety 
 of forms. But they also often contain magnesia, glauber salt, carbonic acid gas, and 
 other substances, which, from their combinations, give great diversity to the waters. 
 Springs impregnated with sulphur are also common in the vicinity of volcanoes, and in 
 countries subject to earthquakes. They are usually warm, and the heat is sometimes 
 accompanied by a violent ebullition which frequently projects the water to a great height. 
 Iceland, the Azores, and various other places, afford striking examples of this kind. 
 The celebrated fountain called the Geyser, in the first of these islands, often propels its 
 contents the height of one hundred feet, and sometimes to double that height. 
 
 There are also springs which are inflammable without being hot. This generally 
 arises from a quantity of inflammable gas, or oily matter, which floats on the surface 
 of the water ; as in the instance of a brook in the vicinity of Bergerac, in the south of 
 France, the surface of which may be set on fire by a lighted straw. Others, being 
 mixed with bitumen, which often floats on the surface, will easily take fire, as at Baku, 
 and other places in Persia. 
 
 The waters of some springs and lakes have a petrifying, and others an incrusting 
 quality. The former is impregnated with extremely fine silicious particles, which pene- 
 trate the pores of the substances immersed in them, and change their nature. This 
 property is possessed by Lough Neagh. The Danube and the Pregel have also the 
 same quality, but in a less degree. The waters which possess the incrusting property 
 operate in a more rapid and manifest manner, by depositing the earthy particles they 
 hold in solution, on the surfaces of bodies submitted to their action. This effect is pro- 
 duced by both hot and cold springs, particularly by the former. The matter deposited 
 is usually calcareous, but in the instance of the Great Geyser it is silicious. 
 
 Waters holding salt in solution, or murialed waters, as they are commonly called, are 
 perhaps the most common of all ; but the)' are rarely found in a state of purity. Among 
 the Uralian and Carpathian mountains, they are frequent, and in general in the zone 
 comprised between the parallels fifty and thirty north latitude. More to the north they 
 are rarely found ; farther toward the south crystallized salt is abundant in certain re- 
 gions, as in the great desert of Africa ; but we find only a few salt springs there. 
 
97 
 
 CHAPTER VIII.— CAVERNS. 
 
 The most celebrated cave in the United States, is that in Rockingham, 
 county, Virginia, known by the name of Madison's Cave. It is in the heart 
 of a mountain, about two hundred feet high, which is so steep on one side, 
 that a person standing on the top, migkt easily throw a pebble into the river 
 which flows round the base ; the opposite side of it is, however, very easy > 
 of ascent, and on this side the path leading to the cavern runs, excepting 
 for the last twenty yards, when it suddenly turns along the steep part of 
 the mountain, which is extremely rugged, and covered with immense rocks 
 and trees from top to bottom. The mouth of the cavern, on this steep side, 
 about two thirds of the way up, is guarded by a huge pendant stone, 
 which seems ready to fall every instant ; it is impossible to stoop under it v 
 and not reflect with a degree of awe, that, were it to drop, nothing could 
 save you from perishing within the dreary walls of that mansion to which 
 it affords an entrance. The description which follows, is from the Travels 
 of Mr. Weld. 
 
 ' Preparatory to entering, the guide, whom I had procured from a neigh- 
 boring house, lighted the ends of three or four splinters of pitch pine, a 
 large bundle of which he had brought with him : they burn out very fast, 
 but while they last are most excellent torches. The fire he brought along 
 with him, by the means of a bit of green hickory wood, which, when once 
 lighted, will burn slowly without any blaze, till the whole is consumed. 
 
 ' The first apartment you enter is about twenty-five feet hicrh, and fifteen 
 broad, and extends a considerable way to the right and left, the floor ascend- 
 ing toward the former; here it is very moist, from the quantity of water 
 continually trickling from the roof. Fahrenheit's thermometer, which stood 
 at sixty-seven degrees in the air, fell to sixty-one degrees in this room. A 
 few yards to the left, on the side opposite to you on entering, a passage 
 presents itself, which leads to a sort of anti-chamber, from whence you pro- 
 ceed to the sound room, so named from the prodigious reverberation of the 
 sound of a voice or musical instrument on the inside. This room is about 
 twenty feet square ; it is arched at the top, and the sides of it as well as of the 
 apartment which you iirst enter, are beautifully ornamental with stalactites. 
 Returning from hence into the anti-chamber, and afterwards taking two or 
 three turns to the right and left, you enter a long passage about thirteen 
 feet wide, and, perhaps, about fifteen feet in height, perpendicularly ; but 
 if it was measured from the floor to the highest part of the roof obliquely, 
 the distance would be found much greater, as the walls on both sides slope 
 very considerably, and finally meet at the top. 
 
 ' This passage descends very rapidly, and is, I should suppose, about 
 sixty yards long. Towards the end it narrows considerably, and terminates 
 in a pool of clear water, about three or four feet deep. How far this pool 
 extends, it is impossible to say. A canoe was once brought down by a 
 party for the purpose of examination, but they said, that after proceeding 
 a little way the canoe would not float, and they were forced to return. 
 Their fears most probably led them to fancy so. I fired a pistol with a 
 ball over the water, but the report was echoed from the after part of the 
 13 9 
 
98 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 cavern, and not from the part beyond the water, so that I should not sup- 
 pose the passage extended much farther than could be traced with the 
 eye. The walls of this passage consist of a solid rock of limestone on each 
 side, which appears to have been separated by some convulsion. The floor is 
 of a deep sandy earth, and it has repeatedly been dug up for the purpose of 
 getting salt-petre, with which the earth is strongly impregnated. The earth, 
 after being dug up, is mixed with water, and when the grosser particles fall to 
 the bottom, the water is drawn off and evaporated; from the residue the 
 salt-petre is procured. There are many other caverns in this neighborhood; 
 and also farther to the westward in Virginia ; from all of them great quan- 
 tities of salt-petre are thus obtained. The gunpowder made with it, in the 
 back country forms a principal article of commerce, and is sent to Philadel- 
 phia in exchange for European manufactures. 
 
 ' About two thirds of the way down this long passage just described, is a 
 large aperture in the wall on the right, leading to another apartment, the 
 bottom of which is about ten feet below the floor of the passage, and it is 
 no easy matter to get down into it, as the sides are very steep and extremely 
 slippery. This is the largest and most beautiful room in the whole cavern ; 
 it is somewhat of an oval form, about sixty feet in length, thirty in breadth, 
 and in some parts nearly fifty feet high. The petrifactions formed by the 
 water dropping from above are most beautiful, and hang down from the 
 ceiling in the form of elegant drapery, the folds of which are similar to 
 what those of large blankets or carpets would be, if suspended by one cor- 
 ner in a lofty room. If struck with a stick, a deep hollow sound is produced, 
 which echoes through the vaults of the cavern. 
 
 ' In other parts of this room the petrifactions have commenced at the 
 bottom, and formed in pillars of different heights; some of them reach 
 nearly to the roof. If you go to a remote part of this apartment, and 
 leave a person with a lighted torch moving about amidst these pillars, a 
 thousand imaginary forms present themselves, and you might almost fancy 
 yourself in the infernal regions, with spectres and monsters on every side. 
 The floor of this room slopes down gradually from one end to the other, 
 and terminates in a pool of water, which appears to be on a level with that 
 at the end of the long passage ; from their situation, it is most probable 
 that they communicate together. The thermometer which I had with me 
 stood in the remotest part of this chamber, at fifty-five degrees. From 
 hence we returned to the mouth of the cavern, and on coming to the light 
 it appeared as if we had really been in the infernal regions, for our faces, 
 hands, and clothes were covered with soot from the smoke of the pine 
 torches which are so often carried in. The smoke from the pitch-pine is 
 particularly thick and heavy. Before this cave was much visited, and the 
 walls blackened with smoke, its beauty, I was told by some of the old 
 inhabitants, was great indeed; for the petrifactions on the roof and walls 
 are all of a dead white kind.' 
 
 Wyer's Cave is situated in the same county with the preceding, and is 
 equally remarkable. Its entrance is narrow and difficult, and when first 
 discovered was impeded by perpendicular columns of stalactites, which have 
 since been removed. After advancing at first in a horizontal course, we 
 descend into an echoing cavern, by a ladder fifteen or twenty feet in length. 
 Over our heads hang silvery white stalactites, while we are surrounded by 
 pillars of stalagmites, and rugged walls incrusted with a beautiful brown 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 99 
 
 .spar. The floor is composed of ledges of rocks, and presents rather an 
 uneven pathway. 
 
 Advancing through a narrow passage in the rocks, we enter still other 
 apartments, resembling the first in the beauty of their formations, but of 
 different shape and extent. The sparry incrustations assume a thousand 
 fantastic figures, sparkling with light, and more like the wonders of fairy- 
 land, than the original productions of nature. This cave is a mile and a 
 half in extent, varying in perpendicular height from three to forty feet, and 
 in breadth from two to thirty. Its dividing branches are numerous. Blue 
 limestone is the base of the whole cave ; every where covered with incrus- 
 tations of carbonates. In some places the uneven sides of the rocks are 
 quite covered with white crystals of the carbonate of lime, and appear like 
 banks of salt. Sometimes the pavement sparkles as a floor of diamonds ; 
 and again the pathway is pebbled, and resembles the deserted bed of a 
 river. It is impossible to convey any idea of the number and variety of 
 shapes which the stalactites assume ; resembling every thing in nature, 
 and in the worlds of imagination, they are still unlike every thing but 
 themselves. 
 
 The Nicojack Cave is situated in the Cherokee country, at Nicojack, 
 the north-western angle in the map of Georgia. We believe it was first 
 fully described by the Rev. E. Cornelius. It is twenty miles south-west of 
 the Look-Out Mountain, and half a mile from the south bank of the Ten- 
 nessee river. The Raccoon Mountain, in which it is situated, here fronts 
 to the north-east. Immense layers of horizontal limestone form a precipice 
 of considerable height. In this precipice the cave commences; not however 
 with an opening of a few feet, as is common ; but with a mouth fifty feet 
 high, and one hundred and sixty wide. Its roof is formed by a solid and 
 regular layer of limestone, having no support but the sides of the cave, and 
 as level as the floor of a house. The entrance is partly obstructed by piles 
 of fallen rocks, which appear to have been dislodged by some great convul- 
 sion. From its entrance, the cave consists chiefly of one grand excavation 
 through the rocks, preserving for a great distance the same dimensions as 
 at its mouth. 
 
 What is more remarkable than all, it forms for the whole distance it has 
 yet been explored, a walled and vaulted passage for a stream of cool and 
 limpid water, which, where it leaves the cave, is six feet deep and sixty 
 feet wide. A few years since, Col. James Ore, of Tennessee, commencing 
 early in the morning, followed the course of this creek in a canoe, for three 
 miles. He then came to a fall of water, and was obliged to return, without 
 making any further discovery. Whether he penetrated three miles of the 
 cave or not, it is a fact he did not return till the evening, having been 
 busily engaged in his subterranean voyage for twelve hours. He stated 
 that the course of the cave, after proceeding some way to the south-west, 
 became south; and south-east by south, the remaining distance. 
 
 There is a remarkable cave or grotto, situated on a bluff of limestone, on 
 the south bank of the Holston river, in East Tennessee, which has been 
 well described by Mr. Kain, in an article in Silliman's Journal. The bluff 
 is perhaps one hundred feet high, and fifty wide. The grotto is a hive 
 natural excavation of the rock, sixty feet high and thirty feet wide. It is 
 very irregular, and to the very top bears marks of the attrition of waves. 
 The river to' have been so high, must have covered the valley through 
 
100 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 which it now winds its quiet way. The excavation gradually diminishes 
 in size as you proceed backward, till one hundred feet from the entrance 
 it terminates. A remarkable projection of the rock divides the back part 
 into two stories. 
 
 This grotto, whose walls are hung with ivy, and the bluff crowned with 
 cedars, and surrounded by an aged forest, on which the vine clambers most 
 luxuriantly, viewed from the river which winds slowly around it, and 
 reflects its image, is more than beautiful: it is even venerable. But what 
 renders it most interesting to many visitors, is a number of rude paintings, 
 which were, as tradition reports, left on it by the Cherokee Indians. These 
 Indians are known to have made this cave a resting place as they passed 
 up and down the river Holston. These paintings are still distinct, though 
 they have faded somewhat within my remembrance. They consist of rep- 
 resentations of the sun and moon, of a man, of birds, fishes, &c. They are 
 all of red paint, and resemble, in this respect, the paintings on Paint Rock, 
 near the warm springs. 
 
 Mammoth Cave is situated near the Green river in Kentucky, the 
 entrance to which is by a pit forty feet deep,, and one hundred and 
 twenty in circumference. At the bottom of this pit is the mouth of 
 the cave, which is open to the north, and is from forty to fifty feet in height, 
 and thirty in width, for upwards of forty rods, when it becomes not more 
 than ten feet wide and five feet high. "However," says Dr. Wood, "this 
 continues but a short distance, when it expands to thirty or forty feet in 
 width, and is about twenty feet in height, for about one mile, until you 
 come to the first hopper, where salt-petre is manufactured. Thence it is 
 about forty feet in width, and eighty in height, till you arrive at the second 
 hopper two miles from the mouth. The loose limestone has been laid up 
 into handsome walls on either side, almost the whole distance from the 
 entrance to the second hopper. The road is hard, and as smooth as a flag 
 pavement. The walls of the cavern are perpendicular in every passage 
 that I traversed ; the arches are regular in every part, and have bid defi- 
 ance even to earthquakes. As you advance into the cave, the avenue leads 
 from the second hopper west one mile, then south-west to the chief city, 
 which is six miles distant from the entrance. This avenue is from sixty 
 to one hundred feet high, and about the same broad, the whole distance 
 from the second hopper, until you come to the cross-roads or chief city ; 
 and is nearly upon a level, the floor or bottom being covered with loose 
 limestone and salt-petre earth. When I reached the immense area, (chief 
 city,) containing upward of eight acres, without a single pillar to support, 
 the arch, which is entire over the who! : , I was struck dumb with astonish- 
 ment, and can give but a very faint idea of its splendor. Nothing 
 under heaven can be more sublime and grand than this place, covered with 
 one solid arch, at least one hundred feet in height, and to all appearance 
 entire. After entering the chief city, I perceived five avenues leading out 
 of it, from sixty to one hundred feet in width, and from forty to eighty 
 in height. The walls (all of stone) are arched, being from forty to eighty 
 feet of perpendicular height, before the arch commences. 
 
 ' The next avenue which I traversed, after cutting arrows on the stones 
 under our feet, pointing to the mouth of the cave, was one that led us in a 
 southerly direction for more than two miles. We then left it, and took 
 another that led us east, then north, more than two miles farther ; and at 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 101 
 
 last, in our windings, were brought out by another avenue into the chief 
 city again, after having traversed more than five miles through different 
 avenues. We rested ourselves for a few minutes on some limestone strata 
 near the centre of this gloomy area, and having refreshed ourselves, and 
 trimmed our lamps, again took our departure through an avenue almost due 
 north, and parallel with the avenue leading from the chief city to the 
 mouth of the cave, which we continued for more than two miles, when we 
 entered the second city. This is covered with one arch nearly two hundred 
 feet high in the centre, and very similar to the chief city, except in the 
 number of avenues leading from it, this having but two. We passed 
 through it over a very considerable rise in the centre, and descended 
 through an avenue bearing to the east about three hundred rods, when we 
 came upon a third area, about one hundred feet square and fifty in height, 
 which had a pure and delightful stream of water, issuing from the side of 
 the wall, about thirty feet high, and which fell upon some broken stones, 
 and was afterwards entirely lost to our view. After passing this beautiful 
 sheet of water a few yards, we came to the end of this passage. 
 
 'We then returned about one hundred yards, and entered an avenue (over 
 a considerable mass of stone) to our right, which led us south, through an 
 uncommonly black avenue, something more than a mile, when we ascend- 
 ed a very steep eminence, about sixty yards, which carried us within the 
 walls of a fourth city, which is not inferior to the second city, having an. 
 arch that covers at least six acres. In this last avenue, the farther end of 
 which must be at least four miles from the chief city, and ten from the 
 mouth of the cave, are twenty large piles of saltpetre earth on one side of 
 the avenue, and broken limestone heaped up on the other, evidently the 
 work of human hands. I had expected, from the course of my needle, 
 that this avenue would have carried us round to the chief city ; but was 
 sadly disappointed, when I found the end a few hundred yards from the 
 fourth city, which caused us to retrace our steps ; and not having been so 
 particular in marking the different entrances as I ought, we were very 
 much bewildered, and once completely lost for fifteen or twenty minutes. 
 
 ' At length we found our way, and, weary and faint, entered the chief 
 city at ten at night ; however, much fatigued as I was, I determined to 
 explore the cavern as long as my lights held out. We now entered the 
 fifth and last avenue from the chief city, whicli carried us south-east about 
 nine hundred yards, when we entered the fifth city, whose arch covers 
 upwards of four acres of level ground, strewed with broken limestone. 
 Fire beds of uncommon size, with brands of cane lying around them, are 
 interspersed throughout this city. We crossed over to the opposite side, 
 and entered an avenue that carried us east about two hundred and fifty 
 rods ; when, finding nothing remarkable in this passage, we turned back, 
 and crossed a massy pile of limestone in the mouth of a large avenue, 
 which I noticed but a few yards from this last-mentioned city as I came out 
 of it. After some difficulty in passing over this mass of limestone, we 
 entered a large avenue, whose walls were the most perfect of any that we 
 had seen, running almost due south for five hundred rods, and very 
 level and straight. When at the end of this avenue, and while I was 
 sketching a plan of the cave, one of my guides, who had been some time 
 groping among the broken stones, called out, requesting me to follow him. 
 I gathered up my papers and compass, and also giving the guide who sat 
 • 9* 
 
102 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 with me orders to remain where he was, until we returned, and moreover 
 to keep his lamp in good order, I followed after the first, who had entered 
 a vertical passage just large enough to admit his body. We continued to 
 step from one stone to another, until at last, after much difficulty, from the 
 smallness of the passage, which is about forty feet in height, we entered 
 upon the side of a chamber eighteen hundred feet in circumference, and 
 whose arch is one hundred and fifty feet high in the centre. After having 
 marked arrows, pointing downwards, upon the slate-stones around the 
 little passage through which we had winded, we Avalked nearly to the 
 centre of this area. It was past midnight when I entered this chamber of 
 eternal darkness, where " all things are hushed, and nature's self lies 
 dead." I must acknowledge I felt a shivering horror at my situation, when 
 I looked back upon the different avenues through which I had passed, since 
 I entered the cave at eight in the morning; and "at time of night, when 
 church-yards groan," to be buried several miles in the dark recesses of this 
 awful cavern, the grave, perhaps, of thousands of human beings — gave me 
 no very pleasant emotions. With the guide who was now with me, I took 
 the only avenue leading from this chamber, and traversed it for the distance 
 of a mile in a northerly direction, when my lamps forbade me going any 
 farther, as they were nearly exhausted. The avenue, or passage, was as 
 large as any that we had entered ; and how far we might have entered, 
 had our lights held out, is unknown. 
 
 ' It is supposed that Green river, a stream navigable several hundred 
 miles, passes over three branches of this cave. It was nearly one o'clock 
 in the morning, when we descended the passage of the chimney, as 
 it is called, to the guide who sat on the rocks. He was quite alarmed 
 at our long absence, and was heard by us a long time before we reached 
 the passage to descend to him, hallooing with all his might, fearing we had 
 lost our track in the ruins above. Very near the vertical passage, and not 
 far from where I had left my guide sitting, I found some very beautiful 
 specimens of soda, which I brought out with me. We returned over piles 
 of saltpetre earth and fire beds, out of one avenue into another, until at 
 last, with great fatigue and a dim light, we entered the walls of the chief 
 city ; where, for the last time, we trimmed our lamps, and entered the spa- 
 cious avenue that leads to the second hopper. I found, when in the last- 
 mentioned large avenue, or upper chamber, many curiosities; such as 
 Glauber salts, Epsom salts, flint, yellow ochre, spar of different kinds, and 
 some petrifactions, which I brought out together with the mummy, which was 
 found at the second hopper. We happily arrived at the mouth of the cave 
 at five in the morning, nearly exhausted and worn down with nineteen 
 hours' continued fatigue. I have described to you hardly one half of the 
 cave, as the avenues between the mouth of the cave and the second hopper 
 have not been named. There is a passage in the main avenue, about 
 sixty rods from the entrance, like that of a trap-door. By sliding aside a 
 large fiat stone, you can descend sixteen or eighteen feet into a very nar- 
 row defile, where the passage comes upon a level, and winds about in 
 such a manner as to pass under the main passage, without having any 
 communication with it; and at last opens into the large passages, just be- 
 yond the second hopper. It is called the Glauber salt room, from salts of 
 that kind being found there. There is also the sick room, the bat room, 
 and the flint room, all of which are large, and some of them quite long. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 103 
 
 The last that I shall mention is a very winding avenue, which branches 
 off at the second hopper, running west, and south-west, for more than 
 two miles. This is called the haunted chamber, froui the echo of the 
 sound made in it. The arch of this avenue is very beautifully incrusted 
 with limestone spar ; and in many places the columns of spur are truly 
 elegant, extending from the ceiling to the floor. I discovered in this ave- 
 nue a very high dome, in or near the centre of the arch, apparently fifty 
 feet high, hung in rich drapery, festooned in the most fanciful manner for 
 six or eight feet above the hangings, and in colors the most rich and bril- 
 liant. The columns of spar, and the stalactites in this chamber, are ex- 
 tremely romantic in their appearance, with the reflection of one or two 
 lights. There is a cellar formed of this spar, called Wilkins's armed chair, 
 which is very large, standing in the middle of the avenue, and is encircled 
 with many smaller ones. Columns of spar, fluted and studded with knobs 
 of spar and stalactites, drapery of various colors, superbly festooned and 
 hung in the most graceful manner, are shewn with the greatest brilliancy 
 from the reflection of lamps. 
 
 ' A part of the haunted chamber lies directly over the bat room, which 
 passes under it, without having any connection with it. I was led into a 
 very narrow defile on the left side of this chamber, and about a hundred 
 yards from Wilkins's armed chair, over the side of a smooth limestone rock, 
 ten or twelve feet, which we passed with much precaution, for had we 
 slipped from our hold, we had gone to that "bourne whence no traveller 
 returns," if I may judge from a cataract of water, whose dismal sound we 
 heard at a very considerable distance in this pit, and nearly under us. 
 However, we crossed in safety, clinging fast to the wall, and winding under 
 the haunted chamber, and through a very narrow passage for thirty or 
 forty yards, when our course was west, and the passage twenty or thirty 
 feet in width, and from ten to eighteen feet high, for more than a mile. 
 The air was pure and delightful in this, as well as in other parts of the 
 cave. At the farther end of this avenue, we came upon a reservoir of 
 water, very clear and delightful to the taste, apparently having neither 
 inlet nor outlet. Within a few yards of this reservoir of water, on the 
 right hand of the cave, there is an avenue leading to the north-west. We 
 had entered it but forty feet, when we came to several columns of the most 
 brilliant spar, sixty or seventy feet in height, and almost perpendicular, 
 which stand in basins of water, that comes trickling down their sides, then 
 passes off silently from the basin, and enters the cavities of stone, without 
 being seen again. These columns of spar, and the basins they rest in, for 
 splendor and beauty, surpass every similar work of art I ever saw. We 
 passed by these columns, and entered a small but beautiful chamber, whose 
 walls were about twenty feet apart, and the arch not more than seven feet 
 high, white as white-wash could have made it ; the floor was level as far 
 as I could see, which was not a great distance, as I found many pit-holes 
 in my path, that appeared to have been lately sunk, and which induced me 
 to return. We returned by the beautiful pool of water, which is called the 
 pool of Clitorius, after the Fo?is Clitorius of the classics, which was so 
 pure and delightful to the taste, that, after drinking of it, a person had no 
 longer a taste for wine. On our way back to the narrow defile, I found 
 some difficulty in keeping my lights, for the bats were so numerous and 
 continually in our faces, that it was next to impossible to get along in safety. 
 
104 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 I brought this trouble on myself, by my own want of foresight, for as we 
 were moving on, I noticed a large number of these bats hanging by their 
 hind legs to the arch, which was not a foot higher than my head. I took 
 my cane and gave a sweep the whole length of it, when down they fell ; 
 but soon, like so many imps, they tormented us until we reached the narrow 
 defile, when they left us. We returned by Wilkins's armed chair, and back 
 to the second hopper, where I found the mummy before-mentioned, and 
 which had been placed there by Mr. Wilkins, for preservation in another 
 cave.' 
 
 Indiana Cave. — In the southern part of Indiana there is a remarkable 
 cave, which abounds in Epsom Salts, and which is thus described by Mr. 
 Adams. — 'The hill in which it is situated, is about four hundred feet high, 
 from the base to the most elevated point, and the prospect to the south-east, 
 in a clear day, is exceedingly fine, commanding an extensive view of the 
 hills and valleys bordering on Big Blue river. The top of the hill is co- 
 vered principally with oak and chesnut. The side to the south-east is 
 mantled with cedar. The entrance is about midway from the base to the 
 summit, and the surface of the cave preserves in general about that eleva- 
 tion; although I must acknowledge this to be conjectural, as no experiments 
 have been made with a view to ascertain the fact. It is probably owing to 
 this middle situation of the cave, that it is much drier than is common. 
 
 ' After entering the cave by an aperture twelve or fifteen feet wide, and 
 in height, in one place, three or four feet, you descend with easy and gra- 
 dual steps into a large and spacious room, which continues about a quarter 
 of a mile pretty near the same in appearance, varying in height from eight 
 to thirty feet, and in breadth from ten to twenty. In this distance the roof 
 is in some places arched, in others a plane, and in one place, particularly* 
 it resembles an inside view of the roof of a house. At the distance above- 
 named the cave forks, but the right hand fork soon terminates, while the 
 left rises by a flight of rocky stairs nearly ten feet high, into another story, 
 and pursues a course at this place nearly south-east. Here the roof com- 
 mences a regular arch, the height of which from the floor varies from five 
 to eight feet, and the width of the cave from six to twelve feet — which 
 continues to what is called the Creeping Place, from the circumstance 
 of having to crawl ten or twelve feet into the next large room. From this 
 place to the Pillar, a distance of about one mile and a quarter, the visi- 
 tor finds an alternate succession of large and small rooms variously decorat- 
 ed; sometimes mounting elevated points by gradual or difficult ascents, 
 and again descending as far below; sometimes travelling on a pavement, or 
 climbing over huge piles of rocks, detached from the roof by some convul- 
 sion of nature, and thus continues his route until he arrives at the Pillar. 
 
 ' The aspect of this large and stately white column, as it heaves in sight 
 from the dim reflection of the torches, is grand and impressive. Visitors 
 have seldom pushed their inquiries further than two hundred or three hun- 
 dred yards beyond this pillar. This column is about fifteen feet in diame- 
 ter, from twenty to thirty feet in height, and regularly reeded from the 
 top to the bottom. In the vicinity of this spot are some inferior pillars of 
 the same appearance and texture. 
 
 ' I have thus given you an imperfect sketch of the mechanical structure 
 and appearances of the cave. It only remains to mention its productions. 
 
 ' The first in importance is sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salts, which, 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 105 
 
 as has been before remarked, abounds throughout this cave in almost its 
 whole extent, and which, I believe, has no parallel in the history of that 
 article. This neutral salt is found in a great variety of forms, and in many 
 different stages of formation, sometimes in lumps, varying from one to 
 ten pounds in weight. The earth exhibits a shining appearance, from the 
 numerous particles interspersed through the huge piles of dirt collected in 
 different parts of the cave. The foregoing remark applies with truth, not 
 only to the surface, but to three feet below it. This is the greatest distance 
 hitherto examined. The walls are covered in different places with the 
 same article, and reproduction goes on rapidly. With a view to ascertain 
 this fact, I removed from a particular place every vestige of the salt, and 
 in four or five weeks the place was covered with small needle-shaped 
 crystals, exhibiting the appearance of frost. 
 
 ' The quality of the salt in this cave is inferior to none, and, when it 
 takes its proper stand in regular and domestic practice, must be of national 
 utility. With respect to the resources of this cave, I will venture to say 
 that every competent judge must pronounce them inexhaustible. The worst 
 earth that has been tried will yield four pounds of salt to the bushel, and 
 the best from twenty to twenty-five pounds. 
 
 ' The next production is the nitrate of lime, or saltpetre earth. There are 
 vast quantities of this earth, and equal in strength to any that I have ever 
 seen; and when potassium can be more conveniently obtained than at pre- 
 sent, the manufacture of saltpetre must be a lucrative pursuit. There are 
 also large quantities of the nitrate of allumina or nitrate of argyl, which 
 will yield as much nitrate of potassium or saltpetre, in proportion to the 
 quantities of earth, as the nitrate of lime. 
 
 ' The three articles above enumerated are first in quantity and import- 
 ance; but there are several others, which deserve notice as subjects of phi- 
 losophical curiosity. The sulphate of lime, or plaster of Paris is to be 
 seen variously formed; ponderous, crystallized, and impalpable, or soft, 
 light, and rather spongy. Vestiges of the sulphate of iron, are also to be 
 seen in one or two places. Small specimens of the carbonate, and also the 
 nitrate of magnesia, have been found. The rocks in the cave principally 
 consist of carbonate of lime, or common limestone. 
 
 ' I had almost forgotten to state, that near the forks of the cave are two 
 specimens of painting, probably of Indian origin. The one appears to be 
 a savage, with something like a bow in his hand, and furnishes the hint 
 that it was done when that instrument of death was in use. The other is 
 so much defaced, that it is impossible to say what it was intended to repre- 
 sent.' 
 
 Carver's Cave. — ' About twelve miles below the new garrison at St. 
 Peter's,' says Mr. Schoolcraft, ' we stopped to examine a remarkable cavern, 
 on the east banks of the Mississippi, called Wakon-teebe, by the Narcotah 
 or Sioux Indians, but which, in compliment to the memory of its first Eu- 
 ropean visitor, should be denominated Carver's Cave. It is situated in a 
 rock of the most beautiful white sand-stone, at the head of a small valley 
 about four hundred yards from the banks of the river. Its mouth is about 
 sixty or seventy feet wide and twenty in height, but the former soon de- 
 creases to about twenty feet, and the latter to seven. This width gradually 
 lessens as you advance during the first hundred yards, but the height re- 
 mains nearly the same, so that a man can walk without stooping. Then 
 
106 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 it tapers into a narrow passage, where it is necessary to creep, which sud- 
 denly opens into a spacious chamber. From this a narrow crevice conti- 
 nues as far as it has been explored. Some of our party pursued it four 
 hundred yards by the light of wax candles. It is very damp and chilly. 
 There is a handsome stream of pure water running from its mouth. The 
 temperature of the air in the cave was fifty-four degrees, that of the water 
 forty-seven. As it is situated in sand-stone rock, it affords no stalactites, 
 or spars. Some parts of the rock at the mouth are colored green, proba- 
 bly by the carbonate of copper. The bed of the brook is composed of 
 a crystalline sand of the most snowy whiteness, originating from the dis- 
 integration of the surrounding walls. Scattered over this are a number 
 of small pebbles, of so intensely black a color, as to create a pleasing con- 
 trast, when viewed through the medium of a clear stream. These, on 
 examination, proved to be masses of limestone, granite, and quartz, colored 
 externally by a thin deposit of earthy matter, and I conclude the color to 
 proceed from the gallic acid, with which the water, percolating into the 
 cavern, through the beds of oak leaves of the superincumbent forest, may 
 be partially saturated. This cave has been visited by most persons who 
 have passed up the Mississippi, if we may judge from the number of names 
 found upon the walls. Among them, we were informed, was that of Cap- 
 tain Carver, who visited it in 176S, but we did not observe it. His grant 
 of land from the Indians is dated in this cave, but the cave itself appears 
 to have undergone a considerable alteration since that period, for he says 
 that " about twenty feet from the entrance begins a lake, the water of which 
 is transparent, and extends to an- unsearchable distance." As the rock is 
 of a very friable nature, and easily acted upon by running water, it is pro- 
 bable that the lake has been discharged, thus enlarging the boundaries of 
 the cave. He also remarks, " at a little distance from this dreary cavern, 
 is the burying-place of several bands of the Nawdowessie (Sioux) Indians. 
 Though these people have no fixed residence, living in tents, and abiding 
 but a few months in one spot, yet they always bring the bones of their 
 dead to this place ; which they take the opportunity of doing when the 
 chiefs meet to hold their councils, and to settle the public affairs for the 
 ensuing summer." We noticed no bones or traces of interment about the 
 cave, but perhaps a further examination of the adjacent region would have 
 led to a discovery.' 
 
 In Kentucky and Tennessee, caves are numerous, which appear to have 
 been used for burial-places. In the county of Ulster, in New York, is a 
 cave three quarters of a mile in length, caused by a stream running under 
 ground. The rock which constitutes the roof and sides of the cave is a 
 dark colored limestone, containing impressions of shells, calcareous spar, 
 and beautiful white and yellow stalactites. At one end is a fall of water, 
 the depth of which has not been fathomed. At Rhinebeck, near the 
 Hudson, is a cave in which a narrow entrance leads to several spacious 
 rooms, abounding with columns of stalactites. At Chester, in Warren 
 county, there is a stream which passes under a natural bridge, and among 
 many deep caverns ; the waters enter in two streams, unite in the subter- 
 ranean passage, and issue in a single current under a precipice sixty feet 
 in height. 
 
 In the Laurel Mountain, in Pennsylvania, is a cavern with a very narrow 
 entrance, and various winding passages, which has been traversed two 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 107 
 
 miles. It is formed of a soft sandstone, and its roof is covered with millions 
 of bats. At Durham in Bucks county, on the Delaware, is a cave in the 
 limestone rock, abounding with pools and rivulets of water. At Carlisle 
 is another somewhat similar, in which human bones have been discovered. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON CAVES. 
 
 Caves or grottoes are natural fissures in the solid crust of the earth, with walls and a 
 natural roof. They are sometimes of immense extent and depth, and frequently the 
 first excavation is only the vestibule to another much larger and deeper. Eldon Hole, in 
 Derbyshire, has been sounded with a line of more than nine thousand six hundred feet, 
 but without reaching its bottom. A cavern near Frederickshall, Norway, has been esti- 
 mated at eleven thousand feet in depth. Many caverns are remarkable for various natural 
 curiosities. The most interesting are those in which the dropping of water has caused the 
 formation of stalactites, either suspends 1 from the vaults of the caverns in the shape 
 of long crystals, or assuming fantastic forms on the floor and along the wall. Antiparos 
 and Peak caves in Derbyshire, England, owe their celebrity to those formations. Other 
 caves are strewed with petrified bones, and have evidently been the burial-places of 
 generations of human beings. 
 
 There are caverns which contain deep pits of water, or wells, of such an extent as to 
 acquire the name of subterranean lakes. In some are the sources, and in others the 
 receptacles, of large streams. In Norway you may sometimes walk upon an arched 
 calcareous floor, and hear the roar of torrents under your feet. In Russia, many caverns 
 have been evidently formed by means of water, and even masses of ice. 
 
 Fingal's Cave in the Isle of Staffa,on the western coast of Scotland, is the grandest in 
 the known world. Its sides are formed of majestic columns of basalt, which are almost 
 as regular as if they had been formed by art. These columns support a lofty roof, under 
 which the sea rolls its waves, while the vastness of the i i 'mils the light of day 
 
 to the recesses of the cave. The origin of these basaltic formations is uncertain. 
 
 The caves of Kirkdale, in England, and (ciilenreufh, in Germany, are remarkable for 
 the quantities of bones of the elephant, rhinoceros, and hyena found in them. The 
 mine of fluor spar, in Castleton, Derbyshire, passes through several stalactic caverns. 
 Other caverns in England contain subterraneous cascades. In the Rock of Gibraltar 
 there are a number of stalactic caverns, of which the principal is called St. Michael's, 
 and is one thousand feet above the sea. The most famous caves of Germany are those 
 of Bauman and Bielstein, in the Hartz. 
 
 Caves sometimes exhale poisonous vapors. Of these, the most remarkable is near 
 Naples, named the Grotto del Cane. In Iceland, there are many formed by the lava 
 from its volcanoes. In the volcanic country near Rome, are many natural cavities of 
 great extent and coolness, which form pleasant places of resort in the hot weather. The 
 grottoes in the Cevennes Mountains, in France, are both numerous and extensive, and 
 abound in objects of curiosity. In South America is the cavern of Guacharo, which is 
 said to extend for leagues. 
 
108 
 
 CHAPTER IX.— ISLANDS. 
 
 Most of the coast of Maine is thickly strewn with islands. The largest 
 is Mount Desert, on the west side of Frenchman's Bay ; it is fifteen miles 
 long, and twelve broad. Many fine islands lie in Penobscot Bay, as Long 
 Island, on which is the town of Islesborough ; the Fox Islands, containing 
 the town of Vinalhaven ; and Deer Isle, on the east side of the bay, about 
 eight miles from Castine. 
 
 The Isles of Shoals belong partly to New Hampshire, and partly to 
 Maine. They lie about eight miles out at sea, between Portsmouth and 
 Newburyport, and are hardly more than a cluster of rocks rising above the 
 waters ; but they are, on many accounts, worthy of notice. They have but 
 a thin and barren appearance, yet for more than a century previous to the 
 revolution they were quite populous, containing at one time six hundred 
 inhabitants, who found there an advantageous situation for carrying on 
 fisheries. To this day the best cod in the world are those which are known 
 in the market as Isle of Shoals dun fish. These islands were discovered 
 by the celebrated Captain Smith in 1614, and called at first Smith's Isles. 
 The New Hampshire portion now constitutes the town of Gosport. 
 
 In all of them are chasms in the rocks apparently caused by earthquakes. 
 There is a remarkable chasm on Star Island, where one of the female 
 inhabitants secreted herself when the islands were invaded, and the people 
 carried into captivity by the Indians. The largest is named Hog Island, 
 and contains three hundred and fifty acres ; Star Island has one hundred 
 and fifty, Hayley's one hundred ; they are in all seven. The inhabitants 
 are about one hundred; they live solely by fishing, and in connection with 
 those of the shore in their immediate neighborhood, who follow the same 
 mode of life, are the most rude and uncivilized beings in New England, 
 except the Indians. They supply the markets of Newburyport with fish, 
 and have long been known there by the name of Algerines. Efforts have 
 recently been made to improve their social condition. 
 
 In the northern part of Massachusetts, at the mouth of the Merrimack, 
 lies Plum Island, nine miles long and one wide. On the side towards the 
 ocean it consists of sand hills twenty or thirty feet high, thrown into a thou- 
 sand fantastic shapes like snow drifts in a storm. These hills are covered 
 with low bushes bearing the beach plum, a fruit about the size of a musket 
 ball, and of a pleasant taste ; wild cherries and grapes also grow in different 
 parts. In autumn it is much frequented by parties of pleasure from the 
 neighborhood. At the northern extremity are two lighthouses and a 
 hotel. 
 
 Nantucket, twenty miles south of the main land at Cape Cod, is an island 
 of triangular form, about fifteen miles long and eleven broad in the widest 
 part, containing twenty-nine thousand three hundred and eighty acres. It 
 is removed at least twenty miles from the nearest land, and, during some 
 parts of the winter, the water is frozen around it as far as the eye can reach, 
 for a number of weeks. The climate is comparatively of an equal tempe- 
 rature. Springs of water on the island below a certain level have a peculiar 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 109 
 
 taste, and are disagreeable to those unused to them. The frequency of 
 dense and heavy fogs has frustrated the attempts made here, to manufac- 
 ture salt by evaporation from sea-water. 
 
 The inhabitants of this island are a robust and enterprising race, chiefly 
 seamen and mechanics ; and those employed in the whale fishery are said 
 to be superior to all others ; the island, being sandy and barren, is calculated , 
 only for such people as are willing to depend almost entirely on the ocean 
 for subsistence.* The people are mostly of the society of Friends, and 
 are warmly attached to their island ; few wishing to remove to a more de- 
 sirable situation. ' 
 
 There is a sand-bar at the entrance of the harbor of Nantucket, which 
 effectually excludes large vessels, deeply laden. Some attempts have been 
 recently made to remove this bank, and an appropriation of twenty-eight 
 thousand dollars was made by government for this purpose ; but the sand 
 removed in summer was more than supplied in winter, and the project was 
 abandoned. Ships now unlade at Edgartown, Martha's Vineyard, and their 
 cargoes are taken in small vessels to the island. Some months in the year, 
 they can unload at the bar. South-east of the island, and out of sight of 
 land, lie Nantucket Shoals, a dangerous reef of sand, fifty miles in extent. 
 
 Martha's Vineyard, west of Nantucket, and lying nearer the continent, 
 is twenty miles long, and ten broad. This island has a good soil, and in 
 the western part is somewhat elevated ; it has many productive farms, and 
 contains the town of Edgartown, which has a good harbor. Holmes's Hole is 
 a safe and commodious harbor in the north part of the island, much fre- 
 quented during the winter by inward bound vessels. The Elizabeth Islands 
 are a chain of sixteen small islands lying north-west of Martha's Vineyard, 
 and forming the south-east side of Buzzard's Bay ; a part of them only are 
 inhabited. They were discovered by Bartholomew Gosnold, in 1602. A 
 multitude of islands lie in Boston Bay, many of them very beautiful, but 
 none of sufficient importance to merit particular description. 
 
 Rhode Island, in Narragansct Bay. is fifteen miles long from north-east 
 to south-west, and averages two and a half in width. In its most flourishing 
 state it was called by travellers the Eden of America. It has a good soil 
 well cultivated, and an agreeably varied surface, but it is destitute of trees, 
 the whole island having been laid waste by the British in the revolutionary 
 war. A mine of anthracite coal has been wrought to some extent in the 
 north part of the island, but is not now much esteemed. The town of 
 Newport, in the south-west part, is a fashionable summer resort. 
 
 Conanicut is an island lying on the west side of Rhode Island ; it is 
 eight miles long and about one m breadth. This is also a beautiful island, 
 and has a fertile soil. At the southern extremity is a lighthouse. In the 
 same part may be seen the ruins of an ancient circular fortification, which 
 once defended the passage of the bay. 
 
 Prudence Island, farther up Narraganset Bay, is six miles in length. 
 Block Island lies ten miles out at sea, and is eight miles long and from two 
 
 * There are from fifteen to twenty thousand pounds' weight of wool annually produced 
 on this island, the average quality of which is acknowledged to be superior for manu- 
 facturing purposes, to most of the native wool grown on the continent. We have no 
 woollen factories, and but very small quantities of the staple article are wrought into 
 fabrics by domestic labor. Consequently, says the Nantucket Inquirer, it may be an object 
 for wool purchasers occasionally to look this way for a part of their supplies. 
 
 10 
 
110 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 to four broad ; it has an uneven surface, but produces maize and other 
 grain. A lighthouse stands upon it. Among the other islands in Narra- 
 ganset Bay are Patience, Hope, Dyers' and Hog Island. 
 
 Long Island extends along the coast of Connecticut, but belongs wholly 
 to New-York. It is one hundred and forty miles long from east to west, 
 and its average breadth is about ten miles. It is of alluvial formation, but 
 there is a rocky ridge or spine, extending lengthwise through it, which 
 presents summits of considerable elevation. On the south side of the island 
 is Hempstead Plain, an extensive tract of wild savanna, fifteen miles in 
 length and four in breadth. In favorable years, the best parts of the island 
 have yielded thirty or forty bushels of wheat to the acre. In the western 
 parts are many fine orchards. Deer are found in great numbers in the 
 centre of the island; the shores abound with the finest oysters. 
 
 Shelter Island lies off the east end of Long Island. It contains about 
 eight thousand acres of varied surface, with a soil generally light and sandy, 
 but in some parts rich, level, and well cultivated. Fisher's Island lies near 
 the east extremity of Long Island ; it is twelve miles long and one wide ; 
 the surface is broken, but it affords a good farm, and its dairies are very 
 fine. Gardiner's Island is on the north side of Long Island, and contains 
 about three thousand acres of valuable land. 
 
 Staten Island lies at the mouth of New-York harbor ; it is about eighteen 
 miles long, and eight wide. The surface is generally rough and hilly, but 
 on the south is a level tract of good land. This island forms the county 
 of Richmond.* 
 
 # The shores of Staten Island are finely indented, and sprinkled \rith the white, clean- 
 looking villas of this country. The island rises quickly to a considerable height, con- 
 taining an area of about fifty-two square miles. 
 
 The quarantine establishment and the adjoining village are pictures of cleanliness, 
 all painted of a bright white. The houses, hotels, &e. generally disjoined, and many 
 of them inclosed in small gardens. The whole buildings are situated on a bank gently 
 rising from the shore, and overhanging a beautiful bay below, in which there were some 
 large ships, as well as a few of the elegant sailing craft, with which the Bay of New- 
 York is always adorned. Behind the village the ground becomes abrupt, to a point at 
 which a building is erected called the Pavilion, expressly on account of the splendor of 
 the view, the top of which is, I think, nearly two hundred and fifty feet above the sea, 
 consisting of handsome saloons, with balconies, piazzas, &c. on all sides, and a look-out 
 place from the summit, from which the prospect is most glorious. I have never been 
 more delighted with any of the prospects of this description which have charmed me 
 most, on the Frith of Forth, the Clyde, the Bay of Dublin, or in the Isle of Wight. I 
 cannot help doubting whether there be a more magnificent prospect in the world. All 
 the features which it contains are beautiful, and many of them splendid. Then the 
 moving ships, pilot-boats, and small craft, never allow the view of the water to be for 
 two moments the same. 
 
 The view comprehends half a dozen friths, dividing, by marked headlands, tracts of 
 well wooded and waving country ; and it embraces not only the city of New- York, sur- 
 rounded with a vast mass of shipping, but the city of New-Jersey, projected into the bay, 
 quite as much as Burnt Island is into the Frith of Forth, as well as the village of 
 Newark. The cities lie too low, but they serve to convince the beholder that he is in the 
 heart of a densely peopled country. Peninsulas, promontories, islands, isthmuses, land, 
 in a variety of shapes, lie before him, and beyond all, the boundless Atlantic. New- 
 York, the magnificent Hudson, the Frith of Newark, and lands and hills of Jersey are 
 on the north; Long Island and its Sound, the Narrows, and the Quarantine Ground, 
 with the Atlantic on the east ; and the coast of New-Jersey, Raritan Bay, Sandy Hook, 
 and the Atlantic to the south ; the whole forming a noble prospect in the heart of as rich 
 looking a country as is in the world. 
 
 I have hitherto seen nothing iu this country to be compared to the prospect which I 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Ill 
 
 Manhattan Island, the seat of the city of New York, is fifteen miles 
 long, and one and a half in its average breadth. It is washed on the western 
 side by the Hudson, and separated from the continent and Long Island on 
 the east by narrow channels. It is generally level in the lower part, and 
 the soil here rests upon a granite rock. At the northern extremity, the 
 granite is succeeded by limestone, which affords excellent marble, and ex- 
 tends for some distance into the country. In the northern part, the shores 
 are rocky, and the face of the island strongly marked by abrupt crags and 
 ravines, hills and valleys, insulated rocks and marshy inlets. The gneiss 
 rock, which is much used for side-walk pavements and the foundations of 
 buildings, is found in abundance here. Small quantities of porcelain clay 
 have also been found upon the island. 
 
 The Bay of Chesapeak contains many islands within the limits of 
 Maryland. Kent Island, on the east side of the bay, opposite Annapolis, 
 is twelve miles long. The Tangier Islands lie farther down the bay. On 
 the seacoast is the island of Assatiegue, twenty miles long and two broad. 
 
 The coast of North Carolina is skirted by a range of low, sandy islands, 
 thrown up by the sea. They are long and narrow, and inclose several 
 bays or sounds. They are generally barren. The southern part of South 
 Carolina exhibits a similar range, separated from the main land by nar- 
 row channels, which afford a steam-boat navigation. These island--, 
 like the neighboring continent, are low and flat, but are covered with 
 forests of live oak, pine, and palmetto. Before the cultivation of cotton, 
 many of them were the haunts of alligators, and their thick woods and 
 rank weeds rendered them impenetrable toman. At present, they are under 
 cultivation and well inhabited ; and as the voyager glides along their shores 
 in a steam-boat, he is enehantod with the prospect of their lively verdure, 
 interspersed with thick clumps of palmettoes, live oak, and laurel, and 
 flowering groves of orange tnrs. The long sandy beaches which border 
 these islands towards the sen. are covered with thousands of water-fowl. 
 Georgia is also bordered with a range of small island- and marshy tracts, 
 intersected by channels and rivulets which are navigable for small ve 
 These islands consist of a rich gray soil called hammoc land. In their 
 
 have endeavored todescribe from the Pavilion at Staten Island. There>are finerviewsof 
 New tfbrk itself from theopposite shores of New-Jersey, on the one side, and fi 
 lynandthe heights of Long [sland, on the ot [sland is unquestionably the 
 
 place for seeing New STork in combin Ltion with its noble harbor, and the surrounding 
 and the shipping which adorn them. After I h ind my way under the guidai 
 
 my friends to the Pavilion, 1 frequently bent my steps to it when I had leisure, to , 
 an hour or two in the island, and never retui ped without being equally delighted with 
 the scenery above the quarantine ground. Strange it is, but not less sti i irue, 
 
 that 1 have never observed in any of the published tours relative to the United States, 
 the slightest reference made to the beauties ef siaicn [sland, or to the pro , fron 
 Pavilion. Captain Hall's Travels wen me while I was writing the notes of this 
 
 excursion, but it does not appear from them that he had evfer visiti id, though 
 
 only five miles from New Xork, where he re ided for a considerable pe.riod. At a sub- 
 sequent period I procured al Philadelphia, Mr. Darby, the geographi a ibleviewof 
 the United Stales, and was -lad to fmd that he recommended Staten [sland as possessing 
 the most variegated landscapes on the Atlantic coast of the United States. ' No traveller 
 ought (he writes) to neglect it. In a clear day, a single hour on some of the hills of 
 Staten [sland is worth a voyage of considerable extent. How many who visit Neftr-York 
 with till the means of grati iieat ion, and who travel for mere amusement, lose the invalu- 
 able pleasure of scanning the rich perspective from Staten Island. Thousands and tens 
 of thousands.' — Stuart's America. 
 
112 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 natural state, they are covered with forests of live oak, pine, and hickory ; 
 but under cultivation they produce the best cotton in the world, called Sea- 
 Island cotton. There are many small islands scattered along the coast of 
 Florida ; and off the southern extremity, at some distance from the land, 
 lies a cluster, on one of which, Key West, the United States have estab- 
 lished a naval station. 
 
 The Chandeleur Islands lie on the eastern coast of Louisiana ; they are 
 little more than heaps of sand, covered with pine forests. West of the 
 Mississippi are many others scattered along the coast. Here is the island 
 of Barataria, formerly noted as a nest of pirates. It lies in a bay which 
 receives the waters of a lake of the same name. The soil of these islands 
 is generally rich ; most of them are low and level. There are some very 
 fertile islands in the Mississippi,* and in the Great Lakes. 
 
 The Island of Michilimackinac, in the strait connecting Lake Huron and 
 Lake Michigan, is important in a political point of view, being the Gibraltar 
 of the north-west. It is of an elliptical form, about seven miles in circum- 
 ference, rising gradually to the centre ; its figure suggested to the mind of 
 the Indians its appropriate name, Michi Machinal (Great Turtle.) The 
 greater part of the island is almost an impenetrable thicket of underwood 
 and small trees, which contribute materially to the defence of the garrison. 
 Fort Holmes stands on a summit of the island, several hundred feet above 
 the level of Lake Huron, and is now one of the most formidable positions 
 in the western country. The French were the first settlers, and their de- 
 scendants, to a considerable number, reside near the Fort. 
 
 Maniton Island is situated near the eastern coast of Lake Michigan ; it 
 is six miles long and four wide, and is held sacred by the Indians. The 
 Castor Islands are a chain of islets, extending from Grand Traverse Bay 
 nearly across the lake ; they are low and sandy, but afford a shelter for 
 light boats in their passage to Green Bay. Grosse Isle is a valuable allu- 
 vion of several thousand acres, being five miles long, and from one to two 
 wide. 
 
 * There are about one hundred and twenty-five islands of considerable size, and a multi- 
 tude of small ones, in that part of the Mississippi between New Orleans and the junction 
 of the Ohio. Wolf Island, about twenty-four miles below the confluence, is situate in a 
 fine part of the river, where the banks are high and the current rapid. This island is 
 about twenty miles in circumference, and contains fifteen thousand acres of good land, 
 with a fine prairie in the centre. 
 
 There ai • many beautiful scenes in passing the islands upon the river, which I saw 
 to great advantage, it being full, and yet only in a few places overflowing its proper 
 .Course; but natural beauties of this kind, where all that sort of variety of feature is 
 wanting which depends upon the neighborhood of mountain and hill, and where nothing 
 but the forest is to be seen, excepting, at considerable distances from each other, patches 
 of cultivated ground, soon cease to be very interesting, and the river, the prodigious 
 length of which, as well as its gr< at volume of water, astonish the beholder for the first 
 time, is the only object that on such a voyage as this continues powerfully to arrest the 
 attention. — Stuart's America. 
 
 f The Indian tradition concerning the name of this little barren island is curious. 
 They say that Michapous, the chief of spirits, sojourned long in that neighborhood; and 
 they believe that a mountain on the border of the lake was the place of his residence, 
 which they still call by his name. It was here, say they, that he first instructed men 
 to make nets for fishing, and where he has collected the greatest quantity of fish. On 
 the island he left spirits named Imakinakos, and from these aerial possessors it has 
 received the appellation of Michilimackinac. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 113 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON ISLANDS. 
 
 It has been well observed, that a large island is a continent in miniature, with its 
 chains of mountains, its lakes, rivers, and not unfrequently its surrounding islets. The 
 smaller islands are found single, or in groups. Among the low or flat islands, there are 
 some which are only banks of sand, scarcely raised above the surface of the water ; 
 sometimes they consist of masses of shells or petrifactions, as the Isles of Lachof to the 
 north of Siberia, which are nothing but masses of ice, sand, and the bones of the mam- 
 moth. The Pacific contains a great many islands formed of coral reefs, which are some- 
 times covered with sand, and afford nourishment to a few plants. 
 
 Among the more elevated islands we find very many which owe their foundation, in a 
 great measure, to volcanic agencies. Submarine islands, as they have been sometimes 
 called, or immense sand-banks, covered with shoal water, are not unfrequent. Chains 
 of islands in the neighborhood of continents seem to be often formed by the action of the 
 waters washing away the less solid parts, which once occupied the spaces between the 
 mountains and rocks. In this manner were probably formed the islands along the coast 
 of the United States, which still appear above the surface ofthe waves. 
 
 One of the chief advantages that islands derive from their situation is, that the cli- 
 mate is generally rendered mild and salubrious, from the vapors of the surrounding sea, 
 which generally moderate the violence of heat and cold, both of which are sensibly less 
 than on the continent in the same latitude. Another advantage is found in their acces- 
 sibility on every side, by which islands are open to receive and export commodities, and 
 at times when the ports of the continent are closed. An island has on all sides the most 
 extensive and effectual frontier, subsisting forever without repairs and without expense ; 
 and, which is still more, derives from this very frontier, a great part of the subsistence 
 of its inhabitants, and a valuable article in its commerce, from fisheries. 
 
 The island of Acroteri, famous in ancient history, is represented to have risen from 
 the sea, in a violent earthquake ; its surface is composed of pumice-stone incrusted with 
 a covering of fertile earth. Four neighboring islands have been attributed to a similar 
 cause, and yet the sea about them cannot be fathomed by any sounding line. These 
 have risen at different periods, the last in 1573, the first long before the birth of Christ. 
 Similar eruptions of islands have occurred in the group of the Azores. Thus in Decem- 
 ber, 1720, a violent shock of an earthquake was felt at Tercera. During the night, the 
 top of a new island appeared, which ejected a huge column of smoke. The pilot of a 
 ship who attempted to approach it sounded on one side of the new formed island, but 
 could not reach bottom with a line of sixty fathoms. On the opposite side, the sea was 
 deeply tinged with various colors, white, blue and green, and was very shallow. This 
 island gradually diminished in size, and finally altogether disappeared. 
 
 History abounds with accounts of floating islands, but they are either false or much 
 exaggerated. These islands are generally found in lakes, and are composed of the 
 light matter floating on the surface of the water in cakes, forming, with the roots of 
 plants, collections of different sizes, which, not being fixed in any part to the shore, are 
 driven about by the winds. In the course of time, some of them arrive at considerable 
 size. The floating islands, however, mentioned by the old writers, have now disappeared 
 or become fixed. 
 
 15 10* 
 
114 
 
 CHAPTER X.— CAPES AND PENINSULAS. 
 
 Cape Ann, the northern limit of Massachusetts Bay, is a rocky promon- 
 tory, fifteen miles in length, containing several good harbors. The penin- 
 sula of Cape Cod, in the south-east part of Massachusetts, is about sixty- 
 five miles long, and from one to twenty miles broad ; its shape is nearly 
 that of a man's arm bent inward at the elbow and wrist. The greater part 
 of the peninsula is a barren desert ; in the south-western portion the land, 
 though sterile, is under some little cultivation ; but the northern part con- 
 sists almost wholly of hills of white sand. The houses are built upon 
 stakes driven into the ground, with open spaces between for the sand to 
 drift through. The cape is well inhabited,, notwithstanding its sterility, 
 and supports a population of twenty -eight thousand, Avho derive their sub- 
 sistence chiefly from the fisheries. The coast is beset with numerous 
 shoals, and has long been the dread of mariners. At the first settlement 
 of the country, there was an island east of the cape, about nine miles out 
 at sea, which was twenty acres in extent, and covered with savin and 
 cedar trees ; for a century this island has been entirely submerged, and 
 the water is above six fathoms deep. 
 
 The peninsula of Nahant, a few miles north of the harbor of Boston, is 
 connected with the main land by Lynn beach, a smooth and level floor of 
 sand two miles in length. It is divided into Great Nahant, Little Nahant, 
 and Bass Neck : the two former being connected by a delightful beach 
 ninety rods long. These beaches are hard and smooth, and of sufficient 
 width at low water to accommodate thousands with a pleasant walk or 
 ride. Great Nahant contains three hundred and five acres of land. The 
 shores of this peninsula are bold and rocky. On its southern side is a large 
 and curious cavern called the Swallows' House, inhabited by a great 
 number of swallows, which here make their nests. On the northern shore 
 is a chasm thirty feet deep, called the Spouting Horn, into which, at about 
 half-tide, the water rushes with great violence and a tremendous sound. 
 
 Nahant presents some of the most striking sea views in the world. 
 After an easterly storm, the violent dashing of the huge waves against the 
 rocks presents a spectacle possessing all the elements of the sublime. Dur- 
 ing the heat of summer, Nahant is a favorite place of resort for invalids, 
 and people of fashion, on account of its cool and refreshing breezes. 
 
 Cape May, on the coast of New Jersey, and the northern point of the 
 mouth of Delaware Bay, is the termination of a range of low, sandy, barren 
 coast, commencing at Shrewsbury. It is eighteen miles north-east of 
 Cape Henlopen, a point on the southern coast of the entrance to the same 
 bay. On this cape is a lighthouse of an octagon form, handsomely built of 
 stone, one hundred and fifteen feet high, and on a foundation nearly as much 
 above the level of the sea. Cape Henry is the southern salient point at 
 the mouth of Chesapeak Bay; and its northern salient point, twelve miles 
 distant to the north, is the promontory of Cape Charles. 
 
 Cape Hatteras, the most remarkable and dangerous cape on the coast of 
 North America, is situated in latitude thirty-five degrees and twelve minutes, 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 115 
 
 and has occasioned the destruction of many a fine vessel, and the loss 
 of hundreds of valuable lives. The water is very shoal at a great distance 
 from the cape, which is remarkable for sudden aid violent squalls of wind, 
 and for the most severe storms of thunder, lightning, and rain, which hap- 
 pen almost every day for one half the year. The shoals lie about fourteen 
 miles south-west of the cape, and are nearly five or six acres in extent, with 
 about ten feet water. Here, at times, the ocean breaks in a tremendous 
 manner, spouting as it were to the clouds, from the violent agitation of the 
 Gulf Stream, which touches the edge of the banks. 
 
 Cape Fear and Cape Lookout are dangerous capes on the coast of North 
 Carolina. The former is the southern extremity of Smith's Island, at the 
 mouth of the river of the same name. About sixty years ago, Cape Look- 
 out afforded an excellent harbor, capacious enough for a large fleet in 
 good deep water; but the basin is now filled up. Roman is the name of a 
 cape on the coast of South Carolina, and of one on the western coast of 
 East Florida. Cape Cannaveral is on the Atlantic coast of Florida, being 
 the projecting point of a long, narrow and low sandy island between Indian 
 river and the ocean. Cape Florida is a promontory of the south-eastern 
 coast of Florida, projecting to the south, and inclosing on the north-east 
 the Bay of Biscino. Cape Sable is the extreme point of Florida. Every 
 part of the coast of the Southern States is low and flat, without a single 
 lofty headland to warn the navigator of his approach to the land. The 
 peninsula of East Florida may be considered an immense cape, and much 
 the largest in the United States. The Mississippi has formed at its 
 mouth, by the mud brought down in its waters, a cape forty miles in extent, 
 the extreme point of which is called the Balize, through the whole length 
 of which the river passes into the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON CAPES AND PENINSULAS. 
 
 Parts of continents which shoot into the sea, and are connected with the main land by 
 only a small portion of their circumference, are named peninsulas, and their figures 
 often correspond with those of gulfs and inland seas. When such masses of land are 
 attached to the continent by a greater extent of line than one fourth of their circumfe- 
 rence, they are not considered as peninsulas. If the projection of land reach but a short 
 distance, they are called capes, promontories, or simply points. The most remarkable 
 capes in the world are, Cape Horn, St. Koque, Blanco, God, Verd, Good Hope, Gardafui, 
 North, Comorin, and Taymour. 
 
116 
 
 CHAPTER XL— BAYS, HARBORS, SOUNDS, AND GULFS. 
 
 I. BAYS AND HARBORS. 
 
 The seacoast of Maine is indented with numerous bays. Of these the 
 largest is Penobscot Bay, which forms the estuary of the river of that 
 name, is about thirty miles in length, and eighteen in width at its entrance 
 between the isle of Holt and Owl's Head. It incloses Fox, Haut, Long, 
 and Deer islands, besides a number of small islands and rocks. On a fine 
 peninsula in this bay the British, in the late war, built a fort, and made a 
 settlement, which is now the shire town of the county of Hancock, and is a 
 very commodious place for the lumber trade. Broad Bay is situated about 
 twelve miles westwardly, and is bounded by Pleasant-point on the east, 
 and Pemaquid-point on the west, the latter of which projects considerably 
 into the sea. Casco Bay lies between Cape Elizabeth and Cape Small- 
 point, and averages twenty-five miles in width by fourteen in length ; it 
 forms the entrance into Sagadahok river, and has sufficient depth of 
 water for vessels of any burden. This is a very handsome bay, and con- 
 tains not less than three hundred small islands, some of which are inhabited, 
 and nearly all more or less cultivated ; the land on these islands, and on 
 the opposite coast, being the best for agriculture of any near the seashore 
 of this part of the country. Wells Bay lies between Cape Porpoise and 
 Neddick, which are twenty-one miles apart. Passamaquoddy Bay, forming 
 a part of the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick, is six miles 
 long and twelve wide ; it contains many islands, and receives the St. Croix 
 river. Small harbors are numerous, and the shores are rocky and bold. 
 Besides the bays here described, are the Saco and Machias bays. 
 
 Massachusetts Bay is about forty miles in extent, lying between Cape 
 Ann on the north and Cape Cod on the south. Within this lies Boston 
 Bay, comprising the space between Nahant on the north and Point Alder- 
 ton on the south, and including the harbors of Boston, Lynn, Dorchester, 
 Quincy, and Hingham, with Nantucket and President Roads, and the nu- 
 merous islands within the Boston lighthouse. The most noted of these 
 are Governor's Island, and Castle Island, on both of which fortifications 
 are erected ; they lie about two and a half miles easterly from Boston, at 
 the distance of about a mile from each other, dividing the inner from the 
 outer harbor. The only channel for large ships passes between them. 
 This harbor is of sufficient extent, and its water is sufficiently deep to 
 admit five hundred ships of the largest class to ride at anchor in safety ; 
 while its entrance is so narrow as scarcely to admit two ships abreast 
 
 In the south of Massachusetts Bay is Cape Cod Bay, fifteen or twenty 
 miles in extent, lying between Cape Cod and Plymouth ; within this are 
 Barnstable and Plymouth Bays. In the south of the state is Buzzard's 
 Bay, on the south-west side of Cape Cod, twenty miles deep, and inclosing 
 the harbor of New Bedford. ' Buzzard's Bay,' says a recent and entertain- 
 ing tourist, ' has much that is interesting on its extensive shores. A beau- 
 tiful little spot called Naushaw, will not fail to attract the attention of the 
 voyager on his way to Nantucket. Parts of it are thickly covered with 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 117 
 
 woods. From its centre, on an eminence, rises a picturesque spot, which 
 was built by an English gentleman of wealth, for his summer residence. 
 Some time previous to his death, he became impressed with the belief that, 
 at the expiration of twenty years after his decease, he should return and 
 resume the occupations of life. He accordingly gave orders that the house 
 with its furniture, should remain unmolested until the expiration of that 
 time, when he should again return to occupy it. Every thing remained 
 as he would have it for some time after his death. But eventually the house 
 and furniture were sold, and passed into other hands. Thirty or forty 
 summers have reinvigorated the turf of his grave, but he has not yet 
 returned, to claim his property, or to reinhabit the decaying mansion.' 
 The boat passes from the bay into the sound, through a narrow passage 
 called Wood's Hole, a place very intricate and difficult of navigation. 
 Breakers run out from the shore in all directions ; so that a straight course 
 through, would be impossible. The boat in passing through this miniature 
 Hurl Gate, makes a course in the form of the letter s. 
 
 Narraganset Bay intersects the state of Rhode Island, and is about twen- 
 ty-eight miles long and ten miles broad. It contains fifteen islands ; it has 
 many excellent harbors, and affords great advantages for navigation. 
 Newport harbor, in the channel between Conanicut and Rhode Island, is 
 one of the finest in the world, being safe, deep, capacious, and easily acces- 
 sible. Its entrance is defended by Fort Wolcott on Goat's Island, and Fort 
 Adams on Rhode Island ; the latter is a large stone castle of great strength. 
 The banks of this bay are covered with fine settlements, the view of which 
 from the water is highly pleasing and picturesque. 
 
 The seacoast of New York is nearly all comprised within the shores of 
 Long Island, which contain a few harbors and inlets, but none that are 
 much frequented by shipping. The bay or harbor of New York is very 
 safe and capacious ; its boundaries towards the sea are Long Island and 
 Staten Island ; it extends nine miles below the city, and is from a mile 
 and a half to five miles broad; inclosing several small islands, on which 
 are fortifications. The Hudson enters this bay from the north. The East 
 river, or channel between New York Island and Long Island, communicates 
 with Long Island Sound on the east. The Kills, a strait between Staten 
 Island and the Jersey shore, communicates with Newark Bay and the river 
 Raritan on the west; and the Narrows open into the Atlantic towards the 
 south. At low water, the entrance by the Narrows is somewhat difficult 
 for large ships, and the entrance from the Sound is obstructed by the rocky 
 strait of Hell Gate. There are several harbors on Lake Ontario, the 
 most noted of which is Sachet's Harbor, toward the cast end of the lake ; 
 it is deep and safe, and was an important naval station during the war 
 of 1812. 
 
 New Jersey has a long line of seacoast, but it is quite deficient in good 
 harbors. Newark Bay is rather a small lake, communicating by long 
 outlets with the sea. The Bay of Amboy, between Staten Island and 
 Sandy Hook, affords little shelter for vessels. There is a long bay, formed 
 by a beach four or five miles from the shore, extending along the coast 
 from Manasquan river, in Monmouth county, almost to Cape May. 
 Through this beach are a number of inlets, by which the bay communicates 
 with the ocean. Delaware Bay lies between the states of Delaware and 
 New Jersey, formed by the mouth of Delaware river and several other 
 
118 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 smaller ones. It is sixty-five miles long, and in the centre about thirty 
 miles across, and about eighteen at its mouth, from Cape May to Cape 
 Henlopen. This bay has many shoal places, but is in general deep and 
 favorable to navigation. A breakwater and dike are now constructing 
 by the United States' government at the entrance of the bay. The ancho- 
 rage ground is formed by a cove in the southern shore, directly west of the 
 pitch of Cape Henlopen and the seaward, and of an extensive shoal called 
 the Shears : the tail of which makes out from the shore about five miles up 
 the bay, near the mouth of Broadkill Creek, from whence it extends eastward, 
 and terminates at a point about two miles to the northward of the shore at 
 the cape. The breakwater consists of an insulated dike or wall of stone, 
 formed in a straight line from east south-east to west north-west, and twelve 
 hundred yards in length. At the distance of three hundred and fifty 
 yards from the western end of the breakwater, a similar dike of five hun- 
 dred yards in length is projected in a direct line, west by south, one half 
 south, forming an angle of one hundred and forty-six degrees fifteen, 
 minutes with the breakwater. This part of the works is more particularly 
 designed as an ice-breaker. The whole length of the two dikes above 
 described, is seventeen hundred yards. The entrance to the harbor is six 
 hundred and fifty yards in width, between the north point of the cape and 
 the east end of the breakwater. At this opening, the harbor will be acces- 
 sible during all winds coming from the sea.* 
 
 The Chesapeak Bay is a deep gulf opening from the Atlantic ocean, 
 between capes Henry and Charles, and lying in the states of Maryland and 
 Virginia. It is one hundred and eighty-five miles in length, extending 
 northwardly, and its entrance is sixteen miles wide. Its general breadth 
 varies from seven to twenty miles, and its average depth is nine fathoms ; 
 it affords a safe and easy navigation, and many fine harbors. Among 
 these may be mentioned that of Norfolk, in the southern part of the bay, 
 near the mouth of the James. The embouchure of this river forms a 
 spacious haven, called Hampton Roads. 
 
 The channel which leads in from the capes of Virginia to Hampton 
 Roads, is, at Old Point Comfort, reduced to a very narrow line. The 
 shoal water, which, under the action of the sea, and re-acted upon by the 
 bar, is kept in an unremitting ripple, has given the name of Rip Raps to 
 this place. When the bar is passed, Hampton Roads afford the finest 
 anchorage in the world, and in them all its navies might ride with perfect 
 safety. With a view of making this a secure retreat for ships of war and 
 for our commerce, in any future contest with a naval power, Fort Monroe 
 
 * The whole cost of this work was estimated by the commissioners at two million 
 two hundred and sixteen thousand eight hundred and seventy dollars. The amount 
 hitherto expended is not far from one million dollars. Two or three years more will be 
 required, iu order to carry the work to its completion. When finished, according to the 
 original plan, it will afford a harbor sufficiently capacious for the anchorage of upwards 
 of sixty vessels. ' The water surface will comprise an area of one mile square, having a 
 depth at low water of from three to six fathoms, between the pitch of the cape and the 
 western extremity of the ice-breaker. This place will be completely secured f. im 
 s from the north-east and north-west, these being the only points of attack 
 which there has been a necessity, in the plan of the work, to secure and fortify.' There 
 is but one breakwater in the world that can claim a comparison with it, viz. that at 
 Ply mouth, England, the length of which is about a mile. Its cost was upwards of one 
 million pounds sterling, and the quantity of stone employed in its construction, about 
 two million tons. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ] 19 
 
 was built on the point, on the right side of the channel at the entrance of 
 the Roads ; and the Castle of the Rip Raps is directly opposite the point, 
 at the distance of about one thousand nine hundred yards. The two forts 
 will completely command the channel, and it will be impossible for a single 
 ship of war to pass without the permission of the power holding the fort- 
 resses. They are so constructed, as to present immense batteries of cannon 
 upon an approaching ship, from the moment she comes in reach, from the 
 capes, and throughout all the bendings of the channel.* 
 
 Chesapeak Bay, and its tributary streams, have been known from their 
 discovery as the great place of resort for water-fowl in the United States 
 This is attributed to -the great abundance of their favorite food, which is 
 found on the immense flats or shoals near the mouth of the Susquehanna, 
 the whole length of North, East, and Elk rivers, and on the shores of the 
 Bay as far south as York and James rivers. 
 
 The harbors of North and South Carolina are generally bad. That of 
 Charleston is obstructed at its entrance by a dangerous sand-bar; that of 
 Georgetown will admit only small craft. The harbor of Beaufort or Port 
 Royal is the best in the state, but is little frequented. The largest bays 
 of Florida are those of Apalachicola, St. Andrew's, Ochlockney, and Pen- 
 sacola. Alabama has but about sixty miles of seacoast, containing the 
 spacious Bay of Mobile, which extends thirty miles inland. It has two 
 principal entrances, one of which has eighteen feet depth of water. To 
 the west it communicates by a shallow passage with the Bay of Pasca- 
 goula, which lies within a number of islands, on the coast of this state and 
 Mississippi. 
 
 II. SOUNDS. 
 
 Long Island Sound is an extensive gulf or channel, from three to twenty- 
 five miles broad, and about one hundred and forty in length, extending the 
 whole length of Long Island, and dividing it from Connecticut. It is narrow 
 at the eastern entrance, and expands in the middle ; it communicates with 
 the ocean at both ends. Towards the west it contracts gradually, till it 
 joins the harbor of New York by a narrow and crooked strait. It admits 
 of a free navigation throughout its whole extent for the largest ships, except 
 
 * Fort Monroe is already finished, and is at this moment in admirable condition, if its 
 armament were completed. The Rip Raps, when finished, will be a monument worthy 
 of the people who have lavished their means in its erection, and of the genius of the 
 engineers by whom it was planned. The area of the structure, as originally staked 
 off, includes five acres ; great part of which was twenty-two feet below the surface of 
 the sea, and that nearest the surface eighteen feet. To get a foundation above water 
 for the fort, or castle, an island has been raised, by throwing rocks into the water, until, 
 by gradual accumulation, it has emerged above the tides. The rock of which this island 
 is formed, has been brought from great distances and at vast expense. 
 
 After a foundation was obtained for the castle above high water, the building of the 
 castle was begun, and carried up so as to form the first embrasures. It was found that 
 the settling of the artificial mound of stone, cracked the walls. The building was, 
 therefore, discontinued ; but immense masses of granite have since been brought and 
 lodged upon the line of the work, that the weight of the material, designed for its com- 
 pletion, might be employed in consolidating its foundations. For some years this 
 marine pyramid sunk between six and eight inches ; during the last year, although 
 pressed with the weight of all the material gathered for the superstructure, it settled 
 about three inches. _ It is stated that the erection of the castle may now proceed with 
 tafety, and that its immediate completion is contemplated by government. 
 
120 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 at the celebrated passage called Hell Gate,^ situated near the west end 
 of this sound, about eight miles from the city of New York. It is a very 
 singular strait, about three or four hundred yards in breadth, having a 
 ledge of sunken rocks across it in an angular direction, which occasions 
 many whirlpools and cross currents in the water. These, at certain periods 
 of the tide, make a tremendous noise, and render a passage impracticable ; 
 but at other times the water is smooth, and the navigation easy. 
 
 Pamlico Sound is a kind of a lake or inland sea, from ten to thirty miles 
 broad, and seventy miles in length. It is separated from the Atlantic ocean, 
 in itS whole length, by a beach of sand hardly a mile wide, generally 
 covered with trees or bushes. Through this bank are several small inlets, 
 by which boats may pass ; but Ocrecock Inlet is the only one that will 
 admit vessels of burden. This inlet communicates with Albemarle Sound, 
 which is also a kind of inland sea, sixty miles in length, and from four to 
 fifteen in breadth, lying north of Pamlico Sound. Core Sound lies south of 
 Pamlico, and has a communication with it. These sounds are so large, 
 wben compared with their inlets from the sea, that no tide can be perceived 
 in any of the rivers which empty into them, nor is the water salt, even in 
 the mouths of these rivers. 
 
 III. GULFS. 
 Gulf of Mexico. — The <julf of Mexico washes the shores of Florida, 
 Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, on the side of the United States. It 
 extends between the eighteenth and thirtieth parallels of north latitude, and 
 is nearly of a circular form, but somewhat elongated from east to west. 
 In the latter direction it is one thousand one hundred and fifty miles long; in 
 the transverse direction it is about nine hundred and thirty. It opens in a 
 south-east direction, between the peninsula of Yucatan and Florida, or the 
 capes Catoche and Sable, which are about four hundred and sixty-five miles 
 distant from each other. The Island of Cuba divides this opening into two 
 channels : the one to the south-west, communicating with the Sea of the 
 Antilles, and the other to the north-east with the Atlantic, by means of the 
 Straits of Bahama or Florida. South from the mouth of the Rio del Norte, 
 round about the mouth of the Rio Alvarado, an extent of six hundred miles, 
 this gulf does not present a single good port, as Vera Cruz is merely a bad 
 anchorage amidst shallows. The Mexican coast may be considered a sort 
 of dike, against which the waves, continually agitated by the trade-winds 
 blowing from east to west, throw up the sands carried by the violent motion. 
 The rivers descending from the Sierra Madre, have also contributed to in- 
 crease these sands, and the land is gaining on the sea. No vessels, says 
 Humboldt, drawing more than twelve and a half inches water, can pass 
 over these sand-bars without danger of grounding. 
 
 * "Washington Irving describes Hell Gate ' to be as pacific at low water as any other 
 stream. As the tide rises, it begins to fret ; at half-tide it rages and roars, as if bellow- 
 ing for more water ; but when the tide is full, it relapses again into quiet, and for a 
 time seems almost to sleep as soundly as an alderman after dinner. It maybe compared 
 to an inveterate hard drinker, who is a peaceable fellow enough when he has no liquor 
 at all, or when he has his skin full : but when half-seas-over, plays the very devil.' 
 
 The borders of the sound, all about this strait, are broken and indented by rocky nooks, 
 and the bay towards the city is so beautifully shaped, and the views on both sides so 
 interesting, that the shores and neighborhood of the bay are adorned with a great 
 number of handsome and expensive villas. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 121 
 
 The Mississippi is the principal tributary of the Gulf of Mexico, and 
 carries down with it, besides its vast body of waters, a prodigious quantity 
 of organic and unorganic debris. The town of New Orleans, near the 
 mouth of this river, is the principal commercial station along the whole 
 gulf. In the middle of the gulf the winds blow regularly from the north- 
 east ; but they vary considerably on approaching the shore. From the 
 Mississippi, along the Florida coast, the south-west wind blows violently 
 in the months of August, September, and October ; the north wind prevails 
 during the other nine months. Between the Mississippi and San Bernardo, 
 the wind generally blows in the morning from the south-east or east-south- 
 east, and in the evening from the south-west. Between Catoche and Cam- 
 peachy the reigning wind, during a great part of the year, blows from the 
 north-east ; but from the end of April to September, it comes from the 
 opposite direction. The most remarkable current in the gulf, is that called 
 the Gtdf Stream., described in the following chapter. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON BAYS. 
 
 Many portions of the land and sea extend reciprocally the one into the other. If the 
 sea penetrate into the interior of any continent, it forms there a mediterranean, or inland 
 sea, almost surrounded by land, and having only a narrow opening into the sea. If the 
 extent of such seas be less, and the opening larger, they are called gulfs or bays, two 
 terms which geographical writers have wished to distinguish, but which customary 
 language^more frequently confounds. The still smaller portions of sea, surrounded as 
 it were by land, and which afford a shelter for ships, are called ports, creeks, or roads. 
 The first term means a secure asylum ; the second is applied to places or ports of much 
 smaller size, and which, when improved or completed by artificial aid, are styled harbors, 
 and roads afford only a temporary anchorage and security from certain winds. The 
 principal bays in the world are Baffin's, Hudson's, James's, Fundy, Massachusetts, 
 Narraganset, Delaware, Chesapeak, Campeachy, Honduras, Bristol, All Saints, Cardi- 
 gan, Donegal, Galway, Biscay, Bengal, Walwich, Table, False, Angola, Natal, Saldanha, 
 and Botany. The principal gulfs are St. Lawrence, Mexico, Amatique, California, 
 Panama, Guayaquil, St. George, Bothnia, Finland, Riga, Genoa, Naples, Taranto, Venice, 
 Salonica, Persian, Ormus, Siam, Tonquin, Corea, Obi, and Guinea. The principal sounds 
 are Long Island,. Albemarle, Pamlico, Prince William's, Queen Charlotte's, and Nootka 
 
 16 11 
 
122 
 
 CHAPTER XII.— OCEANS. 
 
 The United States are washed by the Atlantic Ocean on nearly the 
 whole of their eastern coast, and by the Pacific on a large portion of their 
 western boundary. 
 
 Under the name of the Atlantic, is comprised that mass of water between 
 the eastern coast of America and the western coast of Europe and Africa. 
 In its narrowest part, between Europe and Greenland, it is one thousand 
 miles wide, and opening thence to the south-west with the general range 
 of the bounding continents, spreads under the northern tropic to a breadth 
 of sixty degrees of longitude, or four thousand one hundred and seventy 
 miles, without estimating the Gulf of Mexico. The general phenomena on 
 the two opposing sides of the Atlantic have great resemblance. The Atlan- 
 tic coast of the United States presents an elliptic curve in its entire extent, 
 with three intermediate and similar curves ; the first extending seven 
 hundred miles from Cape Florida to Cape Hatteras, the second from Cape 
 Hatteras five hundred miles to the outer capes of Massachusetts, and ftie 
 third formed by the coasts of Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Maine. 
 Opposite to the United States, the Atlantic admits soundings in every 
 place near the shores, always deepening very gradually. We have not 
 found an exact comparison of the natural history of the Atlantic with that 
 of other oceans. The chief phenomenon that marks it along the coast of 
 the states is the Gulf Stream. 
 
 Besides the regular periodical currents produced in the ocean by the 
 tides, various others arise from different causes.* The waters of the sea 
 may be put in motion by an external impulse, by a difference in tempera- 
 ture and saltness, by the periodical meeting of the polar ice, or by the 
 inequality of evaporation that takes place in different latitudes. Some- 
 times several of these causes concur in producing the same effect; at others, 
 their actions are opposed to one another, and their effects wholly or partially 
 destroyed. Some of these currents constantly follow the same direction, 
 others are subject to periodical changes, whilst a third class are more acci- 
 dental. The most regular and extensive current on the globe is that which 
 constantly flows from east to west, between the tropics, and extends on each 
 side of the equator to about the thirtieth degree of latitude. 
 
 This vast current necessarily results from the attraction of the heavenly 
 bodies, the diurnal motion of the earth, and the direction of the trade winds. 
 Its existence is incontestibly proved by the fact, that vessels jailing to the 
 westward, are always ahead of their reckoning ; that is, their real situation, 
 as determined by observations of the heavenly bodies, is always found to 
 be west of that estimated from the rate of which the vessel is supposed to 
 sail, as impelled by the wind alone. This difference of situation is occa- 
 sioned by the general movement of the waters in the same direction, and is, 
 consequently, the proper measure of the current. This is the reason why 
 
 * Major Rennel considers the winds the principal cause of currents in the ocean, in 
 •which opinion he is supported by several eminent writers ; but allowing to the wind 
 great influence, still that influence is not sufficient to account satisfactorily for the vari- 
 ous and contradictory facts which are recorded concerning these mighty streams. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 123 
 
 navigators, in sailing from Europe to America and the West India Islands, 
 make the latitude of the Canaries, and then shape their course in the direc- 
 tion of the wind and current across the Atlantic. 
 
 A general current also flows from the poles towards the equator. This 
 arises from the increased evaporation in the equatorial regions, and the 
 augmented temperature of the waters, which render them specifically 
 lighter than those of the ocean in higher latitudes, as well as from the 
 increased supplies produced by the melting of the polar ice ; all of which 
 render these currents necessary to maintain the equilibrium of this perpetu- 
 ally circulating fluid. Their existence and effects are fully attested by the 
 enormous masses of polar ice, which they convey into the more temperate 
 regions of the ocean, and which sometimes float as low as forty degrees of 
 latitude. 
 
 These general currents are greatly modified, and changed into various 
 directions by the obstacles they encounter in their progress. The coast of 
 America, and the numerous islands with which it is flanked, intercept the 
 general current of the Atlantic, and create what navigators call the Cadf 
 Stream. This great current enters the Gulf of Mexico, and, sweeping 
 round the shores of that gulf, issues with accelerated velocity towards the 
 north, by the channel between the southern point of Florida and the Bahama 
 Islands.* It then rolls along the shore of North America, diminishing in 
 velocity, but increasing in breadth, till it reaches the great bank of New- 
 foundland. There it suddenly turns towards the east and south-east, and 
 flows with still decreasing velocity, towards the shores of Europe, the 
 Azores, and the coasts of Africa. Navigators readily distinguish this 
 current by the high temperature of its waters, their great saltness, their 
 indigo color, and the shoals of sea-weedt that cover their surface. 
 
 Humboldt, in May, 1804, observed its velocity in the twenty-seventh 
 degree of latitude, and found it about eighty miles in twenty-four hours, 
 though the north wind blew very strongly at the time of the observation. 
 When it issues from the Gulf of Florida, its velocity resembles that of a 
 torrent, and is sometimes five miles an hour, but at others not more than 
 three. Between the nearest point of Florida, and the bank of Bahama, the 
 
 * When the course of this stream is stated to be three thousand geographical miles, 
 some idea may be formed of the force with which it issues through the strait of Flojrida ; 
 a force so great as to be destructive to the land in that quarter. On the north side of 
 Delaware Bay, the encroachments of the sea average nine feet a year, from observations 
 made between ISO-land 1820, and at Sullivan's Island on the north side of the entrance 
 to the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, the sea carried away a quarter of a mile of 
 land in three years ; which destructh e power arises from the narrowness of the strait, 
 and the great volume of water that passes through it. As the narrowest part of the 
 strait of Florida is thirty-six nautic miles in breadth, and the annual mean velocity 
 about seventy-three miles per day, a surface of two thousand six hundred and twenty- 
 eight square miles of gulf water will be poured into the Atlantic every day, or about 
 two-thirds of a square equatorial degree. 
 
 f Humboldt is of opinion that this weed is produced in large beds, at the bottom of the 
 ocean, and that from these beds it is detached in a ripened state, and collects in large 
 masses on that part of the Atlantic called the Sargasso, or Weedy Sea. Hans Sloane. in 
 his history of Jamaica, quotes many authorities for the weed's being found on the shores 
 of the Cape Verd and Canary islands, as well as among those of the West Indies, and that 
 it is carried to sea, by means of winds and currents. The opinion of Humboldt appears 
 to account more satisfactorily for the accumulation of such vast masses than that of the 
 historian of Jamaica. 
 
124 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 breadth is only fifteen leagues, but a few degrees further north, it is seven- 
 teen; in the parallel of Charleston it is from forty to fifty leagues in breadth ; 
 and in latitude forty degrees and twenty-five minutes, this is increased to 
 nearly eighty leagues. The waters of the torrid zone, being thus forcibly 
 impelled towards the north-east, preserve their high temperature to such a 
 degree, that, in latitude forty and forty-one degrees, it has been found to 
 be seventy-two degrees of Fahrenheit, while out of the current the tem- 
 perature of the water was only sixty-three degrees. 
 
 In the parallel of New York the temperature of the Gulf Stream is equal 
 to that of the sea in latitude eighteen degrees. When the current reaches 
 the western islands of the Azores, where the breadth is about one hundred 
 and sixty leagues, the waters still preserve a part of the impulsion they 
 receive in the Gulf of Florida, nearly one thousand leagues distant. Hence 
 the current proceeds to the Canaries and the coast of Africa, and in the 
 latitude of Cape Blanco, where the waters flow towards the south-west, 
 they mingle with the current of the tropics, and recommence their tour from 
 east to west. 
 
 From this it appears that the waters of the Atlantic, between the eleventh 
 and forty-third degrees, are constantly drawn by currents into a kind of 
 whirlpool ; and if a drop of these waters be supposed to return precisely to 
 the place from which it commenced its motion, Humboldt has calcu- 
 lated, from the known velocity of the current, that it would require two 
 years and ten months to complete its circuit of three thousand eight hun- 
 dred leagues. 
 
 ' A boat,' he observes, ' which may be supposed to receive no impulsion 
 from the winds, would require thirteen months from the Canary Islands, to 
 reach the coast of Caraccas, ten months to make the tour of the Gulf of 
 Mexico and reach the Tortoise Shoals, opposite the port of Havana, 
 while forty or fifty days might be sufficient to carry it from the straits of 
 Florida to the bank of Newfoundland. Estimating the velocity of the wa- 
 ter at seven or eight miles in twenty-four hours, in their progress from this 
 bank to the coast of Africa, it would require ten or eleven months for this 
 last distance. Such are the effects of this slow but regular motion, which 
 agitates the waters of the ocean.' The Gulf Stream furnished to Christo- 
 pher Columbus indications of the existence of land to the west. This 
 current had carried upon the Azores the bodies of two men of an unknown 
 race, and pieces of bamboo of an enormous size. In latitude forty -five 
 or fifty degrees, near Bonnet Flamand, an arm of the Gulf Stream 
 flows from the south-west to the north-east, towards the coast of Europe. 
 It deposits upon the coasts of Ireland and Norway, trees and fruits belong- 
 ing to the torrid zone. Remains of a vessel burnt at Jamaica were found 
 upon the coast of Scotland. It is likewise this river of the Atlantic which 
 annually throws the fruits of the West Indies upon the shore of Norway. 
 
 The Pacific is also one of the great boundaries of the United States. By 
 treaties with Spain and Russia our government possesses sovereignty along 
 the Pacific ocean from latitude forty-two degrees to fifty-four degrees and 
 forty minutes, which is equal to about eight hundred and eighty statute 
 miles. This great ocean extends from Beering's Straits to the antarctic 
 circle, a distance of three thousand two hundred leagues, and from Asia 
 and New Holland to America. It is separated from the Atlantic and Ant- 
 arctic oceans only by imaginary lines. Its extreme breadth, a little north of 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 125 
 
 the equator, is four thousand five hundred and fifty leagues ; between South 
 America and New Holland, latitude thirty degrees south, it is two thousand 
 nine hundred and seventy leagues. It contains an immense number of 
 islands spread over its surface, particularly between latitude thirty degrees 
 north and fifty degrees south, to which modern geographers have given the 
 general appellation of Oceanica. It was first called the South Sea by the 
 European navigators who entered it from the north. Magellan gave it the 
 name of Pacific, on account of the prevalence of calms which he experienc- 
 ed in it ; but it by no means deserves the name, as it is remarkable for 
 the fury of its storms, and the agitation of its waters. The trade-winds, 
 which constantly blow between the tropics, render the passage from the 
 western coast of America to Asia very short ; but the return is proportion- 
 ately difficult. The Portuguese were the first Europeans who entered the 
 Pacific, which they did from the east. Balboa, in 1513, discovered it from 
 the summit of the mountains which traverse the Isthmus of Darien. Ma- 
 gellan sailed across it from east to west in 1521.* 
 
 The Pacific, by its general motion, retreats from the coast of America, 
 and flows from east to west; and this motion is very powerful in the vast 
 and uninterrupted extent of that sea. Near Cape Corriantes, in Peru, the 
 sea appears to flow from the land by this single cause. Ships are carried 
 with rapidity from the port of Acapulco, in Mexico, to the Philippine Islands. 
 But in order to return, they are obliged to go to the north of the tropics, to 
 seek the polar current, and the variable winds. On the other side, the 
 south polar current, finding no land to impede it, carries along with it the 
 polar ice even to the latitude where the motion of the tropical current be- 
 gins to be felt. This is the reason why, in the southern hemisphere, 
 floating pieces of ice are met with at fifty and even at forty degrees. 
 
 In its motion towards the west, the Pacific is impeded by an immense 
 archipelago of flats, islands, submarine mountains, and even land of con- 
 siderable extent ; it penetrates into this labyrinth, and there forms one 
 current after another. The direction which the principal of these currents 
 observe, is conformable to the general motion towards the west. But, as 
 might be expected, the inequalities of the basin of the sea, the coasts, and 
 
 *Magellan set sail from Europe in September, 1519, with five ships, with the intention 
 by sailing west and south, and following a course never before attempted, to try to m-.ike 
 the Molucca Islands at least, by an entirely new passage. Reaching first a southern jurt 
 of the South American Continent, where he rested for the winter and refreshed his fol- 
 lowers, he leisurely proceeded still southerly ; and in the October following, first disco- 
 vered the strait which now bears his name. Neither the dangerous currents of this 
 tempestuous region, however, nor the unknown nautical terrors of the stormy Cape 
 Horn, could damp the ardor of this bold adventurer: and having at length surmounted 
 all the difficulties of the strait, and cleared the wild shores by which they were sur- 
 rounded, Magellan and his discovery ships first emerged into the. great South Sea. 
 
 Sea-room, almost boundless, the great delight of the sailor, together with steady 
 breezes and salubrious weather, carried these first adventurers on into this new region, 
 with high hopes, and spirits dancing as the waves over which they rode. Finding that 
 the stream of wind which so pleasingly wafted them into a warmer climate, followed 
 the course of the sun and blew steadily in one direction, in that manner which in all 
 similar cases has since been denominated trade-wind ; and thjat, favored by this breeze, 
 the trader and his companions proceeded on with an ease and rapidity beyond their 
 most sanguine expectations, the sea and sky seemed to Magellan equally to be at peace 
 with each other and with the hopeful mariner who had intrusted himself to both ; and 
 thinking this unexplored world of waters worthy to be called a Pacific Ocean, he gave it 
 the name, which, however inappropriate, it will probably forever retain. 
 
 11* 
 
126 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the chains of submarine mountains, sometimes turn these currents toward 
 the north or south. We may easily conceive that a strong repercussion of 
 the waters of the ocean, in consequence of their meeting with a large mass 
 of land, (as New South Wales,) may even produce a counter current, 
 which will return towards the east, and which, by breaking, will also pro- 
 duce other currents, adverse and dangerous to navigators, and such as were 
 encountered by Cook and La Perouse. 
 
 The Pacific Ocean is bounded on the east by Asia. Beering's Straits 
 connects it with the Arctic Ocean, and the line which indicates the one 
 hundred and forty-seventh eastern meridian, arbitrarily separates it from 
 the Indian Ocean. Geographers divide the Pacific into the northern and 
 southern, the equator being the line of demarcation. This ocean occupies 
 fifty millions of square miles ; nearly one fourth part of the surface of the 
 globe. It covers three times the extent of the Indian, and twice the extent 
 of the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON OCEANS. 
 
 The bed of the ocean is diversified by the same inequalities that are exhibited on the 
 surface of the land. Its greatest depth that has been ascertained by experiment, is 
 seven thousand two hundred feet. Its mean depth is a little over three thousand feet • 
 about the same as the mean heights of the continents and islands above its surface. 
 Parts of the sea differ in saltness, but the difference is slight. Though more bitter than 
 that at a considerable depth, it has been ascertained that the water of the surface is less 
 salt. Inland seas are less salt than the main ocean, on account of the large volumes of 
 fresh water emptied into them. The coldness of the polar seas occasions a more rapid 
 deposit of the saline substances, and renders them more salt than those of the equator. 
 Various theories have been formed to account for the saltness of the sea ; one attributes 
 it to the existence of primitive beds of salt at its bottom, another to the corruption of 
 vegetable and animal matter carried into it by rivers. A third theory considers the 
 ocean as the residue of a primitive fluid, which, after depositing all the substances of 
 which the earth is composed, retained the saline principle. Sea-water is freed from its 
 salt only by distillation. 
 
 In the open ocean, the prevailing color is a deep greenish blue ; other shades ob- 
 served in the different seas seem to be owing to local causes. In shoal places the water 
 takes a lighter hue. The luminous appearance of the sea by night is a magnificent phe- 
 nomenon, that has not yet been entirely explained. The great divisions of the sea are 
 inhabited by their peculiar fish, and frequented by peculiar species of birds. The level 
 of the sea is, generally speaking, every where the same ; though exceptions to this rule 
 are sometimes found in land-locked bays and gulfs, where the waters become accumu- 
 lated and stand higher than in the open ocean. 
 
127 
 
 CHAPTER XIII.— SOIL. 
 
 Every variety of soil is found within the territory of the United States, 
 and an accurate general estimate is not of course to be formed. We will 
 firsl describe that portion of the country known as the Atlantic Slope. 
 Next to the ocean are salt meadows or marshes, but little elevated above 
 the water, towards which, their surface has a very slight inclination. They 
 are covered with a peculiar reddish grass, from six to twelve inches in 
 height, growing very thick, and forming with its roots a compact turf or 
 sward, which is only cut with a sharp instrument and by considerable 
 force. These meadows are overflowed by the salt water a few inches deep, 
 several times every spring, and to this their peculiar character is attributed ; 
 for when the water is kept from them by dikes, the upland grasses take root, 
 the turf loses its tenacity and crumbles, and in a few years their appearance 
 is entirely changed. A slope of about six feet in two or three rods lies 
 between these meadows and low water mark ; this is covered with a coarse 
 tall grass called sedge, which requires the returns of the daily tides to bring 
 it to maturity. 
 
 Adjoining the salt meadows, and on the same level, at the farthest extent 
 of the overflowing of the spring tides, fresh meadows immediately com- 
 mence, which generally extend to the upland; sometimes, however, there 
 is an interval of wet ground covered with bushes, or a swamp between 
 them and the upland. They are wet, and usually too soft to bear a wagon. 
 Similar meadows are sometimes found several miles from any salt meadows 
 or salt water, and generally at the heads of rivers, where the face of the 
 country is level. These meadows bear a general resemblance, all being 
 covered with wild grass, varying in height from twelve to thirty-six inches, 
 according to the quantity of water in the soil ; the more water there is, the 
 more rank becomes the growth of the grass, until flags and rushes take its 
 place. The meadows are much lower than the upland, and were evidently 
 formed by the agency of water, depositing an alluvion composed of the fine 
 particles from the high grounds, and decayed vegetable matter. When 
 drained by means of ditches, they become hard, will produce cultivated 
 grass, and even trees, and will in a few years lose all their former features, 
 except their low situation and level aspect. 
 
 The soil of this section is to a great extent sandy ; very light therefore, 
 and sometimes barren, more especially near the coast, where there are 
 much marsh land, and extensive swamps. In many places these swamps 
 are covered with an impenetrable growth of timber, especially of the cypress, 
 and some species of the pine, which are favored by the deep clayed soil, 
 with its rich annual deposit; Louisiana, towards the sea, exhibits a great 
 breadth of this country through its whole extent. Along the rivers a rich 
 clay is found in considerable quantities ; many fertile spots are likewise 
 interspersed among the sands, and the land generally improves as it ap- 
 proaches the mountains. The best soil is in the central portions of the 
 slope. In the alluvial district of Louisiana the soil is, for the most part, 
 deep and rich ; it is also strong and vigorous on the Red river. Along the. 
 
128 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 range of the Apalachian Mountains a thin and poor soil prevails, mingled, 
 however, with many rich and productive valleys. In the northern portion 
 of it is a considerable extent of hilly, flinty, and consequently barren land. 
 
 When we cross the mountains, and come to the slope descending to the 
 Mississippi, we survey a large extent of country almost universally fertile ; 
 and divided, as we have before mentioned, into the thickly timbered, the 
 barren, and the prairie country. In the first division every traveller re- 
 marks a grandeur in the form and size of the trees, a depth of verdure in 
 the foliage, and a luxuriance of growth of every sort, that distinguish this 
 country from other regions. The trees are large, tall, and rise aloft free 
 from branches, like columns. In the richer lands they are generally 
 wreathed with a drapery of ivy, bignonia, grape vines, or other creepers. 
 Intermingled with the foliage of the trees are the broad leaves of the grape 
 vines, with trunks occasionally as large as the human body. Sometimes 
 the forests are entirely free from undergrowth; at others, the only shrub 
 is the graceful and splendid papaw ; but often, particularly in the richer 
 alluvions of the south, beneath the trees, are impenetrable cane brakes, and 
 a tangle of brambles, briars, vines, and every sort of weed. 
 
 The country denominated barrens has a very distinct and singular con- 
 figuration. It has usually a surface gently undulating, in long and uniform 
 ridges. The soil is generally of a clayey texture, of a reddish or grayish 
 color, covered with tall, coarse grass. The trees are thinly scattered, seldom 
 either large or dwarfish. They are chiefly oaks, and have an appearance 
 peculiar to the region they inhabit. The general quality of the land seldom 
 exceeds the third rate ; but in the proper latitudes, it is favorable to the 
 growth of wheat and fruit trees. On the little elevations of the barrens, 
 trees and grass grow ; but grass and weeds are the only occupants of the 
 low grounds. The soil of the barrens is alluvial to a greater or less depth, 
 though on some of the highest points there is very little ; and the lower 
 the ground the deeper the alluvion. On the elevations, when there is no 
 alluvion, a stiff blue clay is found, without pebbles. On the little ridges, 
 where the dampness is not too great, the oak or the hickory has taken 
 possession, and there grows to a moderate height in clusters; on the low 
 lands the soil is too wet and the grass too thick for such a growth. 
 
 The barrens then are natural meadows, covered with tall coarse grass, 
 varying in extent and figure, with here and there a piece of elevated ground, 
 decked with a cluster of trees ; add to this, a reddish stream running through 
 ground but little lower than the surrounding plain, and you have the picture 
 complete. There are large districts of this description in Kentucky, Ten- 
 nessee, and Alabama; they are common in Illinois and Missouri, and are 
 found more or less over the whole valley of the Mississippi. This region 
 and the bushy prairies, abound in those singular cavities called sink-holes, 
 which are generally in the shape of inverted cones, from ten to seventy feet 
 in depth, and at the top from sixty to three hundred feet in circumference. 
 Willows and other aquatic vegetables grow at the sides and bottom. There 
 is little doubt that these cavities are caused by running waters, which 
 find their way through the limestone cavities beneath the upper stratum 
 of the soil. 
 
 The remaining surface is that of the prairies, and this is by far the most 
 extensive. These may be classed under three general divisions, though 
 they have great diversity of aspect ; the heathy, or bushy ; the alluvial, or 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 129 
 
 wet; and the dry, or rolling prairies. The bushy prairies seem to be in- 
 termediate between the barrens and the alluvial prairies. They have 
 springs, abound in bushes and shrubs, with grape vines, and in the summer 
 with a great variety of flowers ; the bushes are often overtopped with the. 
 common hop vine. Prairies of this description are very common in Illinois, 
 Mississippi, and Indiana, and they occur among the other prairies to a 
 considerable distance towards the Chippewayan Mountains. The dry 
 prairies are for the most part without springs, and destitute of all vegetation 
 except weeds, flowering plants, and grass. To the sight they are nearly 
 level, but their inclination is proved by the quick motion of the water 
 courses. This class of prairies is by far the most extensive. Here are the 
 haunts of the buffaloes, and here the traveller may wander for days without 
 wood or water, and the horizon on every side sinking to contact with the 
 grass. 
 
 The alluvial or wet prairies form the last and smallest division. They 
 occur generally on the margins of water courses, though they are sometimes 
 found with all their distinctive peculiarities, far from the points where 
 waters run at present. They are commonly basins, and their outline is 
 strongly marked ; their soil is black, deep, friable, and wonderfully rich. 
 Native grasses spring on them in singular luxuriance, rising to a great 
 height, but they are too loamy for the cultivated grasses. In proper lati- 
 tudes they are excellent for wheat and maize. Still more than the rolling 
 prairies, they appear to the eye a dead level, though they have slight in- 
 clinations and depressions ; yet from the general equality, and immense 
 amount of vegetation, small ponds and bayous are formed there, which fill 
 from the rivers and rains, and are only exhausted during the intense heats 
 of summer, by evaporation. 
 
 In the alluvial prairies that are connected with the rivers, these ponds 
 are filled in the season of high waters with fish of various kinds ; as the 
 water becomes low, and their course connecting with the river become dry, 
 the fish are taken by cartloads among the high grass, where the water is 
 three or four feet deep. When the waters evaporate, the fish die, and 
 thousands of buzzards are unable to prevent them from polluting the air. 
 This decayed matter seriously affects the salubrity of the climate. 
 
 Along these rich plains, herds of deer are seen, flying with the rapidity 
 of the wind, or feeding quietly with the domestic cattle. In the spring and 
 autumn, water-fowl in innumerable flocks hover about the ponds and lakes 
 of these • prairies, to feast on the oily seeds of the plants and grasses. 
 During the months of vegetation, the richer prairies are blooming with 
 flowers, of whose variety, number, forms, hues, and odors, description can 
 furnish no adequate idea. Most of the prairie plants have tall and arrowy 
 stems, with spiked or tassellated heads, and the flowers have great size, 
 gaudiness and splendor, without much delicacy or fragrance. In the spring 
 their prevailing color is bluish purple ; in mid-summer, red mingled with 
 yellow ; in autumn, the flowers are large, generally of the helianthus shape, 
 and of a rich golden color. 
 
 The northern shores of Lake Ontario and Erie, the western shore of 
 Lake Huron, and the general surface of the valleys of the Ohio, the Illinois, 
 and the Mississippi, afford a highly productive soil. More to the south- 
 ward, the extended valley of the Tennessee is one of the most fertile portions 
 of the republic ; and the same fertility extends itself beyond the Mississippi, 
 
130 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 below the Missouri, until it is checked by the Ozark Mountains, whose 
 productive portion is confined to the valleys. To the west of these moun- 
 tains, and of the Missouri, the soil becomes less and less fertile, till we 
 reach the Great American Desert, which has already been described. The 
 eastern shores of Lake Michigan, and the southern coast of Lake Superior, 
 are either sandy or rocky, and generally barren. 
 
 Among the Rocky Mountains are sheltered and fertile valleys, though 
 their summits are of course rocky, sterile, and covered with snow tbe greater 
 part of the year. The timber in the mountains is pine, spruce, fir, and other 
 terebinthines. Though deficient in timber, the terrace plains below have 
 generally a fine soil. The prairies, like those in the Mississippi valley, 
 are covered with coarse grass and a variety of beautiful flowers. Among 
 the prairie plants are two or three kinds of roots, which furnish food to the 
 savages. Wild sage is found in abundance ; it grows of the size and height 
 of a small tree, and on these extensive plains is one of the principal articles 
 of fuel. For a considerable distance into the interior, the seashore is 
 skirted with deep and thick forests of evergreen. On the whole, it is be- 
 lieved that few countries on the earth have a more fertile soil, than the 
 valleys west of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 ' In estimating the quality of new lands in America,' says Dr. Dwight, 
 1 serious errors are very commonly entertained, from want of due attention 
 to the following fact : Wherever the forest has been undisturbed by fire, 
 they have accumulated, by shedding their foliage through a long succession 
 of ages, and by their own decay, a covering of- vegetable mould from six 
 to twelve inches deep, and sometimes from eighteen to twenty-four. This 
 mould is the best of all soils, and eminently friendly to every species of 
 vegetation. It is, indeed, no other than a mere mass of manure, and that 
 of the very best kind, converted into mould ; and so long as it remains in 
 considerable quantities, all grounds produce plentifully. Unless a proper 
 allowance be made, therefore, when we are forming an estimate of the 
 quality of soils, for the efficacy of this mould, which, so far as my observa- 
 tion has extended, is not often done, those on which it abounds will be of 
 course overrated. On the contrary, where it does not abound, the quality 
 of the soil will, in a comparative view, be underrated. Hence all maple 
 lands which, from their moisture, are incapable of being burnt, are consi- 
 dered as more fertile than they ultimately prove ; while oak, and even pine 
 lands, are, almost of course, regarded as being less fertile. The maple lands 
 in Ballston are found to produce wheat in smaller quantities, and of a 
 worse quality, than the inhabitants, misled by the exhuberance of their first 
 crops, expected. Their pine lands, on the contrary, yield more and better 
 wheat than, till very lately, they could have been induced to believe. The 
 same things severally are true, as I have already observed, of the oak and 
 maple lands in the county of Ontario. 
 
 ' From this source it has arisen that all the unburnt new lands in the 
 northern, middle, southern, and western states, have been, and still are, 
 uniformly valued beyond their real worth. When the tract on the moun- 
 tains in Massachusetts was first settled, the same luxuriant fertility was 
 attributed to it which has since characterized Kentucky. About the same 
 time it was ascribed to the Valley of Housatonic, in the county of Berkshire. 
 From these tracts it was transferred to the lands in New Hampshire and 
 Vermont, on the Connecticut; and from thence to those in Vermont, 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 131 
 
 on the western side of the Green Mountains. From these regions 
 the paradise has travelled to the western part of the state of New 
 York, to New Connecticut, to Upper Canada, to the countries on the Ohio, 
 to the south-western territory, and is now making its progress over the 
 Mississippi into the newly purchased regions of Louisiana. The accounts 
 given of all these countries, successively, were extensively true, but the 
 conclusions which were deduced from them were, in a great measure, er- 
 roneous. So long as this mould remains, the produce will be regularly 
 great, and that with very imperfect cultivation, — for the mould in its native 
 state is so soft and light, as scarcely to need the aid of the plough. But 
 this mould, after a length of time, will be dissipated. Where lands are 
 continually ploughed, it is soon lost ; on those which are covered with grass 
 from the beginning, it is preserved through a considerable period. At 
 length, however, every appearance of its efficacy, and even of its existence, 
 vanishes. 
 
 ' The true object of inquiry, whenever the quality of a soil is to be esti- 
 mated, is the nature of the earth immediately beneath the vegetable mould, 
 for this, in every case, will ultimately be the soil. If this is capable of 
 being rendered, by skilful cultivation, regularly productive, the soil is good; 
 if not, it is poor. With this object in view, I have formed the opinion ex- 
 pressed above, concerning the country under discussion. Throughout 
 most of this tract, the earth beneath the mould is an excellent soil. The 
 mould itself will speedily be gone. It is wisely and kindly provided by 
 the Creator, to answer the immediate calls of the first settlers. These are 
 of course few and poor, — are embarrassed by many wants and difficulties, 
 and need their time and labor to build their houses, barns, and inclosures, 
 as well as to procure, with extreme inconvenience, many articles of neces- 
 sity and comfort, which are obtained in older settlements without labor or 
 time. To them it is a complete and ample manure, on which whatever is 
 sown springs with vigor, and produces, almost without toil or skill, a plen- 
 tiful harvest. But it was not intended to be permanent; it is not even 
 desirable that it should be. To interrupt, or even to slacken, the regular 
 labor of man materially, is to do him an injury. One of the prime bles- 
 sings of temperate climates is this, that they yield amply to skilful labor, 
 and without it yield little or nothing. Where such is the fact, energy and 
 effort will follow, and all their inestimable consequences. Where coun- 
 tries are radically barren, man will despair.' 
 
 We will now give a brief description of the soil of each of the states, 
 commencing with the north-eastern divisions. The soil of Maine in 
 general, when properly fitted to receive the seed, is friendly to the 
 growth of Indian corn, rye, barley, oats, peas, hemp, and flax, as well as 
 to the production of almost all kinds of culinary roots and plants ; wheat 
 is also grown, but not in large quantities. Excellent potatoes are raised 
 in great quantities. For the most part, the lands are easily cleared, having 
 very little underwood. The natural productions consist of white pine and 
 spruce trees in large quantities, suitable for masts, boards, and shingles ; 
 and also of maple, beech, white and grey oak, and yellow birch. The 
 land between the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers is well adapted to the 
 purposes of agriculture, and is excellent for grazing. With good cultiva- 
 tion, land of average quality yields forty bushels of maize to the acre, 
 from twenty to forty bushels of wheat, and from one to three tons of hay. 
 
132 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Apple, pear, plum, and cherry trees, flourish ; the peach tree does not 
 thrive. 
 
 The soil of New Hampshire, near the seacoast, is in many places sandy ; 
 on the banks of the rivers it is generally good, and in the valleys among 
 the mountains, which are rich on the brows, and usually covered with 
 timber. The river land is most esteemed, producing every kind of grain 
 in the utmost perfection ; but it is not so good for pasture as the uplands. 
 In the uncultivated parts of the state, the soil is distinguished by the various 
 kinds of timber which grow upon it ; thus, white oak land is hard and 
 stony, the undergrowth consisting of brakes and fern ; black and yellow 
 birch, white ash, elm, and alder, are indications of a good soil, deep, rich 
 and moist, which will admit grass and grain without ploughing ; red oak 
 and white birch are signs of strong land. Agriculture is, and always will 
 be, the chief business of the people of New Hampshire. Apples and pears 
 are fruits the most commonly cultivated, and no husbandman thinks his 
 farm complete without an orchard. 
 
 A large portion of Vermont state is fertile, and adapted to the various 
 purposes of agriculture. The soil is generally deep, rich, moist, of a dark 
 color, loamy, and seldom parched with_ drought. On the border of the 
 stream it is alluvial, and the richest in the state ; though some of the up- 
 lands almost equal it in fertility. Wheat is extensively cultivated, particu- 
 larly on the west side of the mountains. Barley, rye, oats, peas, 'flax, and 
 potatoes, flourish in all parts of the state. Indian corn also thrives, and 
 apples are abundant. Much of th3 land among the mountains is excellent 
 for grazing, and great numbers of cattle are annually sent out of the state 
 for sale. 
 
 No extensive alluvial tracts occur in Massachusetts; although limited 
 patches of this stratum are sometimes found on the banks of every stream, 
 and, with the adjoining elevated woodland -and pasture ground, constitute 
 many of the richest farms in the state. There are numerous uncultivated 
 swamps, however, for ages the reservoir of rich soil, that may be reclaimed 
 with considerable labor and expense, which they will amply repay by their 
 singular fertility. The soil of Massachusetts is chiefly diluvial, of all 
 soils the most unfriendly to rich vegetation, though capable of being made 
 rich by clearing away its stone, and the extensive use of manure. The 
 diluvium is most abundant in the south-east parts of the state, almost en- 
 tirely overspreading the counties of Plymouth, Barnstable, Duke's and 
 Nantucket. Toward the extremity of Cape Cod, and on the Island of Nan- 
 tucket, this stratum is composed almost entirely of sand. The most ex- 
 tensive tertiary formation in the state is found in the valley of the Con- 
 necticut. Here also are found tracts, from which the diluvium and tertiary 
 have been swept away, and which exhibit the reddish aspect that charac- 
 terises the red sand-stone formation. This soil is of a superior quality, 
 and peculiarly well adapted for fruit. 
 
 The soil of Rhode Island is various, and a great part of it good ; though 
 better adapted for grazing than for grain. The north-western parts of the 
 state are rocky and barren ; but the tract in the neighborhood of Narragan- 
 set Bay is excellent pasture land, and is inhabited by wealthy farmers, 
 who raise some of the finest neat cattle in America. The ground is well 
 cultivated, and produces Indian corn, rye, barley, oats, wheat, (though not 
 enough for home consumption,) fruits and vegetables, in great abundance. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 133 
 
 The soil of Connecticut is generally rich and well watered, and the whole 
 state resembles a cultivated garden. In the central valley of the Connecti- 
 cut river, and in the valleys of its tributary streams, large accumula- 
 tions of alluvial deposit have formed extensive plains and meadows. The 
 soil is adapted to Indian corn, rye, wheat, and flax; orchards are numerous, 
 and of late years, tobacco -has also been raised in not inconsiderable quan- 
 tities. Much of the land, however, is better for grazing than tillage; and 
 the beef, pork, butter and cheese, of Connecticut, are equal to any in the 
 world. The meadows on the banks of the river are uncommonly rich. 
 
 The soil of the southern and eastern parts of New York, is dry and 
 gravelly, intermixed with loam ; the mountainous districts are well adapted 
 for grazing, and there are many rich valleys on the rivers. The northern 
 and western parts are generally rich and fertile. In the valley of the 
 Gennessee* is some of the best wheat country in the world; and the allu- 
 vial flats of the valley of the Mohawk are highly fertile. Around Lake 
 Champlain is an extensive district of clayey soil, extending to the hills that 
 skirt the Peruvian Mountains. West of Albany are extensive sandy plains 
 interspersed with marshes. A large part of New York is under excellent 
 cultivation ; particularly the western end of Long Island, and the counties 
 of Westchester and Duchess. 
 
 The soil of Pennsylvania is of many various kinds. To the east of the 
 mountains it is generally good, and a considerable part of it is bedded on 
 limestone. Among the mountains, the land is rough, and much of it poor, 
 in some parts quite barren; but there are a great many rich and fertile 
 valleys. In the neighborhood of York and Lancaster, the soil consists of 
 rich, brown, loamy earth ; and proceeding, in a south-westerly course, pa- 
 rallel to the Blue Mountains, the same kind of soil is met with as far as 
 Fredericktown, in Maryland. West of the mountains the country improves, 
 and about the head-waters of the Ohio it is generally fertile. Pennsylva- 
 nia has a soil much better adapted to grazing than tillage. 
 
 The southern parts of New Jersey are sandy and flat, sometimes marshy, 
 almost perfectly sterile, though occasionally producing shrub oaks, and 
 pines: the northern half of the state is well adapted either for grazing or 
 tillage. A part of Delaware abounds with swamps and stagnant waters; 
 which render it alike unfit for the purposes of agriculture, and injurious 
 to the health of the inhabitants. At the southern extremity of the state is 
 the Cypress Swamp, a morass twelve miles in length and six in breadth, 
 including an area of nearly fifty thousand acres of land ; the whole of 
 which is a high and level basin, very wet, though undoubtedly the highest 
 land between the sea and the bay. The swamp contains a great variety 
 of trees, plants, wild beasts, birds, and reptiles. In the northern parts, 
 along the Delaware river and bay, and from eight to ten miles into the in- 
 terior, the soil is generally a rich clay, in which a great variety of the most 
 
 * ' In the afternoon,' says Mr. Stuart, ' we hired a carriage to take us to Gennessee, 
 that we might have an opportunity of seeing Mr. Wadsworth's flats or meadows, which 
 are thought the finest and most productive in this country ; they consist of a great tract 
 of low-lying land along the river side, covered with luxuriant herbage. The farm of 
 Mr. Wadsworth is of great extent, about four thousand acres ; but the beautiful tract of 
 alluvial land does not exceed sixteen or seventeen hundred acres, of the most fertile soil 
 that can be conceived. A few noble oaks, single trees, which are seldom met with 
 here, adorn the fields. I measured one of them, which was twenty-eight feet in circum- 
 ference.' 
 
 12 
 
134 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 useful productions can be conveniently and plentifully reared ; from thence 
 to the swamps before noticed, the soil is light, sandy, and of an inferior 
 quality. In the central parts of the state, there is a considerable mixture 
 of sand; and in the southern part it, renders the soil almost totally un- 
 productive. 
 
 In the western part of Maryland, the soil is somewhat strong, and in 
 other parts are tracts of thin, unproductive land. It is generally, however, 
 a red clay or loam ; much of it is excellent, and producing large crops. 
 Wheat and tobacco are the staple commodities, but on the uplands of the 
 interior, hemp and flax are raised in considerable quantities. 
 
 The soil in the low part of Virginia is sandy or marshy, except on the 
 banks of the rivers, where it is very rich. This territory is alluvial, and 
 under its surface every where exhibits bones and marine shells. Between 
 the head of tide-waters and the mountains, it exhibits a great variety, and 
 a considerable portion is good. Among the mountains there is a great 
 deal of poor land, but it is interspersed with rich valleys. In the valley 
 between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghany, we come to a country lying 
 upon a bed of limestone. Here the soil is a deep clayey earth, well suited 
 to the culture of small grain and clover, and produces abundant crops. 
 Beyond the mountains the surface is broken, with occasional fertile tracts, 
 but the soil is generally lean. 
 
 North Carolina, from the seacoast to sixty miles inward, is a level tract, 
 of a lean and sandy soil, interspersed with swamps, and covered with pine 
 forests. In the mountainous parts, and to the west of the mountains, the 
 soil is moist and fertile. On the banks of some of the rivers, particularly 
 the Roanoke, it is remarkably rich. It has been estimated that there are 
 two- millions five hundred thousand acres of swampy land within the state, 
 capable of being drained at a trifling cost, and adapted to the purposes of 
 agriculture. They have a clayey bottom, overlaid with a vegetable com- 
 post, and when drained have proved exceedingly fertile. One of these 
 tracts is known by the name of the Dismal Swamp ; it is thirty miles long 
 and ten broad, overgrown with pine, juniper, and cypress trees. In the 
 midst of it is a lake seven miles in length. The Alligator, or Little Dis- 
 mal Swamp, lies to the south of Albemarle Sound, and incloses a lake 
 eleven miles long and seven broad. This swamp has been partly drained 
 by means of a canal, and many productive rice plantations occupy the 
 reclaimed lands. 
 
 The soil of South Carolina may be divided into five classes : first, the 
 pine barren, which is valuable only for its timber ; interspersed among 
 these barrens, are tracts destitute of every kind of growth except grass, 
 called savannas, and forming a second kind of soil, good for grazing. The 
 third, is that of the swamps and low grounds on the rivers, which is a mix- 
 ture of black loam and rich clay, producing naturally canes in great plenty, 
 cypress, and bays. In these swamps rice is cultivated. The high lands, 
 commonly known by the name of oak and hickory lands, constitute the 
 fourth kind of soil ; this tract is comparatively small, and is situated in the 
 north-western extremity of the state. The fifth class is that of the salt 
 marsh, which borders on the seacoast and has been much neglected. 
 
 The greater part of the soil of Georgia is alluvial. On the islands which 
 line its coast the soil is very fertile, and produces cotton of a superior 
 quality. The soil of the main land, adjoining the marshes and creeks, is 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 135 
 
 similarly fertile. This is succeeded by the pine barrens, which abound 
 with swampy tracts. On the banks of the rivers are the valuable rice plan- 
 tations. The soil between the rivers, after leaving the borders of the 
 swamps, at the distance of twenty or thirty miles, changes from a gray to a 
 red color, and is covered with oak, hickory, and pine. In some places it is 
 gravelly, but fertile, and so continues for a number of miles, gradually 
 deepening the reddish color of the earth, till it changes into what is called 
 the mulatto soil, which is composed of black and red earth. These mulatto 
 lands are generally strong, and yield large crops. To this kind of land 
 succeeds by turns a soil nearly black and very rich. This succession of the 
 different soils continues uniform and regular, though there are some large 
 veins of all the different soils intermixed. 
 
 The soil of East Florida is generally poor, and circumstances have pre- 
 vented the settlement and cultivation of the small proportion of really good 
 lands. The parts on the western seashore are barren and sandy, abounding 
 with marshes and lagoons. In the northern districts, gentle elevations of 
 fertile land, supporting a vigorous growth of oaks and hickories, are found 
 in the midst of marshes and pine barrens. Sugar cane is raised here with 
 great facility, and a superior quality of long and short staple cotton. 
 
 In the lower parts of Alabama are extensive swamps, cypress land, and 
 cane brakes. The central region is covered with gentle elevations, having 
 a thin soil with a substratum of clay that cultivation will render productive. 
 At present these hills are covered with pine, and, while there are tracts of 
 rich land, will be held in little estimation; they include more than one half 
 the surface of the state. On the banks of the Alabama and Tombeckbee 
 there are wide and fertile alluvions, and the region between these rivers is 
 the richest and best in Alabama. The French emigrants represent the soil 
 of the slopes and hammoc lands of this state to be suitable for the vine. 
 
 In the northern section of Mississippi the land rises in regular undula- 
 tions, and the soil is black, fertile, and deep, covered with high cane brake. 
 The valleys north-west of the Yazoo are well watered and exceedingly 
 rich. In the western parts of the state, the lauds are unfortunately exposed 
 to inundation ; but, in other respects, the soil does not much differ from that 
 of Alabama. The southern tract is a level alluvion. 
 
 A region of Louisiana, comprising about five millions of acres, is annu- 
 ally overflowed by the waters of the Mississippi. Of this tract a, large 
 portion is, in its present state, unfit for cultivation. This immense tract 
 embraces soil of various descriptions ; cypress swamps, sea marsh, small 
 elevated prairie lands of great fertility, and a tract covered with cane brake, 
 rank shrubbery, and a heavy growth of timber.* The best soil of Louisi- 
 
 * Before quitting New Orleans, I made a trip to visit the Delta of the Mississippi, in 
 one of the steamers employed in towing vessels to and from the mouth of the ri 
 Though with three large vessels attached, our bark made good way under the co-opera- 
 tive influence of steam and stream. About seven miles below the city is the field of 
 battle. It is a plain about half a mile in breadth, bounded by the Mississippi on one 
 Bide, and the forest on the other. Below is a bend of the river, which, from what reason 
 I know not, is called 'the English Turn.' Plantations continue at intervals for about 
 forty miles, when cultivation entirely ceases. 
 
 Below this, nature is to be seen only in her dreariest and most desolate aspect. At 
 first, there are forests springing in rank luxuriance from swamps impassable even by the 
 foot of the Indian hunter. But these soon pass, and nothing but interminable cane 
 brakes are to be seen on either side. From the shrouds of the steam-boat, though the 
 
136 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ana is found in the region called the coast, which is that part of the bottom 
 of the Mississippi commencing with the first cultivation above the Balize, 
 and comprising forty miles below New Orleans, and one hundred and fifty 
 above. This fertile belt, which varies in width from one to two miles, is 
 secured from inundation by an embankment, broad enough to furnish a fine 
 highway, from six to eight feet in height. In the northern part of this 
 state, bordering on Arkansas, is a considerable extent of hilly, flinty, barren 
 land. 
 
 Arkansas territory exhibits every variety and quality of soil. The cul- 
 tivated belt below the Post of Arkansas bears some outward resemblance to 
 the coast in Louisiana ; though its soil is not so fertile, and needs manuring 
 to produce large crops. Large prairies interspersed with forest bottoms, 
 and large tracts of excellent soil, are found five or six hundred miles from 
 the mouth of Arkansas river. Mount Prairie, which lies on the Washita, 
 has a black soil of extreme richness. On the White river are some of the 
 healthiest and most fertile situations in this country. The other parts of 
 this territory are vast tracts of sterile and precipitous ridges, sandy prairies, 
 and barrens. 
 
 The soil of Tennessee, in the valleys of its creeks and streams, is rich 
 beyond any of the same description elsewhere in the western country. In 
 East Tennessee it derives its fertility from the quantities of dissolved lime, 
 and nitrate of lime that are mixed with it. In West Tennessee the strata 
 are arranged in the following order: first, a loamy soil, or mixtures of clay 
 and sand ; next, yellow clay ; then comes a mixture of red sand and red 
 clay ; and lastly, a white sand. In the southern parts of this state 
 immense banks are found of uncommonly large oyster shells, situated on 
 high table-grounds remote from any water-course. 
 
 Missouri contains a large proportion of friable, loamy, and sandy soil. 
 The uplands are rich, and of a darkish gray color : excepting the region of 
 the lead mines, where the soil is bright and reddish. The prairies are 
 generally level, and of an intermediate character between the rich and the 
 poorer uplands, the latter of which have a light, yellow soil, stiff and 
 clayey. The bottoms of the great rivers and smaller streams of this state 
 
 range of vision probably extended for many leagues, no other objects were discernible 
 but the broad muddy river, with its vast masses of drift-wood, and the wilderness of 
 gigantic bulrushes shaking in the wind. 
 
 There are four passes or outlets by which the Mississippi discharges its mighty burden 
 into the G-ulf of Mexico. Two of these are navigable, but changes are ever taking 
 place, and the passage formerly preferred by the pilots, is now rarely attempted even by 
 vessels of the smallest class. On approaching the Gulf, verdure appears only at inter- 
 vals, and the eye rests on tracts of mere mud, formed by the deposit of the river on the 
 drift-wood which some obstacle has arrested in its passage to the ocean. It is by this 
 process that land is formed, and it may be traced in every step of its progress, from the 
 island resting on a few logs,, up to the huge tract in whose bosom are imbedded many 
 millions. Erf countering no obstacle, the river sends out arms in every direction, which, 
 alter winding through the half-formed region in a thousand fantastic flexures, are again 
 united to the main branches. 
 
 It would be difficult to convey an idea by words, of the effect which this most dismal 
 scene produces on the heart and imagination of the spectator. It seems as if the process 
 of creation were incomplete, end the earth yet undivided from the waters, for he beholds 
 only an intermediate mass which admits of being absolutely assigned to neither element. 
 He feels that he has forsaken the regions of the habitable world. Above, beneath, 
 around, there is nothing to excite his sympathies, and, probably, for the first time in his 
 life, he becomes conscious of the full sublimity of desolation. — Hamilton's America. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 137 
 
 have uncommon fertility. On the upper Mississippi are rich uplands, 
 interspersed with flinty knobs two or three hundred feet high. In the 
 south-west part of the state are sterile tracts, covered with yellow pine, and 
 scattered with hilly and rocky country. 
 
 Kentucky abounds in large bodies of fertile land, but even here are 
 tracts too sterile for cultivation. Nothing can exceed in richness the great 
 valley of which Lexington is the centre. A tract one hundred miles by 
 fifty in extent is found in the centre of the state, with a substratum of 
 limestone, which dissolves and so mingles with the soil as to impart to it 
 great richness and vigor. Much of the soil is of that character known as 
 mulatto land. An extensive tract of barrens occurs between the RoHing 
 Fork and Green river, and between the latter and Cumberland river, in the 
 northern and eastern parts of the state. Here the soil is generally good, 
 and affords fine pasturage. 
 
 Illinois has but few elevations, and those of inconsiderable extent ; it is 
 generally a region perfectly level. Though containing tracts of barrens 
 and rough lands, not to be easily cultivated, it perhaps includes a greater 
 proportion of land of the best quality than any other state. This region 
 was called by the French the Terrestrial Paradise ; and its soil is said to 
 be the richest in the world. ' Our road,' says a recent traveller, ' passed 
 through the prairie ground, of which above two thirds of the whole state of 
 Illinois is composed, most beautiful at all times, but especially at this 
 season, owing to the brilliancy of the flowers now in blossom. Plantations 
 we saw here and there, but the general appearance of the country was that 
 of a fine waving surface of strong grass, covered with strawberry plants, 
 and the finest flowers, and with wood on the high grounds and hollows, 
 and occasional dropping trees, and clumps or islets of wood. In general, 
 there was quite enough of wood in the view, and far more happily disposed 
 than if the trees had been planted by the hand of man. ' 
 
 Indiana contains large tracts of excellent soil ; and is generally level 
 and fertile. The prairies bordering the Wabash, are particularly rich ; 
 wells have been sunk in them, where the vegetable soil was twenty-two 
 feet deep, under which was a stratum of fine white sand ; yet the ordinary 
 depth is from two to five feet. Many of the prairies and intervals are too 
 rich for wheat. The northern part of the state contains much good land, 
 but is intersected by long narrow bogs and swamps, with a soil of stiff blue 
 clay. 
 
 In Ohio, the land bordering on the river of the same name is hilly and 
 broken ; but most of these hills have a deep rich soil, and are capable of 
 being cultivated to their very summits. The bottoms of the Ohio are of 
 very unequal width ; the bases of some of the hills approach close to the 
 river, while others recede to the distance of two or three miles. There are 
 usually three bottoms, rising one above the other like the glacis of a fortifica- 
 tion ; and they are heavily timbered with such trees as denote a very fertile 
 soil. In such parts of these bottoms as have been cleared and settled, 
 the soil is uniformly fertile in a high degree ; producing in great abundance 
 wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats, and barley, and apples and peaches of excellent 
 quality. In the western counties, and in the north-western and northern 
 portions of the state, there is a leveller surface, and a moister soil, interspers- 
 ed with tracts of dry prairie, and forests of a sandy or gravelly soil. The 
 north-western corner of the state contains a considerable district of level, 
 18 12* 
 
138 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 rich land, too wet and swampy to admit of healthy settlements : the soil is 
 a black, loose, friable loam, or a vegetable mould, watered by sluggish and 
 dark-colored streams. 
 
 That part of the territory of Michigan, which forms the peninsula lying 
 between the great lakes, is generally level. In its centre, however, is a ridge 
 of table-land about three hundred feet above the likes, running north and 
 south, and dividing the waters emptying into Erie and Huron from those 
 running to the westward. This peninsula is divided into about equal pro- 
 portions of grass prairies and forests. Along the southern shore of Lake 
 Michigan is a sandy and barren tract of country, bleak and desolate. But 
 much of the soil of this country is excellent, and its productions are similar 
 to those of the state of New York. The North- West territory has not 
 yet been much explored. That portion of it situated between the Fox and 
 Wisconsin rivers, and the western shore of Lake Michigan, has a rich, 
 black, alluvial soil, and is well watered. The face of the country is un- 
 broken by hills of any magnitude. 
 
 The most striking feature of the vast Missouri territory is its ocean of 
 prairies. A belt of partially wooded country extends from two to four 
 hundred miles west of the Mississippi and its waters. The immense 
 extent of country west of the two great rivers is generally level, and is 
 covered with grass plains, and sand deserts. On the banks of the streams 
 there is usually a line of rich soil, but as we leave them it becomes barren 
 and dry. Much of this country is as sterile as the deserts of Arabia, 
 though in the most sandy parts there is a thin sward of grass and herbage. 
 The Missouri, the Platte and the Yellow-stone run through a rich soil ; but 
 in its upper courses the Arkansas waters only a barren prairie. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON SOIL. 
 
 The productiveness of soils is influenced by the nature of the sub-soil, or the earthy or 
 stony strata on which they rest, and this should be attended to in all plans for their im- 
 provement. Thus sandy soil may owe its fertility to the power of the sub-soil to retain 
 water ; and an absorbent clay soil may occasionally be prevented from being barren by 
 the influence of a substratum of sand and gravel. Those soils that are most productive 
 of corn, contain always certain proportions of aluminous or calcareous earth in a finely 
 divided state, and a certain quantity of vegetable or animal matter. 
 
 ' In cases,' says Sir Humphrey Davy, 'where a barren soil is examined with a view 
 to its improvement, it ought, in all cases, if possible, to be compared with an extremely 
 fertile soil in the same neighborhood, and in a similar situation ; the difference given 
 by their analyses would indicate the methods of cultivation, and thus the plan of im- 
 provement would be founded upon accurate scientific principles. 
 
 ; If the fertile soil contained a large quantity of sand, in proportion to the barren soil, 
 the process of amelioration would depend simply upon a supply of this substance ; and 
 the method would be equally simple with regard to soils deficient in clay or calcareous 
 matter. In the application of clay, sand, loam, marl, or chalk, to lands, there are no 
 particular chemical principles to be observed ; but, when quicklime is used, great care 
 must be taken that it is not obtained from the magnesian limestone ; for in this case, as 
 has been shown by Mr. Pennant, it is extremely injurious to land. The magnesian 
 limestone may be distinguished from the common limestone by its greater hardness, 
 and by the length of time that it requires for its solution in acids ; and it may be analyzed 
 by the process for carbonate of lime and magnesia. 
 
 ' When the analytical composition indicates an excess of vegetable matter as the cause 
 of sterility, it may be destroyed by much pulverization and exposure to air, by paring 
 and burning, or the agency of lately made quicksilver ; and the defect of animal and 
 vegetable matter must be supplied by animal or vegetable manure. The general indi- 
 cations of fertility and barrenness, as found by chemical experiments, must necessarily 
 differ in different climates, and under various circumstances. The power of soils to 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 139 
 
 absorb moisture, a principle essential to their productiveness, ought to be much greater 
 in warm and dry countries, than in cold and moist ones ; and the quantity of fine alumi- 
 nous earth they contain should be larger. 
 
 ' From the great difference of the causes that influence the productiveness of lands, it 
 is obvious, that, in the present state of the science, no certain system can be devised for 
 their improvement, independent of experiment ; but there are few cases in which the 
 labor of analytical trials will not be amply repaid by the certainty with which they denote 
 the best methods of melioration ; and this will particularly happen when the defect of 
 composition is found in the proportions of the primitive earths. In supplying animal 
 or vegetable manure, a temporary food only is provided for plants, which is in all cases 
 exhausted by means of a certain number of crops ; but when a soil is rendered of the 
 best possible constitution and texture with regard to its earthy parts, its fertility may be 
 considered as permanently established. It becomes capable of attracting a very large 
 portion of vegetable nourishment from the atmosphere, and of producing its crops with 
 comparatively little labor and expense.' 
 
140 
 
 CHAPTER XIV.— CLIMATE * 
 
 The United States are most desirably situated. Placed in the northern 
 temperate zone, they occupy just that portion of it, which is most likely to 
 yield a healthy climate and rich soil. Happily removed from the parching- 
 heat of the torrid, and eternal frosts of the frigid zone, the republic is never- 
 
 * It is fortunate that habit makes us so little observant of what is disagreeable or 
 inconsistent in climate. Every nation thinks that to which it is accustomed, combines, 
 on the whole, the greater number of advantages. Colonel Hamilton considers it pre- 
 posterous to compare the climate of the United States with that of England; and Count 
 Pecchio, an Italian exile, is much amused that the English should attempt to persuade 
 themselves that they have a climate even endurable. We have placed the two following 
 extracts in juxta-position, to exhibit the respective views of these intelligent travellers 
 on the climate of the two counties : 
 
 ' When on the subject of climate, I may just mention, that there is no topic on which 
 Americans are more jealously sensitive. It delights them to believe that theirs is, in 
 all respects, a favored laud ; that between the St. Lawrence and Mississippi the sky is 
 brighter, the breezes more salubrious, and the soil more fertile, than in any other region 
 of the earth. There is no harm in all this ; nay, it is laudable, if they would only not 
 insist that all strangers should view the matter in the same light, and express admira- 
 tion as rapturous as their own. 
 
 ' Judging from my own experience, I should certainly pronounce the climate of the 
 northern and central states to be only one degree better than that of Nova Scotia, 
 which struck me, when there in 1814, as being the very worst in the world. On mak- 
 ing the American coast, we had four days of denser fog than I ever saw in London. 
 After my arrival at New York in November, the weather, for about a week, was very 
 fine. It then became cloudy and tempestuous, and, during the whole period of my 
 residence at Boston, I scarcely saw the sun. At Philadelphia there came on a deluge 
 of snow, by which the ground was covered from January till March. At Baltimore 
 there was no improvement. Snow lay deep on the ground, during the whole period of 
 my residence at Washington, and the roads were only passable with difficulty. On 
 crossing the Alleghany Mountains, however, the weather became delightful, and con- 
 tinued so during the voyage to New Orleans. While I remained in that city, three 
 days out of every four were oppressively close and sultry, and the atmosphere was 
 damp and oppressive to breathe. 
 
 ' During my journey from Mobile to Charleston, though generally hotter than desira- 
 ble, the weather was, in the main, bright and beautiful ; but the very day of my arrival 
 at the latter place, the thermometer fell twenty degrees ; and in the thirty-third degree 
 of latitude, in the month of May, the inmates of the hotel were crowding round a blaz- 
 ing fire. On my return to New York, I found the population still muffled in cloaks 
 and great coats, and the weather bitterly cold. Not a vestive of spring was discernible, 
 at a season when, in England, the whole country is covered with verdure. During the 
 last week of May, however, the heat became very great. At Quebec, it was almost 
 intolerable, the thermometer ranging daily between eighty-four and ninety-two degrees. 
 At New York, in July, the weather was all that a salamander could desire ; and I 
 embarked for England, under a sun more burning than it is at all probable I shall ever 
 suffer from again. 
 
 1 In the northern and central states — for of the climate of the southern states it is 
 unnecessary to speak — the annual range of the thermometer exceeds a hundred degrees. 
 The heat of summer is that of Jamaica ; the cold in winter is that of Russia. Such 
 enormous vicissitudes must necessarily impair the vigor of the human frame ; and 
 when we take into calculation the vast portion of the United States in which the atmos- 
 phere is contaminated by marshy exhalations, it 'will not be difficult, with the auxiliary 
 influences of dram-drinking and tobacco-chewing, to account fbr the squalid and sickly 
 aspect of the population. Among the peasantry, I never saw one florid and robust 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 141 
 
 theless of such an extent as almost to touch upon both. The climate of a 
 country, stretching through twenty degrees of latitude, cannot but be of 
 great diversity. In this respect it has been divided into five regions, which 
 may be denominated the very cold, the cold, the temperate, the warm, and 
 the hot. 
 
 man, nor any one distinguished by that fulness and rotundity of muscle, which every 
 where meets the eye in England . 
 
 ' In many parts of the state of New York, the appearance of the inhabitants was such 
 as to excite compassion. In the Maremma of Tuscany, and the Campagna of Rome, 
 I had seen beings similar, but scarcely more wretched. In the " fall," as they call it, 
 intermittent fevers come as regularly as the fruit season. During my journey, I made 
 inquiries at many cottages, and found none of them had escaped the scourge. But 
 inquiries were useless. The answer was generally too legible in the countenance of 
 the withered mother, and in those of her emaciated offspring. 
 
 ' It seems ridiculous to compare such a climate with that of England, and yet there is 
 nothing to which Americans are more addicted. It is a subject regularly tabled in 
 every society. " How delightful our climate must appear to you," observed a lady, 
 " after the rain and fogs of your own country !"'— •■ Whether, on the whole, do you pre- 
 fer, our climate, or that of Italy ?" inquired a gentleman of New York, in a tone of the 
 most profound gravity. My answer, I fear, gave offence, for it became the signal for a 
 general meteorological attack. " I was three months in England," observed one, "and 
 it rained every hour of the time." 
 
 ' Though attached to the soil of my country, I had really no inclination to vindicate 
 its atmosphere. I, therefore, simply replied, that the gentleman had been unfortunate 
 in the period of his visit. But I was not suffered to escape thus. Another traveller 
 declared he had been nine months there, without better luck ; and as the nine months, 
 added to the three, precisely made up the whole year, of course, I had nothing farther 
 to say. 
 
 ' But this tone of triumph is not always tenable. During the days, weeks, and months, 
 when the weather is manifestly indefensible, the Io Poeans give place to apologies. A 
 traveller is entreated, nay, sometimes even implored, not to judge of the climate by the 
 specimen he has seen of it. Before bis arrival, the sky was cloudless, and the atmos- 
 phere serene. He has just come in the nick of bad weather. Never in the memory 
 of the oldest inhabitant, was the snow so deep or permanent. Never was spring so 
 tardy in its approach, and never were vicissitudes of temperature so sudden and fre- 
 quent. In short, he is desired to believe that the ordinary course of nature is suspended 
 on his approach ; that his presence in an American city deranges the whole action of 
 the elements.' — Men and Manners in Am 
 
 Count Pecchio holds the mirror up to the English with an equally obstinate determi 
 nation to expose the deformity of their climate ; though not quite so libellous, he is 
 equally amusing with the gallant colonel. 
 
 'When on his first arrival in England, the foreigner is seated on the roof of a car- 
 riage which bears him towards London at the rate of eight miles an hour, he cannot 
 help believing himself hurried along in the car of Pluto, to the descent into the realms 
 of darkness, especially if he have just left Spain or Italy, the favorite regions of the sun. 
 In the midst of wonder, he can hardly avoid, at first setting off, being struck with an 
 impression of melancholy. An eternal cloud of smoke which involves and penetrates 
 every thing ; a fog, which during the months of November and December, now gray, 
 now red, now of a dirty yellow, always obscures, and sometimes completely extinguishes 
 the light of day, cannot fail to give a lugubrious and Dantesque air to this immeasurable 
 and interminable capital. He, above all, who is just arrived from a sunny country, ex- 
 periences, as I said before, the same effect as when, from the bright light of noon, he 
 enters a half closed chamber ; at the first glance he sees nothing, but afterwards, by 
 little and little, he discerns the harp, the lady, the sofa, and the other agreeable objects 
 in the apartment. Caracciolo, the ambassador to George the Third, was not in the wrong 
 when he said, that the moon of Naples was wanner than the sun of London. In fact, 
 for several days, the sun only appears in the midst of the darkness visible, like a great 
 yellow spot. London is a " panorama of the sun," in which he is often better seen than 
 felt. On the 29th of November, 1826, there was an eclipse visible in England; the sky 
 that day happened to be clear, but nobody took the least notice of the phenomenon, be- 
 
142 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1. The very cold, in the north-east, may be defined by running a line 
 from St. Regis, on the St. Lawrence, along the high land in the statp of 
 New York to Tioga Point, in Pennsylvania ; thence to Stony Point on 
 
 cause the fog produces in one year more eclipses in England than there ever were, from 
 other causes, perhaps, since the creation of the world. 
 
 ' One day I was strolling in Hyde Park, in company with a Peruvian : it was one of 
 the fine days of London, but the sun was so obscured by the fog, that it had taken the 
 form of a great globe of fire. " What do you think of the sun to-day?" said I to my 
 companion. " I thought," replied the adorer of the true sun, " that the end of the world 
 was come ! Was it not a singular caprice of fortune, that where there is the least light, 
 the great Newton should have been born to analyze it?" It appears to me like the other 
 singularity, that Alfieri, who analyzed liberty so well, should have been born in Italy, 
 where they have less of it, perhaps, than any where else. After all, what of it? The 
 English, by force of industry, have contrived to manufacture for themselves even astsn. 
 Is it not indeed a sun — that gas, which, running under ground through all the island, 
 illuminates the whole in a fiat lux? It is a sun, without twilight, and without, sitting; 
 that rises and disappears like a flash of lightning, and that too just when we want it. 
 The gas illumination of London is so beautiful, that M. Sismondi had good reason to 
 say, that, in London, in order to see, you must wait till night. The place of St. Antonio, 
 at Cadiz, on a stormy summer's evening — the noisy Strado Toledo of Naples, silvered 
 by the moon — the Parisian Tivoli, blazing with fire-works ; — none of them can sustain 
 a comparison with the Regent-street of London, lighted by gas. Nor is this artificial 
 sun an exclusive advantage of the capital ; it shines every where with the impartiality 
 of the great planet, illuminating alike the palace and the hovel. Whoever travels in 
 England by night, in the country around Leeds, Nottingham, Derby or Manchester, 
 imagines he sees, on every side, the enchanting palaces of the fairies, shining in the light 
 of a thousand torches ; but they are, in reality, no other than very large and very lofty 
 manufactories of cotton, woollen, or linen. 
 
 'But the English have another remedy for the scarcity of sun. They follow the ex- 
 ample of poets and philosophers, who, when they are deficient in riches, take to praising 
 poverty ; — not being able to praise the sun, they sing the praises of the fireside, and the 
 delights of winter. Ossian, (or rather Macpherson, the author of Ossian,) instead of the 
 sun, apostrophises the moon. He takes pleasure in describing, as if they were delight- 
 ful, the whistling of the winds, and the roaring of the torrents. He compares the locks 
 of a youthful beauty to mist gilded by the sun. Instead of depicting a valley enamelled 
 with flowers, he spurns so soft and effeminate an image, to paint the aspect of a frozen 
 lake, and the shaking thistle on its banks. Cowper, in his poem of The Task, seems 
 completely to enjoy himself in describing a winter's evening, when the rain rattles down, 
 the wind whistles, and the wagoner growls and grumbles on his way ; whilst in doors, 
 the fire burns, the newspaper arrives, the exhilarating tea glows on the table, and the 
 family are all collected round the hearth. 
 
 'Some poet, whose name I forget, (I think it is Byron,) even gives to darkness the 
 epithet " lovely." Thomson, the bard of the seasons, was a better poet than usual, when 
 he sung of winter. He calls the horrors of winter "congenial horrors;" and after de- 
 scribing the mountains of snow, that, with the roar of thunder, dart from precipice to 
 precipice, to the bottom of the Grison valleys, destroying and burying in the depth of 
 night, shepherds and their flocks, huts and villages, single haveners and whole troops of 
 marching soldiers, he imagines himself, with epicurean voluptuousness, in a solitary and 
 well sheltered country-house, before a blazing fire, and lighted by splendid chandeliers, 
 reading at his ease the finest works of the ancients. 
 
 ' Thus all the poets have conspired to make their countrymen in love with their cloudy 
 heavens, and induce them to believe themselves fortunate that they are born in a de- 
 lightful climate. And what matter is it that it is not true ? Are not the tricks and 
 illusions of the imagination as substantial as actual reality? Montesquieu said, " If the 
 English are not free, at least they believe they are, which is much the same." So we 
 may say, if the English have not a fine climate, they believe they have, and that is as 
 good. I was once praising to a young English lady, the pure, lofty, mother-of-pearl 
 heavens of Madrid, of Naples, of Athens, of Smyrna. She replied, " I should be tired 
 to death by such a perpetual sunshine ; the variety and phantasmagoria of our cloud 
 must surely be much more beautiful." ' — Observations of an Italian Exile. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 143 
 
 Hudson's river, and thence to Cape Cod in Massachusetts. In this region 
 the summers continue from June through August, and the winters from 
 November to the middle of April. The extremes of heat and cold are 
 great, and the changes sudden, but the country is, notwithstanding, healthy. 
 To the westward, north of a line drawn from the southern extremity of Lake 
 Huron to the Rocky Mountains, the climate is also very cold, and the 
 northern extremity in the winter is excessively so. 
 
 The winters of Maine are long and severe, with clear settled weather, 
 which generally continues from the middle of December, till the latter end 
 of March ; during which time, the ponds and fresh water rivers are passa- 
 ble on the ice. There is scarcely any spring season ; the summer is short, 
 and warm ; but autumn is in general pure, healthy, and pleasant. 
 
 The climate of New Hampshire is highly favorable to health ; but the 
 winters are long and severe. Cattle are housed about the first of Novem- 
 ber. Snow lies on the ground from four to five months, and the use of 
 sleighs during that period is general. The spring is rapid, and the heat 
 of summer great, but of short duration ; autumn is very pleasant. Morning 
 and evening fires are needed as early as the first of September, and as late 
 as the first of June. 
 
 The climate of Vermont differs little from that of New Hampshire, and 
 is extremely healthy. The earth is generally covered with snow from the 
 middle of December till the end of March ; but the winter seasons may 
 be said to continue from the beginning of November till the middle 
 of April, during which, the inhabitants enjoy a serene sky and a keen cold 
 air. The ground is seldom frozen to any great depth, being covered with 
 a great body of snow, in some high lands to the depth of four or five feet, 
 before- the severe frosts begin. In this way the earth is enriched and 
 moistened, and in the spring vegetation advances with great rapidity. 
 
 The climate of Masachusetts is perhaps more variable than that of any 
 other of the New England states ; not having the steady winter cold of 
 those to the north, nor the general mildness in summer of those immediately 
 south. Fires are necessary from November to May ; and there are days, 
 even in June, when they are not only comfortable, but indispensable for 
 comfort. Cattle are housed in November. In winter, travelling is not often 
 impeded by great falls of snow ; though heavy and severe snow storms 
 occur. The rivers and ponds are frozen three months in the year ; and 
 the harbors are usually closed a week or fortnight, and sometimes for a 
 much longer time. As there are many cold days in summer, so also there 
 are many warm days in winter ; and the field which is at night soft enough 
 to receive the plough, maybe chained with frost and buried in snow before 
 morning. Winter sets in late ; frequently not till December, but, recently, 
 it has gone quite through the spring months. Indeed, the most disagreea- 
 ble portion of the year, is during March and April and part of May, when 
 the east are prevailing winds. In autumn there is much weather truly 
 delightful. Apples and pears flourish well in Massachusetts, peach trees 
 sometimes suffer from the late spring and the early autumnal frosts. It is 
 difficult to find an accurate description of so variable a climate ; as no 
 tolerably correct account of it could be given, except in the details of a 
 meteorological table. 
 
 The climate of Rhode Island and Connecticut does not differ very materi- 
 ally from that of Massachusetts. In the southern parts of these states. 
 
144 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 summer may set in a few days earlier, and the winter be generally a little 
 more temperate, but the change of climate is slight. 
 
 In the very cold tract are included the eastern and northern parts of New 
 York, being the mountainous country, and the region lying to the east of 
 it. Here the winters are long and severe, being more so as you proceed 
 to the north. The climate of this region may be generally described as 
 similar to that of the New England states, which lies in the same latitude. 
 In the parts of Michigan territory, lying within this region, the climate re- 
 sembles that of Canada. 
 
 In the region we have called very cold, the range of the thermometer is 
 from thirty degrees below zero to ninety-eight above it ; including great 
 extremes both of heat and cold. 
 
 2. The cold region comprehends a great and very unequal range of 
 country. In the eastern division it extends from the foregoing line, to 
 Lakes Ontario and Erie, westward ; and south, on the Atlantic coast, to 
 about Cape Henlopen on the Delaware. Hence a line may be protracted 
 to Washington, and along by the foot of the first mountains in Virginia to 
 about Morgantown, North Carolina; thence through the mountains to 
 Kenaway river, and north-east on the west side of the mountains to the 
 upper part of Chesnut Ridge, in Pennsylvania. In the westward, the 
 southern boundary of the very cold region before-mentioned, may be as- 
 sumed as the northern boundary of the cold ; and the southern boundary of 
 the cold may be protracted westward from the head of Chesnut Ridge to 
 the high lands, dividing the waters falling into the Ohio from those falling 
 into the great lakes, and along in a northern and western direction, cross- 
 ing the Mississippi about thirty miles below Praire des Chiens, thence 
 south and west, crossing the Missouri about thirty miles below the Platte 
 river ; thence |puthward to the west of the Great Osage village, and then 
 eastward to the Arkansas river, above the Hot Springs. In this division 
 the winters commence in December and end in March, and the heat of 
 summer commences in May and ends in September. The heat and cold 
 here also go to great extremes; but the weather is very changeable, par-' 
 ticularly in winter, so that neither severe heat nor severe cold lasts long at 
 a time. The country in this division is also generally healthy. 
 
 In this division are comprehended the south-eastern and western parts 
 of New York, New Jersey, the northern and eastern parts of Pennsylvania, 
 most of Delaware and Maryland, the central and mountainous parts of 
 Virginia, the southern portion of Michigan territory, the northern extremi- 
 ties of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and portions of the Missouri and Arkan- 
 sas territories. 
 
 In the south-eastern parts of New York the prevailing winds, during the 
 summer, are southerly ; the weather is variable, and the change of tempe- 
 rature sudden and frequent. The mild and damp sea air penetrates far 
 inland; indeed, as far as the Highlands, the climate differs little from that 
 of the seacoast. In the parts of New York west of the mountains, the 
 average temperature is about three decrees higher than in the same lati- 
 tude farther east. South-westerly winds prevail through most of the year ; 
 and the chill easterly" wind is nearly unknown.* 
 
 * There were several severe thunder-storms while we were in the neighborhood of 
 !S T e\v-York, very different in their appearance from those which occur in Britain, but 
 Dot attended with more accidents. One of them, in the middle of June, was, however, 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 145 
 
 The climate of Pennsylvania is very various. On the east side of the 
 Alleghany Mountains it differs little from that of Connecticut. It is, like 
 the other countries east of the mountains, subject to great and sudden 
 changes ; but on the west side, it is much more agreeable and temperate, 
 with a greater portion of cloudy weather, and winters milder and more 
 humid than on the Atlantic. The winter season commences about the 
 twentieth of December, and the spring sets in about two weeks earlier than 
 in the eastern parts of New York. There is frost almost every month in 
 the year in some places, and the extremes of heat and cold are considera- 
 ble. The keenness of the north-west wind in winter is excessive, but 
 the state is, upon the whole, extremely healthy, and numerous instances of 
 longevity occur. 
 
 The climate of New Jersey is dissimilar in different sections of the state. 
 In the northern parts, there is clear, settled weather, and the winters are 
 exceedingly cold ; but the whole is very healthy. In the districts towards 
 the south, particularly near the extremity, the weather approaches more 
 nearly to that of the southern states, and is subject to very sudden changes. 
 The climate of Delaware is much influenced by the face of the country ; 
 for the land being low and flat, the waters stagnate, and the inhabitants are 
 consequently subject to intermittent fevers and agues. The northern 
 parts, however, are much more agreable and healthy than those to the 
 south. 
 
 Among the mountains of Virginia the summers are delightful, and the 
 heat is never found to be so oppressive as it is in the Atlantic districts ; 
 the winters are so mild in general, that snow seldom lies three days to- 
 gether on the ground. The salubrity of the climate, also, is equal to that 
 of any part of the United States ; and the inhabitants have, in consequence, 
 a healthy, ruddy appearance. Perhaps there is no part of North America 
 possessing a more agreeable climate, than that section of Virginia which 
 lies west of the Blue Ridge ; and, in particular, the fertile county of Botte- 
 tourt, which is entirely surrounded by mountains. Here the frost in winter 
 is regular, but not severe. In summer the heat is great; but there is not 
 a night in the year that a blanket is not found comfortable. Before ten 
 o'clock in the morning the heat is greatest ; at that hour a breeze generally 
 springs up from the mountains, and renders the air agreeable the whole 
 day. Fever and ague are disorders unknown here, and persons who come 
 hither afflicted with them from the low country, get rid of them in a very 
 short time. Except in the neighborhood of stagnant waters, Virginia has, 
 upon the whole, a healthy climate. 
 
 very tremendous ; it occurred in the night, and the flashes of vivid lightning followed 
 each other with so great rapidity, that the sky was altogether illuminated for a long 
 period, and until a violent storm of wind, accompanied with a deluge of rain, came on. 
 The roaring of the thunder never ceased during the continuance of the storm. Several 
 casualties occurred in New York ; some trees were torn itp by the roots, the shipping 
 was damaged, one vessel upset, and the crew drowned. There is more appearance of 
 devastation occasioned by thunder-storms in the forests and woods of this country than 
 any where else. Large portions of the forest are sometimes seen almost torn to pieces. 
 Subsequently to this period, and when I was travelling in the southern states, I was 
 again and again witness to very terrifying and magnificent thunder-storms, where I 
 ■have seen the whole atmosphere illuminated by the never ceasing balls of fire bursting 
 from cloud to cloud, and the appearance every moment of forked flashes of lightning. 
 Few nights, during the summer and beginning of autumn, in this country, occur, in 
 which lightning is not visible in some part of the horizon ^-Stuart's America. 
 
 19 13 
 
146 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The climate of Maryland is various in different districts, but for the 
 most part mild and agreeable, well suited to agricultural productions, arid 
 particularly fruit trees. The eastern parts are similar to Delaware, having 
 large tracts of marsh, which, during the day, load the atmosphere with 
 vapor, that falls in dew in the close of the summer and autumn, which 
 are unhealthy, and during which the inhabitants are much exposed to fever 
 and ague. In the interior hilly country the climate improves very much, 
 and among the mountains it is delightful and healthy ; the summers being 
 cooled by fine breezes, while the winters are tempered by a southern lati- 
 tude, which renders them much milder than to the northward. 
 
 In the southern portions of Michigan territory, the winters are not 
 severe, and the spring sets in as early as in any other part of the state 
 which lies in the same latitude. In 1820, at Detroit, the mean heat of 
 December was twenty-seven degrees, and of July sixty-nine. The tem- 
 perature of this territory is rendered milder by the neighborhood of such 
 large bodies of water, and by the absence of great elevations. The portions 
 of the Missouri and Arkansas territories, that lie within the boundaries of 
 the cold region, partake of the character of the climate already described. 
 As the country in these territories is open and generally level, the tempe- 
 rature depends chiefly on the latitude. 
 
 The northern and north-eastern parts of Illinois are cold in the winter ; 
 the air from the great lake is chill and bleak, and sensibly affects the 
 country exposed to its influence. In the region of Ohio, sloping towards 
 the lakes, the snow falls to a very considerable depth, and lies long; sleighs 
 and sledges are much used. The transitions during the winter are violent 
 and frequent. That part of Indiana contiguous to Lake Michigan is often 
 exposed to heavy falls of rain, and is consequently marshy and unhealthy. 
 
 3. The temperate region is situated between the cold, and a line drawn 
 from Morgantown, North Carolina, south-westward along the foot of the 
 mountains to their termination in Georgia, thence in a north-west direction 
 by Florence, in Alabama, and crossing the Mississippi river about the 
 upper part of the Chickasaw Bluffs, thence north-west to the Delaware 
 towns on White river, and thence south-west to the Arkansas, above the 
 Hot Springs. The region described within these limits lies in the very 
 heart of the country, the whole being on a considerable elevation. It com- 
 prehends Kentucky and Missouri, with nearly the whole of Ohio, Indiana, 
 Illinois, and Tennessee, the south part of Pennsylvania, the western part of 
 Virginia, and small portions of North Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. 
 This climate is distinguished from the foregoing by an earlier spring, and 
 by greater serenity, and fewer changes. 
 
 The climate of Tennessee forms a medium between the warmth of the 
 south and the cold of the north ; it may be correctly viewed as the middle 
 climate of the United States, and proves peculiarly congenial to northern 
 constitutions. There is no country in America where diseases are so 
 rare, where physicians have so little practice, and where children are more 
 robust and healthy. Snow falls in winter, and sometimes to a considera- 
 ble depth ; but the summer, particularly in the higher ground, is mild, and 
 accompanied with excessive heat. Apples, pears, and plums are raised 
 here in great perfection ; and in sheltered situations it is thought that the 
 fig might be cultivated to advantage. Maize is planted early in April ; 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 147 
 
 cotton is the staple of agriculture. Within the limits of this state, most of 
 the forest trees of the western country are found in abundance. 
 
 In Kentucky the climate is not so mild as that of Tennessee. It is how- 
 ever mild and temperate. Grape vines flourish here of prodigious size. 
 All the grains, pulses, garden vegetables, and fruits of the temperate climate 
 abound. The wheat of Kentucky is excellent, but hemp and tobacco are 
 her staples. 
 
 The climate of Missouri is temperate, though variable. Winter conti- 
 nues in its severity for about two months, from the latter part of December 
 to the last of February ; but even during this interval there are many 
 warm and pleasant days. Snow seldom remains on the ground more than 
 sixty hours ; and its maximum depth is generally about six inches. Fre- 
 quently the rivers are for weeks frozen sufficiently hard for the passage of 
 loaded teams. Trees sometimes blossom in March, and the spring months 
 with occasional cold, have days as pleasant as those of summer. From 
 the sandy and warm texture of the soil, and the openness of the country, 
 the heat in summer is very great, and would be oppressive, except for the 
 prevalence of agreeable breezes. Another characteristic of the Missouri 
 climate, is its extreme dryness ; evaporation is rapid, and the average 
 amount of rain falling in the year is estimated at eighteen inches. Long 
 and steady rains so common in the eastern states, seldom occur ; the sum- 
 mer rains are generally thunder showers. The autumn months are de- 
 lightful, serene, temperate, and salubrious. 
 
 The part of Ohio lying within this division of climate is moderate in 
 respect to climate ; suffering neither from excessive cold or the reverse. 
 Along the banks of the Ohio river it is more mild than in the central and 
 mountainous regions ; and the difference is owing to the difference of lati- 
 tude and elevation. The winters vary in severity, being sometimes quite 
 mild; in other years the rivers are frozen for eight or nine weeks. Severe 
 cold generally continues from the last week in December through the first 
 in February. Summer heat in the valley of the Ohio is oppressive, but 
 of short duration. Autumn is temperate, pleasant, and healthy. Nowhere 
 in the world, says Mr. Flint, is the grand autumnal painting of the forests, 
 in the decay of vegetation, seen in more beauty than in the beech forests 
 of Ohio. The richness of the fading colors, and the effect of the mingling 
 hues baffles all description. On the whole, a great farming community, 
 like that of Ohio, could scarcely desire a better climate for themselves, 
 their cattle, and stock of all kinds ; or one, in which a man can work 
 abroad, with comfort, a greater number of days in the year. 
 
 Indiana has much the same temperature with Illinois and Missouri. The 
 winters are mild, and seldom last in their severity more than six weeks ; 
 during this period, the slower streams are generally frozen, and afford a 
 safe passage on the ice. In the middle and southern parts of the state 
 snow seldom falls to a greater depth than six inches. Trees begin to be 
 green early in April, and the peach blossoms in March. A large number 
 of shrubs put forth their flowers before the leaves, and from this the spring 
 vegetation is singularly beautiful. Illinois has in general the same climate 
 with Missouri, and its productions are the same as those of that state ; 
 being, however, somewhat lower, it is more subject to inundation, and con- 
 sequently the air is more humid. The portions of Pennsylvania, Virginia, 
 North Carolina, Georgia and Alabama, comprehended within this division, 
 
148 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 partake the general character of climate with those we have particularly 
 described. 
 
 4. The region possessing a ivarm climate lies between the temperate, 
 and a line drawn from Cape Henry in a circular, direction, and passing 
 above Tarboro, and through Fayetteville, Columbia, Augusta, Milledgeville 
 and Fort Jackson in Alabama, and thence a little south of west across the 
 Mississippi, and on to the Sabine river, in the latitude of Nacogdoches, in 
 Texas. In this region the winters continue from about the first of January 
 to the first of March ; and the summers from the first of May to the middle 
 of October. The weather is pretty settled and steady, and, except in 
 swampy or marshy situations, the country is generally healthy. This re- 
 gion includes the interior and central parts of North Carolina, the northern 
 and western parts of South Carolina, the northern parts of Georgia, Ala- 
 bama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. 
 
 In the northern and western parts of South Carolina, the land is moun- 
 tainous, and the climate generally salubrious. The air is dry, and in 
 winter cold ; but it is generally mild and delightful. The highlands of 
 North Carolina that lie within this district are healthy and pleasant ; the 
 days in summer are hot, but the nights are refreshed by cool breezes. The 
 northern and hilly region of Georgia is as healthy as any part of the 
 states. Winter continues from the middle of December to the middle of 
 February. The northern parts of Alabama, in the districts of hills, springs, 
 and pine forests, are generally healthy. In winter the still waters often 
 freeze ; and the summers are not much hotter than they are many degrees 
 farther to the north. 
 
 The climate of the northern part of Mississippi, in places removed from 
 stagnant waters, is healthy. Heat in summer is intense ; and during the 
 latter month of that season and the first of autumn, even the residents in 
 the healthy districts are exposed to severe bilious attacks. In compensation, 
 however, they are free from the pulmonary affections which occasion so 
 much destruction in the more northern regions. The productions of this 
 state are the same with those of Louisiana. 
 
 5. The hot region extends from the southern extremity of the warm, to 
 the Atlantic Ocean, and the Gulf of Mexico. It comprises all Florida, 
 and the southern parts of the Carolinas,* Georgia, Alabama, and Missis- 
 sippi, with the greater portion of Louisiana. 
 
 * The following account of the climate in the neighborhood of Charleston, South 
 Carolina, is extracted from a letter of the intelligent correspondent of the Portland Ad- 
 vertiser, dated March 29, 1833. 
 
 ' Vegetation is quite advanced, and rapidly advancing. The air this day was not so 
 warm as it has been ; but we had this morning copious showers with loud thunder and 
 vivid lightning. The gardens in the vicinity of Charleston are now beautiful beyond 
 description. All vegetation is in that lively hue, which charms the eye and delights the 
 feelings. The trees that border the wayside are rapidly putting on their green covering. 
 The open fields are verdant with the growing grass. Corn is up and advanced. The 
 vegetables in the gardens are as forward as they will be in ours the first of July. The 
 market is well stocked with the luxuries of an early summer. A southern spring is 
 spring indeed. There are music and life in every thing. If they could have here our 
 captivating and musing scenery, our variety of hill and dale, it would be at this season 
 another paradise on earth. 
 
 1 ' Charleston is considered healthy by the inhabitants. They boast of their exemption 
 from diseases, and say their bill of mortality is not so fatal as that of New York and 
 Philadelphia. The city itself may be thus healthy when the yellow fever does not pre- 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 149 
 
 The cumate of Florida may be considered in some respects as a trc pical 
 climate. From the first of July to the first of October, the air is sultry, 
 and the heat exceedingly oppressive. This may be considered the un- 
 healthy season, during which fevers are prevalent, but even at this time 
 the climate of St. Augustine is salubrious and pleasant, and is a place of 
 resort for those who are desirous of avoiding sickness. During this period 
 the range of the thermometer is between eighty-four and eighty-eight de- 
 grees, and it sometimes rises above one hundred. Even in winter, the 
 influence of the clear vertical sun is always uncomfortable ; in the penin- 
 sular parts, water never freezes, though there are sometimes slight frosts. 
 In this climate the most delicate orange trees flourish and bear delicious 
 fruits ; the air is generally pure and mild, and the breeze pleasant. Heavy 
 dews fall, and the night air is exceedingly humid. The rainy season com- 
 mences early in winter ; in February and March there are severe thunder 
 storms by night, followed by days of great clearness and beauty. The 
 peninsular is visited by tornadoes, and at the time of the autumnal equi- 
 nox, hurricanes and destructive gales occur. 
 
 In the southern and eastern portions of the Carolinas, the summers are 
 very hot, sultry, moist and unhealthy. The extensive and rapid decom- 
 position of vegetable matter engenders exhalations, which unite with the 
 miasmata of the swamps, and create an atmosphere loaded with the most 
 deleterious qualities. Intermittent and bilious fevers are frequent and 
 severe. In the low country the summer lasts seven or eight months; and 
 though the winter frost is^>ometimes severe enough to kill the tender plants, 
 it seldom lasts more than three or four days, or penetrates the ground above 
 
 vail, but it is as much as one's life is worth to venture into the lowlands in the vicinity, 
 in the country round. No resident of Charleston, even those born Carolinians, or the 
 best acclimated, dare run the risk. For a citizen to sleep in the country in the summer 
 months, is considered almost certain death, for the country fever, as it is termed, imme- 
 diately seizes him. The country, this side of the middle region — a rolling country of 
 South Carolina for about one hundred miles from the seacoast — is swampy, or a pine 
 barren. There is in the swamps a mal-aria, very fatal to health, the effects of which no 
 white man is willing to run the risk of encountering. Hence the planters in the low- 
 lands, particularly such as live on the rice plantations, remove in the sickly months to 
 the seacoast, or go back into the country, to Buncumbe county in North Carolina, near 
 the Saluda Gap, or to the Virginia Springs, or to the seacoast, or to the northern states. 
 The slaves on the rice plantations are said to be healthy and happy, and to suffer no 
 affliction from the burning sun of August, or the noxious effluvia from the rice grounds. 
 ' A white overseer is usually left in care of the plantation and the negroes, who, 
 though born in the country, often, and commonly, has a fever every year. I am told 
 that many of them die at middle age, and that few seldom obtain an old age. If such 
 be the fact, it would seem that negroes are necessary to cultivate the rice grounds, 
 though it is with difficulty that I can come to the conclusion, that the white man, well 
 acclimated, is not as well fitted by nature to cultivate the land he lives on as the negro. 
 But the universal opinion is, that it is exceedingly hazardous for a planter to continue 
 with his family on his estate, and hence, no matter what the expense, the estates are 
 deserted from June to the first frost in autumn, and the planter dare not visit his pro- 
 perty, nor sleep in his house in that time, though he may be on the seacoast but a few 
 miles oft, or in a settlement on a pine barren, which is considered healthy. The 
 swampy rice grooms no doubt are sickly. The effluvia from so much putrid water 
 must be noxious. The pallor and ghastliness of many of the overseers bear testimony 
 to the truth of the general assertion. And it is probable, yea, certain, that the habits, 
 the manners, the long practice of the negroes, have better fitted them to undergo the 
 danger than the white man is or can be, with his training. Hence, one of the great 
 arguments in favor of slavery here, is, "we cannot do without the negroes." ' 
 
 13* 
 
150r BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 two inches. Spring commences about the middle of February, and green 
 peas are often in the market by the middle of March ; but the weather 
 varies very' much till about the first of May, when it becomes steadily 
 warm, and continues increasing in heat till September, when it begins to 
 moderate. Almost every person whose circumstances permit, removes to 
 a more healthy situation during this period, and a vast number go to the 
 northern states in the summer, and return in the fall. The period of going 
 north is mostly from the middle of May to the middle of July, and of re- 
 turning, from the middle of October to the middle of November. The 
 anxiety that prevails during that period is extreme, and when it is over, the 
 inhabitants congratulate one another with the full prospect of ten or eleven 
 months being added to their lives. 
 
 The climate of Georgia differs little from that already described of the 
 Carolinas. The rice swamps, and the low country in general, are very 
 unhealthy, and the planters are obliged, during the sickly season, to retire 
 to the elevated parts of the state. A near approach to the tropical tempera- 
 ture is found in some portions of Georgia, where the cane, the olive, and 
 sweet orange flourish luxuriantly. The climate of the southern part of 
 Alabama, and of Mississippi, resembles that of Georgia and South Carolina 
 in the same latitudes. In the thirty-first degree of latitude, the thermometer 
 stands in spring water at sixty-nine degrees, which is nearly the mean 
 temperature of the year. A series of themometrical observations is men- 
 tioned by Mr. Flint, which gave the following result. The warmest part of 
 the warmest day in April, gave eighty-two degrees ; mean heat of July of the 
 same year, eighty-six ; coldest in January, fifty-four ; coldest in February, 
 forty -three ; warmest in March, eighty-five degrees. In the same year, 
 trees even in swamps, where the vegetation is most tardy, were in full leaf 
 by the second of April ; at which time peach blossoms were gone. Peas 
 were in pod by the twelfth of April ; when peaches were of the size of a 
 hazel-nut, and the fig trees in full leaf. Green peas were on the table, and 
 strawberries ripe by the second of May, and on the sixteenth of the same 
 month, mulberries, dewberries, and whortleberries were ripe. 
 
 The climate of Louisiana bears a general resemblance to that of Florida. 
 All the northern fruits come to perfection here, with the exception of apples. 
 The pumpkin and melon tribe flourish, and the common garden vegetables 
 are cultivated in abundance. Figs of different kinds might be extensively 
 raised for exportation, but are much neglected. On the rich alluvial lands 
 maize thrives wonderfully ; but wheat and rye do not flourish. In the 
 region of the sugar-cane, along the whole shore of the gulf, and on the 
 lower courses of the rivers of Louisiana, the orange tree flourishes and 
 bears a delicious fruit. In the year 1S22, a severe frost destroyed these 
 trees while in full bearing, but the roots have thrown out new trees. The 
 cultivated grape, and various wild grapes abound. Berries are neither 
 common nor good. Cotton grows to the height of six feet ; and tobacco of 
 the first quality is extensively raised. 
 
 In addition to the views of climate already given, we may add the fol- 
 lowing description of that of Mississippi Valley, for which we have been 
 indebted to the industrious observation of Mr. Flint. ' We may class four 
 distinct climates, between the sources and the outlet of the Mississippi. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 151 
 
 The first, commencing at its sources, and terminating at Prairie du Chien, 
 corresponds pretty accurately to the climate between Montreal and Boston ; 
 with this difference, that the amount of snow falling in the former is much 
 less than in the latter region. The mean temperature of a year would be 
 something higher on the Mississippi. The vegetables raised, the time of 
 planting, and the modes of cultivating them, would, probably, be nearly the 
 same. Vegetation will have nearly the same progress and periodical 
 changes. The growing of gourd seed corn, which demands an increase 
 of temperature to bring it to maturity, is not planted in this region. The 
 Irish potatoe is raised in this climate in the utmost perfection. Wheat and 
 cultivated grasses succeed well. The apple and the pear tree require 
 fostering, and southern exposure, to bring fruit in perfection. The peach 
 tree has still more the habits and the fragile delicacy of a southern stranger, 
 and requires a sheltered declivity, with a southern exposure, to succeed at 
 all. Five months in the year may be said to belong to the dominion of 
 winter. For that length of time, the cattle require shelter in the severe 
 weather, and the still waters remain frozen. 
 
 4 The next climate includes the opposite states of Missouri and Illinois, in 
 their whole extent, or the country between forty-one and thirty-seven de- 
 grees. Cattle, though much benefited by sheltering, and often needing it, 
 seldom receive it. It is not so favorable for cultivated grasses, as the pre- 
 ceding region. Gourd seed corn is the only kind extensively planted. The 
 winter commences with January, and ends with the second week in Feb- 
 ruary. The ice, in the still waters, after that time thaws. Wheat, the 
 inhabitant of a variety of climates, is at home, as a native, in this. The 
 persimon and the papaw are found in its whole extent. It is the favored 
 region of the apple, the pear, and peach tree. Snows neither fall deep, nor 
 lie long. The Irish potato succeeds to a certain extent, but not as well, as 
 in the former climate ; and this disadvantage is supplied by the sweet 
 potato, which, though not at home in this climate, with a little care in the 
 cultivation, flourishes. The grandeur of vegetation, and the temperature of 
 March and April, indicate an approach towards a southern climate. 
 
 ' The next climate extends from thirty-seven to thirty-one degrees. Below 
 thirty-five degrees, in the rich alluvial soils, the apple tree begins to fail in 
 bringing its fruit to perfection. We have never tasted apples worth eating, 
 raised much below New Madrid. Cotton, between this point and thirty- 
 three degrees, is raised, in favorable positions, for home consumption; 
 but is seldom to be depended upon for a crop. Below thirty-three degrees 
 commences the proper climate for cotton, and it is the staple article of 
 cultivation. Festoons of long moss hang from the trees, and darken the 
 forests. The palmetto gives to the low alluvial grounds a grand and 
 striking verdure. The muscadine grape, strongly designating climate, is 
 first found here. Laurel trees become common in the forest, retaining 
 their foliage and their verdure through the winter. Wheat is no longer 
 seen, as an article of cultivation. The fig tree brings its fruit to full 
 maturity. 
 
 ' Below this climate, to the gulf, is the region of the sugar-cane and the 
 sweet orange tree. It would be, if it were cultivated, the region of the olive. 
 Snow is no longer seen to fall, except a few flakes in the coldest storms. 
 The streams are never frozen. Winter is only marked by nights of white 
 frost, and days of north-west winds, which seldom last longer than three 
 
152 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 days in succession, and are followed by south winds and warm days. 
 The trees are generally in leaf by the middle of February, and always by 
 the first of March. Bats are hovering- in the air during the night. Fire- 
 flies are seen in the middle of February. Early in March the forests are 
 in blossom. The margins of the creeks and streams are perfumed with 
 the meadow pink, or honeysuckle, yellow jessamine, and other fragrant 
 flowers. During almost every night a thunder-storm occurs. Cotton and 
 corn are planted from March to July. In these regions the summers are 
 uniformly hot, although there are days when the mercury rises as high in 
 New England, as in Louisiana. The heat, however, is more uniform and 
 sustained, commences much earlier, and continues much later. From 
 February to September thunder-storms are common, often accompanied 
 .with severe thunder, and sometimes with gales, or tornadoes, in which the 
 trees of the forest are prostrated in every direction, and the tract of country, 
 which is covered with the fallen trees, is called a 'hurricane.' The de- 
 pressing influence of the summer heat results from its long continuance, 
 and equable and unremitting tenor, rather than from the intensity of its 
 ardor at any given time. It must however be admitted, that at all times 
 the unclouded radiance of the vertical sun of this climate is extremely op- 
 pressive. — Such are the summers and autumns of the southern divisions of 
 this valley. 
 
 ' The winters, in the whole extent of the country, are variable, passing 
 rapidly from warm to cold, and the reverse. Near the Mississippi, and 
 where there is little to vary the general direction of the winds, they ordi- 
 narily blow three or four days from the north. In the northern and middle 
 regions, the consequence is cold Aveather, frost more or less severe, and per- 
 haps storm, with snow and sleet. During these days the rivers are covered 
 with ice. The opposite breeze alternates. There is immediately a bland 
 and relaxing feeling in the atmosphere. It becomes warm ; and the red- 
 birds sing in these days, in January and February, as far north as Prairie 
 du Chien. These abrupt and frequent transitions can hardly fail to have 
 an unfavorable influence upon health. From forty to thirty-six degrees 
 the rivers almost invariably freeze, for a longer or shorter period, through 
 the winter. At St. Louis on the Mississippi, and at Cincinnati on the 
 Ohio, in nearly the same parallels, between thirty-eight and thirty-nine 
 degrees, the two rivers are sometimes capable of being crossed on the ice 
 for eight weeks together. 
 
 ' Although the summers over all this valley must be admitted to be hot, 
 yet the exemption of the country from mountains and impediments to the 
 free course of the winds, and the circumstance, that the greater proportion 
 of the country has a surface bare of forests, and, probably, other unex- 
 plained atmospheric agents, concur to create, during the sultry months, 
 almost a constant breeze. It thence happens, that the air on these wide 
 prairies is rendered fresh, and the heats are tempered, in the same manner, 
 as is felt on the ocean.' 
 
 The annual and mean quantity of rain that falls in the United States is 
 much greater than in most countries of Europe, certain mountainous re- 
 gions and heads of gulfs excepted. This has been ascertained by nume- 
 rous and accurate observations made on different parts of the Atlantic coast. 
 It is said, on the authority of tabular views, that, on a medium, one third 
 less rain falls in Europe than in the United States ; yet Dr. Holyoke 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 153 
 
 mentions, in his memoir on the climate of the United States, twenty cities 
 in Europe, which, at a mean of twenty years, have had one hundred and 
 twenty days of rain ; while Cambridge has had but eighty-eight days, 
 Salem ninety-five days of rain, and Philadelphia seventy-six days, at a 
 medium of twenty years. The mean annual quantity of rain at Philadel- 
 phia is very little more than the mean annual quantity at Glasgow for a 
 term of thirty years preceding 1790. The above greater quantity of rain, 
 in fewer days, in America, indicates the rain to be much heavier there than 
 in Europe. On the other hand, it is equally well ascertained, that the 
 evaporation of these rains proceeds much quicker in America than in 
 Europe ; and that, consequently, the air is habitually drier, and less calm, 
 unless Charleston be taken as an exception. It has been found, that the 
 mean annual quantity of evaporation at Cambridge, near Boston, was fifty- 
 six inches, for a term of seven years; while in seven German and Italian 
 cities, on a mean of twenty years, the annual evaporation was forty-nine 
 inches, or seven of difference ; although the Italian cities are in a much 
 more favorable situation for evaporation than the vicinity of Boston, adja- 
 cent to the Atlantic ocean. The same fact of greater evaporation was also 
 observed to take place in Upper Louisiana, and along the higher Missouri, 
 as far as the Rooky Mountains, by Captain Lewis. 
 
 The habitual dryness of the American climate increases, as we advance 
 west and north-west from the Missouri, where there frequently is not a 
 drop of rain for six months. This is owing to the great distance from any 
 sea, the superior elevation, and the comparative want of timber, combined 
 with the greater intensity and longer duration of the north-west wind, which 
 sweeps with unobstructed force over the naked plains. It appears, then, 
 that more rain falls in fewer days, in America, than in Europe; and that 
 there are fewer cloudy days, more fair days, and quicker evaporation. It 
 is to this last circumstance we must ascribe those immense dews, unknown 
 in European climates, which occur in America, and which are so copious 
 in summer, as to resemble heavy showers of rain. But it must also be 
 observed, that dews are comparatively unknown in the tract watered by 
 the Upper Missouri ; and which, in all probability, is owing to the want of 
 timber, wood being limited to the banks of the rivers, which are commonly 
 bordered with trees. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE. 
 
 It is the opinion of Professor Leslie, that all the varieties of climate are reducible to 
 two causes; distance from the equator, and height above the level of the sea. 'Lati- 
 tude and local elevation form, indeed,' says he, ' the great basis of the law of climate, 
 and any other modifications have only a partial and very limited influence.' 
 
 Climate is generally treated of under four divisions : the cold and humid ; cold and 
 dry ; warm and humid ; hot and dry. But these climates do not always exist accord- 
 ing to the full import of the terms by which they are designated. They are subject to 
 modifications, principally of two kinds ; the one arising from the alternation of two 
 different climates in the same region, the other from the greater or less prevalence of 
 either of the four elements. Thus when heat, dryness, and humidity are duly combined, 
 they render the climate comparatively temperate. In Egypt, for instance, the combi- 
 nations of heat and humidity, during the inundation of the Nile, and of heat and dryness 
 during the rest of the year, temper a climate, without which these alternations would be 
 insupportable. In Holland the cold humidity of the autumn is succeeded by frost, which 
 increases the salubrity of the climate, that would not otherwise be so healthy. 
 
 The sea exercises an imjortant equalizing influence on the temperature of the globe. 
 la the tropical regions a large extent of ocean spreads coolness on every side, and 
 20 
 
154 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 affords a perpetual succession of refreshing breezes. Islands are always, comparatively, 
 of more temperate climates than continents, and those scattered over the expanse of the 
 Pacific may be said to enjoy almost a perpetual spring. The influence of the winds is 
 also very important ; particularly that of the trade-winds. Blowing from east to west 
 across the sands of A in 'a, the latter produce, on its western coast, a most intense heat, 
 much greater than is experienced on the -eastern. In passing the Atlantic they are con- 
 siderably cooled; and though their temperature is again raised in traversing South 
 America, yet, before reaching the opposite coast, they meet the tremendous snow-clad 
 Andes, which stop their progress and diffuse a wide coolness. 
 
 Again, the mountain ranges of the earth not only present and retain on their sides a 
 refreshing coolness, but, by the mighty rivers to which they give rise, diffuse a great 
 amelioration of the temperature through extensive regions. They are particularly of 
 this character, and give rise to the largest rivers in the torrid and burning zones of the 
 earth. In the temperate climate, and those approaching to the poles, mountains are of 
 moderate elevation, are almost always barren, and give rise to few considerable 
 streams. 
 
 It appears probable that the climates of European countries were more severe in 
 ancient times than they are at present. Cassar says that the vine could not be culti- 
 vated in Gaul on account of its winter cold. The reindeer, now found only in the 
 zone of Lapland, was then an inhabitant of the Pyrenees. The Tiber was frequently 
 frozen over, and the ground about Rome covered with snow for several weeks together, 
 which very rarely happens in our time. The Rhine and the Danube, in the time of 
 Augustus, was generally frozen over, for several months of winter. The barbarians who 
 overran the Roman empire a few centuries afterwards, transported their armies and 
 wagons across the ice of these rivers. Though the fact is well established, the causes 
 of this change of climate do not seem to be satisfactorily explained. 
 
155 
 
 CHAPTER XV.— MINERALS. 
 
 In the ordinary mineral productions, such as brick-earth, stone adapted 
 to building, as well as for any kind of workmanship, and in sand of all 
 qualities, the resources of the United States are inexhaustible. The same 
 may be said of many minerals of less universal occurrence, that may seem 
 to merit a more particular description. To begin with the precious metals. 
 The gold region commences in Virginia, and extends south-west through 
 North Carolina, along the northern part of South Carolina, thence north- 
 westwardly into Alabama, and to its termination in Tennessee. In 1825, 
 Professor Olmsted published a particular account of the gold region of 
 North Carolina, as it was then explored ; it has since been found to be 
 vastly more extensive, but the richest mines are still worked in the region 
 which he described, in the counties of Mecklenburg, Rowan, Cabarras, 
 Anson, and Davidson. This account, which is quite minute and interest- 
 ing, we present slightly abridged in the following pages : 
 
 A geographical description of the gold country, would present little that 
 is interesting. The soil is, for the most part, barren, and the inhabitants 
 generally poor and ignorant The traveller passes a day without seeing a 
 single striking or beautiful object, either of nature or of art, to vary the 
 tiresome monotony of forest and sand-hills, and ridges of gravelly quartz, 
 either strewed coarsely over the ground, or so comminuted as to form gra- 
 vel. These ridges have an appearance of great natural sterility, which is, 
 moreover, greatly aggravated by the ruinous practice of frequently burn- 
 ing over the forests, so as to consume all the leaves and undergrowth. 
 The principal mines are three — the Anson mine, Reed's mine, and Par- 
 ker's mine. 
 
 The Alison Mine is situated in the county of the same name, on the 
 waters of Richardson's creek, a branch of Rocky river. This locality 
 was discovered by a ' go}d hunter,' one of an order of people, that begin 
 already to be accounted a distinct race. A rivulet winds from north to 
 south between two gently sloping hills that emerge towards the south. 
 The bed of the stream, entirely covered with gravel, is left almost naked 
 during the dry season ; the period which is usually selected by the miners 
 for their operations. On digging from three to six feet into this bed, the 
 workman comes to that peculiar stratum of gravel and tenacious blue clay, 
 which is at once recognised as the repository of the gold. The stream 
 itself usually gives the first indications of the richness of the bed through 
 which it passes, by disclosing large pieces of the precious metal shining 
 among its pebbles and sands. Pieces unusually large were found by those 
 who first examined Anson's mine, and the highest hopes were inspired. 
 On inquiry, it was ascertained that part of the land was not held by a good 
 title, and parcels of it were immediately entered ; it has since been the 
 subject of a constant litigation, which has retarded the working of the 
 mine. 
 
 Reed's Mine, in Cabarras, is the one which was first wrought ; and at 
 this place, indeed, were obtained the first specimens of gold that were 
 
156 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 found in the formation. A large piece was found in the bed of a small creek, 
 which attracted attention by its lustre and specific gravity; but it was long 
 retained in the hands of the proprietor, through ignorance whether or not 
 it was gold. This mine occupies the bed of a branch of Rocky river, and 
 exhibits a level between two hillocks, which rise on either side of the 
 creek, affording a space between from fifty to an hundred yards in breadth. 
 This space has been thoroughly dug over, and exhibits at present nume- 
 rous small pits, for a distance of about one fourth of a mile on both sides 
 of the stream. The surface of the ground, and the bed of the creek, are 
 occupied by quartz, and by sharp angular rocks of the greenstone family. 
 The first glance is sufficient to convince the spectator, that the business of 
 searching for gold is conducted under numerous disadvantages, without 
 the least regard to system, and with very little aid from mechanical con- 
 trivances. 
 
 Large pieces of gold are found in this region, although their occurrence 
 is somewhat rare. Masses weighing four, five, and sometimes six hundred 
 pennyweights are occasionally met with, and one mass was found that 
 weighed in its crude state twenty-eight pounds avoirdupois. This was 
 dug up by a negro at- Reed's mine, within a few inches of the surface of 
 the ground. Marvellous stories are told respecting this rich mass ; as that 
 it had been seen by gold hunters at night reflecting so brilliant a light, when 
 they drew near to it with torches, as to make them believe it was some 
 supernatural appearance, and to deter them from further examination. No 
 unusual circumstances, however, were really connected with its discovery, 
 except its being found unusually near the surface. It was melted down 
 and cast into bars soon after its discovery. The spot where it was found 
 has been since subject to the severest scrutiny, but without any similar 
 harvest. 
 
 Another mass, weighing six hundred pennyweights was found on the 
 surface of a ploughed field in the vicinity of the Yadkin, twenty miles or 
 more north of Reed's mine. Specimens of great beauty are occasionally 
 found, but, for want of mineralogists to reserve them for cabinets, they have 
 always been melted into bars. Mr. Reed found a mass of quartz, having 
 a projecting point of gold, of the size of a large pin's head. On breaking 
 it open, a brilliant display of green and yellow colors was presented. The 
 gold weighed twelve pennyweights. Mineralogists may perhaps recog- 
 nise, in this description, a congeries of fine crystals, but on that point the 
 proprietor was uninformed. Although fragments of greenstone, and of 
 several argillaceous minerals, occur among the gravel of the gold stratum, 
 yet, in the opinion of the miners, it is never found attached to any other 
 mineral than quartz. Indeed, it is seldom attached to any substance, but 
 is commonly scattered promiscuously among the gravel. Its color is gene- 
 rally yellow, with a reddish tinge, though the surface is not unfrequently 
 obscured by a partial incrustation of iron or manganese, or adhering parti- 
 cles of sand. The masses are flattened and vascular, having angles rounded 
 with evident marks of attrition. 
 
 Parker's Mine is situated on a small stream, four miles south of the river 
 Yadkin. As in the instance already mentioned, excavations were nume- 
 rous in the low grounds adjacent to the stream ; but the earth for washing, 
 which was of a snuff color, was transported from a ploughed field in the 
 neighborhood, elevated about fifty or sixty feet above the stream. The 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 357 
 
 earth at this place, which contained the gold, was of a deeper red than that 
 of either the other mines. The gold found here is chiefly in flakes and 
 grains. Occasionally, however, pieces are met with that weigh one hun- 
 dred pennyweights, and upwards; and one mass has been discovered that 
 weighed foui rounds and eleven ounces. This is said to have been found 
 at the depth of ten feet. 
 
 The mines have given some peculiarities to the state of society in the 
 neighboring country. The precious metal is a most favorite acquisition, 
 and constitutes the common currency. Almost every man carries about 
 with him a goose quill or two of it, and a small pair of scales in a box like a 
 spectacle case. The value, as in patriarchal times, is ascertained by weight, 
 which, from the dexterity acquired by practice, is a less troublesome mode 
 of counting money than one would imagine. 
 
 The greatest part of the gold collected at these mines is bought up, by 
 country merchants, at ninety or ninety-one cents a pennyweight. They 
 carry it to market-towns, as Fayetteville, Cheraw, Charleston, and New 
 York. Much of this is bought up by jewellers ; some remains in the banks ; 
 and a considerable quantity has been received at the Mint of the United 
 States. Hence it is not easy to ascertain the precise amount which the 
 mines have afforded. The value of that portion received at the mint, before 
 the year 1820, was forty-three thousand six hundred and eighty-nine dol- 
 lars. It is alloyed with a small portion of silver and copper, but is still 
 purer than standard gold, being twenty-three carats fine. 
 
 Since the year 1827, the gold mines of Virginia have attracted conside- 
 rable attention. The belt of country in which they are found extends 
 through Spotsylvania and some neighboring counties. The gold region 
 abounds in quartz, which contains cubes of sulphuret of iron. These cubes 
 are often partly or totally decomposed ; and the cells thus created are 
 sometimes filled with gold. The gold is found on the surface and in the 
 structure of quartz; but in the greatest abundance resting upon slate and in 
 its fissures. It is diffused over a large extent, and has not yet been found 
 sufficiently in mass, except in a few places, to make mining profitable. 
 The method of obtaining the metal is by filtration, or washing the earth, 
 and by an amalgam of quicksilver. The average value of the earth yielding 
 gold, is stated at twenty cents a bushel. 
 
 Habersham and Hall counties are the chief seat of the gold mines of 
 Georgia, and its discovery there has been very recent. The search was 
 commenced by a gentleman of the name of Wilhero, and proved eminently 
 successful ; deposits of gold were found in the counties mentioned, and 
 discovery followed discovery. In the Cherokee nation, which was separat- 
 ed by the Chestetee river, the indications of gold were not strong, but 
 report exaggerated them, and this unfortunate nation was intruded upon as 
 a common ; at one time, about five thousand adventurers were engaged in 
 digging up the face of the country. The owners of the gold lands in Ha- 
 bersham and Hall counties were many of them poor and destitute, and, 
 with the exception of a few deposits, the most valuable tracts were sold to 
 speculators. Many of these have frequently changed owners at increased 
 prices ; and four companies have regularly commenced mining operations.* 
 
 * The first notice of gold from North Carolina, on the record of the United States' 
 Mint, occurs in the year 1814, when it was received to the amount of eleven thousand 
 dollars. In 1&25 the amount received was seventeen thousand dollars ; in 1826, twenty 
 
 14 
 
158 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Silver and its ores are not of frequent or extensive occurrence in the 
 United States. Doctor Dana slates the curious fact, that a mass three or 
 four inches in diameter, composed principally of native silver in filaments, 
 was found on the top of a wall near Portsmouth, New Hampshire ; the 
 surrounding hills are chiefly greenstone. Mercury, which has been found 
 native in Kentucky, occurs more plentifully as a sulphuret in Ohio and the 
 Michigan territory, more particularly on the shores of lakes Michigan, 
 Huron, St. Clair, Detroit river, and Lake Erie, to the mouth of Vermilion 
 river. It occurs in the soil in the form of a black and red sand, but is 
 usually more abundant in banks of fine ferruginous clay. Near the mouth 
 of Vermilion river, it is in the form of a very fine powder, or in grains and 
 small masses, disseminated in clay. It yields by distillation about sixty 
 per cent, of mercury. 
 
 Copper, in various forms, is found in the United States, but the ores do 
 not appear to be brought into use. It is not found on the shores of Lake 
 Superior so abundantly as was anticipated ; but many specimens of copper 
 ore have been found at different points in the Mississippi valley. Speci- 
 mens of pure and malleable copper have been obtained ; one of which, 
 said to have been found in Illinois, weighed three pounds. Iron ores are 
 abundant in the United States. Those hitherto worked are chiefly the 
 magnetic oxide, brown hematite, and the argillaceous oxide, particularly 
 bog ore. The more important ores are the following, viz : in New Hamp- 
 shire, trie magnetic oxide ; in Vermont, brown hematite and bog ore ; in 
 Massachusetts, bog ore ; in Rhode Island, brown hematite ; in Connecticut, 
 brown hematite and bog ore ; in New York, the magnetic, specular, and 
 argillaceous oxides ; in New Jersey, the magnetic and argillaceous oxides ; 
 in Pennsylvania, and the states south and west, the magnetic oxide, brown 
 hematite, and the argillaceous oxide. 
 
 To these may now be added the carbonate of iron, which has recently 
 been successfully smelted, and which produces iron having the carbona- 
 ceous impregnation of steel, whence it has been called steel ore. In New 
 York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, the ore is found in abundance, and 
 of a quality not exceeded in Sweden. The Connecticut and Virginia iron 
 is highly esteemed. 
 
 Ores of lead are extensively found in the territories ; and in Ohio it is 
 said to have been met with native, forming slips, or slender prismatic 
 masses, in crystallized galena. This mineral is found in various places, 
 from the Arkansas river to the North- West territory, the precise line of the 
 Ozark and Shawnee Mountains, a tract which seems to constitute one of 
 the most important and extensive deposits of lead hitherto known. On 
 the Arkansas, the ore is smelted by the Osage Indians' for bullets. To the 
 
 thousand, in 1828, nearly forty-six thousand, and in 1829, one hundred and twenty- 
 eight thousand dollars. In the year 1830, gold to the value of four hundred and sixty-six 
 thousand dollars was coined at the mint, received from the gold region of the southern 
 states. Of this amount, two hundred and twelve thousand dollars were received from 
 Georgia, a state which had not furnished even a specimen in any previous year. In the 
 year 1831, the southern gold region furnished the mint with gold to the value of more 
 than half a million ; of this, two hundred and ninety-four thousand dollars were received 
 from North Carolina, and one hundred and seventy-six thousand from Georgia. But a 
 small part of the gold ohtained at these mines is received at the United States' Mint ; 
 by far the larger partis sent to Europe, particularly to Paris. It is stated that the 
 whole number of men employed in the mines of the southern states, is twenty thousand 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 159 
 
 northward, some valuable mines at Prairie du Chien are imperfectly 
 worked by the proprietors of the soil. But the most important mines 
 are those of Cape Girardeau district, commonly known as the lead mines of 
 Missouri. The mining district is situated between two prominent ridges 
 of sandstone which bound the valley of Grand river, or the basin of Potosi. 
 These ridges diverge in their course northward, and are intercepted by the 
 Merameg, which receives the waters of Grand river, and forms a boundary 
 to the mining district in that direction. 
 
 In Illinois are the richest lead mines in the world. The district which 
 furnishes the ore, lies in the north-west part, and extends beyond the limits 
 of the state. It comprises a tract of above two hundred miles in extent. 
 The ore is inexhaustible. It lies in beds or horizontal strata, varying in 
 thickness from one inch to several feet. It yields seventy-five per cent, of 
 pure lead. For many years the Indians and hunters were accustomed to 
 die for the metal ; they never penetrated much below the surface, but ob- 
 tained great quantities of the ore, which they sold to the traders. The 
 public attention was drawn to this quarter, and, from 1826 to 1828, the 
 country was filled with miners, smelters, merchants, speculators, and ad- 
 venturers. Vast quantities of lead were manufactured ; the business was 
 overdone, and the markets nearly destroyed. At present, the business is 
 reviving, and in 1S30, there were eight million three hundred and twenty- 
 three thousand nine hundred and ninety-eight pounds of lead made at the 
 mines. The whole quantity obtained, from 1821 to 1830, was forty 
 million eighty-eight thousand eight hundred and sixty pounds. The 
 principal mines are in the neighborhood of Galena. 
 
 Coal is found in the United States in great quantities, though the abun- 
 dance of wood has hitherto impeded the working of the mines to their full 
 capability. The coal found at different localities has been classed by Pro- 
 fessor Eaton under the following heads : first, the genuine anthracite, or 
 glance coal, found in the transition argillite, as at Worcester in Massa- 
 chusetts, and Newport in Rhode Island ; also in small quantities in the 
 north and south range of argillites along the bed and banks of the river 
 Hudson. Second, coal destitute of bitumen, usually called anthracite, 
 but differing greatly in its character from the anthracite found in argil- 
 lite. It may be called anasphaltic coal. This is embraced in slate rock, 
 being the lowest of the lower series of secondary rocks. This coal forma- 
 tion is equivalent to the great coal measures of Europe. The principal 
 localities of this coal are in the state of Pennsylvania ; as at Carbondale, 
 Lehigh, Lackawanna, and Wilkesbarre. Third, the proper bituminous coal, 
 as at Tioga and Lyocoming. This coal is embraced in a slate rock, which 
 is the lowest of the series of upper secondary rocks. The fourth formation 
 is the lignite coal, which is found in a very extensive stratum in the state 
 of New Jersey, along the south shore of the Bay of Amboy. 
 
 The anthracite of Pennsylvania is found in the Wyoming and Lacka- 
 wanna valley, situated between the Blue Ridge and the Susquehanna. 
 The coal district is chiefly occupied by mountains which run parallel to the 
 Blue Ridge, and are fifteen hundred feet high. But little of this surface, 
 with the exception of a few narrow valleys, invites cultivation. These 
 mountains are mostly in a wild state, and offer a secure retreat to cougars, 
 wolves, bears, and other animals. 
 
 The rocks of the above described region are of a transition class, and 
 
1G0 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 present little diversity. Gray wacke slate occurs in abundance, loose on 
 the surface and in ledges. It is sometimes based on old red sand-stone, 
 and surmounted by unstratified rock, and aggregate of quartz, pebbles 
 of various dimensions, with a cement principally sil'icious. In the Blue 
 Ridge, in addition to the above described rock, a sicilious gray wacke, 
 resembling fine grained granular quartz, is common. It appears in some 
 places massive, but is often slaty. Its cement is chiefly silicious; some 
 alumine, however, is indicated in its composition. 
 
 The beds and veins of anthracite range from north-east to south-west, and 
 may often be traced for a considerable distance by the compass. The 
 veins have the inclination of the adjacent strata of gray wacke, with which 
 they often alternate, usually between twenty and forty-five degrees. In a 
 few places they are horizontal and vertical. The beds and veins of 
 anthracite have narrow strata of dark colored, fine grained, argillaceous 
 schist, for the roof and floor. This slate generally contains sulphnret of 
 iron, and disintegrates on exposure to the air. The sulphates of iron 
 and alumine are often observed in the schist, and it frequently presents 
 impressions of plants and sometimes of marine shells. Impure pulveru- 
 lent coal is usually connected with this slate, and is said to be a good 
 material for printers' ink. 
 
 Anthracite has been found in the greatest quantity in sections of coal 
 regions most accessible by water. Extensive beds and veins range from 
 the Lehigh to the Susquehanna, crossing the head-waters of the Schuyl- 
 kill and Swatara, about ten miles north-west of Blue Ridge, and it abounds 
 contiguous to the Susquehanna and Lackawanna. But in no part of the 
 district does anthracite occur in such apparently inexhaustible beds, or is 
 so abundantly raised, as in the vicinity of Mauch Chunk, a village situated 
 on the Lehigh, thirty-five miles from Easton, and one hundred and eight 
 by Avater from Philadelphia. 
 
 The coal is there excavated on the flat summit of a mountain that rises 
 nearly fifteen hundred feet above the ocean. It is of good quality, and 
 presents beds of unparalleled extent; is disclosed for several miles on the 
 summit, wherever excavations have been made, and is indicated in many 
 places by coal slate in a pulverulent state, on the surface. The mountain 
 rises with a steep acclivity, particularly on the north-west side, and when pe- 
 netrated at various altitudes, discloses coal at about the same distance from 
 the surface. Strata of grey wacke slate, containing mica, sometimes rest 
 on the coal, parallel with the mountain side. In the deep excavations made 
 on the summit, no termination of the coal bed has been found, and it is 
 not improbable that the anthracite forms the nucleus of the mountain for a 
 considerable distance. 
 
 This coal mountain range is described as extending in a south-west di- 
 rection to the Susquehanna. To the north-east, beyond the Lehigh, it is 
 connected with the Broad Mountain, the first considerable elevation west 
 of the Blue Ridge. The Lehigh from Mauch Chunk to the water gap, 
 eleven miles, winds between rocky mountains, with a brisk current, but 
 presents no falls. The road usually runs near the stream, and sometimes 
 at a considerable elevation above, on the side of the steep mountain. In 
 its passage through the Kittetany, or Blue Ridge, the river has a tranquil 
 but slightly inclined course. On the adjacent elevation, yellow pine, hem- 
 lock, and spruce, are interspersed with deciduous trees. From the water 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 161 
 
 gap to the Delaware, the river pursues its course in a deep ravine, seldom 
 with alluvial borders of much extent. In this district of country, the soil 
 generally rests on limestone sinks, indicating caves ; and fissures in the 
 rocks are often observed, that must, in some places, render canalling diffi- 
 cult. From the confluence of the Lehigh with the Delaware to tide-water, 
 the descent is one hundred and fifty feet. 
 
 The village of Mauch Chunk is situated on the western bank of the 
 Lehigh, in a deep romantic ravine, between rocky mountains that rise in 
 some parts precipitously to eight hundred or one thousand feet above the 
 stream. Space was procured for dwellings, by breaking down the adjacent 
 rocks and filling up a part of the ravine of Mauch Chunk Creek. A portion 
 of this stream has been transferred to an elevated railway, and is used to 
 propel a grist-mill. Within a few years the Lehigh Company have erected, 
 and are proprietors of, a large number of dwellings and buildings of every 
 description, including a spacious hotel, a store, furnaces, grist-mills, and 
 several saw-mills : about eight hundred men are employed by the com- 
 pany.* 
 
 * The coal is conveyed to Mauch Chunk village, in wagons running upon the raib 
 way. Fourteen of them, containing each one ton and a half of coal, are connected by 
 iron bars, admitting of a slight degree of motion between two contiguous wagons ; a 
 single man rides on one of the wagons, and, by a very simple contrivance, regulates 
 their movement : a perpendicular lever causes a piece of wood to press against the 
 circumference of each wheel on the same side of the car, acting both ways from the 
 central point between them, so that, by increasing the pressure, the friction retards or 
 stops the motion, and as all the levers are connected by a rope, they are made to act in 
 concert. The traveller is much interested in seeing the successive groups of wagons 
 moving rapidly in procession and without apparent cause ; they are heard, at a con. 
 siderable distance, as they come thundering along with their dark burdens, and give an 
 impression of irresistible energy : at a suitable distance follows another train, and thus 
 three hundred tons a day, and some days three hundred and forty tons, are regularly 
 discharged into the boats as already described. At first, they descended at the rate of 
 fifteen or twenty miles an hour, but they were obliged to reduce the speed, as it injured 
 the machines, and, by agitating and wearing the coal, involved the driver in a cloud of 
 black dust. The empty wagons are drawn back by mules ; fourteen wagons to eight 
 mules; twenty-eight mules draw up forty-two coal and seven mule wagons, and the 
 arrangement is so made, that the ascending parties shall arrive in due season at the 
 proper places for turning out. The same is true of the pleasure cars, which are allowed 
 to use the rail-way ; only they must not interfere with its proper business, and should 
 they do it, it would be at their peril, as they might be crushed by the momentum of the 
 descending wagons. When they happen to be caught out of their proper place, the 
 drivers make all possible haste to remove them out of the rail-way track ; but they 
 carefully avoid these meetings, and they rarely happen, unless the cars go out of their 
 proper time. 
 
 The mules ride down the rail-way ; they are furnished with provender placed in 
 proper mangers, four of them being inclosed in one pen mounted on wheels ; and seven 
 of these cars are connected into one group, so that twenty-eight mules constitute 
 the party, which, with their heads all directed down the mountain, and apparently 
 surveying its fine landscapes, are seen moving rapidly down the inclined plane with a 
 ludicrous gravity, which, when observed for the first time, proves too much for the 
 severest muscles. 
 
 They readily perform their duty of drawing up the empty cars, but having once 
 experienced the comfort of riding down, they appear to regard it as a right, and neither 
 mild nor severe measures, not even the sharpest whipping, can ever induce them to 
 descend in any other way. 
 
 The return of the traveller, in the pleasure cars, is so rapid that it is not easy entirely 
 to suppress the apprehension of danger ; we perform the eight miles from the summit 
 m thirty-three minutes ; should an axle-tree break — an accident which sometimes 
 
 21 14* 
 
162 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Next to Mauch Chunk, Mount Carbon, or Pottsville, aa it is now called, 
 situated at the head of the Schuylkill canal, has been the principal source 
 of the supply of anthracite. Many large veins are worked within three 
 miles of the landing; and some have been opened seven miles to the 
 north-east; in the direction of the Lehigh beds. 
 
 On almost every eminence adjacent to Pottsville, indications of coal are 
 disclosed. The veins generally run in a north-east direction, with an in- 
 clination of about forty-five degrees, and are from three to nine feet in 
 thickness ; commencing at or near the surface they penetrate to an unknown 
 depth, and can often be traced on hills for a considerable distance, by sound- 
 ing in a north-east or south-west direction. Some veins have been wrought 
 to the depth of two hundred feet without the necessity of draining; the in- 
 clined slate roof shielding them from water. 
 
 Where the ground admits, it is considered the best mode of working 
 veins, to commence at the back of a coal eminence, or as low as possible, 
 and work up, rilling the excavation with slate and fine coal, leaving a hori- 
 zontal passage for the coal barrows. A section of a wide vein near 
 Pottsville, has been wrought by this mode several hundred feet into the 
 hill. The same vein is explored from parts of the summit by vertical and 
 inclined shafts. The coal and slate handled, are raised by horse-power, 
 in wagons by a rail-way that has the inclination of the vein. Veins of 
 coal alternate with gray wacke slate in the hill. Vegetable impression 
 sometimes occur in the argillaceous schist that forms the roof of the Potts- 
 ville coal veins. 
 
 The western part of Pennsylvania is abundantly supplied with bitumi- 
 nous coal, as the eastern is with anthracite. It is found on the rivers 
 Conemaugh, Alleghany, and Monongahela, and in numerous places to the 
 west of the Alleghany ridge, which is generally its eastern boundary ; it 
 occurs on this mountain at a considerable elevation, and elsewhere, in nearly 
 a horizontal position, alternating with gray sand-stone that is often mica- 
 ceous and bordered by argillaceous schist. The veins are generally narrow, 
 rarely over six feet in width. This mineral is abundant and of good 
 quality near Pittsburg, where it is valuable for their extensive manufactures. 
 Beds of bituminous coal are reported as occurring in Bedford county, in 
 the north-west part of Luzerne, and in Bradford county. In the last county, 
 nine miles from the Susquehanna, there is an extensive bed of coal, regarded 
 as bituminous. It has been penetrated thirty feet without fathoming the 
 debth of the strata. 
 
 Bituminous coal is abundant in Tioga county, state of New York. The 
 summit level is forty-four feet above the river, and upwards of four hundred 
 above the lake. It occurs on the Tioga, and on the Chemung, a branch 
 
 happens with the coal wagons — it would be impossible that the passengers should 
 escape unhurt, especially in the turnings of the road, and in places where trees, rocks 
 and precipices allow no safe place of landing. All danger would however be avoided 
 by cheeking the motion, so that it should not exceed eight or ten miles an hour, and 
 this is easily done in the same way as that practised in the coal wagons. Happily, no 
 accident has yet occurred. It would be prudent, at least, to require the manager to check 
 the motion of the car at the steepest places ; but these are the very situations where he 
 chooses to make a display of cracking his whip and cheering his wheels, instead of his 
 horses, and the increased impulse, given by gravity, as he relaxes the pressure of the 
 lever, when the car springs forward like spirited horses at the word of their master 
 makes the illusion almost complete. — Silliman's Journal. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 163 
 
 of that river. Bituminous coal exists on the numerous streams that de- 
 scend the western side of the extensive peninsula, situated between the 
 north and west branches of the Susquehanna. 
 
 The appearance of the Tioga, or bituminous coal, differs but little from 
 the best Liverpool or Newcastle coal. Its color is velvet black, with a 
 slight resinous lustre, its structure is slaty or foliated, and its layers as in 
 the best English coal, divided in prismatic solids, with bases slightly rhom- 
 boidal ; it is easily frangible, and slightly soils the finger. It burns with 
 a bright flame and considerable smoke, with a slight bituminous smell, a 
 sort of ebullition taking place, and, as the heat increases, an appearance of 
 semi-fusion leaving a slight residue or scoria. 
 
 Graphite or plumbago, commonly but improperly called black lead, occurs 
 extensively in primitive and transition rocks; from that which is obtained 
 in New York, excellent pencils have been made. There are also nume- 
 rous localities of petroleum, or mineral oil. It usually floats on the sur- 
 face of springs, which in many cases are known to be in the vicinity of 
 coal. It is sometimes called Seneca or Gennessee oil. In Kentucky, it 
 occurs on a spring of water in a state sufficiently liquid to burn in a lamp ; 
 it is collected in considerable quantities. 
 
 Salt appears to be abundant in the United States, but it has not been 
 found in the mass. It is principally obtained from the springs which have 
 been noticed in another part of the work. Professor Eaton has suggested 
 doubts whether masses of salt really exist. He conceives that an appara- 
 tus for the spontaneous manufacture of salt may be found within the bo- 
 som of the earth, in those rocks which contain the necessary elements, 
 and in this opinion he is supported by experiment. Subsequently, how- 
 ever, Mr. Eaton had reason to think that salt has existed in a solid state in 
 cubical crystals, the hollow forms of which he discovered abundantly in the 
 lias and saline rocks of the west, and it seems still to be highly probable 
 that masses of salt exist in the neighborhood of the salt springs. The 
 brine contains, besides the muriate of soda, a considerable proportion of 
 muriate of lime and magnesia. Recently, also, bromine has been' detected 
 in the brine of salina, by Dr. Silliman. Saltpetre is abundant in the 
 west, being found in numberless caves along the Missouri ; and the shores 
 of the Arkansas are almost covered with nitre. The testimony of Mr. 
 Schoolcraft, in relation to the recent formation of quartz crystals, is very 
 striking. They have been found, it appears, upon the handle of a spade, 
 and the edge of some old shoes, which had been left for some years in an 
 abandoned lead mine of the Shawnee Mountains. Crystals of great beau- 
 ty and dimensions have been found in numerous localities. Many mine- 
 rals which are rare in Europe, are found abundantly, and often in finer 
 forms, in the United States ; some, which have subsequently been detected 
 elsewhere, were first discovered here, and not a few may still be claimed 
 as the peculiar treasure of our country. 
 
 GENERAL REMAKES ON MINERALS. 
 
 It is observed by Dr. Mead, that a general resemblance can be traced between the 
 minerals of North America, and those which have been found in the north of Europe, 
 particularly in Norway and Sweden. This resemblance is stated to exist, not merely 
 in the properties of the minerals themselves, but in the geological character, and geo« 
 gnostic situation throughout the whole series. It is observed more particularly in those 
 specimens which are found to accompany the primitive formation at Axendal, hi Nop- 
 
]64 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 way ; it is not confined, however, to the primitive range of mountains alone, as the 
 same resemblance can be frequently traced, on comparing American minerals with 
 those of Piedmont, and even of the Hartz Mountains. Among the principal minerals 
 of the north of Europe, there are none of more importance than the ores of iron for 
 which Norway and Sweden are so remarkable ; and every variety of this mineral 
 which has been met with there, has been found in the same class of rocks in America, 
 in the greatest abundance, and of equally good quality. Titanium is one of 
 those metals which have been found more particularly in the north of Europe. It is 
 said to occur frequently in those primitive aggregates which contain beds of magnetic 
 iron ore, associated with augite, scapolite, epidote and hornblende, precisely the same 
 rocks in which we find it in this country. There is scarcely any part of Europe where 
 a greater variety of augites are found than in Norway and Sw r eden ; nor can there be 
 any class of minerals in which the similitude between the specimens from those coun- 
 tries and America is more striking. 
 
 Mineralogy, considered as a pure science, is of very recent date. Early observations 
 related merely to the usefulness of minerals to the purposes of society, and it was not 
 before the lapse of many ages that they came to be investigated on account of their 
 great variety, and the beautiful arrangements of which they are susceptible. No at- 
 tempt was made to classify them before the introduction of alchemy into Europe by the 
 Arabians; and to Avicenna belongs the merit of the first arrangement. He divided 
 minerals into stones, metals, sulphurous fossils, and salts. In 1774, Werner published 
 his great work on the External Properties of Minerals, which was of eminent service 
 in first calling the attention of naturalists to the only correct method of arriving at a 
 knowledge of this department of nature. The study of minerals has received con- 
 siderable attention during the last twenty years in the United States. 
 
165 
 
 CHAPTER XVI.— ANIMALS. 
 
 I. QUADRUPEDS. 
 The Black Bear (ursus Americanus) is found in considerable numbers 
 in the northern districts of America. In size and form he approaches 
 nearest to the Brown Bear ; but his color is a uniform shining jet black, 
 except on the muzzle, where it is fawn colored ; on the lips and sides of 
 the mouth it is almost gray. The hair, except on the muzzle, is long and 
 
 Black Bear. 
 
 straight, and is less shaggy than in most other species. The forehead h is 
 a slight elevation, and the muzzle is elongated, and somewhat flattened 
 above. The young ones, however, are first of a bright ash color, which 
 gradually changes into a deep brown, and ends by becoming a deep black. 
 
 The American Black Bear lives a solitary life in forests and uncultivat- 
 ed deserts, and subsists on fruits, and on the young shoots and roots of 
 vegetables. Of honey he is exceedingly fond, and as he is a most expert 
 climber, he scales the loftiest trees in search of it. Fish, too, he delights 
 in, and is often found in quest of it on the borders of lakes and on the sea- 
 shore. When these resources fail, he will attack small quadrupeds, and 
 even animals of some magnitude. As, indeed, is usual in such cases, the 
 love of flesh in him grows with the use of it. 
 
 As the fur is of some value, the Indians are assiduous in the chase of 
 the creature which produces it. ' About the end of December, from the 
 abundance of fruits they find in Louisiana and the neighboring countries, 
 the bears become so fat and lazy that thev can scarcely run. At this time 
 they are hunted by the American Indians. The nature of the chase is 
 generally this : the bear chiefly adopts for his retreat the hollow trunk of an 
 old cypress tree, which he climbs, and then descends into the cavity from 
 above. The hunter, whose business it is to watch him into this retreat, 
 climbs a neighboring tree, and seats himself opposite to the hole. In one 
 hand he holds his gun, and in the other a torch, which he darts- into the 
 cavity. Frantic with rage and terror, the bear makes a spring from his 
 
166 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 station ; but the hunter seizes the instant of his appearance, and shoots 
 him. 
 
 The black bear, says Godman, like all the species of this genus, is very- 
 tenacious of life, and seldom falls unless shot through the brain or heart 
 An experienced hunter never advances on a bear that has fallen, without 
 first stopping to load his rifle, as the beast frequently recovers to a consi- 
 derable degree, and would then be a most dangerous adversary. The 
 skull of the bear appears actually to be almost impenetrable, and a rifle 
 ball, fired at a distance of ninety-six yards, has been flattened against it, 
 without appearing to do any material injury to the bone. The best place 
 to direct blows against the bear is upon his snout; when struck elsewhere, 
 his dense woolly coat, thick hide, and robust muscles, render manual vio- 
 lence almost entirely unavailing. 
 
 When the bear is merely wounded, it is very dangerous to attempt to 
 kill him with such a weapon as a knife or tomahawk, or indeed any thing 
 which may bring one within his reach. In this way hunters and others 
 have paid very dearly for their rashness, and barely escaped with their 
 lives ; the following instance may serve as an example of the danger of 
 such an enterprise : 
 
 ' Mr. Mayborne, who resides in Ovid township, Cayuga county, between 
 the Seneca and Cayuga lakes, in the state of New-York, went one after- 
 noon through the woods in search of his horses, taking with him his rifle 
 and the only load of ammunition he had in the house. On his return 
 home, about an hour before dusk, he perceived a very large bear crossing 
 his path, on which he instantly fired, and the bear fell, but immediately 
 recovering his legs, made for a deep ravine a short way onwards. Here 
 he tracked him awhile by the blood, but night coming on, and expecting to 
 find him dead in the morning, he returned home. A little before daybreak 
 the next morning, taking a pitchfork and hatchet, and his son, a boy of ten 
 or eleven years of age, with him, he proceeded to the place in quest of the 
 animal. The glen or ravine into which he had disappeared the evening 
 before, was eighty or ninety feet from the top of the bank to the brook be- 
 low ; down this precipice a stream of three or four yards in breadth is 
 pitched in one unbroken sheet, and, forming a circular basin or pool, winds 
 a\vay r among the thick underwood. 
 
 'After reconnoitering every probable place of retreat, he at length disco- 
 vered the bear, who had made his way up the other side of the ravine, as 
 far as the rocks would admit, and sat under a projecting cliff, steadfastly 
 eyeing the motions of his enemy. Mayborne, desiring his boy to remain 
 where he was, took the pitchfork, and, descending to the bottom, determined 
 from necessity Jo attack him from below. The bear kept his position until 
 the man approached within six or seven feet, when on the instant, instead 
 of being able to make a stab with the pitchfork, he found himself grappled 
 by the bear, and both together rolled towards the pond, at least twenty or 
 twenty-five feet, the bear biting on his left arm, and hugging him almost 
 to suffocation. By great exertion he thrust his right arm partly down his 
 throat, and in that manner endeavored to strangle him, but was once more 
 hurled headlong down through the bushes, a greater distance than before, 
 into the water. Here, finding the bear gaining on him, he made one des- 
 perate effort, and drew the animal's head partly under water, and repeating 
 his exertions, at last weakened him so much, that calling to his boy, who 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 167 
 
 stood on the other side, in a state little short of distraction for the fate of his 
 father, to bring him the hatchet, he sunk the edge of it by repeated blows 
 into the brain of the bear. This man, although robust and muscular, was 
 scarcely able to crawl home, where he lay for nearly three weeks, the flesh 
 of his arm being much crushed, and his breast severely mangled. The 
 bear weighed upwards of four hundred pounds.' 
 
 Grisly Bear. — This animal, like the species just described, inha- 
 bits the northern part of America ; but, unlike him, he is, perhaps, the 
 most formidable of all bears in magnitude and ferocity. He averages 
 twice the bulk of the black bear, to which, however, he bears some resem- 
 blance in his slightly elevated forehead, and narrow, flattened, elongated 
 muzzle. His canine teeth are of great size and power. The feet are 
 enormously large ; the breadth of the fore foot exceeding nine inches, and 
 the length of the hind foot exclusive of the talons, being eleven inches and 
 three quarters, and its breadth seven inches. The talons sometimes mea- 
 sure more than six inches. He is, accordingly, admirably adapted for dig- 
 ging up the ground, but is unable to climb trees, in which latter respect he 
 differs wholly from every other species. The color of his hair varies to 
 almost an indefinite extent, between all the intermediate shades of a light 
 gray and a black brown; the latter tinge, however, being that which predo- 
 minates. It is always, in some degree, grizzled, by intermixture of gray- 
 ish hairs, only the brown hairs being tipped with gray. The hair itself 
 is, in general, longer, finer, and more exuberant than that of the black 
 bear. 
 
 The neighborhood of the Eocky Mountains is one of the principal 
 haunts of this animal. There, amidst wooded plains, and tangled copses 
 of bough and underwood, he reigns as much the monarch as the lion is of 
 the sandy wastes of Africa. Even the bison cannot withstand his attack. 
 Such is his muscular strength, that he will drag the ponderous carcass of 
 the animal to a convenient spot, where he digs a pit for its reception. The 
 Indians regard him with the utmost terror. His extreme tenacity of life 
 renders him still more dangerous ; for he can endure repeated wounds 
 which would be instantaneously mortal to other beasts, ami, in that state, 
 can rapidly pursue his enemy. So that the hunter who fails to shoot him 
 through the brain, is placed in a most perilous situation. 
 
 One evening, the men in the hindmost of one of Lewis and Clark's 
 canoes, perceived one of these bears lying in the open ground about three 
 hundred paces from the river ; and six of them, who were all good hunt- 
 ers, went to attack him. Concealing themselves by a small eminence, 
 they were able to approach within forty paces unperceived ; four of the 
 hunters now fired, and each lodged a ball in his body, two of which passed 
 directly through the lungs. The bear sprang up and ran furiously with 
 open mouth upon them ; two of the hunters, who had reserved their fire, 
 gave him two additional wounds, and one breaking his shoulder-blade, 
 somewhat retarded his motions. Before they could again load their guns, 
 he came so close on them, that they were obliged to run towards the river, 
 and before they had gained it, the bear had almost overtaken them. Two 
 men jumped into the canoe ; the other four separated, and concealing them- 
 selves among the willows, fired as fast as they could load their pieces. Seve- 
 ral times the bear was struck, but each shot seemed only to direct his fury 
 towards the hunter ; at last he pursued them so closely, that they threw 
 
108 
 
 EOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 aside their guns and pouches, and jumped from a perpendicular bank, 
 
 twenty h into the river. The bear sprang after them, and was very 
 
 near the hindmost man, when one of the hunters on the shore shot him 
 
 inally killed him. AVhen they dragged him on 
 
 balls had passed through his body in different 
 
 ions. »ii 
 
 On another occasion, the same enterprising travellers met with the 
 
 , bear of this species they had ever seen; when they fired he did 
 
 ttempt to a ; ick, I al fled with a tremendous roar, and such was his 
 
 tough five balls had passed through the lungs, and 
 
 five other woun inflicted, he swam more than half across the river 
 
 to a s ad survived more than twenty minutes. 
 
 Mr. John Dougherty, a very experienced and respectable hunter, who 
 accompanied Major Long's party during their expedition to the Eocky 
 Mountains, several times very narrowly escaped from the grizzly bear. 
 ( . while hunting with another person on one of the upper tributaries 
 of the Missouri, he heard the report of his companion's rifle, and when he 
 looked round, beheld him at a short distance endeavoring to escape from 
 one of these bears, which he had wounded as it was coming towards him. 
 erty, forgetful of every thing but the preservation of his friend, has- 
 tens! to call off the attention of the bear, and arrived in rifle shot distance 
 just in time to effed his generous purpose. He discharged his ball at the 
 animal, and was obliged in his turn to fly; his friend relieved from imme- 
 diate danger, prepared for another attack by charging his rifle, with which 
 he again wounded the bear, and saved Mr. D. from further peril. Neither 
 received any injury from this encounter, in wdiich the bear was at length 
 killed. 
 
 The Raccoon. — This animal continues to be frequently found even in 
 the populous parts of the United States. Occasionally their numbers are 
 
 Raccoon, 
 
 *° 7"' h "I'''' " ' ,V " , V, r ,! '*' m v,, ' v troublesome to the farmers in 
 
 the lov> and woo led parts of Maryland, bordering on the Chesapeak Bay. 
 
'physical geography. 169 
 
 Being peculiarly fond of sweet substances, they are sometimes destructive 
 to plantations of sugar-cane, and of Indian corn. While the ear of this 
 corn is still young and tender, it is very sweet, and at that time troops of 
 raccoons frequently enter fields of maize, and in a single night commit the' 
 most extensive depredations. 
 
 The size of the raccoon varies with the age and sex of the individual. 
 When full grown, the male is about a foot in length, or a few inches longer; 
 the highest part of the back is about a foot from the ground, whilst the 
 highest part of the shoulder is ten inches. The head is about five inches, 
 and the tail rather more than eight. The general color of the body is a 
 blackish gray, which is paler on the under part. The feet have five toes 
 each, terminated by strong curved and pointed claws ; and each foot is fur- 
 nished with five thick and very elastic tubercles beneath. The fur of the 
 raccoon forms an article of considerable value in commerce, as it is exten- 
 sively used in the manufacture of hats. 
 
 ' The raccoon,' says Godman, ' is an excellent climber, and his strong 
 sharp claws effectually secure him from being shaken off the branches of 
 trees. In fact, so tenaciously does this animal hold to any surface upon 
 which it can make an impression with its claws, that it requires a conside- 
 rable exertion of a man's strength to drag him off; and as long as even a 
 single foot remains attached, he continues to cling with great force. I have 
 had frequent occasion to pull a raccoon from the top of a board fence, where 
 there was no projection which he could seize by; yet, such was the power 
 and obstinacy with which the points of his claws were stuck into the board, 
 as repeatedly to oblige me to desist for fear of tearing his skin, or other- 
 wise doing him an injury by the violence necessary to detach his hold.' 
 
 'Water seems to be essential to their comfort, if not of absolute necessity 
 for the preparation of their food. I have had for some time, and at the 
 moment of writing this have yet, a male and female raccoon in the yard. 
 Their greatest delight appears to be dabbling in water, of which a large 
 tub is always kept for their use. They are frequently seen sitting on the 
 edge of this tub, very busily engaged in playing with a piece of broken 
 china, glass, or a small cake of ice. When they have any substance which 
 sinks, they both paddle with their fore feet with great eagerness, until it is 
 caught, and then it is held by one, with both paws, and rubbed between 
 them ; or a struggle ensues for the possession of it, and when it is dropped 
 the same sport is renewed. The coldest weather in winter does not in the 
 least deter them from thus dabbling in the water for amusement ; nor has 
 this action much reference to their feeding, as it is performed at any time, 
 even directly after feeding till satiated. I have frequently broken the ice 
 on the surface of their tub, late at night, in the very coldest winter weather, 
 and they have both left their sleeping place with much alacrity, to stand 
 paddling the fragments of ice about, with their fore legs in the water nearly 
 up to the breast. Indeed, these animals have never evinced the slightest 
 dislike to cold, or suffered in any degree therefrom ; they have in all 
 weathers slept in a flour-barrel thrown on its side, with one end entirely 
 open, and without any material of which to make a bed. They show no 
 repugnance to being sprinkled or dashed with water, and voluntarily re- 
 main exposed to the rain or snow, which wets them thoroughly, notwith- 
 standing their long hair, which, being almost erect, is not well suited to 
 turn the rain. These raccoons are very fond of each other, and express 
 22 15 
 
170 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the greatest delight on meeting after having been separated for a short 
 time, l.y v ovements, and by hugging and rolling one another abou; 
 
 on the ground.' . ■ , 
 
 raccoons are, at the time of writing this, more than a year old, and 
 mi captivity for sh or eight months. They are very frolicsome 
 
 an d using, and show no disposition to bite or injure any one, except 
 
 when accidentally trodden on. They are equally free from any disposition 
 to injure children, as has been observed of other individuals. We fre- 
 quently turn them loose in the parlor, and they appear to be highly delighted, 
 romping with each other and the children, without doing any injury even 
 to the youngest. Their alleged disposition to hurt children especially, may 
 probably be fairly explained by the fact above mentioned, that they always 
 attempt to bite when suddenly hurt, and few children touch animals with- 
 out pinching or hurting them. They exhibit this spirit of retaliation, not 
 only to man, but when they accidentally hurt themselves against an inani- 
 mate body ; I have many times been amused to observe the expression of 
 spite with which one of them has sprung at and bit the leg of a chair or 
 table, after knocking himself against it so as to hurt some part of his 
 body. 
 
 ' These animals may be tamed while young, but as they grow to maturity, 
 most generally become fierce and even dangerous. I have had one so 
 tame "as to follow a servant about through the house or streets, though 
 entirely at liberty ; this was quite young when obtained, and grew so fond 
 of human society as to complain very loudly, by a sort of chirping or 
 whining noise, when left alone. Nothing can possibly exceed the domes- 
 ticated raccoon in restless and mischievous curiosity, if suffered to go about 
 the house. Every chink is ransacked, every article of furniture explored, 
 and the neglect of servants to secure closet doors, is sure to be followed by 
 extensive mischief, the evil being almost uniformly augmented by the alarm 
 caused to the author of it, whose ill-directed efforts to escape from supposed 
 peril, increase at the same time the noise and the destruction.' 
 
 ;fn 
 
 .- 
 
 The Puma, or Cougar. 
 
 The Puma, or American Lion was once spread over the new world, 
 from Canada to Patagonia, but it is not now common in any part 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 171 
 
 of the United States, except the unsettled districts. It is usually called 
 the panther, or painter by the common people. It is also called the cata- 
 mount. The progress of civilization has, however, circumscribed his range, 
 and has rooted him out in many places. Notwithstanding his size and 
 strength, he is cowardly ; and, like almost all cowards, he is sanguinary. 
 If he find a flock of sjieep unprotected, he will destroy the whole, merely that 
 he may enjoy the luxury of sucking their blood. He has a small rounded 
 head, a broad and rather obtuse muzzle, and a body which, in proportion, 
 is slenderer and less elevated than that of his more dignified namesake. 
 ' The upper parts of his body,' says Mr. Bennett, ' are of a bright silvery 
 fawn, the tawny hairs being terminated by whitish tips : beneath and on, 
 the inside of the limbs he is nearly white, and more completely so on the 
 throat, chin, and upper lip. The head has an irregular mixture of black 
 and gray ; the outside of the ears, especially at the base, the sides of the 
 muzzle from which the whiskers take their origin, and the extremity of the 
 tail, are black.' The fur of the cubs has spots of a darker hue, which are 
 visible only in certain lights, and disappear when the animal is full grown. 
 Both the sexes are of the same color. * 
 
 * Cougar Hunt. The hunters made their appearance, one fine morning, at the door of 
 the cabin, just as the sun was emerging from beneath the horizon. They were five in 
 number, and fully equipped for the chase, being mounted on horses, which in some 
 parts of Europe might appear sorry nags, but which in strength, speed and bottom, 
 are better fitted for pursuing a cougar, or a bear, through woods and morasses than any 
 in that country. A pack of large ugly curs were already engaged in making acquain- 
 tance with those of the squatter. He and myself mounted his two best horses, whilst 
 his sons were bestriding others of inferior quality. 
 
 Few words were uttered by the party until we had reached the edge of the swamp, 
 where it was agreed that all should disperse and seek for the fresh track of the painter, 
 it being previously settled that the discoverer should blow his horn, and remain on the 
 spot until the rest should join him. In less than an hour, the sound of the horn was 
 clearly heard, and, sticking close to the squatter, off we went through the thick woods, 
 guided only by the now and then repeated call of the distant huntsman. We soon 
 reached the spot, and in a short time the rest of the party came up. The best dog was 
 sent forward to track the cougar, and in a few moments the whole pack were observed 
 diligently trailing, and bearing in their course for the interior of the swamp. The rifles 
 were immediately put in trim, and the party followed the dogs, at separate distances, 
 but in sight of each other, determined to shoot at no other game than the panther. 
 
 The dogs soon began to mouth, and suddenly quickened their pace. My companion 
 concluded that the beast was on the ground, and putting our horses to a gentle gallop, 
 we followed the curs, guided by their voices. The noise of the dogs increased, when all 
 of a sudden their mode of barking became altered, and the squatter, urging me to push 
 on, told me that the beast was treed, by which he meant that it had got upon some low 
 branch of a large tree to rest for a few moments, and that should we not succeed in 
 shooting him when thus situated, we might expect a long chase of it. As we approach- 
 ed the spot, we all by degrees united into a body, but on seeing the dogs at the foot of a 
 large tree, separated again and galloped off to surround it. 
 
 Each hunter now moved with caution, holding his gun ready, and allowing the bridle 
 to dangle on the neck of his horse, as it advanced slowly towards the dogs. A shot 
 from one of the party was heard, on which the cougar was seen to leap to the ground, and 
 bound off with such velocity as to show that he was very unwilling to stand our fire 
 longer. The dogs set off in pursuit with great eagerness and a deafening cry. The 
 hunter w r ho had fired came up and said that his ball had hit the monster, and had pro- 
 bably broken one of his fore legs near the shoulder, the only place at which he could 
 aim. A slight trail of blood was discovered on the ground, but the curs proceeded at 
 6uch a rate that we merely noticed this, and put spurs to our horses, which galloped on 
 towards the centre of the swamp. One bayou was crossed, then another still larger and 
 
172 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 American Wild Cat. This animal bears a strong resemblance to the 
 domestic cat, and its motions are very similar. It stands high upon Us 
 legs, and has a short curved tail. Its principal food consists of birds, squir- 
 rels, and other small animals which abound in the woody districts it in- 
 habits. Though common in the western states, the wild cat is seldom found 
 in New England. 
 
 ,«<*f»,*i*tf:.*,. -> 
 
 !M(iil:;i'. 
 
 The Moose. — This animal, which in Europe is called the elk, is an in- 
 habitant of the northern parts of America, but is found in no part of the 
 
 mow muddy ; but the dogs were brushing forward, and as the horses began to pant at 
 a furious rate, we judged it expedient to leave them and advance on foot. These deter- 
 bunters knew that the cougar being wounded, would shortly ascend another 
 here in all probability he would remain for a considerable time, and that it would 
 to follow the track of the dogs. We dismounted, took on" the saddles and bri- 
 dle sel the hells attached to the horses' necks at liberty to jingle, hoppled the animals, 
 and leit them to shift for themselves. 
 
 Now owthe group marching through the swamp, crossing muddy pools, 
 
 and malting the best of their way over fallen trees and amongst the tangled rushes that 
 now and tl en coven d acres of ground. If you are a hunter yourself, all this will ap- 
 P toyou; but if crowded assemblies of ' beauty and fashion,' or the quiet 
 
 enjoyment oi your ( plqasure-grounds,' alone delight you, I must mend my pen before 
 you an idea of the pleasure felt on such an expedition. 
 
 i couple of hours, we again heard the fogs. Each of us again 
 
 kted at the thoughl of terminating the career of the cougar. Some 
 
 ! whining, although the greater number barked vehemently. We 
 
 cougar was treed, and that he would rest for some time to 'recover 
 
 ^ we can e up to the dogs, we discovered tlfe ferocious animal lying 
 
 to the mud; of a cotton-wood tree. His broad breast lay 
 
 his eves were at o,,e timebent on us and a^ain on the dogs beneath and 
 
 turn i one oi his lore legs btong loosely by his side, and he lay crouched, with 
 
 i his bead, as if be thought he might remain undiscovered. 
 
 Tl ree balls were fired at him, at 
 
 ii signal, on which he sprang a few feet from 
 
 inch, and tumbled headlong to the ground. Attacked on all sides by the en- 
 
 '""■' , '" " ,,m , ,a1, with desperate vrator: but the squatter ad- 
 
 vannv, ,„,,,„„ ,„ , , , .„,,, ^^ m the midst of the dogs, shot him immediately 
 
 : ';„i: r by :;2._^^!: *""■ Thc cousar ™ thed for a mome * * w. «* 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 173 
 
 United States excepting Maine, where it is now met with but seldom. Its 
 figure is ungraceful and clumsy. During summer, the moose frequents 
 swampy or low grounds, on the borders of lakes, in which it is fond of 
 bathing, and whose plants form a favorite article of its food. In winter, the 
 moose seeks the depths of the forest for shelter, and a herd of fifteen or 
 twenty take possession of a tract of about five hundred acres, where they 
 subsist on the tender twigs and the mosses of the trees. To these places 
 the Indians give the name of ' moose-yards.' Like other northern animals, 
 the moose is much vexed by insects, which deposit their eggs in different 
 parts of his body, and at certain seasons of the year render his skin worth- 
 less to the hunter. At other times, the skin is very valuable, and serves the 
 Indians for clothing and tent covers. This species is much hunted, and has 
 so rapidly diminished within a few years, that there are fears it will be- 
 come extinct. 
 
 The moose is hunted generally in March, when the snow is of sufficient 
 depth and hardness to sustain the weight of a dog. Five or six hunters 
 generally join in the pursuit and carry provisions to last them nearly a week. 
 The chace is commenced at daybreak, when the dogs are set on, and the 
 hunters who wear snow-shoes follow as closely as possible. When started 
 and attacked by the dogs, the moose attempts to escape by flight. The 
 crust of ice covering the snow breaks at every step, and the poor creature 
 cuts his legs so severely that he is obliged to stand at bay, and endeavors 
 to defend himself against his assailants by means of his fore feet. In this 
 situation he is despatched by the rifle ball of the hunter. 
 
 The Elk. — The elk is still occasionally found in the remote and thinly 
 settled parts of Pennsylvania, but the number is small; it is only in the 
 western wilds that they are seen in considerable herds. They are fond of 
 the great forests, where a luxuriant vegetation affords them an abundant 
 supply of buds and tender twigs; or of the great plains, where the soli- 
 tude is seldom interrupted, and all bounteous nature spreads an immense 
 field of verdure for their support. 
 
 The elk is shy and retiring; having acute senses, he receives early 
 warning of the approach of any human intruder. The moment the air is 
 tainted by the odor of his enemy, his head is erected with spirit, his ears 
 rapidly thrown in every direction to catch the sounds, and his large dark 
 glistening eye expresses the most eager attention. Soon as the approach- 
 ing hunter is fairly discovered, the elk bounds along for a few paces, as if 
 trying his strength for flight, stops, turns half round, and scans his pursuer 
 with a steady gaze, then, throwing back his lofty horns upon his neck, 
 and projecting his taper nose forwards, he springs from the ground and 
 advances with a velocity which soon leaves the object of his dread far out 
 of sight.* 
 
 This animal appears to be more ready to attack with his horns than any 
 other species of deer. When at bay, and especially if slightly wounded, 
 he fights with great eagerness, as if resolved to be revenged. The follow- 
 ing instance from Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, will, in some 
 degree, illustrate this statement. 
 
 A herd of twenty or thirty elk were seen at no great distance from the 
 party, standing in the water or lying upon the sand beach. One of the 
 
 * Godman. 
 
 15* 
 
174 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 finest bucks was singled out by a hunter, who fired upon him, whereupon 
 the whole herd plunged into the thicket and disappeared. Relying upon 
 the skill of the hunter, and confident that his shot was fatal, several of the 
 party dismounted and pursued the elk into the woods, where the wounded 
 buck was soon overtaken. Finding his pursuers close upon him, the elk 
 turned furiously upon the foremost, who only saved himself by springing 
 into a thicket, which was impassable to the elk, whose enormous antlers 
 becoming so entangled in the vines as to be covered to their tips, he was 
 held fast and blindfolded, and was despatched by repeated bullets and 
 
 stabs. . . 
 
 Black-tailed Beer. — The habits of this animal are similar to those of its 
 kindred species, except that it has a manner of bounding along, instead of 
 running at full speed. It is found in prairies and open grounds, west of 
 the Rocky Mountains, and but seldom in the woodlands. It is larger than 
 the common deer, and its flesh is considered inferior; its eye is larger, and 
 the hair coarse. The ears are very long, being half the length of the 
 whole antler. It was first observed by the members of Lewis and Clarke's 
 expedition, and was described by Say. 
 
 Virginia Deer. 
 
 Common Deer. — This species, sometimes called the Virginia Deer, is 
 found throughout the United States, with such varieties in its size and 
 coloring, as naturally arise from variety of climate. Its form is slender 
 and delicate, and its whole appearance indicates a degree of feebleness, 
 which is counteracied only by the agility of its movements, and the anima- 
 tion of its eye. Its sense of hearing and seeing is wonderfully acute ; and 
 the hunter must approach his intended victim with the utmost caution, for 
 he is discovered by the slightest noise. The resort of this species is in the 
 forests and plains adjacent to rivers, where they feed chiefly on buds and 
 twigs, and sometimes on grass. They are headed by one of the largest 
 and strongest bucks, who appears to be the guardian of the general safety, 
 and directs his followers to combat or retreat. Though generally shy and 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 175 
 
 timid, the males are much disposed to battle during the season of the 
 sexual passion, and are almost always inclined to fight when wounded or 
 brought to bay. At this time they fight with their fore feet, as well as their 
 horns, and inflict severe wounds by leaping forward and striking with the 
 edges of their hoofs. If a hunter misses his aim when attempting to 
 despatch a wounded deer with his knife, he is placed in great peril. To 
 serpents, of every description, the deer is particularly hostile, and it seems 
 to have an instinctive horror of the rattlesnake. To destroy this enemy, 
 the deer leaps into the air, and comes down on him with its four feet closed 
 in a square, repeating its violent blows until the reptile is killed. 
 
 The males frequently engage in combats, in which their horns sometimes 
 become so interlocked that neither can escape, and they then remain en- 
 gaged in fruitless struggles till they perish of famine, or become the prey 
 of the wolf or the hunter. Heads of deer which have thus perished are 
 frequently found, and there is scarcely a museum in this country which 
 has not one or more specimens. The following instance is given by Say in 
 Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains. ' As the party were descend- 
 ing a ridge, their attention was called to an unusual noise proceeding from 
 a copse of low bushes, a few rods from the path. On arriving at the spot, 
 they found two buck deer, their horns fast interlocked with each other, and 
 both much spent with fatigue, one in particular being so much exhausted as 
 to be unable to stand. Perceiving that it would be impossible that they 
 should extricate themselves, and must either linger in their present situa- 
 tions or die of hunger, or be destroyed by the wolves, they despatched them 
 with their knives, after having made an unavailing attempt to disentangle 
 them. Beyond doubt, many of these animals must annually thus perish.' 
 
 Prong-horned Antelope. — This species was first described by the leaders 
 of the first American expedition to the west of the Rocky Mountains. It 
 is shy and timorous, wonderfully fleet, and with great acuteness of sight 
 and smell. When once startled, they fly with the rapidity of the wind, and 
 baffle all pursuit. In one instance, captain Lewis, after various fruitless 
 attempts, by winding around the ridges, succeeded in approaching a party 
 of seven that stood upon an eminence towards which the wind was un- 
 fortunately blowing. The only male of the party frequently encircled the 
 summit of the hill, as if to announce any danger to the group of females 
 which stood upon the top. Before they saw captain Lewis, they became 
 alarmed by the scent, and fled while he was at the distance of two hun- 
 dred yards. He immediately ran to the spot where they had stood ; a 
 ravine concealed them from him, but at the next moment they appeared on 
 a second ridge, at the distance of three miles. He could not but doubt 
 whether these were the same he had alarmed, but their number and con- 
 tinued speed convinced him they were so, and he justly infers that they 
 must have run with a rapidity equal to that of the most celebrated 
 race horse. 
 
 ' The chief game of the Shoshonees,' say Lewis and Clarke, ' is the 
 antelope, which when pursued retreats to the open plains, where the horses 
 have full room for the chase. But such is its extraordinary fleetness and 
 wind, that a single horse has no possible chance of outrunning it, or tiring 
 it down ; and the hunters are therefore obliged to resort to stratagem. 
 About twenty Indians, mounted on fine horses, armed with boAvs and ar- 
 rows, left the camp ; in a short time they descried a herd of ten antelopes ; 
 
176 
 
 BOOK OF THE NITED STATES. 
 
 they immediately separated into squads of two or three, and formed a scat 
 tered circle round the herd for five or six miles, keeping at a wary distance, 
 so as not to alarm them till they were perfectly inclosed, and usually se 
 lectin- some commanding eminence as a stand. Having gained then 
 positions, a small party rode towards the herd, and with wonderful dexteri- 
 ty the huntsman preserved his seat, and the horse his footing, as he ran at 
 full speed over the hills and down the steep ravines, and along the borders 
 of the precipices. . . . 
 
 ' They were soon outstripped by the antelopes, which, on gaining the 
 other extremity of the circle, were driven back and pursued by the fresh 
 hunters They turned and flew, rather than ran, in another direction ; 
 but there too they found new enemies. In this way they were alternately 
 pursued backwards and forwards, till at length, notwithstanding the skill 
 of the hunters, (who were merely armed with bows and arrows) they all 
 escaped ; and the party, after running for two hours, returned without 
 having caught any thing, and their horses foaming with sweat. This 
 chase, the greater part of which was seen from the camp, formed a beauti- 
 ful scene, but to the hunters is exceedingly laborious, and so unproductive, 
 even when they are able to worry the animal down and shoot him, that 
 forty or fifty hunters will sometimes be engaged for more than half a day, 
 without obtaining more than two or three antelopes.' 
 
 Rocky Mountain Goat. 
 
 Rocky Mountain Goat. — This species is nearly the size of a common 
 sheep, and has a shaggy appearance. Its hoofs and horns are black ; the 
 latter project but little, and are slightly curved. Great numbers of this 
 goat are found about the head-waters of the north fork of Columbia river, 
 where they are much hunted by the natives, and form an abundant though 
 somewhat unsavory article of food. They are seldom seen far from the 
 mountains, and are more numerous on their western than on their eastern 
 slopes. The skin is thick and spongy, and is used for moccasins. T/' 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 177 
 
 fleece is said to be as fine as that of which the celebrated cashmere shawls 
 are manufactured. 
 
 Argali. — The argali is found in the Rocky Mountains, from about the 
 fiftieth degree of north latitude to California. Here troops of twenty or 
 thirty are seen together, feeding on the most precipitous tracts, and bound- 
 ing with wonderful agility from rock to rock. During the summer months, 
 the color of this animal is a grayish fawn, with a reddish line across the 
 back. The male has very large twisted horns, fixed near the eyes ; its 
 ears are straight, broad and pointed, and its tail quite short. This is said 
 to be the species from which all the varieties of our domestic sheep are 
 descended. 
 
 Bison. — This animal is found in herds in the prairies in the neighbor- 
 hood of the Rocky Mountains : it is continually receding before the ad- 
 vance of man, and will soon be entirely banished to the far west. School- 
 craft says that the species is confined to the regions situated between the 
 thirty-first and forty-ninth degrees of north latitude, and west of the Mis- 
 sissippi river. The only part of the country east of this river, where the 
 bison now remains, is that included between the falls of St. Anthony and 
 Sandy Lake, a range of about six hundred miles. 
 
 ' Being now in the region of buffalo,' says Mr. Schoolcraft, ' we con- 
 cluded to land, in the course of the day, at some convenient place for hunt- 
 ing them. This Ave were soon invited to do by seeing one of these ani- 
 mals along the shore of the river, and on ascending the bank, we observed, 
 upon a boundless prairie, two droves of them, feeding upon the grass. All 
 who had guns adapted for the purpose, sallied forth in separate parties 
 upon the prairie, while those who felt less ambition to signalize themselves 
 upon the occasion, or were more illy accoutred for the activities of the 
 chase, remained upon an eminence which overlooked the plain, to observe 
 the movements of this animal while under an attack of musketry, and to 
 enjoy the novel spectacle of a buffalo-hunt. The grass was so tall as to 
 allow an unobserved approach towards the spot where they remained feed- 
 ing, but the first fire proved unsuccessful, at the same time that it scattered 
 the herd, which were now seen running in all directions across the prairie, 
 and an incessant fire of random shots was kept up for about two hours ; 
 during which three buffaloes were killed, and a great number wounded, 
 which made their escape. 
 
 ' While thus harrassed, they often passed within a few yards of us, and 
 we enioyed a fine opportunity of witnessing their form, size, color, and 
 speed. The buffalo has a clumsy gait, like the domestic ox, which it also 
 resembles in. size and general appearance. Unlike the ox, however, this 
 animal exhibits no diversity of color, being a uniform dark brown, inclining 
 to dun. It is never spotted, with black, red, or white. It has short black 
 horns growing nearly straight from the head, and set at a considerable dis- 
 tance apart. The male has a hunch upon its shoulders, covered with long 
 flocks of shaggy hair, extending to the top of the head, from which it falls 
 over the eyes and horns, giving the animal a very formidable appearance. 
 The hoofs are cloven like those of the cow, but the legs are much stouter, 
 and altogether, it is more clumsy and ill-proportioned. The tail is naked 
 till towards the end, where it is tufted, in the manner of the lion. 
 
 ' The general weight of this animal is from eight hundred to a thousand 
 pounds ; but they sometimes attain an enormous size, and have been killed 
 23 
 
173 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 upon the Mississippi prairies weighing two thousand pounds. The skin 
 of a buffalo bull, when first taken off, is three fourths of an inch in thick- 
 ness, and cannot be lifted by the strongest man. A hundred _ and fifty 
 pounds of tallow have been taken from one animal, and it is highly 
 esteem. -d by the Indians in preparing their hommony. Instances of exces- 
 sive fatness are, however, rare, and such over-fed animals become so un- 
 wieldy thai ten fall a prey to wolves; particularly if they happen 
 to stray a distance from the herd. The buffalo is a timid animal, and flies 
 a1 the approach of man. It is however asserted by the hunters, that when 
 painfully wounded, it becomes furious, and will turn upon its pursuers. 
 
 I There is a particular art in killing the buffalo with a rifle, only known 
 tl) ex p and when they do not drop down, which is often 
 
 the case, it requires a pin-son intimately acquainted with their habits, to 
 pursue th( m with success. This has been fully instanced in the futile ex- 
 ertions of our party, upon the present occasion; for out of a great number 
 f shots, fevi have reached the object, and very few proved effectual, and 
 the little Success we met with is chiefly attributable to the superior skill of 
 the Indians who accompanied us. Unless a vital part is touched, the shot 
 proves useless. It also requires a larger ball than the deer and elk. 
 Lieutenant Pike thinks that in the open prairies, the bow and arrow could 
 I to better advantage than the gun, particularly on horseback, for 
 you might ride immediately along side the animal and strike it where you 
 pleased. The Indians employ both the rifle and arrow, and in the prai- 
 ries of Missouri and Arkansas, pursue the herds on horseback; but on the 
 upper Mississippi, where they are destitute of horses, they make amends 
 for this deficiency by several ingenious stratagems. 
 
 ' One of the most common of these is the method of hunting with fire. 
 For this purpose, a great number of hunters disperse themselves around a 
 prairie where herds of buffalo happen to be feeding, and setting fire 
 to the grass encompass them on all sides. The buffalo, having a great 
 dread of fire, retire towards the centre of the prairie as they see it approach, 
 and here being pressed together in great numbers, many are trampled 
 under foot, and the Indians rushing in with their arrows and musketry, 
 slaughter immense numbers in a short period. It is asserted that a thou- 
 sand animals have been killed by this stratagem in one day. They have 
 another method of hunting by driving them over precipices, which is chiefly 
 practised by the bands inhabiting the Missouri. To decoy the herds, seve- 
 ral Indians disguise themselves in the skins of the buffalo, taken off entire, 
 and by counterfeiting the lowing of this animal in distress, they attract the 
 herds in a certain direction, and when they are at full speed, suddenly dis- 
 appear behind a cleft in the top of a precipice, when those animals which 
 are in front on reaching the brink, are pushed over by those pressing be- 
 hind, and in this manner great numbers are crushed to death. These 
 practi n now than formerly, the introduction of fire arms, 
 
 among most of the tribes, putting it into the power of almost every indi- 
 vidual to kill sufficient for the support of his family. 
 
 ' By a very bad polity, however, they prefer the flesh of the cows, which 
 will in time destroy the species. Few of the native animals of the Ameri- 
 can forest contribute more to the comforts of savage society than the 
 buffalo. Its skin, when dressed by a process peculiar to them, forms one 
 of the principal articles of clothing. The Sioux tribes particularly excel in 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 179 
 
 the method of dressing it, and are very much in the habit of ornamenting 
 their dresses with porcupine quills, and paints. The skin, dressed with the 
 hair on, supplies them with blankets, and constitutes those durable and 
 often beautiful sleigh-robes which are now in such universal use in the 
 United States and the Canadas. The tallow of this animal, as well as the 
 beef, has also become an article of commerce, particularly in the south- 
 western states and territories, and its horns are exported for the manufac- 
 ture of powder-flasks. The tongue is considered superior in flavor to that 
 of the domestic cow, and the animal is often hunted for no other purpose. 
 I have seen stockings and hats manufactured from its wool, with a little 
 addition of common wool, or of cotton. This practice is very common 
 among the white hunters of Missouri and Arkansas. The flesh of the 
 buffalo is not equal, in its fresh state, to that of the cow or ox, but is supe- 
 rior when dried, which is the Indian mode of preserving it. 
 
 ' The attempts which have been made to domesticate this animal, have 
 not been attended with success. Calves which have been taken in the 
 woods and brought up with the tame breed, have afterwards discovered 
 a wild and ungovernable temper, and manifested their savage nature by 
 breaking down the strongest enclosures, and enticing the tame cattle into 
 the woods. The mixed breed is said to be barren, like the mule. The 
 period of gestation is ascertained to be twelve months, whereas that of the 
 cow is nine. A remarkable proof of the little affinity existing between it, 
 and the domestic breed of cattle, was exhibited a few years ago in Canada, 
 where the connexion resulted in the death of the cows submitted to the 
 experiment.' 
 
 American Wolf. — The common wolf of America is considered as the 
 same species with the wolf of Europe. Richardson remarks that he has 
 travelled over thirty degrees of latitude in America, and has never seen 
 there any wolves which had the gaunt appearance, the comparatively long 
 jaw and tapering nose, the high ears, long legs, slender loins, and narrow 
 feet of the Pyrenean wolf. He adds, that the American animal has a 
 more robust form than the European wolf. Its muzzle is thicker and more 
 obtuse, its head larger and rounder, and there is a sensible depression at 
 the union of the nose and forehead. He notices six varieties of the wolf 
 in North America : common gray wolf, white, pied, dusky, black, and 
 prairie. There is little reason to doubt that all the wolves of America are 
 of one species ; and the variations of size, color, and habits, are to be re- 
 ferred to diversities of climate which have been gradually impressed upon 
 these animals. 
 
 Prairie Wolf. — This species is found in large numbers in the prairies 
 to the west of the Missouri, and also occurs in the vicinity of the Colum- 
 bia river. Its general color is gray, mixed with black ; the ears are erect, 
 rounded at the tip, and lined with gray hair. It is about three feet and a 
 half in length, and bears a very strong resemblance to the domestic dog, so 
 common in the Indian villages. Its bark is also similar to that of the dog. 
 It resembles the other species of wolves in rapacity and cunning, being 
 very suspicious and mistrustful and shunning pitfalls and snares with in- 
 tuitive sagacity.* 
 
 * The prairie wolves are much smaller than those which inhabit the woods. They 
 generally travel together in numbers, and a solitary one is seldom met with. Two or 
 
180 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Horses. — The number of horses among the various tribes on the Columbia, 
 and its tributary streams, differs with the circumstances of the country. 
 
 three of us have often pursued from fifty to one hundred, driving them before us as 
 quickly as oui horses could charge. 
 
 Their skins are of no value, and we do not therefore waste much powder and ball in 
 
 shooting them. The Indians, who are obliged to pay dear for their ammunition, are 
 
 equally careful not to throw it away on objects that bring no remunerating value. The 
 
 natural thai the wolves are allowed to multiply; and some parts of the 
 
 country are completely overrun by them. The Indians catch numbers of them in traps, 
 
 which they set in the vicinity of those places where their tame horses are sent to graze. 
 
 The traps are merely excavations covered over with slight switches and hay, and bated 
 
 with meat, iScc, into' which the wolves fall, and being unable to extricate themselves, 
 
 risli by famine, or the knife of the Indian. These destructive animals annually 
 
 numbers of horses; particularly during the winter season, when the latter get 
 
 the snov. ; iii which situation they become an easy prey to their lightfooted 
 
 lers, ten or fifteen of which will often fasten on one animal, and with their long 
 
 fangs in a few minutes separate the head from the body. If, however, the horses are 
 
 nol prevented from using their legs, they sometimes punish the enemy severely ; as an 
 
 instance of this, I saw one morning the bodies of two of our horses which had been 
 
 the night before, and around were lying eight dead and maimed wolves ; some 
 
 with their brains scattered about, and others with their limbs and ribs broken by the 
 
 of the furious animals in their vain attempts to escape from their sanguinary 
 
 mts. 
 
 While I was at Spokan, I went occasionally to the horse prairie, which is nearly sur 
 
 rounded by partially wooded hills, for the purpose of watching the manoeuvres of thf. 
 
 wolves in their combined attacks. The first announcement of their approach was a 
 
 few shiill currish barks at intervals, like the outpost firing of skirmishing parties. 
 
 were answered by similar barking from an opposite direction, until the sounds 
 
 gradually approximated, and, at length, ceased on the junction of the different parties. 
 
 We prepared our guns, and concealed ourselves behind a thick cover. In the mean 
 
 time, the horses, sensible of the approaching danger, began to paw the ground, snort, 
 
 toss up their heads, look wildly about them, and exhibit all the symptoms of fear. 
 
 two stallions took the lead, and appeared to wait with a degree of comparative 
 
 composure fur th ce of the enemy. 
 
 Thi I the field in a semicircular form, with their flanks extend- 
 
 ed ior the evident purpose of surrounding their prey. They were between two and 
 three hundred si rong. The horses, on observing their movement, knew from experience 
 its object, and dreading to encounter so numerous a force, instantly turned round, and 
 galloped off in a contrary direction. Their flight was the signal for the wolves to ad- 
 oam ' Ly uttering a simultaneous yell, they charged after the fugitives, 
 still preserving their crescent form. Two or three of the horses, which were not in the 
 on, were quickly overtaken by the advance guard of the enemy. The for- 
 unable to keep up with the band, commenced kicking at their 
 hich received some severe blows ; but these being reinforced by 
 led the horses, had Ave not, just in time, emerged 
 our place of concealment, and discharged a volley at the enemy's centre/by which 
 a few were brought down. The whole battalion instantly wheeled about, and fled to- 
 wards rder; while the horses, on hearing the fire, changed 
 their ci id up to us. Our appearance saved several of them from the 
 their neighing they seemed to express their joy and grati- 
 tude at our timely interference. 
 
 Alt,! ' of North America are the most daring of all the beasts of prey 
 
 U continent, they are by no means so courageous or ferocious as those of Europe, 
 particularly in Spain or the south of France, in which countries they commit dreadful 
 ravages both on man and beast : whereas an American wolf, except forced by despera- 
 tl0n > v " r never attack a human being ; a remarkable instance of which is 
 
 mentioned m the detail of my wanderings, in the eighth chapter. The lynxes are by no 
 means so numerous as the wolves, bul they are equally destructive, and individually 
 daring. 1 hey generally travel alone, or in couples, and seldom flv, as the wolves 
 do, on the first approach of man. The largest American lynx does not exceed in size 
 an English mastiff.— Ross Cox. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 181 
 
 Among 1 the Flat-heads, Cootonais, and Spokans, whose lands are rather 
 thickly wooded, there are not more than sufficient for their actual use, and 
 every colt, on arriving at the proper age, is broken in for the saddle. But 
 in the countries inhabited by the Wallah Wallahs, Nez Perces, and Shosho- 
 nes, which chiefly consist of open plains, well watered and thinly wooded, 
 they are far more numerous, and thousands are allowed to go wild. Their 
 general height is about fifteen hands, which they seldom exceed ; and ponies 
 are very scarce. Those reared in the plains are excellent hunters, and the 
 swiftest racers; but are not capable of enduring the same hardships as 
 those bred in the vicinity of the high and woody districts. Seven hundred 
 or a thousand wild horses are sometimes seen in a band ; and it is said 
 that in parts of the country belonging to the Snake Indians, bands varying 
 from three to four thousand are frequently seen ; and further to the south- 
 ward, they are far more numerous. 
 
 Wild Horses. 
 
 The Indian horses are never shod ; and owing to this circumstance, their 
 hoofs, particularly of such as are in constant work, are nearly worn aAvay 
 before they are ten or eleven years old, after which they are unfit for any 
 labor except carrying children. They are easily managed, and are seldom 
 vicious. An Indian horse is never taught to trot. The natives d 
 this pace, and prefer to it the canter or light gallop. They are hard task- 
 masters; and the hair-rope bridles, with the padded deer-skin saddles which 
 they use, lacerate the mouths and backs of the unfortunate animals in such 
 a manner as to render them objects of commiseration. In summer 'hey 
 have no shelter from the heat, in winter no retreat from the cold ; and 
 their only provender throughout the year is the wild loose gra s of the 
 
 16 
 
TS2 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 prairies, which, in the latter season, is generally covered with snow, and 
 in the former is brown and arid, from the intense heat of the sun. 
 
 Poxes.— The Gray Fox is found in great numbers throughout the coun- 
 try , and'ven ures more boldly than any other species into the neighborhood 
 of human habitations. It exhibits different colors at different seasons and 
 its general color is grizzly, growing gradually darker from the fore 
 shoulders to the hinder part of the back. The inferior parts of the body 
 are whin-, tinged slightly with faint reddish brown. The tail is thick and 
 bushy. The itaZ Fox is a very beautiful species, and abounds in the mid- 
 dle and southern states, where it proves very troublesome to poultry-yards. 
 In summer, its fur is long, fine, and brilliant ; in winter, it becomes longer 
 and more thick. The length of this species is about two feet, and of its 
 tail, nearly a foot and a half. Its fur is valuable, and much used. When 
 t young, the red fox is very playful, and may be domesticated to a 
 arable "degree; we have known it to live in perfect friendship with 
 a number of dogs, and to take much pleasure in tumbling about and sport- 
 ing with them.* 
 
 The Black Fox bears a striking resemblance to the common fox, from 
 which it has nothing to distinguish it but its abundant and beautiful black 
 
 Black Fox. 
 
 fir. Its color is rich and lustrous, having a small quantity of white ming- 
 led with the prevailing lilack on different parts of its body. It is found 
 throughout the northern parts of America, but no where in great numbers. 
 The Swift For is a very interesting species, inhabiting the open plains 
 which stretch from the base of the Rocky Mountains towards the Mis- 
 sissippi. 
 
 * A very young whelp of tins fox was. some time ago, brought to the Philadelphia 
 Museum in company with its foster mother, a common cat, which had adopted and 
 appeared to be very fond of it. She continued to nurse the little fox for several weeks, 
 LUch affectionate solicitude when he wandered from her, notwithstanding 
 ratefol bites inflicted by her vicious foundling. How long this singu 
 lai rel lit have continued, or to what result it would have led, is unknown. 
 
 The fox strayed too far from his cautious nurse, fell from the platform of a tall stair- 
 rase to the ground, and was killed ; the poor cat evinced as much sorrow for her loss as 
 if it had been really her own offspring. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 183 
 
 Opossum. — This animal is found in the southern parts of the United 
 States, and is easily distinguished from all others by two peculiarities : the 
 first is, that the female has a cavity under the belly in which she receives 
 and suckles her young ; the second is, that the male and the female have 
 no claws on the great toe of the hind feet, which is separated from the 
 
 Virginia Opossum. 
 
 others as a man's thumb is separated from his fingers. The opossum pro- 
 duces often, and a great number of young at a time. It walks awkwardly, 
 and seldom runs ; but it climbs trees with great facility, and hangs from 
 the branches by means of a very flexible and muscular tail. Though 
 voracious and greedy of blood, it also feeds on reptiles, insects, sugar-canes, 
 potatoes, and even leaves and bark of trees. It may be easily domesticated ; 
 but its smell is strong and offensive, though its flesh is eatable, and much 
 liked by the Indians. So tenacious is it of life, that it has given rise to 
 a saying in North Carolina, that if a cat has nine lives, an opossum has 
 nineteen. The general color of the opossum is a whitish gray ; the tail is 
 thick and black, for upwards of three inches at its base, and is covered by 
 small scales, interspersed with white, short, rigid hairs. It is a timid and 
 nocturnal animal, depending for its safely more on cunning than strength. 
 
 American Hare. — This species, improperly, called rabbit, is found 
 throughout the states, and in some parts is exceedingly common. Its flesh 
 is much esteemed as an article of food. During the summer it is tough, 
 but after the first frosts of autumn, it is fat and delicate. In the north, 
 during winter the hare feeds on the twigs of pine and fir, and is fit for the 
 table during the season. It never burrows in the ground, but in the day 
 time remains crouched, within its form, which is a mere spot of ground 
 cleared of grass and sheltered by an overhanging plant. Sometimes it 
 lives in the trunk of a hollow tree, or under a pile of stones. It wanders 
 out at night, and makes sad havoc among the turnip and cabbage fields, 
 and the young trees in nurseries. It is not hunted, in this country as in 
 Europe, but is caught in a trap, or roused by a dog and shot. 
 
 Varying Hare. — This animal appears to inhabit a great portion of 
 North America, as it has been found in Virginia, and as far north as fifty- 
 five degrees, whilst eastward it is found on the great plains of the 
 Columbia. It appears generally to frequent plains and low grounds, where 
 
BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lives like the common hare, never burrowing, but not resorting to the 
 
 thick woods. Th labilis of Europe, on the contrary, is described as 
 
 . tvaysinh : mountains, and never descending into the 
 
 -,,! to seek for food, when the mountains are 
 
 red with snow. Th i ' s remarkably swift, never 
 
 I astonishing leaps; 
 
 hi-, tl -onie of these, and found their length to be from 
 
 , en to twenty feet. From the middle of November to the middle of 
 
 . this animal is of a pure white, with the exception of the black and 
 
 h brown of the cars. During the rest of the year, the upper parts 
 
 b, [y a I color; the under parts white, with a light shade 
 
 of Li ad color. 
 
 ver , — The general appearance of the beaver is that of a large 
 
 seen at a little distance, it might be readily mistaken for the com- 
 
 musk-rat. But the greater size of the beaver, the thickness and 
 
 Ith of its htad, and its horizontally flattened, broad, and scaly tail, 
 
 Beaver. 
 
 ■ it impossible to mistake it for any other creature when closely 
 
 In its movements, both on shore and in the water, it also 
 
 ! ie same quick step 7 and swimming 
 
 r and celerity, cither on the surface or in the depths of the 
 
 Musk-Rat. — This animal is I allied in form and habits to the 
 
 I i- found in tl ime parts of America as that animal, from 
 
 '■' - iei latitude. But it is more familiar 
 
 in its habits, as it is ly a short distance from large towns. 
 
 The musk-ral i hful, but not a very shy animal. It may be fre- 
 
 the shores of small muddy islands, not easily to be 
 
 bed from a piece of earth, till, on the approach of danger, it 
 
 plun 3 into the water. It forms burrows on the banks of streams 
 
 and ponds, the i i in deep water. These burrows extend 
 
 OTa very full, minute esting account of the Leaver, v.-e refer our readers to th« 
 
 i iodman's Natural History. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 185 
 
 to great distances, and do extensive injury to the farms, by letting in the 
 water upon the land. In some situations, these animals build houses 
 of a conical form, resembling those of the beaver, formed of mud, 
 grass and reeds, plastered together. They feed upon the roots and 
 tender shoots of aquatic plants and on the leaves of grasses. They are 
 excellent swimmers, dive well, and can remain for a long time under 
 water. It is rare to have an opportunity of seeing the animal during 
 the day, as it then lies concealed in its burrow, and it is not till night, 
 that it issues forth for food or recreation. It does not, like the beaver, lay 
 up a store of provision for the winter ; but it builds a new habitation 
 every season. 
 
 This animal is common in the Atlantic states, and its fur being valuable 
 for hats, it is much hunted. The Indians kill them by spearing them 
 through the walls of their houses. Between four and five thousand skins 
 are annually imported into Great Britain from North America. 
 
 The American Badger, as compared with the European, is smaller and 
 lighter, with different markings on its fur, and with a head less sharp 
 towards the nose. It frequents the prairies and sand plains at the base of 
 the Rocky Mountains, as far north as latitude fifty-eight degrees. It 
 abounds on the plains watered by the Missouri. Timid and slow, the 
 badger, on being pursued, takes to the earth like a mole, and makes his 
 way with great rapidity. It is caught in spring, when the ground is frozen, 
 by filling its hole with water, when the tenant is obliged to come out. 
 
 The Ermine Weasel is known in the middle and eastern states, by the 
 name of weasel : farther north, it is called stoat in summer, and ermine in 
 its winter dress. In its habits it resembles the common weasel of Europe. 
 It is courageous, active, and graceful. His long and slender body, bright 
 and piercing eye, sharp claws and teeth, and great strength, indicate that 
 he is dangerous and destructive to the smaller animals, which he can follow 
 into their smallest hiding places, from his peculiar flexibility of body. This 
 animal frequents barns and out-houses, and is the particular enemy of 
 mice, and other depredators upon the granary. To compensate for the 
 service he thus renders the farmer, he helps himself without ceremony to 
 a number of his fowls, and the henroost sometimes exhibits a sad proof of 
 the value he sets upon his labors, in exterminating the mice. In winter, 
 the fur of the weasel is much longer, thicker and finer, than in summer. 
 
 PennanVs Marten is found in various parts of North America, from the 
 state of Pennsylvania, to as far north as the Great Slave Lake, where it 
 was seen by captain Franklin. It is easily domesticated, becomes fond of 
 tea leaves, is very playful, and has a pleasant musky smell. This species 
 is not very scarce, as Pennant says that five hundred and eighty skins were 
 sent in one year from the states of New York and Pennsylvania ; and 
 Sabine remarks that the Hudson's Bay Company sent eighteen hundred 
 skins to England in one year. 
 
 The length of this marten is from twenty-four to thirty inches without 
 the tail, which is from thirteen to seventeen inches long. The feet are 
 very broad, and covered with hair, which conceals the sharp, strong, white 
 claws. The fur on the head is short, but gradually increases in length 
 towards the tail, and its color changes, losing much of the yellowish, and 
 assuming a chestnut hue. The tail is full, bushy, black and lustrous, being 
 smallest at the end. 
 
 24 16* 
 
 
 
1S6 
 
 BOOK OF THE UN'TED STATES. 
 
 Maryland Manxfiot, or Woodchuck, is common in all the temperate 
 partS( ; loe iat injury 1% the farmers, as the quantity oi 
 
 is really surprising, [t burrows in, the ground pn the 
 of hills, and these extend to great distances under -ground, and ter- 
 ms chambers. Here the marmot makes himself a comforta- 
 ,1 ofdry le lss, and an} sofl rubbish, where he sleeps from the 
 
 of day, ti|J tl morningis far advanced. 
 
 \i in ,|,, Ml | m:i i-iin.i mi- with greal greediness, and m large quanti- 
 ,,l of cabbage, lettuce, and other garden vegetables. When 
 tptivity, ii i- exceedingly fond of bread and milk. 
 
 Ai the comm ;emen! of cold weather, the marmot goes into winter 
 
 quarters, blocks up the door within, and remains torpid til! the warm sea- 
 son. Ii i- about the size ofa rabbit, and of a dark brown color. 
 
 The Prairie Marmpt, commonly called Prairie Dog, builds his dwelling 
 barren tracts of the western country, and may often be seen sitting 
 by the small mounds of earth, which indicate his abode, in an attitude of 
 md attention. Whole acres of land are occupied by these little 
 ts, and villages are found, containing thousands of inhabitants. Near 
 Rocky Mountains, these villages are found to reach several miles. 
 The burrow extends under ground, but to what distance has not been 
 lined. 
 This marmot, like the rest of the species, remains torpid during the 
 !-. It is very much annoyed in its habitation by owls, rattlesnakes, 
 . and land tortoises, who appropriate these comfortable dwellings for 
 i use, and frequently destroy the young marmots. 
 The Fox Sqitirrel is found throughout the southern states, where it fre- 
 quents the pine forests in considerable numbers, and derives its principal 
 
 i: ick Squirrel. 
 
 subsisten :e from the seed of the pine. Its color varies from white to pale 
 
 "'• black, and is sometimes mottled, with various shades of red. 
 
 'quirrel is one of the largest species, and is found in great abun- 
 
 m the oak and chesnul forests of this country. It is a very heavy 
 
 animal, and is slow in its movements, seldom leaping from tree to tree, 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 1S7 
 
 unless it is alarmed or closely pursued. It is found of almost every variety 
 of color. The Black Squirrel is very common, but is often confounded 
 with the black varieties of the squirrels before described. In the winter, 
 this animal is of a pure black ; in the summer, it is of a grayish black, in- 
 termingled with a dark reddish brown. It is found in the United States, 
 and inhabits the northern shores of Lakes Huron and Superior. 
 
 The Common Gray Squirrel is remarkable for its beauty and activity, 
 and is common throughout the United States. It is g< n rally found in 
 hickory and chesnut woods, where it feeds on nuts, and lays up a hoard for 
 the winter. It is very easily domesticated, and in captivity is very playful 
 and mischievous. The Great-tailed Squirrel, so called from the length 
 of its tail, is common on the Missouri. It is of a grayish black color, and 
 is very graceful and active. The Line-tail Squirrel inhabits the Missouri 
 country, where it builds its nest in the holes and crevices of rocks. It is 
 fond of the naked cliffs, where there are but few bushes, and very rarely 
 ascends a tree. It feeds on the buds, leaves, and fruits of plants. It is 
 of an ash color, intermixed with white hairs. Its fur is coarse, and the tail, 
 which is very long, is marked with three black lines on each side. The 
 Four-lined Squirrel is found on the Rocky Mountains. Its nest is com- 
 posed of a great quantity of the branches of different kinds of trees, and 
 of othei vegetable productions. It does not ascend trees by choice. 
 
 The Columbian Pine Squirrel was seen by Lewis and Clarke on the 
 banks of the Columbia river, but is supposed by Richardson to be a variety 
 of the Hudson's Bay Squirrel, its habits being similar. 
 
 The Common Red Squirrel is abundant in most pans of North America. 
 It is one of the- most lively and nimble of tie- quirrel raci . Il digs burrows 
 at the ro< to which it forms lour or five entrances. Itdoes 
 
 not leave its tree in cold and stormy weather, but when it is sporting in the 
 sunshine, if any one approaches, it conceals itself, and makes a loud noise, 
 similar to a watchman's rattle. From thi: circumstance it has received the 
 name of Chickaree. When pursued, it makes long leap from tree to i 
 
 [seeks On- shelter as oon as p< I i The skin of this 
 
 animal is of no value. It is of a reddish brown color, shaded with black. 
 and beaut 
 The Ground ox Striped Squirrel is abundant in all our woods. It is 
 called Harkee, and, in New England, is usually denominated 
 the Chip Squirrel, it differs very much from other in its habits, 
 
 h never makes its nest in the branches of trees, but burrows in the ground 
 i ar the roots. These burrows extend a considerable distance under 
 ground, and are a provided with two op aing eral color 
 
 of this animal is of a reddish brown. The Comm Squirrel* is 
 
 very abundant in the United States, and is much admired for the soli. 
 of its fur, and the gentleness of its disposition. The skin of the sides is 
 extended from the fore to the hind limbs, so as to form a sort of sail, which 
 enables it to descend swiftly from a great height, in the easiest and most 
 pleasant manner, often passing over a considerable space. This squirrel is 
 small, of an ash color above, and white beneath, with large, promin 
 black eyes. It builds its nest in hollow trees. The Rocky Mountain Fly- 
 ing Squirrel lives in thick pine forests, and seldom leaves its retreats ex- 
 cept at night. 
 
 * Flying squirrels are said to be found in the north of Europe, but they are very scarce. 
 
jgg BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The Urson, or Canada Porcupine, exhibits none of the long and large 
 quills which are so conspicuous and formidable in the European species, 
 and the short spines or prickles which are thickly set over all the superior 
 parts of its body, are covered by a long coarse hair, which almost entirely 
 conceals them. These spines are not more than two inches and a half in 
 length, vet form a very efficient protection against every other enemy but 
 man. This ani.ua! dislikes water, sleeps very much, and chiefly feeds 
 upon the bark of the juniper. His flesh is eaten by the savages and 
 American traders. He is still found in the remote and unsettled parts of 
 Pennsylvania, but south of this state is almost unknown. It was formerly 
 found, but very rarelv, in Virginia. The porcupine is much prized by the 
 aborigines, both for its flesh, and quills, which are used as ornaments to 
 their pipes, weapons, and dresses. A large collection of dresses, thus orna- 
 mented, is exhibited in the Philadelphia Museum. 
 
 The Mink is found throughout the country, from Carolina to Hudson's 
 Bay, and in its habits and appearance strongly resembles the otter. It lives 
 in the neighborhood of mill-seats, or farm-houses, frequenting holes near 
 the water, or in the ruins of old walls. It feeds upon frogs and fish, and, 
 like the weasel, sometimes pays an unwelcome visit to the poultry-yard. 
 The length of this animal is about twenty inches ; its feet are broad, webb- 
 ed, and covered with hair. Hats are made of its fur. 
 
 The Skunk is of a brown color, marked sometimes with two white 
 stripes. The faculty this animal possesses, of annoying its enemies by the 
 discharge of a noisome fluid, causes it to be rather shunned than hunted, 
 which the value of its skin would otherwise be sure to occasion. The 
 smallest drop of this fluid is sufficient to render a garment detestable for a 
 great length of time. Washing, smoking, baking, or burying articles of 
 dress, seems to be equally inefficient for its removal. The skunk is gene- 
 rally found in the forests, having its den either in the stump of an old tree, 
 or in an excavation in the ground. It feeds on the young of birds, and 
 upon small quadrupeds, eggs, and wild fruits. It also does much mischief 
 in the poultry-yard. 
 
 The American Otter is about five feet in length, including the tail, 
 
 the length of which is eighteen inches. The color of the whole of the 
 
 ! ody, (except the chin and throat, which are dusky white) is a glossy 
 
 brown. The fur throughout is dense and fine. The differences between 
 
 is and the European otter, are thus pointed out by Captain Sa- 
 
 ' The neck of the American otter is elongated, not short, and the 
 
 head narrow and long in comparison with the short, broad visage of the 
 
 Euro; ears are consequently much closer together than in 
 
 the latter animal. The tail is more pointed and shorter, being considerably 
 
 ban one half of the length of the body, whilst the tail of the Euro- 
 
 p an otter is more than half the length of its body.' The fur of the otter 
 
 is much valued by die hatters and other consumers of peltries, and this 
 
 animal must ultimately become as rare in North America as the kindred 
 
 species has long since become in Europe. 
 
 II. BIRDS. 
 
 The Ornithology of the United States is exceedingly rich and interesting. 
 For their beauty of plumage, variety and melody of song, diversity of 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 189 
 
 form, habits, disposition and faculties, our birds well merit the industrious 
 observation which has been bestowed upon them. They have been highly- 
 fortunate in their historians, for no department of our animal kingdom has 
 been so thoroughly investigated as this ; and the indefatigable labor, science 
 and genius of such men as Wilson, Audubon, Bonaparte, and Nuttall, have 
 left us but little to expect from future researches. 
 
 The vulture called Turkey Buzzard, is found in large numbers in the 
 southern states, where he is protected by law, on account of his services in 
 the removal of carrion. This bird has never been known to breed in any 
 of the Atlantic states north of New Jersey. In the southern cities, dur- 
 ing the winter, they pass the night on the roofs of houses, and are fond of 
 warming themselves in the smoke that issues from the chimneys. This 
 bird is about two and a half feet in length, and six in breadth ; the upper 
 plumage is glossed with green and bronze, the fore part of the neck is bare. 
 The Black Vulture is smaller, and flies in flocks ; the range of this bird is 
 confined by very narrow limits to the southern states. The Condor is not 
 uncommon in the Rocky Mountains ; but his peculiar residence is among 
 the precipitous cliffs of the majestic Andes. 
 
 The Common or Wandering Falcon lives along the seacoast of the 
 country, and is said to breed in the cedar swamps of New Jersey. The 
 American Sparrow Hawk is found principally in the warmer parts of the 
 states, and builds its nest in a hollow or decayed tree, on some elevated 
 place. In the winter it becomes familiar, and approaches to the neighbor- 
 hood of man ; at this time it lives on such small game as it can find in the 
 
 American Sparrow Hawk. 
 
 way of mice or lizards. The flight of this bird is irregular. It perches 
 on the top of a dead tree or pole in the middle of a field, and sits there in 
 an almost perpendicular position for an hour together, reconnoitering the 
 ground below in every direction for the favorite articles of its food. The 
 bluejays have a particular antipathy to this bird, who punishes their enmity 
 by occasionally making a meal of one of them. 
 
 The American Fish Hawk is a formidable, vigorous-winged, and well- 
 known bird, which subsists altogether on the fishes that swarm in our bays, 
 
190 B00K 0F THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 rivers, and creeks. It is doubtless the most numerous of its genus in the 
 United States, and besides lining our seacoast from Georgia to Canada, it 
 penetrates far into the interior. 
 
 Fish Hawk. 
 
 ' The motions of the fish hawk,' says. Mr. Audubon, ' in the air are 
 graceful, and as majestic as those of the eagle. It rises with ease to a 
 
 height by extensive circlings, performed apparently by mere inclina- 
 tions of the wings and tail. It dives at times to some distance with the 
 
 partially closed, and resumes its sailing, as if these plunges were 
 
 for amusement only. Its wings are extended at right angles to the 
 
 body, and when thus flying, it is easily distinguishable from all other hawks 
 
 eye of an observer, accustomed to note the flight of birds. Whilst 
 
 in search of food, it flies with easy flappings at a moderate height above 
 
 the water, and with an apparent listlessness, although in reality it is 
 
 observing the objects beneath. No sooner does it spy a fish suited 
 
 to its taste, than it checks its course with a sudden shake of its wings and 
 
 tail, which gives it the appearance of being poised in the air for a moment, 
 
 after which it plunges headlong with great rapidity into the water, to 
 
 its prey, or continue its flight, if disappointed by having observed 
 
 h sink deeper. 
 ' When it plunges into the water in pursuit of a fish, it sometimes pro- 
 ceeds deep enough to disapppear for an instant. The surge caused by its 
 
 i< is so great as to make the spot around it present the appearance of 
 :i mass " r foam. On rising with its prey, it is seen holding it in the man- 
 
 ■presented in the plate. It mounts a few yards into the air, shakes 
 
 iter from its plumage, squeezes the fish with its talons, and immedi- 
 ately proceeds towards its nest, to feed its young, or to a tree, to devour 
 the fruit of its industry in peace. When it has satisfied its hunger, it does 
 not, like other hawks, stay perched until hunger again urges it forth, but 
 usually sails about at a great height over the neighboring waters. 
 
 ' The fish hawk has a great attachment to the tree to which it carries 
 
 ...and will not abandon it, unless frequently disturbed, or shot at 
 whilst feeding there. It shows the same attachment to the tree on which 
 it has built its first nest, and returns to it year after year.' 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 191 
 
 The Swallow-tailed Hawk. — This beautiful kite breeds and passe? the 
 summer in the warmer parts of the United States, and is also probably- 
 resident in all tropical and temperate America, migrating into the southern 
 as well as the northern hemisphere. In the former, according to Viellot, 
 it is found in Peru, and as far as Buenos Ayres ; and though it is extremely 
 
 Swallow-tailed Hawk. 
 
 rare to meet with this species as far as the latitude of forty degrees in the 
 Atlantic states, yet, tempted by the abundance of the fruitful valley of the 
 Mississippi, individuals have been seen along that river as far as the Falls 
 of St. Anthony, in the forty-fourth degree of north latitude. Indeed, 
 according to Fleming, two stragglers have even found their devious way 
 to the strange climate of Great Britain. 
 
 They appear in the United States about the close of April or beginning 
 of May, and are very numerous in the Mississippi territory, twenty or 
 thirty being sometimes visible at the same time, often collecting locusts and 
 other large insects, which they are said to feed on from their claws v 
 flying; at times also seizing upon the nests of locusts and wasps, and like 
 the honey-buzzard, devouring both the insects and their larva?. Snakes 
 and lizards are their common food in all parts of America. In the month 
 of October they begin to retire to the south, at which season Mr. Bartram 
 observed them in great numbers assembled in Florida, soaring steadily at 
 great elevations for several days in succession, and slowly passing towards 
 their winter quarters along the Gulf of Mexico.* 
 
 Other hawks in the United States are the Sharp-shinned, the Great- 
 footed or Duck, the Pigeon, Cooper's White-tailed, Red-tailed, Broad-winged, 
 Mississippi Kite, Black, Marsh, Stanley's, Red-shouldered, Ash-colored, and 
 Slate-colored Hawks. 
 
 Washington Eagle. — For the first accurate observation of this bird, we 
 have been indebted to the untiring study and genius of Audubon, who first 
 noticed it in the year 1S14. He is three feet and seven inches long ; the 
 extent of his wings is ten feet two inches. His plumage is compact 
 and glossy, the upper parts being of a dark, shining coppery brown ; the 
 
 * Nuttall. 
 
192 
 
 BOOK OF THE UXITEP STATES. 
 
 throat, breast and bellv of a bright rich cinnamon color. He lives in the 
 neighborhood of the seashore, lakes and rivers, and subsists chiefly on fish. 
 'The name which 1 have chosen for this new species of eagle,' says its 
 great discoverer, ' the " Bird of Washington," may, by some, be considered 
 as prepo -cams and unlit ; but as it is indisputably the noblest bird of its 
 trenus thai has yet be »vered in the United States, I trust I shall be 
 
 allowed to honor it with the name of one yet nobler, who was the savior 
 of his country, and whose name will ever be dear to it. To those who 
 lnav be curious to know my reasons, I can only say, that, as the new world 
 gave me birth and liberty, the great man who insured its independence is 
 next to my heart. He had a nobility of mind and a generosity of soul, 
 such as are seldom possessed. He was brave, so is the eagle ; like it, too, 
 he was the terror of his foes ; and his fame, extending from pole to pole, 
 
 Washington Eagle. 
 
 resembles the majestic soarings of the mightiest of the feathered tribe. If 
 America has reason to be proud of her Washington, so has she to be proud 
 of her great eagle.' 
 
 White-headed or Bald Eagle. — This bird is abundant in all the latitudes 
 of the United States, but shows a predilection for the warmer climates. 
 He lives near the seacoast, where he usually selects some lofty pine or 
 cypress for his eyry, which he builds of large sticks, sods, moss, reeds, 
 pine tops and other coarse materials, arranged in a sort of level bed. This 
 breeding place is never deserted as long as the tree lasts. Fish constitutes 
 the chief article of food of this bird, and he usually obtains it by cunning and 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 193 
 
 rapine, seldom by the exercise of honest industry. His principal occupa- 
 tion is to rob the osprey of the fruits of his labor, and he has sometimes 
 
 White-headed or Bald Eagle. 
 
 been known to attack the vulture, and oblige him to disgorge his 
 carrion.* 
 
 *The figure of this noble bird is well known throughout the civilized world, embla- 
 zoned as it is on our national standard, which waves in the breeze of every clime, bear- 
 ing to distant lands the remembrance of a great people living in a state of pea 
 freedom. May that peaceful freedom er! 
 
 The great strength, daring, and cool courage of (he white-headed i 
 his unequalled power of flight, render him highly conspicuous 
 To these qualities did he add a generous disposition towards othei 
 looked up to as a model of nobility. The feroci us, overl >i 
 
 per which is ever and anon <! : best 
 
 adapted to his state, and was wise!) given him by the Creator to ! cable him to pel ' 
 the office assigned to him. 
 
 To gi\ e idea of the nature of this 1 on f] 
 
 sissippi, on which you may : : appn 
 
 of water-fowl on whistling wings, from the countries ■ 
 
 climate in which to sojourn for a season. The eagle is seen perched, in an ere* ; 
 time, on the highest summit of the tallest tree by the mi earn. His 
 
 glistening but stern eye looks over the vast expanse. He listens attentively to <•■ 
 sni nd that comes to his quick ear from afar, glancing now and then on the eartl 
 neath, lest even the light tread of the fawn may pass unheard. His mate is perched on 
 the opposite side, and should all be tranquil and silent, warns him by a cry to con': 
 patient. At this well-known call, the male partly opens his broad wings, incline: 
 body a little downwards, and answers to her voice in tones not unlike the laugh of 
 a maniac. The next moment, he resumes his erect attitude, and again all an 
 is silent. 
 
 Ducks of many species, the teal, the wigeon, the mallard and others, are 
 passing M*ith great rapidity, and following the course of the current ; but the eagle 
 heeds them not: they are at that time beneath his attention. The next moment, how- 
 ever, the wild trumpet-like sound of a yet distant but approaching swan is heard. A 
 shriek from the female eagle comes across the stream, — for she is as fully on the 
 as her mate. The latter suddenly shakes the whole of his body, and with a few tou . 
 of his bill, aided by the action of his cuticular muscles, arranges his plumage in an in- 
 stant. The snow-white bird is now in sight : her long neck is stretched forward, her 
 eye is on the watch, vigilant as that of her enemy ; her large wings seem with difficulty 
 25 " 17 
 
101 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Royal or Golden Eagle.— This bird is found in all the cold and temperate 
 
 regions of the northern hemisphere. It is supposed to live for a century, 
 
 an d is about th rs in gaining its complete growth and permanent 
 
 plumage. The neighborhood of Hudson's Bay is more frequented by this 
 
 , any part of the United States, but it is not uncommon in the 
 
 plains of the larger western rivers. ' The lofty mountains of New 
 
 Hampshire,' says Mr. Nuttall, 'afford suitable situations for the eyry of 
 
 this eagle, over whose snow-clad summits lie is seen majestically soaring 
 
 itude and grandeur. A young bird from this region, which I have 
 
 in a 3tate of domestication, showed considerable docility. He had, how- 
 
 <. Vrr , i, ;, brought up from the nest, in which he was found in the month 
 
 of August ; he appeared even playful, turning his head about in a very 
 
 antic manner, as if desirous to attract attention ; still his glance was quick 
 
 and fiery. When birds were given to him, he plumed them very clean 
 
 before he began his meal, and picked the subject to a perfect skeleton.' 
 
 King-tailed Eagle. 
 
 The Fling-tailed Eagle is now found to be the young of this bird, as 
 apposed. Its tail feathers are highly valued by the abo- 
 rigines as they serve for ornamenting their calumets. 
 
 to support the weight of hei body, although they flap incessantly. So irksome do her 
 exertions seem, thai aer ven le js are spread beneath her tail, to aid her in her flight. 
 owever. The eagle has marked her for his prey. As the swan is 
 ed pair, the male bird, in lull preparation for the chase, starts from 
 ins perch with an awful scream, thai to the swan's eaE hrings more terror than the re- 
 port ol the large duck-gun. 
 
 Now is the moment to witness the display of the eagle's powers. He glides through 
 the air like a falling star, and, like a flash of lightning, comes upon the timorous quar- 
 ry, which now, in agony and despair, seeks, by various manoeuvres, to elude the grasp 
 ol Ins cruel talons. It mounts, doubles, and willingly would plunge into the stream, 
 were it not prevented by the eagle, which, long possessed of the knowledge that by such 
 a stratagem the swan might escape him, forces it to remain in the air by attempting to 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 195 
 
 Owls. — One of the most common species of this bird in the United States 
 is the Little Screech Owl, which is found throughout the country. It is 
 noted for the melancholy wailing, which is heard in the evenings in autumn 
 and the latter part of summer. On clear moonlight nights, they answer 
 each other from the various parts of the fields or orchards, roost during 
 the day in thick evergreens, and are rarely seen abroad during the sun- 
 shine. They construct their nests in the hollow of a tree, frequently 
 in an orchard. 
 
 The Great-horned Owl is also an inhabitant of every part of the coun- 
 try. ' All climates are alike,' says Mr. Nuttall, ' to this eagle of the night, 
 the king of the nocturnal tribe of American birds. The aboriginal in- 
 habitants of the country dread his boding howl, dedicating his effigies to 
 their solemnities, and, as if he were their sacred bird of Minerva, forbid the 
 mockery of his ominous, dismal, and almost supernatural cries. His fa- 
 vorite resort, in the dark and impenetrable swampy forests, where he dwells 
 in chosen solitude secure from the approach of every enemy, agrees with 
 the melancholy and sinister traits of his character. To the surrounding 
 feathered race he is the Pluto of the gloomy wilderness, and would scarcely 
 be known out of the dismal shades where he hides, but to his victims, were 
 he as silent as he is solitary. Among the choaking, loud, guttural sounds 
 which he sometimes utters, in the dead of night, and with a suddenness 
 which always alarms, because of his noiseless approach, is the 'waugh ho ! 
 , wa?igh ho ! which, Wilson remarks, was often uttered at the instant of 
 sweeping down round his camp fire. Many kinds of owls are similarly 
 dazzled andattracted by fire-lights, and occasionally finding, no doubt, some 
 offal or flesh, thrown out by those who encamp in the wilderness, they come 
 round the nocturnal blaze with other motives than barely those of curiosity.' 
 
 The Burrowing Oivl differs essentially from all others in his habits and 
 manners. Instead of hiding his head in the daylight, he fearlessly flies 
 abroad in search of prey, in the broadest glare of the sun ; and far from 
 seeking abodes of solitude and silence, he lives in company with animals in 
 the recesses of the earth, where they all enjoy the pleasures of fellowship 
 and good harmony. The mounds of the prairie dog or marmot, which are 
 thrown up in such numbers near the Rocky Mountains, are about eighteen 
 inches in height. The entrance is by a passage two feet in length, which 
 terminates in a comfortable cell composed of dry grass, where the marmot 
 takes up his winter abode. Around these villages, the burrowing owls 
 
 strike it with his talons from beneath . The hope of escape is soon given up by the 
 swan. It has already become much weakened, and its strength fails at the sight of the 
 courage and swiftness of its antagonist. Its last gasp is about to escape, when the fe- 
 rocious eagle strikes with his talons the under side of its wing, and with unresisted 
 power forces the bird to fall in a slanting direction upon the nearest shore. 
 
 It is then, reader, that you may see the cruel spirit of this dreaded enemy of the 
 feathered race, whilst, exulting over his prey, he for the first time breathes at ease. He 
 presses down his powerful feet, and drives his sharp claws deeper than ever into the 
 heart of the dying swan. He shrieks with delight, as he feels the last convulsions of 
 his prey, which has now sunk under his unceasing efforts to render death as painfully 
 felt as it can possibly be. The female has watched every movement of her mate ; and 
 if she did not assist him in capturing the swan, it was not from want of will, but merely 
 that she felt full assurance that the power and courage of her lord were quite sufficient 
 for the deed. She now sails to the spot where he eagerly awaits her, and when she 
 has arrived, they together turn the breast of the luckless swan upwards, and gorge 
 themselves with gore. — Audubon 
 
19S 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 be seen moving brisl dy or in small flocks. They seem 
 
 man ; either soaring to a distance when alarmed, 
 
 here it is very difficult to come at them. 
 
 Lntries wh marmot is not found, this owl is said to dig a hole 
 
 • ntirely of insects. Its note is 
 
 lot, which sounds like chek, cheh, pronounced 
 
 ion. 
 
 The burrowing owl is n and a half long.- The general color 
 
 of the light burnt amber, spotted with whitish. The under 
 
 • 
 
 Oth< Kind in the limits of the states are the Great 
 
 , , Chvl, the Long- red Owl, the Short-eared Owl, the 
 
 or Barn Owl. 
 The Oriole is a gay, lively, and beautiful bird, which passes 
 
 as, but retreats for the winter to South America.* The 
 most remarkable instinct of this bird is the ingenuity exhibited in building 
 its nest, which is a pendulous cylindric pouch, from five to seven inches in 
 depth, and usually suspended from the extremities of high and drooping 
 branches of a tree. The leaves, as they grow out over the top, form a pro- 
 
 Tho Baltimore Oriole. 
 
 tection from the sun and rain for the young. Though naturally shy and 
 bird usually selects his building place in the neighborhood 
 ited roads. He is easily domesticated, 
 d and atta id sings in confinement. 
 
 Ori le is a sma rand plainer species, of similar habits. 
 
 -ant of all North America, but is 
 
 . ■ northern states. This bird commits great depredations 
 
 nd on the rice fields. He is known by a variety of 
 
 h, and but little esteemed. The Cow Blackbird 
 
 the slates to another, and lives in winter in the 
 
 ier parts, hi the latter part of March, he appears in Pennsylvania, 
 
 * Bonaparte 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 197 
 
 and as the weather becomes milder, he gradually advances into Canada.* 
 The Rice Bunting is a small bird of beautiful plumage and musical song, 
 and as much of a favorite with the sportsman and gourmand, as of an 
 
 The Rice Bunting. 
 
 enem^ to the farmer and planter. They are found in immense numbers 
 in the middle states, where they do great damage to the barley, Indian 
 corn, and early wheat. 
 
 Blackbirds. — The Great Crow Blackbird is found only in the southern 
 parts of the union, where it appears early in February. It is gregarious, 
 omnivorous, and its note is said sometimes to resemble a watchman's 
 rattle. The Comtmon Croio Blackbird appears in every part of the 
 country, at different seasons, and commits great havoc among the fields of 
 maize. It is easily domesticated, and may be taught to articulate a few 
 words. The numbers in which this species are found are almost beyond 
 belief; and the damage they do to the crops is astonishing. Other "birds 
 of this genus are the Slender-billed and the Busty Blackbird. 
 
 * When the female is disposed to lay, she appears restless and dejected, and separates 
 from the unregarding flock. Stealing through the woods and thickets, she pries into 
 the bushes and brambles for the nest that suits her, into which she darts, in the absence 
 of its owner, and in a few minutes is seen to rise on the wing, cheerful and relieved 
 from the anxiety that oppressed her, and proceeds back to the flock she had so 
 reluctantly forsaken. If the egg be deposited in the nest alone, it is uniformly forsaken ; 
 but if the nursing parent have any of her own, she immediately begins to sit. The 
 red-eyed flycatcher, in whose beautiful basket-like nests I have observed these eggs, 
 proves a very affectionate and assiduous nurse to the uncouth foundling. In one of 
 these I found an egg of each bird, and the hen already sitting. I took her~own egg and 
 left the strange one ; she soon returned, and, as if sensible of what had happened, 
 looked with steadfast attention, and shifted the egg about, then sate upon it, but soon 
 moved off", again renewed her observation, and it was a considerable time before she 
 seemed willing to take her seat ; but at length I left her on the nest. Two or three 
 days after, I found that she had relinquished her attention to the strange egg, and for- 
 saken the premises. Another of these birds, however, forsook the nest, on taking out 
 the cow-bird's egg, although she had still two of her own left. The only example, 
 perhaps, to the contrary of deserting the nest when solely occupied by the stray egg, is 
 in the blue-bird, who, attached strongly to the breeding places, in which it often conti- 
 
 17* 
 
198 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The Raven is found in greater numbers in the western than in the eas- 
 tern part of the union ; it is a resident, however, in almost every country 
 in the world. He has been too often described to require extended notice. 
 The Crow is also an inhabitant of nearly every region. In most of the 
 settled districts of North America, he is frequently met with, and is as 
 little liked as he is often seen. He is smaller than the raven, and is of a 
 deep black color, with brilliant reflections. Easily domesticated, and quite 
 intelligent, he becomes attached to his master, and learns a variety of 
 amusing tricks, though he is apt to be thievish, and is sometimes noisy 
 and disagreeable. The Fish Croto resembles the rook ; it is peculiar to 
 this couiV -y, and is met with along the coast of Georgia, and as far north 
 as New 'ersey. The Columbian Crow is another variety frequenting the 
 shores of Columbia river. 
 
 Magpie. 
 The Magpie is found in the western parts of America, and is very 
 rous to the west of the Rocky Mountains. He is a restless, active, 
 
 . ars, has been known to lay, though with apparent reluctance, after 
 
 »a of the co md, Mr. C. Pickering, found two nests of 
 
 ow warbler, in which had been deposited an egg of the cow-bird pre- 
 
 • to any of their own ; and unable to eject it, they had buried it in the bottom of 
 
 it, and buill over it an additional storj ! 1 also' saw. in the summer of 1830, a 
 
 similar circumstan bird, in which the cow-bird's egs, though incarcerate 
 
 ed, was still visible on the upper edge, but could never have been "hatched. At times, 
 
 tmnk il they lay in the nests of larger birds, who throw out the egg, or 
 
 "ii the ground without obtaining a deposit, as I have found an 
 
 this kind thus exposed and broken. I have also remarked sometimes two of 
 
 these eggs in the same nest ; but in this case one of them commonly proves abortive • 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 199 
 
 and impudent bird, bold, and easily domesticated. Like the crow, he is 
 artful and thievish. His nest is built with great ingenuity and labor, in a 
 place inaccessible to man. The body of it is composed of hawthorn 
 branches, the thorns sticking outwards ; it is lined with fibrous roots, wool, 
 and long grass, and then nicely plastered with mud and clay. A canopy 
 of sharp thorns is then built over the nest, so woven together as to deny 
 ail entrance except at the door. Here the male and female bring up their 
 young brood in perfect security. 
 
 i The Blue Jay is peculiar to North America, and is distinguished as a 
 kind of beau among the feathered tenants of our woods, by the brilliancy 
 of his dress, and, like most other coxcombs, makes himself still more con- 
 spicuous by his loquacity and the oddness of his tones and gestures. He 
 
 Blue Jay. 
 
 is an almost universal inhabitant of the woods, frequenting tlie thickest 
 settlements as well as the deepest recesses of the forest, where his squalling 
 voice often alarms the deer, to the great disappointment of the hunter. He 
 appears to be among his fellow musicians, what the trumpeter is in a band, 
 some of his notes bearing no distant resemblance to the tones of that in- 
 strument. These he has the faculty of changing through a great variety 
 of modulations. When disposed for ridicule, there is scarcely a bird 
 to whose peculiarities of song he cannot tune his notes. When engaged 
 in the blandishments of love, they resemble the soft chatterings of a duck, 
 and are scarce heard at some paces distant; but no sooner does he discover 
 your approach, than he sets up a sudden and vehement outcry, flying off 
 and screaming with all his might. His notes a stranger might readily 
 mistake for the repeated creakings of an ungreased wheelbarrow. All 
 these he accompanies with various nods, jerks, and other gesticulations, 
 
200 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 for which the whole tribe of jays are so remarkable. # Other jays are the 
 Columbia, Canada, and Florida. 
 
 The Meadow Lark is a well-known agreeable bird, living in meadows, 
 and is found throughout the states. There are two species of titmouse, 
 the Tufted, and the Black-capt Titmouse. The Cedar Bird is a small 
 and very beautiful creature, with a soft silky plumage, and crest of a bright 
 brownish gray ; it feeds on cherries, and whortle-berries, and late in the 
 season on persimmons, small winter grapes, and other fruits. 
 
 The Great American Shrike is common in the northern parts of the 
 continent, but sometimes summers in New England and Pennsylvania. 
 He feeds on grasshoppers, spiders, and small birds, and after satisfying 
 hunger, impales his remaining victims on thorns. When his supply of 
 
 Great American Shrike. 
 
 fresh game is abundant, he leaves his stores to dry up and decay. He is 
 fearless, and will attack even the eagle in defence of his young. The 
 }.<><: "crhead Shrike is a species strongly resembling the one described. 
 
 The Tyrant Flycatcher, or Kingbird, is the field martin of Maryland 
 and some of the southern states, and the kingbird of Pennsylvania and 
 several of the northern districts. The trivial name king, as well as 
 tyrant, has been bestowed on this bird for its extraordinary behavior in 
 
 ing time, and for the authority it assumes over all other birds. His 
 extreme affection for his mate, nest, and young, makes him suspicious of 
 every bird that comes near his residence, so that he attacks every intruder 
 without Siscrimination ; his life at this season is one continued scene of 
 les; in which, however, he generally comes off conqueror. 
 Hawks and crows, the bald eagle, and the great black eagle, all equally 
 dr< ad a rencontre with this merciless champion, who, as soon as he per- 
 
 - one of these last approaching, launches into the air to meet him, 
 mounts to a considerable height above him, and darts down on his back, 
 sometimes fixing there to the great annoyance of his sovereign, who, if no 
 convenienl retreat be near, endeavors by various evolutions to rid himself 
 of his merciless adversary; but the kingbird is not so easily dismounted. 
 He teazes tlw eagle incessantly, sweeps upon him and remounts that he 
 may descend on his back with greater violence; all the while keeping up 
 a shrill and rapid twittering. The purple martin, however, is sometimes 
 more than a match for him. The general color of this bird is a dark 
 
 * Wilson. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 201 
 
 slaty ash, the throat and lower parts are pure white ; the plumage on the 
 head, though not forming a crest, is frequently erected, and discovers a 
 rich hed of orange color, called by the country peopie his crown ; when 
 the feathers lie close, this is concealed. 
 
 The other principal Flycatchers are, the Great-crested, Arkansas, Fork- 
 tailed, Swalloiv-tailed, Says. Pewit, and Olive-sided; the last first described 
 by Mr. Nuttall in his valuable work, from a specimen obtained at Mount 
 Auburn, now the celebrated cemetery in the neighborhood of Boston. 
 
 The Mocking Bird is peculiar to the new world, and is found in much 
 larger numbers in the southern than the northern states of the Union. A 
 warm climate and low country seem to be most congenial to its nature. 
 It feeds on berries and insects. ' The mocking bird,' says Wilson, whose 
 description has never been surpassed, ' builds his nest in different places, 
 
 Mocking Birda. 
 
 according to the latitude in which he resides. A solitary thorn bush ; an 
 almost impenetrable thicket ; an orange tree, cedar, or holly bush, are fa- 
 vorite spots. Always ready to defend, but never over anxious to conceal 
 his nest, he very often builds within a small distance of a house ; and not 
 unfrequently in a pear or apple tree, rarely higher than six or seven feet 
 from the ground. The nest is composed of dry twigs, weeds, straw, wool 
 and tow, ingeniously put together, and lined with fine fibrous roots. Dur- 
 ing the time when the female is sitting, neither cat, dog, man, or any ani- 
 mal can approach the nest without being attacked. But the whole ven- 
 geance of the bird is directed against his mortal enemy the black snake. 
 Whenever this reptile is discovered, the male darts upon it with the rapid- 
 ity of an arrow, dextrously eluding its bite, and striking it violently and 
 incessantly against the head, where it is very vulnerable. The snake soon 
 becomes sensible of his danger, and seeks to escape ; but the intrepid bird 
 redoubles his exertions, and as the snake's strength begins to flag, he seizes 
 26 
 
202 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and lifts it up from the ground, beating it with his wings, and when the 
 business is completed, he returns to his nest, mounts the summit of the 
 bush, and pours out a torrent of song in token of victory. 
 
 'The plumage of the mocking bird has nothing gaudy or brilliant in it ; 
 but that which so strongly recommends him, is his full, strong and musical 
 voice, capable of almost "every modulation, from the mellow tones of the 
 woodthrush, to the savage screams of the bald eagle. In his native groves, 
 mounted on the top of a tall bush, in the dawn of a dewy morning, while 
 the woods are already vocal with a multitude of warblers, his admi- 
 rable song rises pre-eminent over every competitor. The ear can listen 
 to his music alone. Nor is the strain altogether imitative. His own 
 native notes are bold and full, and varied seemingly beyond all limits. 
 They consist of short expressions of two, three, or five and six syllables, 
 generally interspersed with imitations, all of them uttered with great em- 
 phasis and rapidity, and continued for an hour at a time with undiminished 
 ardor; his expanded wings and tail glistening with white, and the buoy- 
 aiety of his action arresting the eye, as his song most irresistibly does 
 the ear. " He sweeps round with enthusiastic ecstasy — he mounts and de- 
 scends as his song swells or dies away — and, as Mr. Bartram has beauti- 
 fully expressed it, " he bounds aloft with the celerity of an arrow, as if to 
 recover or recall his very soul, expired in the last elevated strain." While 
 thus exerting himself, a bystander would suppose that the whole feathered 
 tribes had assembled together on a trial for skill — so perfect are his imita- 
 tions. 
 
 ' The mocking bird loses little of the power and energy of his song by 
 confinement. In his domesticated state, when he commences his career 
 of song, it is impossible to stand by uninterested. He whistles for the dog; 
 Caesar starts up, wags his tail, and runs to meet his master. He squeaks 
 out like a hurt chicken, and the hen hurries about with hanging wings and 
 bristling feathers, clucking to protect her injured brood. The barking of 
 the dog, the mewing of the cat, the creaking of the passing wheelbarrow, fol- 
 low with great truth and rapidity. He repeats the tune taught him by his 
 master, though of considerable length, fully and faithfully. He runs over 
 the quiverings of the canary, and the clear whistlings of the Virginia 
 nightingale, ur red bird, with such superior execution and effect,* that the 
 mortified^ songsters feel their own inferiority, and become silent, while he 
 seems to triumph in their defeat by redoubling his exertions.' 
 
 Warblers. — The Summer Yellow Bird, or Warbler, is a brilliant and 
 [ion species, found in every part of the American continent; he is 
 about five inches in length, withan upper plumage of greenish yellow, and 
 - and tail deep brown, edged with yellow. He is a lively and familiar 
 bird, and a great ornament to the gardens and orchards. His nest is built 
 with great neatness in the fork of a small shrub. It is composed of flax 
 or tow, strongly twisted round the twigs, and lined with hair and the down 
 of fern. This interesting little bird will feign lameness to draw one from 
 llis nest, fluttering feebly along, and looking back to see if he is followed. 
 His notes are few and shrill, hardly deserving the name of a song. There 
 is a very great variety belonging to the family of warblers, of which we 
 caii only allude to the Prairie, Hemlock, Pine-swamp, Blue- mountain, 
 pnut-sided, Mourning, and Blue-winged Warbler. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 203 
 
 Ferruginous Thrush. — This is the Brown Thrush or Thrasher of the 
 middle and eastern states, and the French Mocking-Bird of Maryland, Vir- 
 ginia, and the Carolinas. It is the largest of all our thrushes, and is a 
 well-known and distinguished songster, and from the tops of hedge rows, 
 apple or cherry trees, he salutes the opening morning with his charming 
 song, which is loud, emphatical and full of variety. These notes are not 
 imitative, but solely his own. He is an active and vigorous bird, flying 
 generally low from one thicket to another, with his long broad tail spread 
 out like a fan ; he has a single note ot chuck when you approach his nest. 
 
 Ferruginous Thrush. 
 
 There is a very numerous variety of thrushes in the states, of which the 
 best known are the Cat Bird, Robin, Wood, Little or Hermit, Wilson's, 
 and the Golden-crowned Thrush. 
 
 Wren. — The House Wren, throughout the states, is a well-known and 
 familiar bird, who builds his nest sometimes under the eaves, or in a hol- 
 low cherry tree ; but most commonly in small boxes fixed on a pole, for his 
 accommodation. He will even put up with an old hat, and if this also is 
 denied him, he will find some hole or crevice, about the house or barn, 
 rather than abandon the dwellings of man. A mower once hung up his 
 coat, under a shed near a barn ; two or three days elapsed before he had 
 occasion to put it on ; thrusting his arm up the sleeve, he found it com- 
 pletely filled with some rubbish as he expressed it, and on extracting the 
 whole mass, found it to be the nest of a wren, completely finished and lined 
 with a large quantity of feathers. In his retreat he was followed by the 
 forlorn little proprietors, who scolded him with great vehemence, for thus 
 ruining the whole economy of their domestic affairs. 
 
 The immense number of insects which this sociable little bird rer 
 from the garden and fruit trees ought to endear him to every cultiv! 
 and his notes, loud, sprightly and tremulous, are extremely agreeable. 
 
204 
 
 food is insects and caterpillars, and i ■ ?oang, 
 
 troyS) n an a n tny hundreds a day. It is a bold and mso- 
 
 ,..,„ i, , nture to build within its jurisdiction ; attack- 
 
 em without hesitation, though twice its size, and compelling them to 
 ap. Even the blue bird, whe ' by this little impertinent, soon 
 
 relinquishes the contesl : with those of his own species, also, he has fre- 
 quent squabbles. The varieties of the wren are very numerous. 
 
 The Blue Bird is a familiar favorite throughout the continent. It is 
 
 : his return is hailed in the northern states as the first presage 
 
 of spring. ' Towards autumn,' says Mr. Nuttall, ' in the month of October, 
 
 h;. cheerful so i < and is now changed into a single plaintive 
 
 Even when the leaves have fallen, and the forest no longer affords a 
 
 r (',.,„,! thi ' faithful blue bird still lingers over his native 
 
 and only takes his departure in November, when, at a considerable 
 
 t ion, in the ' ; >f the morning, till the opening of the day, 
 
 t!u-y wing their way in small roving troops to some milder regions in 
 
 uth.' 
 
 ■s. — The Tana§ers are gaudy birds, which annually visit the 
 republic from the torrid regions of the south. The Scarlet Tanager is 
 perhaps the most showy. He spreads himself over the United States, and 
 is found even in Canada. He rarely approaches the habitations of man, 
 perhaps in the orchard, where he sometimes builds ; or in the cherry 
 trees in search of fruit ; the depth of the wood is his favorite abode. 
 
 Tanager. 
 
 Arnold all the birds thai our woods, there is none that strikes the 
 
 eye of a i a native, with so much brilliancy as this. Seen 
 
 ig the green I with the light falling strongly on his plumage, he 
 
 ul. Another specii , die summer red bird, delights in a 
 flat sandy country, covered with wood, and interspersed with pine trees; 
 and is, consequently, more numerous towards the shores of the Atlantic 
 than in the interior. 
 
 Finches. — The Song Sparrow is the most generally diffused over the Unit- 
 ed States, and is the most numerous of all our sparrows ; and it is far the 
 eaf^Rt, suv.'' t, and most lasting songster. Many of them remain during 
 the Miole winter in close-sheltered meadows and swamps. It is the first 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 205 
 
 'I 
 
 singing bird in spring. Its song continues through the summer and fall, 
 and is sometimes heard even in the depths of winter. The notes or chant 
 are short but very sweet, and frequently repeated, from a small bush or tree, 
 where it sits chanting for an hour together. It is fond of frequenting the 
 borders of rivers, meadows and swamps ; and, if wounded and unable to 
 fly, will readily take to the water, and swim with considerable rapidity. 
 There are other familiar species of sparrows, as the Chipping, Field, and 
 Tree., Yellow-winged, and White-throated sparrows. 
 
 The Indigo Bird is numerous in the middle and eastern states, and in 
 the Carolinas and Georgia. Its favorite haunts are about gardens, fields of 
 clover, borders of woods, and road sides, where it is frequently seen perched 
 on fences. In its manners it is extremely neat and active, and a vigorous 
 and pretty good songster. It mounts to the tops of the highest trees, and 
 chants for half an hour at a time. Its song is not one continued strain, but 
 a repetition of short notes, commencing loud and rapid, and falling by slow 
 gradations till they seem hardly articulate, as if the little minstrel were 
 quite exhausted ; but after a pause of half a minute, it commences again 
 as before. Notwithstanding the beauty of his plumage, and the vivacity of 
 his song, the indigo bird is seldom seen domesticated. Its nest is built in a 
 low bush among rank grass, grain, or clover, suspended by two twigs, one 
 passing up each side, and is composed of flax, and lined with grass. This 
 bird is five inches long, the whole body of a rich sky-blue, deepening in 
 color toward the head, and sometimes varying to greem. 
 
 The Yellow Bird, or Goldfinch, bears a great resemblance to the canary, 
 and in song is like the goldfinch of Britain, but it is in general weak. In 
 the spring, they associate in flocks, to bask and dress themselves in the 
 morning sun, singing in concert for half an hour together ; the confused 
 mingling of their notes forming a kind of harmony not at all unpleasant. 
 Their flight is not direct, but in alternate risings and sinkings, twittering 
 as they fly at each successive impulse of the wings. They search the gar- 
 dens in numbers, in qui :eds, and pass by various names, such as 
 lettuce-bird, sallad-bird, thistle-bird, yellow-bird. They are very easily 
 tamed. 
 
 The goldfinch is four inches and a half in length : the male is of a rich 
 lemon color. The wings and tail are black, edged with white. In the fall, 
 this color changes to a brown olive, which is the constant color of the 
 female. They build a nest in the twigs of an apple tree, neatly formed of 
 lichen and soft downy substances. 
 
 The Cardinal Grosbeak is one of our most common cage birds, and 
 is very generally known both in this country and in Europe. Numbers 
 of them have been carried to England and France, in which last country 
 they are called Virginia nightingales. They have great clearness and 
 variety of tones ; many of which-resemble the clear notes of the fife, and are 
 nearly as loud. They begin in the spring at daybreak, and repeat a favorite 
 passage twenty or thirty times. The sprightly figure and gaudy plumage 
 of this bird, with his vivacity and strength of voice, must always make him 
 a favorite. 
 
 The Crossbill is an inhabitant of almost all the pine forests situated north 
 of forty degrees, from the beginning of September to the middle of April. 
 The great pine swamp in Pennsylvania appears to be their favorite rej^ez- 
 rous. They then appear in large flocks, feeding on the seeds of the^m- 
 
 18 
 
206 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lock and white pine ; have a loud, sharp, and not unmusical note ; chatter 
 as they fly; alighl during the prevalence of the deep snows before the door 
 of the hunter, and around the house, picking off the clay with which the 
 locrs are plastered, and searching in corners where any substance of a 
 saline nature bad been thrown. At such times, they are so tame as only 
 to settle on the roof of the cabin when disturbed, and a moment after, de- 
 scend to feed as before. They are then easily caught in traps. When 
 kept in a cage, they have many of the habits of the parrot, often climbing 
 along the wires, and using their feet to grasp the cones in, while taking out 
 
 tilt? St*< 'I Is. 
 
 Carolina Parrot. — This is the only species of parrot found native within 
 the territory of the United States. The vast luxuriant tracts lying within 
 
 * 
 
 Carolina Parrot. 
 
 the torrid zone seem to be the favorite residence of those noisy, numerous 
 ami richly plumaged tribes. The Carolina parrot inhabits the interior of 
 Louisiana and the shores of the Mississippi and Ohio, east of the Allegha- 
 nies. It is seldom seen north of Maryland. Their private places of resort 
 are low, rich, alluvial bottoms along the borders of creeks ; deep and almost 
 impenetrable swamps filled with sycamore and cypress trees, and the salines 
 or licks interspersed over the western country. * Here too is a great abun- 
 dance of their favorite fruits. The seeds of the cvpress tree and beech nuts 
 are eagerly sought after by these birds. 
 
 The flight of the Carolina parrot is very much like that of the wild 
 P'g^ 1 ' m dose compact bodies, moving with great rapidity, making a loud 
 and^itrageous screaming, like that of the red-headed woodpecker. Their 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 207 
 
 flight is sometimes in a direct line, but most usually circuitous, making a 
 great variety of elegant and easy serpentine meanders, as if for pleasure. 
 They generally roost in the hollow trunks of old sycamores, in parties of 
 thirty or forty together. Here they cling fast to the sides of the tree, hold- 
 ing by their claws and bills. They appear to be fond of sleep, and often 
 retire to their holes during the day, probably to take their regular siesta. 
 They are extremely social and friendly towards each other. 
 
 The Yellow-billed Cuckoo is not abundant any where ; but it is found far 
 north, though preferring a residence in the southern states. It feeds on. 
 berries and insects of various kinds. ' In autumn,' says Mr. Audubon, 
 ' they eat many grapes, and I have seen them supporting themselves by a 
 momentary motion of their wings opposite a bunch, as if selecting the 
 ripest, when they would seize it and return to a branch, repeating their 
 visits in this manner, until satiated. They now and then descend to the 
 ground, to pick up a wood-snail or a beetle. They are extremely awkward 
 at walking, and move in an ambling manner, or leap along sidewise, for 
 which the shortness of their legs is an ample excuse. They are seldom 
 seen perched conspicuously on a twig, but on the contrary are generally to 
 be found amongst the thickest boughs and foliage, where they emit their 
 notes until late in autumn, at which time they discontinue them.' It is shy 
 and cowardly, robbing small birds of their eggs. 
 
 Woodpeckers. — The Red-headed Woodpecker is universally known from 
 his striking and characteristic plumage, and the frequency of his depre- 
 dations in the orchards and corn-fields. Towards the mountains, particu- 
 larly in the vicinity of creeks and rivers, these birds are extremely abun- 
 
 Red-headed Woodpecker. 
 
 dant, especially in the latter part of the summer. Wherever you travel 
 in the interior at that season, you hear them screaming from the adjoining 
 woods, rattling on the dead limbs of trees, or on the fences, where they are 
 perpetually seen flitting from stake to stake on the roadside before you. 
 Wherever there are trees of the wild cherry, covered with ripe fruit, there 
 you see them busy among the branches ; and in passing orchards, you may 
 easily know where to find the sweetest apples, by observing those trees on 
 
2Q8 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 or neaT which this bird is skulking; for he is so excellent a connoisseur in 
 fruit, that wherever an apple or pear is found broached by him, it is sure 
 Lo be among the ripest and best flavored. When alarmed, he seizes a 
 capita] sticking his open bill deep into it, and bears it ofrto the 
 
 woods. When the Indian corn is in its ripe, succulent,, and milky state, 
 L ii with greal eagerness, opening a passage through the numer- 
 [ds of the husk, and feeding on it with voracity. The girdled or 
 deadened timber, so common among the corn-fields in the back settlements, 
 are his favorite retreats, whence he sallies out to make his depredations. 
 He is tend of the ripe berries of the sour gum, and pays regular visits to 
 the cherry trees, when loaded with fruit. Towards fall, he often approaches 
 the harn or farm house, and raps on the shingles and weather-boards. He 
 i^ uf a gay and frolicsome disposition ; and half a dozen of the fraternity 
 are frequently seen diving and vociferating round the high dead limbs of 
 pursuing and playing with each other, amusing the passenger 
 with their gambols. Their note or cry is shrill and lively, and so much 
 resembles that of a species of tree-frog, which frequents the same tree, 
 thr ii is sometimes difficult to distinguish the one from the other. 
 
 The Ivory-billed Woodpecker breeds in the Carolinas, and in strength 
 and magnitude stands at the head of the tribe. He lives in the cypress 
 swamps, seeking the tops of the most towering trees; his bill is like pol- 
 ished ivory, and his crest a superb carmine. His eye is brilliant and 
 daring, and his manners are said to he dignified and noble. Among the 
 oilier American birds of this tribe are the PUeated, Yellow- bellied, Golden- 
 toinged, and Red '-bell inl Woodpeckers. 
 
 Nuthatch. — The White-breasted Nuthatch is found almost every where 
 
 in the weeds of North America; his whole upper plumage is light-blue or 
 
 lead, the under pans are white, and the crown of the head, black. Ants, 
 
 insects, and larva', form his principal subsistence. There are two 
 
 other species of this bird found in the United States. 
 
 The Ruby-throated Humming Bird is the only species of the genus found 
 in l 1 ::' limits of the states, though there are upwards of one hundred in 
 America. Its approach to the north is regulated by the advance of the 
 m. His is extremely fond of tubular flowers, particularly of the blos- 
 of the trumpet flower. When arrived before a thicket of these, that 
 are full Mown, he suspends himself on wing for the space of two or three 
 seconds, so steadily that his wings become almost invisible ; the glossy 
 golden green of his back, and the lire of his throat, dazzling in the sun, 
 form altogether an interesting spectacle. When he alights, he prefers 
 the small dead twigs of a bush, where he dresses and arranges his plumage 
 with great dexterity. His flight from flower to flower greatly resembles 
 that of a bee, bul is infinitely more rapid. He poises himself on wing, 
 while he thrusts his lone- slender tongue into the flowers in search of food. 
 He sometimes enters a room by the window, examines the bouquets of 
 flowers, and passes out by the opposite door or window. He feeds on the 
 honey extracted from Hewers, a ects. 
 
 • The old and young,' says Mr. Nuttall, ' are soon reconciled to confine- 
 ment. In an hour after the less of liberty, the little cheerful captive will 
 I suck diluted honey, or sugar and water, from the flowers 
 held out to it ; and in a few hours more, it becomes tame enough to sip its 
 favorite beverage from a saucer, in the interval flying backwards and for- 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 209 
 
 wards in the room for mere exercise, and then resting on some neighboring 
 elevated object. In dark or rainy weather, they seem to pass the time 
 chiefly dozing or on the perch. They are also soon so familiar as to 
 come to the hand that feeds them. In cold nights, or at the approach of 
 frost, the pulsation of this little dweller in the sunbeam becomes nearly as 
 low as in the torpid state of the dormouse ; but on applying warmth, the 
 almost stagnant circulation revives, and slowly increases to the usual 
 state.' 
 
 Belled Kingfisher. 
 
 Belted Kingfisher. — This is the only species of its tribe found within 
 the United States, where it frequents the banks of all the fresh water 
 rivers from Maine to Florida. His voice is loud, rattling, and sudden. 
 His flight is rapid, and is sometimes prolonged to very considerable 
 distances. He follows up the course of the rivers to their very fountains, 
 and his presence is a sign of abundant fish. Mill-ponds, where the water 
 is calm, are favorite resorts of this bird, and its eggs are generally found in 
 places not far from a mill worked by water. The kingfisher, for many 
 successive years, returns to the same hole to breed and roost. Its flesh is 
 oily and disagreeable. 
 
 Sivallo?vs. — The beautiful Purple Martin is a great favorite of man in 
 all parts of the country. The farmer prepares a little house for him, the 
 Indian hollows a calabash, anil as either mansion is to him indifferent, so 
 is he equally acceptable to the husbandman and the hunter. Year after 
 year he returns to the same mansion. In the middle states, the martins 
 prepare their nest about the third week in April, and they rear two broods 
 in the season. There are several other species, such as the Barn, Cliff 
 White-bellied, and Chimney. 
 
 Night-Haioks. — The Whip-poor-will is a remarkable nocturnal bird 
 21 IS* 
 
210 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 migratory through nearly the extent of the states. It is well known for its 
 sad and peculiar' song. The Check-will's Widow is seldom found north 
 of Virginia, and is particularly numerous in the vast forests of the Missis- 
 sippi. & Its note is strikingly different from that of the whip-poor-will. In 
 sound and articulation it seems plainly to express the words which have 
 been applied to it, pronouncing every syllable leisurely, and distinctly, 
 putting the principal emphasis on the last word. In a still evening it may 
 be heard at the distance of nearly a mile ; the tones of its voice being 
 strong and full. 
 
 The flight of this bird is slow, skimming about the surface of the ground, 
 frequently settling on old logs or on the fences, and from thence sweeping 
 around in pursuit of various insects that fly in the night. Like the whip- 
 poor-will, it prefers the declivities of glens, and other deeply shaded places, 
 making the mountains resound with echoes the whole evening. 
 
 Pigeons. — The Passenger Pigeon is the most remarkable American 
 species. The head, throat, and upper parts of the body are ash colored ; 
 the sides of the neck are of a glossy variable purple ; and there is a crim- 
 son mark round the eyes. These birds visit the different parts of North 
 America in immense flocks. The most important facts connected with 
 their habits relate to their extraordinary associations and migrations. No 
 
 Passenger Pigeon. 
 
 other species known to naturalists is more calculated to attract the atten- 
 tion of either the citizen or the stranger, as he has opportunity of viewing 
 both of these characteristic habits while they are passing from north to 
 south, east and west, and, vice versa, over and across the whole extent of 
 the United States of America. These migrations are owing entirely to 
 the dire necessity of providing food, and not merely to escape the severity 
 of a northern latitude, or seek a southern one for the purpose of breeding. 
 Thf y consequently do not take place at any fixed period or season of the 
 year. Indeed, it happens sometimes that a continuance of a sufficient 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 211 
 
 supply of food in one district will keep these birds absent front another for 
 years. 
 
 Their rapidity of flight is wonderful. Pigeons have been killed in the 
 neighborhood of New York, with their crops full of the rice they must 
 have collected in the plantations of the Carolinas, or Georgia, and the 
 flight necessary to account for this circumstance has been estimated at a 
 mile a minute. Another well-known bird of this tribe is the Carolina 
 Pigeon. 
 
 Wild Turkey. — This splendid bird is found from the North-West territory 
 to the isthmus of Panama. They abound in the forests and unsettled parts 
 of the Union, but are very rare in the northern and eastern parts. They were 
 formerly abundant in Canada ; but as their places of resort become settled 
 and thickly peopled, they retire and seek refuge in the remotest recesses 
 
 Wild Turkey. 
 
 of the interior. In New England, it appears to have been destroyed many 
 years ago ; but it is still found in the eastern parts of Pennsylvania and 
 New Jersey. 
 
 These birds do not confine themselves to any particular food, but eat 
 corn, berries, grapes, barley, tadpoles, young frogs and lizards. Their 
 favorite food, however, is the pecan nut and acorn. Where there is an 
 abundant crop of acorns, numerous flocks of turkeys may be expected. 
 In the fall, they direct their courses in vast numbers to the rich lands on 
 the borders of the Ohio and Mississippi. Before crossing a river, they as- 
 semble on the highest eminences, and remain there as if in consultation for 
 
212 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 a day or two. At length, after due preparation, the leader gives a signat 
 note, and they all wing their way to the opposite shore. Some of the 
 young and weak fall into the water, and many perish. It is observed that 
 after these journeys, the turkeys are so familiar, that they fearlessly enter 
 the plantations, in search of food. Great numbers are killed at this time, 
 and kept in a frozen state to be sent to distant markets. 
 
 The flesh of the wild turkey is of excellent flavor, being more delicate 
 and juicy than that of the domestic turkey ; the Indians value it so highly, 
 that they term it, when roasted, ' the white man's dish.' The male of the 
 
 Hi 
 
 I 
 
 Wild Turkeys. 
 
 wild turkey is nearly four feet in length ; the female is only three feet and 
 a quarter long. The plumage of the male is very brilliant, and of a variety 
 of hues ; that of the female is not so beautiful.* 
 
 ' Turkey Shooting. — Good dogs scent the turkeys, when in large flocks, at extraordinary 
 distances, — I think T may venture to say half a mile. Should the dog be well trained 
 to this spurt, he sets off at full speed, and in silence, until he sees the birds, when lie 
 instantly barks, and pushing as much as possible into the centre of the flock, forces the 
 ■ wing in different directions. This is of great advantage to the hunter, 
 for should the turkeys all go one way, they would soon leave their perches and run 
 again. But when they separate in this manner, and the weather happens to be calm 
 and lowering., a person accustomed to this kind of sport finds the birds with ease,- and 
 shoots them al pleasure. 
 
 When turkeys ali tree, it is sometimes very difficult to see them, which is 
 
 owing to etly motionless. Should you discover one, when it is down 
 
 "" its li gs upon th ■ branch, you may approach it with less care. But if it is standing 
 
 ■ ■ greatest precaution is necessary, for should it discover you, it instantly flies 
 
 off, frequently to such a distance that it would be vain to follow. 
 
 rely winged by a shot, it falls quickly to the ground in a slant- 
 in- direction. Then, instead of Losing time by tumbling and rolling over, as other birds 
 mded, il inns off at such a rate, that unless the hunter be provided 
 with a swift dog, he may bid farewell to it. 1 recollect coming on one shot in this man- 
 ner i """'" 1il B »m the tree where it had been perched, my dog having traced 
 it to this distance, through one of those thick cane-brakes that cover many portions of 
 our rich alluvial lands near the banks of our western rivers. Turkeys are easily killed 
 " the head, the aeck, or the upper part of the breast; but if hit in the hind parts 
 so far as to be lost to the hunter. During winter, many of our real 
 
 nlight, on the roosts, where these birds will frequently stand 
 
 a repetition of the report, of a rifle, although they would fly from the attack of an owl, 
 or even perhaps from his presence. Thus sometimes nearlya whole flock is secured by 
 men capable of using these guns in such circumstances. They are often destroyed ia 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 213 
 
 The Quail. — The American quail is found throughout the union ; and 
 though in form and general appearance it somewhat resembles the European 
 quail, the two birds differ very widely in their habits. The food of the 
 quail consists of grain, seed and insects, but buckwheat and Indian corn 
 are its favorites. The flight of this bird is accompanied with a loud 
 whizzing sound, occasioned by the shortness of their wings and the rapidity 
 with which they move. During winter, they often suffer severely from the 
 
 Quail. 
 
 inclemency of the weather, and whole coveys are found frozen in spots 
 where they had endeavored to shelter themselves. 
 
 great numbers when most worthless, that is, early in the fall or autumn, when many 
 are killed in their attempt to cross the rivers, or immediately after they reach the shore. 
 
 Whilst speaking of the shooting of turkeys. I feel no hesitation in relating the follow- 
 ing occurrence, which happened to myself. While in search of game, one afternoon 
 late in autumn, when the males go together, and the females are by themselves also, I 
 heard the clucking of one of the latter, and immediately finding her perched on a fence, 
 made towards her. Advancing slowly and cautiously, I heard the yelping notes of 
 some gobblers, when I stopped and listened in order to ascertain the direction in which 
 they came. I then ran to meet the birds, hid myself by the side of a large fallen tree, 
 cocked my gun, and waited with impatience for a good opportunity. The gobblers con- 
 tinued yelping in answer to the female, which all this while remained on the fence. . I 
 looked over the log and saw about thirty fine cocks advancing rather cautiously towards 
 the very spot where I lay concealed. They came so near that the light in their eyes 
 could easily be perceived, when I fired one barrel, and killed three. The rest, instead 
 of flying off, fell a strutting around their dead companions, and had I not looked on 
 shooting again as murder without necessity, I might have secured at least anpt^ er> 
 So I showed myself, and marching to the place where the dead birds we* - drove- 
 away the survivors. I may also mention, that a friend of mine shot ^ fine hen from 
 his horse, with a pistol, as the poor thing was probably returning to her nest to lay. 
 
 Should you, good-natured reader, be a sportsman, and now and then have been fortu- 
 nate in the exercise of your craft, the following incident, which I shall relate to you as 
 
214 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Grouse. — The Ruffed Grouse is the partridge of the eastern states, anr) 
 the pheasant of Pennsylvania and the southern districts. It is known in 
 almost every quarter of the United States, and appears to inhabit a very 
 extensive range of country. Its favorite places of resort are high moun- 
 tains covered with the balsam, pine, hemlock, and such like evergreens. 
 Unlike the pinnated grouse, it always prefers the woods ; is seldom or never 
 
 I had it from the mouth of an honest farmer, may prove interesting. Turkeys were 
 very abundant in his neighborhood, and, resorting to his corn-fields, at the period when 
 the maize had just shot up from the ground, destroyed great quantities of it. This 
 induced him to swear vengeance against the species. He cut a long trench in a favor- 
 able situation, put a great quantity of corn in it, and having heavily loaded a famous duck- 
 gun of his, placed it so as that he could pull the trigger by means of a string, when 
 quite concealed from the birds. The turkeys soon discovered the corn in the trench, 
 and quickly disposed of it, at the same time continuing their ravages in the fields. He 
 filled the trench again, and one day seeing it quite black with the turkeys, whistled 
 loudly, on which all the birds raised their heads, when he pulled the trigger by the long 
 string fastened to it. The explosion followed of course, and the turkeys were seen 
 scampering off in all directions, in utter discomfiture and dismay. On running to the 
 trench, he found nine of them extended in it. The rest did not consider it expedient to 
 visit his corn again for that season. 
 
 During spring, turkeys are called, as it is termed, by drawing the air in a particular 
 way through one of the second joint bones of a wing of that bird, which produces a 
 sound resembling the voice of the female, on hearing which the male comes up, and is 
 sflot. In managing this, however, no fault must be committed, for turkeys are quick 
 in distinguishing counterfeit sounds, and when half civilized are very wary and cunning. 
 I have known many to answer to this kind of call, without moving a step, and thus 
 entirely defeat the scheme of the hunter, who dared not move from his hiding-place, lest 
 a single glance of the gobbler's eye should frustrate all further attempts to decoy them. 
 Many are shot when at roost, in this season, by answering with a rolling gobble to a 
 sound in imitation of the cry of the barred owl. 
 
 AVhile at Henderson, on the Ohio, I had, among many other wild birds, a fine male 
 turkey, which had been reared from its earliest youth under my care, it having 
 been caught by me when probably not more than two or three days old. It became so 
 tame that it Mould follow any person who called it, and was the favorite of the little 
 village. Yet it would never roost with the tame turkeys, but regularly betook itself at 
 nighl to the roof of the house, where it remained until dawn. When two years old, it 
 b gan to fly to the woods, where it remained for a considerable part of the day, to return 
 to the enclosure as night approached. It continued this practice until the following 
 spring, when I saw it several times fly from its roosting place to the top of a high cotton 
 tree, on the bank of the Ohio, from which, after resting a little, it would sail to the oppo- 
 site shore, the river being there nearly half a mile wide, and return towards night. 
 
 One morning I saw it fly oil', at a very early hour, to the woods, in another direction, 
 and took no particular notice of the circumstance. Several days elapsed, but the bird 
 did not return. I was going towards some lakes near Green River to shoot, when 
 having walked about five miles, I saw a fine large gobbler cross the path before me, 
 moving leisurely along. Turkeys being then in prime condition for the table, I ordered 
 my dog to chase it, and put it up. The animal went off' with great rapidity, and as it 
 approached the turkey, I saw, with great surprise, that the latter paid little attention. 
 Juno was on the point of seizing it, when she suddenly stopped, and turned her head 
 towards me. I hastened to them, but you may easily conceive my surprise when I saw 
 my own favorite bird, and discovered that it had recognised the dug, and would not fly 
 from it ; although the sight of a strange dog would have caused it to run off at once. 
 A friend of mine happening to be in search of a wounded deer, took the bird on his sad- 
 b efore him, and carried it home for me. The following spring it was accidentally 
 shot, <; v.\ avnl S Deen ta -ken for a wild bird, and brought to me on being recognised by the 
 red ribho.L which it had around its neck. Pray, reader, by what word will you desig- 
 nate the recognii'.'on made by my favorite turkey of a dog which had been long asso- 
 rted with it in the yard and grounds? Was it the result of instinct, or of reason,- ■ 
 an unconsciously revived impression, or the act of an intelligent mind? — Audubon. 
 
 ..:;.- be 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 215 
 
 found in open plains, but loves the pine-sheltered declivities of mountains 
 near streams of water. In the lower parts of Georgia, Carolina, and 
 Florida, they are very seldom observed ; but as we advance inland to the 
 mountains, they again make their appearance. The Sharp-tailed Grouse, 
 the Dusky Grouse, and the Cock of the Plains, are other species of 
 this tribe. 
 
 The Woodcock, in its general figure and habits, greatly resembles the 
 woodcock of Europe, but is considerably less, and very differently marked. 
 This bird is universally known to our sportsmen. During the day they 
 keep to the woods and thickets, and at the approach of evening seek the 
 springs and open watery places to feed in. In hot weather, they descend 
 to the marshy shores of our rivers, their favorite springs and watery re- 
 cesses inland being dried up. To the former of these retreats they are pur- 
 sued by sportsmen, flushed by dogs, and shot down in great numbers. 
 The woodcock is properly a nocturnal bird, feeding chiefly at night, and 
 seldom stirring about till after sunset ; at such times he rises by a kind of 
 spiral course to a considerable height in the air, uttering at times a sudden 
 quack, till having gained his utmost height, he hovers round in a wild 
 irregular manner, making a sort of murmuring sound, then descends with 
 rapidity as he rose. 
 
 Canvass-Back Duck. 
 
 Ducks. — The Canvass-back Duck is peculiar to this country, and a witty 
 gourmand of England, who made the tour of the states, thinks it the onl 
 production of nature or art of which America can with reason be prou 
 It was known to the epicure, long before it was described by the naturalis 
 Arriving in the United States from the north, about the middle of October, 
 its chief place of resort is about the waters which flow into Chesapeak bay. 
 On its first arrival it is lean, but from the abundance of its favorite food, it 
 soon becomes fat. This bird is sometimes found in numbers so great as to 
 cover acres.* 
 
 * Buck Shooting on the Chesapeak. — To a stranger, visiting these waters, the innumer 
 able ducks, feeding in beds of thousands, or filling the air with their careering, with 
 the great numbers of beautiful white swans resting near the shores, like banks of 
 driven snow, he would naturally suppose the facilities for their destruction were equal 
 
216 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Among the American birds of this tribe are the Eider Duck, Black or 
 Surf Duck, Ruddy Duck, Golden-eye, Buffel-headed Duck, Tufted Duck, Teal, 
 and some others. The Wood or Summer Duck, is the most beautiful bird 
 
 to their profusion, and with so large an object in view, a sportsman could scarcely miss 
 his aim. But when he considers the great thickness of their covering, the velocity of 
 their flight, tin- rapidity and duration of their diving, and the great influence that cir- 
 cumstances of wind and weather have on the chances of success, it becomes a matter 
 of wonder how so many are destroyed. 
 
 The usual mode of taking these birds has been, till recently, by shooting from the 
 points during the flight, or from the land or boats, on their feeding grounds, or by 
 toling, as it is strangely termed, an operation by which the ducks are sometimes induced 
 to approach within a few feet of the shore, from a distance often of several hundred 
 yards. This process, though it has been frequently described, may not be uninteresting 
 to repeat. A spot is usually selected where the birds have not been much disturbed, 
 and where they feed at three or four hundred yards from, and can approach to within 
 forty or fifty yards of the shore, as they will never come nearer than they can swim 
 freely. The higher the tides and calmer the day, the better, for they feed closer to the 
 shores and see more distinctly. Most persons on these waters have a race of small, 
 white or liver-colored dogs, which are familiarly called the toler breed, but which appear 
 to be the ordinary poodle. 
 
 These dogs are extremely playful, and are taught to run up and down the shore, in 
 sight of the ducks, either by the motion of the hand, or by throwing chips from side 
 to side. They soon become perfectly acquainted with their business, and as they dis- 
 covei the ducks approaching them, make their jumps less high, till they almost crawl 
 otuthe ground, to prevent the birds discovering what the object of their curiosity may 
 be. Inis disposition to examine rarities, has been taken advantage of, by using a red 
 or black handkerchief, by day, and white, by night, in toling, or even by gently splash- 
 ing tl -3 water on the shore. The nearest ducks soon notice the strange appearance, 
 whatever the plan attempted, raise their heads, gaze intently for a moment, then push 
 for the shore. The rest follow suit, and the author has, on many occasions, seen thou- 
 sands of them swimming in a solid mass, direct to the object ; and by removing the 
 dog further into the grass, they have been brought within fifteen feet of the bank. 
 When they have approached tc about thirty or forty yardSj their curiosity is generally 
 satisfied, when they swim laterally up and down for a few seconds, and then retrograde 
 to their old spot. Whilst presenting the side view, is the moment to shoot, and forty 
 or fifty ducks have often been killed by a small gun. The black-heads tole the most 
 . then the red Is,. next the canvass-baclcs, and the bald-pates rarely; and this is 
 the ratio of their approach to the points in flying, although if the canvass-back has 
 determined on his direction, few circumstances will change his course. The total 
 absence of cover or precaution against exposure to sight, or even a large fire, will not 
 turn these birds aside on such occasions. 
 
 In flying shooting, the bald-pate is a great nuisance, for they are so shy, that they 
 not only avoid the points themselves, but by their whistling and confusion of flight at 
 such times, alarm others ; and few days occur during the season, without many male- 
 dictions on their very existence. 
 
 As simple as it may appear to shoot, with success, into a solid mass of ducks, sitting 
 on the water at forty or fifty yards' distance, yet, when you recollect, that you are 
 placed nearly level with the water, the object opposed to the visual line, even though 
 d of hundreds, may lie in appearance but a foot or two in width. To give, 
 therefore, the best promise of success, old duckers recommend that the nearest duck 
 should be in perfect relief above the sight, whatever the size of the column, to avoid 
 the common result of over-shooting. The correctness of this principle was illustrated 
 to the writer, in an irj an in which he had toled, to within a space between forty and 
 seventy yards of the shore, a bed of certainly hundreds of ducks. Twenty yards 
 beyond the outside birds of the solid mass, were five black-heads, one of which was 
 alone killed out of tin- whole number, by a deliberate aim into the middle of the large 
 flock, from a rest, by a heavy, well-proved duck-gun. 
 
 Before 1 lei bjecl of sitting shootin », I will mention an occurrence that took 
 
 place on Bush river, a few years since. A man whose house was situated near the 
 bank, on rising early one morning, observed the river had frozen, except an open space 
 of ten or twelve feet in diameter, at about eighty yards from the shore, nearly opposite 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 217 
 
 ©f its kind in the world. Its head is adorned with a beautiful crest, and 
 its plumage is most beautifully variegated. Its favorite places of resort are 
 
 Summer Duck. 
 
 the border of ponds and lakes ; but it passes the summer in the woods, 
 nestles in hollow trees, and when taken may be easily tamed. 
 
 It 
 
 Wild Geese. 
 
 Wild Goose. — The common wild goose is well known over the whole of 
 the United States, and its periodical migrations are sure signs of returning 
 
 his house. The spot was full of ducks, and with a heavy gun he fired into it ; many 
 were killed, and those that flew soon returned, and were again and again shot at, till 
 tearful he was injuring those already his own, he ceased the massacre, and brought on 
 shore ninety-two ducks, most of which were canvass-backs. 
 
 Canvass-backs, when wounded, on the streams near the bay, instantly direct their 
 
 course for it, where they nestle among the grass, on the shores, till cured, or destroyed 
 
 by eagles, hawks, gulls, foxes, or other vermin, that are constantly on the search ; and 
 
 if a dead canvass-back be not soon secured, he becomes a prey to the gulls, who rarely 
 
 28 19 
 
218 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 spring or approaching winter. Its flight is heavy and laborious. When 
 in good order, this bird weighs from ten to fourteen pounds, and yields 
 about half a pound of feathers. Mr. Wilson relates the following inter- 
 esting anecdote : 
 
 'Mr. Piatt, a respectable farmer on Long Island, being out shooting in 
 one of the bays which in that part of the country abound in water-fowl, 
 wounded a wild goose. Being unable to fly, he caught it, and brought it 
 home alive. It proved to be a female, and turning it into the yard with a 
 flock of tame geese, it soon became quite familiar, and in a little time its 
 wounded wing entirely healed. In the following spring, when the wild 
 geese migrate to the northward, a flock passed over Mr. Piatt's barn yard, 
 and just at that moment, their leader, happening to sound bis bugle note, 
 our o-oose, in whom its new habits had not quite extinguished the love of 
 liberty, and remembering the well-known sound, spread its wings, mounted 
 into the air, joined the travellers, and soon disappeared. In the succeeding 
 autumn, the wild geese, as usual, returned from the northward, in great 
 numbers, to pass the winter in our bays and rivers. Mr. Piatt happened 
 to be standing in his yard, when a flock passed directly over his barn. At 
 that instant, he observed three geese detach themselves from the rest, and 
 after wheeling round several times, alight in the middle of the yard. Im- 
 agine his surprise and pleasure, when, by certain well-remembered signs, 
 he recognised in one of the three his long-lost fugitive. It was she indeed ! 
 She had travelled many hundred miles to the lakes ; had there hatched 
 and reared her offspring ; and had now returned with her little family, to 
 share with them the sweets of civilized life.' 
 
 Wild Sivan. — This bird is found widely spread over the whole of the 
 northern continent. During the winter, great numbers of them resort to 
 the Chesapeak bay, and whilst there, form collections of from one to five 
 
 touch any other kind, so refined is their taste. I have seen severe contests take place 
 between crippled canvass-backs and' gulls, and although a pounce or two generally 
 prevents further resistance, sometimes they are driven off. If the bird is remarkably 
 savory, the gull makes such a noise, that others are soon collected, when possession is 
 determined by courage or strength. — Dcmghty's Cabinet. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 219 
 
 hundred on the flats near the western shore. These birds are so exceed- 
 ingly vigilant, that if but three of them are feeding together, one will gen- 
 erally be on guard, and when danger approaches, the alarm is given. 
 While feeding and dressing, they make much noise, and through the night 
 their vociferations can be heard for several miles. Their notes are extremely 
 varied ; some resembling the deepest base of the common tin horn, others 
 running through the various modulations of the clarionet. The swan is 
 five or six years in reaching its perfect growth. The aborigines employ 
 the skin of this bird in making dresses for their women of rank, and the 
 feathers as ornaments for the head.* 
 
 American Rail. 
 
 Rail. — This bird belongs to a genus of which naturalists enumerate 
 about thirty species, distributed over almost every region of the earth. 
 Their general character is every where the same. They run swiftly, fly 
 
 * When wounded in the wing alone, a large swan will readily beat off a dog, and is 
 more than a match for a man in four feet water, a stroke of the wing having broken an 
 arm, and the powerful feet almost obliterating the face of a good sized duck shooter. 
 They are often killed by rifle balls thrown from the shore into the feeding column, and 
 as a ball will ricochet on the water for several hundred yards, a wing may be disabled at 
 the distance of half a mile. 
 
 These birds are often brought within shooting range, by sailing down upon them 
 whilst feeding, and, as they arise against the wind, and cannot leave the water for 
 fifteen or twenty yards, against which they strike their enormous feet and wings most 
 furiously, great advantage is gained in distance. They must be allowed on all occa 
 sions to turn the side, for a breast shot rarely succeeds in entering. 
 
 When two feeding coves are separated by a single point, by disturbing the swans in 
 one or the other occasionally, they will pass and repass very closely to this projection of 
 land, and usually taking as they do, the straight line, each gunner, to prevent dispute, 
 names the bird he will shoot at. • 
 
 In winter, boats covered by pieces of ice, the sportsman being dressed in white, are 
 paddled or allowed to float during the night into the midst of a flock, and they have 
 been oftentimes killed, by being knocked on the head and neck by a pole. There is, 
 however, much danger in this mode, as others may be engaged in like manner, but 
 shooting, and at a short distance, the persons might not be distinguished from the 
 swan. These birds seem well aware of the range of a gun, and I have followed them 
 
220 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 slowly, and usually with the legs hanging down, are fond of concealment, 
 i become at seasons extremely fat. The common American rail is 
 migratory. It is feeble and delicate in every thing but the legs, which are 
 strong and vigorous ; their bodies are so remarkably thin that they are 
 enabled to pass between the reeds like rats. They disappear on the first 
 severe frost, from their usual residence along the reedy shores of the Dela- 
 ware, and so sudden is their departure that no one knows how or when it 
 is made. 
 
 Plovers. — The Black-bellied Plover is known in some parts of this coun- 
 try by the name of the large whistling field plover ; the gunners along the 
 coast call them the black-bellied plover. In Pennsylvania, this bird fre- 
 quents the countries towards the mountains ; seems particularly attached 
 to newly ploughed fields, where it forms its nest, of a few slight materials, 
 as slightly put together. It is an extremely shy and watchful bird, though 
 clamorous during breeding time. 
 
 The Kildeer Plover is known to almost every inhabitant of the United 
 States, being a common and pretty constant resident. During the severity 
 of winter, when snow covers the ground, it retreats to the seashore, where 
 it is found at all seasons ; but no sooner have the rivers broken up than its 
 shrill note is again heard, either soaring about high in the air, tracing the 
 shore of the river, or running amidst the watery flats and meadows. 
 
 Flamingo. — This bird is common on the south frontiers of the states, and 
 the peninsula of East Florida. When the Europeans first came to America, 
 they found this bird on several shores on either continent gentle, and no 
 way distrustful of mankind. When the fowler had killed one, the rest of 
 the flock, far from attempting to fly, only regarded the fall of their com- 
 panion in a kind of fixed astonishment : another and another shot was 
 discharged; and thus the fowler often levelled the whole flock, before one 
 of them began to think of escaping. 
 
 But at present it is very different in that part of the world ; and the 
 flamingo is not only one of the scarcest, but one of the shyest birds in, 
 the world, and the most difficult of approach. They chiefly keep near the 
 most deserted and inhospitable shores ; near salt water lakes and swampy 
 islands. When seen by mariners in the day, they always appear drawn 
 up in a long close line, of two or three hundred together ; and present, at 
 the distance of half a mile, the exact representation of a long brick wall. 
 This line, however, is broken when they seek for food ; but they always 
 appoint one of the number as a watch, whose only employment is to 
 • and give notice of danger while the rest are feeding. As soon as 
 this trusty sentinel perceives the remotest appearance of danger, he gives 
 a loud scream, with a voice as shrill as a trumpet, and instantly the whole 
 cohort are upon the wing. 
 
 Their time of breeding is according to the climate in which they reside f 
 in North America, they breed in summer ; on the other side of the line, 
 
 in a skiff for miles, driving a body of several hundreds before me, without the possi- 
 bttity of getting quite within shool mce. 
 
 Ii is a curious circumstance, thai Wilsonhas neither figured nor described this beauti- 
 ful and common bird in lus ornithology ; but Mr. Lawson, the engraver of his splendid 
 and also his persona] fj inns me, he had waited for another southern 
 
 expedition, which he did not live to perforin. A particular history, in detail, of this 
 splendid bird has heretofore never been given to the public. — Sharpless. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 221 
 
 they take the most favorable season of the year. They build their nests 
 in extensive marshes, and where they are in no danger of a surprise. 
 
 Herons. — The Great Egret Heron is often seen in summer in our low 
 marshes and inundated meadows ; yet on account of its extreme vigilance, 
 it is very difficult to be procured. It is found in Guiana, and probably be- 
 yond the line, to New York. It enters the territories of the United States 
 late in February. The high inland parts of the country it rarely or never 
 visits. Its favorite haunts are vast inundated swamps, rice fields, the low 
 
 Night Hi: ron. 
 
 marshy shores of rivers, and such like places ; where from its size and 
 color it is very conspicuous even at a distance. The plumage of this ele- 
 gant bird is of a snowy whiteness; the bill of a rich orange yellow; and 
 the legs black. 
 
 The Great Heron is a constant inhabitant of the Atlantic coast from 
 New York to Florida. They breed in the Carolinas and New Jersey, in 
 the gloomy solitudes of the cedar swamps. Their nests are constructed 
 of sticks and placed on the tallest trees. 
 
 The Louisiana Heron is a rare and delicately formed species, occasion- 
 ally found on the swampy river shores of South Carolina, but more fre- 
 quently along the borders of the Mississippi, particularly below New Or- 
 leans. In each of these places it is migratory, and in the latter builds its 
 nests on trees amidst the inundated woods. Among the species of this 
 tribe, are the Green Heron, Blue Heron, Night Heron, Yellow-crowned 
 Heron, the Bittern, and several others. 
 
 The Whooping Crane is the tallest and most stately species of all the 
 feathered tribes of the United States ; the watchful inhabitant of extensive 
 salt marshes, desolate swamps, and open morasses, in the neighborhood of 
 the sea. Its migrations are regular, and of the most extensive kind, reach- 
 ing from the inundated shores and tracts of South America to the arctic circle. 
 In these periodical journeys, they pass at such a prodigious height in the air 
 
 19* 
 
222 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 as to be rarely observed. They wander along the marshes and muddy nus 
 of the seashore, in search of marine worms ; sailing occasionally from 
 place to place with a loud and heavy flight. At times they utter a loud 
 and piercing cry, which may be heard at a great distance. They have 
 various modulations of this singular note, from the peculiarity of which 
 they derive their name. 
 
 The Sand-hill Crane is a fine stately bird, taller than a swan, and in 
 the water, said to be quite as majestic. They abound in countless num- 
 bers on the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, appearing at a distance like 
 great droves of sheep. They migrate in company with the pelicans. 
 
 Pelican. — To those who have visited the estuaries of the Florida 
 coast, the demure and awkward attitude of this bird is perfectly familiar. 
 In that portion of our country, this species occurs in large flocks, and they 
 are often to be seen along the shores of the Mississippi and Missouri, im- 
 parting a peculiar character to the otherwise solitary scene; their solemn 
 and quiet demeanor being in strict unison with the stillness of the uninha- 
 bited plains which surround them. They build in societies, and are sel- 
 dom found except in flocks. When they are disturbed, they rise in much 
 confusion, but soon form in regular order, usually flying in long lines, 
 though sometimes in a triangle, like geese, with their long bills resting on 
 their breasts. 
 
 The Vfood Ibis is found in the southern parts of the United States, in 
 watery savannas and inland swamps, where it feeds on fish and reptiles. 
 The neck, body, and lower parts of this bird are white ; the bill is nearly 
 nine inches long. The White Ibis is numerous in the same latitudes. 
 The Scarlet Ibis frequents the borders of the sea, and the shores of the 
 neighboring rivers, feeding on small fry, shell-fish, sea-worms, aim 1 crabs. 
 The Purple Gallimcle is sometimes met with in Georgia, but is a native 
 of the southern continent. 
 
 The Roseate Spoonbill is an inhabitant of our southern seashore, and 
 is sometimes found in the Mississippi in the summer. It wades about in 
 search of shell-fish, marine insects, small crabs and fish, in pursuit of 
 which it occasionally swims and dives. The Black-bellied Darter, or 
 Snake Bird, is common in the Carolinas. Its head, neck, and breast are 
 light brown ; the belly and tail deep black. It sits on the shrubs that 
 overhang the water, and often terrifies the passengers by darting out its 
 long and slender neck, which bears strong resemblance to that of 3 
 serpent. 
 
 III. FISHES. 
 
 The natural history of American fishes is yet to be written, as ven 
 little i tde in the scientific observation of this inter 
 
 order of animals. The fishes which fill the bays and coasts of the 
 United Stal -morally of the same species with those on the coasts 
 
 of the opposite continent. Along the shores of New England they are 
 particularly abundant, though there is no other bank that" equals that ol 
 Newfoundland in extreme richness. Shad and salmon are fine fish 
 abounding in the Atlantic rivers, and beautiful trout are taken in the 
 mountain streams of the northern states. Anion fish of the western 
 
 waters, probably in a great measure common to them and other rivers, are 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 223 
 
 noticed several varieties of perch, one of which, the buffalo perch, derives 
 its name from the singular grunting noise which it makes, and which is 
 familiar to every one who has been much on the Ohio. It is a fine table 
 fish, weighing from ten to thirty pounds. There are, also, varieties 
 of the bass, the hog-fish, and the sun-fish, and sixteen species of 
 minny found in these waters, besides trout, false herring, and shad. 
 Of all the inhabitants of the western rivers, the brown buffalo-fish is, per- 
 haps, as much esteemed as any ; it is quite abundant, and is found from 
 two to three feet in length. In the lower waters of the Ohio and Missis- 
 sippi, we meet with the black buffalo-fish, sometimes weighing half a 
 hundred. A larger buffalo, resembling the shad of the Atlantic states, is 
 taken in immense numbers in the lakes and meadows of the Mississippi. 
 
 The trout of Florida and Louisiana is not identical with the beautiful 
 fish of that name that is a tenant of the cold and swift streams of the 
 northern Atlantic country ; it is of the perch class, and takes the bait with 
 a spring like the trout, and is beautifully marked with golden stripes. It 
 is a sound, hard fish, with a pleasant flavor, and weighs from one to four 
 pounds. ' We have never witnessed angling,' says Mr. Flint, ' that could 
 compare with that of this fish, in the clear pine-wood streams of the south- 
 ern divisions of this country. With, fresh bait a barrel may be taken in a 
 few hours.' Twelve species of cat-fish have been observed in the Ohio, 
 and it is indeed the most common fish in the western waters. They are 
 of all colors and sizes, without scales, and easily taken with a hook. 
 Their English name is derived from the noise which they make when at 
 rest, which is very similar to the purring of a cat. In the Mississippi, this 
 fish is found of the weight of an hundred pounds. 
 
 The Ohio 'toter'is two or three inches in length; its name is derived 
 from the barbarism ' tote,' meaning to ' carry,' because this fish makes itself 
 a cell by surrounding a place with pebbles. Pike, pickerel, and jack-fish, 
 weighing from six ounces to twenty pounds, are found in the western 
 rivers. Of the gar-fish there are also numerous varieties. The alligator- 
 gar is sometimes eight feet long, and is voracious, fierce and formidable, 
 even to the human species. Its dart in rapidity equals die flight of a bird. 
 Its mouth is long, round, and pointed, thickset with sharp teeth ; its body 
 is covered with scales so hard as to be impenetrable by a rifle-bullet, and, 
 when dry, answer the purposes of a flint in striking fire from steel. Its 
 weight is iroin fifty to two hundred pounds, and its appearance is hideous. 
 It is, in fact, the shark of rivers, and is considered far more formidable than 
 the alligator himself. The devil-jack-diamond fish is another monster of 
 the rivers. One has been caught that weighed four hundred pounds; its 
 usual length is from four to ten feet. 
 
 Eels vary in length from two to four feet. The best species for the 
 table is the yellow eel. Of sturgeon there are six species in these rivers, 
 some of them four feet in length ; some of them are said to form a palatable 
 food. The Mississippi saw-fish varies in length from three feet to six ; it 
 has i twenty-six long teeth on either side, in the form of a saw. There is 
 also a spotted horn-fish from two to three feet long, the horn being one 
 quarter the length of the body. The beautifully striped bar-fish 
 shoals in the southern streams ; they weigh from one to three pounds, and 
 are taken with a hook." The shovel-fish is found in the muddy lakes of 
 the middle region of the valley; it weighs from ten to fifty pounds, is with- 
 
224 ROOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 out scales, and has in front of the mouth a bony substance between six and 
 twelve inches long, and two or three inches wide, with which it turns up 
 the mud in search of its food. It is exceedingly fat, and is taken for its oil. 
 ' We have never remarked this fish in any museum,' says Mr. Flint, 
 1 although to us the most strange and whimsical-looking fish we have seen. 
 We have seen one instance of a horribly deformed animal, apparently in- 
 termediate between the class testudo and fishes. We saw it in a water of 
 the Washita, and had not a fair opportunity to examine it. It is called 
 toad-fish, has a shell like a tortoise, but in every thing else resembles a 
 fish. It is said to be sufficiently strong to bear a man on its back ; and, 
 from the account of those who have examined it, this animal must be a 
 lusus natures.' 
 
 The rock fish,* drum and sheep's-head are large fish, taken in saline lakes 
 in the neighborhood of the gulf of Mexico. In size they correspond to the cod 
 
 * The rock fish is universally known in all the rivers, and smaller tide-water 
 streams, throighout the United States. The following description of the mode in 
 which this fish is trolled for in the Susquehannah*may be interesting. It is taken from 
 the American Sporting Magazine. 
 
 < The season for trolling begins in the latter part of May, and commonly ends about 
 the middle of July ; but some years lasts during August. In the month of June the 
 rock fish genenlly bite best, to make good fishing, the river should not be very high 
 nor low, mudd/ nor clear, but betwixt extremes in these respects. If the water be 
 clear, the fish dart off at sight of the line ; and it is thought, they leave the rapids, 
 when the river is rising, or muddy, to feed upon the flats in the Chesapeak. 
 
 'Trolling is very much practised from Port Deposit, to almost any given distance up 
 the river, but not below. The grass that the ducks feed upon, grows too thick on the 
 flats in tide-water for trolling, and the channel is uniformly too deep. The rapids 
 above, where the water is in many parts shoal, and the rocky bottom clear of grass, is 
 the proper place for trolling. 
 
 ' Two persons generally fish from the same boa,t ; one of them steers with one hand, 
 and fishes with the other. Each fisherman lets his line out over the side of the boat 
 nearest to him, and close to the stern, (where they sit,) holding it in his hand, a few 
 inches from the water, and leaves the end attached to the cork in the bottom of the boat. 
 He pays out nearly all his line, and keeps constantly pulling it, by short jerks, to feel 
 if it is running over a rock or tree top. The boat is rowed as fast as possible across 
 the river, from shore to shore, above, and as near to the falls as they can go, to avoid 
 being swept down them. The rock fish lie below the falls and ripples, waiting for the 
 small fish that are carried over by the current. Here then the bait falls over, with a 
 constant rotary motion, like a live fish whirled over, side foremost, and struggles in 
 vain against the falls. The swivels turn every time the bait turns, and prevent the 
 line from twisting up into knots ; and as there are no sinkers, the rapid head-way of the 
 boat drags them along so fast that the lines have no time to sink. At sight of the bait 
 tumbling over the falls, the rock fish darts upwards from his cavern in the rocks, and 
 swallows hook and all. The bite of the rock fish is quick as lightning, and gives a sud- 
 den jerk to the arm of the fisherman. When he first discovers he is snared, he rises to 
 the top of the water, and begins to lash it furiously with his forked tail, like " a spirit 
 C< injured from the vasty deep," then plunges down again to the bottom. He is dragged 
 from thence by the fisherman, who hauls in his long line, hand over hand, until he 
 brings his fish alongside of the boat. If he is of tolerable size, weighing only 
 seven or ten pounds, the troller lifts him into the boat by the line ; but if the fish is 
 fcxge, he runs his arm down into the water, and lifts him in by his gills. 
 
 ' The excitement that this scene produces in all those in the boat, is not to be describ- 
 ed. One instant you see the fish making the water foam with his tail, the next you 
 lose sight of him ; one instant the troller feels him jerking desperately backwards, the next 
 is ahead towards the boat, carrying the line with him ; and the fisherman, who ceases 
 to feel him, is distressed for fear he lias broken loose from the hook. The black oarsmen 
 ease up rowing to laugh and shout with greart glee. The trailer's anxiety to secure his 
 fish is so great, that he alone, of all the company, is silent, and full of uneasiness, until 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 225 
 
 and haddock of the Atlantic, and are among the most common fish in the market 
 of New Orleans. The fish of the gulf shore partake of the character both 
 of salt and fresh water fish ; this arises from their being taken in shallow 
 lakes principally composed of fresh water, but having outlets in the gulf, 
 through which in strong south winds the sea-water is forced in such quan- 
 tities that they become salt. There are a vast number of craw-fish every 
 where in the marshy grounds and shallow waters. By penetrating the 
 bank of the Mississippi, they have more than once made perforations which 
 have imperceptibly enlarged to crevices, by which the inundation of the river 
 has been let in upon the country. 
 
 The fish of the western rivers are generally less esteemed than those of 
 the Atlantic waters ; and in truth, fresh-water fish generally will not vie 
 with those of the sea. The fishes of the Mississippi and its tributary rivers 
 are for the most part coarse, tough, large and unpleasant in their flavor. 
 ' Except the trout, the small yellow cat-fish, the pike, the bar-fish and the 
 perch,' says Mr. Flint, ' we do not much admire the fish of the western 
 waters.' 
 
 Dr. Mitchell gives the following account of a gigantic fish of the ray kind, 
 which he calls the oceanic vampire. It had been taken near the entrance 
 of the Delaware Bay, by the crew of a smack which had been fitted out 
 for the express purpose of capturing some sea-monster. After an absence 
 of about three weeks, the adventurers returned with the animal to which 
 we refer. It was killed after a long and dangerous encounter. The weight 
 was so considerable, that after it had been towed to the shore, three pair of 
 oxen aided by a horse and twenty-two men could not drag it to the dry 
 land; the weight was supposed to be between four and five tons. Its 
 length was seventeen feet and three inches, from the tip of the head to the 
 tip of the tail. The breadth from the extremity of one pectoral fin or wing 
 to the other, measuring along the line of the belly, was sixteen feet ; when 
 measured over the convexity of the back, eighteen feet. 
 
 he gets him into the boat. In this manner, it is not unusual to catch, with two lines, 
 ten or twenty fish, varying in weight from five to twenty pounds each, in an hour — 
 sometimes they are caught much larger. When the fish do not bite fast, the troller 
 does not become wearied soon ; his line is always out, and he is in constant expecta- 
 tion of feeling a bite, as the boat glides backwards and forwards across the river, in 
 search of luck ; he is not confined to one rock, like the sleepy angler. 
 
 ' This would be very dangerous sport to persons unaccustomed to it ; let no presump- 
 tuous cits venture, upon it by themselves. The flat-bottomed boat must be rowed 
 through the most dangerous falls and whirlpools in the river. Sometimes she is forced, 
 at an imperceptible progress, against a current running down at an angle of forty-five 
 degrees. If one of the oarsmen happens to fail in strength, or to dip his oar with a false 
 stroke, the current will snatch it upwards out of his hands, and the frail skiff will be 
 dashed to pieces amongst the rocks. Often they are obliged to get out of the boat on 
 some rock above water, and haul her over. A person unaccustomed to it, cannot rely 
 upon his senses of hearing or seeing. He is first deafened by the stunning roar of the 
 incessant flood, then sickened by the tossing of the skiff amongst the waves and eddies. 
 The huge rocks that rear themselves thick to oppose the rushing waters, covered with 
 eagles, and cormorants, and the little islands all seem to be swimming backwards. And 
 now ^lie flies across a shoal— at first glimpse, the little skiff seems to rest securely on 
 the bottom ; at the next, the solid hottom appears deceitfully to recede from beneath 
 her, and leave her to founder in the dark waters of a bottomless swirl. And again, 
 before he is aware of it, she seems to have approached so near the falls that nothing 
 can prevent her from going over side foremost. All these false appearances rushing in 
 succession, quick as thought, upon the mind of the troubled cockney, turn his brain 
 with dizziness.' 
 
 29 
 
226 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 On each side of the mouth there was a vertical fin two feet and six 
 inches long, twelve inches deep, and two inches and a half thick in the 
 middle, whence it tapered towards the edges, which were fringed before 
 with a radiated margin. The fin or organ thus constituted was so flexible 
 as to bend in all directions, and be made in many respects to perform the 
 function of a hand. The wings, flaps, or pectoral fins, were of very curious 
 organization ; they bore more resemblance to the wings of a bird than to 
 any thing else, and were yet so different as to manifest a remarkable variety 
 of mechanism, in organs intended substantially for the same use. Fish 
 of the kind now under consideration may be aptly denominated submarine 
 birds ; for they fly through the water, as birds fly through the air. 
 
 IV. REPTILES. 
 
 Reptiles, or animals of the serpent, turtle, and lizard class, are found in 
 various parts of the United States ; and in some in pernicious abundance. 
 All varieties of the rattlesnake^ are seen; of these, the largest is the yellow 
 rattlesnake. This is sometimes seen from six to nine feet in length, and 
 as large as a man's leg. A species of small rattlesnake is numerous on 
 the prairies; in the far west, they are said to live in the same burrows with 
 the prairie dogs. The snapper, or ground rattlesnake, is very troublesome; 
 it travels by night, and frequents house paths and roads. The copper head 
 is a snake supposed to be more venomous even than the preceding, but is 
 less frequently found. It is of a dirty brown color ; but when it has recent- 
 ly shed its skin, some parts of its body resemble burnished copper. 
 
 There are three or four varieties of the moccasin snake inhabiting the 
 southern country. The upland moccasin somewhat resembles the rattle- 
 
 * A curious incident occurred at this spot to one of our men named La Course, 
 ■which was nearly proving fatal. This man had stretched himself on the ground, after 
 the fatigue of the day, with his head resting on a small package of goods, and quick- 
 ly fell asleep. While in this situation I passed him, and was almost petrified at seeing 
 a large rattlesnake moving from his side to his left breast. My first impulse was to 
 alarm La Course ; but an old Canadian, whom I had beckoned to the spot, requested 
 me to make no noise, alleging it would merely cross the body, and go away. He was 
 mistaken ; for on reaching the man's left shoulder, the serpent deliberately coiled itself, 
 but did not appear to meditate an attack. Having made signs to several others, who 
 joined us, it was determined that two men should advance a little in front, to divert 
 the attention of the snake, while one should approach La Course behind, and with a 
 long stick endeavor to remove it from his body. The snake, on observing the men ad- 
 vance in front, instantly raised its head, darted out its forked tongue, and shook its 
 rattles ; all indications of anger. Every one was now in a state of feverish agitation 
 as to the fate of poor La Course, who still lay slumbering, unconscious of his danger ; 
 when the man behind, who had procured a stick seven feet in length, suddenly placed 
 one end of it under the coiled reptile, and succeeded it pitching it upwards of ten feet 
 from the man's body. A shout of joy was the first intimation La Course received of 
 his wonderful escape, while in the mean time the man with the stick pursued the snake, 
 which he killed. It was three feet six inches long, and eleven years old, which, I need 
 not inform my readers, we easily ascertained by the number of rattles. A general 
 search was then commenced about the encampment, and under several rocks we found 
 upwards of fifty of them, all of which we destroyed. There is no danger attending 
 their destruction, provided a person has a long pliant stick, and does not approach 
 thern nearer than their length, for they cannot spring beyond it, and seldom act on the 
 offensive except closely pursued. They have a strong repugnance to the smeii of to- 
 bacco, in consequence of which we opened a bale of it, and strewed a quantity of loose 
 leaves about the tents, by which means we avoided their visits during the night. — Boss 
 Cox. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 227 
 
 snaite, but is still more disgusting in its appearance. The largest variety 
 of the moccasin snake is similar to the water snake of the Atlantic coun- 
 try. It is a serpent of the largest size, exceedingly venomous, with a very 
 large flat head, lazy, and unobservant of man. There is another species 
 of the moccasin seldom seen on shore, of a brilliant copper color, striped 
 with gray rings. The brown viper, or hissing snake, is from six to eight 
 inches long, terminating in a sharp tail; when angry, the color of its back 
 changes, its head flattens and dilates to twice its usual extent, and its hiss 
 resembles that of a goose. It is extremely venomous, and of a very re- 
 pulsive aspect. One that was confined by a stick across its back, instant- 
 ly bit itself in two or three places; and Avhen released, it soon become 
 swollen and died. 
 
 Mr. Flint expresses his conviction that the Mississippi valley presents a 
 greater number of serpents, and is more infested by them than the Atlan- 
 tic shore, excepting perhaps its southern border. Wherever the population 
 becomes dense, the swine prey upon them, and they quickly disappear. 
 Their most permanent and dangerous resorts are near the bases of preci- 
 pitous and rocky hills, about ledges and flint knobs, and in the southern 
 countries along vast swamps and stagnant waters. The bite of these ser- 
 pents is venomous, and the person that is bitten often becomes blind. 
 During the latter part of the summer, the serpents themselves become 
 blind ; the popular belief on this subject is, that this blindness arises from 
 the absorption of their own poison into the system. During this period, 
 though their aim is less certain, their bite is most dangerous. Death sel- 
 dom occurs, however, from this cause. 
 
 The country has the usual varieties of harmless serpents, such as the 
 green garter, chicken, and coach-whip snakes. The glass snake is often 
 seen with a body of the utmost brilliancy. A stroke across the back sepa- 
 rates the body into several pieces, each of which continues for some time 
 to exercise the powers of locomotion. The bull or prairie snakes are of 
 hideous appearance and of large size ; they inhabit holes in the ground, 
 and run at the traveller with a loud hiss, but instantly retreat if lie stands 
 and faces them. They are believed to be perfectly harmless, but their 
 aspect is such as to excite great horror. 
 
 Ugly animals of the lizard kind are seen in all the climates in a greatei 
 or less number; they are found und«r rotten logs, and are dug out of al 
 luvions, the last description being lazy and disgusting. They appear to be 
 harmless. Common small lizards are frequent in the southern districts, 
 and also varieties of small chameleons. These will change in half an 
 hour to all the colors of the rainbow. ' We have placed them on a hand 
 kerchief,' says Mr. Flint, ' and they have gradually assumed all its colors. 
 Placed on a black surface, they become brown ; but they evidently suffei 
 while under this color, as is manifested by uneasy movements, and by 
 strong and quick palpitation, visible to the eye. They are very active and 
 nimble animals, three or four inches in length.' Some lizards of a larger 
 class and with flatter heads, are called scorpions ; they are ugly animals, 
 and are considered poisonous. When attacked, they show the angry man- 
 ner of the serpent, vibrating a fiery and forked tongue, and biting with 
 great fury at the stick which arrests them. 
 
 Of this class, the most terrible is the alligator. The description of this 
 animal by Mr. Audubon is so interesting, and so strongly marked by the 
 
228 SUjOK OF TB>. UNITE! STATES. 
 
 agreeable peculiarities of his attractive and original style, that we shall 
 transfer it to our pages with but slight abridgment. This distinguished 
 naturalist, by his eminent services in the cause to which he has been so 
 zealously devoted, has erected an eternal monument ; and posterity will 
 read the name which it records for ages, after every trace of the great 
 warriors and ambitious politicians of our time has faded from the pages cif 
 history. 
 
 ' In Louisiana, all our lagoons, bayous, creeks, ponds, lakes and rivers, 
 are well stocked with alligators; they are found wherever there is a suf- 
 ficient quantity of water to hide them, or to furnish them with food ; and 
 they continue thus, in great numbers, as high as the mouth of the Arkan- 
 sas river, extending east to North Carolina, and as far west as I have pene- 
 trated. On the Ked river, before it was navigated by steam vessels, they 
 were so extremely abundant that, to see hundreds at a sight along the 
 shores, or on the immense rafts of floating or stranded timber, was quite a 
 common occurrence, the smaller on the backs of the larger, groaning and 
 uttering their bellowing noise, like thousands of irritated bulls about to 
 meet in fight, but all so careless of man that, unless shot at, or positively 
 disturbed, they remained motionless, suffering boats or canoes to pass 
 within a few yards of them, without noticing them in the least. The 
 shores are yet trampled by them in such a manner, that their large tracts 
 are seen as plentiful as those of sheep in a fold. It was on that river par- 
 ticularly, thousands of the largest size were killed, when the mania of 
 having shoes, boots, or saddle-seats, made of their hides, lasted. It had 
 become an article of trade, and many of the squatters and strolling Indians 
 followed for a time no other business. The discovery that their skins are 
 not sufficiently firm and close-grained to prevent water or dampness long, 
 put a stop to their general destruction, which had already become very 
 apparent. The leather prepared from these skins was handsome and very 
 pliant, exhibiting all the regular lozenges of the scales, and able to receive 
 the highest degree of polish and finishing. 
 
 ' The usual motion of the alligator, when on land, is slow and sluggish ; 
 it is a kind of labored crawling, performed by moving alternately each leg, 
 in the manner of a quadruped when walking, scarce able to keep up their 
 weighty bodies from dragging on the earth, and leaving the track of their 
 long tail on the mud, as if that of the keel of a small vessel. Thus they 
 emerge from the water, and go about the shores and the woods, or the 
 fields in search of food, or of a different place of abode, or one of safety 
 to deposit their eggs. If, at such times, when at all distant from the 
 water, an enemy is perceived by them, they droop and lie flat, with the 
 nose on the ground, watching the intruder's movements with their eyes, 
 which are able to move considerably round, without affecting the position 
 of the head. Should a man then approach them, they do not attempt 
 either to make away or attack, but merely raise their body from the 
 ground for an instant, swelling themselves and issuing a dull blowing, not 
 unlike that of a blacksmith's bellows. Not the least danger need be ap- 
 prehended : then you either kill them, with ease, or leave them. But to 
 give you a better idea of the slowness of their movements and progress of 
 travels on land, when arrived at a large size, say twelve or fifteen feet, be- 
 lieve me when I tell you, that having found one in the morning, fifty yards 
 from a lake, going to another in sight, I have left him unmolested, hunted 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 229 
 
 through the surrounding swamps all the day, and met the same alligator 
 within rive hundred yards of the spot when returning to my camp at dusk. 
 On this account they usually travel during the night, they being then less 
 likely to be disturbed, and having a better chance to surprise a litter of pigs 
 or of land tortoises, for prey. 
 
 ' The power of the alligator is in his great strength ; and the chief means 
 of his attack or defence is his large tail, so well contrived by nature to 
 supply his wants, or guard him from danger, that it reaches, when curved 
 into half a circle, his enormous mouth. Woe be to him who goes within 
 the reach of this tremendous thrashing instrument ; for no matter how strong 
 or muscular, if human, he must suffer greatly, if he escapes with life. The 
 monster, as he strikes with this, forces all objects within the circle towards 
 his jaws, which, as the tail makes a motion, are opened to their full stretch, 
 thrown a little sideways, to receive the object, and, like battering-rams, to 
 bruise it shockingly in a moment. 
 
 ' The alligator, when after prey in the water, or at its edge, swims 
 so slowly towards it as not to ruffle the water. It approaches the object 
 sideways, body and head all concealed, till sure of his stroke ; then, with 
 a tremendous blow, as quick as thought, the object is secured, as I 
 described before. 
 
 ' When alligators are fishing, the flapping of their tails about the water 
 may be heard at half a mile ; but to describe this in a more graphic way, 
 suffer me to take you along with me, in one of my hunting excursions, 
 accompanied by friends and negroes. In the immediate neighborhood of 
 Bayou-Sarah, on the Mississippi, are extensive shallow lakes and morasses ; 
 they are yearly overflowed by the dreadful floods of that river, and sup- 
 plied with myriads of fishes of many kinds, amongst which trouts are most 
 abundant, white perch, cat fish, and alligator-gars, or devil fish. Thither, 
 in the early part of autumn, when the heat of a southern sun has exhaled 
 much of the water, the squatter, the planter, the hunter, all go in search of 
 sport. The lakes arc then about two feet deep, having a fine sandy bottom; 
 frequently much grass grows in them, bearing crops of seed, for which 
 multitudes of water-fowl resort to those places. The edges of these 
 lakes are deep swamps, muddy for some distance, overgrown with heavv 
 large timber, principally cypress, bung with Spanish beard, and tangled 
 with different vines, creeping plants, and cane, so as to render them almost 
 dark during the day, and very difficult to the hunter's progress. Here and 
 there in the lakes are small islands, with clusters of the same trees, on 
 which flocks of snake-birds, wood-ducks, and different species of herons, 
 build their nests. Fishing-lines, guns, and rifles, some salt, and some 
 water, are all the hunters take. 
 
 ' At last, the opening of the lake is seen : it has now become neces- 
 sary to drag one's self along through the deep mud, making the best of 
 the way, with the head bent, through the small brushy growth, caring about 
 nought but the lock of your gun. The long narrow Indian canoe kept to 
 hunt those lakes, and taken into them during the fresh, is soon launched, 
 and the party seated in the bottom, is paddled or poled in search of water 
 game. There, at a sight, hundreds of alligators are seen dispersed over 
 all the lake ; their head, and all the upper part of the body, floating like a 
 log, and in many instances, so resembling one that it requires to be accus- 
 tomed to see them to know the distinction. Millions of the large wood- 
 
 20 
 
230 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ibis are seen wading through the water, mudding it up, and striking deadly 
 blows with their bills on the fish within. Here are a hoard of blue herons 
 — the sand-hill crane rises with hoarse note — the snake-birds are perched 
 here and there on the dead timber of the trees — the cormorants are fishing 
 — buzzards and carrion-crows exhibit a mourning train, patiently waiting 
 for the water to dry and leave food for them — and far in the horizon, the 
 eagle overtakes a devoted wood-duck, singled from the clouded flocks that 
 have been bred there. 
 
 ' It is then that you see and hear the alligator at his work, — each lake 
 has a spot deeper than the rest, rendered so by those animals who work at 
 it, and always situate at the lower end of the lake, near the connecting 
 bayous, that, as drainers, pass through all those lakes, and discharge some- 
 times many miles below where the water had made its entrance above, 
 thereby insuring to themselves water as long as any will remain. This is 
 called by the hunters the alligators' hole. You see them there lying close 
 together. The fish that are already dying by thousands, through the insuf- 
 ferable heat and stench of the water, and the wounds of the different 
 winged enemies constantly in pursuit of them, resort to the alligators' hole 
 to receive refreshment, with a hope of finding security also, and follow 
 down the little currents flowing through the connecting sluices : but no ! 
 for, as the water recedes in the lake, they are here confined. The alliga- 
 tors thrash them and devour them whenever they feel hungry, while the 
 ibis destroys all that make towards the shore. By looking attentively on 
 this spot, you plainly see the tails of the alligators moving to and fro, 
 splashing, and now and then, when missing a fish, throwing it up in the 
 air. The hunter, anxious to prove the value of his rifle, marks one of the 
 eyes of the largest alligator, and, as the hair trigger is touched, the alligator 
 dies. Should the ball strike one inch astray from the eye, the animal 
 flounces, rolls over and over, beating furiously about him with his tail, 
 frightening all his companions, who sink immediately, whilst the fishes, 
 like blades of burnished metal, leap in all directions out of the water, so 
 terrified are they at this uproar. Another and another receives the shot in 
 the eye, and expires ; yet those that do not feel the fatal bullet, pay no 
 attention to the death of their companions till the hunter approaches very 
 close, when they hide themselves for a few moments by sinking back- 
 wards. 
 
 ' So truly gentle are the alligators at this season, that I have waded 
 through such lakes in company of my friend Augustin Bourgeat, Esq. to 
 whom I owe much information, merely holding a stick in one hand to drive 
 them off, had they attempted to attack me. When first I saw this way of 
 travelling through the lakes, waist-deep, sometimes with hundreds of these 
 animals about me, I acknowledge to you that I felt great uneasiness, and 
 thought it fool-hardiness to do so : but my friend, who is a most experienced 
 hunter in that country, removed my fears by leading the way, and, after a 
 few days, I thought nothing of it. If you go towards the head of the 
 alligator, there is no danger, and you may safely strike it with a club, four 
 feet long, until you drive it away, merely watching the operations of the 
 point of the tail, that, at each blow you give, thrashes to the right and left 
 most furiously. 
 
 ' The drivers of cattle from the Appelousas, and those of mules from 
 Mexico, on reaching a lagoon or creek, send several of their party into 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 231 
 
 the water, armed merely each with a club, for the purpose of driving away 
 the alligators from the cattle ; and you may then see men, mules, and 
 those monsters, all swimming together, the men striking the alligators, that 
 would otherwise attack the cattle, of which they are very fond, and those 
 latter hurrying towards the opposite shores, to escape those powerful ene- 
 mies. They will swim swiftly after a dog, or a deer, or a horse, before 
 attempting the destruction of man, of which I have always remarked they 
 were afraid, if the man feared not them. 
 
 ' Although I have told you how easily an alligator may be killed with a 
 single rifle-ball, if well aimed, that is to say, if it strike either in the eye 
 or very immediately above it, yet they are quite as difficult to be destroyed 
 if not shot properly; and, to give you an idea of this, I shall mention two 
 striking facts. 
 
 ' My good friend Richard Harlan, M. D. of Philadelphia, having inti 
 mated a wish to have the heart of one of these animals to study its compar- 
 ative anatomy, I one afternoon went out about half a mile from the plantation 
 and, seeing an alligator that I thought I could put whole into a hogshead of 
 spirits, I shot it immediately on the skull bone. It tumbled over from the 
 log on which it had been basking, into the water, and, with the assistance 
 of two negroes, I had it out in a few minutes, apparently dead. A strong 
 rope was fastened round its neck, and, in this condition, I had it dragged 
 home across logs, thrown over fences, and handled without the least fear. 
 Some young ladies there, anxious to see the inside of his mouth, requested 
 that the mouth should be propped open with a stick put vertically ; this was 
 attempted, but at this instant the first stunning effect of the wound was 
 over, and the animal thrashed and snapped its jaws furiously, although it 
 did not advance a foot. The rope being still round the neck, I had it 
 thrown over a strong branch of a tree in the yard, and hauled the poor 
 creature up swinging, free from all about it, and left it twisting itself, and 
 scratching with its fore feet to disengage the rope. It remained in this 
 condition until the next morning, when finding it still alive, though very 
 weak, the hogshead of spirits was put under it, and the alligator fairly 
 lowered into it with a surge. It twisted about a little ; but the cooper 
 secured the cask, and it was shipped to Philadelphia, where it arrived in 
 course. 
 
 'Again, being in company with Augustin Bourgeat, Esq., we met an 
 extraordinary large alligator in the woods whilst hunting; and, for the sake 
 of destruction I may say, we alighted from our horses, and approached with 
 full intention to kill it. The alligator was put between us, each of us 
 provided with a long stick to irritate it ; and, by making it turn its head 
 partly on one side, afford us the means of shooting it immediately behind 
 the fore leg and through the heart. We both discharged five heavy loads 
 of duck-shot into its body, and almost all into the same hole, without any 
 other effect than that of exciting regular strokes of the tail, and snapping 
 of the jaws at each discharge, and the flow of a great quantity of blood 
 out of the wound, and mouth, and nostrils of the animal ; but it was still 
 full of life and vigor, and to have touched it with the hand would have 
 been madness ; but as we were anxious to measure it, and to knock off 
 some of its larger teeth to make powder charges, it was shot with a single 
 ball just above the eye, when it bounded a few inches off the ground, and 
 was dead when it reached it again. Its length was seventeen feet ; it was 
 
232 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 apparently centuries old ; many of its teeth measured three inches. The 
 shot taken were without a foot only of the circle that we knew the tail 
 could form, and our shots went en masse. 
 
 ' As the lakes become dry, and even the deeper connecting bayous empty 
 themselves into the rivers, the alligators congregate into the deepest hole 
 in vast numbers ; and, to this day, in such places, are shot for the sake of 
 their oil, now used for greasing the machinery of steam-engines and cotton 
 mills, though formerly, when indigo was made in Louisiana, the oil was 
 used to assuage the overflowing of the boiling juice, by throwing a ladleful 
 into the kettle whenever this was about to take place. The alligators are 
 caught frequently in nets by fishermen ; they then come without struggling 
 to the shore, and are killed by blows on the head given with axes. 
 
 ' When autumn has heightened the coloring of the foliage of our woods, 
 and the air feels more rarefied during the nights and earlier part of the 
 day, the alligators leave the lakes to seek for winter quarters, by burrow- 
 ing under the roots of trees, or covering themselves simply with earth 
 along their edges. They become then very languid and inactive, and, at 
 this period, to sit or ride on one would not be more difficult than for a 
 child to mount his wooden rocking-horse. The negroes, who now kill 
 them, put all danger aside, by separating, at one blow with an axe, the tail 
 from the body. They are afterwards cut up in large pieces, and boiled 
 whole in a good quantity of water, from the surface of which the fat is 
 collected with large ladles. One single man kills oftentimes a dozen or 
 more of large alligators in the evening, prepares his fire in the woods, 
 where he has erected a camp for the purpose, and by morning has the oil 
 rendered. 
 
 ' I have frequently been very much amused when fishing in a bayou, 
 where alligators were numerous, by throwing a blown bladder on the water 
 towards the nearest to me. The alligator makes for it, flaps it towards its 
 mouth, or attempts seizing it at once, but all in vain. The light bladder 
 slides off; in a few minutes many alligators are trying to seize this, and 
 their evolutions are quite interesting. They then put one in mind of a 
 crowd of boys running after a football. A black bottle is sometimes thrown 
 also, tightly corked ; but the alligator seizes this easily, and you hear the 
 glass give way under its teeth as if ground in a coarse mill. They are 
 easily caught by negroes, who most expertly throw a rope over their heads 
 when swimming close to shore, and haul them out instantly.' 
 
 The Tortoise is found in considerable numbers and variety. Tn the lakes 
 west of the Mississippi, and near New Orleans, a soft shelled mud-tortoise 
 is found, which epicures declare to be not much inferior to the sea-turtle of 
 the West Indies. The gouffre is an animal apparently of the tortoise class, 
 and is abundant in the pine barrens of the south-western states. Its shell 
 is large and thick, and it burrows to a great depth in the ground ; its 
 strength and power are wonderful, and in many respects it is similar to the 
 logger-head turtle. The siren is nearly two feet in length, and a very 
 singular animal ; it somewhat resembles the lamprey. It is amphibious, 
 penetrates the mud easily, and seems to be of an order between fish and 
 lizards. The whole of the republic is prolific in toads, frogs, and reptiles 
 of that class ; but they are found in the greatest number and variety in 
 the regions of the warmest temperature. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 233 
 
 V. INSECTS. 
 
 The insects of the United States are numerous, and many of them 
 beautiful ; many of the species are entirely new, and science has been 
 much indebted to Mr. Say for additions of no inconsiderable importance to 
 entomology. The moths and butterflies are exceedingly splendid, and one 
 of them, the atlas moth, is the largest hitherto known. Among the spiders, 
 is a huge species called the tarantula, supposed to inflict a dangerous bite. 
 The annoyance inflicted by moschetos in hot weather is well known ; by 
 these and other stinging insects, damp and low situations are rendered very 
 disagreeable during the summer. The fire flies, which glitter especially 
 in the southern forests, are very interesting. The copper colored centi- 
 ped, a creature of cylindrical form, and as long as a man's finger, is 
 dreaded as noxious ; a family is said to have been poisoned by taking tea 
 in which one of them had been accidentally boiled. 
 
 One insect, the csgeria exitiosa, has committed great ravages among the 
 peach trees. The larva begins the work of destruction about the beginning 
 of October, by entering the tree, probably through the tender bark under 
 the surface of the soil ; thence it proceeds downwards, within the tree, into 
 the root, and then turns its course upwards towards the surface, where it 
 arrives about the commencement of the succeeding July. They voraciously 
 devour both the alburnum and the liber, the new wood and the inner bark. 
 The insects deposit from one to three hundred eggs within the bark of the 
 tree, according to its capacity to support their progeny. 
 
 The United States are not free from the scourge of the locust. The 
 males have under each wing a ribbed membrane as thin as a gossamer's 
 web, which, when inflated, constitutes their musical organ. The female has 
 a sting or drill, the size of a pin, and near half an inch in length, of a hard 
 and brittle substance, which lies on the under surface of the body ; with 
 this the insect drills a hole into the small limbs of trees, quite to the pith ; 
 there it deposits through this hollow sting or drill some dozen or two of 
 small white eggs. The time required to drill the hole and deposit the egg 
 is from two to five minutes. When undisturbed, they make some half 
 dozen or more insertions of their drill in the same limb, perhaps an inch 
 apart, and these punctures usually produce speedy death to the end of the 
 limb. They sometimes swarm about the forests in countless multitudes, 
 making ' melancholy music,' and causing no less melancholy desolation. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The zoology of the United States opens a wide and interesting field of observation : 
 it is more peculiar and striking thau either the mineralogy or botany. The following 
 general view of the mammiferous animals inhabiting North America is given by Dr. 
 Harman. The number of species now ascertained is one hundred and forty-six, in 
 which we do not include man ; of these twenty-eight are cetacea, and one hundred and 
 eighteen are quadrupeds. Among the quadrupeds. Dr. Harman reckons eleven species, 
 ot which no living trace is found in any part of the world ; which cannot of course be 
 considered as forming a part of our present zoology. The number of living species of 
 quadrupeds is therefore one hundred and seven. The comparative numbers of the 
 several orders are stated as follows, omitting man : 
 
 Carnivora 60 
 
 Glires " 37 
 
 Edentata 6 
 
 Pachydermata 2 
 
 Buminantia ' 13 
 
 Cetacea . ' ... 28 
 
 30 ' 20* 
 
234 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 We may here introduce from Dr. Harman a statement of the number of North 
 
 American quadrupeds, which he conceives to be common both to the new and 
 old world. 
 
 Species. Species. Species. 
 
 1 Mole. 2 Wolf. 1 Field-mouse. 
 
 2 Shrew. 2 Fox. 1 Campagnol (rat.) 
 1 Bear. 2 Seal. 1 Squirrel. 
 
 1 Glutton. 2 Weasel. 2 Deer. 
 
 1 Otter. 1 Beaver. 1 Sheep. 
 
 The whole number of common species is twenty one ; leaving eighty-six species as 
 peculiar to North America, though not all of them to the United States. 
 
 Charles Lucien Bonaparte has arranged the birds of the United States in twenty- 
 eight families, eighty-one genera, and three hundred and sixty-two species, viz. : two 
 hundred and nine land, and one hundred and fifty -three water-birds. Of the eighty -one 
 genera, sixty-three are common to Europe and America, while eighteen have no repre- 
 sentatives in Europe. 
 
235 
 
 CHAPTER XVII.— BOTANY. 
 
 The vegetation of the United States is as various as the climate and 
 soil. In Florida and the southern states, the superb magnolia, the majes- 
 tic tulip tree and the deciduous cypress charm the traveller by their grandeur 
 and beauty. The lofty oak, the stately fir and the gracefully-waving 
 elm of the north, present a different and still a highly interesting study to 
 the naturalist. As a general observation, the trees of the United States are 
 larger, taller, and more generally useful for timber than those of Europe. 
 As to height, it is observed by Michaux, that, while in France only thirty- 
 seven species of trees arrive at thirty feet, in the transatlantic republic, one 
 hundred and thirty exceed that elevation. A general idea of the American 
 forest having thus been given, we will now notice, as largely as our limits 
 will permit, the most remarkable trees. 
 
 Oak. — The White Oak is found throughout the United States, though it 
 is by no means equally diffused. It abounds chiefly in the middle states, 
 particularly in that part of Pennsylvania and Virginia which lies between 
 the Alleghanies and the Ohio, a distance of about one hundred and fifty 
 miles, where nine tenths of the forests are frequently composed of these 
 trees, whose healthful appearance evinces the favorable nature of the soil. 
 East of the mountains, this tree is found in every*exposure, and in every 
 soil which is not extremely dry or subject to long inundations ; but the 
 largest stocks grow in humid places. In the western districts, where it 
 composes entire forests, the face of the country is undulated, and the yellow 
 soil, consisting partly of clay with calcareous stones, yields abundant crops 
 of wheat. 
 
 The white oak attains the elevation of seventy or eighty feet, with a 
 diameter of six or seven feet ; but its proportions vary with the soil and 
 climate. Soon after their unfolding, the leaves are reddish above and white 
 and downy beneath ; when fully grown, they are smooth and of a light 
 green on the upper surface. In autumn, they change to a bright violet 
 color, and form an agreeable contrast with the surrounding foliage which 
 has not yet suffered by the frost. This is the only oak on which a few of 
 the dried leaves remain till the circulation is renewed in the spring. By 
 this peculiarity and by the whiteness of the bark, from which it derives its 
 name, it is easily distinguishable in the winter. This tree puts forth 
 flowers in May, which are succeeded by acorns of an oval form, large, very 
 sweet, contained in rough, shallow, grayish cups, and borne singly or in 
 pairs, by peduncles eight or ten lines in length, attached, as in all species 
 of annual fructification, to the shoots of the season. The fruit of the white 
 oak is rarely abundant, and frequently, for several years in succession, a few 
 handfuls of acorns could hardly be collected in a large forest where the 
 tree is multiplied. Some stocks produce acorns of a deep blue color. 
 
 Of all the American oaks, this is the best and the most generally used, 
 being strong, durable, and of large dimensions. It is less employed than 
 formerly in building, only because it is scarcer and more costly. Among 
 
236 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the uses of this wood, the most important is in ship-building. In all the 
 dock yards of the northern and middle states, except Maine, it is almost 
 exclusively employed for the keel, and always for the lower part of the 
 frame and the sides : it is preferred for the knees, when sticks of a proper 
 form can be found. In the smaller ports south of New York, the upper 
 part of the frame is also made of white oak ; but such vessels are less 
 esteemed than those constructed of more durable wood. The medicinal 
 properties of oak bark depend on its astringency, and that again on its tan- 
 nin. The inner bark of the small branches is the strongest, the middle 
 bark next, and the outer bark is almost useless. 
 
 The, Gray Oak, Water Oak, Bear Oak, Upland, Willoiv Oak, and 
 Bartram Oak are interesting varieties. The Laurel Oak is a stranger north 
 of Philadelphia, and is rare in the more southern states. It is most abun- 
 dant in the open savannas of Illinois. Rising to the height of forty or 
 fifty feet, clad in a smooth bark, and for three fourths of its height laden 
 with branches, it presents an uncouth appearance when bared by the winter 
 blasts, but in the summer with its thick tufted foliage is really beautiful. 
 The Black Oak is found throughout the country, with the exception of the 
 northern part of New England. It is one of the loftiest of the American 
 forest trees, rising to the height of eighty or ninety feet, with a diameter of 
 four or five feet. The wood is reddish and coarse-grained, with empty 
 pores, but is esteemed for strength and durability. It furnishes excellent 
 fuel, and the bark is largely used for tanning. Other varieties of the oak 
 are numerous. 
 
 Walnut. — The Black Walnut is met with in large numbers in the forests 
 in the vicinity of Philadelphia, and with the exception of the lower parts of 
 the southern states, where the soil is too sandy, or too wet as in the swamps, 
 it is met with to the banks of the Mississippi throughout an extent of two 
 thousand miles. East of the Alleghanies in Virginia, and in the upper 
 parts of the Carolinas and Georgia, it is chiefly confined to the valleys 
 where the soil is deep and fertile, and which are watered by creeks and 
 rivers. On the banks of the Ohio and on the islands of this beautiful river, 
 the black walnut attains the elevation of sixty or seventy feet, with a diame- 
 ter of three to seven feet. Its powerful vegetation clearly points out this, 
 as one of the largest trees of America. When it stands insulated, its 
 branches, extending themselves horizontally to a great distance, spread into 
 a spacious head, which gives it a very majestic appearance. The bark is 
 thick, blackish, and on old trees deeply furrowed. The leaves when bruised 
 emit a strong aromatic odor. 
 
 When the wood of this tree is freshly cut, the sap is white and the heart 
 of a violet color, which, after a short exposure to the air, assumes an in- 
 tenser shade, and becomes nearly black : hence probably is derived the 
 name Black Walnut. There are several qualities for which its wood is 
 principally esteemed : it remains sound for a long time, even when exposed 
 to the influences of heat and moisture ; but this observation is only applica- 
 ble to the heart, the sap speedily decays : it is very strong and very tena- 
 cious : when thoroughly seasoned, it is not liable to warp and split ; and its 
 grain is sufficiently fine and compact to admit of a beautiful polish. It pos- 
 sesses, in addition to these advantages, that of being secure from worms. 
 On account of these excellencies, it is preferred and successfully employed 
 in many kinds of work. East of the Alleghanies, its timber is not extea- 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 237 
 
 sively used in building houses, but, in some parts of Kentucky and 
 Ohio, it is split into shingles which serve to cover them : sometimes also 
 this timber enters into the composition of the frame. But it is chiefly in 
 cabinet-making, that this wood is employed wherever it abounds. 
 
 There are several other species of the walnut. The Shell-bark Hickory 
 sometimes grows to the height of eighty or ninety feet, with a diameter of 
 less than two feet; the trunk is destitute of branches, regularly shaped, 
 and almost of a uniform size for three fourths of its length. The Butter- 
 nut is found in all the New England states, and in the middle states. 
 
 Maple. — The Sugar Maple, called also rock maple, has leaves five- 
 parted, and yellowish green flowers, and is one of the loftiest trees in our 
 forests. Its trunk is usually straight and entire, to the height of from 
 forty to eighty feet, where it suddenly unfolds into a dense top, crowded 
 with rich foliage. The bark of the older trees is gray, and marked with 
 numerous deep clefts. The wood is firm and heavy, though not durable. 
 It is much used by cabinet-makers, and when cut at the right season 
 forms excellent fuel. Michaux says, that it grows in its greatest perfection, 
 between the forty-third and forty-sixth degrees of north latitude. 
 
 The White Maple, sometimes called silver maple, is distinguished by 
 having its leaves five-parted, and white beneath ; its flowers reddish yellow, 
 without flower-stalks. The trunk frequently divides near the ground, so 
 as to appear like several trunks close together. These divisions diverge a 
 little as they rise, and often at the height of from eight to twenty feet the 
 top commences. This is generally larger in proportion to the trunk, than 
 the top of any other tree. It blossoms earlier than the su<rar maple. The 
 fruit is larger than that of any other species : it advances with great 
 rapidity towards perfection, ripens and falls about June in Georgia, and 
 May in Pennsylvania. The fruit of the sugar maple does not ripen until 
 October. The white maple is principally found on the banks of rivers, 
 and on the banks of such only as have a clean gravelly bottom and clear 
 water. It is most luxuriant on flats which are subject to annual inunda- 
 tions, and is usually the first settler on alluvial deposits. ' The banks of 
 the Sandy river, in Maine,' says Michaux, ' and those of the Connecticut 
 in Windsor, Vermont, are the most northerly points at which I have seen 
 the white maple. It is found more or less on all the rivers of the United 
 States, flowing from the mountains to the Atlantic, but becomes scarce in 
 South Carolina and Georgia. In no part of the United States is it more 
 multiplied than in the western country, and no where is its vegetation more 
 luxuriant than on the banks of the Ohio, and of the great rivers that empty 
 into it. There, sometimes alone, and sometimes mingled with the willow, 
 which is found all along these waters, it contributes singularly by its mag- 
 nificent foliage to the embellishment of the scene. The brilliant white of 
 the leaves beneath, forms a striking contrast with the bright green above, 
 and the alternate reflection of these two surfaces in the water, heightens 
 the beauty of this wonderful moving mirror, and aids in forming an 
 enchanting picture, which during my long excursions in a canoe, in these 
 regions of solitude and silence, I contemplated with unwearied admira- 
 tion.' 
 
 The Red-flowering Maple is a beautiful tree, and in the swamps of 
 New Jersey and Pennsylvania, it is found to the height of sixty or seventy 
 feet, with a diameter of three or four. It blossoms earlier in the spring 
 
23S BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 than any other tree, and flowers from the middle to the last of April. Th«? 
 blossoms, of a beautiful purple or deep red, unfold more than a fortnighr 
 before the leaves. This tree furnishes wood adapted to a variety of pur- 
 poses ; it is much used in making domestic wares and agricultural imple- 
 ments. Furniture of great richness and lustre is also made of it. It is 
 not <?ood fuel. The Mountain, Striped and Ash-leaved Maples are all 
 beautiful trees. 
 
 Jlirch. — The Black Birch abounds in NewEngland and the middle states ; 
 farther south it is confined to the summits of the Alleghanies. It often 
 exceeds seventy feet in height. At the close of winter, the leaves, during 
 a fortnight after their birth, are covered with a thick, silvery down, which 
 soon after disappears. When bruised, the leaves and bark diffuse a very 
 agreeable odor, and as they retain this property when dried and carefully 
 preserved, they afford a pleasant infusion, with the addition of a little sugar 
 and cream. The wood is applied to a variety of useful purposes ; it is of 
 a rosy hue, which deepens on exposure to the light. The Yellow, Canoe, 
 WJtiie, and Red Birch are found in various localities throughout the 
 country. 
 
 Pines. — The pines constitute a large and interesting class of American 
 forest trees. The most valuable species is that which is known in Eng- 
 land and the West Indies as the Georgia Pitch Pine; and which, in the 
 United States, is variously called yellow pine, pitch pine, broom pine, 
 southern pine, red pine, and long-leaved pine, a name which is adopted by 
 Michaux. Towards the north, the long-leaved pine makes its appearance 
 near Norfolk, in Virginia, where the pine-barrens begin. It seems to be 
 especially assigned to dry sandy soils ; and it is found, almost without 
 interruption, in the lower part of Carolinas, Georgia, and the Floridas, 
 over a tract more than six hundred miles long, from north-east to south- 
 west, and more than a hundred miles broad, from the sea towards the 
 mountains. Immediately beyond Raleigh, it holds almost exclusive pos- 
 session of the soil, and is seen in company with other pines only on the 
 edges of swamps, enclosed in the barrens ; even there not more than one 
 stock in a hundred is of another species, and with this exception, the long- 
 leaved pine forms the unbroken mass of woods which covers this extensive 
 country. 
 
 The mean stature of the long-leaved pine is sixty or seventy feet, with 
 a uniform diameter of fifteen or sixteen inches for two thirds of this height. 
 Some stocks, favored by local circumstances, attain much larger dimen- 
 sions, particularly in East Florida. The timber is very valuable, being 
 stronger, more compact, and more durable, than that of all the other 
 species of pine : it is besides fine grained, and susceptible of high polish. 
 Its uses are diversified, and its consumption great. But the value of the 
 long-leaved pine does not reside exclusively in its wood ; it supplies nearly 
 all the resinous matter used in the United States in ship-building, with a 
 large residue for exportation ; and in this view, its place can be supplied 
 by no other species, those which afford the same product being dispersed 
 through the woods, or collected in inaccessible places. In the northern 
 states, the lands, which at the commencement of their settlements were 
 covered with pitch pine, were exhausted in twenty-five or thirty years, 
 and for more than half a century have ceased to furnish tar. The pine- 
 barrens are of vast extent, and are covered with trees of the forest growth ; 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 239 
 
 but they cannot all be rendered profitable, from the difficulty of communi- 
 cating with the sea. 
 
 Among the varieties which we can only enumerate, without an attempt at 
 description, are the Neiv Jersey, Table Mountain, Gray, Pond, and White 
 Pine. 
 
 Spruces. — The American Silver Fir is found in the colder regions of 
 the states ; towards the south, it is found only on the tops of the Allegha- 
 nies. It flourishes best in a moist, sandy loam. Its height rarely exceeds 
 forty feet, with a diameter of twelve or fifteen inches. The trunk tapers 
 from a foot in diameter at the surface of the ground to seven or eight 
 inches at the height of six feet. When standing alone and developing 
 itself naturally, its branches, which are numerous and thickly garnished 
 with leaves, diminish in length in proportion to their height, and form a 
 pyramid of perfect regularity. The bark is smooth and delicate. The 
 leaves are six or eight lines long, and are inserted singly on the sides and 
 on the top of the branches ; they are narrow, rigid and flat, of a bright 
 green above, and a silvery white beneath ; whence probably is derived the 
 name of the tree. The flowers appear in May, and are followed by cones 
 of a fragrant odor, nearly cylindrical, four or five inches long, an inch 
 in diameter, and always directed upwards. The seeds are ripe in autumn, 
 and if permitted to hang late will fall apart and scatter themselves. The 
 wood of the silver fir is light and slightly resinous, and the heart is yel- 
 lowish. 
 
 The Hemlock Spruce inhabits a similar tract of country, though moist 
 ground appears not to be the most favorable to its growth. It arrives at 
 the height of seventy or eighty feet, with a circumference of six or nine 
 feet, and is uniform for two thirds of its length. The White and Black 
 Spruce are varieties of this genus. 
 
 Cypresses. — The Cypress is a very interesting tree, from its extraordinary 
 dimensions, and the varied application of its wood. Its northern boundary 
 is Indian river, in Delaware, in latitude about thirty-nine degrees. In pro- 
 ceeding southward, it becomes more abundant in the swamps, and in 
 Louisiana those parts of the marshes where the cypress grows almost alone 
 are called cypress swamps, and they sometimes occupy thousands of acres. 
 In the swamps of the southern states and the Floridas, on whose deep, 
 miry soil a new layer of vegetable mould is every year deposited by floods, 
 the cypress attains its utmost developement. The largest stocks are one 
 hundred and twenty feet in height, and from twenty-five to forty feet in cir- 
 cumference, above the conical base, which at the surface of the earth is three 
 or four times as large as the continued diameter of the trunk : in felling 
 them, the negroes are obliged to raise themselves upon scaffolds five or six 
 feet from the ground. The base is usually hollow for three fourths of 
 its bulk. 
 
 Amidst the pine forests and savannas of the Floridas is seen here and 
 there a bog filled with cypresses, whose squalid appearance, when they 
 exceed eighteen or twenty feet in height, proves how much they are affected 
 by the barrenness of a soil which differs from the surrounding only by a 
 layer of vegetable mould, a little thicker upon the quartzous sand. The 
 summit of the cypress is not pyramidical like that of the spruce, but is 
 widely spread and even depressed upon old trees. The foliage is open, 
 light, and of a fresh agreeable tint ; each leaf is four or five inches long, and 
 
240 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 consists of two parallel rows of leaflets upon a common stem. The leaflets- 
 are small, fine, and somewhat arching, with the convex side outwards. In 
 autumn they change from a light green to a dull red, and are shed soon 
 after. This tree blooms in Carolina about the first of February. 
 
 Among the resinous trees of the United States, the White Cedar is one 
 of the most interesting for the varied utility of its wood. North of the river 
 Connecticut, it is rare and little employed in the arts. In the southern 
 states, it is not met with beyond the river Santee, but it is found, though 
 not abundantly, on the Savannah : it is multiplied only within these limits 
 and to the distance of fifty miles from the ocean. The white cedar is 
 seventy or eighty feet high, and sometimes more than three feet in diame- 
 ter. When the trees are close and compressed, the trunk is straight, per- 
 pendicular and destitute of branches to the height of fifty or sixty feet. 
 When cut, a yellow transparent resin of an agreeable odor exudes, of 
 which a few ounces could hardly be collected in a summer from a tree of 
 three feet in circumference. The foliage is evergreen : each leaf is a 
 little branch numerously subdivided, and composed of small, acute, imbri- 
 cated scales. 
 
 The White Ash is one of the most interesting among the American spe- 
 cies for the qualities of its wood, and the most remarkable for the rapidity 
 of its growth and for the beauty of its foliage. A cold climate seems most 
 congenial to its nature. It is everywhere called White Ash, probably from 
 the color of its bark, by which it is easily distinguished. The situations 
 most favorable to this tree are the banks of rivers and the edges and sur- 
 rounding acclivities of swamps. The white ash sometimes attains the 
 height of eighty feet, with a diameter of three feet, and is one of the largest 
 trees of the United States. The trunk is perfectly straight and often undi- 
 vided to the height of more than forty feet. On large stocks the bark is 
 deeply furrowed, and divided into small squares from one to three inches 
 in diameter. The leaves are twelve or fourteen inches long, opposite and 
 composed of three or four pair of leaflets surmounted by an odd one. The 
 leaflets are three or four inches long, about two inches broad, of a delicate 
 texture and an undulated surface. Early in the spring they are covered with 
 a light down, which gradually disappears, and at the approach of summer 
 they are perfectly smooth, of a light green color above and whitish beneath. 
 It puts forth white or greenish flowers in the month of May, which are suc- 
 ceeded by seeds that are eighteen lines long, cylindrical near the base, and 
 gradually flattened into a wing, the extremity of which is slightly notched. 
 They are united in bunches four or five inches long, and are ripe in the 
 beginning of autumn. The shoots of the two preceding years are of a 
 bluish gray color and perfectly smooth : the distance between their buds 
 sufficiently proves the vigor of their growth. 
 
 Ehn.^-The White Elm inhabits an extensive tract of the states, being 
 found from Nova Scotia to the extremity of Georgia. It is also found on 
 the banks of the western rivers ; growing in low, moist and substantial 
 soils. In the middle states, this tree stretches to a great height, but does 
 not approach the magnificence of vegetation which it displays in the coun- 
 tries peculiarly adapted to its growth. In clearing the primitive forests, a 
 few stocks are sometimes left standing ; insulated in this manner, it appears 
 in all its majesty, towering to the height of eighty or one hundred feet, with 
 a trunk four or five feet in diameter, regularly shaped, naked, and insensi- 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 241 
 
 bly diminishing to the height of sixty or seventy feet, wher£ it divides 
 itself into two or three primary branches. This species differs from the red 
 and European elm in its flowers and seeds ; it blooms in the month of April, 
 previous to the unfolding of the leaves ; the flowers are very small, of a 
 purple color, supported by short, slender footstalks, and united in bunches 
 at the extremity of the branches. The Wahoo and the Red Elm are in- 
 teresting species. 
 
 The American Chesnut sometimes attains the height of seventy or eighty 
 feet, with a circumference of fifteen or sixteen feet. Though this tree nearly 
 resembles that of Europe in its general appearance, its foliage, its fruit and 
 the properties of its wood, it is treated by botanists as a distinct species. 
 Its leaves are six or seven inches long, one and a half broad, coarsely 
 toothed, of an elongated oval form, of a fine, brilliant color and of a firm 
 texture, with prominent parallel nerves beneath. It flowers in June. The 
 fruit is spherical, covered with fine prickles, and stored with two dark brown 
 seeds or nuts, about as large as the end of the finger. They are smaller 
 and sweeter than the wild chesnuts of Europe. They are ripe about the 
 middle of October. The wood is strong, elastic and capable of enduring 
 the succession of dryness and moisture. 
 
 Buttonwood or Sycamore. — Among trees with deciduous leaves, none in 
 the temperate zones, either in the old or new continent, equal the dimen- 
 sions of the planes. The species which we are about to describe is not less 
 remarkable for its amplitude, and for its magnificent appearance, than the 
 plane of Asia, whose majestic form and extraordinary ^ize were so much 
 celebrated by the ancients. In the Atlantic states, this tree is commonly 
 Known by the name of Buttonwood, and sometimes in Virginia, by that of 
 Water Beach. On the banks of the Ohio, and in the states of Kentucky 
 and Tennessee, it is most frequently called Sycamore, and by some persons 
 Plane Tree. This tree, in no part of the United States, is more abundant 
 and vigorous than along the rivers of Pennsylvania and Virginia; though 
 in the more fertile valleys of the west, its vegetation is still more luxuriant, 
 especially on the banks of the Ohio and of the rivers that flow into it. 
 
 On the margin of the great rivers of the west, the buttonwood is con- 
 stantly found to be the loftiest and largest tree of the United States. Often 
 with a trunk of several feet in diameter, it begins to ramify at the height of 
 sixty or seventy feet, near the summit of other trees ; and often the base 
 divides itself into several trunks, equally vigorous and superior in diameter 
 to any of the surrounding trees. On a little island in the Ohio, fifteen 
 miles above the mouth of the Muskingum, Michaux mentions a buttonwood 
 which, at five feet above the ground, was forty feet and four inches in cir- 
 cumference, and consequently more than thirteen feet in diameter. The 
 American species is generally thought, in Europe, to possess a richer 
 foliage, and to afford a deeper shade than the Asiatic plane : its leaves are 
 of a beautiful green, alternate, from five to fifteen inches broad, and formed 
 with more open angles than those of the plane of the eastern continent. 
 
 Beech. — The species of Red Beech is almost exclusively confined to the 
 north-eastern parts of the United States. In the state of Maine, New 
 Hampshire and Vermont, it is so abundant as often to constitute extensive 
 forests, the finest of which grow on fertile, level or gently sloping lands 
 which are proper for the culture of corn. The red beech equals the white 
 species in diameter, but not in height ; and as it ramifies nearer the earth, 
 31 21 
 
242 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and is more numerously divided, it has a more massy summit and the ap- 
 
 fiearance of more tufted foliage. Its leaves are equally brilliant, a little 
 arger and thicker, and have longer teeth. Its fruit is of the same form, 
 but is only half as large, and is garnished with firmer and less numerous 
 points. 
 
 The White Beech is one of the tallest and most majestic trees of the 
 American forests. It grows the most abundantly in the middle and west- 
 ern states. On the banks of the Ohio, the white beech attains the height 
 of more than one hundred feet, with a circumference of eight to eleven 
 feet. In the forests, where these trees vegetate in a deep and fertile soil, 
 their roots sometimes extend to a great distance even with the surface, and 
 being entangled so as to cover the ground, they embarrass the steps of the 
 traveller and render the land peculiarly difficult to clear. This tree is 
 more slender and less branchy than the red beech ; but its foliage is superb, 
 and its general appearance magnificent. 
 
 Poplar or Tulip Tree. — This tree, which surpasses most others of North 
 America in height and in the beauty of its foliage and of its flowers, is one 
 of the most interesting from the numerous and useful applications of 
 its wood. 
 
 In the Atlantic states, especially at a considerable distance from the sea, 
 tulip trees are often seen seventy, eighty and one hundred feet in height, 
 with a diameter of eighteen inches to three feet. But the western states 
 appear to be the natural soil of this magnificent tree, and here it displays 
 its most powerful vegetation. M. Michaux mentions a tulip tree, near 
 Louisville, on the Ohio, which at five feet from the ground was twenty-two 
 feet six inches in circumference, and whose elevation he judged to be from 
 one hundred and twenty to one hundred and forty feet. The flowers bloom 
 in June or July. They are large, brilliant, and on detached trees very 
 numerous, variegated with different colors : they have an agreeable odor, 
 and produce a fine effect. The fruit is composed of a great number of thin, 
 narrow scales, attached to a common axis, and forming a cone two or three 
 inches in length. Each cone consists of sixty or seventy seeds, of which 
 never more than a third part are productive. For ten years before the tree 
 begins to yield fruit, almost all the seeds are unproductive, and on large 
 trees, those from the highest branches are the best. 
 
 Catalpa. — In the Atlantic states, the Catalpa begins to be found in the 
 forests, on the banks of the river Savannah, and west of the Alleghanies, 
 on those of the Cumberland, between the thirty-fifth and thirty-sixth de- 
 grees of latitude. Farther south it is more common, and abounds near the 
 borders of all the rivers which empty into the Mississippi, or which water 
 West Florida. In the regions where it grows most abundantly, it frequently 
 exceeds fifty feet in height, with a diameter from eighteen to twenty-four 
 inches. It is easily recognised by its bark, which is of a silver-gray color, 
 and but slightly furrowed, by its ample leaves, and by its wide-spreading 
 summit, disproportioned in size to the diameter of its trunk. It differs from 
 other trees also by the fewness of its branches. The flowers which are 
 collected in large bunches at the extremity of the branches, are white, with 
 violet and yellow spots, and are beautiful and showy. 
 
 Magnolia Grandiflora. — ' Bartram and others,' says Mr. Flint, 'by 
 overrating the beauty of this tree, have caused, that when strangers first 
 behold it, their estimation of it falls too low. It has been described, as a 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 243 
 
 \>rv large tree. We have seen it in Florida, where Bartram saw it. We 
 have seen it in its more congenial position for full developement, the rich 
 alluvions of Louisiana ; and we have never seen it compare with the syca- 
 more, the cotton wood, or even the ash, in point of size. It is sometimes a 
 tall tree ; often graceful in form ; but ordinarily a tree of fourth or fifth rate 
 in point of comparative size in the forest, where it grows. Its bark is 
 smooth, whitish, very thick, and something resembles that of the beech. 
 The wood is soft, and for aught we know, useless. The leaves strongly 
 resemble those of the orange tree, except in being larger, thicker, and hav- 
 ing a hoary yellowish down upon the under side. The upper side has a 
 perfect verdure, and a feel of smoothness, as if it was oiled. The flowers 
 are large, of a pure white, nearest resembling the northern pond lily, 
 though not so beautiful ; and are, ordinarily, about twice the size. The 
 fragrance is indeed, powerful, but to us rather sickly and offensive. We 
 have felt, and we have heard others complain of feeling a sensation of 
 faintness, in going into a room, where the chimney place was filled with 
 these flowers. The tree continues to put forth flowers for two months in 
 succession, and seldom displays many at a time. 
 
 ' We think, few have been in habits of examining flowering trees 
 more attentively than ourselves, and we contemplated this tree for years in 
 the season of flowers. Instead of displaying, as has been represented, a 
 cone of flowers, we have seldom seen a tree in flower, which did not 
 require some attention and closeness of inspection, to discover where the 
 flowers were situated among the leaves. We have not been led to believe, 
 that others possessed the sense of smell more acutely, than ourselves. In 
 advancing from points, where these trees were not, to the pine forest, on 
 the water courses of which they are abundant, we have been warned of 
 our approach to them by the sense of smell, at a distance of something 
 more than half a mile ; and we question, if any one ever perceived the 
 fragrance much farther, except by the imagination. The magnolia is a 
 striking tree, and an observer, who saw it for the first time, would remark 
 it, as such. But we have been unable to conceive whence the extravagant 
 misconceptions, respecting the size, number, fragrance and beauty of its 
 flowers, had their origin. 
 
 ' There are six or seven varieties among the laurels of the magnolia 
 tribe, some of which have smaller flowers than those of the graridiflora, 
 but much more delicate, and agreeably fragTant. A beautiful evergreen of 
 this class is covered in autumn with berries of an intense blackness, and 
 we remarked them in great numbers about St. Francisville. The holly is 
 a well-known and beautiful tree of this class. But that one, which has 
 struck us, as being the handsomest of the family, is the laurel almond. It 
 is not a large tree. Its leaves strongly resemble those of the peach ; and 
 it preserves a most pleasing green through the winter. Its flowers yield 
 a delicious perfume. It grows in families of ten or fifteen trees in a clus- 
 ter. Planters of taste in the valley of Red river, where it is common, 
 select the place of their dwelling amidst a cluster of these trees.' 
 
 The Boio Wood is a very striking tree, found about the upper courses 
 of the Washita, the middle, regions of Arkansas, and occasionally on the 
 northern limits of Louisiana. Its leaves are large and beautiful, and its 
 fruit, which somewhat resembles a large orange, is of a most inviting 
 
244 BOOK JF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 appearance, but is ' the apple of Sodom to the taste.' It is considered by 
 many the most splendid of all forest trees. 
 
 The China Tree is much cultivated in the south-western region of the 
 states, as an ornamental shade tree. Its leaves are long and spiked, set in 
 correspondence on each side of the stem. The verdure is deep and bril- 
 liant. When in full flower, the top is one tuft of blossoms. The tree is 
 of most rapid growth, and its beautiful color imparts delightful freshness 
 to the landscape. After the fall of its leaves, a profusion of reddish berries 
 remain, and give at a little distance the appearance of continuing in flower. 
 This berry is a narcotic, and stupefies the birds that eat of it. 
 
 The Papmv is seldom found north of the river Schuylkill, and is 
 extremely rare in the low, maritime parts of the southern states. It is not 
 uncommon in the bottoms which stretch along the rivers of the middle 
 states ; but it is most abundant in the rich valleys intersected by the 
 western waters, where at intervals, it forms thickets exclusively occupying 
 several acres. In Kentucky and in the western part of Tennessee, it is 
 sometimes seen also in forests where the soil is luxuriantly fertile ; of 
 which its presence is an infallible proof. 
 
 It seldom exceeds thirty feet in height, and a diameter of six or eight 
 inches, though it generally stops short at half this elevation. The trunk 
 is covered with a silver-gray bark, which is smooth and finely polished. 
 The leaves are alternate, five or six inches in length, and of an elongated 
 form, widening from the base to the summit. They are of a fine texture, 
 and the superior surface is smooth and brilliant. The flowers are pendent, 
 and of a purple hue. When the fruit is ripe, which takes place towards 
 the beginning of August, it is about three inches long, one and a half thick, 
 of a yellowish color, and of an oval form, irregular and swelling into 
 inequalities. Its pulp is soft, and of an insipid taste, and it contains sev- 
 eral large, triangular stones. 
 
 Persimon. — The banks of the river Connecticut, below the forty- 
 second degree of latitude, may be uniformly considered as the northern 
 limit of this tree ; but it is rendered rare in these parts by the severity 
 of the winter, while in New Jersey it is common, and still more so in 
 Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the southern states ; it abounds, also, in the 
 western forests. The persimon varies surprisingly in size in different soils 
 and climates. In New Jersey it is not more than half as large as in the 
 more southern states, where, in favorable situations, it is sometimes sixty 
 feet in height, and eighteen or twenty inches in diameter. The trunk of a 
 full-grown tree is covered with a deeply-furrowed blackish bark, from 
 which a greenish gum exudes, without taste or smell. The leaves are 
 from four to six inches in length, oblong, entire, of a fine green above ; in 
 autumn they are often variegated with black spots. This tree belongs to 
 the class of vegetables whose sexes are confined to different stocks. Both 
 the barren and fertile flowers are greenish and not strikingly apparent. 
 They put forth in June or July. The ripe fruit is about as large as the 
 thumb, of a reddish complexion, round, fleshy, and furnished with six or 
 eight semi-oval stones, slightly swollen at the sides, and of a dark purple 
 color. It is not eatable till it has been touched with frost, by which the 
 skin is shrivelled, and the pulp, which before was hard and extremely harsh 
 to the taste, is softened and rendered palatable. The fruit is so abundant im 
 the southern states, that a tree often yields several bushels. In the south, it 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 245 
 
 adheres to the branches long after the shedding of the leaf, and when it 
 tails, it is eagerly devoured by wild and domestic animals. 
 
 Dogwood and Red Bud. — These are plants between shrubs and trees. 
 The former has a heart-shaped leaf, and an umbrella-shaped top. In spring, 
 it adorns itself with brilliant, white flowers, and in autumn with fine scarlet 
 berries. The latter is the first blossoming shrub on the Ohio ; and its blos- 
 soms there resemble those of the peach tree. They are scattered every 
 where through the wood, and impart a charm to the whole descent of the 
 * beautiful river.' The two are the most common, as they are the most 
 beautiful shrubs of the great western valley. 
 
 Mountain Laurel. — This is a large shrub, which indifferently bears the 
 name of Mountain Laurel, Laurel, Ivy, and Calico Tree. It abounds in 
 New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Proceeding thence south-west, it is found 
 along the steep banks of all the rivers which rise in the Alleghanies ; but 
 it is observed to become less common in following these streams from their 
 source, towards the Ohio and Mississippi on one side, and towards the 
 ocean on the other. It is rare in Kentucky and in West Tennessee, and 
 in the southern states it disappears entirely when the rivers enter the low 
 country, where the pine-barrens commence. 
 
 In favorable situations, this shrub grows to the height of eighteen or 
 twenty feet, with a diameter of three inches. The flowers put forth from 
 May to July, are destitute of odor, and disposed in clusters at the extre- 
 mity of the branches : in general they are of a beautiful rose color, and some- 
 times of a pure white. They are always numerous, and their brilliant 
 effect is heightened by the richness of the surrounding foliacr-.. 
 
 The Pabiit t to inhabits the southern states, as far north as Cape Hatteras. 
 It is from forty to fifty feet in height, crowned with a tufted summit, which 
 gives it a beautiful and majestic appearance. The Coral Tree is a 
 brilliant and gaudy shrub, native of the open forests of the Carolinas, 
 Georgia, and Florida ; it grows to the height of two or three feet. The 
 S'noio Berry is an ornamental shrub, inhabiting the banks of the upper 
 Missouri. In the autumn, when the large bunches of ivory or wax-like 
 berries are matured, the appearance is said to be extremely beautiful. 
 
 Fruit Trees. — The Chickasaw Plum is common from thirty-four degrees 
 north latitude, to the gulf of Mexico. It is found in great abundance. 
 Prairie plums are found in great quantities on the hazel prairies of Illinois 
 and Missouri. When cultivated under favorable circumstances, the Osage 
 plum is delicious. Crab apple shrubs are found in great quantities in the 
 middle regions of the central Valley. Their blossoms resemble those of 
 the cultivated apple tree, and the tree is useful as a slock in which the 
 cultivated apple and pear may be grafted. The Mulberry is rare 
 in the Atlantic states, but abounds in every part of the Mississippi valley. 
 Its wood is valuable, and scarcely less durable than that of the locust. 
 
 Vine. — The common grape vine is diffused through all the climates. It 
 frequently happens that we see, in the rich lands, vines of the size of a 
 man's body, perpendicularly attached at the top to branches sixty or eighty 
 feet from the ground, and at great lateral distance from the trunk of the 
 tree. It is common to puzzle a man first brought into these woods, by 
 asking him to account for the manner in which a vine of prodigious size 
 has been able to rear itself to such a height. There can be no doubt that 
 the vine in this case is coeval with the tree ; that the tree, as it grew, sup- 
 
 21* 
 
246 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ported the vine ; and that the vine was carried from the trunk with the 
 projection of the lateral branch, until, in the lapse of years, this singular 
 appearance is the result. In many bottoms, half the trees are covered 
 with these vines. In the deep forest, on the hills, in the barrens, in the 
 hazel prairies, and in the pine woods, every form and size of the grape are 
 found. 
 
 Of the plants of the winter grape, which so generally clings to the trees 
 in the alluvial forests, probably not one in fifty bears any fruit at all. The 
 fruit when produced is a small circular berry not unlike the wild black 
 cherry. It is austere, sour, and unpleasant, until it 'has been softened by 
 the winter frosts ; but it is said, when fermented by those who have experi- 
 ence in the practice, to make a tolerable wine. The summer grape is found 
 on the rolling barrens and the hazel prairies. It is more than twice the 
 size of the winter grape, is ripe in the first month in autumn, and, when 
 matured under the full influence of the sun, is a pleasant fruit. It grows 
 in the greatest abundance, but is too dry a grape to be pressed for wine. 
 The muscadine grape is seldom seen north of thirty-four degrees. More 
 southerly, it becomes abundant, and is found in the deep alluvial forests, 
 clinging to tall trees. The fruit grows in more scanty clusters than that 
 of other grapes. Like other fruits, they fall as they ripen, and furnish a 
 rich treat to bears and other animals that feed on them ; they are of the 
 size of a plum, of a fine purple black, with a thick tough skin, tasting not 
 unlike the rind of an orange ; the pulp is deliciously sweet, but is reputed 
 unwholesome. The pine woods grape has a slender, bluish purple vine, 
 that runs on the ground among the grass. It ripens in the month of June ; 
 is large, cone-shaped, transparent, with four seeds, reddish purple, and is 
 fine fruit for eating. 
 
 Cane. — The Cane grows to the height of twenty or thirty feet on the 
 lower courses of the Mississippi, Arkansas and Red rivers. Its leaves are 
 dagger-shaped, long and narrow, and of a beautiful green. It grows in 
 masses so compact that the smallest sparrow would find it difficult to fly in 
 the intervals. A man could not make his way through a cane brake, at a 
 rate more rapid than three miles a day. 
 
 Flax. — A species of flax was found by Lewis and Clarke growing in the 
 valleys of the Rocky mountains, and on the banks of the Missouri. The 
 bark possesses the same kind of tough fibres as the common flax, and the 
 Indians are in the habit of making lint and gun-waddings of it. 
 
 Berries. — The gooseberry is indigenous to the United States, and in the 
 western parts grows to great size. The red raspberry is also indigenous. 
 Whortleberries, and blackberries high and creeping, are found in prodi- 
 gious abundance ; many of the prairies are red with strawberries. The 
 cranberry is a native of the country, growing in morasses and rich bottom 
 through its whole extent. Large cranberry swamps occur in New Jersey. 
 Other Plants. — There are many annual and evergreen creepers in the 
 United States, of various kinds, form and foliage. The grasses are vari- 
 ous and luxuriant. In the prairies they are rank and coarse ; the Atlantic 
 country is covered with a fine sward. The rush is a useful herbaceous 
 plant, which grows on bottoms of an elevation between that of the cane 
 brakes and the deeply-flooded lands. The pea-vine covers the richer 
 soil of the forest lands ; it is small and fibrous. The wild rice is a plant 
 of great importance, found on the marshy margins of the northern lakes, 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 247 
 
 and in the shallow waters of the upper courses of the Mississippi. One 
 of the most striking of the forest productions is the wax-plant, which is 
 nearly entirely of a snow-white, and resembles the most delicate wax pre- 
 paration. It grows in rich shady woods, and is much prized. 
 
 The common kinds of water-plants are found in the mashy grounds and 
 ponds ; particularly a very beautiful and fragrant lily. This closely resem- 
 bles the European water-lily. One of this genus is said to be unrivalled 
 for size and beauty. Dr. Barton considers it to be the same as the sacred 
 bean of Judea, and mentions it as abundant in Philadelphia, but rare other- 
 wise, and refusing propagation. Mr. Flint found it in the southern states, 
 and says that it attains great splendor on the lakes and stagnant waters of 
 the Arkansas. There is a large variety of parasitic plants in the states, 
 the most remarkable of which is the long moss. 
 
 It will be observed that in these chapters on the natural history of the 
 United States, we have only intended to describe the most conspicuous 
 objects, without reference to scientific arrangement. A mere scientific 
 catalogue of the natural productions of our country would occupy all the 
 space we have devoted to the subject, and possess no interest or attraction 
 for the general reader. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON BOTANY. 
 
 Botany, the science of plants, is generally divided into two branches, one of which 
 describes their internal structure and organic action, and the other their external appear- 
 ance. At the revival of learning, hardly fifteen hundred plants were known from the 
 descriptions of the ancients. More than fifty thousand, at a reasonable estimate, have 
 been described. Linnreus founded his system exclusively on the sexual relations of 
 plants ; dividing them all into two general divisions, one of which has, and the other 
 has not, visible sexual parts. This division is generally adopted as the basis of 
 elementary instruction, but many objections have been brought against it. 
 
 The second general division of this science begins with the anatomy of plants, or an 
 investigation of their internal structure. This study has been recently cultivated to a 
 great extent, particularly by the German^. With this division is connected chemical 
 botany, which investigate- the constituent parts, the various changes, and the different 
 combinations of the liquid and solid parts of plants. From these we rise to the laws 
 of vegetable life, which are generally the same with those of animal life ; the physio- 
 logy of plants and of animals is thus of course intimately connected. 
 
 Of the two general divisions of botany, the physiological, or philosophical is the elder. 
 It was created by Theophrastus of Eresus. Historical botany was founded by the 
 Germans. In the seventeenth century, the foundation of botanical anatomy was laid 
 by Grew and Malpighi ; botanical chemistry was founded by Homberg, Dodart, and 
 Mariotte: and the difference of sex was discovered by Grew, Morland andCamerarius. 
 
248 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII.— GEOLOGY. 
 
 The first important attempt toward a scientific view of the character and 
 relations of the strata in the United States was made by Mr. Maclure, but 
 a short time previous to the year 1812. His work was small and general, 
 but has proved a valuable guide to subsequent inquirers. In order to ob- 
 tain a view of the general geological formation of the territory of the states, 
 it will be well to recapitulate its chief geographical features ; the Apala 
 chian mountains on the east, with the slope to the Atlantic ocean ; the 
 Rocky mountains to the west, with the valleys intervening between them 
 and the Pacific ocean ; and the extended valley between these elevated 
 ranges, with the Ozark mountains dividing it in the centre, and the Black 
 mountains occupying its north-western angle. 
 
 The summits of the Rocky mountains are formed entirely of primitive 
 rocks, chiefly of granite itself. A red and saline sandstone rests on this 
 granite, through the whole chain, as far as it has been explored. But few 
 traces of that animal and vegetable life are found, which in other countries 
 has reared mountains of limestone, clay-slate, and those other aggregates 
 which are so often composed of the exuviae of living beings. The western 
 boundary of this sandstone formation corresponds to the side of the eastern- 
 most granite ranges. From the Platte toward the south, the sandstone 
 increases in width, and on the Canadian it extends more than half the 
 distance from the sources of that river to its confluence with the Arkansas. 
 It consists of two members ; red sandstone, and argillaceous or gray sand- 
 stone. This formation was at one time probably horizontal and uniform ; it 
 is now found in a state of entire disruption and disorder. This tract 
 abounds in scenery of an interesting and majestic character. The angle 
 of inclination of the strata varies from forty-five to ninety degrees. Though 
 not very recent, the sandstone along the base of the mountains contains 
 the relics of marine animals and plants, and embraces extensive beds of 
 pudding stone. 
 
 South of the Arkansas are rocks of basaltic origin, overlaying the red 
 sandstone. By the vastness and broken character of their masses, and 
 their dark color, they present a striking contrast to the light, smooth and 
 fissile sandstone on which they rest. Sometimes they are compact and 
 apparently homogeneous in their composition, and in many particulars of 
 structure, form and hardness, more analogous to the primitive rock than 
 to those recent secondary aggregates with which they are associated. In 
 other instances, dark and irregular masses of porous and amygdaloidal sub- 
 stances are seen scattered about the plain, or gathered in conical heaps, but 
 having no immediate connection with the strata on which they rest. Most 
 of the rocks of this class were observed in the neighborhood of the sources 
 of the Canadian ; and may be distinguished into two kinds, referable to the 
 two divisions called greenstone and amygdaloid. 
 
 The valley immediately east of the Rocky mountain range is composed 
 of an extensive accumulation of sand, seemingly the debris of the moun- 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 249 
 
 tains. To an unknown depth, the soil is made up of rounded fragments of 
 granite, varying in dimension from a grain of sand to a six pound shot. 
 This accumulation has evidently been washed from the mountains, and 
 slopes gradually from their base. The small particles derived from the 
 quartzose portions of the primitive aggregates, being least liable to decom- 
 position, have been borne to the greatest distance, and of these the eastern 
 margin of the great sandy desert is almost entirely composed ; the central 
 portions are of coarser sand, intermixed with particles of mica and feld- 
 spar ; nearer the mountains, boulders and pebbles occur abundantly, and 
 at length cover almost the entire surface of the country. 
 
 In many other respects besides geological structure, the Apalachian 
 range of mountains differs from that we have just been considering. The 
 whole of their eastern front is composed of primitive rocks, comprehending 
 both the granitic family and its associated strata of clay-slate and limestone. 
 In New England, rocks of this class constitute the seacoast, and with some 
 exception's extend inwards towards the St. Lawrence. South of the Hud- 
 son, the edge of the primitive follows the general contour of the mountains, 
 at a variable distance from the sea to their termination, and until it meets 
 more recent deposits at the extremity of the mountain range. The breadth 
 of this primitive belt is very unequal. In passing through the states 'of 
 Pennsylvania and Maryland, it occupies but a small part of the country ; 
 in Virginia it increases in breadth, and proportionably in height, composing 
 the greatest mass as well as the most elevated points of the mountains in 
 Georgia and North Carolina. Besides this range, there is a great mass of 
 primitive on the west side of lake Champlain. 
 
 In general, the primitive rocks run from a north and south to a north- 
 east and south-west direction, and dip generally to the south-east at an 
 angle of more than forty-five degrees with the horizon ; their highest ele- 
 vation is towards their north-western limit. The mountains of this forma- 
 tion consist generally of detached masses, with rounded flattops and a cir- 
 cular waving outline. Granite in large masses constitutes but a small part 
 of this formation, and is found indifferently in the plains and on the tops of 
 mountains. Gneiss extends perhaps over a half of this formation, and 
 includes in a great many places beds from three to three hundred feet thick. 
 These beds are mixed, and alternate occasionally in the same gneiss with 
 the primitive limestone, the beds of hornblende and hornblende slate, ser- 
 pentine, magnetic iron ore, and feldspar rocks. In short, there are scarcely 
 any of the primitive rocks that may not occasionally be found included in 
 the gneiss formation. 
 
 The breadth of the transition district, like that of the primitive, is varia- 
 ble. Narrow towards the gulf of Mexico, it gradually widens towards the 
 north-east, till it reaches the river Hudson. From its upper portion it sends 
 off a considerable arm, which penetrates for several hundred miles into the 
 granitic region, overlaying it, but running parallel with the principal body. 
 After the primitive, it forms some of the highest mountains in the range, 
 and seems to be both higher and wider to the west in Pennsylvania, Mary- 
 land and part of Virginia, where the primitive is least extended and low- 
 est in height. It contains all the varieties of rocks found in the same 
 formation in Europe. 
 
 It varies in breadth from twenty to one hundred miles. In the lime- 
 stone of this formation there are many and extensive caves, some of which 
 32 
 
250 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 extend for miles under ground, and contain the bones of animals. It is 
 the lowest, and is considered the most ancient of the rocks containing 
 organized remains, which are those of cryptogamous plants, and animals 
 without sight. The graywacke has been observed to contain impressions 
 of organized remains, but they are usually those of zoophytic animals, and 
 are exceedingly unlike those found so abundantly in the coal formations. 
 Its colors are variable ; it is, however, most commonly bluish, black, or 
 dark brown. The graywacke seems to form the connecting link between 
 the clay-slate and a rock which has been called the old red sandstone, and 
 is usually found intimately blended either with the one or the other. This 
 sandstone occurs throughout the whole extent of the transition formation, 
 and evidently belongs to the oldest depositions of that rock. It is for the 
 most part distinctly stratified, and in all cases its stratification is inclined. 
 
 Of the rocks thus described, the limestone occurs extensively all along 
 the north-western side of the primitive strata. It is probable that transition 
 limestone is the foundation through their whole extent of the Alleghany 
 mountains of Pennsylvania, Maryland and the western parts of Virginia, 
 on a level with the surface at the base of their eastern declivities. The 
 clay-slate occurs in the central portions of that extensive field of transition, 
 which skirts the western margin of the primitive of New York and New 
 England, and forms the great body of the Catskill mountains: The old 
 red sandstone in the transition district, along the whole range of mountains, 
 is perhaps more abundant than any other aggregate. This region has also 
 a considerable mixture of trap. Various large bodies of transition rock are 
 thrown to a considerable distance into the primitive region ; while in many 
 instances, secondary rocks are found running along the valleys far into the 
 bosom of the mountains. 
 
 With the edge of the transition strata, we approach the western summits 
 of the Apalachian mountains, or the line from whence they begin to fall 
 toward the Mississippi valley. Along this line commences a series of 
 secondary rocks, stretching westward to an immense extent towards the 
 Mississippi and the lakes, and constituting one of the most interesting and 
 important geological formations in the United States. This secondary 
 region extends unbroken across the whole country to the shores of the 
 lakes, being bounded on the west probably by the river Wabash, and in 
 descending the Mississippi by the more recent formations through which 
 that river flows. It consists generally of various strata of sandstone, lime- 
 stone and clay. Immense beds of secondary limestone, of all shades from 
 light blue to black, sometimes intercepted by extensive tracts of sandstone 
 and other secondary aggregates, appear to constitute the foundation of this 
 formation, which extends from the head waters of the Ohio, with some 
 interruptions, all the way to the waters of the Tombigbee, accompanied by 
 slaty clay and freestone with vegetable impressions ; but in no instance yet 
 ascertained, covered by or alternating with any rock resembling basalt, or 
 indeed any of those called the newest fioetz trap formation. A grand pe- 
 culiarity of this secondary region is the uniform, horizontal direction of 
 the strata. 
 
 We will now briefly examine the region which occupies the centre of 
 the Mississippi valley. The Ozark mountains consist chiefly of secondary 
 and transition rocks ; but there are two points at which the primitive makes 
 its appearance. About fifteen miles south-east from the hot springs, near 
 
PffSSfCAL GEOGRAPHY. 251 
 
 the Washita, granite is found in situ. It is very soft, and disintegrates 
 rapidly when exposed to the air. It is compounded of greyish-white quartz, 
 yellowish-white feldspar, and an unusually large proportion of mica in 
 variously and brilliantly-colored masses. This granite, if of secondary 
 formation, is much more extensive than any of the kind hitherto known. 
 1 We are ignorant,' says Dr. James, ' of the manner of its connection with 
 any other rock, nor do we know of any formation of primitive granite from 
 which it could, by the action of water, have been derived : one can have 
 no hesitation, however, in considering the Ozark mountains as a separate 
 system within themselves, and having no immediate connection with either 
 the Apalachian or the Chippewayan mountains.' Mr. Schoolcraft men- 
 tions another granite region as occurring in the north-eastern extremity of 
 the Ozark range, in the mining district of Potosi. 
 
 In connection with the granite of the Washita is found a stratum of clay- 
 slate, and another of transition sandstone, but neither of them of great 
 extent. The hot springs of the Washita issue from the clay-slate, and it is 
 supposed that a very large mass of clay-slate is interposed between the sur- 
 face of the granite and the point at which the springs rise. The slate-rock 
 about the hot springs is highly inclined, often flinty in its composition, and, 
 as far as it has been hitherto examined, contains no organic remains. It is 
 traversed by large upright veins, usually filled with white quartz. The 
 mountains contain vast beds of secondary limestone, which from its pecu- 
 liar crystalline appearance might be easily mistaken for the primitive. 
 These vast beds of sparry limestone, almost exclusively made up of depo- 
 sits from chemical solution, would seem to have been formed during periods 
 of great tranquillity in the waters. The sandstones of this small group of 
 mountains appear under almost every variety of character. A region simi- 
 lar in mineralogical character to the Ozark mountains extends northward 
 from the confluence of the Missouri, to the Ouisconsin and Ontonagon 
 rivers of lake Superior. The sandstones, limestones and other rocks have 
 a striking resemblance. Of the Black mountains in the north-western part 
 of the Mississippi valley, but little is known ; they appear to be composed 
 of sandstone lying horizontally, and to be destitute of valuable minerals. 
 Between these mountains and the central district, is a wide alluvial tract 
 containing the course of the Missouri. The same appellation has been 
 given by Dr. James to a space between the Ozark mountains and the 
 Chippewayan sands, and to the country on both sides of the lower 
 Mississippi. 
 
 We must now turn our attention to the region which lies to the eastward 
 of the Apalachian mountains. The eastern front of this range is composed 
 of primitive rocks, which reach the sea as far south as the Hudson ; from 
 this point they take an inland course, and leave a considerable tract of land 
 between them and the ocean all the way to the Mississippi. On this side, 
 there is no appearance of any rocks of the transition class ; the primitive 
 terminates abruptly, and is skirted through its whole length by an exten- 
 sive series of beds of shell-limestone, marl, clay, sand and gravel, consti- 
 tuting what has been described as the Atlantic slope. This class of strata 
 begins at Long island, and gradually widens in its extent through the 
 middle and southern states, forms the whole of Florida, and crossing the 
 Mississippi, meets the secondary formation of that valley, and sends up a 
 tongue for a considerable distance along the sides of that river. We may 
 
252 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 here notice one of the most peculiar features of our geology. This is the 
 ridge of granite which forms the boundary between the primitive and 
 secondary regions, and is conjectured to have been the ancient line of the 
 seacoast. It commences in Georgia and extends as far north as New 
 York, whence it seems to pass into Long island and under the sound into 
 Connecticut. 
 
 The entire region to the eastward of the primitive was long considered 
 as alluvial ; but it has been found to comprehend secondary, as well as a 
 large extent of tertiary formations. Decisive evidence of this fact has 
 been furnished by the investigations of Dr. Morton of Philadelphia. The 
 secondary strata are not, however, calcareous, but consist of beds of sand 
 and clay analogous to the iron sand, green sand, and chalk marl or gait of 
 England. Dr. Morton calls it the ferruginous sand formation. In Mary- 
 land commences a vast deposit of sand and clay, extending along the coast 
 to the Mississippi ; this tract abounds with tertiary fossils, which appear 
 chiefly to belong to the upper marine formation of European geologists. 
 The secondary strata are occasionally met with beneath it, and sometimes 
 approach so near the surface as to be readily identified by their fossils. 
 It is therefore reasonable to suppose, that the beds of ferruginous sand ex- 
 tend nearly the whole length of the Atlantic frontiers, of the states south 
 of Long island. One of the most abundant mineral productions of these 
 beds is lignite, which is found at the deep cut of the Chesapeak and Dela- 
 ware canal, in almost every variety, from chaired wood to well-charac- 
 terized jet. It sometimes occurs in small fragments, and sometimes in 
 large masses, presenting the trunks and limbs of uees thirty feet in length- 
 
 Though occurring largely on the Atlantic slope, the tertiary formations 
 are by no means confined to it ; they overlay tne secondary strata to a 
 great extent on both sides of the mountain chains. Of all visible strata, 
 marly clay is one of the most universal ; it is the common clay of all 
 North America. In this clay, sulphate of magnesia frequently occurs, and 
 sometimes muriate of soda. Bagshot sand and crag are next in extent 
 to the marly clay, and generally overlie it. The plastic clay forma- 
 tion is stated to appear very distinctly on the west side of lake Champlain, 
 and at various points from Martha's Vineyard to the eastward of Long 
 island, to Florida and the Mississippi. The silicious limestone of Georgia 
 is asserted to be decidedly contemporaneous with the calcaire silicieuse of 
 the Paris basin. In Virginia, the marly or London clay is found, and the 
 sands of the upper marine formation are conceived to occur in the same 
 state and in Staten island. 
 
 Of the geology of the region west of the Chippewayan mountains, noth- 
 ing certain is known. The chains which stretch nearer to the Pacific are 
 lofty, and are presumed to be primitive. Mr. Scrope represents the moun- 
 tains which border the Pacific ocean as volcanic. 
 
 From the importance which fossil remains have recently assumed in 
 geological science, much interest is naturally attached to those contained 
 in the strata of the western world. It will be long before so vast a field 
 of inquiry is fully explored, and with Mr. Maclure in 1812, we may still 
 say that it has not yet been examined with that accuracy of discrimina- 
 tion necessary to form just conclusions. We derive such knowledge as 
 is possessed on the subject from various sources. The fossils of the transition 
 strata consist of the ancient coralline and encrinital families, and generally 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 253 
 
 resemble those of similar rocks in other parts of the globe. Organic re- 
 mains in the coal formations are found at Westfield, Connecticut; at Sun- 
 derland, Massachusetts; and it is said also in some other places. At 
 Westfield they were found, in exploring for coal, lying upon bituminous 
 shale. 
 
 The following information is furnished in an article by Mr. Caleb 
 Atwater. ' In the vicinity of the Ohio river, and on the waters of the 
 Muskingum, I have carefully examined not a few of the fossil trees there 
 existing. Among them I noticed the following, viz. black oak, black wal- 
 nut, sycamore or button wood, white birch, sugar maple, the date or bread- 
 fruit tree, cocoanut-bearing palm, the bamboo and the dogwood ; and I have 
 in my possession the perfect impression of the cassia and the tea leaf. 
 Of ferns, I have beautiful impressions of the leaves, and of the bread-fruit 
 tree flowers, fully expanded, fresh, and entire. I have specimens so per- 
 fect, and so faithful to nature, as to dispel all doubts as to what they once 
 were. The larger trees are found mostly in sandstone, although the bark 
 of the date tree, much flattened, I ought to say perfectly so, is found in 
 shale covering coal. The date is a large tree, not very tall, and having 
 numerous wide-spreading branches. Nine miles west of Zanesville, the 
 body of a bread-fruit tree, now turned to sandstone, may be seen ; it is 
 exactly such sandstone as that in which M. Brongniart found tropical plants 
 imbedded in France. It contains a considerable quantity of mica in its 
 composition. The cassia was found in such sandstone in the Zanesville 
 canal. The bamboo is mostly impressed upon ironstone, especially the 
 roots, and the trunk and leaves are found in the micaceous sandstone. The 
 ironstone is sometimes apparently made of bamboo leaves, the leaves of 
 fern, and bamboo roots. It happens frequently that the trunks of small 
 trees and plants are flattened by pressure, and the baric of them partially 
 turned into coal. Thus the shale often contains a bark, now become coal, 
 and a stratum of shale in succession, alternately, for several inches in 
 thickness.' 
 
 Some further interesting particulars respecting fossil and other remains 
 will be found in the following description of them by Mr. Atwater, as 
 occurring in the state of Ohio. ' 1 am credibly informed, that in digging a 
 well at Cincinnati, in this state, an arrow-head was found more than ninety 
 feet below the surface. At Pickaway plains, while several persons were 
 digging a well several years since, a human skeleton was found seventeen 
 feet six inches below the surface. This skeleton was seen by several per- 
 sons, and among others, by Doct. Daniel Turney, an eminent surgeon ; 
 they all concurred in the belief, that it belonged to a human being. Pick- 
 away plains are, or rather were, a large prairie, before the land was im- 
 proved by its present inhabitants. This tract is alluvial to a great depth ; 
 greater, probably, than the earth has ever been perforated, certainly than it 
 ever has been by the hand of man. The surface of the plain is at least 
 one hundred feet above the highest freshet of the Scioto river, near which 
 it lies. On the surface is a black vegetable mould, from three, to six, and 
 nine feet in depth ; then we find pebbles, and shells imbedded among them: 
 the pebbles are evidently rounded and smoothed by attrition in water, exactly 
 such as we now see at the bottom of rivers, ponds, and lakes. 
 
 ' I have examined the spot where this skeleton was found, and am per- 
 suaded that it was not deposited there by the hand of man, for there are 
 
254 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 no marks of any grave, or of any of the works of man ; but the earth and 
 pebbles appear to lie in the very position in which they were deposited by 
 the water. On the north side of a small stream, called Hargus creek, 
 which at this place empties itself into the Scioto, in digging through a hill 
 composed of such pebbles as I have described in Pickaway plains, at least 
 nine feet below the surface, several human skeletons were discovered, per- 
 fect in every limb. These skeletons were promiscuously scattered about, 
 and parts of skeletons were sometimes found at different depths below the 
 surface. This hill is at least fifty feet above the highest freshets in the 
 Scioto, and is a very ancient alluvion, where every stratum of sand, clay, 
 and pebbles has been deposited by the waters of some stream. Other 
 skulls have been taken out of the same hill, by persons who, in order to 
 make a road through it, were engaged in taking it away. These bones 
 are very similar to those found in our mounds, and probably belonged to 
 the same race of men ; a people short and thick, not exceeding generally 
 five feet in height, and very possibly they were not more than four feet six 
 inches. The skeletons, when first exposed to the atmosphere, are quite 
 perfect, but afterwards moulder and fall into pieces. Whether they were 
 overwhelmed by the deluge of Noah, or by some other, I know not ; but 
 one thing appears certain, namely : that water has deposited them here, 
 together with the hill in which, for so many ages, they have reposed. 
 Indeed, this whole country appears to have been once, and for a con- 
 siderable period, covered with water, which has made it one vast cemetery 
 of the beings of former ages. Fragments of antique pottery, and even 
 entire pots of coarse earthen ware, have been found likewise in the exca- 
 vations of the Illinois salt-works, at the depth of eighty feet and more 
 from the surface. One of these was ascertained to hold from eight to ten 
 gallons, and some were alleged to be of much greater capacity. This fossil 
 pottery is stated not to differ materially from that which frequently occurs 
 in the mounds supposed to have been formed by the aboriginal Indians.' 
 
 The largest, and most interesting fossils of this country are the remains 
 of the mastodon, an enormous creature of an extinct race, nearly allied 
 to the elephant, and long considered identical with it, but now allotted to 
 a distinct genus under the name of mastodon. For a minute and detailed 
 account of these remains, we must refer our readers to the valuable work 
 of Godman. The size of the living animal may be conjectured when it 
 is stated, that the head at the posterior part is thirty-two inches across, the 
 lower jaw two feet ten inches long, and the tusks ten feet seven inches 
 long, and seven inches and three fourths in diameter at the base. It is 
 wonderful to reflect that but for the accidental preservation of a few bones, 
 we should never have known the existence of an animal so huge in its 
 dimensions, and necessarily of such vast strength and power. 
 
 We know not where, better than in the present connection, to introduce 
 a circumstance hitherto unexplained, if not altogether inexplicable. There 
 have been found, it appears beyond all question, in naked limestone of 
 the elder secondary formation, close on the western margin of the Missis- 
 sippi at St. Louis, the prints of human feet. The prints are those of a 
 man standing erect, with his heels drawn in, and his toes turned outward, 
 which is the most natural position. They are not the impressions of feet 
 accustomed to a tight shoe, the toes being very much spread, and the foot 
 flattened in the manner that happens to those who have been habituated to 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 255 
 
 go a great length of time without shoes. The prints are strikingly natu- 
 ral, exhibiting every muscular impression and swell of the heel and toes, 
 with great precision and faithfulness to nature. The length of each foot, 
 as indicated by the prints, is ten inches and a half, and the width across 
 the spread of the toes, four inches, which diminishes to two inches and a 
 half at the swell of the heels, indicating, as it is thought, a stature of the 
 common size. 
 
 Every appearance seems to warrant the conclusion that these impressions 
 were made at a time when the rock was soft enough to receive them by 
 pressure, and that the marks of feet are natural and genuine. ' Such was 
 the opinion of Governor Cass and myself,' says Mr. Schoolcraft, ' formed 
 upon the spot, and there is nothing that I have subsequently seen to alter 
 this view : on the contrary, there are some corroborating facts calculated to 
 strengthen and confirm it.' At Herculaneum, in the same neighborhood, 
 similar marks have been found, as well as on some of the spurs of the 
 Cumberland mountains, always in similar limestone. In the latter case it 
 is stated that the impressions are elongated, as of persons slipping in 
 ascending a slimy steep. Opinions are much divided as to the origin and 
 import of these impressions. Should similar observations multiply, im- 
 portant inferences may perhaps be drawn from them ; at present it seems 
 impossible to speak respecting them decisively or satisfactorily. 
 
 The following extraordinary facts, respecting what may be termed living 
 fossils, appear to be well authenticated. During the construction of the 
 Erie canal, while the workmen were cutting through a ridge of gravel, they 
 found several hundred of live molluscous animals. ' I have before me,' 
 says Professor Eaton, ' several of the shells from which the workmen took 
 the animals, fried and ate them. I have received satisfactory assurances 
 that the animals were taken alive from the depth of forty-two feet.' In ad- 
 dition to this discovery in diluvial deposits, mention is made of a similar 
 one in a much older formation. In laying the foundation of a house at 
 Whitesborough, the workmen had occasion to split a large stone from the 
 millstone grit. ' It was perfectly close-grained and compact. On opening 
 it, they discovered a black, or dark brown spherical mass, about three inches 
 in diameter, in a cavity which it filled. On examining it particularly, they 
 found it to be a toad, much larger than the common species and of a darker 
 color. It was perfectly torpid. It was laid upon a stone, and soon began 
 to give signs of life. In a few hours, it would hop moderately on being 
 disturbed. They saw it in the yard, moving about slowly for several days ; 
 but it was not watched by them any longer, and no one observed its farther 
 movements. They laid one half of the stone in the wall, so that the cavity 
 may still be seen. 
 
 'The millstone grit,' says Professor Eaton, who gives this account, ' in 
 which this toad was found, is the oldest of the secondary rocks. It must 
 have been formed many years before the deluge. Was this toad more than 
 four thousand years old? or was it from an egg introduced, through a 
 minute and undiscovered cleavage, into this cavity orgeode, made precisely 
 to fit the size and form of a toad ? I was particular in my inquiry, and 
 learned that the whole stone was perfectly compact, without any open cleav- 
 age which would admit an egg. Besides, it is well known that the mill- 
 stone grit is neither porous nor geodiferous. If this rock stratum was de- 
 posited upon the toad, it must have been in aqueous, not in igneous solu- 
 
256 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tion, and the toad must have been full grown at the time. Toads are often 
 found in compact, hard, gravelly diluvial deposits, in situations which 
 demonstrate that they must have lived from the time of the deluge. I 
 think I am warranted in saying this without citing authorities, as it is a 
 common occurrence. Then why may they not have lived a few centuries 
 longer, if we admit them a life of at least three thousand years V 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON GEOLOGY. 
 
 Geological researches are made with much greater facility in America than in Eu- 
 rope, especially in the region of the secondary strata. The immense extent over which 
 they can be traced, the undisturbed condition in which they are found, and their gene- 
 rally horizontal position, afford great facility for efforts of system and generalization. 
 The absence of the newest floetz-trap rocks, and of the effects of the violent convulsions, 
 so frequent in the vicinity of this disputed formation, unquestionably assist geological 
 research. A second and more efficient cause is found in the extent of the changes that 
 have been wrought in the different classes of rocks on the European continent since 
 their original formation, by the effect of water, and the continual action of rivers wear- 
 ing deep beds, and exposing the subordinate strata. Rivers also in North America have 
 not generally cut so deep into the different strata, either in the mountains, or during 
 their course in the level country, as materially to derange the stratifications. Broken 
 masses of one formation covering the tops of mountains, whose foundations are 
 composed of rocks of a different class, seldom occur. A third cause of the facility of 
 geological observation in this continent is found in the fact that the whole continent east 
 of the Mississippi follows the arrangement of one great chain of mountains. Europe, 
 on the contrary, is intersected by five or six distinct ranges, which follow different laws 
 of stratification, and frequently interrupt each other. 
 
 The effect of opening this new field of observation has been striking and important. 
 It has been to confound every previous effort at the determination and arrangement of 
 general strata. European geologists themselves have acknowledged that the general strata 
 must be determined in America. The absence of the chalk forcibly illustrates this ; 
 the chalk being not only a very prominent feature in the geological structure of Europe, 
 but the grand point of division between the secondary and tertiary formations. The 
 English oolite is not found in this country. It has been affirmed by Professor Eaton 
 that the old red sandstone is not a general stratum, and even the existence of primitive 
 clay-slate is questioned ; while Mr. Maclure informs us that though the primitive for- 
 mation contains all the variety of rocks contained in the mountains of Europe, yet 
 neither their relative situation in the order of succession, nor their relative heights in 
 the range of mountains, correspond with European observations. The order of suc- 
 cession from the clay-slate to the granite, as well as the gradually diminishing height 
 of the strata, from the granite through the gneiss, mica slate, and hornblende rock, 
 down to the clay-slate, is so often inverted and mixed, as to render the arrangement of 
 any regular series impracticable. 
 
 It is of course out of the question in these remarks to present a detailed account of 
 the general science of geology. For valuable and well-digested treatises on this sub- 
 ject, we refer to Cuvier's Theory of the. Earth, and LyelVs Principles of Geology. The 
 volumes of SiUiman's Journal, and Professor Cleaveland's works, abound in important 
 matter on the geology' of our continent. 
 
257 
 
 CHAPTER XIX.— NATURAL CURIOSITIES. 
 
 It is our intention to collect under this general head a few miscellaneous 
 descriptions, that could not have been properly placed under any other divi- 
 sion. The space that we can devote to this subject is small, and it is im- 
 possible to enter into much detail. Among the most admired and interest- 
 ing natural curiosities of our country, are the Pictured Rocks, of lake Su- 
 perior, which have been described by an intelligent traveller to whose obser- 
 vation we have been already largely indebted. 
 
 ' The Pictured Rocks,' says Mr. Schoolcraft, ' are a series of lofty bluffs, 
 which continue for twelve miles along the shore, and present some of the 
 
 Pictured Rocks. 
 
 most sublime and commanding views in nature. We had been told, by 
 our Canadian guide, of the variety in the color and form of these rocks, 
 but were wholly unprepared to encounter the surprising groups of over- 
 hanging precipices, towering walls, caverns, waterfalls, and prostrate ruins, 
 which are here mingled in the most wonderful disorder, and burst upon the 
 view in ever-varying and pleasing succession. In order to convey any 
 just idea of their magnificence, it is necessary to premise, that this part of 
 the shore consists of a sandstone rock of a light gray color internally, and 
 deposited stratum super-stratum to the height of three hundred feet, rising 
 in a perpendicular wall from the water and extending from four to five 
 leagues in length. 
 
 ' This rock is made up of coarse grains of sand, united by a calcareous 
 cement, and occasionally imbedding pebbles of quartz and other water- 
 worn fragments of rocks, but adhering with a feeble force, and, where ex- 
 posed to the weather, easily crushed between the fingers. Externally, it 
 presents a great variety of color, as black, red, yellow, brown, and white, 
 33 22* 
 
258 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 particularly along the most permanent parts of the shore ; hut where masses 
 have newly fallen, its color is a light gray. This stupendous wall of rock, 
 exposed to the fury of the waves, which are driven up by every north wind 
 across the whole width of lake Superior, has been partially prostrated at 
 several points, and worn out into numerous bays and irregular indenta- 
 tions. All these front upon the lake, in a line of aspiring promontories, 
 which, at a distance, present the terrible array of dilapidated battlements 
 and desolate towers. 
 
 ' Amono- many striking features, two attracted particular admiration, — 
 the Cascade La Portaille, and the Doric Arch. The cascade is situated 
 about four miles beyond the commencement of the range of bluffs, and in 
 the centre of the most commanding part of it. It consists of a handsome 
 stream, which is precipitated about seventy feet from the bluff into the lake 
 at one leap. Its form is that of a rainbow, rising from the lake, to the top 
 of the precipice. We passed near the point of its fall upon the surface of 
 the lake, and could have gone, unwetted, between it and the rocks, as it is 
 thrown a considerable distance into the lake. 
 
 ' The Doric Kock is an isolated mass of sandstone, consisting of four 
 natural pillars, supporting a stratum or entablature of the same material, 
 and presenting the appearance of a work of art. On the top of this en- 
 tablature rests a stratum of alluvial soil, covered with a handsome growth 
 of pine and spruce trees, some of which appear to be fifty or sixty feet in 
 height. To add to the factitious appearance of the scene, that part of the 
 entablature included between the pillars is excavated in the form of a com- 
 mon arch, giving it very much the appearance of a vaulted passage into 
 the court yard of some massy pile of antiquated buildings. A little to the 
 west of this rock, the Miner's river enters the lake by a winding channel, 
 overshadowed with trees, and intersected by a succession of small rapids.' 
 
 Mineralized Tree. — About half a mile from the village of Chitteningo, 
 in New York, a fossil or mineralized tree was some years ago discovered. 
 It lies at the base of the Conasewago mountains, within a few yards of a 
 branch of the Erie canal, which runs up to the village. The tree appears 
 to have been blown down or broken off; there are eight or ten feet of stump 
 remaining, with some part of the large end near the root; the stump is 
 about three feet in diameter, the bark, the fibrous texture of the wood and 
 two or three knots are very obvious ; there is a substance very much re- 
 sembling veins disseminated through what seems to have once been the 
 sap vessels of the tree. The lower part of the root is imbedded in the soil, 
 where it probably once grew. Vast quantities of mineralized wood, both 
 in small and large masses, are scattered in all directions around this stump ; 
 fragments which from their loose and porous texture, seem to have been 
 petrified, after the wood began to decay. Indeed so numerous are these 
 fragments, that almost every stone in this vicinity appears to have been 
 once a living plant.* 
 
 The Devil's Diving Hole. — About four miles below the falls of Niagara, 
 on the American side, is a very curious place called the Devil's Diving 
 Hole, which is nearly one hundred feet deep ; the edge of it is so very near 
 the road that they have taken the precaution to cut down some trees, so 
 as lo form a kind of barricade in order to prevent cattle or strangers from 
 
 *Silliraan r s Journal. 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 259 
 
 falling into it. This hole, as it is called, is, more properly speaking, the 
 narrow extremity of a considerable ravine, which has, at some remote pe- 
 riod, been formed in the rock ; it shelves off as it descends towards the 
 river, and is in length about two hundred yards from the road to the river. 
 The top is so overgrown with bushes that a hasty view would induce many 
 to suppose it to be really a hole ; but a closer examination soon leads their 
 eye along the windings of its courses, and discovers a very considerable 
 breadth at no great distance. A hemlock tree, firmly rooted at the bottom, 
 stretches its top almost to the surface, and is so conveniently fitted to the 
 hole or opening, that you have only to descend five or six feet, when its 
 branches afford you a safe and easy step-ladder quite to the bottom, where 
 you will find a copious spring of excellent water. 
 
 An occurrence is traditionally described as having taken place at this 
 spot during the French war, the circumstances of which were as follows : — 
 A British detachment, being pursued by a superior French force, were so 
 hemmed in that their retreat to the road was cut off, and their escape effec- 
 tually prevented by this ravine. Seeing their situation irretrievable, they 
 laid down their arms, and surrendered themselves prisoners of war. Not- 
 withstanding this surrender, the French rushed upon them with charged 
 bayonets and precipitated the whole party down this precipice. Here they 
 perished with the exception of a single soldier, who was preserved by fall- 
 ing on some of his comrades. 
 
 Natural Bridge. — This wonderful bridge is considered by many the 
 greatest natural curiosity in this country. It has never been described so 
 well as by Mr. Jefferson, and though his account of it has been so fre- 
 quently reprinted, we have thought best to adopt it. 
 
 ' The Natural Bridge, the most sublime of nature's works, is on the 
 ascent of a hill, which seems to have been cloven through its length by 
 some great convulsion. The fissure just at the bridge is by some admea- 
 surements two hundred and seventy feet deep, by others only two hundred 
 and rive. It is about forty-five feet wide at the bottom, and ninety feet at 
 the top : this of course determines the length of the bridge ami its height 
 from the water. Its breadth in the middle is about sixty feet, but more at 
 the ends, and the thickness of the mass at the summit of the arch, about 
 forty feet. A part of this thickness is constituted by a coat of earth, which 
 gives growth to many large trees. The residue, with the hill on both sides, 
 is one solid rock of limestone. 
 
 ' The arch approaches the semi-elliptical form, but the larger axis of the 
 ellipsis, which would be the chord of the arch, is many times longer than 
 the transverse. Though the sides of this bridge are provided, in some 
 parts, with a parapet of fixed rocks, yet few men have resolution to walk 
 to them and look over into the abyss. You involuntarily fall on your hands 
 and feet, creep to the parapet, and peep over it. Looking down from this 
 height about a minute, gave me a violent headache. 
 
 ' If the view from the top be painful and intolerable, that from below is 
 delightful in an equal extreme. It is impossible for the emotions arising 
 out of the sublime to be felt beyond what they are here, so beautiful an 
 arch, so elevated, so light, and springing, as it were, up to heaven, the 
 rapture of the spectator is really indescribable ! 
 
 ' The fissure continuing narrow, deep, and straight for a considerable 
 distance above and below the bridge, opens a short but very pleasing view 
 
260 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the North mountain on one side, and the Blue ridge on the other, at the 
 distance each of them of about five miles. This bridge is in the county 
 of Rockbridge, to which it has given name, and affords a public and com- 
 modious passage over a valley, which cannot be crossed elsewhere for a 
 considerable distance. The stream passing under it is called Cedar creek. 
 It is a water of James river, and sufficient in the driest seasons to turn a 
 grist-mill, though its fountain is not more than two miles above.' 
 
 The description which follows is from another writer. 'As we stood 
 under this beautiful arch, we saw the place where, visitors have often taken 
 the pains to engrave their names upon the rock. Here Washington climbed 
 up twenty-five feet and carved his own name, where it still remains. Some 
 washing to immortalize their names have engraved them deep and large, 
 while others have tried to climb up and insert them high in this book of 
 fame. 
 
 'A few years since, a young man, being ambitious to place his name above 
 all others, came very near losing his life in the attempt. After much 
 fatigue, he climbed up as high as possible, but found that the person who 
 had before occupied his place was taller than himself, and consequently 
 had placed his name above his reach. But he was not thus to be discour- 
 aged. He opened a large jacknife, and in the soft limestone began to 
 cut places for his hands and feet. With much patience and industry he 
 worked his way upwards, and succeeded in carving his name higher than 
 the most ambitious had done before him. 
 
 ' He could now triumph ; but his triumph w r as short, for he was placed 
 in such a situation that it was impossible to descend unless he fell upon 
 the ragged rocks beneath him. There was no house near, from which his 
 companions could get assistance. He could not remain in that condition, 
 and, what was worse, his friends were too much frightened to do any thing 
 for his relief. They looked upon him as already dead, expecting every 
 moment to see him precipitated upon the rocks below and dashed to pieces. 
 Not so with himself. He determined to ascend. Accordingly he plied 
 himself with his knife, cutting places for his hands and feet, and gradually 
 ascended with incredible labor. He exerted every muscle. His life was 
 at stake, and all the terrors of death rose before him. He dared not look 
 downwards lest his head should become dizzy, and perhaps on this circum- 
 stance his life depended. 
 
 ' His companions stood at the top of the rock exhorting and encouraging 
 him. His strength was almost exhausted ;' but a bare possibility of saving 
 his life still remained, and hope, the last friend of the distressed, had not 
 yet forsaken him. His course upwards was rather oblique, than perpen- 
 dicular. His most critical moment had now arrived. He had ascended 
 considerably more than two hundred feet, and had still further to rise, 
 when he felt himself fast growing weak. He now made his last effort 
 and succeeded. He had cut his way not far from two hundred and fifty 
 feet from the water, in a course almost perpendicular ; and in a little less 
 than two hours, his anxious companions reached him a pole from the top, 
 and drew him up. They received him with shouts of joy ; but he him- 
 self was completely exhausted. He immediately fainted away on reach- 
 ing the spot, and it was some time before he could be recovered. 
 
 1 It was interesting to see the path up these awful rocks, and to follow in 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 261 
 
 imagination this bold youth as he thus saved his life. His name stands 
 far above all the rest, a monument of hardihood, of rashness, and of 
 folly.' 
 
 Natural Stone Walls. — On the Missouri, at the distance of about one 
 hundred miles from the Great Falls, are the natural stone walls which 
 have thus been described by Lewis and Clarke : 
 
 ' We came to a high wall of black rock rising from the water's edge on 
 the south, above the cliffs of the river: this continued about a quarter of 
 a mile, and was succeeded by a high open plain, till three miles further a 
 second wall, two hundred feet high, rose on the same side. Three miles 
 farther, another wall of the same kind, about two hundred feet high and 
 twelve thick, appeared to the north. These hills and river cliffs exhibit 
 a most extraordinary and romantic. appearance. They rise in most places 
 nearly perpendicularly from the water to the height of between two and 
 three hundred feet, and are formed of very white sandstone, so soft as to 
 yield readily to the impression of the water, in the upper part of which 
 lie imbedded two or three horizontal strata of white freestone insensible 
 to the rain, and on the top is a dark rich loam, which forms a gradually 
 ascending plain, from a mile to a mile and a half in extent, when the hills 
 again rise abruptly to the height of about three hundred feet more. 
 
 ' In trickling down the cliffs, the water has worn the soft sandstone into 
 a thousand grotesque figures, among which, with a little fancy, may be 
 discerned elegant ranges of freestone buildings, with columns variously 
 sculptured, and supporting long and elegant galleries, while the parapets 
 are adorned with statuary. On a nearer approach, they represent every 
 form of elegant ruins ; columns, some with pedestals and capitals entire, 
 others mutilated and prostrate ; and some rising pyramidically over each 
 other till they terminate in a sharp point. These are varied by niches, 
 alcoves, and the customary appearances of desolated magnificence. The 
 illusion is increased by the number of martins that have built their globu- 
 lar nests in the niches, and hover over these columns ; as in our country 
 they are accustomed to frequent large stone structures. 
 
 'As we advance, there seems no end to the visionary enchantment that 
 surrounds us. In the midst of this fantastic scenery are vast ranges of 
 walls, which seem the productions of art, so regular is the workmanship. 
 They rise perpendicularly from the river, sometimes to the height of one 
 hundred feet, varying in thickness from one to twelve feet : being equally 
 broad at the top as below. The stones of which they are formed, are 
 black, thick, and durable, and composed of a large portion of earth, inter- 
 mixed and cemented with a small quantity of sand, and a considerable 
 proportion of talc or quartz. 
 
 ' These stones are almost invariably regular parallelopipeds of unequal 
 sizes in the wall, but equally deep, and laid regularly in ranges over each 
 other like bricks, each breaking and covering the interstice of the two on 
 which it rests. But though the perpendicular interstice is destroyed, the 
 horizontal one extends entirely through the work. The stones, too, are 
 proportioned to the thickness of the wall in which they are employed, 
 being largest in the thickest walls. The thinner walls are composed of a 
 single depth of the parallelopiped, while the thicker ones consist of two or 
 more depths. These walls pass the river at several places, rising from the 
 
262 B00K 0F THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 water's edge much above the sandstone bluffs, which they seem to pene- 
 trate ; thence they cross in a straight line, on either side of the river, the 
 plains over which they tower to the height of from ten to seventy feet, 
 until they lose themselves in the second range of hills. Sometimes they 
 run parallel in several ranges near each other ; sometimes intersect each 
 other at right angles, and have the appearance of walls of ancient houses 
 or gardens.' 
 
263 
 
 PART II. 
 
 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 CHAPTER I.— POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 United States. The territory of the United States extends from twenty- 
 five to fifty-four degrees north latitude, and from sixty-six degrees forty-nine 
 minutes to one hundred and twenty-five degrees west longitude; compris- 
 ing one million eight hundred and thirty-two thousand three hundred and 
 fifteen square miles. It is bounded north by Russia and British America; 
 east by the Atlantic and British America ; south by the Atlantic and the 
 gulf and territory of Mexico, and west by Mexico and the Pacific ocean. 
 This extent of country is divided into twenty-four states, five territories, 
 and the district of Columbia. The states are familiarly classed under the 
 Eastern or New England, the Middle, the Southern, and the Western 
 states. The first division comprehends Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, 
 Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut ; the second, New York, 
 New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland ; the third, Virginia, 
 North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana; 
 the fourth, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Missouri. 
 The territories are Florida, Michigan, Missouri, and Arkansas. There are no 
 separate governments to the regions west of the Missouri and lake Michigan ; 
 they are popularly known as the North- West, and the Oregon territories. 
 The whole extent of the inhabited country now described includes eight 
 hundred thousand square miles ; and the whole population is twelve mil- 
 lion eight hundred and fifty-eight thousand six hundred and seventy; of 
 which ten millions five hundred and thirty thousand and forty-four are 
 whites, three hundred and nineteen thousand five hundred and seventy- 
 six free colored persons, and two million nine thousand and fifty 
 slaves. 
 
 I. NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 Maine. — This state is bounded north and north-west by Lower Canada; 
 east by New Brunswick ; west by New Hampshire, and south by the Atlan- 
 tic ocean. The north-eastern boundary is yet in dispute. Maine is divided 
 into ten counties.^ The towns are about three hundred in number; 
 Augusta is the capital. The other principal towns are Portland, Bruns- 
 wick, Bath, Wiscasset, Bangor, Castine, Hallowell, York, Saco, Kenne- 
 
 * For a list of the counties in this and the other states, with their population, see the statis- 
 tical tables at the end of the volume. 
 
264 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 bunk, Eastport, Machias, Belfast, Gardiner, and Waterville. The chief 
 rivers are the Saco, Penobscot, Androscoggin, Kennebec, Walloostookand 
 Allagash, head streams of the St. John, and the St. Croix. Among the 
 mountains are Bald, Ebeeme, Spencer and Katahdin. The lakes are Moose- 
 head, Umbagog, Chesuncook, and Sebago. Mount Desert is the largest of 
 the islands with which the coast is strewn. The bays are Portland, Passa- 
 maquoddy, Casco and Penobscot. Population, three hundred and ninety- 
 nine thousand four hundred and sixty-two. 
 
 New Hampshire is situated between forty-two degrees forty-one minutes, 
 and forty-five degrees eleven minutes north latitude, and between seventy 
 degrees forty minutes, and seventy-two degrees twenty-three minutes 
 west longitude. It is bounded on the north by Lower Canada ; south by 
 Massachusetts ; east by Maine and the Atlantic ocean, and west by Con- 
 necticut river, which separates it from Vermont. Its extreme length from 
 north to south, is one hundred and sixty-eight miles ; and its greatest 
 breadth from east to west, ninety miles ; containing an area of nine thou- 
 sand four hundred and ninety-one miles. This state is divided into eight 
 counties. Portsmouth is the largest town, but Concord is the seat of gov- 
 ernment. The number of towns in the state is two hundred and twenty, 
 and besides those mentioned the principal are Dover, Exeter, Amherst, 
 Hanover and Haverhill. The chief rivers are the Connecticut, Merri- 
 mac, and Piscataqua; the mountains are the Monadnock, Sunapee, 
 Kearsarge, Carr's, and Moosehillock. The White mountains are the most 
 elevated in this state, and the highest east of the Mississippi. The lakes 
 are Winnipiseogee, Squam, Ossipee, Newfound, Spafford's, and Connecti- 
 cut ; Umbagog lies partly in this state, and partly in Maine. The pop- 
 ulation by the last census was two hundred sixty-nine thousand five 
 hundred and thirty-three. 
 
 Vermont is bounded on the west by lake Champlain and New York; 
 south by Massachusetts ; east by the Connecticut river, and north by Lower 
 Canada. It is situated between forty-two degrees forty-four minutes, and 
 forty-five degrees north latitude; and between seventy-one degrees thirty- 
 three minutes, and seventy-three degrees twenty-six minutes west longi- 
 tude. It is one hundred and fifty-seven miles in length ; its breadth is 
 ninety miles on the north line, and forty on the south. It is divided into 
 thirteen counties, and two hundred and forty-five towns. None of the 
 towns are very large. Montpelier is the seat of government. Among the 
 chief towns are Middlebury, Bennington, Montpelier, Brattleboro', Burling- 
 ton, and Windsor. The rivers, all of which are small, are Lamoille, 
 Onion, Otter, White, and Missisque ; the west bank of the Connecticut 
 forms the eastern boundary of the state. The mountains are Ascutney, 
 Kiilington's Peak, Camel's Rump, and Mansfield, peaks of the Green moun- 
 tains. The population in 1S30 was two hundred and eighty thousand six 
 hundred and fifty-seven. 
 
 Massachusetts is bounded east by the Atlantic; west by New York; north 
 by Vermont and New Hampshire, and south by Connecticut, Rhode Island 
 and the Atlantic. It lies between forty-one degrees fifteen minutes and 
 forty-two degrees fifty-four minutes north latitude ; and between sixty-nine 
 degrees fifty-four minutes and seventy-three degrees thirty minutes west 
 longitude. It is one hundred and eighty miles long from east to west ; 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 265 
 
 and ninety-six miles broad from north to south. Its area includes seven 
 thousand and eight hundred square miles. The rivers are Connecticut, 
 Merrimac, Charles, Concord, Blackstone, Miller's, Chickopee, Deerfield, 
 Westfield and Housatonic. The mountains are Saddle mountain, Tag- 
 kannuc, Holyoke, Tom and Wachuset. This state is divided into fourteen 
 counties and three hundred and five towns. Boston is the capital. Salem 
 and New Bedford are next in size and importance; Lowell, Taunton, 
 Springfield, and Waltham are extensively engaged in manufactures ; Nan- 
 tucket, Newburyport, Plymouth and Marblehead are fishing and commer- 
 cial ports. Worcester, Northampton, and Pittsfield are pleasant inland 
 towns. The population in 1S30 was six hundred and ten thousand and 
 fourteen. 
 
 Connecticut is bounded north by Massachusetts ; east by Rhode Island; 
 south by Long Island sound, and west by New York. It lies between 
 forty-one degrees and forty-two degrees two minutes north latitude ; and 
 between seventy-one degrees twenty minutes and seventy-three degrees 
 fifteen minutes west longitude. Its length is eighty-eight miles, and its 
 average breadth about fifty-three ; its area is four thousand eight hundred 
 and twenty-eight miles. It is divided into eight counties. Hartford, New 
 Haven, Middletown, New London and Norwich are incorporated cities ; 
 Bridgeport, Danbury, Guilford, Killingworth, Newtown, Stamford, Ston- 
 ington and Waterbury are boroughs. Hartford and New Haven are the 
 seats of the state government; and the legislature holds its sessions alter- 
 nately at the two places. The principal rivers are the Connecticut, Housa- 
 tonic, Thames, Farmington and Naugatuck. The greatest elevations are 
 a continuation of the Green mountains. The population of this state is 
 two hundred and ninety-seven thousand seven hundred and eleven. 
 
 Rhode Island is bounded west by Connecticut ; south by the Atlantic 
 ocean ; north and east by Massachusetts. It lies between forty-one and 
 forty-two degrees north latitude ; and between seventy-one degrees eight 
 minutes and seventy-one degrees fifty-two minutes west longitude. The 
 average length of the state from north to south is about forty-two miles ; 
 its mean breadth about twenty-nine miles ; its whole area, including Narra- 
 ganset bay, comprises one thousand one hundred and twenty-five miles 
 It contains five counties, and thirty-one towns. Providence is the capital, 
 and in population and wealth the second town in New England. New- 
 port, Bristol, Pawtucket and Warwick are the other chief towns. Paw- 
 tucket is the only river of any importance ; the Pawtuxet is also the seat 
 of a number of manufactories. The islands are Rhode Island, Conanicut, 
 Prudence and Block. Narraganset bay extends more than thirty miles 
 into the state. The population is ninety-seven thousand two hundred 
 and twelve. 
 
 II. MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 New York is bounded east by Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut ; 
 north by lake Ontario and the river St. Lawrence ; west by Pennsylva- 
 nia, lake Erie and Niagara river ; south by New Jersey and Pennsylvania. 
 Its length is three hundred and forty, its breadth three hundred and four 
 miles ; and, including Long island, it contains forty-six thousand and 
 24 23 
 
26G BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 eighty-five square miles. It is comprised between forty degrees thirty 
 minutes and forty-five degrees north latitude ; and between seventy-three 
 degrees and seventy-nine degrees fifty-five minutes west longitude. It is 
 divided into eight districts, which are subdivided into fifty-six counties-'. 
 There are seven hundred and sixty-two towns and cities. The population 
 is nearly two millions. New York city is the largest in the western worlds 
 Albany is the seat of government, and the second city in the state. Brook- 
 lyn, Troy, Hudson, Poughkeepsie, Newburgh, Catskill, Plattsburgh, Roches- 
 ter and Buffalo are all important towns. The mountains are the Peruvian, 
 Catskill and Shawangunk. The Hudson, Mohawk, Gennessee, Black, 
 Oswe^atchie and Susquehannah are the chief rivers. The lakes are On- 
 tario, Champlain, George, Oneida, Skeneateles, Owasco, Cayuga, Seneca, 
 Crooked, Canandaigua, and Chatauque. The islands are Long, Shelter, 
 Grand and Manhattan. The bay of New York is the only large harbor ; 
 there are several harbors on lake Ontario. 
 
 Neiv Jersey is bounded north by New York and the Atlantic ; south by 
 the Atlantic ; west by Delaware and Pennsylvania. Its length is one hun- 
 dred and sixty-three, its breadth fifty-two miles ; its area in square miles is 
 seven thousand four hundred and ninety. It lies between thirty-eight de- 
 grees seventeen minutes and forty-one degrees twenty-one minutes north 
 latitude ; and seventy-five degrees thirty minutes and seventy-three degrees 
 fifty-three minutes west longitude. The state is divided into fourteen coun- 
 ties. Trenton is the seat of government. The other principal towns are 
 Newark, Paterson, Hackensack, Morristown, Newton, Perth Amboy, Bel- 
 videre and Elizajbethtown. The chief rivers are Second, Hackensack, Pas- 
 saic and Raritan. Raritan bay is a spacious estuary, on the eastern coast, 
 affording ready access at all seasons to Perth Amboy, the chief seaport town 
 of the state. The population of New Jersey is three hundred and twenty 
 thousand seven hundred and seventy-nine. 
 
 Pennsylvania is bounded on the north by New York, and the north-west by 
 lake Erie ; on the east by the river Delaware which divides it from New 
 York and New Jersey ; on the south by Virginia, Maryland and a small 
 portion of Delaware ; on the west by Virginia and Ohio. It lies between 
 thirty-nine degrees forty-three minutes and forty-two degrees north latitude ; 
 and between seventy-four degrees and eighty degrees forty minutes west 
 longitude. It is divided into the eastern and the western districts ; con- 
 taining fifty-one counties, and six hundred and fifty-one townships. The 
 population of the state is one million three hundred and forty-seven thou- 
 sand six hundred and seventy-two. Harrisburgis the seat of government. 
 Philadelphia is the chief city, and the second in the union. Pittsburg, 
 Reading, Lancaster, Easton and Bethlehem are large towns. The rivers 
 of this state are the Delaware, Susquehanna, Tioga and Monongahela. 
 The mountains are the South, Kittatiny, Sideling, Ragged, Great Warrior, 
 East Wills. Alleghany, Laurel and Chesnut ridges. 
 
 Delaware is bounded south and west by Maryland ; east by the ocean 
 and Delaware river and bay, and north by Pennsylvania. Its greatest 
 width is twenty-three miles, and its length ninety-two miles ; it is the 
 smallest state in the union with the exception of Rhode Island. It is 
 comprised within thirty-eight degrees twenty-nine minutes and thirty-nine 
 degrees forty-seven minutes north latitude ; and within seventy-four de- 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPH*. 267 
 
 • 
 
 o-rees fifty-six minutes and seventy-nWe degrees forty minutes west longi- 
 tude. Delaware is divided into three counties, which are subdivided into 
 twenty-four hundreds. Dover is the capital ; the other principal towns are 
 Wilmington and Newcastle. Brandywine and Christiana creeks are the 
 only streams ; Delaware bay forms a large part of the eastern boundary. 
 The population is seventy-six thousand three hundred and five. 
 
 Maryland is bounded south and west by Virginia ; east by Delaware 
 and the ocean ; north by Pennsylvania. It is divided into nineteen coun- 
 ties. Annapolis is the seat of government. Baltimore is the third com- 
 mercial city in the union ; the other important towns are Fredericktown 
 and Hagerstown. The rivers are the Potomac, Susquehanna, Patapsco, 
 Severn and Patuxent. The northern half of Chesapeak bay is com- 
 prised in this state, including many small islands. Maryland lies between 
 thirty-eight degrees and thirty-nine degrees forty-four minutes north lati- 
 tude ; and between seventy-five degrees ten minutes and seventy-nine de- 
 grees twenty minutes west longitude. It contains thirteen thousand nine 
 hundred and fifty square miles. Its population is about four hundred and 
 fifty thousand. 
 
 III. SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 Virginia is bounded south by North Carolina and Tennessee ; north by 
 Ohio, Pennsylvania and Maryland ; east by Maryland and the Atlantic ; 
 and west by Ohio and Kentucky. It lies between thirty-six degrees forty 
 minutes and forty degrees forty-three minutes north latitude ; and seventy- 
 five degrees twenty-five minutes and eighty-three degrees forty minutes 
 west longitude. Its mean length from east to west is three hundred and 
 fifty-five miles ; its mean breadth from north to south is one hundred and 
 eighty-five miles. It is divided into one hundred and ten counties, forty- 
 five of which are situated on the west, and sixty-five on the east of the 
 Blue ridge. Richmond is the capital. The other principal towns are 
 Norfolk, Petersburg, Fredericksburg, Lynchburg, Wheeling, Winchester, 
 Shepardstown, Staunton, Martensburg, Lexington, Fincastle, Williams- 
 burg and Charlottesville. The chief rivers are the Potomac, Shenandoah, 
 Rappahanock, York and James ; these empty into the Chesapeak bay, and 
 other streams intersect different portions of the country. The mountains 
 are ranges of the Apalachian chain ; the Alleghany ridge is continued from 
 Pennsylvania ; the other ridges are Greenbriar, North mountain, Broad 
 mountain, Back Bone, Jackson river mountain, Iron mountain and Great 
 Flat Top. The highest summits are the Peaks of Otter in the Alleghany 
 ridge. The population of Virginia is one million two hundred and eleven 
 thousand two hundred and seventy-two. 
 
 North Carolina is bounded west by Tennessee ; south by South Caro- 
 lina and the ocean ; east by the ocean ; and north by Virginia. It contains 
 forty-three thousand and eight hundred square miles ; extending from 
 thirty-three degrees fifty minutes to thirty-six degrees thirty minutes north 
 latitude ; and seventy-five degrees forty-five minutes to eighty-four degrees 
 west longitude. It is divided into sixty-two counties. Raleigh is the" seat 
 of government ; Newbern is the largest town. The other towns of im- 
 portance are Fayette ville and Wilmington. The rivers are the Roanoke, 
 Chowan, Pamlico, Cape Fear and Yadkin ; the mountains, Iron, Bald, 
 
268 • BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and Smoky. The sounds are Albemarle and Pamlico ; the coast is skirted 
 by small islands. The population is seven hundred and thirty-eight thou 
 sand four hundred and seventy. 
 
 Sotith Carolina is bounded south and west by Georgia ; east by the 
 Atlantic, and north by North Carolina. It is two hundred miles long and 
 one hundred and twenty-five broad ; lying between thirty-two degrees and 
 thirty-five degrees eight minutes north latitude ; and seventy-eight degrees 
 twenty-four minutes and eighty-three degrees thirty minutes west longi- 
 tude. It contains thirty thousand and eighty square miles ; and is divided 
 into twenty-nine districts. Charleston is the chief city and great commer- 
 cial port ; it was formerly the seat of government. Columbia is now the 
 capital. Georgetown, Beaufort and Camden are the other principal towns. 
 The rivers are the Great Pedee, Santee, Edisto and Savannah. The 
 population of South Carolina is five hundred and eighty-one thousand four 
 hundred and fifty-eight. 
 
 Georgia is bounded west by Alabama ; south by Florida ; east by South 
 Carolina and the Atlantic ; north by North Carolina and Tennessee. It ex- 
 tends from thirty degrees thirty minutes to thirty-five degrees north latitude ; 
 and from eighty degrees fifty minutes to eighty-six degrees six minutes west 
 longitude ; its length is two hundred and seventy, and its breadth two hun- 
 dred and fifty miles. It is divided into seventy-six counties. Savannah 
 is the largest town ; Milledgeville is the seat of government. Augusta and 
 Macon are the other principal towns. The chief rivers are the Savannah, 
 Oakmulgee, Oconee, St. Mary's, Alatahama and Chatahoochee. The moun- 
 tains are the peaks of the southern extremity of the Blue ridge, and the 
 Lookout mountain. Georgia is bordered by ranges of small islands. The 
 population, exclusive of Indians, is five hundred and sixteen thousand five 
 hundred and sixty-seven. 
 
 Alabama is bounded on the south by Florida and the gulf of Mexico ; 
 west by Mississippi ; east by Georgia, and north by Tennessee. It lies be- 
 tween thirty degrees twelve minutes and thirty-five degrees north latitude ; 
 and eighty-five degrees and eighty-eight degrees thirty minutes west lon- 
 gitude. Its breadth is one hundred and sixty, and its length two hundred 
 and eighty miles ; the whole area including forty-six thousand square miles. 
 This state is divided into thirty-six counties. Tuscaloosa is the seat of 
 government. Mobile is the great commercial depot, and the only town of 
 consequence. Among the other towns are Blakely, St. Stephens' and 
 Cahawba. In the northern part of this state is the western extremity of 
 the -palachian mountains, consisting chiefly of limestone rocks. Alaba- 
 ma is the longest river ; this unites with the Tombeckbee, and takes the 
 name of Mobile. The population of Alabama, not including Indians, is 
 three hundred and eight thousand nine hundred and ninety-seven. 
 
 Mississippi is bounded south by Louisiana; west by Louisiana and the 
 territory of Arkansas; north by Tennessee, and east by Alabama. Its 
 breadth is one hundred and fifty, and its length three hundred and thirty- 
 five miles ; it contains forty-five thousand seven hundred and sixty square 
 miles. It lies between thirty degrees ten minutes and thirty-five degrees 
 north latitude ; between eighty degrees thirty minutes and eighty-one de- 
 grees thirty-live minutes west longitude. It is divided into twenty-six 
 counties. Natchez is the only large town in the state. Jackson is the seat 
 of government. Monticello, Warrenton and Vicksburgh are considerable 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 269 
 
 places. The rivers that water this state are the Tombeckbee, Pascagoula, 
 Pearl, Yazoo and Big Black. The Mississippi washes the western limit. 
 The population is one hundred and thirty-six thousand eight hundred 
 and six. 
 
 Lotiisiana is bounded east by Mississippi, and the gulf of Mexico; west 
 by Texas ; south by the gulf, and north by the Arkansas territory and 
 Mississippi. It is divided into the Eastern and Western districts ; which 
 are subdivided into thirty-one parishes. New Orleans is the seat of go- 
 vernment, and the commercial mart of all the western country. Donald- 
 sonville, Baton Rouge, St. Francisville, Point Coupee, Alexandria and 
 Natchitoches are considerable places. The rivers are the Mississippi, Red, 
 Washita, and Sabine. The lakes are Maurepas, Pontchartrain, and Borgne. 
 The Chandeleur islands are mere heaps of sand ; Barataria has been 
 of some note as a resort for pirates. The population of Louisiana is two 
 hundred and fifteen thousand five hundred and seventy-five. 
 
 IV. WESTERN STATES. 
 
 Tennessee is bounded south by Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi; west 
 by the river Mississippi, separating it from Missouri and Arkansas ; east by 
 North Carolina, and north by Kentucky. Its breadth is one hundred and 
 four, and its length is about four hundred and thirty miles ; its area is forty 
 thousand square miles. It lies between thirty-five and thirty-six degrees thir- 
 ty-six minutes north latitude ; and between eighty-one degrees thirty minutes 
 and ninety degrees ten minutes west longitude. It is divided into East and 
 West Tennessee ; the former has twenty-two counties, and the latter forty. 
 Nashville is the seat of government, and the largest town. Knoxville, 
 Murfreesborough and Memphis are growing settlements. The mountains 
 are the Laurel, Stone, Yellow, Iron, Bald and Unaka, peaks of a continued 
 chain ; Welling's and Copper Ridge, Church, Powell's and Bay's moun- 
 tains are in the north-east. The Cumberland Ridge intersects the state, 
 running from north-east to south-west. The rivers are the Tennessee, 
 Cumberland, Obian, Forked Deer, Big Hatchee and Wolf. The popula- 
 tion of Tennessee is six hundred and eighty-four thousand eight hundred 
 and twenty-two. 
 
 Kentucky is bounded west by Missouri and Illinois ; east by Virginia ; 
 south by Tennessee ; north by Indiana and Ohio. Its length is three hun- 
 dred miles, its mean breadth one hundred and fifty; its area includes 
 about forty thousand square miles. It lies between thirty-six degrees 
 thirty minutes and thirty-nine degrees ten minutes north latitude ; and be- 
 tween eighty-one degrees fifty minutes and eighty-nine degrees twenty 
 minutes west longitude. It is divided into eighty-three counties. Frank- 
 fort is the seat of government. Lexington, Louisville, Maysville, Wash- 
 ington, Paris, Georgetown and Versailles are the chief towns. The rivers 
 that water this state are the Ohio, Mississippi, Cumberland, Tennessee, 
 Licking, Kentucky, Green and Big Sandy. The population is six hundred 
 and eighty-eight thousand eight hundred and forty-four. 
 
 Ohio is bounded north by Michigan territory and lake Erie ; east by 
 Pennsylvania ; south-east by the Ohio river, which separates it from Vir- 
 ginia, and west by Indiana. Its length is two hundred and ten miles, its 
 mean breadth two hundred ; its area includes forty thousand square miles. 
 
 23* 
 
270 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 It lies between thirty-eight degrees thirty minutes and forty-one degrees 
 nineteen minutes north latitude ; and between eighty degrees thirty-five 
 minutes and eighty-four degrees forty-seven minutes wesj longitude. It is 
 divided into seventy-three counties. Cincinnati is the largest city ; Colum- 
 bus is the seat of .government. Zanesville, Steubenville, Chilicothe, Day- 
 ton, Marietta and Circleville are nourishing towns. The chief rivers 
 are the Ohio, Muskingum, Scioto, Great Miami, Little Miami, Maumee, 
 Sandusky and Cuyahoga. The population is nine hundred thirty-seven 
 thousand six hundred and seventy-nine. 
 
 Indiana is bounded north by the lake and territory of Michigan ; south 
 by the Ohio, which divides it from Kentucky ; east by Ohio, and west by 
 Illinois. Its breadth is one hundred and fifty, and its length two hundred 
 and fifty miles. It lies between thirty-seven degrees forty-seven minutes 
 and forty-one degrees fifty minutes north latitude ; and eighty-four degrees 
 forty-two minutes and eighty-seven degrees forty-nine minutes west longi- 
 tude. It is divided into sixty-four counties. Indianapolis is the seat of 
 government. Vincennes, New Albany, Jeffersonville, Vevay and Madison 
 are flourishing settlements. The rivers that water this state are the Ohio, 
 Wabash, White Water and Tippecanoe. The population is three hundred 
 and forty-one thousand five hundred and eighty-two. 
 
 Illinois is bounded north by the North-west territory ; north-east by lake 
 Michigan ; east by Indiana ; south-east by the Ohio, which separates it from 
 Kentucky ; west and south-west by the Upper Mississippi river, which sepa- 
 rates it from Missouri and the Sioux district. It extends from north lati- 
 tude thirty-seven degrees to forty-two degrees thirty minutes ; and from 
 eighty -seven degrees seventeen minutes to ninety-one degrees fifty minutes 
 west longitude. Its mean breadth is one hundred and sixty, and its length 
 is three hundred and fifty miles ; its area includes fifty-six thousand square 
 miles. It is divided into fifty-two counties. The chief town and seat of 
 government is Vandalia ; the other principal settlements are Kaskaskia, 
 Cahokia, Bellville and Shawneetown. The rivers are the Mississippi, Illi- 
 nois, Rock, Kaskaskia and Little Wabash. The population is one hundred 
 fifty-seven thousand five hundred and seventy-five. 
 
 Missouri is bounded south by Arkansas ; east by Illinois, Kentucky and 
 Tennessee ; west and north by the territory of Missouri. It contains about 
 sixty thousand square miles ; its length being two hundred and seventy, 
 and its breadth two hundred and twenty miles. Its limits are between 
 thirty-six degrees and forty degrees thirty minutes north latitude; and 
 between eighty-nine degrees and ninety-four degrees ten minutes west lon- 
 gitude. It is divided into thirty-eight counties. The city of Jefferson, 
 which has been laid out within a few years, is the seat of government. 
 St. Louis is the largest town. Potosi, St. Genevieve and Herculaneum 
 are flourishing towns. The chief elevations are the Ozark and Iron moun- 
 tains. The rivers are the Mississippi, Missouri, Osage, Gasconade, Mara- 
 mec, St. Francis, White, Black, Currant, Grand and Chariton. The popu- 
 lation is above one hundred and forty thousand. 
 
 V. TERRITORIES AND DISTRICTS. 
 
 Arkansas Territory is bounded north by Missouri and the territory be- 
 yond ; south by Louisiana and the Mexican states ; east by the Mississippi, 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 271 
 
 dividing it from Tennessee and Mississippi ; west by the Mexican and Mis- 
 souri territories. It is five hundred miles in its greatest, and three hun- 
 dred in its medial length ; its breadth is two hundred and forty miles ; its 
 area more than fifty thousand square miles. It lies between thirty-three 
 and thirty-six degrees thirty minutes north latitude ; and between ninety and 
 one hundred degrees west longitude. It is divided into twenty-three counties. 
 Little Rock is the seat of government ; Dwight is a missionary station. 
 The mountains are the Black and Masserne. The rivers are Arkansas, 
 White, St. Francis, Cache, Washita, Bartholomew and Red. The popu- 
 lation is thirty thousand three hundred and eighty-three. 
 
 Michigan Territory, politically, includes the peninsula of Michigan and 
 the North-western territory. It is bounded on the north by Canada, and 
 lakes Superior and Huron ; south by Ohio, Illinois and Indiana ; west by 
 Missouri territory ; east by lakes Huron, St. Clair, Erie, and their waters. 
 It lies between forty-one degrees thirty-one minutes and forty-nine degrees 
 north latitude ; and eighty-two degrees and ninety-five degrees west longi- 
 tude ; and contains one hundred and eighty thousand square miles. It is 
 divided into seventeen counties. Detroit is the capital and only large 
 town. The rivers are the Wisconsin, Chippeway, St. Croix, Mississagai- 
 gon, St. Louis, Fox, Grand, St. Joseph's, Saginum, and Raisin. Lake 
 Michigan lies almost wholly within this territory \ it is bordered by Supe- 
 rior and Huron. 
 
 Missouri Territory is nine hundred miles in length, and eight hundred 
 in breadth. It is bounded north by the British possessions ; east by the 
 North-west territory, Illinois and Missouri ; south and south-west by the 
 territories of the Mexican republic ; west by the Rocky mountains. It lies 
 between thirty-four and forty-nine degrees north latitude ; and ninety and 
 one hundred and twelve degrees west longitude ; its area is estimated at 
 four hundred and seventy thousand square miles. The United States have 
 two military posts in this territory. The mountains of this territory are 
 ranges of the Rocky mountains. The rivers are the Missouri, Riviere de 
 Corbeau, St. Peter's, Cannon, Iowa}', Yellowstone, La Platte, Kansas, 
 Osage, Runningwater, Arkansas, Negracka, and Grand Saline. This ter- 
 ritory is inhabited by various Indian tribes, whose numbers are not known. 
 
 Oregon Territory is a vast country, whose southern boundary is on the 
 forty-second parallel to the Pacific ; our north-west boundary is in dispute 
 with Russia ; our division from the British possessions is in the forty-ninth 
 parallel. The Pacific is its western limit ; Arkansas and Missouri terri- 
 tories form its eastern. It lies between forty-one and forty-nine degrees 
 north latitude, and between one hundred and seven and one hundred and 
 thirty west longitude ; it contains about three hundred thousand square 
 miles. The Rocky mountains, and the unnamed chain between this range 
 and the Pacific, present great elevations. The chief rivers are the Oregon 
 and its tributaries. This region is claimed by the United States on the 
 ground of priority of discovery and occupation. A settlement called Asto- 
 ria was formed in 1S11 at the mouth of Oregon or Columbia river, by a 
 number of American citizens. The number of Indian inhabitants is esti- 
 mated at about one hundred and forty thousand. 
 
 Florida Territory is bounded north by Georgia and Alabama ; south and 
 west by the gulf of Mexico, and east by the Atlantic. It extends from 
 twenty-five to thirty-one degrees north latitude ; and from eighty degrees 
 
272 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 thirty minutes to eighty-seven degrees twenty minutes west longitude ; its 
 length is three hundred and fifty, and its breadth one hundred and fifty 
 miles. Its area includes about fifty thousand square miles. It is divided 
 into fifteen counties. St. Augustine is the largest town ; the other con- 
 siderable places are Pensacola and Tallahassee. The rivers are the St. 
 Mary's, St. John's, and Appalachicola. The population is about thirty- 
 four thousand and five hundred. 
 
 The District of Columbia is a territory ten miles square, under the im- 
 mediate government of Congress. It is divided into two counties and three 
 cities. The cities are Washington, Alexandria and. Georgetown. This 
 district lies on both sides of the Potomac, one hundred and twenty miles 
 from its mouth, and was ceded to the general government in 1790, by Vir- 
 ginia and Maryland, within whose territory it was situated. The capital 
 at Washington, from which American geographers often compute their 
 meridian, is in thirty-eight degrees fifty-three minutes north latitude, and 
 seventy-seven degrees one minute and forty-eight seconds west longitude 
 from Greenwich. The population of the district is thirty-nine thousand 
 eight hundred and fifty-eight. 
 
273 
 
 CHAPTER II.— CITIES AND TOWNS. 
 
 Albany is the seat of government for the state of New York, and is 
 situated on the west side of Hudson's river, one hundred and forty-four 
 miles from the- city of New York, to which it is next in rank. This city 
 is unrivalled for situation, being- nearly at the head of sloop navigation, on 
 one of the noblest rivers in the world. It enjoys a pure air, and is the 
 natural emporium ol the increasing trade of a large extent of country west 
 and north. In the old part of the town, the streets are very narrow, and 
 the houses mean, being all built in the Dutch taste, with the gable end 
 towards the street, and ornamented, or rather disfigured, on the top with 
 
 Albanj. 
 
 large iron weathercocks ; but in that part which has been more recently 
 erected, the streets are commodious, and many of the houses are handsome. 
 
 The Capitol stands on an elevation at the end of the main street, and 
 presents a line appearance. It is a fine stone edifice, with an Ionic portico 
 in front, supported by columns thirty-three feet in height. The public 
 square adjacent is adorned with beautiful walks and avenues. 
 
 The Farmers' and Mechanics' bank and the Albany bank, both at the 
 foot of State street, are both of white marble, and are handsome buildings. 
 There are about sixteen churches in this city. Albany has received more 
 permanent and evident advantages from the canals than any other place in 
 the state. Since 1825, the population has increased from fifteen thousand 
 nine hundred and seventy-one to twenty-six thousand. The first settle- 
 ment at Albany was made about 1614, when a stockade was built on a spot 
 just below the steam-boat dock. The charter of the city was granted in 
 16S6, a few months before that of New York. The city and township are 
 a mile in breadth, and extend thirteen miles along the river. The neigh- 
 borhood of Albany abounds in pleasant villages. 
 35 
 
274 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Alexandria is a city and port of entry in the district of Columbia, on 
 the west bank of the Potomac, six miles below Washington. It is a place 
 < f some business and resort during the session of Congress, and contains 
 s-ome fine buildings. Of late, Alexandria has not much increased, notwith- 
 standing it enjoys good commercial advantages. This city is regularly 
 built, and has good streets, well paved and clean. The trade is chiefly in 
 flour. Population about eight thousand three hundred. 
 
 Amherst is a town of Hampshire county, Massachusetts, ninety-one 
 miles west of Boston. It is the seat of a college which was incorporated 
 
 Amherst College. 
 
 in 1821, with the title of the Amherst Collegiate Institution. This semi- 
 nary has seven professors and four tutors. Amherst is the seat also of an 
 academy, and a school called the Mount Pleasant Institution. Population, 
 two thousand six hundred and thirty-one. 
 
 Annapolis, the capital of Anne Arundel county, and the seat of the govern- 
 ment of Maryland;, is situated at the mouth of the Severn river, about two 
 miles from its entrance into Chesapeak bay, thirty miles south of Balti- 
 more, and forty north-east of the city of Washington. It is a place of 
 little note in the commercial world ; but being in a pleasant situation, and 
 commanding a beautiful prospect of the Chesapeak, and the shore on the 
 other side of the bay, it is a very pleasant residence. The houses are 
 built of brick, and for the most part large and elegant, denoting great 
 wealth. The state house is one of the most superb structures in the United 
 States. Here is the seat of the University of Maryland. Population two 
 thousand six hundred and twenty-three. 
 
 Augusta, capital of Maine, stands on the west branch of the Kennebec 
 river, two miles above Hallowell. It is a pleasant town, and contains some 
 neat public buildings. The new state house is built of granite, and is a 
 very handsome edifice. It contains a spacious hall for the house of repre- 
 sentatives, and two smaller ones for the senate and the council. On the 
 side of the river opposite to the state house is the United States Arsenal, 
 consisting of about a dozen buildings of stone, some of which are large 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 275 
 
 and handsome. This place has considerable trade, and the river below is 
 navigable for vessels of one hundred tons. Population four thousand. 
 
 Augusta, capital of the state of Georgia, stands on the south-west bank 
 of the river Savannah, about one hundred and forty miles from the sea. 
 It is regularly built of brick upon a level spot, and surrounded by a fertile 
 country. It has a good trade in cotton, and other productions of the 
 interior. Population, six thousand six hundred and ninety-six. 
 
 Baltimore is a large city, standing on the north side of the river Patapsco, 
 in Maryland. The basin on which it stands has only five or six feet water 
 at high tide, so that the city can be approached only by small vessels. For 
 large ships, the harbor is at some distance, at a place called Fell's point, 
 where wharves have been built, along side which vessels of six hundred 
 tons burden can lie with perfect safety. Numbers of persons have been 
 induced to settle on this point on account of the shipping ; and regular 
 streets have been laid out, with a large market-place. But though these 
 buildings, generally speaking, are considered as part of Baltimore, yet they 
 are a mile distant from the other part of the town. 
 
 The city is the chief commercial mart for the country upon Chesapeak 
 bay and its waters. It is finely situated, and regularly built, in great part 
 of brick; the public buildings and monuments indicate great enterprise 
 and opulence. 
 
 Baltimore was laid out in 1729, on an area of sixty acres, purchased at 
 forty shillings per acre, and partly paid for in tobacco at a penny a pound. 
 Its progress was slow and unpromising; and in 1752 it contained but 
 twenty-five houses. With its population of more than eighty thousand, 
 it may now be considered the third or fourth city in the union. According 
 to its re-charter in 1816, Baltimore now includes ten thousand acres, 
 and contains a lunatic asylum, three theatres, an exchange, a public libra- 
 ry, and forty-five churches. 
 
 The Cathedral is built after the Ionic order, on a plan drawn by the 
 celebrated architect Latrobe. Its width is one hundred and seventy-sewn, 
 its length one hundred and ninety, and its height to the summit of the 
 cross surmounting the dome, is one hundred and twenty-seven feet. It 
 contains several fine paintings, and the largest organ in the United States. 
 The Merchants' Exchange, built by private subscription for the accommo- 
 dation of the citizens, is a spacious and splendid edifice. 
 
 The Battle Monument is an elegant marble structure, fifty-five feet high, 
 erected in memory of those who fell in defence of the city on the twelfth 
 and thirteenth of September, 1814. The Washington Monument is built 
 of white marble, on an elevation in the north part of the city; it is one 
 hundred and sixty-three feet high, and on its summit is placed a colossal 
 statue of Washington. This monument is embellished with bas-reliefs, 
 and other decorations. 
 
 Baltimore is the greatest flour market in the United States. In its im- 
 mediate neighborhood, are above sixty flour mills, a single one of which 
 has produced thirty-two thousand barrels in a year. Within the same 
 compass are numerous manufactories of cotton, cloth, powder, paper, iron, 
 glass, steam engines, and other articles. The Baltimore and Ohio rail- 
 road extends a distance of three hundred miles, from this city to the Ohio 
 river at Pittsburgh. The Baltimore and Susquehanna rail-road is to 
 
276 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 extend seventy-six miles to York in Pennsylvania. The Chesapeak and 
 Ohio canal, of the proposed length of three hundred and forty-one miles, 
 
 was commenced in 1828. 
 five thousand.* 
 
 Battle Monument, Baltimore. 
 
 The population of Baltimore is about eighty- 
 
 * Baltimore has the honor, I believe, of being the first city which has raised an ar- 
 chitectural memorial of its gratitude to Washington. It consists of a column of white 
 marble, rising from a quadrangular base. The shaft of the column is about one hun- 
 dred and twenty feet high, and is surmounted by a colossal statue, which, from its 
 throne, seems proudly to overlook the city. The design of this monument, which is 
 yet unfinished, is simple and grand, and does honor to the taste of the city. Its gross 
 height, including the statue and pedestal, is about a hundred and sixty feet. 
 
 In one of the squares of the city, there is what is called the Battle Monument, a sort 
 of trophy column, erected to commemorate the repulse of the attack on the city during 
 the late war, and the nami i of those who fell in its defence. This structure, which is 
 about fifty feet in height, consists of a column representing the Roman fasces, symbo- 
 lical of the union, rising from a square pedestal, which tapers in the Egyptian style, 
 with a griffin at each corner. Above is the statue of Victory, with an eagle at her side 
 The effect of the whole is sadly injured by a most anomalous perplexity of petty details. 
 Indeed so vicious^is this monument, in point of taste, that it is difficult to believe it the 
 production of the same period which has adorned the city with the noble structure to 
 Washington. 
 
 I remember being asked by a lady, in one of the first visits I paid in Baltimore, 
 whether T had seen this monument. Having answered in the negative, she proceeded 
 to inform me that it was very beautiful, but, as if struck by a sudden recollection, 
 somewhat eagerly apologised for the introduction of the subject, on account of the 
 painful feelings which tins memorial of failure in his country's arms, could not fail to 
 excite in an English spectator. In reply, I took the liberty to assure her that her re- 
 grets on this matter were entirely gratuitous; that I should have great pleasure in ex- 
 amining the monument, and really entertained no apprehension of suffering from any 
 pungency of feeling on the occasion. It was easy to observe, however, that my dis- 
 claimers, like the inaugural nolo episcopari of the bishops, went for nothing with my 
 fair auditor. Her apologies for having wounded my feelings, became even more stren- 
 uous than before ; and as it was evidently agreeable that I should appear in the light 
 of a mortified man, I at length judged it better to desist from farther disclamation. If 
 I know any thing of John Bull, he is not quite so sensitive a person, as it pleases the 
 good people on this side of the water to believe him ; and the idea of an Englishman, 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 277 
 
 Bangor is a flourishing town of Penobscot county, Maine, situated 
 thirty-rive miles above Castine. It is built upon the banks of the rivers 
 Kenduskeag and Penobscot. The increase of this town within a few years 
 has been very surprising. Building-lots near the centre of the town, that 
 in 1832 were held at three hundred dollars, are now valued at eight hun- 
 dred or a thousand. Woodlands at three, four, or five miles distance, that 
 were then sold at five, seven, or ten dollars the acre, are now selling from 
 twenty to fifty. Rents and all marketable commodities are proportionally 
 high. 
 
 ' Bangor,' says a correspondent of the Portland Advertiser, ' has much 
 the appearance of a hundred villages springing up on the non-slave-hold- 
 ing side of the Ohio, with this difference, that the buildings there are 
 chiefly of wood, cheaply built, and hastily thrown up ; and here they are 
 fine blocks of brick with granite fronts, or handsome white houses that 
 would do credit to any estate in Virginia or Carolina. I do not remember 
 seeing'what can be called a miserable house in Bangor. The Exchange is 
 a building that Avould do credit to many of our large cities. The churches 
 are numerous, and often elegantly built. Already they are numerous 
 enough for a city ; and it is such a spectacle that distinguishes New Eng- 
 land ; for no where, not even in the middle states, are such churches, and 
 so numerous to be seen, as any village in New England of any size can 
 exhibit.' 
 
 The water power in this vicinity is said to be superior to that of any 
 town in the United States. Its present great source of wealth is the lum- 
 ber business, which has been carried on to a very great extent. Thirty 
 years ago, Bangor was a wilderness ; according to the last census, its popu- 
 lation was two thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven; but it has much 
 increased within three years. 
 
 Bath, a town of Maine, on the west side of the Kennebec, twelve miles 
 from the sea, is at the head of the winter navigation; is pleasantly situated, 
 
 at the present day, being distressed by regret at the failure of the attack on Baltimore, 
 is, perhaps, somewhat i a with the lu 
 
 Baltimore is celebrated for Its hospitality and the beauty of its women, and I can 
 hear testimony to the justice of its reputation for both. In no other city of the United 
 States is the former so frequent and habitual, and in none are there so few of tin 
 did characteristics of traffic apparenl to a stranger. There struck me as being at Bal- 
 timore, mot in el ires of social life with profes- 
 sional labor. The effect of this is generally felt in society. The tone of conversation 
 is lighter and moie agreeable, and topics of mere commercial interest are rarely ob- 
 truded at the dinner table. 
 
 In Baltimore, there is not much pretension of any sort, and the average of literary 
 accomplishment is, perhaps, lower than in Philadelphia or Boston. In such matters, 
 however, a transient visitor can form, at best, but an uncertain and vi ry fallible judg- 
 ment ; but I can with truth assert, that my recollections of Baltimore are of the mi si 
 agreeable kind, and that I quitted it with a strong sentiment of regard for several of 
 its inhabitants, which time has yet dune nothing to diminish. 
 
 The ladies of Baltimore, I have already intimated, are remarkable for personal at- 
 traction ; indeed, I am not aware that, in proportion to the numbers assembled, I have 
 ever seen so much beauty as in the parties of Baltimore. The figure is, perhaps, defi- 
 cient in height, but sylph-like and graceful ; the features are generally regular and 
 delicately modelled, and the fair Baltimoreans are less remarkable than the Ameri- 
 can ladies usually are, for the absence of a certain fulness and grace of proportion, to 
 which, from its rarity, one is led, perhaps, to attach somewhat too much value as an 
 ingredient of beauty. — Hamilton 's America. 24 
 
278 BOOK OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and has great advantages for commerce. Ship-building is carried on here 
 to a large extent ; and in 1827 the value of the shipping of Bath was a 
 million of dollars. This town is almost isolated by some of the numerous 
 arms of the sea which penetrate that part of the coast. Population, three 
 thousand seven hundred and seventy-three. 
 
 Baton Rouge, a beautiful village on the eastern bank of the Mississip- 
 pi, one hundred and fifty miles above New Orleans, is the capital of a 
 parish of the same name in the eastern district of Louisiana. It is a 
 small town, situated on the last bluff that is seen on descending the river, 
 and about thirty or forty feet above its highest overflow. The village is to- 
 lerably compact, and the United States' barracks are built in a very hand- 
 some style. 'The town itself,' says Mr. Flint, ' especially in the months 
 when the greatest verdure prevails, when seen from a steam-boat in the 
 river, rising with such a fine swell from the banks, and Avith its singularly 
 shaped French and Spanish houses, and its green square, looks like a finely 
 painted landscape.' Population, one thousand two hundred. 
 
 Beaufort, principal town of Beaufort district, South Carolina, situated 
 on the western bank of Port Eoyal river, is a pleasant and healthy place, 
 containing a college, three churches, and about eleven hundred and fifty 
 inhabitants. Its harbor is spacious. 
 
 Belfast, the capital of Waldo county, Maine, has a fine situation and 
 good harbor, and is a flourishing town. It is twelve miles north-west of 
 Castine, from which it is separated by Penobscot river. Its coasting trade 
 is very considerable. Population, three thousand one hundred and seventy 
 seven. 
 
 Bennington is the chief town of the county of the same name in Ver- 
 mont. It is situated at the foot of the Green mountains, near the south- 
 west corner of the state. It has several manufactories, and a marble quar- 
 ry, and is celebrated for two victories of General Stark, over the British, 
 in 1777. It is the largest and oldest town in the state, having been char- 
 tered by Governor Wentworth in 1749, and first settled by the Separatists 
 under Robinson in 1761. Population, three thousand four hundred and 
 nineteen. ^ r " 
 
 Bethlehem, in Albany county, New York, includes much rich alluvial 
 land near Hudson river, inhabited by descendants of early Dutch settlers. 
 It contains several caverns. Population, six thousand and eighty-two. 
 
 Bethlehem, in Northampton county, Pennsylvania, is situated on a fine 
 acclivity rising from the Lehigh river. It was founded in 1741 by the 
 United Brethren, or Moravians, under Count Zinzendorf. The same order 
 still retain the ownership, and have established here a seminary of con- 
 siderable note for female education. The houses are neat and substantial. 
 There is but one place of public worship, in which service is performed 
 in English and German. The situation of this village is remarkably pic- 
 turesque and romantic. There are ten other towns of this name in the 
 United States. 
 
 Beverly, town in Essex county, Massachusetts, is a seaport, and con- 
 nected with Salem by a bridge. It was formerly a part of Salem. It is 
 pleasantly situated, and is largely engaged in the fisheries and in com- 
 merce. Population, four thousand and seventy-nine. 
 
 Blakely is a seaport of Baldwin county, Alabama, on the Tensa, a branch 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 279 
 
 of the Mobile. It was founded in 1816, and is a flourishing place. Its 
 .situation is healthy, and it has a commodious harbor. 
 
 Boston, the capital of Massachusetts, and the chief city of New Eng- 
 land, is situated at the head of Massachusetts bay, on a peninsula of an 
 uneven surface, about a mile in width, and nearly three miles long. Its 
 original Indian name was Shawmut, and it was afterwards called Tri- 
 mountain ; its present name was given in honor of the Rev. John Cotton, 
 one of its earliest pastors, who emigrated from Boston in Lincolnshire, 
 England. In the older parts of the city, the streets are crooked, narrow, 
 and intricate ; laid out with no reference to beauty or order. The more 
 recent streets are wider, straight, and regular; with edifices of great ele- 
 gance and large dimensions. The avenues leading into the adjacent coun- 
 try are the natural isthmus which connects the city with Roxbury, the 
 mill dam, six bridges and three rail-roads. There is also a ferry between 
 Boston and Chelsea, with steamboats for the conveyance of foot passengers 
 and carriages. Of the bridges, four are thrown over Charles river, con- 
 necting the capital with Cambridge and Charlestown, and two unite it 
 with South Boston. 
 
 The harbor has been before described. It is dotted with numerous 
 islands, and affords ample accommodation for a fleet of five hundred sail. 
 The approach to the city from the sea is highly picturesque and beautiful. 
 The wharves and piers are ample, covered with spacious stores of brick 
 and granite, and. presenting as great conveniences for the transaction of 
 business as are to be found in the world. 
 
 The local divisions of Boston are into North Boston.West Boston, South 
 End, and South Boston. To these we may now add East Boston, compre- 
 hending what was formerly called Noddle's Island, a tract of about six 
 hundred acres, purchased by a company in 1S32 for the purpose of extend- 
 ing the city in that direction. The Common is a beautiful promenade at 
 the west end of the city, containing an extent of nearly fifty acres, agreea- 
 bly varied by small eminences, the most prominent of which still exhibits 
 the vestiges of a fortification thrown up by the British soldiers during the 
 revolution. A little north of this mound is a small sheet of fresh water. 
 This spacious green is surrounded by malls, lined with magnificent elms. 
 On three sides are rows of fine private dwelling-houses, including some of 
 the most elegant mansions in the city. 
 
 On an eminence overlooking the common stands the State House ; a 
 conspicuous and striking edifice, the view from whose dome is most inter- 
 esting and extensive. The broad harbor with its green and picturesque 
 islands, the adjacent country covered by pleasant villages, and with a 
 pleasing alternation of hill and valley, interspersed with orchards and 
 woodland — and at its base, the avenues of a crowded and busy city, form a 
 combination of beauty that cannot fail to delight every beholder. Beyond 
 the islands of the bay, the eye stretches eastward to the waters of the 
 ocean ; and to the north lies Charlestown with the navy-yard, and the 
 monument erecting and soon to be completed on Bunker hill. To the west 
 is a view of Cambridge, with the various edifices attached to the univer- 
 sity. The state house was erected about thirty-eight years since. It is 
 of an oblong form, one hundred and seventy-three feet front, and sixty-one 
 deep ; a dome thirty-five feet in height and fifty-two feet diameter, sur 
 
280 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 mounts the edifice, and the whole terminates with a circular lantern twenty- 
 five feet high. The basement story is ornamented with rows of Doric 
 pillars ; in an open chamber projected from the north centre of this story 
 is placed Chantry's noble statue of Washington. This building contains 
 the usual accommodation for the various offices of state, besides the senate 
 chamber, council chamber and representatives' hall. 
 
 Faneuil Hall is famous in American annals. It is a building of good 
 proportions, and convenient size, though of no great architectural preten- 
 sions ; its history is sacred to the spirit of eloquence, courage and patriot- 
 ism. The building has a cupola which presents a good view of the harbor ; 
 the great hall is nearly eighty feet square, and about twenty-eight feet 
 high. It is decorated with an original full length painting of Washington, 
 by Stuart, and another of the same size by Colonel Sargent, representing 
 Mr. Faneuil, the noble donor of the edifice. Faneuil Hall Market is situ- 
 ated to the east of Faneuil hall. It is a splendid building of granite, 
 five hundred and thirty-five feet and nine inches in length. The basement 
 story is occupied by market stalls ; on the second floor is a spacious hall, 
 used for public assemblies and caucuses, called Quincy Hall, in honor of 
 the distinguished gentleman in whose mayoralty the edifice was projected 
 and built. 
 
 The City Hall, formerly known as the old state house, was built in 
 nearly its present form in the year 1747. It stands at the head of State 
 
 City Hall. 
 
 street, and on the line of Washington street, the principal avenue of the 
 city. In this building are the post office, the marine news room, and the 
 merchants' exchange ; from this there is a winding stair-case leading 
 to the hall of the common council, and that of the mayor and aldermen 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 281 
 
 together with various public offices connected with the city administration. 
 Other public buildings, of great beauty to the city, are the United States 
 Branch Bank, and the Masonic Temple. The latter building fronts on, 
 the common ; it is of the Gothic order. 
 
 One of the most interesting of the churches of the city is that known as 
 the King's Chapel. Its exterior is plain, and in appearance it is unfin- 
 
 King's Chapel. 
 
 ished, being built entirely of unhammered stone. It was first opened for 
 divine service in 1754. The tower is ornamented by a colonnade of large 
 wooden pillars, and the whole presents the appearance of massy grandeur 
 suited to distinguish in former days the place of worship for the public 
 functionaries. In the interior, the governor's pew was formerly distin- 
 guished above the rest, but was taken down a few years since. The 
 style of architecture is of the Corinthian order. There are several monu- 
 mental marbles, which add to the interest with which the church is visited. 
 It is now the only house in which the old fashion of square pews is 
 retained. Brattle street church is interesting from historical associations. 
 Governors Hancock and Bowdoin were liberal benefactors of this society. 
 The name of the former was inscribed on one of the rustic quoins at the 
 south-west corner of the building. The British soldiery defaced it, and the 
 stone remains in the condition in which they left it. A similar inscrip- 
 tion, unmutilated, appears on one of the rustic quoins at the south-west 
 corner of the tower ; and on one in the north-west corner, the name of 
 Dr. John Greenleaf appears, who, with Gov. Bowdoin, advanced the mo* 
 ney for refitting the church, it having been improved as a barrack, during 
 the siege. A shot, which was sent from the American army at Cam» 
 36 24* 
 
2S2 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 bridge, struck the tower on the night preceding the evacuation of the town. 
 It was picked up and preserved, and is now fastened in the spot where it 
 struck. General Gage's head quarters were in the house opposite. Trinity 
 
 Trinity Church. 
 
 church in Summer street is a beautiful granite edifice, built in 1829. It 
 is one of the chief architectural ornaments of the city ; and for beauty 
 of proportion, strength and solidity, is perhaps unsurpassed in this coun- 
 try. The number of worshipping assemblies in this city is between fifty 
 and sixty. 
 
 The places of public amusement in Boston are not numerous, nor 
 remarkably well patronized. The Tremont theatre affords the only dra- 
 matic entertainment that is much resorted to by strangers and people of 
 fashion. It is a handsome building, with a front of Quincy and Hallowell 
 granite. This front is in imitation of the Ionic order, with four pilasters 
 and two antoss, one on each angle, supporting an entablature and pediment, 
 and elevated on a basement seventeen feet. The Warren theatre is a 
 minor establishment, and is much frequented. The New England Museum 
 attracts numerous visitors. 
 
 Of the hotels of Boston, we can only particularly mention the Tremont 
 House, a splendid building, in the pleasantest quarter of the city, and esteem- 
 ed the best house in the country. ' Most gratifying is it to a traveller in the 
 United States,' says a recent tourist, ' when, sick to death of the discomforts 
 of the road, he finds himself fairly housed in the Tremont hotel. The 
 establishment is on a large scale, and admirably conducted.' This stinted 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 283 
 
 approbation is one of the few tokens of satisfaction that Mr. Hamilton gives in 
 his unsparing though witty and entertaining volumes ; it is not the less 
 acceptable, because it is extorted. 
 
 Tremont House. 
 
 In the year 1833, there were twenty-nine banks in the city, which em- 
 ployed a capital of twenty million one hundred thousand dollars. The 
 oldest is the Massachusetts' bank, which was incorporated in 178-3. There 
 are twenty-four insurance companies, with an aggregate capital of seven 
 millions and a quarter. The charitable institutions of the city are nume- 
 rous. Of these, one of the most important is the Institution for the Edu- 
 cation of the Blind, recently established under very favorable circumstances. 
 Besides this are the Asylum for Indigent Hoys, the Female Asylum, Chari- 
 table Mechanic Association, Prison Discipline Society, and many others. 
 The Massachusetts General Hospital is situated in the west part of the 
 town ; it has been pronounced the finest building in the state. The 
 Quarantine Hospital is situated on Rainsford island, in the harbor, and 
 about six miles from the city. 
 
 The number of periodicals issued in this city is above seventy, inclusive 
 of dailies and annuals. The first paper published in the country was the 
 Boston News Letter, commenced in 1704, and continued for nearly seventy- 
 two years. The oldest surviving journal established since the revolution 
 is the Columbian Centinel, which was commenced in 1784. 
 
 Boston is celebrated for her public schools, and the great efforts which 
 have been made by her citizens in the cause of education. The expendi- 
 tures for these institutions, during the year ending August, 1833, amounted 
 to over seventy thousand dollars. Social libraries are numerous. The 
 Boston Athenaeum was established in 1S06, and contains above twenty- 
 eight thousand volumes. Though accessible only to men of fortune, as 
 the price of a share is three hundred dollars, it is still a useful institution. 
 
284 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Annual subscribers are admitted at ten dollars. This noble establish- 
 ment is situated in Pearl street, in a fine building, for the half of which 
 the proprietors were indebted to the munificence of the late James Perkins, 
 Esq. Attached to the Athenaeum is a gallery of the fine arts, in which is 
 held an annual exhibition that has hitherto been the source of a conside- 
 rable income. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the 
 Massachusetts Historical Society, are highly respectable institutions which 
 have issued numerous volumes of great value, and possess considerable 
 libraries. On the whole, the libraries of Boston are neither so large nor 
 so generally accessible as might be expected from the wealth and liberality 
 of her citizens. 
 
 Middlesex canal unites the water communication between Boston and 
 the Merrimack river, at the bend in Chelmsford ; the company for its con- 
 struction was incorporated in 1793. The toll has amounted some years to 
 about twenty-five thousand dollars. Rail-roads are now nearly completed 
 that will connect this city with Providence, Worcester, and Lowell. The 
 marine railway, which affords facilities for the repair of large vessels, has 
 been in successful operation since 1826. One of the greatest improvements 
 of late years has been the building of Mercantile wharf, which ranges in 
 front of the harbor, between City wharf and Lewis's wharf. It has made 
 access to the northern extremity of the city very convenient from the cen- 
 tral parts, and has led to great improvements. 
 
 Since 1S22, when the city was incorporated, Boston has been governed 
 by a mayor, eight aldermen, and a common council of forty-eight members, 
 chosen annually. With the town of Chelsea, it constitutes the county of 
 Suffolk, and sends one representative to Congress. As a commercial city, 
 it holds a second rank among the seaports of the United States. There 
 are many manufactures in the city, and much wealth of the citizens is 
 invested in the manufactories of Waltham, Lowell, and other towns. Popu- 
 lation, eighty thousand.^ 
 
 * The road, as we approached Boston, lay through a more populous country, and we 
 passed a height, which commanded a fine view of the bay. At length, entering on a 
 long street, I found myself surrounded by the busy hum of a great city. The first 
 impression was decidedly favorable. There is in Boston less of that rawness of outline, 
 and inconsistency of architecture, which had struck me in New York. The truth is, 
 that the latter has increased so rapidly, that nine tenths of the city have been built 
 within the last thirty years, and probably one half of it within a third of the period. 
 In Boston, both wealth and population have advanced at a slower pace. A compara- 
 tively small portion of the city is new, and the hand of time has somewhat mellowed 
 even its deformities, contributing to render that reverend, which was originally rude. 
 
 There is an air of gravity and solidity about Boston ; and nothing gay or flashy, in 
 the appearance of her streets, or .he crowd who frequent them. New York is a young- 
 giantess, weighing twenty stone, and yet frisky withal. Boston, the matron of stayed 
 and demure air, a little past her prime, perhaps, yet showing no symptom of decay. 
 The former is brisk, bustling, and annually outgrowing her petticoats. The latter fat, 
 fair, and forty, a great breeder, but turning her children out of doors, as fast as she pro- 
 duces them. But it is an old and true apophthegm, that similes seldom run on all fours, 
 and therefore it is generally prudent not to push them too far. 
 
 Boston stands on an undulating surface, and is surrounded on three sides by the sea. 
 The harbor is a magnificent basin, encircled by a beautiful country, rising in gentle 
 acclivities, and studded with villas. There is nothing very handsome about the town, 
 which is rather English in appearance, and might in truth be easily mistaken for one 
 of our more populous seaports. A considerable number of the buildings are of granite, 
 or, more properly speaking, of sienite ; but brick is the prevailing material, and houses 
 of framework are now rarely to be met with in the streets inhabited by the better orders. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 285 
 
 Bordentmvn, a town of New Jersey, in Burlington county, stand 
 ing on a steep sand bank on the west side of the Delaware, is chiefly 
 remarkable for the villa of Joseph Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain. This is 
 a long white building, with two low square towers at the ends, and a shot- 
 tower near it by the river. 
 
 Brattleboro' is a pleasant village, in Windham county, Vermont, on the 
 Connecticut. It is situated on an elevated plain above the river ; at the 
 bridge over the stream are several manufactories, the chief of which are 
 of paper and machinery, which are made here in large quantities. The 
 situation of the village is quite romantic and picturesque. Population, two 
 thousand and two hundred. 
 
 Bridgeport, in Fairfield county on Long Island sound, maintains aa 
 active intercourse with New York by means of sloops and steamboats, and 
 furnishes that city with a great amount of produce. The harbor is shoal, 
 but with a good channel ; the town is pleasant and thriving. Population 
 two thousand and eight hundred. 
 
 Brighton, a town of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, is celebrated for 
 its annual cattle show and fair which has been held here ever since the 
 revolution. Vast numbers of cattle for the Boston market are brought here 
 from all quarters of the country. The soil is good, and well cultivated. 
 Population, one thousand. 
 
 Bristol, a thriving town, situated on Narragansett bay, about half way 
 between Providence and Newport, is distinguished for its pleasant situation, 
 healthful climate, rich soil, and a commodious, safe harbor. This town 
 suffered greatly during the revolutionary war, a great part of it having been 
 destroyed by the British ; but it is now in a very flourishing state, and has 
 a good shipping trade : onions in great quantities, and a variety of provi- 
 sions and garden roots, are raised here for exportation. Mount Hope, 
 celebrated in the early history of New England as the residence of king 
 Philip, is within the limits of Bristol ; it is a cone-shaped hill, with a 
 pointed summit, and exhibits a charming prospect. Population, three thou- 
 sand and fifty-four. 
 
 Brooklyn, a large town on Long Island, separated from the city of New 
 York by the narrow channel of East river. It is properly a suburb of that 
 city, and is a place of great business. It is regularly built, and contains 
 many fine houses, the residence of merchants from the city. The United 
 
 The streets are narrow, and often crooked, yet, as already stated, they exhibit more 
 
 • finish and cleanliness than are to be found in New York. In architecture, I could dis- 
 
 • cover little to admire. The state house stands on an eminence commanding the city ; 
 
 • it is a massive square building, presenting in front a piazza of rusticated arches, sur- 
 . mounted by a gratuitous range of Corinthian columns, which support nothing. The 
 ' building in front has a small attic with a pediment, and from the centre rises a dome, 
 
 the summit of which is crowned by a square lantern. 
 
 The comparative diffusion of literature in Boston has brought with it a taste for the 
 fine arts. The better houses are adorned with pictures ; and in the Athenaeum — a 
 public library and reading room — is a collection of casts from the antique. Establish- 
 ments for the instruction of the people in the higher branches of knowledge, are yet 
 almost unknown in the United States, but something like a Mechanics' Institute has at 
 length been got up in Boston, and I went to hear the introductory lecture. The apart- 
 ment, a large one, was crowded by an audience whose appearance and deportment were 
 in the highest degree orderly and respectable. The lecture was on the steam engine, 
 the history, principle, and construction of which were explained most lucidly by the 
 lecturer, who belonged, I was assured, to the class of operative mechanics.— Men and 
 Manners in America. 
 
286 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 States navy yard is in the east quarter, upon a bay called the Wall- 
 about. Near this town a bloody and disastrous battle was fought with the 
 British in 1776. The town stands on an eminence, and commands fine 
 views of the city and bay. A constant intercourse is kept up with New 
 York by steamboats. It is the third town in the state in regard to its 
 population, which amounts to about sixteen thousand. 
 
 Brookville is pleasantly situated in the forks of Whitewater, and is the 
 seat of justice of Franklin county, Illinois. It was laid out in the year 
 1S11 ; but no improvements were made until the succeeding year, and then 
 but partially, owing to the unsettled state of the frontiers ; its vicinity to 
 the Indian boundary being about fifteen miles. The late war completely 
 checked the emigration to this country, and consequently the town ceased 
 to improve ; since that period, it has improved and been noted for the en- 
 terprise of its citizens. It is now, however, decaying. It contains about 
 a hundred houses. 
 
 Brunswick is a town of Cumberland county, Maine, situated on the south 
 side of Androscoggin river, twenty-six miles north-east of Portland. The 
 river has many falls at this place, on which are situated numerous mills, 
 and manufactories of cotton and woollen. It is chiefly distinguished as 
 the seat of Bovvdoin college, which was established here in 1794. This 
 institution is partly supported by funds bequeathed by governor Bowdoin, 
 of Massachusetts, from whom the college takes its name. Population of 
 Brunswick, three thousand seven hundred and forty-seven. 
 
 Buffalo, delightfully situated near the margin of lake Erie, three hun- 
 dred and twenty-seven miles from Albany, and twenty-two from the falls 
 of Niagara, is a place of considerable importance, and the emporium of 
 the lake commerce. The principal streets are from sixty-six to one hundred 
 feet wide ; these are intersected by others of equal width, and as many of 
 the houses are of brick, two and three stories high, they make a neat and 
 handsome appearance. Buffalo, standing on the great road leading from 
 Albany to Ohio, possesses natural advantages for trade, equal to any inter- 
 nal place in the United States. 
 
 Its harbor is singularly fitted for the two kinds of navigation that are 
 here brought together, the entrance from the lake being sheltered by the 
 point on which the light-house is erected, and the two small rivers which here 
 unite their waters affording every convenience for landing and re-shipping 
 goods ; a number of basins and lateral canals communicate with the 
 great canal. This harbor is thronged with steamboats and every kind of 
 water craft ; it is one of the most busy and bustling places in the country. 
 
 ' In Buffalo,' says a recent writer, ' the miserable descendants of the 
 Iroquois or Six Nations may constantly be seen in the streets. The Senecas 
 have three villages within nine miles. If any man wishes to observe the 
 effect of an intercourse between whites and Indians, let him go to Buffalo. 
 There he may see red men, reeling drunk in the streets, begging in the 
 most abject manner for liquor, and the women in the lowest stage of 
 moral and physical degradation. They are in some measure civilized, 
 some of them having adopted the costume of the whites, and living by the 
 cultivation of the soil. Should they continue to reside in their present 
 dwelling-place, it is to be hoped that the change will be complete. When 
 the chase will no longer afford them a subsistence ; when they are completely 
 hemmed in by the whites, they must of necessity have recourse to agricul- 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 287 
 
 ture for ihe means of living, and knowledge must be the attendant of in- 
 dustry — but as long as they are able to live, no matter how wretchedly, in 
 idleness, they will not work, and will continue to retrograde.' Population, 
 eight thousand seven hundred. 
 
 Burlington, in Chittenden county, Vermont, on lake Champlain, is a 
 flourishing and commercial town. It is situated on the declivity of a hill, 
 commanding an extensive view of the lake, and a beautiful prospect of 
 the town. It is the seat of the university of Vermont, and of several 
 manufactories. Its commerce is considerable. Population, three thousand 
 five hundred. 
 
 Burlington City stands on the banks of the Delaware, eighteen miles 
 north-east from Philadelphia. The main streets are conveniently spacious, 
 and mostly ornamented with rows of trees in the fronts of the houses, 
 which are regularly arranged. The river opposite the town is about a 
 mile wide, and under shelter of two islands, affords a safe and convenient 
 harbor ; but, though well situated for trade, Burlington is too near the opu- 
 lent city of Philadelphia to admit of any considerable increase of foreign 
 commerce. Population, two thousand six hundred and seventy. 
 
 Cahokia, in St. Clair county, Illinois, is situated on a small stream, about 
 one mile east of the Mississippi, and five miles below St. Louis. It is 
 pleasantly situated, and is inhabited chiefly by French people. This town 
 contains a post-office and a Roman catholic chapel, and is the seat of 
 justice for the county. 
 
 Cambridge, a town of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, lies west of 
 Boston, was settled in 1631. It is a fine village, containing many very plea- 
 sant residences, and is divided into three distinct portions. East Cambridge 
 is a suburb of Boston, with which it is connected by Cragie's bridge ; it is 
 flourishing, and has some glass and iron manufactories. Old Cambridge 
 
 Harvard University. 
 
 is about three miles from the city, and is the seat of Harvard college, the 
 oldest and richest university in the United States; this institution is fully 
 described in another portion of the volume. In the western part lies Fresh 
 Pond, a fine sheet of water, much resorted to in summer by citizens of the 
 neighboring towns. In the south-westerly part is a beautiful hilly grove. 
 
288 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 called Mount Auburn, recently devoted to the purposes of a cemetery, and 
 forming one of the most beautiful burial places in the world.* The first 
 printing-press in America was set up here, and was used by Stephen Day, 
 
 * Mount Auburn. — If the taste of our readers resembles our own, we can assure them 
 that they will have no reason to regret the exertion, if they take a walk through the retreats 
 of Mount Auburn, at the present season of the year. They may suppose that the fall of the 
 leaf has deprived the place of most of its attractions ; but it is one of the recommendations 
 of this beautiful spot, that it remains pleasant through so many months. As the spring 
 opens, it is a favorable place to watch the restoration of nature — the returns sf the 
 bird to his favorite home, and the opening of the sealed urns of the flower ; in the 
 summer, a fine retreat from the sultriness is offered by its deep caverns of green, formed 
 by heavy masses of rich and various foliage, such as is found in no other part of this 
 region ; and now, in the closing year, even after the splendid drapery of autumn is taken 
 down, and the rustle of the dead leaf, together with the sullen whistle of the wind 
 through its deserted avenues, seems to speak of nothing but desolation, the lover of 
 nature still finds every thing in perfect harmony with the feelings which such a place is 
 desired to awaken. There is something melancholy in the sight, indeed, but the asso- 
 ciations are neither painful nor oppressive. "We know that the spring will return, and 
 the voice of the bird will wake the earth from its slumber ; the trees will be covered 
 with beauty, and the streams move on again with music in their flow ; by a familiar 
 association, we are reminded that a similar happy and reviving change awaits those 
 who have gone down to the dust in peace, when that which is sown in weakness shall 
 be raised in power. When thoughts like these are brought home to the breast, there is 
 consolation in them ; even the eye filled with tears, may brighten with the hope of im- 
 mortality. 
 
 We trust that the same good judgment which has presided over the work thus far, will 
 conduct it to its close. It stands in complete and honorable contrast with most resting 
 places of the dead. There are few of those monuments, which seem intended to com- 
 memorate the folly of the living, rather than the memory of the departed — few of those 
 inscriptions which tell us of those who sleep below, not what they were, but what they 
 ought to have been. We cannot say that we admire the rocky cells of the tomb, with their 
 heavy iron grates ; but the taste in this respect is generally governed by early associa- 
 tions, and we shall not presume to censure feelings which we do not understand. Among 
 the monuments are many of great beauty ; we were struck with a plain black marble 
 obelisk of exquisite polish, ornamented only by a single cross, in relief, on the surface 
 of the stone. There are several granite obelisks, of plain and almost severe simplicity, 
 which are admirably suited to the place and the purpose : several fine monuments of 
 white marble, among which are an unfinished column, and a cenotaph erected by the 
 mechanics of Boston to the memory of a lamented young man, who died at a distance 
 from his home. We apprehend that the whitest of this marble, however bright at first, 
 will be soon defaced and blackened by the droppings from the trees above ; it is gene- 
 rally less firm and hard than such as is veined and shaded, and therefore not so well 
 suited for memorials that are meant to resist the elements and the waste of time. The 
 classical form is generally preferred for this purpose, and with good reason ; the ancients 
 have left us little to do in these respects but to follow their example. We did not see 
 a single copy of the tomb discovered by Dr. Clarke, in Naxos, which is in our view one 
 of the most imposing, and is found in some places in this country. The cippus is well 
 calculated also for our purposes : we want monuments of simple outline ; for there is 
 taste enough in our community generally, to feel that fine decorations are out of their 
 place in cities of the dead. The outline is more to be regarded than the color : marble 
 of pearly whiteness would contrast beautifully with the green back-ground ; but since it 
 is less suited to the exposure required, it is well to use the hardier material in which 
 our country abounds. 
 
 The generations of men are so rapidly passing away, that a few years will make this 
 interesting place rich in mournful and sacred associations. We noticed the monu- 
 ment of Hannah Adams, the first tenant of the place, remarkable for her fair and dis- 
 criminating mind, and still more so for her child-like singleness of heart. Spurzheim 
 also is there— honored for his enlarged and liberal feeling, by those who had no confi- 
 dence in his philosophical speculations. We have already alluded to the cenotaph 
 erected to a young man of high promise, by which his friends have commemorated his 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 289 
 
 who printed the Freeman's Oath. During the siege of Boston, in 1776, 
 the American army encamped here, and vestiges of some of their intrench- 
 ments still remain in the neighborhood. Population, six thousand one 
 hundred. 
 
 Camden, in Kershaw district, South Carolina, on the Wateree, is the 
 seat of justice for the district. It is chiefly celebrated for the battles 
 fought in its vicinity during the revolutionary war. Population, one thou- 
 sand. A flourishing town of the same name in Oneida county, New 
 York, has a population of about two thousand. 
 
 Canandaigua, capital of Ontario county, New York, on the outlet of 
 the lake of the same name, is one of the pleasantest towns in the country. 
 The principal street runs along the ridge of a hill, which rises from the 
 north end of the lake, for the distance of a mile ; it is handsomely planted 
 with trees, and the houses, which are generally painted white with green 
 blinds, present a very neat appearance. In the centre of the town is a 
 large square ; the neighborhood abounds with pleasant gardens. Popula- 
 tion, five thousand one hundred and sixty-two. 
 
 Castine, a town of Maine, built on a promontory at the head of Penob- 
 scot bay, is placed in a commanding situation, and has an excellent harbor. 
 It was taken by the British during the last war, but was restored in 1815. 
 Population about one thousand two hundred. 
 
 Calskill, principal town of Greene county, New York, is situated on the 
 west bank of the Hudson river, nearly opposite the city of Hudson, and 
 
 virtues and their own loss. But it is not always those whose loss is most widely felt, 
 whose memory is most fondly remembered ; many who go to the grave almost unknown, 
 will give sacredness to this place m the feeling of those who loved them. The parent 
 will regard it with emotion, because there he saw his child laid upon a colder pillow 
 than a mother's breast — or the youth, who perished in the brightness of Ins rising, and 
 left his friends to mourn not only for all tie was, but all they hoped he would have been. 
 The community will turn to it, as the place where the generous and enlightened, the 
 useful and honored, rest from their labors ; where those who have passed through the 
 various changes of public confidence, carry their rivalship and ambition down to the 
 dust. Each inclosure will have its recollections gathered about it like the summer leaves 
 over the monument ; the feelings of men of various pursuits and characters will be 
 drawn from all directions toward this single point of melancholy attraction. The me- 
 morial which one passes coldly by, will fix the attention of another : the stone which is 
 to one simply a memorial of a stranger, will be gazed upon by another till ' his heart 
 is faint, and his eyes are dim.' 
 
 We cannot but hope that this example will be followed ; the community at large 
 have yet to learn the right feeling of respect for the dead. That respect is not shown 
 only by the care which guards the sepulchre from violation — nor by setting up ghastly 
 monuments, covered with tales of idle vanity or unmeaning affection. Whoever goes 
 into the burial places of many of our villages, sees naked marbles, which after a few 
 years lean with age, and find no hand to restore them. Nature, as if ashamed of man, 
 seems endeavoring to hide what he has done with her tall golden rod and towering 
 plants, which grow as luxuriantly as if they were fed from the graves below ; — and all 
 is surrounded, not protected, by a vile paling of unpainted wood, which defends it from 
 no animal but man. The true respect for the dead will be shown by making their 
 resting place such, that the stranger shall not retreat from it in disgust and scorn, by 
 employing the decorations of nature, which are always at command. One tenth part of 
 the expense which is now lavished on the absurd and ungraceful head-stones in almost 
 every village of New England, would make their burial grounds, places which could 
 be pointed out to the traveller without regret and shame ; and what is still better, would 
 permit the living to go and draw instruction from communion with the dead. — Boston 
 Daily Advertiser. 
 
 37 25 
 
290 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 thirty-one miles south of Albany. It exhibits gentle elevations in the 
 neighborhood, and the soil is generally good ; it is well watered, has fine 
 meadows, and good mill sites. Population, four thousand nine hundred. 
 
 Charleston, the chief city of South Carolina, stands upon a piece of 
 land projecting into the bay, at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper 
 rivers, and has a deep and safe harbor. Ships drawing twenty feet 
 of water pass the bar. The city is regularly built ; the fine houses are 
 very large, many of them inclosed like the great hotels in Paris, and all 
 of them covered with verandas, and situated in gardens neatly dressed, and 
 in summer and fall, not only adorned with the finest evergreen shrubs, but 
 with a great variety of beautiful roses, jonquils, and other flowers. On 
 the other hand, many of the streets are dirty and unpaved, and the houses 
 in some parts of the town have a filthy appearance. The churches and 
 public buildings are handsome, especially St. Michael's church, with its 
 steeple one hundred and sixty-eight feet high. The post office is a large, 
 handsome building. Most of the finest buildings here were erected pre- 
 viously to the revolution. There are many charitable institutions, among 
 which the Orphan Asylum stands in the first rank. 
 
 The society of Charleston is refined, intelligent and hospitable. The 
 commerce of the place consists chiefly in the export of rice and cotton. 
 On account of its level character, the city is liable to occasional inunda- 
 tion ; but it is, nevertheless, a fine commercial mart, and highly prosperous, 
 exhibiting most of the institutions which mark a liberal and opulent com- 
 munity. This city is celebrated in the history of the revolution. Popu- 
 lation, thirty thousand two hundred and eighty-nine. 
 
 Charlestmvn, in Middlesex county, Massachusetts, is an irregular town, 
 containing some fine situations. Here are the United States navy yard, 
 and the finest dry-dock in the country ; the Massachusetts state prison, an 
 insane hospital, and the Ursuline convent. This town was burnt in 1775, 
 by the British troops. On the eminence of Bunker Hill, a splendid monu- 
 ment of granite has been for some time in an unfinished state; but there 
 is every hope of its immediate completion. Population about nine thou- 
 sand. There are ten other towns of this name in the United States. 
 
 Chilicothe, in Ross county, Ohio, formerly the seat of the state govern- 
 ment, is situated on the west bank of the Scioto, on a beautiful and exten- 
 sive plain. It is laid out on a large scale, with a great number of out- 
 lots attached to it. The plan is regular ; the streets cross each other at 
 right angles, and every square is divided into four parts. In the vicinity 
 are several mills and manufactories, and the Grand canal is cut through 
 the town. The town was laid out in 1796, on the site of an old Indian 
 village. Population, two thousand eight hundred and forty-six. 
 
 Cincinnati, the largest town in Ohio, is handsomely built, and surround- 
 ed by a range of fine wooded hills, which command a beautiful prospect. 
 The plain on which it is situated occupies about four square miles ; the 
 height of the rising ground above the alluvial plain is about fifty feet. 
 The population is much mixed, being composed of emigrants from all parts 
 of the union, and most of the countries of Europe. Its progressive in- 
 crease has been most wonderful. In 1813, Cincinnati numbered about 
 four thousand inhabitants; in 1820, ten thousand; in 1832, more than thir- 
 ty thousand. 
 
 It has extensive flour and sawmills, worked by steam, and various manu- 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 291 
 
 facmres. The public buildings are twenty-four churches, the College, 
 Athenseum, Medical College, Mechanics' Institute, four market houses, a 
 theatre, two museums, a famous and tasteless bazaar, a bank for the United 
 States branch, court house, and other edifices. The charitable and reli- 
 gious associations are numerous. There are sixteen periodical publica- 
 tions. There are three city insurance companies, and two branches of 
 companies at Hartford, Connecticut. Water is furnished for the inhabi- 
 tants from the Ohio river, and is distributed over town at an average 
 expense of eight dollars for a family. 
 
 Vast remains of ancient fortifications, embankments, stone walls, earthen 
 mounds, the latter containing rude stone coffins filled with human bones, 
 have been discovered within the precincts of this town ; and many curious 
 articles dug up, composed of jasper, rock crystal, cannel-coal, copper, 
 sculptural representations on different substances, altogether tending to 
 prove that this country was formerly inhabited by a race of men very differ- 
 ent from the present American Indians. 
 
 Circleville, the seat of justice of Pickaway county, Ohio, is situated on 
 the Pickaway bottom, about half a mile east of the Scioto. Its site is two 
 mounds of earth, one circular, and the other square, containing about 
 twenty acres. In the centre of the town is a small vacant circle. From 
 this focus the streets diverge in regular radii. The growth of this town 
 has been owing to the wealth of the surrounding plantations. Population, 
 one thousand one hundred and thirty-six. 
 
 Columbia, the capital city of South Carolina, is situated on the Conga- 
 ree, one hundred and ten miles north-north-west of Charleston. It is the 
 seat of the college of the state. The town is regularly built, and occupies 
 an elevated plain gently sloping on every side. Population, three thousand 
 three hundred and ten. There are eleven other towns called Columbia in 
 the United States. 
 
 Columbus, the metropolis of the state of Ohio, is situated on the east 
 bank of the Scioto, on an elevated plain of several hundred acres. It is 
 situated near the middle of Franklin county, and within twenty miles of 
 the centre of the state, in a fine fertile country. It was founded in 1812, 
 in the midst of a thick forest. It contains a state house, court house, 
 penitentiary, a classical seminary, three churches, and an asylum for the 
 deaf and dumb. Population, two thousand four hundred and thirty-seven. 
 
 Concord, a town of Merrimack county, New Hampshire, is the capital 
 of the state. It is pleasantly situated on both sides of the Merrimack, 
 along which spread some rich intervals. The chief village is on the west 
 side, and forms a street two miles in length. It contains a state house 
 and a state prison, both of granite. It was first settled in 1724, and 
 twenty years afterwards suffered severely from the Indians. By the river 
 and Middlesex canal, Concord has a boat navigation to Boston ; and it is 
 a place of considerable trade. Population, three thousand seven hundred 
 and twenty-seven. 
 
 Concord, a village of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, is celebrated as 
 the place of meeting of the first provincial congress in 1774, and the first 
 opposition to the British arms. Population, two thousand and seventeen.* 
 
 * There are seventeen other towns, named Concord, in different parts of the United 
 States. 
 
292 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Covington, a town of Genesee county, New York, has a soil of ordinary 
 quality, well watered. Population, two thousand seven hundred and six- 
 teen. 
 
 Dayton, chief town of Montgomery county, Ohio, is situated on the left 
 bank of Great Miami river, near the point where it is met by the canal. 
 It is a flourishing place, with many mills and factories. Population about 
 three thousand. 
 
 Detroit, the capital of Michigan territory, is situated on the bank of the 
 river of the same name. During the French jurisdiction, it was the 
 farthest post on the lakes except Macinac. Since 1815, this town has 
 rapidly improved ; before, it was small and of no importance except in a 
 military view. It is famous for the siege here sustained by Major Gladwyn 
 against the united tribes of Indians under Pontiac, and for its surrender to 
 the British forces in the year 1812, by General Hull. The- ground plan of 
 the city of Detroit is laid out like that of Washington, and the buildings 
 are very much scattered. The jail, state house, and two churches, consti- 
 tute the chief public buildings. The Erie canal has done much to increase 
 the prosperity of this town, and the Ohio canal will give it an additional 
 impulse. Population about two thousand five hundred. 
 
 The streets of Detroit are generally crowded with Indians of one tribe 
 or other, who collect here to sell their skins ; at night, all those who are 
 not admitted into private houses, and remain there quietly, are turned out 
 of the town, and the gates shut upon them. The French inhabitants em- 
 ployed upon the lakes and rivers are very dexterous watermen, and will 
 navigate a small bark in a rough sea with incredible skill. They have 
 nothing like enterprise in business, and are very fond of music, dancing, 
 and smoking tobacco ; the women have generally lively and expressive 
 countenances. 
 
 The fort stands on a low ridge, in the rear of the town, at the distance 
 of about two hundred yards. From the summit of this ridge, the country 
 gradually subsides to a low swampy plain, from five to nine miles across, 
 covered with thick groves of young timber. Beyond this plain commences 
 a surface moderately hilly. 
 
 Dover, a town of Kent county, Delawai*e, and capital of the state. It is 
 handsomely laid out and built on a small stream that runs into the Dela- 
 ware. The houses are mostly of brick, and in the centre of the town is a 
 spacious square surrounded by the public buildings. 
 
 Dover, a town of Strafford county, New Hampshire, is situated on the 
 falls of the Cocheco, a stream running into the Piscataqua. The falls have 
 several pitches, one of which is forty feet perpendicular, affording a vast 
 water power, which has been applied to manufacturing purposes. This 
 town was settled in 1623, and is the oldest in the state. The greater part 
 of the timber exported from New Hampshire is brought to Dover. Popu- 
 lation, five thousand four hundred and forty-nine. 
 
 Easton, a town of Northampton county, Pennsylvania, situated on the 
 Delaware, at the mouth of the Lehigh, is a handsome town, regularly laid 
 out with a large square in the centre. The union of three canals at this 
 point, gives it vast facilities for trade. The scenery of the neighborhood is 
 remarkably picturesque. The town is laid out at right angles. Popula- 
 tion, three thousand six hundred. 
 
 Eastport, a town of Washington county, Maine, and the most eastern 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 293 
 
 point of the United States. It is situated on Moose island in Passama- 
 quoddy bay, and is favorably situated for an extensive traffic up the Passa- 
 maquoddy and the other rivers falling into the bay of Fundy. The prin- 
 cipal business is afforded by the fisheries and the lumber trade. Popula- 
 tion, two thousand five hundred. 
 
 Economy, a beautiful village of Beaver county, Pennsylvania, on the 
 Ohio, a few miles below Pittsburg. It is inhabited solely by the sect of 
 
 Economy. 
 
 Harmonists, under the celebrated Rapp. The village is regularly built, 
 and the streets are laid out at right angles. Industry is the characteristic 
 of the inhabitants, who are of German origin. The property purports to 
 be held in common, though it has been stated that the legal tenure of it is 
 in the hands of the principal. The grape is extensively cultivated here ; 
 a thriving trade is carried on with the neighboring country, and the estab- 
 lishment is in a thriving condition. Population, eight hundred. 
 
 Elizabethtown, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, situated on a creek 
 of Newark bay, was originally settled by emigrants from Connecticut. It 
 has some good gardens, and supplies many agricultural products for the 
 New York market. Population, three thousand four hundred and forty- 
 five. 
 
 Exeter, a town of Rockingham county, New Hampshire, fourteen miles 
 south-west from Portsmouth, is situated at the head of the navigation on 
 Swamscot river, a branch of the Piscataqua. Formerly, ship-building was 
 carried on here to a great extent, and the vessels were employed in the 
 West Indian trade; at present, this business is much decreased, but several 
 manufactories have been established. Here is a celebrated academy, incor- 
 porated in 1781. Population, two thousand seven hundred and fifty-three. 
 
 Fayetteville, a village of Cumberland county, North Carolina, is situat- 
 ed at the head of uninterrupted boat navigation on Cape Fear river. In 
 1831, it was desolated by a destructive fire ; but it is rapidly regaining its 
 former flourishing condition. Population, two thousand eight hundred and 
 sixty-eight. 
 
 Frankfort, the metropolis of Kentucky, and chief town of Franklin 
 
 25* 
 
294 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 county, stands on the east bank of Kentucky river, sixty miles above its 
 entrance into the Ohio. The river, which is here about one hundred yards 
 wide, with bold limestone banks, forms a handsome curve, and waters the 
 southern and western parts of the town. The bottoms on both sides of 
 the river are very broad, but subject to inundation. Frankfort is about 
 sixty-two miles from Louisville. Population, one thousand nine hundred. 
 
 Fredericksburg, a port of entry, and chief town of Spottsylvania county 
 Virginia, situated on the right bank of the Rappahanoc river, is a flourish- 
 ing place. It stands at the head of tide water. Population, three thousand 
 three hundred and eight. 
 
 Fredericktown, in Frederick county, Maryland, is situated forty-seven 
 miles from Baltimore, on the Pittsburg road, and is a flourishing place, 
 carrying on considerable manufactures, and a brisk inland trade through a 
 fertile and well-cultivated country. It is the second town in the state, and 
 increases with rapidity. Population, seven thousand two hundred and fifty- 
 five. 
 
 Galena, a village in Illinois, the centre of a celebrated lead-mining dis- 
 trict, from which it takes its name. It is situated on Fever river, five miles 
 before it empties into the Mississippi. 
 
 Gardiner, a flourishing town in Kennebec county, Maine, on the west 
 bank of the Kennebec river. It has a considerable trade in lumber, and 
 in manufactures of cotton and iron, and many very valuable mills. In this 
 
 Church in Gardiner. 
 
 town is a Gothic church, built of granite, and considered the finest 
 specimen of architecture in the state. Population, three thousand seven 
 hundred and nine. 
 
 Georgetown, city of the district of Columbia, and separated from Wash- 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 295 
 
 mgton only by a small creek, is finely situated on a series of heights at a 
 bend of the Potomac. It is well laid out, and contains some good private 
 residences. The Catholic college is an ancient pile of building, with a 
 large library, and some good paintings. The Chesapeak and Ohio canal 
 passes through this town. Tobacco and flour are exported in considerable 
 quantities. Population, eight thousand four hundred and forty-one. 
 
 Gloucester , a seaport of Massachusetts, in Essex county, and on the 
 peninsula of cape Ann, is one of the most considerable fishing towns in 
 the country. The harbor, which is defended by a battery and forts, is 
 accessible for large ships. This town suffered severely from fire a few 
 years ago ; but the damage has been nearly repaired. Population, seven 
 thousand five hundred and thirteen. 
 
 Hagerstown, in Washington county, Maryland, is a well-built and flour- 
 ishing place, surrounded by a fertile country. It is a handsome town, and 
 the houses are generally of stone or brick. Population, three thousand 
 four hundred. 
 
 Hallowell, in Kennebec county, Maine, is one of the most flourishing 
 and wealthy towns in the state. The river is navigable to this place for 
 vessels of one hundred and fifty tons. Hallowell granite is extensively 
 quarried and wrought, and is much esteemed. The commerce of the place 
 is considerable, confined chiefly to the lumber trade. Population, three 
 thousand nine hundred and sixty-four. 
 
 Hanover, in Grafton county, New Hampshire, situated on the Connect- 
 icut, is a pleasant village, and the seat of Dartmouth college, which was 
 
 Dartmouth College. 
 
 established in 1771. It received its name from one of its principal bene- 
 factors, the earl of Dartmouth. This town is crossed from north to south 
 by Moose mountain. Population, two thousand three hundred and sixty- 
 one. 
 
 Harrisburg, the seat of government of the state of Pennsylvania, is in 
 Dauphin county, and situated on the eastern bank of the Susquehanna, 
 nmety-six miles from Philadelphia. It is regularly built, and has a hand- 
 some state house, and other public edifices. A" bridge here crosses the 
 Susquehanna. Population, four thousand three hundred and eleven. 
 
29G 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Hartford, city, the capital of Hartford county, and, jointly with New- 
 Haven, the seat of government of Connecticut. It stands on the western 
 bank of the Connecticut, at the head of sloop navigation. It is handsome- 
 ly built, and contains many fine public edifices, among which are a Gothic 
 church, much admired for its architecture; a state house, a deaf and dumb 
 asylum, a retreat for the insane, and a seminary called Washington col- 
 lege. This institution was founded in 1826. Hartford enjoys a conside- 
 rable commerce with Boston, New York, and the southern cities. The 
 
 Hartford, Conn. 
 
 bookselling trade is carried on here extensively, and there is much in- 
 land traffic with the towns on the Connecticut, and in the neighborhood. 
 On the opposite bank of the river is East Hartford, which is connected 
 with the city by a bridge. The inhabitants point out to the stranger an 
 t oak tree in the southern part of the city, which bears the name of 
 ' barter Oak, and is interesting on account of its connection with our 
 v. Population, nine thousand eight hundred. 
 Haverhill, in Essex county, Massachusetts, on the Merrimack, twelve 
 miles above Newburyport. Population, three thousand nine hundred and 
 twelve. This is a pleasantly situated town, and has considerable ship- 
 building and trade by the river. It was settled in 1640, and suffered 
 much in the early Indian wars. In 1698, the Indians attacked and set fire 
 to tin' town. 
 
 Ison, a city of New York, in Columbia county, with considerable 
 
 ing bu mess. The streets are spacious, and cross each other 
 
 and the houses are supplied with water brought in pipes 
 
 a spring two miles distant. The trade is considerable, and vessels 
 
 (][ tl " i ze can unload here. It is seated on an eminence, on the 
 
 I' oi Hudson river. It is twenty-eight miles south of Albany. 
 
 Population, live thousand three hundred and ninety-two. 
 
 Indianapolis, capital of Indiana, situated in Marion county, on the west 
 bank of White river, in the centre of one of the most extensive and fer- 
 tile bodies of land in the world, though recently settled, promises to be 
 one of the largest towns between Cincinnati and the Mississippi. The 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 297 
 
 country about it is said by Mr. Flint to be settling with unexampled rapidi- 
 tv. Population, twelve hundred. 
 
 " Jameston, an ancient town in James City county, Virginia, the first En- 
 glish settlement in the states, was established in 1608. It stands on an 
 island in James river, thirty-two miles above its mouth. It is now in 
 ruins, and almost desolate. Two or three old houses, the ruins of an old 
 steeple, a church-yard, and faint traces of rude fortifications, are the only 
 memorials of its former importance. 
 
 Jefferson City, seat of justice for Cole county, Missouri, and capital of 
 the state, is situated on the right bank of Missouri river, about nine miles 
 above the mouth of the Osage. It is a new town, containing two hundred 
 houses and twelve hundred inhabitants, and, after Little Rock in Arkansas, 
 is the most western state capital of the United States. 
 
 Kashaskia, an ancient village of Illinois, and seat of justice for Randolph 
 county, is situated on Kaskaskia river, eleven miles from its mouth. It 
 was one of the earliest French settlements in the Mississippi, and once 
 contained seven thousand inhabitants ; it is now very much reduced, num- 
 bering only one thousand. The situation of this town is represented as 
 very beautiful. 
 
 Kennebunk, a town of York county, Maine, at the mouth of a river of 
 the same name, has considerable lumber trade. The principal harbor is 
 obstructed by a sandbar, and in 1S20 an appropriation was made by Con- 
 gress to build a pier at the mouth of the river. Population, two thousand 
 two hundred and thirty-three. 
 
 Knoxville, the chief town of East Tennessee, is situated one hundred 
 and eighty miles from Nashville, on the north side of Holston river, where 
 it is three hundred yards wide ; on a beautiful spot of ground, twenty-two 
 miles above the junction of the Holston with the Tennessee. The college 
 of this town is one of the oldest seminaries in the state. Population, three 
 thousand. 
 
 Lancaster, a handsome town of Pennsylvania, and capital of a county 
 of the same name. It is a pleasant and flourishing place, situate in a fer- 
 tile and well-cultivated country, and contains a court house, a jail, two 
 banks, and nine places of worship. A college was founded here in 1787 ; 
 but the buildings are now appropriated to schools. Here are manufactures 
 of guns and other hardware ; and about a mile distant is a large cotton 
 manufactory. The town has considerable trade, which increases with the 
 surrounding country. It is seated near Conestoga creek, which runs into 
 the Susquehanna, sixty-one miles west by north of Philadelphia*. Popu- 
 lation, seven thousand seven hundred and four. 
 
 Lancaster, oldest town in Worcester county, Massachusetts, finely situ- 
 ated on both sides of the Nashua, has manufactories of combs and cotton, 
 and an extensive engraving and stereotyping establishment. In beauty of 
 scenery the neighborhood is surpassed by that of few towns in New Eng- 
 land. Population, two thousand and fourteen. 
 
 Lansinburg, a town of Rensselaer county, New York, is principally built 
 on a single street parallel with the river. A high hill rises abruptly be- 
 hind the town, on which is seen the celebrated diamond rock, emitting a 
 brilliant lustre in the rays of the sun. Population, two thousand six hun- 
 dred and sixty-three. 
 
 Lexington, a town of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, will ever be 
 3S 
 
298 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 memorable in American ni&tory, for the early revolutionary struggles. The 
 first battle was fought here between the British troops and the Americans 
 on the nineteenth of April, 1775. A monument has been erected on the 
 green at Lexington in commemoration of this event. 
 
 3 Lexington, capital of Fayette county, Kentucky, is the oldest town in 
 the state, and was for many years the seat of government. It stands in a 
 beautiful' spot, on a branch of the Elkhorn river, in the centre of the rich- 
 est tract in the state. The principal street is a mile and a quarter in 
 length, spacious and well paved. The buildings are much superior in size 
 and elegance to those of the other towns in the state, and may be com- 
 pared to those of the Atlantic country. The Transylvania university is 
 established here. The public inns are large and convenient. The town 
 has manufactories of woolen, cotton, and paper. The general appearance 
 of the town is neat, and the neighborhood is adorned with many handsome 
 villus, and finely ornamented rural mansions. Population, six thousand 
 one hundred and four. 
 
 Litchfield, capital of Litchfield county, Connecticut, is situated on an 
 elevated plain, in the midst of a fertile and hilly country. It contains nu- 
 merous mills and manufactories. A law school was established here in 
 1782, by Judge Reeve, which has been for many years highly celebrated. 
 Population, four thousand five hundred. 
 
 Little Rock, the seat of government of Arkansas territory, is situated 
 on a high bluff on the south bank of the river Arkansas, and derives its 
 name from the high masses of rock above it. It was laid out in 1820. 
 
 Lockport, a town of Niagara county, New York, on the Erie canal. 
 Here are the most remarkable works on the canal, consisting of ten locks, 
 overcoming an ascent of sixty feet. Besides these, there is an excavation 
 through the mountain ridge, for three miles, cut in the rock. The town 
 is a place of considerable trade. Population, three thousand eight hundred 
 and twenty-three. 
 
 Louisville, a city of Jefferson county, Kentucky, on a plain elevated 
 about seventy feet above the level of the Ohio, opposite to the rapids or 
 falls, is a handsome town, and the largest in the state. Eight broad and 
 straight streets run parallel with the river, and command a pleasant view 
 of the opposite shore. They are paved with blocks of limestone ; the 
 houses are built chiefly of brick. This is the most commercial city of the 
 west, commanding the trade of a great extent of country. Manufactures 
 are yet in their infancy. The Louisville and Portland canal passes 
 through this town, round the falls; it is about two miles in length, and cut 
 through a limestone rock. It admits the passage of the largest steamboats, 
 and thus opens a line of free navigation from Pittsburg to the sea. This 
 canal was finished in 1831. It has been estimated that seventy-five thou- 
 sand travellers pass through Louisville annually. The resident population 
 is about fourteen thousand. 
 
 Lowell, a town of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, situated at the 
 junction of the Concord and Merrimack rivers, is celebrated for its exten- 
 sive manufacturing establishments, and for its rapid increase. It was in- 
 corporated in 1826. In 1S31, the quantity of cotton manufactured here 
 was estimated at five million one hundred thousand pounds. The water 
 power is held and managed by a company possessing a great amount of 
 real estate, and a capital of six hundred thousand dollars. A rail-road 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 299 
 
 from Boston to Lowell is in rapid progress. The two largest companies 
 are the Merrimack, with a capital of a million and a half; and the Law- 
 rence, with a capital of one million two hundred thousand dollars. Popu- 
 lation about seven thousand five hundred. 
 
 Lynchburg, a town of Columbia county, Virginia, is one of the most 
 flourishing and commercial towns in the state. It has several tobacco 
 warehouses and factories, cotton and woolen manufactories, and in the 
 vicinity are extensive flour mills. The surrounding country is rugged and 
 mountainous. Lynchburg was established in 1786. Population, four 
 thousand six hundred and twenty-six. 
 
 Lynn, a town of Essex county, Massachusetts, is noted for its extensive 
 manufacture of shoes. About a million and a half pair of women's 
 shoes are made here every year. There is a mineral spring in this town, 
 with a hotel in its neighborhood. Population, six thousand one hundred 
 and thirty-eight. 
 
 Machias, on the bay of that name, in Washington county, Maine, con- 
 sists of two villages, one at the falls at the east branch of Machias river, 
 and the other at the falls of the west branch, six and ■ a half miles apart, 
 each containing a post office. The village at the east falls is at the head of 
 the tide, two miles above the junction of the branches, and contains 
 various mills. The village at the west falls, contains the court house, jail, 
 and various mills ; there are many saw mills in this town, which cut up- 
 wards of ten million feet of boards in a year. The tonnage of the ship- 
 ping in 1827 amounted to five thousand two hundred and thirty-six ; much 
 of this is employed in the transportation of plaster from the British terri- 
 tory adjacent to Passamaquoddy bay. Population, two thousand seven 
 hundred and seventy-five. 
 
 Marblehead, a town of Essex county, Massachusetts, situated on a 
 peninsula projecting into Massachusetts bay. It is compactly, though 
 irregularly built ; it was settled soon after Salem, and has been very flour- 
 ishing and opulent. It suffered severely during the revolution and the 
 last war. In the fishing business it lias greatly excelled all other towns in 
 the United States. Population in 1810, five thousand eight hundred ; in 
 1830, five thousand one hundred and fifty. 
 
 Marietta, in Washington county, Ohio, is finely situated near the mouth 
 of Muskingum river, in the centre of a fertile neighborhood. It was one 
 of the earliest settlements of the state ; but it has suffered severely from 
 sickness and inundations of the river. Ship-building was formerly car- 
 ried on here, but has been discontinued. The inhabitants are noted for 
 industry and sobriety. Population, one thousand nine hundred and four- 
 teen. 
 
 Maysville, in Mason county, Kentucky, on the Ohio, stands on a narrow 
 bottom below the mouth of Limestone creek, and has considerable trade 
 and manufactures. It is the principal commercial depot for the north-east 
 portions of the state. It is a very busy and flourishing town. Population, 
 about four thousand. 
 
 Middlebury, in Addison county, Vermont, situated on Otter creek, has 
 a college, two academies, several churches, and manufactures of cotton, 
 iron, and marble. A quarry of fine marble was discovered here in 1804, 
 and is now wrought for a variety of purposes. Population, three thousand 
 four hundred and sixty-eight. 
 
300 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Middletoivn, a city of Middlesex county, Connecticut, on the west bank 
 of the Connecticut river, and thirty-four miles from its mouth, is a plea- 
 sant place, and has considerable trade and manufactures. In 1816, it 
 owned a larger shipping than any other town in the state. In the neigh- 
 borhood is a lead mine, which was wrought during the war. A college, 
 under the name of the Wesleyan University, was opened in this city in 
 Is;! I. Population, six thousand nine hundred. 
 
 MUledgeville, capital of Baldwin county, Georgia, and metropolis of the 
 state, is situated on the west bank of the Oconee, eighty-seven miles south- 
 west of Augusta. It is a depot of cotton for the Savannah and Darien 
 markets. It contains several public buildings, and has four weekly papers. 
 Population about two thousand. 
 
 Mobile, a city of Mobile county, Alabama, on the west side of Mobile 
 river, at iis entrance into the bay. When this town came into the posses- 
 sion of the United States, in 1813, it contained about three hundred inha- 
 bitants; it now numbers between three and four thousand. It is pleasant- 
 ly situated on a spot elevated above the overflow of the river ; but the ad- 
 jacent country is a marsh or a forest. Fire and the yellow fever have 
 committed great ravages here ; but trade has increased rapidly, and in the 
 cotton business Mobile is inferior only to Charleston and New Orleans. 
 
 Muntpelier, shire town of Washington county, Vermont, and seat of 
 government, is situated on the north bank of Onion river, about ten miles 
 north-east of the centre of the state, and is a great thoroughfare for travel- 
 lers. It was incorporated in 1818, contains a number of public buildings 
 and good seats for manufactories. Population, three thousand. 
 
 Nantucket, a town of Massachusetts, of the same extent with the island 
 and county of that name, contains seven houses of public worship, two 
 banks, and two insurance offices. It was formerly called Sherburne. The 
 trade suffered greatly during the late war and the revolution, but has since 
 been more flourishing. There are extensive spermaceti works here. Edu- 
 cation is well attended to, and the people, who are chiefly Friends or 
 Quakers, arc generally moral and industrious. Population, seven thousand 
 two hundred and two. 
 
 Nashville, capital of Davidson county, and scat of government of Ten- 
 nessee, is regularly built, pleasantly situated on the south side of Cumber- 
 land river, and is much the largest town in the state. It is a rich and 
 flourishing place. Steamboats from New Orleans ascend the river to this 
 point. The slate penitentiary, a line stone building, is here erected. The 
 University of Nashville was incorporated in 1806, and is now in a very 
 prosperous condition. Population, five thousand six hundred. 
 
 chez, a city of .Mississippi, and much the largest town of the state, 
 Stands oh a bluff, upwards of one hundred and fifty feet above the surface 
 of the river. The houses have an air of neatness, though few are distin- 
 guished for elegance or size. To enable the inhabitants to enjoy the 
 evening air, almost every house has a piazza and balcony. The soil of 
 the adjoining country is rich, and vegetation of most kinds attains to un- 
 common luxuriance ; the gardens are ornamented with orange trees, figs, 
 plums, peaches, and grape-vines. Natchez is the principal town in this 
 region for the shipment of cotton to New Orleans, and at the business 
 is the streets are almost barricadoed with bales. In this place is the 
 Planters' bank, with a capital of three millions. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 301 
 
 The reputation of Natchez in regard to morals seems to be rather at a 
 discount. The lower town is said to have a worse character than any 
 place on the river; and, particularly in the spring, to ttion 
 
 of the most abandoned and desperate. The following picture by a recent 
 traveller is probably overcharged : 'In the evening, a steamer stops at 
 Natchez to land or take in goods, the passengers obs< everal houses 
 
 lighted up, and hear the sounds of fiddles and merriment, and they run up 
 to see what is going on ; they find men and won ng, gambling 
 
 and drinking ; the bell of th< »at rings to announce that she is about 
 
 to continue her voyage, the lights in the houses of entertainment are im- 
 mediately extinguished, and the pas run out, afraid of being too 
 late for the boat, and run down toward the landing ; ropes are drawn across 
 the road, the passengers fall heels over head, a number of stout ruffians 
 throw themselves upon them, and strip them of their money and watches, 
 and^hey get on board in doleful plight, and of course never see or hear 
 more of their plunderers!' Population, three thousand. 
 
 Natchitoches, commonly pronounced Nackitosh, a town of Louisiana, is 
 beautifully situated on the south-west bank of Red river, at the head of 
 steamboat navigation. The trade between Louisiana and the Mexican 
 states centres here, and it mu ;ally become a place of great size and 
 
 importance. This town was established inure than a hundred years ago, 
 and its population is a mixture of Americans, French, Spaniards, and In- 
 dians. 
 
 New Albany, in Floyd county, Indiana, is an industrious and flourishing 
 village, with a ship-yard for building steamboats. During the summer, 
 many steamboats are laid up here to be repaired. Population, one thou- 
 sand nine hundred. 
 
 Newark, capital of Essex county. New Jersey, is handsomely built, and 
 finely situated on the west side of Passaic river. It is orx- of the most 
 beautiful towns in the country. It has extensive manufactures of si 
 leather, coaches, and cabinet work. Morris canal passes through this 
 town. Population, eleven thousand. 
 
 New Bedford, port of entry in Bristol county, Massachusetts, stands on an 
 arm of Buzzard's bay, about fifty-two miles south of Boston. ' We entered 
 New Bedford,' says a recent tourist, ' through Fairhaven, by way of the 
 ferry. From Fairhaven the town shows to better effect than from any 
 other point. A stranger, perhaps, might be surprised at the great apparent 
 extent of New Bedford as seen from this place. Passing through the 
 villa of Fairhaven (a place of no inconsiderable size by the by.) it opens 
 before him, with its spires, its shipping and buildings, like a beautiful 
 panoramic painting of some great city. It appears much larger, however, 
 than it is. Its population is ten thousand. Its commerce is principally 
 in the whale fishery, employing one hundred and fifty whale ships. 
 The " county road" displays many elegant mansions, the dwellings of some 
 of the more wealthy inhabitants. New Bedford is considered a very 
 wealthy place, and the inhabitants active and enterprising. A large pro- 
 portion of them are Quakers.' 
 
 Newbern, in Craven county, North Carolina, was once the capital, and 
 is still the largest town of the state. It is situated on the Neuse, thirty 
 miles above its entrance into Pamlico sound. The river is navigable to 
 
 26 
 
302 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 this place, and its commerce is considerable. Population, three thousand 
 eight hundred. 
 
 New Brunswick, a city of New Jersey, partly in Middlesex and partly 
 in Somerset county, on the south-west side of Raritan river, is built on a 
 low but healthy situation, and has considerable trade. Besides the other 
 public institutions usually found in towns of similar size, this has a theo- 
 i! seminary, and a "college; both established by the Dutch Reformed 
 Church. Population, seven thousand eight hundred and thirty-one. 
 
 Newburgh, a port of entry in Orange county, New York, is a well-built 
 village, pleasantly situated on the west bank of the Hudson, commanding 
 a delightful view of the river and the highlands. The principal streets are 
 
 Newburgh. 
 
 paved. A considerable amount of shipping is owned in this village ; agri- 
 culture and manufactures are also extremely flourishing. Population, six 
 thousand five hundred. 
 
 _ Neivburyport, in Essex county, Massachusetts, at the mouth of the Mer- 
 rimack, is remarkable for the beauty of its situation, and the regularity of 
 its streets. It stands upon a gentle declivity sloping down to the river ; 
 the streets are generally straight and at right angles, and the town lies 
 the bank of the river for about a mile. The principal streets pass 
 through the whole width of the town, from the summit of the declivity to 
 the river. The buildings are generally handsome, and the streets clean. 
 I < w towns in the United States surpass Newburyport in beauty. It was 
 desolated by a fire, which broke out on the night of May 31, 1811, and 
 destroyed nearly three hundred buildings. the place has never re- 
 covered from the effects of this calamity ; at the present day, the traveller 
 is struck with the view of a wide heap of grass-grown ruins, in the heart 
 of a populous town. 
 
 The harbor of this place is good, but obstructed at the entrance by a 
 dangerous bar ; attempts are now making to improve it by a break-water 
 on the south side of the channel. The mercantile enterprise of the place 
 has latterly been diverted from commerce to the fisheries. Ship-building 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 303 
 
 is carried on to a considerable extent, and a manufactory of hosiery has 
 been established in the place. This town has seven churches, two 
 banks, two insurance offices, and two newspapers. A handsome chain 
 bridge crosses the river from the centre of the town. The celebrated 
 preacher, George Whitefield, died in this town in 1760, and is now en- 
 tombed in the Presbyterian church in Federal street, where an elegant 
 monument has been erected recently to his memory. Population, six thou- 
 sand three hundred and eighty-eight. 
 
 New Castle, seat of justice of the county of the same name, in Delaware, 
 and formerly capital of the state. The village extends lengthwise along 
 the Delaware river, on a rising plain, and is tolerably compact and well 
 built. It once enjoyed considerable trade. Population, two thousand four 
 hundred and sixty-three. 
 
 New Harmony, or Harmony, a town in Posey county, in the south- 
 western part of Indiana, on the Wabash, formerly the seat of the Harmo- 
 nists, under the German, Rapp, and more recently of the followers of 
 Owen, of Lanark. The former establishment was removed to Economy, 
 and the latter abandoned. 
 
 New Haven, a city and seaport of Connecticut, in New Haven county, lies 
 at the head of a bay that runs out of Long Island Sound, and is situated 
 on a beautiful plain, bordered on the north by bold and perpendicular emi- 
 nences. It is regularly laid out and consists of two parts, the old and 
 new town. The old town is divided into squares of different extents. 
 
 New Haven. 
 
 The public buildings of the city are handsome and well situated. The 
 state house is a fine edifice, on the model of the Parthenon. Several of 
 the churches have a commanding appearance ; two of them are of Gothic 
 architecture, and built of stone. Private dwelling-houses are mostly of 
 wood, handsome and convenient. The public square and principal streets 
 are finely ornamented with trees; and beautiful gardens attached to many 
 of the residences, give the town a rural and delightful appearance. 
 
 The harbor of New Haven is shallow, and gradually filling with mud ; 
 
304 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 but it is well defended from winds, and the maritime commerce of the 
 port is greater than that of any other town in Connecticut. Its interior 
 trade is assisted by the Farmington canal. Packets and steamboats ply 
 regularly and frequently- between this port and New York. The Indian 
 name of this town was Quinipiack. It was first settled by the English in 
 163S, and was the capital of the colony of New Haven, which remained 
 distinct from that of Connecticut till 1665. The state legislature meets 
 here and at Hartford alternately. Yale College, one of the most distin- 
 guished literary institutions in America, is established in this city; connect- 
 ed with this are a theological, a medical, and a laAV school. Many acade- 
 mies and smaller seminaries are also established here. Population, about 
 eleven thousand. 
 
 New London, a city of New London county, Connecticut, in the south- 
 eastern part of the state, has a fine harbor near the mouth of the Thames. 
 It is irregularly built, principally at the foot of a hill facing the east. There 
 are many pleasant sites in the higher parts of the town, and several of the 
 buildings are handsome; but the general appearance of the place is not 
 flourishing. The neighboring region is rocky and sterile, and there are no 
 great channels of communication with the interior. The recent attention 
 of the merchants to the whale fisheries has given a considerable impulse 
 to the place, and promises to restore it to its former importance as a com- 
 mercial city. Fort Trumbull is situated at the south of the town, and to 
 the east, on the opposite side of the river, are the remains of Fort Gris- 
 wohl, which, during the revolution, was the scene of a well-remembered 
 and fearful tragedy. Population, four thousand three hundred and fifty- 
 six. 
 
 New Madrid, now an insignificant village, though historically interest- 
 ing, is situated on the west bank of the Mississippi, eighty-one miles be- 
 low the mouth of the Ohio. This town was founded in 1787, and was 
 intended to become a great commercial city, and the emporium of the vast 
 tract of fertile country watered by the Mississippi, the Missouri, and 
 t|i' r branches. It was indeed happily situated for the purpose; but 
 the river has swept away the ground on which it was originally placed, 
 and the earthquakes of 1812 have sunk the remainder of the bluff below 
 high-water mark. It is impossible to visit this spot, knowing any thing 
 ol its hi tory, and not be struck with the air of desolation it now breathes. 
 There was a fine lake in the rear of the town, on the banks of which pub- 
 lic walks and plantations of tr ies were planned for the accommodation of 
 its inhabitants ; this is now a heap of sand. As the earthquakes are occa- 
 sionally recurring in this neighborhood, even to the present time, people 
 have been cautious in respect to settling here; but as they are becoming 
 more assured, New Madrid is gradually emerging from her prostration. 
 
 New Orleans, the capital of the state of Louisiana, is situated directly 
 ! sippi, one hundred and five miles from the 
 o the river. In the year 1717, this city was founded; and at that 
 not, perhaps, live hundred white inhabitants in the 
 wi, " |( ; lhl ' Mississippi; In the beginning of 17SS, the town con- 
 
 i tmed one thousand one hundred houses, built of wood; in March of that 
 year, by a fire, the number of houses was reduced in five hours to two hun- 
 dred. It has been rebuilt principally of brick, which is of so soft a nature, that 
 the buildings are plastered on the outside with a thick coat of mortar, and 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 305 
 
 then painted or whitewashed. Several warehouses with stone fronts have 
 been recently erected. The city is regularly laid out, and the streets are 
 generally forty feet wide, crossing each other at right angles. The public 
 buildings are generally elegant, commodious and expensive. There are 
 few churches. The Catholic cathedral is a noble edifice, ninety feet by 
 one hundred and twenty, with four towers. The Place ties amies is a 
 beautiful green, which serves as a parade. Most of the houses in the 
 suburbs have fine gardens, ornamented with orange groves. The general 
 style of living is luxurious, and the private dwellings are elegantly fur- 
 nished. The markets are plentifully supplied with the necessaries of life, 
 and the luxuries of every country ; but provisions are dear. 
 
 New Orleans will become to the United States the great emporium of 
 commerce and wealth, if, by the draining of the marshy country in the 
 neighborhood, it ever becomes a healthy city. The more we contemplate 
 the present and prospective resourses of New Orleans, the more must we be 
 convinced of its future greatness. Being built in the form of a crescent, 
 the curve of the river constitutes a safe and commodious harbor. Defend- 
 ed on one side by the river, and on the other by a swamp that no effort 
 can penetrate, the city can only be approached through a defile three quar- 
 ters of a mile wide. 
 
 New Orleans is gradually becoming more purely American in all its 
 characteristics; but many of its inhabitants are of French and Spanish 
 descent, and the French language is more commonly spoken than the 
 English. The charitable institutions of the city are highly creditable. 
 Education is not so much attended to as in other parts of the country; but 
 great improvements have been made in this respect within a few years. 
 The police is efficient, and scenes of disorder rarely occur. 
 
 This city is the grand commercial metropolis of the Mississippi valley. 
 The tributaries of the great river on which it stands afford an extent of 
 more than twenty thousand miles, already navigated by steamboats, and 
 passing through the richest soil and the pleasantest climates. Steamboats 
 are departing and arriving every hour, and fifty or sixty are often seen in 
 the harbor at one time ; while many hundreds of flat boats are seen at the 
 levee, laden with the various productions of the great valley. Measures 
 have been adopted by the state legislature to have the neighboring country 
 ivell explored, for the purpose of draining, raising, and improving it.* 1 
 The streets of the city have been paved, and gutters are washed by water 
 
 * Though New Orleans is rapidly increasing in size and commercial importance, as 
 the emporium of the rich valley of the Mississippi must necessarily continue to do, 
 yet no improvement has taken place in the climate and in the salubrity of the atmos- 
 phere, and even acclimated whites are afraid to remain when a greenish scum of vege- 
 table matter begins to appear on the shallow pools in August. It is distressing to 
 record the fact, that, on an average, six hundred Irish perish yearly in and about New 
 Orleans, who come in search of employment, and high wages, (a dollar a day), from 
 New York and Charleston, to the ungenial clime of Louisiana. They are commonly 
 employed trenching in the country, and digging the foundation of houses in towns, 
 inhale deadly vapors, and more deadly rum, have none to advise or guide them, and 
 perish miserably. 
 
 It may not be intrusive to state, in this place, the precautions I took to guard against 
 the formidable malady. I slept in an upper story, performed my ablutions as regularly 
 as a Hindoo, ate animal food only once a day, and in small quantities, (farinaceous 
 substances form the natural food of men,) drank no spirits, but two or three glasses of 
 wine per day, took three or four hours' active exercise, kept the mind employed, took 
 39 26* 
 
306 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 from the river. If by these, or other means, it be rendered healthy, New 
 Orleans will probably become the largest city of America. 
 
 Neioport, a seaport and semi-metropolis of Rhode Island, is pleasantly 
 situated on the south-west end of the island of Rhode Island, thirty miles 
 
 once or twice a little precautionary quinine, and avoided the night air, which crept 
 insidiously through the dull streets loaded with pestilential effluvia from the slimy banks 
 of the river, and from the creeks of cypress swamps, the haunts of loathsome alliga- 
 tors and snakes. 
 
 On the first of September, the thermometer at eight, P. M. was about eighty -four de- 
 grees, without a breath of air, but myriads of mammoth musquetoes. 
 
 New Orleans is called the ' wet grave,' because, in digging ' the narrow house,' 
 water rises within eighteen inches of the surface. Coffins are therefore sunk three or 
 four feet, by having holes bored in them, and two black men stand on them till they 
 fill with water, and reach the bottom of the moist tomb. Some people are particular, 
 and dislike this immersion after death ; and, therefore, those who can afford it have a 
 sort of brick oven built on the surface of the ground, at one end of which the coffin is 
 introduced, and the door hermetically closed; but the heat of the southern sun on this 
 ' whited sepulchre,' must bake the body inside, so that there is but a choice of disagree- 
 ables after all. The plan on which penitentiaries are built, has suggested to the Louisi- 
 anians a new plan for interment : a broad brick wall is built with rows of cells on each 
 side, and in these the dead are laid to wait for the awful blast of the angel Gabriel, when 
 the dead shall burst the cerements of the tomb, and come forth to judgment. 
 
 Though it was the season of disease and death, yet the gamblers still continued to 
 reap their harvest in the city. Night after night I was kept awake by the roulette table 
 in the neighboring house ; and it is said that a revenue of thirty-five thousand dollars 
 a year is derived by the city from licensed gambling houses, which sum supports an 
 hospital. Cock-fighting is a favorite amusement with both whites and colored, and 
 vice in every shape seems to hold high carnival in this city of the great valley. How- 
 ever, let no one judge of America from New Orleans, for it is altogether sui generis ; 
 and, above all, let no future traveller visit it in autumn, unless he wishes ' to shake off 
 this mortal coil,' and save the coroner some trouble. 
 
 The population of New Orleans was — 
 
 In 1802 10,000 
 
 <; 1810 17,242 
 
 " 1820 27,176 
 
 " 1831 50,000 
 
 This increase is quite astonishing, especially when we consider that the population 
 of the whole state of Louisiana under the French, in 1763, was only eleven thousand. 
 The whites are said to be at present two hundred and twenty thousand, and the slaves 
 about one hundred and nineteen thousand in the state. 
 
 In 1822, there were exported from the port of New Orleans, one hundred and sixty- 
 seven thousand seven hundred and forty-two bales of cotton ; and in this year, four 
 hundred and seventeen thousand four hundred and thirteen. In 1822, twenty-six thou- 
 sand two hundred and thirty-three hogsheads of tobacco ; and in this year, thirty-one 
 thousand nine hundred and thirty-three. Sugar and molasses, in 1829, fifty-six thou- 
 sand five hundred and sixty-six hogsheads, and two thousand five hundred and eleven 
 barrels of the former, and twenty thousand nine hundred and forty hogsheads, and 
 eight thousand two hundred and, forty-five barrels of the latter. This season, fifty-two 
 thousand one hundred and forty-two hogsheads, and two thousand six hundred and 
 fifty barrels of sugar ; and twenty-two thousand eight hundred and seventy-two hogs- 
 heads, and fourteen thousand seven hundred and ninety-four barrels of molasses. 
 Commerce will be facilil ited by another canal from the city to lake Pontchartrain, to 
 be commenced next year; and I travelled from the city to the lake, four miles on a 
 rail-road, on which there are now locomotive engines. The citizens seem determined 
 to avoid the one hundred and ten miles of river navigation. 
 
 At New Orleans, in the gay season, they have "very pleasant, though expensive 
 amusements, called < Bals de Bouquet,' given by the bachelors, but at the house of a 
 lady. The garcon who gives the dance, is distinguished by the title of king ; and his 
 first care, when invested with the sovereignty, at the beginning of the season, is to 
 select among the ladies of his acquaintance a queeu to share his power, which he ueU* 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 307 
 
 south of Providence. During the summer months it is a place of fashion- 
 able resort, being celebrated for the salubrity of its climate. It formerly 
 possessed considerable commerce, and contained more than nine thousand 
 
 __ . . - _— _— _— 
 
 Asylum at Newport. 
 
 inhabitants ; but during the revolution, it was a long time occupied by the 
 enemy, and suffered severely. The principal street is a mile in length ; 
 the houses have an antique appearance. The harbor is very safe, suffi- 
 
 gates by crowning his fair partner with a wreath of flowers. At her house, and in her 
 name, is the ball then given. After two or three quadrilles, the first queen rises from 
 her chair of state, and is conducted into the middle of the room by the king, when 
 gracefully raising a wreath of flowers, which she hears in her hand, she places it on 
 the brow of a future king, (another baehe' i I he. alter a low obei- 
 
 sance, having fixed upon his mate in like manner, adorns her with the regalia of the 
 bal de bouquet. The new queen then accepts thi arm of the king, the band 
 
 plays a march, and followed by the rest of the company, they polonoise round and 
 round the room. Paneins' in its various branches succeeds ; quadrilles, Anglaises 
 et Espagnoles are resumed with the greatest spirit,and continued until after day 
 breaks, when the first king and queen cease to reign 
 
 After an unusually hot and sultry day, the sun assuming ai the same time a green- 
 ish hue, and the streets in the evening, as 1 walked home i" my empty hotel, sending 
 forth a most disgusting emuvium ; in the middle of the night I was awoke by the noise 
 of the doors and windows violently agitated by the wind ; it increased to the hurricane 
 roar, lulled, and rose again, and blew with appalling force from the opposite point of 
 the compass, rain, at the same time, deluging the cfty. Thus it continued all next day : 
 the sea rushed into lake Pontchartrain ; behind the town it burst its bank's, and the city 
 was under water, the levee only being dry. There was no moving out of the house 
 for many hours, and this led me to believe that, one day this city, rapidly increasing 
 as it is in wealth and consequence, will be swept into the gulf of xMexico, if the Mis- 
 sissippi happens to rise unusually high at the annual inundation, and at the same time 
 the south-east wind raise the sea at its mouth and in the lakes. More vessels were 
 driven on shore in this hurricane ; the unburied dead were laid in their coffins in the 
 grave-yard, and floated about till the waters subsided to allow of their being buried — 
 the stench was horrible. Many houses were unroofed, and almost all damaged in some 
 way or other. Many lives were lost ; some boats and canoes upset in crossing the 
 river ; and, as usual (whether it proceed from the alligators or under current.) none who 
 fall into the Mississippi at New Orleans, are ever seen again ; and, lastly, the huts of 
 several fishermen w r ere swept off to sea, and the poor people miserably perished.' — 
 Alexander's Transatlantic Sketdies. 
 
? 
 
 
 ■• 
 
 sv. 
 
 ■ M 
 
 
' 
 
 
 --,_-- ~ il 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 ■ : -' 
 
 E 
 
 ■ 
 ' The ch 
 
 In the . 
 
 :d during the i 
 
 . 
 i.s a h . -.iari obeli 
 
 i to Tho... 
 
 
310 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and brother of the Irish orator who suffered during the rebellion. When 
 I visited New York again, some months afterwards, one front of it was 
 embellished with an emblematical representation of his fortunes. Though 
 
 Merchants' Exchange. 
 
 it was in an unfinished state, and the canvass had not been removed from 
 before the scaffolding, I could catch a glimpse of the representation of a 
 hand, with a wreath or bracelet of shamrock round the wrist, clasping 
 one with a similar ornament of stars, and the eagle of America sheltering 
 the unstrung harp of Ireland. Mr. Emmett had emigrated to the states, 
 and settled in New York, where he had acquired considerable reputation 
 many years previous to his death- There is also another monument near 
 it, under the portico of the church, to General Montgomery, who fell in 
 the unsuccessful attack upon Quebec in 1775. This monument was 
 erected previously to the declaration of independence by the congress; 
 and in 1818, when his remains were removed from Quebec to New York, 
 and interred at St. Paul's, another tablet was added, recording the event; 
 though at the time, great doubts were entertained whether they actually 
 were the general's remains which were exhumed. The matter was, how- 
 ever, subsequently set at rest beyond a doubt, bv the publication of a cer- 
 e drawn up by the person who had actually buried the general in the 
 first instance, and who was then living in Quebec, at a very advanced age, 
 being the only survivor of the army which served under Wolfe. 
 
 ' There is a very handsome monument, near the centre of the church- 
 yard, erected by Kean, of Drury Lane theatre, to Cooke, the actor. Trini . 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 311 
 
 ty church, which is also in Broadway, was the oldest in the city, having 
 been originally built in 1696, but destroyed by fire eighty years after- 
 wards, although from the circumstance of a monument in the church-yard, 
 of 1691, it appears it was used as a burial-ground some time previously. 
 Though not containing much above an acre of ground, by a moderate cal- 
 culation, not fewer than two hundred thousand bodies have been buried in 
 it. Of late years there have been no burials, and weeping willows with 
 various trees have been planted, which in time will make it ornamental 
 to the city. In one corner are the ruins of a monument, erected but six- 
 teen years since to Captain Lawrence, of the American navy, who fell de- 
 fending his ship, the Chesapeak, against Sir P. Broke, in the Shannon. 
 His body was taken to Halifax, in Nova Scotia, and buried there with all 
 the honors of war, the pall being the American ensign supported by six of 
 the senior captains in the royal navy, then in the harbor. But the Ameri- 
 cans immediately after sent a vessel with a flag of truce to apply for the 
 removal of the body, which being granted, it was re-buried in Trinity 
 church-yard, and the present monument, no lasting memorial of his coun- 
 try's grief, erected upon the spot. It is a most shabby economical struc- 
 ture, built of brick, and faced with white marble. The column, of the 
 Corinthian order, is broken short, with part of the capital lying at the base 
 of the pedestal, emblematic of his premature death. Owing to the sum- 
 mit being exposed to the weather, the rain has gained admittance into the 
 interior of the brick work, and has given the column a considerable incli- 
 nation to one side. Some of the marble front also, with two sides of that 
 of the pedestal, have fallen down and exposed the shabby interior. Sure- 
 ly, such a man deserved a monument of more durable materials.'* 
 
 * That the Americans, however, were not unmindful of the respect paid to his 
 remains by the British, appears from the following part of the inscription upon the 
 monument : 
 
 ' His bravery in action 
 
 Was only equalled by his modesty in triumph, 
 
 And his magnanimity to the vanquished. 
 
 In private life 
 
 He was a gentleman of the most generous and endearing qualities ; 
 
 And so acknowledged was his public worth, 
 
 That the whole nation mourned his loss, 
 
 And the enemy contended with his countrymen 
 
 Who most should honor his remains.' 
 
 There is a monument near it to the memory of General Hamilton, who had served 
 with distinction under Washington, and ranked high as a statesman. He was killed 
 in a duel by Colonel Burr, the vice president of the United States, who is yet living in 
 New York. The inscription is as follows : 
 
 To the memory of Alexander Hamilton 
 The corporation of Trinity church 
 
 Have erected this monument, 
 
 In testimony of their respect for 
 
 The patriot of incorruptible integrity, 
 
 The soldier of approved valor, 
 
 The statesman of consummate wisdom ; 
 
 Whose talents and whose virtues 
 
 Will be admired by a grateful posterity 
 
 Long after this marble shall have mouldered into dust. 
 
 He died July 2d, 1804, aged forty-seven.— Subaltern's Furlough. 
 
312 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Among the most splendid public buildings is the Masonic hall, a Gothic 
 edifice, in Broadway, fifty feet wide, and seventy feet high ; it is composed 
 of the eastern gray granite. Of collegiate institutions, Columbia college 
 
 Masonic Hall. 
 
 is the oldest in New York. It is finely situated on a square ornamented 
 with majestic trees ; and the standard of classical education here is very 
 high. This institution possesses an estate valued at four hundred thou 
 sand dollars. In 1831, the University of New York was chartered ; it is 
 projected on the broad and liberal plan of the continental universities, and 
 promises to be of great utility. Schools of all kinds are numerous; bible 
 and missionary societies are numerous and well endowed. Literary and 
 scientific institutions flourish. The most ancient of these is the Society 
 Library, founded in 17-54, and containing upwards of twenty-three thou- 
 sand volumes. The Historical society was incorporated in 1S09, and has 
 collected a vast number of important documents in relation to the country 
 in general, and particularly to New York. The Lyceum for Natural 
 History, the Clinton Hall association, and the Mercantile Library associa- 
 tion, are flourishing and useful institutions. 
 
 The Academy of Arts was chartered in 1S08. It has two exhibitions 
 annually. The library consists of books of views, designs and drawings, 
 relating chiefly to antique subjects. Among the presidents of this institu- 
 tion have been Edward Livingston, De Witt Clinton, and John Trumbull. 
 The National Academy was founded in 1S26, and, with a few exceptions, 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 313 
 
 is altogether composed of artists. Of the dramatic entertainments of the 
 city, we can say but little. The Park theatre is the place of most fashion- 
 able resort ; it is a spacious edifice, adjoining the park. It is eighty feet 
 long, and one hundred and sixty-five feet deep. The Bowery theatre is 
 well attended. An opera house has been recently built. 
 
 The number of insurance offices in this city is upwards of forty. In 
 1827, the total of banking capital amounted to about sixteen millions of 
 dollars. Several new banks have been since chartered, and this amount 
 has been much increased. For its advantage of inland and external com- 
 merce, no city in the United States can be compared with New York. 
 The number of vessels that arrived here from foreign parts during the, 
 first eight months of the year 1833, was thirteen hundred and forty-five , 
 and the number of passengers was over thirty-two thousand. In 1832, 
 the number of arrivals from foreign parts during the whole year, was one 
 thousand eight hundred and ten ; in 1829, it was thirteen hundred and 
 four, being forty-one less in the whole year than during the first eight 
 months of 1833. 
 
 The population of New York in 1697, was four thousand three hundred 
 and two ; in 1756, thirteen thousand and forty ; in 1790, thirty-three thou- 
 sand and thirty-one ; in 1800, sixty thousand four hundred and eighty- 
 nine ; in 1810, ninety-six thousand three hundred and seventy-three ; in 
 1S20, one hundred and twenty-three thousand seven hundred and six; in 
 1825, one hundred and sixty-six thousand and eighty-six ; and in 1830, 
 two hundred and seven thousand and twenty-one. It is now estimated at 
 about two hundred and thirty thousand. 
 
 Norfolk, the commercial capital of Virginia, is situated on the east side 
 of Elizabeth river, immediately below the junction of its two main branch- 
 es, and eight miles above Hampton roads. The town lies low, and is 
 in some places marshy, though the principal streets are well paved. 
 Among the public buildings are a theatre, three banks, an academy, ma- 
 rine hospital, athenaeum, and six churches. The harbor, which is capacious 
 and safe, is defended by several forts. One is on Craney island, near the 
 mouth of Elizabeth river. There are also fortifications at Hampton roads ; 
 the principal of which, Fort Calhoun, is not yet completed. Population, 
 ten thousand. 
 
 Northampton is a post and shire town of Hampshire county, Massachu- 
 setts, on the west bank of Connecticut river, and ninety-five miles from 
 Boston. Its population in 1830, was three thousand six hundred and 
 thirteen. It is built chiefly on two broad streets, in which are situated the 
 churches and county buildings. This town is very beautiful, consisting of 
 a number of villas of various sizes, and of pleasing, though irregular archi- 
 tecture, seeming to vie with each other in the taste and elegance of their 
 external decorations. There is primitive white limestone in the vicinity, 
 and much of the pavement and steps are of white marble. The trees in 
 the neighborhood of the town are single spreading trees, principally elms, 
 and of considerable age ; the roads are wide, and the footpaths are excel- 
 lent everywhere. Northampton is surrounded by rising ground's ; but 
 mount Holyoke, situated on the opposite side of the Connecticut river, is 
 the hill which all strangers ascend, for the sake of the extensive and beau- 
 tiful prospect from its summit. The valley that lies at its base, contains 
 the most extensive and beautiful plain in New England, well cultivated 
 40 27 
 
314 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and populous. The spires of thirty churches are seen from the top of 
 mount Holyoke, and in a clear day the hills of New Haven are distinctly 
 visible. Round Hill school, in this town, is an institution of some note, some- 
 what on the plan of a German gymnasium. There are two banks here, 
 woolen manufactories, an insurance office, and a printing office ; the 
 public houses are good, and the town is somewhat a place of summer 
 resort. 
 
 Norwich, a city of New London county, Connecticut, situated at the 
 head of navigation on Thames river, contains three compact settlements : 
 of which Chelsea Landing, situate at the point of land between the She- 
 tucket and Yantic rivers, is the principal. Its location is peculiarly roman- 
 tic ; and ii is a place of much enterprise and business. What is called 
 the town is two miles north-west of Chelsea, containing the court house, 
 and some other public buildings ; and the third settlement is Bean Hill, in 
 the western part of Norwich. The city contains a bank, four or five 
 churches, and several manufacturing establishments. The Yantic falls, 
 one mile from Chelsea, are beautiful, and afford facilities for mills and 
 manufactories. From a rock seventy or eighty feet in height, which over- 
 hangs the stream, tradition says a number of Narragansetts once precipi- 
 tated themselves when pursued by the Mohegans. 
 
 On an elevated bank, north of what is called the cove, and near the 
 Yantic falls, is the burying-ground of the royal family of the Mohegans, 
 commonly called 'the burying-ground of the Uncasses.' Many of their 
 graves are still designated by coarse stones ; on some of which are English 
 inscriptions. Uncas was buried here, and many of his descendants ; but 
 his family is now nearly extinct. There are one or two living who claim 
 a kindred, but who have very little of the magnanimity or valor for which 
 he was so conspicuous. Population of Norwich, about five thousand two 
 hundred. 
 
 Pawlucket, a town of Bristol county, Massachusetts, four miles north-east 
 of Providence, Rhode Island. It is finely situated on the falls of Paw- 
 tucket river, near the Blackstone canal, and is one of the most extensive 
 manufacturing places in the union. It contains numerous cotton factories, 
 and shops for machinery, and other purposes. Population, one thousand 
 four hundred and fifty-eight. 
 
 Pensacola, the capital of West Florida, and naval station of the United 
 States, is situated on the north-west shore of the bay of the same name. 
 It was founded by a Spanish officer in 1699, and is built in the form of a 
 parallelogram, nearly a mile in length. The harbor is safe and commo- 
 dious, and the anchorage is good, though toward shore the water is gene- 
 rally shallow. It is regarded as a comparatively healthy place. Popula- 
 tion, about two thousand. 
 
 Petersburg, a borough and port of entry, in Dinwiddie county, Virginia, 
 on the south bank of the Appomatox. The river is navigable to this point 
 for vessels of one hundred tons. In 1815, three hundred buildings were 
 destroyed by fire. It has since been rebuilt of brick, and the new houses 
 are generally three stories in height ; it is of the first class of towns in Vir- 
 ginia, and presents an appearance of enterprise and wealth. Population, 
 eight thousand three hundred and twenty-two. 
 
 Philadelphia, the second city in size and population in the United States, 
 is situated in a county of the same name, five miles above the junction of 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 315 
 
 the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers, and, hy the course of the river, about 
 one hundred and twenty miles distant from the Atlantic ocean. It was 
 founded by William Penn, in 1682, and was originally laid out in the 
 shape of a parallelogram, two miles in length by one in breadth. The 
 city now extends from the lower part of Southwark to the upper part 
 of Kensington, about four miles, and from one river to the other. For 
 municipal purposes, the legislature has, from time to time, established cor- 
 porate governments in different parts of the suburbs, so that Philadelphia 
 is divided into the following districts : the corporations of the city of Phi- 
 ladelphia, of the Northern Liberties, Kensington, Spring Garden, South- 
 wark, and Moyamensing. The municipal government of the city proper is 
 vested in a mayor, a recorder, fifteen aldermen, and a select and common 
 council, besides subordinate executive officers. 
 
 ' Philadelphia, the reverse of Lisbon,' says a recent English traveller, 
 ' at first presents no beauties ; no domes or turrets rise in the air to break 
 the uniform stiff roof-line of the private dwellings ; and, if I remember 
 right, the only buildings which show their lofty heads above the rest, are 
 the state house, Christ church, (both built prior to the revolution,) a pres- 
 byterian meeting-house, and a shot tower. The city, therefore, when 
 viewed from the water, and at a distance, presents any thing but a pictu- 
 resque appearance. It is somewhat singular, too, that there should be such 
 a scarcity of spires, and conspicuous buildings, there being no fewer than 
 ninety places of worship, besides hospitals, and charitable institutions in 
 great numbers. In place, too, of noble piers and quays of solid masonry, 
 which we might reasonably expect to find in a city containing near one 
 hundred and forty-thousand inhabitants, and holding the second rank in 
 commercial importance in North America, there are but some shabby 
 wharves and piers of rough piles of timber, jutting out in unequal lengths 
 and shapes, from one end to the other of the river front ; and these, again, 
 are backed by large piles of wooden warehouses, and mean-looking stores. 
 On the narrow space between them and the water, are hundreds of negro 
 porters, working at vast heaps of iron bars, barrels of flour, cotton bags, 
 and all the various merchandise imported or exported, singing, in their 
 strange broken English tone of voice, some absurd chorus. 
 
 ' Fifty paces hence, the stranger enters the city, which possesses an inte- 
 rior almost unrivalled in the world. On walking through the fine broad 
 streets, with rows of locust or other trees, which, planted on the edge of 
 the causeway, form a most delightful shade, and take away the glare of 
 the brick buildings, he is struck immediately with the air of simplicity, yet 
 strength and durability which all the public edifices possess, while the pri- 
 vate dwellings, with their neat white marble steps and window sills, 
 bespeak, wealth and respectability. The neatness too, of the dress of every 
 individual, with the total absence of those lazy and dirty vagabonds who 
 ever infest our towns, and loiter about the corners of all the public streets, 
 passing insolent remarks upon every well-dressed man, or even unattended 
 female, impress a foreigner with a most pleasing and favorable idea of an 
 American city. 
 
 ' The river in front of the town is about a mile wide, but the channel is 
 considerably contracted by an island, which extends nearly the full length 
 of the town, and, consequently renders the navigation more intricate. " It 
 is prettily planted with trees, and a ship has been run ashore at one end, 
 
316 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and converted into a tavern, a house being raised upon the upper deck. 
 It was quite a gala day, numerous steam vessels and rowing boats proceed- 
 ing up the stream to Kensington (part of the suburbs,) and we arrived just 
 in time to see a large ship, of six hundred tons burthen, glide gracefully 
 from the stocks. ... „ r , . 
 
 ' I now commenced visiting all the public institutions. Of charitable 
 societies the number is amazing ; probably no city in the world, of the 
 same population, possesses an equal number. It may be truly said, that it 
 deserves its name of "Philadelphia;" there are upwards of thirty humane 
 institutions and societies for the relief of the poor and orphans, besides 
 above one hundred and fifty mutual benefit societies, on the principle of 
 the English clubs; being associations of tradesmen and artisans for the sup- 
 port of each other in sickness, each member contributing monthly or week- 
 ly a small sum to the general fund. Of the public institutions, the " Penn- 
 sylvania Hospital" is on the most extensive scale. It is situated in a cen- 
 tral part of the city, near Washington square, and was founded eighty-two 
 years since, Benjamin Franklin being its greatest promoter. _ It contains 
 an excellent library of about seven thousand volumes ; and it is calculated 
 that about fourteen hundred patients are annually admitted into it, of which 
 number three fifths are paupers; the remainder paying for the advantages 
 they derive from the institution. The building occupies an immense 
 extent of ground, and on three sides of it an open space is left for a free cir- 
 culation of air; the west end of the building is a ward for insane patients, 
 of whom there are generally more than one hundred. The necessary 
 funds for the support of the hospital are derived from the interest of its 
 capital stock, and from the exhibition of West's splendid painting of Christ 
 
 Deaf and Dumb Asylum. 
 
 healing the sick, which produces about five hundred dollars per annum, 
 and is exhibited in a building on the northern side of the hospital square.' 
 The United States bank is a splendid edifice, built on the plan of the 
 Parthenon at Athens. Its length is one hundred and sixty-one, and its 
 Dreadth eighty-seven feet. The main entrance is from Chesnut street, by 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 317 
 
 a flight of six marble steps, extending along the whole front of the portico, 
 which is supported by fluted columns four and a half feet in diameter. In 
 the centre of the building is the banking room, which is eighty-one feet 
 long, and forty-eight feet wide. The whole body of the edifice is arched 
 in a bomb-proof manner, from the cellar to the roof, which is covered with 
 copper. The. New Bank of Pennsylvania is an extensive and elegant edi- 
 fice of marble of the Ionic order, and constructed after the model of the 
 ancient temple of the Muses, on the Ilyssus. There are at present six- 
 teen banking houses within the city and the incorporated districts, with an 
 aggregate capital of twenty millions of dollars. 
 
 The Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb is one of the most conspicuous 
 edifices in the city. The association was established in April, 1820, and 
 was incorporated in the following year. Philadelphia now contains about 
 one hundred churches, few of which are distinguished for size, extent, or 
 architectural beauty. 
 
 The state house, in which the continental congress sat, and from whence 
 the Declaration of Independence issued, is still standing. It is located in 
 Chesnut street, is built of brick, comprising a centre and two wings, and 
 has undergone no material alteration since its first erection. It has a vene- 
 rable appearance, and is surmounted by a cupola, having a clock, the dial 
 of which is glass, and is illuminated at night until ten or eleven o'clock, 
 showing the hour and minutes until that time. The front is a considera- 
 ble distance back from the street, the walk being paved to the curb-stone 
 with brick, and two elegant rows of trees extending its whole length. 
 East of the main entrance, in the front room, the sessions of congress were 
 held, and the question of independence decided. 
 
 The arcade contains Peale's museum, one of the best in the United 
 States, comprising the most complete skeleton of the mammoth perhaps in 
 the world. It is perfect, with the exception of a few bones, which have 
 been supplied by imitating the others. This skeleton was found in Ulster 
 county, New York. 
 
 : £&yj^s&£y^a^£^;sg»i 
 
 Academy of Arts. 
 
 The Academy of Arts, in Chesnut street, contains a large number of 
 paintings, several of which are the property of Joseph Bonaparte. Among 
 
 27* 
 
318 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 these is one executed by David, representing Napoleon crossing the Alps. 
 Another is a full-length portrait of Joseph himself, as king of Spain. 
 
 It is to Franklin that the city is indebted for its great library, which 
 now numbers about thirty-five thousand volumes. It was incorporated in 
 1742, and in 1790, the present neat edifice was erected on the east side of 
 
 Franklin Institute. 
 
 Fifth street, opposite the state house square. The Athenasum is a valua- 
 ble institution, established in 1S14 ; it has a collection of about five thou- 
 sand live hundred volumes, and more than seventy newspapers and period- 
 ical journals are regularly received in its reading room. The Philosophi- 
 i al society has a collection of six thousand, and the Academy of Natural 
 ■ s a collection of five thousand volumes. The University of Penn- 
 i is distinguished for its medical school, which is attended by a class 
 of from four to five hundred. The United States Mint was established in 
 1791, and by successive acts of congress has been continued at Philadel- 
 phia. In 1829, a oew building for the mint was commenced in Chesnut 
 it lias but recently been completed. It is of the Ionic order, and 
 after a celebrated Grecian temple.* 
 
 * The new Mint appears to be a favorite place of resort for the curious among oui 
 fellow citizens. Visitors pass in by the Chesnut street front at all hours of the morn 
 ing, and are at once ushered into a beautiful and capacious building, well adapted for 
 the important purposes for which it was erected. When we look round its ample 
 dimensions, we wonder how it was possible to accommodate so extensive a business as 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 319 
 
 Of the public works of Philadelphia, there is none of which its inhabi- 
 tants are most justly proud than those at Fair Mount, by which the city is 
 supplied with water of the best quality, in the greatest plenty. Fair 
 Mount is in the rear of the city upon the bank of the Schuylkill. The reser- 
 
 Fair Mount Water-Works. 
 
 voirs are situated on the top of a hill rising from the river, a part of it 
 perpendicular rock, upwards of one hundred feet. They contain upwards 
 of twelve millions of gallons, supplying the city through between fifteen 
 and twenty miles of pipes. The water was formerly forced to tbe reser- 
 voirs by steam, which is no longer used : it is now raised by machinery 
 propelled by the Schuylkill. The machinery is simple, and is turned by 
 
 was done in the miserably confined apartments of the old coinin in Seventh 
 
 street, and. fail not, at the same time, to admire the neal and simple beautj of the pre- 
 sent building. The firsi object which attracts attention on entering, is a huge steam 
 engine, at the opposite end of the buildin ;, the noise nt' which, addi I to the incessant 
 jarring of the dies, gives token of the purp >e to which il is applied. This 
 
 engine, of thirty horse power, is the mosl highly-finished specimen of the steam engine 
 we have ever witnessed. The shafts, upright and hi 
 
 and most of the cogwheels arc of brass. The huge Sy-v i in with the precision 
 
 of a watch-wheel; while the various and total which its power 
 
 is applied, strike the beholder with admiration of the • ■ aity of the machi- 
 
 nist. Rush and Muhlenburg, of this city, constructed tins engine; its cost was about 
 eight thousand dollars. 
 
 From the hot rooms in which the bullion is converted . we entered the 
 
 rooms where the ingots are passed through a succession of steel rollers, until they 
 assume the flatness and thinness of a common iron hoop. "< scended into a 
 
 room where these thin bars are passed through a si \e them a uni- 
 
 form thickness, equal to that of the half-dollar. A pum - I by the same en 
 
 euts out the silver of a proper size; the scraps of silver are melted over :v„ r .;in into 
 ingots. From this room the prepared bits are taken down into the die room, where 
 they are passed on their edges, through a machine which gives them the impression 
 they bear upon the edge. They are thence handed ever to the coiners, by whom they 
 are placed in a tube in a pile a foot high, whence they drop one at a time, on a slide 
 which conveys them directly to the dies. Here they receive the proper impression en 
 each side, from dies forced together by means of an iron bar ten or twelve feet long, 
 worked horizontally by three men. The instant the coin receives its proper impression, 
 
320 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 large water wheels, whose speed may be graduated to any required num- 
 ber" of revolutions per minute; if all are in motion, they will raise seven 
 millions of gallons in twenty-four hours. To turn them, the Schuylkill 
 has been dammed its whole breadth, by which the water is thrown back 
 into a reservoir lock, whence it is admitted as required to operate upon the 
 wheels, and is discharged into the river below the dam. The whole ex- 
 pense of these works, including estimated cost of works abandoned, was 
 one million seven hundred and eighty-three thousand. The quantity of 
 water which they disseminate through the city, is not only sufficient for 
 every family, but is used to wash the streets. It is of immense service in 
 case of fire, as it is only necessary to screw the hose to hydrants, which 
 are placed at convenient distances, to secure a constant stream of sufficient" 
 force to reach an ordinary height. 
 
 There are three prisons in Philadelphia, one in Walnut street, a second 
 in Arch street, and the Eastern Penitentiary. The latter is situated on 
 high ground near the city, and is designed to carry the principle of solitary 
 
 Eastern Penitentiary. 
 
 confinement into effect. The system pursued here will be fully explained 
 in a different portion of the volume. Ten acres are occupied by the estab- 
 lishment, inclosed by massive walls of granite, thirty-five feet high, with 
 towers and battlements. 
 
 There are two bridges across the Schuylkill, both of which are substan- 
 tial and elegant structures. The Fair Mount bridge consists of a single 
 
 it is forced off the die into a box ready to receive it. and gives place to another, which 
 pies the same position, and undergoes the same operation. 
 After having gone through the whole establishment, the impression left upon the 
 1 i that of astonishment and wonder, that an end of such immense importance as 
 . for a whole nation, can be attained by means, apparently, so simple, 
 and oi such ready comprehension. The spectator, going through alone, needs no one 
 to explain this or that operation. Every thing explains itself on the instant ; for every 
 thing is free from mystery or concealment, while the excellent condition of the estab- 
 lishment, and the extreme politeness to strangers, manifested by every person about ir, 
 materially enhances the pleasure of a visit to the Mint of the United States.— Philadel- 
 phia paper. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 321 
 
 arch, of three hundred and forty feet in length. The whole length of that 
 on Market street, is one thousand three hundred feet, including abutments 
 and wing walls. 
 
 Upper Ferry Bridge. 
 
 The public, markets form a very striking feature of the city. One is 
 nearly two thirds of a mile in extent. The harbor of Philadelphia pos- 
 sesses many natural advantages, though it is more liable to be impeded by 
 ice than either that of New York or Baltimore. The Delaware is not 
 navigable for the first class of ships of the line. For the amount of its 
 commerce, Philadelphia is the fourth city in the United States. 
 
 By the will of the late Stephen Girard, Philadelphia received large be- 
 quests of land and money, to be appropriated to purposes of public improve- 
 ment. To the Pennsylvania Hospital he gave thirty thousand dollars ; to 
 the city, for city improvements, five hundred thousand dollars ; for a col- 
 lege for poor white male children, and its endowments, two millions. He 
 made further donations to the city of unimproved lands in the western ter- 
 ritories, and stock in the Schuylkill navigation company, valued at the sum 
 of six hundred thousand dollars. 
 
 By the census of 1810, the population of Philadelphia was ninety-six 
 thousand six hundred and sixty-four; in 1S30, it was one hundred and 
 sixty-seven thousand eight hundred and eleven. 
 
 Pittsburg, a city and capital of Alleghany county, Pennsylvania, two 
 hundred and ninety-seven miles west by north of Philadelphia, is situated 
 on a beautiful plain at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela 
 rivers. It is built on the old site of the famous fort Du Quesne, whose 
 ruins are still seen in the neighborhood. The situation of Pittsburg 
 is as advantageous as can well be imagined ; it is the key to the west- 
 ern country, and, excepting New Orleans and Cincinnati, is the first town 
 of the whole valley of the Mississippi. It was created a city by the legis- 
 lature of Pennsylvania, at the session of 1816. The principal cause 
 which has contributed, after its fine position, to ensure the prosperity of 
 Pittsburg, is the exhaustless mass of mineral coal that exists in its neigh- 
 41 
 
322 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 borhood. The beds are 340 feet above low water level, and about two 
 hundred and ninety above the level of the town. The great abundance of 
 this valuable material has converted Pittsburg into a vast workshop, and 
 a warehouse for the immense country below, upon the Ohio and the other 
 laro-e rivers of the valley. According to a list recently published in one 
 of the Pittsburg papers, there are in operation in that city, and in its imme- 
 diate vicinity, eighty-nine steam engines, on which there are two thousand 
 one hundred and eleven hands employed, and coal consumed to the 
 amount of one hundred and fifty-four thousand two hundred and fifty bush- 
 els per month. The great use of this coal has given a general dinginess 
 of appearance to the town, arising from the smoke. The inhabitants of 
 Pittsburg present specimens of almost every nation ; they are distinguished 
 for economy and industry. The Western university was established here 
 in 1820. Among the buildings are three or four banks, a small theatre, a 
 public library, and houses of worship for various sects. Population, twelve 
 thousand five hundred and forty-two. 
 
 Pittsfield, a town of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, situated on a hill 
 at the junction of the principal branches of the Housatonic river. It con- 
 tains a bank, an academy, a medical institution, and several extensive 
 manufactories, among which is one of muskets, where arms have been 
 frequently made for the United States. Population, three thousand five 
 hundred and seventy. 
 
 Plattsfatrg, capital of Clinton county, New York, situated on a fine bay 
 on the west side of lake Champlain, is handsomely laid out and contains 
 a bank and several manufactories. It is celebrated in the history of the 
 late war with Great Britain. Population, about five thousand. 
 
 Plymouth, a port of entry and shire town of Plymouth county, Massa- 
 chusetts, is the oldest town in New England, having been settled by the 
 pilgrims who landed from the Mayflower, December '22d, 1620. It stands 
 on a fine harbor of the same name, thirty-six miles south-east of Boston. 
 Though often divided, the township is still sixteen miles long, and five 
 broad. The Indian name was Accomack. It is a place of considerable 
 commerce, and contains some manufacturing establishments. The har- 
 bor is large, but shallow, and in 1832 an appropriation was made by go- 
 vernment to repair it. One of the principal buildings is Pilgrim's hall, 
 which was erected by the Pilgrim society. A part of the rock on which 
 the pilgrims landed, has been conveyed to the centre of the town. Popu- 
 lation, about five thousand. 
 
 Portland, a port of entry, and commercial metropolis of Maine, in Cum- 
 berland county, is situated on an elevated peninsula in Casco bay. It has 
 an excellent and spacious harbor, dotted with numerous islands, and de- 
 1 by two forts. The town is well laid out, and neatly built. Among 
 the public buildings are, that formerly occupied as the state house, a court 
 house, town hall, a theatre, alms-house, six banks, fifteen churches, a 
 custom-house, academy, and an athenaeum, in which is a library of about 
 three thousand volumes. Much attention is here paid to education, and 
 are many good schools. Portland has considerable commerce, the 
 articles of export being fish and lumber. Its shipping amounts to 
 about forty-five thousand tons. In 1775, this town, then called Falmouth, 
 was set on fire by the British, and about two thirds of the houses were 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 323 
 
 destroyed. It was incorporated under its present name in 1786. Popula- 
 tion, about thirteen thousand. 
 
 Mariners' Church, Portland. 
 
 Portsmouth, in Rockingham county, New Hampshire, is the largest 
 town in the state, and the only seaport. It is situated on a beautiful pe- 
 ninsula on the south side of Piscataqua river, three miles from the sea. 
 Its harbor is one of the best on the continent, having a sufficient depth of 
 water for vessels of any burden. It is well protected by fort Con- 
 stitution and fort M'Clary ; there are also, three other forts, built for the 
 defence of the harbor, but not garrisoned. There is a light-house on 
 Great island. This town has a number of churches and other public 
 buildings, but none of any great pretensions. It has suffered severely 
 from fires at different periods. The first settlement was made here in 
 1623, and, ten years afterwards, the town was incorporated by charter. 
 The first ship of the line built in the United States, was built here during 
 the revolution ; it was called the North America. On Navy island, on the 
 side of the Piscataqua, opposite to the town, is a navy yard of the United 
 States. The amount of shipping owned in New Hampshire in 1828, 
 amounted to above twenty-six thousand tons ; and of this nearly all must 
 have belonged to Portsmouth. Population, eight thousand and eighty- 
 two. 
 
 Pougkkeepsie, in Dutchess county, New York, seventy-five miles south 
 of Albany, is situated one mile on the Hudson river, and was incorporated 
 in 1S01. The village is handsomely situated, and a place of considerable 
 trade. It is laid out in the form of a cross, the two principal streets cut- 
 ting each other at right angles. The trade at the landings employs a num- 
 ber of packets. This town contains the county buildings, five churches, 
 an academy, a bank, and several factories. Population, seven thousand 
 two hundred and twenty-two. 
 
 Providence, city and seaport in the county of the same name, in Rhode 
 Island, is situated at the head of tide water of Narragansett bay, about 
 thirty miles from the Atlantic ocean, and forty miles south-south-west of 
 Boston. In point of population it is the second town in New England. 
 
324 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The town is built on both sides of what is commonly called Providence 
 river; and vessels of nine hundred tons burden can come to the wharves. 
 Many of the private residences in this town are finely situated, and of 
 beautiful appearance. The chief public buildings are the state house, the 
 arcade, fourteen houses of public worship, the halls of Brown university, 
 an asylum, five public school-houses, and several large manufacturing 
 establishments. The arcade is a splendid edifice of granite, with two 
 fronts presenting colonnades of the pure Doric order. The building is two 
 
 Providence Arcade. 
 
 hundred and twenty-two feet in length, extending from street to street. 
 Brown university was incorporated in 1769, and, under its present govern- 
 ment, promises to take a high stand as a literary institution. The college 
 buildings stand on a lofty elevation, and the approach to them is through 
 a street decorated with fine mansions and elegant gardens. 
 
 Providence became early distinguished as a place of commercial promise. 
 During the first six months of the year 1791, the duties paid on imports 
 and tonnage amounted to nearly sixty thousand dollars ; in 1831, the 
 whole amount collected was about two hundred and twenty-seven thousand. 
 There are four insurance companies. The aggregate capital of the banks, 
 which are fifteen in number, is four and a half millions; to this we may 
 add eight hundred thousand dollars, which form the capital of the Branch 
 bank of the United States, and one hundred thousand belonging to the 
 Savings bank. The Blackstone canal, which extends to Worcester, in Mas- 
 sachusetts, was completed in 1828 ; its whole cost was seven hundred thou- 
 sand dollars. Providence is most distinguished for its manufactures, which 
 arc very numerous, and embrace many varieties of articles. Capitalists 
 of the city have also about two million of dollars invested in manufactures 
 of other towns. The settlement of this place was commenced as early as 
 1636, by Roger Williams, a puritan clergyman who had been settled at 
 Salem, but who had been banished beyond the jurisdiction of Massachu- 
 setts, on account of his contending for entire and unrestricted freedom in 
 matters of religion. The population of Providence is about twenty thou- 
 sand. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 325 
 
 Quincy, in Norfolk county, Massachusetts, was settled in 1625, under 
 the name of Mount Wollaston. Extensive quarries of fine granite are 
 wrought here ; the first rail-road constructed in America was built for the 
 purpose of conveying the granite from the quarry to the landing. This 
 town is very pleasant, and contains many handsome country seats; among 
 which is that of ex-president Adams. Population, two thousand one hun- 
 dred and ninety-two. 
 
 Raleigh, city and capital of North Carolina, in Wake county, near the 
 west bank of the river Neuse, is pleasantly situated in an elevated tract 
 of country. Besides the government buildings, it contains other conve- 
 nient and elegant public edifices. In the centre of the town is a large 
 square, from which extend four wide streets, dividing the town into quar- 
 ters. In the centre of this square stood the state house, with the splendid 
 statue of Washington, by Canova ; the edifice was burnt down in 1831, and 
 the statue almost destroyed. In the neighborhood of the town is an excel- 
 lent quarry of granite. Population, one thousand seven hundred. 
 
 Reading, the capital of Berks county, Pennsylvania, is a beautiful town, 
 situated on Schuylkill river, fifty-four miles north-west of Philadelphia, 
 on the road to lake Erie. It is a flourishing place, regularly laid out and 
 inhabited chiefly by Germans ; it contains the usual county buildings, an 
 elegant church for German Lutherans, another for Calvinists, one for Ro- 
 man Catholics, a meeting-house for Friends, and other public edifices. In 
 the neighborhood of this town are a number of fulling mills, and several 
 iron works. Population, about six thousand. 
 
 Richmond, the metropolis of Virginia, and seat of justice for Henrico 
 county, is situated at the falls of James river, on the north side, one hun- 
 dred and fifty miles above its mouth, and contains twelve thousand inhabi- 
 tants. The site is very uneven, and the situation is healthy, beautiful and 
 picturesque. On the opposite side of the river is Manchester, connected 
 with Richmond by two bridges. The falls and rapids extend nearly six 
 miles, in which distance the river descends eighty feet. A canal with 
 three locks is cut on the north side of the river, terminating at the town in a 
 basin of about two acres. Few cities situated so far from the sea, possess 
 better commercial advantages than Richmond, being at the head of tide 
 water, on a river navigable for batteaux, two hundred and twenty miles 
 above the city. The back country is fertile, and abundant in the produc- 
 tion of tobacco, wheat, corn, hemp, and coal. Some of the principal 
 buildings are the capitol, penitentiary, armor)*, court house, and eight 
 houses of public worship. The capitol stands on a commanding situation, 
 and is a conspicuous object to the surrounding country. In 1811, the 
 theatre at Richmond took fire during an exhibition, and in the conflagra- 
 tion, seventy-two persons lost their lives, among whom was the governor 
 ol the state. An elegant Episcopal church of brick, styled the Monument- 
 al Church, has been erected on the spot, with a monument in front, com- 
 memorative of the melancholy event. Population, sixteen thousand. 
 
 Rochester, in Monroe county, in the western part of New York, i 
 most populous and important village in the state. Its growth has been 
 wonderfully rapid. Twenty years ago there was a wild uninhabited tract, 
 wheie now is a flourishing population of more than twelve thousand 
 people. This growth has been owing to the passage of the Erie canal 
 thrvwgft the town, thus furnishing a conveyance to the numerous manufac- 
 
 28 
 
326 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tures which the great water power of the Gennessee enabled them to carry 
 on. The canal crosses the river three hundred yards above the falls. For 
 the distance of three quarters of a mile in the village, the river is walled 
 with hammer-dressed stone, to the height of from ten to twenty feet. The 
 power which is furnished by this river, in the course of two miles at this 
 place, at low water, is equal" to that of six hundred and forty stearr. engines 
 of twenty horse-power each. The manufactories are very numerous; 
 they consist of sixteen flour mills, four woolen factories, tw» of cotton, 
 three marble, and others of almost every description. There are twelve 
 reli<nous and seventeen benevolent societies ; the literary institutions are 
 numerous, and there are many well-conducted schools. The receipts of the 
 canal toll office of this town are larger than those of any town in the state, 
 except Albany. Population in 1815, three hundred and thirty-one ; in 
 1832, thirteen thousand.* 
 
 Rutland, seat of justice of Rutland county, Vermont, is a village of 
 irregular form, and was first settled in 1770. During the revolution, two 
 picket forts were built here. There are quarries of blue and white marble, 
 in a range extending from Berkshire county, Massachusetts. Population, 
 two thousand seven hundred and fifty-three. 
 
 Saco, port of entry in York county, Maine, is situated at the head of 
 tide water on Saco river. The falls at this place afford a great water 
 power, and carry many saw mills ; numerous factories might be erected on 
 
 * We reached Rochester under the influence of a burning sun. The hotel was ex- 
 cellent, and the luxury of cold baths, and the civility of the landlord, induced me to 
 delay progress to the following day. In the cool of the evening, I strolled out to see 
 the falls of the Gennessee. The height of the uppermost is considerable, being about 
 ninety feet, and the water rushes over it gracefully enough ; but the vicinity of sundry 
 saw and corn mills has destroyed the romantic interest which invested it in the days 
 when ' the cataract blew his trumpet from the steep,' amid the stillness of the sur- 
 rounding forest. 
 
 The old proverb de gustibus, &c. receives illustration in every country. An eccentric 
 man, called Sam Patch, having an aversion to honest industry, made it his profession 
 to jump over all the water-falls in the country. Niagara was too much for him, but he 
 sprang from a lofty rock, some distance below the Horse-shoe fall, with impunity. His 
 last jump was at the fall I have just described, of the Gennessee, in the autumn of 1829. 
 From a scaffold, elevated twenty-five feet above the table rock, making a descent alto- 
 gether of a hundred and twenty-five feet, he fearlessly plunged into the boiling caldron 
 beneath. From the moment of his immersion, he was seen no more. His body was 
 not discovered for many months, and was at length found at the mouth of the river, 
 six miles below. 
 
 Rochester is a place worth seeing. Twenty years ago there was not a house in the 
 neighborhood, and now there is a town, containing thirteen thousand good Americans 
 and true, with churches, banks, theatres, and all other oppidan appurtenances to match. 
 Such growth is more like forcing in a hot-bed, than the natural progress of human 
 vegetation. For a great deal of its prosperity, Rochester is indebted to the Erie canal, 
 whirl, brought its advantageous proximity to lake Ontario into full play. The canal 
 runs through the centre of the town, and crosses the Gennessee by an aqueduct, which, 
 according to the Northern Tourist, 'cost rising of eighty thousand dollars,' whatever 
 sum that may amount to. There are several streets in Rochester which might be 
 backed at reasonable odds against any in Hull or Newcastle, to say nothing of Cork, 
 Falmouth, or Berwick-upon-Tweed. The appearance of the shops indicates the preva- 
 lence of respectable opulence. Those of the jewellers display a stock of Paris trinkets 
 and silver snuff-boxes. There are silks and Leghorn bonnets for the seduction of the 
 ladies, and the windows of the tailors are adorned by colored prints of gentlemen in 
 tight-fitting swallow-tails, with the epigraph, ( New York fashions for May.' — Men and 
 Manners in America. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 327 
 
 the shore. The lumber trade of this town is extensive and profitable. 
 Population, three thousand two hundred and nineteen. 
 
 St. Atigustine, city of Florida, situated on the Atlantic shore of that 
 territory, is the oldest settlement in North America, having been founded 
 by the Spaniards forty years before the landing of the English at Jameston, 
 in Virginia. The breakers at the entrance of the harbor have formed two 
 channels, whose bars have eight feet of water each. A fort, mounting 
 thirty-six guns, defends the town. When Florida was ceded to the United 
 States, in 1821, the number of inhabitants was about two thousand five 
 hundred, and it has not increased. 
 
 St. Genevieve, a town of Missouri in the county of the same name, is 
 situated on the second bank of the Mississippi, about one mile from the 
 river, and twenty-one miles below Herculaneum. It was commenced 
 about the year 1774, and is a depot for most of the mines in the neighbor- 
 hood, and the store-house from whence are drawn the supplies of the 
 miners. Its site is a handsome plain ; the little river Gabourie, whose two 
 branches form a junction between the town and the river, waters it on its 
 upper and lower margins. The common field, inclosed and cultivated by 
 the citizens, contains about six thousand acres. A road runs from this 
 town to the lead mines, and the greater part of the inhabitants have an 
 interest in, or are employed in some way in, the lead trade. Population 
 about one thousand five hundred. 
 
 St. Louis., city and seat of justice of St. Louis county, Missouri, is situ- 
 ated on the right bank of the Mississippi river, twenty miles below its 
 junction with the Missouri. It was founded in 1774, but remained a mere 
 village while under the French and Spanish colonial governments. Its 
 situation is similar to that of Cincinnati. The principal street is more 
 than a mile in length. ' In 1814,' says Mr. Flint, ' there were but few 
 American houses in the place. There were a few stone houses covered 
 with plaster. The circular stone forts beyond the town, white with 
 plaster, and the hoariness of age, together with the whiteness of the houses 
 in general, from the French fashion of annual white-washing, gave the 
 town a romantic and imposing appearance, when seen from a distance. 
 With the exception of two or three aristocratic establishments, when con- 
 templated near at hand, the houses were mean, frail, and uncomfortable 
 establishments. The streets were narrow and dirty, and it was in fact a 
 disagreeable town. A new impulse was given by American laws, enter- 
 prise, and occupancy. Most of the houses, that have been added within 
 the last ten years, have been of brick or stone. Some of the public build- 
 ings are handsome. The French have communicated to the people a 
 taste for gardening, and there are a number of very handsome gardens in 
 and about the town. Very few towns in the United States, or the world, 
 have a more mixed population. Among the original inhabitants, there is 
 no inconsiderable sprinkling of Indian blood. The American population 
 predominates over the French, and is made up of emigrants from all the 
 states. It is a central point in the Mississippi valley for emigrants and 
 adventurers of every character. Making due allowance for this circum- 
 stance, the people are generally quiet and decent in their manners.' Popu- 
 lation, about seven thousand. 
 
 Salem, a seaport, and capital of Essex county, Massachusetts, in propor- 
 tion to its size, is one of the wealthiest towns in the United States. The 
 
328 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 population is about fourteen thousand. It is chiefly built on a tongue of 
 land formed by two inlets from the sea, called North and South rivers ; 
 over the former of which is a bridge one thousand five hundred feet long, 
 connecting Salem with Beverly, and the latter forms the harbor. The situ- 
 ation is low, but pleasant and healthy. The appearance of the town is 
 irregular, the streets having been laid out with little regard to symmetry or 
 beauty. The public buildings, among which are fifteen houses of public 
 worship, are neat, but not splendid. The private houses have generally 
 the appearance of neatness, comfort, and convenience, and many of them 
 indicate taste and opulence. The town was formerly built almost wholly 
 of wood, but a large proportion of the houses, erected within the last twen- 
 ty years, are of brick. 
 
 The Marine museum is a valuable collection of rare curiosities, collected 
 from all quarters of the globe, and presented by the members of the East 
 India society. The number of banks in this town is eight ; there are six 
 insurance companies. Three semi-weekly and two weekly papers are 
 "published. There are sixteen tanneries, eleven rope and twine factories, 
 two white lead factories, and a chemical laboratory. Much attention is 
 here paid to education, the schools being very numerous and well support- 
 ed. With the exception of Plymouth, Salem is the oldest settlement in 
 New England. It was founded in 1628. Its Indian name was Naum- 
 keag, and this name it long retained. 
 
 Salina, a post township, and seat of justice of Onondaga county, New 
 York, includes Onondaga lake, and the principal salt springs in the state. 
 Very extensive works have been established for several years ; the number 
 of manufactories of salt by artificial heat is one hundred and thirty-five. 
 In 1831, the amount of salt manufactured was nearly a million and a half 
 of bushels. These waters are owned by the state of New York, and a 
 duty of twelve and a half cents per bushel is exacted on all the salt manu- 
 factured from them. From sixteen to twenty-five ounces of salt are obtain- 
 ed from a gallon of water. Most of the salt hitherto made has been very 
 fine. The price is about twenty-five cents a bushel. This township in- 
 cludes four considerable villages, which contain more than seven thousand 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Saratoga, in a county of the same name in New York, is a pleasant 
 town, and presents a surface agreeably diversified with ranges of hills. It 
 is memorable for the surrender of Burgoyne to General Gates, on the 
 seventeenth of October, 1777. Population, two thousand four hundred and 
 sixty-one. 
 
 Saratoga Springs, an incorporated village in Saratoga county, New 
 York, and the great fashionable resort during summer, on account of its 
 mineral waters. The springs are numerous, and the accommodations for 
 visitors extensive ; but the surrounding country has few attractions. The 
 village is built on a low sandy plain. Population, two thousand two hun- 
 dred and four. 
 
 Suugerties, a town of Ulster county, New York, crossed by Esopus 
 creek. One mile west of it is the village, and at its mouth are extensive 
 manufacturing establishments, supplied with water by a canal cut deep 
 through a rock round the head of the falls, and leading into an artificial 
 basin. The creek is navigable for sloops to these mills. The inhabitants 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 329 
 
 are generally of Dutch descent. Population, three thousand eight hun* 
 dred. 
 
 Barclay's Iron Works, Saugerties. 
 
 Savannah, in Chatham county, a port of entry, and the principal empo- 
 rium of Georgia, is situated on the river of the same name, seventeen 
 miles from its mouth. It is built on a sandy cliff, elevated forty feet above 
 low tide. Vessels drawing fourteen feet of water come up to the city ; 
 larger vessels stop three miles below. The city is regularly laid out, and 
 contains ten squares, that, with the public walks, are planted with the Pride 
 of China trees, which contribute much to the salubrity, comfort and ornament 
 of the place. The streets are unpaved, and very sandy. The principal 
 public buildings are a court house, exchange, academy, and ten houses of 
 
 
 Interior of Presbyterian Church, 
 
 public worship. The exchange is a brick building of five stories. The 
 new Presbyterian church is a very elegant and spacious edifice of stone. 
 
 42 
 
 28* 
 
330 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The city, a few years ago, was built almost wholly of wood, with very 
 few elegant houses ; but a large proportion of the houses recently erected 
 are handsomely built of brick. Population, seven thousand three hundred 
 and three. 
 
 Saybrooh, in Middlesex county, Connecticut, and the spot of the first 
 settlement in the state, was founded in 1635. The ground was early laid 
 out for a city, and it was supposed that it would become a place of com- 
 mercial importance. Granite quarries near to navigable waters are found 
 in the vicinity. Population, five thousand and eighteen. 
 
 Schenectady, a city in Schenectady county, New York, about sixteen 
 miles north-west of Albany, is regularly built, and a pleasant and flourish- 
 ing place. The Erie canal passes through it, and communication with the 
 Hudson is facilitated by the rail-road to Albany ; the rail-road to Saratoga 
 is much travelled during the warm season. Many lines of stage coaches 
 pass through this city. Union college was incorporated in 1794, and is a 
 highly respectable institution. This town was one of the earliest settle- 
 ments in New York; it was built on the site of a Mohawk village. Popu- 
 lation, four thousand two hundred and sixty-eight. 
 
 Springfield, seat of justice in Hampden county, Massachusetts, is a 
 flourishing town, standing at the foot of a high hill, the side of which is 
 ornamented with fine buildings, the residences of some of the wealthier 
 inhabitants, and the top occupied by the United States armory. This 
 establishment occupies a large space of ground, and commands a fine 
 view. The buildings containing the work-shops for manufacturing small 
 arms, the arsenal, barracks, &c. are surrounded by a high wall; and the 
 habitations of the workmen, seen in several neighboring streets, are gene- 
 rally neat houses, with small gardens. The town is ornamented with 
 many fine elms. It was originally considered within the limits of Con- 
 necticut colony, but at length incorporated with Massachusetts. In 1786, 
 during the rebellion of Shays, he attacked the armory, at the head of a 
 strong party of undisciplined men. General Shepard, who had command 
 at the place, attempted to dissuade them from their attempt, and finally 
 drove them off by firing twice. The first shot, over their heads, dispersed 
 the raw troops, and the second drove off the remainder, who, being about 
 two hundred revolutionary soldiers, did not desist until they had lost a 
 few of their men. This was the first check the insurrection received, 
 which was put down without much subsequent trouble. 
 
 Bi -ides the usual county buildings, Springfield contains four churches, 
 and two insurance offices. It is a thriving seat of manufactures, and in 
 the division of the town called Chickapee village, there are four large 
 cotton factories, and a bleaching establishment. Three of the factories 
 give employment to six hundred persons. In this village there are also 
 iron works. Population of Springfield, six thousand seven hundred and 
 eighty-four. 
 
 Steubenville, seat of justice of Jefferson county, Ohio, situated on the 
 first and second banks of the Ohio river, was regularly laid out in 1798. 
 It is a flourishino- and pleasant place. Population, about three thousand. 
 
 Tallahassee, seat of government of Florida territory, is situated in Mid- 
 dle Florida, about twenty-five miles north of Apalachee bay. It was incor- 
 porated as a city in 1825. It is pleasantly situated in a fertile neighbor- 
 hood, and on a site considerably elevated. Population, about one thousand 
 two hundred. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 331 
 
 Taunton, shire town of Bristol county, Massachusetts, is pleasantly situ- 
 aied on Taunton river, which is navigable to this place for sloops. The 
 first settlement was made here in 1637 ; the Indian name was Cohannet. 
 It is a handsome and flourishing town, with excellent water power and 
 numerous manufactories; the nail factories make from eight to ten tons 
 daily. The first important iron works in America were erected here. 
 Population, six thousand and forty -two. 
 
 Ticonderoga, a town of Essex county, New York, ninety-six miles north 
 of Albany. There is a valuable iron mine in this township. Ticondero- 
 ga fort, famous in the American wars, stands on an elevation on the wes 
 side of lake Champlain, north of the entrance of the outlet from lake 
 George. Considerable vestiges of the fortress still remain, of which a de- 
 scription is given in another part of the volume. About a mile south of 
 the fort, stands mount Defiance, and mount Independence is half a mile 
 distant on the opposite side of the lake. Population, two thousand. 
 
 Trenton, city of Hunterdon county, New Jersey, and capital of the 
 state, is situated on the east bank of the river Delaware, opposite the falls, 
 thirty-one miles from Philadelphia, and sixty from New York. It is a 
 handsome town, standing nearly in the centre of the state, from north to 
 south, and at the head of sloop navigation ; the river not being navigable 
 above the falls, except for boats carrying from five to seven hundred bush- 
 els of wheat. The streets are very commodious, and the houses neatly 
 built. The public buildings are, the state house, two banks, and six 
 churches. In the neighborhood are a number of gentlemen's seats, finely 
 situated on the banks of the river, and ornamented with taste and elegance. 
 Trenton bridge, over the Delaware, is a beautiful structure. It consists of five 
 arches of one hundred and ninety-four feet span each ; the whole length is 
 nine hundred and seventy feet, the breadth thirty-six. The Delaware and 
 Raritan canal, extending from Trenton to New Brunswick, crosses the- city, 
 and is joined by the feeder, which enters the river above the falls. There 
 are several mills and manufactories in the neighborhood. Trenton is con- 
 nected with memorable events in our revolutionary history. Population, 
 four thousand. 
 
 Troy, a city and capital of Rensselaer county, New York, stands on the 
 east bank of the Hudson, six miles north of Albany. It is built on a hand- 
 some elevation, is regularly laid out, and contains some beautiful private 
 residences. Many of the streets are shaded by fine trees, and the general 
 aspect of the city is attractive and elegant. The taxable property in 1S31 
 amounted to nearly four millions of dollars. The situation of the town 
 for trade and manufactures is very commanding. It enjoys excellent com- 
 munication with the interior ; large sloops and steamboats ascend the river 
 to this place; and a dam across the Hudson, with a branch canal, locks, 
 and a basin, opens a communication with the Erie and Champlain canals. 
 Hourly stages run to Albany. The water power of the streams which 
 rise in the neighboring eminences is well employed, and by means of it 
 several manufactories are carried on. About twenty-five thousand barrels 
 ot beer, ninety-five thousand rolls of paper, seven hundred thousand pounds 
 of tallow and soap, one hundred thousand pair of boots and shoes, two 
 thousand tons of nails and spikes, and twenty-five thousand bells, are 
 made here annually. Large quantities of •lumber, flour, grain, beef, pork, 
 wool, and other articles, besides manufactured goods, are shipped to the 
 
332 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 river towns, and to New York, New Jersey, and Boston. There are nine 
 churches in this town, three banks, two insurance companies, a court house 
 of Sing-Sing marble, a female seminary of considerable reputation, and a 
 literary institution for the practical education of young men. Population, 
 eleven thousand four hundred and five. 
 
 Troy, in Bristol county, Massachusetts, lies on the west side of Taunton 
 river, and includes Fall River village, an extensive manufacturing place. 
 In this place are thirteen cotton factories, a satinet factory, a print factory, 
 large iron works, and machine shops. This place has been of recent and 
 rapid growth. Population, about five thousand. 
 
 Tuscaloosa, seat of justice of Tuscaloosa county, and capital of the 
 state of Alabama, is situated on the left bank of Black Warrior river, three 
 hundred and twenty miles above Mobile. The name of this town is the 
 Choctaw word for Black Warrior. The first settlement was made iri 
 1816-17, and, by the last census, it contained one thousand six hundred 
 inhabitants. A few log huts of the original settlers still remain. 
 
 Utica, city of Oneida county, New York, is pleasantly situated on the 
 south side of the river Mohawk, and is one of the largest and most import- 
 ant of the western towns of this state. The river, the great road, and the 
 Erie canal, all meet, and roads from a variety of directions concentrate at 
 this point. The canal level is four hundred and twenty-five feet above the 
 tide water at Albany. The streets are broad, straight, and commodious; 
 the principal ones are well built, with rows of brick stores, or elegant 
 dwelling-houses. The chartered institutions are fifteen, including three 
 banks, two insurance companies, an aqueduct company, and associations 
 for literary and benevolent purposes. There are also thirty-three charita- 
 ble societies not chartered, and thirty-six private schools. Numerous ma- 
 nufactories are in operation in the neighborhood. The situation of Utica 
 gives it superior advantages for trade, and has led to a flourishing business 
 and considerable wealth. The canal commerce in 1831, yielded tolls to 
 the amount of nine hundred and thirty-eight thousand dollars. In 1794, 
 Utica contained nineteen families ; its present population is estimated at 
 ten thousand persons. It was incorporated as a city in 1830 ; and it is 
 worthy of mention that its charter expressly prohibits the licensing of shops 
 for the retail of ardent spirits. 
 
 Vandalia, in Fayette county, Illinois, and the seat of government, is 
 
 situated on a high bank of the" river Kaskaskia, eighty miles north-east by 
 
 east, from St. Louis. Though founded but a few years since, it is a place 
 
 pectable appearance, and will soon command an extensive business. 
 
 Population, about five hundred. 
 
 rgenries, a city of Addison county, Vermont, is situated at the head 
 of navigation, on Otter creek. It was incorporated in 17S8. In 1S14, 
 Commodore M'Donough's flotilla was equipped here ; and the lan?e lake 
 steamboats have laid up here for the winter. Some ship-building is car- 
 ried on, and the trade of the place is considerable. Population, one thousand. 
 
 \ evay, the seat of justice of Switzerland county, Indiana, is situated on 
 the Ohio river, about forty-five miles below Cincinnati. The settlement 
 was commenced by a few emigrants from Switzerland, in the spring of 
 1805. I here has been a gradual accession of numbers to this interesting 
 colony. As early as 1S10, they had eight acres of vineyard, from which 
 they made two thousand four hundred gallons of wine. A part of this 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 333 
 
 wine was made out of the Madeira grape. They have now greatly aug- 
 mented the number of their vineyards, which, when bearing, present to 
 the eye of the observer, the most interesting agricultural prospect, perhaps 
 ever witnessed in the United States. They also cultivate Indian corn, wheat, 
 potatoes, hemp, flax, and other articles necessary to farmers, but in quanti- 
 ties barely sufficient for domestic use. Some of their women manufacture 
 straw hats, made quite differently from the common straw bonnets, by 
 tying the straws together, instead of plaiting and sewing the plaits. They 
 are sold in great numbers in the neighboring settlements, and in the states 
 of Mississippi and Indiana. Population, about fifteen hundred. 
 
 Vincennes, the seat of justice for Knox county, Indiana, stands on the 
 east bank of the Wabash, one hundred and fifty miles from its junction 
 with the Ohio. The plan of the -town is handsomely designed; the 
 streets are wide, and cross each other at right angles. Almost every 
 house has a garden in its rear, with high substantial picket fences. The 
 common field near the town contains nearly five thousand acres, of excel- 
 lent prairie soil, which has been cultivated for more than half a century, 
 and yet retains its pristine fertility. Population, about eighteen hundred. 
 This town was settled in 1735, by French emigrants from Canada, and, 
 next to Kaskaskia, is the oldest town in the western world. Of late years, 
 it has rapidly improved, and now contains three hundred houses, besides 
 churches, and the usual county buildings. 
 
 Walt ham, in Middlesex county, Massachusetts, on the north side of 
 Charles river, is a pleasant town, and contains three cotton factories, among 
 the most extensive and best conducted in the country. These establish- 
 ments were commenced in 1814. The proprietors of the factories support 
 two schools at this place, where gratuitous instruction is regularly provided. 
 Population, about one thousand nine hundred. 
 
 Warwick, seat of justice of Kent county, Rhode Island, is one of the most 
 important manufacturing towns in the country. The fisheries are also 
 extensive. The branches of the Pawtucket river unite here, and furnish 
 valuable water power. Population, five thousand, five hundred and 
 twenty-nine. 
 
 Washington, capital of the District of Columbia, and scat of the general 
 government of the United States, is situated on the left bank of the Poto- 
 mac, near the head of tide water, and by the river and bay two hundred and 
 ninety miles from the Atlantic. It is divided into three distinct divisions, 
 which are built about the navy yard, the capitol, and the Pennsylvania 
 avenue. The principal streets meet from all points of the compass, at the 
 capitol, and bear the names of the older states of the union. Some of the 
 minor streets are distinguished by the letters of the alphabet, and tracts of 
 ground have been reserved for public squares. Except during the sessions of 
 congress, when the city is thronged with strangers from all parts of the coun- 
 try, there is little to interest one but the public buildings and the navy yard. 
 
 The president's house is a large edifice of white marble, with Grecian 
 fronts, situated about a mile west of the capitol, and near the public offices. 
 It is two stories high, with a lofty basement, and one hundred and eighty 
 feet long, by eighty-five in width ; it is surrounded by a wall. The en- 
 trance hall leads into the drawing room, where the company are received 
 &t the levees. The capitol is placed in an area of above twenty acres of 
 ground, inclosed by an iron railing, and commands, by the sudden declivi- 
 
334 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tv of the ground on one side, a very charming view of the city and adjoin- 
 ing country, and of the river Potomac. The building is three hundred 
 
 President's House. 
 
 and fifty-two feet in front, and the greatest height to the top is one hundred 
 and forty-five feet. The chamber of representatives is semi-circular, in 
 
 . mm 
 
 Capitol. 
 
 the form of the ancient Grecian theatre. It is surrounded by twenty-four 
 columns of variegated native marble, from the banks of the Potomac, 
 which stand on a base of free-stone, and support the magnificent dome- 
 The seats for the members are conveniently disposed ; each member has 
 his fixed place, a chair, and a small desk. An engraved plan of the 
 house, a copy of which is easily procured at the door, points out the name 
 and place of each member, so that by referring to the plan, every member 
 is at once known. The hall of the" senate is a good deal smaller than 
 that of the representatives, and is very elegantly fitted up. It is also semi- 
 circular, and the president's chair is in the centre. In another part of the 
 building is the library of congress ; the great hall contains four national 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 335 
 
 pictures, painted by Colonel Trumbull, and four relievos in marble, repre- 
 senting scenes connected with various portions of our history. 
 
 Interior of the Home of Representatives. 
 
 The treasury, navy, war, and land offices are all in the vicinity of the 
 
 ? resident's house ; as, also, are the residences of the foreign ministers, 
 'he patent office is in the same building with the general post office, and 
 
 Department of State. 
 
 contains numerous models of inventions, in all branches t)f art. There 
 are more than three thousand dwellings in Washington, and the population 
 is estimated at about nineteen thousand five hundred.* 
 
 * A recent traveller, who entertains no great partiality for the institutions of our 
 country, but whose volume is well written, and entertaining, makes the following obser- 
 vations on the society of our metropolis : 
 
 Washington is, undoubtedly, the gayest place in the union ; and must, I should 
 imagine, be the very paradise of hackney coachmen. If these gentlemen do not get 
 
336 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Waterville, a town of Kennebec county, Maine, on the west side of the 
 river Kennebec, eighteen miles north by east of Augusta. The principal 
 village stands at the head of boat navigation, and its trade is flourishing. 
 The°Wesleyan seminary is established here; in this institution, the stu- 
 dents contribute to their support by manual labor. Population, two thou- 
 sand two hundred and sixteen. 
 
 Watervliet, a town of Albany county, New York, six miles north of 
 Albany, belonging principally, to the manor of Rensselaerwick. At this 
 place the Erie crosses the Mohawk canal, and descends by double locks to 
 the Champlain canal. In the west part is Niskayuna, a settlement of the 
 Shakers. At Gibbonsville, another village of the township, is an arsenal 
 of the United Stales. Population, four thousand nine hundred and sixty- 
 two. 
 
 WethersficM, in Hartford county, Connecticut, is a very pleasant town, 
 having broad streets shaded with elms. It was founded in 1634, and is 
 the oldest settlement on Connecticut river. Rich and extensive meadows 
 border the river, and a broad and high level tract, at about a mile distant, 
 affords a fine soil for onions, which are raised here in large quantities. 
 The state prison at this place has been erected within a few years, and the 
 discipline pursued here is similar to that of Auburn. For details on the 
 
 rich, it must be owing to some culpable extravagance, for their vehicles are in continual 
 demand from the hour of dinner till five in the morning, and long distances and heavy 
 charges are all in their favor. Washington, too, is the only place in the union where 
 people consider it necessary to be agreeable ; where pleasing, as in the old world, be- 
 comes a sort of business, and the enjoyments of social intercourse enter into the habi- 
 tual calculations of every one. 
 
 The reason of this is obvious enough. The duties of legislation bring together a 
 large body of gentlemen from all quarters of the union, whose time in the morning is 
 generally passed in the capitol ; but who, without the delassements of dinner parties and 
 balls, would find their evening hours a burden somewhat difficult to dispose of. Idle 
 men are always pleasant; they feel the necessity of being so, and make it their occu- 
 pation, when they have no other. Your lawyer, or your merchant, on the other hand, 
 is so engrossed by weightier matters, that he has no time to cultivate the graces of life. 
 or those thousand arts of courtesy which contribute so materially to enhance the enjoy- 
 ments of society. The experience of the world is in favor of the assertion, that it is 
 impossible to excel both in pleasure and business. A man of talent may select the 
 sphere of his ambition, the bar, the pulpit, the exchange, the senate, or the drawing- 
 room : but to attempt the honors of a double triumph is, in general, to secure but dupli- 
 cit 5 of failure. 
 
 in Washington, all are idle enough to be as agreeable as they can. The business of 
 : ess is no greal burden on the shoulders of any of its members; and a trip to 
 lis generally regarded as a sort of annual lark, which enables a man to pass 
 'iter months more pleasantly than in the country. A considerable number of the 
 i ■ :i i milies, with a view of obtaining introduction to better society 
 than they can. hope to meet elsewhere ; but the majority leave such incumbrances at 
 ■ some, ii may be presumed, from taste, and others from economy, 
 re are tew families that make Washington their permanent residence, and the 
 city, therefore, has rather the aspect of a watering place, than the metropolis of a great 
 The members of congress generally live together in small boarding-houses, 
 which, from all I saw of them, are shabby and uncomfortable. Gentlemen with fami- 
 ne lodgings, or occupy apartments in a hotel; and it is really marvellous, at the 
 Washington parties, to see how many people are contrived to be stowed away in a 
 drawing-room, somewhat smaller than an ordinary-sized pigeon-house. On such occa- 
 ni' does not suffer so much from heat as from suffocation ; for not only does the 
 whole atmosphere become tainted in quality, but there seems an absolute deficiency in 
 quantity for the pulmonary demands of the company. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 337 
 
 subject, refer to the chapter on Prison Discipline. Population, about four 
 thousand. 
 
 Wheeling, seat of justice for Ohio county, Virginia, is situated on a high 
 bank of the river Ohio, ninety-five miles below Pittsburgh. It is surround- 
 ed by bold and steep hills abounding in coal. The great national road 
 from Baltimore strikes the river at this place. Its position possesses many 
 advantages, and its growth of late years has been very rapid. Wheeling 
 fort, built at an early period of the revolution, was the origin of the settle- 
 ment. It is a constant resort for travellers, and promises to be a place of 
 much importance. Population, five thousand two hundred and fifty. 
 
 Williamsburg, the seat of justice of James City county, Virginia, situ- 
 ated between York and James rivers, sixty miles south-east by east of 
 Richmond, was formerly the metropolis of the state, but has greatly de- 
 clined. The college of William and Mary was founded here in 1693, but 
 is now in decay, though attempts are making to revive its former prosper- 
 ous condition. 
 
 Williamstown, in Berkshire county, Massachusetts, is situated in the 
 north-west corner of the state, one hundred and thirty-five miles north by 
 west from Boston. It has two congregational churches, and a college. 
 Williams college was incorporated in 1793. Population, two thousand 
 one hundred and thirty-four. 
 
 Wilmington, city, and port of entry, of New Castle county, Delaware, 
 between the Brandywine and Christiana creeks, one mile above their 
 junction, twenty-eight miles south-west of Philadelphia, is pleasantly situ- 
 ated on moderately elevated ground. It is mostly built of brick, and the 
 streets are regularly laid out. The water power in the vicinity is great, 
 and is employed in saw mills, powder and paper mills, and a variety of 
 manufactories to a very considerable extent. The finest collection of flour 
 mills in the United States is at this place. Population, six thousand six 
 hundred and twenty-eight. 
 
 Wilmington, port of entry, and seat of justice of New Hanover county, 
 North Carolina, is situated on the east side of Cape Fear river, and has 
 an extensive trade. Most of the exports from the state are from this 
 town. The entrance to the harbor is rendered difficult by a shoal, but it 
 admits vessels of three hundred tons. Opposite the town are three islands, 
 which afford excellent rice-fields. Population, three thousand. 
 
 Windsor, seat of justice of Windsor county, Vermont, pleasantly situat- 
 ed on the west bank of the Connecticut, is surrounded by romantic and 
 picturesque scenery. It contains a state prison, and several handsome 
 houses, and its manufactures are considerable. Population, three thousand 
 one hundred and thirty-four. 
 
 Worcester, seat of justice of Worcester county, Massachusetts, forty 
 miles west by south of Boston, is one of the most flourishing towns in 
 New England, and is a great thoroughfare for travellers. It lies principal- 
 ly on one long and broad street, nearly level, and shaded with fine trees. 
 It contains the usual county buildings, four churches, and the Massachu- 
 setts Lunatic hospital, a spacious structure of brick, admirably arranged, 
 and calculated for the accommodation of one hundred and twenty patients. 
 The American Antiquarian society was founded and endowed by the 
 late Isaiah Thomas; it has a handsome building, containing a hall, a 
 valuable cabinet, and a library of eight thousand volumes, including many 
 43 29 
 
338 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ancient and rare works on American history. There are three printing 
 offices, which issue four weekly newspapers. The Blackstone canal termi- 
 nates in this town, and furnishes boat navigation to Providence. A rail- 
 road from Boston to Worcester has been commenced, and is in a state of 
 rapid progress. This town was first settled in 1674, and at an early 
 period suffered much from the attacks of the Indians. It was called 
 Quinsigamond by the natives. Population, four thousand two hundred 
 and seventy-one. 
 
 York, port of entry, and semi-metropolis of York county, Maine, was 
 laid out originally for a large city, and is a place of considerable trade. 
 York river runs through it, and empties into the ocean, affording a good 
 harbor for vessels of two hundred tons. Population, three thousand five 
 hundred. 
 
 Yorktoivn, port of entry, and seat of justice, York county, Virginia, is 
 situated on the south side of York river. The river at this place affords 
 the best harbor in the state ; but the town has not become populous, nor the 
 trade extensive. Yorktown will always be famous for the surrender of 
 the British army under Cornwallis, at the close of the revolutionary war. 
 The number of prisoners was seven thousand one hundred and seven, and 
 the American contest for independence was thus happily concluded. 
 
 Zanesville, a flourishing town, and seat of justice for Muskingum coun- 
 ty, Ohio, is situated on the east bank of Muskingum river, seventy-four 
 miles west from Wheeling in Virginia. The river has falls here, which 
 afford water power for a number of factories. The great Cumberland road 
 passes through the town. Population, three thousand and fifty-six. 
 
339 
 
 CHAPTER III.— AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Our sketch of the agriculture of the United States must be brief and 
 general ; as the numerous subjects to be treated in the present volume do 
 not allow space for very minute details. The vast extent of the country, 
 and its various soil and climate, afford growth to a great variety of pro- 
 ductions. As a science, agriculture was formerly much neglected, and it 
 is only of late years that it has received any thing of the attention it de- 
 serves. ' It is indeed a lamentable truth,' says Mr. Watson, ' that, for the 
 most part, our knowledge and practice of agriculture, at the close of the 
 revolutionary war, were in a state of demi-barbarism, with some solitary 
 exceptions. The labors, I may say, of only three agricultural societies in 
 America, at that epoch, conducted by ardent patriots, by philosophers, and 
 gentlemen, in New York state, Philadelphia, and Boston, kept alive a 
 spirit of inquiry, often resulting in useful and practical operations ; and yet 
 these measures did not reach the doors of practical farmers, to any visible 
 extent. Nor was their plan of organization calculated to infuse a spirit of 
 emulation, Avhich county, or state, should excel in the honorable strife of 
 competition in discoveries and improvements, in drawing from the soil the 
 greatest quantum of net profits within a given space ; at the same time, 
 keeping the land in an improving condition, in reference to its native vigor. 
 These results, and the renovation of lands exhausted by means of a barba- 
 rous course of husbandry, for nearly two centuries, are the cardinal points 
 now in progression in our old settled countries, stimulated by the influence 
 of agricultural societies. Nor did their measures produce any essential or 
 extensive effects in the improvement of the breeds of domestic animals ; 
 much less in exciting to rival efforts the female portion of the community, 
 in calling forth the active energies of our native resources in relation to 
 household manufactures. The scene is now happily reversed in all direc- 
 tions. Perhaps there is no instance, in any age or country, where a whole 
 nation has emerged, in so short a period, from such general depression, 
 into such a rapid change in the several branches to which I have already 
 alluded; in some instances, it has been like the work of magic' 
 
 The early neglect of agriculture may be traced to very obvious causes. 
 The first settlements in the country were made along the shores of the sea, 
 or on the banks of navigable rivers. Population was thin and scattered, 
 and the ocean with its tributary waters offered by far the easiest means of 
 subsistence. The fisheries and navigation naturally attracted their active 
 attention, and the cultivation of the earth was limited to the supply of the 
 necessaries of life, and a scanty surplus to answer the humble demands of 
 colonial commerce. The circumstances of the country, down to the very 
 era of the revolutionary struggle, were such as tended unavoidably to re- 
 duce agriculture below its just consequence in the scale of useful employ 
 ments, and to elevate all the arts connected with navigation above their 
 proper estimation. Capital was drawn off from the pursuits of agriculture, 
 
340 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and devoted to the more lucrative pursuits of commerce. When to this is 
 added the unceasing drain upon the agricultural population, by the pros- 
 pects which the extent of the interior, and the cheapness of lands, open- 
 ed to their enterprise, and the consequent effect upon the demand for labor, 
 there is more cause of surprise that the actual state of cultivation is so 
 good, than of reproach that it did not receive higher improvement. The 
 increase of population in the United States, and the long-continued peace 
 in Europe, by limiting the sphere and diminishing the profits of commercial 
 speculation, have operated to withdraw capital from the sea, and invest it 
 in agriculture and manufactures. 
 
 The farms of the eastern, northern, and middle states consist, generally, 
 of from fifty to two hundred acres, seldom rising to more than three hun- 
 dred, and generally falling short of two hundred acres. These farms are 
 inclosed, and divided either by stone walls, or rail fences made of timber, 
 hedges not being common. The building first erected on a new lot, or on 
 a tract of land not yet cleared from its native growth of timber, is what is 
 called a log-house. This is a hut or cabin, made of round, straight logs, 
 about a foot in diameter, lying on each other, and notched in at the cor- 
 ners. The intervals between the logs are filled with slips of wood, and 
 the crevices generally stopped with mortar made of clay. The fire-place 
 commonly consists of rough stones, so placed as to form a hearth, on which 
 wood may be burned. Sometimes these stones are made to assume the 
 form of a chimney, and are carried up through the roof; and sometimes a 
 hole in the roof is the only substitute for a chimney. The roof is made 
 of rafters, forming an acute angle at the summit of the erection, and is 
 covered with shingles, commonly split from pine trees, or with bark, peeled 
 from the hemlock. 
 
 When the occupant or first settler of this new land finds himself in com- 
 fortable circumstances, he builds what is styled a frame house, composed 
 of timber, held together by tenons, mortises and pins, and boarded, shingled 
 and clapboarded on the outside, and often painted white, sometimes red. 
 Houses of this kind generally contain a dining-room and kitchen, and three 
 or four bed-rooms on the same floor. They are rarely destitute of good 
 cellars, which the nature of the climate renders almost indispensable. The 
 farm-buildings consist of a barn, proportioned to the size of the farm, with 
 stalls for horses and cows on each side, and a threshing-floor in the middle ; 
 and the more wealthy farmers add a cellar under the barn, a part of which 
 receives the manure from the stalls, and another part serves as a store- 
 room for roots, &c. for feeding stock. What is called a corn-barn is like- 
 wise very common, which is built exclusively for storing the ears of Indian 
 corn. The sleepers of this building are generally set up four or five feet 
 from the ground, on smooth stone posts or pillars, which rats, mice, or 
 other vermin cannot ascend. 
 
 A\ itb regard to the best manner of clearing forest land from its natural 
 growth of timber, the following observations may be of use to a first settler. 
 In those parts of the country where wood is of but little value, the trees are 
 felled in one of the summer months, the earlier in the season the better, as 
 the stumps will be less apt to sprout, and the trees will have a longer time 
 to dry. The trees lie till the following spring, when such limbs as are not 
 very near the ground should be cut off, that they may burn the better. 
 Fire must be put to them in the driest part of the month of May, or, if the 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 341 
 
 whole of that month prove wet. it may be applied in the beginning of June. 
 Only the bodies of the trees Avill remain after burning, and some of them 
 will be burned into pieces. Those which require to be made shorter, are 
 cut in pieces nearly of a length, drawn together by oxen, piled in close 
 heaps, and burned, such trees and logs being reserved as may be needed 
 for fencing the lot. The heating of the soil so destroys the green roots, 
 and the ashes made by the burning are so beneficial as manure to the land, 
 that it will produce a good crop of wheat or Indian corn, without plough- 
 ing, hoeing, or manuring. If new land lie in such a situation that its 
 natural growth may turn to better account, whether for timber or fire-wood, 
 it will be an unpardonable waste to burn the wood on the ground. But if 
 the trees be taken off, the land must be ploughed after clearing, or it will 
 not produce a crop of any kind. 
 
 The following remarks on this subject are extracted from some observa- 
 tions by Samuel Preston, of Stockport, Pennsylvania, a very observing 
 cultivator. They were first published in the New England Farmer, 
 issued at Boston, and may prove serviceable to settlers on uncleared 
 lands. Previous to undertaking to clear land, Mr. Preston advises, — ' 1st. 
 Take a view of all large trees, and see which way they may be felled for 
 the greatest number of small trees to be felled along-side or on them. After 
 felling the large trees, only lop down their limbs ; but all such as are fell- 
 ed near them should be cut in suitable lengths for two men to roll and pile 
 about the large trees, by which means they may be nearly all burned up, 
 without cutting into lengths, or the expense of a strong team, to draw them 
 together. 2d. Fell all the other trees parallel, and cut them into suitable 
 lengths, that they may be readily rolled together without a team, always cut- 
 ting the largest trees first, that the smallest may be loose on the top, to feed the 
 fires. 3d. On hill-sides, fell the timber in a level direction ; then the logs 
 will roll together ; but if the trees are felled down hill, all the logs must be 
 turned round before they can be rolled, and there will be stumps in the 
 way. 4th. By following these directions, two men may readily heap and 
 burn most of the timber, without requiring any team; and perhaps the 
 brands and the remains of the log heaps may all be wanted to burn up the 
 old, fallen trees. After proceeding as directed, the ground will be clear 
 for a team and sled to draw the remains of the heaps where they may be 
 wanted round the old logs. Never attempt either to chop or draw a large 
 log, until the size and weight are reduced by fire. The more fire-heaps 
 there are made on the clearing, the better, particularly about the old logs, 
 where there is rotten wood. 
 
 ' The best time of the year to fell the timber, in a great measure, depends 
 on the season's being wet or dry. Most people prefer having it felled in 
 the month of June, when the leaves are of full size. Then, by spreading 
 the leaves and brush over the ground, (for they should not be heaped,) if 
 there should be a very dry time the next May, fire may be turned through 
 it, and will burn the leaves, limbs, and top of the ground, so that a very 
 good crop of Indian corn and pumpkins may be raised among the logs by 
 hoeing. After these crops come off, the land may be cleared and sowed 
 late with rye and timothy grass, or with oats and timothy in the spring. 
 If what is called a good burn cannot be had in May, keep the fire out un- 
 til some very dry time in July or August ; then clear off the land, and 
 sow wheat or rye and timothy, harrowing several times, both before and- 
 
 29* 
 
342 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 after sowing ; for, after the fire has been over the ground, the sod of timo- 
 thy should be introduced as soon as the other crops will admit, to prevent 
 briers, alders, fire-cherries, &c. from springing up from such seeds as were 
 not consumed by the fire. 
 
 ' The timothy should stand four or five years, either for mowing or pas- 
 ture, until the small roots of the forest trees are rotten ; then it may be 
 ploughed ; and the best mode which I have observed, is to plough it very 
 shallow in the autumn; in the spring, cross-plough it deeper, harrow it 
 well, and it will produce a first rate crop of Indian corn and potatoes, and, 
 the next season, the largest and best crop of flax that I have ever seen, and 
 be in order to cultivate with any kinds of grain, or to lay down again with 
 grass. These directions are to be understood as applying to what are 
 generally called beech lands, and the chopping may be done any time in 
 the winter, when the snow is not too deep to cut low stumps, as the leaves 
 are then on the ground. By leaving the brush spread abroad, I have 
 known such winter choppings to burn as well in a dry time in August, as 
 that which had been cut the summer before.'* 
 
 ' The various crops,' says Mr. Stuart, ' raised in that part of the state of 
 New York which I have seen, are very much the same as in Britain, with 
 the addition of maize, for which the climate of Britain is not well adapted. 
 Wheat, however, is the most valuable crop. A considerable quantity of 
 buckwheat and rye is grown. The greater degree of heat is not favorable 
 for oats and barley. Potatoes, turnips, and other green crops, are not at all 
 generally cultivated in large fields. Rotation of crops is far too little at- 
 tended to. I observe in the magazines and almanacs, that in the rotations, 
 a crop of turnips, ruta-baga, or other green plants, is generally put down 
 as one part of the course ; but I have nowhere seen more than the margins 
 or edges of the maize, or other grain, devoted to the green crop, properly 
 so called. The attention of the farmers seems chiefly directed to the 
 raising enough of maize for home consumption, and of wheat for sale ; and 
 when you talk to them of the necessity of manuring, with a view to pre- 
 serve the fertility of the soil, they almost uniformly tell you that the ex- 
 pense of labor, about a dollar a day, for laborers during the summer, ren- 
 ders it far more expedient for them, as soon as their repeated cropping very 
 much diminishes the quantity of the grain, to lay down their land in grass, 
 and make a purchase of new land in the neighborhood, or even to sell their 
 cleared land, and proceed in quest of a new settlement, than to adopt a 
 system of rotation of crops, assisted by manure. There is great inconve- 
 nience, according to the notions of the British, in removing from one farm 
 to another ; but they make very light work of it here, and consider it to be 
 merely a question of finance, whether they shall remain on their improved 
 land, after they have considerably exhausted its fertilizing power, or ac- 
 quire and remove to land of virgin soil. In a great part of the northern 
 district of the state of New York, there is still a great deal of land to be 
 cleared ; and a farmer may, in many cases, acquire additions to his farm, 
 so near his residence that his houses may suit the purpose of his new ac- 
 quisition ; but he is more frequently tempted to sell at a price from fifteen 
 to thirty dollars an acre, supposing the land not to be contiguous to any 
 village. If he obtains land near his first farm, after he has worn it out, 
 
 * Encyclopedia Americana. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 343 
 
 he lays down the first farm in grass, allows it to be pastured for some 
 years, and breaks it up again with oats. 
 
 'Maize, or Indian com, which, par excellence, is alone in this country- 
 called corn, is a most important addition to the crops which we are able to 
 raise in Britain. It is used as food for man in a great variety of ways, as 
 bread, as porridge, in which case it is called mush, and in puddings. 
 When unripe, and in the green pod, it is not unlike green peas, and is in 
 that state sold as a vegetable. One species, in particular, called green 
 corn, is preferable for this purpose. Broom corn is another species, of the 
 stalks of which a most excellent kind of clothes brush, in universal use at 
 New York, is made, as well as brooms for sweeping house floors. Horses, 
 cattle, and poultry, are all fond of this grain, and thrive well on it. The 
 straw is very nutritive, and considerable in quantity. The usual period 
 of sowing is from the fifteenth of May to the first of June, in drills from 
 three and a half to four and a half feet apart, and the seed from four to six 
 inches apart. It is harvested in October, sometimes later. The hoe weed- 
 ing and cleaning of this crop is expensive, the whole work being performed 
 by males, — females, as already noticed, never being allowed to work out 
 of doors. Pumpkins are very generally sown between the rows of corn, 
 and give the field quite a golden appearance, after the corn itself is har- 
 vested. 
 
 ' Thirty-five or forty bushels of corn per acre is considered a good 
 average crop, on land suited to it, well prepared, and well managed ; but 
 one hundred and fifty bushels have been raised on an acre. Arthur 
 Young remarks, " that a country whose soil and climate admit the course 
 of maize, and then wheat, is under a cultivation that perhaps yields the 
 most food for man and beast that is possible to be drawn from the land !" 
 That course is frequently adopted here, and with success, where the soil, 
 lately cleared, is of the best description, and might, without question, be 
 continued for many years, if a sufficient quantity of manure was allowed ; 
 but where such a course is persisted in without manure, after the land has 
 been severely cropped, the crops which follow are inferior in quantity to 
 crops of the same description on similar soils in Britain. As a cleaning 
 crop, maize is most valuable, but, being a culmiferous plant, it is, of course, 
 far more exhausting than the green crops, which, in Britain, in most cases 
 precede wheat. 
 
 ' Wheat is sown in the end of September, and some part of it in spring, 
 — if after maize, it should be sown as soon as possible after that crop is 
 harvested. It is reaped in July- It is excellent in quality ; if the flour 
 which we have seen in every place where we have been, and the bread we 
 eat, are tests by which to judge of it. Thirty-five and forty bushels of 
 wheat is considered a very abundant crop, — the average produce in that 
 part of the United States in which wheat is grown, is said not to exceed 
 thirteen bushels, while in England it is reckoned at twenty-five bushels. 
 
 ' Barley or oats very frequently succeed wheat before the land is laid 
 down in grass, or again bears a crop of maize ; but it is not to be under- 
 stood that barley, and even oats, do not in many cases follow the crop of 
 maize immediately, and precede the wheat crop. 
 
 ' Oats are sowed in the end of April and beginning of May, and are 
 reaped in August or the beginning of September. We saw several fields 
 not cut, but no very great crop, in the northern part of this state in the 
 
344 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 beginning of September. The average crop is said to be twenty bushels 
 per acre ; but from forty to fifty bushels are often obtained by good manage- 
 ment. The grain is not so plump as in Britain. In 1827, the premium 
 of one of the agricultural societies was given for fifty-seven bushels on an 
 acre. Barley is sown at about the same time as oats, and reaped two or 
 three weeks earlier ; the produce about one fifth less than oats. 
 
 ' Potatoes, turnips, ruta-baga, peas, lucern, &c. are all to be seen here in 
 small quantities, but not so well managed as in well-cultivated districts of 
 Britain. The high price of labor is the great obstacle to the management 
 which those crops require. It is not because the farmer does not under- 
 stand his business, that such crops are apparently not sufficiently attended 
 to, but because he in all cases calculates whether it will not be more pro- 
 fitable for him to remove his establishment to a new and hitherto unim- 
 poverished soil, than to commence and carry on an extensive system of 
 cultivation, by manuring and fallow, or green crops. Such a system may 
 be adopted in the neighborhood of great towns, where many green crops 
 are easily disposed of, and where manure can be had in large quantity, 
 and at a cheap rate ; but it is in vain to look for its adoption at all gene- 
 rally, or to expect to see agricultural operations in their best style, until 
 the land, even in the most distant states and territories, be occupied, so 
 that the farmer may no longer find it more for his interest to begin his 
 operations anew, on land previously uncultivated, than to manage his farm 
 according to the method which will render it most productive. 
 
 ' Prices of grain vary much. Wheat is, of course, the grain which the 
 farmer chiefly raises for market, and he considers himself remunerated, if 
 the price is not below a dollar for a bushel. Flour, when wheat is at a 
 dollar per bushel, is expected to bring somewhat more than five dollars per 
 barrel of one hundred and ninety-six pounds. Indian corn, two shillings 
 to two shillings and six pence per bushel ; oats, one shilling and two pence 
 to one shilling and four pence ; barley, one shilling and six pence to one 
 shilling and eight pence. 
 
 1 It is difficult to give any precise information as to the wages of labor. 
 A hired servant gets from ten to twelve dollars a month, besides his board, 
 which he very frequently has at table with his master, consisting of animal 
 food three times a day. Laborers hired by the day for those sorts of farm 
 work in which women are employed in Britain, such as hoeing, assisting 
 in cleaning grain, and even milking of cows, get about three quarters of a 
 dollar per day, — in time of hay-making or harvest work, frequently a dol- 
 lar besides their board. The workmen work, or are said to work, from 
 daylight to sunset : but I doubt, from any thing I have seen, whether the 
 ordinary plan of keeping workmen employed for ten hours a day be not as 
 profitable to the employer as to the workman. The days are never so 
 long in summer, nor so short in winter, as in Britain. The sun rises on 
 the twenty-first of June about half past four, and sets at half past seven ; 
 on the twenty-first of December, it rises at half past seven, and sets at half 
 past four. 
 
 ' Manures are far too little attended to, as has been already noticed ; but 
 there are instances of individuals keeping their land in good heart with 
 manure, especially where, as in many parts of the state of New York, 
 gypsum and lime are in the neighborhood. Gypsum is more used than 
 any other manure, and with great effect, generally in about the quantity 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 345 
 
 of a ton to ten or fifteen acres. Manure for the villages is often sold at 
 and under a shilling per ton. The question which the American settler al- 
 ways puts to himself is, whether it will be more expedient for him, in point 
 of expense, to remove to a new soil covered with vegetable mould, or to 
 remain on his cleared land, and to support its fertility by regularly manur- 
 ing, and a systematic rotation of crops. 
 
 ' The horses and cattle are of mixed breeds, and are always, in conse- 
 quence of the abundance of food in this country, and the easy circum- 
 stances of the people, in good order. A starved-looking animal of any kind 
 is never seen on the one hand, nor very fat pampered cattle, nor very fine 
 coated, over-groomed horses, on the other. Both horses and cattle are 
 generally of middling size ; the horses of that description that answer for 
 all sorts of work, the saddle, the wagon, or the plough. The heaviest are 
 selected for the stages. All carriages are driven at a trot. Horses are 
 broken with great gentleness, and are, I think, better and more thoroughly 
 broken than in England. An American driver of a stage, awkward look- 
 ing as he appears, manages his team, as he calls his horses, with the most 
 perfect precision. The law of the road is to keep to the right side of the 
 road, not to the left as in Britain. Great exertions are, I observe from the 
 newspapers here, making to improve the breeds of cattle and horses, by 
 importations of the Teeswater cattle, and of stud-horses from England. 
 The British admiral, Sir Isaac Coffin, has displayed great public spirit in 
 sending over fine cattle and superior horses, from Britain to New England. 
 The price of beef varies from two pence to five pence per pound, according 
 to the psices and quality, from which the value of the animal may be com- 
 puted. I have nowhere seen any beef equal to the best beef of an Eng- 
 lish market, or to the kyloe of the West Highlands of Scotland well fed ; 
 but beef of bad quality is never brought to market, and a great deal of it 
 is good. I have looked into the markets wherever we have been. Oxen 
 are much used in ploughing, and are so well trained, that they are very 
 useful in many operations of carting on farms. The price of ordinary 
 horses is from sixteen to twenty-five pounds. 
 
 ' I observe at the agricultural shows of last year, premiums awarded for 
 milch cows yielding ten or eleven pounds of butter per week, one of them 
 yielding thirteen, and twenty-three to twenty-four quarts of milk per day. 
 One of the breeds of cows is called very appropriately the " fill-pail." A 
 premium was also awarded for a cow that calved on the 7th of January, 
 — calf sold in March, — another calf put to her, and sold in June, — and a 
 third at her side ; the price of the three calves forty dollars. 
 
 ' Sheep are not so much attended to as they should be in this country, 
 where the dryness of the weather preserves them from diseases to which 
 they are subject in Britain. The merinos, and crosses with the merino, 
 are those generally seen ; but little care is paid to their being well kd 
 before being killed and brought to market. The mutton is of course inferi- 
 or in quality, and the people led to entertain prejudices against it. Even 
 the slaves in the south are said to object to being fed on sheep's meat. I 
 have again and again seen good mutton, but far more rarely than good 
 beef and pork. Hogs are universal in this country, and are well fed, fre- 
 quently, first of all in the woods on chesnuts, hickory nuts, sometimes on 
 fallen peaches and apples, but almost always, before being killed, they get 
 a sufficient quantity of meal, either from Indian corn or barley. Steamed 
 44 
 
346 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 food is also supplied in some cases. The steam-boiler for food for cattle is 
 well known here. General La Fayette saw one so well constructed some- 
 where in this country, that he had one of the same pattern made for him- 
 self and carried to France. 
 
 ' Poultry are excellent, well fed everywhere, and in great numbers about 
 the farm-yards. Turkeys and guinea-fowls abound more than in Britain, 
 which is not to be wondered at, as their relatively cheap price places them 
 within the reach of all. The price of geese and turkeys, even at New 
 York, is frequently not much above half a dollar ; ducks and fowls, about 
 one shilling. Eggs, a dollar for a hundred ; cheese very good at four pence 
 and five pence per pound. 
 
 ' Implements of husbandry are, on the whole, well suited to the country. 
 The two-horse plough, driven by one man, is universally used, unless in 
 bringing in rough stony land, when four oxen or horses are necessary. 
 The cradle-scythe is in pretty universal use. A good workman can cut 
 down an acre of wheat per day. The harvest work being altogether per- 
 formed by males, and the crops ripening, and of course reaped, at seasons 
 differing from each other much more than in England, the cheerful ap- 
 pearance of the harvest-field all over Britain, filled with male and female 
 reapers and gleaners, is nowhere seen in this country. The prices of im- 
 plements are not higher than in England. The lower price of wood 
 makes up for the higher price of labor, especially as carpenters are very 
 expert. Ploughing is well executed, and premiums given by agricultural 
 societies at their yearly meetings. I observed, at a late meeting in Mas- 
 sachusetts, sixteen ploughs, drawn by oxen, started for the competition, — 
 that the ploughs were of the improved kind, with cast-iron mould-boards, 
 the ploughing five inches deep, and the furrows not more than ten 
 inches in width. Premiums were at this meeting awarded for various agri- 
 cultural implements. Threshing-machines are not yet so general as in 
 Britain.'* 
 
 * Mr. Stuart, during his residence in the United States, appears to have made particu- 
 lar inquiries in respect to its agriculture and horticulture. The following paragraph, 
 in which a comparison is drawn between the productions of our gardens and those of 
 Great Britain, is interesting : — 
 
 The farms in the neighborhood of New- York are all cultivated ; but having been long 
 accustomed to the plough, and the soil very different from that of Illinois, the applica- 
 tion of manure is indispensably necessary. The contiguity to New-York insures tole- 
 rable prices for green crops, and a great part of the land is devoted to them. Even the 
 Lima bean is cultivated in the field. The varieties of the bean in an American garden 
 last during great part of the summer ; but the heat of the sun is too great for green 
 peas after the first or second crop. Neither do artichokes thrive well, nor cauliflowers, 
 nor broccoli ; but the tomato is excellent and abundant, and pumpkins and vegetable 
 marrow are plentiful. Asparagus, too, is often cultivated on the field in Long Island, 
 and is nowhere of better quality. It is sometimes sold in the New York market at two 
 pence sterling per hundred. Upon the whole, I think the vegetables for the table in 
 Great Britain are fully equal in variety and quality to those in the United States ; but 
 they are much higher in price. A great distinction is to be drawn between the two 
 countries respecting the article fruit. The Americans have peaches, melons, apples, 
 strawberries, and cherries, all of excellent quality, and in such abundance, that there is 
 not a single individual in the whole country, even the very shoe-black, whose funds do 
 not enable him to have as much of these fruits as he likes at the proper season. There 
 are also abundance of walnuts, and of various sorts of nuts for every body. In many 
 places, but not universally, there are plums, pears, and grapes. The plums, so far as 
 I have seen them, are not equal to the English,— the pears, especially the sickle pear 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 347 
 
 The principal products of the southern states are tobacco, cotton, rice, 
 and sugar. The first of these is grown largely in Virginia and other of 
 the middle and southern states, and together with the other staples of 
 that portion of the country, is chiefly the product of slave labor. There 
 are at present but two sorts of tobaccco raised in the western states : the 
 one with a long and sharp-pointed leaf, — and the other with a round and 
 hairy leaf, which is evidently the best tobacco. The seed is sown in beds 
 well prepared for the purpose, so that in May it is fit to be transplanted. 
 The plants are then put into another piece of ground, at intervals of from 
 three to four feet ; they are carefully freed from weeds, and the earth is 
 drawn up to their stems. When they have obtained a certain growth, the 
 tops are taken off, that the remaining leaves may acquire a proper size ; 
 worms are carefully removed, and no sucker is allowed to remain. In 
 August, the plants become spotted, and appear of a brownish color ; by 
 these tokens they are discerned to be ripe, and are therefore immediately 
 pulled. They lie one night to sweat ; next day, they are hung up to dry ; 
 when the tobacco has become sufficiently dry to ensure its preservation, it 
 is stripped from the stalks, and barrelled up for exportation ; or manufac- 
 tured into various shapes, for those whom a species of luxury has taught 
 to look upon it as almost one of the necessaries of life. Along with six 
 thousand plants, yielding generally one thousand pounds of tobacco, one 
 person may manage four acres of Indian corn. 
 
 There are four kinds of tobacco reared in Virginia, namely, the sweet- 
 scented, which is the best ; the big and little, which follow next ; then the 
 Frederick ; and lastly, the one and all, the largest of all, and producing 
 most in point of quantity. The Virginian tobacco is reckoned superior to 
 any raised in the southern states ; and great care is taken by the regula- 
 tions of the state, that no frauds be practised upon the merchants, and that 
 no inferior tobacco be palmed upon the purchaser. For this purpose, houses 
 of inspection are established in every district where tobacco is cultivat- 
 ed, whose regulations are rigorously enforced ; this contributes, as much 
 as the real superiority of the article itself, to keep up its price in the mar- 
 ket. Every person who intends his tobacco for exportation, packs it up in 
 hogsheads, and thus sends it to one of the inspecting houses. Here the to- 
 bacco is taken from the cask, which is opened for the purpose ; it is exa- 
 mined in every direction, and in every part, in order to ascertain its 
 quality and its purity ; if any defect is perceived, it is rejected and 
 declared to be unfit for exportation. If no defect appear, it is pro- 
 nounced to be exportable. It is then repacked in the hogshead, which is 
 branded with a hot iron, marking the place of inspection, and the quality of 
 
 of Pennsylvania, excellent, — the grapes quite inferior to those in the open air in France, 
 or in the south of England ; but the great difference between the countries exists in the 
 abundance of the first-mentioned fruits for the whole mass of the people. Peaches are 
 raised on standard trees only, and, though universally good, are not superior in flavor 
 to those raised on garden walls, or in hot-houses in England. They are reckoned bet- 
 ter at Philadelphia than anywhere else. Melons are considered best-flavored in Virginia 
 and the Carolinas ; but they are so plentiful in New York, that there is hardly a la- 
 Dorer who does not partake of a watermelon every day during the hot season. Apples 
 are as good in the neighborhood of New York as anywhere. Apricots, and nectarines, 
 and figs, are hardly ever seen. It is therefore clear, that a man of wealth may obtain 
 greater variety of fine fruit in England than in the United States, the melon and ap- 
 ple alone being inferior to the melons and apples in America ; but all in this country 
 iave plenty of excellent fruit. 
 
348 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the contents ; and then lodged in the inspecting storehouses, there to 
 await the disposal of the planter, who receives a certificate of the particu- 
 lars, serving at the same time as an acknowledgment of the deposit. It 
 is by selling this tobacco note to the merchant that the planter sells his to- 
 bacco. The purchaser, on viewing this note, is as well acquainted with the 
 article, as if he had inspected it himself ; and he has only to send the note 
 and transfer to the store where the tobacco lies, and it is immediately de- 
 livered out, agreeably to his orders. This measure has insured a prefer- 
 ence in the foreign market to the Virginian tobacco, and prevents the de- 
 terioration of the article. 
 
 The soil most proper for the cultivation of cotton is found in the islands 
 lying on the coast. Those belonging to the state of Georgia produce the 
 best, known in France by the name of Georgia cotton, and in Great Bri- 
 tain by the name of Sea Island cotton. This variety of cotton has a deep 
 black seed, and very fine, long wool, which is easily separated from the 
 seed by the roller gins, which do not injure the staple. In the middle and 
 upper country, the green seed or inferior cotton is produced; this kind is 
 less silky, and adheres so tenaciously to the seed, that it cannot be sepa- 
 rated without the action of a saw-gin. Though the wool of the green seed, 
 or bowed Georgia cotton, be cheaper than the other, yet its produce is more 
 luxuriant. An acre, which will produce one hundred and fifty pounds of 
 black seed cotton, will generally yield two hundred pounds of the green 
 seed kind. The packing of the cotton is done in large canvass bags, which 
 must be wetted as the cotton is put in, that it may not hang to the cloth, 
 and may slide better down. The bag is suspended between two trees, 
 posts, or beams ; and a negro, with his feet, stamps it down. These bags 
 are generally made to contain from three hundred and fifty pounds, to four 
 hundred pounds each. 
 
 ' I have been lately favored,' says Mr. Everett, in his valuable address 
 before the New York Institute, in October, 1831, ' with a minute statement 
 of the average product of five or six cotton plantations in two of the south- 
 western states, ascertained by putting together the income of a good and 
 bad year. The result of this statement is, that the capital invested in 
 these plantations yields from fifteen to twenty per cent, clear ; and the net 
 profit accruing to the proprietor, for the labor of each efficient hand, is two 
 hundred and thirty-seven dollars and fifty cents per annum ; being a clear 
 gain of four dollars and fifty cents per week. It further appears that on 
 one of these plantations, (and the same, though not stated, is believed to 
 hold of the others in due proportion,) worth altogether, for land, labor, and 
 stock, ninety-two thousand dollars, the entire amount of articles paying 
 duty annually consumed, is two thousand three hundred dollars. The 
 average crop of this plantation, taking a good and bad year, is fourteen 
 thousand five hundred dollars. Suppose the duties to be thirty-three and 
 one third per cent, and the whole amount of the duty to be actually as- 
 sessed, in the shape of an enhanced price of the article, (the contrary of 
 which is known to be true, for in several articles the entire price is little 
 more than the duty,) it would amount to less than seven hundred and thirty 
 dollars per annum on a clear profit of fourteen thousand five hundred dollars.' 
 
 Rice is extensively cultivated in the southern states. The grains of this 
 plant grow on little fruit stalks springing from the main stalk. It is sown 
 in rows, in the bottom of trenches, made entirely by slave labor. These 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 349 
 
 ridges lie about seventeen inches apart, from centre to centre. The rice 
 is put in by the hand, generally by women, and is cast so as to fall in a 
 line. This is done about the seventeenth of March. By means of flood- 
 gates, the water is then permitted to flow over the fields, and to remain on 
 the ground five days, at the depth of several inches. The object of this is 
 to sprout the seeds, as it is technically called. The water is next drawn 
 off, and the ground allowed to dry, till the rice is between three and four 
 inches in height. This requires about a month. The fields are then 
 again overflowed, and are allowed to remain in that state about a fortnight, 
 to destroy the weeds. It is now about the middle of May, and for two 
 months afterwards the ground is permitted to continue dry ; during this 
 interval it is repeatedly hoed, and the soil is kept loose and free. The 
 fields are then once more submerged, in order that the crops may be ripen- 
 ed, and they actually do ripen while standing in the water. The harvest 
 commences in August, and extends into October. The plants are then 
 cut by the male slaves, and tied into bundles by the females. The grains 
 are threshed out by means of hand flails. The outer husk is detached by 
 passing the rice between a pair of mill-stones. The film which still en- 
 velopes the grain is removed by trituration under heavy pestles, consisting 
 of upright bars, shod with iron, which are raised several feet by machinery, 
 and then allowed to fall upon the rice, the particles of which are thus 
 rubbed against each other, till the film is removed. When thus thorough- 
 ly winnowed, it is packed in casks holding about six hundred pounds each, 
 and is ready for exportation. 
 
 The sugar cane is cultivated to a great extent in Louisiana, Georgia, 
 and West Florida. In the first of these states, five kinds of the cane have 
 been raised. The first is the Creole cane, which is supposed to have come 
 originally from Africa. The second is the Bourbon cane, from Otaheite. 
 Besides these, are the riband cane, green and red ; the riband cane, green 
 and yellow ; and the violet cane of Brazil. The latter species was aban- 
 doned soon after its introduction, as it proved less productive in our cli- 
 mate than any of the others. The other species are the best suited to the 
 nature of the soil. They are all more or less affected by the variations of 
 the atmosphere, are very sensible to cold, and are killed in part by the 
 frost every year. Experience has demonstrated that the cane may be cul- 
 tivated in a latitude much colder than was generally supposed ; for fine 
 crops are now made in Louisiana, in places where a few years ago the 
 cane froze before it was ripe enough to make sugar. 
 
 In the process of cultivation, the ground is ploughed as deep as possible, 
 and harrowed ; after it has been thus broken up, parallel drills or furrows 
 are ploughed at the distance of two feet and a half to four feet from one 
 another ; in these the cane is laid lengthwise, and covered about an inch 
 with a hoe. Small canals to drain off the water are commonly dug, more 
 or less distant from each other, and these are crossed by smaller drains, 
 so as to form squares like a chess board. These ditches are necessary to 
 drain off the water from rains, as well as that which filters from the rivfers, 
 which would otherwise remain upon the plantations. The average quan- 
 tity of sugar that may be produced upon an acre of land of the proper 
 quality, well cultivated, is from eight hundred to one thousand pounds, 
 provided that the cane has not been damaged, either by storms of wind, 
 inundations, or frost. The strong soil is easiest of cultivation, and most 
 
 30 
 
350 B00K 0F THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 productive, in rainy seasons. The light soils require less labor, and yield 
 more revenue, in dry seasons. To these variations, others are to be add- 
 ed, resulting from the different exposure of the lands, the greater or less 
 facility of draining, and also from the greater or less quantity of a weed 
 known by the name of coco or grass nut. Sixty working hands are ne- 
 cessary to cultivate two hundred and forty acres of cane, planted in well- 
 prepared land, and to do all the work necessary until the sugar is made 
 and delivered. The sugar, up to the moment it is delivered to the mer- 
 chant, costs the sugar planter about three and a half cents per pound, for 
 expense incurred, without reckoning the interest on his capital. 
 
 The cultivation of the mulberry tree, and the. raising of silk-worms, 
 have occupied considerable attention in different parts of the United States. 
 Before the revolution, the production of silk was attempted in Georgia, 
 but without ultimate success. In Connecticut, and in some other places, 
 for the last seventy years, an inferior kind of sewing silk has been manu- 
 factured ; but its use has been chiefly confined to the neighborhood in 
 which it has been produced. Of late years, however, efforts have been 
 made to introduce the important branch of agriculture that affords the 
 necessary materials for the manufacture of silk. Societies have been 
 formed in different states for its promotion, and the national government 
 have thought the subject worthy their particular attention. 
 
 During the year 1S29, a series of essays were written by M. D'Homer- 
 gue, the son of an eminent silk manufacturer, at Nismes, who had arrived 
 in Philadelphia at the instance of an association for the promotion of the 
 culture of silk ; they have since been published in a separate form, and 
 will repay the perusal of those who may feel peculiarly interested in the 
 subject. The report of the committee of agriculture, who were instructed 
 to inquire into the expediency of adopting measures to extend the cultiva- 
 tion of the mulberry tree, and to promote the cultivation of silk, by intro- 
 ducing the necessary machinery, made to the house of representatives, 
 March 12, 1830, represents these essays and the facts contained in them 
 as entitled to high confidence. 
 
 ' It appears from them,' sta\es the report, ' that American silk is superior 
 in quality to that produced in any other country ; — in France and Italy, 
 twelve pounds of cocoons are required to produce one pound of raw silk, 
 whilst eight pounds of American cocoons will produce one pound of raw 
 silk: — that cocoons cannot be exported to a foreign market, from several 
 causes, — their bulk, their liability to spoil by moulding on ship board, and 
 because they cannot be compressed without rendering them incapable of 
 being afterwards reeled. It is further demonstrated in these essays, and 
 in a memorial lately presented by the manufacturers of silk stuffs of Lyons, 
 in France, to the minister of commerce and manufactures, that the art of 
 filature can only be acquired by practical instruction, by some one intimate- 
 ly acquainted with, and accustomed to, that process : that no human skill 
 or ingenuity, unaided by practical instruction, is capable of acquiring that 
 art to any profitable extent. It is made manifest that, although the culture 
 of silk has been carried on for many years in some parts of the United 
 States, and more particularly in Connecticut, it has been conducted very 
 unprofitably, compared with what the results might have been, if the art 
 of filature had been understood. The sewing silk made in Connecticut is 
 from the best of the silk, and is, after all, quite inferior to that of Franca 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 351 
 
 and Italy : in these latter countries, sewing silk is manufactured from im- 
 perfect cocoons, or from refuse silk. 
 
 ' It appears also, that unless the silk is properly reeled from the cocoons, 
 it is never afterwards susceptible of use in the finer fabrics. It is a grati- 
 fying consideration that the benefits from the culture of silk and the acqui- 
 sition of the art of reeling the same, will be common to every part of the 
 United States. The climate of every state in the union is adapted to the 
 culture of silk : hatching the eggs of the silk-worms may be accelerated or 
 retarded, to suit the putting forth the leaves of the mulberry. That tree is 
 easily propagated from the seed of the fruit, and is adapted to almost any 
 soil. The committee regard the general culture of silk as a vast national 
 advantage in many points of view. If seriously undertaken and prosecuted, 
 it will, in a few years, furnish an article of export of great value : and thus 
 the millions paid by the people of the United States for silk stuffs will be 
 compensated for by the sale of our raw silk. The importation of silk, 
 during the year which ended on the 30th of September, 1S28, amounted 
 to eight million, four hundred and sixty-three thousand, five hundred and 
 sixty-three dollars, of which, one million, two hundred and seventy-four 
 thousand, four hundred and sixty-one were exported : but in the same year, 
 the exportation of bread stuffs from this country amounted only to five million, 
 four hundred and eleven thousand, six hundred and sixty-five dollars, leav- 
 ing the balance against us of nearly two millions. The committee antici- 
 pate that at a period not remote, when we shall be in possession of the fi- 
 nest material produced in any country, the manufacture of silk stuffs will 
 necessarily be introduced into the United States. The culture of silk pro- 
 mises highly moral benefits, in the employment of poor women and children 
 in a profitable business, while it will detract nothing from agricultural or 
 manufacturing labor. The culture of silk will greatly benefit those states 
 which have abandoned slave labor, the value of whose principal produc- 
 tions, particularly in the article of cotton, has been depressed by overpro- 
 duction.' 
 
 The vine grows in most parts of the United States, and yields a plenti- 
 ful return for the labor of cultivation. We have already alluded to the 
 vineyards in the vicinity of Vevay. A large grant of land, in the territory 
 of Alabama, was made by the general government to a French association 
 under M. Villar, for the purpose of encouraging the cultivation of the 
 vine and the olive. About two hundred and seventy acres had been occu- 
 pied with vines in 1S27, and nearly four hundred olive trees had been 
 planted. The latter, however, do not thrive, and it is apprehended that they 
 will not attain an available degree of perfection in that climate. 
 
 Horticulture has not been entirely overlooked in the United States, though 
 it has not yet received the attention that is paid to it in other countries. 
 Some idea of the varieties of fruits and of flowers which the climate will 
 admit of, may be formed from the following statement of the contents of a 
 garden in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, which may be relied on as au- 
 thentic, being extracted from the report of the committee, appointed by the 
 Pennsylvania Horticultural society for visiting the nurseries and gardens 
 in the vicinity of that city: 'Here are to be found,' say the committee, 
 ' one hundred and thirteen varieties of apples, seventy-two of pears, twen- 
 ty-two of cherries, seventeen of apricots, forty-five of plums, thirty-nine of 
 peaches, five of nectarines, three of almonds, six of quinces, five of mul- 
 
352 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 berries, six of raspberries, six of currants, five of filberts, eight of walnuts, 
 six of strawberries, and two of medlars. The stock, considered according 
 to its growth, has in the first class of ornamental trees esteemed for their 
 foliage, flowers, or fruit, seventy-six sorts ; of the second class, fifty-six 
 sorts ; of the third class, one hundred and twenty sorts ; of ornamental 
 evergreens, fifty-two sorts ; of vines and creepers for covering walls and 
 arbors, thirty-five sorts; of honey-suckle, thirty-sorts; and of roses, eighty 
 varieties.' 
 
353 
 
 CHAPTER IV.— MANUFACTURES* 
 
 Necessity forced upon the first settlers of this country, at a very early 
 period, some attention to manuiautu r es. The colony of Massachusetts 
 was founded in 1630. Between that year and 1640, there was a great 
 and steady influx of settlers ; and the first and most profitable object of 
 pursuit was the raising of provisions. We can scarcely conceive of the 
 state of industry in a community, to which there is every year added, by 
 emigration, a number of individuals equal to the existing population. 
 Such, however, for a few years, was the case in New England. So great 
 was the demand, that cattle sold as high as twenty-five pounds sterling a 
 head. In 1640, the republicans got possession of the government in Eng- 
 land ; persecution for religious non-conformity ceased, and with it the 
 influx of emigrants to this country. Cattle fell immediately to about five 
 pounds a head. The effect was distressing, but it put the sagacious 
 colonists upon new resources. The account of this, contained in the 
 early historian of the colony, is strongly characterized by the simplicity of 
 elder times. After describing the check put to emigration, he goes on as 
 follows: — 'Now the country of New England was to seek, of away to 
 provide themselves with clothing, which they could not obtain by selling 
 cattle, as before ; which now were fallen from that huge price foremen- 
 tioned, first to fourteen pounds sterling and ten pounds sterling a head, 
 and presently after, at best within the year, to five pounds a-piece; 
 nor was there at that rate, a ready vent for them neither. Thus the flood 
 which brought in much wealth to many persons, the contrary ebb carried 
 all away out of their reach. To help them in this their exigent, besides 
 the industry that the present necessity put particular persons upon, for the 
 necessary supply of themselves and their families, the general court made 
 order for the manufacture of woolen and linen cloth, which, with God's 
 blessing upon man's endeavor, in a little time stopped this gap in part, and 
 soon after another door was opened by special Providence. For when one 
 hand was shut by way of supply from England, another was opened by 
 way of traffic, first to the West Indies and Wine islands, whereby among 
 other goods, much cotton wool was brought into the country from the 
 Indies, which the inhabitants learning to spin, and breeding of sheep and 
 sowing of hemp and flax, they soon found out a way to supply themselves 
 of [cotton] linen, and woolen cloth.' 
 
 In 1645, an iron foundery was established at Lynn, in the state of Massa- 
 chusetts ; but the same historian tells us that ' instead of drawing out bars 
 of iron for the country's use, there was hammered out nothing but conten- 
 tions and lawsuits.' In the same year, the general court of the colony 
 granted to a company, of which governor Winthrop's son was the head, 
 
 * For this chapter we have been altogether indebted to the excellent Address before 
 the American Institute of New York, by the Honorable Edward Everett. For a variety 
 of interesting statistical matter on Manufactures, see the tables at the end of the volume. 
 
 45 30* 
 
354 B00K 0F THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 as an encouragement to undertake the iron manufacture, three thousand 
 acres of land, a monopoly for twenty-one years, the liberty to use any 
 place containing ore, in the public domain not already granted, a tract of 
 land three miles square in the neighborhood of each establishment, and 
 freedom from taxation. These liberal acts of encouragement show the 
 necessity which was felt in the very infancy of the country, of giving a 
 legislative protection to manufactures. 
 
 But to understand the history of the industry of the country, we must 
 bear in mind, that America was a colonial possession, and that the growth 
 and welfare of the mother country was the avowed object of colonial policy. 
 Great Britain, if she wished America to prosper, wished it to be on the 
 principles, not of national, but of colonial prosperity ; to furnish her such 
 agricultural products as she did not raise herself, to employ her shipping, 
 and to consume her manufactures. As it soon appeared that the Dutch, 
 at that time the most expert navigators in Europe, were getting possession 
 of no small part of the carrying trade of the world, and pursuing a profit- 
 able commerce with a part of the colonial possessions of Great Britain, 
 the navigation law of 1650 was passed, under the auspices of Cromwell. 
 It was among the few laws of the commonwealth, which were re-enacted 
 at the restoration. The object of this law, — in the opinion of Sir William 
 Blackstone, 'the most beneficial for the trade and commerce of these king- 
 doms,' — was, in the words of the same accomplished jurist, 'to mortify 
 our sugar islands, which were disaffected to the parliament, and still held 
 out for Charles II., by stopping the gainful trade, which they then carried 
 on with the Dutch, and at the same time to clip the wings of these our 
 opulent and aspiring neighbors.' Although aimed particularly at the 
 West Indies, this law, of course, extended its provisions to all the other 
 British colonies, and among them to those established on the American 
 coast. By them, however, it was generally resisted as an encroachment on 
 their rights. Ineffectual attempts were made for a century, to enforce it ; 
 and in this struggle were sowed the seeds of the revolution. 
 
 Nor did the humble attempts of the colonies in manufactures fail to 
 awaken the jealousy of the mother country. Sir Josiah Child, although 
 a more liberal politician than many of his countrymen, in his discourse on 
 trade, published in 1670, pronounces New England 'the most prejudicial 
 plantation of Great Britain ; ' and gives for this opinion the singular rea- 
 son, that they are a people 'whose frugality, industry, and temperance, and 
 the happiness of whose laws and institutions promise to them long life, 
 and a wonderful increase of people, riches, and power.' 
 
 After many fruitless attempts, on the part of the executive authority of 
 Great Britain, to keep down the enterprise and industry of the country, in 
 those departments of industry which were disallowed by the laws of trade, 
 recourse was had to parliament. The house of commons took up the 
 subject in 1731, and called upon the board of trade and plantations to 
 make a report ' with respect to any laws made, manufactures set up, or 
 trade carried on in the colonies, detrimental to the trade, navigation and 
 manufactures of Great Britain.' In the result of this inquiry it appeared, 
 that among other branches of manufacture for domestic supply, hats were 
 made in the colonies in considerable quantities, and had even been ex- 
 ported to foreign countries. In consequence of this alarming discovery, the 
 law of 5 George II. c. 22. was passed, forbidding hats or felts to be export- 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 355 
 
 ed from the colonies, or even 'to be loaded on a horse, cart, or other 
 carriage for transportation, from one plantation to another.' Nor was this 
 all ; in 1750, a law was passed by the parliament of Great Britain, which 
 must be considered a disgrace to the legislation of a civilized country. It 
 prohibited 'the erection or continuance of any mill or other engine for 
 slitting or rolling iron, or any plaiting forge, to work with a tilt hammer, 
 or any furnace for making steel, iu the colonies, under penalty of two hun- 
 dred pounds. ' Every such mill, engine, forge, or furnace was declared 
 a common nuisance, which the governors of the provinces, on information, 
 were bound to abate, under penalty of five hundred pounds, within thirty 
 days ! 
 
 It has been, within a few years, stated by Mr. Huskisson, and with truth, 
 that the real causes of the revolution are to be found, not in the iritating 
 measures that followed Mr. Grenville's plan of taxation, but in the long- 
 cherished discontent of the colonies, at this system of legislative oppres- 
 sion. Accordingly, the first measures of the patriots aimed to establish 
 their independence, on the basis of the productive industry and the labo- 
 rious arts of the country. They began with a non-importation agreement, 
 nearly two years before the declaration of independence. This agreement, 
 with the exception of the addresses to the people of America and Great 
 Britain, was the only positive act of the first Congress, that met at Phila- 
 delphia in 1774, and it is signed by every member of that body. The 
 details, to which it descends, are full of instruction. The seventh article 
 provides that 'we will use our utmost endeavors to improve the breed of 
 sheep, and increase their numbers to the greatest extent;' and the eighth, 
 'that we will, in our several stations, encourage frugality, economy, and 
 industry, and promote agriculture, arts, and the manufactures of this 
 country, especially those of wool.' 
 
 The policy indicated by these resolutions was, of course, favored by a 
 state of war. All regular commercial intercourse with Great Britain was 
 interrupted, and the supply of prize goods, which took its place, was casual 
 and uncertain. We had as yet formed no connections in trade, with 
 other countries ; nor if we had, could their manufactures have found their 
 way across the ocean, amidst the cruisers of the enemy, at any other than 
 high prices. Fresh impulse was accordingly given to what few manufac- 
 tures existed before the revolution, and new ones of various kinds were 
 attempted with success. One of the earliest of these was the manufacture 
 of nails, upon which lord Chatham had placed his memorable prohibition. 
 It is within the memory of man, that the first attempt to manufacture cut 
 nails, in New England, was made in the southern part of Massachusetts 
 in the revolutionary war, with old iron hoops for the material, and a pair 
 of shears for the machine. Since that period, besides supplying the con- 
 sumption of the United States, — estimated at from eighty to one hundred 
 million pounds, and at a price not much exceeding the duty, — machines of 
 American invention for the manufacture of nails have been introduced into 
 England ; and large quantities of nails are exported from the United 
 States to foreign countries. 
 
 On the return of peace in 17S3, the influx of foreign goods, in many 
 respects prejudicial to the country, proved in the highest degree disastrous 
 to its mechanical and manufacturing industry. The want of one national 
 government, and the division of the powers of government among thirteen 
 
356 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 sovereignties, made it impossible, by a uniform revenue system, to remedy 
 the evil. The states generally attempted, by their separate navigation 
 laws, to secure their trade to their own vessels ; but the rivalry and selfish 
 policy of some states counteracted the efforts of others, and eventually 
 threw almost the whole navigation of the country into foreign hands. So 
 low had it sunk in Boston, that in 1788, it was thought expedient, on 
 grounds of patriotism, to get up a subscription to build three ships ; and 
 this incident, proving nothing but the poverty and depression of the town, 
 was hailed as one which would give renewed activity to the industry of 
 the trades' people and mechanics of Boston ! The same class of citizens 
 and the manufacturers in general, in the state of Massachusetts, petitioned 
 the government of that state, by bounties, imposts, and prohibitions, to 
 protect their industry. This prayer was granted, and a tariffof duties laid, 
 which in some points, — that of coarse cottons for instance, — was higher 
 than any duty laid by Congress, before the war of 1812. 
 
 But the state of the country rendered these laws of little avail. Bind- 
 ing in Boston, they were of no validity in Rhode Island ; and what was 
 subject to duty in New York, might be imported free in Connecticut and 
 New Jersey. The state of the industry of the country was depressed to 
 a point of distress, unknown in the midnight of the revolution. The ship- 
 ping had dwindled to nothing. The manufacturing establishments were 
 kept up by bounties and by patriotic associations and subscriptions, and 
 even the common trades were threatened with ruin. It was plain, for in- 
 stance, that, in the comparative condition of the United States and Great 
 Britain, not a hatter, a boot or shoe maker, a saddler, or a brass founder 
 could carry on his business, except in the coarsest and most ordinary pro- 
 ductions of their various trades, under the pressure of foreign competition. 
 Thus was presented the extraordinary and calamitous spectacle of a suc- 
 cessful revolution, wholly failing of its ultimate object. The people of 
 America had gone to war, not for names, but for things. It was not mere- 
 ly to change a government administered by kings, princes, and ministers, 
 for a government administered by presidents, and secretaries, and mem- 
 bers of congress. It was to redress their own grievances, to improve their 
 Own condition, to throw off the burden which the colonial system laid on 
 their industry. To attain these objects, they endured incredible hardships, 
 and bon- and suffered almost beyond the measure of humanity. And when 
 their independence was attained, they found it was a piece of parchment. 
 The arm which had struck for it in the field, was palsied in the workshop; 
 the industry which had been burdened in the colonies, was crushed in the 
 free states ; and, at the close of the revolution, the mechanics and manu- 
 facturers of the country found themselves, in the bitterness of their hearts, 
 independent — and ruined. 
 
 They looked round them in despair. They cast about for means of re- 
 lief, and found none, but in apian of a voluntary association throughout the 
 continent, and an appeal to the patriotism of their fellow-citizens. Such an 
 association was formed in Boston in 1787 or 1788, and a circular letter was 
 addressed by them to their brethren throughout the union. The proposal 
 was favorably received, and in some of the cities zealously acted upon ; 
 but, unsupported by a general legislation, its effects must at best have been 
 partial and inadequate. 
 
 But before our citizens had discovered this, by sad experience, a new 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 357 
 
 and unhoped-for remedy for their sufferings had heen devised. The day- 
 star of the constitution arose ; and of all the classes of the people of 
 America, to whose hearts it came as the harbinger of blessings long hoped 
 for and long despaired of, most unquestionably the tradesmen, mechanics, 
 and manufacturers hailed it with the warmest welcome. It had in fact 
 grown out of the all-pervading inefficiency and wretchedness of the reve- 
 nue system, which had been felt in ruin by them, more than by any other 
 class. The feelings, with which it was regarded by the ' tradesmen and 
 manufacturers of New York,' will appear from their letter, in reply to 
 the circular of the association in Boston. This expression of the senti- 
 ments which were entertained in New York, while the adoption of the 
 constitution by that state was an event of a few months' standing, may 
 afford instruction and bear repetition at the present day. 
 
 A Letter from the Tradesmen and Manufacturers of New York to the 
 Tradesmen and Manufacturers of Boston. 
 
 ' New York, 17th Nov. 1786. 
 
 • Gentlemen : — The mechanics and manufacturers of the city of New 
 York have long contemplated and lamented the evils, which a pernicious 
 system of commerce has introduced into our country, and the obstacles with 
 which it has opposed the extension and improvement of American manu- 
 factures ; and having taken into consideration your circular letter, wherein 
 those evils and their remedies are pointed out, in a just and striking man- 
 ner, have authorized us to communicate to you, in answer to your address, 
 their sentiments on the interesting subject. 
 
 ' It is with the highest pleasure that we embrace this opportunity, to 
 express to you their approbation of the liberal and patriotic attempt of the 
 tradesmen and manufacturers of your respectable town. 
 
 ' Every zealous and enlightened friend to the prosperity of this country 
 must view, with peculiar regret, the impediments with svhich foreign im- 
 portations have embarrassed the infant arts in America. We are sensible 
 that they are not only highly unfavorable to every mechanical improvement, 
 but that they nourish a spirit of dependence, which tends in some degree 
 to defeat the purposes of our late revolution, and tarnish the lustre of our 
 character. We are sensible that long habit has fixed, in the minds of the 
 people, an unjust predilection for foreign productions, and has rendered 
 them too regardless of the arguments and complaints, with which the pa- 
 triotic and discerning have addressed them from every quarter. These 
 prejudices have become confirmed and radical ; and we are convinced that 
 a strong and united effort is necessary to expel them. We are happy that 
 the tradesmen of Boston have led the way to a general and efficient ex- 
 ertion in this important cause. 
 
 ' The impression we feel of the utility and expediency of encouraging 
 our domestic manufactures are in perfect correspondence with your own ; 
 and we shall most cheerfully unite our endeavours with those of our 
 brethren throughout the union, and shall be ready to adopt every mea- 
 sure, which will have a tendency to facilitate the great design. 
 
 ' The legislature of our state, convinced of the propriety of cherishing 
 our manufactures in their early growth, have made some provisions for that 
 purpose. We have no doubt that more comprehensive and decisive mea- 
 sures will in time be taken by them. But on the confederated exertions of 
 
358 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 our brethren, and especially on the patronage and protection of the general 
 government, we rest our most flattering hopes of success. 
 
 ' In order to support and improve the union and harmony of the American 
 manufacturers, and to render as systematic and uniform as possible their 
 designs for the common benefit, we perfectly concur with you on the pro- 
 priety of establishing a reciprocal and unreserved communication. When 
 our views, like our interests, are combined and concentered, our petitions to 
 the federal legislative will assume the tone and complexion of the public 
 wishes, and will have a proportionable weight and influence. 
 
 ' We request you to favor us with the continuation of your correspondence, 
 and to transmit to us, from time to time, such resolutions and proposals of 
 your association as may be calculated for the promotion of our mutual 
 interests. 
 
 'We are, with the highest respect, &c.' 
 
 Such were the feelings and hopes, with which the laboring classes of 
 the country in general, particularly the manufacturers and mechanics, 
 looked forward to the adoption of the federal constitution. In the state 
 of Massachusetts, it is admitted, that the question of adoption was decided, 
 under the influence of the association of tradesmen and manufacturers al- 
 ready mentioned. In the convention of that state, the encouragement of 
 manufactures, by protecting laws, was declared in debate to be a leading 
 and avowed object of the constitution. As it was successively adopted in 
 each state, triumphant processions of the tradesmen, mechanics, and manu- 
 facturers, with the banners of their industry, and mottos expressive of their 
 reliance on the new constitution for protection, evinced, in the most impos- 
 ing form, and in the presence of uncounted multitudes, the principles, the 
 expectations, and the hopes of the industrious classes of the community. 
 Processions of this kind were organized in Portsmouth, in Boston, in New 
 York, in Philadelphia, in Baltimore, and in Charleston ; and the senti- 
 ment which animated and inspired them all, was that which was expressed 
 in the motto inscribed upon the banners of the manufacturers in Philadel- 
 phia, '■May the Union Government protect the Manufactures of America.'' 
 
 Forty-three years have since passed, and it is now earnestly maintained, 
 and that by intelligent citizens, that the federal constitution thus adopted, 
 under the influence of the mechanics and manufacturers, (who knew that 
 by the new government the power of protecting their pursuits was taken 
 from the governments of the states, who had before held and exercised 
 it), confers no power on congress to protect the labor of the country, and 
 that the exercise of such power is unconstitutional. When we consider 
 the control over public sentiment possessed by the associated mechanics 
 and manufacturers of our large towns, and the slender majorities by which, 
 in some states, the constitution was adopted, it is not too much to say, that 
 if such a conception of its powers had then prevailed, it never would have 
 been ratified. 
 
 A quorum of the house of representatives under the new constitu- 
 tion was formed, for the first time, on 1st April, 1789. In one week from 
 that day, Mr. Madison brought forward the subject of the revenue sys- 
 tem, as the most important, which required the attention of the national 
 legislature. Pending the discussion of this subject, and three days aftel 
 it commenced, a memorial was presented ' from the tradesmen, manufac- 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 359 
 
 turers, and others of the town of Baltimore, in the state of Maryland, pray- 
 ing an imposition of such duties on all foreign articles, which can be made 
 in^America, as will give a just and decided preference to the labors of the 
 petitioners, and that there may be granted to them, in common with the 
 other manufacturers and mechanics of the United States, such relief as to 
 the wisdom of congress may seem proper.' This was followed up, the 
 next day, by a petition from the shipwrights of Charleston, S. C, stating 
 'the distress they were in, from the decline of that branch of the busi- 
 ness, and the present situation of the trade of the United States, and pray- 
 ing that the wisdom and policy of the national legislature may be directed 
 to & such measures, in a general regulation of trade, and the establishment 
 of a proper navigation act, as will relieve the particular distresses of the 
 petitioners, in common with those of their fellow shipwrights, throughout 
 the union.' 
 
 Thus the two first memorials presented to the congress of the United 
 States were for protecting duties on American industry; and of these 
 memorials, one was from Baltimore, and the other from Charleston, South 
 Carolina. 
 
 A few days after, a similar memorial came in from New York, ' setting 
 forth that, in the present deplorable state of commerce and manufactures, 
 they look with confidence to the operations of the new government for a 
 restoration of both, and that relief which they have so long and so ardently 
 desired ; that they have subjoined a list of such articles as can be 
 manufactured in New York, and humbly pray the countenance and atten- 
 tion of the national legislature thereto.' 
 
 Numerous other petitions of like purport were shortly after presented, 
 and in pursuance of their prayers, as well as from the crying demands of 
 the public service, the first impost law was passed, at an early period of 
 the session. It was, with the exception of the law prescribing the oaths 
 of office, the first law, which was passed under the new government. In 
 the long debate, which arose, at different stages of its progress, the idea 
 was advanced, by members from every part of the country, that congress 
 were bound to lay duties, that would encourage its manufacturing indus- 
 try ; and it does not appear that the suggestion was made in the reported 
 debates, that they did not constitutionally possess the power. Mr. Madison 
 thus expressed himself on the subject : — "The states, that are most ad- 
 vanced in population and ripe for manufactures, ought to have their par- 
 ticular interest attended to, in some degree. While these states retained 
 the power of making regulations of trade, they had the power to protect 
 and cherish such institutions. By adopting the present constitution, they 
 have thrown the exercise of this power into other hands. They must 
 have done this with the expectation, that those interests would not be ne- 
 glected here." And again, " duties laid on imported articles may have an 
 effect, which comes within the idea of national prudence. It may happen 
 that materials for manufactures may grow up, without any encouragement 
 for this purpose. It has been the case in some of the states. But in others, 
 regulations have been provided and have succeeded in producing some 
 establishments, which ought not to be allowed to perish, from the alteration 
 which has taken place. It would be cruel to neglect them, and turn their 
 industry to other channels ; for it is not possible for the hand of man to 
 shift from one employment to another, without being injured by the change. 
 
360 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 There may be some manufactures, which, being once formed, can advance 
 toward perfection, without any adventitious aid ; while others, for want of 
 the fostering hand of government, will be unable to go on at all. Legisla- 
 tive attention will be therefore necessary to collect the proper objects for 
 this purpose.' Such were the principles on which this law was supported ; 
 and when it finally passed, it was stated, in the preamble, to be ' for the 
 support of government, the discharge of the debts of the United States, 
 and the encouragement and protection of manufactures.' 
 
 The present manufacturing system of the United States may be consid- 
 ered, partly as the result of the revenue laws of 1789, which remained 
 without essential changes till the embargo of 1807, and partly as the effect 
 of that and the other restrictive measures, and of the war which followed 
 them. Those branches of industry, which are commonly called the me- 
 chanic arts, received, for the most part, though not without exception, an 
 ample protection under the former laws : — manufactures on a large scale, 
 requiring great capital and skill, owed their existence to the total interrup- 
 tion of commerce. In the combined result, a very large amount of Ameri- 
 can capital was, at the peace of 1815, found invested in manufactures. 
 It was the prevalent opinion of the statesmen of that day, and those of the 
 south among the foremost, that this capital ought to be protected ; and the 
 success which had attended some of the manufactures, on a large scale, 
 had produced some change in the public opinion, as to the capacity of the 
 country to support them. 
 
 In other parts of the volume we have mentioned the chief manufacturing 
 establishments in the country, and, for the purpose of avoiding repetition, 
 have reserved statistical details for the tabular views at the end of the 
 work. 
 
361 
 
 CHAPTER V.— COMMERCE. 
 
 In the rapid growth of their commerce, the United States have enjoyed 
 a most wonderful prosperity. We have, in a previous chapter, alluded to 
 the restrictive measures adopted by the mother country, while we remained 
 in colonial subjection, and it will not be necessary to enter into farther 
 details on that subject. During the revolutionary difficulties, the traffic 
 which had previously existed was of course suspended, and after che peace, 
 commerce was still embarrassed with numerous impediments. Thesi 
 found their origin in the very nature of the confederation, and were in* 
 separable from the confused and ineffective powers of such a political sys- 
 tem. Congress had no power to impose any duties without the unanimous 
 consent of the states, and it is apparent at once how entirely impossible it 
 was, under such circumstances, to adjust a system that should be univer- 
 sally acceptable. The foreign articles on which Pennsylvania laid a duty, 
 New Jersey admitted free ; facility of smuggling from one of these states 
 to the other was unavoidable from their situation. 
 
 The several states laid different rates of duty on foreign tonnage; in 
 some, one shilling sterling per ton was imposed on vessels which in other 
 states paid three shillings per ton. Such was the misunderstanding among 
 the several states, that there were no general commercial regulations; nor 
 could congress enforce any, while the opposition of any one of the states 
 could prevent the passage of any act on the subject. The evil of this 
 condition of affairs was flagrantly manifest, when, to provide a fund to 
 discharge the public debt, and to pay the arrears of the revolutionary sol- 
 diers, it was proposed to congress, during the operation of the articles of 
 confederation, to lay a duty of five per cent, ad valorem on all foreign 
 merchandise imported, and the opposition of Rhode Island alone was suf- 
 ficient to defeat the plan. 
 
 European nations gladly availed themselves of the embarrassed situation 
 of our affairs, and labored to throw every obstacle in the way of our in- 
 creasing commerce. They refused to negotiate commercial treaties ; for 
 even those nations which were ready to countenance our assertion of inde- 
 pendence, were not ready to receive us as competitors and rivals in a 
 struggle where their own interests were so deeply involved. The call for 
 an amendment of the regulations on foreign trade, was one of the leading 
 inducements to the change of the old confederation, and the new constitu- 
 tion embraced the necessary provisions for the establishment of a success- 
 ful intercourse with foreign nations. Not long after the adoption of the 
 new constitution, Mr. Jefferson, then secretary of state, proposed a liberal 
 system of policy in relation to this intercourse. His report on the subject 
 of our commercial relations at that period, contains a variety of interesting 
 matter, which enables us to make a correct comparison between the condi- 
 tion of our trade at that period and its present very great increase. This 
 report was prepared in the summer of 1792. The countries with which 
 46 31 
 
362 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the United States had commercial intercourse at that period were Spain, 
 Portugal, France, Great Britain, the United Netherlands, Denmark, and 
 Sweden, and their American possessions : and the articles of export, 
 which constitute the basis of that commerce, with their respective amounts, 
 were, 
 
 Bread stuff, that is to say, bread grains, meals, and bread, to the annual 
 
 amount of S 7.649,887 
 
 Tobacco, 4,349,567 
 
 \lur * 1,753,796 
 
 Wood, 1,263,534 
 
 Sailed fish, 941,696 
 
 Pot and pearl ashes, 839,093 
 
 Salted meats, 599,130 
 
 Indigo, 537,379 
 
 Horses and mules 339,753 
 
 Whale oil, 252,591 
 
 Flax seed, 236,072 
 
 Tar, pitch, and turpentine, 217,177 
 
 Live provisions, 137,743 
 
 Ships, 
 
 Foreign goods, 620,274 
 
 To descend to articles of smaller value than these, would lead into a 
 minuteness of detail neither necessary nor useful to the present object. 
 
 The proportions of our exports, which went to the nations before men- 
 tioned, and to their dominions respectively, were as follows : 
 
 To Spain and its dominions, $ 2,005,907 
 
 Portugal and its dominions, 1,283,462 
 
 France and its dominions, 4,698,735 
 
 Great Britain and its dominions, 9^363,416 
 
 The United Netherlands and their dominions, 1,963,880 
 
 Denmark and its dominions, 224,115 
 
 Sweden and its dominions, 47,240 
 
 Our imports from the same countries were, 
 
 Spain and its dominions, $335,110 
 
 Portugal and its dominions, 595,763 
 
 France and its dominions, 2,068,348 
 
 Greal Britain and its dominions, 15,2S5,428 
 
 United Netherlands and their dominions, 1,172,692 
 
 Denmark and its dominions, 351,364 
 
 Sweden and its dominions, 14,325 
 
 These imports consist mostly of articles on which industry has been 
 exhausted. 
 
 Our navigation^ depending on the same commerce, will appear by the 
 following statement of the tonnage of our own vessels, entering in our 
 ports, from those several nations and their possessions, in one year; that 
 is to say, from October, 1789, to September, 1790, inclusive, as follows ■ 
 
 Spain, m _ 19-6 95 tons 
 
 Portugal, 23^576 « 
 
 France^ 116,410 " 
 
 Great Britain, 43 530. " 
 
 United Netherlands, . . . .'.'.*.'.'. , * , " 58858 " 
 
 Denmark, ".."...*.'.'..'. 14'655 " 
 
 Sweden, , . , 750 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 363 
 
 The report then goes on to describe the degree of favor with which each 
 of the several articles of export is received in each of the nations mention- 
 ed, and the nature and extent of the restrictions which had been adopted 
 by each government in reference to American commerce. It then proceeds 
 to the investigation of the question, how may these restrictions be removed, 
 modified, or counteracted ? Two methods are suggested ; first, by friendly 
 arrangements with the several nations with whom these restrictions exi.-t ; 
 or, secondly, by the separate act of our own legislatures for countervailing 
 their effects. "The views taken in this report have so important a bearing 
 on many political subjects that have of late years agitated the country, and 
 indicate so clearly the opinions of Mr. Jefferson in regard to the constitu- 
 tional powers of Congress, in regulating commerce, that it seems not im- 
 proper to present in this connection the following extracts : 
 
 ' Instead of embarrassing commerce under piles of regulating laws, du- 
 ties, and prohibitions, could it be relieved from all its shackles in all parts 
 of the world ; could every country be employed in producing that which 
 nature has best fitted it to produce, and each be free to exchange with 
 others mutual surplusses for mutual wants, the greatest mass po 
 would then be produced of those things which contribute to human life 
 and human happiness ; the numbers of mankind would be increased, and 
 their condition bettered. 
 
 ' Would even a single nation begin with the United States this system 
 of free commerce, it would be advisable to begin it with that nation; since 
 it is one by one only, that it can be extended to all. Where the circum- 
 stances of either party render it expedient to levy a revenue, by way of 
 impost, on commerce, its freedom might be modified, in that particular, by 
 mutual and equivalent measures, preserving it entire in all others. 
 
 ' Some nations, not yet ripe for free commerce in all its extent, might 
 still be willing to mollify its restrictions and regulations for us, in propor- 
 tion to the advantages which an intercourse with us might offer. Par- 
 ticularly they may concur with us in reciprocating the duties to be levied 
 on each side, or in compensating any excess of duty by equivalent advan- 
 tages of another nature. Our commerce is certainly of a character to 
 entitle it to favor in most countries. The commodities we offer are either 
 necessaries of life, or materials for manufacture, or convenient subjects of 
 revenue ; and we take in exchange, either manufactures, when they have 
 received the last finish of art and industry, or mere luxuries. Such cus- 
 tomers may reasonably expect welcome and friendly treatment at every 
 market. Customers, too, whose demands, increasing with their wealth 
 and population, must very shortly give full employment to the whole in- 
 dustry of any nation whatever, in any line of supply they may get into the 
 habit of calling for from it. 
 
 ' But should any nation, contrary to our wishes, suppose it may better 
 find its advantage by continuing its system of prohibitions, duties, and 
 regulations, it behoves us to protect our citizens, their commerce and 
 navigation, by counter prohibitions, duties, and regulations, also. Free 
 commerce and navigation are not to be given in exchange for restrictions 
 and vexations, nor are they likely to produce a relaxation of them. 
 
 ' Our navigation involves still higher considerations. As a branch of 
 industry, it is valuable, but as a resource of defence, essential. 
 
 'Its value, as a branch of industry, is enhanced by the dependence of 
 
364 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 so many other branches on it. In times of general peace, it multiplies* 
 competitors for employment in transportation, and so keeps that at its pro- 
 per level ; and in times of war, that is to say, when those nations who 
 may be our principal carriers, shall be at war with each other, if we have 
 not within ourselves the means of transportation, our produce must be ex- 
 ported in belligerent vessels, at the increased expense of war-freight and 
 insurance, and the articles which will not bear that, must perish on our 
 hands.' 
 
 The troubled situation of affairs in Europe exerted a very favorable 
 influence on American commerce. The wars which followed in the train 
 of the French revolution, created a demand for our exports, and invited 
 our shipping for the carrying trade of a very considerable portion of Eu- 
 rope. American bottoms not only carried the colonial productions to the 
 several parent states, but our merchants became the purchasers of them in 
 the French, Spanish, and Dutch colonies. A new era Avas established in 
 our commercial history. Large numbers of individuals embarked in com- 
 mercial enterprises, and the other departments of industry were compara- 
 tively deserted. The most adventurous became the most wealthy, and 
 that, too, without any knowledge of the principles on which trade is usually 
 conducted. No one confined himself to a single branch of business, but 
 the same individual was concerned in voyages to the four quarters of the 
 globe. Our tonnage increased with a rapidity proportioned to its de- 
 mand ; in proportion to our population, we ranked as the most commercial 
 of nations ; in point of value, our trade was second only to that of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 This astonishing increase of commercial connections, and consequent 
 accumulation of wealth, could not but excite the jealousy of European na- 
 tions, and eventually occasioned a series of restrictive and prohibitory 
 codes, on the part of England and France, at that time belligerent, by 
 which the Americans, as a neutral power, suffered infinite damage. In- 
 deed, between the years 1804 and 1807, inclusive, above one thousand 
 American merchant vessels were captured by nations professedly at peace 
 with the United States, for alleged breaches of blockade, or of commercial 
 decrees. Under these circumstances, the government of the United States, 
 at the close of the year 1807, resorted to an embargo, to prevent the de- 
 struction of the mercantile navy, which was continued till March, 1809. 
 Thus the export trade of the United States, after having, in the course of 
 sixteen years, from 1790 to 1S06, acquired an augmentation of nearly 
 ninety millions of dollars, was, in 1807, reduced by a single blow to the 
 aggregate of twenty-two millions, four hundred and thirty thousand, nine 
 hundred and sixty dollars, being only one million, six hundred and seventy- 
 seven thousand, eight hundred and sixty-two dollars more than the amount 
 in 1791, the second year after the organization of the present government. 
 iflnJ aiS1 j g the embar §' ' commerce at once revived, and during the years 
 1809 and 1810, the amount of exports, so far as related to domestic pro- 
 ducts, was greater than the average of the ten years from 1802 to 1812. 
 
 Subsequently to the declaration of war with Great Britain, the export 
 trade of the United States was materially depressed, till, in the year 1814, 
 it did not amount to seven millions of dollars. At the conclusion of the 
 war, the exports rose in 1815 to fifty-two millions; in 1816, to eighty- 
 one ; m 1S17, to eighty-seven ; in 1818, to ninety-three. From 1819 to 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 365 
 
 1824, the amount ranged between sixty-five and seventy-five millions, the 
 average being above seventy ; but in 1825, the amount of exports again 
 rose to nearly one hundred millions of dollars. From 1826 to 1830, the 
 exports ranged from seventy to eighty millions ; the exports of foreign 
 goods have materially declined, the amount for 1830 being little more than 
 fourteen millions, a smaller amount than any year since 1803, except those 
 of the embargo and war, while the domestic exports are nearly sixty mfl- 
 lions, an amount exceeding those of any preceding year, excepting the 
 years 1816, '17, '18, and '25. 
 
 The official accounts presented to congress divide the exports into four 
 classes : products of the sea, the forest, agriculture, and manufactures. 
 The following is a summary of the exports of the year 1S30 ; the details 
 of this and other years will be found in the tabular views at the end of the 
 volume. The products of the sea, consisting of the results of the whale, 
 cod, mackerel, and herring fisheries, exported mostly from the northern 
 states, amount to one million, seven hundred and twenty-five thousand, 
 two hundred and seventy dollars, being nearly a thirty-fifth part of the 
 vhole domestic exports. About one third of this value consists of codfish, 
 and more than half of the products of the whale fisheries. 
 
 The value of skins, furs, ginseng, amber, staves, bark, tar, pitch, resin, 
 and turpentine, and pot and pearl ashes, partly from the northern and part- 
 ly from the southern states, which were formerly of much greater compa- 
 rative importance, now constitutes nearly one fifteenth part of the whole 
 value of domestic exports, and amounts to four millions, one hundred and 
 ninety-two thousand, and forty dollars. A large proportion of the trade 
 in these articles, as well as in those of codfish and bread stuffs, is carried on 
 with the West Indies, Mexico, and South America. The skins and the 
 furs go to Europe and Canton, the ginseng to Canton, and the pot and 
 pearl ashes to France and England. 
 
 The chief amount of articles of export consist, as would naturally be 
 supposed, of the products of agriculture. The article of cotton alone fur- 
 nishes nearly half of the amount of the whole exports of the United States, 
 being for the year 1830 twenty-nine million, six hundred and seventy-four 
 thousand, eight hundred and thirty-three dollars. The next important ar- 
 ticle of export is wheat, either as grain, flour, or biscuit ; the amount being 
 six million, three hundred and twenty thousand, six hundred seventeen 
 dollars. The third in amount is tobacco, five million, five hundred and 
 eighty-six thousand, three hundred and sixty-five dollars ; the fourth, rice, 
 one million, nine hundred and eighty-six thousand, eight hundred twenty- 
 four dollars ; the fifth, the produce of swine, including pork, bacon, and 
 live hogs, one million, three hundred and fifteen thousand, two hundred 
 and forty-five dollars. Three of the most important of these articles, cot- 
 ton, tobacco, and rice, amounting collectively to thirty-seven million, two 
 hundred and forty-eight thousand, and seventy-two dollars, are the pro- 
 duce of the southern states, including Virginia and Kentucky. The other 
 agricultural exports, viz. beef, tallow, hides and cattle, butter, cheese, 
 horses, mules, sheep, rye meal, oats, potatoes, and apples, flax seed, and 
 hops, are mostly furnished by the middle and western states. Cattle and 
 their products, including butter and cheese, amounted to eight hundred 
 and sixty thousand, and fifty-three dollars. This species of export is of 
 
 31* 
 
366 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 far less comparative importance than formerly, being limited to its present 
 amount, not by the capacity for production, but by the extent of demand in 
 the foreign markets. An increase of the foreign demand would soon 
 double and treble the quantity. Some of the articles comprehended in 
 the above list, though agricultural products, yet involve some process of 
 manufacture ; such, for example, as butter, cheese, bacon, flour, biscuit, 
 meal, and part of the tobacco. A great many, however, of the exports 
 coming under the head of manufactures, include in them the value of ma- 
 terials, such as the cotton fabrics, those of leather, and spirits distilled from 
 grain : so that, on the whole, the strictly agricultural products of the coun- 
 try constitute a larger proportion of the whole exports than the tables 
 represent ; and if we add the value of materials supplied by agriculture 
 for the manufactured exports, we shall have at least six sevenths of the 
 whole domestic exportation consisting of the raw products of agriculture. 
 
 The total amount of manufactured articles exported from the United 
 States in the year 1830, is estimated in the official returns at six million, 
 two hundred and fifty-eight thousand, one hundred and thirty-one dollars, 
 being rather more than one tenth of the domestic exports of the country ; 
 about nine hundred and thirty thousand dollars should, however, be struck 
 out of this list, being gold and silver coin, consisting mostly of metals 
 coined at the mint, and again exported. The labor put upon these mate- 
 rials in coining is so inconsiderable a part of their value, that the amount 
 of coin of the country exported ought not to be included in the estimate of 
 the value of manufactured exports. Of the articles exported on which the 
 arts of the United States are employed, the most considerable are cotton 
 twist, thread, and fabrics, the exported value of which, for the year 1830, 
 was one million, eight hundred and thirteen thousand, one hundred and 
 eighty-three dollars, being more than one fiftieth part of the whole domes- 
 tic exports, the principal markets of which are South America, Mexico, 
 and the Mediterranean. 
 
 The value of leather and its various manufactures, exported, is three 
 hundred and seventy-five thousand, two hundred and fifty dollars. Hats 
 exported the same year amount to three hundred and nine thousand, three 
 hundred and sixty-two dollars, a very large sum, considering the short 
 period during which this article has been sent to foreign markets. Soap 
 and candles have long been supplied for the foreign markets, but have 
 lately been on the decline, the amount for the year 1830 being six hun- 
 dred and nineteen thousand, two hundred and thirty-eight dollars ; and 
 for 1831 only about twenty-five thousand dollars more. The various arti- 
 cles manufactured for the most part of wood, such as furniture, or of wood, 
 leather, and iron, such as coaches and carriages, besides various agricul- 
 tural implements supplied to the West Indies and South America, consti- 
 tute an important branch of trade. The American glass begins to appear 
 in the foreign markets ; the value sent abroad in 1830, was sixty thousand, 
 two hundred and eighty dollars ; in the next year it was nearly doubled, 
 and it bids fair to be still increased. The other exports consist of a variety 
 of articles in small quantities, among which are wearing apparel, combs 
 and buttons, brushes, fire engines and apparatus, printing presses and types, 
 musical instruments, books, maps, paper and stationery, and trunks. It is 
 apparent from the above enumeration and estimates, that the manufactured 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 367 
 
 articles of which the export is the most considerable and most flourishing:, 
 are those of which the raw materials consist mostly of cotton, wood, and 
 leather. 
 
 The foreign articles imported and again exported from the country during; 
 the year 1830, amounted to fourteen million, three hundred and seventy- 
 eight thousand, four hundred and seventy-nine dollars. This transit trade 
 consequently forms an important part of American commerce. The prin- 
 cipal foreign articles exported are cottons, coffee and cocoa, sugar, tea, 
 wines, and hardware.* 
 
 ' The tendency to the sea,' says Mr. Cooper, in his Notions of the Ame- 
 ricans, ' which the American has manifested since the earliest of the co- 
 lonial establishments, is, no doubt, to be ascribed originally to the temper 
 of his ancestors. Nothing can be more absurd, however, than to argue, 
 that although peculiar circumstances drew him on the ocean, during the 
 continuance of the late and general hostilities, he will return to his fertile 
 valleys and vast prairies, now that competitors for the profits of commerce 
 and navigation are arising among the former belligerents. The argument 
 implies an utter ignorance of history, no less than of the character and sa- 
 gacity of a people who are never tardy to discover their individual inte- 
 rests. It is, notwithstanding, often urged with so much pertinacity, as to 
 savor much more of the conclusions of what we hope for, than of what our 
 reason would teach us to believe. The fact is, there never has been a 
 period, since society was first firmly organized in their country, when the 
 Anglo-Americans have not possessed a tonnage greater, in proportion to 
 their population and means, than that of any other people, some of the 
 small commercial cities, perhaps, alone excepted. This was true, even 
 previously to their revolution, when the mother country monopolized all 
 of trade and industry that the temper of the colonies would bear, and it is 
 true now, to an extent of which you have probably no suspicion. The 
 present population of the United States may be computed at twelve million, 
 while the amount of shipping materially exceeds one million four hundred 
 thousand tons.t Assuming that amount, however, it gives one ton to eve- 
 ry eight and a half of the inhabitants. The tonnage of the British empire 
 is, in round numbers, two million, five hundred thousand. This, divided 
 among the twenty-three million of the British islands alone, would give 
 but one ton to every nine of the inhabitants. In this calculation, the vast 
 difference in wealth is forgotten. But by the British empire, we are to 
 understand Canada, the West Indies, and all the vast possessions which 
 are tributary to the wealth and power of that great nation. I know not 
 whether the shipping employed in the East Indies ought to be enumerated 
 in the amount named. If it is, you will see the disproportion in favor of 
 America is enormous. But assuming that it is not, it becomes necessary 
 to add several millions for their other dependencies. There is, however, 
 still another point of view in which this comparison should, with strict 
 justice, be made. A large proportion of the people of the United States 
 are so situated, that in the nature of things they cannot turn much, if any, 
 
 * For further information and details in respect to the commerce of the United States, 
 see the tabular views and summaries at the end of the volume. 
 
 f On the thirtieth of December, 1826, it had swelled to one million, five hundred and 
 thirty-four thousand. 
 
368 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of their attention to navigation. If the slaves and the inhabitants of the 
 new states, where the establishments are still too infant, to admit of such 
 a development of their resources, be deducted from the whole amount of 
 the population, it will not leave more than seven million of souls in pos- 
 session of those districts in which navigation can be supposed at all to 
 exist. The latter, too, will include all those states that are called interior, 
 where time has not been given to effect any thing like a natural division 
 of the employments of men. The result will show, that the Americans, 
 relatively considered, are addicted to navigation, as compared with Great 
 Britain, in the proportion of more than seven to five ; nor has this com- 
 mercial, or rather maritime spirit, arisen under auspices so encouraging as 
 is generally imagined. 
 
 ' The navigation laws, adopted by the United States, so soon as their 
 present constitution went into operation, are generally known. Their ef- 
 fect was to bring the shipping of the country into instant competition with 
 that of foreign nations, from the state of temporary depression into which 
 it had been thrown by the struggle of the revolution. From that hour, 
 the superiority enjoyed by the American, in cheapness of construction, 
 provisions and naval stores, aided by the unrivalled activity, and practical 
 knowledge of the population, put all foreign competition at defiance. Of 
 six hundred and six thousand tons of shipping employed in 1790, in the 
 foreign trade of the country, not less than two hundred and fifty-one thou- 
 sand tons were the property of strangers. In 1794, while the trade em- 
 ployed six hundred and eleven thousand tons, but eighty-four thousand 
 tons were owned by foreigners. In 1820, (a year of great depression,) the 
 trade gave occupation to eight hundred and eighty thousand tons, of which 
 no more than seventy-nine thousand tons were foreign property. This 
 estimate, however, includes the intercourse with the least, no less than 
 that with the most maritime nation. The trade between the United States 
 and England, which is the most important of all, in respect of the tonnage 
 it employs, was about three to one, in favor of the former ; with other 
 countries it varies according to the maritime character of the people, but 
 with all and each it is altogether in favor of the United States.' 
 
369 
 
 CHAPTER VI.— RAIL-ROADS. 
 
 The first rail-road attempted in the United States, was that constructed 
 in Quincy, for the purpose of transporting granite from the quarry at that 
 place. It extends from the quarry to the Neponset river, a distance of 
 about three miles. It is a single track road, and the distance between the 
 rails is five feet. The rails are of pine, covered with oak, and overlaid 
 with thin plates of wrought iron. When first constructed, the passage 
 from the quarry to the landing of a car carrying ten tons, with a single 
 horse, was performed in an hour. It was completed in 1827. 
 
 The Boston and Loioell rail-road commences at Boston, near the en- 
 trance to the Warren bridge. Twenty acres of flat have been purchased 
 at this place to accommodate the various depots of the company. The 
 rail-road crosses Charles river by a wooden viaduct, and terminates at the 
 basin of the canal in Lowell ; whence branches extend along the severaL 
 canals to the factories. At present, it is to be composed of a single track,. 
 with the requisite number of turn-outs. It is constructed of stone and 
 iron, in the most substantial manner. The company to form this road 
 was incorporated in June, 1830.* 
 
 * The following extract from the Lowell Journal possesses sufficient interest to entitle 
 it to preservation. 
 
 'The excavation which is now about being made in a hill in this town for the bed of 
 the contemplated rail-way, may be considered, next to the various manufacturing' 
 establishments, the most wonderful " lion" of the place. This hill is near the terminus 
 pf the rail-way, in the neighborhood of the brewery, but not in a populous part of the 
 town. It consists of a ledge of rock,, which is aboul three hundred yards in Length, and 
 the average depth of the excavation is about forty feet. It is thirty feel wide at the 
 bottom, and sixty at the top, and the masses of stone which have already been riven 
 from the ledge by blasting, seem to be immense. 
 
 'A contract was originally made with a person to effect a sufficient passage through 
 this hill, for the sum of seventy-two thousand dollars. He commenced the underl 
 employed sixty workmen for about lour months, and failed. Another person then un- 
 dertook to finish the work for the same amount; but alter a few months. | 
 dotted the undertaking. Those individuals are said to have both been acquainted with 
 the nature of the business which they undertook, but they were deceived by the quality 
 of the rock, which consists principally of gneiss and n ii which, although 
 
 much lighter and softer than limestone or uranite.it. was found much more diffieull and 
 expensive to effect a passage, than if it was composed of those more solid materials. 
 The drilling may not be so difficult ; but the rocks, lying in numerous horizontal strata, 
 almost defy the power of gunpowder, and heavy blasts, which would shiver an immense 
 of granite, are frequently found here to produce but little effect. In addition to 
 this, the ledge is found to be full of springs of water, which sometimes render it neces- 
 sary for the workmen to expend much time, and exercise no inconsiderable ingenuity, 
 in counteracting its effects. There are also found in the lower part of the ledge, huge 
 masses of quartz, and a species of rock composed almost entirely of hornblende, which 
 is, of course, almost impenetrable to the drill. 
 
 ' The Locks and Canal company have now undertaken to complete this work, at the 
 expense of the Rail-road company. About seventy men are constantly employed, and 
 the work advances as rapidly as the attending circumstances will allow. Seven hun- 
 dred kegs of powder have been used in blasting, since the latter part of April, when the 
 work was recommenced.' 
 47 
 
370 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 The Boston and Worcester rail-road was commenced in August, 1832. 
 In this road, the greatest degree of inclination from a level will be at the 
 rate of thirty feet a mile ; the average inclination will be but ten and a 
 half feet, the main street in Worcester being but four hundred and fifty- 
 six feet higher than Charles street in Boston. The length of the route is 
 forty-three and a quarter miles. A continuation of this road to Connecticut 
 river has been proposed, and also a branch to Millbury. 
 
 The Boston and Providence Rail-road company was incorporated in 
 June, 1831, with a capital of a million of dollars, for the purpose of con- 
 structing a rail-road from Boston to the boundary line of Massachusetts, in 
 the direction of Providence. A company has been formed for the continu- 
 ation of this road to Stonington. Rail-roads have been projected from 
 Boston or Lowell to Brattleborough ; from West Stockbridge to the boun- 
 dary line of the state of New York, to meet a rail-road from Albany ; from 
 Boston to Salem, to be continued to the northern line of the state ; from 
 Troy, in New York, at the head of navigation on the Hudson river, to 
 Bennington, a distance of thirty miles to the town of Adams ; and from 
 Boston to Ogdensburg, in New York. 
 
 The Hudson and Mohawk rail-road extends from Albany to Schenectady, 
 and affords a communication between the tide-water of Hudson river and 
 the Erie canal. It is a double track road, about sixteen miles in length. 
 It commences at the termination of the city line on the Hudson river, and 
 about thirteen acres of land are owned by the company in the vicinity, for 
 depots of transports. About four miles from Schenectady, there is a curve 
 in the road of twenty-three thousand feet radius ; there are six principal 
 embankments. The descent from the Schenectady summit to the level of 
 the Hudson, is three hundred and thirty-five feet. The soil through which 
 the road passes is sandy. Several ravines are crossed, and some conside- 
 rable elevations are cut through. Both locomotive engines and horses are 
 used upon this route. A locomotive has travelled upon it, with a load of 
 eight tons, at the rate of thirty miles per hour. In October, 1831, the 
 number of daily passengers averaged nearly four hundred. The cost of 
 this road was between six and seven hundred thousand dollars. 
 
 The Saratoga and Schenectady jail-road forms a continuation of the 
 Mohawk and Hudson rail-road, extending from the city of Schenectady to 
 the villages of Ballston Spa and Saratoga, and uniting these places with 
 the line of steam navigation upon the Hudson. It is twenty miles in 
 length ; was commenced in 1831, and completed in the following year. 
 
 The Ithaca and Susquehanna rail-road is to extend from the village of 
 Ithaca, near the south end of Cayuga lake, to Owego, on the Susquehanna. 
 The distance is about twenty-eight miles. The Ithaca and Catskill rail- 
 road is to extend a distance of one hundred and sixty-seven miles, from 
 Ithaca to Catskill, on the Hudson. The Catskill and Canajoharie rail- 
 road is to extend for the distance of seventy miles, from Catskill to Cana- 
 joharie, on the Mohawk. The company was incorporated in 1830, with a 
 capital of six hundred thousand dollars. The Harlem rail-road is about 
 six miles in length, extending from Twenty-third street, New York city, 
 to Harlem river. 
 
 The New York and Erie rail-road company was incorporated in April, 
 1S32, with a capital of ten million dollars. It was the original design that 
 the road should extend from the city of New York, or some point in its 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 371 
 
 vicinity, and continue through the southern counties, through Owego, in 
 the county of Tioga, to the shore of lake Erie, at some point between Cat- 
 taraugus creek and the Pennsylvania line. It is to be commenced within 
 four years from the date of the act of incorporation, one fourth to be com- 
 pleted within ten years, one half within fifteen years, and the whole to be 
 completed within twenty years, under penalty of forfeiture of the charter. 
 The New York and Albany rail-road company was incorporated in 
 April, 1832, with a capital of three millions. It is to be completed within 
 ten years ; commencing at New York city, opposite the termination of the 
 Fourth avenue, and ending on the Hudson, opposite Albany.* ' The pro- 
 posed route of this road,' says the Boston Advertiser, ' passes through the 
 county of Berkshire, in this state, from West Stockbridge to the northern 
 boundary of the state of Connecticut, following the valley of the Housa- 
 tonic river from Stockbridge to Sharon, in Connecticut. It will thus afford 
 an additional inducement for the extension of the Boston and Worcester 
 rail-road from Worcester to Springfield, and thence to the western boundary 
 of the state. This latter rail-road will meet the New York and Albany road 
 at Stockbridge or West Stockbridge, and will thus come in contact with a 
 continued line of rail-roads, interrupted only by the Hudson river, extend- 
 ing northwardly to Saratoga, westwardly to Utica, and southwardly to the 
 city of New York. It will thus afford the means of direct and rapid in- 
 tercourse between Boston and the towns in Berkshire county, along the 
 fertile valley of the Housatonic, and with the rich marble quarries and 
 beds of iron ore in that region, as well as with the vast country which will 
 be opened to this mercantile market, beyond the limits of the state. The 
 distance by the rail-road from West Stockbridge to Albany will be about 
 forty miles, of which distance over sixteen miles will be a perfect level. 
 From West Stockbridge to Utica, the distance by the rail-road will be one 
 
 * In addition to the above, the following Rail-road companies were incorporated at 
 the session of the New York legislature in 1832. 
 
 _ , _, Name. Capital. 
 
 Lake Champlain and Ogdensburgh, $3,000,000 
 
 Watertown and Rome, 1,000,000 
 
 Utica and Susquehanna, (from Utica to the New York and Erie rail-road,) 1^000,000 
 
 Black river, (from the Erie canal, at Rome or Herkimer, to the St. Lawrence,) 900,000 
 
 Ithaca and Geneva, 800 000 
 
 Buffalo and Erie, fioO^OOO 
 
 Dutchess, (from Poughkeepsie to Connecticut line,) 600,000 
 
 Tonawanda, (from Rochester to Attica,) 500 000 
 
 Hudson and Berkshire, (from Hudson to Massachusetts line,) 35o'o00 
 
 Schoharie and Otsego, (from the Catskill and Canajoharie rail-road to the 
 
 Susquehanna river,) 300.000 
 
 Dansville and Rochester, ' . ' 300 000 
 
 Aurora and Buffalo, ' _ 30o'o00 
 
 Rensselaer and Saratoga, ' 30o'o00 
 
 Brooklyn and Jamaica, * 300000 
 
 Fish-house and Amsterdam, ' / 250000 
 
 Warren county, (from Glen's Falls to Caldwell,) .".".*. 25o'oOO 
 
 Saratoga and Fort Edward, .."."." 200*000 
 
 Otsego, (from Cooperstown to Collierville,) ' . , , 200^000 
 
 Albion and Tonawanda, 200 000 
 
 Auburn and Erie canal, 150 000 
 
 Mayville and Portland, 150000 
 
 Elvira and Williamsport, • . ...".".*, 75000 
 
372 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 hundred and thirty-seven miles, over a country a great part of which is 
 level. From Albany to Schenectady, and thence to Saratoga, the rail- 
 road is already finished. From Schenectady to Utica, the road is yet to 
 be made; but the company for building it is formed, with an adequate capi- 
 tal. About seven times the requisite amount of stock was subscribed. 
 The required amount has been apportioned by commissioners among the 
 subscribers, and the subscription money for the surplus shares has been 
 returned.' 
 
 The Camden and Amboy rail-road commences at Camden, on the Dela- 
 ware, opposite to Philadelphia, and passing through Burlington, Borden- 
 town, Highstown, and Spotswood, over South river, terminates at Amboy. 
 It is sixty-one miles in length, passing through a very level country. Be- 
 ing designed for steam locomotives, it is to be constructed in the most im- 
 proved and substantial manner, though at present wooden rails are laid 
 over a great portion of the line, in order that the embankments may be con- 
 solidated before laying the permanent track. A double track of rails is to 
 be laid ultimately through the whole distance. Between Bordentown and 
 Amboy, there is a cut varying in depth ,to sixty feet, extending nearly two 
 miles. In the vicinity of Bordentown, there are stone culverts and via- 
 ducts. It has been calculated that five hundred thousand dollars per an- 
 num will be received for the conveyance of light freight and passengers. 
 As the Delaware is frequently closed with ice during part of the winter, 
 and the Philadelphia trade is consequently diverted to New York, it is 
 supposed that vessels destined to Philadelphia, may put into Raritan bay, 
 which is open at all seasons, and the cargoes be conveyed at once upon the 
 rail-road to the place of their destination. To secure this object, large lots 
 on the Raritan and the Delaware have been purchased by the company 
 for the convenience of ships and steamboats. 
 
 The Patterson and Hudson river rail-road extends from Patterson, on 
 the Passaic, to Jersey city and the Hudson river, opposite New York, four- 
 teen miles. After the expiration of fifty years, the state of New Jersey 
 has a right to take this road at an appraised value. The Elizabethtoion 
 end SomerviUe rail-road company was incorporated in 1830, with a capital 
 of two hundred thousand dollars, with the liberty of increasing it to four 
 hundred thousand. The West- Jersey rail-road is to extend from the Dela- 
 ware river, in the county of Gloucester, or from some point on the Camden 
 and Amboy rail-road, to the township of Penn's Neck, on the same river, 
 in the county of Salem. This company was incorporated at the same 
 session with the above, with a capital of five hundred thousand dollars, 
 and liberty to increase it to two million. The New Jersey rail-road is to 
 extend from New Brunswick, through Rahway, Woodbridge, Elizabeth- 
 town and Newark, to Hudson river. It was incorporated in 1S32, with a 
 capital of seven hundred and fifty thousand dollars. A charter was also 
 granted to a company to construct a rail-road connecting the Morris canal 
 with the Patterson and Hudson river rail-road. 
 
 The Mauck Chunk rail-road was the first rail-road constructed in Penn- 
 sylvania. It was commenced and finished in the first five months of 1827. 
 It extends from the coal mines near Mauch Chunk, along the side of the 
 mountain, down an inclined plain of various declivities, to the Lehigh 
 river. The mines are nine hundred and thirty-six feet above the point 
 where the boats receive the coal, of which from three hundred to throe 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 373 
 
 hundred and fifty tons arc delivered daily. From the river to the mines, 
 the road is nine miles in length ; and its branches at the ends and. side- 
 lines, four and a half miles more. The Mount Carbon rail-road company 
 was incorporated in the spring of 1S29, and the rail-road was commenced 
 in the succeeding October. At the termination, the road is elevated upon 
 thirty-one piers of masonry erected upon the landings. The Schuylkill 
 Valley rail-road commences at Port Carbon, and terminates at Tuscarora, 
 being ten miles in length. It is intersected by fifteen lateral rail-roadsi, 
 whose combined distances amount to about thirteen miles. The Schuylkill 
 rail-road consists of a double track, is thirteen miles in length, and cost 
 seven thousand dollars a mile. Mill Creek rail-road commences at Port 
 Carbon, and extends up Mill creek four miles ; it has but a single track. 
 The West Branch rail-road commences at Schuylkill haven, and terminates 
 at the foot of the Broad mountain. It is fifteen miles in length, with five 
 miles of lateral roads that intersect it ; only the main stem has a double 
 track. The Pine grove rail-road extends from the mines to the Swatara 
 feeder, a distance of five miles. The Little Schuylkill rail-road commences 
 at Port Clinton, and extends up the stream to the mines at Tamaqua, a 
 distance of about twenty-three miles. The Lackaivazen rail-road com- 
 mences at the termination of the Lackawaxen and Delaware and Hudson 
 canal, and connects that canal with the coal bed in Carbondale. It is six- 
 teen miles in length, and overcomes an elevation of eight hundred feet. 
 The road consists of a single track of wooden rails, capped with iron. 
 
 The Alleghany Portage rail-road is intended to connect the eastern and 
 western sections of the Pennsylvania canal, and complete the direct line 
 of communication between Philadelphia and Pittsburg. The route adopted 
 commences at Frankstown, crosses the Alleghany mountains at Blair's 
 gap summit, and descends in the valleys of Laurel run and the Little 
 Conemaugh, to Johnstown, a distance of thirty-eight and a half miles. A 
 tunnel of one thousand feet is projected at one of the bends of the Cone- 
 maugh, which will be crossed by two bridges. This road is to be con- 
 structed by the state of Pennsylvania. 
 
 The Philadelphia and Columbia rail-road is intended to connect the 
 Delaware navigation at Philadelphia with that of the Susquehanna at Co- 
 lumbia, passing through the counties of Delaware, Chester, and Lancaster. 
 It is about eighty-three miles in length, and it is proposed to continue it 
 fourteen miles further, across the Susquehanna, by the Columbia bridge, 
 to the borough of York. About seventy other rail-roads have been pro- 
 jected in Pennsylvania, and companies for constructing several of them 
 have been incorporated. 
 
 The Netvcastle and Frenchtown rail-road extends from Newcastle, on the 
 Delaware, to the Elk river, near Frenchtown, in Maryland ; it is nearly 
 parallel to the Chesapeak and Delaware canal, and is in direct competition 
 with it. This road consists of a single track, with the requisite number 
 of turn-outs, and is about sixteen and a half miles in length — only eight 
 hundred and fifty-three yards longer than a perfectly straight line drawn 
 between its two extremities. It consists of six curve and six straight lines. 
 The curve lines vary in length from one thousand, nine hundred and 
 thirty-nine to eight thousand, two hundred and ninety-six feet. The radii 
 of the three smaller curves are of ten thousand, five hundred and sixty 
 feet each ; the radius of the largest, twenty thousand feet. The aggregate 
 
 32 
 
374 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 length of the curves is five miles and one sixth ; that of the straight lines 
 eleven miles and three tenths. The graduation of the road departs from a 
 perfect level, by ascents and descents varying from ten feet six inches to 
 sixteen feet four inches a mile ; at one place, for about four thousand feet 
 tlic slope is at the rate of twenty-nine feet to the mile. The whole amount 
 of excavation is about five hundred thousand cubic yards of earth, exclusive 
 of the side drains. The amount of embankment is four hundred and 
 twenty thousand cubic yards. The road crosses four viaducts and twenty- 
 nine culverts, all constructed of substantia] stone masonry. The width is 
 twenty-six feet, exclusive of the side drains. It was completed in 1832. 
 Cost, including land, wharf, depots, and locomotive engines, four hundred 
 thousand dollars. 
 
 The Wilmington and Downington rail-road was incorporated by the 
 legislature of Delaware, in 1831, with a capital of one hundred thousand 
 dollars, with liberty to increase it to one hundred and fifty thousand dol- 
 lars, for the purpose of constructing a rail-road from Wilmington to the 
 boundary line of the state, in the direction of Downington, in Pennsylvania. 
 
 The Baltimore and Susquehannah rail-road was commenced in 1830, 
 and is to extend from Baltimore to York, in Pennsylvania, a distance of 
 seventy-six miles. The company has the right of constructing a lateral 
 rail-road, commencing at the main stem, within ten miles of Baltimore, 
 through Westminster, to the head waters of Monocacy river. 
 
 The Baltimore and Ohio rail-road is intended to connect the city of 
 Baltimore with some point on the Ohio, thus affording a communication 
 between the waters of Chesapeak bay and those of the great western river. 
 Active operations on this great work were commenced in the autumn of 
 1828. The road begins at the head of the basin in Baltimore. In tho 
 city it consists of a single track, and is to be confined to horse power 
 branch railways are to be constructed in various directions. On the portion 
 of the rail-road within a few miles of the city, several magnificent viaduct* 
 are constructed, of substantial stone masonry. The Carrollton viaduct, 
 over Gwyn's falls, is constructed of granite ; its whole exterior is hewn , 
 it consists of two arches, and is three hundred and twelve feet in length. 
 
 Carrollton Viaduct, 
 
 Its height, from, the foundation to the top of the parapet, is sixty-three feet 
 nine inches ; from the surface of the water to the top of the parapet, fifty* 
 one feet and nine inches. The width of the railway travelling-path it 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 375 
 
 iwenty-six feet six inches ; the chord of the arch springing- from the abut- 
 ments, eighty feet three inches. It is a structure of gTeat beauty and 
 solidity. The bridge across the Patapsco' is a stone structure, con 
 of two arches of fifty-five feet span each, and two of twenty feet spa:, 
 There are also several deep cuts and extensive embanknv 
 
 Upon the route selected for this rail-road, there are only two summits 
 for the distance of one hundred and eighty miles. The approach to the 
 first of these summits, at Parr Spring ridge, is by an acclivity so gradual 
 as not to exceed eighteen feet to the mile. From the western side of this 
 ridge, to the coal mines near Cumberland, the route for the whole d. 
 is adapted to steam locomotive engines. From the eastern base of the 
 Alleghany mountain, a series of inclined planes will be requir 
 come a summit of twelve hundred feet ; from thence the road may be con- 
 structed upon a line so nearly level to the Ohio river, as to be traversed by 
 steam locomotive engines without difficulty. The progress of the rail-road 
 beyond the Point of Rocks has been interrupted by a lawsuit between the 
 Baltimore and Ohio Rail-road company, and the Chesapeak and Ohio 
 Canal company, which has been decided in favor of the latter. The road 
 is to be extended to the mouth of the Shenandoah. A further extt 
 of thirty mile- will carry it to Williamsport, and another of seven- 
 miles to Cumberland, and a country abounding in rich bituminous coal. 
 From this point to Pittsburg, the distance is one hundred and forty miles, 
 making the whole length three hundred and twenty-five miles.* 
 
 * The folk' it to the Point of Rocks, along the track of the rail- 
 road from Baltimore to that place, a distance of seventy-three miles, is in* 
 
 may be not improperly introduced in this connection. It is taken from the Baltimore 
 American of J 
 
 • In the middle of the merry month of May, the governor of Maryland, president of 
 the Baltimore and Ohio rail-road coinp- and other gentle- 
 men, visited the Point of Rocks the rail-road cars. T: 
 
 known from Baltimore to Ellieott's mill that it requires no description, further than 
 that point has become a very desirable retreat, both on account of the wild i 
 of the surrounding scenery and the • • rnmodations of the hotel, i 
 
 to the Monocacy, it leads along thi of the Patapsco river and 
 
 through a woody region rarely by some cultivated spots, and improvements 
 
 indicating much comfort. The viaduct across tl . airv and tasteful 
 
 structure, reflecting great credit on the architect, and of sufficient solidity to insure its 
 safety and duration. From that point is a view of the bridge below, the n 
 miles distant, and a short distance up and down the river. Here the bran 
 leading to Frederick leaves the continuous line which proceed- through a finely cultivat- 
 ed champaign country for eleven miles to the Potomac. I formed one of the party, and 
 as every spot at the Point and the opposite shore was familiar to me. I enjoyed a satis- 
 faction, mingled with some pleasing, melancholy recollections of former days, which 
 was not felt by others, although I believe that • was highly gratified with the 
 
 trip, which took up about twelve hours, allowing time to break: dine at 
 
 Frederick, and an hour to examine the long-contested Point, which ri-es in almost a 
 perpendicular line from the river, to the height of three or four hun 
 
 which is an Indian barrow where lay mouldering the bones of - 
 Tecumsehs or valiant Little Turtles, commingled with the arrows which probabl 
 often been dyed in the blood of many a noble tawny Hector or implacable Achilles. 
 Here the soaring eagle and boding raven have immemorably pitched their ev 
 social proximity, and looked down upon the humble fish hawk perched upon a 'jutting 
 rock, or hovering with equal poise over his finny prey, and from which there is a view 
 of Harpers Ferry, the Blue ridge and Washington's beloved river, studded with isles, 
 tu several miles. The stillness of the scene is often broken by the refreshing murmurs 
 
376 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The Baltimore and Washington rail-road is a branch of the Baltimore 
 and Ohio rail-road, and its completion has been undertaken by the same 
 company. Its length from the point of intersection, at Elk ridge landing to 
 Washington, is about thirty-three miles. 
 
 The Manchester rail-road is in Chesterfield county, Virginia. It ex- 
 tends from Manchester to the coal mines. It consists of a single track, 
 and is thirteen miles in length. The Petersburg and Roanoke rail-road 
 was undertaken to counteract the injurious effect which the Dismal Swamp 
 canal has had upon the trade of Petersburg.* It affords a rapid and easy 
 intercourse between the James and Roanoke rivers, and has become a 
 most important link in the chain of communication between the North and 
 
 of Hook's falls. Instead of the low cabin under the pendant rock where I have often 
 felt the genial warmth of a blazing fire while waiting for the ferry boat, there is now 
 rising, as if by magic, the town of Port Johnson. Already there are several houses, 
 shops and warehouses finished and occupied, and a large tavern nearly completed on 
 the rail-road, winch Avill enable visiters to spend time enough to enjoy all the beauties 
 of the prospect and a cheerful repast. 
 
 ' The distance from Baltimore is seventy miles, and may be travelled going and 
 returning in less than twenty-four hours. But if the eye is delighted, and the senses 
 gratified with the objects on the Maryland side, they will be doubly increased bypassing 
 to the other shore, where a tavern and ferry house are erecting directly opposite the 
 point where the boats land. Immediately in the rear of the ferry house, is a tunnel cut 
 out of the solid rock three hundred yards, at the base of the mountain ; half a mile 
 farther the most extensive beds of excellent iron ore and a favorable appearance of 
 bituminous coal. The tunnel was made to let the waters of Catoctin creek into a run 
 which supplied a furnace, saw and extensive merchant mills, destroyed some years ago 
 by fire. If the view charms from the Indian barrows, it almost enraptures from the Vir- 
 ginia promontory, which rises several hundred feet above it, looking down, as it were, 
 upon the little hillock of its Maryland neighbor. The summit is gained by a circuitous 
 road from the river, about a mile in length, where immediately bursts upon the eye the 
 most beautiful and extensive prospect in the country. On the one side you behold 
 Harper's Ferry gap, at twelve miles distance, the whole valley of the Blue ridge as far 
 as vision can extend, on either side of the river the rich settlements of the Maryland 
 tract, the Friends, German and Tunkerville districts, and the Blue ridge mountains. 
 The whole of these tracts are in the highest state of cultivation, and from the height 
 you occupy, appear like large and beauteous gardens, irrigated with perennial streams 
 and adorned with tasty summer houses. On the other side are seen the rich Loudon 
 lands, the town of Leesburg, the lofty Sugar-Loaf Peak in Maryland, and the verdant 
 fields of Carrollton manor, and from one point, the Potomac for miles up and down, 
 with its numerous islands, gentle falls and smooth bosom. On both sides of the river 
 at the point will arrive in boats and wagons, hundreds of thousands of barrels of flour, 
 large quantities of lumber, iron, coal and other productions for transportation on the 
 rail-road. A new energy will be imparted to the enterprising and industrious popula- 
 tion of both states by the choice of markets at the district and Baltimore, and the facili- 
 ties of transportation. If, as Mr. Jefferson says, the view at Harper's Ferry is worth 
 a voyage across the Atlantic, surely that from the Virginia summit is worth a ride from 
 Ealtimore, Philadelphia, New York, or even the cradle city of independence. ' 
 
 * An intelligent friend, who has just visited the Petersburg and Roanoke rail-road, 
 writes us as follows : — 
 
 ' The locomotive engines travel at the rate of twenty miles the hour, with ease, and 
 with a train of from ten to twenty cars, all loaded — some with passengers, and others 
 with produce of every description. The whole line of the Petersburg road presents a 
 scene of cheerfulness and industry, not to be seen on any other road in Virginia- 
 Plantations that have been abandoned are now re-settbng ; houses repairing, and fences, 
 of the best kind, erecting. In the bodies of wood through which the road passes, work- 
 men are employed, some getting staves, some sawing, and others clearing, and, in fact, 
 on the whole line, there is a spirit and animation that is delightful to behold.' — Fre& 
 ericksburg Arena. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 377 
 
 the South. Rail-roads have also been projected from Richmond to 
 Lynchburg ; from Lynchburg to New River ; from Suffolk, in Nansemond 
 county, to the Roanoke river, opposite to the town of Weldon, in North 
 Carolina ; and in several other directions. 
 
 The Fayetteville rail-road company was incorporated by the legislature 
 of North Carolina, in 1330, with a capital stock of twenty thousand dol- 
 lars, for the purpose of constructing a rail-road from Fayetteville to Camp- 
 belltown, on Cape Fear river. Rail-roads from Cape Fear to the Yadkin ; 
 from the Yadkin to the Catawba ; and from Wilmington to the iron mining 
 districts, near Statesville, have been projected, and are in progress. 
 
 The Charleston and Hamburg rail-road, extending one hundred and 
 thirty-six miles, from Charleston, South Carolina, to Hamburg, opposite 
 Augusta, in Georgia, was opened in October, 1833, for its entire length. 
 The passenger train leaves each place every morning, and arrives on the 
 evening of the day of departure. This enterprise was undertaken by the 
 South Carolina Canal and Rail-road company, which has received pecu- 
 niary assistance from the state. A second rail-road of about the same 
 length, to extend from Charleston to Columbia, is also embraced within 
 the objects of this company. 
 
 Companies have been incorporated by the legislature of Alabama, to 
 construct a rail-road from Montgomery to Chattahooohie, opposite Colum- 
 bus, in Georgia ; and from Selma, on the Alabama, through Elyta and 
 Montevallo, to Decatur, on the Tennessee. Rail-roads have also been 
 projected between Augusta and Heshman's lake, a distance of fifty miles ; 
 and between Augusta and Columbus, on the Chattahoochie. 
 
 The Lexington and Ohio rail-road was commenced in 1831; it is to 
 extend from Lexington to Frankfort, and thence to the Ohio river, just 
 below the falls, near Shippingport, which is two miles distant from Louis- 
 ville. Its length is about eighty miles. The company by which it was 
 undertaken was incorporated by the legislature of Kentucky in 1830, with 
 a capital stock of one million dollars. Mad River and Lake Erie rail- 
 road is to commence at Davton, at the head of the Miami canal, and extend 
 to Sandusky, on lake Erie, thus, by means of the canal and rail-road, 
 opening a communication between Cincinnati and the lake. The distance 
 is about one hundred and seventy-five miles. 
 
 The Illinois and Michigan rail-road is to commence at Chicago, on lake 
 Michigan, and continue in a southwesterly direction eleven and a half 
 miles to the summit level : in this distance the ascent is only twenty-five 
 feet. After passing the summit level, it is to cross and continue along the 
 river Des Plaines, to the foot of the Illinois rapids, the distance of eighty- 
 five miles, with a descent of exactly two feet a mile ; thus giving, in a dis- 
 tance of ninety-six and a half miles, only one hundred and ninety-five feet 
 of rise and fall. A company has been formed for the construction of a 
 rail-road between Detroit and Pontiac, a distance of twenty-five miles. 
 The Ttiscumbia rail-road extends from Tuscumbia to Decatur. The Lake 
 Pontchartrain rail-road extends from lake Pontchartrain to New Orleans, 
 four and a half miles. It consists of a single track, is perfectly straight, 
 and nearly level. A port of entry has been established on the lake, and 
 an artificial harbor and breakwater have been constructed at the termina- 
 tion of the rail-road. The West Feliciana rail-road company was incorpo- 
 rated by the legislature of Louisiana, for the purpose of constructing a 
 48 32* 
 
378 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 rail-road from the river Mississippi, near St. Francisville, to the boundary- 
 line of Louisiana and Mississippi, in the direction of Woodville, Missis- 
 sippi. 
 
 The materials for the history of rail-roads in the United States are now 
 so scattered and uncertain, and the roads themselves are so rapidly chang- 
 ing their aspect, that it is in vain to hope for any thing like an authentic 
 account, till all the great systems and chains are completed throughout the 
 country. The American edition of Mr. Wood's Treatise contains the most 
 complete account of the roads in the United States. To this work, to the 
 American Almanac for 1S33, the tenth volume of the Encyclopedia Ameri- 
 cana, the Gazetteer of Darby and Dwight, and a number of public journals, 
 we have been indebted for the materials of the present chapter. 
 
379 
 
 CHAPTER VII.— CANALS. 
 
 Great improvements have been introduced in the inland navigation of 
 the United States within the last twenty years, both by removing impedi- 
 ments that have obstructed river navigation, and by the construction of 
 canals. More than two thousand five hundred miles of canal have been 
 constructed in the country, and numerous works of this description are 
 now in progress, though the rail-road has perhaps, in most instances, been 
 preferred, where the circumstances admitted of a choice. Our description 
 of the principal canals in the country must be limited to a mere enumera- 
 tion of the most important particulars. 
 
 Canals in New England. The Cumberland and Oxford canal extends 
 from Portland to Sebago pond, and was completed in 1829. Its length is 
 twenty and a half miles ; its width at the surface is thirty-four feet, at 
 the bottom, eighteen ; its depth is four feet. The number of its locks 
 it twenty-six. A lock is also constructed in Songo river, by which navi- 
 gation is continued into Brandy and Long ponds, making the whole natu- 
 ral and artificial water communication fifty miles. 
 
 Middlesex canal was completed in 1808, and opens a water communica- 
 tion between Boston and the central part of New Hampshire, by its junc- 
 tion with the Merrimack river. It has but one summit level, one hundred 
 and four feet above Boston harbor, and thirty-two above the level of the 
 Merrimack, at the place where it unites with that river in Chelmsford, 
 above Pawtucket falls, on which are situated the great manufacturing 
 establishments of Lowell. Its length is twenty-seven miles, breadth at the 
 surface thirty feet, at the bottom twenty ; its depth of water is three feet, 
 and locks are twenty. It has seven aqueducts over streams and rivers, 
 and fifty bridges, with stone abutments twenty feet apart. Around the 
 numerous falls of the river, within the limits of New Hampshire, the fol- 
 lowing canals have been constructed : — Bow canal, completed in 1812, is 
 one third of a mile long, and passes a fall of twenty-five feet with four 
 locks ; Hooksett canal, fifty rods in length, passes Hooksett falls by three 
 locks, with a lockage of sixteen feet ; Amoskeag canal, eight miles below 
 the above, passes a fall of the same name, by a lockage of forty-five feet, 
 with nine locks ; Union canal, immediately below Amoskeag, overcomes 
 seven falls in the river, and has seven locks in nine miles. 
 
 Pawtucket canal, in the town of Lowell, is used not only for passing a 
 fall of the same name, but also for supplying very extensive hydraulic 
 works. It is a mile and a half in length, ninety feet wide, and four feet 
 deep, overcoming a difference of level of thirty-two feet. 
 
 In 1811, a charter, that has been subsequently renewed, was granted to 
 a company for the purpose of constructing a canal from Winnipisiogee 
 lake to Cocheco river, below the landing at Dover. The distance is twenty- 
 seven miles. The waters of the lake are four hundred and fifty-two feet 
 above the level of the river, and the fall would require fifty-three locks. 
 The expense has been estimated at about three hundred thousand dollars. 
 
3S0 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The Blachtone canal extends from Worcester, Massachusetts, to Provi- 
 dence, Rhode Island. It is forty-five miles long, and follows in the greater 
 part of its course the valley of the Blackstone or Pawtucket river, from 
 which it is supplied with water. Its fall from the summit at Worcester to 
 tide water at Providence, is four hundred and fifty-one and six tenths feet 
 It has forty-eight locks, eighty feet long by ten wide ; the breadth at its 
 surface is thirty-four feet, at the bottom eighteen ; depth of water, four 
 feet. It was built by an incorporated company, under charter from the 
 legislatures of the states in which it lies, at a cost of about six hundred 
 thousand dollars. It was finished in the autumn of 1828. This canal 
 facilitates and oreatly increases the trade from the northern part of Rhode 
 Island, and the central parts of Massachusetts, to the markets of Provi- 
 dence, New York, and the middle and southern states. 
 
 The Farmington canal was commenced in 1825, upon the plan of con- 
 necting, by a line of seventy-eight miles of artificial navigation, Connecti- 
 cut river, at Northampton, in Massachusetts, with New Haven harbor. It 
 is thirty-six feet broad at the surface, twenty at the bottom, and four feet 
 in depth. The locks are eighty feet in the clear, and twelve feet wide. 
 It extends fifty-eight miles, from New Haven to Southwick ponds, on the 
 boundary of Massachusetts, and cost about six hundred thousand dollars. 
 In continuation of this work, the Hampshire and Hampden canal has been 
 constructed in Massachusetts, as far as Westfield ; it is to be continued 
 twenty miles, to Northampton, and perhaps even to Barnet, in Vermont. 
 The difference of level in this canal is two hundred and ninety-eight feet. 
 
 Enfield, South Hadley, Montague, and Bellows Falls canals are short 
 cuts at the different falls on the Connecticut river. The first was built by 
 a company incorporated in 1824. It extends around the falls of the same 
 name, in the state of Connecticut, and is five and a half miles in length. 
 It has two stone locks of ten feet lift, each ninety feet by twenty, and is 
 used for extensive hydraulic works, as well as for navigation. Before the 
 construction of this work, these rapids were passed in boats, but offered 
 great obstructions to the navigation of the river. South Hadley canal was 
 constructed for passing a fall of forty feet in the town of the same name, 
 in Massachusetts, and is two miles in length. There is a cut in this canal 
 through the solid rock, three hundred feet long and forty feet deep. The 
 company that undertook this work was incorporated in 1792. Montague 
 canal, in the town of the same name, in the same state with the preceding, 
 and constructed for passing Montague falls, is three miles long, twenty- 
 five feet wide, and three deep. Bellows Falls canal, in Vermont, opposite 
 the town of Walpole, is half a mile long, with nine locks, overcoming a 
 fall of about fifty feet. Several other short canals have been constructed 
 on the western bank of the Connecticut in this state, for the purpose of 
 improving the navigation of the river. 
 
 New York Canals. The state of New York has an extensive system 
 of inland artificial navigation, connecting the navigation of the Hudson 
 with that of the lakes and Delaware river. The Champlain canal in this 
 state passes from Albany to Whitehall, on lake Champlain, and is seventy- 
 two miles in length. It is four feet deep, twenty-eight feet wide at the 
 bottom, and forty at the surface. It has twenty-one locks, and its rise and 
 fall amount to one hundred and eighty-eight feet. This work was com- 
 menced in October, 1817, and was opened for navigation in November 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 381 
 
 1819. The whole cost was nearly one million two hundred thousand 
 dollars. 
 
 The Erie canal extends from Albany, on the Hudson, to Buffalo, on lake 
 Erie. It was commenced on the fourth of July, 1817, and was first navi- 
 gated from Utica to Rome, fifteen miles, on the third of October, 1819 ; 
 tolls were first received in July, 1S20, and the whole work was completed 
 in 1825. It is three hundred and sixty-three miles in length. It is four 
 feet deep, twenty-eight wide at the bottom, and forty at the surface. The 
 number of locks is eighty-four, and the rise and fall are six hundred and 
 ninety-eight feet. The cost was over nine millions of dollars. A little 
 below the Cohoes falls, a feeder enters from the Mohawk, and connects 
 the Erie with the Champlain canal, and the united work then proceeds to 
 Albany, eight and a half miles, and terminates in the tide waters of the 
 Hudson. The collections upon the Erie canal, for the month of Septem- 
 ber, in the three last years, stand thus : 
 
 1831. 1832. 1833. Increase since '31. Increase since '32. 
 
 $131,694 $137,184 $190,229 $58,536 $54,771 
 
 This great increase in the total amount of tolls has taken place, 
 notwithstanding a reduction in the rates of tolls in the spring of 
 1833, which was equal to about twenty per cent, compared with former 
 rates. The entire amount of tolls received at this canal in 1831, was one 
 million, ninety-one thousand, seven hundred and fourteen dollars, twenty- 
 six cents. 
 
 Oswego canal is a branch of the Erie, extending from Salina to Oswego, 
 connecting lake Ontario with the Erie canal. It is thirty-eight miles in 
 length, having one hundred and twenty-three feet of lockage, all descend- 
 ing to lake Ontario. One half the distance is a canal connected with 
 Oswego river by locks and dams ; the other half is a slack-water naviga- 
 tion on the river. It cost five hundred and twenty-five thousand, one 
 hundred and fifteen dollars. The Cayuga and Seneca canal, extending 
 from Geneva, on Seneca lake, to Montezuma, on Erie canal, is one half 
 canal, and one half slack-water navigation. It was constructed in 1828. 
 Its length is twenty miles and forty-four chains ; the descent from Seneca 
 lake to Montezuma is seventy-three and a half feet. The four canals last 
 described were constructed at the expense of the state, and still remain un- 
 der the administration of the state government as public property.* 
 
 * Aggregate length of the canals, including eight miles of navigable feeders, 492 miles. 
 
 " cost, $10,946,443.68 
 
 " tolls in 1830, 1,056,799.67 
 
 " tolls in 1831, 1,222,801.90 
 
 The canal tolls received in the month of July, 1833, amounted to the sum of one hun- 
 dred and forty-seven thousand, eight hundred and ninety-nine dollars ; exceeding, by 
 forty-two thousand, two hundred and eighty-two dollars, and two cents, the sum collected 
 in the corresponding month the preceding year. The following is a comparison of the 
 tolls for July on all the canals of the state, for 1832 and 1833, to wit : 
 
 Canal. 1833. 1832. Increase since 1832. 
 
 Erie, $125,488.04 $91,747.57 $33,740.47 
 
 Champlain, 17,293.94 11,112.23 6,181.71 
 
 Cayuga and Seneca, .... 2,084.63 1,890.03 194.60 
 
 Oswego, 3,032.72 1,867.48 2,165.24 
 
 $147,899.33 $106,617.31 $42,282.02 
 
382 B00K 0F THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Chemung canal, another work of the state, extends from the head waters 
 of Seneca lake to the Chemung (or Tioga) river. It is eighteen miles in 
 length, with a navigable feeder of thirteen miles from Painted Post, on the 
 Chemung river, to the summit level, making in the whole thirty-one miles 
 of canal navigation. On this canal are fifty-three locks of wood, three 
 aqueducts, and & seventy bridges. It was completed in 1832. 
 
 The Delaware and Hudson canal company was incorporated in April, 
 1823, with a capital of a million and a half of dollars, for the purpose of 
 constructing a canal and rail-road from the Hudson river to the coal mines 
 in Luzerne county, Pennsylvania. The canal extends from the tide-water 
 of the Hudson to Honesdale, Wayne county, Pennsylvania, a distance of 
 one hundred and eight miles, when it meets the rail-road. The canal is 
 from thirty-two to thirty-six feet wide, and four feet deep. The most im- 
 portant article of transport upon this canal is coal, of which forty-three 
 thousand two hundred tons were brought down in 1830. In 1831, the 
 amount of tolls, exclusive of that of coal boats, was nineteen thousand, five 
 hundred dollars. 
 
 The Harlem canal company was incorporated in April, 1826, with a 
 capital of five hundred and fifty thousand dollars. This canal is to extend 
 from Hudson to East river, through Manhattan island ; its length is three 
 miles, its width sixty feet, and its depth six or seven. It is to be walled 
 with stone on both sides, and to have a street on each side fifty feet wide 
 its whole length, with a lock at each end to command the tide water.* 
 
 New Jersey. The Morris canal was commenced in 1825, and extends 
 from Jersey city, on the Hudson, across the state of New-Jersey, to Dela- 
 
 The receipts for tolls to the close of July, are greater by one hundred thousand, five hun- 
 dred and twenty-two dollars, and ninety-eight cents, than they were for the same period last 
 year. Some estimate of the great increase of business upon the canals may be formed 
 from the fact, that the diminution in the rates of toll, operating upon the articles which 
 were transported upon the canals in 1S32, would probably diminish the aggregate 
 amount of tolls one hundred and fifty thousand dollars for the whole season. At the 
 diminished rates of toll, such has been the increase of articles transported, that in three 
 months and eight days, the aggregate amount exceeds that of the corresponding months 
 of 1832, by the sum of more than one hundred thousand dollars. 
 
 *The following canals are projected or in progress, the first two by the state, the re- 
 mainder by private corporations. 
 
 Chenango canal, to extend from the Erie canal, in Oneida county, to Binghampton, in 
 Broome county, on Susquehannah river. Length, ninety-two and three fourths miles. 
 
 Elevation from the Erie canal to the summit level, 706 feet. 
 
 Descent from thence to the Susquehannah river, 303 " 
 
 Totallockage 1,009 " 
 
 Estimated cost, $944,775.36 
 
 Black River canal, to extend from Rome to the High falls on the Black river, thirty-six 
 with a navigable feeder of nine miles at Boonville, and the improvement of forty 
 miles' river navigation from the High falls to Carthage. 
 
 Length of canal and river navigation, 76 miles. 
 
 Rise and fall from Rome to the Black river, , 1,078 feet. 
 
 Estimated cost, $602,544 
 
 Chittenango canal. Company incorporated in 1818. Length one and a half mile. 
 Extends from Chittenango mill to the Erie canal, with four locks. 
 
 Sodus canal. Company incorporated in 1S29. Capital, two hundred thousand dol- 
 lars. Canal to extend from Seneca river to Great Sodus bay, on lake Ontario. 
 
 The following canal companies have been incorporated, which have not yet commenced 
 operations. Harlem river, Owasco and Erie, Auburn and Owasco, New York and 
 Sharon, Niagara, Jefferson county, Oswego, Greenville, Black river, and Long Island 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 383 
 
 ware river, opposite Easton, Pennsylvania, where it unites with Lehigh 
 canal. It is one hundred and one miles in length, with rise and fall of 
 one thousand, six hundred and fifty-seven feet; of which two hundred and 
 twenty-three are overcome by twenty-four locks, and the remaining one 
 thousand, three hundred and thirty-four feet by twenty-three inclined 
 planes. This canal is supplied with water from Hopatcong lake, situated 
 nine hundred feet above tide-water. The cost is estimated at somewhat 
 more than one million, one hundred thousand dollars. The Delaware and 
 Raritan canal, extending from Lamberton, on Delaware river, to New 
 Brunswick, on the Raritan, is thirty-eight miles in length. It is seventy- 
 five feet wide, and seven feet deep. 
 
 Pennsylvania. The canal system of this state is very extensive, and 
 has been in a great measure established by the state government. We 
 shall first notice the canals constructed by private corporations. The 
 Schuylkill canal was commenced in 1816, and has been in operation for a 
 number of years. It extends from Philadelphia to Reading, and thence to 
 mount Carbon. Its length is one hundred and ten miles, and in this dis- 
 tance is a lockage of six hundred and twenty feet. It comprises thirty- 
 one dams, one hundred and twenty-five locks, seventeen arched aqueducts, 
 a tunnel of four hundred and fifty feet in length, cut through the solid 
 rock, and sixty-five toll and gate houses. The whole cost of this work, up 
 to January 1, 1830, was two million, three hundred and thirty-six thou- 
 sand, three hundred and eighty dollars. The Union canal was constructed 
 in 1827. It extends from Middleton, on the Susquehanna, to the head of 
 the Girard canal, two miles below Reading, connecting the waters of the 
 Susquehannah with those of the Schuylkill. Its length is eighty miles, 
 exclusive of Swatara feeder, which extends twenty-four miles. The works 
 comprehend a tunnel, eighteen feet wide, fourteen high, and seven hun- 
 dred and twenty-nine in length ; two summit reservoirs, containing twelve 
 million cubic feet of water; two steam engines, each of one hundred horse 
 power; one hundred and thirty-five bridges ; twelve small and two large 
 aqueducts ; ninety-two cut stone locks ; and fourteen miles of protection 
 wall of stone. Connected with this canal is a rail-road, about four miles 
 in length, extending from the basin at Pine grove to the coal mines. The 
 cost of the whole work was about two million dollars. The Lackaioaxen 
 canal commences at the termination of the Delaware and Hudson canal, 
 near Carpenter's point, and unites with a rail-road at Honesdale. It is 
 thirty-six miles in length. In junction with the Delaware and Hudson 
 canal, this canal opens a navigation of one hundred and seventeen miles, 
 including seventeen miles of Lackawaxen river. The Lehigh canal com- 
 pany was incorporated in 1818, and constructed a canal from Easton, on 
 Delaware river, to Stoddartsville, connecting Morris canal with the Mauch 
 Chunk rail-road. Its length is forty-six and three fourths miles, and it 
 cost one million, five hundred and fifty-eight thousand dollars. The 
 Conestoga canal extends eighteen miles, from Safe Harbor, on Susquehanna 
 river, to Lancaster. Conewago canal, is two and a half miles long, and is 
 constructed about a fall of the same name on the Susquehanna. 
 
 The following table exhibits a view of the canals in Pennsylvania, con- 
 structed by the state, prior to the first of January, 1831, with the amount 
 expended for ordinary and extraordinary repairs during the year 1831. 
 
384 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Length Ordinary Extraord. T } 
 
 miles. repairs. repairs. 
 
 Delaware division, . . 59 3-4 $10,000 $87,339 $97,339 
 
 Columbia, east division, . . 10 1,658 7,316 8,974 
 
 Harrisbunj line, ... \ ,, 3,108 6,216 9,324 
 
 Susquehanna division, . ,j W 5,855 11,709 17,964 
 
 North branch do 55 1-2 18,584 37,168 55,752 
 
 West branch do 24 1-2 6,699 13,397 20,096 
 
 Juniata do 89 22,326 44,651 66,977 
 
 Western do 105 24,406 48,812 73,218 
 
 French creek feeder, . . 19 1-2 74 4,327 4,401 ( 
 
 Total, 4261-4 $92,708 $260,936 $353,644 
 
 The main trunk of this system of canals commences at Columbia, at the 
 termination of the Philadelphia and Columbia rail-road, and extends thence 
 westward one hundred and seventy-two and a half miles, till it meets the 
 Allecrhany Portage rail-road at Holidaysburg. It recommences at the 
 western extremity of the rail-road, and continues westward one hundred 
 and five miles, to the Monongahela river at Pittsburg. 
 
 The following canals, constructed by the state, have been but recently 
 completed : 
 
 Frankstoiun line of the Juniata division, extending from Huntingdon to 
 Holidaysburg, is thirty and one third miles in length, including about fif- 
 teen and three fourths miles of slackwater navigation. Beaver division 
 commences upon the Ohio river, at the mouth of Big Beaver, and extends 
 to Newcastle. Length, twenty-four and three fourths miles, of which 
 about two thirds are slackwater and towing-path. Franklin line com- 
 mences on Alleghany river, at the mouth of French creek, and extends up 
 the latter stream till it meets the French creek feeder. Length, twenty- 
 two and one fourth miles, seventeen of which are slackwater and towing- 
 path. Lycoming line commences at Muncy dam, and extends up the west 
 branch of the Susquehanna, and terminates at the Big island, opposite to 
 the mouth of the Bald Eagle. Length, forty-one and one fourth miles, of 
 which about ten miles are slackwater. Wyoming line of the North branch 
 division commences at the Nanticoke dam, and extends up the North 
 branch, and terminates near the mouth of Lackawannock creek. Length, 
 sixteen miles. 
 
 Delaware and Maryland. The Chesapeak and Delaware canal was 
 commenced in 1824, and completed in about five years. It is thirteen and 
 five eighths miles long, ten feet deep, and sixty-six feet wide at the sur- 
 face. Leaving the Delaware, forty-five miles below Philadelphia, it crosses 
 the peninsula, and meets Chesapeak bay. The summit level is twelve 
 feet above tide water. The whole cost of this work was two million, two 
 hundred thousand dollars. Fort Deposit canal is a public work of the 
 state of Maryland, extending ten miles along a line of rapids, on the east 
 bank of the Susquehanna, north of the boundary line of Maryland and 
 Pennsylvania. There are two short canals, one of twelve hundred yards, 
 and one of two and a half miles, around the Great and Lower Falls of the 
 Potomac. 
 
 The Chesapeak and Ohio canal company received their charter from 
 Virginia in 1824, and it was confirmed in the following year by Maryland 
 and congress. The proposed length is three hundred and forty-one and 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 385 
 
 one fourth miles, from the tide water of the Potomac river, above George- 
 town, in the district of Columbia, to its termination near Pittsburg, Penn- 
 sylvania. Its depth is six or seven feet, its breadth at the bottom fifty, 
 and at the surface from sixty to eighty feet. Five miles from Georgetown, 
 arrangements have been made for constructing branches to Alexandria, 
 Baltimore, and the navy yard at Washington. The amount of lockage 
 required on the whole canal is three thousand, two hundred and fifteen 
 feet. At the summit level on the Alleghany mountain, a tunnel is requir- 
 ed, four miles and eighty yards long, with a deep cut of one thousand and 
 sixty yards at the western end, and another of fourteen yards at the eastern 
 end, each of which opens into a large basin. The original estimate of the 
 cost was twenty-two million, three hundred and seventy-five thousand 
 dollars. 
 
 Ohio. This state has been active and liberal in the encouragement of 
 canals as public works. The state canals are the Ohio and the Miami. 
 The Ohio canal connects lake Erie, at Cleaveland, with the Ohio river, at 
 Portsmouth; its main trunk is three hundred and ten miles in length ; its 
 lateral branches and feeders make twenty-four in addition. Miami canal 
 connects the town of Dayton, situated on the Great Miami river, with the 
 Ohio river, at Cincinnati. Its main trunk is sixty-five miles in length, and 
 it has a side-cut of one mile. The total length of canals in Ohio, con- 
 structed at the public expense, and owned by the state, is four hundred 
 miles. The Lancaster Lateral canal is nine miles in length, and was con- 
 structed by an incorporated company. The expense of the Ohio canals 
 has been about five million dollars. 
 
 Virginia and North Carolina. At the city of Richmond is the James 
 River canal, around a fall, with twelve locks, overcoming an ascent of 
 eighty feet, and connecting tide water with a basin on Shockoe hill. From 
 this basin proceeds a canal two and a half miles long, uniting with the 
 river. Three miles further up is a short canal, with three locks, over- 
 coming a fall of thirty-four feet. The James and Jackson River canal ex- 
 tends from the basin at Richmond, to a fall in Go vela ml county, a distance 
 of thirty and a half miles. There is also a canal seven miles long, around 
 the falls on James river, in Rockland county. Canals have also been con- 
 structed to improve the navigation of the Shenandoah. The Dismal 
 Sivamp canal is twenty-two and a half miles long, lying partly in Virginia, 
 and partly in North Carolina. It connects the waters of Chesapeak bay 
 with Albemarle sound, extending from Deep creek to Joyce's creek, at the 
 head of Pasquotank river. The expense of this canal was three hundred 
 and sixty thousand dollars, of which two hundred thousand were subscribed 
 by the United States. The Danville and Dan River canals are a series of 
 improvements upon the upper branches of Roanoak river. The North 
 West, Weldon, Clubfoot and Harlow, Cape Fear, Yadkin. Tar River, New 
 River, and Catawba canals, have done much to improve the inland naviga- 
 tion of North Carolina. The Santee, Columbia, and Saluda canals, from 
 Columbia, through the Columbia canal into Broad river, and through the 
 Saluda canal, from Broad into Saluda river, through Drehr and Zorick's 
 canals, on to the Abbeville county line, near Cambridge ; also from Santee 
 river, by the Santee canal, into Cooper's river, and down this river to the 
 port at Charleston, present a mixed navigation of one hundred and fifty 
 49 33 
 
386 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 miles. Winyaw canal is ten miles in length, uniting the Santee river 
 with Winyaw bay. 
 
 Kentucky. The Louisville and Portland canal passes from the Ohio 
 at Louisville, to a point of the same below the rapids, a distance of three 
 miles. It is constructed for the accommodation of large vessels, and the 
 general government have contributed towards its completion. 
 
 Georgia and Louisiana. The Savannah and Ogaichee canal is sixteen 
 miles in length, passing from Savannah river, at Savannah, to the Ogat- 
 chee river ; hence it is to be continued to the Alatahama. The Carondeht 
 canal is a short cut to admit small vessels into a basin in the rear of New 
 Orleans, extending from bayou St. John. It is only a mile and a half long, 
 and is without locks. The Lafourche is a small canal, supplied with water 
 only when the Mississippi is in flood, uniting the outlet of Lafourche 
 with the chain of lakes and creeks which lead into the lower Teche, and 
 opens the commerce of Attacapas to New Orleans. The Plaquemine canal 
 passes from the Mississippi into bayou Plaquemine, at its efflux from the 
 Mississippi, and is navigable only at times of high flood. The New Or- 
 leans and Teche River canal is a projected navigation of one hundred 
 miles, from a point on the Mississippi, to the waters which unite with the 
 Teche river, at Berwick's bay. 
 
 ' The spirit of enterprise,' says Mr. Smith, ' has been displayed on a 
 scale commensurate with the extensive territory of the United States. 
 With the exception of Great Britain and Holland, no country on the face 
 of the globe contains so many or as extensive canals as this republic ; and 
 the whole of combined Europe has not effected as much during the last 
 sixteen years, as the three states of Pennsylvania, New York and Ohio 
 only. The total number of miles of canals in the union is two thou- 
 sand, five hundred and twenty-six, including about two hundred and 
 sixty-four which are nearly finished, and which will be navigable during 
 the ensuing spring, (1S33.) Several extensive canals are in progress, and 
 an immense number of projected or authorized works are not included in 
 the summary just given. Nearly three fifths of the aggregate amount 
 have been executed in the three states above mentioned.' 
 
387 
 
 CHAPTER VIII.— GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The political association of the American people commenced at a very 
 early period. A long time before the revolutionary troubles, it was gene- 
 rally perceived and acknowledged that the true safety and prosperity of the 
 colonies were to be found only in their union. In the year 1643, the colo- 
 nies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, entered 
 into a perpetual league, offensive and defensive, for mutual protection 
 against the claims of their Dutch neighbors, and to resist apprehended ag- 
 gression from the Indians. By their articles of confederation, the juris- 
 diction of each colony within its own borders was to be exclusive ; in every 
 war, each of the confederates was to furnish its quota of men and provi- 
 sions, according to its population ; and an annual congress of two commis- 
 sioners from each colony was to be held, with power to decide on all mat- 
 ters of general interest. With some alterations, this confederacy existed 
 more than forty years ; and it was dissolved only in 1686, when the char- 
 ters of the New England colonies were vacated by a commission from 
 king James II. 
 
 In the year 1754, a congress of a very interesting character assembled 
 at Albany. It was called at the instance of the lords commissioners for 
 trade and the plantations, and consisted of delegates from the New England 
 provinces, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. The object of the 
 meeting was to consider the best means of defending the colonies, in the 
 case of a war with France. The lords commissioners had reference mere- 
 ly to forming friendly connections with the Indian tribes ; but the colonies 
 indulged more extensive views. This convention proposed a plan of union, 
 for which, however, public sentiment was not yet ripe, and it met with the 
 singular fortune of being rejected both by the crown and the people. Lo- 
 cal jealousies and disputes in regard to boundaries, had at that time so 
 excited the different colonies, that governor Pownal felt himself authorized 
 to say, in his work on the Administration of the Colonies, that they had 
 no one principle of association among them, and that their manner of set- 
 tlement, diversity of charters, conflicting interests, and mutual rivalship 
 and jealousies, would render an union impracticable. Happy for our peo- 
 ple that the stone which they rejected has become the corner stone of our 
 political temple ; for the whole edifice must be crushed and crumbled, 
 when profane hands shall be laid upon that which is its strength and foun- 
 dation ! 
 
 Men could not, however, remain insensible of the great advantages that 
 must inevitably result from a federate union. A common interest was 
 destined to be made more apparent and pressing by a common danger, and 
 soon after the first unfriendly measures of the British government, a con- 
 gress of delegates from nine colonies was assembled at New York in Octo- 
 ber, 1765. This step was adopted at the suggestion of Massachusetts, and 
 was preparatory to a more extensive artd general association of the colo- 
 nies, which took place in September, 1774, and laid the foundation of per- 
 
388 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 manent independence. At this last period, the impending oppressions of 
 Great Britain induced the colonies to unite in sending delegates to a con- 
 gress at Philadelphia, with authority to consult together for the common 
 welfare. The measures adopted by this assembly met with a prompt and 
 general obedience, and the union thus auspiciously formed was continued 
 by a succession of delegates in congress ; it has continued through the 
 struggles of a revolution, foreign war and domestic dissension. — God grant 
 that it may be perpetual. 
 
 In May, 1775, a congress, with ample discretionary powers, assembled 
 in Philadelphia. Georgia soon after acceded to the measures that had 
 been adopted, and completed the confederacy of the thirteen colonies. In 
 Massachusetts, hostilities had been already commenced, and the appeal to 
 arms was now considered as the only resource. Congress prepared to sup- 
 port this measure, and, gradually assuming all the attributes of sovereignty, 
 on the fourth day of July, 1776, declared the united colonies to be free 
 and independent states. The consequences of this step belong more pro- 
 perly to another portion of this volume. In June, 1776, congress under- 
 took to prepare articles of confederation ; but it was not till November of 
 the following year that they were able so far to unite discordant interests, 
 as to adopt these articles. In passing through the states, they met with 
 still stronger impediments, and it was not till three years after their first 
 promulgation, that they received the unanimous approbation of the United 
 States. This confederation proved imbecile and insignificant, and it was 
 only by the assumption of power not granted by the "fundamental charter 
 of the union, that congress could rescue the country from the most humili- 
 ating consequences. A quorum of congress could with difficulty be assem- 
 bled; the finances of the nation were annihilated; in 1784, the whole 
 army amounted but to eighty men, and the states were urged to provide 
 some of the militia to garrison the western posts. In short, to use the im- 
 pressive and melancholy language of the Federalist, ' each state, yielding 
 to the voice of immediate interest or convenience, successively withdrew 
 its support from the confederation, till the frail and tottering edifice was 
 ready to fall upon our heads, and to crush us beneath its ruins.' 
 
 The first effort to relieve the country from the miseries and dangers of 
 the confederation originated in Virginia, in the proposition for a convention 
 of delegates to regulate our foreign commerce. A partial representation 
 of the states was in this manner collected at Annapolis, and the plan of a 
 national convention was by this body strongly recommended to congress, 
 for the purpose of devising a government that should be adequate to the 
 exigencies of the nation. Congress adopted the suggestion, and imme- 
 diately acted upon it; with the exception of Rhode Island, all the states 
 acceded to the proposal of a general convention, and their delegates assem- 
 bled at Philadelphia in May, 1787. This assembly united men of the 
 most distinguished talents, high-minded integrity, and disinterested patri- 
 otism, and commanded the public regard and confidence in their fullest 
 extent. After a tranquil deliberation of several months, the plan of go- 
 vernment, which now forms the constitution of the United States, was 
 adopted with unprecedented unanimity. Nearly a year elapsed before it 
 received the assent of a sufficient number of states to give it a political ex- 
 istence ; but on the fourth of March, 1789, the government was duly orga- 
 nized and set in motion. It was not till the year 1790, that the constitu- 
 
POLITICAL GFOGRAPHY. 389 
 
 nun had received the unanimous ratification of all the members of the 
 onginal confederacy. ' The peaceable adoption of this government,' says 
 chancellor Kent, ' under all the circumstances which attended it, presented 
 the case of an effort of deliberation, combined with a spirit of amity and of 
 mutual concession, which was without example. It must be a source of 
 just pride, and of the most grateful recollection, to every American, who 
 reflects seriously on the difficulty of the experiment, the manner in which 
 it was conducted, the felicity of its issue, and the fate of similar trials in 
 other nations of the earth.' The following is a copy of the constitution as 
 adopted, with its subsequent amendments : 
 
 We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish 
 justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the 
 general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do 
 ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 
 
 ARTICLE I. 
 
 Section I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a congress of 
 the United States, which shall consist of a senate and house of representatives. 
 
 Sec. II. The house of representatives shall be composed of members chosen every 
 second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have 
 the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legis- 
 lature. 
 
 No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty- 
 five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when 
 elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. 
 
 Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which 
 may be included within this union, according to their respective numbers, which shall 
 be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to 
 service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other 
 persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years, after the first meet* 
 mg of the congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term often years, 
 in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall Dot 
 exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representa- 
 tive ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the Mate of New Hampshire shall be 
 entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations 
 one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight. Delaware 
 one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia 
 three. 
 
 When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive authority 
 thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 
 
 The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers ; and shall 
 have the sole power of impeachment. 
 
 Sec. III. The senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from 
 each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have 
 one vote. 
 
 Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they 
 shall be divided as equally ns may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of 
 the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class 
 at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth 
 year, so that one third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by 
 resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive 
 thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, 
 which shall then fill such vacancies. 
 
 No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, 
 and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be 
 an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 
 
 The vice-president of the United States shall be president of the senate, but shall 
 have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
 
 The senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the 
 
 33* 
 
390 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 absence of the vice president, or when he shall exercise the office of president of .he 
 United States. 
 
 The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments : when sitting for that 
 purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the president of the United States 
 is tried, the chief justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the 
 concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 
 
 Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from 
 office, "and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit, under 
 the United States ; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to 
 indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 
 
 Sec. IV. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and repre- 
 sentatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; but the congress 
 may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except, as to places of choosing 
 senators. 
 
 The congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be 
 on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. 
 
 Sec. V. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of 
 its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but 
 a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the 
 attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each hous<» 
 may provide. 
 
 Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for dis- 
 orderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. 
 
 Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the 
 same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas and 
 nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of 
 those present, be entered on the journal. 
 
 Neither house, during the session of congress, shall, without the consent of the othei, 
 adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two 
 houses shall be sitting. 
 
 Sec VI. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their 
 services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. 
 They shall, in all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged 
 from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in go- 
 ing to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house, they 
 shall not be questioned in any other place. 
 
 No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be ap- 
 pointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have 
 been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time ; 
 . and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either 
 house during his continuance in office. 
 
 Sec VII. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the house of representatives ; 
 but the senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. 
 
 Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives and the senate, shall, 
 before it become a law, be presented to the president of the United States : if he approve, 
 he shall sign it ; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which 
 it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and 
 proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two thirds of that house shall 
 agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, 
 by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that house, 
 it shall become a law. But in all such cases, the votes of both houses shall be deter- 
 mined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill 
 shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be re- 
 turned by the president within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been 
 presented to him, the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless 
 the congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 
 
 Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the senate and house of 
 representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be pre- 
 sented to the president of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall 
 be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of 
 the senate and house of representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed 
 in the case of a bill. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 391 
 
 Sec. VIII. The congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts 
 ond excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare 
 of the United States : but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout 
 ihe United States ; 
 
 To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 
 
 To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with 
 the Indian tribes ; 
 
 To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of 
 bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 
 
 To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard 
 of weights and measures ; 
 
 To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the 
 United States ; 
 
 To establish post offices and post roads ; 
 
 To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to 
 authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; 
 
 To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court ; 
 
 To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences 
 against the law of nations ; 
 
 To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning cap* 
 tures on land and water ; 
 
 To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a 
 longer term than two years ; 
 
 To provide and maintain a navy ; 
 
 To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; 
 
 To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress 
 insurrections, and repel invasions ; 
 
 To provide for organizing, r.rming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing 
 such parts of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to 
 the states respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the 
 militia according to the discipline prescribed by congress ; 
 
 To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not ex- 
 ceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of 
 congress, become the seat of government of the United States, and to exercise like 
 authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which 
 the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock yards, and other 
 needful buildings ; and. 
 
 To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the 
 foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in the government 
 of the United States, or in any department or office thereof. 
 
 Sec. IX. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now ex- 
 isting shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the congress prior to the 
 year one thousand eiiffit hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such 
 importation, not exceeding; ten dollars for each person. 
 
 The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, in 
 cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. 
 
 No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 
 
 No capitation, or other direct tax, shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or 
 enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 
 
 No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. 
 
 No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports 
 of one state over those of another : nor shall vessels bound to or from one state, be 
 obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 
 
 No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations 
 made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of 
 all public money shall be published from time to time. 
 
 No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no person holding any 
 office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of congress, accept of any 
 present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or 
 foreign state. 
 
 Sec. X. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation ; grant letters 
 of marque and reprisal j coin money ;" emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold 
 
392 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bills of attainder, ex post facto 
 law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 
 
 No state shall, without the consent of the congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports 
 or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws : 
 and the net produce of all "duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, 
 shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be sub- 
 ject to the revision and control of the congress. 
 
 No state shall, without the consent of congress, lay any duty on tonnage, keep troops, 
 or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another 
 state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such 
 imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 
 
 ARTICLE II. 
 
 Section I. The executive power shall be vested in a president of the United States 
 of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with 
 the vice president, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 
 
 Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a 
 number of electors equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which 
 the state may be entitled in the congress : but no senator or representative, or person 
 holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 
 
 [* The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for tw r o per- 
 sons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. 
 And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for 
 each ; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of govern- 
 ment of the United States, directed to the president of the senate. The president of the 
 senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives, open all the 
 certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest num- 
 ber of votes shall be the president, if such number be a majority of the wffiole number 
 of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have 
 an equal number of votes, then the house of representatives shall immediately choose 
 by ballot one of them for president ; and if no person have a majority, then from the 
 five highest on the list, the said house shall in like manner choose the president. But 
 in choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from 
 each state having one vote : A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member 01 
 members from two thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary 
 to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the president, the person having the 
 greatest number of votes of the electors shall be vice president. But if there should re- 
 main two or more who have equal votes, the senate shall choose from them by ballot 
 the vice-president.] 
 
 The congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which 
 thev shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 
 
 No person, except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time 
 of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to the office of president ; neither 
 shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained the age of thirty- 
 five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 
 
 In case of the removal of the president from office, or his death, resignation, or ina- 
 bility to discharge tin- powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the 
 vice president, and the congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, re- 
 signation, or inability, both of the president and vice president, declaring what officer 
 shall thou art as president, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be 
 removed, or a president shall be elected. 
 
 The presidenl shall al slated times receive for his services a compensation, which 
 shall neither ho increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been 
 elected, and ho shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United 
 States, or any of them. 
 
 Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or 
 affirmation :— ' I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that 1 wdl faithfully execute the office 
 of president of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, 
 and defend the constitution of the United States.' 
 
 * This clause is annulled. See amendments, Art. 12 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 393 
 
 Sec. II. The president shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United 
 Stales, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the 
 United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of 
 the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective 
 offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the 
 United States, except in cases of impeachment. 
 
 He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, to make trea- 
 ties, provided two thirds of the senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by 
 and with the advice and consent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public 
 ministers and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the United 
 States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be 
 established by law : but the congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior 
 officers, as they think proper, in the president alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads 
 of departments. 
 
 The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the 
 recess of the senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their 
 next session. 
 
 Sec. III. He shall from time to time give to the congress information of the state of 
 the union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge ne- 
 cessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or ei- 
 ther of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of ad- 
 journment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper : he shall receive 
 ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully 
 executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 
 
 Sec. IV. The president, vice-president, and all civil officers of the United States, shall 
 be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other 
 high crimes and misdemeanors. 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 Sec. I. The judicial powers of the United States shall be vested in one supreme court, 
 and in such inferior courts as the congress may from time to time ordain and establish. 
 The judges, both of the supremp and inferior courts, shnll hold their offices during good 
 behavior, and shall, at stated times, rccpive for their services a compensation which 
 6hall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. II. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under 
 this constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made 
 under their authority ; — to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 
 consuls ; — to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; — to controversies to which 
 the United States shall be a party ; — to controversies between two or more states ; — be- 
 tween a state and citizen of another state; — between citizens of different states; — be- 
 tween citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and be- 
 tween a state or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 
 
 In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in 
 which a state shall be a party, the supreme court shall have original jurisdiction. In 
 all the other cases before mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, 
 both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the con- 
 gress shall make. 
 
 The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and such 
 trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but 
 when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the 
 congress may by law have directed. 
 
 Sec. III. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against 
 them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. 
 
 No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to 
 the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 
 
 The congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; but no attainder 
 of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the per- 
 son attainted. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 Sec, I. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, 
 and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the congress may by general laws 
 
394 BOOK OF THE rXTTET STATES. 
 
 prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and 
 eel thereof. 
 
 11. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of 
 
 .s in the several states. 
 
 A person charged in anv state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee Groan 
 
 and be (gaud in another state, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the 
 
 state from whiefl he fled, be delivered up. to be removed to the state having jurisdiction 
 
 of the crime. 
 
 No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into 
 another, shall, m consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such 
 service or labor, hut shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or 
 labor may be 
 
 Sec. III. New states mav be admitted, by the congress into this union: but no new 
 ill be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state -. nor any state 
 be formed bv the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of 
 the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the congress. 
 
 The congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regula- 
 tions respecting the territory or other property belongiug to the Lnited States : and noth- 
 injm th;s constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United 
 S - :" any particular state. 
 
 V. The United States shall guarantee to even- state in the union, a republican 
 form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion : and on applica- 
 tion of the 'legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be couvened) 
 against domestic violence. 
 
 ARTICLE V. 
 
 The congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall pro- 
 5 to this constitution, or. on the application of the legislatures of two 
 thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, 
 in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as pan of this constitution, 
 when ratified bv the legislatures of three fourths of the several state*, or by conventions 
 ia three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may he proposed by 
 unendment which may be made prior to the year one thou- 
 ght hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in 
 the ninth section of the first article: and that no state, without its consent, shall be de- 
 prived of its equal suffrage in the senate. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 All debts contracted and agreements entered into, before the adoption of this constitu- 
 tion, shall be as valid against the United States under this constitution, as under the 
 confederation. 
 
 .'tie laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance 
 
 : . and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United 
 
 - shall be the supreme law of the land : and the judges in every state shall be bound 
 
 thereby, any thing in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several 
 
 gislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and 
 
 of the several states, shall be bound by oath or arfirmation, to support this constitution : 
 
 but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office of public trust 
 
 under the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE Y1I. 
 The ratification of the conventions of nine states, shall be sufficient for the establish- 
 ment of this constitution between the states so ratifying the same. 
 
 AMENDMENTS 
 To the Constitution of the United States, ratified according to the provisions of the fifth 
 article of the foregoing Constitution. 
 [Congress, at its first session, begun and held in the city of New York, on Wednesday, 
 the 4th of March. ITSf. proposed to the legislatures of the several states, twelve amend- 
 ments to the constitution, ten of which, only, were adopted. They are the ten first fol- 
 lowing: 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 395 
 
 The 11th article of the amendments was proposed at the second session of the third 
 congress, in 1794 ; and the 12th article at the first session of the eighth congress ia 
 1804. Both of which were afterwards adopted by the requisite number of states.] 
 
 Article I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or 
 prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; 
 or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a 
 redress of grievances. 
 
 Art. II. A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, 
 the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 
 
 Art. III. No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the 
 consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 
 
 Art. IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and 
 effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no war- 
 rants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particu- 
 larly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 
 
 Art. V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous 
 crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in 
 the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or pub- 
 lic danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeo- 
 pardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against 
 himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall 
 private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. 
 
 Art. VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy 
 and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have 
 been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be 
 informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted by the witnesses 
 against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to 
 have the assistance of council for his defence. 
 
 Art. VII. In suits of common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
 twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no fact tried by a jury, 
 shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according tu the 
 rules of the common law. 
 
 Art. VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
 cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
 Art. IX. The enumeration in the constitution, of certain rights, shall not be con- 
 strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 
 
 Art. X. The powers not delegated to the United States, by the constitution, nor pro- 
 hibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. 
 
 Art. XL The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend 
 to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States 
 by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 
 
 Art. XII. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for 
 president and vice president, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the 
 same state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as 
 president, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as vice-president, and they shall 
 make distinct lists of all persons voted for as president, and of all persons voted for as 
 vice-president, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and cer- 
 tify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the 
 president of the senate : — The president of the senate shall, in the presence of the se- 
 nate and house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
 counted : — The person having the greatest number of votes for president, shall be the 
 president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and 
 rf no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not 
 exceeding three on the list of those voted for as president, the house of representatives 
 shall choose immediately, by ballot, the president. But in choosing the president, the 
 votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote ; a 
 quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of 
 the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the 
 house of representatives shall not choose a president whenever the right of choice shall 
 devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the vice-presi- 
 dent shall act as president, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability 
 
S96 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the president. The person having the greatest number of votes as vice -president, 
 shall be the vice-president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
 appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the 
 list, the senate shall choose the vice-president ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist 
 of two thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number 
 shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office 
 of president shall be eligible to that of vice-president of the United States. 
 
 Analysis of the State Constitutions. 
 
 Maine. The legislative power is vested in a senate and a house of representa- 
 tives, both elected annually by the people, on the second Monday in September. These 
 two bodies are together styled The Legislature of Maine. The number of representatives 
 cannot be less than one hundred, nor more than two hundred. A town having fifteen 
 hundred inhabitants is entitled to send one representative ; but no town can ever be 
 entitled to more than seven representatives. The number of senators cannot be less 
 than twenty, nor more than thirty-one. The executive power is vested in a governor, 
 who is elected annually by the people, on the second Monday in September, and his 
 term of office commences on the first Wednesday in January. A council of seven mem- 
 bers is elected annually on the first Wednesday in January, by joint ballot of the sena- 
 tors and representatives, to advise the governor in the executive part of government. 
 The right of suffrage is granted to every male citizen aged twenty-one years or up- 
 wards (excepting paupers, persons under guardianship, and Indians not taxed), having 
 had his residence established in the state for the term of three months next preceding 
 an election. The judicial power is vested in a supreme judicial court, and such other 
 courts as the legislature may, from time to time, establish. All the judges are appoint- 
 ed by the governor, with the advice and consent of the council ; and they hold their of- 
 fices during good behavior, but not beyond the age of seventy years. 
 
 New Hampshire. A constitution was established in 1784; and in 1792, this consti- 
 tution was altered and amended, by a convention of delegates held at Concord, and is 
 now in force. The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of representa- 
 tives, which, together, are styled, The General Court of New Hampshire. Every town, 
 or incorporated township, having one hundred and fifty ratable polls, may send one 
 representative ; and for every three hundred additional polls, it is entitled to an addition- 
 al representative. The senate consists of twelve members, who are chosen by the 
 people in districts. The executive power is vested in a governor and a council, which 
 consists of five members. The governor, council, senators, and representatives, are 
 all elected annually, by the people, on the second Tuesday in March ; and their term of 
 service commences on the first Wednesday in June. The right of suffrage is granted 
 to every male inhabitant of twenty-one years of age, excepting paupers and persons ex- 
 cused from paying taxes at their own request. The judiciary power is vested in a su- 
 perior court and a court of common pleas. Judges are appointed by the governor and 
 council, and hold their offices during good behaviour, but not beyond the age of seventy 
 years. 
 
 Vermont. The first constitution of this state was formed in 1777; the one no\^ 
 in operation was adopted on the 4th of July. 1793. The legislative power is vested in a 
 single body, a house of representatives, elected, annually, on the first Tuesday in Septem- 
 ber, and styled The General Assembly of the state of Vermont. The executive power is 
 vested in a governor, lieutenant governor, and a council of twelve persons, who are 
 all chosen annually on the first Tuesday in September. They are empowered to com- 
 mission all offices ; to sit as judges to consider and determine on impeachments ; to 
 prepare and lay before the general assembly such business as shall appear to them ne- 
 cessary ; and have power to revise and propose amendments to the laws passed by the 
 house of representatives. The constitution grants the right of suffrage to every man 
 of the full age of twenty-one years, who has resided in the state for the space of one 
 whole year, next before the election of representatives, and is of quiet and peaceable lie 
 havior. The judiciary power is vested in a supreme court, consisting of three judges , 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. Sty** 
 
 and of a county court of three judges for each county. Judges of the supreme, coun- 
 ty, and probate courts, sheriffs, and justices of the peace, are elected annually by the 
 general assembly. A council of censors, consisting of thirteen persons, are chosen 
 every seven years, whose duty is to inquire whether the constitution has been preserved 
 inviolate ; whether the legislative and executive branches of government have performed 
 their duty as guardians of the people ; whether the public taxes have been justly laid and 
 collected ; in what manner the public moneys have been disposed of; and whether the 
 laws have been duly executed. 
 
 Massachusetts. The constitution of this state was formed in 1780, and amended 
 in 1821. The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of representatives, 
 which together are styled The General Court of Massachusetts. The members of the 
 house of representatives are elected annually on the second Monday in November. 
 Every corporate town having one hundred and fifty ratable polls may elect one repre- 
 sentative, and another for every additional two hundred and twenty-five ratable polls. 
 
 The senate consists of forty members, who are chosen, by districts, annually, on the 
 second Monday in November. The supreme executive magistrate is styled the Governor 
 w/ the common wealth of Massachusetts, and has the title of "His Excellency." The gover- 
 nor is elected annually by the people on the second Monday in November, and at the 
 same time a lieutenant governor is chosen, who has the title of "His Honor:'' The go- 
 vernor is assisted in the executive part of government by a council of nine members, who 
 are chosen by the joint ballot of the senators and representatives, from the senators ; 
 and in case the persons elected, or any of them, decline the appointment, the deficiency 
 is supplied from among the people at large. The right of suffrage is granted to every 
 male citizen, twenty-one years of age and upwards (excepting paupers and persons un- 
 der guardianship), who has resided within the commonwealth one year, and within the 
 town or district in which he may claim a right to vote, six calendar months next prece- 
 ding any election, and who has paid a state or county tax, assessed upon him within 
 two years next preceding such election ; and also every citizen who may be by law ex- 
 empted from taxation, and who may be in all other respects qualified as above mention- 
 ed. The judiciary is vested in a supreme court, a court of common pleas, and such 
 other courts as the legislature may establish. The judges are appointed by the gover- 
 nor, by and with the advice and consent of the council, and hold their offices during 
 good behavior. 
 
 Rhode Island. The government of this state is founded on the provisions of 
 the charter granted to the colony by Charles II., in 1663 ; and 'his is the only state in 
 the union which is without a written constitution. The legislative power is vested in 
 a General Assembly, consisting of ;i senate and ;i house of representatives. The house 
 of representatives consists of seventy-two members, elected semi-annually. The senate 
 consists of ten members, who are elected annually in April. The executive power 
 is vested in a governor, who is elected annually in April. A lieutenant governor is 
 also elected, on whom the executive duties devolve in case of the office of governor be- 
 ing vacated. The judges are appointed annually by the general assembly. 
 
 Connecticut. The charter granted in 1602 by Charles II. , formed the basis of 
 the government of Connecticut till 1818, when the present constitution was framed. 
 The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of representatives, which together 
 are styled the General Assembly. Members of the house of representatives are chosen 
 by the different towns in the state : the more ancient towns, the majority of the whole 
 number, send each two representatives ; the rest only one each. The present number 
 is two hundred and eight. The senate must consist of not less than eighteen, nor more 
 than twent} r -four members, who are chosen by districts. The present number is twenty- 
 one. The executive power is vested in a governor. A lieutenant governor is also 
 chosen, who is president of the senate, and on whom the duties of the governor devolve 
 in case of his death, resignation, or absence. The representatives, senators, governor, 
 and lieutenant governor, are all elected annually by the people on the first Monday in 
 April. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court of errors, a superior court, 
 and such inferior courts as the general assembly may, from time to time, establish. 
 The judges are appointed by the general assembly ; and those of the supreme and 
 superior courts hold their offices during good behavior, but not beyond the age of seventy 
 years. No person is compelled to join, or support, or to be classed with, or associ- 
 
 34 
 
398 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ated to, any congregation, church, or religious association. But every person may be 
 compelled to pay his proportion of the expenses of the society to which he may belong : 
 he may, however, separate himself from the society, by leaving a written notice of his 
 wish with the clerk of such society. 
 
 New York. The present constitution of the state of New York was formed in 182. 
 The executive power is vested in a governor, who is elected by the people every two 
 years • and at the same time, a lieutenant governor is also chosen, who is president of 
 the senate, and on whom, in case of the impeachment, resignation, death, or absence of 
 the governor, from office, the powers and duties of governor devolve. The legislative 
 power is vested in a senate of thirty-two members, who are chosen for four years, and 
 an assembly, of one hundred and twenty-eight members, who are elected annually ; 
 and these bodies united are styled the Legislature. For the election of senators, the state 
 is divided into eight districts, each being entitled to choose four senators, one of whom 
 is elected every year. The members of the assembly are chosen by counties, and are 
 apportioned according to population. The constitution grants the right of suffrage, in 
 the election of public officers, to every white male citizen, of the age of twenty-one years, 
 who has been an inhabitant of the state one year next preceding any election, and, for 
 the preceding six months, a resident in the county where he may offer his vote ; but no 
 man of color is entitled to vote unless he is possessed of a freehold estate of the value of 
 two hundred and fifty dollars, without any incumbrance. The chancellor and judges are 
 appointed by the governor, with the consent of the senate. The chancellor and justices 
 of the supreme and circuit courts hold their offices during good behavior, or until 
 they attain the age of sixty years. The judges of the county courts, or courts of com- 
 mon pleas, are appointed for a term of five years. 
 
 New Jersey. The constitution of New Jersey was formed in 177(5 ; and no revision 
 of it has since taken place, except that the legislature has undertaken to explain its 
 provisions in particular parts. The government is vested in a governor, legislative 
 council, and general assembly ; and these bodies united are styled the Legislature. The 
 members of the legislative council and of the general assembly are elected annually, 
 on the second Tuesday in October. The number of members of the legislative council 
 is fourteen, one being elected by each county in the state. The general assembly has 
 consisted, for a number of years past, of forty-three members ; but by a law enacted in 
 1829, seven additional members were added ; and it now consists of fifty members. 
 The governor is chosen annually by a joint vote of the council and assembly, at their 
 first joint meeting after each annual election. The governor is president of the coun- 
 cil ; and the council also elect from their own body, at their first annual meeting, a 
 vice-president, who acts in the place of the governor in his absence. The governor and 
 council form a court of appeals, in the last resort in all cases of law ; and they possess- 
 the power of granting pardon to criminals after condemnation. The constitution grants 
 the right of suffrage to 'all persons of full age who are worth fifty pounds proclamation 
 money, clear estate in the same, and have resided within the county in which they claim 
 to vote for twelve months immediately preceding the election.' [The legislature has 
 I by law, that every white male inhabitant, who shall be over the age of twenty- 
 fine years, and shall have paid a tax, shall be considered worth fifty pounds, and shall 
 1»' entitled to vote ; — and by another legislative act, females and negroes are prohibited 
 from voting.] Judges are appointed by the legislature; those of the supreme court 
 for a term < if seven years, and those of the inferior courts, for five years ; both are capa- 
 ble of being re-appointed. 
 
 Pennsylvania. The first constitution of Pennsylvania was adopted in 1776; the 
 present constitution in 1790. The legislative power is vested in a General Assembly, con- 
 sisting of a senate and house of representatives. The representatives are elected annu- 
 ally, on the second Tuesday in October, by the citizens of Philadelphia and of the several 
 counties, apportioned according to the number of taxable inhabitants. The number 
 cannot be less than sixty, nor more than one hundred. The senators are chosen for 
 four years, one fourth being elected annually, at the time of the election of the repre- 
 sentatives. Their number cannot be greater than one third, nor less than one fourth, 
 of the number of the representatives. The executive power is vested in a governor, 
 who is elected by the people on the second Tuesday in October, and who holds his office 
 during three years, from the third Tuesday in December next following his election • 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 399 
 
 and he cannot hold the office more than nine years, in any term of twelve years. The 
 judicial power is vested in a supreme court, in courts of oyer and terminer and jail de- 
 livery, in courts of common pleas, an orphans' court, a registers' court, a court of quar- 
 ter sessions of the peace for each county ; and in such other courts as the legislature 
 may from time to time establish. The judges of the supreme court, and the several 
 courts of common pleas, are appointed by the governor, and hold their offices during 
 good behavior. The right of suffrage is possessed by every freeman of the age of 
 twenty-one years, who has resided in the state two years next preceding an election, 
 ;ii)d within that time paid a state or county tax, assessed at least six months before the 
 election. 
 
 Delaware. The constitution of this state was formed in 1792, and amended 1831. 
 The legislature is styled the General Assembly, and consists of a senate and house of 
 representatives. The senators are nine in number, namely, three from each county, 
 and are elected for a term of four years. The representatives are elected for a term of 
 two years, and are twenty-one in number, seven from each county. The general elec- 
 tion is held biennially, on the second Tuesday in November. The executive power is 
 vested in a governor, who is elected by the people for a term of four years, and is not 
 eligible for a second term. Judicial power is vested in a court of errors and appeals, a 
 superior court, a court of chancery, an orphans' court, a court of oyer and terminer, a 
 court of general sessions of the peace, and jail delivery, a registers' court, justices of the 
 peace, and such other courts as the general assembly may (by a vote of two thirds of 
 each house) establish. . The right of suffrage is granted to every white male citizen, of 
 the age of twenty-two years or upwards, having resided in the state one year, next be- 
 fore the election, and the last month in the county where he votes ; and having within 
 two years paid a county tax. Also, to every free white male over twenty-one, and un- 
 der twenty-two years of age, having resided, as aforesaid, without payment of any tax. 
 
 Maryland. The constitution of this state was first formed in 1776 ; since which 
 time, many amendments have been made. The legislative power is vested in a senate, 
 consisting of fifteen members, and a house of delegates, consisting of eighty members ; 
 and these two branches united are styled The General Assembly of Maryland. The mem- 
 bers of the house of delegates, four from each county, and two each from the cities of 
 Baltimore and Annapolis, are elected annually by the people, on the first Monday in 
 October ; and the members of the senate are elected every fifth year, on the third Mon- 
 day in September, at Annapolis, by electors who are chosen by the people, on the first 
 Monday of the same month of September. These electors choose by ballot nine sena- 
 tors from the western shore, and six from the eastern, who hold their offices five 
 The executive power is vested in a governor, who is elected annually, on the first 31 on- 
 day in January, by a joint ballot of both houses of the general assembly. No one can 
 hold the office of governor more than three years successively, nor be eligible as gover- 
 nor until the expiration of four years after he has been out of that office. The governor 
 is assisted by a council of five members, who are chosen annually by a joint ballot of 
 the senate and house of delegates. The general assembly meets annually (at Annapo- 
 lis) on the last Monday in December. The council of the governor is elected on the 
 first Tuesday in January ; the governor nominates to office, and the council appoints. 
 The constitution grants the right of suffrage to every free, white, male citizen, above 
 twenty-one years of age, having resided twelve months within the state, and six months 
 in the county, or in the city of Annapolis or Baltimore, next preceding the election at 
 which he offers to vote. The chancellor and judges are nominated by the governor, 
 and appointed by the council ; and they hold their offices during good behavior. 
 
 Virginia. The old constitution of this state was formed in 1776, and continued in 
 operation until 1830, when the present amended constitution was formed by a conven- 
 tion, and accepted by the people. By this constitution, the legislative power is vested 
 in a senate and a house of delegates, which are together styled The General Assembly of 
 Virginia. The house of delegates consists of one hundred and thirty-four members, 
 chosen annually. The senate consists of thirty-two members. Senators are elected for 
 four years ; and the seats of one fourth of them are vacated eveiy year. In all elections 
 to any office or place of trust, honor, or profit, the votes are given openly, or viva voce, 
 and not by ballot. A re-apportionment for" representation in both houses is to take place 
 every ten years, commencing in 1841, until which time there is to be no change in the 
 
400 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 number of delegates and senators from the several divisions ; and after 1841, the num- 
 ber of delegates is never to exceed one hundred and fifty ; nor that of the senators, 
 thirty-six. The time of election of delegates is fixed by the general assembly, and at 
 present takes place in April. The executive power is vested in a governor, elected by 
 the joint vote of the two houses of the general assembly. He holds his office three 
 years, commencing on the first of January next succeeding his election, or on such other 
 day as may be from time to time prescribed by law ; and he is ineligible for the three 
 years next after the expiration of his term of office. There is a council of state, consist- 
 ing of three members elected for three years, by the joint vote of the two houses : the 
 seat of one being vacated annually. The senior counsellor is lieutenant governor. 
 Judges of the supreme court of appeals, and of the superior courts, are elected by a 
 joiut vote of both houses of the general assembly, and hold their offices during good be- 
 havior, or until removed by a concurrent vote of both houses ; but two thirds of the 
 members present must concur in such vote, and the cause of removal be entered on the 
 journals of each house. Right of suffrage is extended to every white male citizen of 
 the commonwealth, resident therein, aged twenty-one years and upwards, who is qualified 
 to exercise the right of suffrage according to the former constitution and laws ; or who 
 owns a freehold of the value of twenty-five dollars ; or who has a joint interest to the 
 amount of twenty-five dollars in a freehold ; or who has a life estate in, or reversionary 
 title to, land of the value of fifty dollars, having been so possessed for six months ; 
 or who shall own and be in the actual occupation of a leasehold estate, having the title 
 recorded two months before he shall offer to vote — of a term originally not less than 
 five years, and of the annual value or rent of two hundred dollars ; or who, for twelve 
 months before offering to vote, has been a housekeeper and head of a family, and shall 
 have been assessed with a part of the revenue of the commonwealth within the preceding 
 year, and actually paid the same. 
 
 North Carolina. The constitution of North Carolina was agreed to and resolved 
 upon, by representatives chosen for that purpose, at Halifax, December 18, 1776. The 
 legislative authority is vested in a body, styled the General Assembly, consisting of a 
 senate and a house of commons, both elected annually by the people. The chief execu- 
 tive officer is the governor, who is chosen annually by a joint vote of the two houses ; 
 and he is eligible for three years only in six. He is assisted by an executive council 
 of seven members, chosen annually by a joint vote of the two houses. In case of the 
 death of the governor, his duties devolve upon the speaker of the senate. Judges of the 
 supreme and superior courts are appointed by a joint vote of the two houses, and hold 
 their offices during good behavior. The constitution grants the right of voting for 
 members of the house of commons to all freemen of the age of twenty-one years, who 
 have been inhabitants of the state twelve months immediately preceding the election ; 
 but in order to vote for a senator, a freeman must be possessed of a freehold of fifty 
 acres of land. 
 
 South Carolina. The first constitution of this state was formed in 1775 ; the present 
 constitution was adopted in 17 ( J0. Legislative authority is vested in a General Assembly, 
 consisting of a senate and a house of representatives. The senate consists of forty-five 
 members, who are elected by districts for four years, one half being chosen biennially. 
 The house of representatives consists of one hundred and twenty-four members, who are 
 apportioned among the several districts, according to the number of white inhabitants 
 and taxation ; and are elected for two years. The representatives, and one half of the 
 senators, are chosen every second year, on the second Monday in October and the day 
 following. The executive power is vested in a governor, who is elected for two years, 
 by a joint vote of the senate and house of representatives, at every first meeting of the 
 hou e of representatives. A governor, after having performed the duties of the office 
 for two years, cannot be re-elected till after the expiration of four years. At the time 
 of the election of governor, a lieutenant governor is chosen in the same manner, and 
 for the same period. The chancellor and judges are appointed by the joint ballot of the 
 senate and house of representatives, and hold their offices during good behavior. The 
 constitution grants the righl of suffrage to every free, white, male citizen, of the age of 
 twenty-one years, having resided in the state two years previous to the day of election, 
 ninl having been possessed of a freehold of fifty acres of land, or a town lot, at least six 
 months before such election, or (not having SMr 'l> freehold or town lot) having been a 
 resident in the election district in which he offers his vote, six months before said eleo» 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 401 
 
 tion, and having paid a tax the preceding year of three shillings sterling towards the 
 support of the government. 
 
 Georgia. The first constitution of Georgia was formed in 1777 ; a second, in 1785 ; 
 and a third, the one now in operation, in 1798. The legislative power is vested in a 
 senate and house of representatives, which, together, are styled the General Assembly. 
 The members of both houses are chosen annually, on the first Monday in October. One 
 senator is elected for each county, and the number of representatives is in proportion to 
 population, including three fifths of all the people of color ; but each county is entitled 
 to at least one, and no one to more than four members. The executive power is vested 
 in a governor, who was formerly elected by the general assembly, but he is now (and 
 ever since 1824) elected by the people, and holds the office for two years. The consti- 
 tution grants the right of suffrage to all ( citizens and inhabitants who have attained the 
 age of twenty-one years, and have paid all the taxes which may have been required of 
 them, and which they may have had opportunity of paying, agreeably to law, lor the 
 year preceding the election, and shall have resided six months within the county.' The 
 judicial power is vested in a superior court, and in such inferior jurisdictions as the 
 legislature may, from time to time, ordain and establish ; and the superior and inferior 
 courts sit twice in each county every year. Judges of the superior court are elected by 
 the legislature for three years ; justices of the inferior courts, and justices of the peace, 
 are elected quadrennially by the people ; and clerks of the superior and inferior courts 
 biennially. 
 
 Alabama. The legislative power is vested in two branches, a senate and house of 
 representatives, which together are styled The General Assembly of the State of Alabama. 
 The representatives are elected annually, and are apportioned among the different coun- 
 ties in proportion to the white population ; the whole number cannot exceed one hun- 
 dred, nor fall short of sixty. The senators are elected for three years, and one third of 
 them are chosen every year. Their number cannot be more than one third, nor less than 
 one fourth of the number of representatives. The executive power is vested in a gover- 
 nor, who is elected by the people for two years, and is eligible four years out of six. 
 
 The representatives and one third of the senators are elected annually on the first 
 Monday in August and the day following; and the governor is elected biennially at the 
 same time. The general assembly meets annually at Tuscaloosa, on the fourth Mon- 
 day in October. The right of suffrage is possessed by every white, male citizen of 
 twenty-one years of age, who has resided within the state one year preceding an election, 
 and the last three months within the county, city, or town, in which he offers his vote. 
 The judicial power is vested in one supreme court, in circuit courts, and such inferior 
 courts as the general assembly may, from time to time, direct and establish. The judges 
 are elected by a joint vote of both houses of the general assembly, every six years. 
 
 Mississippi. The constitution of this state was formed at the town of Washington, in 
 August, 1817, but has been recently revised. Among the articles of the bill of rights 
 of the new constitution, there are some, embracing subjects which are elsewhere made 
 the subject of legislation. In all prosecutions for libel, if the defendant shall make it 
 appear that the matter charged as libellous is true, and has been published with good 
 motives and for justifiable ends, he is to be acquitted. It is also provided that the per- 
 son of a debtor, who shall deliver up his estate for the benefit of his creditors, shall not 
 be detained in prison, unless there is ( strong presumption of fraud.' Another article 
 declares, that no person shall be elected or appointed to any office for life, or during 
 good behavior : but the tenure of all offices shall be for some limited period of time. 
 The principle of representation is as follows : The legislature is at stated periods to require 
 an enumeration of the free white inhabitants to be made, and to cause the whole num- 
 ber of representatives, which is not to be less than thirty-six, nor more than one hundred, 
 to be apportioned among the several counties, cities, or towns, entitled to separate repre- 
 sentation, according to the number of free white inhabitants in each ; but each county 
 is to be entitled to at least one representative. When any city or town shall have a 
 number of free white inhabitants equal to the established ratio, it is to have a separate 
 representation ; and if the residuum or fraction in any such city or town, shall, when 
 added to the fraction of the county in which it lies, be equal to the ratio, the county, 
 city, or town, having the largest fraction, shall be entitled to such representation. The 
 6enators are at the same time to be apportioned among several districts, according to 
 51 34* 
 
402 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the number of free white inhabitants in each, and their number is not to exceed one 
 third, or be less than one fourth, of the number of representatives. These districts are 
 to be formed by the legislature, at stated periods. The Judicial department is to be con- 
 stituted as follows : The state is to be divided into three districts, in which three judges 
 of a high court of errors and appeals are to be chosen by the people, for the term of six 
 years. In the first instance, however, the seat of one judge is to be vacated in 'wo 
 years, that of a second in four, and that of the third in six, so that there may be a new 
 election in each of the districts, at the expiration of every two years. Their jurisdiction 
 is described to be such as properly belongs to a court of errors and appeals. A circuit 
 court is to be established, consisting of judges to be elected in districts, into which the 
 state is to be divided for the purpose, and each of which is to comprehend not more than 
 twelve, nor less than three counties. Among the other provisions of this instrument, is 
 the following: That no loan shall be raised on the credit of the state, nor the public 
 faith pledged for the redemption of any debt, unless the bill for that purpose, after pass- 
 ing the legislature, shall be published, for three months successively, in three news- 
 papers, and shall be passed a second time by the next succeeding legislature. 
 
 Louisiana. The constitution of this state was formed in 1812. The legislative power 
 is vested in a senate and house of representatives, both together styled The General 
 Assembly of the State of Louisiana. The representatives are elected for two years. Their 
 number cannot be less than twenty-five, nor more than fifty ; and they are apportioned 
 according to the number of electors, as ascertained by enumeration every four years. 
 Members of the senate are elected for four years ; one half being chosen every two 
 years, at the time of the election of the representatives. The state is divided into sixteen 
 senatorial districts, in each of which one senator is chosen. Executive power is vested 
 in a governor, who is elected for the term of four years. The people give their votes 
 for a governor at the time and place of votii.g for representatives and senators ; and on 
 the second day of the succeeding session of the general assembly, the two houses, by a 
 joint ballot, elect for governor one of the two candidates who have the greatest number 
 of votes. Right of suffrage is possessed by every white male citizen of the United 
 States, of the age of twenty -one years, who has resided in the county in which he offers 
 to vote one year next preceding the election, and who, in the last six months prior to 
 said election, has paid a state tax. Judiciary power is vested in a supreme court, which 
 possesses appellate jurisdiction only, and such inferior courts as the legislature may 
 establish. The judges are appointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of 
 the senate, and hold their offices during good behavior. 
 
 Tennessee. The constitution of this state was formed at Knoxville, in 1796. Legis- 
 lative authority is vested in a general assembly, consisting of a senate and house of 
 representatives ; and the members of both houses are elected biennially, on the first 
 Thursday and Friday in August. The number of representatives is sixty, who are ap- 
 portioned among the different counties, according to the number of taxable inhabitants. 
 The number of senators cannot be less than one third, nor more than one half, of the 
 number of representatives. The executive power is vested in a governor, who is elected 
 at the same time with the senators and representatives, and who holds his office for the 
 term of two years, but is not eligible more than six years in any term of eight. The 
 right of suffrage is granted to every freeman of the age of twenty-one years, possessing 
 a freehold in the county where he offers his vote, and to every freeman who has been 
 an inhabitant of any one county in the state, six months immediately preceding the day 
 of election. Judiciary power is vested in such superior and inferior courts, as the legis- 
 lature may from time to time direct and establish. The judges are appointed by a joint 
 ballot of both houses, and hold their offices during good behavior. 
 
 Kentucky. On the separation of Kentucky from Virginia, in 1790, a constitution 
 was adopted, which continued in force till 1799, when a new one was formed instead of 
 it ; and this is now in force. The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of 
 representatives, which, together, are styled The General Assembly of the Commonwealth 
 of 'Kentucky . The representatives are elected annually, and are apportioned, every four 
 years, among the different counties, according to the number of electors. The senators 
 are elected for four years, one quarter of them being chosen annually. The executive 
 power is vested in a governor, who is elected for four years, and is ineligible for the 
 tucceeding seven years after the expiration of his term" of office. At the election of 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 403 
 
 o-overnor, a lieutenant governor is also chosen, who is speaker of the senate, and on 
 whom the duties of the governor devolve, in case of his absence or removal. The con- 
 stitution grants the -right of suffrage to every free male citizen (people of color excepted) 
 who has attained the age of twenty-one years, and has resided in the state two years, 
 or in the county where he offers his vote one year next preceding the election. Judiciary 
 power is vested in a supreme court, styled the court of appeals, and in such inferior 
 courts as the general assembly may, from time to time, erect and establish. Judges of 
 the different courts, and justices of the peace, hold their offices during good behavior. 
 
 Ohio. The constitution of this state was formed at Chillicothe, in 1802. The legis- 
 lative power is vested in a senate and house of representatives, which, together, are 
 styled The General Assembly of the State of Ohio. The representatives are elected annu- 
 ally, on the second Tuesday in October ; and they are apportioned among the counties 
 according to the number of white male inhabitants above twenty-one years of age. 
 Their number cannot be less than thirty-six, nor more than seventy-two. The senators 
 are chosen biennially, and are apportioned according to the number of white male in- 
 habitants of twenty-one years of age. Their number cannot be less than one third, nor 
 more than one half of the number of representatives. The executive power is vested in 
 a governor, who is elected by the people for two years. Right of suffrage is granted to 
 all white male inhabitants above the age of twenty-one years, who have resided in the 
 state one year next preceding the election, and who have paid, or are charged with a 
 state or county tax. Judicial power is vested in a supreme court, in courts of common 
 pleas for each county, and such other courts as the legislature may from time to time 
 establish. The judges are elected by a joint ballot of both houses of the general assem- 
 bly, for the term of seven years. 
 
 Indiana. Executive power is vested in a governor, who is elected by the people for 
 a term of three years, and may be once re-elected. At every election of governor, a 
 lieutenant governor is also chosen, who is president of the senate, and on whom, in case 
 of the death, resignation, or removal of the governor, the powers and duties of governor 
 devolve. The legislative authority is vested in a general assembly, consisting of a se- 
 nate, the members of which are elected for three years, and a house of representatives, 
 elected annually. The number of representatives can never be less than thirty-six, nor 
 more than one hundred ; and they are apportioned among the several counties, accord- 
 ing to the number of white male inhabitants above twenty-one years of age. The num- 
 ber of senators, who are apportioned in like manner, cannot be less than one third, nor 
 more than one half of the number of representatives. The representatives, and one 
 third of the members of the senate, are elected annually, on the first Monday in August ; 
 and the governor is chosen on the same day, every third year. Right of suffrage is 
 granted to all male citizens of the age of twenty-one years or upwards, who may have 
 resided in the state one year immediately preceding an election. Judiciary power is 
 vested in one supreme court, in circuit courts, and in such other inferior courts as the 
 general assembly may establish. The supreme court consists of three judges ; and each 
 of the circuit courts consists of a president and two associate judges. Judges are all 
 appointed for the term of seven years. Judges of the supreme court are appointed by 
 the governor, with the consent of the senate ; presidents of the circuit courts, by tha 
 legislature ; and associate judges are elected by the people. 
 
 Illinois. The legislative authority is vested in a general assembly, consisting of a 
 senate, the members of which are elected for four years ; and of a house of representa- 
 tives, elected biennially. ' The number of representatives shall not be less than twenty- 
 seven, nor more than thirty-six, until the number of inhabitants within the state shall 
 amount to one hundred thousand ; and the number of senators shall never be less than 
 one third, nor more than one half of the number of representatives.' Executive power 
 is vested in a governor, who is elected by the people for four years ; and he is not eligi- 
 ble for more than four years in any term of eight years. At the election of governor, a 
 lieutenant governor is also chosen, who is speaker of the senate ; and on whom, in case 
 the governor vacates his office, the duties of governor devolve. Representatives, and 
 one half of the senators, are elected biennially, on the first Monday in August ; and the 
 governor is chosen every fourth year, at the same time. All white male inhabitants, 
 above the age of twenty-one years, having resided in the state six months next preceding 
 an election, have the rights of electors. The judieial power is vested in a supreme 
 
404 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 court, and in such inferior courts as the general assembly may establish. The judges 
 are appointed by a joint ballot of both branches of the general assembly, and hold their 
 offices during good behavior. 
 
 Missouri. The constitution of this state was formed at St. Louis, in 1820. Legisla- 
 tive power is vested in a general assembly, consisting of a senate and house of repre- 
 sentatives. Representatives are chosen every second year. Every county is entitled 
 to at least one representative ; but the whole number can never exceed one hundred. 
 The senators are elected for four years • the seats of one half being vacated every second 
 year. The constitutional number is not less than fourteen, nor more than thirty-three. 
 They are chosen by districts, and are apportioned according to the number of free white 
 inhabitants. Executive power is vested in a governor, who is elected for four years, on 
 the first Monday in August ; and he is ineligible for the next four years after the expi- 
 ration of his term of service. At the time of the election of governor, a lieutenant 
 governor is also chosen, who is, by virtue of his office, president of the senate. Right 
 of suffrage is granted to every white male citizen who has attained the age of *wenty- 
 one years, and has resided in the state one year before an election, the last three months 
 thereof being in the county or district in which he offers his vote. Judicial power is 
 vested in a supreme court, in a chancellor, circuit courts, and such other inferior tribu- 
 nals as the general assembly may, from time to time, establish. Judges are appointed 
 by the governor, by and with the advice and consent of the seaate ; and they hold their 
 cffices during good behavior, but not beyond the age of sixty-five years. 
 
405 
 
 CHAPTER IX.— CONVENTION. 
 
 In the chapter preceding, a brief account has been given of the progress 
 of Government among the people of the United States, from those early 
 leagues, or compacts, which being passed by the colonists, served to bind 
 them together in the bonds of a good degree of peace and amity, down to 
 the formation of that constitution, which, now, for more than half a century, 
 has been the basis of our civil and political prosperity. But in relation to 
 this last great change in the general government of the country, further 
 statements are necessary. There are certain historical facts, in relation 
 to the Convention which framed the Constitution, which every work of a 
 similar character to the present should record, and which should be treas- 
 ured up in the recollection of every free born American. 
 
 Not a few of the men who composed this august assembly had borne 
 a conspicuous part in the Revolutionary struggle, which achieved our in- 
 dependence. They had perilled life and fortune, in the great cause of 
 freedom, and although that object had been won, they perceived that 
 something further was necessary, or the toils and hardships, the -sacrifice 
 of life and fortune, during a seven years' war had all been in vain. The 
 enemies of the revolution had predicted that a separation from the mother 
 country would be followed by anarchy and confusion. It was confidently 
 affirmed, that the Americans would be found incapable of self-government. 
 So, for a time, it indeed seemed likely to prove. The confederation, it 
 was apparent, was inadequate to the wants of the people. It embraced 
 provisions which rendered the administration of government under it 
 nearly impossible ; and yet no amendments might be made to it, without 
 the assent of every state in the Union. Experience had shown that no 
 relief could be expected from this quarter. 
 
 The first measure which led to the Convention of 1787, was adopted 
 by Virginia, in a proposition of her Legislature in January, 1786, for a 
 convention of delegates to regulate our foreign commerce^ 4n" a lettccto 
 General Washington in March, 1786, Mr. Jay observed, ^"Experience 
 has pointed out errors in our national government, which call for correc- 
 tion, and which threaten to blast the fruit we expected from our tree of 
 liberty. The convention proposed by Virginia, may do some good, and 
 would, perhaps, do more, if it comprehended more objects. An opinion 
 begins to prevail, that a general convention for revising the articles of 
 confederation, would be expedient. Whether the people are yet ripe for 
 such a measure, or whether the system proposed to be obtained by it, is 
 only to be expected from calamity and commotion, is difficult to ascertain." 
 In a second letter to the same person in June, his Jliews and feelings 
 are thus expressed : " Our affairs seem to lead to some'erisis, some revo- 
 lution, something that I cannot foresee or conjecture. I am uneasy and 
 apprehensive, more so than during the war. Then we had a fixed object, 
 and though the means and time of obtaining it, were often problematical, 
 yet I did firmly believe, that justice was with us. The case is now alter- 
 ed. We are going and doing wrong, and, therefore, I look forward to 
 
406 BOOK OF THE TNITED STATES. 
 
 evils and calamities, but without being able to guess at the instrument, na- 
 ture or measure of them." 
 
 " Your statements," said General Washington, in reply to these com- 
 munications, " that our affairs are drawing rapidly to a crisis, accord with 
 my own. What the event will be, is also beyond my foresight. We 
 have errors to correct ; we have, probably, had too good an opinion of 
 human nature, in forming our confederation. Experience has taught us, 
 that men will not adopt and carry into execution measures the best calcu- 
 lated for their own good, without the intervention of coercive power. I 
 do not conceire we can exist long as a nation, without lodging some- 
 where, a power, which will pervade the whole Union, in as energetic a 
 manner as the authority of the state governments extend over the several 
 states." 
 
 Similar views were expressed by many of the distinguished men of the 
 nation. An opinion prevailed among all classes that some measures were 
 essential to the salvation of the country ; but as yet no one saw distinctly 
 what those measures should be, or what, amid the prevalent jealousies of 
 so many different states, could be adopted. 
 
 The above proposal of Virginia met with so much favor, that delegates, 
 or commissioners, were appointed by Virginia, Delaware, Pennsylvania, 
 New Jersey and New York. These convened at Annapolis, in Septem- 
 ber of 1786. Delegates were also appointed by New Hampshire, Massa- 
 chusetts, Rhode Island, and North Carolina, but did not attend. In con- 
 sequence of such a partial representation of the states, the commissioners 
 deemed it inexpedient to proceed in the important business which had 
 called them together. But it was still more than ever apparent, that a 
 general convention was essential, and must be effected. They therefore 
 drew up a report and an address to the states, in which, after stating the 
 defects of the federal government, and that the situation of the United 
 States " was delicate and critical, calling for an exertion of the virtue 
 and wisdom of the confederacy," they recommended to all the states, to 
 concur " in the appointment of commissioners, to meet at Philadelphia, 
 on the second Monday in May, 1787, to take into consideration the situa- 
 tion of the United States, to devise such further provisions as should ap- 
 pear to them necessary, to render the constitution of the federal govern- 
 ment adequate to the exigences of the Union. This address was also 
 sent to congress, as well as to the several states." 
 
 Virginia first appointed delegates, according to the recommendation of 
 the meeting at Annapolis. The general assembly of that state, which 
 commenced their session in October, 1786, selected seven of her most dis- 
 tinguished citizens, to meet delegates from the other states, at Philadelphia, 
 in May following, and " to join with them, in devising and discussing all 
 such alterations and further provisions as may be necessary to render the 
 federal constitution adequate to the exigences of the Union." Other 
 states soon after followed the example of Virginia. In February, 1787, the 
 subject claimed the attention of congress, and they passed the following 
 resolution : 
 
 " Whereas there is provision, in the articles of confederation and per- 
 petual union, for making alterations therein, by the assent of a congress 
 of the United States, and of the legislatures of the several states ; and 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 407 
 
 whereas experience hath evinced, "that there are defects in the present 
 confederation, as a means to remedy which, several of the states, and 
 particularly the state of New York, by express instruction to their dele, 
 gates in congress, have suggested a Convention for the purpose expressed 
 in the following resolution ; and such Convention appearing to be the most 
 probable means of establishing in these states a firm national government — 
 
 " Resolved, That in the opinion of congress, it is expedient, that on the 
 second Monday in May next, a Convention of delegates, who shall have 
 been appointed by the several states, be held at Philadelphia, for the sole 
 and express purpose of revising the articles of confederation, and report- 
 ing to congress and the several legislatures, such alterations and provisions 
 therein, as shall, when agreed to in congress, and confirmed by the states, 
 render the federal constitution adequate to the exigencies of government, 
 and the preservation of the Union." 
 
 In consequence of this, delegates to the Convention were appointed 
 from all the states, except Rhode Island. 
 
 To the generation, which since those times has come on to the stage, it 
 may appear singular, that such obstacles to a Convention should have 
 existed. But it is to be remembered that the path to be trod was new and 
 untried. The political elements were in a deranged state. Sectional 
 interests were at war. The principles of free government were not then 
 drawn out and harmonized. No model existed adapted to the country. Is 
 it surprising, then, that the process was slow — that fears were indulged — 
 that opposite views were entertained ? On the contrary, looking at the 
 state of the country as it then was — the political and commercial jealousies, 
 which had arisen among the states — their difference in extent, wealth, and 
 population, as well as in the habits, religion, and education of their inhab- 
 itants — it may well excite our admiration, that a few years achieved such 
 important changes, and produced a constitution, which has operated so 
 happily in its practical influence upon political communities so distinct, and 
 to this day so independent. 
 
 Among the causes which served to produce a general conviction of the 
 necessity of a more efficient government, none, perhaps, had greater influ- 
 ence, than the insurrection in Massachusetts, in the year 1786. " This 
 open and formidable opposition to the laws," observes a writer, " threat- 
 ened not only the destruction of the government of that state, but of the 
 Union. So numerous were the insurgents in the western counties, and so 
 confident of success, and even of support from their fellow citizens, that 
 they refused all terms of accommodation offered by the legislature. They 
 completely obstructed judicial proceedings in several counties, and for a 
 time, it was extremely doubtful, whether a sufficient force could be found 
 in Massachusetts to reduce them to obedience."* 
 
 The delegates appointed by the states to convene at Philadelphia, met 
 at the time and place designated. George Washington was unanimously 
 elected to preside in their deliberations. 
 
 A question of great magnitude presented itself, in the very commence- 
 ment of their session, viz. : whether they should amend the old, or form a 
 new system. For the former object they had been appointed, congress 
 having limited their powers to revising the articles of the confederation. 
 
 * Pitkin's Civil History. 
 
408 book of tiie united states. 
 
 But the defects of the old government were so many, and so serious, that 
 the voice of the majority decided in favor of an entirely new system. Ac- 
 cordingly on the 29th of May, Edmund Randolph, of Virginia, submitted 
 fifteen resolutions, as the hasis of a new constitution. These resolutions, 
 denominated the Virginia plan, were debated and amended, until the 15th 
 of June, when Mr. Patterson, of New Jersey, presented a project, for revis- 
 ing the articles of confederation. This was called the Jersey plan. The 
 propositions of this latter plan having been the subject of debate till the 
 19th of June, were rejected by seven states against three, and one divided. 
 The resolutions of Mr. Randolph therefore again came under considera- 
 tion, and on the 4th of July, with the exception of those relating to the 
 executive, were referred to a committee, consisting of Mr. Rutledge, Mr. 
 Randolph, Mr. Gorham, Mr. Ellsworth, and Mr. Wilson, forthe purpose of 
 reducing them to the form of a constitution. On the 20th of the Fame month, 
 those relating to the executive having been adopted, they, with various other 
 propositions submitted by individuals, were referred to the same committee, 
 and the Convention adjourned to the 6th of August, when the committee 
 reported a draft of a constitution. This was under debate until the 8th of 
 September, and underwent many material alterations. A committee, con- 
 sisting of Mr. Johnson, Mr. Hamilton, G. Morriss, Mr. Madison, and Mr. 
 King, was then selected "to revise the style, and arrange the articles." 
 The manner in which these eminent scholars and statesmen performed 
 the duty assigned them, appears from the great precision and accuracy of 
 the language of the Constitution, as well as the happy arrangement of its 
 various articles. 
 
 The report of this committee was made on the 12th, and on the 17th of 
 September, after a session of about four months, the Constitution was 
 finally adopted, and signed by all the members then present. 
 
 During the progress of debate, several questions of interest arose in the 
 Convention — but none, perhaps, more exciting than that which related to 
 the relative weight of the states, in the two branches of the legislature. 
 After much debate, the small states consented that the right of suffrage in 
 the house, should be in proportion to the whole number of white, or other 
 free citizens in each, including those bound to service for a term of years, 
 and three fifths of all other persons. While they yielded this point, they 
 insisted on an equal vote in the senate. 
 
 To this the large stages were unwilling to assent; and on this question, 
 the states remained, for a time, about equally divided. On the first trial, 
 in committee of the whole, six states against five decided that the right of 
 suffrage in the senate should be the same as in the house ; the states of 
 Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
 and Georgia, being in the affirmative; and Connecticut, New York, New 
 Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland, in the negative. 
 
 On the 29th of June, the question was again presented to the consider- 
 ation of the Convention, in a motion made by x\lr. Ellsworth, "that in the 
 second branch, each state should have an equal vote." We cannot pre- 
 tend to give even an outline of the arguments in favor and against this 
 motion. The debate was warm and exciting. For several days, the 
 powers of mighty minds were in animated collision, and from the strong 
 ramparts behind which the respective parties had apparently entrenched 
 themselves, there was for a time little prospect of union on the question. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 409 
 
 On the 2d of July, the question was taken on the motion of Mr. Ells- 
 worth, that in the senate each state should have one vote, and five states 
 were in favor of it, five against it, and one divided ; and the motion was 
 lost. This equal division on a subject of such importance, accompanied 
 with so much warmth on both sides, seemed to present an insurmountable 
 obstacle to further proceedings of the Convention, without some compro- 
 mise. To effect this, Charles C. Pinckney, of South Carolina, moved for 
 the appointment of a committee to take into consideration the subject of 
 both branches of the legislature. This motion prevailed, though not 
 without opposition. Some of the members were in favor of appointing 
 a committee, though they had little expectation of a favorable result. 
 Mr. Martin, of Maryland, declared, that each state must have an equal 
 vote, or the business of the Convention was at an end. 
 
 Mr. Sherman said, we have got to a point, that we cannot move one 
 way or the other ; a committee is necessary to set us right. Mr. Gerry 
 observed, that the world expected something from them — if we do noth- 
 ing, we must have war and confusion — the old confederation would be at 
 an end. Let us see if concessions cannot be made — accommodation is 
 absolutely necessary, and defects may be amended by a future Conven- 
 tion. 
 
 Thus the Convention was at a stand. Hopes were indeed entertained 
 that unanimity of views might on some basis prevail, but the longer con- 
 tinuance of the debate, in the then existing state of the Convention, it 
 was apparent, was engendering no good. About this time, the venerable 
 Franklin rose and addressed the President : 
 
 " Mr. President — The small progress we have made after four or five 
 weeks' close attendance and continual reasonings with each other, our 
 different sentiments on almost every question, several of the last producing 
 as many noes as ayes, is, methinks, a melancholy proof of the imperfection 
 of the human understanding. We indeed seem to feel our want of polit- 
 ical wisdom, since we have been running all about in search of it. We 
 have gone back to ancient history for models of government, and exam- 
 ined the different forms of those republics which, having been originally 
 formed with the seeds of their own dissolution, now no longer exist ; and 
 we have viewed modern states all round Europe, but find none of their 
 constitutions suitable to our circumstances. In this situation of this 
 assembly, groping, as it were, in the dark, to find political truth, and 
 scarce able to distinguish it when presented to us, how has it happened, 
 sir, that we have not hitherto once thought of humbly applying to the 
 Father of Lights to illuminate our understandings ? In the beginning of 
 the contest with Britain, when we were sensible of danger, we had daily 
 prayers in this room for the divine protection ! Our prayers, sir, were 
 heard ; — and they were graciously answered. All of us, who were 
 engaged in the struggle, must have observed frequent instances of a 
 superintending providence in our favor. To that kind providence we 
 owe this happy opportunity of consulting in peace, on the means of estab- 
 lishing our future national felicity. And have we now forgotten that 
 powerful friend 1 — or do we imagine we no longer need his assistance ? 
 I have lived, sir, a long time ; and the longer 1 live, the more convincing 
 proofs I see of this truth — that God governs in the afairs of men ! And 
 
410 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 if a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without his notice, is it probable 
 that an empire can rise without his aid ? We have been assured, sir, in 
 the sacred writings, that ' except the Lord build the house, they labor in 
 vain that build it.' I firmly believe this ; and I also believe, that without 
 his concurring aid, we shall succeed in this political building no better 
 than the builders of Babel : we shall be divided by our little partial local 
 interests, our projects will be confounded, and we ourselves shall become 
 a reproach and a by. word down to future ages. And what is worse, 
 mankind may hereafter, from this unfortunate instance, despair of estab- 
 lishing government by human wisdom, and leave it to chance, war, and 
 conquest. 
 
 "I therefore beg leave to move, that henceforth prayers, imploring the 
 assistance of heaven, and its blessings on our deliberations, be held in 
 this assembly every morning, before we proceed to business ; and that 
 one or more of the clergy of this city be requested to officiate in that 
 service." 
 
 This was a well timed suggestion, and coming as it did from so vene- 
 rable a man as Dr. Franklin, was responded to by the Convention. It is 
 wonderful that the blessing and guidance of the God of nations had not 
 been sought before. 
 
 Impressed with the necessity of compromise, the Convention chose a 
 committee by ballot, consisting of one from each state, and then adjourned 
 for three days. On re-assernbling, it was found that greater harmony pre- 
 vailed — a report was presented from the committee, which being accepted, 
 the Convention proceeded with a good degree of unanimity in their delib- 
 erations, until at length a constitution was agreed upon. Of the fifty-five 
 members who attended the Convention, thirty-nine signed this instrument. 
 Of the remaining sixteen, several who were in favor of it were obliged, 
 from particular business, to leave the Convention before it was ready 
 for signing.* 
 
 The Convention recommended that the constitution should be submitted 
 to state conventions, and that as soon as the same should be ratified by a 
 constitutional majority, congress should take measures for the election of 
 a President, and fix the time for commencing proceedings under it. 
 
 At the first session of the first congress, the senate and house of repre- 
 sentatives, two thirds concurring, recommended to the states the adoption 
 of twelve amendments to the constitution, comprising chiefly those parts 
 of the recommendations of the states, which ve have already noticed as 
 having been adopted. Ten of these amendments were adopted by three 
 fourths of the legislatures of the states, and became a part of the consti- 
 tution. Subsequently, three other amendments were added. 
 
 On the 10th of January, 1791, Vermont, the first of the new states, 
 joined the Union, and gave its assent to the constitution. Since then, the 
 constitution has been adopted, assented to and ratified by other states, 
 until there are now in the Republic twenty-six states, which it is hoped 
 are connected by ties which will continue unbroken so long as time shall 
 last.f 
 
 * Pitkin's Civil History. f Mansfield's Political Grammar. 
 
411 
 
 CHAPTER X.— INDIAN TRIBES. 
 
 The North American Indians are of a red copper color, with some di- 
 versity of shade. The men are of the middle stature, large boned, and 
 well made ; with small black eyes, lodged in deep sockets, high cheek 
 bones, nose more or less aquiline, mouth large, lips rather thick, and the 
 hair of the head black, straight, and coarse. In some tribes, they carefully 
 extract the hair of the beard and other parts of the body, and hence were 
 long believed destitute of that excrescence. The general expression of the 
 countenance is gloomy and severe. Formerly, some tribes flattened the 
 heads of their infants by artificial pressure ; but at present, that practice is 
 unknown to the east of the Rocky mountains. They have a sound under- 
 standing, quick apprehension, and retentive memory, with an air of indiffe- 
 rence in their general behavior. 
 
 The women, or sqitaws, differ considerably from the men, both in person 
 and features. They are commonly short, with homely, broad faces ; but 
 have often an expression of mildness and sweetness in their looks. 
 
 Except when engaged in war, hunting and fishing are the sole employ- 
 ments of the men. By means of these, by the spontaneous productions of 
 the earth, and by a partial cultivation of the soil, they procure a precarious 
 subsistence ; feasting freely when successful in the chase, but capable of 
 great abstinence, when provisions are less plentiful. Some of the tribes, 
 when first visited by Europeans, raised considerable crops ; and they taught 
 the early settlers in New England to plant and dress maize. At present, 
 several nations cultivate maize, beans, pumpkins, and water-melons ; and 
 in this way considerably increase their means of subsistence. 
 
 The sight, smell, and hearing of the Indians, being frequently and atten- 
 tively exercised, are all remarkably acute. They can trace the footsteps 
 of man or beast through the forest, and over the plain and mountain, where 
 an inexperienced eye cannot discern the slightest vestige. They can often 
 judge, with much accuracy, how many persons have been in the company, 
 how long it is since they passed, and even, at times, to what nation they 
 belonged. They can pursue their course through the pathless forest, or 
 over the snowy mountain, with undeviating certainty, and are guided by 
 marks which entirely escape the notice of an European. 
 
 Strangers to letters, and untutored by learning, their passions, which are 
 little curbed by parental authority, grow up wild and unpruned, like the 
 trees of their native forests. They are fickle and capricious ; irascible 
 and impetuous ; kind to their friends, vindictive and cruel towards their 
 enemies ; and in order to execute their revenge, they readily exercise dis- 
 simulation and deceit, and shrink from no toil or danger. Their distin- 
 guishing qualities are strength, cunning, and ferocity; and as war is their 
 first employment, so bravery is their first virtue. 
 
 The ancient weapon of the hunter was the bow and arrow ; but most of 
 them have now procured guns, Their dress differs considerably in diffe- 
 
412 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Tent tribes. It consisted originally of skins ; but many of tbem are now 
 provided with blankets and different kinds of cloth. The dress of the 
 Konzas, a tribe on the Missouri, may serve as a sample. They protect 
 their feet with moccasons, or shoes made of dressed deer, elk, or buffalo 
 skin : leg gins of deer skin reach to the upper part of the thigh : a breech- 
 cloth passes between the legs, and is attached to a girdle fastened round 
 the loins. A blanket or skin covers the upper part of the body ; but in 
 warm weather it is laid aside. In some tribes, the hair is allowed to flow 
 loosely over the face and shoulders ; in others, it is carefully braided, 
 knotted and ornamented, and is always well greased. In many cases, the 
 head is bare, both in summer and winter ; but in others, both men and 
 women wear a cap like an inverted bowl. The men have also a war cap, 
 which they put on as a symbol of mourning, or when preparing for battle. 
 It is commonly decorated" with the feathers of rare birds, or with the claws 
 of beavers or eagles, or other similar ornaments. A quill or feather is also 
 suspended from it for every enemy that the warrior has slain in battle. 
 They often suspend from their ears wampum beads, silver and tin trinkets, 
 and they are fond of bracelets and rings. The face and body are often 
 besmeared with a mixture of grease and coal. They are very attentive to 
 personal decoration ; and vermilion is an important article at their toilet. 
 The faces of the men are painted with more care than those of the women ; 
 and the latter have more pride in adorning the countenances of their hus- 
 bands than their own. A tobacco pouch, attached to the girdle or carried 
 in the hand, is a usual part of their equipment. The women's dress is 
 partly like that of the men ; but their leggins only reach to the knee ; 
 they have sleeveless shifts, which come down to the ankle, and a mantla 
 covers all. 
 
 The wigwams, tents, or lodges of the Indians, are differently constructed 
 in different nations. The rudest are formed of branches, resting against 
 each other at the top, covered with leaves or grass, and forming a very 
 
 Movable Lodges of the Kaskaias. 
 
 imperfect shelter against the weather. The nations on the west of the 
 Rocky mountains have houses formed of a frame of sticks, covered with 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 413 
 
 mats and dried grass. Many tribes erect long poles, in a circular form at 
 the bottom, and resting against each other at the top, which they cover 
 with skins ; others have oblong lodges, consisting of a wooden frame, 
 covered with grass mats and earth. The light is admitted by a small 
 door, and by an aperture in the top, which serves also for the escape of 
 the smoke. The fire is in the middle of the lodge, and the family sit 
 round it on the bare ground ; but they spread a skin for a stranger. They 
 readily kindle a fire, by rapidly turning one piece of smooth wood upon 
 another ; but in the vicinity of Europeans, they are now generally provided 
 with flint and steel. 
 
 Their scanty and simple furniture and culinary utensils are suited to 
 their humble dwellings and homely manner of life. A kettle, a wooden 
 bowl, a couple of wooden or horn spoons, a few skins for beds and covers, 
 and a buffalo's stomach for carrying water, are the chief articles of domes- 
 tic accommodation. Formerly they used earthen pots ; but these are now 
 generally superseded by metallic pots and kettles, purchased from the 
 white traders. 
 
 Many of the tribes are strangers to bread and salt. Besides fruits and 
 roots, they feed on the flesh of the animals they kill, boiled or roasted. In 
 travelling, pemmkan is their favorite food. It consists of flesh cut into 
 thin slices, dried in the sun or over a slow fire, beat to a coarse powder 
 between two stones, mixed with grease, and then carefully packed up. In 
 different nations it is known by different names. 
 
 Among the tribes who practise cultivation, maize is sometimes roasted 
 in the ashes, and sometimes bruised and boiled, and is then called hominy. 
 They also boil and eat wild rice, which grows in considerable quantities 
 in some parts of the country. They have no fixed time for meals, but eat 
 when they are hungry. They present food to a stranger, at what time 
 soever he enters their dwelling. 
 
 Polygamy is very common among them ; and the husband occasionally 
 finds it necessary to administer a little wholesome castigation to his more 
 quarrelsome or refractory squaws. But many are satisfied with one wife. 
 The care of the tent, and the whole drudgery of the family, devolve on the 
 women. They gather fuel, cook the provisions, and repair every article 
 of dress ; cultivate the ground, where any is cultivated ; carry the baggage 
 on a journey ; and pitch the tent when they halt. In these and similar 
 employments, their lordly fathers, husbands, and brothers think it degrad- 
 ing to assist them, and unworthy of warriors to engage in such employ- 
 ments. 
 
 The Indians never chastise their children, especially the boys; thinking 
 that it would damp their spirits, check their love of independence, and cool 
 their martial ardor, which they wish above all things to encourage. ' Rea- 
 son,' say they, ' will guide our children, when they come to the use of it ; 
 and before that, their faults cannot be very great.' They avoid compulsory 
 measures, and allow the boys to act with uncontrolled freedom ; but en- 
 deavor by example, instruction, and advice, to train them to diligence and 
 skill in hunting ; to animate them with patience, courage, and fortitude in 
 war ; and to inspire them with contempt of danger, pain and death, — quali- 
 ties of the highest order in the estimation of an Indian, 
 
 By gentleness and persuasion they endeavor to imbue the minds of their 
 children with virtuous sentiments, according to their notions of virtue. 
 
 35* 
 
414 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The aged chiefs are zealous in this patriotic labor, and the squaws give 
 their cordial co-operation. 
 
 Ishuchenau, an old Kanza warrior, often admonished the group of young 
 auditors who gathered around him of their faults, and exhorted them 
 never to tell a lie, and never to steal, except from an enemy, whom it is just 
 to injure in every possible way. ' When you become men,' said he, ' be 
 brave and cuning in war, and defend your hunting grounds against all en- 
 croachments : never suffer your squaws and little ones to want ; protect 
 them and strangers from insult. On no occasion betray a friend ; be re- 
 venged on your enemies ; drink not the poisonous strong water of the 
 white people, for it is sent by the bad Spirit to destroy the Indians. Fear 
 not death ; none but cowards fear to die. Obey and venerate old people, 
 particularly your parents. Fear and propitiate the bad Spirit, that he may 
 do you no harm ; love and adore the Good Spirit, who made us all, who 
 supplies our hunting grounds, and keeps all alive.' After recounting his 
 achievements, he was wont to add, ' Like a decayed prairie tree, I stand 
 alone : — the friends of my youth, the companions of my sports, my toils, 
 and my dangers, rest their heads on the bosom of our mother. My sun 
 is fast descending behind the western hills, and I feel it will soon be night 
 with me.' Then with hands and eyes lifted towards heaven, he thanked 
 the Great Spirit for having spared him so long, to show the young men 
 the true path to glory and fame. 
 
 Their opinions, in many instances, are false, and lead to corresponding 
 errors in conduct. In some tribes, the young person is taught to pray, 
 with various superstitious observances, that he may be a great hunter, 
 horse-stealer, and warrior ; so that thus the fountain of virtue is polluted. 
 The Indians are entirely unacquainted with letters ; but they have a 
 kind of picture-writing, which they practise on the. inside of the bark of 
 trees, or on skins prepared for the purpose, and by which they can com- 
 municate the knowledge of many facts to each other. 
 
 The Indian names are descriptive of the real or supposed qualities of 
 the persons to whom they belong : they often change them in the course 
 of their lives. The young warrior is ambitious of acquiring a new name ; 
 and stealing a horse, scalping an enemy, or killing a bear, are achievements 
 which entitle him to choose one for himself, and the nation confirms it. 
 
 The Indian women are industrious wives and affectionate mothers. 
 They are attentive to the comfort of their husbands, watch over their chil- 
 dren with the utmost care and tenderness ; and if they die, lament the loss 
 in the most affecting manner. Chastity is not, in some tribes, reckoned a 
 virtue ; and, as the women are considered the property of the men, a de- 
 viation from it, with the consent of the father, husband, or brother, is not 
 looked on as an offence. Nay, to countenance their wives, sisters, or 
 daughters in conferring favors on strangers, is considered a strong ex- 
 pression of hospitality ; and refusal of the proffered kindness is regarded 
 by the lady as an unpardonable insult. But some husbands, on discovering 
 unauthorized conjugal infidelity, punish it with severity ; others treat it 
 very lightly. 
 
 The Indians are kind and hospitable to their friends, and to those who 
 are introduced to them in that character. Although they themselves sit 
 on the bare ground, yet they courteously spread a buffalo skin for their 
 visiter ; smoke a pipe with him in token of peace and amity ; and the 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 415 
 
 squaw prepares something for him to eat. They are ready to share ♦heir 
 last morsel with their friends. 
 
 They are immoderately addicted to intoxicating liquors, which they 
 procure from the white traders, and which have been the means of destroy- 
 ing multitudes of them. Before their intercourse with white men, they 
 had no intoxicating beverage ; and, excepting the liquor which they pro- 
 cure from the merchants, their meals are temperate, and their habits of life 
 active. Their diseases are few, and seldom of long duration. Many of 
 them fall in battle, and multitudes are occasionally swept away by small- 
 pox. To the healing art they are in a great measure strangers ; although, 
 by means of simples, they in some instances perform surprising cures. 
 In general, however, these pretenders to medical skill are mere quacks and 
 jugglers, who affect to chase away disease by howling, blowing on the pa- 
 tient, and by various incantations, slight-of-hand performances, and super- 
 stitious rites. 
 
 Some of their medical men pretend to have seen the Great Spirit, and 
 to have conversed with him in some visible form, as of a buffalo, beaver, 
 or other animal, and to have received from him some medicine of peculiar 
 efficacy. The animal whose form had appeared is considered to be the 
 remedy; and they imitate its cry in making their medical applications. 
 The medicine bag, in which these savage physicians have a few herbs, 
 entire or pulverized, and which they administer with a little warm water, 
 is an indispensable requisite in Indian medical practice. Indeed, the head 
 of every family has his medicine bag, which is a place of sacred deposit, 
 and to the sanctity of which he commits his most precious articles. The 
 value of its contents an Indian only can appreciate. 
 
 In every stage of society, persons appear who accommodate themselves 
 to the state of the public mind. Of this description are the jugglers, con- 
 jurers, or powahs, among the ignorant and superstitious Indians. They 
 are partly medical quacks, partly religious impostors. Many of them are 
 dexterous jugglers and cunning cheats. They pretend to foretell future 
 events, and even to influence the weather. It is likely that they are often, 
 in some measure, the dupes of their own artifices. 
 
 The sweating houses of the Indians are often employed for medical 
 purposes, although they are places of social recreation also. A hole is dug 
 in the ground, and over it is built a small close hut, with an opening just 
 large enough to admit the patient. A number of heated stones are placed 
 in the bottom of the hole. The patient enters, having a vessel full of wa- 
 ter along with him; and being seated on a place prepared for his reception, 
 the entrance is closed. He sprinkles water on the heated stones, and is 
 soon, by the steam, thrown into a state of profuse perspiration. After this 
 has continued for some time, the person is taken out and plunged into cold 
 water. This process is repeated several times, always ending with the 
 steam-bath. The Indians use this as a general remedy ; but its salutary 
 effects are experienced chiefly in rheumatic diseases, in which its efficacy 
 is at times very great. 
 
 The Indians bear disease with composure and resignation ; and, when 
 far advanced in life, often long for the hour of dissolution. 'It is 
 better,' said an aged sachem, 'to sit than to stand, to sleep than to be 
 awake, to be dead than alive.' The dying man exhorts his children to be 
 industrious, kind to their friends, but implacable to their enemies. He 
 
416 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 rejoices in the hope of immortality. He is going to the land of spirits, that 
 happy place where there is plenty of game and no want, where the path 
 is smooth and the sky clear. 
 
 When the sick person expires, the friends assemble round the body, the 
 women weep and clap their hands, and bewail their loss with loud lamen- 
 tations. Different nations dispose of the bodies of departed friends, and 
 express their grief in different ways. Many Indian tribes bury their dead 
 soon after death. They wrap up the body carefully in a buffalo robe, or 
 dressed skin, and carry it to the grave on the shoulders of two or three 
 men. Along with the body, they bury a pair or two of moccasons, some 
 meat, and other articles, to be used in the land of spirits. The favorite 
 weapons and utensils of the warrior are also deposited by his side. It is 
 believed by several tribes that unless this be done, the spirit of the deceased 
 appears among the trees near his lodge, and does not go to its rest till the 
 property withheld be committed to the grave. In some places, they dis- 
 charge muskets, make a noise, and violently strike the trees, in order to 
 drive away the spirit, which they imagine fondly lingers near its old abode. 
 A mound is sometimes raised over the grave, proportioned in size to the 
 dignity of the deceased ; or the place is marked out and secured by short 
 sticks driven into the ground over and around it. Some of those graves 
 are commonly near each of their villages. 
 
 On the death of a relation, the survivors give way to excessive grief, be- 
 daub themselves with white clay, blacken their faces, cut off their hair, and 
 not unfrequently mangle themselves in a shocking manner, thrusting 
 knives or arrows into the muscular parts of their thighs or arms, or cutting 
 off a joint of one of their fingers. For a while they nightly repair to the 
 place of sepulture to give expression to their grief; and may occasionally 
 be seen affectionately plucking the grass from the grave of a deceased re- 
 lation or friend. 
 
 Among those tribes where provisions are scarce, and procured with 
 difficulty, it is not uncommon for an'aged person, who is unable to provide 
 for himself, to request his family to put him to death ; and the request is 
 complied with, or he is treated with much neglect. But this unnatural 
 conduct results entirely from the pressure of circumstances, and the priva- 
 tions and sufferings to which those poor people are exposed ; for in more 
 favorable situations, they behave towards the aged and infirm with respect 
 and tenderness. 
 
 Of the religion of the Indians we have no full and clear account. In- 
 deed, of the opinions of a people who have nothing more than a few vague 
 and indefinite notions, no distinct explanation can be given. On this sub- 
 ject, the Indians are not communicative ; and to obtain a thorough know- 
 ledge of it would require familiar, attentive, unsuspected, and unprejudiced 
 observation. But such observation is not easily made ; and a few general, 
 and on some points uncertain, notices only can be given. 
 
 On looking at the most renowned nations of the ancient heathen world, 
 we see the people prostrating themselves before innumerable divinities ; 
 and we are ready to conclude that polytheism is the natural belief of man, 
 unenlightened by revelation. Bat a survey of the vast wilds of America 
 will correct this opinion. For there we find a multitude of nations, widely 
 separated from each other, all believing in one Supreme God, a great and 
 good spirit, the father and master of life, the maker of heaven and earth 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 417 
 
 and of all other creatures. They believe themselves entirely dependent on 
 him, thank him for present enjoyments, and pray to him for the good 
 things they desire to obtain. They consider him the author of all good ; 
 and believe he will reward or punish them according to their deeds. 
 
 They believe in inferior spirits, also, both good and bad, whom they consi- 
 der tutelary spirits. The Indians are careful observers of dreams, and think 
 themselves deserted by the Master of life, till they receive a revelation in 
 a dream ; that is, till they dream of some object, as a buffalo, or beaver, or 
 something else, which they think is an intimation that the Great Spirit 
 has given them that object as a charm, or medicine. Then they are full 
 of courage, and proud of their powerful ally. To propitiate the medi- 
 cine, every exertion is made, and every personal consideration sacrificed. 
 ' I was lately the proprietor of seventeen horses,' said a Mandan ; ' but I 
 have offered them all to my medicine, and am now poor.' He had turned 
 all these horses, which constituted the whole of his wealth, loose into the 
 plain, committed them to his medicine, and abandoned them forever. But, 
 although they offer oblations to the medicines, they positively deny that 
 they pay them any adoration, and affirm that they only worship the Great 
 Spirit through them. 
 
 They have no regular periodical times either of private or public reli- 
 gious worship. They have neither temples, altars, stated ministers of 
 religion, nor regular sacrifices ; for the jugglers are connected rather with 
 the medical art than with religious services. The Indians in general, like 
 other ignorant people, are believers in witchcraft, and think many of their 
 diseases proceed from the arts of sorcerers. These arts the jugglers pre- 
 tend to counteract, as well as to cure natural diseases. They also pretend 
 to predict the weather and to make rain ; and much confidence is placed 
 in their prognostications and their power. 
 
 The devotional exercises of the Indians consist in singing 1 , dancing, and 
 performing various mystical ceremonies, which they believe efficacious in 
 healing the sick, frustrating the designs of their enemies, and securing 
 their own success. They often offer up to the Great Spirit a part of the 
 game first taken in a hunting expedition, a part of the first produce of their 
 fields, and a part of their food. At a feast, they first throw some of the 
 broth, and then of the meat, into the fire. In smoking, they generally 
 testify their reverence for the Master of life, by directing the first puff 
 upwards, and the second downwards, or the first to the rising, and the 
 second to the setting sun ; at other times, they turn the pipe to every point 
 of the compass. 
 
 They firmly believe in the immortality of the soul, and in a state of future 
 retribution ; but their conceptions on these subjects are modified and tinged 
 by their occupations in life, and by their notions of good and evil. They 
 suppose the spirit retains the same inclinations as when in the body, and 
 rejoices in its old pursuits. At times, an Indian warrior, when about to 
 kill and scalp a prostrate enemy, addresses him in such terms as the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 ' My name is Cashegra: I am a famous warrior, and am going to kill 
 you. When you reach the land of spirits, you will see the ghost of my 
 father ; tell him it was Cashegra sent you there.' The uplifted tomahawk 
 then descends upon his victim. 
 
 The Mandans expect, when they die, to return to the original subterra- 
 53 
 
4 IS BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 neous abode of their fathers : the good reaching the ancient village by 
 means of the lake, which the weight of the sins of the bad will render 
 them unable to pass. They who have behaved themselves well in this 
 life, and been brave warriors and good hunters, will be received into the 
 town of brave and generous spirits ; but the useless and selfish will be 
 doomed to reside in the town of poor and useless spirits. 
 
 The belief of those untutored children of nature has an influence on 
 their conduct. Among them, the grand defect is, an erroneous estimate of 
 good and evil, right and wrong. But how much soever we may lament 
 their errors on these interesting points, we need not be surprised at them ; 
 for how many, even in more enlightened communities, and with clearer 
 means of information, can scarcely be said to have sounder principles or a 
 better practice ? A reverential and grateful sense of the divine perfections 
 and government, manifesting itself by a devout regard to his institutions, 
 and obedience to his will, by benevolence, integrity, candor and kindness 
 towards men, and by sobriety and industry, is too little valued and prac- 
 tised by many who enjoy the light of revelation. Hitherto the Indians 
 have learned little but vice by their intercourse with white men. 
 
 Although they have no regular system of religious worship, yet they 
 have many superstitious notions ; some of them of a more general, others 
 of a more local nature. The Mandans have their medicine stone, which 
 is their great oracle ; and they believe with implicit confidence whatever it 
 announces. Every spring, and occasionally during summer, a deputation, 
 accompanied by jugglers, magicians, or conjurers, visits the sacred spot, 
 where there is a large stone, about twenty feet in circumference, with a 
 smooth surface : there the deputies smoke, taking a few whiffs themselves, 
 and then ceremoniously offering the pipe to the stone. They leave their 
 presents, and withdraw to some distance during the night. Before morning, 
 the presents have disappeared, the Great Spirit having, according to their 
 belief, taken them away ; and they read the destinies of their nation in 
 some marks on the stone, which the jugglers, who have made them, and 
 secretly manage the whole transaction, can easily decipher. The Minne- 
 tarees have also a stone of the same kind. 
 
 On the northern bank of the lower part of the Missouri, there is a singu- 
 lar range of rocks, rising almost perpendicularly about two or three hundred 
 feet above the level of the river. These rocks the Indians call Wakon, or 
 spirit, and on or near them, the neighboring nations deposit most of their 
 offerings to the Great Spirit, or Father of life ; because they imagine he 
 either inhabits or frequently visits those rocks, and offerings presented there 
 will sooner attract his notice and gain his favor than any where else. 
 Those offerings consist of various articles, among which eagles' feathers 
 are held in highest estimation ; and they are presented in order to obtain 
 success in war or hunting. 
 
 They believe also in the existence of evil spirits, but think these ma- 
 levolent beings gratify their malignity chiefly by driving away the game, 
 preventing the efficacy of medicine, or similar injuries. But they do not 
 always confine their operations to such petty mischiefs ; for Mackenzie, in 
 his first voyage, was warned of a spirit, behind a neighboring island, which 
 swallowed up every person who approached it : and near the White Stone 
 river of the Missouri, there is an oblong mound, about seventy feet high, 
 called by the Indians the Mountain of Little People, or Little Spirits, 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 419 
 
 which are supposed to be malignant beings in human shape, about eighteen 
 inches high, with remarkably large heads. They are provided with sharp 
 arrows, in the use of which they are very expert; and they are always on 
 the watch to kill those who approach the mountain of their residence. 
 The tradition is, that many persons have fallen victims to their malevolence ; 
 and such is the terror of them among the neighboring nations, that on no 
 consideration will they approach the mound. 
 
 Among the Indians, society is in the loosest state in which it can possi- 
 bly exist. They have no regular magistrates, no laws, no tribunals, to 
 protect the weak or punish the guilty. Every man must assert his own 
 rights, and avenge his own wrongs. He is neither restrained nor protect- 
 ed by any thing but a sense of shame and the approbation or disapproba- 
 tion of his tribe. He acknowledges no master, and submits to no superior 
 authority ; so that an Indian community seems like a mound of sand on 
 the sea-shore, which one gale has accumulated, and which the next may 
 disperse. 
 
 But, amidst this apparent disunion, the Indian is strongly attached to 
 his nation. He is jealous of its honor, proud of its success, and zealous 
 for its welfare. Guided by a few traditionary notions, and by the opinion 
 and example of those around him, he is ready to exert all his energies, and 
 sacrifice even life itself for his country. Here sentiment and habit do 
 more than wise laws can elsewhere accomplish. 
 
 Where all are equally poor, the distinctions founded on wealth cannot 
 exist ; and among a people where experience is the only source of know- 
 edge, the aged men are naturally the sages of the nation. Surrounded by 
 enemies, and exposed to continual peril, the strongest, boldest, and most 
 successful warrior is highly respected ; and the influence gained in youth 
 by courage and enterprise is often retained in old age by wisdom and 
 eloquence. In many of the tribes, the chiefs have a sort of hereditary 
 rank ; but, in order to maintain it, they must conciliate the good will of 
 the most influential persons of the community. They have nothing like 
 monarchical revenues, pomp, or authority, but maintain their distinction by 
 bravery, good conduct and generosity. 
 
 The most important concerns of the tribe are discussed in a council 
 composed of the chiefs and warriors, in which the principal chief presides. 
 Every member delivers his opinion with freedom, and is heard with atten- 
 tion. Their proceedings are considered sacred, and are kept a profound 
 secret, unless it be thought the public good requires a disclosure. In that 
 case the decision, with the reasons on which it is founded, is published by 
 a member of the council, who recommends a compliance with it. In the 
 stillness of the morning or evening, this herald marches through the village, 
 solemnly communicating the information, and giving suitable exhortations. 
 He also instructs the young men and children how to behave, in order to 
 gain the esteem of good men, and the approbation of the Good Spirit. 
 
 The authority of the chiefs and warriors is hortatory rather than coercive. 
 They have influence to persuade, but not power to compel. They are 
 rather respected as parents and friends, than feared and obeyed as superi- 
 ors. The chief is merely the most confidential person among the Avarriors ; 
 neither installed with any ceremony, nor distinguished by any badge. He 
 may recommend, or advise, or influence ; but he has no" power to enforce 
 his commands, or to punish disobedience. In many of the tribes he gradu- 
 
420 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ally acquires his rank by his own superior merit, and the good opinion of 
 his companions ; and he may lose his authority as he gained it. 
 
 The people commonly settle their controversies among themselves, and 
 do not apply to their chiefs, except for advice. In some of the tribes, peace 
 is preserved and punishment inflicted in a very summary manner by officers 
 appointed by the chief for that purpose. These officers are distinguished 
 by having their bodies blackened, and by having two or three ravens' skins 
 fixed in their girdles behind, so that the tails project horizontally. They 
 have also a raven's skin, with the tail projecting from their forehead. 
 These officers, of whom there are two or three in a village, and who are 
 frequently changed, beat any person whom they find acting in a disorderly 
 manner. Their authority is held sacred, and none dares resist them. 
 They often attend the chief, and consider it a point of honor to execute 
 his orders at any risk. 
 
 The eloquence of the Indian orators occasionally displays itself in strong 
 and figurative expressions, accompanied with violent but not unnatural 
 gesticulations. Many of their speeches are on record ; and some, for 
 rhetorical effect, would do credit to the parliament of a refined nation. 
 
 The wars of the Indians most commonly originate in the stealing of 
 horses, or in the elopement of squaws ; sometimes in encroachments on 
 their hunting grounds, or in the prosecution of old quarrels, and the desire 
 of avenging the murder of relations. These wars are conducted in a 
 predatory manner. 
 
 A single warrior sometimes undertakes an expedition against the enemy ; 
 but, in cases of great provocation, the whole tribe engages in the enterprise, 
 under the conduct of the principal chief. Even in this case, however, none 
 but volunteers join the army: no one is obliged to march against his will. 
 
 War is often carried on bv a small predatory party, formed by the 
 influence of some approved warrior. Among the Omawhas, the warrior 
 paints himself with white clay, and marches through the village, crying 
 aloud to the Wahconda, or Father of life, and entreating the young war- 
 riors of the nation to have pity on him, and to accompany him in an 
 expedition against their enemies. He gives a feast to those who are willing 
 to follow him ; and it is distinctly understood that they who partake of his 
 hospitality pledge themselves to be partners in his enterprise. At the feast 
 he harangues them, and tells them they must gain celebrity by their mar- 
 tial prowess. This leader of the party, to whom the French gave the name 
 of partisan, busies himself, before setting out, in making medicine, hanging 
 out his medicine bag, fasting, attending to his dreams, and other supersti- 
 tious observances. On the medicine bag, much reliance is placed for the 
 successful termination of the adventure. It usually contains the skin of 
 a sparrow-hawk, and a number of small articles, such as wampum beads 
 and tobacco, all attached to a belt, neatly enveloped in bark, and tied 
 round with strings of the same material. It is of a cylindrical shape, about 
 one, or sometimes two feet long, and is suspended on the back of the 
 partisan by its belt, which passes round his neck. The moccasons, leggins, 
 and arms of the party are put in order, and each warrior furnishes himself 
 with some provisions. 
 
 With the partisan at their head, the party set out, march cautiously, 
 following each other in a line, at a distance of two or three paces, ofteri 
 treading in each others' footsteps, that their number may not be discovered , 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 421 
 
 and they send out spies to explore their route. They easily find out 
 whether any persons have lately passed the same way, by discerning their 
 footsteps on the grass; and as they have to deal with people whose organs 
 of sense are as acute as their own, they are careful, as far as possil ! . to 
 conceal their own tracks. On halting, the medicine bag is not alio 
 touch the ground, but is suspended on a forked stick, firmly !; 
 earth for that purpose. They smoke to it, occasionally turning the stem 
 of the pipe towards it, towards the heavens, and towards the earth, 
 partisan carefully attends to his dreams, and, if he think them om 
 of evil, he at times abandons the enterprise. 
 
 When the spies bring information that they are neai*the enemy, the parti- 
 san opens his medicine bag, removes its barky envelope, and suspends the 
 contents from his neck, with the bird skin, wampum, and other articles hang- 
 
 Otto Encampment. 
 
 ing down on his breast. This is the signal to prepare for action. If they 
 have time, they paint themselves and smoke : they also paint their shields 
 with rude representations of the objects on which they rely for su 
 The partisan gives the order to advance, and they move on with cautious 
 steps, as their great aim is to fall upon the enemy by surprise. If they 
 succeed in this, the a tack begins \ ell of the Avar---. 
 
 This is th dr only martial music. They kill, in liscriminately, all who fall 
 in their way ; but if discover ither make a h ••it, or rush 
 
 to the attack with impetuous but disorderly fury. W in the forest, they 
 shelter themselves behind trees; if on open ground, they leap nimbly from 
 side to side, to prevent the enemy from taking a steady aim, and 
 themselves with their bucklers. 
 
 It is not the mere killing of an enemy that confers the highest honor < n 
 an Indian warrior, but the striking the body of his fallen foe on tli 
 of battle, and in presence of his friends, who are eager to avenge his ' 
 Scalping is an act of no small celebrity in Indian warfare; and, in per- 
 forming it, the victor sets one- foot on the neck of his dead or disabled 
 enemy, entwines one hand in his hair, and, by a few slashes of the scalp- 
 ing knife in his other, round the top of the head, is enabled to pull off the 
 
 36 
 
422 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 skin with the hair. Carrying away the scalp is simply a mark of victory * 
 the taking of prisoners is reckoned a high honor. 
 
 The wounded of the vanquished party are killed by the conquerors on 
 the field of battle, and their bodies shockingly mangled ; the squaws so far 
 overcoming by habit the tender feelings of the female breast as to take an 
 active part in the inhuman scene. Indeed, they are more cruel than the 
 men. 
 
 In his lodge, the Inuian is indolent, sedate, and apparently callous ; but 
 in hunting, or in quest of an enemy, he is keen, indefatigable, persevering : 
 on the field of battle, he seems an infuriated demon : so different are his 
 appearances in different circumstances. The victorious party bury their 
 dead, or cover them with bushes or stones. They remove their wounded 
 in litters, borne on men's shoulders; or, if they have horses, on a car of 
 two shafts, with a buffalo skin stretched between them. They return 
 rapidly to their villajjp, and commonly halt on some elevated ground in its 
 vicinity. Their friends, eager to be informed of the particulars of the 
 expedition, hasten to meet them. The party enters the village with savage 
 pomp, ostentatiously exhibiting the scalps which they have taken, raised 
 on poles. Many of the warriors bear the mark indicative of having drunk 
 the blood of an enemy. This consists in rubbing the hand all over with 
 vermilion, and then pressing it on the face and mouth, so as to leave a 
 complete impression. On those occasions, the wives of the warriors 
 who have been engaged in the enterprise, attire themselves in the dress 
 of their husbands, and, with rods in their hands, to which the scalps 
 that have been taken are attached, dance round a large red post, and, in 
 concert with the young warriors, sing the war and scalp songs. This bar- 
 barous dance, which is repeated every night for some weeks, is charming 
 to the squaws ; a circumstance which shows how far the human character 
 may be perverted by fashion and habit. 
 
 The Indians dance and sing at the same time : they have, however, but 
 little grace or variety in their movements, and little music in their notes. 
 Their musical instruments are a sort of drum, and a rattle, or skin bag, 
 with small shot or pebbles in it, which makes a noise when shaken. 
 
 It is dangerous to meet a disappointed or defeated w r ar party on its 
 return, as the warriors are apt to indemnify themselves for any disappoint- 
 ment, defeat, or loss they may have sustained, by taking the property and 
 scalps of the first weak or unguarded party they may encounter. 
 
 No offence against society is inquired into by the chiefs : stealing from 
 one of their own tribe, which is very rare, exposes the thief to contempt ; 
 but cowardice is marked by the highest reprobation. When they go to 
 war, they keep a watchful eye on such of the young men as are making 
 their first essay in arms. If they display the necessary qualifications, 
 they are in due time admitted to the rank of warriors, or, as they express 
 it, of brave men. But if any give clear indications of cowardice, on the 
 return of the party, they are treated with neglect and contempt. A coward 
 is at times punished even with death. 
 
 The female prisoners are made slaves, a condition scarcely worse than 
 that of the other squaws. The young male prisoners are often adopted by 
 the families of the tribe which have taken them, and supply the place of 
 the members that have fallen in the expedition. Sometimes, on returning 
 to their village, the party show their prisoner a painted red post, distant 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 423 
 
 from twenty to forty yards, and bid him run and lay hold of it. On each 
 side of his course stand men and women with axes, sticks, and other offen- 
 sive weapons, ready to strike him as he passes. If he instantly spring 
 forward with agility, he may perhaps reach the post without receiving a 
 stroke, and is then safe, till a general council of the warriors determine 
 his fate; but if he fall, he is probably despatched. 
 
 If the prisoner be rejected by the family to which he is offered, he is 
 then put to death with every circumstance of cruelty ; and the constancy 
 and fortitude of the su Merer are as remarkable as the barbarity of his 
 murderers. The victim, fastened to a stake, sings his death song, insults 
 his tormentors, bears with unshrinking firmness the most dreadful tortures, 
 and expires without a groan. He triumphs in his fortitude, not merely as 
 a personal virtue, but chiefly as a national characteristic. We are to seek 
 the cause of this patient endurance of the most excruciating pains, not in 
 any nervous insensibility, any constitutional apathy, any muscular rigidity 
 of the Indian, but in the sentiments which he has imbibed and the habits 
 to which he has been trained. He has been taught, from infancy, to 
 consider courage and fortitude as the glory of man ; to endure privations 
 and pain without a murmur, and with an unsubdued heart, and to despise 
 tortures and death ; and, in his last moments, he proves the efficacy of the 
 education which he has received. In these tragical scenes, the women 
 always take an active part ; and their inhumanity, like the fortitude of the 
 men, springs from education. 
 
 Previous to their intercourse with Europeans, the arms of the Indians 
 were bows and arrows, spears, tomahawks, scalping knives, and war clubs. 
 Most of them, however, are now provided with fire arms ; and, being eager 
 to procure them, their quantity is continually increasing. But the use of 
 these original weapons is far from being entirely superseded. 
 
 At times, the bow is formed of pieces of horn neatly spliced ; but it is 
 more commonly made of wood. Formerly, the arrow was pointed with 
 flint or bone, but now generally with iron : the spear is pointed in a similar 
 manner. The tomahawk is a hatchet or war axe. The scalping knife is 
 used to cut and tear off the scalp, or integuments of the upper part of the 
 skull with the hair, of their fallen enemies, which the Indians display as 
 trophies of their victory, with as much exultation as ancient heroes mani- 
 fested in showing the arms of their vanquished foes. The head of the 
 war club is globular, and at times hollow, inclosing pieces of metal, which 
 make a gingling noise when a stroke is given. Occasionally, the 
 blade of a knife, or some other sharp instrument, is fastened to the end 
 of it at right angles. The tribes who dwell in the depth of the 
 forest have no bucklers, but shelter themselves behind trees : those, how- 
 ever, who live in an open country, as on the banks of the Missouri, use 
 bucklers or shields of a circular form, about two feet and a half in dia- 
 meter, and composed of three or four folds of buffalo's skin, dried in the 
 sun and hardened. These shields are proof against arrows, but not 
 against ball. 
 
 In all their acts of devotion, and on all occasions where their confidence 
 is to be won or their friendship secured, smoking is regarded as an invio- 
 lable token of sincerity. 
 
 The pipe or calumet, as some have called it, is the symbol of peace and 
 the pledge of friendship. Among the rude dwellers of the desert, it serves 
 
424 EOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the same purposes as a flag of truce in the armies of more civilized com- 
 munities. The pipe is about four feet long; the bowl made of stone or 
 clay, and the stem of a light wood. It is differently ornamented in dif- 
 ferent nations. The bearer of this sacred symbol of friendship is seldom 
 treated with disrespect, because they believe the Great Spirit would not 
 allow such an iniquity to escape with impunity. 
 
 Peace is concluded, and treaties ratified, by smoking. Wampum, and 
 wampum belts, are also commonly used on such occasions. Wampum, 
 formerly, and now among some tribes, the current coin of the Indians, is 
 formed of shells found on the coasts of New England and Virginia : some 
 of those shells are of a purple color, others white ; but the former are 
 reckoned most valuable. They are cut into the shape of oblong beads, 
 about a quarter of an inch long, perforated, and strung on a small leathern 
 thong: several of these strings, neatly sewed together by fine sinewy threads, 
 form a belt, consisting of ten, twelve, or more strings. The value of each 
 bead, and, consequently, of each string or belt, is exactly known. The 
 size of the belt, which is often about two feet long, and three or four 
 inches broad, is proportioned to the solemnity and importance of the oc- 
 casion on which it is given. The chiefs occasionally give strings to each 
 other as tokens of friendship ; but belts are reserved for the ratification of 
 national treaties, every stipulation of which is recorded to posterity by 
 the hieroglyphics on the belt. 
 
 Tribes in amity occasionally apply to each other for a supply of their 
 wants. When one tribe is in need of any commodity with which another 
 is well provided, the needy tribe send a deputation of their number to 
 smoke with their wealthier neighbors, and to inform them of their wants ; 
 and it would be a breach of Indian courtesy to send them away without 
 the expected supply. What they smoke is tobacco mixed with the inner 
 bark of the willow. 
 
 The Shoshonees, a band on the Rocky mountains, before smoking 
 with strangers, pull off their moccasons, in token of the sacred sincerity 
 of their professions ; and by this act they not only testify their sincerity, 
 but also imprecate on themselves the misery of going barefooted forevei", 
 if they prove unfaithful to their word. 
 
 A number of different languages are spoken by the Indians ; and, in 
 some cases, different dialects of the same language are found among 
 different tribes. 
 
 The original languages, beside that of the Esquimaux, are said to be 
 principally three, — the Iroquois, the Lenni Lenape, or Delaware, and the 
 Floridian. These languages are so distinct, as to have no perceivable 
 affinity. The Iroquois was spoken by the Iroquois or Six Nations, and 
 several other tribes. The Iroquois, or Six Confederated Nations, so 
 famous in Indian history, and once so formidable by their numbers, laws, 
 and military prowess, are the Mohawks, Oneidas, Senecas, Cayugas, 
 Onondagoes, and Tuscaroras. The Delaware language was spoken by 
 many nations in the middle provinces ; and the Floridian by the Creeks, 
 Choctaws, Cherokees, Chickasaws, and other tribes in the southern states. 
 Those languages are said to be copious and expressive: they often consist 
 of long* compounds, and comprise many ideas in one word. 
 
 The following observations on this interesting race of men are furnish- 
 ed by a person who has spent many years in intimate contact with several 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 425 
 
 tribes of the north-west, and may, therefore, be considered good authority. 
 He writes expressly for this work. 
 
 ' There are few topics on which so much has been written, and to so 
 little purpose, as the character, manners, habits and origin of the aborigi- 
 nes of North America. Novelists, poets, travellers and philosophers have 
 all failed to convey an adequate idea of them. This arises, in our opin- 
 ion, in a great measure, from the modern propensity to generalization. 
 A writer who has been present at an Indian council, has seen the noncha- 
 lant demeanor of the chiefs, and has heard the tropes and metaphors with 
 which they garnish their discourse, gravely states that the self-possession 
 of all Indians can never be disturbed by any circumstances, and that the 
 refinements of poetry and oratory are as familiar in their mouths as house- 
 hold words. Another, who sees the women performing the hard labor of 
 their families, while the men stand idly by, pronounces that squaws are 
 regarded as slaves. Now our experience assures us that the premises, on 
 which such general conclusions are based, are almost always fallacious. 
 
 ' Little need be said concerning the origin of the American natives. 
 The most probable conclusion is, that they immigrated into the new conti- 
 nent via Behring's strait; but whether they came by that route, or crossed 
 the Atlantic from Wales, or the Pacific, from Japan, certain it is that their 
 physical peculiarities plainly distinguish them from all the races of the old 
 world. We judge it safe to entertain an opinion once expressed in our 
 presence by an old Indian. ' Why must we have descended from your 
 fathers ?' said he. ' Is it not as reasonable to suppose that God created the 
 Indian where he now is, as that he made the white man in the garden 
 you have been talking about ?' This idea, if not sanctioned by the Mosaic 
 account of the creation is, at least, not contradicted by it. We count the 
 resemblances, which exist between the customs and traditions of certain 
 tribes in both continents, as of very little importance. People living in 
 different countries by similar pursuits, most necessarily fall into similar 
 observances. Every tribe that lives on the banks of a stream or the 
 ocean, must have witnessed a high tide or an overflow, and hence the 
 almost universal tradition of a deluge. In our opinion, no importance 
 ought to be attached to the accounts of Indians of their own origin. Some 
 septs, like the Pawnees and Choctaws,.say they sprang from the earth, 
 the Incas descended from the sun, the Osages are contented with such 
 progenitors as a snail and a beaver. 
 
 ' The idea that the present race of aborigines dispossessed a race more 
 advanced in civilization and less warlike than themselves, seems to us to 
 rest on no real foundation. The articles found with skeletons exhumed 
 from barrows, are still in use among the more remote tribes. Indians still, 
 occasionally, construct rude fortifications. The pottery, on which antiqua- 
 rians rely as illustrative of this favorite theory, is made and used to this 
 day by the remote Dahcotahs and Assinneboins. If the field works found 
 in different parts of the country be adduced as proofs of the civilization of 
 the supposed former race, we answer that they do not betoken the tenth 
 part of the ingenuity displayed in the construction of a birch canoe. 
 
 'The aborigines of America have generally been esteemed to be divided 
 
 into two distinct races, viz. the Esquimaux and the red Indians. We 
 
 doubt that the races are distinct. The Esquimaux are, indeed, milder in 
 
 character, and less perfect in physical conformation than their southern 
 
 54 36* 
 
426 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 neighbors ; but is not the difference owing to climate and mode of life ? 
 Fishermen, and especially such fishermen as the Esquimaux, whose whole 
 tune and care is requisite to preserve life, cannot be warriors. People who, 
 j'ke the Esquimaux, live upon scanty food in an inhospitable clime, must 
 necessarily be dwarfish. Bear witness tribes who live in the same manner 
 on the old continent. Besides, captain Franklin informs us that those of 
 this people who inhabit a less inhospitable coast than their brethren (those 
 east of the Coppermine river) are of the ordinary stature of mankind. 
 
 4 Turning round Icy cape, we find the tribes along the north-west coast 
 gradually losing the characteristics of Esquimaux, and assuming those of 
 the red Indians. We are at a loss to divine, from the accounts of Cook, 
 Kotzebue and Jewett, which of the two races the tribes of that region most 
 resemble. At Nootka Sound, the savages are fishermen like the Esqui- 
 maux, and hunters and warriors like the tribes of the Mississippi. Wher- 
 ever we find a tribe relying upon fisheries as a principal means of subsis- 
 tence, we find the moral and physical character approximating toward that 
 of the Esquimaux. In short, we see no difference between the two races 
 which may not have been produced by something less than the will of 
 the Almighty. 
 
 ' The physical appearance of the Indians has been too often described 
 to need notice here. It is impossible even to conjecture what their num- 
 ber may be. Some idea of this may be gained from the fact that the 
 Dahcotahs, who are able to muster six or seven thousand fighting men, 
 scarcely support themselves on a tract of land eight hundred miles long 
 and as many in breadth. Other tribes, who rely in some degree upon 
 agriculture and fishing, are more thickly settled. Others, who occupy less 
 favored regions, are less so. 
 
 4 Two great families of Indians seem, from time immemorial, to have 
 occupied the country between the Eocky mountains and the Atlantic, viz. 
 the Dahcotahs, and the Chippeway, or Algonquin race. The former are 
 divided into a great number of independent tribes, whose origin may be 
 traced by similarity of language, habits and manners. The parent stock 
 is divided into several septs, which are again subdivided into a great many 
 minor hordes. The principal divisions are these : Munday Wawkantons, 
 Sussetons, Wakhpaytons, Wawkhpaykootays, Yanktows and Tetons. 
 These last live high upon the Missouri, and have little intercourse with 
 the rest. The Assinneboins, a numerous and powerful tribe, who roam 
 over the prairies between the Missouri and the SaskatchaAvayn, seceded 
 from the Dahcotahs little more than a century ago, and a bloody war was 
 long waged between them and the parent race. A woman was the cause 
 of quarrel. The Winnebagoes and Otoes, renowned for desperate bravery, 
 the Ioways, the Osages, the Omahaws and many other western tribes, claim 
 affinity with the Dahcotahs, and speak dialects of their tongue. The tradi- 
 tion concerning their origin, to which we give most credit, says, that they 
 all came from Mexico at the time of the invasion of Cortez. The Winne- 
 bagoes hold the Spaniards in abhorrence to this day. Such of these tribes 
 as inhabit the prairie region are vagrant, and live mainly by hunting the 
 buffalo. A description of one will be a description of all of them. They 
 are, generally, of the middle stature of mankind, and it is rare to see a 
 Dahcotah who much exceeds or falls short of it, or who is in any wise 
 deformed. They are beautifully formed : it is as rare to see an ill-made 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 427 
 
 Dahcotah as a well-made white man. They are not muscular, nor are 
 they so agile as whites commonly are ; but in recompense, their powers of 
 endurance are very great. They seem utterly insensible of fatigue, and 
 patient of hunger, pain, and all other hardships. 
 
 ' Neither these, nor any other Indians with whom we are acquainted, are 
 at all remarkable for gravity in their social intercourse. They are more 
 taciturn, indeed, than the whites ; but this is the result rather of circum- 
 stance than of education. Spending much time alone, they acquire a habit 
 of silence ; having fewer ideas than civilized men, they have fewer in- 
 ducements to discourse. The conversation that does take place among 
 them, however, is by no means characterized by reserve or by the absence 
 of hilarity. In councils and on solemn occasions, it is judged decorous and 
 proper to give no indication of feeling, and hence an apathetic gravity has 
 long been thought a distinguishing attribute of the Indian character. Even 
 were the assumption just, the aborigines would be no more remarkable 
 in this respect than most modern Asiatic nations. 
 
 1 The character of Indians in general seems to have been viewed by 
 most writers through a false medium, and their qualities have been inferred 
 from the nature of their intercourse with white men. This is a false stand- 
 ard ; to know them, one should live long among them and watch their social 
 relations. Thus seen, they appear to much greater advantage than when 
 hanging upon the frontiers doing or suffering wrong, and debasing them- 
 selves by theft, beggary and intemperance. 
 
 'It will not be denied by any who know them, that those Indians who 
 have not been corrupted by the whites are sincerely pious. They univer- 
 sally believe in one all-wise, benevolent and powerful God, to whom, how- 
 ever, they never pray ; for, they say, he knows better what is good for 
 them than they do themselves. Nothing shocks them more than to hear 
 his name mentioned with irreverence by the whites. They also believe 
 in an evil principle, whom they pray to do them no harm. They people all 
 animated nature with inferior spirits, and to these they offer prayers and 
 sacrifices. Their superstitions are numberless. They believe in a future 
 state, and the world of spirits is, in their opinion, a fine hunting-g-round, 
 where the vexations and sufferings of this life will be unknown. Each 
 man has what he calls his medicine ; that is, he thinks fit to consider his 
 fate and fortunes dependent on some animal, and that animal he will 
 neither kill, eat, or treat with disrespect. In short, they have an infinite 
 variety of such observances, and there is little uniformity in the belief 
 of individuals. 
 
 ' Their priests are mere jugglers, who practise various mummeries, and 
 are also, as is common among savages, physicians and surgeons, and, in- 
 deed, they mix medicine and religion together. A cure is effected by 
 songs and superstitious rites as well as by the use of simples. The jug- 
 gler's voice and rattle are seldom still near the couch of a sick man. We 
 are yet to. learn that these quacks are much respected in their sacerdotal 
 character, or that any great importance is attached to their ceremonies 
 by the majority of the laity. One merit they have, and that is their skill 
 in rough surgery. We have seen them effect astonishing cures. It may 
 not be amiss to mention one, by way of example. A hunter was grappled 
 by a bear, that he had wounded, and dreadfully lacerated. His arm was 
 broken in several places, and all who saw it thought he must die or sub- 
 
428 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 mit to amputation. An Indian surgeon, however, undertook the cure and 
 effected it. It is true that he was three years about it, and perhaps the 
 abstemious habits of the patient were a main cause of his recovery. 
 
 ' As to government, the Dahcotah race have no king, and every man 
 does what seems right in his own eyes. They have chiefs, indeed, who 
 have, by tacit consent, the power of making treaties, and of transacting 
 the business of their followers. Sometimes they lead in war, but, save on 
 such occasions, authority they have none. They may advise, but cannot 
 command. They receive no reward for their services, nor do they wear 
 any badge of their rank. Indeed they are usually worse dressed and pro- 
 vided than other individuals, because it is considered peculiarly the duty 
 of chiefs to be generous. The office is hereditary in families, but not 
 in the direct line of descent. If the heir apparent be notoriously ineligible, 
 he is set aside, and a more worthy kinsman takes his place. Highly distin- 
 guished warriors become war chiefs through the respect paid to their valor. 
 Each village has one of these, who is called the war chief, to distinguish 
 him from the hereditary leader. He rules in war, but not in civil affairs. 
 Sometimes a chief acquires absolute power, but of that kind which strong 
 minds gain over weak ones, and it behoves every leader to bear his facul- 
 ties meekly. 
 
 ' Laws the Dahcotahs have none ; but they have customs which have 
 the force of laws, and which are seldom broken. Thus a man may have 
 as many wives as he can maintain. Adultery is punished by cutting off 
 the nose of the offending wife ; the wife cuts the clothes of the offending 
 husband to pieces. Life is taken for life, unless the homicide can appease 
 the friends of the dead by the payment of a ransom. The murderer in- 
 variably gives himself up to punishment, for to fear death is considered 
 the acme of dishonor. When minor offences are committed, the injured 
 party kills the dogs and horses of his enemy, or destroys his tent before his 
 eyes, and in such cases no resistance is offered. Divorces are at the op- 
 tion of the husband. Theft is not regarded as a crime ; indeed, property 
 is nearly in common among them, so that no theft can be committed. 
 They apply this standard of morals to the whites, and so get the reputa- 
 tion of thieves, while themselves are unconscious of wrong doing. It is, 
 in our opinion, this very community of goods that is the principal obstacle 
 to their civilization and improvement ; for it cannot be expected that one 
 man will sow for all the world to reap, or that he will weary his limbs in 
 the chase to obtain what will not belong to him or his family. Those 
 tribes who hold the right of property in most esteem, as, for example, the 
 Saques and Foxes, have made the greatest advances in civilization. 
 
 ' Another obstacle to the civilization of our aborigines is their unconquer- 
 able indolence. The savage is content with the bare necessaries of life ; he 
 neither knows nor cares for its luxuries and superfluities. Necessity only 
 will compel him to exertion. Tribes, whose limits have been so circum- 
 scribed by the whites that they cannot live by the chase, have resorted to 
 labor for subsistence ; but we think no other force of reason or circum- 
 stance will bring about such a result. 
 
 'However strange such an assertion may appear, we confidently affirm 
 that Indians are not more revengeful than other people. They have the same 
 feelings and passions as other men, neither stronger nor weaker. They are 
 kind to each other. Every offence but murder is readily forgiven, and even 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 429 
 
 that crime seldom finds its due punishment. Nine murderers out of ten 
 among them go down to the grave in peace. An Indian rarely goes much 
 out of his way for revenge. Time and opportunity being ministered, an 
 individual will wreak a long-smothered resentment, and so, we presume, 
 would any other man, if freed from the restraints of law. We take it upon 
 us to say that murders are not so frequent among them as with ourselves, 
 and that these, as well as all minor injuries, are not so often or so fearfully 
 avenged by Indians as by white men. As it regards wrongs committed 
 by enemies of the tribe, the case is different. These, the savage is taught, 
 it is his duty to requite upon any member of the hostile nation. Such 
 vengeance it is his glory to take, and it is one of the first requisitions of 
 his moral code. 
 
 ' The courage of Indians is not to be measured by our standard. In a 
 mere clan, the loss of an individual is severely felt. It subtracts largely 
 from the strength of the band and the happiness of his family. Discretion, 
 therefore, is considered the better part of valor. . The war chief who con- 
 quers the enemy does well ; but he who conquers without loss to himself 
 does infinitely better. It is thought honorable to avoid risk as much as 
 possible, and the decision of quarrels by single combat is called folly and 
 madness. But when they have resolved on battle, no people strive more 
 valiantly. Our history bears witness of the furious energy of their valor. 
 Their ideas of moral courage might be adopted with advantage by all who 
 call them savages. They think it weak and cowardly to yield to grief or 
 anger; misfortune and pain they scorn, and death they endure not only 
 without a murmur, but with cheerfulness. Suicide under any circumstances 
 they brand as the strongest evidence of lack of courage. 
 
 ' Of the cruelty of Indians to conquered enemies, this only can be said, 
 that it is the vice of all barbarians, that they know not what they do, that 
 it is only exercised on their avowed foes, and that it is almost always 
 petrated in the heat of blood. Captives, once spared, fare no worse than 
 their conquerors. The sense of honor among Indians is, in some respects, 
 very strong ; in others, not so. It will not prevent an individual from false- 
 hood, treachery, promise-breaking, flattery, beggary and a multitude of other 
 offences. It will deter him from labor, which he considers the exclusive 
 business of women, it forbids him to shun death, it commands him to re- 
 quite a disgraceful blow with a stab, it forbids him to boast of deeds he 
 never achieved, it commands him to sacrifice himself for the good of his 
 tribe. Its scope is not very extensive ; but where it operates, it operates 
 effectually. 
 
 'In their domestic relations, they are essentially, but not ostensibly kind. 
 They provide for their families, they love their wives and children ; but 
 thinking it womanish to manifest the affections, they are not fond husbands 
 or fathers. Tatunkah Nazhee, the best hunter of the Dahcotahs, lo 
 wife and five children by the hands of the Chippeways. The only sign 
 of grief he displayed was painting his face black. Yet he abandoned his 
 usual occupations, and pursued the enemy till he had taken life for life. 
 " This, " said he, " is the best way of mourning for the dead." 
 
 ' Indian hospitality and charity have no limit. No stranger enters their 
 tents to whom they do not give meat : no person goes to them in need 
 whom they do not relieve to the extent of their ability, and often to their 
 great inconvenience. They will not look upon an execution, they will not 
 
430 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 suffer a person who has wronged them to be whipped for it, and the idea of 
 imprisoning a man for debt, or for a petty violation of the rights of pro- 
 perty, fills them with horror. 
 
 ' Some years ago, the old chief of a Dahcotah band was robbed by a 
 drunken soldier of eighteen ducks, which he had killed for the use of his 
 family. The offender was detected, compelled to make restitution, and 
 fastened to the whipping-post. When the old man comprehended the na- 
 ture of the punishment about to be inflicted, he burst into tears, and threw 
 down half his game before the commanding officer. " I will give you 
 these," said he, " if you will spare this man. Of what consequence are a 
 few ducks ?" The man had committed violence on the chief's person. 
 Which of the two best deserved to be called a savage ? 
 
 ' In short, to end our remarks on the Dahcotah character, which is, with 
 some trivial alterations, the character of most Indian tribes, we may say 
 that their moral code is grievously defective, but that, such as it is, they 
 adhere rigidly to it. Considering their ignorance, their extreme necessities 
 and their wrongs, it is wonderful that their moral degradation is not deeper 
 than it is. Their code is adapted to their mode of life, and it is only by 
 applying it to others, who have more to lose and less to gain than them- 
 selves, that they become disagreeable and dangerous neighbors to the 
 whites. An incessant irritation is the consequence, hatred succeeds, mu- 
 tual wrong follows, and war consummates the drama. 
 
 ' Those of the tribes of Dahcotah origin who live on the Mississippi, and 
 other wooded countries, live on the deer and other game of the forest. 
 By entrapping the fur-clad animals, they get the means of buying guns, 
 cloth and other articles, which have become indispensably necessary to 
 them. In the summer, they live in permanent villages, and cultivate a 
 little corn. The women perform this, as well as all other labors, and do 
 not consider themselves aggrieved thereby. It is said that, as the men 
 encounter the fatigues and perils of the chase, the dangers of war and the 
 vicissitudes of the seasons, they have their full share of domestic duties. 
 The women being unfit for these occupations, must fill the station which 
 God has allotted to them, and neither party thinks the distribution of offices 
 unjust or unreasonable. The women are sold, like the daughters of the 
 patriarchs, by their parents to their husbands, and they are chastised or 
 commended according to the degree of their industry or good conduct. 
 Judging from their general cheerfulness, they see no hardship in their lot. 
 Jealousy seems to be their chief annoyance, and often causes them to 
 hang themselves. 
 
 ' In winter, the hunters leave their villages, and encamp in leathern tents 
 on their hunting-grounds, removing from place to place as the game is 
 more or less abundant. They are plentifully supplied by the traders with 
 ammunition on credit, and pay their debts as they best can in the spring. 
 This system is highly injurious to the Indians, and vexatious to the traders. 
 As not more than half of the hunters pay their debts, the trader is obliged 
 to charge a double price for his goods, in his own defence, and thus the ho- 
 nest and industrious Indians pay for the idle and vicious. Still this is the 
 fashion of their fathers, and no persuasion will induce them to depart 
 from it. 
 
 ' It only remains to be said of this portion of the race, that they live 
 from hand to mouth, hunting and fishing when they feel so inclined, and 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 43 X 
 
 fasting when the chances of the chase are against them. Few of them 
 perish by starvation. The only circumstance that varies the monotony 
 of their lives is war, and that they practise on so limited a scale that it has 
 no perceptible effect on their population or happiness. 
 
 ' The roving tribes, who live in the great plains of the west, differ little 
 in language or character from their more stationary brethren. They en- 
 camp near the vast herds of buffaloes, kill as many as they want, eat the 
 flesh, dress in the skins, and sell as many robes to the traders as will pro- 
 cure them cloth and guns. They are wilder and more primitive than their 
 neighbors, and more addicted to plunder and massacre those who are not 
 of their blood. They are generally well mounted and armed with guns, 
 bows and arrows, spears and shields. They kill the buffalo at full speed. 
 If the drove removes, they pluck up their tents and follow. If any man 
 frightens the cattle, certain police officers, called soldiers, punish him by 
 stripes and the destruction of his horses and property. Their persons are 
 held sacred, and no one thinks of resisting them. Some of these wanderers 
 are like the children of Ishmael in that every man's hand is against them, 
 and their hand is against every man. The Assinneboins are an example. 
 Their time is spent in indolence, war and the chase. 
 
 ' The wars of Indians among themselves are seldom very destructive. 
 The war chief dreams or pretends to dream that the enemy will be delivered 
 into his hands, and sets out for the field of strife with, perhaps, twenty 
 followers. The greatest caution is observed, and if the party find reason 
 to think that the enemy is apprised of their intention, they turn back. If, 
 however, their plans succeed, a small number of the enemy are surprised 
 and butchered. Few are ever spared. Within a few months, this paltry 
 onslaught is repaid in kind, and the account is balanced. These wars 
 have been from time immemorial, and will probably continue till time shall 
 be no more. Such is the modern state of Indian warfare ; but tradition tells 
 of more serious hostilities. Hundreds of Dahcotahs and Mandans perished 
 less than a century ago in a battle between the two tribes. The Assinne- 
 boins were once nearly exterminated by the former tribe. Those times 
 are gone, and a mightier influence is sweeping the red men from the face 
 of the earth. 
 
 ' The Algonquin or Chippeway race is even more widely extended than 
 the Dahcotahs. Judging from the remains of the languages which have 
 descended to our times, the entire aboriginal population of New England 
 sprung from this stock. Their manners and habits corroborate this sup- 
 position. The Delawares are supposed to have had the same origin. The 
 language of the powerful and chivalrous Iroquois is said to be allied to the 
 Chippeway. The Saque and Fox tribes are evidently branches of the 
 same tree. The Ottawas and Pottawattamies claim the same descent. It 
 is thought that the Menomenies share the same blood. The Kinisteneaux 
 speak a dialect of the same tongue, and many other tribes may be traced 
 to the same origin. All these tribes are and have ever been dwellers in the 
 woods, and save that they now dress in articles made by the whites and 
 that they love rum, they are now very nearly what they were two hundred 
 years ago. They have proved themselves possessed of some mechanical 
 ingenuity by inventing the birch canoe, a vehicle which has been the ad- 
 miration of all travellers. 
 
 ' The Chippeway race differ little from other tribes living in the woods, 
 
432 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 whose manners and habits are loo well known to need comment here. They 
 are a nation of hunters and warriors, skilful in the chase, bold in battle, 
 eloquent in council, and, in a word, possessing all the half-formed virtues, 
 all the vices, all the ignorance and all the barbarism already ascribed to 
 the Dahcotahs. Those of them who live in high northern latitudes, are 
 more needy, and consequently more industrious, than those who dwell in 
 more favored climes. Between this great nation and the Dahcotahs, a war 
 has been waged so long that tradition itself conveys no knowledge of its 
 cause or the date of its commencement. The deadly feud has been trans- 
 mitted from father to son with such inveteracy, that all efforts to staunch 
 it have proved abortive. A great deal of inherited hatred, and the strong 
 thirst for martial renown, which is an inherent part of Indian character, 
 have co-operated to perpetuate this state of things. 
 
 ' The language of these two great races are like no forms of speech 
 known in the old world. They are wonderfully expressive, both defective 
 and redundant, and said to be difficult of acquisition. The verbs of the 
 Dahcotah language appear to have no roots, and to be entirely irregular 
 in their modifications. The nominative case neither precedes nor follows 
 the verb, as in the languages of the old world, but is incorporated with it, 
 sometimes at the end of the word, sometimes in the middle, sometimes ab- 
 breviated, and sometimes entire. We have known traders to fail to acquire 
 it during a trial of thirty years. From the little acquaintance we were 
 able to gain, we thought it a collection of phrases, with scarce the resem- 
 blance of rule or order, and conclude that, to be learned at all, it must be 
 learned by rote. 
 
 ' We can give but brief notices of other tribes. The Creeks, Cherokees, 
 Chickasaws and Choctaws are known to us by their wrongs, and by the 
 advances they have made in civilization. The measures taken to remove 
 them beyond the Mississippi, already partially successful, will probally ere 
 long be fully so. It would be an ungrateful as well as a useless task to 
 enter into a discussion of a subject so generally understood ; nevertheless, 
 it may not be impertinent to offer a few remarks on the probable future 
 fate of these unfortunate tribes. 
 
 ' We have already expressed our views respecting what we think the 
 only sure mode of civilizing Indians. That mode, or, in other words, the 
 necessity of a change of manners, was in successful operation upon the 
 four southern nations. By transferring them to an unlimited range of ter- 
 ritory, that necessity has been removed, and if they do not relapse into 
 their primitive barbarism, they are radically unlike any other Indians with 
 whom we are acquainted, or farther advanced in civilization than we are 
 prepared to believe. The influences which make and continue the hunter 
 state of the Indians, operate on the whites also. For every Indian who 
 has voluntarily relinquished the life of his fathers, ten whites may be found 
 who have become hunters. 
 
 ' It is proposed, by placing these tribes west of the Mississippi, to protect 
 them from the encroachments of the whites, an intention which is certainly 
 not founded on precedent or analogy. If the most solemn treaties, if re- 
 peated retrocessions have not hitherto been adequate to protect the savage 
 from the overpowering tide of white population, howcan it be supposed that 
 his new abode in Arkansas will be respected when he shall have made it 
 valuable, if indeed, he ever should make it valuable ? There, he is thrown 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 433 
 
 in contact with other tribes, as warlike, and more barbarous than his own, 
 n.nd much misery and bloodshed has already been the consequence. 
 
 ' Moreover, it is proposed, by casting the lot of several distinct tribes 
 together, to amalgamate them, and thereby preserve them from decay. If 
 the experience of past times is to be trusted, this measure is much 'more 
 likely to produce division than to prevent it. Who ever saw two Indian 
 tribes amalgamate, unless when one, reduced to a mere handful, sought 
 the protection of the other? Thus the remnant of the Saques sought pro- 
 tection of the Foxes, the Stockbridge Indians of the Six Nations. On the 
 other hand, we have only to refer to the Dahcotah and Algonquin races, 
 severally derived from two great roots, but now divided into an almost 
 infinite number of petty hordes. If people, thus connected by the bonds 
 of common origin and language, have so divided, what is to be expected 
 from others, who have no basis of union, and who, in some instances, en- 
 tertain hostile feelings toward each other ? We hope the best ; but to us 
 the future prospect of the expatriated tribes appears overshadowed with 
 clouds and darkness. 
 
 ' Beside the two great divisions already noticed, there are many other 
 tribes, of whose origin and languages little is known, save that they are 
 wholly distinct from each other. Such are the natives of the Columbia 
 river, for an account of whom we must refer the reader to the travels of 
 Lewis and Clarke, and of Rous Coxe. M'Kenzie and Franklin tell all that 
 is known of the Dog-rib and Coppermine Indians, two feeble and misera- 
 ble tribes which inhabit the frozen regions north of the Great Slave lake. 
 The Flat-heads, who live on the upper waters of the Columbia, muster 
 five hundred determined warrior-, and derive their name from their custom 
 of compressing the head, in infancy, into a hideously unseemly shape ; a 
 practice common to most of the tribes of Oregon, and formerly in use 
 among the Caraibs. They war upon their eastern neighbors, the buffalo- 
 following Blackfeet, a desperate and ferocious tribe, who are friendly to 
 the English, and abhor the very name of an American. This animosity 
 arose from the fact that one or two of them were killed, more than thirty 
 years ago, by Lewis and Clarke. The Mandans and Minnetarees dwell 
 in permanent villages on the Missouri, speak distinct languages from each 
 other, and from all other tribes, and claim consanguinity with none. The 
 Crows are a separate and powerful race of vagrant horsemen, and so are 
 the Shiannes, who were formerly expelled by the Dahcotahs from the 
 lands which the latter now occupy. The Pawnees and Arikarees compose 
 three tribes who speak one language; the Pawnee Wolves are in no wise 
 connected with them. The Shoshonees live and starve among the Rocky 
 mountains. Among other distinct races may be numbered the Wyandots, 
 or Hurons, the Comanches, the Appaches, and many others. All of 
 these tribes, excepting the Wyandots, are more or less in the vagabond 
 tUate, and ride over the boundless prairies, chasing the buffalo, and warring 
 upon all whom they dare attack. All. are bold warriors, skilful hunters, 
 and inveterate horse-stealers, in all of which characters they glory. The 
 manners of all are nearly alike ; all practise the same indiscriminate hos- 
 pitality ; all have the same code of morals, religion, and policy ; almost 
 all detest the people of the United States, for what reasons it is unnecessary 
 nere to inquire. By classing all these hordes together, we do not mean 
 o imply that there is no difference whatever in their habits, ideas, and 
 »5 37 
 
434 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 characters ; but that there is a very strong general resemblance between 
 them all. 
 
 'The Caraibs and the original inhabitants of the West Indies have passed 
 away, thanks to the cruelties of their Spanish invaders. Nothing can be 
 said of them which is, probably, not already known to the mass of our 
 readers. For an account of the Mexicans, and the Indians of South 
 America, we must refer to the pages of Humboldt, Robertson, and other 
 writers. Nor can it be expected that we should enter into such details as 
 may have come to our knowledge, respecting the tribes already mentioned. 
 Many volumes larger than this would be requisite for such purpose. It is 
 our duty, however, to caution our readers against trusting the statements 
 of such travellers as Carver, who have galloped over the countries they 
 describe with the speed of race-horses, without understanding a syllable of 
 the languages of the Indians with whom they sojourned, and relying for 
 information on the hearsay testimony of ignorant trappers and boatmen. 
 There are but too many of this stares^ If we may say what authorities 
 we consider unquestionable, we will mention M'Kenzie, Henry, Franklin, 
 Tanner, and the English Long. These all sojourned long among the 
 people they pretend to describe, and enjoyed the best opportunities for 
 personal observation. 
 
 ' One topic connected with the aborigines only remains, which we must 
 discuss briefly. It relates to their ultimate destiny, and the prospect of 
 christianizing and civilizing them. Many obstacles to this desideratum 
 exist, and we are sorry to add that they appear to us insuperable. To 
 convert the adults must be excessively difficult, if not impossible. Firstly, 
 their languages are so difficult of acquisition, and so barren of words ex- 
 pressing abstract ideas, that the greater part of a life is spent in learning 
 them, and when acquired, they are scarcely adequate to convey the doc- 
 trines of Christianity. Secondly, the Indians are so constantly roaming 
 about, and so scattered, that, to instruct them, a missionary would be 
 needed for every family, who should accompany them in their peregrina- 
 tions, avail himself of such opportunities as their caprice might allow, and, 
 above all, maintain himself; for, though no Indian would tell him so, the 
 burthen of his support would, at times, be severely felt. He must then 
 overcome that apathy and laziness which is the characteristic of savage 
 life, break up the whole of his pupil's long-revered rules of thought and 
 action, and substitute others in their stead. A new ambition must be 
 awakened, and the whole frame of Indian society must be changed entirely, 
 for the ethics of our Savior will not apply to the present one. For ex- 
 ample, it will be difficult- to persuade the savage to meekness and long- 
 suffering, while all his arts and exertions will scarce protect his wives and 
 children from the knives of his neighbors, while all his companions tell 
 him that revenge on the enemies of his tribe is a sacred duty, and that 
 martial renown ought to be to him as the breath of his nostrils. 
 
 ' The missionary should not too much rely on the apparent impression he 
 may have produced on his auditors. Indians seldom contradict, and, by 
 an intuitive politeness, always receive what is addressed to them by one 
 whom they respect, with approbation and assent. Therefore, when an 
 Indian auditory may have listened to a discourse with marked attention 
 and expressed approbation, the speaker is not to suppose that they believe 
 a word of it. They only mean that he is entitled to respect. An Indian 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 435 
 
 once agreed that man's first disobedience was improper, and, being farther 
 questioned, gave his reasons. " It was very foolish," he said, " to eat ap- 
 ples : it was much better to make cider of them all." 
 
 ' Some few adults have, indeed, become Christians ; but where such con- 
 versions have taken place, the converts have either made some previous 
 progress in civilization, or the change has been nominal. We never yet 
 saw a savage hunter who had a rational idea of Christianity. The exam- 
 ple of the Cherokees alone shows that the ground must be prepared to re- 
 ceive the seed. The missionaries have undoubtedly done them great 
 good ; but they made little or no progress before the tribe had turned to 
 agriculture, framed laws and a regular government, and acknowledged a 
 distinction of property. They are now fitted to receive the Word. 
 
 ' Indians taken from their tribe young, educated, and sent back, do not 
 appear better qualified to teach than white missionaries. They are, in 
 every thing but complexion, as much aliens among their people as the 
 whites, and command no more sympathy, and rather less respect. 
 
 ' We believe there is no example on record of a tribe who have changed 
 from hunters to farmers on any other consideration than compulsion of 
 gome kind or other. We constantly see them recede rather than labor. 
 But when prevented from receding, they learn the value of time and labor, 
 and a distinction of property necessarily takes place. Laws are then 
 necessary to guard this distinction. Prodigality is no longer a principal 
 virtue ; war is no longer the chief pursuit of life ; the mind acquires new 
 ideas and new habits of exercise, and thus the way to entire civilization 
 and Christianity is prepared. Could we see the coast of the Pacific settled 
 by white men, who should advance into the interior, driving the western 
 Indians before them as we have done the eastern, till the entire race should 
 be hemmed within limits too narrow for their existence as hunters, we 
 should entertain a hope of seeing a remnant of them saved and civilized. 
 The same result must be brought about by driving them to the Pacific ; 
 bnt the operation will be so tardy, that most of the expatriated tribes will 
 probably be destroyed by their intercourse with the whites, or by the tribes 
 on whom they will be forced to intrude. How small a remnant remains 
 of the millions who once dwelt in peace between the Atlantic and the 
 Mississippi ! 
 
 ' The children of Indians may be christianized, but only when they can 
 be separated from their parents. The missionaries of Michilimacinac 
 seem aware of this fact ; for they have chiefly confined their instructions 
 to the half-breed children of white men, who are at the disposal of their 
 fathers. It was a wise policy, and their ministry has produced the most 
 blessed results. 
 
 ' Consider this subject in what light we may, so many difficulties present 
 themselves, that it is almost impossible to hope that any considerable por- 
 tion of the aboriginal race will be in existence three centuries hence. The 
 fate of individual tribes is beyond the reach of conjecture, and we have 
 only to pray that the God alike of white and red men will preserve them 
 from utter extermination.' 
 
436 
 
 CHAPTER XL— AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES * 
 
 Indian Mounds. The old Mexican villages, it is said, were built of 
 unbaked bricks, fourteen inches square, and covered with limbs of trees 
 and turf, which, when they mouldered away, formed a mound, similar in 
 shape to those which meet the traveller's eye from the Red river of Hud- 
 son's bay to the state of Missouri, and probably to the gulf of Mexico. 
 The number of these barrows has, however, been greatly exaggerated. 
 We have seen it stated, on grave authority, that for a length of five hun- 
 dred miles, and a breadth of from eighty to two hundred, the mounds are 
 seldom an acre' apart, and on this enormous blunder was founded a con- 
 clusion that the population was once immense. We, who speak from 
 knowledge, affirm that, judging from such data, the former population was 
 not so great as the present. We have seen mounds on the tributaries of 
 Hudson's bay, and on the waters of the Mississippi, and their numbers war- 
 rant no such speculations. They are common enough, indeed, but by no 
 means so common, or of such magnitude, as to ma e it certain that the 
 ancestors of the present race of aborigines were very numerous. We draw 
 this inference from several facts. 
 
 Travelling some years ago near the St. Peter's river, we saw, at a dis- 
 tance of about a mile, an erection which looked like one of the conical tents 
 of the Indians. A distinguished individual had lately died, and our guide 
 informed us that the object above mentioned was an earthen lodge which 
 his relatives had raised over him. Being pressed for time, we did not 
 approach it nigher. Supposing it to have been, which we see no reason 
 to doubt, what the guide stated, it must, when the top crumbled down, 
 have assumed the shape of a mound. 
 
 The Indians of those regions do, to this day, bury at least half of their 
 dead. They respect the dead highly, and to protect their remains from 
 Avolves and dogs, erect over them an .edifice of stakes, which, as they pos- 
 sess axes, they can easily cut. Now is it not probable, that before they had 
 the means to cut stakes without excessive toil, they raised a mound of 
 earth in its stead ? What corroborates this supposition is, that many, and 
 indeed the greater number, of the mounds are not larger than would be 
 required for such purpose. That they were ever intended for dwellings is 
 out of the question ; for we are to learn that any traces of bricks, timbers, 
 or masonry, have ever been found in any of them. We have already said 
 that the fragments of pottery found in them are precisely similar to the 
 earthen pots still in use among the modern Assinneboins. Again, frag- 
 ments of bone are found in most of them ; but could bones have remained 
 any great length of time in damp earth undecayed ? We think not — at 
 least, we have known instances where the human frame has been utterly 
 resolved into its native elements within the lapse of a century. But some 
 
 * This article has been furnished by the intelligent writer to whom we have been 
 indebted for a portion of the chapter on the Indians. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 437 
 
 of the mounds, and especially those near St. Louis, are so large as to be 
 esteemed beyond the powers and industry of the present race of Indians. 
 Before we adopt this conclusion, we should remember that, as late as the 
 discovery of the Mississippi, several tribes kept the bones of their friends 
 for years, and then buried them together, a practice, the remains of which 
 are still distinctly visible among the Dahcotahs. On such occasions, a large 
 mound must have been raised, by the united efforts of a tribe. If we sup- 
 pose that successive layers were from time to time deposited on the national 
 burial heap, which is, surely, no extravagant theory, the objection that the 
 red men had neither power, inclination, nor motive to raise such tumuli, 
 vanishes. 
 
 ' On the banks of White river,' says a writer in Silliman's Journal, 
 ' where the earth had caved in, I found part of an earthen coffin, in which 
 the neck bones and the skull were yet remaining; and on the top of the 
 neck bone, as I dug to see what bone could be inserted thus in part of an 
 earthen box, I found a parcel of pieces of bones cut round, and remaining 
 on the neck in the exact position in which they had been used as a neck- 
 lace. They were pierced, but the string had entirely disappeared ; they 
 were the one eighth of an inch thick, and three fifths in diameter ; and 
 the bones of which they were made were much better preserved than those 
 of the skeleton. This, I was confident, did not belong to the modern 
 iribes of Indians which inhabit some parts of that country.* 1 I found, among 
 me clay which rolled down from the same mound, several pieces of lead 
 ore, (common galena,) which had been carried there. It is not uncommon 
 to find this ore amongst human bones, throughout the whole country ; 
 probably they used trinkets made of lead, and this was a provision for 
 them to dress in the other world.' 
 
 On the plantation of Mr. John Kain, of Knox county, near the north 
 bank of Holston river, five miles above its junction with the French Broad, 
 is a curious collection of mounds of earth, evidently the work of art, but 
 of an almost antediluvian antiquity, if we may form any conjecture of their 
 age from that of the forest which grows around and upon them. They 
 are about half a dozen in number, and arise on about half an acre of level 
 ground, without any seeming regularity. They are pyramidal in their 
 shape, or rather sections of pyramids, whose bases are from ten to thirty 
 paces in diameter. The largest one in this group rises about ten feet 
 above the level ground, and is remarkably regular in its figure. A per- 
 pendicular section of this mound was made about a year since, but no im- 
 portant discovery was made. It was found to consist of the surface thrown 
 up, and contained a good deal of ashes and charcoal. 
 
 This group of mounds is surrounded by a ditch, which can be distinctly 
 traced on three sides, and inclosing, besides the mounds, several acres of 
 ground. It is, like the mounds, covered with trees, which grow in it and 
 about it. At every angle of this ditch, it sweeps out into a semicircle, and 
 it appears in many respects well calculated for defence. 
 
 There are many other mounds of the same form in Tennessee. At the 
 
 * The learned writer is at fault here. We have seen similar beads dug from another 
 mound. They were made of some shell, which is a more durable material than the 
 human bone. In point of finish, and the labor and ingenuity required to make them, 
 they were much inferior to the wampum beads which the Indians were wont to make 
 of marine shells. 
 
 37* 
 
438 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 junction of the French Broad with the Holston, there is one in which 
 human bones are said to have been found. Farther up French Broad, 
 near Newport, is a very large mound. It reposes on a very level and 
 extensive plain, and is itself the largest I ever saw. It is thirty feet high, 
 and its base covers half an acre of ground. As it ascends from its base, 
 there is a slight inclination from a perpendicular on all sides, and the upper 
 surface is as level as the rest is regular. From the great size of this 
 mound, its commanding situation, and the mystery which veils its history, 
 it is a most interesting spot of ground. There are many other mounds of 
 this description in the state of Tennessee. 
 
 A mound of large dimensions is situated in the interior of the Cherokee 
 nation, on the north side of the Etowee, vulgarly called the Hightower 
 river, one of the branches of the Coosa. It stands upon a strip of alluvial 
 land, called River Bottom. It is described by the Rev. Elias Cornelius, 
 who visited it in company with eight Indian chiefs. The first object which 
 excited attention was an excavation, about twenty feet wide, and in some 
 parts ten feet deep. Its course is nearly that of a semicircle ; the extremi- 
 ties extending towards the river, which forms a small elbow. ' I had not 
 time,' says this writer, ' to examine it minutely. An Indian said it ex- 
 tended each way to the river, and had several unexcavated parts, which 
 served for passages to the area which it incloses. To my surprise, I 
 found no embankment on either side of it. But I did not long doubt to 
 what place the earth had been removed : for I had scarcely proceeded two 
 hundred yards, when, through the thick forest trees, a stupendous pile met 
 the eye, whose dimensions were in full proportion to the intrenchment. I 
 had at the time no means of taking an accurate admeasurement. To sup- 
 ply my deficiency, I cut a long vine, which was preserved until I had an 
 opportunity of ascertaining its exact length. In this manner I found the 
 distance from the margin of the summit to the base to be one hundred and 
 eleven feet ; and judging from the degree of its declivity, the perpendicu- 
 lar height cannot be less than seventy-five feet. The circumference of 
 the base, including the feet of three parapets, measured one thousand, one 
 hundred and fourteen feet. One of these parapets extends from the base 
 to the summit, and can be ascended, though with difficulty, on horseback. 
 The other two, after rising thirty or forty feet, terminate in a kind of tri- 
 angular platform. Its top is level, and, at the time I visited it, was sc 
 completely covered with weeds, bushes, and trees of a most luxuriant 
 growth, that I could not examine it as well as I wished. Its diameter, I 
 judged, must be one hundred and fifty feet. On its sides and summit are 
 many large trees, of the same description and of equal dimensions with 
 those around it. One beech tree, near the top, measured ten feet and nine 
 inches in circumference. The earth on one side of the tree was three and 
 a half feet lower than on the opposite side. This fact will give a good 
 idea of the mound's declivity. An. oak, which was lying down on one of 
 the parapets, measured at the distance of six feet from the but, without 
 the bark, twelve feet four inches in circumference. At a short distance to 
 the south-east is another mound, in ascending which I took thirty steps. 
 Its top is encircled by a breastwork three feet high, intersected through the 
 middle with another elevation of a similar kind. A little further is another 
 mound, which I had not time to examine. 
 
 ' On these great works of art, the Indians gazed with as much curiosity 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 439 
 
 as any white man. I inquired of the oldest chief if the natives had any 
 tradition respecting them, to which he answered in the negative. I then 
 requested each to say what he supposed was their origin. Neither could 
 tell ; though all agreed in saying, " they were never put up by our people." 
 It seems probable they were erected by another race, who once inhabited 
 the country. That such a race existed, is now generally admitted. Who 
 they were, and what were the causes of their degeneracy, or of their ex- 
 termination, no circumstances have yet explained. But this is no reason 
 why we should not, as in a hundred other instances, infer the existence of 
 the cause from its effects, without any previous knowledge of its history. 
 
 ' In regard to the objects which these mounds were designed to answer, 
 it is obvious they were not always the same. Some were intended as 
 receptacles for the dead. These are small, and are distinguished by con- 
 taining human bones. Some may have been designed as sites for public 
 buildings, whether of a civil or religious kind ; and others, no doubt, were 
 constructed for the purposes of war. Of this last description is the Etowee 
 mound. In proof of its suitableness for such a purpose, I need only men- 
 tion that the Cherokees, in their late war with the Creeks, secured its 
 summit by pickets, and occupied it as a place of protection for hundreds 
 of their women and children. Gladly would I have spent a day in ex- 
 amining it more minutely ; but my companions, unable to appreciate my 
 motives, grew impatient, and I was obliged to withdraw, and leave a more 
 perfect observation and description to some one else.' 
 
 With all the respect due to the authorities above quoted, we beg leave 
 to doubt their conclusions. That the Cherokees had no tradition respect- 
 ing the origin of their great mound, proves nothing. Indian tradition 
 reaches not far. Different tribes are constantly driving each other from 
 their possessions, and the tumulus in question may have been the work of 
 a clan dispossessed by the Cherokees. The trees growing on such mounds 
 prove as little. In 1825, we discovered two skeletons under the roots of 
 a very large elm, on the banks of the Mississippi. They were at once 
 pronounced relics of the supposed former race, and that opinion was cur- 
 rent until the iron parts of the handle of a clasp knife were found in the 
 earth from which they were exhumed. The Indians of the vicinity won- 
 dered, like the Cherokees at their mound, and the tree appeared more than 
 a century old. The skulls were discovered to be those of Dahcotahs, by a 
 peculiar formation of the lower jaw, and as the tribe to which they belong- 
 ed are not agreed about their own former dwelling-place, though they left 
 it not more than two centuries ago, we cannot attach much weight to Indian 
 tradition. 
 
 In a stone quarry at St. Peter's, a copper wedge, weighing three pounds, 
 was found, about ten years since, fifteen feet below the surface of the earth. 
 It was perfectly formed, and still bore marks of the hammer which fashion- 
 ed it. This, and the exsiccated body (it is no mummy) which was found 
 in the great cavern in Kentucky, are the only things we have seen which 
 in our opinion justify even a conjecture that there was formerly another 
 race of inhabitants on this continent. It will not, we suppose, be disputed, 
 that the Mexicans were unable to rear the pyramid of Cholula, or that 
 they are not of the same stock with our aborigines. 
 
 We are unable to decide for what purpose the erections scattered over 
 our country, and commonly called forts, were intended. They were pro- 
 
440 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 bably fortifications, and very sufficient ones they must have been, before 
 the natives were acquainted with fire arms. Whoever has seen with what 
 incredible despatch a modern Indian throws up a work sufficient for the 
 protection of his own body, with no better implement than his knife, will 
 readily admit that a tribe were fully competent to erect these works of an 
 antediluvian people. 
 
 The great work which the impostor Carver pretends to have seen on 
 the Mississippi, never had existence, save in the pages of his deceitful 
 book. We have often sought without finding it, and the Indians of the 
 neighborhood know nothing about it. 
 
 On the eastern shore of lake Pepin, about three miles from its debouchure, 
 is an extensive prairie, and on its edge, commanding the lake and the 
 plain, are the ruins of a regular four-bastioned fort. The curtain and the 
 two western bastions have crumbled away, and fallen into the lake ; but the 
 two other bastions and three curtains, with the corresponding ditches, 
 scarps and counterscarps, are perfectly distinct, and might be repaired with 
 little trouble. From its commanding situation, and its regularity, it is 
 plain that cannon were mounted upon it, and that it was built by the early 
 French traders or travellers. This assumption is confirmed by the fact, 
 that asparagus still grows wild among the ruins, though it is found in no 
 other part of the country. Yet Indian tradition knows nothing of the 
 origin of the fort, or its uses. 
 
 Old Forts. Among what may be called the antiquities of America, there 
 are few things which excite more interest than the fortifications of the 
 Highlands of the Hudson. It will readily be remembered that this river 
 was a pass of vast importance to the contending parties, inasmuch as it 
 was, during the revolution, the only channel of communication between 
 the British armies in Canada and those on the sea board. To prevent a 
 junction, which would have been ruinous to the cause of freedom, general 
 Washington occupied the Highlands, and made every height bristle with 
 cannon. The remains of many of the fortifications are still distinctly visi- 
 ble to the traveller, as he passes up and down the river ; but it is in vain, 
 excepting in a few instances, that he inquires their history, or even their 
 names. Those at and about West Point, however, are better known. It 
 is needless to tell here how this post was well nigh betrayed by the traitor 
 Arnold — the story is still fresh in the memory of all men, and it is our 
 business to say what may be said of the works his treason would have 
 surrendered. 
 
 West Point is situated at a bend, and the only abrupt one in the whole 
 course of the Hudson from New York to Albany. It is a large plain, 
 elevated several hundred feet above the level of the river. Directly 
 opposite is a large island, called Constitution island, on which are many 
 eminences commanding the river, which were crowned with fortifications. 
 Fort Constitution, the principal of these, is still entire. 
 
 On a height below West Point may be observed the remains of fort 
 Montgomery, the guns of which, it is believed, compelled the Vulture sloop 
 of war to retire farther down the river, and was thus the cause of the land 
 excursion and capture of Andre, and consequently of the safety of the post. 
 The extremity of the Point is occupied by the ruins of fort Clinton, which 
 commanded two ranges on the river, and was an extensive as well as a 
 very strong and important work. It was just opposite this fort that an 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHf. 
 
 441 
 
 enormous iron chain was stretched across the river to obstruct the passage. 
 It was broken by an English man of war under full sail ; but the vessel 
 was so injured in the attempt, as to be obliged to put back. There are 
 many other fortifications of minor importance on and about the Point, 
 which, as well as those already mentioned, are undergoing a rapid process 
 of decay, and will probably disappear in less than a century. 
 
 But what strikes the eye of the traveller with most imposing effect, are 
 the hoary ruins of fort Putnam, familiarly called Old Fort Put. They 
 
 Fort Putnam. 
 
 stand five hundred feet immediately above the plain of West Point, and 
 once commanded all the batteries on and about it. They have very much 
 the appearance of a dilapidated castle. The work is of small extent, but 
 very strong. It stands on the apex of a steep hill, and the wall on the 
 northern side hangs upon the edge of a perpendicular precipice. On the 
 other sides, the walls are so high and steep, as to render escalade impracti- 
 cable. The walls are solid and very thick, and contain within their mass 
 apartments for the garrison, and furnaces for heating shot. There was 
 once an excellent well within the area ; but it is now choked and rendered 
 useless by fragments of the crumbling masonry. One of the angles con- 
 tains two cells, probably designed for prisoners, and for black holes. Tra- 
 dition erroneously says that major Andre was confined in one of them. 
 Altogether, the whole ruin has an imposing appearance, for it is in strict 
 keeping with the grandeur and wildness of the surrounding scenery, and 
 serves to awaken many pleasing historical recollections in the American 
 spectator. In the midst of embattled heights it stands, ' the key-stone of 
 the arch.' Of its strength we may say, that an enemy could not have 
 taken it without overwhelming numbers, and loss proportionate, or without 
 bombarding it. In short, it is, in many respects, like what we read of the 
 hill forts of India. We hope the proverbial economy of our government 
 will not suffer so interesting a historical monument to fall into utter decay, 
 and the rather, that a very small expense would restore it to its original 
 condition. 
 
 The remains of fort William Henry, at the head of lake George, are 
 66 
 
442 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 traced with much interest by every traveller. It was merely a sand fort, 
 but of great extent. The exterior redoubt, which may still be traced, 
 comprehends the whole plain between the mountain and the lake, and the 
 inner works, commanding the water, are in some places very distinct. 
 The plain pointed out as the parade ground, is extensive and beautiful. 
 This was the scene of the most wanton and perfidious massacre which 
 ever disgraced the annals of warfare. Not all the consecrated water which 
 the French carried home from the ' Sacremer,' as they beautifully termed 
 the crystal lake, could wash out the, foul stain which this transaction left 
 on the French arms and French faith. The garrison, consisting of three 
 thousand English and provincials, under colonel Munro, surrendered, after 
 a lono- and desperate resistance, to the French army of ten thousand men, 
 commanded by the marquis de Montcalm, in 1757. By the terms of the 
 capitulation, the garrison were to receive a safe escort to fort Edward. 
 They accordingly marched out to the parade ground, stacked their arms, 
 and awaited the escort. The Indians, to the number of several thousand, 
 armed with tomahawks and knives, immediately surrounded them, and 
 began to strip them by force of their clothing. Colonel Munro, who was 
 in the French camp, anxiously demanded the escort ; but Montcalm delayed 
 it upon frivolous pretences, and finally refused it. The French stood with 
 folded arms, and beheld the massacre within pistol shot of their camp. 
 Some few of the devoted and defenceless soldiers wrested weapons from 
 the hands of their murderers, and dearly sold their lives ; but of the whole 
 number, only two or three escaped. A young man by the name of Carver, 
 from New England, of great strength and agility, grappled with and over- 
 threw several Indians, broke through their ranks, fled into the swamp in 
 the rear of the fort, and escaped. Strong representations of this affair 
 were made to the government of France, and Montcalm was called to a 
 formal account, but was not punished. In his defence, he stated that, by 
 interfering to prevent the massacre, he would have lost the confidence of 
 his Indian allies, and incurred their hostility. Musket balls, grape and 
 chain shot, buttons, hatchets, and human bones, are frequently ploughed 
 up on this ground. These relics are sometimes left for sale at the Lake 
 House. 
 
 In the rear of fort William Henry, on a commanding eminence, stands 
 fort George, a small, but, for the time when it was erected, a strong fortress. 
 The walls are of limestone, twelve or fifteen feet thick, and thirty or forty 
 feet high. The magazine and arches are of brick work; a part of the 
 magazine is entire, but the entrance to it is filled up. The walls have been 
 pulled down in many places by those who had use for the stone, and all 
 the bricks which could be got at have been carried off. Several wells, 
 now filled up, may be discovered in the vicinity, and the ruins of the hos- 
 pital, arsenal, and other buildings. Fort George is completely commanded 
 by the neighboring heights, and of Gage's hill it is within fair musket-shot. 
 On this hill, however, the English kept a fort, the remains of the redoubt 
 being still visible. It is remarkable that every old fort from the Canada 
 line to Albany is commanded by highlands in its vicinity. When they 
 were built, there was but little apprehension of artillery. Even the strong 
 and important fort of Ticonderoga was effectually commanded by mount 
 Defiance, a circumstance which proved disastrous to the American arms. 
 The prospect from fort George is extensive and diversified, embracing 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 443 
 
 the village, the mountains, the islands, and the lake, for a great dis- 
 tance. 
 
 'Passing Plattsburg,' says a recent English traveller, ' the scene of our 
 defeat last war, we reached Crown Point, and then the lake contracted 
 from four or five miles in breadth to a river channel. The point was 
 green and elevated, and on it were the ruins of military works, principally 
 erected by the Canadian French, when they meditated and attempted the 
 utter expulsion of the English colonists from the shores of the Atlantic. 
 Stories are told of vaults and dungeons at Crown Point, where plots were 
 hatched, in conjunction with the Indians, for burning the dwellings and 
 massacring the families of the settlers ; and here were displayed " long 
 rows of scalps, white in one place with the venerable locks of age, and 
 glistening in another with the ringlets of childhood and of youth." 
 
 ' Next, at the entrance to lake George, with its clear waters, its pictu- 
 resque isxets, and steep shores, were the remains of the celebrated fort 
 
 Old Fort Ticonderoga. 
 
 Ticonderoga, situated on a point of land, surrounded on three sides with 
 water, and on the fourth, deep trenches cut into the morass, with high 
 breastworks. It presented one of the most likely posts to make a gallant 
 defence, that could well be conceived. The ruin of a barrack, like a 
 " donjon keep," was the most conspicuous object on the point. 
 
 ' It is impossible, as an officer of the black watch, to think of Ticonderoga 
 without strong emotion, for here, in 1758, the forty-second, after cutting 
 their way with their claymores through a broad abattis of prostrate trees, 
 under a heavy fire from the French garrison, made desperate efforts, for 
 four hours, to scale a high work without scaling-ladders, by mounting: on 
 one another's shoulders, and by making holes in it with their bayonets. 
 They were so exasperated at being so unexpectedly checked, and by the 
 heavy loss which they had sustained, that they refused to withdraw till 
 ordered a third time to do so by their general ; their loss on this occasion 
 was more than half the men, and two thirds of the officers, killed or 
 severely wounded ; that is, twenty-five officers, nineteen sergeants, and 
 six hundred and three privates. About this time, the regiment received 
 the honorary distinction of royal.' 
 
444 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES*. 
 
 The remains of the fortifications at Pittsburg occupy a very interesting 
 position, on the delta formed by the confluence of the rivers at that place. 
 Of fort Du Quesne, but a small mound of earth remains. Fort Pitt may 
 be more easily traced ; part of three bastions, about breast high, stand 
 within different private inclosures, and a piece of the curtain, which, within 
 a few years, was in complete preservation, may still be discovered. ' I 
 expected,' says an intelligent correspondent of the New York American, 
 ' to have seen the magazine of the fort, which I was told was an admirable 
 piece of masonry, and still endured in the shape of a porter cellar ; but 
 upon arriving at the spot where it had stood but a few weeks before, a pile 
 of rough stones was all that we could discover. In a country like ours, 
 where so few antiquities meet the eye, it is melancholy to see these inte- 
 resting remnants thus destroyed, and the very landmarks where they 
 stood effaced forever. Occasionally, too, the works of which every vestige 
 is thus painfully obliterated, were, especially when erected by the F'onch, 
 of a peculiarly striking character. The French engineers, who 1 '.. intro- 
 duced the art of fortification into this country, were of the school o. Vau- 
 ban, and the enduring monuments they raised were not less nbMc proofs 
 of their skill, than were the sites selected of their high military discern- 
 ment.' In the vicinity are the remains of a mill-dam, constructed by the 
 officers of fort Du Quesne, according to the most approved rules of the 
 time, like a perfect fortification; a part of the curtain, with traces of some 
 of the bastions, still rewards the search of the inquisitive. 
 
 An old fort on the island Canonicut, which formerly defended the pas- 
 
 Fort CanonicuU 
 
 sage up Narragansett bay, presents an interesting relic of past times. It 
 is built in a circular form, and is well represented in the accompanying 
 sketch. 
 
CHAPTER XII.— RELIGION.* 
 
 There can scarcely be a doubt, that among all the political and social 
 relations of a people, there is none of such primary and vital importance 
 as their religion ; and if this be true of nations generally, it is peculiarly 
 so of the United States of America. These states present, in this point 
 of view, a novel spectacle ; that of an experiment, conducted on a scale 
 commensurate with its importance. We have not here to describe the 
 influence of religion upon savages, nor upon a race fettered with the 
 shackles of superstition, and of a predominant church government. We 
 find a civilized and intelligent community in a situation to which history 
 shows no parallel. Save the effect of knowledge and principle, there is 
 nothing to influence the faith of the American citizen, no form of worship 
 prescribed by law, no predominance of sects, no physical intolerance, no 
 advantage or disadvantage to hope or fear from difference of opinion. The 
 experiment has been fully successful ; it has proved that a nation may be 
 moral and religious without any external agency to direct or control the 
 mind. It may safely be considered to have demonstrated the inexpediency 
 of a union between church and state. 
 
 The constitution expressly forbids the general government to make any 
 laws with regard to religion, and though the several states have reserved 
 the right, they seem resolved never to use it. They do, indeed, some- 
 times allot portions of new land for the support of public worship, but the 
 use of the grant is always left to the discretion of the inhabitants. Such 
 state laws as relate to religious qualifications for office, &c. are almost a 
 dead letter, if we except those which, in some states, render the clergy 
 ineligible to the legislature, probably on the principle that civil and reli- 
 gious duties are incompatible with each other. 
 
 We find religion in the United States free from legal support or restriction, 
 and, if the experience of fifty years is to be trusted, this non-interference 
 is favorable to good morals and rational piety. There is no intolerance, 
 no persecution, little controversy ; yet the people are as religiously given 
 as those of any other country, though not scrupulous with regard to forms. 
 It has lately been demonstrated by statistical facts, that religious institu- 
 tions exist in a much larger proportion to the population in this country 
 than in any other ; and in no country is the spirit of Christianity manifested 
 more than in this. Benevolent societies for meliorating the condition of 
 our race in this and other lands are numerous and increasing, and they 
 display all the characteristic energy and enterprise of the Americans. The 
 
 * As our limits allow nothing but a brief notice of the different denominations of 
 Christians in this country, we refer those of our readers who wish for fuller information 
 on this subject to "The Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge;" a beautiful royal 
 octavo volume of 1250 pages, with maps and engravings ; which ought to have a place 
 in every family library. It is strictly impartial, the account of each denomination be- 
 ing written by some leading man belonging to it. It is designed for a complete book of 
 reference on all religious subjects. 
 
 38 
 
446 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 American missionary is now seen bending his course to the ' islands of 
 the sea,' that ' they may rejoice in the salvation of God,' and to the 
 ' utmost parts of the earth,' that they too may know the way of life. The 
 Bible society, having supplied so far as possible every family in this land 
 with the word of life, is now sending it through the missionaries to the 
 heathen world ; while the Tract society is despatching its little messengers 
 of ' glad tidiyigs' through the earth. Home Missionary, for the supplying 
 destitute places in the United States with the ordinances of the gospel, 
 Sabbath School, Prison Discipline, and numerous kindred societies are also 
 lending their aid; and there seems to be a spirit of philanthropy pervading 
 all denominations of evangelical Christians, which knows no bounds but 
 the ends of the earth. May this spirit be increased a thousand fold ! 
 
 ' Shall we, whose souls are lighted 
 With wisdom from on high, 
 Shall we to men benighted 
 The lamp of life deny V — Heber. 
 
 It is almost unnecessary to say, the religious aspect of different parts of 
 the great confederacy is far from uniform. This would be the natural 
 result of the freedom of religious opinions, and the circumstances of the 
 early settlement of the country. New England, settled by the Puritans, 
 retains much of the strong impress of the character of her fathers. Mary- 
 land was settled by Roman Catholics, Pennsylvania by Quakers, and other 
 states by Episcopalians, while colonies of Swedes, French, and Dutchmen 
 formed the starting points of others. Some persons are disposed to mourn 
 over the fact, that Christians are divided into such a number of denomina- 
 tions, which they conceive to be an evil, and they earnestly long for the 
 time to come when all these things shall be done away. It is indeed to be 
 regretted that a greater degree of harmony and charity does not prevail 
 among the great denominations which compose the mass of Christians, and 
 that the time should come speedily when all shall ' love one another with 
 a pure heart fervently,' is 'most devoutly to be wished.' Still these 
 differences of opinion are the inevitable consequences of freedom of opi- 
 nion on any subject ; and as the Bible has not clearly marked out any 
 form of church order and discipline, in which the chief difference consists 
 among evangelical Christians, it can never be expected that all will agree 
 upon this subject any more than upon any other. And on the whole it is 
 best they should not ; and it was wise in the great Head of the church to 
 leave these things, non-essential, as he has, that different denominations may 
 by a holy rivalry 'stir each other up to good works.' What a safeguard 
 against intolerance, and the evils of bigotry and oppression, when several 
 large and balancing sects exist in a community at the same time — a mutual 
 check, and mutually operating on each other to prevent corruption. We 
 should fear the result in our own land of the great predominance of any 
 sect, but most of all that which, owning allegiance to a foreign civil and 
 ecclesiastical potentate, is even now seeking to gain possession of our fair 
 inheritance — we mean the Roman Catholic. While their right to propa- 
 gate their opinions by all fair and constitutional means equally with others 
 is freely admitted, the influence of their principles on our institutions, 
 should they finally prevail, cannot but be dreaded. What popery has been 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 447 
 
 it ever must be, the very foundation-stone being the infallibility of the 
 church, which of course can never have done wrong, and can never change 
 in any of its great characteristics. Let us beware how we cherish this 
 viper which is insidiously creeping into the bosom, and which will ere we 
 are aware of it sting the vitals of our republic. (See note at the end of 
 this article.) 
 
 We will now proceed to notice the principal sects existing in this coun- 
 
 tr y- 
 
 Methodists. The Methodists are the most numerous denomination in 
 the United States, being found in all parts of the Union in considerable 
 numbers. They count more than six hundred thousand members of their 
 churches. There are two principal classes of Methodists : — the Wesleyan, 
 who are Arminians, and the most numerous. They are named from John 
 Wesley, one of the founders of the sect. The other class, to which Whit- 
 field belonged, are Calvinistic in their doctrines. They are also divided 
 into two bodies on the question of church order and discipline, — the 
 Methodist Episcojjal and the Protestant Methodist ; — the latter are seceders 
 from the former body. Attached to the for'ner there were, in 1833, five 
 bishops, twenty-two hundred and thirty travelling preachers, and nearly 
 five hundred thousand members of the churches ; to the latter, four hun- 
 dred ministers and fifty thousand communicants. 
 
 Baptists. This denomination is second in the United States as to 
 numbers. They estimate from four to five hundred thousand members of 
 their churches. They are chiefly Calvinistic in doctrine, and indepen- 
 dent or congregational in their form of church government, differing little 
 in any respect from the latter denomination, except that they administer 
 baptism by immersion, and only to adult believers.* 
 
 Presbyterians. This is the third numerically of the religious sects of 
 this country. It is the offspring of the church of Scotland. Their doc- 
 trines are strictly Calvinistic. At the first meeting of the general assem- 
 bly, in 1789, there were but about one hundred and eighty or ninety 
 ministers belonging to the whole body, in four synods and seventeen 
 presbyteries. In 1834 it embraced twenty-three synods, one hundred and 
 eighteen presbyteries, two thousand six hundred and forty-eight congrega- 
 tions, one thousand nine hundred and fourteen ordained minister^. ;i ml two 
 hundred and fifty licentiates, and more than two hundred and forty-seven 
 thousand nine hundred and sixty four communicants. Of these ministers, 
 about one-third reside in the state of New York, the next largest number 
 in Pennsylvania, and the next largest in Ohio ; some are found in every 
 state. 
 
 Congregationalists. This denomination, differing from the Presby- 
 terian only in regard to church order and government, abounds chiefly in 
 New England, where they are the most numerous sect, although there 
 are churches of this order in other states. According to their principles, 
 
 * There are several small sects denominated Baptists, but differing from the main 
 body which is known under that designation. Among them are Seventh Day Baptists, 
 or Suhbatarians, observing the seventh day of the week as the Sabbath ; Open Commu- 
 nion Baptists, only differing from the main body in uniting with Pedobaptists at the 
 sacrament of the Lord's supper ; Free- Will Baptists ; Tunkers or Bunkers, who believe 
 in universal salvation, and are a very singular sect ; Mennonites, &c. &c. See the 
 Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge above referred to. 
 
448 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 each congregation of Christians is a complete church, which may com- 
 mune with other churches if it pleases, and may appoint its own officers, 
 to exercise discipline within itself. These Christians have sometimes been 
 called Independents, from whom, however, they differ in some respects. 
 Congregationalist and Independent are synonymous terms in England. 
 They have pastors and deacons, the latter having the care of the secular 
 concerns of the church, and not being allowed to preach. Their doctrines 
 are the same as those of the Presbyterians, Avith whom they are united 
 in all the great benevolent societies and movements of the day. Number 
 of members, about one hundred and fifty thousand. 
 
 Episcopalians. The organization of the American Episcopal church 
 took place during the war of the revolution, and (to secure the uninter- 
 rupted apostolic succession, as they say) the first bishop procured ordination 
 from the Scottish bishops at Aberdeen, and two others were soon after- 
 wards consecrated by the archbishop of Canterbury in England, and thus 
 the succession was preserved unbroken. They have ten bishops, fifteen 
 dioceses, and five hundred and twenty-eight clergy, priests, and deacons. 
 The highest dignitary recognised is the Bishop. Priests and Deacons are 
 the only other clergy known. The supreme authority is vested in a 
 general convention, composed of a house of bishops and a house of lay 
 delegates. Each diocese has a convention for the regulation of its own 
 affairs. The state conventions consist of the clergy of the diocese, and a 
 lay delegation from each church. No salary is given to bishops, as such ; 
 they are supported as rectors of churches. 
 
 The influence of republican principles is thus strikingly manifest in many 
 of the features of American Episcopacy. The people always choose their 
 own ministers, the bishops are elected by a procedure, according to which 
 the laity have a vote through their delegates, and no salaries are indepen- 
 dent of a similar vote. In all these particulars, the American church 
 differs from that of England, but in doctrine and principles they are the 
 same. 
 
 Unitarians ; a small body chiefly in the state of Massachusetts, and 
 mostly in and around Boston. They are Independents in church govern- 
 ment. In doctrines they are mostly either ultra Universalists, or hold the 
 belief of the final restoration of all men. They reject the doctrine of the 
 Trinity, and the doctrines called Calvinistic altogether. The congregation 
 of the King's Chapel, in Boston, was probably the first which cherished 
 these principles. It was originally an Episcopalian society, and they now 
 use the liturgy, altered in some points to adapt it to their views. 
 
 Universalists are a considerably numerous body. They are divided 
 into two classes — Ultra, or those who reject altogether the idea of future 
 punishments, and Restorationists, or those who believe in a punishment 
 after death, but which is not eternal. 
 
 Quakers. Pennsylvania is the strong-hold of the Quakers, although 
 there are considerable numbers in New Jersey, the city of ISew York, &c. 
 There are two sects, the one orthodox, the other followers of Elias Hicks, 
 or Hicksites. They dispute between themselves which has seceded from 
 the original principles of the denomination. The Quakers of England sent 
 forth an epistle in 1829, containing a confession of faith, which acknow- 
 ledged the inspiration of the Scriptures, the divinity of the Savior, his 
 atonement, &c. The Hicksites are generally considered the seceders. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 449 
 
 The Dutch Reformed was the established church in New York until 
 its surrender to England. Its first classis was formed in America in 1757. 
 Its government is vested in consistories, classes, and synods. Members 
 of the German Reformed church are found principally in Pennsylvania, 
 and also in Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, and other states. There are more 
 than five hundred congregations of them. The American Lutheran church 
 has eight hundred congregations. The United Brethren, or Shakers, a 
 singular, harmless, inoffensive and industrious race, are found in Penn- 
 sylvania, North Carolina, New York, Massachusetts, and other states. 
 There may be about six thousand of them. The Sioedenborgians also hold 
 an annual convention. 
 
 Infidels. It is proper to mention under the head of religion, in order 
 to give a correct view of the religious state of the country, a class of per- 
 sons, divided into several subdivisions, and generally looked upon with pity 
 by professing Christians of all denominations, and viewed with concern by 
 all the rational friends of liberty. We speak of the Owenites, Fanny 
 Wrightites, Harmonites, Deists, or, according to a very common form of 
 parlance, Freethinkers, Infidels, or Atheists. All of them, we believe, 
 affirm that a community of property, labor, and education, is necessary to 
 the well-being of mankind, and hold that a belief in divine revelation is 
 unnecessary and absurd* They hold, too, that the marriage covenant is 
 binding only during the pleasure of the contracting parties. Rapp, who 
 brought a colony of foreigners of this faith to the banks of the Ohio, ac- 
 quired an almost unlimited authority over them. He forbade the inter- 
 course of the sexes for a year or more, and was obeyed. He divided the 
 lands among his followers, instituted regulations for manual labor, and the 
 products of the common exertion was thrown into a common stock. Mr. 
 Owen's settlement, called Harmony, was conducted on nearly the same 
 principles of equality. This gentleman possessed a large property in 
 Scotland, which he abandoned to found a colony, and disseminate the 
 doctrines of Voltaire and Paine, in America, in which he was very efficiently 
 aided by the celebrated Miss Frances Wright. Both of them went about 
 the country several years, lecturing against Christianity and revelation ; 
 but with no very great success. They finally showed that practice does 
 not always conform to principle, by marrying one another. Mr. Owen's 
 settlement has long been abandoned, his followers not having attained that 
 degree of moral and social perfection requisite for its success ! 
 
 Such principles as those of Mr. Owen, striking, as they do, at the very 
 root of society, will never, it is to be hoped, prevail to any great extent in 
 any part of the world. ^ The Freethinkers are at present but a small body, 
 
 * On the demoralizing effects of infidelity, and to show what would be the result of 
 throwing off the salutary restraints of religion in this country, we quote a few para- 
 graphs from ' Dick on the Improvement of Society,' a cheap and valuable work, worthy 
 of universal perusal. Without revealed religion 'the present world would be consider- 
 ed as the only scene of action and enjoyment ; the hope of immortality, which supports 
 and gladdens the pious mind, would be exterminated, and every thing beyond the 
 shadow of death involved in gloom and uncertainty. The only true principles of moral 
 action, which revealed religion inculcates, being overlooked or discarded, every one 
 would consider himself as at liberty to act according as his humor and passions might 
 dictate ; and in such a case, a scene of selfishness, rapacity, and horror would quickly 
 ensue, which would sap the foundations of social order, and banish happiness from the 
 abodes of men. 
 
 ' That these are not imaginary forebodings mi s ht be illustrated from the scenes which 
 57 38* 
 
450 BOOK OF THE TJWTED STATES. 
 
 without order or government as a party, and little respectable as individu- 
 als They are probably not more than five or six thousand. They have 
 newspapers and places of meeting, in New York, Boston, and elsewhere. 
 Many of them are avowed atheists. Had they been persecuted, molested, 
 or opposed in any degree, it is probable they would have multiplied much 
 faster than they have. 
 
 were lately exhibited in a neighboring nation. The first revolution in France, in 1789, 
 was a revolution not merely in politics and government, but in religion, in manners, in 
 moral principle, and in the common feelings of human nature. Revelation was not only 
 impugned, but entirely set aside ; the Deity was banished from the universe / and ar. 
 imaginary phantom, under the name of the Goddess of Reason, substituted in his place. 
 Every thing was reduced to a system of pure materialism ; the celestial spark of intel- 
 ligence within us was assimilated to a piece of rude matter, and the fair prospects of 
 immortality which Christianity presents transformed into the gloom of an eternal night. 
 Every previous standard of morals was discarded ; every one was left to act as selfish- 
 ness, avarice, and revenge might dictate ; religion of every description fled from the 
 torch of the prevailing philosophy ; while "justice and morality" were proclaimed as 
 " the order of the day," every moral principle and every humane feeling was trampled 
 under foot. It is stated on good authority, that a little before the revolution, a numer- 
 ous assembly of French literati, being asked, in turn, at one of their meetings, by the 
 president, " whether there was any such thing as moral obligation," answered, in every 
 instance, that there was not. Soon after that revolution, the great body of French infi- 
 dels, who then ruled the nation, not only denied all the obligations which bind us to 
 truth, justice, and kindness, but pitied and despised, as a contemptible wretch, the man 
 who believed in their existence. Atheism was publicly preached, and its monstrous 
 doctrines disseminated among the mass of the people, an occurrence altogether novel 
 in the history of man. A professor was even named by Chaumette, to instruct the 
 children of the state in the mysteries of atheism. De la Metherie, the author of a 
 philosophical journal, when discussing the doctrine of crystallization, made the wild and 
 hideous assertion, " that the highest and most perfect form of crystallization is that which 
 is vulgarly called GodP In the national convention, Gobet, archbishop of Paris, the 
 rector Vangirard, and several other priests, abjured the Christian religion ; and for this 
 abjuration they received applauses and the fraternal kiss. A priest from Melun stated, that 
 there is no true religion but that of nature, and that all the mummery with which they 
 had hitherto been amused is only old wives' fables ; and he was heard with hud applause. 
 The convention decreed, that " all the churches and temples of religious worship known 
 to be in Paris should be instantly shut up, and that every person requiring the opening 
 of a church or temple should be put under arrest, as a suspected person, and an enemy 
 to the state." The carved work of all religious belief and moral practice was boldly 
 cut down by Carnot, Robespierre, and their atheistical associates, and the following in- 
 scription was ordered to be displayed in all the public burying-grounds — " Death is^only 
 an eternal sleep ;" so that the dying need no longer be afraid to step out of existence. 
 Nature was investigated by these pretended philosophers only with a view to darken 
 the mind, to prevent mankind from considering any thing as' real but what the hand 
 could grasp or the corporeal eye perceive, and to subvert the established order of so- 
 ciety. 
 
 ' The consequence of the operation of such principles were such as might have been 
 expected. They are written in characters of blood, and in crimes almost unparalleled 
 in the history of nations. A scene of inhumanity, cruelty, cold-blooded malignity, 
 danng impiety, and insatiable rapacity was presented to the world, which excited in the 
 mind of every virtuous spectator amazement and horror. Savage atrocities were per- 
 petrated which would have been shocking in the most barbarous and unenlightened 
 age ; and, perhaps, at no era has there been more wretchedness occasioned by licentious 
 principles and moral degeneracy. The ties of friendship were cut asunder, the claims 
 of consanguinity disregarded, and a cold-blooded selfishness pervaded the great mass 
 of society. " The kingdom appeared to be changed into one great prison, the inhabi- 
 tants converted into felons, and the common doom of man commuted for the violence 
 of the sword, and the bayonet, and the stroke of the guillotine." Such was the rapidity 
 with which the work of destruction was carried on, that within the short space of ten 
 years, not less than three millions of human beings (one-half more than the whole 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 451 
 
 "Papists or Roman Catholics. This sect is rapidly increasing in the 
 United States ; a fact which ought to alarm all the friends of liberty and 
 true religion.* 1 
 
 population of Scotland) are supposed to have perished in that country alone, chiefly 
 through the influence of immoral principles, and the seductions of a false philosophy. 
 The following is a brief sketch of some of the scenes to which we allude, drawn by one 
 who was an eye-witness of the whole, and an actor in several parts of that horrid drama. 
 " There were," says the writer, "multiplied cases of suicide; prisons crowded with 
 innocent persons ; permanent guillotines ; perjuries of all classes ; parental authority 
 set at naught; debauchery encouraged by an allowance to those called unmarried 
 mothers ; nearly six thousand divorces in the city of Paris within a little more than two 
 years ; in a word, whatever is most obscene in vice and most dreadful in ferocity." 
 
 ' Notwithstanding the incessant shouts of " Liberty and equality," and the boasted il- 
 luminations of philosophy, the most barbarous persecutions were carried on against those 
 whose religious opinions differed from the system adopted by the state. While infidelity 
 was enthroned in power, it wielded the sword of power with infernal ferocity against 
 the priests of the Romish church, who were butchered wherever found, hunted as wild 
 beasts, frequently roasted alive, or drowned in hundreds together, without either ac- 
 cusation or trial. At Nantes, no less than three hundred and sixty priests were shot, 
 and four hundred and sixty drowned. In one night, fifty-eight were shut up in a barge, 
 and drowned in the Loire. Two hundred and ninety-two priests were massacred during 
 the bloody scenes of the 10th of August and 2d September, 1792 ; and eleven hundred 
 and thirty-five were guillotined under the government of the national convention, from 
 the month of September, 1792, till the end of 1795, besides vast numbers, hunted by the 
 infidel republicans, like owls and partridges, who perished in different ways, throughout 
 the provinces of France. 
 
 ' Such were some of the dismal effects which flowed from the attempt to banish reli- 
 gion from science, from government, and from the intercourses and employments of 
 society. Were such principles universally to prevail, the world would soon become one 
 vast theatre of mischief and of misery — an immense den of thieves and robbers, — a 
 sink of moral pollution — a scene of impiety, injustice, rapine, and devastation ; a Gol- 
 gotha, strewed with carcasses and " dead men's bones." All confidence and friendship 
 between intelligent beings would be destroyed; the dearest and most venerable relations 
 would be violated by incestuous pollutions ; appetite would chansre every man into a 
 swine, and passion into a tiger ; jealousy, distrust, revenge, murder, war, and rapine 
 would overspread the earth, and a picture of hell would be presented wherever the eye 
 roamed over the haunts of men." 
 
 * That there is reason for alarm is evident to all who have paid particular attention 
 to the subject. It has lately been proved, that there exists in Austria an organized 
 society sustained by all the wealth and influence of that popish empire, and seconded 
 by the whole popish influence of Europe, whose object is the conversion of this nation 
 to popery, and the consequent overthrow of our free institutions. We quote the follow- 
 ing from the New York Observer, of Jan. 1835. It contains a statement of facts which 
 exhibit with clearness the nature of popery, its tendency to subvert our political insti- 
 tutions, and to transfer the power delegated to magistrates for the preservation of order in the 
 community to Romish priests, who owe allegiance to a foreign prince. Facts, — things 
 already done and threatened — proclaim the existence of a power in this country hostile 
 to its liberties and the dearest rights of the people. 
 
 POPISH POWER AND THREATS.— Last summer, onr readers will recollect, there were dreadful riots and murders among 
 the Irish laborers on a rail-road in Maryland- The civil authority eadeavored to put a stop to them, hut in vain. A considerable 
 viilitary force was then sent from Baltimore, and succeeded, while they were actually present, in restoring peace and order; 
 but the moment their backs were torned, the rioters renewed their outrages, and the military companies were compelled to re- 
 turn, and that repeatedly, until, at length, wearied with the harassing duty, a popish priest was called upon to visit the con- 
 tending parlies, and through his influence a reconciliation was effected and peace restored. The editors of some of onr daily 
 papers were full of thanks and expressions of obligation to this priest ; but we confess that we had no heart for any thing but 
 mourning for the humiliation of our country. We ask ourselves, Is it indeed so 7 Has it come to this ? Is the government of 
 this country already surrendered into the hands of popish priests'! Are the civil and military authorities under our free institu- 
 tions incapable of preserving public order, and must we beg the interference of ecclesiastics, and especially of ecclesiastics under 
 the control of a foreign head, and that head the mere tool of the Holy Alliance! 
 
 This case might have passed without remark, if it had been a solitary one : hut, soon after, at the burning of the convent in 
 Charlestown, the Boston editors, without one sigh for the virtual extinction of popular government, announced, in terms of 
 unmtngled commendation, that bishop Fenwick and a popish priest in Charlestown had promised to use their influence to re- 
 strain the Irish, and that, therefore, no retaliation need be apprehended 1 It was stated, too, in one of our daily papers, some 
 time since, that it was seriously contemplated, during the election riots in this city, to call in the aid of the Catholic priests to 
 restore order. 
 
 Here are three distinct cases, all occurring within a few months, in three different sections of onr country, in which our 
 editors admit that there is a class of our population which cannot be governed by the laws and institutions under which the rest 
 of our people have lived so happily for more than two centuries. It is admitted that this population can he governed ooly as the 
 
452 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In 1632, a priest of the order of the Jesuits accompanied the early setLern 
 to Maryland, and since that time the Catholic population have been supplied 
 with instructers of their own persuasion from England. A see was con- 
 stituted, and a bishop consecrated, in 1790. In 1810, it became an archi- 
 episcopal see, and four new suffragan dioceses were established, viz : in 
 Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Bardstown, in Kentucky, to which 
 some more have since been added, in New Orleans, Charleston, Richmond, 
 and Cincinnati, &c. Regular missions are also established all over the 
 country, and it would seem, from the zeal of the missionaries, as well as 
 by the language of the pope, that very great importance is attached to the 
 future religious faith of America by the court of Rome. Nor have the 
 devoted exertions of the priests failed of much success, for it has been 
 computed that half a million of the people of the United States are Roman 
 Catholics, of which not less than ten thousand are in the city of Boston, 
 being one sixth of its population. It is stated that bishop England, of 
 Baltimore, is an officer of the Inquisition ! 
 
 Europeans govern it, by calling in the aid of a standing army, or by going on, as we have begun, taking off our hats to popish 
 priests, and saying to these minions of his holiness, 'Please, gentlemen, do not let your people cut our throats.' We conies* 
 thai oar American blood boils at the thought of such humiliation. 
 
 And who are these miserable creatures, that set our laws at defiance, and how came they here 7 They are the most ignorant 
 and turbulent people of Europe, whom we have imported to dig our canals and make our rail-roads, to hew our wood and to 
 draw oui water. They have nearly all come over within the last twenty years. In 1775 there were but five Catholic families in 
 Boston. In New York, within the memory of men now living, all the male heads of Catholic families were collected at one 
 time in one small parlor ; and in Philadelphia, at no remote period, their number, we presume, was equally small. They began 
 to come over in large numbers in 1817, and since that lime the torrent has been continually swelling, until now il is pouring in 
 upon us al the rale of from seventy to one hundred thousand annually. Already they constitute nearly one-fourth part of the 
 population of our five largest cities, and they are scattering themselves in immense numbers over all our interior. 
 
 We shall soon have more papists in the north than they have slaves in ihe south. And who would not prefer two million of 
 slaves, under the control of two million of masters, owners of the soil, and prompted by every consideration of duly and interest to 
 promote the peace and prosperity of our country, to two million of papists, under the control of two thousand priests, educated in 
 the schools of Austria and Ireland — two thousand bachelors, bound to the country by no tie of interest or affection — two thousand 
 emissaries of a foreign prince, whose supremacy they acknowledge, and who is our natural enemy, because our prosperity is 
 working the ruin of his despotism 7 Is it probable that we shall long continue to enjoy tranquillity with such a population re- 
 maining among us in all the ignorance to which their masters would doom them 7 Will the Holy Alliance of despotic sovereigns 
 consent that the examples of peace and prosperity in this free republic should continually endanger the stability of 
 their thrones, when one word from the pope would give them security, by carrying riot and uproar through all our borders? 
 
 We are happy to find that the friends of liberty in all parts of the north and west are opening their eyes '" the dangers that 
 menace us from the progress of popery. The following remarks of the Boston Recorder on the threat of the superior of the 
 convent at Charlestown, in relation to the ten thousand Irishmen, are very pointed and forcible. 
 
 THE ' BISHOP OF 1!< ISTON. '— ' Mr. Cutter told me he was afraid the mob would destroy the convent, and then I told him 
 that if they did, " the right reverend bishop's influence over ten thousand brave Irishmen might lead to the destruction of his (Mr. 
 Cutter's) property, and that of others also." ' 
 
 Such is the testimony, given under oath, in open court, by Mary Anne Ursula Moffat, alias Mary Edmond St. George, superi- 
 or of the I Charlestown. In all important particulars it agrees with Mr. Cutter's statements, Ii fully 
 sustains the most important points — the bishop's influence over the ' ten thousand brave Irishmen,' and the reasonableness of ex- 
 h ii he will use that influence in a certain way. She adds, ' I said this without much thought.' It was no story, de- 
 liberately oi. i i. m. foi the occasion, for the purpose of frightening Mr. Cutter with imaginary dangers. It was ihe real truth, 
 well known to her, and uttered without premeditation. It is true, he did not wield tins power for the destruction of Mr. Cutter's 
 property. He told his • i™ ilm ns.iwl brave Irishmen' to keep still, and tbey obeyed him ; and he and they were praised for il. 
 
 elding a physical force according to its pleasure, for ihe protection of ils subjects. The superior 
 ■i Cuuer lo be in fear of it. She placed some reliance on its existence, and on the terror it might inspire, for her own 
 
 safety, and the safety ol bei comi i ernment which may operate for the defence of its subjects, or for the punish- 
 
 injure them by the destruction of ihe property of lur'otizens. The officer who wields this power is not Known 
 
 to our constitution. He is not elected by our freemen. He is not officially responsible to the United Stales, or to the common- 
 
 M I v those whom he governs. He is appointed by a foreign state, to which he 
 
 .hub he is liable to be removed from office, whenever his official acts shall not be such as the 
 
 ruli r- .,i thai state approve ( Ine of his predei essors has been removed from this office lo another by that foreign power. His 
 
 conducl hod pleased his superiors and he was promoted. Bishop Fenwick is equally liable to be promoted, if his conduct pleases, 
 
 , it it displeases. We invite attention to the fact, that we have among us a body of 'ten thousand brave Irishmen,' 
 
 our property at the bidding of an officer u-ho holds his office al the will "of a foreign government. On ih* 
 
 many of ill. m came together to receive his orders. He lold them not to destroy the property of oul 
 
 rid they obeyed. Bui whether this was any thing more than an adjournment ol vengi ance, is doubtful. The superior 
 
 is of knowing the bishop's intentions than any Protestant, ' cannot answer' thai Mr tuner's property i>* 
 
 the 'right reverend bishop's influence.' Ii d >es not become us to I onfidenl while she is in doubt. 
 
 to the testimony quoted above, and to documents which have been published in Ihe Boston papers, the Recorder rs 
 
 VWl " '" - the amount of her testimony 7 We think it establishes the following points : vii. 
 
 I. -I bal there is, within the limits of bishop Fenwick's diocese, "a Ian: Rio. on, « 'nth ..l..- b.rce which he can command. 
 
 Z That, if heugnifics his plea , i; an Catholic force will destroy the property of our citizens; 
 
 3 I ha he may be expected lo use this Roman Catholic force in this manner, whenever it shall seem eipadient, for the prc- 
 
 .ntrrests. * 
 
 •1 Thai some well-informi d Roman Catholics do rely upon him to protect them and theirs in that way. And, 
 ■' '' ' ' Roman Catholic mob, which shall destroy the property of Protestants, at the bishop's bidding, in 
 
 l ol the convent, is not yet over. The superior, at the date of her late, published last week, ' could 
 
 ' ' Mi ' . ' i , , rly would not be destroyed.' 
 Thai these things are so, is proved, be it remembered, by the testimony of the superior, who from her situation must be pre- 
 know. 
 
 Now, if there is a power established among us. haviug ils regular government, to which government its subjects look for prc- 
 
 personal property, and which ma] !„ ir protection by physical force, which orders will 
 
 — uthisbeafacl n of all our citizens J Does it deserve attention any the less because 
 
 er pretends to be spiritual 7 If it re; civil government for the protection of the persons and property of its 
 
 •ublects.ai li.wiiha military force, whether In thi shape of a militia or a mob, do iu spiritual 
 
 claims render it an aflau e? Andlfil u known to avow, as a fundamental principle oHts existence, a spiritual 
 
 allegiance to a foreign power, winch foreign power is known to be civil and militaiy a» well as spiritual, does not tins fact aiso 
 
 deserve notice? r ' 
 
453 
 
 CHAPTER XIII.— MANNERS AND AMUSEMENTS. 
 
 The dispositions and feelings of the inhabitants of the different portions 
 of the United States have been modified by a great variety of circum- 
 stances. Difference of descent has operated with its usual power. The 
 stern Puritan, the open-hearted and honest Dutchman, the light-hearted 
 and easy Frenchman, the German, the Spaniard, the Catholic, the Hugue- 
 not, all have their representatives in various portions of the country. The 
 distinctive national peculiarities have in some measure been worn off, and 
 the varying elements have been amalgamated by constant intercourse, 
 intermarriage, removals from one part to another, and the gradual effects 
 of time. Still the national character is very distinct in distinct sections of 
 the country, and in the following account of the various manners and cus- 
 toms, we have uniformly followed what we consider the best authority. 
 
 The people of New England are grave, though they are not without 
 humor ; many of their amusements are of a reflecting kind, and their con- 
 versation tends rather to useful than to light or gay subjects. They are 
 moral and pious, and the descendants of the Puritans retain much of the 
 strictness of their fathers. If not ardent, they are to a great degree perse- 
 vering, and though inquisitive, they are equally communicative. They 
 are shrewd and calculating, yet not deceitful. They are no ' granters of 
 propositions ;' with them almost all things are subjects for discussion, in 
 which they manifest much ingenuity. They have a caution that prevails 
 in all things, and they seldom answer directly an abrupt question, without 
 knowing why it is asked. They have the impress of Franklin ; Poor 
 Richard's maxims of thrift fall upon a congenial soil, and no proverbs are 
 oftener quoted, or more followed. They are like Franklin, to a great de- 
 gree inventive in practical things, and far the greater number of inventions 
 in the patent office are from New England. It is peculiar to these people, 
 that they are seldom found without a pocket knife, which they use with 
 dexterity ; and boys at school are frequently seen whittling, or cutting 
 wood into some shape, for a wind-mill or other toy. It is a universal trait, 
 and it is said that a gentleman in Havana, who invited a large company 
 to dine, gave each man from New England a shingle to cut, that they 
 might not carve his furniture. 
 
 One of the first trails developed in the New England character is, if not 
 a love of gain, at least a disposition to traffic. It commences at an early 
 age, and children at school not only exchange or ' swap' knives, and other 
 things, but make lotteries, in which the prizes are paid in gingerbread and 
 raisins, and which leave a little profit to the manager and proprietor. The 
 farmers too, though not the most industrious kind, sometimes bring up 
 horses and cattle for a ' swap' to the village inn ; and the tin pedlars, whose 
 wheels are in every road in the United States, are to a man from New 
 England. 
 
 Another trait of character is the readiness with which the people of New 
 
454 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 England admit the equality of all men with themselves, and the steadiness 
 with which they deny, both in theory and practice, that any are superior. 
 It would raise a tempest in the breast even of a female domestic, to ask for 
 her mistress, nor would she be satisfied to be called a servant, or even a 
 domestic. Help is the word by which servants reconcile their pride with 
 their interest or employment, as it denotes, that though the assistants, they 
 are the equals of their employers. A foreigner probably finds some ground 
 for dissatisfaction on the score of domestics, for among house-wives it is a 
 subject of universal complaint at home ; the best servants are English, who 
 have been more familiar with the distinction of classes. 
 
 The people of New England are distinguished for their celebrations. 
 They are interlocked with each other by innumerable societies and associa- 
 tions, and one man is a member of many. These have their anniversaries, 
 which, with the national and other holidays, make a great many proces- 
 sions, public dinners, and addresses. It is also usual to offer public dinners 
 to those who have done acceptable services in high public stations. 
 
 A town meeting is perhaps the best place wherein to see the self-control 
 of the people, when highly excited on questions of general or local interest. 
 Every town is within certain limits a pure democracy, and its doings are 
 attended with perfect decorum under the moderator, who is chosen, as the 
 word implies, to mollify any over-zealous excitement. If, on these occa- 
 sions, any citizen becomes turbulent, or abusive in language, the sense of 
 the assembly is so strongly expressed against him, that he is at once re- 
 duced to order. Generally speaking, there are no mobs or riotous assem- 
 blies. The interference of a few constables, or the reading of the ' riot act' 
 by a magistrate, is sufficient to disperse any tumultuous throng. A tumult 
 at a town meeting or election, is a thing unheard of among us. 
 
 Some of the most peculiar manners and customs of New England are 
 found in the island of Nantucket, and the neighboring part of the continent. 
 Nantucket is a happy settlement ; not that it has precious metals in its 
 bosom, or fertility in its soil, but because the people are simple, innocent, 
 and contented. The sea is their patrimony, and they gather its bounties 
 in the most distant ports. The whale fishery in New England was com- 
 menced by six persons in Nantucket; one watched on an eminence for the 
 spouting of the whale, and when he discovered it, all would pursue in a 
 small boat, and they seldom failed to tow the leviathan ashore. Gains ex- 
 tended the adventure, ships were fitted out, and the whale was chased from 
 the temperate regions to the arctic seas, and followed to the remotest shores 
 of the Pacific ocean. 
 
 Among the people, there are none idle, and few destitute. The vices 
 of commercial places are hardly known, and it is admitted all over New 
 England to be a great presumption in favor of a man's honesty, that he 
 comes from Nantucket. The Friends or Quakers give to the language a 
 simplicity of diction truly Doric, and though they take some liberties with 
 the commonwealth's English, yet in a person brought up with them, to 
 speak in a more classic manner would be held to savor of affectation and 
 pretension. The various relationships, and the kindly feelings, have intro- 
 duced the custom of calling elderly people uncle or aunt, and the younger, 
 cousin. Even a stranger soon falls into this habit. The people generally 
 marry young, and few live in celibacy. They are social to a great degree, 
 and are eminently distinguished for their frequent visitings, to sup at each 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 455 
 
 other's houses. They live more as though they made a large family, than 
 a small community. 
 
 The following tribute to the New England character is from Captain 
 Hall, whom no one can accuse of a desire to overpraise what he saw in 
 this country. ' I had, however, many sharp amicable discussions with my 
 friends at Boston, on the thousand and one topics that arose between us, 
 but I must do them the justice to say, that I never met a more good-natured, 
 or perhaps I should say, good-tempered people; for, during the whole 
 course of my journey, though I never disguised my sentiments, even when 
 opposed to the avowed favorite opinions of the company, I never yet saw 
 an American out of temper. I fear I cannot say half so much for myself, 
 for I was often a good deal harassed by these national discussions, when 
 the company and I took our station on the opposite poles of the question. 
 But it is pleasant to have it in my power to say that I cannot recall a sin- 
 gle instance in which any thing captious, or personally uncivil, was ever 
 said to me, though I repeated openly, and in all companies, every thing I 
 have written in these volumes, and a great deal more than upon cool re- 
 flection I choose to say again.' 
 
 In general, the amusements are of a thoughtful rather than a gay cha- 
 racter, and games of skill are preferred to those of chance. The character 
 of the Puritans has given some tone to the amusements and holidays. 
 Theatres are seldom even fashionably attended, and there are many who 
 hold it unlawful to enter them. There are places, too, in the coun- 
 try, where dancing is considered to be a ' vain, idle, and sinful amuse- 
 ment.' 
 
 The active sports are principally games of ball, and sometimes running 
 and wrestling ; formerly, different towns and parishes had their champions 
 in wrestling, to try their superiority by matches, in which several fatal 
 accidents occurred ; but the sport is now almost entirely disused. Box- 
 ing, which is so universal in England, is almost unknown, and horse- 
 racing and cock-fighting are seldom seen. In winter, when there are de- 
 lightful moonlight nights, sleigh-rides are a favorite amusement. Parties 
 of both sexes sit in large sleighs, as closely as they can be packed, and 
 sometimes in each others' laps, scour over several miles at a rapid rate, 
 and at some hotel, find not only a supper but a fiddler in attendance, whose 
 gains are much enhanced in the season of sleighing. There are several 
 holidays, but none that are observed in England. Election day is that on 
 which the governor is declared to be elected, and has heretofore been one 
 of the most ' time-honored' days in the calendar. On this day, the young 
 men often take sides, in what is called a ' bird shoot,' to destroy the birds 
 most mischievous to crops, and the party bringing in the least number of 
 heads is vanquished, and gives a dinner to the other. 
 
 Fast day is an observance that has descended from the pilgrims, and is 
 kept with a decent solemnity. The governors appoint one day in the 
 year, in all the New England states, for ' fasting, humiliation, and prayer;' 
 there is little business transacted, and the people generally attend in the 
 ■churches, which are called more generally, from an old dislike to Episco- 
 pacy, meeting-houses. Thanksgiving is also a day appointed by the same 
 authorities, and the intent of the edict or proclamation is carried into full 
 •effect by the disposition of the people. It is always appointed in the fall 
 
456 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 or autumn, after the harvests, when the garners are full ; and poor indeed 
 is the inmate of the hovel that has not on that day plenty and luxury on 
 his board. The preparations for thanksgiving continue several days, and 
 for many more the prepared viands are not exhausted. It is the day for 
 family meetings, and it is then that members of the same family often 
 come hundreds of miles to meet again, to renew the bands of affinity and 
 affection under the paternal roof. It is at this feast that the simplicity and 
 patriarchal character of a New England grandsire is pre-eminent. 
 
 Before and after thanksgiving, there are held all over the country 'shoot- 
 ing matches,' which are announced by printed placards, headed ' sportsmen 
 attend,' and which set forth that geese, turkeys, and fowls, will be set up 
 for marksmen. They are shot at, generally after they are killed, with 
 rifles, at certain distances, and rates are paid for every shot. If they are 
 hit, the marksman has the game. These sports are commonly held in 
 some retired spot, or at some deserted house, by which there is little pass- 
 ing, and where a day or two is spent as in an encampment. A bear or 
 deer is sometimes shot at in the same way. 
 
 Autumn also brings other holiday observances, one of which is ' husk- 
 ing,' when the men of a neighborhood meet to husk the Indian corn of one 
 of the number, that is, to separate it from the sheaf. A good supper, and 
 sometimes a dance, ensues. The females have also similar meetings, call- 
 ed ' quilting bees,' when many assemble to work for one, in padding or 
 quilting bed coverings or comforters. Militia musters or reviews collect 
 many people, but they are happily growing out of date ; they generally 
 display the most repulsive traits of the New England character. An ordi- 
 nation of a clergyman over a society discloses better characteristics. It is 
 a time when every house in the society is invitingly open, when the mas- 
 ter generally 'provides' for more guests than he has the good fortune to 
 secure ; and when he may be seen forestalling his neighbors, by asking 
 visiters to dine, before they arrive at the church. Persons of all creeds 
 and conditions are pressed, nothing loath, to the feasts that smoke upon a 
 hundred tables. 
 
 Ploughing matches and cattle shows are held only in autumn ; they at- 
 tract many people, and give a favorable impulse to the interests of agricul- 
 ture. The celebration of the fourth of July, or, as it is called, Independence, 
 is not peculiar to New England; it is the great national holiday, honored 
 by salutes of cannon, fireworks, processions, addresses, dinners, in all cities, 
 and in the most secluded corners of the republic. 
 
 In the middle states there is little general or peculiar character. In 
 Pennsylvania, society takes a tone from the Friends, particularly in Phila- 
 delphia and some other towns ; in the interior, German influence is equally 
 perceptible. New York has the air and character of all great commercial 
 cities. One abominable custom deserves to be mentioned with reprobation. 
 Swine are by law permitted to range at large, and these quadruped sca- 
 vengers are, of course, intolerable nuisances. Philadelphia and Baltimore 
 seem to have escaped, in some measure, from the moral evils which appear 
 almost inseparable from great cities. In these places, the manner of life 
 is far more quiet and domestic than in New York, and in the former city 
 the arts and sciences meet with a more assiduous cultivation. The Wistar 
 parties of this city, assemblies held at gentlemen's houses, where the con- 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 457 
 
 versation is chiefly on literary and scientific subjects, are much praised by 
 intelligent strangers.^ 
 
 The amusements of the middle states are more various than the other 
 sections of the country. As the three largest cities in the union are dis- 
 tant one from the other but about a hundred miles, there are of course 
 greater facilities and encouragement for scenic exhibitions ; and the thea- 
 tres, especially in New York, are much attended. The actors are general- 
 ly English, and the best English performers often come over for a season. 
 There is a French opera company, also, who at times perform in the cities, 
 where they give general pleasure, and a splendid opera house has been 
 recently erected in New York. In the latter city, there are several expen- 
 sive public gardens, in which a great variety of costly fireworks, shows, 
 and amusements, are offered in the warm seasons ; when lighted up at 
 night, they are very brilliant, and they attract crowds of people. There 
 are many small gardens, where refreshments are sold ; and in Philadelphia 
 the number of these is considerable, though some of them contain little else 
 than a few alcoves, covered with creeping plants. 
 
 Horse racing, which in New England is almost unknown, is more honor- 
 ed in the middle states ; and some of the matches on Long Island and in 
 Dutchess county, have been attended by vast crowds of people. Boat races 
 also are sometimes held in the calm waters about New York. 
 
 Skating is practised with great animation, and thousands of people col- 
 lect on the Delaware, at Philadelphia, when the stream is frozen. An ox, 
 on such occasions, has sometimes been roasted on the ice, near the Mari- 
 ners' hotel, which is the hull of a large vessel, moored in the river. Skat- 
 ing is very general amusement in the northern parts of the United States, 
 and there are few boys who have not a pair of skates. Coasting is another 
 winter pastime, in which, as in many other games, the labor seems to be 
 at least equal to the pleasure. When the snow covers the earth, a troop 
 of joyous boys assemble on the top of a long and steep hill, and each one 
 sitting upon a little sled, gives it an impulse which carries him to the bot- 
 
 * Mr. Hamilton observes — I passed an hour or two very agreeably at one of a series 
 of meetings, which are called ' Wistar parties,' from the name of the gentleman at whose 
 house they were first held. Their effect and influence on society must be very salutary. 
 These parties bring together men of different classes and pursuits, and promote the free 
 interchange of opinion, always useful for the correction of prejudice. Such intercourse, 
 too, prevents the narrowness of thought, and exaggerated estimate of the value of our 
 own peculiar acquirements, which devotion to one exclusive object is apt to engender 
 in those who do not mix freely with the world. 
 
 These meetings are held by rotation at the houses of the different members. The 
 conversation is generally literary or scientific, and as the party is usually very large, it 
 can be varied at pleasure. Philosophers eat like other men, and the precaution of an 
 excellent supper is by no means found to be superfluous. It acts, too, as a gentle emol- 
 lient on the acrimony of debate. No man can say a harsh thing with his mouth full of 
 turkey, and disputants forget their differences in unity of enjoyment. 
 
 At these parties, I met several ingenious men, of a class something below that of the 
 ordinary members. When an operative mechanic attracts notice by his zeal for im- 
 provement in any branch of science, he is almost uniformly invited to the Wistar meet- 
 ings. The advantage of this policy is obviously very great. A modest and deserving 
 man is brought into notice. His errors are corrected, his ardor is stimulated, his taste 
 improved. A healthy connection is kept up between the different classes of society, and 
 the feeling of mutual sympathy is duly cherished. During my stay in Philadelphia, I 
 was present at several of these Wistar meetings, and always returned from them with 
 increased conviction of their beneficial tendency. 
 
 ■53 39 
 
458 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 torn with accelerating velocity, and far into the plain below. The mo- 
 tion is sometimes so swift that it is like the sweep of an eagle. In the 
 cities, fatal accidents occur in following this amusement, and there are 
 generally penalties imposed by law for pursuing it there. 
 
 The coasting is performed, however, in the country, upon a grander 
 scale ; the great ox sled, or sledge, is carried up with commendable perse- 
 verance and toil, and so covered with youth of both sexes, that little of the 
 timber appears. When fitted, it is launched ; but when adrift it is more 
 difficult to be guided than the single sledge, and the whole freight is some- 
 times turned topsy turvy into a snow bank half way down thfe hill. This, 
 however, seems to increase the enjoyment. This practice of coasting is 
 even more common in New England than in the middle states. 
 
 There are some traits of character which run through the southern 
 states, modified by a variety of circumstances, but most obviously and 
 generally by the system of domestic slavery. The character of Virginia 
 and South Carolina is perhaps, in many respects, superior to that of the 
 Southern states, yet the principal characteristics are common to all. In 
 Virginia, many of the old English modes of life are retained, and the do- 
 mains of the landed proprietors have the extent of English baronies. At- 
 tachment to home, family connections, and profuse hospitality, eminently 
 distinguish this high-minded and honorable class. 
 
 The people of Carolina, who dwell in the lower country, are annually 
 compelled to leave their homes, however attached to them. None can 
 travel without gaining knowledge, and losing prejudices, and the Caroli- 
 nians are, to a great degree, liberal and intelligent. To remain in sum- 
 mer on the plantations, is at the risk of life ; they are therefore found, at 
 that season, in the northern and eastern states, and in Europe. They are 
 social, and in general closely united. In NeAv England, gentlemen of 
 neighboring towns are often unacquainted with each other ; but in Caro- 
 lina, the acquaintance extends over the state. This arises from the inter- 
 course of the capital, where all are found in spring, and from the fellow- 
 ships that are formed in packets, or while residing or travelling in other 
 states. 
 
 It may be thought that the life of a southern agriculturist is one of 
 indolence and ease. It is the very reverse ; it is one of far greater activity 
 than is led by gentlemen of wealth elsewhere. The cares of a plantation 
 are sufficient to consume the day, and the planter is often on horseback in 
 his fields, till evening. His notions of space are so liberal, that he will 
 readily ride a dozen miles to dine, and he engages in the chase with his 
 characteristic ardor. No men ride so fearlessly ; and the game is followed 
 at full speed in thick woods, among holes, horizontal branches, and pros- 
 trate trunks. The social relations are admirable. The season for visiting 
 is never over, and as the social is as much increased as any other principle, 
 by cultivation, here it attains to its best growth. There is, among relatives, 
 great kindliness of feeling, and the circle it embraces is wider than in New 
 England. Any one may, as far as affinity can be traced, 
 
 'Claim kindred there, and have his claim allowed.' 
 
 Gentlemen meet at frequent intervals in club houses, often built in the 
 Woods, Where the entertainment is furnished by each one in turn. 
 
 The people of the south have more haughtiness, courtesy, and a higher 
 
h POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 459 
 
 estimation of personal dignity, than those of the north. Pride is the na- 
 tural consequence of superiority of station, though it is generally incompa- 
 tible with meanness. A planter would be more apt to do what he would 
 be sorry for, than what he would be ashamed of. A slight wound of 
 
 ftride is more strictly avenged, than a greater injury to property ; and a 
 ack of courtesy is perhaps as much reprobated as a breach in morals. 
 Duelling is the natural growth of such a state, and though it is not fre- 
 quent, it is but too well established by custom. The challenged is held to 
 fight, even if he feel no resentment, or has done no injustice ; and he 
 sometimes perils his life for mere expediency : as he would put it to some 
 risk to preserve his property, he is led to believe that he must do it also to 
 save his character. 
 
 ' The poles,' says a recent traveller, ' are not more diametrically opposed, 
 than a native of the states south of the Potomac, and a New Englander. 
 They differ in every thing of thought, feeling, and opinion. The latter is 
 a man of regular and decorous habits, shrewd, intelligent, and persevering; 
 phlegmatic in temperament, devoted to the pursuits of gain, and envious 
 of those who are more successful than himself. The former — I speak of 
 the opulent and educated — is distinguished by a high-mindedness, gene- 
 rosity, and hospitality, by no means predicable of his more eastern neigh- 
 bors. He values money only for the enjoyments it can procure, is fond 
 of gayety, given to social pleasures, somewhat touchy and choleric, and as 
 eager to avenge an insult as to show a kindness. To fight a duel in the 
 New England states would, under almost any circumstances, be disgrace- 
 ful. To refuse a challenge, to tolerate even an insinuation derogatory from 
 personal honor, would be considered equally so in the South. 
 
 ' In point of manner, the southern gentlemen are decidedly superior to 
 all others of the union. Being more dependent on social intercourse, they 
 are at greater pains, perhaps, to render it agreeable. There is more spirit 
 and vivacity about them, and far less of that prudent caution, which, how- 
 ever advantageous on the exchange, is by no means prepossessing at the 
 dinner-table, or in the drawing-room. When at Washington, I was a good 
 deal thrown into the society of members from the South, and left it armed, 
 by their kindness, with a multitude of letters, of which I regret that my 
 hurried progress did not permit me to avail myself. Many of them were 
 men of much accomplishment, and I think it probable that Englishmen, 
 unconnected with business, would generally prefer the society of gentlemen 
 of this portion of the union, to any other which the country affords.' 
 
 The amusements and occupations of the people inhabiting the valley 
 of the Mississippi afford no great scope to the pen of the true chronicler, 
 though they have often furnished materials for the foreign traveller and 
 the novelist. A new country, inhabited by what may be called, in some 
 sort, a new people, must, however, present some scenes which may serve 
 to amuse, if not to instruct.* 
 
 New Orleans seems, by common consent, to be the focus in which the 
 eccentricities of Missouri, Kentucky, and the rest of the western country 
 concentrate. Here are seen the Spaniard with his lazo, the Kentuckian 
 with his broad-horn, or fiat-bottomed ark, the merchant from Europe or the 
 
 * For interesting sketches of western manners and customs, see the Transatlantic 
 Sketches, by Alexander, and the valuable works of Mr. Flint. 
 
460 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 New England states, stepping stately from the deck of his ship, the slave 
 with his burthen on his shoulders, and the gambler looking out for his 
 prey. Not the least interesting of the classes of this heterogenous popula- 
 tion, are the women who have not the pure white complexion of the Atlan- 
 tic coast, or the crisp locks and bent limbs of their remote African ances- 
 tors. These females hold an anomalous position among the races by 
 whom they are surrounded, which will require some further comment. 
 They are called quadroons, mustees, mulattoes, &c. as the purity of their 
 parentage or the circumstances of their birth may require. 
 
 These women, being generally the offspring of white men of standing 
 and respectability, are left in singularly unfortunate circumstances. They 
 have the feelings, and, in a considerable degree, the education and senti- 
 ments of their more pure-blooded countrywomen. Nevertheless, the pre- 
 judice, or feeling, be it natural or not, which inclines every free white 
 American to view the whole African race as an inferior order of mankind, 
 prevents any legitimate union with them. So situated, they make the 
 best of the condition into which the accident of birth, and not their own 
 fault, has thrown them. They form temporary connections with such re- 
 spectable whites as are able to maintain them in ease, and attachments are 
 often formed, which are not surpassed, or scarcely equalled, by any of 
 which we read in romance. However, the connection is generally consi- 
 dered in the light of a bargain. The mother promenades with her fairer 
 daughter on the levee, till some white stranger, smitten with the charms 
 of the latter, makes a proposal. A bargain is made, limited in time, or 
 unlimited, according to circumstances, and a breach of faith, thus plighted, 
 rarely occurs. This connection, infamous as it seems, involves no disgrace 
 in New Orleans. It is the most respectable condition to which a female, 
 who is conscious of the taint of black blood, can aspire. She is neither 
 shunned nor scorned, and may hold up her head in any company into 
 which she may happen to enter. 
 
 Strange scenes sometimes occur, in consequence of the mixture of races 
 on the banks of the levee of New Orleans. The small trader tries to take 
 advantage of all with whom he is thrown in contact. The Indian begs, 
 the over-wrought slave groans, the backwoodsman bullies. ' Twenty dol- 
 lars,' cried a Kentuckian boatman, stepping upon the levee, 'to any man 
 who stops my moderate head-way.' A Mexican hunter of wild horses, 
 who rode quietly behind him, threw his lazo over his head, wheeled his 
 horse short round, and gallopped up the levee, dragging the boaster after 
 him. 
 
 Gaming is practised in New Orleans, probably to a greater extent than 
 in any other part of the United States. The vice being considered little 
 or no shame, houses are kept openly. This may be considered one great 
 well-spring of social corruption. 
 
 The inhabitants of the states on the Ohio and Mississippi raise great 
 quantities of grain, not to speak of pork and other commodities which 
 bring profit to American agriculturists. New Orleans is the mart where 
 these articles find a vent, and the principal object of a western farmer is to 
 get them thither. To this effect, he builds what he calls a flat boat, that is 
 to say, a large square box, without a lid, capable of containing and trans- 
 porting many tons. The materials of this vehicle are found in abundance 
 all ovBr the valley of the Mississippi, and the cost of building it is there- 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 461 
 
 fore small. In this bark the farmer commits himself to the waters, and if 
 he escapes snags, sawyers, &c. which usually happens, he arrives in New 
 Orleans, where he disposes of his produce. Keel boats are also used for 
 the transportation of goods and produce, but since steamboats have become 
 common on the Mississippi waters, they have in a great measure supersed- 
 ed the aforesaid means of conveyance. Still, the keel and fiat boats may 
 merit a description. The former were nearly in the form of the packets 
 used on the Erie and Middlesex canals, and were propelled by poles, oars, 
 and sails. The latter were unmanagable hulks, which floated at the mer- 
 cy of the current, and could only be diverted from rocks, snags, and other 
 perils of river navigation, by the use of sweeps, which, however, could 
 only move them in a lateral direction. On arriving at New Orleans, their 
 owners broke them up, as no human power could have taken them up 
 stream, and sold them for fire wood. They then returned to their homes 
 by land. Flat and keel boats are now rarely seen on the western waters ; 
 but when they were the only means of transportation, they reared a hardy 
 class, fit to fight with Indians, or to subdue the wilderness. This class, 
 thanks to steam navigation, is now on the verge of extinction, and the 
 valley of the Mississippi has seen 'the Last of the Boatmen.' 
 
 ' King balls' are still in vogue in this region, both in the white and free 
 colored classes. A ball is given, precisely like those known in other parts 
 of the United States, excepting in one particular. He who gives the ball, 
 singles out a lady whom he designates his ' queen,' to whom he gives, and 
 who receives, his exclusive attention, for the remainder of the season. 
 The other guests do likewise, and the queens frequently receive presents 
 to a large amount, before the temporary connection is dissolved. Evil is 
 seldom, if ever, known to come of this custom. 
 
 Rough athletic sports, racing and shooting matches, are the most common 
 amusements of the men of the west. It is common for parties to test their 
 marksmanship by squirrel shooting, with the western weapon, the rifle. 
 The hunter aims solely at the head of the little animal, and the shot which 
 takes effect in any other part is reckoned as nothing. The rifle used in 
 this and other sports, is very different from those used by volunteer com- 
 panies in the eastern states, the barrel being very heavy, the bore small, 
 and the sights adjusted with scrupulous accuracy. Hence the proverbial 
 marksmanship of the backwoodsmen, so apparent at New Orleans and 
 elsewhere. The feats of individual hunters almost transcend belief. Some 
 have been known to throw two apples into the air, and strike them both 
 with a single bullet as they crossed each other, and it is not uncommon 
 for one man to hold up a small object for another to shoot at. The cele- 
 brated ' Mike Fink ' used to amuse himself by shooting off the tails of 
 swine, as they ran, and hitting his wife's comb upon her head. 
 
 A pastime is sometimes practised at weddings and other high festive 
 occasions, w T hich is called a goose ox gander pulling. The manner is this. 
 The toughest goose is selected from the flock, and its neck is stripped of 
 its feathers, and then well soaped or greased. A suitable tree is next se- 
 lected, an oak or hickory being preferred. The feet of the fowl are then 
 made fast to the extremity of a pliant limb, about as high as a man on 
 horseback can reach. Bets are made, and a prize proposed. The first 
 sportsman rides under the tree at full speed, and snatches at the neck of 
 the devoted fowl as he passes. If he succeeds in pulling off its head, he 
 
 39* 
 
462 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 gains the prize ; but this rarely happens at the first trial. The neck is too 
 slippery, the animal sees and avoids the horseman's grasp, and the sway- 
 ing branch aids its efforts. Besides, the exploit requires no little strength 
 of arm, and is seldom accomplished without sundry falls and bruises ; all 
 of which are considered matter of merriment. 
 
 The slaves of that section have little amusement, save what they derive 
 from their constitutional good humor. Dances and corn huskings, or 
 shuckings, are their chief pastimes. After laboring hard all day, the negro 
 will cheerfully run to a dance, half a score of miles off, and get back to his 
 toil before morning. A corn shucking is a matter of more importance. 
 The sable helots sit in a circle round the heap of maize, keeping time with 
 head and hand to some rude ditty like the following : — 
 
 ' I wish that I had the wings of an eagle ! 
 
 Ho ! ho ! he — ho — ho ! 
 I 'd fly away to a wild-goose country, 
 
 Ho, ho, he — ho — ho !' 
 
 This is sometimes accompanied by the banjoe, a kind of rude fiddle. 
 ' Possum up a gum stump,' is a great favorite with these choristers. 
 
 Buffalo hunting was once, as deer hunting is now, a favorite amusement 
 of the backwoodsmen. The wild cattle have long since receded beyond 
 the Mississippi, and now furnish sport only to the wandering Indians, 
 their traders, and the no less hardy bands of trappers and hunters. Some 
 account of the manner of taking this huge animal may not be out of 
 place here. 
 
 The scent of the buffalo, though otherwise it is a very stupid animal, is 
 exceedingly acute. It will scent a man more than a league, and flee in 
 alarm, though it is not terrified at the sight of the human race. Hence it 
 is necessary for the pedestrian hunter to get to leeward of the object of his 
 pursuit. Having approached the animal as nearly as he well may, he 
 stoops, then gets upon all fours, and finally drags himself along prone, 
 pushing his firelock before him. If there be long grass, or if, in winter, 
 the snow be deep, the circumstance much facilitates his operations. If the 
 animal ceases to feed to look at him, he stops and remains motionless till 
 it begins to graze again. By observing these precautions, the buffalo may 
 be approached to within a few yards. When the hunter is nigh enough, 
 he directs his aim behind the beast's fore-shoulder, and inflicts a mortal 
 wound. This, however, is but a slow and unsatisfactory mode of hunting, 
 inasmuch as it consumes much time, and only one buffalo can be killed in 
 many hours. The best and most experienced hunters follow the chase 
 on horseback. 
 
 The mounted sportsman dashes into the thick of the herd, and singles 
 out the best and fattest. The buffalo, when frightened, runs fast, but awk- 
 wardly. His gait is that of a swine, and this peculiar gait the trained 
 horse acquires, and assumes when beside the game, obeying the least pres- 
 sure of the rider's foot or knee. The hunter takes care to keep at least 
 his horse's length from the buffalo, in order that, if the latter should turn 
 upon him, which he will certainly do if wounded, he may have time and 
 space to escape. All precautions being duly taken, the horseman throws 
 the reins on his steed's neck, holds his gun stiffly with both hands, and 
 fires. The horse swerves at the flash, and the rider directs him to 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 463 
 
 new game, himself loading at full speed. An expert huntsman will kill 
 as many as half a score of buffaloes at one race, and rarely misses the 
 heart. 
 
 When an Indian wounds a buffalo, he leaves it to die or separate from 
 the herd, and his companions never interfere with what has thus become 
 his property. Few of the skins of the animals so killed are taken, and the 
 greater part of the flesh remains a prey to the wolves and ravens. When 
 the cattle are in plenty, they are slain merely for their tongues, humps, 
 and other delicate morsels. Vast havoc is made of them every year. 
 
 The more remote Indians, not being provided with fire arms, use bows 
 and arrows in the chase, and with great effect. A single arrow is often 
 known to go through and through a buffalo, and it is seldom a shaft 
 stops short of the feather. But whether it strike deep or not, if it does but 
 stick, the animal's fate is sealed. It works inward as he runs, and even- 
 tually reaches the vitals. 
 
 It is a cheering sight to see an Indian buffalo hunt. The tread of the 
 herd shakes the solid earth ; the hunters animate each other with loud 
 shouts, and the guns flash incessantly. Here a rider is seen fleeing for 
 life before some infuriated animal ; there a buffalo stands at bay. Alto- 
 gether, the scene produces an excitement which those only who have felt 
 can conceive. The passion for this chase increases with time, and few 
 professed buffalo hunters leave it before age disables them. 
 
 There are many apparent dangers in buffalo hunting. The prairies 
 are full of holes dug by badgers and other burrowing animals, in which 
 the hor.se may stumble, and there is some risk from the horns of the chase. 
 Nevertheless, it is seldom that any serious accident occurs. 
 
 Another mode of taking the buffalo was formerly in use among the 
 Indians of the Mississippi. Two rows of stakes were planted in the prai- 
 rie, gradually converging, till at their extremity they barely left a passage 
 into an inclosure of a few yards in area. These rows were a league or 
 more in length, and on the top of each stake was placed a piece of turf, 
 which frightened the cattle, and prevented them from attempting to escape 
 in a lateral direction. The herd, being pursued by horsemen to the en- 
 trance of this artificial defile, were driven onward till they reached the 
 pound, when the entrance was closed, and the work of destruction began. 
 Few ever escaped, for the buffalo has little sagacity, and, being thus shut 
 up, will run round and round, without attempting to break through the 
 barriers which inclose them. This mode of hunting is still practised by 
 some of the more remote tribes.* 
 
 Deer are hunted on the Mississippi, both by whites and Indians, in a 
 way unknown in the eastern states. In the hot nights of summer, the 
 deer resort to streams and ponds, to escape from the myriads of mosquitoes 
 with which the woods teem, and stand immersed in the water for hours. 
 Sportsmen take advantage of this habit to destroy them. A board is 
 placed in the front of a canoe, before which burns a torch. The board 
 serves to deflect the light from the person of the hunter, who paddles as 
 silently as possible along the margin. The devoted deer seems to be 
 fascinated by the glare of the torch, and suffers the canoe to approach 
 
 * For a full description, see Captain Franklin's Narrative. 
 
464 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 within five yards of him. Nay, even the sound of a gun close at hand 
 will scarce startle him. Two or three are often killed within a stone's 
 throw of each other. 
 
 We are not aware that, besides the particulars already noticed under 
 this head, there are any occupations or amusements peculiar to the people 
 of the west, of sufficient importance to require description. 
 
466' 
 
 CHAPTER XIV.— PENITENTIARY SYSTEM. 
 
 Most of the improvements made in the manner of punishing and re- 
 forming' persons convicted of enormous crimes in the United States may 
 justly be attributed to the studies and exertions of enlightened members of 
 the Prison Discipline Society. To their reports and publications, there- 
 fore, must we look for a correct synopsis of this system, so highly appre- 
 ciated among ourselves, so much decried by the high-priest of British pre- 
 judice, captain Basil Hall. 
 
 The first annual meeting of the above-named society took place on the 
 second of June, A. D. 1826, in Boston. The report declares that its object 
 was the improvement of public prisons. It contained many lucid remarks 
 on the existing state of these prisons, but, as it is with the present, rather 
 than with the past, that we have to do, we shall pretermit these. It ap- 
 pears, however, that many of the jails of that time were very insecure — 
 that solitary confinement gave the best promise of the desirable security, 
 and prevented prisoners from corrupting each other — that frequent inspec- 
 tions were necessary, to prevent plans of escape — that prisons, from 
 mere humanity, should be better ventilated, and so lighted as to enable the 
 convicts at least to read the word of God — that cleanliness had, in many 
 instances, been neglected — that amended means of instruction in the me- 
 chanic arts were highly desirable — that the condition of the sick was much 
 neglected — and, in short, that the condition of the jails and penitentiaries 
 of the United States was little better than that of European places of pun- 
 ishment. The improvements which have since been made will better ap- 
 pear from positive, authenticated facts, than from the idle speculations of 
 theorists and travellers. 
 
 When the above society was formed, there were but two prisons on the 
 principle of solitary confinement in the United States, — at Thomaston, 
 Maine, and Auburn, New York, containing between three and four hun- 
 dred night rooms, and four or five thousand convicts. Full six thousand 
 solitary cells have since been built. The prisons /low constructed on this 
 principle are twenty-nine in number, and are all on the general plan of the 
 Auburn prison, with some slight varieties of construction. As many of 
 the prisons are nearly identical in construction with this last, a description 
 of it will probably not be unacceptable. 
 
 The external wall of this establishment comprises an area of upwards 
 of sixteen thousand feet, in which is contained the prisons, yards, lumber 
 yard, (very large,) garden of about four thousand five hundred feet, keep- 
 er's house, guard room, a great number of shops, bathing pools, and other 
 offices. Two large buildings, on the old plan, and which were formerly 
 ased as night rooms, are no longer dedicated to that purpose. These, 
 together with the keeper's house and the prisons, form three sides of a 
 square, which opens upon an area, surrounded, first by the shops, and then 
 by the exterior wall. 
 69 
 
466 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The external wall of the principal prison, (that in the northern wing,) 
 is thirty feet high, two hundred and six feet long, forty-six feet wide, and 
 three feet thick. It incloses an area of five hundred feet. The long bar- 
 rack, thus surrounded by this external wall, is divided from end to end by 
 a solid and continuous wall of masonry, two feet thick. On each side of 
 this, the cells designed for the prisoners are arranged. To explain this more 
 fully ; a long, narrow building, of solid granite and lime, is equally divided, 
 from end to end, by a solid wall. On each side of this wall, and within 
 the outer wall of the building, are a great number of cells, so arranged as 
 to effect the greatest economy of room. Outside the exterior walls of these 
 cells, is another wall, ten feet distant from them, and thirty feet high. 
 Beyond this second wall are certain yards, surrounded by a third wall, and 
 in the said wall, as well as in the ten-foot-wide gallery between the cells 
 and the thirty-foot wall, keepers and sentinels are constantly moving. 
 Thus, if a prisoner should break out of his cell, he must first pass or kill a 
 sentinel, then force a second wall, then pass through a yard in which other 
 sentinels are stationed, and then climb over another wall. So great is the 
 security thus afforded, that during many years, it is believed that in prisons 
 thus constructed, but one serious attempt at escape has occurred, and in 
 that instance it was unsuccessful. 
 
 Prisons built on this plan are thought to combine the advantages of 
 security, solitary confinement, inspection, ventilation, light, cleanliness, 
 instruction, and proper attendance on the sick. 
 
 The exterior wall of the cells, which looks upon the area ten feet wide, 
 is two feet thick. The walls which separate the cells are one foot thick. 
 Thus a recess is formed at each door, which deadens the sound, should 
 one prisoner attempt to hold communication with another. The only 
 opening from each cell is an open grate in the upper part of the door, 
 twenty inches long by eighteen wide, and defended by thick iron bars. 
 Through this glazed grate, light, air, and heat are admitted to the cell. 
 The door is fastened by a strong latch, connected with a hook and a bar 
 of iron. It is thus almost impossible for one prisoner to communicate with 
 another, even if there were no sentinel present to listen.^ 
 
 * At the period when the prison was erected, the legislature of the state, and the 
 public, had become so dissatisfied with the mode of penitentiary punishment, without 
 solitary confinement, then existing, which seemed rather to harden than to have a ten- 
 dency to reform the delinquents, that it was generally believed, that, unless a severe 
 system was adopted, the old sanguinary criminal code must be restored. The legisla- 
 ture of New York state, therefore, in the year 1821, directed a selection of the oldest 
 and most heinous offenders to be made, who should be confined constantly in solitary 
 cells. Eighty convicts were accordingly put into solitary cells, on the twenty-fifth of 
 December, 1821. Five of those convicts died during the year preceding January, 1823, 
 while only five died out of one hundred and forty convicts confined at the same time in 
 prison, but who were kept to labor. The health of the solitary convicts was very soon 
 seriously impaired. Some of them became insane ; and the effect of this constant im- 
 prisonment was not more favorable to reformation than to mental and bodily health. 
 
 Before the end of 1823, exclusive solitary confinement was entirely discontinued, and 
 the present successful system, combining solitude and silence with labor, introduced ; a 
 majority of the commissioners, who examined the prison, having reported, that they 
 were entirely averse to solitary confinement without labor, on the grounds of its being 
 injurious to health, expensive, affording no means of reformation, and unnecessarily 
 severe. La Fayette, when he was lately in the United States, and heard of the experi- 
 ment of exclusive solitary confinement, said it was just a revival of the practice in the 
 Bastile, which had so dreadful an effect on the poor prisoners. < I repaired,' he said, 
 
~ POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 467 
 
 The economy of this mode of building is evident. A convenient hospi- 
 tal may be made, by dispensing- with the partition walls between four of 
 the cells in the upper story. Thus constructed, four hundred cells, seven 
 feet long, seven high, and three and a half feet wide, cover only two hun- 
 dred and six by forty-six feet of ground. At Auburn, five small stoves 
 and eighteen lamps, great and small, placed in the ten-feet area, beyond 
 the reach of the prisoners, give light and heat to five hundred and forty 
 cells. One sentinel suffices to guard four hundred prisoners, and to pre- 
 vent communication between them. The space in front of the cells is, like 
 the ear of Dionysius, a perfect sounding gallery, so that the sentinel, in the 
 area, can hear a whisper from a distant cell, in the upper story. The 
 experiment has been often tried, and always with the same result. 
 
 The rules and regulations found most effectual in this and other prisons, 
 are as follows : On entering, a criminal should undergo a thorough cleans- 
 ing. It should be a part of the regulations to classify the prisoners. Men 
 and women should be separated, as also old and young, condemned and 
 uncondemned, debtors and criminals. Prisoners should be comfortably 
 clothed, and fed with wholesome food. Employment should be provided 
 for such as have trades, and trades should be taught to such as have none, 
 so that they may not be a burthen to the society they have offended, or be 
 compelled to resort to crime for subsistence when discharged. All these, 
 and many other desirable ends, are believed to have been attained in Au- 
 burn, and other prisons conducted on the same plan. 
 
 The government of Auburn is confided to five inspectors, a keeper, a 
 deputy keeper, a clerk, sixteen assistant keepers, who are master workmen 
 in the shops, five sentinels, a porter, a physician, and a chaplain. The 
 inspectors receive no compensation ; that of the officers amounts to an ag- 
 gregate of four thousand and thirty-two dollars per annum. No spirituous 
 liquors are used by any officer, or are allowed to be introduced into the 
 establishment by the guard, when on duty, nor is any officer to invite the 
 others together for the purpose of drinking, or treating, as it is called. All 
 the turnkeys are required to attend divine service excepting two, who cannot 
 be spared from the prison and the kitchen. A uniform gravity and dignity 
 are constantly maintained by the officers in presence of the convicts, and 
 they are expected, at all times, to treat each other with that respect and 
 kindness which are calculated to advance the best interests of the insti- 
 tution. 
 
 The convicts march to and from their rest, food, and labor, at stated 
 times, in profound silence. The order of their march is in single file, to 
 the lock-step, keeping their faces toward the keeper, that he may detect 
 conversation, if it should be attempted. The same silence and good order 
 are enforced, as far as possible, in every business, and in every depart- 
 ment. The duty of the keepers is to prevent conversation, looking at 
 spectators, and idle diversion ; for this purpose, as well as to keep the con- 
 
 < to the scene on the second day of the demolition, and found that all the prisoners had 
 been deranged by their solitary confinement, except one ; he had been a prisoner 
 twenty-five years, and was led forth during the height of the tumultuous riot of the 
 people, whilst engaged in tearing down the building. He looked around with amaze- 
 ment, for he had seen nobody for that space of time ; and, before night, he was so 
 much affected, that he became a confirmed maniac, from which situation he never re- 
 covered.' 
 
468 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 # 
 
 viots at work, they are continually walking about the shops. The stillness 
 and order of divine service are truly impressive, and during- the night the 
 area about the cells is a scene of peculiar solemnity and gloom. A hun- 
 dred or more young convicts acquire the rudiments of learning in the 
 Sunday school. 
 
 A valuable experiment on the subject of temperance was first made in 
 this prison, and has since been carried into effect in all the rest. The 
 convicts being strictly debarred the use of tobacco, ardent spirits, and all 
 other stimulants, it was found that the health of the most abandoned 
 drunkards did not suffer, contrary to the common idea that the grossly in- 
 temperate cannot at once break off from the use of spirits without danger. 
 It appears that, for a few days, they are uneasy, and lose their appetite, 
 after which they eat heartily, and uniformly improve in health and ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 The mode of punishment in this and similar prisons merits some atten- 
 tion. Stripes, fetters, solitary confinement, and hunger are used, and 
 there is much difference of opinion respecting their respective degrees of 
 utility. In some extensive establishments, stripes and chains are not used 
 at all ; in others, recourse is had to stripes only. It is so in Auburn. In 
 Richmond, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, Charlestown, and Concord, 
 solitary confinement, with a reduced allowance of bread and water, is pre- 
 ferred. In Connecticut, all the above methods are practised, and severe 
 hunger is often found efficacious. If the efficacy of the different modes is 
 to be tested by the results they produce on discipline, Auburn seems to show 
 that stripes are better than other punishments. The difference in the order 
 industry, and subdued feeling of the prisoners, is in favor of Auburn, though, 
 perhaps, this is as much to be ascribed to their separation by night, and othei 
 salutary regulations, as to the mode of physical correction. The advocate* 
 for whipping urge, that it requires less time than other punishments, that 
 the mind of the sufferer does not so long dwell on it, that it is less severe, 
 and that it can more easily be proportioned to the offence. On the other 
 hand, it is said that solitary confinement will subdue men hardened against 
 all other inflictions, and no doubt it has so operated in very many cases. 
 Be the question decided as it may, the remark of the London Prison Dis- 
 cipline Society's seventh annual report is undeniably untrue, viz. that 
 'solitary confinement, unmitigated by employment either of body or mind, 
 is the most prominent feature in the discipline now recommended in the 
 United States.' 
 
 We are unable, both from the want of space and of sufficient means of 
 information, to enter into minute details respecting the government of 
 many of the prisons. At Sing-sing, on the Hudson river, the convicts are 
 awakened in the morning by a bell ; but before they are let out of their 
 cells, the chaplain reads a prayer that may be heard by all on one side, the 
 space between the cells and the external wall being a perfect sounding 
 gallery. The doors are then opened, and the prisoners step forth, at the 
 word of command, into the gallery. They are then marched to the work- 
 shops, stopping on the way to wash themselves. One party cleanses the 
 whole establishment, another attends to washing, and another to cooking. 
 The whole body then go to their fixed tasks, such as hewing stone, sawing 
 marble, forging iron, and the various mechanic arts with which they may 
 be acquainted. Each shop is superintended by a turnkey, wiio must him- 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 469 
 
 trustworthy master-workman, in order that he may instruct those 
 charge. While in the shops, the prisoners are placed with their 
 ^711 in one direction, so that there can he no communication by looks 
 or signs. From twenty to thirty are engaged in each shop, and one good 
 man is found able to keep that number of hardened villains in order. 
 
 A narrow, dark passage runs along the back of the shops, with narrow 
 slits in the wall, through which the superintendent may observe the con- 
 duct of bnth the convicts and the turnkeys, himself unseen by either. 
 This certainty of being at all moments liable to an authorized espionage, 
 cannot fail to keep all parties careful of their behavior. 
 
 At eight, at the sound of the bell, the convicts are again marched to 
 their cells, at the doors of which their breakfasts have already been placed. 
 They are locked in, and eat in solitude and silence. In twenty minutes, 
 they are again marched to their work, and at noon they go to dinner in 
 precisely the same manner, and at night to supper. At a fixed hour, the 
 bell warns them to undress and go to bed, after having heard the chap- 
 lain's prayer, as in the morning. The next day brings the same dull, un- 
 varied round, convincing them that they are indeed cut off from mankind, 
 and that for the purpose of punishment. It should seem that if any thing 
 could make the wicked turn from his wickedness, it would be the prospect 
 of passing years in this manner. 
 
 It is the practice of Mr. Barrett, the resident clergyman, every evening 
 to read a portion of the Scriptures to the convicts, from the gallery, then to 
 offer explanatory remarks, and to conclude with prayer. After divine ser- 
 vice on Sundays, he spends a considerable portion of time in talking with 
 them in their cells, and, hardened as they are, none of them have shown 
 any want of respect, or unwillingness to hear. 
 
 The inspectors of the Auburn prison stated to the legislature of New 
 York, in 1S28, that the labors of the convicts nad become so much more 
 productive than in former times, they thought no further appropriations 
 would be necessary for the support of that establishment. In the same 
 year, the earnings of the Wethersfield (Connecticut) prison gave, in six 
 months, a net gain of one thousand and seventeen dollars over and above 
 the expenses of their government and support. A large gain is believed 
 to be obtained in other penitentiaries. The following facts will show the 
 superiority of United States prisons, in this particular, to those of England. 
 In one year, twelve of the most productive prisons in England contained 
 three thousand, six hundred and ninety-nine convicts, who earned forty- 
 one thousand, seven hundred and twenty-seven dollars. In five prisons in 
 the United States, during the same length of time, there were but nine 
 hundred and ninety-nine convicts, and they earned eighty-one thousand, 
 nine hundred and seventy-nine dollars. That is, a little more than a 
 fourth of the number of American convicts earn more than double the 
 amount of nearly four times the number of convicts in England. This 
 difference depends, no doubt, greatly on discipline, and also on difference 
 of diet. In the five American prisons to which we have referred, at least 
 a pound of animal food is given to each man, per diem. In England, the 
 quantity is from a pound to half a pound per week, scarcely sufficient to 
 keep up the strength of a laboring man. 
 
 In some of the penitentiaries, if not in all, a Bible is placed in each cell; 
 the only book the prisoner is permitted to see. It is not required that he 
 
 40 ... 
 
470 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 should read it ; but it can scarcely be supposed that he will lonJ 
 to do so, since it is the only amusement he can possibly hope f<>r^ 
 only occupation which can relieve the soul-subduing monotony of nf 
 tude. ' I should like to see what sort of stuff the Bible is made of,' said 
 one very obdurate sinner to the chaplain. With the same feeling will the 
 convict, who at first scoffs at religion, find that this privilege is the only 
 link of kindness which connects him with his species, and perhaps eventu- 
 ally find inestimable profit in it. 
 
 Some of the convicts, especially the foreigners, being unable to read, it 
 Was thought expedient, at Auburn, to establish the Sunday school. Fifty 
 of the most ignorant convicts were placed in it, and they embraced the 
 privilege with eagerness and thankfulness. The school has since been 
 increased to a hundred and twenty-five scholars. They are divided into 
 classes of five or six, and instructed by students in the Auburn Theological 
 Seminary, who benevolently give their services. However, no greater re- 
 laxation of the ordinary discipline than is absolutely necessary takes place 
 on these occasions. While the classes are under the superintendence of 
 the chaplain, they are also closely watched by the officers. The annual 
 report of 1828 shows that nearly a fourth of the whole number of convicts 
 attended the Sunday school. 
 
 It will not be supposed that the effects of the system of which we have 
 given a brief sketch, are beneficial in all cases ; but it cannot be denied 
 that they are often so, and that a great many convicts have been reformed. 
 One great advantage is gained, at any rate : the men who would, in En- 
 gland, be put to a shameful death, are made to live and be harmless, if not, 
 indeed, actually serviceable to society. The persons subjected to this dis- 
 cipline are the most depraved and ignorant men in the land. Many of 
 them have learned vice as a science, and have become unable, from the 
 force of habit, to control their wicked propensities. It is not to be hoped 
 that all, or even a great portion of such a class, can be radically reform- 
 ed ; but they can, at least, be rendered less wicked. Beside this, the safe 
 custody of the culprit is combined with enough punishment to make an 
 impression on the mind, and deter others from his offences. The system 
 is also entitled to much praise for having joined economy with humanity. 
 It may have faults, but, taken as a whole, we think the wisdom of man 
 may safely be challenged to make a better. 
 
 A late English traveller has offered a suggestion on this head, which 
 We think entitled to attentive consideration. He says, in substance, that a 
 powerful motive to virtue might easily be introduced into our penitentiaries ; 
 namely, hope. At present, severe coercion is the only means of preserving 
 discipline, and indeed it is indispensable. But hope may come in play with 
 fear. If disobedience be punished, obedience can be rewarded, and thus the 
 convicts would have a direct interest in conforming to the rules of the pri- 
 son. If a prisoner were sentenced for several years, and should behave 
 well for a Week, one day might be subtracted from the period of his con- 
 finement ; if he should still continue to do aright, his detention might be 
 further shortened, and in any ratio that might be thought expedient. By 
 this procedure, the seeds of virtue might be sown, and good habits formed. 
 
 It will not probably be thought amiss to conclude this article with a 
 glance at certain institutions, called houses of reformation for juvenile of- 
 fenders. There are several of them in the country, all designed to reclaim 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 471 
 
 children from incipient habits of vice, and they have certainly saved many 
 from state prison and gallows here, and perdition hereafter. The principal 
 two of these are in New York and South Boston. 
 
 In the South Boston school of reform, the boys are divided into grades, 
 and are promoted or degraded, as they improve or retrograde in morals. 
 When their reformation is supposed to be complete, they are apprenticed 
 to respectable citizens, who become bound to feed and clothe them, to give 
 them the means of instruction, to teach them some useful art, and, at the 
 expiration of their indentures, to give them a small sum of money to begin 
 the world with. As they generally come very ignorant to the institution, 
 and do not stay long in it, it cannot be expected that they should receive 
 very thorough instruction, but they are nevertheless taught the elements 
 of English education. They were formerly taught several mechanical 
 arts, (as they still are in New York,) but this having been thought to in- 
 terfere with the great business of moral reform, the plan has been aban- 
 doned. Many boys have been discharged as cured of their former habits 
 and feelings, most of whom have given entire satisfaction, and very few 
 indeed have relapsed. The institution has unquestionably been of great 
 benefit to society.* 
 
 * The following judicious remarks are from the excellent work of Mr. Stuart, and 
 indicate the estimation in which our penitentiary system is held by intelligent foreigners. 
 
 No attempt to regulate any of the prisons in this country according to the Auburn 
 plan has, so far as I have learned, been made. This appears the more extraordinary, 
 because it is stated, in the printed report of the agent of the Auburn prison for 1827, 
 that the British minister at Washington, Mr. Vaughan, after a critical examination of 
 the institution, declared in ardent language, that he hoped in God it would be made the 
 model of imitation, not only for this country, but for all Europe. And Mr. Vaughan 
 would, of course, not fail to make his opinion, and the results ort which it was founded, 
 known in the proper quarter. Great Britain ought, of all countries on the face of the 
 earth, to be the most grateful to the state of New York, for having set such an example 
 before her ; for in what country are there so many convicts in reference to the popula- 
 tion ? — where are they maintained at so great expense to the state ? — and where has so 
 little yet been done towards accomplishing the great end of punishment, — the diminu- 
 tion of offences by the terror of punishment ? — or in promoting the reformation of the 
 offenders ? 
 
 The Auburn system embraces all the objects which Howard, and the philanthropists 
 of this and the last century, have been endeavoring to attain. In the 3Iaison de Force, 
 at Ghent, which both Howard and Buxton visited, at different periods, thirty-four years 
 apart, and which both of them eulogize, the same management in respect to solitary 
 cells, silence, and labor, prevailed as at Auburn, and was attended with excellent ef- 
 fects ; but the convicts were allowed a certain portion of their earnings, and the system 
 was not adhered to with the exactness, precision, and regularity, which are indispensa- 
 bly necessary, so that at one period, the earnings of the prisoners were much reduced 
 in amount, and there was great laxity of discipline. Mr. Western, one of the magis- 
 trates of the county of Essex, and one of the representatives of that county in parlia- 
 ment, a gentleman whose benevolent and patriotic views are well known, has, in a 
 pamphlet on prison discipline, which he published a few years ago, suggested the fol- 
 lowing plan, the details of which he has well explained : — < Solitary confinement, march- 
 ing and remarching to the cells, as practised at Auburn ; hard labor for eight instead 
 of eleven hours, as at Auburn^but without restriction as to conversation, and with 
 liberty for airing and exercise for three hours.' And he asks, ' if each successive day 
 was spent in this manner, can it be doubted that the frequent commission of crime 
 would be checked, and more done to deter, correct, and reform, than could be accom- 
 plished by any other punishment? A period of such discipline, longer or shorter, ac- 
 cording to the nature of the offence, would surely be sufficient for any violation of the 
 law short of murder, or that descnption of outrage which is likely to lead to the perpe- 
 tratkm of it. This sort of treatment is not to be overcome : it cannot be braved, or 
 
472 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The other institutions of the same nature are conducted on the same 
 general principles. There are differences in their governments, endow- 
 ments, and discipline, but there is a strong general resemblance. It is not 
 for us to say which is best conducted, and we have only selected that in 
 South Boston, because, having witnessed its operation, we are able to bear 
 witness of its peculiar utility, and of the skill, patience, and integrity of the 
 gentlemen who have hitherto had charge of it. 
 
 laughed at, or disregarded by any force of animal spirits, however strong or vigorous 
 of mind or body the individual may be. The dull, unvarying course of hard labor, 
 ■with hard fare and seclusion, must in time become so painfully irksome, and so wear 
 and distress him, that he will, inevitably, in the end, be subdued.' If Mr. Western's 
 plan would be attended with the effects he describes, ' to deter, correct, and reform,' 
 how much more certainly would those consequences attend that followed at Auburn, 
 where the offenders suffer the penalty of total exclusion from society, deprived of all 
 knowledge of their friends and relations, and of their associates, even if confined in the 
 same prison with them ; are doomed to constant hard labor, their earnings altogether 
 applied for the benefit of the state ; subjected to stripes, inflicted summarily and in- 
 stantly, by any one of the keepers, for every infraction of the prison rules, even for the 
 slightest attempt to break silence, or for inattention to work, or not working constantly 
 and well. 
 
 The punishment of stripes has been found fault with ; but both at Ghent and Auburn, 
 the keepers have given it as their opinion, that constant labor, and the maintenance of 
 the very strict discipline enjoined, cannot be enforced without their having the power to 
 inflict this summary punishment. It is only permitted to be inflicted on the back of the 
 convict, in such manner as to produce personal suffering, without danger to the health 
 or any vital part. In point of fact, however, the certainty of punishment following 
 every offence is so thoroughly understood, that the power is, as already noticed, seldom 
 exercised. 
 
473 
 
 CHAPTER XVI.— LITERATURE AND EDUCATION. 
 
 The language of the United States differs little or nothing from that of 
 the middle and southern counties of England. The slight peculiarities 
 are chiefly such as relate to accent and intonation, and do not affect the 
 sense. Most of the expressions which are now peculiar to the Americans, 
 and especially to the Yankees, were in use by the ' pilgrim fathers,' at the 
 time of their emigration, and to them, probably, ought to be attributed the 
 nasal drawl of the least educated inhabitants of New England. The pe- 
 culiar words of the Americans are too few to deserve particular notice. 
 The educated men of all the states, and especially the inhabitants of the 
 larger cities and towns, speak a language scarcely to be distinguished 
 from that of the higher classes of the mother country. It is yet a ques- 
 tion, in what part of the union it is spoken in its greatest purity, each of 
 the different sections arrogating that praise to itself. A practised ear, 
 however, can distinguish a difference between them, so as to decide at 
 once to what division the speaker belongs. The want of a capital, by 
 which the standard can be fixed, is probably the cause of this variety. It 
 may truly be asserted, that, on the whole, English is as well spoken in the 
 United States as in the mother country, and that the jargon put into the 
 mouths of Americans by foreign travellers, bears the same relation to the 
 tongue actually spoken, that a gross caricature does to its original. 
 
 Education has met with few obstacles in the United States. Neither 
 the interests and prejudices of an aristocracy, nor poverty and dependence 
 of working classes have checked it in the least. State has vied with state 
 in giving the means of instruction to the humblest individuals. Large 
 tracts of land have been granted by the general government, for the sup- 
 port of schools in the new states, and a reservation is made in every new 
 township for that purpose. In the old states, the legislatures have, by le- 
 gal enactments, compelled every township to provide for the instruction of 
 its population by assessment, and a punishment is provided for neglect. 
 In the New England and some other states, education at the public ex- 
 pense is accounted one of the rights of freeborn citizens.* It appears from 
 
 * Education in Maine. — A writer in the Saco Republican furnishes some details re- 
 specting the public provision for education in the state of Blaine. After its separation 
 from Massachusetts, a law was passed, requiring every town to raise annually, for the 
 support of schools, a sum equal to forty cents for each person in such town, to be dis- 
 tributed among the school districts, in proportion to the number of inhabitants in each. 
 In 1825, the number of districts, as appears from the reports made to the legislature, 
 was two thousand, four hundred and ninety-nine ; the number of children, between the 
 ages of four and twenty-one, one hundred and thirty -seven thousand, nine hundred and 
 thirty-one ; the number who usually attend schools, one hundred and one thousand, 
 three hundred and twenty-five, and the total annual expenditure, one hundred and 
 thirty-seven thousand, eight hundred and seventy-eight dollars, and fifty-seven cents. 
 The present number of scholars is estimated by this writer at one hundred and forty 
 thousand. The schools kept by male teachers are open, on the average, two months in 
 60 40* 
 
474 BOOK OF THE UVTTED STATES. 
 
 the returns from a hundred and one of the towns of Massachusetts to the 
 legislature, that the amount annually paid in those towns for instruction 
 is one hunched and seventy-seven thousand, three hundred and forty-two 
 dollars. Twelve thousand, three hundred and ninety-three pupils attend 
 private schools in the same towns, at an expense of one hundred and 
 seventy thousand, three hundred and forty-two dollars. In all these 
 towns, the whole number of persons between the ages of fourteen and 
 twenty-one, who cannot read and write, is only fifty-eight. In one con- 
 siderable town, there are but three persons of the above-mentioned age 
 who cannot read and write, and those three are deaf and dumb. 
 
 Infant schools have been established all over the union, with great bene- 
 fit, and great attention has been given to the improvement of seminaries 
 of all descriptions, as well as to the means of rendering teachers competent 
 to their office. The press teems with myriads of books for the use of 
 children, institutions for the improvement of teachers are established, thou- 
 sands of associations for mutual instruction are formed, countless lectures 
 are delivered, libraries are accumulated, and, in short, no means of disse- 
 minating knowledge is neglected. 
 
 The elements of knowledge being thus accessible to all, it follows natu- 
 rally, that the wealthy should be desirous to give their children a more 
 perfect education than elementary public schools can afford. There are, 
 therefore, an almost infinite number and variety of private schools, in 
 which children may be educated in conformity to the views which their 
 parents may entertain for them. In some instances, public schools have 
 intrenched materially upon private academies ; in others, the case has been 
 reversed. Females are not neglected in the same degree as in other coun- 
 tries — in some of the seminaries, they are taught Greek, Latin, the exact 
 sciences, philosophy, botany, chemistry, <fcc. &c. The great fault of Ame- 
 rican instruction in general is, that it is superficial, some knowledge of 
 many subjects being communicated, without a very thorough knowledge 
 of any particular one. There are, however, many distinguished excep- 
 tions to this remark, and eminent scholars are yearly becoming more nu- 
 merous. 
 
 There are more than sixty colleges in the United States, besides many 
 academies, several theological seminaries, and numerous medical and law 
 schools. Of all these, the most distinguished are Harvard university and 
 Yale college. The object of nearly all of them is to give a thorough edu- 
 cation, in languages, mathematics, and the sciences, and it cannot be doubt- 
 ed that most of them afford to the diligent student all the necessary means 
 of acquiring such knowledge. Yet it is not to be denied, that very many 
 of the students leave college studies for the more active pursuits of life, 
 without having given sufficient time or pains to their studies, and in this 
 respect, our universities will not, certainly, compare advantageously with 
 those of England. The reason is obvious — in the old country, few stu- 
 dents would spend the best of their years in celibacy and seclusion, in the 
 pursuit of knowledge, were they not supplied with the luxuries of life by 
 endowments, and cheered by the prospect of comfortable future establish- 
 
 the year, and those kept by female teachers, about two weeks longer. The writer sug- 
 gests, that if the sum of one dollar and six cents, instead of forty cents, for every in- 
 habitant, were required to be raised, that the schools might be kept open during the 
 year, and believes that the additional tax would not h" regarded as a burden. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 475 
 
 ments by provision of law. We may console ourselves for this manifest 
 inferiority by the reflection, that if we have fewer great scholars than Eu- 
 ropean nations, neither have we peasants or beggars. 
 
 The consequences of the superficial but universal diffusion of literature 
 and science in the United States are remarkably singular. Literary pro- 
 ductions of the lowest order exist in excess. We think we should not 
 speak much amiss in saying, that more newspapers are published in this 
 country than in all Europe. A great number of them are of an inferior 
 character, being filled with virulent and crude political speculations, reli- 
 gious controversy, or rather vituperation, items of common-place intelli- 
 gence, such poetry and literature as may be expected from writers beneath 
 their majority, advertisements, puffs, and trash of all kinds. Some, which 
 are purely political, mistake abuse for the energy of eloquence ; others, 
 which are devoted to the interests of the commercial classes, are chiefly 
 filled with advertisements; some contain little beside invective against 
 masonry or antimasonry, and not a few disgrace religion, under pretence 
 of promoting its progress. The cause of this perversion of the press is 
 very simple. The expense of starting a newspaper is so trifling, that any 
 successful apprentice can establish one on arriving at his majority ; and 
 an excellent printer may make a very indifferent editor. Having once 
 began to publish a print, he must conduct it on his own mental resources, 
 for there are few establishments of this kind which can afford to pay for 
 really valuable assistance. Yet, every state can boast of some public 
 journals of higher character. There is also another class of journals which 
 are really valuable, and which partake of the nature of magazines. These 
 are periodical records of facts connected with trade, commerce, internal im- 
 provement, mechanical inventions, and matters connected with the pro- 
 ceedings of the national, and state legislatures. Such are Niles's Register, 
 Blount's Annual Register, and a few others of the same character. 
 
 The present number of magazines and reviews; would seem to indicate 
 a very rapid improvement in American taste and knowledge. Some years 
 since, many abortive attempts were made to establish an American review, 
 and the North American was the first to maintain its ground, and its im- 
 provement has been constant. It is now very well known, and often quot- 
 ed in Europe. The Quarterly Review, published in Philadelphia, is an 
 exceedingly able work of the same kind. Silliman's Journal of the Sci- 
 ences is deservedly esteemed. There are also several monthly magazines 
 of a very respectable character, of which the New England Magazine is, 
 in many respects, the best. It is conducted somewhat in the style of the^ 
 English New Monthly. The Knickerbocker, issued in New York, has 
 acquired considerable notoriety. Even the new western states are not 
 wholly without periodical literature. Theological magazines are very 
 numerous, and some of them are ably conducted. The Christian Exami- 
 ner and Unitarian Advocate are the organs of Unitarianism. The Chris- 
 tian Spectator and Spirit of the Pilgrims are Calvinistic works, and, in- 
 deed, almost every sect in the union has its particular organ. Christians 
 of all denominations will be disposed to question the merits of many of 
 these ; but none will deny that they are all useful in some degree, as they 
 serve to awaken a spirit of inquiry. The annual publications arc, the 
 American Almanac, the merits of which are denied by none, and which is 
 constantly improving; and the Annual Register, also a very useful work. 
 
476 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The Souvenirs are supported by writers of some talent for light literature, 
 and indicate improvement in the arts. 
 
 The United States may justly boast of their number of literary publica- 
 tions, though not of their general excellence. The number of American 
 plays is great ; their merit is, with two or three exceptions, but slight. 
 Verse-writers we have in cohorts and legions ; but with the exceptions of 
 Bryant, Percival, Halleck, Hillhouse, and perhaps two or three others, it is 
 probable that posterity will not enjoy the benefit of their works. In light 
 literature, we have the names of Irving, Brockden Brown, Cooper, Pauld- 
 ing, Dana, Miss Sedgwick, Flint, Neal, and a few more, who are well 
 known by their productions. Meritorious law books of American produc- 
 tion are not rare. The labors of Chancellor Kent are an honor to the sci- 
 ence of jurisprudence. In history, we have Judge Marshall's Life of 
 Washington, Belknap's History of New Hampshire, and well-written 
 histories of most of the old states. Many more writers we have, whose 
 pens have been employed merely on matters of local and temporary 
 interest. Still, however, our literature has not kept pace with that of 
 the mother country. Little has been done to encourage it, and many 
 causes have contributed to retard its growth. It has been in a great 
 measure superseded by foreign publications, which the American book- 
 seller can republish without paying the author, and which he therefore 
 prefers. There is little honor and less profit in the pursuits of our writers. 
 Our mechanics become wealthy by hard labor, whereas our writers might 
 starve, did they depend on their pens. There is a great demand for all 
 things which are of practical, tangible, every-day utility, but a very limited 
 one for fine reading. Few of our people have the leisure and fortune 
 which might enable them to cultivate literature and science advantageous- 
 ly. Under these circumstances, most of what is written is done hastily, 
 and consequently badly done. But notwithstanding the great number of 
 discouraging circumstances, enough has been well done to indicate the 
 existence of much talent and learning.* 
 
 * The following observations axe from the pen of a writer, who has done as mur.h for 
 the really useful literature of the country as any other man. We refer to Mr. Flint, of 
 whose valuable writings we have so often taken the liberty to avail ourselves. 
 
 I. Our national and state governments do little or nothing for literature, by furnish- 
 ing example, premiums, excitement, money. They have taken no pains to inspire a 
 taste for it, or to cause it to become part and parcel of the national glory. To produce 
 a rail-road, a canal, a joint stock company, is felt to confer more national renown, as 
 well as advantage, than to rear a Milton, Burke, or Walter Scott. We hardly retain 
 our West Point. Beside our solemn farce of sending among the few respectable ex- 
 aminers, a large proportion of ignorant and incompetent men to examine the pupils, 
 legislators have not been found wanting, who, availing themselves of the miserable ap- 
 peal of demagogues, to the sordid appetite, miscalled economy, have wished to put forth 
 their unhallowed hands to demolish this only vestige of national show of a disposition 
 to foster the sciences. Profound respect for our country interdicts the thoughts that 
 arise in our mind upon this head. Literature, science, what are they at Washington, 
 more than they would have been in the day of Attila ? The members of the legislature 
 have more than they can do to write letters to their constituents, and secure the means 
 of a future election, and to make excuses for refusing their names to the thousand ap- 
 plicants for patronage to new books and periodicals. 
 
 In reply to all this, we are sometimes asked, what a government, with the genius and 
 limitations of ours, could do to foster literature? Every one must be aware, that if the 
 constituent parts that compose the government felt keenly and saw clearly, that ad- 
 vances in science and literature constituted the true interest and glory of Ihe country, they 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 477 
 
 We have already alluded to the general feeling in regard to education. 
 The strength of this is exhibited in the great number of common schools 
 and colleges. Institutions by this name are to be found perhaps more fre- 
 
 would be at no loss to apply the adequate excitement. Had they the strong impulse, 
 the inward perception, the munificent and fostering spirit, we should discover what they 
 could do. The feeling, the will, and not the means, are wanting. The single solitary 
 expedition of Lewis and Clarke twinkles, as a kind of evening star above the western 
 mountains, in the midst of the darkness of our efforts for science and letters. That 
 single mission gained the administration of Jefferson more true glory abroad and at 
 home, than any single act of that or any subsequent administration ; and every village 
 orator annually announces, that Athens, of amaranthine and imperishable memory, 
 was less extensive and less populous than one of our states of the second class, and as- 
 signs as the cause of this freshness and perpetuity of her fame, nothing but intellectual 
 pre-eminence. But the people and the rulers have alike waxed too gross and sordid, 
 too blind and hardened to every impulse but personal aggrandizement and the love of 
 money, to perceive or regard what constitutes national glory. 
 
 II. We have no literary metropolis, no central point, from which information, ex- 
 citement and emulation might radiate in every direction, so as to fill the whole circum- 
 ference of our land. The interests and tastes of our numerous literary capitals not 
 only have no decided concurrence, but clash and oppose each other. The favorite au- 
 thor, poet, editor of one capital, glides in the steamboat, and whirls on the railway, in 
 a few hours, out of the orbit of his own little universe, and is surprised to find himself 
 in a new planet, as little known as the man in the moon. There is no common point 
 of union for literary men, where they may meet and replenish their oil from each 
 other's lamps, guide and encourage each other, review and pass upon the books and 
 literary efforts of the past year, and impart counsels touching their own embryo pro- 
 jects for the coming one. A censurate, thus constituted, would be able to do much to- 
 ward breaking down sectional, and building up in its stead a national, literature. Hun- 
 dreds of trumpery books, on which so much paper and ink are wasted, would, in this 
 case, hereafter cease to see the light — and much talent, that is now as an unwrought 
 gem in the mines, would be brought to view. We shall be told, that there would be 
 infinite jealousy, rivalry, clanship, envy, intrigue. Perhaps there might. But political 
 associations are not abandoned, because the same evil attaches to them. Such meet- 
 ings have long been practised in Germany, and have proved remarkable for their ame- 
 nity, courtesy, and good fruits. Men, especially intellectual men, when brought to- 
 gether, mutually catch the spirit of their station. Envy and jealousy are the natural 
 heritage of ignorance. Intellectual men, if proverbially irritable, have been in all 
 countries and all times proverbially generous, kind-hearted, beneficent. Such men 
 would feel themselves impelled to act according to their station and responsibility, and 
 would have a noble disdain at the idea of bringing a stain upon their escutcheon. 
 These men, being charged that the republic of letters should receive no detriment, 
 vvould scorn prejudiced, narrow, and illiberal views, and would promulgate generous 
 thoughts and broad principles. The books which they patronized would be received 
 by the public with confidence, while those to which they affixed their veto would cease 
 to circulate ; and thus transfer more than half the patronage of literature, which is 
 now thrown away upon worthless books and periodicals, to such as are important and 
 useful. 
 
 III. The remaining slavery of our colonial literary dependence upon Great Britain. 
 It is humiliating to reflect, that a great nation, sometimes not a little tempted to bluster 
 about its greatness and independence, notwithstanding all the taunts and reproaches we 
 have received from the writers of that nation for our servility and imbecile depend- 
 dence upon it for our literary opinions, as well as our books, should still look beyond 
 the seas for literary fame. But every one knows, that an American writer must delve 
 on, uncheered and unblest, until he has contrived to get an echo of his name from be- 
 yond the Atlantic. What efforts, what arts, what servility to obtain it ? This is not 
 all. In the greedy competition of the press, the books of that country, the great esti- 
 mated mart of fame, can be republished here without copy-right. On this head, there 
 is no need, as we have no space, to enlarge. Every one can see that American writers 
 have no adequate incitement to put forth their powers, while obliged to work up against 
 giich a wind and tide opposed to them. 
 
478 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 quently than the cause of sound scholarship requires. If the funds which 
 are now distributed through so many small establishments were concen- 
 trated on a few universities, advantages might be enjoyed which will now 
 be in vain sought. It is much to be regretted that measures have not been 
 taken for the erection of a national university, which the general govern- 
 ment of the country might endow with privileges and means sufficient for 
 its permanent success. 
 
 At the head of the collegiate institutions in the United States, is Har- 
 vard university, originally styled Harvard college, at Cambridge, three 
 miles west-north-west of Boston. In the year 1636, the general court ad- 
 vanced four hundred pounds towards the establishment of a college, which 
 was incorporated in 1638 ; and the same year, the Rev. John Harvard 
 died, leaving a legacy of seven hundred and seventy-nine pounds, seven- 
 teen shillings, and two pence, to the college, which, on account of this do- 
 nation, was named Harvard college. Its endowments have since, from 
 time to time, been greatly increased by donations from the state, and many 
 munificent private benefactors. The university comprises the collegiate 
 department for undergraduates, or the college, properly so called, and the 
 theological, law, and medical departments. It has four halls, four stories 
 high, for the accommodation of undergraduates ; two halls containing the 
 library, cabinet of minerals, the chapel, and various other public rooms; a 
 divinity hall, a law hall, and a medical hall, (which last is situated in Bos- 
 ton,) and other buildings. The university library contains upwards of 
 forty thousand volumes, of which thirty-five thousand, five hundred, are 
 in the general library, three thousand in the law, one thousand in the 
 medical, six hundred and fifty in the theological, library : and there are 
 libraries belonging to the students, which contain four thousand, five hun- 
 dred volumes. The philosophical and chemical apparatus, and the cabinet 
 of minerals, are extensive, and very valuable. The property in possession 
 of the university, exclusive of the college buildings, library, apparatus, and 
 grounds adjoining to the buildings, according to the treasurer's report, dat- 
 ed October, 1832, amounted to $460,814.87 
 
 Funds in trust for other uses than those of the college, . . 65,125.45 
 
 395,689.42 
 Funds for theological department, 36,277.92 ) ,.. ^oi xr 
 
 Funds for law department, 17,943.63 ) 
 
 Giving for the more immediate use of the college, 341,467.87 
 
 The institution is under the legislative government of a corporation, con- 
 sisting of seven members, and of a board of overseers, consisting of thirty 
 elected members, together with the governor, lieutenant governor, the 
 members of the council and senate, the speaker of the house of representa- 
 tives, and the president of the university, ex officio. 
 
 Yale college was established in 1700, at Saybrook ; incorporated in 
 1701 ; and removed to New Haven in 1716 : the first commencement at 
 Saybrook was in 1702 ; the first at New Haven, in 1717. It derives its 
 name from Elihu Yale, of London, (but a native of New Haven,) governor 
 of the East India company, who was one of its principal benefactors ; it 
 received from bishop Berkeley one thousand volumes of books ; and since 
 its foundation it has, from time to time, received benefactions from various 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 479 
 
 individuals, and also from the state. It has, for some years past, had a greater 
 number of students than any other college in the United States. It possesses 
 ten valuable buildings, two of them of stone, the others of brick ; four of 
 which are college halls, one hundred feet by forty, four stories high, con- 
 taining thirty-two rooms each for students ; and another hall is soon to be 
 erected. It has the finest cabinet of minerals in the United States, a good 
 chemical and philosophical apparatus, and a library of eight thousand, 
 five hundred volumes ; and there are libraries, belonging to the students, 
 containing ten thousand, five hundred volumes. The funds of this insti- 
 tution, considering its reputation and number of students, are small ; and 
 it is supported chiefly by tuition fees. The whole amount of the funds of 
 the different departments, exclusive of buildings, library, apparatus, &c. 
 is stated at eighty or ninety thousand dollars. According to the state- 
 ment of the treasurer, subscriptions have lately been made for the benefit 
 of the college, by six hundred and eighteen individuals, of one hundred 
 and seven thousand dollars, of which forty-one thousand dollars have al- 
 ready been paid. The college is under the legislative government of a 
 corporation, consisting of the president of the college, the governor and 
 lieutenant governor of the state, and the six senior senators, ex officio, and 
 ten clergymen. 
 
 Connected with this institution, is a law school, theological department, 
 and medical institution. 
 
 The legislature of Virginia, at the session of 1817-18, adopted measures 
 for establishing an institution, then proposed to be named Central College, 
 and twenty-four commissioners were appointed to select a site for it. They 
 accordingly selected a pleasant and elevated spot, nearly two miles from 
 Charlottesville, in the county of Albemarle, not far from the centre of the 
 
 University of Virginia. 
 
 population of the state. Their choice was confirmed by the legislature in 
 1819, and an act was passed, incorporating the institution, by the title of 
 the University of Virginia, which went into operation in 1825. It was 
 erected and endowed by the state ; and it owes its origin and peculiar 
 organization chiefly to Mr. Jefferson. It has a fine collection of buildings, 
 
480 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 consisting of four parallel ranges, about six hundred feet in length, and 
 two hundred feet apart, suited to the accommodation of nine professors, 
 and upwards of two hundred students ; which, together with the real es- 
 tate, cost three hundred and thirty-three thousand, nine hundred and 
 ninety-six dollars. It possesses a very valuable library of eight thousand 
 volumes, and a philosophical apparatus, which, together, cost thirty-six 
 thousand, nine hundred and forty-eight dollars. The state gives annually 
 fifteen thousand dollars for the support of the institution. The whole an- 
 nual income of the university is about eighteen thousand, five hundred 
 dollars. The professors are paid, partly by a fixed salary, and partly by 
 fees received from the students ; but the sums which they severally receive 
 are widely different, varying, in ordinary years, from sixteen hundred to 
 three thousand, five hundred dollars. 
 
 The plan of this university differs materially from that of other institu- 
 tions of the kind in the United States. The students are not divided into 
 four classes, with a course of studies embracing four years ; but the diffe- 
 rent branches of science and literature here taught are styled schools. The 
 following particulars are extracted from the ' Kegulations,' &c. Students 
 are not admitted under sixteen years of age ; every one is free to attend 
 the schools of his choice, and no other than he chooses ; provided, that if 
 under the age of twenty-one, he shall attend at least three professors, un- 
 less he has the written authority of his parents or guardian, or the faculty 
 shall, for good cause shown, allow him to attend less than three. In each 
 school, there are three regular lectures a week; besides which, there are, 
 in most of them, extra lectures, suited to the several classes into which the 
 school is divided. The mode of instruction is by text-books and lectures, 
 accompanied by rigid examinations. 
 
 Three honorary distinctions are conferred by this institution ; a certifi- 
 cate of -proficiency, — that of graduate of any class, — and that of 'master of 
 arts of the University of Virginia. No particular period of study is pre- 
 scribed for the acquisition of these honors. The student obtains them 
 whenever he can undergo the rigid examination to which the candidates 
 for them are subjected. The title of doctor of medicine is conferred on the 
 graduates of the medical department. 
 
 There is but one session annually, commencing on the tenth of Septem- 
 ber, and ending on the twentieth of July. Commencement is on the last 
 day of the session, when there are public exercises, and at the same time 
 the certificates and diplomas are awarded. Number of students, in 1833, 
 one hundred and fifty-seven. 
 
 Kenyon college, at Gambier, in the central part of a tract of land be- 
 longing to it, five miles east of Mount Vernon, and fifty-two north-east of 
 Columbus, was founded, in 1S28, by the exertions of bishop Chase, who 
 went to* England in 1823, and returned in 1825, having there obtained for 
 it about thirty thousand dollars-; and he gave to the college the name of 
 1 Kenyon,' from lord Kenyon, one of its principal benefactors, and to the 
 town the name of ' Gambier,' from lord Gambier, another of its benefac- 
 tors. It has received considerable additions to its funds from individuals 
 in several of the states ; and it possesses eight thousand acres of land. 
 The college edifice, which is of stone, contains thirty-six rooms, and forms 
 only one third part of the entire design. The library contains two thou- 
 sand, three hundred volumes. The college is under the direction of a 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 431 
 
 board of sixteen trustees, of which the bishop of Ohio is president ex officio. 
 The college has connected with it a theological department and a grammar 
 school. 
 
 Kenyon College, Ohio. 
 
 It does not fall within our plan to give a particular description of tbe 
 numerous collegiate institutions throughout the country. In addition to 
 this account of the most prominent establishments, we have added a list 
 of colleges in the appendix, for which, as well as the previous descriptions, 
 we have been indebted to the American Almanac for 1834. To that valu- 
 able work we refer the reader for a collection of much useful and interest- 
 ing matter on the subject of education in the United States. 
 
 ' Less attention,' says Mr. Cooper, ' is paid to classical learning here 
 than in Europe ; and, as the term of residence (at our colleges) rarely ex- 
 ceeds four years, profound scholars are by no means common. This coun- 
 try possesses neither the population nor the endowments to maintain a 
 large class of learned idlers, in order that one man in a hundred may con- 
 tribute a mite to the growing stock of general knowledge. There is a 
 luxury in this expenditure of animal force, to which the Americans have 
 not yet attained. The good is far too problematical and remote, and the 
 expense of man too certain, to be prematurely sought. I have heard, 
 I will confess, an American legislator quote Horace and Cicero ; but it is 
 far from being the humor of the country. I thought the taste of the orator 
 questionable. A learned quotation is rarely of any use in an argument, 
 since few men are fools enough not to see that the application of any max- 
 im to politics is liable to a thousand practical objections, and, nine times in 
 ten, they are evidences of the want of a direct, natural, and vigorous train 
 ef thought. They are the affectations, but rarely the ebullitions, of true 
 talent. When a man feels strongly, or thinks strongly, or speaks strongly, 
 he is just as apt to do it in his native tongue, as he is to laugh when he is 
 tickled, or to weep when in sorrow. The Americans are strong speakers 
 and acute thinkers, but no great quoters of the morals and axioms of a 
 heathen age, because they happen to be recorded in Latin. 
 
 ' The higher branches of learning are certainly on the advance in this 
 61 41 
 
4S2 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 country. The gentlemen of the middle and southern states, before the 
 revolution, were very generally educated in Europe, and they were con- 
 sequently, in this particular, like our own people. Those who came into 
 life during the struggle, and shortly after, fared worse. Even the next 
 generation had little to boast of in the way of instruction. I findHhat 
 boys entered the colleges so late as the commencement of the present 
 century, who had read a part of the Greek Testament, and a few books 
 of Cicero and Virgil, with, perhaps, a little of Horace. But great changes 
 have been made, and are still making, in the degree of previous qualifi- 
 cation. 
 
 ' Still, it would be premature to say, that there is any one of the Ameri- 
 can universities where classical knowledge, or even science, is profoundly 
 attained, even at the present day. Some of the professors push their 
 studies, for a life, certainly ; and you well know, after all, that little short 
 of a life, and a long one too, will make any man a good general scholar. 
 In 1S20, near eight thousand graduates of the twelve oldest colleges of 
 this country (according to their catalogues) were then living. Of this 
 number, one thousand, four hundred and six were clergymen. As some 
 of the catalogues consulted were several years old, this number was, of 
 necessity, greatly within the truth. Between the years 1800 and 1810, it 
 is found that of two thousand, seven hundred and ninety-two graduates, 
 four hundred and fifty-three became clergymen. Here is pretty good evi- 
 dence that religion is not neglected in America, and that its ministers are 
 not, as a matter of course, absolutely ignorant. 
 
 ' But the effects of the literary institutions of the United States are 
 somewhat peculiar. Few men devote their lives to scholarship. The 
 knowledge that is actually acquired, is, perhaps, quite sufficient for the 
 more practical and useful pursuits. Thousands of young men, who have 
 read the more familiar classics, who have gone through enough of mathe- 
 matics to obtain a sense of their own tastes, and of the value of precision, 
 who have cultivated belles lettres to a reasonable extent, and who have 
 been moderately instructed in the arts of composition, and in the rules of 
 taste, are given forth to the country to mingle in its active employments, 
 I am inclined to believe that a class of American graduates carries away 
 with it quite as much general and diversified knowledge, as a class from 
 one of our own universities. The excellence in particular branches is 
 commonly wanting ; but the deficiency is more than supplied by variety 
 of information. The youth who has passed four years within the walls of 
 a college, goes into the office of a lawyer for a few more. The profession 
 of the law is not subdivided in America. The same man is counsellor, 
 attorney, and conveyancer. Here the student gets a general insight into 
 the principles, and a familiarity with the practice of the law, rather than 
 an acquaintance with the study as a science. With this instruction, he 
 enters the World as a practitioner. Instead of existing in a state of dream- 
 ing retrospection, lost in a maze of theories, he is at once turned loose into 
 the jostlings of the world. If, perchance, he encounters an antagonist a 
 little more erudite than himself, he seizes the natural truth for his sheet- 
 anchor, and leaves precedent and quaint follies to him who has made them 
 his study and delight. No doubt he often blunders, and is frequently, of 
 necessity, defeated. But in the course of this irreverent treatment, usages 
 arid opinions, which are bottomed in no better foundation than antiquity. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 483 
 
 and which are as inapplicable to the present state of the world, as the 
 present state of the world is, or ought to be, unfavorable to all feudal ab- 
 surdities, come to receive their death-warrants. In the mean time, by dint 
 of sheer experience, and by the collision of intellects, the practitioner gets 
 a stock of learning, that is acquired in the best possible school ; and, what 
 is of far more importance, the laws themselves get a dress which brings 
 them within the fashions of the day. This same man becomes a legisla- 
 tor, perhaps, and, if particularly clever, he is made to take an active part 
 in the framing of laws, that are not to harmonize with the other parts of 
 an elaborate theory, but which are intended to make men comfortable and 
 happy. Now, taken with more or less qualification, this is the history of 
 thousands in this country, and it is also an important part of the history 
 of the country itself.' 
 
 We may not inappropriately introduce in this connection the following 
 account of the Military academy at West Point, for which we have been 
 indebted to an able article in the North American Review for January, 
 1832. 
 
 The main object of the institution is to qualify the pupil for the per- 
 formance of all the duties of a military life ; and, by way of preparation, 
 he is carefully disciplined in the various duties of a soldier and officer, 
 from the handling of a musket, to the commanding of armies. The use 
 of the various instruments of attack and defence ; the construction of mili- 
 tary works, both permanent and temporary, and the most approved methods 
 of attacking and defending these works ; the manner of conducting the 
 marches of armies, and of disposing of the different arms, with a view to 
 
 ^^^^^ 
 
 West Point. 
 
 their mutual protection and assistance in cases of emergency ; minor tac- 
 tics, or the evolutions of troops, whether in small or large numbers ; and 
 the more complicated and exalted principles of grand tactics, or strategy, 
 are each in turn carefully attended to, so far as theory and the lessons of 
 experience extend. 
 
 Besides these military subjects, studies of a different nature are made to 
 engage a large portion of the pupil's attention during the last year. Givil 
 
484 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 engineering, in its multifarious departments, viz. the construction of roads, 
 canals, bridges, and rail-roads, together with the elements of carpentry and 
 architecture, holds an important rank. As architecture is becoming daily 
 more interesting to the public at large, its encouragement and advance- 
 ment cannot be too strongly recommended. A deficiency of taste and in- 
 formation upon this subject is but too evident in many parts of our coun- 
 try ; and any institution, which tends to diffuse the correct and chaste 
 principles of this art, deserves to be cherished and encouraged. A fine 
 collection of casts, representing the most celebrated buildings of antiquity, 
 has recently been procured from France for the Military academy ; and 
 th»,-re is every reason to hope, that it will tend materially to improve the 
 department of architecture. 
 
 The studies that have now been enumerated, together with rhetoric and 
 national and constitutional law, embrace the chief objects of attention at 
 this institution. A cursory glance at this course of instruction will be suf- 
 ficient to convince the observer, that it comprehends much useful informa- 
 tion. Yet there are many, who profess to believe the academy not only 
 useless, but absolutely injurious, in its effect upon the public interests. 
 They maintain, that genius and courage alone are enough to insure dis- 
 tinction in the military profession. They say, that all our citizens are 
 soldiers, and that competent officers can be selected from among them, 
 whenever military services are necessary ; and they, doubtless, honestly 
 believe, that to become an able officer is not a very difficult matter. But, 
 with due respect for the sincerity of these opinions, we must confess our 
 preference for the doctrine of our illustrious Hamilton ; who says, that 
 4 war, like most other things, is a science to be acquired and perfected by 
 
 Military Academy at West Point. 
 
 diligence, by perseverance, by time, and by practice.' These few words, 
 coming as they do from a statesman of acknowledged genius and wisdom, 
 are entitled to the most respectful and deliberate attention. That great 
 i\,an had investigated, with the most keen and discerning scrutiny, the 
 many and complicated causes of national grandeur and infirmity. He had 
 especially weighed the mighty causes, which had elevated, sustained, and 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 485 
 
 overthrown the various contrivances of men for self-government ; and he 
 was of the unqualified opinion, that a national military establishment was 
 indispensable to our peace and security. The reasons which led him to 
 this conclusion are, doubtless, familiar to most of our readers, and still 
 operate with undiminished influence. All, however, must acknowledge, 
 that a military establishment without skilful officers, would be about as 
 inefficient as powder and bullets without a gun, or a vessel without helm 
 or compass. But how is this skill to be ' acquired and perfected V Doubt- 
 less, ' by diligence, by perseverance, by time, and by practice.' These ob- 
 jectors should hesitate, before they destroy one of the most useful instru- 
 ments by which this benefit is to be secured. 
 
 Such an instrument is the Military academy. Before they attempt to 
 subvert so noble an edifice, they should reflect, that it is not always wise 
 to suffer speculation to prevail over experience. They should remember 
 the consequences, which have heretofore resulted from the want of military 
 science and skill, before they labor to expose us anew to similar evils. 
 They ought not to forget, that nations, as well as individuals, are liable to 
 be overwhelmed by adverse events, whose approaches cannot be foreseen, 
 or guarded against by any sudden exertion of art or power ; that a hither- 
 to unknown responsibility rests upon the citizens of this republic, an obli- 
 gation greater than ever was imposed upon any other political society ; 
 and that we ought, at least, to pause, before we divest ourselves of any of 
 those securities, upon which the peace, the progress, and the stability of 
 our institutions may depend. 41* 
 
486 
 
 CHAPTER XVII.— FINE ARTS. 
 
 The progress of the arts in the United States has depended, in a great 
 measure, on their practical reference to the essential comforts of life. In 
 the mechanical arts, we yield to no other nation, as our ships, steamboats, 
 engines of every description, and vast internal improvements, sufficiently 
 testify. The prevailing taste in architecture is much better than it was 
 twenty years ago, and it is now considered of great importance to have 
 regard to the appearance of a public edifice. Many private houses of 
 much splendor have also been erected within a short period. Our churches 
 and state-houses are built after better models, and the eye of taste is no 
 longer shocked by unsightly piles, without even the recommendation of 
 antiquity to compensate for their defects. 
 
 Of the fine arts, however, painting has been most successfully cultivated, 
 and many artists have won, in this department, very considerable eminence. 
 The materials for an account of the history and present condition of paint- 
 ing in this country, are so scattered and unsatisfactory, that we shall be 
 able to present but a brief sketch. We are pleased to learn that a gentle- 
 man of New York, distinguished as a dramatic author and as an artist, 
 has a work in preparation, that will effectually supply this deficiency in 
 our literature. This work is exppcted with much interest by the lovers 
 of art. In the mean while, we must look to the leading review of the 
 country, for some of the. most valuable notices of American art. For the 
 remainder of this chapter, we have been entirely indebted to the North' 
 American Review, for October, 1830. 
 
 It is stated by an able writer in that work, that few countries have done 
 more in the way of painting, during the last half century, than our own. 
 There is no nation which, during that period, can produce a more respecta- 
 ble list of artists than is composed by the names of Copley, West, Trum- 
 bull, Allston, Leslie, Newton, Stuart, Sully, Morse, Doughty, Peale, Hard- 
 ing, Fisher, and Weir. Several of these artists have been, and still con- 
 tinue to be, the chief ornaments of the British school, Avhich, for the time 
 in question belongs at least as much to the United States as to the mother 
 country. The style of painting in France, during this period, has been 
 decidedly vicious, and although it has obtained there a temporary popu- 
 larity, it is not approved by competent judges, who have been educated 
 under the influence of a better taste. In the rest of Europe, there has 
 been little or no activity in this branch of the arts ; so that the United 
 States have done as much for painting during the last fifty years, as any 
 other country. 
 
 In estimating the merits of our various painters, the article to which we 
 have referred, places West at the head of the list. ' The length of his 
 career,' continues this writer, — ' his conspicuous position at the head of 
 the British Academy, and the indefatigable perseverance with which he 
 pursued his labors up to the very close of his protracted life — all these cir- 
 cumstances placed him in full relief before the public, and perhaps raised 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 487 
 
 his reputation a little higher than it will be maintained by the impartial 
 judgment of posterity. Perceiving or supposing that his merit was ex- 
 aggerated, a certain number of persons were induced, as always happens 
 in similar cases, by a sort of re-action, to depreciate the value of his works, 
 and even to deny altogether his pretensions to excellence. Without 
 speaking of Peter Pindar, who attacked him merely because he was pa- 
 tronized by the king, we may find the feeling to which we allude exhibited 
 in a quarter where we had a right to look for good taste and political im- 
 partiality. Lord Byron, in one of his poems, describes our illustrious 
 countryman as 
 
 " the dotard West, 
 
 Europe's worst dauber, and poor England's best." 
 
 But even here the noble bard, however opposite may have been his inten- 
 tion, has borne a sort of involuntary testimony to the high deserts of the 
 painter. The British school, which, in his wayward humor, he represents 
 as the worst in Europe, was undoubtedly at that time, and still is, the best, 
 and by putting West at the head of it, he rendered him, in fact, all the 
 justice which his warmest friends could possibly have claimed for him. 
 His real merit was very considerable, although he may not have risen pre- 
 cisely to the level of the greatest masters of other times. It was sufficient- 
 ly evinced by the great popularity and success of his last and best pieces, 
 the Christ Rejected, and the grand composition of Death on the Pale Horse. 
 We had the pleasure of seeing these noble paintings, when they were first 
 brought out at London, and witnessed the enthusiasm which they excited 
 among the lovers of the arts, and the public at large. The sum of ten 
 thousand pounds was offered for the latter work — a higher price, probably, 
 than was ever commanded by any other picture. As there was nothing 
 meretricious in the style of West, and as the public of a city like London 
 is not often very widely mistaken in matters wholly unconnected with any 
 accidental or temporary interest, it is impossible to account for this extra- 
 ordinary vogue, without allowing to the artist a talent of a very high or- 
 der. His works exhibit, in reality, almost all the qualities that designate 
 a first-rate painting. His walk lay in the highest department of the art. 
 His subjects were always of a poetical cast, and he treated them all in a 
 large, free and generous spirit ; and while he possessed the principal re- 
 quisites of a great painter, his manner was almost wholly free from faults. 
 He had, in particular, the great merit of avoiding the unnatural style of 
 coloring which prevailed in the neighboring kingdom, and seemed likely, 
 at one time, to corrupt the taste of the rest of Europe. His excellent moral 
 character contributed much to his talent, and still more to his fortune. It 
 kept him steady to his profession, during a period of violent political con- 
 vulsions, which swept away from their natural occupation almost all the 
 high and stirring spirits. It recommended him to the favor of the king, 
 and through that to the presidency of the academy, and it preserved his 
 health and capacity for constant employment, to the last moment of a very 
 long life. He enjoyed the rare happiness of realizing, in his life-time, his 
 full deserts on the score of reputation — perhaps something more — and of 
 laboring with undiminished activity, and a constant increase of fame, be- 
 yond the ordinary term of human existence. We had the satisfaction of 
 seeing him frequently in his last days, and have seldom known a more 
 
488 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 striking example of a serene and happy old age. He was then, at nearly 
 eighty, a healthy, handsome man, busily occupied upon his last and great- 
 est works, and enjoying the vogue which they successively obtained on 
 their first exhibition. The natural simplicity and modesty of his manner 
 were mingled with a slight air of self-importance, and conscious satisfac- 
 tion with his recent success, which appeared rather graceful than other- 
 wise in one so much respected, and so far advanced in years. The fresh- 
 ness and vigor of his mind were truly remarkable. He was still alive to 
 every means of improving himself, and when the Athenian marbles were 
 received in England, he addressed a printed letter to lord Elgin, in which 
 he spoke of this event as forming a sort of epoch in his life, and anticipated 
 the great advantage which he should derive from the study of these admira- 
 ble remains of antiquity in the further prosecution of his labors, which, 
 however, were very soon after brought to a close. 
 
 ' We have said above that the manner of "West was almost wholly free 
 from faults. His conceptions are noble, his drawing correct, his coloring 
 true, and his composition skilful and spirited. If we miss any thing in his 
 paintings, it is, perhaps, the secret indescribable charm of coloring, which, 
 like the curious felicity of language in some writers, seems to be a sort of 
 natural " grace, beyond the reach of art," but affording, at the same time, 
 a higher delight than any of those beauties, which can be more distinctly 
 analyzed and defined. Of this, Sir Joshua Reynolds possessed a larger 
 share than West, and will, probably, on that account, be always ranked 
 above him in the general scale of merit. 
 
 ' The paintings of West, which remained in his possession at his death, 
 were offered for sale soon after, and we have anxiously desired, that the 
 whole or a portion of them should have taken the direction of this coun- 
 try. They would have formed a most interesting and valuable addition 
 to our collections, and would then have reached what may fairly be con- 
 sidered their natural destination, the birth-place and original home of their 
 author. We are not exactly informed what disposition has been made of 
 them, and venture to hope that the expectation we have expressed may 
 still, in part, at least, be realized. 
 
 ' The general reputation of Trumbull is hardly equal to that of West, 
 although the Sortie from Gibraltar is perhaps superior in effect to any 
 single production of the latter artist. This noble picture may justly be 
 ranked with the finest productions of the pencil, and would forever secure 
 to its author, had he done nothing else, a rank with the greatest masters 
 of the art. If his success has been, on the whole, inferior to that of his 
 illustrious contemporary, it is probably because his devotion to his profession 
 has not been so exclusive. The important military and political occupations, 
 in which he was engaged during a considerable portion of the most active part 
 of his life, diverted his attention for the time from painting, and when he af- 
 terwards resumed the pencil, he seemed to have lost, in some degree, the vigor 
 and freshness of his youthful talent. Hence his reputation has not continued 
 to increase with his years, and his last works have not, like those of West, 
 been regarded as his best. The four great paintings, on subjects connect- 
 ed with the revolutionary war, which he executed for congress, have, on 
 the whole, hardly satisfied the public expectation, and for that reason have, 
 perhaps, been depreciated below their real worth. They are all valuable 
 pieces, and the Declaration of Independence, which we look upon as the 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 489 
 
 best of the series, is one of a very high order. They derive a great addi- 
 tional interest from exhibiting portraits, as far as they could be obtained, 
 of the signers of the declaration, and of the other patriots and warriors, 
 who took a part in the memorable action of the revolution. We incline to 
 believe that these paintings, should the liberality of congress allow the ap- 
 propriation necessary for keeping them in existence, will gradually gain 
 upon the public opinion, both as works of art, and as historical memorials, 
 and be viewed by the next generation with more interest than they are by 
 the present one. 
 
 ' Of our living native artists, Mr. Allston is the one, to whose future 
 productions the country looks, with reason, for the most brilliant exhibi- 
 tions of talent, and the most valuable accessions to our public and private 
 collections. Few painters have ever possessed, at his age, a higher repu- 
 tation, or one acquired by nobler means ; and from his character and ha- 
 bits, there is room to suppose that his fame will continue to increase, like 
 that of West, to the last period of his labors. Inspired by that exclusive 
 and passionate love for his profession, which is the sure characteristic of a 
 real genius for it, and by a lofty and generous disinterestedness, which 
 has prevented him from consecrating his pencil to its lower and more lu- 
 crative departments, he has, under some discouragements, steadily con- 
 fined himself to historical, scriptural, and poetical subjects, and has formed 
 his manner upon the highest standard of excellence. His conceptions are 
 uniformly happy, and, when the subject requires it, sublime ; his taste 
 and skill, in the mechanical details of his art, complete ; and he knows 
 how to give his works the secret charm to which we alluded before, and 
 which adds the last finish to every other beauty. If there be any thing 
 to complain of in him, it is that he is not satisfied himself with the degree 
 of merit, which would satisfy every one else, and employs in correcting, 
 maturing, and repainting a single piece, not always, perhaps, with any 
 real accession of effect, the time and labor which would have been suffi- 
 cient for completing a dozen. This extreme fastidiousness may have 
 been, at an earlier period of life, a virtue, and is probably one of the quali- 
 ties, which have enabled the artist to realize the high idea of excellence, 
 which originally warmed his young fancy. But, if we might venture to 
 express an opinion on the subject, we should say that the time has now 
 arrived, when he might throw it off witli advantage, and allow himself a 
 greater rapidity of execution. His manner is formed. He possesses his 
 talent, whatever it is, and, as we remarked above, when we treated the 
 same question in general terms, the more freely and fearlessly he ex- 
 ercises it, the more natural and spirited, and, on the whole, the better 
 will be the product. We trust that he will not permit another year to 
 pass over, without putting the last hand to the grand heroic composition, 
 upon which he has been employed so many, and that this will be followed 
 by a series of others, of equal merit, and of a rather more rapid growth. 
 By this change in his manner of working, we believe that he would gain 
 in ease and spirit, without sacrificing any real beauty, and would labor, on 
 the whole, with infinitely more satisfaction and profit to himself and the 
 public, than he does now. We offer these remarks, however, with all the 
 deference that is due from mere amateurs to an artist of consummate ge- 
 nius, who is, after all, the only true judge of effect in his art, and of the 
 beet means of producing it.' 
 62 
 
490 
 
 CHAPTER XVIIL— BANKING SYSTEM .* 
 
 In new countries, one of the chief difficulties with which a civilized 
 population is obliged to contend, after a sufficiency is obtained of the ne- 
 cessaries of life, is in appropriating a portion of their capital, to serve as a 
 common standard of value in the transactions of commerce. Barter, which 
 is always the first process, soon becomes too burdensome, and the precious 
 metals, which, in older countries furnish a sound and universal currency, 
 are too expensive for new settlements, where all the capital of the inhabi- 
 tants is wanted in improving the face of the country, and in providing ad- 
 ditional comforts, as the community advances in wealth. In the course of 
 time, however, commerce claims a portion of capital, as the medium of ex- 
 change ; and the struggle commences between the necessity of providing a 
 circulating medium, formed of a material of universal value, and the re- 
 luctance to spare for that purpose, capital, which might be exchanged for 
 articles essentially wanted in new countries. Hence it is found, that in 
 new colonies, there is a strong tendency to substitute the credit of public 
 bodies in the place of capital, or in other words, a paper for a metallic cur- 
 rency. The want of capital is so great, and the opportunities of invest- 
 ment so abundant, that the issues soon become excessive ; and it is not 
 until the channels of circulation are entirely filled, that the holders begin 
 to look to the fund provided for its redemption ; and the first re-action gene- 
 rally results in the depreciation of the currency, and in the universal dis- 
 tress of the community. 
 
 In this country, this evil had been so often felt under the colonial go- 
 vernments, and during the revolution, (when the necessity of the public 
 service compelled, if it did not excuse, excessive emissions of bills of credit 
 by the individual states,) that upon forming a government for the United 
 States, after the termination of hostilities, all power over the currency was 
 taken from the state governments ; and they were expressly prohibited 
 from coining money, issuing bills of credit, or making any thing but gold 
 and silver a tender in payment of debts. 
 
 It was intended to vest in congress the power to establish a uniform 
 currency, instead of the fluctuating medium formerly used ; and to place 
 it out of the power of the states, to invalidate or alter the terms of con- 
 tracts, by tender, relief, or bankrupt laws, or by any tampering with the 
 currency. It was a wise endeavor to elevate the commercial credit of the 
 country, by placing its principles under the guardianship of the national 
 government, and to establish the currency upon an immovable basis, by 
 making it of gold and silver. The effort, though well meant, was, at that 
 period of our history, almost too great for the ability of the country. A 
 
 * For this succinct, able, and interesting account of the banking system of the Unit- 
 ed States, we have been indebted to the Annual Register for 1831 — 2, pubhshed by 
 Fessenden & Co. 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 491 
 
 circulating medium composed entirely of the precious metals, could not be 
 furnished, without abstracting too large a share of its capital from active 
 employment. 
 
 Certificates of public debt were already too abundant, and the name of 
 continental money was of itself sufficient, to prevent government bills from 
 becoming current. A bank, whose issues should be founded on real capi- 
 tal, convertible at pleasure into gold and silver, would furnish a circulating 
 medium, not so expensive as a metallic currency, and still not liable to the 
 objections made to treasury bills. So long as the credit of the bank should 
 be fully sustained, a large amount of bills would be kept in circulation, 
 and an additional capital provided, on which it might safely discount to a 
 certain extent. The experiment had been already successfully tried, in 
 the bank of North America, chartered in 1781, under the authority of the 
 continental congress. This institution subsequently accepted a charter 
 from the legislature of Pennsylvania, and of course lost its character as a 
 national bank. This step was also unfortunate, as the commencement of 
 state banking, and being speedily followed by the incorporation of the 
 banks of New York and Massachusetts, by the legislatures of those re- 
 spective states, established the practice of incorporating state banks, upon 
 a footing that could not be overthrown. As these banks were all estab- 
 lished on real capital, and were prudently managed, their paper soon form- 
 ed a large part of the circulating medium ; and by the operation of causes 
 more powerful than legislative enactments, a victory was finally obtained 
 over the policy and spirit of the constitution ; and a currency, chiefly com- 
 posed of the notes of incorporated banks, was substituted in the place of a 
 metallic currency. With such a circulating medium, it is clear that the 
 state governments, in exercising the power of incorporating banks, have 
 materially diminished the practical control of congress over the currency 
 of the union. These notes, indeed, are not, and cannot be made a legal 
 tender in payment of debts. The federal constitution has there interposed 
 an effectual prohibition. But although the power, which is secured to 
 each creditor, of enforcing payment of his debt in specie, has served as a 
 check to the excessive issue of bank notes, still a paper currency has ex- 
 isted in the United States, which, by dispensing with and superseding the 
 use of the precious metals, has, in fact, compelled every one to receive 
 such currency, in nearly the same manner as if it had been made a legal 
 tender. 
 
 The old United States bank, which was chartered by congress in 1791, 
 shortly after the adoption of the federal constitution, by the salutary con- 
 trol it exercised over the state banks, prevented any great and general in- 
 jury from growing out of this change in the character of the currency. It 
 carefully guarded against all excessive issues by the local banks, and com- 
 pelled them to make their paper equivalent to specie. Even this check 
 did not always prove sufficient ; and the natural tendency of banking in- 
 stitutions in new countries to over issues, was occasionally illustrated by 
 the bankruptcy of country banks, to the great detriment of the mercantile 
 community. When this check was withdrawn by the refusal to renew 
 the charter of the United States bank, in 1S11, the evil became incompa- 
 rably greater. Availing themselves of the pecuniary distress of the go- 
 vernment, during the war that ensued, the local banks, out of New En- 
 gland, came to a determination to suspend specie payments, and by con- 
 
492 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tinually increasing their issues, they finally flooded the country with bank 
 notes, which constituted the sole circulating medium, and which, though 
 nominally convertible into specie upon demand, were in reality at twenty 
 per cent, discount. 
 
 Even this currency was received, as if it had been made a legal tender. 
 An outcry had been made against those who enforced the payment of 
 specie, as engaged in a combination to drain the country of the precious 
 metals ; and the only alternative presented to the creditor was, a lawsuit 
 in the face of public opinion for his legal rights, or the acceptance of the 
 depreciated paper currency from his debtor. 
 
 Protected by this popular prejudice, the banks went on issuing their 
 irredeemable bills, even after the termination of the war ; and a circulating 
 medium, altogether without value in other countries, became the currency 
 of the union, with the exception of the eastern states. By the large issues 
 of the banks that had suspended payment, the circulating medium had 
 been so much augmented, that it exceeded the wants of the community, 
 and fell greatly in value, — the whole currency in 1818, being estimated at 
 one hundred and ten million dollars, when forty-five million dollars were 
 all that was needed. This evil was still further aggravated by the diffe- 
 rent values of this currency in the several states — being in some five, in 
 some ten, in others twenty per cent, below par. A debtor, therefore, in 
 paying a debt contracted before the general depreciation of the currency, 
 would, in that state of affairs, pay less value than he agreed to pay; and 
 a debtor, by moving from the eastern to the southern and western states, 
 would, in effect, diminish the amount of his indebtedness twenty per cent. 
 Nor was this all. By the federal constitution, it was provided that all 
 duties, imposts, and excises, should be uniform throughout the United 
 States. So long, however, as bank notes were received by the revenue 
 officers at Boston, New York, and Baltimore, the importer at Baltimore 
 during this period paid one fifth, and at New York one tenth, less than at 
 Boston, where bank notes were equivalent to specie. 
 
 To permit the longer continuance of this state of things in the face of 
 the constitution, would have been inconsistent with the duty of congress. 
 A remedy was necessary. Congress could no longer regulate the value 
 of the currency, by declaring that current coin in silver and gold should 
 be of a specified weight and purity. A paper was substituted in the place 
 of a metallic currency, and it was essential to obtain a control over the 
 local banks, and to bring their issues within proper limits. This might 
 have been done by positive enactment, or by imposing a stamp duty on • 
 bank notes ; but in the then existing state of the currency, it was deemed 
 hazardous to resort to direct interference. 
 
 It was also proposed to remedy the evil, by investing the receiving offi- 
 cers of the revenue with the power of discriminating between the notes of 
 the several banks. This addition to the power and influence of the reve- 
 nue officers was wisely deemed inexpedient, as augmenting too directly the 
 powers of the treasury department ; and the short experiment which was 
 made of this mode of controlling the local banks, resulted in bringing into 
 the treasury more than a million of dollars, of what were denominated 
 unavailable funds, consisting of the notes of broken banks. 
 
 The only mode remaining consisted in establishing a United States 
 bank, with capital sufficient to control the local banks, which should, by 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 493 
 
 degrees, compel them to reduce their issues to an amount proportionate to 
 their means, and thus bring the paper currency to the par of silver and 
 gold. This mode was adopted, and the present United States bank was 
 chartered in 1816, for twenty years, with a capital of thirty-five million 
 dollars, to which the federal government subscribed one fifth. 
 
 The notes of this bank and its branches were made receivable for any 
 debt due to the United States, and its capital and solidity soon gave a 
 currency to its notes, to the exclusion of those local banks that did not re- 
 deem their paper in specie. 
 
 They were immediately compelled to reduce their issues with a view to 
 the resumption of specie payments, and within three years after the open- 
 ing of the United States bank, the currency of the union was reduced from 
 one hundred and ten million dollars, to forty-five million dollars, and made 
 equivalent to gold and silver. The local banks found the United States 
 bank notes were preferred, and they were compelled to furnish as good a 
 currency, in order to preserve those customers who were worth having. 
 Since this restoration of the currency to a healthy state, it has been kept 
 so, by the constant action of the national bank upon all local banks evinc- 
 ing a disposition to depart from the true rules of banking. 
 
 Occasional deviations have indeed taken place, as in Tennessee and 
 Kentucky, where the legislatures undertook to create capital by pledging 
 the public credit, and to force an unnatural quantity of bank notes into cir- 
 culation. These attempts resulted, as was predicted, in the bankruptcy of 
 the banks, and in the general distress of that part of the country. In 
 Kentucky, indeed, the legislature sought to alleviate the distress flowing 
 from this policy, by relief and tender laws. But this only aggravated the 
 evil, and finally produced a contest between the friends of law and order, 
 and the partizans of the ' relief system,' that, for violence and acrimony, 
 has been seldom witnessed in the United States. The relief and tender 
 laws were declared unconstitutional by the state court of appeal, and their 
 advocates, having obtained possession of the legislature, abolished the 
 court, and constituted a new court in its place. The old court, however, 
 refused to yield, and being sustained by the sound part of society, finally 
 prevailed in the contest; and after a conflict of six years, the legislative 
 and executive departments were rescued from the hands of the relief par- 
 ty, and law and justice, which, for a short time, had been driven from the 
 judgment-seat, resumed their sway over the state of Kentucky. 
 
 The history of the banking institutions of that state affords a striking 
 illustration of the mischiefs resulting from any interference of a state 
 government with the currency, and furnishes a complete demonstration of 
 the wisdom of the federal constitution, in vesting the whole power. over 
 this subject in the general government. During the short period that 
 elapsed between the first usurpation on the part of Kentucky upon this 
 prerogative of congress, and the termination of the contest, the currency 
 of the state was depreciated ; private and public credit destroyed ; a bank- 
 ruptcy almost universal produced ; the principles of sound morality and 
 civil order disregarded ; the most valuable institutions of the state tempo- 
 rarily overthrown ; and the community brought to the brink of civil war 
 and anarchy. 
 
 The right side having triumphed, means were taken to redeem this de- 
 preciated currency ; and the notes of the United States bank furnishing a 
 
 42 
 
494 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 currency that was universally preferred, the paper of the commonwealth 
 bank was driven from circulation, and gradually redeemed and destroyed. 
 
 To prevent the recurrence of such a state of things in other states, is one 
 of the objects of a national bank. In a country like this, the temptation 
 to excessive issues of bank paper is too strong to be resisted by banking 
 institutions in the new states, unless they are checked by a vigilant super- 
 intendence, beyond the effect of local influence. The United States, at 
 the present moment, furnish a complete epitome of the progress of civiliza- 
 tion in a wilderness, and until the whole continent shall be occupied, this 
 republic will always possess within its limits all the varieties of human 
 society, in its advancement from the savage to the civilized state. On 
 the Atlantic coast are cities and states, which, in commerce, in capital, 
 and in all the productions of wealth and skill, are not far, if at all, behind 
 those of Europe. Advancing through New York and Pennsylvania, a 
 traveller enters the new states beyond the Alleghanies, and although Cin- 
 cinnati, Lexington, Louisville, and Nashville are inferior to but few cities 
 on the sea-coast, still the population is not so dense, and the country shows 
 fewer signs of cultivation. The roads become worse, the towns smaller, 
 until in the far west he comes upon the log hut, the half-cleared field, and 
 finally reaches the ultima Thule of civilization, in discovering the trapper's 
 tent not far distant from the Indian's wigwam. The effect of this condi- 
 tion of society, upon the internal commerce of the country, is striking and 
 characteristic. In settling in the interior, whether in one or more fami- 
 lies, the whites take with them little more than their clothing, furniture, 
 agricultural implements, and a small stock of domestic cattle. 
 
 In a few years, the fertility of the soil enables them to send surplus pro- 
 duce* in exchange for European or West India productions, to the stores 
 of the country traders in some neighboring town, who, in their turn, trans- 
 port it to the sea-coast, for home consumption or exportation. In this 
 manner an active trade is maintained between the seaports and the inte- 
 rior, and as the new settlers stand in actual need of many foreign articles, 
 which they require on credit, to be paid for from the next year's crop, it 
 follows, that the interior is invariably in debt to the merchants on the sea- 
 board. These debts, however, they are enabled to discharge, through the 
 great fertility of their soil, and the advance of their property in conse- 
 quence of the improvement of the country; and contrary to an old maxim, 
 they grow rich, although they continue in debt — that is, they are daily 
 augmenting the value of their farms, and each year they are enabled to 
 purchase some additional comfort or luxury, which they do not hesitate to 
 buy on credit, because they are certain of being able to pay for it before 
 the lapse of another year. 
 
 The invariable course of business between old and new countries* — al- 
 ways showing a balance in favor of the former, and bringing the latter in 
 debt — demonstrates, that this habit is beyond the reach of legislation. 
 
 The truth is, that new countries are deficient in capital. They are in 
 want of all the luxuries, and many of the necessaries, to which the emi- 
 grants were accustomed at home. They, however, advance in wealth and 
 population faster than older states, and for the advance of capital, or the 
 credit which they require, they are able and willing to pay. Thus both 
 parties are satisfied with their mutual relations of debtor and creditor, and 
 find their respective interests promoted by the proper adjustment of these 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 495 
 
 relations. The same principle is equally applicable to the capital required 
 in the new states for a circulating medium. If they can borrow at a fair 
 rate of interest from the Atlantic cities, or from Europe, capital for this 
 purpose, it is as advantageous a loan as if procured for any other object. 
 It enables them to appropriate an equal amount of capital to the clearing 
 of new towns, building better houses, improving the roads, and generally 
 promoting the prosperity of that portion of the union. It obviates the 
 necessity, that so often impels them to excessive issues, on a limited capi- 
 tal of their own, and thus lessens the danger of a derangement of the cur- 
 rency. 
 
 This object was effectually attained in the establishment of the United 
 States bank. Founded upon real capital, which was large enough for its 
 proposed ends, it furnished, through its branches, a sound paper currency 
 to these new states ; and by the supervising care of the mother bank, those 
 branches were sufficiently guarded against the tendency to over-issues. 
 
 By the same agency, the local banks were compelled to conduct their 
 business with prudence, and to keep their circulation within proper limits. 
 Whenever their issues were too much augmented, the national bank inter- 
 posed a direct check, in demanding the redemption of their paper ; and an 
 indirect check was also given by the superior credit of its bills, which are 
 receivable in all places in payment of duties. Since the establishment of 
 this bank, consequently, the business of domestic exchange has been trans- 
 acted upon the basis of a sound currency, and the rate of exchange, be- 
 tween the western and the middle states, has been reduced to one fifth of 
 its price before that event. 
 
 It was not, however, in this manner alone that the rate of exchange was 
 lowered. It was equalized by the obligation assumed by the federal go- 
 vernment to receive the notes of the United States bank in payment of 
 duties. The revenue paid to the United States in each year, amounts to 
 about twenty-six million dollars, of which about one half is receivable at 
 the custom-house in New York. The exchange being always in favor of 
 that city, whenever it became too high, remittances were made by the 
 western merchants, in branch notes, to their New York creditors, who 
 used those notes in paying their custom-house bonds. The exchange 
 was thus equalized without any expense to the community, and this ope- 
 ration has been felt through all the branches of the domestic exchange 
 business. 
 
 Its effect has been so great, that exchange between the different parts 
 of the union has been generally kept below the expense of transporting 
 the specie, and the branch notes have seldom been at a greater discount 
 than one fourth per cent, in any part of the country. As an equivalent 
 for these advantages, the national bank, besides a bonus paid to the go- 
 vernment when the charter was granted, has collected the public revenue, 
 and transported it, without expense, to any part of the union where it was 
 wanted. It has also disbursed it, and thus formed an efficient arm of the 
 treasury department. During the time it has been in existence, it has 
 performed these duties without any expense to the government, and has 
 saved it from all losses from the insolvency of state banks. As an agent 
 of the treasury department, in collecting and disbursing the revenue, it has 
 proved itself efficient and eminently useful ; and in that point of view, the 
 establishment of the United States bank by congress has been vindicated, 
 
496 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 as one of the means necessary and proper to carry into effect the powers 
 constitutionally vested in the federal government. In its operation upon 
 the federal currency of the country, however, its constitutionality is still 
 more unquestionable. It is through a national bank alone that eoi 
 can exercise that control over the monetary system of the union, that is 
 vested in it by the federal compact. 
 
 In order, therefore, to regulate the currency, and to render the taxes and 
 duties imposed by congress uniform throughout the United States, it is 
 absolutely necessary that a national bank should be established with suffi- 
 cient capital to control the state banks, and to compel them to keep their 
 notes equivalent to specie. It can in this manner only discharge that 
 duty, which, for wise and salutary ends, was exclusively vested in eon- 
 ss, at the formation of the government. In performing these highly 
 responsible duties, the United States bank has necessarily gone counter to 
 the wishes of various classes of the community. By compelling the local 
 banks to control their issues, it has diminished the dividends of the stock- 
 holders : by reducing the rate of domestic exchange, it has lessened the 
 profits of the brokers and capitalists, carrying on that branch of business; 
 and by increasing the value of the circulating medium, through its super- 
 vising power over the local banks, it has. in effect, reduced the price of all 
 property for which money is exchanged. These effects, though salutary 
 to the community, have been injurious to individual interests, which have 
 all been arrayed in hostility to that institution. The benefits of the bank 
 have been of too general a character, to be readily appreciated by the 
 mass. They consist in restoring and maintaining a sound currency, and 
 though this is as indispensable to prosperous commerce, as a pure atmo- 
 sphere is to a healthy man : still no special feeling is excited in the minds 
 of those who use the one and breathe the other with a happy forgetful- 
 ness. that adulterated coin and irredeemable paper Avill cause as much de- 
 solation among merchants, as a pestilential miasma in a crowded city. 
 
 The administration of the bank, however, though excellent, has not been 
 without faults. Shortly after going into operation, its direction fell into 
 the hands of a few speculators, who brought it to the verge of bankruptcy, 
 and it did not escape without the loss of more than a million of dollars, and 
 no small portion of character. In the distribution of capital, dissatisfaction 
 had been caused by the small amount apportioned to the city of New 
 York : and it has been, with too much reason, asserted, that the illiberal 
 policy pursued by the present bank towards that city, originated in a jea- 
 lousy of the increasing wealth and trade of the commercial metropolis of 
 the United States. At times, too, it had indiscreetly enlarged its dis- 
 counts, and in order to bring the currency within proper limits, was oblig- 
 ed to bear harshly upon its customers. Notwithstanding these errors, it 
 was with no little surprise, that the public found, in the first message of 
 general Jackson to congress, (six years before the expiration of the char- 
 ter,) an expression of his opinion against the constitutionality and expedi- 
 ency of the United States bank, and an assertion that it had failed in the 
 great end of establishing a uniform and sound currency. As no intimation 
 had been given of an intention to apply for a renewal of the charter, and 
 as no specific abuses were pointed out deserving examination, this intima- 
 tion was justly regarded as an indication of a strong hostility against that 
 institution, on the part of the president, originating in causes not open to 
 
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 497 
 
 the public eye. The message had the effect of diminishing the value of 
 the stock six per cent, lower than before the opening of congress. The 
 subject, however, was referred to the committees on finance, and reports 
 adverse to the president's views having been brought in, the stock recover- 
 ed itself, and finally attained a higher rate than the original price. 
 
 The recent history of the bank, the unsparing exercise of the executive 
 veto, the assumption of powers not contemplated by the constitution, the 
 evil results which have followed the assumption, have been topics of too 
 recent excitement to be discussed in a work like the present. We leave 
 the history of the institution at an interesting crisis, and will not trust our- 
 selves amid the conflicting elements of political strife. 
 
 63 42* 
 
498 
 
 CHAPTER XIX.— BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 
 
 ADAMS, John, the second president, was born, in 1735, at Braintree, 
 Massachusetts. He was educated at the university of Cambridge, and re- 
 ceived the degree of master of arts in 1758. At this time, he entered the 
 office of Jeremiah Gridley, a lawyer of the highest eminence, to complete 
 his legal studies ; and in the next year he was admitted to the bar of Suf- 
 folk. Mr. Adams, at an early age, espoused the cause of his country, and 
 received numerous marks of the public confidence and respect. He took 
 a prominent part in every leading measure, and served on several commit- 
 tees, which reported some of the most important state papers of the time. 
 He was elected a member of the Congress, and was among the foremost 
 in recommending the adoption of an independent government. It has been 
 affirmed by Mr. Jefferson himself, ' that the great pillar of support to the 
 declaration of independence, and its ablest advocate and champion on the 
 floor of the house, was John Adams.' In 1777, he was chosen commis- 
 sioner to the court of Versailles, in the place of Mr. Dean, who was re- 
 called. On his return, about a year afterwards, he was elected a member 
 of the convention to prepare a form of government for the state of Massa- 
 chusetts, and placed on the sub-committee chosen to draught the project 
 of a constitution. Three months after his return, congress sent him 
 abroad with two commissions, one as minister plenipotentiary, to negotiate 
 a peace, the other to form a commercial treaty with Great Britain. In 
 June, 17S0, he was appointed, in the place of Mr. Laurens, ambassador to 
 Holland, and in 17S2, he repaired to Paris, to commence the negotiation 
 for peace, having previously obtained assurance that Great Britain would 
 recognise the independence of the United States. At the close of the 
 war, Mr. Adams was appointed the first minister to London. In 1789, he 
 was elected vice-president of the United States, and, on the resignation of 
 Washington, succeeded to the presidency, in 1797. After his term ol 
 four years had expired, it was found, on the new election, that his adver- 
 sary, Mr. Jefferson, had succeeded, by the majority of one vote. On re- 
 tiring to his farm in Quincy, Mr. Adams occupied himself with agriculture, 
 obtaining amusement from the literature and politics of the day. The re- 
 maining years of his life were passed in almost uninterrupted tranquillity. 
 He died on the fourth of July, 1826, with the same words on his lips, 
 which, fifty years before, on that glorious day, he had uttered on the floor 
 of Congress — ' Independence forever !' Mr. Adams is the author of An 
 Essay on Canon and Feudal Law. 
 
 ADAMS, Samuel, one of the most remarkable men connected with the 
 revolution, was born at Boston, in 1722. He was educated at Harvard 
 college, and received its honors in 1740. He was one of the first who 
 organized measures of resistance to the mother country ; and for the pro- 
 minent part which he took in these measures, he was proscribed by the 
 British government. During the revolutionary war, he was one of the 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 499 
 
 most active and influential asserters of American freedom and indepen- 
 dence. He was a member of the legislature of Massachusetts from 1766 
 to 1774, when he was sent to the first congress of the old confederation. 
 He was one of the signers of the declaration of 1776, for the adoption of 
 which he had always been one of the warmest advocates. In 1781, he 
 retired from congress, but only to receive from his native state additional 
 proofs of her confidence in his talents and integrity. He had already been 
 an active member of the convention that formed her constitution ; and 
 after it went into effect, he was placed in the senate of the state, and for 
 several years presided over that body. In 1789, he was elected lieutenant 
 governor, and held that office till 1794 ; upon the death of Hancock, he 
 was chosen governor, and was annually re-elected till 1797, when he re- 
 tired from public life. He died in 1803. The following encomium upon 
 Mr. Adams is from a work upon the American rebellion, by Mr. Galloway, 
 published in Great Britain, 1780 : ' He eats little, drinks little, sleeps 
 little, thinks much, and is most indefatigable in the pursuit of his object. 
 It was this man, who, by his superior application, managed at once the 
 factions in congress at Philadelphia, and the factions of New England.' 
 
 ADAMS, Hannah, a native of New England, whose literary labors 
 have made her name known in Europe, as well as in her native land. 
 Among her works are the View of Religions, History of the Jews, Evi- 
 dences of the Christian Religion, and a History of New England. She 
 was a woman of high excellence and purity of character. She died in 
 1S31, at the age of seventy-six. 
 
 ALEXANDER, William, a major-general in the American army, dur- 
 ing the revolutionary war, was born in the city of New York, but passed 
 a portion of his life in New Jersey. He acted an important part through- 
 out the revolution, and distinguished himself particularly in the battles of 
 Long Island, Germantown, and Monmouth. He died at Albany, in 1783, 
 at the age of fifty -seven years, leaving behind him the reputation of a brave 
 officer and a learned man. 
 
 ALLEN, Ethan, a brigadier-general in the revolutionary army, was born 
 in Connecticut, but was educated principally in Vermont. In 1775, soon after 
 the battle of Lexington, he collected a body of about three hundred Green 
 Mountain boys, as they were called, and marched against the fortresses of 
 Ticonderoga and Crown Point ; and in each of these enterprises he was suc- 
 cessful. He was shortly after taken prisoner, and sent to England ; of the 
 events of his captivity he has himself given an interesting narrative. On 
 release from his confinement, he repaired to the head-quarters of general 
 Washington, where he was received with much respect. As his health was 
 much injured, he returned to Vermont, after having made an offer of his 
 services to the commander-in-chief, in case of his recovery. He died sud- 
 denly at Colchester, in 1789. Among other publications, Allen was the 
 author of a work entitled Allen's Theology, or the Oracles of Reason, the 
 first formal attack upon the Christian religion issued in the United States. 
 He was a man of an exceedingly strong mind, but entirely rough and 
 uneducated. 
 
 ALSOP, Richard, a man of letters, was born at Middletown, in Con- 
 necticut, and resided in that place during most of his life. His works are 
 numerous, and embrace a great variety of subjects. He was one of the 
 contributors to the Echo, a journal that obtained considerable celebrity, in 
 
500 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 its day, for humor and satire. He published various translations from 
 the French and Italian, and left in manuscript a poem of considerable 
 length, called the Charms of Fancy. He died in 1815, at the age of fifty- 
 seven. 
 
 AMES, Fisher, one of the most eloquent of American writers and 
 statesmen, was born at Dedham, in Massachusetts, in the year 1758. He 
 was educated at Harvard college, where he received his degree in 1774. 
 About seven years afterwards, he began the practice of the law, and an 
 opportunity soon occurred for the display of his superior qualifications, 
 both as a speaker and essay writer. He distinguished himself as a mem- 
 ber of the Massachusetts convention for ratifying the constitution, in 1788, 
 and from this body passed to the house of representatives, in the state 
 legislature. Soon after, he was elected the first representative of the Suf- 
 folk district, in the congress of the United States, where he remained, 
 with the highest honor, during the eight years of Washington's adminis- 
 tration. On the retirement of the first president, Mr. Ames returned to 
 the practice of his profession in his native town. During the remaining 
 years of his life, his health was very much impaired, but his mind still 
 continued deeply interested in politics, and he published a considerable 
 number of essays, on the most stirring topics of the day. He died in 1808. 
 In the following year, his works were issued in one volume, octavo, pre- 
 faced by a biographical notice, from the pen of his friend, the Eev. Dr. 
 Kirkland. 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, William, a distinguished naval officer, was born at 
 Princeton, New Jersey, on the seventh of May, 1774. From 1793 to 
 1798, he was engaged in the merchant service, sailing between Philadel- 
 phia and Europe. In July, 1798, he received the command of the United 
 States' schooner Retaliation, of fourteen guns, to be employed in the hos- 
 tilities which had arisen with France. While cruising off Guadaloupe 
 this schooner was taken by two French frigates and a lugger, and taken 
 in to that island, where she remained three months. He reached home in 
 February, 1799, and his exchange being soon effected, he received a com- 
 mission of master-commandant, and sailed in the brig Norfolk, in another 
 cruise to the West Indies. Here he remained for some months, convoying 
 the trade of the United States. On his return, he received a captain's 
 commission, and was appointed to the command of the frigate George 
 Washington, in which he shortly afterwards sailed for Algiers, with the 
 presents which our treaty bound us to make to the regency. After per- 
 forming, from motives of policy, a highly insolent exaction of the Dey, 
 captain Bainbridge returned to Philadelphia, in the month of April, 1S01. 
 In the following year, he received the command of the frigate Essex, and 
 sailed for the Mediterranean, to protect American commerce from the Tri- 
 politan cruisers. In July, 1S03, he sailed in the Philadelphia, to join the 
 Mediterranean squadron, then under commodore Preble. His frigate was 
 unfortunately captured by the Tripolitans, and captain Bainbridge and 
 his crew remained in imprisonment for thirteen months. In 1S05, a 
 treaty of peace was concluded between the United States and Tripoli, and 
 the prisoners were liberated. Captain Bainbridge was received with much 
 respect, and was acquitted of all blame, by a court of inquiry, held at his 
 request. From 1806 to 1S12, he was employed at times in the merchant 
 service. In 1812, he was appointed to the command of the navy yard at 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 501 
 
 Charlestown, and when captain Hull applied for a furlough, after his vic- 
 tory over the British frigate Guerriere, commodore Bainbridge was per- 
 mitted to take command of the Constitution. In a few weeks after sailing, 
 he was running down towards the coast of Brazil, when he fell in with 
 the Java frigate, which he captured, after a severe battle. This frigate 
 was so much injured, that it was impossible to bring her to the United 
 States, and she was accordingly blown up. The situation of the Consti- 
 tution soon compelled commodore Bainbridge to return, and he was en- 
 gaged in no other action during the war. After the peace of 1815, he su- 
 perintended the building of the Independence, seventy-four, and took com- 
 mand of the first line of battle ship that belonged to our navy. In this 
 ship he sailed to the Mediterranean, to form a junction with commodore 
 Decatur, to cruise against the Barbary powers ; but matters had been ar- 
 ranged before his arrival. In November, 1815, he returned to this coun- 
 try, was afterwards appointed one of the navy commissioners, and re- 
 sumed the command of the navy yard in Charlestown. His health gra- 
 dually declined, and he died at Philadelphia on the twenty-seventh of 
 July, 1833. 
 
 BARLOW, Joel, a poet and diplomatist, was born at Reading, in Con- 
 necticut, about the year 1755. His father died while he was yet a lad at 
 school, and left him little more than sufficient to defray the expenses of a 
 liberal education. He was first placed at Dartmouth college, New Hamp- 
 shire, then in its infancy, and after a very short residence there, removed 
 to Yale college, New Haven. From this institution he received a degree, 
 in 1778, when he first came before the public in his poetical character, by 
 reciting an original poem, which was soon after published. On leaving 
 college, he was successively a chaplain in the revolutionary army, an edi- 
 tor, a bookseller, a lawyer, and a merchant. He next visited England, 
 and published, in London, the first part of Advice to the Privileged 
 Orders ; and, in the succeeding year, a poem, called The Conspiracy of 
 Kings. In the latter part of 1792, he was appointed one of the deputies 
 from the London Constitutional Society, to present an address to the na- 
 tional convention of France. Information of the notice which the British 
 government had taken of this mission, led him to think that it would be 
 unsafe to return to England, and he continued to reside in Paris for about 
 three years. It was about this time that he composed his most popular 
 poem, entitled Hasty Pudding. He was subsequently appointed consul 
 for the United States at Algiers, with powers to negotiate a peace with the 
 dey, and to redeem all American citizens held in slavery on the coast of 
 Barbary. After discharging these duties, he returned to Paris, and again 
 engaging in trade, amassed a considerable fortune. In 1S05, he returned 
 to his native country, and fixed his residence at Washington, where he 
 displayed a liberal hospitality, and lived on terms of intimacy with most 
 of our distinguished statesmen. He now devoted himself to the publica- 
 tion of the Columbiad, which was based upon a poem written while he 
 was in the army, and published soon after the close of the war, under the 
 title of The Vision of Columbus. This was issued in a style of elegance 
 which few works, either American or European, have ever equalled. 
 In 1811, he was appointed minister to France, and in October of the fol- 
 lowing year, was invited to a conference with the emperor Napoleon, at 
 Wilna. He immediately set off on this mission, travelling day and night ; 
 
502 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 but, sinking under the fatigue, and want of food and sleep, to which he 
 was obliged to submit, he fell into a state of debility and torpor, from which 
 he never recovered. He died in December, 1812, at Zarnowica, a village 
 in Poland, near Cracow. 
 
 BARNEY, Joshua, a distinguished naval commander, was born at Bal- 
 timore, Maryland, in 1759. He went to sea at a very early age, and when 
 the war commenced between Great Britain and the colonies, Barney offer- 
 ed his services to the latter, and obtained the situation of master's mate in 
 the sloop of war Hornet. During the war, he was several times taken 
 prisoner by the enemy, and displayed, on numerous occasions, great valor 
 and enterprise. In 1795, he received the commission of captain in the 
 French service, but in 1800 resigned his command, and returned to Ame- 
 rica. In 1812, when war was declared against Great Britain, he offered 
 his services to the general government, and was appointed to the command 
 of the flotilla for the defence of the Chesapeak. While in this situation, 
 during the summer of 1814, he kept up an active warfare with the enemy; 
 and in the latter part of July, he was severely wounded in a land engage- 
 ment near Bladensburg. In the following year, he was sent on a mission 
 to Europe. He died at Pittsburg, in 1818, in the sixtieth year of his age. 
 
 BARRY, John, a distinguished naval officer, was born in Ireland, in 
 1745. He arrived in America when only fourteen or fifteen years old, 
 and obtained employment from some of the most respectable merchants of 
 the day, until the commencement of hostilities between the colonies and 
 the mother country. Embracing the cause of the colonies, his reputation 
 for skill and experience procured for him one of the first naval commis 
 sions from congress. During the war, he served with great benefit to his 
 country, and credit to himself, and after the cessation of hostilities, he was 
 appointed to superintend the building of the frigate United States, in Phi- 
 ladelphia, which was designed for his command. He was highly respect- 
 ed in private life, and died, much lamented and honored, in 1S03. 
 
 BARTRAM, John, one of the most distinguished of our botanists, was 
 born in Pennsylvania, in 1701. He was a simple farmer, self taught in 
 the science of botany, and in the rudiments of the learned languages, 
 medicine, and surgery. So great was his progress in his favorite pursuit, 
 that Linnaeus pronounced him the 'greatest natural botanist in the world.' 
 He contributed much to the gardens of Europe, and received honors from 
 several foreign societies and academies. At the time of his death, which 
 happened in 1777, he held the office of American botanist to George III. 
 of England. 
 
 BARTRAM, William, a celebrated naturalist, son of the preceding, 
 was born in Pennsylvania, in 1739. In early life, he was occupied with 
 mercantile pursuits, but an attachment to natural science induced him to 
 relinquish them, and, in 1773, he embarked for Charleston, with the in- 
 tention to visit the Floridas and the western parts of Georgia and Carolina, 
 to examine their natural productions. In this employment he was engag- 
 ed nearly five years ; and in 1790, he published an account of his travels 
 and discoveries, in one volume, octavo. After his return from his travels, 
 he devoted himself to science, and was elected a member of several learn- 
 ed societies, both at home and in Europe. His contributions to the natural 
 history of our country have been highly valuable. He died suddenly, in 
 1823. 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 503 
 
 BAYARD, James A., an eminent lawyer and politician, was born in 
 Philadelphia, in 1767, and educated at Princeton college. In the year 
 1784, he engaged in the study of the law, and on admission to the bar, 
 settled in the state of Delaware, where he soon acquired practice and con- 
 sideration. He was elected to a seat in congress towards the close of the 
 administration of Mr. Adams, and first particularly distinguished himself 
 in conducting the impeachment of senator Blount. In 1804, he was elect- 
 ed to the senate of the United States, by the legislature of Delaware, and 
 remained for several years a conspicuous member of that assembly. In 
 1813, he was appointed by president Madison one of the ministers to con- 
 clude a treaty of peace with Great Britain, and assisted in the successful 
 negotiations at Ghent, in the following year. He then received the ap- 
 pointment of minister to the court of St. Petersburgh, but an alarming ill- 
 ness induced him to return immediately to the United States. He died 
 soon after his arrival home, in July, 1815. 
 
 BELKNAP, Jeremy, an eminent historian and divine, was born at 
 Boston, Massachusetts, in 1744, and was graduated at Harvard college, in 
 1762. He was first settled in the Christian ministry at Dover, New 
 Hampshire, and afterwards in his native town. He was one of the foun- 
 ders of the Massachusetts Historical Society, and devoted much of his 
 time to the promotion of its objects and interests. His published works 
 are, the History of New Hampshire, American Biography, and a number 
 of political, literary and religious tracts. His writings are characterized 
 by great research, clear arrangement, and perspicuity of style. He died 
 at Boston, in 1798. 
 
 BENEZET, Anthony, a philanthropist, was born in 1713, at St. Quen- 
 lin, in Picardy, of Protestant parents, who first settled in London, and after- 
 wards at Philadelphia. He was intended for a merchant, but apprenticed 
 himself to a cooper, and subsequently became a school-master, and a mem- 
 ber of the society of Friends. His whole life was spent in acts of benevo- 
 lence, and he was one of the earliest opponents of the atrocious slave trade. 
 A few hours before his death, he rose from his bed, to give, from his bu- 
 reau, six dollars to a poor widow. His funeral was attended by thousands ; 
 and at the grave, an American officer exclaimed, ' I would rather be An- 
 thony Benezet, in that coffin, than George Washington, with all his fame.' 
 Benezet died at Philadelphia, in 1784. He is the author of a Caution to 
 Great Britain and her colonies ; and an Historical Account of Guinea. 
 
 BIDDLE, Nicholas, an American naval officer, was born in Philadel- 
 phia, in 1750. He entered the British fleet in 1770, having previously 
 served several years as a seaman on board merchant ships. On the com- 
 mencement of hostilities between the colonies and the mother country, he 
 returned to Philadelphia, and received from congress the captaincy of the 
 Andrew Doria, a brig of fourteen guns, employed in the expedition against 
 New Providence. Towards the close of 1776, he received command of 
 the Randolph, a new frigate of thirty-two guns, with which he soon cap- 
 tured a Jamaica fleet, of four sail, richly laden. This prize he carried into 
 Charleston, and was soon after furnished by the government of that town 
 with four additional vessels, to attack several British cruisers, at that time 
 harassing the commerce of the vicinity. He fell in with the royal line-of- 
 battle ship Yarmouth, of sixty-four guns, on the seventh of March, 1778, 
 
504 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and, after an action of twenty minutes, perished, with all his crew except 
 four, by the blowing up of the ship. 
 
 BLAKELY, Johnston, a captain in the United States navy during the 
 late war, was born in Ireland, in 1781. Two years after, his father emi- 
 grated to the United States, and settled in North Carolina. Young Blake- 
 ly was placed, in 1796, at the university of North Carolina ; but circum- 
 stances having deprived him of the means of adequate support, he left col- 
 lege, and in 1S00 obtained a midshipman's warrant. In 1813, he was ap- 
 pointed to the command of the Wasp, and in this vessel took his Britannic 
 majesty's ship Reindeer, after an action of nineteen minutes. The Wasp 
 afterwards put into L'Orient ; from which port she sailed August 27. On 
 the evening of the first of September, 1814, she fell in with four sail, at 
 considerable distances from each other. One of these was the brig of war 
 Avon, which struck, after a severe action ; but captain Blakely was pre- 
 vented from taking possession, by the approach of another vessel. The 
 enemy reported that they had sunk the Wasp by the first broadside ; but 
 she was afterwards spoken by a vessel off the Western isles. After this, 
 we hear of her no more. Captain Blakely was considered a man of un- 
 common courage and intellect. 
 
 BOONE, Daniel, one of the earliest settlers in Kentucky, was born in 
 Virginia, and was from infancy addicted to hunting in the woods. He set 
 out on an expedition to explore the region of Kentucky, in May, 1769, 
 with five companions. After meeting with a variety of adventures, Boone 
 was left with his brother, the only white men in the wilderness. They 
 passed the winter in a cabin, and in the summer of 1770, traversed the 
 country to the Cumberland river. In September, 1773, Boone commenced 
 his removal to Kentucky, with his own and five other families. He was 
 joined by forty men, who put themselves under his direction ; but being 
 attacked by the Indians, the whole party returned to the settlements on 
 Clinch river. Boone was afterwards employed by a company of North 
 Carolina, to buy, from the Indians, lands on the south side of the Kentucky 
 river. In April, 1775, he built a fort at Salt-spring, where Boonesborough 
 is now situated. Here he sustained several sieges from the Indians, and 
 was once taken prisoner by them, while hunting with a number of his 
 men. In 1782, the depredations of the savages increased to an alarming 
 extent, and Boone, with other militia officers, collected one hundred and 
 seventy-six men, and went in pursuit of a large body, who had marched 
 beyond the Blue Licks, forty miles from Lexington. From that time till 
 1798, he resided alternately in Kentucky and Virginia. In that year, 
 having received a grant of two thousand acres of land from the Spanish 
 authorities, he removed to Upper Louisiana, with his children and follow- 
 ers, who were presented with eight hundred acres each. He settled with 
 them at Charette, on the Missouri river, where he followed his usual 
 course of life, — hunting and trapping bears, — till September, 1822, when 
 he died, in the eighty-fifth year of his age. He expired while on his 
 knees, taking aim at some object, and was found in that position, with his 
 gun resting on the trunk of a tree. 
 
 BOUDINOT, Elias, a descendant of one of the Huguenots, was born 
 in Philadelphia, in 1740. He received a liberal education, and entered into 
 the practice of the law in New Jersey, where he soon rose to considerable 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 505 
 
 eminence. In 1777, he was chosen a member of congress, and in 1782, 
 was elected president of that body. On the return of peace, he resumed 
 his profession, but, in 1789, was elected to a seat in the house of repre- 
 sentatives of the United States, which he continued to occupy for six 
 years. He was then appointed by Washington director of the national 
 mint, in which office he remained for about twelve years. Resigning this 
 office, he retired to private life, and resided from that time in Burlington, 
 New Jersey. Here he passed his time in literary pursuits, liberal hospi- 
 tality, and in discharging all the duties of an expansive and ever active 
 benevolence. Being possessed of an ample fortune, he made munificent 
 donations to various charitable and theological institutions, and was one of 
 the earliest and most efficient friends of the American Bible Society. Of 
 this institution he was the first president, and it was particularly the object 
 of his princely bounty. He died in October, 1821. 
 
 BOWDOIN, James, a governor of Massachusetts, was born at Boston, 
 in the year 1727, and was graduated at Harvard college in 1745. He 
 took an early stand against the encroachments of the British government 
 upon the provincial rights, and in 1774 was elected a delegate to the first 
 congress. The state of his health prevented his attendance, and his place 
 was afterwards filled by Mr. Hancock. In 1778, he was chosen president 
 of the convention which formed the constitution of Massachusetts, and in 
 1785, was appointed governor of that state. He was a member of the 
 Massachusetts convention assembled to deliberate on the adoption of the 
 constitution of the United States, and exerted himself in its favor. He 
 was the first president of the Academy of Arts and Sciences, established 
 at Boston in 1780, and was admitted a member of several foreign societies 
 of distinction. He died at Boston, in 1790. 
 
 BOYLSTON, Zabdiel, was born at Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1684. 
 He studied medicine at Boston, and entered into the practice of his profes- 
 sion in that place. In 1721, when the small pox broke out in Boston, and 
 spread alarm through the whole country, the practice of inoculation was 
 introduced by Dr. Boylston, notwithstanding it was discouraged by the 
 rest of the faculty, and a public ordinance was passed to prohibit it. He. 
 persevered in his practice, in spite of the most violent opposition, and had 
 the satisfaction of seeing inoculation in general use in New England, for 
 some time before it became common in Great Britain. In 1725, he visited 
 England, where he was received with much attention, and was elected a 
 fellow of the Royal society. Upon his return, he continued at the head 
 of his profession for many years, and accumulated a large fortune. Be- 
 sides communications to the Royal society, he published two treatises on 
 the small pox. He died in 1766. 
 
 BRADFORD, William, an eminent lawyer, was born in Philadelphia, 
 in 1755. After graduating at Princeton college, he pursued the study of 
 the law, and in 1779, was admitted to the bar of the supreme court of 
 Pennsylvania. In 1780, he was appointed attorney-general, and in 1791, 
 he was made a judge of the supreme court of his native state. In 1794, 
 he was appointed attorney-general of the United States, and held this 
 office till his death. In 1793, he published an Inquiry how far the Pu- 
 nishment of Death is necessary in Pennsylvania. He died in 1795. He 
 was a man of integrity, industry, and talent. 
 
 BRAINARD, J. G. C, a poet and man of letters, was born in Con- 
 64 43 
 
506 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 necticut, and was graduated at Yale college, in 1815. He pursued the 
 profession of the law, and entered into practice at Middletown, Connecti- 
 cut ; but not finding the degree of success that he expected, he returned 
 in a short time to his native town, whence he removed to Hartford, to un- 
 dertake the editorial charge of the Connecticut Mirror. His poems were 
 chiefly short pieces, composed for the columns of that paper, and afterwards 
 collected into a volume. They display much pathos, boldness, and origi- 
 nality. Brainard died of consumption, in 1828. 
 
 BRAINERD, David, the celebrated missionary, was born at Haddam, 
 Connecticut, in 1718. From an early period he was remarkable for a re- 
 ligious turn of mind, and in 1739, became a member of Yale college, where 
 he was distinguished for application, and general correctness of conduct. 
 He was expelled from this institution in 1742, in consequence of having 
 said, in the warmth of his religious zeal, that one of the tutors was as de- 
 void of grace as a chair. In the spring of 1742, he began the study of 
 divinity, and at the end of July, was licensed to preach. Having received 
 from the Society for propagating Christian Knowledge, an appointment as 
 missionary to the Indians, he commenced his labors at Kaunameek, a vil- 
 lage of Massachusetts, situated between Stockbridge and Albany. He re- 
 mained there about twelve months, and on the removal of the Kaunameeks 
 to Stockbridge, he turned his attention towards the Delaware Indians. In 
 1744, he was ordained at Newark, New Jersey, and fixed his residence 
 near the forks of the Delaware, in Pennsylvania, where he remained about 
 a year. From this place, he removed to Crosweeksung, in New Jersey, 
 where his efforts among the Indians were crowned with great success. In 
 1747, he went to Northampton, Massachusetts, where he passed the re- 
 mainder of his life in the family of the celebrated Jonathan Edwards. He 
 died, after great sufferings, in 1747. His publications are a narrative of 
 his labors at Kaunameek, and his journal of a remarkable work of grace 
 among a number of Indians in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, 1746. 
 
 BRANDT, a noted half-blooded Indian chief, of the Mohawk tribe, was 
 educated by Dr. Wheelock, of Dartmouth college, and made very conside- 
 rable attainments in knowledge. In the revolutionary war, he attached 
 himself to the British, and headed the party which destroyed the beauti- 
 ful village of Wyoming. He resided in Canada after the war, and died 
 there in"lS07. 
 
 BROOKS, John, the son of a respectable farmer, was born in Medford, 
 Massachusetts, in the year 1752. After receiving a common school edu- 
 cation, he was placed with Dr. Tufts, to study the profession of medicine. 
 On completing his studies, he commenced practice in the neighboring 
 town of Reading, a short time before the commencement of the revolution. 
 When this event occurred, he was appointed to command a company of 
 minute men, and was soon after raised to the rank of major in the conti- 
 nental service. He was distinguished for his knowledge of military tac- 
 tics, and acquired the confidence of Washington. In 1777, he was ap- 
 pointed lieutenant-colonel, and took a conspicuous part in the capture of 
 Burgoyne, at Saratoga. On the disbanding of the army, colonel Brooks 
 resumed the practice of medicine in Medford and the vicinity, and was 
 soon after elected a member of the Massachusetts Medical society. He 
 Was, for many years, major-general of the militia of his county, and his 
 division rendered efficient service to the government in the insurrection of 
 
BIOGRAPHr. 507 
 
 1786. General Brooks also represented his town in the general court, and 
 was a delegate to the state convention for the adoption of the federal con- 
 stitution. In the late war with England, he was the adjutant-general of 
 governor Strong, whom, on his retirement from office, he was chosen to 
 succeed. He discharged the duties of chief magistrate with much ability, 
 for seven successive years, when he retired to private life. His remaining 
 years were passed in the town of Medford, where he died in 1825. 
 
 BROWN, Charles Brockden, a distinguished novelist and man of let- 
 ters, was born at Philadelphia, in January, 1771. After a good school 
 education, he commenced the study of the law in the office of an eminent 
 member of the bar. During the preparatory term, his mind was much en- 
 gaged in literary pursuits, and when the time approached for his admission 
 into the courts, he resolved to abandon the profession altogether. His 
 passion for letters, and the weakness of his physical constitution, disquali- 
 fied him for the bustle of business. His first publication was Alcuin, a 
 Dialogue on the Rights of Women, written in the autumn and winter of 
 1797. The first of his novels, issued in 1798, was Wieland, a powerful 
 and original romance, which soon acquired reputation. After this, follow- 
 ed Ormond, Arthur Mervyn, Edgar Huntley, and Clara Howard, in rapid 
 succession, the last being published in 1801. The last of his novels, Jane 
 Talbot, was originally published in London, in 1804, and is much inferior 
 to its predecessors. In 1799, Brown published the first number of the 
 Monthly Magazine and American Review ; a work which he continued 
 for about a year and a half, with much industry and ability. In 1805, he 
 commenced another journal, with the title of the Literary Magazine and 
 American Register ; and in this undertaking he persevered for five years. 
 During the same interval, he found time to write three large political pam- 
 phlets, on the Cession of Louisiana, on the British Treaty, and on Com- 
 mercial Restrictions. In 1806, he commenced a semi-annual American 
 Register, five volumes of which he lived to complete and publish, and 
 which must long be consulted as a valuable body of annals. Besides these 
 works, and many miscellaneous pieces, published in different periodicals, 
 he left in manuscript an unfinished system of geography, which has been 
 represented to possess uncommon merit. He died of consumption, in 
 1810. 
 
 BROWN, John, was born, in 1736, in Providence, Rhode Island, and 
 was a leader of the party which, in 1772, destroyed the British sloop of 
 war Gasper, in Narragansett bay. He became an enterprising and weal- 
 thy merchant, and was the first in his native state who traded with the 
 East Indies and China. He was chosen a member of congress, and was 
 a generous patron of literature, and a great projector of works of public 
 utility. He died in 1803. 
 
 BUCKMINSTER, Joseph Stevens, a celebrated pulpit orator, was 
 born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1784. His male ancestors, on 
 both sides, for several generations, were clergymen, and some of them of 
 considerable eminence. He was graduated at Harvard college, in 1800, 
 with much distinction, and spent the ensuing four years in the study of 
 theology and general literature. He was ordained minister over the 
 church in Brattle-street, Boston, in January, 1805. In the ensuing year, 
 he embarked for Europe, with the hopes of repairing his constitution, which 
 had suffered much from attacks of epilepsy. He returned in the autumn 
 
60S BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of 1S07, and resumed the exercise of his profession ; his sermons placing 
 him in the first rank of popular preachers. In 1S10, he superintended an 
 American edition of Griesbach's Greek Testament, and wrote much in 
 vindication of this author's erudition, fidelity, and accuracy. In 1811, ho 
 was appointed the first lecturer on Biblical criticism, at the university of 
 Cambridge, on the foundation established by Samuel Dexter. He imm<* 
 diately began a course of laborious and extensive preparation for the du- 
 ties of this office, but was interrupted by a violent attack of his old disease, 
 which prostrated his intellect, and gave a shock to his frame which he 
 survived but a few days. He died in 1S12, at the completion of his twen- 
 ty-eighth year. Two volumes of his sermons have been collected and 
 published since his decease ; one in 1814, the other in 1S29. The first 
 was prefaced with a well-written biographical sketch. 
 
 CABOT, George, was born in Salem, Massachusetts, in the year 1752, 
 and spent the early part of his life in the employment of a ship-master. He 
 possessed a vigorous and inquisitive mind, and took advantage of every 
 opportunity of improvement and acquisition, even amid the restlessness 
 and danger of a seafaring life. Before he was twenty-six years of age, 
 he was elected a member of the provincial congress of Massachusetts, 
 which met with the visionary project of establishing a maximum in the 
 prices of provision. There he displayed that sound sense, and that ac- 
 quaintance with the true principles of political economy, for which he 
 afterwards became so much distinguished. Mr. Cabot was a member of 
 the state convention, assembled to deliberate on the adoption of the federal 
 constitution, and in 1790, was elected to a seat in the senate of the United 
 States. Of this body he became one of the most distinguished members, 
 and enjoyed the unlimited confidence and friendship of Hamilton and 
 Washington. In 1808, he became a member of the council of Massachu- 
 setts, and in 1814, was appointed a delegate to the convention which met 
 at Hartford, and was chosen to preside over its deliberations. He died at 
 Boston, in 1823, at the age of seventy-two years. He possessed a mind 
 of great energy and penetration, and in private life was much loved and 
 esteemed. As a public man, he was pure and disinterested, of high sa- 
 gacity and persuasive eloquence. His favorite studies were political 
 economy and the science of government. 
 
 CADWALLADER, John, was born in Philadelphia, and rose to the rank 
 of brigadier-general during the revolutionary war. He was a man of in- 
 flexible courage, and possessed, in a high degree, the esteem and confi- 
 dence of Washington. In 1778, he was appointed by congress general 
 of cavalry, an appointment which he declined, on the score of being more 
 useful in the situation he then occupied. After the war, he was a mem- 
 ber of the assembly of Maryland, and died in 17S6, in the forty-fourth year 
 of his age. 
 
 CARROLL. Charles, was born on the twentieth of September, 1737, 
 at Annapolis, in Maryland. At an early age, he was sent to St. Omera 
 to be educated, whence he removed to the college of Louis le Grand, at 
 Rheims. After prosecuting for some time the study of the civil law, at 
 one of the best institutions in France, he entered the temple. After be- 
 coming well versed in the principles of the common law, and completing 
 his studies and travels, he returned to his native land, at the age of twenty- 
 seven. At this period, the difficulties between the colonies and the mother 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 609 
 
 country had commenced, and the struggle was soon carried on with con- 
 siderable warmth. Mr. Carroll wielded a vigorous pen, and was soon 
 known as one of the most powerful writers in Maryland. He foresaw at 
 an early hour that the appeal to arms must finally be made, and boldly re- 
 commended due preparation. 
 
 Early in 1776, he was sent as one of the commissioners to Canada, to 
 induce the people of that province to join us in the opposition to the 
 mother country. This mission was ineffectual. Mr. Carroll returned in 
 June, 1776, and immediately took his seat as a delegate in the conven- 
 tion of Maryland. Being afterwards elected a member of the congress, 
 he presented his credentials to this body at Philadelphia on the eighteenth, 
 of July, and on the second of August following subscribed his name to 
 the declaration of independence. 
 
 At the time he was considered as one of the most fearless and daring 
 men of the age ; as his property was immense, and its ultimate loss was 
 considered rationally certain. On his entrance into congress, he was 
 immediately appointed to the board of war, of which he was an efficient 
 member. During the war, he bore his part with unabated vigor, and was 
 often, at the same time, a member of the continental congress and of the 
 convention of his native state ; discharging his duties in both relations 
 with fidelity, energy, and attention. In 1778, he left congress, and devot- 
 ed himself to the councils of his native state. When the constitution of 
 the United States went into operation, Mr. Carroll was elected a senator 
 from Maryland, and took his seat at the organization of the government, 
 on the 30th of April, 17S9. To this office he was elected for a second 
 term. 
 
 In 1801, he quitted public life at the age of sixty-four, and for upwards 
 of thirty years enjoyed a life of tranquil honor, and unalloyed prosperity. 
 He survived all his companions of the immortal instrument of our inde- 
 pendence, and on the fourteenth of November, 1832, the ' patriarch was 
 gathered to his fathers.' 
 
 CARTER, Nathaniel H., a man of letters, was born in Concord, 
 New Hampshire, and graduated at Dartmouth college in 1811. In 1816, 
 he was chosen professor of languages at the college where he was edu- 
 cated, and was subsequently editor of the New York Statesman. He is 
 the author of a few occasional poems, and of Travels in Europe, in two 
 vols. 8vo. He died in Marseilles, where he had gone on account of his 
 health, in January, 1830. 
 
 CARVER, Jonathan, a celebrated traveller, born in Connecticut, in 
 1732, was a grandson of the governor of that province. He was educated 
 for the medical profession, but embraced a military life, and served with 
 reputation till the peace of 1763. The years 1766, 1767, and 1768, he 
 spent in exploring the interior of North America, and he added considera- 
 bly to our knowledge of the country. He visited England, in 1769, 
 hoping for the patronage of government, but he was disappointed. In 
 1778, while in the situation of clerk of a lottery, in Boston, he published 
 his travels, and^ subsequently, a Treatise on the Cultivation of Tobacco. 
 After having long contended with poverty, he died, in 1780, of disease 
 which is believed to have been produced by want. His narrations have all 
 the interest of fiction, and it has been suggested that they may in some 
 respects be considered the work of fancy. 
 
 43* 
 
510 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHASE, Samuel, judge of the supreme court of the United States, 
 was born in Somerset county, Maryland, in 1741. He was educated by 
 his father, a learned clergyman ; and after studying for two years the pro- 
 fession of law, he was admitted to the bar, at Annapolis, at the age of 
 twenty. In 1774, he was sent to the congress of Philadelphia as a dele- 
 gate from Maryland, and he continued an active, bold, eloquent, and effi- 
 cient member of this body throughout the war, when he returned to the 
 practice of his profession. In 1791, he accepted the appointment of chief 
 justice of the general court of Maryland ; and in 1796, president Wash- 
 ington made him an associate judge of the supreme court of the United 
 States. He remained upon the bench for fifteen years, and appeared with 
 ability and dignity. It was his ill fortune, however, to have his latter 
 days embittered by an impeachment by the house of representatives at 
 Washington. This impeachment originated in political animosities, from 
 the offence which his conduct in the circuit court had given to the demo- 
 cratic party. The trial of the judge before the senate is memorable on 
 account of the excitement which it occasioned, the ability of the defence, 
 and the nature of the acquittal. Judge Chase continued to exercise his 
 judicial functions till 1S11, when his health failed him, and he expired on 
 the nineteenth of June, in that year. He was a sincere patriot, and a man 
 of high intellect and undaunted courage. 
 
 CHURCH, Benjamin, a physician of some eminence, and an able wri- 
 ter, was graduated at Harvard college in 1754, and, after going through 
 the preparatory studies, established himself in the practice of medicine in 
 Boston. For several years before the revolution, he was a leading cha- 
 racter among the whigs and patriots ; and on the commencement of the 
 war he was appointed physician general to the army. While in the per- 
 formance of the duties assigned him in this capacity, he was suspected of 
 a treacherous correspondence with the enemy, and immediately arrested 
 and imprisoned. After remaining some time in prison, he obtained per- 
 mission to depart for the West Indies. The vessel in which he sailed was 
 never heard from afterwards. He is the author of a number of occasional 
 poems, serious, pathetic, and satirical, which possess considerable merit ; 
 and an oration, delivered on the fifth of March, 1773. 
 
 CLINTON, James, was born in 1736, at the residence of his father, in 
 Ulster county, New York. He displayed an early inclination for a milita- 
 ry life, and held successively several offices in the militia and provincial 
 troops. During the French war he exhibited many proofs of courage, and 
 received the appointment of captain-commandant of the four regiments, 
 levied for the protection of the western frontiers of the counties of Ulster and 
 Orange. In 1775, he was appointed colonel of the third regiment of New 
 York forces, and in the same year marched with Montgomery to Quebec. 
 During the war, he rendered eminent services to his country, and on the 
 conclusion of it retired to enjoy repose on his ample estates. He was, 
 however, frequently called from retirement by the unsolicited voice of his 
 fellow-citizens ; and was a member of the convention for the adoption of 
 the present constitution of the United States. He died in 1S12. 
 
 CLINTON, George, vice-president of the United States, was born in 
 the county of Ulster, New York, in 1739, and was educated in the pro- 
 fession of the law. In 1768, he was chosen to a seat in the colonial 
 assembly, and was elected a delegate to the continental congress in 1775. 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 511 
 
 In 1776, he was appointed brigadier-general of the militia of Ulster 
 county, and some time after a brigadier in the army of the United States, 
 and continued during the progress of the war to render important services 
 to the military department. In April, 1777, he was elected both governor 
 and lieutenant-governor of New York, and was continued in the former 
 office for eighteen years. He was unanimously chosen president of the 
 convention which assembled at Poughkeepsie, in 1788, to deliberate on 
 the new federal constitution. In 1801, he again accepted the office of 
 governor, and after continuing in that capacity for three years, he was 
 elevated to the vice-presidency of the United States ; a dignity which he 
 retained till his death at Washington, in 1812. In private he was kind 
 and amiable, and as a public man he is entitled to respectful remem- 
 brance. 
 
 CLINTON, De Witt, was born in 1769, at Little Britain, in Orange 
 county, New York. He was educated at Columbia college, commenced 
 the study of the law, and was admitted to the bar, but was never much 
 engaged in professional practice. He early imbibed a predilection for 
 political life, and was appointed the private secretary of his uncle, George 
 Clinton, then governor of the state. In 1797, he was sent to the legisla- 
 ture from the city of New York ; and two years after was chosen a mem- 
 ber of the state senate. In 1801, he was appointed a senator of the Uni- 
 ted States, and continued in that capacity for two sessions. He retired 
 from the senate in 1803, in consequence of his election to the mayoralty 
 of New York ; an office to which he was annually re-elected, with the 
 intermission of but two years, till 1815, when he was obliged to retire by 
 the violence of party politics. In 1S17, he was elected, almost unani- 
 mously, governor of the state, was again chosen in 1820, but in 1822 
 declined being a candidate for re-election. In 1810, Mr. Clinton had been 
 appointed, by the senate of his state, one of the board of canal commis- 
 sioners, but the displeasure of his political opponents having been excited, 
 he was removed from this office, in 1823, by a vote of both branches of 
 the legislature. This insult created a strong reaction in popular feeling - , 
 and Mr. Clinton was immediately nominated for governor, and elected by 
 an unprecedented majority. In 1S26, he was again elected, but he died 
 before the completion of his term. He expired very suddenly, whilst sit- 
 ting in his library after dinner, Feb. 11, 1828. Mr. Clinton was not only 
 eminent as a statesman, but he occupied a conspicuous rank as a man of 
 learning. He was a member of a large part of the benevolent, literary 
 and scientific societies of the United States, and an honorary member of 
 several foreign societies. His productions are numerous, consisting of his 
 speeches and messages to the state legislature ; his discourses before vari- 
 ous institutions ; his speeches in the senate of the Union ; his addresses 
 to the army during the late war; his communications concerning the 
 canal ; his judicial opinions ; and various fugitive pieces. His national 
 services were of the highest importance ; and the Erie canal, especially, 
 though the honor of projecting it may belong to another, will remain a 
 perpetual monument of the patriotism and perseverance of Clinton. 
 
 CLYMER, George, one of the signers of the declaration of indepen- 
 dence, was born in Philadelphia, in 1739. He was left an orphan at the 
 age of seven years, and after the completion of his studies, he entered 
 the counting house of his uncle. When the difficulties commenced be- 
 
512 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tween Great Britain and the colonies, Mr. Clymer was among the first 
 to raise his voice in opposition to the arbitrary acts of the mother country, 
 and was chosen a member of the council of safety. In 1775, he was 
 appointed one of the first continental treasurers, but resigned this office 
 soon after his first election to congress, in the ensuing year. In 17S0, he 
 was again elected to congress, and strongly advocated there the estab- 
 lishment of a national bank. In 1796, he was appointed, together with 
 colonel Hawkins and colonel Pickens, to negotiate a treaty with the Chero- 
 kee and Creek Indians, in Georgia. He was subsequently president of 
 the Philadelphia bank, and the Academy of Fine Arts. He died in 1813. 
 
 COLDEN, Cadwallader, was born in Dunse, Scotland, in 1688. 
 After studying at the university of Edinburgh, he turned his attention to 
 medicine and mathematical science, until the year 1708, when he emi- 
 grated to Pennsylvania, and practised physic with much reputation, till 
 1715. He then returned to England, and attracted some attention by a 
 paper on Animal Secretions, which was read by Dr. Halley before the 
 Royal society. Again repairing to America, he settled, in 1718, in the 
 city of New York, and relinquishing the practice of physic, turned his 
 attention to public affairs, and became successively surveyor general of the 
 province, master in chancery, member of the council, and lieutenant-go- 
 vernor. His political character was rendered very conspicuous by the firm 
 ness of his conduct during the violent commotions which preceded the 
 revolution. In 1775, he retired to a seat on Long Island, where he died 
 in September, of the following year, a few hours before nearly one fourth 
 part of the city of New-York was reduced to ashes. His productions 
 were numerous, consisting of botanical and medical essays. Among them, 
 were treatises on the Cure of Cancer, and on the Virtues of the Great 
 Water Dock. His descriptions of between three and four hundred Ame- 
 rican plants were printed in the Acta Upsaliensia. He also published the 
 History of the Five Indian Nations, and a work on the Cause of Gravita- 
 tion, afterwards republished by Dodsley, under the title of The Principles 
 of Action in Matter. He left many valuable manuscripts on a variety of 
 subjects. 
 
 COOPER, Samuel, a Congregational minister, was born in Boston, 
 Massachusetts, in 1725. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1743, 
 and, devoting himself to the church, acquired great reputation as a preach- 
 er, at a very early age. After an useful and popular ministry of thirty- 
 seven years, he died in 17S3. He was a sincere and liberal christian, and 
 in his profession perhaps the most distinguished man of his day, in the 
 United States. He was an ardent friend of the cause of liberty, and did 
 much to promote it. With the exception of political essays in the journals 
 of the day, his productions were exclusively sermons. 
 
 COPLEY, John Singleton, a distinguished painter, was born in Boston, 
 Massachusetts, in 1738. He began to paint without any instruction at a 
 very early age, and executed pieces unsurpassed by his later productions. 
 He visited Italy in 1774, and in 1776 went to England, where he deter- 
 mined to remain, in consequence of the convulsed state of his native 
 country. He therefore devoted himself to portrait painting in London, and 
 was chosen a member of the royal academy. His celebrated picture, 
 styled The Death of Lord Chatham, at once established his fame, and he 
 was enabled to pursue his profession with success and unabated ardor. 
 
BTOGRAPHY. 513 
 
 till his sudden death in 1815. Among - his most celebrated productions, 
 are Major Pierson's Death on the island of Jersey ; Charles I. in the 
 house of commons, demanding of the speaker the five impeached mem- 
 bers ; the Surrender of Admiral De "Winter to Lord Duncan ; Samuel 
 and Eli ; and a number of portraits of several members of the royal 
 family. 
 
 CRAFTS, William, a lawyer and miscellaneous writer, was born in 
 Charleston, South Carolina, in 17S7. He received his education at Har- 
 vard college, and studied law in his native city, where he acquired some 
 reputation for talent and eloquence. He was a member of the South 
 Carolina legislature, and for some time editor of the Charleston Courier. 
 He died at Lebanon springs, New York, in 1826. A collection of his 
 works, comprising poems, essays in prose, and orations, with a biographi- 
 cal memoir, was published in Charleston, in 1828. 
 
 CRAIK, James, was born in Scotland, where he received his education 
 for the medical service of the British army. He came to the colony of 
 Virginia in early life, and accompanied Washington in his expeditions 
 against the French and Indians, in 1754; and in the following year 
 attended Braddock in his march through the wilderness, and assisted in 
 dressing his wounds. At the commencement of the revolution, by the 
 aid of his early and fast friend, general Washington, he was transferred 
 to the medical department in the continental army, and rose to the first 
 rank and distinction. He continued in the army to the end of the war, 
 and was present at the surrender of Cornwallis, on the memorable 19th of 
 October, 1781. After the cessation of hostilities, he removed to the 
 neighborhood of Mount Vernon, and in 1798 was once more appointed by 
 Washington to his former station in the medical staff. He was present 
 with his illustrious friend in his last moments, and died in 1814, in the 
 84th year of his age. He was a skilful and successful physician, and 
 Washington mentioned him as ' my compatriot in arms, my old and 
 intimate friend.' 
 
 DALE, Richard, an American naval commander, was born in Virginia, 
 in 1756. At twelve years of age he was sent to sea, and in 1776, he 
 entered as a midshipman on board of the American brig of war Lexington. 
 In the following year he was taken prisoner by a British cruiser, and after 
 a twelve-month confinement he escaped from Mill prison, and succeeded 
 in reaching France. Here he joined, in the character of master's mate, 
 the celebrated Paul Jones, then commanding the American ship Bon 
 Homme Richard. He was soon raised to the rank of first lieutenant, and 
 signalized himself in the sanguinary engagement between the Bon Homme 
 Richard and the English frigate Serapis. In 1794, the United States 
 made him a captain in the navy, and in 1801, he took command of the 
 American squadron, which sailed in that year from Hampton roads to the 
 Mediterranean. From the year 1802, he passed his life in Philadelphia, 
 in the enjoyment of a competent estate, and much esteemed by his fellow- 
 citizens. He died in 1826, leaving the reputation of a brave and intelli- 
 gent seaman. 
 
 DALLAS, Alexander James, was born in the island of Jamaica, in 
 
 1759 ; and was educated at Edinburgh and Westminster. In 1783, he 
 
 left Jamaica for the United States, and settled in Philadelphia ; taking the 
 
 oath of allegiance to the state of Pennsylvania. In 1785, he was admitted 
 
 65 
 
5] 4 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 to practise in the supreme court of the state, and in four or five years in 
 the courts of the Union. During this time he prepared his Reports, and 
 was engaged in various literary pursuits, writing much in the periodical 
 journals. He occupied successively the offices of secretary of Pennsylva- 
 nia, district attorney of the United States, secretary of the treasury, and 
 secretary of war. On the restoration of peace, in 1816, Mr. Dallas resigned 
 his political situation, and resumed the successful practice of his profession. 
 His services as an advocate were called for in almost, every part of the 
 union ; but in the midst of very flattering expectations he died at Trenton, 
 in 1817. 
 
 DAVIE, William Richardson, governor of North Carolina, was born in 
 England, in 1756. He was brought to America at the age of six years, and 
 received his education at Princeton, New Jersey, where he was graduated 
 in 1776. After pursuing for a short time the study of the law, he entered 
 the army as a lieutenant in the legion of Pulaski, and distinguished him- 
 self by his efficiency and courage as an officer. On the termination of 
 the war, he devoted himself with eminent success to the practice of the 
 law. In 1787, he was chosen a delegate from South Carolina, to represent 
 that state in the convention which framed the constitution of the United 
 States. Unavoidable absence prevented him from affixing his name to 
 that instrument. In 1790, he was elected governor of North Carolina, and 
 in 1799, was appointed one of the commissioners for negotiating a treaty 
 with France. He died at Camden, in 1820. He was a man of a dignified 
 and noble person, courage as a soldier, and ability as a lawyer. 
 
 DEANE, Silas, minister of the United States to the court of France, 
 was born in Connecticut, and educated at Yale college. He was elected 
 member of congress in 1774, and sent two years after as agent to France, 
 but was superseded, in 1777, and returned. Involved in suspicions from 
 which he could not extricate himself, he lost his reputation, and returning 
 to Europe, died in poverty in England, in 1789. 
 
 DECATUR, Stephen, a distinguished naval officer, was born in 
 Maryland, in 1779, and received his education in Philadelphia. He 
 entered the navy in 1798, and first distinguished himself when in the rank 
 of lieutenant, by the destruction of the American frigate Philadelphia, 
 which had run upon a rock in the harbor of Tripoli, and fallen into the 
 hands of the enemy. For this exploit, the American congress gave him a 
 vote of thanks and a sword, and the president immediately sent him a 
 captaincy. At the bombardment of Tripoli, the next year, he distinguished 
 himself by the capture of two of the enemy's boats, which were moored 
 along the mouth of the harbor, and immediately under the batteries. 
 When peace was concluded with Tripoli, Decatur returned home in the 
 Congress, and afterward succeeded commodore Barron in the command of 
 the Chesapeake. In the late war between Great Britain and the United 
 States, his chief exploit was the capture of the British frigate Macedonian, 
 commanded by captain Carden. In January, 1815, he attempted to sail 
 from New York, which w r as then blockaded by four British ships ; but the 
 frigate under his command was injured in passing the bar, and was captured 
 by the whole squadron, after a running fight of two or three hours. He 
 was restored to his country after the conclusion of peace. In the summer 
 of the same year, he was sent with a squadron to the Mediterranean, in 
 crder to compel the Algerines to desist from their depredations on Ameri- 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 515 
 
 can commerce. He arrived at Algiers on the twenty-eighth of June, and 
 in less than forty-eight hours terrified the regency into an entire accession 
 to all his terms. Thence he went to Tripoli, where he met with like suc- 
 cess. On returning to the United States, he was appointed a member of 
 the board of commissioners for the navy, and held that office till March, 
 1820, when he was shot in a duel with commodore Barron. He was a 
 man of an active and powerful frame, and possessed a high degree of ener- 
 gy, sagacity, and courage. 
 
 DENNIE, Joseph, born in Boston, in 1768, displayed an early fondness 
 for polite literature, and entered Harvard college in 1787. In 1790, he 
 left this institution, and commenced the study of the law; but made little 
 progress in the practice of his profession, in consequence of a strong attach- 
 ment to literary pursuits. In the spring of 1795, he established a weekly 
 paper in Boston, under the title of The Tablet, but it died from want of 
 patronage. Soon after, he went to Walpole to edit the Farmer's Museum, 
 a journal in which he published a series of papers with the signature of 
 the Lay Preacher. In 1799, he removed to Philadelphia, where he had 
 received an appointment in the office of the secretary of state. He subse- 
 quently established the Port Folio, a journal which acquired reputation 
 and patronage. He died in 1812. Mr. Dennie was a man of genius, and 
 a beautiful writer, but wanted the industry and judgment, which might 
 have secured him a competent subsistence and a permanent reputation. 
 
 DEXTER, Samuel, an eminent lawyer and statesman, was born in 
 Boston, in 1761. He received his education at Harvard college, where he 
 was graduated with honor, in 1781. Engaging in the study of the law, he 
 soon succeeded in obtaining an extensive practice. He enjoyed success- 
 ively a seat in the state legislature, and in the house of representatives and 
 senate of the United States ; and in each of these stations he secured a 
 commanding influence. During the administration of Mr. Adams, he was 
 appointed secretary of war, and of the treasury; but on the accession of 
 Mr. Jefferson to the presidency, he resigned his public employments, and 
 returned to the practice of his profession. For many years he was exten- 
 sively employed in the courts of Massachusetts, and in the supreme court 
 of the United States, where he was almost without a rival. He died sud- 
 denly, at Athens, New York, in 1816. Mr. Dexter was tall, muscular, and 
 well formed. His eloquence was clear, simple and cogent ; and his powers 
 were such as would have made him eminent in any age or nation. 
 
 DICKINSON, John, a celebrated political writer, was born in Maryland, 
 in 1732, and educated in Delaware. He pursued the study of law, and 
 practised with success in Philadelphia. He was soon elected to the state 
 legislature, and distinguished himself as an early and efficient advocate of 
 colonial rights. In 1765, he was appointed by Pennsylvania a delegate to 
 the first congress, held at New York, and prepared the draft of the bold 
 resolutions of that body. His celebrated Farmer's Letters to the Inhabitants 
 of the British Colonies were issued in Philadelphia, in 1767; they were 
 reprinted in London, with a preface by Dr. Franklin, and a French 
 translation of them was published at Paris. While in congress, he wrote 
 a large number of the most able and eloquent state papers of the time, and 
 as an orator he had few superiors in that assembly. He conscientiously 
 opposed the declaration of independence, and his opinions upon this subject 
 rendered him for a time unpopular; but they did not permanently affect his 
 
516 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 reputation and influence. He was afterwards a member of congress, and 
 president of Pennsylvania and Delaware, successively. He died at Wil- 
 mington, in 180S. Mr. Dickinson was a man of a strong mind, great 
 knowledge and eloquence, and much elegance of mind and manners. 
 
 DORSEY, John Syng, professor of anatomy in the university of 
 Pennsylvania, was born in Philadelphia in 1783, and received an excellent 
 elementary education at a school of the society of Friends. At the age 
 of fifteen he commenced the study of medicine, and pursued it with unu- 
 sual ardor and success. In the spring of 1S02, he was graduated doctor 
 in physic, having previously defended with ability an inaugural disserta- 
 tion on the Powers of the Gastric Liquor as a Solvent of the Urinary 
 Calculi. Soon after he received his degree, the yellow fever reappeared in 
 the city, and a hospital was open for the exclusive accommodation of those 
 sick with this disease, to which he was appointed resident physician. At 
 the close of the same season he visited Europe. On his return, in 1804, 
 he immediately entered on the practice of his profession, and soon acquired, 
 hy his popular manners, attention and talent, a large share of business. In 
 1S07 he was elected adjunct professor of surgery, and remained in this 
 office till he was raised to the chair of anatomy by the death of the lamented 
 Wistar. He opened the session by one of the finest exhibitions of eloquence 
 ever heard within the walls of the university ; but on the evening of the same 
 day, he was attacked by a fever, which in one week closed his existence. 
 He died in 1818. His Elements of Surgery, in two volumes 8vo, is con- 
 sidered the best work on the subject. It is used as a text book in the 
 university of Edinburgh, and was the first American work on medicine 
 reprinted in Europe. 
 
 DRAYTON, William Henry, a statesman of the revolution, was born 
 in South Carolina, in 1742. He received his education in England, and 
 on its completion returned to his native state. Taking an early and active 
 part in the defence of colonial rights, he wrote and published a pamphlet 
 under the signature of Freeman, in which he submitted a ' bill of American 
 Rights' to the continental congress. On the commencement of the revo- 
 lution he became an efficient leader ; in 1775, was chosen president of the 
 provincial congress ; and in March of the next year, was elected chief 
 justice of the colony. In 1777, Mr. Drayton was appointed president of 
 South Carolina, and, in 1778, was elected a delegate to the continental 
 congress, where he took a prominent part, and distinguished himself by 
 his activity and eloquence. He continued in congress until September, 
 1779, when he died suddenly, at Philadelphia. He left a body of valuable 
 materials for history, which his only son, John Drayton, revised and pub- 
 lished at Charleston, in 1821, in two volumes 8vo, under the title of 
 Memoirs of the American Revolution. 
 
 DWIGHT, Timothy, an eminent divine and writer, was born at North- 
 ampton, Massachusetts, in 1752. At the age of thirteen he entered Yale 
 college ; and after having graduated, took charge of a grammar-school at 
 New Haven, where he taught for two years. In 1771, he became a tutor 
 in Yale college, where he remained for six years. In 1783, he was 
 ordained minister of Greenfield, a parish in the town of Fairfield, in Con- 
 necticut ; where he soon opened an academy that acquired great reputation. 
 In 1795, Dr. D wight was elected president of Yale college, and his cha- 
 racter and name soon brought a great accession of students. During his 
 
BIOGKAPHY. 517 
 
 presidency, he also filled the office of the professor of theology. He con- 
 tinued to discharge the duties of his station, both as minister and president 
 of the college, to the age of sixty-five ; when, after a long and painful 
 illness, he died, in January, 1817. He was endowed by nature with, 
 uncommon talents ; and these, enriched by industry and research, and 
 united to amiability and consistency in his private life, entitled Dr. Dwight 
 to rank among the first men of his age. As a preacher, he was distin- 
 guished by his originality, simplicity, and dignity ; he was well read in 
 the most eminent fathers and theologians, ancient and modern ; he was a 
 good biblical critic ; and his sermons should be possessed by every student 
 of divinity. He wrote Travels in New England and New York; Green- 
 field Hill, a poem; The Conquest of Canaan, a poem; a collection of 
 theological lectures ; and a pamphlet on The Dangers of the Infidel 
 Philosophy. 
 
 EATON, William, general in the service of the United States, was 
 born in Woodstock, Connecticut, in 1764, and was graduated at Dartmouth 
 college, in 1790. In 1792, he received a captain's commission in the 
 army, and served for some time under general Wayne, on the Mississippi, 
 and in Georgia. In 1797, he was appointed consul to the kingdom of 
 Tunis, and continued there engaged in a variety of adventures and nego- 
 ciations, till 1S03, when he returned to the United States. In 1S04, he 
 was appointed navy agent for the Barbary powers, for the purpose of co- 
 operating with Hamet bashaw in the war against Tripoli ; but was disap- 
 pointed by the conclusion of a premature peace between the American 
 consul and the Tripolitan bashaw. On his return to the United States, 
 he failed in obtaining from the government any compensation for his pecu- 
 niary losses, or any employment corresponding with his merit and services. 
 Under the influence of his disappointments, he fell into habits of inebriety, 
 and died in 1S11. His life, published by one of his friends in Massachu- 
 setts, is full of interesting adventure. 
 
 EDWARDS, Jonathan, was born at Windsor, in the province of 
 Connecticut, in 1703. At the age of twelve years he was admitted into 
 Yale college, and at the age of seventeen received the degree of bachelor 
 of arts. He remained nearly two years longer at Yale, preparing for the 
 ministry; and in 1722, went to New York, and preached there with great 
 distinction. In September, 1723, he was elected a tutor in Yale college, 
 and remained there till 1726, when he resigned his office, in order to become 
 the minister of the people of Northampton, where he was ordained in 
 February, 1727. After more than twenty-three years of service in this 
 place, a rupture took place between him and his congregation, and he was 
 dismissed by an ecclesiastical council, in 1750. In the following year he 
 accepted a call to serve as missionary among the Indians at Stockbridge, 
 Massachusetts. In 1757, he was chosen president of the college at Prince- 
 ton, New Jersey, and accepted the invitation. In January, 1758, he re- 
 paired to Princeton, where he died of the small-pox, in the March following. 
 His chief works are a Treatise on Religious Affections; an Inquiry into 
 the Notion of Freedom of Will, which is considered the best vindication 
 of the doctrine of philosophical necessity ; a Treatise on Original Sin ; 
 and numerous tracts and sermons. Various narratives of his- life, and 
 editions of his works, have been printed both in Great Britain and the 
 
 44 
 
518 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 United States. The latest is in ten octavo volumes, published in New 
 York, in 1830, and edited by Sereno E. Dwight. 
 
 ELLIOTT, Stephen, a botanist and man of letters, was born at Beau« 
 fort, South Carolina, in 1771, and received his education at Yale college. 
 On his return home, he applied himself to the improvement of his paternal 
 estate, devoting his leisure hours to history and poetry. At the age of 
 twenty-two he was chosen to the legislature of his native state, where he 
 obtained considerable influence, by his knowledge, attention, and power of 
 argument. He was chosen president of the state bank, established in 
 1S12, and continued to discharge the duties of this office with ability 
 to the time of his death. His two volumes of the botany of South Caro- 
 lina are held in high estimation, and his lectures before several literary and 
 learned societies obtained great applause. His acquisitions in literature 
 and science were extensive, and he left a valuable collection in the several 
 branches of natural history, scientifically arranged. He was the chief editor 
 of the Southern Review, and the author of some of its best articles. He 
 died in 1830. Most of his productions remain in manuscript. 
 
 ELLSWORTH, Oliver, an American judge and statesman, was born 
 at Windsor, Connecticut, in 1745, and was graduated at the college of 
 Nassau Hall, at Princeton, in 1766. Devoting himself to the practice of 
 the law, he soon rose to distinction, by the energy of his mind and his 
 eloquence. From the earliest period of discontent, he joined the cause of 
 the colonies, and in 1777 was elected a member of the continental con- 
 gress. In this body he remained for three years, and in 1784 he was 
 appointed a judge of the superior court of the state. He was a delegate to 
 the convention for framing the federal constitution, and was a senator in 
 the first congress. In 1796, he was appointed chief justice of the supreme 
 court of the United States, and in 1799 was sent envoy extraordinary to 
 France. The decline of his health induced him to resign his seat on the 
 bench, and he retired to his family residence, at Windsor, where he died 
 in 1807. 
 
 FRANKLIN, Benjamin, a philosopher and statesman, the son of a soap- 
 boiler and tallow-chandler, was born in 1706, at Boston, in America. He 
 was apprenticed as a printer, to his brother, at Boston. It was while he 
 was with his brother, that he began to try his powers of literary composi- 
 tion. Street ballads, and articles in a newspaper, were his first efforts. 
 Dissatisfied with the manner in which he was treated by his relative, he, 
 at the age of seventeen, privately quitted him, and went to Philadelphia, 
 where he obtained employment. Deluded by a promise of patronage from 
 the governor, Sir William Keith, he visited England to procure the ne- 
 cessary materials for establishing a printing office in Philadelphia ; but, 
 on his arrival at London, he found that he had been deceived, and he was 
 obliged to work as a journeyman for eighteen months. While he was in 
 the British metropolis, he wrote a Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, 
 Pleasure and Pain. In 1726, he returned to Philadelphia ; not long after 
 which he entered into business, as a printer and stationer, and, in 1728, 
 established a newspaper. His prudence soon placed him among the most 
 prosperous of the citizens, and the influence which prosperity naturally 
 gave was enhanced by his activity and talent. Chiefly by his exertions, a 
 public library, a fire-preventing company, an insurance company, and a 
 voluntary association for defence, were established at Philadelphia. In 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 519 
 
 1732, he began Poor Richard's Almanac. His first public employment 
 was that of clerk to the general assembly of Pennsylvania ; his next, that of 
 postmaster; and he was subsequently chosen as a representative. Philo- 
 sophy, also, now attracted his attention, and he began those inquiries into 
 the nature of electricity, the results of which have ranked him high among 
 men of science. In 1753, he was appointed deputy postmaster-general of 
 British America ; and from 1757 to 1762, he resided in London, as agent 
 for Pennsylvania, and other colonies. The last of these offices was in- 
 trusted to him again, in 1764, and he held it till the breaking out of the 
 contest, in 1775. After his return to America, he took an active part in 
 the cause of liberty, and, in 1778, he was dispatched by the congress as 
 ambassador to France. The treaty of alliance with the French govern- 
 ment, and the treaties of peace, in 1782 and 1783, as well as treaties with 
 Sweden and Prussia, were signed by him. On his reaching Philadelphia, 
 in September, 17S5, his arrival was hailed by applauding thousands of his 
 countrymen, who conducted him in triumph to his residence. He died 
 April 17, 1790. His Memoirs, written by himself, but left unfinished, and 
 his Philosophical, Political, and Miscellaneous Works, have been published 
 by his grandson, in six volumes, octavo. 
 
 FULTON, Robert, an American engineer and projector, was born in 
 1765, at Little Britain, in Pennsylvania. Abandoning the trade of a 
 jeweller, he studied for some years under West, with the intention of being 
 a painter ; but, having become acquainted with a fellow countryman, 
 named Rumsey, who was skilled in mechanics, he became fond of that 
 science, and ultimately adopted the profession of a civil engineer. Before 
 he left England, he published, in 1796, a treatise on Inland Navigation, 
 in which he proposed to supersede locks by inclined planes. In 1800, he 
 introduced, with much profit to himself, the panorama into the French 
 capital. For some years he was engaged in experiments to perfect a 
 machine called a torpedo, intended to destroy ships of war by explosion. 
 After his return to America, he gave to the world an account of several 
 inventions, among which are a machine for sawing and polishing marble, 
 another for rope making, and a boat to be navigated under water. He 
 obtained a patent for his inventions in navigation by steam, in 1809, and 
 another for some improvements, in 1811. In 1814, he contrived an armed 
 steam ship for the defence of the harbor of New York, and a submarine 
 vessel large enough to carry one hundred men ; the plans of which being 
 approved by government, he was authorized to construct them at the public 
 expense. But before completing either of those works, he died suddenly, 
 in 1815. Though not the inventor of it, he was the first who successfully 
 employed the steam engine in navigation. 
 
 GATES, Horatio, was born in England, in 1728, and entering the 
 British service in early life, rose by his merits to the rank of major. In 
 1755, he was with Braddock when that unfortunate commander was de- 
 feated, and received in that battle a severe wound, which for some time 
 debarred him from active service. On the conclusion of peace, he settled 
 in Virginia, where he resided till the commencement of the revolution, in 
 1775. He was then appointed adjutant-general by congress, with the 
 rank of brigadier, and in 1776, received the command of the army in 
 Canada. General Schuyler succeeded him for a few months, in 1777, but 
 be resumed his situation in August, and soon revived the hopes of his 
 
520 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 country, by the capture of the army under Burgoyne. In 17S0, he was 
 appointed to the chief command of the southern districts, but he was after- 
 wards superseded by general Greene, and his conduct was subjected to the 
 investigation of a special court. He was restored to his command in 17S2. 
 On the termination of war he resided on his farm in Virginia, till 1790, 
 when he removed to New York, where he lived much esteemed and 
 respected, till his decease in 1806. 
 
 GERRY, Elbridge, one of the signers of the declaration of indepen- 
 dence, and vice-president of the United States, was born at Marblehead, 
 Massachusetts, in 1744, and received his education at Harvard college. 
 He was graduated at this institution in 1762, and afterwards engaging in 
 mercantile pursuits, amassed a considerable fortune. He took an early part 
 in the controversy between the colonies and Great Britain, and in 1772, 
 was elected a representative from his native town, to the legislature of 
 Massachusetts. In 1776, he was elected a delegate to the continental 
 congress, where for several years he exhibited the utmost zeal and fidelity, 
 in the discharge of numerous and severe official labors. In 1784, Mr. 
 Gerry was re-elected a member of congress, and in 1787, was chosen a 
 delegate to the convention, which assembled at Philadelphia, to revise the 
 articles of confederation. In 1789, he was again elected to congress, and 
 remained in that body for four years, when he retired into private life, till 
 the year 1797, when he was appointed to accompany general Pinckney 
 and Mr. Marshall on a special mission to France. In October, 1798, Mr. 
 Gerry returned home, and having been elected governor of his native 
 state, and in 1812 vice-president of the United States, he died suddenly 
 at Washington, in November, 1S14. 
 
 GIRARD, Stephen, a celebrated banker, was born in France, about Jie 
 year 1746. At the age of twelve years, in the capacity of cabin boy, he 
 left France for the West Indies, where he resided some time, and whence 
 he made many voyages to the United States. About 1775, he arrived in 
 this country, and for a while kept a small shop in New Jersey. In 1780, 
 he removed to Philadelphia, and by gradual but sure acquisition accumu- 
 lated a large fortune. He became distinguished for his active philan- 
 thropic exertions during the ravages of the yellow fever in that city in 
 1793. In 1811, when congress refused to recharter the old bank of the 
 United States, Mr. Girard purchased the banking house of that institution, 
 and became a banker. The capital Avhich he first invested in his bank, 
 was one million eight hundred thousand dollars, and he subsequently 
 augmented it to five millions. During our late war with Great Britain, 
 the government found difficulty in raising the necessary funds, and public 
 credit had sunk so low, that seven per cent, stock was offered at thirty per 
 cent, discount. Of this stock Mr. Girard took five millions. At the time 
 of his death, in 1832, he was estimated to be worth from twelve to fifteen 
 millions of dollars, and he was the most wealthy man in the new world. 
 He was buried with public honors. By his will, he distributed his im- 
 mense riches in the most judicious and liberal manner, among several 
 charitable institutions, and for the purposes of public improvements. One 
 bequest was of two millions, for the erection of a permanent college in 
 Penn Township, for the accommodation of at least three hundred poor 
 white male orphans, above the age of six years. In regulation of this be- 
 quest, it is enjoined, that ' no ecclesiastic, missionary, or minister, of any 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 521 
 
 sect whatever, shall ever hold or exercise any station or duty whatever, in 
 said college ; nor shall any such person ever be admitted for any purpose, 
 or as a visiter, within the premises appropriated to the purposes of the said 
 college.' 
 
 GODMAN, John D., an eminent naturalist and physician, was born at 
 Annapolis, in Maryland, and having lost his parents at an early age, was 
 bound apprentice to a printer. He afterwards entered the navy as a sailor 
 boy, and at the age of fifteen commenced the study of medicine. On com- 
 pleting his studies, he settled in Philadelphia as a physician and private 
 teacher of anatomy, and for some time was an assistant editor of the Medi- 
 cal Journal. It was at this period that he published his Natural History 
 of American Quadrupeds, in three volumes, 8vo. Having been elected to 
 the professorship of anatomy in Rutgers' Medical college, he removed to 
 New York, where he soon acquired extensive practice as a surgeon. Ill 
 health, however, obliged him to relinquish his pursuits, and he returned in 
 1829 to Philadelphia, where he died in 1S30, in the thirty -second year of 
 his age. He possessed much and varied information in his profession, in 
 natural history, and in general literature. Besides the work above refer- 
 red to, he is the author of Rambles of a Naturalist, and several articles on 
 natural history in the Encyclopaedia Americana. 
 
 GODFREY, Thomas, the real inventor of the quadrant commonly call- 
 ed Hadley's, was born in Philadelphia, and pursued the trade of a glazier. 
 He was a great student of mathematics, and acquired by himself a tolerable 
 knowledge of Latin, in order to be able to read mathematical works in that 
 language. In 1730, he communicated the improvement he had made in 
 Davis's quadrant to Mr. Logan, secretary of the commonwealth; and in 
 the following year a full description of a similar instrument was read be- 
 fore the Royal society of London, by Mr. Hadley. It was decided that 
 both claimants were entitled to the honor of the invention, and the society 
 presented Godfrey with household furniture to the value of £200. He 
 was intemperate in his habits, and died in 1749. 
 
 GODFREY, Thomas, son of the preceding, and a poet of some merit, 
 was born in Philadelphia, in the year 1736. He was at first apprenticed 
 to a watchmaker, but disliking the drudgery of this occupation, he obtain- 
 ed a lieutenant's commission in the Pennsylvania forces, which were 
 raised in 1758 for the expedition against fort Du Quesne. Subsequently 
 he established himself as a factor in North Carolina, where he died in 
 1763. His chief works are The Court of Fancy, a poem ; and The Prince 
 of Parthia, which was the first American tragedy. 
 
 GREENE, Nathaniel, major-general in the army of the United 
 States, was born in Warwick, Rhode Island, in 1742. "Though enjoying 
 very few advantages of education, he displayed an early loudness for 
 knowledge, and devoted his leisure time assiduously to study. In 1770, 
 he was elected a member of the state legislature, and in 1774, enrolled 
 himself as a private in a company called the Kentish Guards. From this 
 situation he was elevated to the head of three regiments, with the title of 
 major-general. In 1776, he accepted from congress a commission of 
 brigadier-general, and soon after, at the battles of Trenton and Princeton, 
 distinguished himself by his skill and bravery. In 1778, he was appointed 
 quarter-master general, and in that office rendered efficient service to the 
 country by his unwearied zeal and great talents for business. He presided 
 6Q 44* 
 
522 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 at the court-martial which tried major Andre, in 17S0, and was appointed 
 to succeed Arnold in the command at West Point ; but he held this post 
 only a few days. In December of the same year, he assumed the com- 
 mand of the southern army, and in this situation displayed a prudence, 
 intrepidity and firmness which raise him to an elevated rank among our 
 revolutionary generals. In September, 17S1, he obtained the famous 
 victory at Eutaw Springs, for which he received from congress a British 
 standard and a gold medal, as a testimony of their value of his conduct 
 and services. On the termination of hostilities, he returned to Rhode 
 Island, and, in 1785, removed with his family to Georgia, where he died 
 suddenly, in June of the following year. He was a man of high energy, 
 courage and ability, and possessed the entire confidence of Washington. 
 
 HAMILTON, Alexander, was born in the island of Nevis, in 1757. 
 At the age of sixteen, he accompanied his mother to New York, and was 
 placed at Columbia college, where he soon gave proof of extraordinary 
 talent, by the publication of some political essays, of such strength and 
 sagacity that they were generally attributed to Mr. Jay. At the age of 
 nineteen he entered the American army, and in 1777, was appointed aid- 
 de-camp of Washington, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In this 
 capacity he served during the remainder of the war, and at the siege of 
 Yorktown led in person the detachment that carried by assault one of the 
 enemy's outworks. After the war he commenced the study of the law, 
 entered into its practice in New York, and soon rose to distinction. In 
 1782, he was chosen a member of congress from the state of New York ; 
 in 17S7, a member of the convention which formed the constitution of the 
 United States, and in 17S7 and 178S, wrote, in connection with Mr. Jay 
 and Mr. Madison, the essays published under the title of The Federalist. 
 In 1789, he was placed by Washington at the head of the treasury de- 
 partment, and while in this situation rendered the most efficient service to 
 the country, by the establishment of an admirable system of finance, which 
 raised public credit from the lowest depression to an unprecedented height. 
 In 1795, he retired from office, in order to secure by his professional 
 labors a more ample provision for his numerous family. In 1798, his 
 public services were again required, to take the second command in the 
 army that was raised on account of the apprehended invasion of the French. 
 On the disbanding of the army, he resumed the practice of the law in 
 New York, and continued to acquire new success and reputation. In 
 1S04, he fell in a duel with colonel Burr, vice-president of the United 
 States, and died universally lamented and beloved. Besides his share in 
 the Federalist, general Hamilton was the author of numerous congressional 
 reports, the essays of Pacificus, and the essays of Phocion. A collection 
 of his worjcs in three vols. Svo, was issued at New York some time after 
 his death. He was a man of transcendent abilities and unsullied integrity ; 
 and no one labored more efficiently in the organization of the present fede- 
 ral government. 
 
 HANCOCK, John, a patriot and statesman, was born in Quincy, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1737, and under the patronage of a wealthy uncle received 
 a liberal education, and was graduated at Harvard college, in 1754. On 
 leaving college, he entered the counting-house of his uncle, by whose sud- 
 den death, in 1764, he succeeded to great riches and the management of 
 an extensive business. In 1766, he was chosen a member of the assembly 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 5235 
 
 nnd soon distinguished himself by his zeal in the cause of the colonies. 
 In 1774, he was elected president of the provincial congress of Massachu- 
 setts, and in the following year, president of the continental congress, in 
 which capacity he was the first to affix his signature to the declaration of 
 independence. In this station he continued till October, 1777, when ill 
 health induced him to resign. In 1780, he was elected governor of Mas- 
 sachusetts, and held that office for four successive years, and again from 
 1787 till his death in 1793. Governor Hancock was hospitable and 
 munificent, a man of excellent talents for business, and a true lover of 
 his country. 
 
 HARPER, Robert Goodloe, was a native of Virginia, but when very 
 young removed with his parents to North Carolina. His parents were 
 poor, and in early life he passed through a number of vicissitudes. At 
 the age of twenty he found himself in Charleston, S. C, with but a do 1 , 
 lar or two in his pocket, and with the intention of studying the profession 
 of the law. Having obtained introduction to a lawyer, he prepared him- 
 self under his instruction for the bar, and, in about a twelvemonth, under- 
 took the management of causes on his own account. He then removed, 
 from Charleston to an interior district, where he first distinguished him- 
 self, politically, by the publication of a series of newspaper essays on a 
 proposed change in the constitution of the state. He was immediately 
 elected to the state legislature, and soon afterwards to congress, where he 
 was an efficient member of the federal party, a powerful advocate of the 
 policy of Washington, and the personal friend of the most distinguished 
 federal statesmen of the day. Many years afterwards, he collected in an 
 octavo volume a number of his circulars and addresses to his constituents, 
 and several of his speeches in congress. In 1797, he published a pam- 
 phlet, entitled Observations on the Dispute between the United States and 
 France, which passed through numerous editions, and acquired great 
 celebrity both at home and in Europe. The speeches which he delivered 
 in managing the impeachment of Blount, and the defence of judge Chase, 
 are admirable specimens of argument and eloquence. On the downfal 
 of the federal party, Mr. Harper resumed the practice of the law in Balti- 
 more, where he married the daughter of the distinguished Charles Car- 
 roll. He attended almost every session of the supreme court, from 
 the time of its removal to Washington to that of his death, and was 
 always heard with respect and attention by the court and juries. The 
 federal party having regained the ascendant in Maryland, Mr. Harper was 
 immediately elected a senator in congress; but the demands of his profes- 
 sion soon obliged him to resign his seat. In the years 1819-20, he visit- 
 ed Europe with a portion of his family, and was absent about two years. 
 He died suddenly in Baltimore, in 1825. He was an active leader in the 
 federal party, an able and learned lawyer, well versed in general literature, 
 and political economy, and lived with elegant hospitality. 
 
 HEATH, William, an officer in the army of the revolution, was born 
 in Roxburv, in 1737, and was bred a farmer. He was particularly atten- 
 tive to the study of military tactics, and in 1775 he was commissioned as 
 a brigadier-general by the provincial congress. In 1776, he was promot- 
 ed to the rank of major-general in the continental army, and in the cam- 
 paign of that year commanded a division near the enemy's lines, at Kings- 
 bridge and Morrisania. During the year 1777, and till November, 1778, 
 
624 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 he was the commanding officer of the eastern department, and his head- 
 quarters were at Bosion. In 1779, he returned to the main army, and 
 was invested with the chief command of the troops on the east side of the 
 Hudson. After the close of the war, he served in several public offices, 
 till the time of his death, in 1814. 
 
 HENRY, Patrick, was born in Virginia, in 1736, and after receiving 1 
 a common school education, and spending some time in trade and agri- 
 culture, commenced the practice of the law, after only six weeks of pre- 
 paratory study. After several years of poverty, with the incumbrance of 
 a family, he first rose to distinction in managing the popular side in the 
 controversy between the legislature and the clergy, touching the stipend 
 which was claimed by the latter. In 1765, he was elected a member of 
 the house of burgesses, with express reference to an opposition to the 
 British stamp act. In this assembly he obtained the honor of being the 
 first to commence the opposition to the measures of the British govern- 
 ment, which terminated in the revolution. He was one of the delegates 
 sent by Virginia to the first general congress of the colonies, in 1774, and 
 in that body distinguished himself by his boldness and eloquence. In 
 1776, he was appointed the first governor of the commonwealth, and to 
 this office was repeatedly re-elected. In 1786, he was appointed by the 
 legislature one of the deputies to the convention held at Philadelphia, for 
 the purpose of revising the federal constitution. In 1788, he was a mem- 
 ber of the convention, which met in Virginia to consider the constitution 
 of the United States, and exerted himself strenuously against its adop- 
 tion. In 1794, he retired from the bar, and died in 1799. "Without 
 extensive information upon legal or political topics, he was a natural ora- 
 tor of the highest order, possessing great powers of imagination, sarcasm 
 and humor, united with great force and energy of manner, and a deep 
 knowledge of human nature. 
 
 HOBART, John Henry, was born in Philadelphia, on the fourteenth 
 of September, 1775. He was educated at the college in Princeton, New 
 Jersey, and was noted in early life for his industry and proficiency in his 
 studies. On leaving this institution he was engaged a short time in mer- 
 cantile pursuits, was subsequently a tutor at Nassau Hall, and after two 
 years service in this capacity, he determined upon the study of theology. 
 In 1798, he was admitted into orders, and was first settled in the two 
 churches at Perkiomen, near Philadelphia, but soon after accepted a call 
 to Christ church, New Brunswick. In about a year he removed from this 
 place to become an assistant minister of the largest spiritual cure in the 
 country, comprising three associated congregations in the city of New 
 York. In 1811, he was elected assistant bishop, and in 1S16, became 
 diocesan of New York, and in performing the severe duties of the office, 
 his labors were indefatigable. From 1S18 to 1S23, he was employed in 
 editing the American edition of Mant and D'Ogly's Bible, with notes. In 
 September, 1823, the state of his health required a visit to Europe, where 
 he remained about two years. He died in 1830. He was incessantly 
 active in performing his religious offices, and made several valuable com- 
 pilations for the use of the church. 
 
 HOLLEY, Horace, a celebrated pulpit orator, was born in Connecti- 
 cut, in 17S1, and was graduated at Yale college, in 1799. On leaving 
 this institution he began the study of the law, which he soon relinquished 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 525 
 
 for divinity, and in 1805, was ordained to the pastoral charge of Green- 
 field Hill, Conn. In 1809, he was installed over the society in Hollis 
 street, Boston, where he remained for ten years, when he accepted an 
 invitation to become president of Transylvania university, in Kentucky. 
 In this situation he continued till 1827, when he died on his passage from 
 New Orleans to New York. His sermons were generally extemporane- 
 ous, and were distinguished for power and eloquence. 
 
 HOLYOKE, Edward Augustus, was born in 1728, in the county, of 
 Essex, Massachusetts, and was graduated at Harvard college, in 1746 
 He pursued the study of medicine, and in 1749 began to practice his pro- 
 fession in Salem. He was the first president of the Medical society of 
 Massachusetts, and was always considered a learned physician and skilfu. 
 surgeon. He lived to be over one hundred years of age, and died in 
 1S29. He published various scientific disquisitions. 
 
 HOPKINSON, Francis, an excellent writer, and signer of the decla- 
 ration of independence, was born in Philadelphia, in 1737. He was 
 graduated at the college in his native town, and pursued the profession of 
 the law. In 1766, he visited England, where he resided more than two 
 years, and on his return, married and settled in the state of New Jersey. 
 He entered with much zeal into the public measures of the patriotic party, 
 and in 1776, was elected a delegate to congress. In 1779, he was ap- 
 pointed judge of the admiralty court of Pennsylvania, and for ten years 
 continued to discharge with fidelity the duties of this office. In 1790, 
 he passed to the bench of the district court, and died suddenly in the 
 midst of his usefulness, in 1791. Mr. Hopkinson possessed talents of 
 a quick and versatile character, excelling in music and poetry, and hav- 
 ing some knowledge of painting. In humorous poetry and satire he was 
 quite successful, and his well-known ballad of the Battle of the Kegs 
 obtained great popularity. A collection of his miscellaneous works, in 
 three volumes 8vo. was published in 1792. 
 
 HOPKINS, Samuel, a divine, and founder of the sect called Hopkin- 
 sians, was born in Connecticut, in 1721, and educated at Yale college. 
 In 1743, he was settled at a place now called Great Barrington, in Massa- 
 chusetts, and continued there till 1769, when he removed to Newport, 
 Rhode Island. He died in 1803. He published numerous sermons, a 
 Treatise on the Millennium, and a sketch of his own life. His theological 
 learning was extensive, and he was a profound metaphysician. 
 
 HOPKINS, Stephen, a signer of the declaration of independence, was 
 born in Providence, in 1707, and after receiving a school education, turned 
 his attention to agriculture. In 1751, he was appointed chief justice of the 
 superior court of Rhode Island, and in 1756, was elected governor of that 
 state. In 1774, he was chosen a delegate to the general congress at Phila- 
 delphia, and was re-elected to that body in 1775 and 1776. In 1776, he 
 was a delegate to congress for the last time, though for several subsequent 
 years he was a member of the general assembly of his native state. He 
 died in 1785. Although his early education was very limited, Mr. Hop- 
 kins acquired by his own efforts extensive information. He wrote a 
 pamphlet on the rights of the colonies, was a member of the American 
 Philosophical society, and for many years chancellor of the college of 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 HOWARD, John Eager, an officer of the army of the American revo- 
 
526 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 'ution, was born in Baltimore, in 1752. After serving in the rank of 
 captain, in 1779, he was appointed lieutenant-colonel, and distinguished 
 himself by his valor and activity during the war. At the battle of Cow- 
 pens, colonel Howard, at one time, had in his hands the swords of seven 
 officers, who had surrendered to him personally. He was also present at 
 the battles of Germantown, White Plains, Monmouth, Camden, and Hob- 
 kicks hill. On the disbanding of the army, he retired to his patrimonial 
 estates, near Baltimore, and was subsequently governor of Maryland, and 
 member of the senate of the United States. He died in 1827. General 
 Greene said of him, that as a patriot and soldier, he deserved a statue of 
 gold no less than Roman and Grecian heroes. 
 
 HUMPHREYS, David, minister of the United States to the court of 
 Spain, was born in Connecticut, in 1753, and received his education at 
 Yale college. Soon after the commencement of the revolutionary war, 
 he entered the army, and was successively an aid to Parsons, Putnam, 
 Greene, and Washington. He left the army with the rank of colonel. 
 In 1784, he was appointed secretary of legation to Paris, and was subse- 
 quently ambassador to the court of Lisbon, and in 1797, minister pleni- 
 potentiary to the court of Madrid. While in the military service, he pub- 
 lished a poem addressed to the American armies, and after the war, ano- 
 ther on the happiness and glory of America. In 1789, he published a life 
 of general Putnam, and while in Europe, a number of miscellaneous 
 poems. He died in 1818. 
 
 HUTCHINSON, Thomas, a governor of the colony of Massachusetts, 
 was born in Boston, in 1711, and was graduated at Harvard college. He 
 was for a while occupied with commercial pursuits, but soon engaged in 
 the study of law and politics, and was sent agent to Great Britain. On 
 his return he was elected a representative, and after a few years was chosen 
 speaker of the house, and in 1752, judge of probate. After being a mem- 
 ber of the council, lieutenant governor and chief justice, in 1771, he re- 
 ceived his commission as governor of Massachusetts. In 1774, he was 
 removed from his office, and was succeeded by general Gage. He then 
 repaired to England, fell into disgrace, and died in retirement, in 1780. 
 He is the author of a valuable History of Massachusetts, some occasional 
 essays, and a pamphlet on colonial claims. It is said that no man con- 
 tributed more effectually to bring about the separation between the colonies 
 and Great Britain than Hutchinson. 
 
 JAY, John, was born in the city of New York, in 1745. He was 
 graduated at Columbia college, in 1764, and in 1768, was admitted to the 
 bar. He soon rose to eminence as a lawyer, and began to take an active 
 part in politics. In 1774, he was elected a delegate to the first congress. 
 In May, 1776, he was recalled from congress by the provincial convention, 
 to aid in forming the government for the province, and to this it is owing 
 that his name does not appear among the signers of the declaration of 
 independence. Upon the organization of the state government, in 1777, 
 Mr. Jay was appointed chief justice, and held this office till 1779. In 
 November, 1778, he was again chosen a delegate to the continental con- 
 gress, and three days after taking his seat was elected president of that 
 venerable body. In September, 1779, he was appointed minister plenipo- 
 tentiary to the court of Spain, and he arrived at Cadiz in January of the 
 following year. Having resigned his commission as minister in 17S3, in 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 527 
 
 1784 he returned to the United States, and was placed at the head of the 
 department for foreign affairs. In this post he remained till the adoption 
 of the present constitution, when he was appointed chief justice of the 
 United States. In 1794, he was sent as envoy extraordinary to Great 
 Britain, and before his return in 1795, he had been elected governor of his 
 native state. In 1798, he was re-elected to this office, and in 1801, went 
 into voluntary retirement. The remainder of his life was passed in the 
 faithful discharge of the charitable duties, and he was publicly known only 
 by the occasional appearance of his name, or the employment of his pen, in 
 the service of philanthropy and piety. He died in 1829. Beside a variety 
 of state papers and political essays, Mr. Jay was the author of the 2d, 3d, 
 4th, 5th, and 64th numbers of the Federalist. 
 
 JEFFERSON, Thomas, was born in Albemarle county, Virginia, in 
 1743, and was entered a student in the college of William and Mary. On 
 leaving this seminary, he applied himself to the study of the law, under 
 the tuition of the celebrated George Wythe, and was called to the bar in 
 1766. He soon occupied a high stand in his profession, and at the early 
 age of twenty-five entered the house of burgesses of his native state. In 
 1774, he published a Summary View of the Rights of British America, a 
 bold but respectful pamphlet addressed to the king. In 1775, he was 
 elected a member of the continental congress, and in the following year 
 drew up the declaration of independence. Between 1777 and 1799, he 
 was employed, together with George Wythe and Edmund Pendleton, on a 
 commission for revising the laws of Virginia. In 1779, he was elected 
 governor of Virginia, and continued in office until June, 1781. In the 
 latter year he composed his celebrated Notes on Virginia, and in 1787, 
 published it under his own signature. In November, 1783, he again took 
 his seat in the continental congress, and in May following was appointed 
 minister plenipotentiary, to act abroad with Adams and Franklin in the 
 negotiation of commercial treaties. In 1785, he was appointed to succeed 
 Dr. Franklin as minister to the court of Versailles, and performed the duties 
 of this office till 17S9, when he returned to his native country, and was 
 placed by president Washington at the head of the department of state. 
 In 1797, he became vice-president, and in 1801, president of the United 
 States. At the expiration of eight years he again retired to private life, 
 and took up his residence at Monticello. He still continued anxious to 
 promote the interest of science and literature, and devoted the attention of 
 several years to the establishment of a university in Virginia. He died 
 on the fourth of July, 1S26, the fiftieth anniversary of the declaration of 
 independence. In stature, Mr. Jefferson was six feet two inches high. 
 His person was erect and well formed, though spare. In his manners he 
 was simple and unaffected, simple in his habits, and incessantly occupied 
 with the pursuits of business or study. Four volumes of his Correspon- 
 dence have been published since his decease. 
 
 JONES, John Paul, a native of Scotland, was born, in 1747, at Selkirk, 
 and settled in America when young. He distinguished himself by his 
 bravery in the American service, during the contest with the mother country, 
 particularly in a desperate action with the Serapis frigate, which he cap- 
 tured. He died in Paris, in 1792, and was buried at the expense of the 
 national convention. Jones was not only a man of signal courage, but 
 also of great talent, and keen sagacity, wrote poetry, and in France aspired 
 
528 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 to be a man of fashion. His memorials and correspondence are quite 
 voluminous. 
 
 KING, Rufus, an eminent statesman, was born in Scarborough, in the 
 state of Maine, in the year 1755. He was graduated at Harvard college 
 in 1777, immediately entered as a student at law in the office of the cele- 
 brated Theophilus Parsons, at Newburyport, and was admitted to the bar 
 in 1780. In 1784, he was chosen to represent Newburyport in the state 
 legislature, and in the same year was elected a delegate to the old congress. 
 In 17S7, he was appointed a delegate to the general convention assembled 
 at Philadelphia, and in 1788 removed from Massachusetts to the city of 
 New York. In 179G, he was appointed minister plenipotentiary to the 
 court of Great Britain, and remained there for seven years with equal 
 honor to his country and himself. In 1813, he was chosen by the legisla- 
 ture of New York a senator of the United States, and being re-elected in 
 1820, he continued till the expiration of the term in 1825. Upon his 
 retirement from the senate, he accepted from president Adams an invitation 
 again to represent the United States at the court of Great Britain. During 
 the voyage to England his health was seriously impaired, and his illness 
 induced him to return in about a twelvemonth to his native land. He 
 died in April, 1827. 
 
 KNOX, Henry, a revolutionary general, was born in Boston, in 1750, 
 and after receiving a common school education, commenced business as a 
 bookseller, in his native town. Before the commencement of hostilities, 
 he discovered an uncommon zeal in the cause of liberty. When the corps 
 of artillery, in 1776, was increased to three regiments, the command was 
 given to Knox, with the rank of brigadier-general. He distinguished 
 himself by his courage at the battles of Trenton, Princeton, Germantown, 
 and Monmouth, and contributed greatly to the capture of Cornwallis. Im- 
 mediately after this event he received from congress the commission of 
 major-general. In 1785, he succeeded general Lincoln in the office of 
 secretary of war, and having filled this department for eleven years, he 
 obtained a reluctant permission to retire into private life. In 1798, when 
 our relations with France were assuming a cloudy aspect, he was called 
 upon to take a command in the army, but the peaceful arrangement of 
 affairs soon permitted him to return into his retirement. He died at 
 Thomaston, Maine, in 1806. In private life he was amiable, in his public 
 character persevering, and of unsurpassed courage. 
 
 LAURENS, Henry, a patriot and statesman, was born at Charleston, 
 South Carolina, in 1724. After receiving a good school education, he 
 engaged in commerce, and soon amassed an ample fortune. At the break- 
 ing out of the revolution he was in London, but he immediately returned 
 to his native country, and in 1776, was elected a delegate to the general 
 congress. He was soon chosen president of this body, and remained so 
 till the close of the year 1778. In 1779, he received the appointment of 
 minister plenipotentiary to Holland, but on his way thither was captured 
 by the British, and committed to the Tower, where he was in confinement 
 fourteen months. He was one of the commissioners for negotiating a 
 peace with Great Britain, and in 1782, he signed with Jay and Franklin 
 the preliminaries of the treaty. His health, however, was much impaired, 
 and he soon returned home, and passed the remainder of his life in agricul- 
 tural pursuits. He died in 1792 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 529 
 
 LAURENS, John, lieutenant-colonel, son of the preceding, was liberally 
 educated in England, and having returned to his native country, joined the 
 American army in 1777. He displayed prodigies of valor at Brandy wine, 
 Germantown, Monmouth, Savannah and Charleston, and was killed at the 
 very close of the war by carelessly exposing himself in a trifling skirmish. 
 In 17S0, he was sent as a special minister to France, to negotiate a loan ; 
 and after being subjected to a vexatious delay, he determined to present a 
 memorial to the king in person at the levee. This purpose he carried into 
 effect, the memorial was graciously received, and the object of negotiation 
 satisfactorily arranged. 
 
 LAWRENCE, James, a distinguished naval officer, was born in New 
 Jersey, in 1781, and became a midshipman in 1798. In 1803, he was 
 sent to the Mediterranean, as first lieutenant to the schooner Enterprise, 
 and while there distinguished himself by his activity and valor. He 
 remained on this station for three years, and then returned to the United 
 States, having been transferred to the frigate John Adams. In February, 
 1813, he was in command of the Hornet, and took the fine British brig 
 Peacock, after an action of fifteen minutes. On his return to the United 
 States he was transferred to the frigate Chesapeake, and in June of the 
 same year, while engaged in battle with the frigate Shannon, he received 
 a mortal wound. His last exclamation, as they were carrying him below, 
 was — 'Don't give up the ship.' He lingered in great pain for four days, 
 when he died. His remains are interred at New York. 
 
 LEDYARD, John, an adventurous traveller, was born at Groton, in 
 Connecticut, and was educated at Dartmouth college, in New Hampshire. 
 After having lived for some time among the Indians, he came to England, 
 and sailed with Cook, on his second voyage, as a marine. On his return, 
 he resolved to penetrate on foot across Northern Asia, and proceed to the 
 opposite coast of America. He was, however, seized at Yakutz, and sent 
 out of the Russian dominions. He was next employed by the African 
 association to explore the interior of Africa ; but he died at Cairo, in 1789. 
 
 LEE, Arthur, was born in Virginia, in 1740, and received his education 
 in England, taking his degree of M. D. at the university of Edinburgh. 
 He then returned to his native state, and for some years practised physic 
 at Williamsburg ; but political affairs were then assuming so interesting an 
 aspect, that he again went to England and entered on the study of law in 
 the Temple. In 1770, he visited London, and became a member of the 
 famous society of the supporters of the bill of rights. His political publica- 
 tions at this period, under the signature of Junius Americanus, were 
 numerous, and procured for him the acquaintance of the leaders of the 
 popular party. In 1776, he was appointed minister to France, in conjunction 
 with Dr. Franklin and Mr. Deane, and assisted in negotiating the treaty 
 with that nation. In 1779, in consequence of the false accusations of Mr. 
 Deane, complaints of his political conduct were freely circulated at home, 
 and in the following year, he resigned his appointments and returned. 
 In 1781, he was elected to the assembly of Virginia, and by this body 
 returned to congress, where he continued to represent the state till 1785. 
 In 1784, he was employed to arrange a treaty with the six Indian nations. 
 He was next called to the board of treasury, where he continued till 1789, 
 when he went into retirement. He died in 1792. 
 
 LEE, Charles, a major-general in the army of the revolution, was 
 67 45 
 
530 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 bom in North Wales, and entered the army while very young. He 
 served at an early age in America, and afterwards distinguished him- 
 self under general Burgoyne, in Portugal. He subsequently entered the 
 Polish service, wandered all over Europe, killed an Italian officer in a duel, 
 and in 1773, sailed for New York. Espousing the cause of the colonies, 
 he received a commission from congress in 1775, with the rank of major- 
 general. In 1776, he was invested with the command at New York, and 
 afterwards with the chief command in the southern department. In 
 December, 1776, he was made prisoner by the English, as he lay care- 
 lessly guarded at a considerable distance from the main body of the army 
 in New Jersey. He was kept prisoner till the surrender of Burgoyne, in 
 1777, and treated in a manner unworthy of a generous enemy. In 1778, 
 he was arraigned before a court martial, in consecmence of his misconduct 
 at the battle of Monmouth, and was suspended from any commission in 
 the army of the United States for one year. He retired to a hovel in 
 Virginia, living in entire seclusion, surrounded by his books and his dogs. 
 In 1782, he went to reside at Philadelphia, where he died in obscurity, in 
 October of the same year. He was a man of much energy and courage, 
 with considerable literary attainments, but morose and- avaricious. He 
 published essays on military, literary, and political subjects, which, with 
 his extensive correspondence, were collected in a volume, in 1792. The 
 authorship of the Letters of Junius has been ascribed to him. 
 
 LEE, Henry, a distinguished officer in the revolutionary army, was 
 born in Virginia, in 1756, and was graduated at the college in Princeton. 
 In 1776, he was a captain of one of the six companies of cavalry, raised 
 by Virginia, and afterwards incorporated into one regiment, and in 1777, 
 added to the main body of the provincials. At the battle of Germantown, 
 Lee was selected with his company to attend Washington as his body- 
 guard. In 1780, being raised to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, he was 
 sent with his legion to the army of the south, under general Greene, and 
 continued with it till the end of the war. He distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Eutaw springs, and in the ensuing October was sent on a special 
 commission to the commander-in-chief, then employed in the siege of 
 Yorktown. In 17S6, he was appointed a delegate to congress, from the 
 state of Virginia, and remained in that body till the adoption of the present 
 constitution. He was a member of the state convention which ratified that 
 instrument, and in 1792, he was raised to the chair of governor of Virginia. 
 In 1799, he was again a member of congress, and while there selected to 
 pronounce a funeral oration on the death of Washington. The latter 
 years of his life were embarrassed by want, and it was while confined for 
 debt in the limits of Spottsylvania county, that he prepared for publication 
 his excellent Memoirs of the Southern Campaign. He was severely 
 wounded during the riot in Baltimore, in 1814, and his health rapidly 
 declined. He died on Cumberland island, Georgia, in 1818. 
 
 LEE, Francis Lightfoot, a signer of the declaration of independence, 
 was born in Virginia, in 1734. He inherited a large fortune, and in 1765, 
 became a member of the house of burgesses of his native state, and con- 
 tinued in that body till 1775, when he was chosen a member of the con- 
 tinental congress. He remained in this assembly till 1779, when he 
 entered the legislature of his native state. He died in 1797. 
 
 LEE, Richard Henry, an eminent patriot, and signer of the declaration 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 531 
 
 of independence, was born in Virginia, in 1732, and received his education 
 in England. He returned to his native country when in his nineteenth 
 year, and devoted himself to the general study of history, politics, law, 
 and polite literature, without engaging in any particular profession. In 
 his twenty-fifth year, he was chosen a delegate to the house of burgesses, 
 where he soon distinguished himself by his powers in debate. In 1764, 
 he was appointed to draught an address to the king, and a memorial to the 
 house of lords, which are among the best state papers of the period. His 
 efforts in resisting the various encroachments of the British government 
 were indefatigable, and in 1774, he attended the first general congress at 
 Philadelphia, as a delegate from Virginia. He was a member of most of 
 the important committees of this body, and labored with unceasing vigilance 
 and energy. The memorial of congress to the people of British America, 
 and the second address of congress to the people of Great Britain, were 
 both from his pen. In June, 1776, he introduced the measure that declared 
 the colonies free and independent states, and supported it by a speech of 
 the most brilliant eloquence. He continued to hold a seat in congress till 
 June, 1777, when he solicited leave of absence, on account of the delicate 
 state of his health. In August of the next year, he was again elected to 
 congress, and continued in that body till 1780, when he declined a re- 
 election till 1784. In that year he was chosen president of congress, but 
 retired at the close of it, and in 1786, was again chosen a member of the 
 Virginia assembly. He was a member of the convention which adopted 
 the present constitution of the United States, and one of the first senators 
 under it. In 1792, he again retired from public life, and died in 1794. 
 
 LEWIS, Meriwether, a celebrated explorer, was born in Virginia, in 
 1774, and, after receiving a good school education, engaged in agriculture. 
 When general Washington called out a body of militia in consequence of 
 the discontent produced by the excise taxes, young Lewis entered as a 
 volunteer, and from that situation was removed to the regular service. In 
 1803, he was sent by president Jefferson on an exploring expedition to the 
 north-western part of our continent ; and of this expedition, which was 
 completed in about three years, and in which he was accompanied by Mr. 
 Clarke, a highly interesting account was afterwards published. Lewis 
 was subsequently appointed governor of the Louisiana territory. He put 
 an end to his own life in 1809. He was a man of energy, perseverance, 
 and of a sound understanding. 
 
 LINCOLN, Benjamin, a major-general in the revolutionary army, was 
 born in Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1733, and until the age of forty years 
 was engaged in the pursuits of agriculture. At the commencement of the 
 revolution, he was elected a member of the provincial congress, in 1776, 
 received the commission of major-general, and employed himself vigor- 
 ously to improve the discipline of the militia. He was second in command 
 in the army which compelled the surrender of Burgoyne. On the day 
 after the battle of Stillwater, he received a dangerous wound in his leg, 
 and was confined for several months by its effects. In the following year, 
 he was appointed to the command of the southern department, and while 
 in this post he attempted the defence of Charleston, but was compelled to 
 capitulate in May, 1780. He was exchanged in November, and in the 
 spring following joined the army on the North river. At the siege of 
 Yorktown he commanded a central division, and shared largely in the 
 
532 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 dangers and honors of the day. In 1781, he was appointed secretary of 
 the war department, and afterwards on several occasions commissioner to 
 treat with the Indians. On the establishment of peace, he returned to his 
 native state, and in 1787, was appointed to command the troops employed 
 in the suppression of the insurgents in Massachusetts. In 1788, he was 
 chosen lieutenant governor, and in the following year he was a member of 
 the convention which ratified the constitution of the United States. He 
 died in 1810. He was the author of several published letters and essays; 
 a member of the American Academy of the Arts and Sciences ; and presi- 
 dent of the society of Cincinnati of Massachusetts. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, Robert R., a celebrated statesman and lawyer, was 
 born in New York, and was educated at King's college. He engaged in 
 the profession of the law, and was elected to the first general congress of 
 the colonies, where he was one of the committee appointed to prepare the 
 declaration of independence. In 17S0, he was appointed secretary of 
 foreign affairs, and at the adoption of the constitution at New York, chan- 
 cellor of that state. This last office he held till 1801, when he was sent 
 minister plenipotentiary to France. It was in Paris that he formed a per- 
 sonal friendship with Robert Fulton, whom he materially assisted. In 
 1805, he returned to the United States, and devoted the remainder of his 
 life to the promotion of agriculture and the arts. He died in 1813. 
 
 LOWELL, John, an eminent lawyer, was born at Newbury, in 1744, 
 and was educated at Harvard college. He studied law, and rising to 
 reputation, in 1761, he removed to Boston, and soon distinguished himself 
 by his political knowledge and eloquence. In 1781, he was elected a 
 member of congress, and on the establishment of the federal government, 
 was appointed a judge of the circuit court of the United States. In these 
 situations he was much respected for his legal knowledge and dignity. 
 He died in 1802. 
 
 LOWNDES, William, a celebrated statesman, was a native of South 
 Carolina, and was for many years a distinguished member of congress. 
 His mind was vigorous, comprehensive, and logical ; and his disposition 
 eminently kind, frank, and generous. He was in a high degree ardent 
 and patriotic. He entered congress in 1812, and retained his seat for 
 about ten years, when ill health compelled him to resign. In 1S18, he was 
 chairman of the committee of ways and means. He died at sea, in 
 October, 1S22, at the age of forty-two. It was said of him in the house, 
 by Mr. Taylor of New York, that ' the highest and best hopes of the 
 country looked to William Lowndes for their fulfilment. The most ho- 
 norable office in the civilized world, the chief magistracy of this free people, 
 would have been illustrated by his virtues and talents.' 
 
 M'KEAN, Thobias, an eminent judge, and a signer of the declaration of 
 independence, was born in Pennsylvania, in 1734, and, after a course of aca- 
 demic and professional studies, was admitted to the bar at the age of twenty- 
 one years. His political career commenced in 1762, when he was return- 
 ed a member of the assembly from the county of Newcastle. He was a 
 member of the congress which assembled in New York, in 1765, to obtain 
 relief of the British government for the grievances under which the colo- 
 nies were suffering. In this body he behaved with much decision and 
 energy. In 1774, he was appointed to the general congress, a delegate 
 from the lower counties in Delaware, and was the only man who, without 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 533 
 
 intermission, was a member during the whole period. Of this body he 
 was president in 1781. In 1777, he was appointed chief justice of Penn- 
 sylvania, and discharged the duties of this office with impartiality and dig- 
 nity, for twenty-two years. In 1799, he was elected governor of the state 
 of Pennsylvania, and his administration continued for nine years. In 
 1808, he retired from public life, and died, much respected and honor- 
 ed, in 1S17. 
 
 MARION, Francis, a distinguished officer of the revolutionary army, 
 was born in South Carolina, in 1732, and first served in 1761, as a lieu- 
 tenant against the Cherokees. Soon after the commencement of the revo- 
 lution, he received a major's commission, and in 1780, he obtained that of 
 brigadier-general. He continually surprised and captured parties of the 
 British and the royalists, by the secrecy and rapidity of his movements. 
 On the evacuation of Charleston, he retired to his plantation, where he 
 died in 1795. He was bold, generous, and severe in his discipline. 
 
 MASON, George, a statesman, was a member of the general conven- 
 tion, which, in 1787, framed the constitution of the United States, but 
 refused to sign his name as one of that body to the instrument which they 
 had produced. In the following year, he was a member of the Virginia 
 convention, to consider the proposed plan of federal government. In 
 union with Henry, he opposed its adoption with great energy, and is the 
 author of one of the articles inserted among the amendments of that 
 instrument. So averse was he to the section which allowed the slave-trade 
 for twenty years, that he declared his vote should be cast against the 
 admission of the southern states into the Union, unless they would agree 
 to discontinue the traffic. He died at his seat in Virginia, in the autumn 
 of 1792, at the age of sixty-seven. 
 
 MASON, John Mitchell, a divine and pulpit orator, was born in the 
 city of New York, in 1770, and after graduating at Columbia college, pre- 
 pared himself for the sacred ministry. His theological studies were com- 
 pleted in Europe. In 1792, he returned to New York, and was establish- 
 ed in the ministry at that place till 1811, when he accepted the appoint- 
 ment of provost in Columbia college. This situation his ill health 
 obliged him to resign, and he visited Europe to repair his constitution. 
 On his return, in 1817, he again resumed his labors in preaching, and in 
 1821, undertook the charge of Dickinson college, in Pennsylvania. In 
 1824, he returned to New York, and died in 1829. He was the author 
 of Letters on Frequent Communion ; A Plea for Sacramental Communion 
 on Catholic Principles ; and a number of essays, reviews, orations, and 
 sermons, published at different times. 
 
 MATHER, Increase, a learned divine, was born at Dorchester, in 
 1639, was educated to the ministry, and was settled in the North church, 
 Boston, in 1664. He continued there for sixty-two years, discharging the 
 duties of his sacred office with zeal and ability. In 1685, he was appoint- 
 ed to the presidency of Harvard college, which he resigned in 1701. He 
 died in 1723. He was an indefatigable student, and published a variety 
 of works on religion, politics, history, and philosophy. 
 
 MATHER, Cotton, a celebrated divine, son of the preceding, was born 
 in February, 1663, and was educated for the profession of theology. In 
 1684, he was ordained minister of the North church in Boston, as col- 
 league with his father. He died in 1728. His learning was marvellous, 
 
 45* 
 
534 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 but his taste was eccentric, and he was very pedantic and credulous. His 
 publications are 382 in number ; the most celebrated of which is Magna- 
 lia Christi Americani. 
 
 M'DONOUGH, Thomas, a distinguished naval officer, was born in New- 
 castle county, Delaware, and after his father's death in 1796, he obtained 
 a midshipman's warrant, and went out with our fleet to the Mediterranean. 
 In 1812, at the age of twenty-seven, he commanded the American forces 
 on lake Champlain. In the battle of September 11, 1814, after an action 
 of two hours and twenty minutes, he obtained a complete victory, which 
 he announced to the war department in the following terms : — ' The 
 Almighty has been pleased to grant us a signal victory on lake Cham- 
 plain, in the capture of one frigate, one brig, and two sloops of war of the 
 enemy.' The state of New York gave him a thousand acres of land on 
 the bay in which the battle was fought. He died in November, 1S25, at 
 about the age of thirty-nine years. 
 
 MIDDLETON, Arthur, a signer of the declaration of independence, 
 was born in South Carolina, in 1743, and received his education in Eu- 
 rope. Soon after his return home, he began to take an active part in the 
 revolutionary movements, and in 1776, was chosen one of the delegates 
 from his native state to the American congress. At the close of the year 
 1777, he resigned his seat, leaving behind a character for the purest patri- 
 otism and unwavering resolution. In the year 1779, many of the south- 
 ern plantations were ravaged, and that of Mr. Middleton did not escape. 
 On the surrender of Charleston, he was taken prisoner, and kept in con- 
 finement for nearly a year. In 1781, he was appointed a representative to 
 congress, and again in 17S2. In the latter year he went into retirement, 
 and died in 1787. 
 
 MONROE, James, was born in Virginia, in 1759, and was educated in 
 William and Mary college. He entered the revolutionary war, in 1776, 
 as a cadet, was at the battles of Haerlem Heights and White Plains, and 
 in the attack on Trenton, and rose through the rank of lieutenant to that 
 of captain. He was present at the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, 
 and Monmouth, as aid to lord Sterling. Resuming the study of the law, 
 he entered the office of Mr. Jefferson, and after being a member of the 
 assembly of Virginia and the council, he was elected, in 17S3, a member 
 of the old congress. In 1790, he was elected a member of the senate of 
 the United States, in 1794, went as minister plenipotentiary to France, 
 and in 1799, was appointed governor of Virginia. In 1803, he was appoint- 
 ed minister extraordinary to France, in the same year minister to London, 
 and in the next minister to Spain. In 1806, he was again appointed, in 
 conjunction with Mr. William Pinkney, minister to London. He was 
 subsequently governor of Virginia ; in 1S11, was appointed secretary of 
 state, and continued to exercise the duties of this department, and for some 
 time those of the department of war till 1817. In that year he was 
 chosen president of the Union, and in 1821, was re-elected by a vote 
 unanimous, with the single exception of one vote in New Hampshire. He 
 died in New York, on the fourth of July, 1831. 
 
 MONTGOMERY, Richard, a major-general in the army of the revo- 
 lution, was born in Ireland, in 1737. He entered the British army, and 
 fought with Wolfe at the siege of Quebec, in 1759. He subsequently left 
 the army and settled in New York. Joining the cause of the colonies, he 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 535 
 
 was appointed a general in the northern army, and fell at the assault on 
 Quebec, in 1775. By a vote of congress, a monument of white marble, 
 with emblematical devices, was executed by Mr. Cassiers, at Paris, and is 
 erected to his memory in front of St. Paul's church, New York. His 
 remains, in pursuance of a resolve of the New York legislature, were 
 disinterred by his nephew, colonel Livingston, in June, 1818, the place of 
 their burial having been pointed out by an old soldier, who attended their 
 burial forty-two years before. They were removed to New York, and 
 again interred in St. Paul's church, with the highest civil and military 
 honors. His widow was then living. 
 
 MORGAN, Daniel, a distinguished officer in the army of the American 
 revolution, was born in New Jersey, and removed to Virginia in 1755. 
 He enlisted in Braddock's expedition as a private soldier, and on the defeat 
 of that general, returned to his occupation as a farmer. At the commence- 
 ment of the revolution he was appointed to the command of a troop of 
 horse, and joined the army under Washington, then in the neighborhood 
 of Boston. He distinguished himself very much in the expedition against 
 Quebec, where he fell into the hands of the enemy. On the exchange of 
 prisoners, he rejoined the American army, was appointed to the command 
 of a select rifle corps, and detached to assist general Gates on the northern 
 frontier, where he contributed materially to the capture of general Bur- 
 goyne. After a short retirement from service, on account of ill health, he 
 was appointed brigadier-general by brevet, and commanded the force 
 by which colonel Tarleton was routed at the battle of Cowpens. He soon 
 after resigned his commission. In 1794, he commanded the militia of 
 Virginia called out to suppress the insurrection in Pennsylvania, and con- 
 tinued in the service till 1795. He afterwards was elected to a seat in 
 congress. He died in 1799. 
 
 MORRIS, Gouverneur, an eminent statesman and orator, was born at 
 Morrisania, near the city of New York, in 1752, was graduated at King's 
 college '•*> 1768, and licensed to practice law in 1771. In 1775, he was a 
 member ot uie provincial congress of New York, and was one of the com- 
 mittee which drafted a constitution for the state of New York. In 1777, he 
 was chosen a delegate to the continental congress, and in the following 
 year wrote the celebrated Observations on the American Revolution. In 
 1781, he accepted the post of assistant superintendent of finance, as colleague 
 of Robert Morris ; and in 1787, was a member of the convention which 
 framed the constitution of the United States. In 1792, he was appointed 
 minister plenipotentiary to France, and held this station till his recall by 
 the request of the French government, in 1794. In 1800, he was elected 
 a senator in congress from the state of New York, and in this body was 
 very conspicuous for his political information and his brilliant eloquence. 
 Many of his speeches in congress and orations have been published ; and 
 a selection from his correspondence and other valuable papers, with a 
 biographical sketch, by Mr. Jared Sparks, was issued in 1832. 
 
 MORRIS, Lewis, a signer of the declaration of independence, was born 
 at the manor of Morrisania, near the city of New York, in 1726. He was 
 educated at Yale college, and took an early part in the cause of the colonies. 
 In 1775, he was elected a delegate to the continental congress, and while 
 in this body served on several of the most important committees. His 
 rich estates were laid waste by the British army in 1776. He left congress 
 
536 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 in 1777, and died in 1798. Three of his sons served with distinction in 
 the revolutionary army. 
 
 MORRIS, Robert, a celebrated financier, was a native of England, 
 removed with his father to America, at an early age, and subsequently 
 established himself as a merchant in Philadelphia. In 1775, he was 
 appointed a delegate to congress, and signed the declaration of indepen- 
 dence in the following year. In 1781, he was appointed superintendent 
 of finance, and rendered incalculable service by his wealth and credit dur- 
 ing the exhausted state of our public funds. It has been said, and with 
 much truth, that ' the Americans owed, and still owe, as much acknow- 
 ledgment to the financial operations of Robert Morris, as to the negotiations 
 of Benjamin Franklin, or even to the arms of George Washington.' He 
 was a member of the' convention which framed the constitution of the 
 United States in 1787, and afterwards a senator in congress. In his old 
 age he lost his ample fortune, by unfortunate land speculations, and passed 
 the last years of his life confined in prison for debt. He died in 1S06. 
 
 MOULTRIE, William, a major-general in the army of the revolution, 
 was born in England, but emigrated to South Carolina at an early age. 
 He served with distinction in the Cherokee war, in 1760, and in its last 
 campaign commanded a company. At the commencement of the revolu- 
 tion, he was a member of the provincial congress, and a colonel of the 
 second regiment of South Carolina. For his brave defence of Sullivan's 
 island, in 1776, he received the thanks of congress, and the fort was after- 
 wards called by his name. In 1779, he gained a victory over the British 
 at Beaufort. He afterwards received the commission of major-general, 
 and was second in command to general Lincoln at the siege of Charleston. 
 After the close of the war, he was repeatedly elected governor of South 
 Carolina. He published Memoirs of the Revolution in the Carolinas and 
 Georgia, consisting chiefly of official letters. He died at Charleston, in 
 1S05. 
 
 MURRAY, Alexander, a distinguished naval officer, was ^orn in 
 Maryland, in 1755. He went early to sea, and being a^ounea a lieuten- 
 ant in the navy, obtained a correspondent rank in the army, and distinguish- 
 ed himself at the battles of White Plains, Flatbush, and New York. Being 
 promoted to a captaincy, he served with gallantry to the close of the 
 campaign of 1777. During the war he was engaged in thirteen battles by 
 sea and land, and was once taken prisoner. On the organization of the 
 new government, he was one of the first officers recalled into service, and 
 was engaged for a while to defend the American trade in the Mediterra- 
 nean. His last appointment was that of commander of the navy-yard in 
 Philadelphia, a post which he held till the time of his death, in 1S21. He 
 was a brave officer and much respected. 
 
 MURRAY, William Vans, an American statesman, was born in 
 Maryland, in 1761, and received his legal education in London. On 
 returning to his native state, he engaged in the practice of law, and in 
 1791 was elected to a seat in congress, where he distinguished himself 
 by his ability and eloquence. He was appointed by Washington minister 
 to the republic of Batavia, and discharged the duties of the office with 
 much ability. He was subsequently envoy extraordinary to the French 
 republic, and assisted in making the convention which was signed at Paris 
 in 1800, between France and the United States. Returning to his station 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 537 
 
 at the Hague, he embarked in 1801 for his native country, where he died 
 in 1803. 
 
 OTIS, James, a distinguished statesman, was born at West Barnstable, 
 Massachusetts, in 1725, and was graduated at Harvard college in 1743. 
 He pursued the profession of the law, and establishing himself in Boston, 
 soon rose to eminence. His public career may be said to have opened 
 with his celebrated speech against writs of assistance. At the next election 
 he was chosen a representative to the legislature, and soon became the 
 leader of the popular party. In 1765, he was a member of the congress 
 which assembled at New York. In 1769, he was severely wounded in an 
 assault committed upon him by some British officers ; from one of whom 
 he recovered large damages, which he remitted on receiving a written 
 apology. In 1772, he retired from public life, and in May of the following 
 year was killed by a stroke of lightning. He was a good scholar, a learned 
 and able lawyer, a bold and commanding orator, and possessed infinite 
 powers of humor and wit. 
 
 PAINE, Robert Treat, an eminent lawyer, and a signer of the declara- 
 tion of American independence, was born at Boston, in 1731, and was 
 graduated at Harvard college in 1749. After a visit to Europe of some 
 years, he commenced the study of the law, and about 1759, settled in its 
 practice in Taunton. He took an early and active interest in public affairs, 
 and in 1774, was appointed a delegate from Massachusetts to the general 
 congress. He was a member of the committee of the convention that 
 drafted the constitution of his native state. Under the government that 
 was organized he was appointed attorney-general, and held this office till 
 1790, when he was appointed a judge of the supreme court. He remained 
 on the bench till 1804. He died at Boston, in 1814. His legal attainments 
 and his general acquiremerts were extensive, and he was a man of much 
 brilliancy of wit. 
 
 PAINE, Robert Treat, a poet, son of the preceding, was born at 
 Taunton, in 1773, and graduated at Harvard college in 1792. On leaving 
 college he was placed in a counting-house, but soon turned his attention 
 to literature and theatricals, and published several orations and poems. 
 His poems were very popular and profitable, and by the sale of the song 
 of Adams and Liberty, he received the sum of seven hundred and fifty 
 dollars. In 1800, he began the practice of law, but failed of success from 
 the want of industry, and passed the close of his life in poverty. He died 
 in 1811. His works have been collected and published in one volume 
 8vo, prefaced by a biographical sketch. 
 
 PARKER, Isaac, an eminent lawyer, was born in Bos.on, and graduated 
 at Harvard college in 1786. He studied law in the office of judge Tudor, 
 and commenced practice at Castine, in Maine, then an integral part of 
 Massachusetts. Removing to Portland, he was sent for one term to 
 congress as a representative from Cumberland county. He also held for 
 a short time the office of United States' marshal for that district. In 1806, 
 he was appointed by governor Strong associate judge of the supreme court 
 of Massachusetts, and soon after took up his residence at Boston. In 
 1814, he was appointed chief justice of the supreme court, and held that 
 office till his sudden death, in July, 1830, at the age of sixty-three years. 
 He was distinguished for urbanity, and his legal opinions are very highly 
 irewpected. 
 
 6S 
 
538 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 PARSONS, Theophilus, a distinguished lawyer, was born at Byefield, 
 Massachusetts, in 1750, and graduated at Harvard college, in 1769. He 
 studied, and pursued the practice of the law, for some years, in Falmouth, 
 now Portland ; but when that town was destroyed by the British, he Tetired 
 to the house of his father in Newbury. About a year afterwards he opened 
 an office in Newburyport. He soon rose to the highest rank in his pro- 
 fession, and made immense acquisitions in legal knowledge. His profes- 
 sional services were sought for in all directions, and after thirty-five years 
 of extensive practice, he was appointed chief justice of the supreme court 
 of Massachusetts. In 1780, he was a member of the convention which 
 formed the constitution of the state, and of the convention which accepted 
 the federal constitution. He was a powerful speaker, without a rival in 
 knowledge of law, and surpassed by few in his acquaintance with science 
 and classical literature. He continued in the seat of chief justice till his 
 death, in 1813. 
 
 PENN, William, the founder and legislator of Pennsylvania, whom 
 Montesquieu denominates the modern Lycurgus, was the son of admiral 
 Penn ; was born, in 1644, in London ; and was educated at Christ church, 
 Oxford. At college he imbibed the principles of Quakerism, which, a few 
 years afterwards he publicly professed. He was, in consequence, twice 
 turned out of doors by his father. In 1668, he began to preach in public, 
 and to write in defence of the doctrines which he had embraced. For this 
 he was thrice imprisoned, and once brought to trial. It was during his 
 first imprisonment that he wrote No Cross, No Crown. In 1677, he visited 
 Holland and Germany, to propagate Quakerism. In March, 1680-81, he 
 obtained from Charles II. a grant of that territory which now bears the 
 name of Pennsylvania ; in 16S2, he embarked for his new colony ; and 
 in the following year he founded Philadelphia. He returned to England 
 in 1684. So much was he in favor with James II., that, after the revolu- 
 tion, he was more than once arrested on suspicion of plotting to restore 
 the exiled monarch ; but he at length succeeded in establishing his inno- 
 cence. The rest of his life was passed in tranquillity. He died July 30, 
 1718. His works have been collected in two folio volumes. 
 
 PERRY, Oliver Hazard, a naval officer of distinction, was born at 
 Kingston, Rhode Island, in August, 1785. He entered the navy of the 
 United States as a midshipman, and in 1812, was advanced to the office 
 of master commandant. In the following year he was appointed to the 
 command of the squadron on lake Erie. On the tenth of September, he 
 achieved a complete victory over the enemy under commodore Barclay, 
 after an action of three hours, and captured the whole squadron. He 
 commanded the Java in the expedition to the Mediterranean, under com- 
 modore Decatur. He died in the West Indies, in 1820. 
 
 PETERS, Richard, an eminent judge, was born in June, 1744, and 
 received his education in the city of Philadelphia. He adopted the pro- 
 fession of the law, and soon obtained an extensive practice. At the com- 
 mencement of hostilities with the mother country, Mr. Peters joined the 
 side of the colonies, and in 1776, was appointed by congress secretary of 
 the board of war. His exertions in this department were highly meri- 
 torious and useful, and on resigning the post, in 1781, he was elected a 
 member of congress, and assisted in closing the business of the war. On 
 the organization of the new government, Mr. Peters was appointed judge 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 539 
 
 of the district court of Pennsylvania, and performed the duties of this 
 office for thirty-six years. During this time he was engaged in several 
 objects of public improvement, and issued several valuable publications in 
 relation to agriculture. As a judge, he possessed powers of a high order, 
 and his decisions on admiralty law form the ground work of this branch 
 of our jurisprudence. Their principles were not only sanctioned by our 
 own courts, but were simultaneously adopted by lord Stowell, the distin- 
 guished maritime judge of Great Britain. Judge Peters died in August, 
 1828. 
 
 PICKERING, Timothy, a statesman, was born in Salem, in 1746, and 
 was graduated at Harvard college, in 1763. He took an active part in 
 the popular cause, and, in organizing the provisional government of Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1775, was appointed a judge of the court of common pleas 
 for Essex, and sole judge of the maritime court for the middle district. 
 During the war, he was appointed adjutant-general, and subsequently a 
 member of the board of war. From 1790 to 1798, at different intervals, 
 he was employed on various negotiations with the Indians. He was suc- 
 cessively postmaster-general, secretary of war, and secretary of state. 
 From the last office he was removed by president Adams, in 1800. From 
 1S03 to 1811, he was a senator in congress from his native slate, and 
 fiom 1814 to 1817, a representative in that body. In public life he was 
 distinguished for firmness, energy, activity and disinterestedness. He 
 died in Salem, in 1829. 
 
 PIKE, Zebulon Montgomery, brigadier-general, was born at Lamber- 
 ton, New Jersey, on the fifth of January, 1779. After the purchase of 
 Louisiana, he was appointed by Mr. Jefferson, in 1805, to explore the 
 sources of the Mississippi. On his return, he was sent on a similar 
 expedition to the interior of Louisiana, and on the Rio del Norte was 
 seized by a Spanish force, and deprived of his papers. He returned in 
 1807. During the late war, he was made brigadier-general, and com- 
 manded the land forces in the attack upon York, in Upper Canada, on the 
 twenty-seventh of April, 1S13. In the explosion of the British magazine, 
 he was struck by a large stone, and died in a few hours. When the 
 British standard was brought to him, he caused it to be placed under his 
 head, and thus died at the age of thirty-four. 
 
 PINCKNEY, Charles Cotesworth, a distinguished officer of the 
 revolutionary army, was born in South Carolina, received his education 
 in England, and studied law in the Temple. On returning to his native 
 province, in 1769, he devoted himself to the successful practice of his 
 profession. On the commencement of hostilities, he renounced law for 
 the study of military tactics, and was soon promoted to the command of 
 the first regiment of Carolina infantry. He was subsequently aid-de- 
 camp to Washington, and in this capacity at the battles of Brandywine 
 and Germantown. On the surrender of Charleston, he was taken prisoner, 
 and remained so till all opportunity of gaining fresh reputation in the field 
 had passed. He was a member of the convention which formed the fed- 
 eral constitution, and in 1796 was appointed minister to France. When 
 preparations were making for war on account of the expected French 
 invasion, Mr. Pinckney was nominated a major-general, but he soon had 
 an opportunity of retiring to the quiet of private life. He was afterwards 
 president of the Cincinnati society of the United States. He died in 1825. 
 
540 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 PINKNEY, William, an eloquent lawyer and statesman, was born in 
 Maryland, in 1764, and prepared himself for the bar, under the instruc- 
 tion of judge Chase. He was admitted to practice in 17S6, and soon 
 gave indications of possessing superior powers. He was a member of the 
 convention of Maryland, which ratified the federal constitution. In 1796, 
 he was appointed one of the commissioners under the British treaty. The 
 state of Maryland also employed him to procure a settlement of its claims 
 on the bank of England, and he recovered for it the sum of eight hun- 
 dred thousand dollars. This detained him in England till the year 1804, 
 when he returned and resumed his professional labors. In 1806, he was 
 sent as envoy extraordinary to London, and in 1808, received the authori- 
 ty of minister plenipotentiary. He returned to the United States in 1811, 
 and soon after was appointed attorney-general. This office he held till 
 1S14. During the incursion of the British into Maryland, he command- 
 ed a battalion, and was wounded in the battle of Bladensburgh, in August, 
 1814. He was afterwards representative in congress, minister plenipo- 
 tentiary to Russia, envoy to Naples, and in 1819, senator in congress. In 
 the last office he continued till his death, in 1822. 
 
 PINKNEY, Edward Coate, son of the foregoing, was born in London, 
 in 1S02, passed his infancy in England, and was placed as a student in 
 Baltimore college at the age of ten or eleven. He entered the navy as a 
 midshipman, and continued in the service for several years. On the death 
 of his father, he quitted the navy and devoted himself to the practice of 
 the law. He published, in 1S25, a volume of poems, which possess much 
 beauty. He died in 1828. 
 
 PREBLE, Edward, a distinguished naval officer, was born at Falmouth, 
 in Maine, in 1761, and entered the navy as a midshipman, in 1779. He 
 soon rose to the rank of lieutenant, and during the revolutionary war 
 distinguished himself by capturing a British vessel at Penobscot. In 
 1798, he was appointed to the command of the brig Pickering, and soon 
 after to the Essex. He commanded, in 1803, a fleet sent against the 
 Barbary powers, and repeatedly attacked Tripoli with considerable success. 
 In 1804, he returned to the United States, and died in 1807. 
 
 PUTNAM, Israel, an officer in the army of the revolution, was born 
 in Salem, Massachusetts, 1718. He received but a meagre education, and 
 removing to Connecticut, engaged in agriculture. In the French war he 
 commanded a company, and was engaged in several contests with the 
 enemy. In 1756, he fell into an ambuscade of savages, and was exposed 
 to the most cruel tortures. He obtained his release in 1759, and returned 
 to his farm. Soon after the battle of Lexington he joined the army at 
 Cambridge, was appointed major-general, and distinguished himself at 
 Bunker's hill. In 1776, he was sent to complete the fortifications at New 
 York, and afterwards to fortify Philadelphia. In the winter of 1777, he 
 was stationed with a small body at Princeton, and in the spring appointed 
 to a command in the Highlands, where he remained most of the time till 
 the close of 1779, when he was disabled by an attack of paralysis. He 
 died in 1790. He was brave, energetic, and one of the most efficient offi- 
 cers of the revolution. 
 
 QUINCY, Josiah, a distinguished lawyer and patriot, was born in Bos- 
 ton, in 1743, and was graduated at Harvard college. He soon became 
 eminent in the practice of law, and distinguished by his active exertions 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 54X 
 
 in the popular cause. His powers of eloquence were of a very high order. 
 In 1774, he took a voyage to Europe for the benefit of his health, and to 
 advance the interests of the colonies. He died on his return, on the 25th 
 of April, 1775, the day the vessel reached the harbor of cape Ann. 
 
 RAMSAY, David, an historian, was born in Pennsylvania, in 1749, 
 was educated at Princeton college, and commenced the study of medicine. 
 After practising a short time in Maryland, he removed to Charleston, 
 South Carolina, in 1773, and soon rose to an extensive practice. He took 
 an active and early part in the cause of the colonies, and was for some 
 time a surgeon in the revolutionary army. In 1782, he was chosen to a 
 seat in congress. He wrote a History of the Revolution in South Caroli- 
 na ; a History of the American Revolution ; a Life of Washington ; a 
 History of South Carolina; and a History of the United States. He died 
 in 1815. 
 
 RANDOLPH, Edmund, governor of Virginia, was educated to the law. 
 After seeing a little military service in the suite of Washington, he applied 
 himself to his professional pursuits. He succeeded Patrick Henry to 
 the gubernatorial chair of Virginia, and occupied it from 17S6 to 1788. In 
 1790, he received from Washington the appointment of attorney-general 
 of the United States ; and in 1794, he succeeded Mr. Jefferson as secretary 
 of state. In consequence of some difficulties with the administration, he 
 resigned in August, 1795. He died in Frederic county, Virginia, in 
 September, 1813. 
 
 REED, Joseph, a patriot of the revolution, was graduated at the college 
 in New Jersey, in 1757. While a member of congress, in 1778, the 
 British commissioner endeavored to procure his influence to bring about a 
 reconciliation between the colonies and the mother country; he rejected 
 their offers with the reply, — 'That he was not worth purchasing; but 
 such as he was, the king of Great Britain was not rich enough to buy 
 him.' In 1778, he was chosen president of Pennsylvania, and retained 
 that office till his death, in 1781. 
 
 REEVE, Tapping, an eminent lawyer, was born at Brook-Haven, in 
 1744, and was graduated at Princeton college. He established himself as 
 a lawyer in Litchfield, Connecticut, where he founded the law school, of 
 which, for nearly thirty years, he was the principal instructer. He was 
 for many years judge of the supreme court of that state, and some time 
 chief justice. His legal attainments were of a high order, and as a man 
 he possessed the esteem and respect of the community. 
 
 RITTENHOUSE, David, a celebrated mathematician, was born in 
 Pennsylvania, in 1732. During his early life he was employed in agri- 
 culture, but as his constitution was feeble, he became a clock and mathe- 
 matical instrument maker. In 1770, he removed to Philadelphia, and 
 practised his trade. He was elected a member, and for some time president 
 of the Philosophical society, and one of the commissioners employed to 
 determine the boundary line between Pennsylvania and Virginia, and 
 between New York and Massachusetts. He was treasurer of Pennsylvania 
 from 1777 to 1789, and from 1792 to 1795, director of the United States 
 mint. His death took place in 1796. His mathematical talents were of 
 the highest order. 
 
 RUSH, Benjamin, an eminent physician, w r as born, in 1745, at Bristol, 
 in Pennsylvania ; was educated at Princeton college, and took his degree 
 
 16 
 
642 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 at Edinburgh , was chosen, in 1776, a member of congress, and signed the 
 declaration of independence; was professor of medicine and clinical practice 
 at the Pennsylvanian university; and died in 1813. He was one of the 
 greatest and best men who have adorned his country. Among his works 
 are Essays, literary, moral, and philosophical ; Medical Inquiries and 
 Observations ; and a History of the Yellow Fever. 
 
 RUTLEDGE, Edward, an eminent lawyer, and a signer of the declara- 
 tion of independence, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1749. 
 His legal education was completed in England, and in 1773 he returned 
 to his native country, and entered upon the duties of his profession. In 
 1774, he was appointed a delegate to the congress at Philadelphia, and 
 took an active part in the discussions of the day. After a successful 
 practice of his profession for seventeen years, in 179S he relinquished his 
 station at the bar, and was elected chief magistrate of South Carolina. 
 He died in 1S00. 
 
 SAINT CLAIR, Arthur, born at Edinburgh, was a lieutenant under 
 general Wolfe, and afterwards settled in Pennsylvania, and became a 
 naturalized citizen. On the commencement of the revolution, he embraced 
 the cause of the American army, and in February, 1777, was appointed 
 major-general. He served with distinction, and in 1783, was elected 
 president of the Cincinnati society of his adopted state. In 17S5, he was 
 elected a delegate to* congress, and in 1787, was chosen president of that 
 body. He was afterwards governor of the North-west territory, and in 
 1790, commanded an army against the Miami Indians. He resigned his 
 commission of major-general in 1792. His latter years were passed in 
 poverty. He died in 1818. 
 
 SANDS, Robert C, a man of letters, was born in the city of New 
 York, on the eleventh of May, 1799. He was graduated at Columbia 
 college, in 1815, and soon after commenced the study of law, in the office 
 of David B. Ogden, a distinguished advocate of New York. In 1S17, he 
 published the Bridal of Vaumond, an irregular metrical romance, after the 
 fashion which Scott had made so popular. Subsequently, in conjunction 
 with his friend the Rev. J. \V. Eastburn, he wrote the poem Yamoyden, 
 which appeared in New York in 1S20, and acquired for the authors a 
 high reputation. In the same year he was admitted to the bar, and opened 
 an office in the city of New York. In 1822 and 1823, he wrote many 
 articles for the Literary Review, a monthly periodical, then published in 
 New York, which received great increase of reputation from his contribu- 
 tions. Shortly after this he was engaged in a burlesque publication, 
 entitled the St. Tammany Magazine. In May, 1824, the Atlantic Maga- 
 zine was established in New York, and placed under his care; at the end 
 of six months he gave up this work, but subsequently resumed its 
 charge, when it changed its name and character, and appeared as the New 
 York Review. During the same period, he assisted in editing various 
 compilations on legal subjects. Having now become an author by pro- 
 fession, and looking to his pen for support, he became the assistant editor 
 of the New York Commercial Advertiser, and remained in this situation 
 to the close of his life. While engaged in the laborious and incessant 
 duties of a daily journal, Mr. Sands prosecuted various other literary un- 
 dertakings with much success. He was one of the chief contributors to 
 the Talisman, in which he was assisted by his friends Bryant and Ver- 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 543 
 
 planck. He edited a new Life of Paul Jones, and wrote two stories in the 
 Tales of Glauber Spa. His death occurred suddenly, in the thirty-fourth 
 year of his age. His collected works have been recently published, in 
 two volumes octavo. 
 
 SCHUYLER, Philip, an officer in the revolutionary army, was appoint- 
 ed major-general in 1775, and was dispatched to the fortifications in the 
 north of New York, to prepare for the invasion of Canada. He afterwards 
 fell under some suspicion, and was superseded in the chief command by 
 general Gates. He was a member of congress before the adoption of the 
 present constitution, and afterwards twice a senator. He died in 1S04, in 
 the seventy-third year of his age. 
 
 SEDGWICK, Theodore, was born at Hartford, in 1746, was educated 
 at Yale college, and removing to Massachusetts, pursued the study of the 
 law. He embarked with spirit in the cause of the popular party before 
 the revolution, held a seat several years in the state legislature, and was 
 a member of congress under the old confederation. He was a member of 
 the Massachusetts convention to decide on the adoption of the federal con- 
 stitution, was a representative and senator to congress, and in 1802 was 
 appointed judge of the supreme judicial court of Massachusetts. In this 
 office he remained till his death, in 1813. 
 
 SEWALL, Samuel, chief justice of Massachusetts, was born at Boston, 
 in 1757, and, after graduating at Harvard college, entered on the profession 
 of the law. He soon became eminent; in 1797, was elected a member of 
 congress, and in 1S00, was placed on the bench of the supreme judicial 
 court. In 1813, he was appointed chief justice, but died suddenly in the 
 following year. He was a lawyer of ability and learning, and highly 
 popular. 
 
 SHERMAN, Roger, a signer of the declaration of independence, was 
 born at Newton, Massachusetts, in 1721, and with only a common school 
 education, rose to distinction as a lawyer and statesman. His early life 
 was passed in the occupation of a shoemaker. Removing to Connecticut, 
 in 1743, he was admitted to the bar in 1754, and soon became distinguish- 
 ed as a counsellor. In 1761, he removed to New Haven, four years after 
 was appointed a judge of the county court, and in 1776, advanced to the 
 bench of the superior court. He was a delegate to the celebrated congress 
 of 1774, and was a member of that body for the space of nineteen years. 
 He was a member of the convention that formed the constitution of the 
 United States. He died in 1793. 
 
 SHIPPEN, William, an eminent physician, was born in Pennsylvania, 
 and was graduated at Princeton college in 1754. His medical studies 
 were completed at Edinburgh, and on his return, in 1764, he began at 
 Philadelphia the first course of lectures on anatomy ever delivered in the 
 country. He assisted in establishing the medical school of that city, and 
 was appointed one of its professors. In 1777, he was appointed director 
 general of the medical department in the army. He died in 1808. 
 
 SMITH, John, one of the early settlers of Virginia, was born in Lin- 
 colnshire, in 1579. After passing through a variety of wonderful adven- 
 tures, he resolved to visit North America ; and having, with a number of 
 other persons, procured a charter of South Virginia, he came over thither 
 in 1607. Being taken prisoner by the Indians, and condemned to death, 
 his life was saved by the daughter of the savage chief, the celebrated 
 
544 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Pocahontas. He published an account of several of his voyages to Vir- 
 ginia, a history of that colony, and an account of his own life. He died 
 at London, in 1631. 
 
 SMITH, James, a signer of the declaration of independence, was a 
 native of Ireland, removed with his father to this country at an early age, 
 and established himself in the practice of law at York, in Pennsylvania. 
 He was a delegate from York county to the continental congress. His 
 death took place in 1S06. 
 
 STANDISH, Miles, the first captain at Plymouth, New England, was 
 born at Lancashire, in 1584, and accompanied Mr. Robinson's congrega- 
 tion to Plymouth, in 1620. His services in the wars with the Indians 
 were highly useful, and many of his exploits were daring and extraordi- 
 nary. He died in 1656. 
 
 STARK, John, a general in the army of the revolution, was born in 
 Londonderry, New Hampshire, in 1728. During the French war, he was 
 captain of a company of rangers in the provincial service, in 1755, and 
 was with lord Howe when that general was killed, in storming the French 
 lines at Ticonderoga, in 1758. On receiving the report of the battle of 
 Lexington, he was engaged at work in his saw-mill ; and, fired with in- 
 dignation, seized his musket, and immediately proceeded to Cambridge. 
 He was at the battles of Bunker's hill and of Trenton, and achieved a 
 glorious victory at Bennington. He rose to the rank of brigadier-general, 
 and was distinguished throughout the war for enterprise and courage. He 
 died in 1S22. 
 
 STEUBEN, Frederick William Augustus, Baron de, was a Prussian 
 officer, aid-de-camp to Frederick the Great, and lieutenant-general in the 
 army of that distinguished commander. He arrived in America in 1777, 
 and immediately offered his services to the continental congress. In 1778, 
 he was appointed inspector general, with the rank of major-general, and 
 rendered the most efficient services in the establishment of a regular sys- 
 tem of discipline. During the war he was exceedingly active and useful, 
 and after the peace he retired to a farm in the vicinity of New York, 
 where, with the assistance of books and friends, he passed his time as 
 agreeably as a frequent want of funds would permit. The state of New 
 York afterwards gave him a tract of sixteen thousand acres in the county 
 of Oneida, and the general government made him a grant of two thousand 
 five hundred dollars per annum. He died in 1795, and at his own request 
 was wrapped in his cloak, placed in a plain coffin, and hid in the earth, 
 without a slone to tell where he was laid. 
 
 STRONG, Caleb, governor of Massachusetts, was born at Northampton, 
 in 1744, and graduated at Harvard college. He pursued the profession of 
 the law, and established himself in his native town. Taking an early and 
 active part in the revolutionary movements, he was appointed, in 1775, one 
 of the committee of safety, and in the following year a member of the state 
 legislature. He was a member of the convention which formed the con- 
 stitution of the state, and of that which formed the constitution of the 
 United States. Subsequently he was senator to congress, and for eleven 
 years, at different periods, chief magistrate of Massachusetts. He died in 
 1820. 
 
 STUART, Gilbert, a celebrated painter, was born in Newport, Rhode 
 Island, in 1755. Soon after becoming of age, he went to England, where 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 545 
 
 he became the pupil of Mr. "West. He soon rose to eminence as a portrait 
 painter, and obtained a high reputation both in England and Ireland. In 
 1794, he returned to his native country, chiefly residing in Philadelphia 
 ati'l Washington, in the practice of his profession, till about the year 1801, 
 •when he removed to Boston. Here he remained till his death, in 1828. 
 Mr. Stuart was not only one of the first painters of his time, but was also 
 a very extraordinary man out of his profession. 
 
 SULLIVAN, John, an officer in the army of the revolution, was born 
 in Maine, and established himself in the profession of law in New Hamp- 
 shire. Turning his attention to military affairs, he received, in 1772. the 
 commission of major, and, in 177o, that of brigadier-general. The next 
 year he was pent to Canada, and on the death of general Thomas, the 
 command of the army devolved on him. In this year he was promoted to 
 the rank of major-general, and was soon after captured by the British, in 
 the battle on Long island. He commanded a division of the army at the 
 battles of Trenton, Brandywine, and Germantown ; and was the sole com- 
 mander of an expedition to the island of Newport, which failed through 
 want of co-operation from the French fleet. In 1779, he commanded an 
 expedition against the Indians. He was afterwards a member of congress, 
 and for three years president of New Hampshire. In 17S9, he was ap- 
 pointed a judge of the district court, and continued in that office till his 
 death, in 1795. 
 
 SULLIVAN, Ja*mes, was born at Berwick, Maine, in 1744, and after 
 passing the early part of his life in agricultural pursuits, adopted the pro- 
 fession of the law. He took an early part in the revolutionary struggle, 
 and in 177o, was chosen a member of the provincial congress. In 1776, 
 he was appointed a judge of the superior court. He was subsequently 
 a member of congress, a member of the executive council, judge of probate, 
 and in 1790, was appointed attorney-general. In 1S07, he was elected 
 governor of Massachusetts, and again in the following year, in the De- 
 eember of which he died. II" was the author of a History of Land Titles, 
 a History of the District of Maine and an Essay on Banks. His rank at 
 the bar was in the very first class, and in his private character he was dis- 
 tinguished for piety, patriotism, and integrity. 
 
 THOMAS, Isaiah, a distinguished printer, was born in Boston, in 1749, 
 and at a very early age was bound apprentice to the craft, in which he 
 afterwards became so famous. In 1770, he published the Massachusetts 
 Spy in Boston. Five years afterwards he was obliged to remove it to 
 Worcester. He afterwards entered extensively into the publishing and 
 bookselling business, having at one time sixteen presses in operation, and 
 eight bookstores at different places. He was the founder and president of 
 the American Antiquarian society, and the author of a valuable History 
 of Printing. He died in 1831. 
 
 THORNTON, Matthew, was born in Ireland, in 1714, and when 
 about two or three years old his father emigrated to America, and finally 
 settled in Worcester, Massachusetts. Young Thornton pursued the study 
 of medicine, and commenced the practice of his profession in Londonderry, 
 New Hampshire. In 1776, he was chosen a delegate to the continental 
 congress, and affixed his name to the declaration of independence. He 
 was afterwards chief justice of the court of common pleas, and judge of 
 the superior court of his adopted state. He died in 1803. 
 69 46* 
 
546 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 TILGHMAN, William, an eminent jurist, was born, in 1756, in Talbot 
 county, on the eastern shore of Maryland. In 1772, he began the study 
 oflaw in Philadelphia, but was not admitted to the practice of the profes- 
 sion till 17S3. In 178S, and for some successive years, he was elected a 
 representative to the legislature of Maryland. In 1793, he returned to 
 Philadelphia, and pursued the practice of the law in that city till 1801, 
 Avhen he was appointed chief judge of the circuit court of the United 
 States for the third circuit. After the abolition of this court, he resumed 
 his profession, and continued it till 1S05, when he was appointed president 
 of the courts of common pleas in the first district of Pennsylvania. In the 
 following year he was commissioned as chief justice of the supreme court 
 of that state. He died in 1827. 
 
 TOMPKINS, Daniel D., vice-president of the United States, was 
 born in June, 1774, graduated at Columbia college, in 1795, and settled 
 in New York in the profession of the law. He distinguished himself in 
 the party struggles of 1799 — 1801, and in 1807 was elected governor of 
 the state. During the late war, he was active and efficient in the cause 
 of the administration and the dominant party. In 1817, he was elected 
 vice-president. He died at Staten island, in June, 1825. 
 
 TRUMBULL, John, the author of McFingal, was born in Connecticut, 
 in 1750, and was educated at Yale college, where he entered at a very 
 early age. In 1772, he published the first part of his poem, The Progress 
 of Dullness. In the following year, he was admitted to the bar in Con- 
 necticut, and, removing to Boston, continued his legal studies in the office 
 of John Adams. He returned to his native state in 1774, and commenced 
 practice at New Haven. The first part of McFingal was published at 
 Philadelphia, in 1775 ; the poem was completed and published in 1782, 
 at Hartford, where the author at that time lived. More than thirty editions 
 of this work have been printed. In 1789, he was appointed state attorney 
 for the county of Hartford, and in 1801, was appointed a judge of the su- 
 perior court of errors, and held this appointment till 1819. In 1820, a 
 collection of his poems was published in two volumes 8vo. In 1825, he 
 removed to Detroit, where he died, in May, 1831. 
 
 TRUXTON, Thomas, a naval officer, was born on Long island, in 1755. 
 In 1775, he commanded a vessel, and distinguished himself by his depre- 
 dations on British commerce during the revolution. He subsequently 
 engaged in commerce, till the year 1794, when he was appointed to the 
 frigate Constitution. In 1799, he captured the French frigate L'lnsur- 
 gente ; and in the following year he obtained a victory over the La Ven- 
 geance. On the close of the French war he retired from the navy, and 
 died at Philadelphia, in 1822. 
 
 TUDOR, William, a man of letters, was born in the state of Massachu- 
 setts, and was graduated at Harvard college in 1796. He soon after visit- 
 ed Europe, and passed several years there. After having been some time 
 a member of the legislature of his native state, he was appointed, in 1823, 
 consul at Lima, and for the ports of Peru. In 1827, he was appointed 
 charge d'affaires of the United States at the court of Brazil. He died at 
 Rio de Janeiro, in 1830. Mr. Tudor was the founder, and for two years 
 the sole editor of the North American Review. He was the author of 
 Letters on the Eastern States, and a Life of James Otis, and left a numbef 
 ef volumes in manuscript, nearly prepared for the press. 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 547 
 
 TYLER, Royal, a lawyer and miscellaneous writer, was born in Bos- 
 ton, and graduated at Harvard college, in 1776. In 1790, he removed his 
 residence to Vermont, and soon distinguished himself in his profession of 
 l;tw. For six years he was an associate judge of the supreme court of 
 that state, and for six years more chief justice. He was the author of 
 several dramatic pieces of considerable merit; a novel called The Alge- 
 rine Captive ; and numerous pieces in prose and verse published in the 
 Farmer's Museum, when edited by Dennie. In addition to these, he pub- 
 lished two volumes, entitled Vermont Reports. He died at Brattleboro', 
 in 1825. 
 
 WALN, Robert, a miscellaneous writer, was born in Philadelphia, and 
 was liberally educated, but adopted no profession. He was the author of 
 The Hermit in Philadelphia, a satire; The American Bards, a satire; 
 Sisyphi Opus, or Touches at the Times ; a History of China ; some of 
 the lives in the Biography of the Signers of the Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence ; a Life of Lafayette ; and an account of the Quaker hospital at 
 Frankford, near Philadelphia. He died in 1824, at the age of thirty-one. 
 
 WARREN, Joseph, a patriot of the revolution, was born in Roxbury, 
 near Boston, in 1741, and was graduated at Harvard college, in 1759. 
 He pursued the profession of medicine, and soon after commencing the 
 practice, distinguished himself by his successful treatment of the small 
 pox. Early engaging in politics, he obtained great influence, and rendered 
 efficient service by his writings and addresses. He was twice elected to 
 deliver the oration in commemoration of the massacre on the fifth of March. 
 In June, 1775, the provincial congress of Massachusetts, of which he was 
 at this time president, made him a major-general of their forces. At the 
 battle of Bunker's hill he fought as a volunteer, and was slain within a few 
 yards of the breast-work, as he was among the last slowly retiring from it. 
 He was a man of the most generous and intrepid spirit, much elegance of 
 manners, and of commanding eloquence. His loss was deeply felt and 
 regretted. In 1776, his remains were removed from the battle ground, 
 and interred in Boston. 
 
 WARREN, James, was born at Plymouth, in 1726, and was graduated 
 at Harvard college, in 1745. He took an early and active part in the 
 cause of the colonies against the aggressions of the mother country, was a 
 member of the general court, proposed the establishment of committees of 
 correspondence, and, after the death of general Warren, was appointed 
 president of the provincial congress. He was afterwards appointed a 
 major-general of the militia. On the adoption of the constitution of Mas- 
 sachusetts, he was for many years speaker of the house of representatives. 
 He died at Plymouth, in 1808. 
 
 WASHINGTON, George, was born in 1732, in the county of Fairfax, 
 in Virginia, where his father was possessed of great landed property. He 
 was educated under the care of a private tutor, and paid much attention to 
 the study of mathematics and engineering. He was first employed officially 
 by general Dinwiddie, in 1753, in remonstrating to the French command- 
 er on the Ohio, for the infraction of the treaty between the two nations. 
 He subsequently negotiated a treaty of amity with the Indians on the 
 back settlements, and for his honorable services received the thanks of the 
 British government. In the unfortunate expedition of general Braddock, 
 be served as aid-de-camp ; and on the fall of that brave but rash command- 
 
548 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 er, he conducted the retreat to the corps under colonel Dunbar, in a man- 
 ner that displayed great military talent. He retired from the service with 
 the rank of colonel ; but while engaged in agriculture at his favorite seat 
 of Mount Vernon, he was elected senator in the national council for Fred- 
 eric county, and afterwards for Fairfax. At the commencement of the 
 revolutionary war, he was selected as the most proper person to take the 
 chief command of the provincial troops. From the moment of taking upon 
 himself this important office, in June 1775, he employed the great powers 
 of his mind to his favorite object, and by his prudence, his valor, and 
 presence of mind, he deserved and obtained the confidence and gratitude 
 of his country, and finally triumphed over all opposition. The record of 
 his services is the history of the whole war. He joined the army at Cam- 
 bridge in July, 1775. On the evacuation of Boston, in March, 1776, he 
 proceeded to New York. The battle of Long island was fought on the 
 27th of August, and the battle of White Plains on the 28th of October. On 
 the 25th of December he crossed the Delaware, and soon gained the victo- 
 ries at Trenton and Princeton. The battle of Brandywine was fought on 
 September 11th, 1777; of Germantown, October 4th; of Monmouth, 
 February 28th, 1778. In 1779 and 1780, he continued in the vicinity of 
 New York, and closed the important military operations of the war by the 
 capture of Cornwallis, at Yorktown, in 1781. When the independence 
 of his country was established by the treaty of peace, Washington resigned 
 his high office to the congress, and, followed by the applause and the 
 grateful admiration of his fellow-citizens, retired into private life. His 
 high character and services naturally entitled him to the highest gifts his 
 country could bestow, and on the organization of the government he was 
 called upon to be the first president of the states which he had preserved 
 and established. It was a period of great difficulty and danger. The 
 unsubdued spirit of liberty had been roused and kindled by the revolution 
 of France, and many Americans w r ere eager that the freedom and equality 
 which they themselves enjoyed, should be extended to the subjects of the 
 French monarch. Washington anticipated the plans of the factious, and 
 by prudence and firmness subdued insurrection, and silenced discontent, 
 till the parties which the intrigues of Genet, the French envoy, had roused 
 to rebellion, were convinced of the wildness of their measures and of the 
 wisdom of their governor. The president completed, in 1796, the business 
 of his office, by signing a commercial treaty with Great Britain, and then 
 voluntarily resigned his power, at a moment when all hands and all hearts 
 were united, again to confer upon him the sovereignty of the country. 
 Restored to the peaceful retirement of Mount Vernon, he devoted himself 
 to the pursuits of agriculture ; and though he accepted the command of the 
 army in 1798, it was merely to unite the affections of his fellow-citizens 
 to the general good, and w r as one more sacrifice to his high sense of duty. 
 He died after a short illness, on the 14th of December, 1799. He was 
 buried with the honors due to the noble founder of a happy and prosperous 
 republic. History furnishes no parallel to the character of Washington. 
 He stands on an unapproached eminence ; distingixished almost beyond 
 humanity for self-command, intrepidity, soundness of judgment, rectitude 
 of purpose, and deep, ever-active piety. 
 
 WASHINGTON, Bushrod, an eminent judge, was born in Westmore- 
 land county, Virginia, and was educated at William and Mary's college. 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 549 
 
 Hn pursued the study of the law in the office of Mr. "Wilson, of Philadel- 
 phia, and commenced its practice with great success in his native county. 
 In 1781, he was a member of the house of delegates of Virginia. He 
 afterwards removed to Alexandria, and thence to Richmond, where he pub- 
 lished two volumes of the decisions of the supreme court of Virginia. In 
 1798, he was appointed an associate justice of the supreme court of the 
 United States, and continued to hold this situation till his death, in No- 
 vember, 1829. He was the favorite nephew of president Washington, and 
 was the devisee of Mount Vernon. 
 
 WAYNE, Anthony, major-general, was born, in 1745, in Chester 
 county, Pennsylvania. He entered the army as colonel, in 1775, served 
 under Gates at Ticonderoga, and was promoted to the rank of brigadier- 
 general. He was engaged in the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, 
 and Monmouth ; in 1779, captured the fortress at Stony Point, and render- 
 ed other important services during the war. In 1787, he was a member 
 of the Pennsylvanian convention which ratified the constitution of the 
 United States. In 1792, he succeeded St. Clair in the command of the 
 western army, and gained a complete victory at the battle of the Miamis, 
 in 1794. He died at Presque isle, in 1796. 
 
 WEST, Benjamin, an eminent painter, was born, in 1738, at Springfield, 
 near Philadelphia, of Quaker parents. At the age of seven years he began 
 to manifest his pictorial talents, by sketching with pen and ink an infant 
 sleeping in a cradle. From some Indians he obtained red and yellow, and 
 his mother gave him a piece of indigo ; and as camel's hair pencils were 
 wanting, he supplied the want by clipping the fur of the cat. Improving 
 as he advanced in years, he became a portrait painter of considerable re- 
 pute, and produced some meritorious historical pictures. In his twenty- 
 second year he visited Italy, where he remained for some time. In 1763, 
 he settled in England, where he soon acquired reputation. Among his 
 patrons was archbishop Drummond, of York, by whose means he was in- 
 troduced to George the Third, who immediately gave him a commission 
 to paint the Death of Regulus, and continued ever afterwards to employ 
 him. In 1791, he was chosen president of the Royal academy. Among 
 his last, and perhaps his best works, are, Death on the Pale Horse;, and 
 Christ healing the Sick. He died March 18, 1820. 
 
 WHITNEY, Eli, inventor of the cotton-gin, was born at Westborough, 
 Massachusetts, in 1765. He received a liberal education, and displayed 
 at an early age great mechanical genius. While a student of law, he in- 
 vented the cotton-gin, a machine for separating the seed from the cotton; 
 an invention of vast importance to the cotton growing states. It has been 
 worth to them a hundred millions of dollars. In 179S, he commenced 
 the manufacture of firearms, for the United States. In perseverance and 
 inventive power, he has scarcely a parallel among mechanicians. He died 
 in 1S25. 
 
 WILKINSON, Jemima, a bold and artful religious impostor, was born 
 in Cumberland, Rhode Island, about the year 1753. Recovering sudden- 
 ly from an apparent suspension of life, in 1773, she gave out that she had 
 been raised from the dead, and laid claim to supernatural power and 
 authority. Making a few proselytes, she removed with them to the neigh- 
 borhood of Crooked lake, in New York, where she died in 1819. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Roger, one of the founders of Rhode Island, was born in 
 
550 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Wales, in 1599, and received his education at Oxford. He was, for some 
 time, a minister of the established church, but dissenting, he removed, in 
 1631, to New England, and preached till 1636, at Salem and Plymouth. 
 Being banished from the colony on account of his religious opinions, he 
 removed with several others to Rhode Island, and laid the foundation of 
 Providence. They there established the first society in which was enjoy- 
 ed perfect liberty of conscience. For several years, Williams was presi- 
 dent of the colony. He died in 1683. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Otho Holland, an officer in the American army, was 
 born in Maryland, in 1748, served in various capacities during the revolu- 
 tionary war, and fought at the battles of Guilford, Hobkirk's hill, and the 
 Eutaws. Before the disbanding of the army, he was made brigadier- 
 general. For several years he was collector at Baltimore. He died in 
 1794. 
 
 WILSON, James, a signer of the declaration of American indepen- 
 dence, was born in Scotland, about the year 1742. He was well educat- 
 ed, and after completing his studies, emigrated to America. Settling at 
 Philadelphia, he received an offer to enter the office of Mr. John Dickin- 
 son, and pursue the study of the law. He soon distinguished himself, 
 and was appointed a delegate to the continental congress, where he con- 
 tinued from 1775 to 1777. He was a member of the conventions which 
 framed the constitution of Pennsylvania, and that of the United States, 
 and in 1789, was appointed one of the judges of the supreme court of the 
 United States. In 1797, he was made professor of law in the university 
 of Pennsylvania, and in this capacity delivered a course of lectures, after- 
 wards published in three volumes Svo. He died in 1798. 
 
 WINDER, William H, an officer in the army, was born in Maryland, 
 in 1775, was educated for the bar, and pursued his profession in Balti- 
 more with great success. In 1812, he received a colonel's commission, 
 was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general, and served with reputa- 
 tion during the war with Great Britain. He commanded the troops at the 
 battle of Bladensburg. On the declaration of peace, he resumed the prac- 
 tice of his profession. He died in 1824. 
 
 WISTAR, Caspar, a celebrated physician, was born in Philadelphia, 
 in 1761. He studied medicine under Dr. John Redman, and completed 
 his professional course at the schools in London and Edinburgh. Return- 
 ing in 1787 to his native city, he soon distinguished himself in his pro- 
 fession, and in 1789, was elected professor of chemistry in the college of 
 Philadelphia. In 1792, he became adjunct professor of anatomy, mid- 
 wifery, and surgery, with Dr. Shippen ; and on the decease of that gen- 
 tleman, in 1808, sole professor. His acquirements in professional know- 
 ledge were very extensive, and he obtained much popularity as a lecturer. 
 He died in 1818. His chief work is a valuable System of Anatomy, in 
 two volumes. 
 
 WOLCOTT, Oliver, governor of Connecticut, was born in 1727, and 
 received his education at Yale college. He served as captain in the 
 French war, and studied medicine, though he never practised. He was 
 a delegate to the congi-ess of 1776, signed the declaration of indepen- 
 dence, and the articles of confederation, and remained a member till 1785. 
 In 1785, he was elected deputy-governor, and was re-elected till 1796, 
 when he was made governor. He died in 1797. 
 
BIOGRAPHY. 551 
 
 WYTHE, George, a signer of the declaration of independence, was 
 born in Virginia, in 1726. His early course was dissipated, but at the 
 age of thirty he reformed, turned his attention to literature, studied law, 
 and commenced its practice. At the breaking out of the revolution, he 
 was a distinguished leader of the popular party. He was for some time 
 speaker of the house of burgesses, and in 1775, was elected a member of 
 congress. He was one of the committee to revise the laws of Virginia, 
 in 1776, and had a principal share in preparing the code adopted in 1779. 
 Soon after, he was appointed one of the three judges of the high court of 
 chancery, and subsequently, sole counsellor. He was a member of the 
 convention of Virginia to consider the constitution of the United States. 
 His death, which was attributed to poison, took place in 1806. 
 
552 
 
 CHAPTER XX.— HISTORY. 
 
 DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION. 
 
 It is a singular fact that the science and energy of Italian navigators 
 opened the new world to Europe, though adventurers from other countries 
 derived the benefit of their discoveries, and established colonies on its 
 shores. Columbus, Cabot, Verazzani, and Americo Vespucci, were all 
 Italians ; and though the latter gave his name to a hemisphere, he acquired 
 no particular advantage for himself or his native country. 
 
 The exploits of Columbus had excited a spirit of enterprise among the 
 English merchants, and a commission was granted by Henry VII. to John 
 Cabot and his three sons, giving them full liberty to sail to all parts of the 
 east, west and north ; to discover countries of the heathen ; to occupy all 
 countries they could subdue, and set up the king's banners in them; to 
 exercise jurisdiction over them, and pay to the king one fifth part of all 
 their gains. A small fleet was thus equipped, with about three hundred 
 men. Cabot sailed north-west a few weeks, till his course was arrested 
 by icebergs ; he then steered south, subsequently changed his course, and 
 again resumed it, till further prosecution of the voyage was finally aban- 
 doned in consequence of a mutiny which broke out on board. It is doubt- 
 ful whether he ever landed in the new world. From this voyage, the 
 English derived their claims to the territory which they subsequently 
 acquired in this continent. For a period of sixty successive years, the 
 English monarchs gave themselves no further trouble about the progress of 
 discoveries in America. 
 
 During this time, France and Spain were on the alert. In a voyage 
 patronized by Francis I., the Florentine navigator Verazzano discovered 
 and described with considerable accuracy the coast of Florida. In a 
 second voyage, undertaken in the following year, he landed with some of 
 his crew, was killed by the savages, and devoured in the presence of his 
 companions. This melancholy event for a time damped the spirit of 
 discovery, and it was not till after a lapse of ten years that any other 
 French expedition was fitted out to America. In 1534, Jacques Cartier 
 was supplied with two ships under the direction of the vice-admiral of 
 France, and discovered the Baye des Chaleurs and the gulf of St. Law- 
 rence. In the following spring a larger expedition was equipped under 
 the same direction, and they proceeded direct to Newfoundland. They sail- 
 ed up the river of Canada three hundred leagues, formed alliances with the 
 natives, built a fort, and wintered in the country. This colony was after- 
 wards broken up, and for fifty years the French made no effort to establish 
 themselves in Canada. 
 
 To trace the course of Spanish discovery — in the year 1528, Pamphilo 
 de Narvaez received from Charles V. of Spain, a grant of all the lands 
 extending from the river of Palms to the cape of Florida, with a commis- 
 sion to conquer and govern all the provinces within these limits. Landing 
 
HISTORY. 553 
 
 at Florida, he marched to Apalache, and lost many of his troops in en- 
 counters with the natives. Being forced to direct his course towards the 
 sea, and sailing to the westward, he was lost in a violent storm, and the 
 enterprise frustrated. Calamitous as was the issue of this expedition, it 
 did not deter others from pursuing the same course. In May, 1539, 
 Fernando de Soto sailed from Havana on an exploring expedition, and 
 landed on the western coast of Florida. Of nine hundred men engaged 
 in this voyage, but three hundred and eleven survived it ; the remainder 
 perished in battles with the natives. Poverty and ruin involved all who 
 were concerned in it. Soto died at the confluence of the Guacoya and 
 Mississippi ; and to prevent the Indians from obtaining a knowledge of his 
 death, his body was deposited in a hollowed oak and sunk in the river. 
 
 About the year 1562, a party of Huguenots, under the command of 
 Ribault, sailed with a view of colonizing Florida. After a favorable voy- 
 age, he arrived at the entrance of a river which he called May, from the 
 month in which he reached the coast. Here he erected a fort, and then 
 sailed for France to bring out a reinforcement. Two years afterwards a 
 fresh expedition was fitted out, under M. Rene Laudonniere, who arrived 
 in the river May in the latter part of June. He proved incompetent to 
 manage the affairs of the new colony, and he was on the point of leaving 
 for Europe, when a new expedition under the command of Ribault entered 
 the river. That officer superseded Laudonniere only, however, to expe- 
 rience more melancholy disasters. Scarcely a week had passed after his 
 arrival, when eight Spanish ships were seen in the river. After a variety 
 of misfortunes which befell Laudonniere, he escaped with some of his 
 followers in a French shallop, and finally reached in a miserable condition 
 the port of Bristol. A more tragic end awaited Ribault. His vessels 
 were dashed to pieces during a storm, and their crews with great difficulty 
 succeeded in reaching the shore. They directed their steps towards the 
 fort, and found it to their great surprise in the hands of their inveterate 
 enemies, the Spaniards. It was determined to open a parley, and the 
 Spanish commander pledged his honor that they should be unharmed. 
 Notwithstanding this pledge they were inhumanly massacred, and their 
 dead bodies treated with the most shocking indignities. A number of the 
 mangled limbs of the victims were then suspended to a tree, to which was 
 attached the following inscription : ' Not because they are Frenchmen, 
 but because they are heretics and enemies of God.' 
 
 This outrage was fully avenged by Dominique de Gourgues, who de- 
 voted himself and his fortune to effect a signal retribution. Finding 
 means to equip three small vessels, he crossed the Atlantic, sailed along 
 the coast of Florida, and landed at a river about fifteen leagues distant 
 from the May. The Spaniards to the number of four hundred were well 
 stationed in different fortresses ; they were all slain or taken captive. 
 The surviving prisoners were led away, and were hung on the boughs of 
 the same trees from which the Frenchmen had before been suspended. 
 Gourgues attached to them the retaliatory label — ' I do not this as to 
 Spaniards, nor as to mariners, but as to traitors, robbers, and murderers.' 
 Thus terminated the attempts of the French Protestants to colonize Florida. 
 
 In 157S, Sir Walter Raleigh, in conjunction with his half-brother and 
 kindred spirit, Sir Humphry Gilbert, projected the establishment of a colony 
 in that quarter of America which the Cabots had visited in the reign of 
 70 47 
 
554 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Henry VII. ; and a patent for this purpose was procured without difficulty 
 in favor of Gilbert, from Elizabeth. As this is the first charter to a colony 
 granted by the crown of England, the articles in it merit particular atten- 
 tion, as they unfold the ideas of that age with respect to the nature cf 
 such settlements. Elizabeth authorizes him to discover and take posses- 
 sion of all remote and barbarous lands, unoccupied by any Christian prince 
 or people ; invests in him the full right of property in the soil of those 
 countries whereof he shall take possession ; empowers him, his heirs and 
 assigns, to dispose of whatever portion of those lands he shall judge meet, 
 to persons settled there, in fee simple, according to the laws of England ; 
 and ordains, that all the lands granted to Gilbert shall hold of the crown 
 of England by homage, on payment of the fifth part of the gold or silver 
 ore found there. The charter also gave Gilbert, his heirs and assigns, 
 full power to convict, punish, pardon, govern, and rule, by their good 
 discretion and policy, as well in causes capital or criminal as civil, both 
 marine and other, all persons who shall, from time to time, settle within 
 the said countries; and declared, that all who settled there should have 
 and enjoy all the privileges of free denizens and natives of England, any 
 law, custom, or usage to the contrary notwithstanding. And, finally, it 
 prohibited all persons from attempting to settle within two hundred leagues 
 of any place which Sir Humphry Gilbert, or his associates, shall have 
 occupied during the space of six years. 
 
 Invested with these extraordinary powers, Gilbert began to collect asso- 
 ciates, and to prepare for embarkation. The first equipment, however, of 
 Sir Humphry, may be said to have failed, even before it set out. Being 
 composed in a great measure of ' voluntary men of diverse dispositions,' 
 there was a great falling off when it came to the point, and Sir Humphry 
 was at last obliged to set out with only a few of his own tried friends. 
 He encountered the most adverse weather, and was obliged to return, 
 ' with the loss of a tall ship, and, more to his grief, of a valiant gentleman, 
 Miles Morgan.' This was a severe blow, as Sir Humphry had embarked 
 a large portion of his property in this undertaking. However, his deter- 
 mination continued unshaken ; and by the aid of Sir George Peckham, 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, and other persons of distinction, he was enabled to 
 equip another expedition, with which, in the year 15S3, he again put to 
 sea. 
 
 On the 30th of July, Gilbert discovered land in about fifty-one degrees 
 north latitude ; but, finding nothing but bare rocks, he shaped his course 
 to the southward, and on the 3d of August arrived at St. John's harbor, at 
 Newfoundland. There were at that time in the harbor thirty-six vessels, 
 belonging to various nations, and they refused him entrance ; but, on 
 sending his boat with the assurance that he had no ill design, and that he 
 had a commission from queen Elizabeth, they submitted, and he sailed 
 into the port. Having pitched his tent on shore in sight of all the shipping, 
 and being attended by his own people, he summoned the merchants and 
 masters of vessels to be present at the ceremony of his taking possession 
 of the island. When assembled his commission was read and interpreted 
 to the foreigners. A turf and twig was then delivered to him; and procla- 
 mation was immediately made, that, by virtue of his commission from the 
 queen, he took possession of the harbor of St. John, and two hundred 
 leagues every way around it, for the crown of England. 
 
HISTORY. §55 
 
 This formal possession, in consequence of the discovery by the Cabots, 
 is considered the foundation of the right and title of the crown of England 
 to the territory of Newfoundland, and to the fishery on its banks. Gilbert, 
 intending to bring the southern parts of the country within his patent, the 
 term of which had now nearly expired, hastened to make further discove- 
 ries before his return to England. He therefore embarked from St. John's 
 harbor with his little fleet, and sailed for the isle of Sable by the way of 
 cape Breton. After spending eight days in the navigation from cape Race 
 towards cape Breton, the ship Admiral was cast away on some shoals be- 
 fore any discovery of land, and nearly one hundred persons perished; 
 among these was Stephen Parmenius Budeius, a learned Hungarian, who 
 had accompanied the adventurers, to record their discoveries and exploits. 
 Two days after this disaster, no land yet appearing, the waters being 
 shallow, the coast unknown, the navigation dangerous, and the provisions 
 scanty, it was resolved to return to England. Changing their course ac- 
 cordingly, they passed in sight of cape Race on the 2d of September; but 
 when they had sailed more than three hundred leagues on their way 
 home, the frigate, commanded by Sir Humphry Gilbert himself, foundered 
 in a violent storm, at midnight, and every soul on board perished. 
 
 VIRGINIA, FROM ITS SETTLEMENT TO 1756. 
 
 Terrible as was the fate of Gilbert and his associates, the ardor of 
 Raleigh was not daunted, nor his energies depressed. High in favor with 
 Elizabeth, he found no difficulty in procuring a patent similar to that 
 which had been granted to his unfortunate brother. Prompt in the execu- 
 tion, as intrepid in the projection of his plans, he speedily equipped two 
 small vessels, under Amadas and Barlow, to obtain further information of 
 the coasts, the soil, and the inhabitants of the regions he designed to colo- 
 nize. Approaching America by the gulf of Florida, they touched first at 
 the island of Ocakoke, which runs parallel to the greater part of North 
 Carolina, and then at Roanoke, near the mouth of Albemarle sound. In 
 both they had some intercourse with the natives, whom they found to be 
 savages, with all the characteristic qualities of uncivilized life — bravery, 
 aversion to labor, hospitality, a propensity to admire and a willingness to 
 exchange their rude productions for English commodities, especially for 
 iron, or any of the useful metals of which thev were destitute. After 
 spending a few weeks in this traffic, and in visiting some parts of the ad- 
 jacent continent, Amadas and Barlow returned to England, and gave a 
 most fervid description of the country thev had been sent to explore. 
 
 Delighted with the prospect of possessing a territory so far superior to 
 any hitherto visited by her subjects, Elizabeth was pleased to honor both 
 the newly discovered country and herself, by bestowing upon it the title 
 of Virginia. 
 
 These favorable circumstances not only encouraged the enterprising 
 spirit of Raleigh, but, by their effect on public opinion, assisted him in his 
 arrangements to form a permanent settlement ; and he was soon enabled 
 to dispatch seven ships, under the command of Sir Richard Grenville, one 
 of the most valorous spirits of the age, with Ralph Lane, as governor of 
 the colony, accompanied by Heriot, a mathematician of celebrity, and 
 some other men of science. Sailing from Plymouth on the 9th of April, 
 
656 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 they proceeded to Virginia by the way of the West Indies, and, having 
 narrowly escaped shipwreck at cape Fear, anchored at Wocokon, on the 
 26th of June. From this island Grenville went to the continent, accom- 
 panied by several gentlemen, and discovered various Indian towns. He 
 then proceeded to cape Hatteras, where he was visited by Granganimo, 
 the prince seen by Amadas and Barlow the preceding year; and having 
 viewed the island of Roanoke, he embarked for England, leaving one hun- 
 dred and seven persons under the government of Mr. Lane, to form a plan 
 tation, and to commence the first English colony ever planted in America. 
 
 The chief employment of this party, during their year's residence in the 
 '■'ew world, consisted in obtaining a more correct and extensive knowledge 
 of the country ; a pursuit in which the persevering abilities of Heriot were 
 exercised with peculiar advantage. His unremitting endeavors to instruct 
 the savages, and diligent inquiries into their habits and character, by adding 
 to the stock of human knowledge, rendered the expedition not wholly un- 
 productive of benefit to mankind. He endeavored to avail himself of the 
 admiration expressed by the savages for the guns, the clock, the telescopes, 
 and other implements that attested the superiority of the colonists, in 
 order to lead their minds to the great source of all sense and science. 
 But, unfortunately, the majority of the colonists were much less distin- 
 guished by piety or prudence, than by a vehement impatience to acquire 
 sudden wealth; their first pursuit was gold; and, eagerly listening to the 
 agreeable fictions of the natives, the adventurers consumed their time, 
 and endured amazing hardships, in pursuit of a phantom, to the utter 
 neglect of the means of providing for their future subsistence. The stock 
 of provisions brought from England was exhausted ; and the colony, reduced 
 to the utmost distress, was preparing to disperse into different districts of 
 the country in quest of food, when Sir Francis Drake appeared with his 
 fleet, returning from a successful expedition against the Spaniards in the 
 West Indies. A scheme which he formed, of furnishing Lane and his 
 associates with such supplies as might enable them to remain with comfort 
 in their station, was disappointed by a sudden storm, in which the vessel 
 he had destined for their service was dashed to pieces ; and as he could 
 not. supply them with another, at their joint request, as they were worn 
 out with fatigue and famine, he carried them home to England. 
 
 Had the Virginia adventurers, however, remained but a little time longer 
 at their plantation, they would have received supplies from home ; for, a 
 few days after their departure, a ship, sent by Sir Walter Raleigh to their 
 relief, arrived at Hatteras, and made diligent search for them, but, not 
 finding them, returned to England. Within a few days after this ship 
 had left the coast, Sir Richard Grenville arrived at Virginia with three 
 new vessels laden with provisions. Searching in vain for the colony that 
 he planted, but yet unwilling to lose possession of the country, he left 
 fifty of his crew to keep possession of the island of Roanoke, and returned 
 to England. This was, indeed, but an inauspicious commencement for 
 English attempts at transatlantic colonization ; but, though its immediate 
 results did not realize the high expectations which had been formed, its 
 consequences were indirectly very beneficial. It gave Heriot opportunity 
 to describe its soil, climate, productions, and the manners of its inhabitants, 
 with a degree of accuracy which merits no inconsiderable praise, when 
 compared with the childish and marvellous tales published by several of 
 the early visitants of the new world. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 557 
 
 Another consequence of this abortive colony is important enough to 
 entitle it to a place in history. Lane and his associates, by their constant 
 intercourse with the Indians, had acquired a relish for their favorite enjoy- 
 ment of smoking tobacco ; to the use of which, the credulity of that people 
 not only ascribed a thousand imaginary virtues, but their superstition con- 
 sidered the plant itself as a gracious gift of the gods, for the solace of 
 human kind, and the most acceptable offering which man can present to 
 heaven. They brought with them a specimen of this new commodity to 
 England, and taught their countrymen the method of using it ; which 
 Raleigh and some young men of fashion fondly adopted. From its being 
 deemed a fashionable acquirement, and from the favorable opinion of its 
 salutary qualities entertained by several physicians, the practice of smoking 
 spread rapidly among the English ; and by a singular caprice of the human 
 species, no less inexplicable than unexampled, it has become almost as 
 universal as the demands of those appetites originally implanted in our 
 nature. 
 
 Amidst all the discouraging circumstances with which the settlement of 
 Virginia was attended, Raleigh still remained devotedly attached to the 
 object ; and early in the year 15S7, equipped another company of adven- 
 turers, incorporated by the title of the Borough of Raleigh, in Virginia. 
 John White was constituted governor, in whom, with a council of twelve 
 persons, the legislative power was vested. They were directed to plant 
 at the bay of Chesapeak, and to erect a fort there. This expedition sailed 
 from Plymouth on the 8th of May, and about the 16th of July fell in with 
 the Virginian coast. Arriving at Hatteras on the 22d of July, the govern- 
 or, with a select party, proceeded to Roanoke, and landed at that part of 
 the island where the men were left the year preceding ; but discovered no 
 signs of them, excepting the bones of one man, who had been slain by the 
 savages. The next day the governor and several of his company went to 
 the north end of the island, where Lane had erected his fort, and had built 
 several decent dwelling houses, hoping to obtain some intelligence of his 
 
 Virginian Colony. 
 
 fellow-countrymen ; but, on coming to the place, and finding the fort 
 tazed. and all the houses, though standing unhurt, overgrown with weed* 
 
 47* 
 
558 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and vines, and deer feeding within them, they returned, in despair of 
 ever seeing the objects of their research alive. Orders were given the 
 same day for the repair of the houses, and for the erection of new cotta- 
 ges ; and all the colony, consisting of one hundred and seventeen persons, 
 soon after landed, and commenced a second plantation. 
 
 Before the close of the month of August, the governor was compelled to 
 sail to England for supplies ; but war in Europe interfered with the ex- 
 pectation of the colonists, and it was not till 1590 that another expedition 
 reached Virginia. They beheld a scene similarly dreadful with that which 
 had been before presented. The houses were demolished, though still 
 surrounded by a palisade, and a great part of the stores was found buried 
 in the earth ; but, as no trace was ever found of this unfortunate colony, 
 there is every reason to apprehend that they must have miserably perished. 
 Thus after a period of one hundred and six years from the time that Cabot 
 discovered North America, in the service of Henry VII. , not a single 
 Englishman remained in the new world. 
 
 In the last year of Elizabeth a new impulse was given to the spirit of 
 emigration by Bartholomew Gosnold. He sailed in a small bark from 
 Falmouth, steering directly west, and was the first Englishman who came 
 in a direct course to this part of America. He anchored at a point which 
 he called cape Cod. Attempting a settlement on an island which they 
 named Elizabeth, they built a fort and storehouse, but shortly abandoned 
 their design and returned to England. Two vessels were afterwards fitted 
 out by the merchants of Bristol, to examine the discoveries of Gosnold, 
 and ascertain the correctness of his statements. They were also subse- 
 quently confirmed by a similar expedition equipped and despatched by 
 lord Arundel. 
 
 An association of able and influential men was now formed to attempt a 
 settlement, and a petition for leave was favorably received by king James. 
 But as the extent as well as value of the American continent began now 
 to be better known, a grant of the whole of such a vast region to any one 
 body of men, however respectable, appeared to him an act of impolitic and 
 profuse liberality. For this reason he divided that portion of North 
 America, which stretches from the thirty-fourth to the fifty-fifth degree of 
 latitude, into two districts nearly equal ; the one called the first or south 
 colony of Virginia, the other, the second or north colony. He authorized 
 Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Summers, Richard Hakluyt, and their 
 associates, mostly resident in London, to settle any part of the former 
 which they should choose, and vested in them a right of property to the 
 land extending along the coast fifty miles on each side of the place of their 
 first habitation, and reaching into the interior country a hundred miles. 
 The latter district he allotted, as the place of settlement to sundry knights, 
 gentlemen, and merchants of Bristol, Plymouth, and other parts of the 
 west of England, with a similar grant of territory. The supreme govern- 
 ment of the colonies that were to be settled, was vested in a council, resi- 
 dent in England, named by the king, with laws and ordinances given 
 under his sign manual ; and the subordinate jurisdiction was committed 
 to a council, resident in America, which was also nominated by the king, 
 and to act conformably to his instructions. 
 
 The charter, while it thus restricted the emigrants in the important 
 article of internal regulation, secured to them and their descendants all the 
 
HISTORY. 559 
 
 rights of denizens, in the same manner as if they had remained or had 
 been born in England; and granted them the privilege of holding their 
 lands in America by the freest and least burdensome tenure. The king 
 permitted whatever was necessary for the sustenance or commerce of the 
 new colonies to be exported from England, during the space of seven 
 years, without paying any duty ; and, as a farther incitement to industry, 
 he granted them liberty of trade with other nations ; and appropriated the 
 duly to be levied on foreign commodities, as a fund for the benefit of the 
 colonies, for the period of twenty-one years. He also granted them li- 
 berty of coining for their own use, of repelling enemies, and of detaining 
 ships that should trade there without their permission. 
 
 We may regard the colonies of North and South Virginia, or Virginia 
 and New England, as they were subsequently denominated, as forming, 
 from this period, the subject of two distinct and continuous histories ; that 
 of the former, being earliest in point of time, will continue to occupy our 
 attention during the remainder of this division. 
 
 The proprietors of the royal patent lost no time in carrying their plans 
 into effect. It cannot, however, be said, that they commenced their ope- 
 rations on a scale at all worthy of the magnitude of the undertaking, as 
 their fleet consisted only of three ships, conveying one hundred emigrants; 
 and, although some persons of rank were among the number of proprietors, 
 their pecuniary resources were but scanty. The charge of this embarka- 
 tion was committed to Christopher Newport, already famous for his skill 
 in western navigation. He sailed from the Thames on the 20th of Decem- 
 ber, 1606, having, in a sealed box, the royal instructions, and the names 
 of the intended colonial council, with orders not to break the seal till twen- 
 ty-four hours after the expedition had effected a landing ; to which singu- 
 lar policy, maybe attributed the dissensions which soon commenced among 
 the leaders, and which continued to distract them during a voyage long 
 and disastrous. 
 
 Captain Newport had designed to land at Roanoke ; but fortunately, 
 being driven by a storm to the northward, he stood into the spacious bay 
 of Chesapeak, that grand reservoir into which are poured almost countless 
 tributaries, which not only fertilize the country through which they flow, but 
 open to it a commercial intercourse which can scarcely be said to be sur- 
 passed in any portion of the globe. The promontory on the south of the 
 bay was named cape Henry, in honor of the prince of Wales ; and that on 
 the north, cape Charles, after the then duke of York. At night the box, 
 containing the sealed instructions, was opened, in which Bartholomew 
 Gosnold, John Smith, Edward Wingfield, Christopher Newport, John 
 Ratcliffe, John Martin, and George Kendall, were constituted the council 
 of government, with power to elect a president from among their number. 
 The adventurers were employed in seeking a place for settlement until the 
 thirteenth of May, when they took possession of a peninsula, on the north 
 side of the river Powhatan, called by the emigrants James river, about 
 forty miles from its mouth. 
 
 To make room for their projected town, they commenced clearing away 
 the forest, which had for centuries afforded shelter and food to the natives. 
 The members of the council, while they adhered to their orders in the 
 choice of their president, on the most frivolous pretences excluded from a 
 seat among them, the individual, who was probably of all others thus best 
 
560 BOOK OF IHE UNITED STATES. 
 
 fitted for the office, captain Smith,^ though nominated by the same instru- 
 ment from which they derived their authority. His superior talents, and 
 the fame he had previously acquired in war, excited their envy, while 
 possibly they induced him to assume, that a greater deference was due to 
 his opinion than his coadjutors were willing to admit. At length, how- 
 ever, by the prudent exhortations of Mr. Hunt, their chaplain, the animo- 
 sities which had arisen were composed, Smith was admitted into the 
 council, and they all turned their undivided attention to the government 
 of the colony. In honor of their monarch, they called the town, the erec- 
 tion of which they now commenced, Jamestown. Thus was formed 
 the first permanent colony of the English in America. 
 
 The vicinity of the settlement was a vast wilderness, though a luxuriant 
 one, inhabited by a race of Indian savages, possessing both the virtues and 
 the vices peculiar to their state. At first, they treated the colonists with 
 kindness; but misunderstandings, from various causes, ere long interrupted 
 the peace, and annoyed the proceedings of the English. Nor was the 
 hostility of the natives the only occasion of discomfort; the extreme heat 
 of the summer, and the intense cold of the succeeding winter, were alike 
 fatal to the colonists. From May to September, fifty persons died, among 
 whom was Bartholomew Gosnold, a member of the council. The store- 
 house at Jamestown accidentally taking fire, the town, thatched with 
 reeds, burned with such violence, that the fortifications, arms, apparel, 
 bedding, and a great quantity of private goods and provision, were 
 consumed. 
 
 These distresses naturally led them to reflect upon their situation ; and 
 having become sensible of their injustice to Smith, his personal talents and 
 activity were, in their adversity, appealed to with that regard and deference 
 which, in prosperous times, are yielded only to vested authority and offi- 
 cial station. From some unaccountable jealousy on the part of the gover- 
 nor, the fort had been left in an unprotected state, but, by the advice of 
 Smith, it was now put into a state to defend them against the attacks of 
 the Indians. To procure provisions and explore the country, he made 
 frequent and distant excursions into the wilderness. In one* of these, he 
 seized an Indian idol, made with skins stuffed with moss, for the redemp- 
 tion of which as much corn was brought him as he required. Some tribes 
 he gained by caresses and presents, and procured from them a supply of 
 provisions ; others he attacked with open force, and defeating them on 
 every occasion, whatever their superiority in numbers might be, compelled 
 them to impart to him some portion of their winter stores. As the recom- 
 pense of all his toils and dangers, he saw abundance and contentment 
 
 * ' It would perhaps he difficult to find any individual who experienced more gallant 
 adventures, and daring enterprises, of a highly romantic character, in various countries, 
 than captain Smith. His life, without any fictitious additions, might easily be taken 
 for a mere romance. He appears to have possessed many great qualities, and to have 
 been deficient in nothing but that mean cunning and sordid spirit, by the aid of which 
 inferior men were able to thwart his views, and deprive him of those stations and 
 rewards which his services amply merited. He was one of the earliest and most, ardent 
 of those who undertook the settlement of Virginia; his bravery and capacity more than 
 once saved that infant colony from destruction, and kept the enterprise from being 
 abandoned for several years, though the absurdity of the schemes, and the profligacy, 
 folly, and dishonesty of those who were to execute them, exposed the colony for many 
 years to every calamity, and often brought it to the brink of ruin.' — North Am. Heviero. 
 
HISTORY. 561 
 
 re-established in the colony, and hoped that he should be able to maintain 
 them in that happy state, until the arrival of ships from England in the 
 spring. But in the midst of his energetic measures, while exploring the 
 source of the river Chickahominy, he was surprised and attacked by a 
 party of Indians. He defended himself bravely until his companions 
 were killed, when he took to flight ; but running incautiously, he sunk up 
 to his shoulders in a swamp, and was taken prisoner. 
 
 The exulting savages conducted him in triumph through several towns 
 to Werowocomoco, where Powhatan, their king, resided in state, with a 
 strong guard of Indians around him. When the prisoner entered the 
 apartment of the sovereign, all the people gave a shout. The queen of 
 Appamatuck was appointed to bring him water to wash his hands ; and 
 another person brought a bunch of feathers, instead of a towel, to dry 
 them. Having feasted him in their best manner, they held a long consul- 
 tation, at the conclusion of which, two great stones were brought before 
 Powhatan. Smith had now reason to consider his career as drawing to a 
 close ; by the united efforts of the attendants, he was forcibly dragged, his 
 head laid upon one of the stones, and the mighty club upraised, a few 
 blows from which were to terminate his existence. But a very unexpected 
 interposition now took place. Pocahontas, the favorite daughter of Pow- 
 hatan, was seized with emotions of tender pity, and ran up to her father, 
 pathetically pleading for the life of the stranger. When all entreaties 
 were lost on that stern and savage potentate, she hastened to Smith, 
 snatched his head in her arms, and laid her own on his, declaring that the 
 first blow must fall upon her. The heart even of a savage father was at 
 last melted, and Powhatan granted to his favorite daughter the life of 
 Smith. 
 
 It appears at first to have been the intention of the savage monarch to 
 have detained the captive, and employed him in manufacturing utensils 
 and ornaments for his majesty's use ; but from some cause he speedily 
 changed his mind, and in two days after his deliverance, sent him, to his 
 high gratification, with a guard of twelve of his trusty followers, to James- 
 town, upon condition that he should remit two culverins and a millstone 
 as his ransom. 
 
 After an absence of seven weeks, Smith arrived barely in time to save 
 the colony from being abandoned. His associates, reduced to the number 
 of thirty-eight, impatient of farther stay in a country where they had met 
 with so many discouragements, were preparing to return to England ; and 
 it was not without the utmost difficulty, and alternately employing persua- 
 sion, remonstrance, and even violent interference, that Smith prevailed 
 with them to relinquish their design. Pocahontas, persevering in her 
 generous designs, continued to supply the colony with provisions till a 
 vessel arrived from England with supplies. Having preserved the settle- 
 ment during the winter by his active exertions and his careful management. 
 Smith embraced the earliest opportunity, in the following summer, to ex- 
 plore the extensive and multifarious ramifications of the Chesapeak. 
 
 In an open barge, with fourteen persons, and but a scanty stock of pro- 
 visions, he traversed the whole of that vast extent of water, from cape 
 Henry, where it meets the ocean, to the river Susquehannah ; trading 
 with some tribes of Indians, and fighting with others. He discovered and 
 named many small islands, creeks, and inlets ; sailed up many of the 
 71 
 
562 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 great rivers ; and explored the inland parts of the country. During this 
 enterprise, the Susquehannah Indians visited him, and made him presents. 
 At tliis early period they had hatchets, and utensils of iron and brass, 
 which, by their own account, originally came from the French of Canada. 
 After sailing about three thousand miles, Smith returned to Jamestown. 
 Having made careful observations during this excursion of discovery, he 
 drew a map of Chesapeak bay, with its tributary rivers, annexing to it a 
 description of the countries, and of the nations inhabiting them, and sent 
 it to the council in England. 
 
 The superior abilities of Smith had now been so manifestly subservient 
 to the general welfare, that they had silenced, at least, the malignity of 
 envy and faction ; and although it was comparatively a short period since 
 he had been so unjustly calumniated, and deprived of bis seat at the coun- 
 cil-board, immediately after his return from his voyage, he was, by the 
 election of the council and the request of the settlers, invested with the 
 government, and received letters-patent to be president of the colony. The 
 wisdom of his administration inspired confidence, its vigor commanded 
 obedience, and the military exercises, which he obliged all to perform, 
 struck the Indians with astonishment, and inspired them with awe. 
 
 Under the administration of president Smith, the colony continued to 
 prosper ; as far as it could prosper, under the circumstances of its organi- 
 zation. Its elements, however, were not of the best description, and the 
 number of ' poor gentlemen, tradesmen, serving men, libertines and such 
 like,' is represented to have been ten times more fit to spoil a commonwealth 
 than either to begin or maintain one. They were lazy, avaricious, and 
 disappointed. The Indians too became suspicious and troublesome ; and 
 the company in England were unjustly discontented with the management 
 of captain Smith. A new charter was therefore treated for by the company 
 of South Virginia, and obtained ; and among the new proprietors were 
 many of the most wealthy and influential commoners and peers of the 
 land. Lord Delaware was appointed governor of Virginia for life, though 
 he did not accompany the expedition, which was immediately fitted out. 
 A fleet of nine vessels sailed for the colony, one of which was wrecked at 
 the Bermudas, and one lost in a violent storm. On board of this fleet 
 were five hundred emigrants ; chiefly young and licentious, indigent and 
 haughty, who soon involved the colony in anarchy and confusion. 
 
 A systematic design was now meditated against the whole colony by 
 the sovereign of the country ; but it was providentially discovered and 
 frustrated. Pocahontas, the tutelary friend of Virginia, though but a child 
 of thirteen years of age, went in a very dark and dreary night to James 
 town, and, at the hazard of her life, disclosed to the president a plot of 
 her father to kill him and all the English. This timely notice put the 
 colony on its guard ; and some favorable occurrences soon after contri- 
 buted still farther towards its preservation. An Indian, apparently dead 
 through the effect of a charcoal fire in a close room, was, on the applica- 
 tion of vinegar and aqua vitas by the president, reanimated. This supposed 
 miracle, with an explosion of powder, which killed two or three Indians 
 and scorched and wounded others, excited such astonishment, mingled 
 with such admiration of English power and art, that Powhatan and his 
 people came to them with presents of peace ; and the whole country, 
 during the remainder of Smith's administration, was entirely free from 
 
HISTORY. 563 
 
 molestation, and the colonists pursued their plans of improvement, both in 
 agriculture and in some of the manufactures, with tolerable success. Un- 
 happily, however, the president, while exerting himself with his usual 
 energy in the concerns of the settlement, received a dangerous wound 
 from the accidental explosion of a quantity of gunpowder. Completely 
 disabled by this misfortune, and destitute of surgical aid, he was compelled 
 to resign his command, and take his departure (and it was a final one) for 
 England. 
 
 The departure of Smith was in every respect inauspicious for the colony. 
 It was the signal for a general revolt among the Indians. Many of the co- 
 lonists were slain, their provisions were wasted by imprudence, and they 
 were threatened with absolute starvation. There numbers were reduced 
 from five hundred to about sixty, in the course of half a year. In this 
 extremity they received unexpected relief from Sir Thomas Gates and the 
 party which had been wrecked the year before at Bermudas, and who had 
 been enabled to build two small vessels, and succeed in reaching Virginia. 
 It was determined to abandon the colony, and sail for Newfoundland, 
 and every thing was prepared for embarkation, when lord Delaware, with 
 three ships and a hundred and fifty men, arrived at the mouth of the 
 river. By the energetic discipline of this nobleman, the affairs of the 
 colony were soon restored to order. He erected forts, allotted to each man 
 his respective duty, and appointed the necessary officers to enforce obedi- 
 ence to his commands. His health not permitting him to remain in office, 
 he returned to England, leaving about two hundred people in health and 
 tranquillity. 
 
 Not long after his departure, Sir Thomas Dale arrived at Virginia with 
 three ships and three hundred emigrants. Other additions to the colony 
 were made within a short interval. New settlements were commenced 
 farther up the river, and a town was built, and called Henrico, in honor of 
 prince Henry. In 1612, application was made to the king by the patentees 
 for a new charter, with increased privileges, and it was accordingly granted. 
 
 It was in the year following the grant of the new charter, that the mar- 
 riage of Pocahontas, the famed daughter of Powhatan, was celebrated ; an 
 alliance which secured peace to Virginia many years. Having been 
 carefully instructed in the Christian religion, it was not long before she 
 renounced the idolatry of her country, made profession of Christianity, 
 and was baptized by the name of Rebecca. In some measure connected 
 with this event, by the influence so powerful an alliance was calculated 
 to have upon the minds of the natives in the vicinity, was the treaty which 
 Sir Thomas Dale effected with the Chickahominy tribe of Indians, a bold 
 and free people, who now voluntarily relinquished their name, for that of 
 Tassantessus, or Englishmen ; and solemnly engaged to be faithful sub- 
 jects to king James. 
 
 During the interval of tranquillity procured by the alliance with Pow- 
 hatan, an important change was made in the state of the colony. Hitherto 
 no right of private property in land had been established. The fields that 
 were cleared had been cultivated by- the joint labor of the colonists ; their 
 product was carried to the common storehouses, and distributed weekly to 
 every family, according to its number and exigencies. However suitable 
 such an arrangement might have been deemed for the commencement of 
 a colony, experience proved that it was decidedly opposed to its progress 
 
564 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 in a more advanced state. In order to remedy this, Sir Thomas Dale 
 divided a considerable portion of the land into small lots, and granted one 
 of these to each individual in full property. From the moment that indus- 
 try had the certain prospect of a recompense, it advanced rapidly. The 
 articles of primary necessity were cultivated with so much attention as 
 secured the means of subsistence ; and such schemes of improvement were 
 formed as prepared the way for the introduction of opulence into the 
 colony. 
 
 The increased industry of the colonists was not long before it found 
 a new and somewhat singular channel — the cultivation of tobacco ; indeed, 
 so inconsiderately and exclusively were their energies directed to that ob- 
 ject at this time, that the most fatal consequences were rendered almost 
 inevitable. The land which ought to have been reserved for raising pro- 
 visions, and even the streets of Jamestown, were planted with tobacco. 
 Various regulations were framed to restrain this ill-directed activity ; but, 
 from eagerness for present gain, the planters disregarded every admonition. 
 Tobacco, however, had many trials to pass through before it reached its 
 present established station. King James declared himself its open enemy, 
 and drew against it his royal pen. In the work which he entitled ' Coun- 
 terblast to Tobacco,' he poured the most bitter reproaches on this ' vile 
 and nauseous weed.' He followed it up by a proclamation to restrain the 
 disorderly trading in tobacco, as tending to a general and new corruption 
 of both men's bodies and minds. Yet tobacco, like other proscribed ob- 
 jects, throve under persecution, and achieved a final triumph over all its 
 enemies. 
 
 Financially, the colony was now in a flourishing state ; politically, it 
 was badly administered. Its president was captain Argal, a rigid master, 
 and absurd tyrant. One of his edicts is worth quoting : it ordered ' That 
 every person should go to church on Sundays and holidays, or be kept 
 confined the night succeeding the offence, and be a slave to the colony for 
 the following week ; for the second offence, a slave for a month ; and for 
 the third, a year and a day.' From the representations made to him of 
 the misrule of this man, lord Delaware embarked a second time for Ame- 
 rica ; but died on the voyage, in or near the bay which bears his name. 
 His death was the signal for renewed outrages on the part of the colonial 
 tyrant, and the office of captain-general was transferred to Mr. Yeardley. 
 He arrived in April, and immediately convoked a colonial assembly, which 
 met at Jamestown on the 19th of June, and was the first representative 
 legislature which assembled in the transatlantic states. 
 
 The full tide of prosperity was now enjoyed by the colony. Its num- 
 bers greatly increased, and its settlements became widely extended. At 
 peace with the Indians, it reposed in perfect security, and realized the 
 happiness its fortunate situation and favorable prospects afforded, without 
 suspecting the sudden and terrible reverse of fortune it was doomed to 
 experience. Opechankanough, the successor of Powhatan, had adopted 
 with ardor all the early enmity of his native tribe against the settlers ; and 
 he formed one of those dreadful schemes, so frequent in Indian annals, of 
 exterminating the whole race at one blow. Such was the fidelity of his 
 people, and so deep the power of savage dissimulation, that this dire 
 scheme was matured without the slightest intimation reaching the Eng- 
 lish, who neither attended to the movements of the Indians, nor suspected 
 
history 565 
 
 their machinations ; and though surrounded by a people whom they 
 might have known from experience to be both artful and vindictive, they 
 neglected those precautions for their own safety that were requisite in 
 such circumstances. 
 
 All the tribes in the vicinity of the English settlements were successively 
 gained, except tbose on the eastern shore, from whom, on account of their 
 peculiar attachment to their new neighbors, every circumstance that might 
 discover what they intended was carefully concealed. To each tribe its 
 station was allotted, and the part it was to act prescribed. On the morn- 
 ing of the day consecrated to vengeance, each was at the place of rendez- 
 vous appointed ; and at mid-day, the moment they had previously fixed for 
 this execrable deed, the Indians, raising a universal yell, rushed at once on 
 the English in all their scattered settlements, butchering men, women, and 
 children, with undistinguishing fury, and every aggravation of brutal out- 
 rage and savage cruelty. In one hour, three hundred and forty-seven 
 persons were cut off, almost without knowing by whose hands they fell. 
 Indeed, the universal destruction of the colonists was prevented only by 
 the consequences of an event, which perhaps appeared but of little impor- 
 tance in the colony at the time when it took place — the conversion of an 
 Indian to the Christian faith. On the night before the massacre, this man 
 was made privy to it by his own brother ; but as soon as his brother left 
 him he revealed the dreadful secret to an English gentleman in whose 
 house he was residing, who immediately carried the tidings to James 
 town, and communicated them to some of the nearest settlers, scarcely in 
 time to prevent the last hour of the perfidious truce from being the last 
 hour of their lives. 
 
 A bloody and exterminating war followed, in which the English were 
 victorious, but by which they were much reduced in numbers. Famine 
 came in the train of battle, and made additional devastation. A writ of 
 quo warranto was issued against the company, under whose rule these ca- 
 lamities had been suffered. It was brought to trial in the court of king's 
 bench, and their charter was vacated. A new commission was issued for 
 the government of Virginia, in which the republican tendencies of the pre- 
 vious government were duly restrained. 
 
 Charles I. on the demise of his predecessor reduced the colony under 
 the immediate direction of the crown, appointing a governor and council, 
 and ordering all patents and processes to issue in his own name. His first 
 appointment of governor elevated Sir George Yeardley to that office, but 
 he died early, and was succeeded by the despotic Sir John Harvey, who 
 managed to make himself perfectly odious to the people whom he was sent 
 to govern. The public mind became finally so much excited, that even 
 the despotic Charles thought it prudent to recall his minion, and Sir Wil- 
 liam Berkeley was appointed to succeed him. 
 
 Sir William was as eminent, as his predecessor had been deficient, in 
 all popular virtues ; and he was the bearer of instructions which directed 
 him to restore the colonial assembly, and invite it to enact a body of laws 
 for the province. Thus unexpectedly the colonists were restored to their 
 old system of freedom, and the consequence was universal gratitude and 
 joy. The king became universally popular, and during the civil wars, 
 the colony continued faithful to the royal cause. 
 
 The next incident of great interest in the history of Virginia, is the 
 
 4S 
 
566 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 rebellion consequent on the passage of the navigation act ; by which the 
 plan of monopolizing to England the commerce of the colonies was per- 
 fected and reduced into a complete system. 
 
 This oppressive system excited great indignation in Virginia, where the 
 extensive commerce and pre-eminent loyalty of the people rendered the 
 pressure of the burden more severe, and the infliction of it more exaspe- 
 rating. The excitement became general, and was worked up to such a 
 pitch, that nothing was wanting to precipitate the people into the most 
 desperate acts, but some leader qualified to unite and to direct their opera- 
 tions. Such a leader they found in Nathaniel Bacon. He was a lawyer, 
 educated in London, and was appointed a member of the council a short 
 time after his emigration to Virginia. Young, bold, ambitious, with an 
 engaging address, and commanding eloquence, he harangued the colonists 
 upon their grievances ; inflamed their resentment against their rulers ; de- 
 claimed particularly against the languor with which the war, then existing 
 with the Indians, had been conducted ; and such was the effect of his 
 representations, that he was elected general by the people. To give some 
 color of legitimacy to the authority he had acquired, and perhaps expect- 
 ing to precipitate matters to the extremity which his interest required that 
 they should speedily reach, he applied to the governor for an official con- 
 firmation of the popular election, and offered instantly to march against the 
 common enemy. This Sir William Berkeley firmly refused, and issued a 
 proclamation commanding the dispersion of the insurgents. Bacon had 
 advanced too far to recede ; and he hastened, at the head of six hundred 
 armed followers, to Jamestown, surrounded the house where the governor 
 and council were assembled, and repeated his demand. 
 
 Intimidated by the threats of the enraged multitude, the council hastily 
 prepared a commission, and, by their entreaties, prevailed on the governor 
 to sign it. Bacon and his troops then began their march against the In- 
 dians ; but no sooner were the council relieved from their fears, than they 
 declared the commission void, and proclaimed Bacon a rebel. Enraged 
 at this conduct, he instantly returned, with all his forces, to Jamestown. 
 The aged governor, unsupported, and almost abandoned, fled precipitately 
 to Accomack, on the eastern shore of the colony ; collecting those who 
 Were well affected towards his administration, he began to oppose the in- 
 surgents, and several skirmishes were fought, with various success. A 
 party of the insurgents burned Jamestown, laid waste those districts of 
 the colony which adhered to the old administration, and confiscated the 
 property of the loyalists. The governor, in retaliation, seized the estates 
 of many of the insurgents, and executed several of their leaders. In the 
 midst of these calamities Bacon sickened and died. Destitute of a leader 
 to conduct and animate them, their sanguine hopes of success subsided ; all 
 began to desire an accommodation ; and after a brief negotiation with the go- 
 vernor they laid down their arms, on obtaining a promise of general pardon. 
 
 On hearing of the disturbances in Virginia, Charles despatched, though 
 with no great haste, a fleet with some troops for its pacification. These 
 did not arrive, however, till they might well have been dispensed with. 
 With them came colonel Jeffreys, appointed to recall and replace Sir 
 William Berkeley in the government of the colony. This brave and be- 
 nevolent man did not long survive his dismissal, and may justly be said to 
 have lived and died in the service of Virginia* 
 
HISTORY. 557 
 
 A succession of weak and tyrannical rulers followed the recall of Sir 
 William Berkeley. Notwithstanding the unfavorable circumstances under 
 which it labored, the colony continued to increase. Tobacco grew in 
 demand in Europe, and its cultivation gave constant employment to the 
 planters. The situation of the colony, removed alike from the French in 
 Canada, and the Spaniards in Florida, saved it from their hostile incursions, 
 and procured for it a comparative repose. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 In the order of time, the settlement of the northern states followed next 
 after that of Virginia. In the year 1614, captain Smith explored the coast 
 with much care between Penobscot and cape Cod. He presented a chart 
 and description of it to Charles, prince of Wales, who was so well pleased 
 with the country that he called it New England ; a name which has since 
 been applied to the provinces east of the Hudson. 
 
 In 1620, that country began to be colonized by a body of Puritans ; who 
 had been first driven to Holland, by the mad intolerance of the English 
 government, and afterwards determined to emigrate to America. They 
 applied to the Virginia company for a patent, and it was not unwilling to 
 favor their views. They solicited full freedom of conscience, but this the 
 king declined granting under the great seal : he promised, however, not 
 to molest them, so long as they behaved themselves peaceably. 
 
 The first band of these Puritans, consisting of one hundred and one per- 
 sons, reached cape Cod- at break of day on the 9th of November, 1620. 
 Observing that they were beyond the limits of the company's patent, they 
 had no powers of government derived from authority ; and, therefore, even 
 before landing, they formed themselves into a ' civil body politic, under 
 the crown of England, for the purpose of framing just and equal laws, 
 ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices,' to which they promised all due 
 submission and obedience. Forty-one persons signed this contract. It 
 contained the elements of those forms of government peculiar to the new 
 world. Under this system, John Carver was, by general consent, chosen 
 their first governor, 'confiding,' as the electors say, 'in his prudence, 
 that he would not adventure upon any matter of moment without the con- 
 sent of the rest, or, at least, advice of such as were known to be the wisest 
 among them.' 
 
 Government being thus established, sixteen men, well armed, with a 
 few others, were sent on shore the same day, to fetch wood and make dis- 
 coveries ; but they returned at night without having found any person or 
 habitation. The company, having rested during the Sabbath, disembarked 
 on Monday, the 13th of November ; and soon after proceeded to explore 
 the interior of the country. In their researches they discovered heaps of 
 earth, one of which they dug open, but, finding within implements of 
 war, they concluded these were Indian graves ; and therefore, replacing 
 what they had taken out, they left them inviolate. In different heaps of 
 sand they also found baskets of corn, a large quantity of which they car- 
 ried away in a great kettle, found at the ruins of an Indian house. This 
 providential discovery gave them seed for a future harvest, and preserved 
 the infant colony from famine. On the 6th of December the shallop was 
 sent out with several of the principal men, to sail round the bay in search 
 
568 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of a place for settlement. During their researches, part of the company 
 travelled along the shore, where they were surprised by a flight of arrows 
 from a party of Indians ; but, on the discharge of the English muskets, 
 the Indians instantly disappeared. The shallop, after imminent hazard from 
 the loss of its rudder and mast in a storm, and from shoals, which it nar- 
 rowly escaped, reached a small island on the night of the 8th ; here the 
 company reposed themselves, grateful for their preservation during the 
 week ; and on this island they kept the Sabbath. The day following they 
 sounded the harbor, and found it fit for shipping ; went on shore, and ex- 
 plored the adjacent land, where they saw various corn-fields and brooks ; 
 and, judging the situation to be convenient for a settlement, they returned 
 with the welcome intelligence to the ship. 
 
 On the 23d, as many of the company as could, with convenience, went 
 on shore, and felled, and carried timber to the spot appropriated for the 
 erection of a building for common use. On the 25th, they commenced the 
 erection of the first house. A platform for their ordnance demanding the 
 earliest attention, they formed one upon a hill, which commanded an ex- 
 tensive prospect of the plain beneath, of the expanding bay, and of the 
 distant ocean. They divided their whole company into nineteen families ; 
 measured out the ground ; and assigned to every person by lot half a pole 
 in breadth, and three poles in length, for houses and gardens. In grateful 
 remembrance of the Christian friends whom they found at the last town 
 they left in their native country, they called their settlement Plymouth. 
 Thus was founded the first British town of New England. 
 
 The climate was found much more severe than the colonists had antici- 
 pated ; and they had arrived when winter was nearly one-third advanced. 
 They had every thing to do, and in this season could do very little, even, 
 of what was indispensable. Their shelter was wretched ; their sufferings 
 were intense ; their dangers were not small, and were rendered painful by 
 an absolute uncertainty of their extent. All these evils they encountered 
 with resolution, and sustained with fortitude. To each other they were 
 kind : to the savages they were just : they loved the truth of the gospel ; 
 embraced it in its purity ; and obeyed it with an excellence of life, which 
 added a new wreath to the character of man. 
 
 Among the attempts at forming settlements at this time was one of a 
 character as peculiar as it was undesirable. Captain Wollaston began a 
 plantation, which he named after himself. One Morton, of FurnivaPs inn, 
 was of this company. He was not left in command, but contrived to make 
 himself chief, changed the name of mount Wollaston to Merry mount, set 
 all the servants free, erected a may-pole, and lived a life of dissipation, 
 until all the stock intended for trade was consumed. He was charged 
 with furnishing the Indians with guns and ammunition, and teaching them 
 the use of them. At length, he made himself so obnoxious to the planters 
 in all parts, that, at their general desire, the people of New Plymouth 
 seized him by an armed force, and confined him, until they had opportunity 
 of sending him to England. 
 
 The time was now at hand, when the causes which had induced the 
 voluntary exile of the Leyden congregation, should produce an effect far 
 more extensive. Applications to the Plymouth company from Puritan con- 
 gregations were now becoming frequent; and, in the year 1628, the coun- 
 cil of Plymouth sold to Sir Henry Roswell and others, their heirs and 
 
HISTORY. 569 
 
 associates, that part of New England which lies between two boundaries, 
 one three miles north of the Merrimac, and the other three miles south of 
 Charles river, from the Atlantic to the South sea. The same year Mr. 
 Endicot, one of the patentees, came to New England, and planted himself, 
 with a small colony, in Naumkeag, now Salem. The following year they 
 were joined by about two hundred others, making three hundred in the 
 whole, one hundred of whom, however, removed the same year, and set- 
 tled themselves, with the consent of Mr. Endicot, governor of the colony, 
 at Mishawum, now Charlestown. The second Salem company brought 
 with them a considerable number of cattle, horses, sheep, and goats ; which 
 after a little period, became so numerous as to supply all the wants of the 
 inhabitants. Powers of government were granted to these colonists by 
 Charles I., which constituted them a corporation, by the name of The Go- 
 vernor and Company of Massachusetts Bay, in New England, with power 
 to elect annually a governor, deputy governor, and eighteen assistants ; 
 four great and general courts were to be held every year, to consist of the 
 governor, or, in his absence, the deputy governor, the assistants, or at least 
 six of them, and the freemen of the company. 
 
 The arbitrary proceedings of the British court, in affairs both of church 
 and state, continued without any abatement, and induced many gentlemen 
 of wealth and distinction to join the Plymouth company, and remove to 
 New England. In 1629, many persons of this character, and among them 
 the distinguished names of Isaac Johnson, John Winthrop, Thomas Dud- 
 ley, and Sir Richard Saltonstall, proposed to the company to remove with 
 their families, on condition that the charter and government should be 
 transferred to New England. To this the company assented, and in the 
 course of the next year, John Winthrop, who had been chosen governor, 
 with about one thousand five hundred persons, embarked. The fleet con- 
 sisted often sail, one of which was of three hundred and fifty tons, and, 
 from lady Arabella Johnson, who sailed in her, was called the Arabella. 
 Among the passengers were a number of eminent non-conformist minis- 
 ters. The most highly esteemed was Mr. Wilson, the son of a dignitary 
 of the church, who, by his connexions and talents, might have aspired to 
 its highest honors, but chose to renounce all, in order to suffer with those 
 whom he accounted the people of God. But the circumstance which 
 threw a greater lustre on the colony than any other, was the arrival of 
 Mr. John Cotton, the most esteemed of all the Puritan ministers in Eng- 
 land. Becoming an object of the persecuting fury of Laud, he left Bos- 
 ton in disguise, and spent some time in London, seeking a proper opportu- 
 nity to emigrate. There went out with him Mr. Hooker and Mr. Stone, 
 who were esteemed to make a glorious triumvirate, and were received in 
 New England with the utmost exultation. Mr. Cotton was appointed to 
 preach at Boston, now the principal town in Massachusetts bay, and was 
 mainly employed in drawing up the ecclesiastical constitution of the 
 colony. 
 
 On the arrival of the principal ships of the fleet at Charlestown, the 
 governor and several of the patentees, having viewed the bottom of the 
 bay of Massachusetts, and pitched down on the north side of Charles 
 river, took lodgings in the great house built there the preceding year, and 
 the rest of the company erected cottages, booths, and tents, about the town 
 hill. Their place of assembling for divine service was under a tree. 
 72 48* 
 
570 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 When the fleet had safely arrived, a day of thanksgiving was kept in all 
 the plantations. Early attention was paid to the great object of the en- 
 terprise. On the 30th of July, a day of solemn prayer and fasting was 
 kept at Charlestown, when governor Winthrop, deputy governor Dudley, 
 and Mr. Wilson, first entered into church covenant; and at this time was 
 laid the foundation of the church of Charlestown, and of the first church 
 in Boston. On the 27th of August, the congregation kept a fast, and chose 
 Mr. Wilson their teacher. 'We used imposition of hands,' says governor 
 Winthrop, ' but with this protestation by all, that it was only a sign of 
 election and confirmation, not of any intent that Mr. Wilson should re- 
 nounce the ministry he received in England.' 
 
 The colony was now gaining strength from its numbers and organiza- 
 tion ; but it had also its trials to contend with, not the least of which was 
 the sickness arising from the severity of the climate, or, more truly, from 
 the means of counteracting the injurious tendencies of the climate not be- 
 ing yet properly understood. Among those who fell an early sacrifice, 
 none were lamented more than lady Arabella Johnson and her husband, 
 who had left the abodes of abundance and of social comfort for the Ame- 
 rican wilderness, purely from religious principle. As soon as the severity 
 of the winter was abated sufficiently to admit of assemblies being convened, 
 the colonists proceeded to enact laws for their internal regulation. It has 
 been before observed, that those who so resolutely ventured to cross the 
 ocean, and to brave the hardships attendant on clearing the American 
 forests, sought rather to establish churches, than to found a kingdom ; it 
 will naturally be supposed, therefore, that their legislation partook largely 
 of an ecclesiastical character. Indeed, the history of this colony presents 
 more matter for the ecclesiastical than the civil historian. At the very 
 first court of election a law was passed, enacting that none should here- 
 after be admitted freemen, or be entitled to any share in the government, 
 or be capable of being chosen magistrates, or even of serving as jurymen, 
 but such as had been or should hereafter be received into the church as 
 members. ' This was a most extraordinary order or law,' says Hutchinson, 
 ' and yet it continued in force until the dissolution of the government, it 
 being repealed in appearance only after the restoration of king Charles II. 
 Had they been deprived of their civil privileges in England by an act of 
 parliament, unless they would join in communion with the churches there, 
 it might very well have been the first in the roll of grievances. But such 
 were the requisites to qualify for church-membership here, that the griev- 
 ance was abundantly greater.' 
 
 The baneful influence of the erroneous principles of the union of the 
 civil and ecclesiastical power, soon became apparent in the persecution of 
 the most liberally minded man in the colony, Roger Williams. It is true 
 that he enthusiastically supported some tenets which were deemed hete- 
 rodox, and occasioned considerable excitement by inveighing against the 
 use of the cross in the national flag. In consequence of the spread of his 
 opinion, some of the troops would not act till the relic of popery, as they 
 considered it, was cut out of the banner, while others would not serve un- 
 der any flag from which it was erased. At length a compromise was 
 entered into, by which it was agreed that the obnoxious emblem should 
 be omitted from the banners of the militia, while it was retained in 
 those of the forts. This, however, was only one of the errors charged 
 
HISTORY. 571 
 
 against Williams ; it is said that he maintained that no female should go 
 abroad unless veiled ; that unregenerate men ought neither to pray nor to 
 take oaths ; that, indeed, oaths had better be altogether omitted ; that the 
 churches of New England should not acknowledge or communicate with 
 the hierarchy from which they had separated ; that infants should not be 
 subjects of baptism ; that the magistrate should confine his authority wholly 
 to temporal affairs ; and that James or Charles of England had no right 
 at all to grant away the lands of the Indians without their consent. For 
 the zealous propagation of these sentiments, he was deemed worthy of 
 banishment from the colony of Massachusetts. The order of the court 
 was, that he should be transported to England ; but he escaped the limits 
 of their jurisdiction, repaired to the Narraganset country, and became the 
 founder of a new colony. 
 
 During the year 1635, no less than three thousand persons arrived in 
 New England. Among them was Henry Vane, a young man of noble 
 family, animated with a devotion to the cause of religion and liberty, 
 which induced him to relinquish all his hopes in England, and settle in an 
 infant colony which as yet afforded little more than a bare subsistence to 
 its inhabitants : he was naturally received in New England with high re- 
 gard and admiration, and was instantly complimented with the freedom 
 of the colony. Enforcing his claims to respect by the address and ability 
 which he showed in conducting business, he was elected governor in the 
 year subsequent to his arrival, by the universal consent of the colonists, 
 and with the highest expectations of an advantageous administration. 
 These hopes, we shall find in the sequel, were by no means realized. He 
 entered too deeply into polemical theology, to allow him to devote the 
 energies of his mind to the civil and political duties which afforded so 
 abundant a field for their exercise. 
 
 A brief period elapsed after the expulsion of Roger Williams, before the 
 repose of the colony was again interrupted by religious dissensions. The 
 Puritans had transported, with their other religious practices, that of as- 
 sembling one evening in the week to converse over the discourses of the 
 preceding Sabbath ; a proceeding well calculated to keep alive that zeal 
 which arises from the vigorous exercise of private judgment, but not to 
 promote the subserviency requisite to a quiet submission to the uniformity 
 of authorized opinions. These meetings had been originally confined to 
 the brethren ; but Mrs. Hutchinson, a lady of respectable station in life, 
 of considerable native talent, and of affable manners, deemed it desirable 
 that the sisters should also exercise a similar privilege. Unfortunately, it 
 was not long before this lady and her associates discovered that there 
 would be much more propriety in their instructing their ministers than in 
 the reverse process, which had hitherto prevailed. They adopted that 
 most convenient dogma, that good works are no evidence of being a true 
 Christian, or one of the elect ; and that the only testimony to a state of 
 justification, was the overpowering assurance of the mind, produced by the 
 immediate influence of the divine Spirit. 
 
 The disturbance occasioned by the propagation of these offensive senti- 
 ments, was aggravated by the circumstance of the governor, Mr. Vane, 
 being their decided advocate. Vehement discussions and bitter accusations 
 abounded ; but the antinomian party, though most zealous, were least nume- 
 rous j and at the annual election, Mr. Vane was displaced by Mr. Win- 
 
572 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 throp, by a very decided majority. After various measures had been re- 
 sorted to, in order to bring the dissentients within the pale of orthodoxy, 
 a synod was called, which determined that the sentiments of Mrs. Hutch- 
 inson and her followers were grievously erroneous, and, as they still refused 
 submission, the favorite measure of banishment was had recourse to. 
 Another accession was thus made to the ' alluvies,' as Mather terms it, of 
 Rhode Island ; but not finding that land of liberty perfectly to her taste 
 Mrs. Hutchinson removed to a Dutch plantation, where, not long after, she 
 was basely murdered, with many of her family, by the Indians. 
 
 It does not fall within our plan to follow out the details of the ecclesias- 
 tical persecutions that disfigure the early history of New England. Al- 
 though themselves fugitives from the terrors of persecution, the Puritans 
 entertained no particular toleration for the tenets of those who came to 
 different conclusions. They whipped, banished, and imprisoned Anabap- 
 tists, Quakers and others, whose obstinacy was equal to their own, and 
 whose power was unfortunately less. Like many other enthusiasts, they 
 entertained a strong predilection for the phraseology and manners of the 
 Hebrews, whose laws they ill understood. Lying, drunkenness and 
 dancing were punished with public whipping; and for a man to have long 
 hair was considered an abomination, and inconsistent with the care of the 
 soul. 
 
 A more important subject than religious wrangling, is the union formed 
 by the New England colonists, for mutual defence against the savages, and 
 for security against the claims and encroachments of the Dutch. This 
 union, or confederation, was formed in 1643, by the name of The United 
 Colonies of New England. It had been proposed by the colonies of Con- 
 necticut and New Haven, as early as 163S, but was not finally completed 
 until five years after. This confederacy, which continued 'about forty 
 years, constituted an interesting portion of the political history of New 
 England. It consisted of the colonies of Massachusetts, New Plymouth, 
 Connecticut, and New Haven. By the articles of confederation, as they 
 were called, these colonies entered into a firm and perpetual league of 
 friendship and amity, for offence and defence, mutual advice and succor, 
 upon all just occasions, both for preserving and propagating the truth and 
 liberties of the gospel, and for their own mutual safety and welfare. Each 
 colony was to retain its own peculiar jurisdiction and government ; and no 
 other plantation or colony was to be received as a confederate, nor any two 
 of the confederates to be united into one jurisdiction, without the consent 
 of the rest. The affairs of the united colonies were to be managed by a 
 legislature, to consist of two persons, styled commissioners, chosen from 
 each colony. The commissioners were to meet annually in the colonies, 
 in succession, and when met, to choose a president, and the determination 
 of any six to be binding on all. This confederacy, which was declared to 
 to be perpetual, continued without any essential alteration, until the New 
 England colonies were deprived of their charter by the arbitrary proceed- 
 ings of James II. This union evidently served as the basis of the great 
 confederacy afterwards formed between the thirteen states of America. 
 An examination of the two systems will prove a similarity not only in 
 names, but in general principles. 
 
 At the termination of the first half century from the arrival of the emi- 
 grants at Plymouth, the New England colonies were calculated to contain 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 573 
 
 one hundred and twenty towns, and as many thousand inhabitants ; of 
 whom sixteen thousand were capable of bearing- arms. The habits of 
 industry and economy, which had been formed in less happy times, conti- 
 nued to prevail, and gave a competency to those who had nothing, and. 
 wealth to those who had a competency. The wilderness receded before 
 these hardy and persevering laborers, and its savage inhabitants found 
 their game dispersed, and their favorite haunts invaded. This was the 
 natural consequence of the sales of land, which they were at all times 
 ready to make to the whites. But this result the Indians did not foresee ; 
 and when they felt it in all its force, the strongest passions were awakened 
 which could animate the savage breast. A leader only was wanting to 
 concentrate and direct their exertions, and Philip, of Pokanoket, sachem 
 of a tribe residing within the boundaries of Plymouth and Rhode Island, 
 assumed that station. His father was the friend, but he had ever been the 
 enemy, of the whites ; and he exerted all the arts of intrigue, of which he 
 was master, to induce the Indians, in all parts of New England, to unite 
 their efforts for their destruction. He succeeded in forming a confederacy, 
 able to send into action more than three thousand warriors. 
 
 The English were apprized of the plots of the Indians, and made prepa- 
 rations to meet their hostilities. They hoped, however, that the threatened 
 storm would pass by, as others had, and that peace would be preserved. 
 But the insolence of Philip, and the number of his adherents, increased 
 daily; and, in June, 1675, some of them entered the town of Swanzey, in 
 
 Auack on Swanzey. 
 
 Plymouth, where, after slaughtering the cattle, and plundering the houses, 
 they fired upon the inhabitants, killing and wounding several. The troops 
 of that colony marched immediately to Swanzey, and were soon joined by 
 a detachment from Massachusetts. The Indians fled, and marked the 
 course of their flight by burning the buildings, and fixing on poles by the 
 way side, the hands, scalps, and heads of the whites whom they had 
 killed. The troops pursued, but unable to overtake them, returned to 
 Swanzey. The whole country was alarmed, and the number of troops 
 augmented. By this array of force, Philip was induced to quit his resi- 
 
574 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 dence at mount Hope, and take post near a swamp at Pocasset. At that 
 place the English attacked him, but were repulsed. Sixteen were killed, 
 and the Indians by this success were made bolder. 
 
 Most of the settlements were surrounded by thick forests, and as the 
 Indians lived intermixed with the whites, the former were acquainted, of 
 course, with the dwellings of the latter, and all the avenues to them ; 
 could watch their motions, and fall upon them in their defenceless and 
 unguarded moments. Many were shot dead as they opened their doors 
 in the morning; many while at work in their fields, and others while tra- 
 velling to visit their neighbors, or to places of worship ; their lives were 
 in continual jeopardy ; and no one could tell but that, in the next moment, 
 he should receive his death shot from his barn, the thicket, or the way 
 side. Whenever the enemy assembled in force, detachments were sent 
 against them; if weaker than these, they would retreat; if stronger, as- 
 sault and harass, or destroy them. Defenceless villages were suddenly 
 attacked, the houses burned, and the men, women and children killed, or 
 carried into captivity. Their ruin was the work of a moment ; and when 
 accomplished, its authors vanished. The colonists found their numbers 
 sensibly diminished, and their strength impaired; and they began to 
 apprehend even total extinction. Nothing but a vigorous effort could 
 save them. 
 
 The commissioners of the three United Colonies met on the 9th of Sep- 
 tember, and it was concluded, that the war was just and necessary; that 
 it ought to be jointly prosecuted by all the United Colonies ; and that 
 there should be immediately raised 1000 soldiers out of the colonies, in 
 such proportion as the articles of confederation established: Massachusetts, 
 527; Plymouth, 158; Connecticut, 315. At an adjourned meeting, the 
 commissioners declared the Narragansets to be deeply accessory in the 
 present bloody outrages of the Indians that were at open war, and deter- 
 mined that 1000 more soldiers be raised, for the Narraganset expe- 
 dition, to obtain satisfaction of those Indians, or to treat them as enemies. 
 On the 8th of December, the Massachusetts forces marched from Boston, 
 and were soon joined by those of Plymouth. The troops from Connecticut 
 joined them on the 18th, at Petaquamscot. At break of day the next 
 morning they commenced their march, through a deep snow, toward the 
 enemy, who were about fifteen miles distant in a swamp, at the edge of 
 which they arrived at one in the afternoon. The Indians, apprized of an 
 armament intended against them, had fortified themselves as strongly as 
 possible within the swamp. The English, without waiting to draw up in 
 order of battle, marched forward in quest of the enemy's camp. 
 
 The Indian fortress stood on a rising ground in the midst of the swamp, 
 and was composed of palisades, which were encompassed by a hedge, 
 nearly a rod thick. It had but one practicable entrance, which was over 
 a log, or tree, four or five feet from the ground; and that aperture was 
 guarded by a block-house. Falling providentially on this very part of the 
 fort, the English captains entered it, at the head of their companies. The 
 two first, with many of their men, were shot dead at the entrance ; four 
 other captains were also killed. When the troops had effected an entrance, 
 they attacked the Indians, who fought desperately, and compelled the 
 English to retire out of the fort; but after a hard-fought battle of three 
 hours, they became masters of the place, and set fire to the wigwams, to 
 
HISTORY. 575 
 
 the number of five or six hundred, and in the conflagration many Indian 
 women and children perished. The surviving Indians fled into a cedar 
 
 Attack on the Indian Fortress. 
 
 swamp, at a small distance ; and the English retired to their quarters. 
 Of the English there were killed and wounded about two hundred and 
 thirty ; of the Indians one thousand are supposed to have perished. 
 
 From this blow, the confederated Indians never recovered ; but they 
 still remained sufficiently strong to harass the settlements by continual 
 inroads. In retaliation, the English sent several detachments into their 
 territories, nearly all of which were successful. Captain Church, of Ply- 
 mouth, and captain Dennison, of Connecticut, were conspicuous for their 
 bravery and success. In the midst of these reverses, Philip remained 
 firm and unshaken. His warriors were cut off; his chief men, his wife 
 and family, were killed, or taken prisoners ; and at these successive mis- 
 fortunes, he is represented to have wept with a bitterness which proves 
 him not to have been destitute of the noblest affections ; but he disdained 
 to listen to any offers of peace. He even shot one of his men, who pro- 
 posed submission. At length, after being hunted from swamp to swamp, 
 he was himself shot, by the brother of the Indian he had killed. This 
 event was certainly the signal of complete victory. The Indians in all the 
 neighboring country now generally submitted to the English, or fled, and 
 incorporated themselves with distant and strange nations. Never was peace 
 more welcome. In this short, but tremendous war, about six hundred 
 of the inhabitants of New England, composing its principal strength, were 
 either killed in battle, or murdered by the enemy ; twelve or thirteen 
 towns were entirely destroyed ; and about six hundred buildings, chiefly 
 dwelling-houses, were burnt. In addition to these calamities, the colonies 
 contracted a very heavy debt ; while, by the loss of their substance 
 through the ravages of the enemy, their resources were greatly dimi- 
 nished. But, in their deepest distress, they forbore to apply to the mother 
 country for assistance ; and this omission excited surprise and jealousy. 
 ' You act,' said a privy counsellor, ' as though you were independent of 
 our master's crown ; and though poor, yet you are proud.' 
 
576 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In this unsettled state of the country, the French in Canada and Nova 
 Scotia instigated the northern and eastern Indians to commence hostilities 
 against the English settlements. Dover and Salmon Falls, in New Hamp- 
 shire, Casco, in Maine, and Schenectady, in New York, were attacked by 
 different parties of French and Indians, and the most shocking barbarities* 
 perpetrated on the inhabitants. The Indians having taken the fort at 
 Pemaquid, and the French privateers from Acadie still infesting the coast 
 of New England, the general court of Massachusetts determined to make 
 an attempt on Port Royal. A fleet, with seven or eight hundred men, 
 under the command of Sir William Phipps, sailed on that expedition in 
 the latter end of April. The fort at Port Royal, not being in a state to 
 sustain a siege, surrendered, with little or no resistance ; and Sir William 
 took possession of the whole sea-coast, from Port Royal to the New Eng- 
 land settlements. 
 
 Regarding Canada as the principal source of their miseries, New Eng- 
 land and New York formed the bold project of reducing it to subjection. 
 By great exertion they raised an army, which, under the command of 
 general Winthrop, was sent against Montreal, and equipped a fleet, which, 
 commanded by Sir William Phipps, was destined to attack Quebec. 
 The fleet, retarded by unavoidable accidents, did not arrive before Quebec 
 until the 5th of October. Phipps, the next morning, sent a summons on 
 shore, but received an insolent answer from count Frontenac. The next 
 day he attempted to land his troops, but was prevented by the violence of 
 the wind. On the Sth, all the effective men, amounting to between twelve 
 and thirteen hundred, landed at the isle of Orleans, four miles below the 
 town, and were fired on from the woods by French and Indians. Having- 
 remained on shore three days, they received information from a deserter 
 of the strength of the place, and precipitately embarked. A tempest soon 
 after dispersed the fleet, which made the best of its way back to Boston. 
 A successful result had been so confidently expected, that adequate provi- 
 sion was not made at home for the payment of the troops. In this extre- 
 mity, the government of Massachusetts issued bills of credit, or paper 
 money ; and these were the first that were ever issued in the American 
 colonies ; but though it afforded relief at the moment, it produced in its 
 consequences extensive and complicated mischief. 
 
 The first trials for witchcraft in New England occurred in the year 
 1645, when four persons charged with this crime were put to death in 
 Massachusetts. For more than twenty years after, we hear but little of 
 similar prosecutions. But in the year 1688, a woman was executed for 
 witchcraft in Boston, after an investigation conducted with a degree of 
 solemnity that made a deep impression on the minds of the people. Sus- 
 picions having been thus violently roused, the charges of witchcraft began 
 gradually to multiply, till at length there commenced at Salem that dread- 
 ful tragedy which rendered New England for many months a scene of 
 bloodshed, terror and madness, and at one time seemed to threaten the 
 subversion of civil society. 
 
 In the year 1692, the frenzy of the colonists reached the highest pitch 
 of extravagance. Suspicions and accusations of witchcraft became general 
 among them ; and on this fanciful charge many persons were put to 
 death. This pestilential visitation first showed itself in the town of Salem. 
 A fanatic, who was minister of a church there, had two daughters subject 
 
HISTORY. 577 
 
 to convulsions. He fancied they were bewitched ; and fixed his suspicions 
 on an Indian girl who lived in the house, as the accomplice and tool of 
 Satan in the matter. By harsh treatment he made the poor savage ac- 
 knowledge herself a witch. Among a people like the New Englanders, 
 this was throwing a firebrand into a powder magazine; and the explosion 
 was dreadful. Every woman subject to hysterical affections instantly 
 believed herself bewitched ; and was seldom at a loss to discover the 
 guilty cause of her malady. Persons accused of the imaginary crime of 
 witchcraft were imprisoned, condemned, hanged, and their bodies left ex- 
 posed to wild beasts and birds of prey. Counsellors who refused to plead 
 against these devoted victims, and judges who were not forward in con- 
 demning them, were doomed to share their fate, as accomplices in their 
 guilt. 
 
 Children of ten years of age were put to death ; young women were 
 stripped naked, and the marks of witchcraft sought for on their bodies with 
 unblushing curiosity. Scorbutical or other spots on the bodies of old men 
 were reckoned clear proofs of a heinous commerce with the infernal pow- 
 ers. Dreams, apparitions, prodigies of every kind, increased the general 
 consternation and horror. The prisons were filled, the gibbets left stand- 
 ing, and the citizens were appalled. Under this frightful delirium, the 
 miserable colonists seemed doomed to destruction by each other's hands. 
 The more prudent withdrew from a country polluted by the blood of its 
 inhabitants, and the ruin of the colony seemed inevitable ; when, ceasing 
 to receive countenance from those in authority, this awful frenzy passed 
 away, almost as suddenly as it had arisen, leaving to future ages a fearful 
 warning against such popular insanity. 
 
 It is matter of satisfaction to the historian, that his attention is not 
 again to be diverted, in the annals of this state, from his peculiar province, 
 to record events which, had the intention of religion been rightly appre- 
 hended, would not have intermixed with civil affairs in fact, and therefore 
 not in history. The legislature, at its first session under the new charter, 
 passed a law which indicates the same independent spirit that afterwards 
 resisted the usurpations of the British parliament. It provided that no 
 tax should be imposed upon any of his majesty's subjects, or their estates, 
 in the province, but by the act and consent of the governor, council, and 
 representatives of the people, in general court assembled. It is almost 
 needless to add, that this law was disallowed by the king. 
 
 The war with the French and Indians, which began in 1690, was not 
 yet terminated. For several years were the frontier settlements harassed 
 by the savages, and the English were employed in expeditions against 
 them. This continuance of the war on the part of the Indians, instigated 
 and aided by the French, induced repeated applications for a force from 
 the British government, to act in conjunction with land forces to be raised 
 in New England and New York, for the reduction of Canada ; and it 
 was at length determined, that an expedition should be undertaken for 
 that purpose. A fleet was to be employed in the winter in the reduction 
 of Martinico ; and, after the performance of that service, was to sail to 
 Boston, take on board a body of land forces under Sir William Phipps, 
 and proceed to Quebec. By attempting too much, the whole of this ex- 
 tensive project entirely failed. 
 
 The attacks of the natives on the English continued with little intermis- 
 73 49 
 
678 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 sion till the peace of 1697. They were carried on with Indian cunning, 
 treachery, and cruelty. ' To these causes of suffering were superadded 
 the power of all such motives as the ingenuity of the French could invent, 
 their wealth furnish, or their bigotry adopt. Here all the implements of 
 war and the means of sustenance were supplied ; the expedition was plan- 
 ned ; the price was bidden for scalps; the aid of European officers and 
 soldiers was conjoined ; the devastation and slaughter were sanctioned by 
 the ministers of religion ; and the blood-hounds, while their fangs were 
 yet dropping blood, were caressed and cherished by men regarded by them 
 as superior beings. The intervals between formal attacks were usually 
 seasons of desultory mischief, plunder, and butchery ; and always of sus- 
 pense and dread. The solitary family was carried into captivity; the 
 lonely house burned to the ground ; and the traveller waylaid and shot in 
 the forest. It ought, however, to be observed, to the immortal honor of 
 these people, distinguished as they are by so many traits of brutal ferocity, 
 that history records no instance in which the purity of a female captive 
 was violated by them, or even threatened.' 
 
 The peace of Ryswick, which had been signed on the 20th of Septem- 
 ber, was proclaimed at Boston on the 10th of December, and the English 
 colonies had a brief repose. By the seventh article it was agreed, that 
 mutual restitution should be made of all the countries, forts, and colonies 
 taken by each party during the war. 
 
 In a few years war again broke out in Europe, and hostilities speedily 
 recommenced in America. The first blow fell upon Deerfield. In Febru- 
 ary, 1704, it was surprised in the night, about forty persons were killed, 
 and more than one hundred were made prisoners, among whom were Mr. 
 Williams, the minister, and his family. The killed were scalped, and the 
 prisoners commanded to prepare for a long march to Canada. On the 
 second day, Mrs. Williams was so exhausted with fatigue that she could 
 go no farther. Her husband solicited permission to remain with her; but 
 the retreating savages, according to their custom in such cases, killed her 
 and compelled him to proceed. Before the termination of their jour- 
 ney, twenty more became unable to walk, and were in like manner 
 sacrificed. Those who survived the journey to Canada were treated by 
 the French with humanity ; and after a captivity of many years, most of 
 them were redeemed, and returned to their friends. 
 
 New York having agreed with the French and the western Indians to 
 remain neutral, the enemy were enabled to pour their whole force upon 
 Massachusetts and New Hampshire, the inhabitants of which, for ten 
 years, endured miseries peculiar to an Indian war, of which the description 
 we have given falls below the truth. The enemy were at all times prowl- 
 ing about the frontier settlements, watching in concealment for an oppor- 
 tunity to strike a sudden blow, and to fly with safety. The women and 
 children retired into the garrisons ; the men left their fields uncultivated, 
 or labored with arms at their sides, and with sentinels at every point 
 whence an attack could be apprehended. Yet, notwithstanding these pre- 
 cautions, the Indians were often successful, killing sometimes an individu- 
 al, sometimes a whole family, sometimes a band of laborers, ten or twelve 
 in number ; and so swift were they in their movements, that but few fell 
 into the hands of the whites. It was computed, that the sum of one 
 thousand pounds was expended for every Indian killed or made captive. 
 
msToiw. 579 
 
 In 1707, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island, despatched 
 an armament against Port Royal, in Nova Scotia, then in possession of 
 the French, which returned, however, without effecting' its object ; but in 
 1710, the troops of New England, assisted by a British fleet, succeeded in 
 reducing the place ; and in compliment to queen Anne, changed its name 
 to Annapolis. 
 
 We pass over various topics of interest, in regard to contests in Massa- 
 chusetts between the people and their governors, relative to certain prero- 
 gatives of the crown. After a struggle of more than thirty years, the 
 crown was compelled to yield to a bold and persevering opposition, and 
 the controversy was not again renewed till the year 1773. 
 
 In 1744, war again broke out between England and France, and the 
 colonies were again the theatre on which the great drama was to be acted. 
 Commerce generally, and in particular the fisheries, suffered great! y during 
 these hostilities from privateers fitted out at Louisburg, a French port on 
 Cape Breton. This post was considered of vast importance, and nearly 
 six millions of dollars had been expended on its fortifications. This post 
 it was determined to subdue, and an expedition was sent against it under 
 the command of Sir William Pepperell, of Kittery. In conjunction with 
 other forces from England under the command of commodore Warren, 
 batteries were erected before the town, and an assault eventually resolved 
 upon. Discouraged by these adverse events and menacing appearances, 
 the French commander consented to capitulate, and on the sixteenth of 
 June articles were accordingly signed. After the surrender of the city, 
 the French flag was kept flying on the ramparts, and several rich prizes 
 were thus decoyed. 
 
 Fired with resentment at their loss, the French made extraordinary ex- 
 ertions to retrieve it, and to inflict chastisement on New England. The 
 next summer they despatched to the American coast a powerful fleet, car- 
 rying a large number of soldiers. The news of its approach spread terror 
 throughout New England ; but an uncommon succession of disasters de- 
 prived it of all power to inflict injury. After remaining a short time on 
 the coast, it returned to France, having lost two admirals, both of whom it 
 was supposed put an end to their lives through chagrin ; having also, by 
 tempests, been reduced to one half its force, without effecting any of the 
 objects anticipated. 
 
 In the month of November, 1747, a great tumult occurred in the town 
 of Boston, arising from the following circumstance : Commodore Knowles, 
 while lying at Nantasket with a number of men of war, losing some of his 
 sailors by desertion, thought it reasonable that Boston should supply him 
 with as many men as he had lost. He therefore sent his boats early in 
 the morning, and surprised not only as many seamen as could be found 
 on board any of the ships, but pressed some ship carpenters' apprentices, 
 and other laboring landsmen. This conduct was universally resented as 
 outrageous ; and as soon as it was dusk, several thousand people assem- 
 bled in King's street, where the general court was sitting. Stones and 
 brickbats were thrown into the council chamber through the windows. A 
 judicious speech of the governor from the balcony, disapproving of the 
 impress, promising his utmost endeavors to obtain the discharge of the 
 persons impressed, but reprehending the irregular proceedings of the peo- 
 ple, had no effect. 
 
580 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The seizure and restraint of the commanders and other officers who 
 were in town were insisted on, as the only effectual method to procure the 
 
 Riot in State Street. 
 
 release of the inhabitants aboard the ships. The militia of Boston was 
 summoned the next day to the aid of government, but refused to appear. 
 The governor, judging it inexpedient to remain in town another night, 
 withdrew to castle William ; but kept up a communication with the com- 
 modore, urging the liberation of the townsmen. Meanwhile, the council 
 and house of representatives passed some vigorous resolutions, and the 
 tumultuous spirit began to subside. The inhabitants, assembled in town 
 meeting, while they expressed their sense of the gi'eat insult and injury 
 bv the impress, condemned the riotous transactions. The militia of the 
 town the next day promptly made their appearance, and conducted the 
 governor with great pomp to his house ; and the commodore dismissed 
 most, if not all of the inhabitants who had been impressed ; and the squad- 
 ron sailed, to the joy and repose of the town. 
 
 In October, 1748, a treaty of peace between England and France was 
 signed at Aix la Chapelle. By the articles of this treaty, Cape Breton 
 was given up to the French, in a compromise for restoring the French 
 conquests in the low countries to the empress queen of Hungary and the 
 States General, and for a general restitution of places captured by the 
 other belligerent powers. It was naturally a mortification to the inhabit- 
 ants of New England, that what they termed, not unjustly, ' their own 
 acquisition,' should be restored to France ; but so long as peace continued, 
 they sustained no disadvantage. In most respects, Massachusetts Bay 
 was never in a more easy and happy situation, than at the close of this 
 war. 
 
 NEAV HAMPSHIRE AND BIAINE. 
 
 It was in the year 1623, that Sir Ferdinando Gorges, John Mason, and 
 others, having obtained of the Plymouth or New England company grants 
 of several tracts of land, lying north of Massachusetts, sent from England 
 
HISTORY. 581 
 
 a few persons to begin a settlement. Part landed, and for a short time 
 remained at Little Harbor, on the west side Piscataqua river, and near its 
 mouth, where they erected the first house, calling it Mason Hall ; the 
 remainder, proceeding higher up the river, settled at Cocheco, afterwards 
 called Dover. Fishing and trade being the principal objects of these 
 emigrants, their settlements increased slowly. 
 
 The persecuting policy of the Massachusetts colony peopled this country, 
 when money and persuasion had been tried in vain. It has already been 
 stated, that among those who were expelled from the jurisdiction of 
 Massachusetts, at the time of the dissensions occasioned by opposition to 
 the spread of antinomian sentiments at Boston, was the Rev. John 
 Wheelwright. Previously to the date of Mason's patent, he had purchased 
 the land of the Indians, and laid the foundation of Exeter. In the year 
 1630, thirty-five persons residing in that town combined and established 
 civil government ; and within a year or two afterwards, the inhabitants of 
 Dover and Portsmouth followed their example, each town remaining dis- 
 tinct and independent. 
 
 From Indian hostilities, this colony suffered more severely than her 
 neighbors. The surprise of Dover, in 1689, was effected with the most 
 shocking barbarity ; though the natives having been ill-treated by one of 
 the principal inhabitants may account for, if not palliate, their ferocious 
 revenge. Having determined upon their plan of attack, the Indians 
 employed their usual art to lull the suspicions of the inhabitants. So civil 
 and respectful was their behavior, that they occasionally obtained permis- 
 sion to sleep in the fortified houses in the town. On the evening of the 
 fatal night, they assembled in the neighborhood, and sent their women to 
 apply for lodgings at the houses devoted to destruction. When all was 
 quiet the doors were opened and the signal given. The Indians rushed 
 into Waldron's house, and hastened to his apartment. Awakened by the 
 noise, he seized his sword, and drove them back, but when returning for 
 his other arms was stunned with a hatchet, and fell. They then dragged 
 him into his hall, seated him in an elbow chair upon a long table, and 
 insultingly asked him, ; Who shall judge Indians now?' After feasting 
 upon provisions, which they compelled the rest of the family to procure, 
 each one with his knife cut gashes across his breast, saying, ' I cross out 
 my account.' When, weakened with the loss of blood, he was about to 
 fall from the table, his own sword was held under him, which put an end 
 to his tortures. At other houses, similar acts of cruelty were perpetrated; 
 in the whole, twenty-three persons were killed, and twenty-nine carried 
 prisoners to Canada, who were mostly sold to the French. Many houses 
 were burned, and much property was plundered; but so expeditious were 
 the Indians, that they had fled beyond reach before the neighboring people 
 could be collected. The war thus commenced, was not easily terminated. 
 The French, by giving premiums for scalps, and by purchasing the 
 English prisoners, animated the Indians to exert all their activity and 
 address, and the frontier inhabitants endured the most aggravated suffer- 
 ings. The peace of Ryswick, in 1697, closed the distressing scene till 
 1703, when another war began, which continued ten years. 
 
 A few years only transpired before the inhabitants again suffered the 
 afflictions of an Indian war. Following the example of the French, the 
 government offered premiums for scalps, which induced several volunteer 
 
 49* 
 
582 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 companies to undertake expeditions against the enemy. One of these, 
 commanded by captain Lovewell, was greatly distinguished. In April, 
 1725, with thirty-four men, he fought a famous Indian chief, named 
 Paugus, at the head of about eighty savages, near the shores of a pond in 
 Pequackett. Lovewell's men were determined either to conquer or die, 
 although outnumbered by the Indians more than twice. They fought till 
 Lovewell and Paugus were killed, and all Lovewell's men but nine were 
 either killed or dangerously wounded. The savages having lost, as was 
 supposed, sixty of their number out of eighty, and being convinced of the 
 fierce and determined resolution of their foes, at length retreated, and left 
 them masters of the ground. The scene of this desperate and bloody action, 
 which took place in the town that is now called Fryburgh, is often visited 
 with interest to this day, and the names both of those who fell, and those 
 who survived, are yet repeated with exultation. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 The Connecticut colony consisted of people who first emigrated from 
 England to Massachusetts, and, in the years 1630 and 1632, settled and 
 formed themselves into churches at Dorchester, Watertown, and Cambridge, 
 where they resided several years. But either because the number of 
 emigrants to Massachusetts did not allow them all such a choice as they 
 wished of good lands, or because some jealousies had arisen between their 
 pastors and leaders, and the leading men of the colony, they took the 
 resolution of seating themselves again in the wilderness ; and in the 
 years 1635 and 1636 they removed their families to Windsor, Weathers- 
 field, and Hartford, on the Connecticut river. 
 
 From the commencement of the Connecticut colony, the natives discover- 
 ed a hostile disposition. Their principal enemy was the Pequods, the most 
 numerous and warlike nation within the limits of the state, and perhaps in 
 New England. They inhabited the country which environs the towns of 
 New London, Groton, and Stonington. Sassacus, the great prince of the 
 Pequods, had under him six-and-tvventy sachems, and could bring into the 
 field seven hundred or a thousand warriors, who had been long accustomed 
 to victory. The royal residence was at a large fort situated on a beautiful 
 eminence in the town of Groton, which commands an extensive prospect of 
 the sea and of the surrounding country. There was also another fortress, 
 called Mystic fort, situated in the town of Stonington. After suffering re- 
 peated injuries, and the murder of about thirty of their people, principally 
 by the Pequods, the general court, which had been convened for the pur- 
 pose, resolved on active hostilities, and immediately raised an army of 
 ninety men, half the effective force of the colony. These were to be joined 
 by two hundred men from Massachusetts, and forty from Plymouth. 
 
 The court which declared war was holden on the 1st of May ; the men 
 were raised and embarked on the river, under the command of captain 
 Mason, on the 10th ; and, after being wind-bound several days, sailed 
 from the mouth of the river for Narraganset bay on the 19th. They were 
 accompanied by sixty Mohegan and River Indians, under Uncas, a 
 Mohegan sachem. On reaching Narraganset bay, they landed to the 
 number of seventy-seven Englishmen, marched into the country of the 
 
HISTORY. 583 
 
 Narragansets, and communicated their design to Miantonimoh, the sachem 
 of the country, who offered to join them. Information was here received 
 that captain Patrick had reached Providence, with a company of Massa- 
 chusetts troops, but it was resolved not to wait for this reinforcement. On 
 the next day, they marched twenty miles through the west part of Rhode 
 Island, and reached Nihantick, which bordered on the Pequods' country.* 
 
 * 'In the morning, a considerable number of Miantonimoh's men came on and 
 joined the English. This encouraged many of the Nihanticks also to join them. They 
 soon formed a circle, and made protestations how gallantly they would fight, and what 
 numbers they would kill. When the army marched the next morning, the captain had 
 with him nearly five hundred Indians. He marched twelve miles, to the ford in Pawca- 
 tuck river. The day was very hot, and the men, through the great heat, and a scarcity 
 of provision, began to faint. The army, therefore, made a considerable halt, and re- 
 freshed themselves. Here the Narraganset Indians began to manifest their dread of the 
 Pequods, and to inquire of captain Mason, with great anxiety, what were his real inten- 
 tions. He assured them, that it was his design to attack the Pequods in their forts. At 
 this they appeared to be panic struck, and filled with amazement. Many of them drew 
 off, and returned to Narraganset. The army marched on about three miles, and came 
 to Indian corn-fields ; and the captain, imagining that he drew near the enemy, made a 
 halt ; he called his guides and council, and demanded of the Indians how far it was to 
 the forts. They represented that it was twelve miles to Sassacus' fort, and that both 
 forts were in a manner impregnable. Wequash, a Pequod captain, or petty sachem, 
 who had revolted from Sassacus to the Narragansets, was the principal guide, and he 
 proved faithful. He gave such information respecting the distance of the forts from 
 each other, and the distance which they were then at from the chief sachem's, as deter- 
 mined him and his officers to alter the resolution which they had before adopted, of 
 attacking them both at once, and to make a united attack upon that at Mystic. He 
 found his men so fatigued in marching through a pathless wilderness with their provi- 
 sions, arms, and ammunition, and so affected with the heat, that this resolution appeared 
 to be absolutely necessary. One of captain Underbill's men became lame at the same 
 time, and began to fail. The army, therefore, proceeded directly to Mystic, and conti- 
 nuing their march, came to a small swamp between two hills just at the disappearing 
 of the daylight. The officers supposing that they were now near the fort, pitched their 
 little camp between or near two large rocks, in Groton, since called Porter's rocks. The 
 men were faint and weary, and though the rocks were their pillows, their rest was 
 sweet. The gtfards and sentinels were considerably advanced in front of the army, 
 and heard the enemy singing at the fort, who continued their rejoicings even until mid- 
 night. They had seen the vessels pass the harbor some days before, and had concluded 
 that the English were afraid, and had no courage to attack them. They were therefore 
 rejoicing, singing, dancing, insulting them, and wearying themselves, on this account. 
 The night was serene, and, towards morning, the moon shone clear. The important 
 crisis was now come, when the very existence of Connecticut, under Providence, was to 
 be determined by the sword in a single action, and to be decided by the good conduct 
 of less than eighty brave men. The Indians who remained were now sorely dismayed, 
 and though at first they had led the van, and boasted of great feats, yet were now all 
 fallen back in the rear. About two hours before day. the men were roused with all 
 expedition, and, briefly commending themselves and their cause to God, advanced im- 
 mediately towards the fort. After a march of about two miles, they came to the foot 
 of a large hill, where a fine country opened before them. The captain, supposing that 
 the fort could not be far distant, sent for the Indians in the rear to come up. Uncas 
 and Wequash at length appeared. He demanded of them where the fort was. They 
 answered, on the top of the hill. He demanded of them where were the other Indians. 
 They answered, that they were much afraid. The captain sent to them not to fly, but 
 to surround the fort at any distance they pleased, and see whether Englishmen would 
 fight. The day was nearly dawning, and no time was now to be lost. The men 
 oressed on in two divisions, captain Mason to the north-eastern, and captain Underbill 
 o the western entrance. As the object which they had been so long seeking came 
 mto view, and while they reflected they were to fight not only for themselves, but their 
 parents, wives, children, and the whole colony, the martial spirit kindled in their bo- 
 
584 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The army wheeled directly to Mystic fort, which was immediately attack- 
 ed ; the contest, though tremendously severe, terminated in favor of the 
 English, and in the destruction of the Indians. Although this victory 
 was complete, the situation of the army was extremely dangerous and 
 destressing. Several were killed, and one-fourth of their number were 
 wounded ; the remainder were exhausted with fatigue, and destitute of 
 provisions ; they were in the midst of an enemy's country, many miles 
 from their vessels, and their ammunition was nearly exhausted ; they 
 were but a few miles distant from the principal fortress of their foe, where 
 there was a fresh army, wh-ich they knew would be exasperated in the 
 highest degree on learning the fate of their brethren. In the midst of 
 their perplexity, while they were consulting on the course to be pursued, 
 their vessels appeared in sight, steering with a fair wind directly into the 
 harbor. The army was received on board with great mutual joy and 
 congratulation. 
 
 soms, and they were wonderfully animated and assisted. As captain Mason advanced 
 within a rod or two of the fort a dog barked, and an Indian roared out, •' Owanux ! 
 Owanux!" That is, Englishmen! Englishmen! The troops pressed on, and, as the 
 Indians were rallying, poured in upon them, through the palisadoes, a general discharge 
 of their muskets, and then wheeling ofTto the principal entrance, entered the fort sword 
 in hand. Notwithstanding the suddenness of the attack, and the blaze and thunder of 
 the arms, the enemy made a manly and desperate resistance. Captain Mason and his 
 party drove the Indians in the main street towards the west part of the fort, where some 
 bold men, who had forced their way, met them, and made such a slaughter among them, 
 that the street was soon clear of the enemy. They secreted themselves in and behind 
 their wigwams, and taking advantage of every covert, maintained an obstinate defence. 
 The captain and his men entered the wigwams, where they Avere beset with many In- 
 dians, who took every advantage to shoot them, and lay hands upon them, so that it 
 was with great difficulty that they could defend themselves with their swords. After a 
 severe conflict, in which many of the Indians were slain, some of the English killed, 
 and others sorely wounded, the victory still hung in suspense. The captain, finding 
 himself much exhausted, and out of breath, as well as his men, by the extraordinary 
 exertions which they had made in this critical state of action, had recourse to a success- 
 ful expedient. He cries out to his men, "We must burn them." He immediately, 
 entering a wigwam, took fire and put it to the mats with which the wigwams were 
 covered. The fire instantly kindling, spread' with such violence, that all the Indian 
 houses were soon wrapped in one general flame. As the fire increased, the English 
 retired without the fort, and compassed it on every side. TJncas and his Indians, with 
 such of the Narragansets as yet remained, took courage, from the example of the Eng- 
 lish, and formed another circle in the rear of them. The enemy were now seized with 
 astonishment ; and, forced by the flames from their lurking places into open light, 
 became a fair mark for the English soldiers. Some climbed the palisadoes, and were 
 instantly brought down by the fire of the English muskets. Others, desperately sallying 
 forth from their burning cells, were shot, or cut in pieces with the sword. Such terror 
 fell upon them, that they would run back from the English into the very flames. Great 
 numbers perished in the conflagration. The greatness and violence of the fire, the 
 reflection of the light, the flashing and roar of the arms, the shrieks and yellings of the 
 men, women, and children, in the fort, and the shoutings of the Indians without, just 
 at the dawning of the morning, exhibited a grand and awful scene. In little more than 
 an hour, this whole work of destruction was finished. Seventy wigwams were burnt, 
 and five or six hundred Indians perished, either by the sword, or in the flames. A 
 hundred and fifty warriors had been sent on the evening before, who, that very morn- 
 ing, were to have gone forth against the English. Of these, and all who belonged to 
 the fort, seven only escaped, and seven were made prisoners. It had been previously 
 concluded not to burn the fort, but to destroy the enemy, and take the plunder; but the 
 captain afterwards found it the only expedient to obtain the victory, and save his men. 
 Thus parents and children, the sannup and squaw, the old man and the babe, perished 
 in promiscuous ruin.' — Trumbull's History of Connecticut. 
 
HISTORY. 5S5 
 
 The troops employed on this successful expedition reached their homes 
 before the expiration of a month from the day that the war was resolved 
 upon. The Pequods, on the departure of captain Mason, burnt their 
 wigwams, destroyed their principal fort, and scattered themselves through- 
 out the country. Sassacus, with a party of his chief warriors, abandoned 
 his country, and moved by slow marches towards the Hudson river. 
 They were followed by a party of Massachusetts and Connecticut troops ; 
 and, in a great swamp in Fairfield, near the western part of Connecticut, 
 they were overtaken, and a battle ensued. Sassacus, and about twenty of 
 his most hardy men, escaped, and fled to the Mohawk country; but there 
 he found no safety ; he was surprised by the Mohawks, and killed, with 
 all his party, except Mononotto, who, after being wounded, made his 
 escape. The Pequods who remained were divided between the Mohe- 
 gans and Narragansets, and the nation became extinct. The vigor and 
 boldness with which this war was prosecuted on both sides, give it the 
 air of romance. Its decisive termination, which was so fatal to one party, 
 was productive of the most happy consequences to the other. It struck the 
 Indians throughout New England with such a salutary terror, that they 
 were contented, in general, to remain at peace for nearly forty years. 
 
 In the year 1637, Mr. John Davenport, a celebrated London minister, 
 accompanied by several eminent merchants, made overtures to the native 
 proprietors for the purchase of all the lands between the rivers Hudson 
 and Connecticut. This purchase they in part effected, and from this ori- 
 ginated the colony of New Haven. At first they recognised the authority 
 of Massachusetts, but it being evident that they were not within the limits 
 of the Massachusetts colony, they convened an assembly at Hartford, and 
 formed a constitution of government of the most popular kind. The peo- 
 ple of New Haven followed their example, and framed a similar govern- 
 ment ; and these continued the constitutions of the two colonies, till their 
 union in 1661. On the completion of the union among the several colo- 
 nies of New England, several Indian sachems came in and submitted 
 themselves to the English government, among whom were Miantonomoh, 
 the Narraganset, and Uncas, the Mohegan, chief. 
 
 After the restoration, the Connecticut colony sent out Mr. Winthrop of 
 Massachusetts to England, with a petition for a charter with the royal 
 signature. This charter he obtained, and it was one of the most liberal 
 description. It established a government of a highly popular kind, and 
 continued the fundamental law of Connecticut for one hundred and fifty- 
 eight years. ' It is remarkable,' says a writer in the North American Re- 
 view, ' that although it was granted at a period of the world when the 
 rights of the people were little understood and little regarded, and by a 
 sovereign who governed England with a more arbitrary sway than any 
 of his successors, the form of government established by this charter was 
 of a more popular description, and placed all power within the more im- 
 mediate reach of the people, than the constitution for which it has been 
 deliberately exchanged, in these modern days of popular jealousy and 
 republican freedom.' In this new charter was included the colony of 
 New Haven ; though it was not for some years that the union was finally 
 adopted. 
 
 Connecticut was destined to suffer, with the rest of the colonies, from 
 the violent acts committed in the last years of the reign of the Stuarts. 
 74 
 
586 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Massachusetts had been deprived of her charter, and Rhode Island had 
 been induced to surrender hers, when, in July, 1685, a writ of quo tvar- 
 ranto was issued against the governor and company of Connecticut. The 
 colonial government was strongly advised by Vane to comply with the 
 requisition, and surrender the charter; but it was determined neither to 
 appear to defend the charter, nor voluntarily to surrender it. Sir Edmund 
 Andros made repeated applications for its surrender, but without success. 
 
 The singular mode of its escape from his demand in person is thus 
 recorded by Trumbull : ' The assembly met as usual, in October, 1687, 
 and the government continued, according to charter, until the last of the 
 month. About this time, Sir Edmund, with his suite, and more than sixty 
 regular troops, came to Hartford, where the assembly were sitting, de- 
 manded the charter, and declared the government under it to be dissolved. 
 The assembly were extremely reluctant and slow with respect to any re- 
 solve to surrender the charter, or with respect to any motion to bring it 
 forth. The tradition is, that governor Treat strongly represented the 
 great expense and hardships of the colonists in planting the country ; the 
 blood and treasure which they had expended in defending it, both against 
 the savages and foreigners ; to what hardships and dangers he himself 
 had been exposed for that purpose ; and that it was like giving up his life 
 now to surrender the patent and privileges so dearly bought, and so long 
 enjoyed. The important affair was debated and kept in suspense until the 
 evening, when the charter was brought and laid upon the table where the 
 assembly were sitting. 
 
 ' By this time, great numbers of people were assembled, and men suffi- 
 ciently bold to enterprise whatever might be necessary or expedient. The 
 lights were instantly extinguished, and one captain Wadsworth, of Hart- 
 ford, in the most silent and secret manner, carried off the charter, and 
 secreted it in a large hollow tree, fronting the house of the honorable 
 Samuel Wyllys, then one of the magistrates of the colony. The people 
 appeared all peaceable and orderly. The candles were officiously re- 
 lighted, but the patent was gone, and no discovery could be made of it, or 
 of the person who had conveyed it away.' Though Sir Edmund was thus 
 foiled in his attempt to obtain possession of the charter, he did not hesi- 
 tate to assume the reins of government, which he administered in a man- 
 ner as oppressive in this as in the other colonies. When, on the arrival 
 of the declaration of the prince of Orange at Boston, Andros was deposed 
 and imprisoned, the people of Connecticut resumed their previous form of 
 government, having been interrupted little more than a year and a half. 
 
 In the Indian war, in which Philip acted so conspicuous a part, Connec- 
 ticut had her share of suffering, though it was not so great as that of some 
 of her sister colonies. Hostilities were commenced by the aborigines, on 
 the Connecticut river, in the summer of 1675 ; and, on the first of Septem- 
 ber, the inhabitants of Hadley were alarmed by the Indians during the 
 time of public worship, and the people thrown into the utmost confusion ; 
 but the enemy were repulsed by the valor and good conduct of an aged, 
 venerable man, who, suddenly appearing in the midst of the affrighted 
 inhabitants, put himself at their head, led them to the onset, and, after the 
 dispersion of the enemy, instantly disappeared. This deliverer of Hadley, 
 then imagined to be an angel, was general Goffe, (one of the judges of 
 Charles I.,) who was at that time concealed in the town. 
 
HISTORY. 5S7 
 
 But a short time elapsed, before the colonists were again called on to 
 defend their privileges from what they deemed an unjust encroachment. 
 Colonel Fletcher, governor of New York, had been vested with plenary 
 powers to command the militia of Connecticut, and insisted on the exercise 
 of that command. The legislature of Connecticut, deeming that authority 
 to be expressly given to the colony by charter, would not submit to his 
 requisition ; but, desirous of maintaining a good understanding with go- 
 vernor Fletcher, endeavored to make terms with him, until his majesty's 
 pleasure should be further known. All their negotiations were, however, 
 unsuccessful ; and, on the 26th of October, he came to Hartford, while the 
 assembly was sitting, and, in his majesty's name, demanded submission ; 
 but the refusal was resolutely persisted in. After the requisition had 
 been repeatedly made, with plausible explanations and serious menaces, 
 Fletcher ordered his commission and instructions to be read in audi- 
 ence of the trainbands of Hartford, which had been assembled upon his 
 order. 
 
 Captain Wadsworth, the senior officer, who was exercising his soldiers, 
 instantly called out, ' Beat the drums !' which, in a moment, overwhelmed 
 every voice. Fletcher commanded silence. No sooner was a second at- 
 tempt made to read, than Wadsworth vociferated, ' Drum, drum ! I say.' 
 The drummers instantly beat up again, with the greatest possible spirit. 
 ' Silence, silence,' exclaimed the governor. At the first moment of a pause, 
 Wadsworth called out earnestly, ' Drum, drum, I say;' and, turning to his 
 excellency, said, ' If I am interrupted again, I will make the sun shine 
 through you in a moment.' Colonel Fletcher declined putting Wads- 
 worth to the test, and, abandoning the contest, returned with his suite to 
 New York. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 The settlement of Providence and Rhode Island was made by Roger 
 Williams, in 1636. This man was far in advance of his age. He set the 
 first example of perfect religious equality and toleration ; and extended 
 his humane labors to enlighten, improve and conciliate the savages. 
 When the New England colonies, in 1643, formed the celebrated confede- 
 racy, Rhode Island applied to be admitted to the union ; but Plymouth 
 objected, on the ground that the settlements were within her boundaries. 
 
 Upon the application of the inhabitants, in 1663, a charter was granted 
 by Charles II. to the Rhode Island and Providence plantations. On the 
 accession of James II., the assembly of Rhode Island immediately trans- 
 mitted an address, acknowledging themselves his loyal subjects, and beg- 
 ging protection for their chartered rights. But reformation of abuses in 
 New England was then the order of the day, and articles of high misde- 
 meanor were exhibited against them before the lords of the committee of 
 colonies, accusing them of breaches of their charter, and of opposition to 
 the acts of navigation. This committee ordered that Sir Edmund Andros, 
 the governor of Massachusetts, should demand the surrender of their 
 charter, and govern them as other colonies of New England. In Decem- 
 ber, 16§6, Andros accordingly dissolved the government of Rhode Island, 
 broke its seal, and assumed the administration of affairs. When the revo- 
 lution put an end to his power, Rhode Island and Providence resumed 
 
688 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 their charter, on the ground that an act which was extorted by tu.ror 
 might justly be recalled when restraint no longer remained. 
 
 The wise, peaceful and beneficent counsels of Williams, had preserved 
 the colonists from the dangers of Indian incursions. Their prosperity 
 was proportionate to their moderation. The population increased with 
 great rapidity, and in 1761 amounted to forty thousand. Brown univer- 
 sity was founded at Warren, in 1764. Six years afterwards it was re- 
 moved to Providence, where a large and elegant building was erected for 
 the students. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 New York was first settled by the Dutch, who erected a fort near Al- 
 bany, which they called fort Orange, and a few trading-houses on the 
 island of New York, then called by the Indians Manhattan. The claims 
 of the Dutch to the property of the soil were disputed by the king of Great 
 Britain, who founded an adverse claim on the discovery of the Cabots 
 in the previous century. In the first year of their settlement, they were 
 visited by captain Argal, who claimed the country for his sovereign, and 
 warned them to acknowledge his authority. The colony was small, and 
 prudently acquiesced in the demand : but within a twelvemonth their 
 number was increased, and the demands of the English were promptly 
 resisted. For a series of years they continued in undisturbed quiet, and 
 by toil, perseverance and unwearied activity, surmounted the dangers and 
 troubles of an infant colony. 
 
 In 1621, the Dutch republic granted to their West India company an 
 extensive territory on both sides of the Hudson, and called it New Nether- 
 lands. Under the management of this company, the settlement was soon 
 both consolidated and extended ; and the foundations were laid of the 
 cities of New Amsterdam, afterwards New York, and of Albany. In 
 1623, they erected a fort on the Delaware, which they called Nassau ; 
 and, ten years afterwards, another on the Connecticut, which they called 
 Good Hope. Near the former the Swedes had a settlement ; and from 
 the interfering claims of the two nations, quarrels arose between the set- 
 tlers, which, in a few years, terminated in the subjugation of the Swedes. 
 
 The policy of the Dutch, in extending their settlements so far eastward 
 as Connecticut, soon brought them into collision with more powerful 
 neighbors. Numberless causes of dispute arose between New Nether- 
 lands and the colonies of Connecticut and New Haven ; but neither party 
 allowed itself to forget the substantial claims of humanity, or the forms of 
 ordinary courtesy. In the Indian wars, the English never delayed to ren- 
 der due assistance to their Dutch neighbors, who were so unwarlike that 
 they found it necessary to invite captain Underhill, who had been banished 
 from Boston for his eccentricities in religion, to take command of their 
 troops. Collecting a flying party of one hundred and fifty men, he was 
 enabled to preserve the Dutch settlements from destruction. The number 
 of Indians whom he killed in the course of the war, was supposed to ex- 
 ceed four hundred. In 1646, a severe battle was fought on that part of 
 Horse-Neck called Strickland's Plain. The Dutch were victorious ; on 
 both sides great numbers were slain ; and for a eentury afterwards the 
 graves of the dead were distinctly visible. 
 
history. 589 
 
 When Charles II. ascended the British throne, he did not hesitate to 
 assert his claim to the province of New Netherlands ; and without any 
 attempt at negotiation with the states, he executed a charter, conveying 
 to the duke of York the whole territory from the eastern shore of the 
 Delaware to the western bank of the Connecticut. This grant took no 
 notice of the existing possession of the Dutch, or of the recent Con- 
 necticut charter, which it entirely superseded. No sooner did the duke 
 of York obtain this grant, than he conveyed to lord Berkeley and Sir 
 George Carteret all that portion now constituting the province of New 
 Jersey. To carry such a grant into effect, it was necessary to call in 
 the aid of the military, and an armament was despatched from England 
 under the command of colonel Nichols; who was also appointed governor 
 of the province he was about to conquer. After touching at Boston, the 
 fleet sailed to the Hudson and took a position before the capital of New 
 Netherlands. The Dutch governor, Stuyvesant, had determined on a 
 resolute resistance, but his followers were of a less gallant temperament, 
 and compelled him to agree to a treaty of capitulation. 
 
 Immediately after its subjugation, New Amsterdam, and the whole 
 conquered province, received the name of New York. Few of the inhabi- 
 tants thought proper to remove from the country ; even governor Stuyve- 
 sant lived and died there. Nichols at once assumed command of the 
 conquered territory, and proceeded to reduce the affairs of the state to one 
 uniform constitution and policy. Many of the Dutch forms of government 
 were retained, but English influence gradually brought about a change; 
 and on the twelfth of June, 1665, the inhabitants of New York were in- 
 corporated under a mayor, five aldermen, and a sheriff*. At the peace of 
 Breda, New York was regularly ceded to England in exchange for Suri- 
 nam, by a general stipulation that each of the belligerents should retain 
 what its arms had acquired since the commencement of hostilities. 
 
 The interior of New York was originally inhabited by a confederacy, 
 which consisted at first of five, and afterwards of six, nations of Indians. 
 This confederacy was formed for mutual defence against the Algonquins, 
 a powerful Canadian nation, and displayed much of the wisdom and saga- 
 city which mark the institutions of a civilized people. By their union 
 they had become formidable to the surrounding tribes. Being the allies 
 of the English, the French were alarmed at their successes, and became 
 jealous of their power. In the year 16S4, De la Barre, the governor of 
 Canada, marched to. attack them, with an army of seventeen hundred 
 men. His troops suffered so much from hardships, famine, and sickness, 
 that he was compelled to ask peace of those whom he had come to exter- 
 minate. He invited the chiefs of the Five Nations to meet him at his camp, 
 and those of three of them accepted the invitation. Standing in a circle, 
 formed by the chiefs and his own officers, he addressed a speech to Gar- 
 rangula, of the Onondago tribe, in which he accused the confederates of 
 conducting the English to the trading grounds of the French, and threat- 
 ened them with war and extermination if they did not alter their behavior. 
 Garrangula, knowing the distresses of the French troops, heard these 
 threats with contempt. After walking five or six times round the circle, 
 he addressed De la Barre in the following bold language, calling him 
 Yonnondio, and the English governor, Corlear : — 
 
 ' Hear, Yonnondio, I do not sleep ; I have my eyes open, and the sun 
 
 50 
 
590 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 which enlightens me, discovers to me a great captain at the head of a 
 company of soldiers, who speaks as if he was dreaming. He says that he 
 only came to smoke the great pipe of peace with the Onondagas. But 
 Garrangula says, that he sees the contrary ; that it was to knock them on 
 the head, if sickness had not weakened the arms of the French. We 
 carried the English to our lakes, to trade there with the Utawawas, and 
 Quatoghies, as the Adirondack brought the French to our castles, to carry 
 on a trade which the English say is theirs. We are born free ; we neither 
 depend on Yonnondio nor Corlear. We may go where we please, and 
 buy and sell what we please. If your allies are your slaves, use them as 
 such; command them to receive no other but your people. Hear, Yon- 
 nondio ! what I say is the voice of all the Five Nations. When they 
 buried the hatchet at Cadaracui, in the middle of the fort, they planted the 
 tree of peace in the same place, to be there carefully preserved, that instead 
 of a retreat for soldiers, the fort might be a rendezvous for merchants. 
 Take care that the many soldiers who appear there do not choke the tree 
 of peace, and prevent it from covering your country and ours with its 
 branches. I assure you that our warriors shall dance under its leaves, 
 and will never dig up the hatchet to cut it down, till their brother Yon- 
 nondio or Corlear shall invade the country which the Great Spirit has 
 given to our ancestors.' 
 
 De la Barre Avas mortified and enraged at this bold reply; but, submit- 
 ting to necessity, he concluded a treaty of peace, and returned to Montreal. 
 His successor, De Nonville, led a larger army against the confederates; 
 but fell into an ambuscade, and was defeated. These wars within the 
 limits of the colony served to perpetuate the enmity of the Indians against 
 the French, and their attachment to the English. 
 
 When James II. ascended the throne, it was determined to superadd 
 New York and the Jerseys to the jurisdiction of the four colonies of New 
 England ; and a new commission was issued, appointing Sir Edmund 
 Andros captain-general and vice-admiral over the whole. His authority, 
 however, was a brief one. In the following year, intelligence was received 
 of the accession of William and Mary to the British throne ; and while 
 the principal officers and magistrates were assembled to consult for the 
 general good, Jacob Leisler, a captain of militia, seized the fort and held 
 it for the prince of Orange. The province was for some time subsequently 
 ruled by a committee of safety, Avith Leisler at their head. In a feAV 
 months, a letter arrived from the ministry in England, directed ' to such 
 as, for the time being, take care of administering the laAVs of the province,' 
 and conferring authority to perform all the duties of lieutenant governor. 
 This letter Leisler understood as addressed to himself, and assumed the 
 authority conferred by it, without ceremony. 
 
 The people of Albany acknowledged king William, but refused to sub 
 mit to Leisler. Force was resorted to, Avith the view of compelling obedi- 
 ence ; and the estates of the rebellious AA r ere confiscated. In this disturbed 
 state, the colonists of NeAV York remained nearly two years ; when the 
 miseries of foreign aggression Avere added to those of internal discord. 
 
 War had been declared between France and England ; and De Nonville 
 had been replaced in the goA r ernorship of Canada by count Frontignac, a 
 veteran officer, Avhose skilful and energetic measures, aided by a large 
 reinforcement, soon raised the affairs of the French from the brink of ruin* 
 
HISTORY. 591 
 
 and enabled them to act on the offensive. Frontignac was indefatigable 
 in his efforts to gain over the Five Nations, who had made two attacks 
 upon Montreal, and murdered a great number of inhabitants. He held a 
 great council with them at Onondaga ; and, as they seemed to be some- 
 what inclined to peace, he resolved to give their favorable disposition no 
 time for change, and, at the same time, to inspirit his own drooping coun- 
 trymen, by finding them immediate employment against the English colo- 
 nies. On the 19th of January, a party of about two hundred French, and 
 some Cahnuaga Indians, set out, in a deep snow, for Schenectady ; they 
 arrived on the 8th of February, at eleven o'clock at night ; and the first 
 intimation the inhabitants had of their design, was conveyed in the noise 
 of their own bursting doors. The village was burnt, sixty persons were 
 butchered, twenty-seven suffered the worse fate of captivity, the rest made 
 their way naked through the snow towards Albany, where some arrived in 
 extreme distress, while many perished in the attempt. A party of young 
 men, and some Mohawk Indians, set out from the latter place, pursued the 
 enemy, and killed or captured twenty-five. 
 
 To avenge these barbarities, and others perpetrated in New England, a 
 combined expedition against Canada was projected. An army, raised in 
 New York and Connecticut, proceeded as far as the head of lake Cham- 
 plain, whence, finding no boats prepared, they were obliged to return. Sir 
 William Phipps, with a fleet of more than thirty vessels, sailed from Bos- 
 ton into the St. Lawrence, and, landing a body of troops, made an attack 
 by land and water upon Quebec ; but the return of the army to New York 
 allowing the whole force of the enemy to repair to the assistance of the 
 garrison, he was obliged to abandon the enterprise. Leisler, transported 
 with rage when he was informed of the retreat, caused Winthrop, who 
 commanded the New England forces, to be arrested, but was instantly 
 compelled, by universal indignation, to release him. It was to the miscon- 
 duct or incapacity of Leisler and Milborne, (the latter of whom, as com- 
 missary-general, had made no adequate provision for the enterprise,) that 
 the failure of this expedition was attributed. 
 
 Leisler was afterwards superseded by colonel Sloughter, and, together 
 with Milborne, was executed for refusing to surrender his authority to the 
 officer legally appointed to receive it. Sloughter's administration was in- 
 efficient and turbulent. He was succeeded by colonel Fletcher, a man of 
 great energy of character, but violent in his disposition and mean. His 
 administration was signalized by no occurrence worthy of particular record. 
 The war between the French and the Five Indian Nations raged with 
 great fury, and both parties seemed inspired with a mutual emulation of 
 cruelty in victory, no less than of prowess in battle. Prisoners were tor- 
 tured, and put to death, without the least regard to the rights of humanity, 
 or the laws of war. 
 
 In 1697, the peace of Ryswick, which was concluded between Great 
 Britain and France, gave security and repose to the colonies. The next 
 year, the earl of Bellamont was appointed governor. He was particularly 
 desirous of clearing the American seas of the pirates with which they had 
 for some time been grievously infested. The government, however, de- 
 clining to furnish an adequate naval force, the earl engaged with others in 
 a private undertaking against them. Among the associates were lord 
 chancellor Summers and the duke of Shrewsbury ; the king himself, too, 
 

 - - - : - 
 
 ■ 
 
 . 
 
 
 . -i : . ..: _■ : • :- .::~f- 
 
- : - 
 :-.:>:.v ■ * ?. - 
 
 r .:..:_ j \:\ _• :<: ;ir: s:::r.v.= :;.5 .• :.-: .-. . ?■ ;; ....... Or.::i- 
 
 - - - . . 
 
 - - - ---"._ 
 
 - ..-"■-- 
 
 V N _ - . 
 
 ... ; - - . 
 
 ; \ 5 - 
 
 - - . - 
 
 : 
 
 - - . _ - - 
 
 - - - - 
 
 -. - 
 
 - - _ 
 - 
 
 :ndedth, 
 : _ - - 
 
 ----- - 2 ES : _ 
 
 -- . 
 
 - "■ : - - s 
 
 cal. ^ 
 
 - - - . 
 - - 
 
 kim to for s . ccor. Mr. 1 - 
 
 - 
 - for thai ntse, and s at in 
 
 - 
 
 •v. 
 
 
 #4 
 
 1 3 1 
 
 
 - ' 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 " ": : s " " . 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 - : 5 
 
 
 : - '.v i";:: ;r. '_13. 
 
 - 
 
 . ' -. ■ 
 
 - - - - - 
 
 -. -. :■? i 
 
 
 ;>: t s 
 
 : . : - . ■ ; . -: 
 
 ::' ; .. :;ry in - : ;":. h; ;.--.> 
 
 ei . . _ r ; • - "".".: :.: 
 
 .: ~ = i :-:-:z in* v...".;i rv a:: 
 
 ' c 
 
 * - 
 
694 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 governor and council, without the concurrence of the assembly, and some 
 of the decisions had given great offence to powerful individuals. The 
 house passed resolutions, declaring it ' a manifest oppression and griev- 
 ance,' and intimating that its decrees were void. Mr. Burnet no sooner 
 heard of these votes, than he called the members before him, and dissolved 
 the assembly. They occasioned, however, an ordinance in the spring fol- 
 lowing, as well to remedy sundry abuses in the practice in chancery, as to 
 reduce the fees of that court, ' which, on account of the popular clamors, 
 were so much diminished,' says Smith, ' that the wheels of the chancery 
 have ever since rusted upon their axles, the practice being contemned by 
 all gentlemen of eminence in the profession.' 
 
 Mr. Burnet was soon after appointed governor of Massachusetts, and 
 was succeeded at New York by colonel Montgomery, who devoted him- 
 self so much to his ease that he has left nothing else to distinguish his 
 brief rule. Upon his death, in 1731, the supreme authority devolved 
 upon Rip Van Dam, the senior member of the council. Under his ineffi- 
 cient administration, the French were permitted to erect a fort at Crown 
 Point, within the acknowledged boundaries of New York, from which 
 parties of savages were often secretly despatched to destroy the English 
 settlements. 
 
 In August, 1732, Van Dam was superseded by William Crosby. Hav- 
 ing been the advocate in parliament of the American colonies, he was at 
 first popular, but he soon lost the affection and confidence of the people. 
 One of his most unpopular acts was the prosecution of Zenger, the printer 
 of a newspaper, for publishing an article derogatory to the dignity of his 
 majesty's government, bringing him to trial, after a severe imprisonment of 
 thirty-five weeks from the printing of the offensive articles. Andrew Ha- 
 milton, an eminent lawyer of Philadelphia, though aged and infirm, learn- 
 ing the distress of the prisoner and the importance of the trial, went to 
 New York to plead Zenger's cause, which he did so effectually that the 
 jury brought in the prisoner not guilty. The common council of the city 
 of New York, for this noble and successful service, presented Mr. Hamilton 
 the freedom of their corporation in a gold box. 
 
 Governor Crosby was succeeded, in 1736, by George Clark. During 
 his administration, the contest which had ended, twenty years before, in 
 the victory gained by governor Hunter over the house of representatives, 
 was revived. The colony being in debt, the house voted to raise the sum 
 of six thousand pounds ; but, in order to prevent its misapplication, declared 
 that it should be applied to the payment of certain specified debts. Of- 
 fended by this vote, Clark immediately dissolved the assembly. At the 
 election which ensued, the popular party was triumphant. In their second 
 session the house voted an address to the lieutenant governor, in which, 
 after stating some of the vital principles of free government, and referring 
 to recent misapplications of money, they say, ' We therefore beg leave to 
 be plain with your honor, and hope you will not take it amiss when we 
 tell you, that you are not to expect that we will either raise sums unfit 
 to be raised, or put what we shall raise into the power of a governor to 
 misapply, if we can prevent it ; nor shall we make up any other deficien- 
 cies than what we conceive are fit and just to be paid ; nor continue what 
 support or revenue we shall raise for any longer time than one year ; 
 nor do we think it convenient to do even that, until such laws are passed 
 
HISTORY. 595 
 
 as we conceive necessary for the safety of the inhabitants of this colony, 
 who have reposed a trust in us for that only purpose, and which we are 
 sure you will think it reasonable we should act agreeable to ; and, by the 
 grace of God, we shall endeavor not to deceive them.' 
 
 With men so resolute in maintaining their rights, Clark wisely declined 
 to contend ; and promised his cordial co-operation in all measures calculated 
 to promote the prosperity of the colony. Harmony did not, however, long 
 continue. Clark, in his speech at the opening of the next session, declared 
 that unless the revenue was granted for as long a time as it had been 
 granted by former assemblies, his duty to his majesty forbade him from 
 assenting to any act for continuing the excise, or for paying the colonial 
 bills of credit. The house unanimously resolved, that it would not pass any 
 bill for the grant of money, unless assurance should be given that the excise 
 should be continued and the bills of credit redeemed. The lieutenant go- 
 vernor immediately ordered the members to attend him. He told them that 
 ' their proceedings were presumptuous, daring, and unprecedented ; that he 
 could not look upon them without astonishment, nor with honor suffer the 
 house to sit any longer ;' and he accordingly dissolved it. In April, 1740, 
 the assembly again met. It had now risen to importance in the colony ; 
 and the adherence of the representatives to their determination, not to 
 grant the revenue for more than one year, made annual meetings of the 
 assembly necessary. Their attachment to liberty was construed by the 
 lieutenant governor into a desire for independence : in a speech delivered 
 in 1741, he alludes to 'a jealousy which for some years had obtained in 
 England, that the plantations were not without thoughts of throwing off 
 their dependence on the crown.' 
 
 George Clinton superseded Clark in the government of the colony in 
 1743. Like most of his predecessors he was welcomed with joy; and one 
 of his earliest measures confirmed the favorable accounts which had pre- 
 ceded him, of his talents and liberality. To manifest his confidence in the 
 people, he assented to a bill limiting the duration of the present and all 
 succeeding assemblies. The house evinced its gratitude by adopting the 
 measures he recommended for the defence of the province against the 
 French, who were then at war with England. In 1745, the savages in 
 alliance with France made frequent invasions of the English territories ; 
 and their hostilities were continued, with little intermission, till the war 
 which terminated the French dominion in Canada. 
 
 In the middle of the seventeenth century, the whole colony of New York 
 contained scarcely one hundred thousand inhabitants,* not half the number 
 which the city of New York alone can now boast. That the population 
 would have been much more numerous at this time, had not the inhabitants 
 been so continually exposed to the irruptions of the French and their Indian 
 allies, is evident from its rapid increase when those unfavorable circum- 
 stances ceased to exist. The consideration of this period belongs, how- 
 ever, to another department of the work. 
 
 * Smith's History of New York, p. 207. 
 
596 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 It was not till the year 1640 that any attempt was made by the English 
 to colonize that portion of the continent now known as New Jersey, and 
 then they were resisted and expelled by the Swedes. This nation remained 
 in possession of the country on both sides of the Delaware until 1655, 
 when the governor of New Netherlands conquered all their posts, and 
 transported most of the Swedes to Europe. The Dutch consequently 
 possessed themselves of the whole territory of New Jersey, New York, 
 and Delaware ; but their settlements in New Jersey shared the fate of 
 those on the Hudson, when in the year 1664 they were captured by the 
 English under colonel Nichols. In the same year the duke of York con- 
 veyed that portion of his grant lying between Hudson and Delaware rivers 
 to lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. This tract was called New 
 Jersey, in compliment to Sir George, who had been governor of the island 
 of Jersey, and had held it for the king in his contest with the parliament. 
 
 The early history of this province is a history of disputes between the 
 inhabitants and the proprietaries. It would not be interesting to go into 
 their details, as they are mere claims and adjudications of title. Suffice 
 it to say, that in the course of the disputes it became partitioned into East 
 and West Jersey, and fell into the hands of different proprietors. The 
 former was released, in July, 1676, by William Penn and his three asso- 
 ciates, assignees of lord Berkeley, to Philip Carteret ; and he in return 
 conveyed to them the latter, the government of which the duke retained 
 as a dependency of New York, while that of the first was resigned to 
 Carteret. 
 
 Philip Carteret, a natural son of Sir George, returned to East Jersey in 
 the beginning of 1675, and was now kindly received by the inhabitants, 
 because they had felt the rigors of conquest, which had not been softened 
 by Andros, who had been appointed by the duke of York lieutenant over 
 all his territories, from the western bank of the Connecticut to the farther 
 shore of the Delaware. Having postponed the payment of quit-rents to a 
 future day, and published new concessions with regard to the tenure of 
 lands, tranquillity was perfectly restored. Desirous to promote the com- 
 mercial interests of the colony, because he perceived its neighbor growing 
 great and rich by trade, Carteret began, in 1676, to clear out vessels from 
 East Jersey ; but he was steadily opposed by Andros, who claimed juris- 
 diction over the Jersies, insisting that conquest by the Dutch divested the 
 proprietors of all their rights. He forcibly seized, transported to New 
 York, and there imprisoned, those magistrates who refused to acknowledge 
 his authority. He imposed a duty upon all goods imported, and upon the 
 property of all who came to settle in the country. 
 
 The inhabitants made repeated and energetic complaints of this injus- 
 tice to the duke of York; and at length, wearied with their continual 
 importunity, this prince consented to refer the matter to commissioners, 
 who ultimately agreed to adhere to the opinion of Sir William Jones. 
 
 The commissioners pronounced their judgment, in conformity with the 
 opinion of Sir W. Jones, ' that as the grant to Berkeley and Carteret had 
 reserved no profit or jurisdiction, the legality of the taxes could not be 
 defended.' In consequence of this adjudication, the duke resigned all 
 
, HISTORY. 597 
 
 his claims on West Jersey, and confirmed the province itself in the amplest 
 terms to its new proprietaries ; and soon after granted a similar release in 
 favor of the representatives of Sir George Carteret in East Jersey. The 
 whole of New Jersey thus rose to the rank of an almost independent state, 
 maintaining only a federal connection with the British crown. 
 
 The accession of numerous companies of settlers now rapidly promoted 
 the population and prosperity of West Jersey. In the year 1681, the first 
 representative assembly was held ; and during its session were enacted 
 the ' Fundamental Constitutions,' and other laws for the preservation of 
 properly, and the punishment of criminals. 
 
 Frequent disputes arising between the proprietary government of East 
 Jersey and the colonists, the trustees of Sir George Carteret, apprehending 
 they should derive little emolument from retaining the government un- 
 der their control, offered their rights in the province for sale, and accepted 
 the proposals of William Perm, to whom, and his associates, East Jersey 
 was conveyed. Among the new proprietors was the author of the well- 
 known ' i^pology ;' and his colleagues, by a unanimous vote, conferred on 
 him the office of governor for life, with the extraordinary permission to 
 appoint a deputy, instead of his residing at the scene of his authority. 
 
 The number of proprietors, and the frequent transfers and subdivisions 
 of shares, introduced such confusion into titles to land, and such uncertainty 
 as to the rights of government, that, for twenty years afterwards, both Jer- 
 seys were frequently in a state of disturbance and disorder. In 1702, the 
 proprietors, weary of contending with each other, and with the people, sur- 
 rendered the right of government to the crown. Queen Anne reunited the 
 two divisions, and appointed lord Cornbury governor over the provinces 
 of New Jersey and New York. From the period of his appointment till 
 his deprivation of office, the history of New Jersey consists of little else 
 than a detail of his contests with the colonial assemblies; and exhibits the 
 resolution with which they opposed his arbitrary conduct, his partial distri- 
 bution of justice, and his fraudulent misapplication of the public money. 
 After repeated complaints, the queen yielded to the universal indignation ; 
 and he was superseded, in 1709, by lord Lovelace. 
 
 These provinces continued, for several years, to be ruled by the same 
 governor, but each chose a separate assembly. In 1738, the inhabitants, 
 by a petition to the king, desired that they might, in future, have a sepa- 
 rate governor; and their request was granted. 
 
 The distance of New Jersey from Canada, the source of most of the 
 Indian wars which afflicted the northern colonies, gave it a complete ex- 
 emption from those direful calamities, while the Indian tribes in the neigh- 
 borhood, which were far from numerous, were almost always willing to 
 cultivate a friendly relation with the Europeans. The gravity, simplicity, 
 and courtesy of Quaker manners seem to have been particularly acceptable 
 to these savages ; and, added to the careful observation of the principles 
 of equity in the proceedings of the colonists, established an amicable 
 intercourse, to the manifest advantage both of themselves and of the 
 natives. 
 
598 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. 
 
 During a considerable period, the colony of Delaware was attached to 
 that of Pennsylvania, without even a separate assembly ; and after it ac- 
 quired that privilege, it remained for some time longer under the same 
 governor : its history requires, therefore, to be blended with that of Penn- 
 sylvania, although it was settled at a much earlier period. It does not 
 appear that the date of the first European plantation on South river, or the 
 Delaware, can now be ascertained with any precision ; some authorities, 
 however, assert that a Swedish colony settled at cape Henlopen as early 
 as the year 1627; although Chalmers is of opinion that, 'though various 
 Europeans may have trafficked in Delaware, their plantations had not yet 
 embellished her margin, probably in the year 1632.' 
 
 The colony which forms the chief subject of this division w r as founded 
 in the year 1681, by the celebrated William Penn. His attention was 
 attracted to colonization by his connection with New Jersey. While 
 he was engaged in the government of that territory, he received informa- 
 tion of the country situate to the westward of the Delaware, which induced 
 in his mind the desire of acquiring an estate in that quarter. He there- 
 fore presented a petition to Charles II., urging his claim for a debt incurred 
 by the crown to his father, and soliciting a grant of land to the northward 
 of Maryland, and westward of the Delaware. After a conference with 
 the duke of York and lord Baltimore, to ascertain that the grant would 
 not interfere with any prior claims of theirs, a charter, making conveyance 
 of that territory, was signed and sealed by the king. It constituted Wil- 
 liam Penn and his heirs true and absolute proprietaries of the province of 
 Pennsylvania, saving to the crown their allegiance and the sovereignty. It 
 gave him, his heirs, and their deputies, power to make laws, by advice of 
 the freemen, and to erect courts of justice for the execution of those laws, 
 provided they be not repugnant to the laws of England.* 
 
 The charter being thus obtained, Penn invited purchasers by public ad- 
 vertisement. Many single persons, and some families, chiefly of the deno- 
 mination of Quakers, were induced to think of a removal ; and a number 
 of merchants and others, forming themselves into a company, purchased 
 twenty thousand acres of this land, which was sold at the rate of twenty 
 pounds for every thousand acres. In May he despatched Markham, a 
 relative, with a few associates, to take possession of the newly granted 
 
 * The following account of the origin of the name Pennsylvania, given by its founder, 
 in a letter dated January 5, 1681, is curious and interesting. 'This day,' says Penn, 
 ' after many waitings, watchings, solicitings. and disputes, in council, my country was 
 confirmed to me under the great seal of England, with large powers and privileges, 
 by the name of Pennsylvania ; a name the king would give it in honor of my father. 
 I chose New Wales, being a hilly country ; and when the secretary, a Welshman, 
 refused to call it New Wales, I proposed Sylvania, and they added Penn to it ; though 
 I much opposed it, and went to the king to have it struck out. He said 'twas past, and 
 he would take it upon him ; nor could twenty guineas move the under-secretary to vary 
 the name ; for I feared it should be looked on as a vanity in me, and not as a respect 
 in the king to my father, as it really was. Thou mayest communicate my grant to 
 friends, and expect shortly my proposals. 'Tis a dear and just thing, and my God, that 
 has given it me through many difficulties, will, I believe, bless and make it the seed of 
 a nation. I shall have a tender care to the government, that it be well laid at first.' 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 599 
 
 territory ; and in the autumn three ships, with a considerable number of 
 emigrants, sailed for the same destination. The philanthropic proprietor 
 sent a letter to the Indians, informing them that ' the great God had been 
 pleased to make him concerned in their part of the world, and that the 
 king of the country where he lived, had given him a great province there- 
 in ; but that he did not desire to enjoy it without their consent; that he 
 was a man of peace, and that the people whom he sent were of the same 
 disposition ; and if any difference should happen between them, it might 
 be adjusted by an equal number of men chosen on both sides.' The posi- 
 tion selected by these emigrants for their abode, was immediately above 
 the confluence of the Schuylkill and Delaware. In the following April, 
 Penn published 'the frame of government for Pennsylvania.' The chief 
 intention of this famous charter was declared to be, ' for the support of 
 power in reverence with the people, and to secure the people from the 
 abuse of power. For, liberty without obedience is confusion, and obedi- 
 ence without liberty is slavery.' 
 
 The first page in the annals of Pennsylvania is one of the brightest in 
 the history of mankind, recording an event not more to the credit of the 
 wise and benevolent legislator through whose agency it happened, than 
 honorable to humanity itself. At a spot which is now the site of one of 
 the suburbs of Philadelphia, the Indian sachems, at the head of their as- 
 sembled warriors, awaited in arms the approach of the Quaker deputation. 
 
 Penn's Treaty. 
 
 Penn, distinguished from his followers only by a sash of blue silk, and 
 holding in his hand a roll of parchment that contained the confirmation of 
 the treaty, arrived, at the head of an unarmed train, carrying various arti- 
 cles of merchandise, which, on their approach to the sachems, were spread 
 on the ground. He addressed the natives through an interpreter, assuring 
 them of his friendly and peaceable intentions ; and certainly the absence 
 of all warlike weapons was a better attestation of his sincerity than a thou- 
 sand oaths. The conditions of the proposed purchase were then read; 
 and he delivered to the sachems not only the stipulated price, but a hand- 
 some present of the merchandise which he had spread before them. He 
 
600 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 concluded by presenting the parchment to the sachems, and requesting 
 that they would carefully preserve it for three generations. The Indians 
 cordially acceded to his propositions, and solemnly pledged themselves to 
 live in love with William Penn and his children as long as the sun and 
 moon should endure. 
 
 Having received information from his agent that his presence was neces- 
 sary in England, Penn departed from America, in August, 1684, leaving 
 his province in profound peace, under the administration of five commis- 
 sioners chosen from the provincial council. The unfortunate James II. 
 ascended the throne soon after Penn's arrival. ' As he has,' said Penn, 
 'been my friend, and my father's friend, I feel bound in justice to be a 
 friend to him.' He adhered to him while seated on the throne; and for 
 two years after he was expelled from his kingdom, the government of the 
 province was administered in his name. By this display of attachment to 
 the exiled monarch, he incurred the displeasure of William III. On vague 
 suspicion and unfounded charges, he was four times imprisoned. The 
 king took the government of Pennsylvania into his own hands ; and colo- 
 nel Fletcher was appointed governor of this province, as well as of New 
 York. On the arrival of colonel Fletcher at Philadelphia, the persons in 
 the administration appear to have surrendered the government to him, 
 without any notice or order to them, either from the crown or the proprie- 
 tary. By the severest scrutiny, however, it was rendered apparent, that 
 Penn had not suffered personal gratitude to lead him to any serious dere- 
 liction of duty, and he consequently regained the good opinion of king 
 William ; and being permitted to resume and exercise his rights, he ap- 
 pointed William Markham to be his deputy governor. 
 
 During several years the colony continued in a course of prosperity, with- 
 out any occurrence requiring historical record. In the year 1699, Penn 
 revisited his Pennsylvanian associates, accompanied by his family, with an 
 intention of spending the remainder of his life amongst them. But several 
 points soon came up, on which a difference of opinion existed between him- 
 self and the legislature, and disappointed him in his hopes of obtaining influ- 
 ence as a lawgiver. He consequently determined to return to England, and 
 he naturally desired to have some frame of government finally adopted 
 before his departure. In 1701, he prepared and presented one to the 
 assembly, which was accepted. It confirmed to them, in conformity with 
 that of 1696, the right of originating bills, which, by the charters preceding 
 that date, had been the right of the governor alone, and of amending or 
 rejecting those which might be laid before them. To the governor it gave 
 the right of rejecting bills passed by the assembly, of appointing his own 
 council, and of exercising the whole executive power. 
 
 Immediately after his fourth frame was accepted, Penn returned to 
 England ; but he had scarcely arrived there, when the disputes between 
 the province and the territories broke forth with greater bitterness than 
 ever ; and in the following year, the separate legislature of Delaware was 
 permanently established at Newcastle. In addition to the tidings of these 
 prolonged disagreements, and of the final rupture between the two settle- 
 ments, Penn was harassed by complaints against the administration of 
 governor Evans; and having ascertained, by a deliberate examination of 
 them, that they were too well founded, he appointed in his place Charles 
 Cookin, a gentleman of ancient Irish family, who seemed qualified to give 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 601 
 
 satisfaction to the people over whom he was sent to preside. Finding bis 
 people still in a discontented state, Penn, now in his sixty-sixth year] for 
 the last time addressed the assembly, in a letter replete with calm solem- 
 nity and dignified concern. This letter is said to have produced a deep 
 and powerful impression on the more considerate part of the assembly, 
 who now began to feel for the father of his country, and to regard with 
 tenderness his venerable age ; to remember his long labors, and°to appre- 
 ciate their own interest in his distinguished fame : but it is very doubtful 
 if this change of sentiment was ever known to its illustrious object, who 
 was attacked shortly afterwards by a succession of apoplectic fits, which 
 impeded, in a great degree, the exercise of his memory and understand- 
 ing, and ultimately terminated his life. 
 
 The legislatures and governors continuing to act on the noble principles 
 and example which their founder left for their imitation, the colony ac- 
 quired, by well-conducted purchases from the Indians, a most extensive and 
 unembarrassed territory, and proceeded rapidly in its prosperous course. 
 The only circumstance which appears to have created any internal dis- 
 union worthy of notice, was a dispute between the governors and the as- 
 sembly, on the question of exempting the land of the proprietaries front 
 the general taxation ; a claim which the inhabitants deemed very inequi- 
 table. In January, 1757, the assembly of Pennsylvania voted a bill for 
 granting to his majesty the sum of one hundred thousand pounds by tax 
 on all the estates, real and personal, and taxables, within the province. 
 On submitting it to governor Denny for his sanction, he refused it. 'The 
 proprietaries,' he observed in his message, ' are willing their estates should 
 be taxed in the manner that appears to them to be reasonable, and agree- 
 able to the land-tax acts of parliament in our mother country.' The 
 governors of Pennsylvania still refusing their assent to any tax bill that did 
 not exempt the estates of the proprietaries, the assembly of that province 
 deputed the celebrated Benjamin Franklin as an agent to London, to 
 petition the king for redress. The subject was discussed before the privy 
 council; and Mr. Franklin acceding to a proposal to enter into engage- 
 ments that the assessments should be fair and equitable, a bill for levying 
 a general tax, which had previously received the governor's assent, though 
 after the agent's departure from the province, was stamped with the royal 
 approbation. These disputes, by calling the energetic mind of Benjamin 
 Franklin into a new field of exertion, enlarged the sphere of his observa- 
 tion, and fitted him for those extraordinary services in which he acquired 
 his greatest glory by contributing to that of his country. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 The founder of the state of Maryland was lord Baltimore. Before the 
 date of his charter, it was a portion of the territory of Virginia; but by 
 that instrument it was separated, and declared subject only to the crown 
 of England. Lord Baltimore was created the absolute proprietary of it, 
 and was empowered, with the assent of delegates, whom he was to assem- 
 ble for that purpose, to make laws for the province, and to administer 
 them. Having thus obtained a most favorable charter, he proceeded to 
 carry its provisions into execution. 
 
 76 51 
 
602 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 He appointed his brother, Leonard Calvert, governor of the new pro- 
 vince, and concurred with him in the equipment of vessels, which conveyed 
 a numerous body of emigrants, chiefly Roman Catholics, and many of 
 them gentlemen of rank and fortune. After a circuitous voyage the gover- 
 nor arrived, accompanied by his brother George, at Point Comfort, in Vir- 
 ginia, in February, 1634. Early in March, he proceeded up the bay of 
 Chesapeake to the northward, and entered the Potomack, up which he 
 sailed twelve leagues, and came to an anchor under an island, which he 
 named St. Clement. Here he erected a cross, and took possession 'in the* 
 name of the Savior of the world, and of the king of England.' Thence " 
 he went fifteen leagues higher to the Indian town of Potowmack, on the 
 Virginia side of the river, now called New Marlborough, where he was 
 received in a friendly manner. Arriving at the town of Piscatawa, on the 
 Maryland side, he found Henry Fleet, an Englishman, who had resided 
 several years among the natives, and was held by them in great esteem, 
 who was very serviceable as an interpreter. 
 
 An interview having been procured with the werowance, or prince, Cal- 
 vert asked him, whether he was willing that a settlement should be made 
 in his country; he replied, 'I will not bid you go, neither will I bid you 
 stay; but you may use your own discretion.' Having convinced the na- 
 tives that his designs were honorable and pacific, the governor now sought 
 a suitable station for commencing his colony. He visited a creek on the 
 northern side of the Potomack, on which he found an Indian village. 
 Here he acquainted the prince of the place with his intentions, and by 
 presents to him and his principal men, conciliated his friendship so much 
 as to obtain permission to reside in one part of the town until next harvest, 
 when it was agreed that the natives should entirely quit the place. Both 
 parties entered into a contract to live together in a friendly manner. After 
 Calvert had given a satisfactory consideration, the Indians readily yielded 
 a number of their houses, and retired to the others. Thus, on the 27th of 
 March, 1634, the governor took peaceable possession of the country of Ma- 
 ryland, and gave to the town the name of St. Mary, and to the creek on 
 which it was situate, the name of St. George. The desire of rendering 
 justice to the natives by giving them a reasonable compensation for their 
 lands, is a trait in the character of the first planters, which will always do 
 honor to their memory. 
 
 Circumstances favored the rapid population of the colony. The charter 
 granted more ample privileges than had ever been conceded to a subject ; 
 the country was inviting; the natives were friendly; from the south 
 Churchmen drove Puritans, from the north Puritans drove Churchmen, 
 into her borders, where all were freely received, protected, and cherished. 
 The colony was soon able to export Indian corn and other products to New 
 England and Newfoundland, for which they received in return dried fish 
 and other provisions. The Indians also killed many deer and turkeys, 
 which they sold to the English for knives, beads, and other small articles 
 of traffic, while cattle, swine, and poultry, were procured from Virginia. 
 
 It is a fact, which reflects the greatest credit on these early colonists, 
 that fifteen years after they first landed, the general assembly of the people 
 passed an act, entitled ' An Act concerning Religion,' in which the great 
 principles of religious toleration and liberty are extensively recognised. 
 This law was passed by an assembly composed entirely of Roman Catho- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 603 
 
 lies, and is the more remarkable, as being the first legislative act which is 
 recorded to have been passed by any government, administered by mem- 
 bers of the Romish hierarchy, in favor of the unlimited toleration of all 
 Christian sects. 
 
 In 1676, Cecil, lord Baltimore, the father of the province, died. For 
 more than forty years he had directed its affairs as proprietor, and displayed 
 in all his conduct a benevolent heart and enlightened understanding. Al- 
 though he lived in an age of bigotry, he was liberal in his opinions ; and 
 fbr all his exertions to contribute to the happiness of his fellow-beings, he 
 desired no reward but their gratitude. This reward he received. The 
 records of the Maryland assembly contain frequent memorials of the re- 
 spect and affection of the people. He was succeeded, as proprietor, by his 
 eldest son, Charles, who had for several years been governor of the colony, 
 and displayed the same amiable qualities which had rendered his father 
 respected and beloved. 
 
 The closing years of the proprietary government were embittered by a 
 circumstance similar to that which the institution of the colony of Mary- 
 land had inflicted on Virginia. The grant which had been made by 
 Charles II. to the celebrated Penn included the territory of Delaware, 
 which lord Baltimore had always considered within the limits of his pa- 
 tent. On the arrival of William Penn in America, a meeting took place 
 between him and lord Baltimore, in the hope of effecting an amicable 
 adjustment of the boundaries of their respective territorial grants. But the 
 pretensions of the parties were so completely incompatible, that it proved 
 impossible at the time to adjust them in a manner satisfactory to both. 
 Penn ultimately complained to the English government, and by his interest 
 at court, procured it to be adjudged that the debatable territory should be 
 divided into two equal parts, one of which was appropriated to himself, 
 and the other to lord Baltimore. This adjudication was carried into ef- 
 fect ; and the territory which now composes the state of Delaware was 
 thus dismembered from the provincial limits of Maryland. 
 
 In the year following the revolution of 16S8, the repose of Maryland 
 was again disturbed. A rumor was artfully circulated that the Catholics 
 had leagued with the Indians to destroy all the Protestants in the province. 
 ' An armed association was immediately formed, for the defence of the Pro- 
 testant religion, and for asserting the rights of king William and queen 
 Mary. The magistrates attempted to oppose this association by force ; 
 but, meeting with few supporters, they were compelled to abdicate the 
 government King William directed those who had assumed the supreme 
 authority to exercise it in his name ; and for twenty-seven years the 
 crown retained the entire control of the province. In 1716, the proprietor 
 was restored to his rights ; and he and his descendants continued to enjoy 
 them until the commencement of the revolution. The people then assumed 
 the government, adopted a constitution, and refused to admit the claims ot 
 the representatives of lord Baltimore either to jurisdiction or to property. 
 
 NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 The final settlement of this country originated with the earl of Claren- 
 don and other courtiers of Charles II., who were presented with a grant 
 
G04 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of all the lands lying between the thirty-first and thirty-sixth degrees of 
 north latitude, and received in their charter ample powers of administra- 
 tion and judicature. Some previous efforts had been unsuccessfully made 
 to colonize this portion of the North American continent, and grants had 
 been given to different individuals, which were now all pronounced void 
 by the pvivy council. A few settlers were scattered in different parts, and 
 those on Albemarle sound were on certain conditions allowed to retain 
 their lands. A government was organized over them, at the head of 
 which Mr. Drummond was placed. 
 
 Having taken the command of the infant settlement at Albemarle, the 
 proprietaries directed a survey of the coast to the southward, and projected 
 the establishment of a new colony in Clarendon country, which had been 
 recently abandoned by the emigrants from New England. In furtherance 
 of this object, they conferred on John Yeamans, a respectable planter of 
 Barbadoes, the appointment of commander-in-chief of Clarendon country. 
 In the autumn, he conducted from Barbadoes a body of emigrants, who 
 landed on the southern bank of cape Fear. He cultivated the good will 
 of the natives, and insured a seven years' peace. The planters, in opening 
 ihe forest to make room for the operations of tillage, ' necessarily prepared 
 timber for the uses of the cooper and builder, which they transmitted to 
 the island whence they had emigrated, as the first subject of a feeble com- 
 merce, that kindled the spark of industry which soon gave animation to 
 the whole.' Another settlement was also projected to the southward of 
 cape Remain, which received the name of Carteret, and was placed under 
 a separate governor. 
 
 In pursuance of the authority with which the proprietors were invested 
 by their charter, they began to frame a system of laws for the government 
 of their colony ; in which they availed themselves of the assistance of the 
 illustrious John Locke. The form of government proposed by mis emi- 
 nent man proved utterly impracticable and useless. It received no favor 
 from the people, and never attained the force of fundamental laws. 
 
 Notwithstanding these constitutions and legal preparations, several years 
 elapsed before the proprietors of Carolina made any serious efforts towards 
 its settlement. In 1667, they fitted out a ship, gave the command of it to 
 captain William Sayle, and sent him out to bring them some account of 
 the coast. His report to his employers, as might naturally be expected, 
 was favorable. He praised their possessions, and encouraged them to 
 eno-ao-e with vigor in the execution of their project. His observations re- 
 specting the Bahama islands, which he had visited, induced them to apply 
 to the king for a grant of them, and Charles bestowed on them by patent 
 all those islands lying between the twenty-second and twenty-seventh 
 degrees of north latitude. Nothing then remained but to make prepara- 
 tions for sending a colony to Carolina. Two ships were procured, on board 
 of which a number of adventurers embarked, with provisions, arms, and 
 utensils requisite for building and cultivation. 
 
 Sayle was appointed the first governor, and received a commission, 
 bearing" date July 26, 1669. The expenses of this first embarkation 
 amounted to twelve thousand pounds ; a proof that the proprietors enter- 
 tained no small hopes with respect to their palatinate. The number of 
 men, however, must have been by no means adequate to the undertaking, 
 especially considering the multitude of savages that ranged through that 
 
HISTORY. 6Q5 
 
 extensive wilderness. In what place governor Sayle first landed is uncer- 
 tain ; but he was dissatisfied with his first situation, and, moving to the 
 southward, took possession of a neck of land between Ashley and & Cooner 
 rivers, where he laid out a town, which, in honor of the kino- then rei^n 
 ing, he called Charleston ; but dying soon after, Sir John Yeamans who 
 had for several years been governor at Clarendon, was appointed to' suc- 
 ceed him. This new settlement attracted many inhabitants from that at 
 Clarendon, and ultimately entirely exhausted it. Being at a great distance 
 from Albemarle, the proprietors established a separate government over it, 
 and hence arose the distinctive appellations of North and South Carolina! 
 
 The affairs of the northern colony must now occupy a portion of our 
 attention. The fundamental constitutions, which have already been de- 
 scribed, were received by the colonists with disgust and disunion. Their 
 promulgation produced no other effect than to excite the most inveterate 
 jealousy of the designs of the proprietaries; till, in process of time, a re- 
 fractory spirit took possession of the minds of the people, and was at length 
 exasperated into sentiments as hostile to subordination, as the policy of the 
 proprietaries was repugnant to liberty. From this period the history of the 
 northern province, for a series of years, is involved in such confusion and 
 contradiction, that it is impossible to render it interesting, and difficult to 
 make it even intelligible. It is a record of insurrection and revolt, not 
 easily understood, and not sufficiently interesting to demand more than 
 this slight allusion. 
 
 To return to the affairs of the southern colony, now under the adminis- 
 tration of Joseph West. The situation of Old Charleston being found 
 inconvenient, the inhabitants, in 1680, removed to Oyster Point, where a 
 new city was laid out, to which the name of the other was given. In the 
 same year commenced a war with the Westoes, a powerful tribe of Indians, 
 which threatened great injury to the colony ; peace, however, was soon 
 restored. Governor West was superseded by Sir Richard Kirle, an Irish 
 gentleman, who died six months after his arrival in the country. After 
 his decease, colonel Robert Quarry was chosen his successor. During the 
 time of his government, a number of pirates put into Charleston, and pur- 
 chased provisions with their Spanish gold and silver. Those public rob- 
 bers, instead of being taken and tried by the laws of England, were treated 
 with great civility and friendship, in violation of the laws of nations. 
 
 Whether the governor was ignorant of the treaty made with Spain, by 
 which England had withdrawn her former toleration from these plunderers 
 of the Spanish dominions, or whether he was afraid to bring them to trial 
 from the notorious courage of their companions in the West Indies, we 
 have not sufficient authority to affirm ; but one thing is certain, that 
 Charles II., for several years after the restoration, winked at their depreda- 
 tions, and many of them performed such valiant actions, as, in a good 
 cause, would have justly merited honors and rewards ; he even knighted 
 Henry Morgan, a Welshman, who had plundered Porto Bello and Panama, 
 and carried off large treasures from them. For several years so formidable 
 was this body of plunderers in the West Indies, that they struck a terror 
 into every quarter of the Spanish dominions. Their gold and silver, 
 which they lavishly spent in the colony, insured to them a kind reception 
 among the Carolinians, who opened their ports to them freely, and fur- 
 nished them with necessaries. They could purchase the favor of the 
 
 51* 
 
606 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 governor, and the friendship of the people, for what they deemed a trifling 
 consideration. Leaving their gold and silver behind them for clothes, 
 arms, ammunition, and provisions, they embarked in quest of more. 
 However, the proprietors, having intelligence of the encouragement given 
 to pirates by governor Quarry, dismissed him from the office he held ; and, 
 in 1685, landgrave Joseph Morton was appointed to the government of the 
 colony. 
 
 It is not now of importance to recur to the difficulties between the pro- 
 prietary government and the people : they led to extreme irritation, and in 
 the year 1690, at a meeting of the representatives, a bill was brought in 
 and "passed, for disabling James Colleton, then governor of the province, 
 from holding any office, or exercising any authority, civil or military, in 
 the colony, and he was informed that in a limited time he must depart 
 from the colony. 
 
 During these public commotions, Seth Sothel, one of the proprietors, 
 who had been driven from North Carolina, appeared suddenly at Charles- 
 ton, and, aided by a powerful faction, assumed the reins of government. 
 At first the people gladly acknowledged his authority, while the current of 
 their enmity ran against Colleton ; especially as he stood forth as an active 
 and leading man in opposition to that governor, and ratified the law for 
 his exclusion and banishment ; but they afterwards found him void of 
 every principle of honor, and even of honesty. Such was the insatiable 
 avarice of this man, that every restraint of common justice and equity was 
 trampled upon by him; and oppression, such as usually attends the exal- 
 tation of vulgar and ambitious scramblers for power, extended her rod of 
 iron over the distracted colony. The fair traders from Barbadoes and 
 Bermuda were seized as pirates by order of this popular governor, and 
 confined until such fees as he was pleased to exact were paid him ; bribes 
 from felons and traitors were accepted to favor their escape from the hands 
 of justice ; and plantations were forcibly taken possession of, upon pre- 
 tences the most frivolous and unjust. At length, the people, weary of his 
 grievous impositions and extortions, agreed to take him by force, and ship 
 him off for England. He then evinced the meanness of spirit generally 
 associated with a disposition to tyranny, and humbly begged liberty to re- 
 main in the country, promising to submit his conduct to the trial of the 
 assembly at their first meeting. When the assembly met, thirteen differ- 
 ent charges were brought against him, and all supported by the strongest 
 evidence ; upon which, being found guilty, they compelled him to abjure 
 the government and country forever. 
 
 The next important incident that attracts our attention is the unsuccess- 
 ful expedition against St. Augustine, planned by governor Moore, in the 
 year 1702, at the time of a rupture in Europe between England and Spain. 
 It failed utterly, and entailed a debt on the colony of six thousand pounds 
 sterling ; which led to many severe reflections against the governor, and 
 brought him sadly into disrepute. To redeem his character, the governor 
 resolved upon an expedition against the Apalachian Indians ; in conse- 
 quence of the insults and injuries which they had been instigated by 
 the Spaniards to commit. To make his conquest permanent, he trans- 
 planted fourteen hundred of these Indians to the territory now included in 
 Georgia ; a measure which seems to have led to the settlement of the 
 English in that part of the country. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 607 
 
 The northern colony continued to receive accessions to its strength from 
 several of the European states. In 1707, a company of French* Protes- 
 tants arrived and seated themselves on the river Trent, a branch of the 
 Neuse ; and three years afterwards a large number of palatines, fleeino- 
 from religious persecution in Germany, sought refuge in the same part of 
 the province. To each of these bodies of emigrants the proprietors grant- 
 ed a hundred acres of land. On their newly acquired possessions they 
 were living in peace, in the enjoyment of liberty of conscience, and in the 
 prospect of competence and ease, when suddenly a terrible calamity fell 
 upon them. The Tuscarora and Coree Indians, smarting under recent 
 aggressions, and dreading, total extinction from the encroachment of these 
 strangers, with characteristic secrecy, plotted their entire destruction. 
 Sending their families to one of their fortified towns, twelve hundred bow- 
 men sallied forth, and in the same night attacked, in separate parties, the 
 nearest settlements of the palatines. Men, women, and children were in- 
 discriminately butchered. The savages, with the swiftness and ferocity of 
 wolves, ran from village to village. Before them was the repose of inno- 
 cence ; behind, the sleep of death. A few escaping alarmed the settle- 
 ments more remote, and hastened to South Carolina for assistance. 
 Governor Craven immediately despatched to the aid of the sister colony 
 nearly a thousand men, under the command of colonel Barnwell. Hide- 
 ous was the wilderness through which colonel Barnwell had to march, and 
 the utmost expedition was requisite. There was no road through the 
 woods upon which either horses or carriages could pass ; and his army 
 had all manner of hardships and dangers to encounter, from the climate, 
 the wilderness, and the enemy. 
 
 Jn spite of every difficulty, however, Barnwell advanced against them, 
 and being much better supplied with arms and ammunition than his enemy, 
 he did great execution among them, killing in the first battle three hun- 
 dred Indians, and taking about one hundred prisoners. The Tuscaroras 
 then retreated to their town, fortified within a wooden breastwork ; but 
 there Barnwell surrounded them, and forced them to sue for peace ; and 
 some of his men being wounded, and others having suffered greatly by 
 constant watching, and much hunger and fatigue, the savages the more 
 easily obtained their request. After having killed, wounded, or captured 
 nearly a thousand Tuscaroras, Barnwell returned to South Carolina. The 
 peace was, however, of short duration, and upon the recommencement of 
 hostilities, assistance was again solicited from the southern colony. Colo- 
 nel James Moore, an active young officer, was immediately despatched, 
 with forty white men and eight hundred friendly Indians. He found the 
 enemy in a fort near Cotechny river ; and after a siege, which continued 
 more than a week, the fort was taken, and eight hundred Indians made 
 prisoners. The Tuscaroras, disheartened by this defeat, migrated, in 1713, 
 to the north, and joined the celebrated confederacy, denominated the Five 
 Nations. The others sued for peace, and afterwards continued friendly. 
 
 The northern colony had scarcely recovered from the scourge of Indian 
 war, when the southern was exposed to the same calamity. All the tribes 
 from Florida to cape Fear, had been for some time engaged in a conspira- 
 cy to extirpate the whites. On the day before the Yamassees began their 
 bloody operations, captain Nairn and some of the traders observing an 
 uncommon gloom on their savage countenances, and apparently great agi- 
 
COS BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tations of spirit, which to them prognosticated approaching mischief, went 
 to their chief men, begging to know the cause of their uneasiness, and 
 promising, if any injury had been done them, to give them satisfaction. 
 The chiefs replied, they had no complaints to make against any one, but 
 intended to go a-hunting early the next morning. Captain Nairn accord- 
 ingly went to sleep, and the traders retired to their huts, and passed the 
 night in seeming friendship and tranquillity. But next morning at day- 
 break, the 15th day of April, all were alarmed with the cries of war. The 
 leaders were all out under arms, calling up their followers, and proclaim- 
 ing aloud designs of vengeance. The young men, burning with fury and 
 passion, flew to their arms, and, in a few hours, massacred above ninety 
 persons in Pocotaligo town and the neigboring plantations ; and many 
 more must have fallen a sacrifice on Port Royal island, had they not pro- 
 videntially been warned of their danger. Mr. Burrows, a captain of the 
 militia, after receiving two wounds, by swimming one mile and running 
 ten escaped to Port Royal, and alarmed the town. A vessel happening 
 fortunately to be in the harbor, the inhabitants in great hurry repaired on 
 board, and sailed for Charleston ; a few families of planters on that island, 
 not having timely notice, fell into the barbarous hands of the Indians, and 
 of them some were murdered, and others made prisoners of war. 
 
 While the Yamassees, with whom the Creeks and Apalachians had 
 joined, were advancing against the southern frontiers, and spreading deso- 
 lation and slaughter through the province, the colonists on the northern 
 borders also found the Indians among their settlements in formidable par- 
 ties. The Carolinians had foolishly entertained hopes of the friendship 
 of the Congarees, the Catawbas, and Cherokees ; but they soon found that 
 they had also joined in the conspiracy, and declared for war. It was com- 
 puted that the southern division of the enemy consisted of above six thou- 
 sand bowmen, and the northern of between six hundred and a thousand. 
 In the muster-roll at Charleston there were no more than one thousand 
 two hundred men fit to bear arms, but as the town had several forts into 
 which the inhabitants might retreat, governor Craven resolved to march 
 with this small force into the woods against the enemy. He proclaimed 
 martial law, and laid an embargo on all ships, to prevent either men or 
 provisions from leaving the country. He obtained an act of assembly, em- 
 powering him to impress men, and seize arms, ammunition, and stores, 
 wherever they were to be found, to arm such trusty negroes as might be 
 serviceable at a juncture so critical, and to prosecute the war with the 
 utmost vigor. 
 
 Being no stranger to the ferocious temper of his enemies, and their hor- 
 rid cruelty to prisoners, the governor advanced against them by slow and 
 cautious steps, always keeping the strictest guard round his army. He 
 knew well under what advantages they fought among their native thickets, 
 and the various wiles and stratagems they made use of in conducting their 
 wars ; and therefore he was watchful above all things against surprises, 
 which might throw his followers into disorder, and defeat the end of his 
 enterprise. The fate of the whole province depended on the success of 
 his arms, and his men had no other alternative but to conquer or die a 
 painful death. As he advanced, the straggling parties fled before him, 
 until he reached Saltcatchers, where they had pitched their great camp. 
 Here a sharp and bloody battle ensued from behind trees and bushes, the 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 609 
 
 ajjain 
 
 Indians whooping, hallooing, and giving way one while, and then 
 and again returning with double fury to the charge. But the governor] 
 notwithstanding their superior number, and their terrible shrieks^kept the' 
 provincials close at their heels, and drove them before him like a flock of 
 wolves. He expelled them from their settlement at Indian river, pursued 
 them over the Savannah, and entirely freed the province of this formida- 
 ble tribe of savages. What number of the army was killed does not ap- 
 pear ; but in the whole war nearly four hundred unfortunate inhabitants 
 of Carolina fell a prey to Indian cruelty, property of great value was de- 
 stroyed, and a large debt contracted. 
 
 Of this debt the proprietors refused to pay any portion, and by their 
 harsh and arbitrary conduct in regard to this matter and its consequences, 
 a bitter hostility grew up between them and the people. It was resolved 
 to throw off their yoke. A favorable opportunity presented itself at a 
 general review of the militia at Charleston, in 1719 ; the officers and sol- 
 diers binding themselves by a solemn compact to resist the tyranny of the 
 proprietors. The assembly was dissolved by the governor, but it immedi- 
 ately met in convention, and assumed the direction of public affairs. In 
 spite of all opposition they established themselves in the full possession of 
 the government, both in its legislative and executive relations. 
 
 The agent for Carolina at length procured a hearing from the lords of 
 the regency and council in England, the king being at that time in Hano- 
 ver ; who gave it as their opinion, that the proprietors had forfeited their 
 charter, and ordered the attorney-general to take out a scire facias against 
 it. In consequence of this decision, in September, 1720, they appointed 
 general Francis Nicholson provisional governor of the province, with a 
 commission from the king. Several years afterwards, seven of the pro- 
 prietors sold to the king their claim to the soil and rents, and all of them 
 assigned to him their right of jurisdiction. The government of both Caro- 
 linas was subsequently administered in each colony by a governor and 
 council appointed by the crown, and by assemblies chosen by the people. 
 They soon attracted general attention, and their population was increased 
 by accessions from several of the states of Europe. 
 
 In 1738, an alarming insurrection of the negroes occurred in the south- 
 ern colony. A number of them assembled at Stono, and surprised and 
 killed two men who had charge of a warehouse, from which they took 
 guns and ammunition. They" then chose a captain, and, with drums 
 beating and colors flying, marched south-westward. They burned every 
 house on their way, "killed all the whites they could find, and compelled 
 other negroes to join them. Governor Bull, who was returning to Charles- 
 ton from the southward, accidentally met them, hastened out of their way, 
 and spread an alarm. The news soon reached Wiltown, where, fortu- 
 nately, a laro-e congregation were attending divine service. I he men 
 having, according to a Faw of the province, brought their arms to the place 
 of worship, marched instantly in quest of the negroes, who, by this time, 
 had become formidable, and spread terror and desolation around them, 
 having killed about twenty of the whites. While, in an open field, they 
 were carousing and dancing, with frantic exultation at their late success, 
 they were suddenly attacked ; some were killed, and the remainder took 
 to flight, but most of them were taken and tried. Those who had been 
 compelled to join the conspirators were pardoned ; but the leaders ana 
 77 
 
610 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 principal instigators suffered death. Under apprehensions resulting, pro- 
 bably, from this rebellion, the legislature of South Carolina passed an act, 
 that whoever shall teach, or cause any slave or slaves to be taught to 
 write, or shall use or employ any slave as a scribe in any manner of 
 writing whatsoever, shall, for every such offence, forfeit the sum of one 
 hundred pounds. 
 
 The Carolinas were frequently exposed to the injurious effects of war 
 from the French and Spaniards, as well as from some of the Indian tribes ; 
 but after the treaty of Paris, the progress of these colonies was no longer 
 retarded from that cause. The assembly of South Carolina, taking advan- 
 tage of the peaceful state of the colony to encourage emigration, appro- 
 priated a large fund for bounties to foreign Protestants, and such industrious 
 poor people of Great Britain and Ireland as should resort to the province 
 within three years, and settle on the inland parts. Two townships, each 
 containing forty-eight thousand acres, were laid out ; one on the river 
 Savannah, called Mecklenburgh, and the other on the waters of Santee, at 
 Long Cane, called Londonderry. Not long after, the colony received a 
 considerable accession from Germany. 
 
 Beside foreign Protestants, several persons emigrated from England and 
 Scotland, and great multitudes from Ireland, and settled in Carolina. An 
 accession was also derived from the northern colonies, from which, in the 
 space of one year, above a thousand families removed thither. To these 
 adventurers lands in small tracts were allotted on the frontiers, by which 
 means the back settlements soon became the most populous part of the 
 province, while the whole felt the important benefits resulting from such 
 accessions to its population. 
 
 The last of the colonies established previous to the war of independence 
 was Georgia. A company of wealthy and influential individuals obtained 
 a patent from George III., conferring the necessary powers, and lost no 
 time in the prosecution of their design. In November, 1733, James Ogle- 
 thorpe embarked at Gravesend for Georgia, with one hundred and sixteen 
 persons, destined for settlement in that country. In the following January 
 he arrived at Charleston, where he was kindly received, and whence he 
 started to explore the territory granted by the patent. He selected the 
 present site of Savannah as the most desirable point for the new settlement. 
 Having completed a fort at this place, and put the colony in a state of 
 defence, he next sought to cultivate friendly relations with the Indians, 
 and to treat with them for a share of their possessions. Having made 
 such arrangements as seemed to insure safety, Oglethorpe returned to 
 England, carrying with him several Indians, among whom was Tomochi- 
 chi, a chief of the Creeks, and his queen. Here they remained on a visit 
 of about four months. 
 
 In the year 1740, the trustees rendered an account of their administra- 
 tion. At that time nearly two thousand five hundred emigrants had arrived 
 in the colony ; of whom more than fifteen hundred were indigent Eng- 
 lishmen, or persecuted Protestants. The benefactions from government 
 and from individuals had been nearly half a million of dollars ; and it 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 611 
 
 was computed that, for every person transported and maintained by the 
 trustees, more thaia three hundred dollars had been expended. The hopes 
 which the trustees had cherished, that the colony would be prosperous 
 and the objects of their benevolence happy, were far from realized. Such 
 was the character of the greater part of the settlers and the nature of the 
 restrictions imposed, that the plantations languished, and continued to re- 
 quire the contributions of the charitable. In the mean time events were 
 preparing a rupture in Europe, and a war between England and Spain ap- 
 peared inevitable. The plenipotentiaries, appointed for settling the boun- 
 daries between Georgia and Florida, and other differences and" misunder- 
 standings subsisting between the two crowns, had met at Pardo in conven- 
 tion, where preliminary articles were drawn up; but the conference ended 
 to the satisfaction of neither party. The merchants had lost all patience un- 
 der their sufferings, and became clamorous for letters of reprisal, which at 
 length they obtained ; all officers of the navy and army were ordered to 
 their stations, and, with the unanimous voice of the nation, war was de- 
 clared against Spain on the 23d of October, 1739. 
 
 As soon as intelligence of the declaration of war reached Georgia, ge- 
 neral Oglethorpe passed over to Florida with four hundred select men of 
 his regiment, and a considerable party of Indians ; and a few days after, 
 he marched with his whole force, consisting of above two thousand men, 
 regulars, provincials, and Indians, to fort Moosa, within two miles of St. 
 Augustine. The Spanish garrison evacuating the fort on his approach, 
 and retiring into the town, put themselves in a posture of defence ; and the 
 general soon discovering that an attempt to take the castle by storm would 
 be presumptuous, changed his plan of operations, and resolved, with the 
 assistance of the ships of war which were lying at anchor off Augustine 
 bar, to turn the siege into a blockade. Having made the necessary dis- 
 positions, he summoned the Spanish governor to surrender ; but, secure in 
 his strong-hold, he sent him for an answer that he would be glad to shake 
 hands with him in his castle. 
 
 Indignant at this reply, the general opened his batteries against the 
 castle, and at the same time threw a number of shells in the town. The 
 fire was returned with equal spirit from the Spanish fort, and from six 
 half-galleys in the harbor ; but the distance was so great that the cannon- 
 ade, though it continued several days, did little execution on either side. 
 It appears that, notwithstanding the blockade, the Spanish garrison con- 
 trived to admit a reinforcement of seven hundred men, and a large supply 
 of provisions. All prospect of starving the enemy being lost, the army 
 began to despair of forcing the place to surrender. The Carolina troops, 
 enfeebled by the heat of the climate, dispirited by sickness, and fatigued 
 by fruitless efforts, marched away in large bodies. The naval commander, 
 in consideration of the shortness of his provisions, and of the near approach 
 of the usual season of hurricanes, judged it imprudent to hazard his fleet 
 longer on that coast. The general himself was sick of a fever, and his 
 regiment was worn out with fatigue, and disabled by sickness. These 
 combined disasters rendered it necessary to abandon the enterprise ; and 
 Oglethorpe, with extreme sorrow and regret, returned to Frederica. 
 
 After a lapse of two years the Spaniards prepared to retaliate by the in- 
 vasion of Georgia, intending, if successful, to subjugate the Carolinas and 
 Virginia. On receiving information of their approach, general Oglethorpe 
 
612 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 solicited assistance from South Carolina : but the inhabitants of that colo- 
 ny, entertaining a strong prejudice against him, and terrified by the danger 
 which threatened themselves, determined to provide only for their own safe 
 ty, though without avowing their intention. General Oglethorpe, howe- 
 ver, made preparations for a vigorous defence. He assembled seven hun- 
 dred men, exclusive of a body of Indians, fixed his head-quarters at Fre- 
 derica, on the island of St. Simon, and, with this small band, determined to 
 encounter whatever force might be brought against him. It was his ut- 
 most hope that he might be able to resist the enemy until a reinforcement 
 should arrive from Carolina, which he daily and anxiously expected. Ou 
 the last day of June, the Spanish fleet, consisting of thirty-two sail, and 
 having on board more than three thousand men, came to anchor off St. Si- 
 mon's bay. Notwithstanding all the resistance which general Oglethorpe 
 could oppose, they sailed up the river Altamaha, landed upon the island, 
 and there erected fortifications. Convinced that his small force, if divided, 
 must be entirely inefficient, Oglethorpe assembled the whole of it at Fre- 
 derica. One portion he employed in strengthening his fortifications; the 
 Highlanders and Indians, ranging night and day through the woods, often 
 attacked the outposts of the enemy. The toil of the troops was incessant ; 
 and the long delay of the expected succors, still unexpectedly withheld by 
 South Carolina, caused the most gloomy and depressing apprehensions. 
 
 Oglethorpe, at length, learning by an English prisoner who escaped from 
 the Spanish camp, that a difference subsisted between the troops from Cuba 
 and those from St. Augustine, so as to occasion a separate encampment, 
 resolved to attack the enemy while thus divided. Taking advantage of 
 his knowledge of the woods, he marched out in the night with three hun- 
 dred chosen men, the Highland company and some rangers, with the in- 
 tention of surprising the enemy. Having advanced within two miles of 
 the Spanish camp, he halted his troops, and went forward himself with a 
 select corps to reconnoitre the enemy's situation. While he was endea- 
 voring cautiously to conceal his approach, a French soldier of his party 
 discharged his musket, and ran into the Spanish lines. Thus betrayed, 
 he hastened his return to Frederica, and endeavored to effect by stratagem 
 what could not be achieved by surprise. Apprehensive that the deserter 
 would discover to the enemy his weakness, he wrote him a letter, desiring 
 him to acquaint the Spaniards with the defenceless state of Frederica, and 
 the ease with which his small garrison might be cut to pieces. He pressed 
 him to bring forward the Spaniards to an attack; but, if he could not pre- 
 vail thus far, to use all his art and influence to persuade them to stay at 
 least three days more at fort Simon; for within that time, according to 
 advices he had just received from Carolina, he should have a reinforcement 
 of two thousand land forces, with six British ships of war. The letter con- 
 cluded with a caution to the deserter against dropping the least hint of 
 admiral Vernon's meditated attack upon St. Augustine, and with an as- 
 surance that for his service he should be amply rewarded by the British king. 
 
 Oglethorpe gave it to a Spanish prisoner, who, for a small reward toge- 
 ther with his liberty, promised to deliver it to the French deserter. On 
 his arrival at the Spanish camp, however, he gave the letter, as Oglethorpe 
 expected, to the commander-in-chief, who instantly put the deserter in 
 irons. This letter perplexed and confounded the Spaniards ; some sus- 
 pecting it to be a stratagem to prevent an attack on Frederica, and others 
 
HKTORY 
 
 613 
 
 delieving it to contain serious instructions to direct the conduct of a spy 
 While the Spanish officers were deliberating what measures to adopt an 
 incident, not within the calculation of military skill, or the control of hu- 
 man power, decided their counsels. Three ships of force, which the 
 governor of South Carolina had sent out to Oglethorpe's aid, appeared at 
 this juncture off the coast. The agreement of this discovery with the con- 
 tents of the letter convinced the Spanish commander of its real intention. 
 The whole army, seized with an instant panic, set fire to the fort, and pre- 
 cipitately embarked, leaving several cannon, with a quantity of provisions 
 and military stores; and thus, in the moment of threatened conquest, was 
 the infant colony providentially saved. 
 
 Thus was Georgia, with trifling loss, delivered from the most imminent 
 danger. General Oglethorpe not only retrieved, but established his repu- 
 tation. From the Carolinians, grateful for their preservation, and from the 
 governors of most of the northern colonies, he received cordial congratula- 
 tions upon his address and good fortune. Baton an impeachment brought 
 forward before this invasion, Oglethorpe still felt himself bound in honor 
 to return to England, where, on trial, the charge was adjudged to be false, 
 malicious and groundless, and its author dismissed his majesty's service. 
 The character of this able general now appeared in its true light ; and his 
 contemporaries acknowledged what impartial history records, that to him 
 Carolina was indebted for her safety and repose, as well as Georgia for her 
 existence and protection. After this period general Oglethorpe never re- 
 turned to the province of Georgia, but upon all occasions discovered in 
 England an uncommon zeal for its prosperity and improvement. 
 
 In the year 1749, the colony was exposed to great danger from a quarter 
 as unexpected as it was singular. During the whole of his administration, 
 general Oglethorpe had, from motives of policy, treated an Indian, or 
 rather half-breed woman, called Mary Musgrove, afterwards Mary Bosom- 
 worth, with particular kindness and generosity. Finding that she had 
 great influence amongst the Creeks, and understood their language, he 
 made use of her as an interpreter, in order the more easily to form treaties 
 of alliance with them ; allowing her for her services one hundred pounds 
 sterling a year. Thomas Bosomworth, who was chaplain to Oglethorpe's 
 regiment, had married this woman, accepted a tract of land from the crown, 
 and settled in the province. Being unsuccessful in most of his specula- 
 tions, he had recourse to one of an extraordinary kind. He persuaded his 
 wife to assert herself to be the elder sister of Malatche, the Indian chief, 
 and to have descended, by a maternal line, from an Indian king, who held 
 from nature the whole territory of the Creeks ; and therefore to pos- 
 sess a right to them, superior not only to that of the trustees, but also to 
 that of the king. Accordingly, Mary assumed the title of an independent 
 empress, disavowing all subjection or allegiance to the king of Great 
 Britain, otherwise than by way of treaty or alliance, such as one indepen- 
 dent sovereign might voluntarily enter into with another ; a meeting of all 
 the Creeks was summoned, to whom Mary made a long speech, in which 
 she set forth the justice of her claim, and the great injury she and her 
 beloved subjects had sustained by the loss of their territories, and urged 
 them to a defence of their rights by force of arms. The Indians were fired 
 with rage at the idea of such indignity, and to a man pledged themselves 
 to stand by her to the last drop of their blood in defence of her royal person 
 
614 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and their lands ; in consequence of which, queen Mary, escorted by a large 
 body of her savage subjects, set out for Savannah, to demand from the pre- 
 sident and council a formal acknowledgment of her rights in the province. 
 
 Several interviews between the magistrates and the Indian chiefs took 
 place on this strange occurrence, and the president and council were flat- 
 tering themselves with the idea of an amicable compromise of all the exist- 
 ing difficulties, and rejoicing in the re-establishment of friendly intercourse 
 with the Creeks, when Mary, excited with liquor, and disappointed in her 
 royal views, rushed in amongst them like a fury, told the president that 
 these were her people, that he had no business with them, and that he 
 should soon be convinced of it to his cost. The president calmly advised 
 her to retire to her lodgings, and forbear to poison the minds of the 
 Indians, adding that he would otherwise order her into close confinement ; 
 upon which, turning about to Malatche, in great rage, she repeated, with 
 some ill-natured comments, what the president had said ; Malatche started 
 from his seat, laid hold of his arms, calling upon the rest to follow his ex- 
 ample, and dared any man to touch the queen. The whole house was 
 filled in a moment with tumult and uproar ; every Indian having his toma- 
 hawk in his hand, the president and council expected nothing but instant 
 death. During this confusion, captain Jones, who commanded the guard, 
 very seasonably interposed, and ordered the Indians immediately to sur- 
 render their arms, endeavoring, however, not merely to overawe them, 
 but using prudence to avoid coming to extremities : with reluctance the 
 Indians submitted, and Mary was conveyed to a private room, where a 
 guard was placed over her, and all further communication with the Indi- 
 ans denied her during their stay in Savannah. Ultimately the soi-disant 
 queen was compelled to abandon her pretensions, and the Indians were 
 induced to depart, to the great joy of the inhabitants, who had been so 
 long harassed by their turbulent visit. 
 
 The wars to which it had been subject had much retarded the progress 
 of the colony, and in 1752 the trustees surrendered their charter to the 
 king. Georgia thus became a royal government. At this time the whole 
 exports of Georgia did not amount to ten thousand pounds a year. 
 
 FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS. 
 
 The formation and progress of all the colonies which constituted the 
 North American republic at the era of its independence, have now been 
 traced up to the middle of the eighteenth century. From that period cir- 
 cumstances tended rapidly to promote that federation which eventually 
 effected the independence of the colonies, and laid the basis of their future 
 prosperity ; indeed, in the prosecution of the French war, which commenced 
 in 1756, the energies of the colonies were so united in the attainment of 
 one common object, that the generalization of their political history from 
 that period is not only rendered preferable, but almost inevitable. 
 
 Not to enter into a detail of the progress of French discovery, it is suffi- 
 cient to say that France had established settlements on the St. Lawrence 
 and at the mouth of the Mississippi, and formed the bold plan of uniting 
 these points by a chain of forts, stretching across the continent, and intend- 
 ed to confine the English colonists to the eastern side of the Alleghanies. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 615 
 
 In their northern colonies, the military strength of the French was consi- 
 derable ; Quebec and Montreal were strongly fortified ; and at other 
 points, Louisbourg, Cape Breton, and the forts of lake Champlain, Niagara 
 Crown Point, Frontignac, Ticonderoga, and several others, defended* the 
 frontiers. They had also erected a considerable fort at the junction of the 
 Alleghany with the Monongahela, then called Du Quesne, but now form- 
 ing the site of Pittsburg. 
 
 The proceedings of the French in America excited a strong interest in 
 the minds of the British government ; and deeming war inevitable, orders 
 were sent to the governors of the several colonies to repel force by force, 
 and to dislodge the French from their posts on the Ohio. These orders 
 were accompanied with a recommendation to form a union of the colonies 
 for more effective defence. Delegates had already been appointed to meet 
 at Albany, for the purpose of conferring with the Five Nations ; and go- 
 vernor Shirley recommended that the subject of union should also be dis- 
 cussed at the convention. The commissioners from Massachusetts had 
 ample powers to co-operate in the formation of a plan ; those from Mary- 
 land were instructed to observe what others did ; and those from New 
 Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and New York, had 
 no instructions at all on the subject. As soon, however, as the friendship 
 of the Indians was thought to be secured be a distribution of presents, the 
 delegates appointed a committee to devise some scheme for the proposed 
 confederation ; and the committee recommended the adoption of a govern- 
 ment analogous to that of the individual colonies. There was to be a 
 grand council, composed of deputies from the several provinces, and a 
 president-general, appointed by the crown, with the power of negativing 
 the acts of the council. The Connecticut delegates, however, dissented 
 from this plan, because it placed too preponderating a power in the hands 
 of the crown. 
 
 It was rejected by the British ministry for the very opposite reason ; they 
 suggested, however, that the several governors, with one or two of their 
 counsellors, should meet and adopt such measures as the common safety 
 might demand. But this scheme was defeated by a provision, that they 
 might draw upon the British treasury for all necessary sums, which par- 
 liament would undertake to repay by imposing a general tax upon the 
 colonies. The Massachusetts assembly sent special instructions to its 
 agent in London to oppose most strenuously any measure which had for 
 its object the establishment of taxes on the colonies, under whatever plea 
 of utility ; and Franklin, to whom the governor of Virginia had sent the 
 proposition of the British minister, states most distinctly in his letter in 
 reply, the reasons which would ever prevent the Americans from consent- 
 ing to such a proposal. He observes that it would inspire universal dis- 
 content among the Americans to attempt the imposition of taxes by a 
 parliament where they were not represented ; a point of which neither the, 
 colonies nor the British government ever lost sight, from this period till 
 the contest it originated terminated in the entire separation of the former 
 from its dependence on the British crown. 
 
 Early in the spring of 1755, the British government despatched general 
 Braddock to America, with a respectable force, to expel the French, and 
 keep possession of the territory ; and preparations having been made by 
 France to despatch a reinforcement to her armies in Canada, admiral Bos- 
 
516 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 cawen was ordered to endeavor to intercept the French fleet before it should 
 enter the gulf of St. Lawrence. In April, general Braddock met the 
 governors of the several provinces to confer upon the plan of the ensuing 
 campaign. Three expeditions were resolved upon ; one against Du 
 Quesne, to be commanded by general Braddock ; one against forts Nia- 
 gara and Frontignac, to be commanded by governor Shirley ; and one 
 against Crown Point, to be commanded by general Johnston. This last 
 originated with Massachusetts, and was to be executed by colonial troops 
 raised in New England and New York. 
 
 While preparations were making for these expeditions, another, which 
 had been previously concerted, was carried on against the French forts in 
 Nova Scotia. This province was settled by the French, but was ceded to 
 the English by the treaty of Utrecht. Its boundaries not having been 
 defined, the French continued to occupy a portion of the territory claimed 
 by the English, and had built forts for their defence. To gain possession 
 of these was the object of the expedition. About two thousand militia, 
 commanded by colonel Winslow, embarked at Boston ; and being joined 
 on their passage by three hundred regulars, arrived in April at the place 
 of their destination. The forts were invested, the resistance made was 
 trifling and ineffectual, and in a short time the English gained entire pos- 
 session of the province according to their own definition of its boundaries. 
 Three only of their men were killed. 
 
 As soon as the convention of governors was dissolved, general Braddock 
 proceeded to the post at Wells' Creek, whence the army commenced its 
 march about the middle of June. Their progress was very much retarded 
 by the necessity of cutting a road ; and, lest the enemy should have time 
 to collect in great force, the general concluded to set forward with twelve 
 hundred select men, while colonel Dunbar should follow slowly in the 
 rear, with the main body and the heavy baggage. Colonel Washington's 
 regiment had been split into separate companies, and he had only joined 
 the army as aid to the general. The roughness of the country prevented 
 the advanced corps from reaching the Monongahela till the Sth of July. 
 It was resolved to attack Du Quesne the very next day; and lieutenant- 
 colonel Gage was sent in front with three hundred British regulars, while 
 the general himself followed at some distance with the main body. He 
 had been strongly cautioned by colonel Washington to provide against an 
 ambuscade, by sending forward some provincial companies to scour the 
 woods ; but he held the provincials and the enemy in equal contempt. 
 The Monongahela was crossed the second time, about seven miles from 
 Du Quesne ; and the army was pressing forward in an open wood, through 
 high and thick grass, when the front was suddenly thrown into disorder 
 by a volley from small arms. The main body was formed three deep, 
 and brought to its support : the commander-in-chief of the enemy fell ; 
 and a cessation of the fire led general Braddock to suppose that the assail- 
 ants had fled ; but he was soon attacked with redoubled fury. 
 
 Concealed behind trees, logs, and rocks, the Indians poured upon the 
 troops a deadly and incessant fire ; officers and men fell thickly around, 
 and the survivors knew not where to direct their aim to revenge their 
 slaughtered comrades. The whole body was again thrown into confusion ; 
 but the general, obstinate and courageous, refused to retreat ; and instead 
 of withdrawing them beyond the reach of the enemy's muskets, where 
 
HISTORY. g}T 
 
 their ranks might easily have been formed anew, undertook to rally them 
 on the very ground of attack, and in the midst of a most incessant and 
 deadly fire. He persisted in these efforts until five horses had been shot 
 under him, and every one of his officers on horseback, except colonel 
 Washington, was either killed or wounded. The general at length fell, 
 and the rout became universal. The troops fled precipitately until they 
 met the division under Dunbar, then sixty miles in the rear. Sixty-four 
 officers out of eighty-five, and about half of the privates, were killed or 
 wounded. General Braddock died in Dunbar's camp; and the whole 
 army, which appears to have been panic struck, marched back to Philadel- 
 phia. The provincial troops, whom Braddock had so lightly esteemed, 
 displayed during the battle the utmost calmness and courage. Though 
 placed in the rear, they alone, led on by Washington, advanced against 
 the Indians, and covered the retreat ; and had they at first been permitted 
 to engage the enemy in their own way, they would easily have defeated 
 them. 
 
 The two northern expeditions, though not so disastrous, failed in attain- 
 ing their proposed objects. The campaign of 1755 was thus utterly un- 
 successful. Immense preparations had been made, but no desired result 
 was obtained. By the failure of the three expeditions, the whole frontier 
 was left open to the ravages of the Indians. The second campaign was 
 almost as pregnant with evil. Montcalm had marched against Oswego, 
 and by destroying it had thrown the English and American army on the 
 defensive. No successful measures were put in operation to carry out the 
 plans of the colonists, and it was necessary to wait till the following year. 
 
 At the commencement of the following year a council was held at Bos- 
 ton, composed of lord Loudoun, and the governors of the New England pro- 
 vinces and of Nova Scotia. At this council his lordship proposed that New 
 England should raise four thousand men for the ensuing campaign ; and 
 that a proportionate number should be raised by New York and New Jer- 
 sey. These requisitions were complied with ; and in the spring his lord- 
 ship found himself at the head of a very considerable army. Admiral 
 Holbourn arriving in the beginning of July at Halifax with a powerful 
 squadron, and a reinforcement of five thousand British troops, under George 
 viscount Howe, lord Loudoun sailed from New York with six thousand 
 regulars, to join those troops at the place of their arrival. Instead of the 
 complex operations undertaken in previous campaigns, his lordship limited 
 his plan to a single object. Leaving the posts on the lakes strongly garri- 
 soned, he resolved to direct his whole disposable force against Louisbourg; 
 Halifax having been determined on as the place of rendezvous for the 
 fleet and army destined for the expedition. Information was, however, 
 soon received, that a French fleet had lately sailed from Brest; that Lou- 
 isbourg was garrisoned by six thousand regulars, exclusive of provincials ; 
 and that it was also defended by seventeen line-of-battle ships, which were 
 moored in the harbor. There "being no hope of success against so formi- 
 dable a force, the enterprise was deferred to the next year ; the general 
 and admiral on the last of August proceeded to New York ; and the pro- 
 vincials were dismissed. 
 
 The marquis De Montcalm, availing himself of the absence of the prin- 
 cipal part of the British force, advanced with an army of nine thousand 
 men, and laid siege to fort William Henry. The garrison at this fort 
 7S 52* 
 
618 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 consisted of between two and three thousand regulars, and its fortifications 
 were strong and in very good order ; and for the additional security of this 
 important post, general Webb was stationed at fort Edward with an army 
 of four thousand men. The French commander, however, urged his ap- 
 proaches with such vigor, that, within six days after the investment of the 
 fort, colonel Monro, the commandant, having in vain solicited succor from 
 general Webb, found it necessary to surrender by capitulation. The gar- 
 rison was to be allowed the honors of war, and to be protected against the 
 Indians until within the reach of fort Edward ; but the next morning, a 
 great number of Indians, having been permitted to enter the lines, began 
 to plunder ; and meeting with no opposition, they fell upon the sick and 
 wounded, whom they immediately massacred. Their appetite for carnage 
 being excited, the defenceless troops were attacked with fiend -like fury. 
 Monro in vain implored Montcalm to provide the stipulated guard, and the 
 massacre proceeded. AH' was turbulence and horror. On every side 
 savages were butchering and scalping their wretched victims. Their hide- 
 ous yells, the groans of the dying, and the frantic shrieks of others shrink- 
 ing from the uplifted tomahawk, were heard by the French unmoved. 
 The fury of the savages was permitted to rage without restraint until fif- 
 teen hundred were killed, or hurried captives into the wilderness. The 
 day after this awful tragedy, major Putnam was sent with his rangers to 
 watch the motions of the enemy. When he came to the shore of the lake, 
 their rear was hardly beyond the reach of musket-shot. The prospect was 
 horrible in the extreme ; the fort demolished ; the barracks and buildings 
 yet burning ; innumerable fragments of human carcasses still broiled in 
 the decaying fires ; and dead bodies, mangled with tomahawks and scalp- 
 ing knives, in all the wantonness of Indian barbarity, were everywhere 
 scattered around. Thus ended the third campaign in America ; happily 
 forming the last of a series of disasters, resulting from folly and misma- 
 nagement, rather than from want of means and military strength. 
 
 The British nation was alarmed and indignant, and the king found it 
 necessary to change his councils. At the head of the new ministry he 
 placed the celebrated William Pitt, afterwards earl of Chatham, under 
 whose administration public confidence revived, and the nation seemed 
 inspired with new life and vigor. He was equally popular in both hemi- 
 spheres. Lord Loudoun was replaced by general Abercrombie, who, early 
 in the spring of 1758, was ready to enter upon the campaign at the head 
 of fifty thousand men, the most powerful army ever seen in America. 
 
 Three points of attack were marked out for this campaign ; the first 
 Louisbourg ; the second Ticonderoga and Crown Point ; and the third, 
 fort Du Quesne. Its result was highly honorable to the British arms. Of 
 the three expeditions, two completely succeeded, and the leader of the 
 third had made an important conquest. Fort Du Quesne was reduced, 
 supplied with a new garrison, and its name changed to Pittsburg. As 
 usual, the Indians joined the strongest side. A peace was concluded with 
 all the tribes between the Ohio and the lakes ; and the frontier inhabitants 
 of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, were once more relieved from 
 the terrors of fire and scalping knives. 
 
 To the commanding talents of Pitt, and the confidence which they in- 
 s>pired, this change of fortune must be chiefly attributed ; and in no respect 
 were these talents more strikingly displayed than in the choice of men to 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 61 «J 
 
 execute his plans. The advantages of this campaign had, however been 
 purchased by an expensive effort and corresponding exhaustion of provincial 
 strength ; and, when a circular letter from Mr. Pitt to the several gover- 
 nors induced the colonies to resolve upon making the most vigorous preoa- 
 ration for the next, they soon discovered that their resources were bv no 
 means commensurate with their zeal. 
 
 Notwithstanding these difficulties, it was resolved to signalize the year 
 1759 by the complete conquest of Canada. The plan of the campaign 
 was, that three powerful armies should enter the French possessions by 
 three different routes, and attack all their strong-holds at nearly the same 
 time. At the head of one division of the army, brigadier-general Wolfe 
 a young officer who had signalized himself at the "siege of Louisbourg', 
 was to ascend the St. Lawrence and lay siege to Quebec, escorted by°a 
 strong fleet to co-operate with his troops. "The central and main army, 
 composed of British and provincials, was to be conducted against Ticonde- 
 roga and Crown Point by general Amherst, the new commander-in-chief, 
 who, after making himself master of these places, was to proceed over lake 
 Champlain and by the way of Richelieu river to the St. Lawrence, and, 
 descending that river, form a junction with general Wolfe before the walls 
 of Quebec. The third army, to be composed principally of provincials, 
 reinforced by a strong body of friendly Indians, was to be commanded by 
 general Prideaux, who was to lead this division first against Niagara, and, 
 after the reduction of that place, to embark on lake Ontario, and proceed 
 down the St. Lawrence against Montreal. It has been observed by a re- 
 cent author, ' Had the elements been laid, and the enemy spell-bound, the 
 whole of this brilliant plan could not have helped succeeding.' This sen- 
 tence, however, betrays a very limited view of a plan that was well worthy 
 of the mind of Pitt. In this arrangement immediate advantage was not 
 sacrificed ; while the more remote results exhibited a prospect highly cal- 
 culated to excite the ambition of the leaders, and to arouse all the energies 
 of the troops. It is in thus affording motives which tend to bring physical 
 force into most effective and persevering action, that intellectual superiority 
 becomes manifest, confounding the calculations of ordinary minds. 
 
 Early in the winter, general Amherst commenced preparations for his 
 part of the enterprise ; but it was not till the last of May that his troops 
 were assembled at Albany ; and it was as late as the 22d of July, when he 
 appeared before Ticonderoga. As the naval superiority of Great Britain 
 had prevented France from sending out reinforcements, none of the posts 
 in this quarter were able to withstand so great a force as that of general 
 Amherst. Ticonderoga was immediately abandoned ; the example was 
 followed at Crown Point ; and the only way in which the enemy seemed 
 to think of preserving their province was by retarding the English army 
 with shows of resistance till the season of operation should be past, or till, 
 by the gradual concentration of their forces, they should become numerous 
 enough to make an effectual stand. From Crown Point they retreated to 
 Isle-aux-Noix, where general Amherst understood there was a body of 
 between three and four thousand men, and a fleet of several armed vessels. 
 The English made great exertions to secure a naval superiority; and had it 
 not been for a succession of adverse storms upon the lake, they would most 
 probably have accomplished the original design of forming a junction at 
 Quebec, instead of being obliged to go into winter quarters at Crown Point. 
 
620 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In prosecution of the enterprise against Niagara, general Prideaux had 
 embarked with an army on lake Ontario ; and on the 6th of July landed 
 without opposition within about three miles of the fort, which he invested 
 in form. While directing the operations of the siege he was killed by the 
 bursting of a cohorn, and the command devolved on Sir William Johnson. 
 That general, prosecuting with judgment and vigor the plan of his prede- 
 cessor, pushed the attack of Niagara with an intrepidity that soon brought 
 the besiegers within a hundred yards of the covered way. Meanwhile, 
 the French, alarmed at the danger of losing a post which was a key to 
 their interior empire in America, had collected a large body of regular 
 troops from the neighboring garrisons of Detroit, Venango, and Presqu' 
 Isle, with which, and a party of Indians, they resolved, if possible, to raise 
 the siege. Apprised of their intention to hazard a battle, general Johnson 
 ordered his light infantry, supported by some grenadiers and regular foot, 
 to take post between the cataract of Niagara and the fortress ; placed the 
 auxiliary Indians on his flanks; and, together with this preparation for an 
 engagement, took effectual measures for securing his lines, and bridling 
 the garrison. About nine in the morning of the 24th of July, the enemy 
 appeared, and the horrible sound of the war-whoop from the hostile Indians 
 was the signal of battle. The French charged with great impetuosity, but 
 were received with firmness ; and in less than an hour were completely 
 routed. This battle decided the fate of Niagara. Sir William Johnson 
 the next morning opened negotiations with the French commandant ; and 
 in a few hours a capitulation was signed. The garrison, consisting of six 
 hundred and seven men, were to march out with the honors of war, to be 
 embarked on the lake, and carried to New York ; and the women and 
 children were to be carried to Montreal. The reduction of Niagara effec- 
 tually cut off the communication between Canada and Louisiana. 
 
 The expedition against the capital of Canada was the most daring and 
 important. Strong by nature, and still stronger by art, Quebec had ob- 
 tained the appellation of the Gibraltar of America ; and every attempt 
 against it had failed. It was now commanded by Montcalm, an officer of 
 distinguished reputation ; and its capture must have appeared chimerical 
 to any one but Pitt. He judged rightly, however, that the boldest and 
 most dangerous enterprises are often the most successful, especially when 
 committed to ardent minds glowing with enthusiasm, and emulous of 
 glory. Such a mind he had discovered in general Wolfe, whose conduct 
 at Louisbourg had attracted his attention. He appointed him to conduct 
 the expedition, and gave him for assistants brigadier-generals Monckton, 
 Townshend, and Murray ; all, like himself, young and ardent. Early in 
 the season he sailed from Halifax with eight thousand troops, and, near 
 the last of June, landed the whole army on the island of Orleans, a few 
 miles below Quebec. From this position he could take a near and distinct 
 view of the obstacles to be overcome. These were so great, that even the 
 bold and sanguine Wolfe perceived more to fear than to hope. In a letter 
 to Mr. Pitt, written before commencing operations, he declared that he saw 
 but little prospect of reducing the place. 
 
 Quebec stands on the north side of the St. Lawrence, and consists of 
 an upper and lower town. The lower town lies between the river and a 
 bold and lofty eminence, which runs parallel to it far to the westward. 
 At the top of this eminence is a plain, upon which the upper town is situa- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 621 
 
 ted. Below, or east of the city, is the river St. Charles, whose channel is 
 rough, and whose banks are steep and broken. At a short distance far- 
 ther down is the Montmorency ; and between these two rivers, and reaching 
 from one to the other, was encamped the French army, strongly entrench^ 
 ed, and at least equal in number to that of the English. General Wolfe 
 took possession of Point Levi, on the southern bank of the St. Lawrence, 
 and there erected batteries against the town. The cannonade which was 
 
 Siege of Quebec. 
 
 kept up, though it destroyed many houses, made but little impression on 
 the works, which were too strong and too remote to be materially affected ; 
 their elevation, at the same time, placing them beyond the reach of the 
 fleet. 
 
 Convinced of the impossibility of reducing the place, unless he could 
 erect batteries on the north side of the St. Lawrence, Wolfe soon decided 
 on more daring measures. The northern shore of the St. Lawrence, to a 
 considerable distance above Quebec, is so bold and rocky as to render a 
 landing in the face of an enemy impracticable. If an attempt were made 
 below the town, the river Montmorency passed, and the French driven 
 from their entrenchments, the St. Charles would present a new, and per- 
 haps an insuperable barrier. With every obstacle fully in view, Wolfe, 
 heroically observing that ' a victorious army finds no difficulties,' resolved 
 to pass the Montmorency, and bring Montcalm to an engagement. In 
 pursuance of this resolution, thirteen companies of English grenadiers, 
 and part of the second battalion of royal Americans, were landed at the 
 mouth of that river, while two divisions, under generals Townshend and 
 Murray, prepared to cross it higher up. Wolfe's plan was to attack first a 
 redoubt, close to the water's edge, apparently beyond reach of the fire 
 from the enemy's entrenchments, in the belief that the French, by attempt- 
 ing to support that fortification, would put it in his power to bring on a 
 general engagement ; or, if they should submit to the loss of the redoubt, 
 that he could afterwards examine their situation with coolness, and advan- 
 tageously regulate his future operations. 
 
 On the approach of the British troops the redoubt was evacuated ; and 
 
622 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the general, observing some confusion in the French camp, changed his 
 original plan, and determined not to delay an attack. Orders were imme- 
 diately despatched to the generals Townshend and Murray to keep their 
 divisions in readiness for fording the river ; and the grenadiers and royal 
 Americans were directed to form on the beach until they could be properly 
 sustained. These troops, however, not waiting for support, rushed impe- 
 tuously toward the enemy's entrenchments ; but they were received with 
 so strong and steady a fire from the French musketry, that they were 
 instantly thrown into disorder, and obliged to seek shelter at the redoubt 
 which the enemy had abandoned. Detained here awhile by a dreadful 
 thunder storm, they were still within reach of a severe fire from the 
 French ; and many gallant officers, exposing their persons in attempting 
 to form the troops, were killed, the whole loss amounting to nearly five 
 hundred men. The plan of attack being effectually disconcerted, the 
 English general gave orders for repassing the river, and returning to the 
 isle of Orleans. 
 
 Compelled to abandon the attack on that side, Wolfe deemed that advan- 
 tage might result from attempting to destroy the French fleet, and by 
 distracting the attention of Montcalm with continual descents upon the 
 northern shore. General Murray, with twelve hundred men in transports, 
 made two vigorous but abortive attempts to land ; and though more suc- 
 cessful in the third, he did nothing more than burn a magazine of warlike 
 stores. The enemy's fleet was effectually secured against attacks, either 
 by land or by water, and the commander-in-chief was again obliged to 
 submit to the mortification of recalling his troops. At this juncture, intel- 
 ligence arrived that Niagara was taken, that Ticonderoga and Crown 
 Point had been abandoned, but that general Amherst, instead of pressing 
 forward to their assistance, was preparing to attack the Isle-aux-Noix. 
 
 While Wolfe rejoiced at the triumph of his brethren in arms, he could 
 not avoid contrasting their success with his own disastrous efforts. His 
 mind, alike lofty and susceptible, was deeply impressed by the disasters 
 at Montmorency ; and his extreme anxiety, preying upon his delicate 
 frame, sensibly affected his health. He was observed frequently to sigh; 
 and, as if life was only valuable while it added to his glory, he declared 
 to his intimate friends, that he would not survive the disgrace which he 
 imagined would attend the failure of his enterprise. Nothing, however, 
 could shake the resolution of this valiant commander, or induce him to 
 abandon the attempt. In a council of his principal officers, called on this 
 critical occasion, it was resolved, that all the future operations should be 
 above the town. The camp at the isle of Orleans was accordingly aban- 
 doned ; and the whole army having embarked on board the fleet, a part 
 of it was landed at point Levi, and a part higher up the river. Montcalm, 
 apprehending from this movement that the invaders might make a distant 
 descent and come on the back of the city of Quebec, detached M. de Bou- 
 gainville with fifteen hundred men, to watch their motions, and prevent 
 their landing. 
 
 Baffled and harassed in all his previous assaults, general Wolfe seems 
 to have determined to finish the enterprise by a single bold and desperate 
 effort. The admiral sailed several leagues up the river, making occasional 
 demonstrations of a design to land troops ; and, during the night, a strong de- 
 tachment in flat-bottomed boats fell silently down with the stream, to a point 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 623 
 
 about a mile above the city. The beach was shelving, the bank high and 
 precipitous, and the only path by which it could be scaled, was now de- 
 fended by a captain's guard and a battery of four guns. Colonel Howe, 
 with the van, soon clambered up the rocks, drove away the guard, and 
 seized upon the battery. The army landed about an hour before day', and 
 by daybreak was marshalled on the heights of Abraham. 
 
 Montcalm could not at first believe the intelligence ; but, as soon as he 
 was assured of its truth, he made all prudent haste to decide a battle which 
 it was no longer possible to avoid. Leaving his camp at Montmorency, 
 he crossed the river St. Charles with the intention of attacking the English 
 army. No sooner did Wolfe observe this movement, than he began to 
 form his order of battle. His troops consisted of six battalions, and the 
 Louisbourg grenadiers. The right wing was commanded by general 
 Monckton, and the left by general Murray. The right flank was covered 
 by the Louisbourg grenadiers, and the rear and left by Howe's light infan- 
 try. The form in which the French advanced indicating an intention to 
 outflank the left of the English army, general Townshend was sent with 
 the battalion of Amherst, and the two battalions of royal Americans, to 
 that part of the line, and they were formed en potence, so as to present a 
 double front to the enemy. The body of reserve consisted of one regiment, 
 drawn up in eight divisions, with large intervals. The dispositions made 
 by the French general were not less masterly. The right and left wings 
 were composed about equally of European and colonial troops. The cen- 
 tre consisted of a column, formed of two battalions of regulars. Fifteen 
 hundred Indians and Canadians, excellent marksmen, advancing in front, 
 screened by surrounding thickets, began the battle. Their irregular fire 
 proved fatal to many British officers, but it was soon silenced by the steady 
 fire of the English. 
 
 About nine in the morning the main body of the French advanced 
 briskly to the charge, and the action soon became general. Montcalm 
 having taken post on the left of the French army, and Wolfe on the right 
 of the English, the two generals met each other where the battle was 
 most severe. The English troops reserved their fire until the French had 
 advanced within forty yards of their line, and then, by a general discharge, 
 made terrible havoc among their ranks. The fire of the English was 
 vigorously maintained, and the enemy everywhere yielded to it. General 
 Wolfe, who, exposed in the front of his battalions, had been wounded in 
 the wrist, betraying no symptom of pain, wrapped a handkerchief round 
 his arm, and continued to encourage his men. Soon after, he received a 
 shot in the groin; but, concealing the wound, he was pressing on at the 
 head of his grenadiers with fixed bayonets, when a third ball pierced his 
 breast.* The army, not disconcerted by his fall, continued the action un- 
 
 * On receiving his mortal wound, Wolfe was conveyed into the rear, where, careless 
 about himself, he discovered, in the agonies of death, the most anxious solicitude con- 
 cerning the fate of the day. From extreme faintness, he had reclined his head on the 
 arm of an officer, but was soon aroused by the cry of ' They fly, they fly ! Who , fly < 
 exclaimed the dying hero. ' The French,' answered his attendant. ' Then, said he, i 
 die contented,' and immediately expired. A death more full of military glory has sel- 
 dom been recorded by the pen of the historian, or celebrated by the pencil of the painter. 
 General Wolfe was only thirtv-three years of age. He possessed those military talents, 
 which, with the advantage of years and opportunity of action, 'to moderate his araor, 
 expand his faculties, and give to his intuitive perception and scientific knowledge me 
 
624 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 der Monckton, on whom the command now devolved, but who, receiving 
 a ball through his body, soon yielded the command to general Tovvnshend. 
 Montcalm, fighting in front of his battalions, received a mortal wound 
 about the same time; and general Senezergus, the second in command, 
 also fell. 
 
 The British grenadiers pressed on with their bayonets. General Mur- 
 ray, briskly advancing with the troops under his direction, broke the centre 
 of the French army. The Highlanders, drawing their broadswords, com- 
 pleted the confusion of the enemy ; and after having lost their first and 
 second in command, the right and centre of the French were entirely 
 driven from the field ; and the left was following the example, when Bou- 
 gainville appeared in the rear, with the fifteen hundred men who had been 
 sent to oppose the landing of the English. Two battalions and two pieces 
 of artillery were detached to meet him ; but he retired, and the British 
 troops were left the undisputed masters of the field. The loss of the 
 French was much greater than that of the English. The corps of French 
 regulars was almost entirely annihilated. The killed and wounded of the 
 English army did not amount to six hundred men. Although Quebec 
 was still strongly defendea by its fortifications, and might possibly be re- 
 lieved by Bougainville, or from Montreal, yet general Townshend had 
 scarcely finished a road in the bank to get up his heavy artillery for a 
 siege, when the inhabitants capitulated, on condition that during the war 
 they might still enjoy their own civil and religious rights. A garrison of 
 five thousand men was left under general Murray, and the fleet sailed out 
 of the St. Lawrence. 
 
 The fall of Quebec did not immediately produce the submission of Ca- 
 nada. The main body of the French army, which, after the battle on the 
 plains of Abraham, retired to Montreal, and which still consisted of ten 
 battalions of regulars, had been reinforced by six thousand Canadian 
 militia, and a body of Indians. With these forces M. de Levi, who had 
 succeeded the marquis de Montcalm in the chief command, resolved to 
 attempt the recovery of Quebec. He had hoped to carry the place by a 
 coup de main during the winter ; but, on reconnoitring, he found the out- 
 posts so well secured, and the governor so vigilant and active, that he 
 postponed the enterprise until spring. In the month of April, when the 
 upper part of the St. Lawrence was so open as to admit a transportation by 
 water, his artillery, military stores, and heavy baggage, were embarked at 
 Montreal, and fell down the river under convoy of six frigates ; and M. de 
 Levi, after a march of ten days, arrived with his army at Point au Trem- 
 ble, within a few miles of Quebec. 
 
 General Murray, to whom the care of maintaining the English conquest 
 had been intrusted, had taken every precaution to preserve it ; but his 
 troops had suffered so much by the extreme cold of the winter, and by the 
 want of vegetables and fresh provisions, that instead of five thousand, the 
 
 correctness of judgment perfected by experience,' would have 'placed him on a level 
 with the most celebrated generals of any age or nation.' — Montcalm was every way 
 worthy to be a competitor of Wolfe. He had the truest military genius of any officer 
 whom the French had ever employed in America. After he had received his mortal 
 wound, he was carried into the city ; and when informed that it was mortal, his reply 
 was, ' I am glad of it.' On being told that he could survive but a few hours, ' So much 
 the better/ he replied ; ' I shall not then live to see the surrender of Quebec' 
 
HISTORY. 625 
 
 original number of his garrison, there were not at this time above three 
 thousand men fit for service. With this small but valiant body he re- 
 solved to meet the enemy in the field ; and on the 2Sth of April marched 
 out to the heights of Abraham, where, near Sillery, he attacked the French 
 under M. de Levi with great impetuosity. He was received with firmness ■ 
 and, after a fierce encounter, finding himself outflanked, and in danger of 
 being surrounded by superior numbers, he called off his troops, and retired 
 into the city. In this action the loss of the English was near a thousand 
 men, and that of the French still greater. The French general lost no time 
 in improving his victory. On the very evening of the battle he opened 
 trenches before the town, but it was the 11th of May before he could 
 mount his batteries, and bring his guns to bear on the fortifications. By 
 that time general Murray, who had been indefatigable in his exertions, 
 had completed some outworks, and planted so numerous an artillery on 
 his ramparts, that his fire was very superior to that of the besiegers, and 
 in a manner silenced their batteries. A British fleet most opportunely 
 arriving a few days after, M. de Levi immediately raised the siege, and 
 precipitately retired to Montreal. Here the marquis de Vaudreuil, gover- 
 nor-general of Canada, had fixed his head-quarters, and determined to 
 make his last stand. For this purpose he called in all his detachments, 
 and collected around him the whole force of the colony. 
 
 The English, on the other hand, were resolved upon the utter annihila- 
 tion of the French power in Canada ; and general Amherst prepared to 
 overwhelm it with an irresistible superiority of numbers. Almost on the 
 same day, the armies from Quebec, from lake Ontario, and from lake 
 Champlain, were concentrated before Montreal ; a capitulation was imme- 
 diately signed ; Detroit, Michilimackinac, and, indeed, all New France, 
 surrendered to the English. The French troops were to be carried home ; 
 and the Canadians to retain their civil and religious privileges. 
 
 The history of modern Europe, with whose destiny that of the colonies 
 was closely interwoven, may be designated as the annals of an intermina- 
 ble war. Her sovereigns, ever having the oily words of peace on their 
 lips, have seldom had recourse to the olive branch but as the signal of a 
 truce, the duration of which should be coeval with the reinvigoration of 
 military strength. It was thus with France on the present occasion. 
 Equally unsuccessful on both continents, and exhausted by her strenuous 
 and continued efforts, she was at length induced to make overtures of 
 peace ; and every thing seemed to be in a fair train for adjustment, when 
 the treaty was suddenly broken off by an attempt of the court of Versailles 
 to mingle the politics of Spain and of Germany with the disputes between 
 France and Great Britain. A secret family compact between the Bour- 
 bons to support each other through evil and good, in peace and in war, 
 had rendered Spain desirous of war, and induced France once more to try 
 her fortune. As the interests of the two nations were now identified, it 
 only remained for England to make a formal declaration of hostility against 
 Spain. The colonies of New England, being chiefly interested in the 
 reduction of the West India islands, furnished a considerable body of 
 troops to carry on the war. A large fleet was despatched from England ; 
 the land forces amounted to sixteen thousand ; and before the end of the 
 second year, Great Britain had taken the important city of Havannah, the 
 79 ' 53 
 
62G 
 
 51 LT5S 
 
 key : :* "i.e Mexican e 
 G 
 
 7i- :::— t— :: ::; Erv.:s7 : 
 ; . _ ::■_: . :.. : :~ses ; : : - 
 
 . -. - " 
 F:^:.i:r.:.T.3.u i-^tt- : -.-:- :. 
 On the 10th of February in the 
 
 r • . 
 tin i.. :7f ....- --i'i "::::. '.:. 
 i: ■ ■ - 
 
 their :-:t:':": c:': :.::"- :. 
 die middle of the :pi. 
 
 -• : : i . -" "-T ~:idle :■: :..-: :. -:. ir.i :: ..^t5 
 '.::. z 
 
 7 _ • :-. ' . - ' t : 
 the French to sarroand the English colon:? - 
 5::. . :: : : .: ::' :.. : z ' - : us: :: :xe A: .:'.:.: : 
 ing up the whole of what was then their only t 
 A r: -i 7 ..-: :::;•;:-::;:: i; :.:.: Jt .:.■: ::.:: 
 .t — . issut : '...- - :es: is 
 
 together with the French provinces of ilartir - 
 
 ■ ■ : '.ir '_'..- 
 
 ; . which threatened all the remain 
 ear oppone: nested by prelit 
 
 towards the close of 1762. ^ere icterchang 
 
 - • - : _ ' 5 i 
 
 r in the foflowi; . peace 
 
 [ soon after ratified. France ceded to Great Bri- 
 
 ::: :..- . ::e: lid r.iaie .. N r.z* A ~- ::. :-. ..- 
 
 two crowns, that the boundary line of 
 
 ::.r :.-■■' _i_\ ._-:..t:t sz:-.i ::. z.:r.z 
 
 from its source as fki as the Iberville, 
 
 
 tirei :: xe 
 
 - :: 
 f: 
 reifi 
 
 in N: nh 
 ■ 7r::~- :::::.. -.; t - i:- 
 enu Although, for a 
 
 _ - ' tt:. ;zt : " 
 
 - : r 7:-: :;.. i:\ : :..= : 
 
 t:t j: ::. ri;i- 
 
 -.;-..■ ;_•:.:..:.::.. ir.- _ : ::: ::.:e a _i-\. ._• 
 
 to which to repair for protection or aid. 
 
 : memoes Tikh 
 
 -. ■ " 
 
 rivaL The colonists became in- 
 
 : • ■ _ ■ : :: '.:.-. .oss : : 
 
 4 :• 
 
 riiter in:o a 
 
 : " r : : r. A . " .- " 
 
 - 
 Tb. 
 
 ::t At.t:::i:: ::.:- 
 
history. g27 
 
 nnjust. Financial embarrassments called forth the erroneous policy into 
 action, which, as often happens in private life, deeply aggravated the evil 
 it was designed to remedy ; and the attempt to wring a few thousands per 
 annum from the colonists, terminated in plunging Great Britain into debt. 
 and in depriving her of an immense territory, which, under a just and 
 liberal management, might still have continued "one of the most illustrious 
 appendages of the British crown. 
 
 Plans of laying internal taxes, and of drawing a revenue from the colo- 
 nies, had been at various times suggested to the ministry, and particularly 
 to Sir Robert Walpole. This statesman, however, was too wise and saga- 
 cious to adopt them. ' I will leave the taxation of the Americans,' "Wal- 
 pole answered, ' for some of my successors, who may have more courage 
 than I have, and be less friendly to commerce than I am. It has been a 
 maxim with me,' he added, ' during my administration, to encourage the 
 trade of the American colonies to the utmost latitude ; nay, it has been 
 necessary to pass over some irregularities in their trade with Europe ; for, 
 by encouraging them to an extensive and growing foreign commerce, if 
 thev gain five hundred thousand pounds, I am convinced that, in two 
 years afterwards, full two hundred and fifty thousand of this gain will be 
 in his majesty's exchequer by the labor and product of this kingdom, as 
 immense quantities of every kind of our manufactures go thither; and as 
 they increase in the foreign American trade, more of our produce will be 
 wanted. This is taxing them more agreeably to their own constitution 
 and laws.' The first Pitt, also, in his celebrated speech on the repeal of 
 the stamp act, referring to the conduct of the several preceding administra- 
 tions, says, ' None of these thought, or even dreamed, of robbing the colo- 
 nies of their constitutional rights. That was reserved to mark an era of 
 the late administration ; not that there were wanting some, when I had 
 the honor to serve his majesty, to propose to me to burn my fingers with 
 an American stamp act. With the enemy at their back, with our bayonets 
 at tfieir breasts, in the day of their distress, perhaps the Americans would 
 kave submitted to the imposition ; but it would have been taking an unge- 
 nerous and unjust advantage.' 
 
 Whatever might have been the views or wishes of any individual of the 
 British cabinet. "at any period, relative to drawing a revenue directly from 
 the colonies, no one had been bold enough to make the attempt until after 
 the reduction of the French power in America. This was deemed a favor- 
 able moment to call upon the Americans for taxes, to assist in the payment 
 of a debt, incurred, as was alleged, in a great measure, for their protection 
 against a powerful enemy, now no longer an object of their dread. * A 
 British statesman should" have reflected, that, if the Americans were re- 
 lieved from the dread of their ancient enemy, they no longer required the 
 protection of the parent country against that enemy ; and that the strong- 
 est hold on their dependence was gone when Canada was gained. 
 
 The conquest of Canada had scarcely been effected, when rumors were 
 extensively prevalent that a different system of government was about to 
 be adopted by the parent state ; that the charters would be taken away, 
 and the colonies reduced to roval governments. The officers of the cus- 
 toms began to enforce with strictness all the acts of parliament regulating 
 
 * Pitkin, vol. i. p. 157. 
 
628 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the trade of the colonies, several of which had been suspended, or had 
 become obsolete* Governor Bernard, of Massachusetts, who was always 
 a supporter of the royal prerogative, appears to have entered fully into 
 these views, and to have indicated, by his appointment of confidential ad- 
 visers, that his object would be to extend the power of the government to 
 any limits which the ministry might require. The first demonstration of 
 the new course intended to be pursued, was the arrival of an order in 
 council to carry into effect the acts of trade, and to apply to the supreme 
 judicature of the province for writs of assistance, to be granted to the offi- 
 cers of the customs. According to the ordinary course of law, no searches 
 or seizures can be made without a special warrant, issued upon probable 
 cause, supported by oath or affirmation, particularly designating the place 
 to be searched and the goods to be seized. But the writ of assistance was 
 to command all sheriffs and other civil officers to assist the person to whom 
 it was granted in breaking open and searching every place where he might 
 suspect any prohibited or uncustomed goods to be concealed. It was a 
 sort of commission, during pleasure, to ransack the dwellings of the citi- 
 zens, for it was never to be returned, nor any account of the proceedings 
 under it rendered to the court whence it issued. Such a weapon of op- 
 pression in the hands of the inferior officers of the customs might well 
 alarm even innocence, and confound the violators of the law. 
 
 The mercantile part of the community united in opposing the petition, 
 and was in a state of great anxiety as to the result of the question. The 
 officers of the customs called upon Mr. Otis for his official assistance, as 
 advocate-general, to argue their cause : but as he believed these writs to 
 be illegal and tyrannical, he resigned the situation, though very lucrative, 
 and if filled by a compliant spirit, leading to the highest favors of govern- 
 ment. The merchants of Salem and Boston applied to Otis and Thacher, 
 who engaged to make their defence. The trial took place in the council 
 chamber of the old town-house, in Boston. The judges were five in num- 
 ber, including lieutenant governor Hutchinson, who presided as chief jus- 
 tice ; and the room was filled with all the officers of government and the 
 principal citizens, to hear the arguments in a cause that inspired the deep- 
 est solicitude. The case was opened by Mr. Gridley, who argued it with 
 much learning, ingenuity, and dignity, urging every point and authority 
 that could be found, after the most diligent search, in favor of the custom- 
 house petition ; making all his reasoning depend on this consideration, — 
 ' if the parliament of Great Britain is the sovereign legislator of the British 
 empire.' He was followed by Mr. Thacher on the opposite side, whose 
 reasoning was ingenious and able, delivered in a* tone of great mildness 
 and moderation. ' But,' in the language of president Adams, ' Otis was a 
 flame of fire ; with a promptitude of classical allusion, a depth of research, 
 a rapid summary of historical events and dates, a profusion of legal autho- 
 rities, a prophetic glance into futurity, and a rapid torrent of impetuous 
 eloquence, he hurried away all before him. American independence was 
 then and there born. The seeds of patriots and heroes to defend the Non 
 sine Diis animosus i?ifans, to defend the vigorous youth, were then and! 
 there sown. Every man of an immense crowded audience appeared to me 
 to go away as I did, ready to take arms against writs of assistance. Then 
 and there was the first scene of the first act of opposition to the arbitrary 
 claims of Great Britain. Then and there the child Independence was 
 
HISTORY. £29 
 
 bom. In fifteen years, i. e. in 1776, he grew up to manhood and declared 
 himself free.'* 
 
 In consequence of this argument, the popularity of Otis was without 
 bounds, and at the next election he was for the first time chosen a member 
 of the house of representatives, by an almost unanimous vote. Some idea 
 of the state of public sentiment at that period may be derived from the 
 following remarkable language of the governor, in his speech at the com- 
 mencement of the session. ' Let me recommend to you to give no atten- 
 tion to declamations tending to promote a suspicion of the civil rights of 
 the people being in danger. Such harangues might suit well in the times 
 of Charles and James, but in the times of the Georges they are groundless 
 and unjust. Since the accession of the first George, there has been no 
 instance of the legal privileges of any corporate body being attacked by 
 any of the king's ministers or servants, without public censure ensuing. 
 His present majesty has given uncommon assurances how much he has 
 at heart the preservation of the liberty, rights, and privileges of all his 
 subjects. Can it be supposed that he can forfeit his word ; or that he will 
 suffer it to be forfeited by the acts of any servant of his with impunity ? 
 An insinuation so unreasonable and injurious I am sure will never be well 
 received among you.' 
 
 In the following session governor Bernard informed the house of repre- 
 sentatives, that, during the recess of the legislature, he had appropriated a 
 small sum towards fitting out the sloop Massachusetts to protect the fishe- 
 ry. The committee appointed to prepare an answer reported to the house 
 a message, in which, after desiring his excellency to restore the sloop to 
 her former condition, they add, 'Justice to ourselves and to our constitu- 
 ents obliges us to remonstrate against the method of making or increasing 
 establishments by the governor and council. It is in effect taking from 
 the house their most darling privilege, the right of originating all taxes. 
 It is, in short, annihilating one branch of the legislature. And when once 
 the representatives of a people give up this privilege, the government will 
 very soon become arbitrary. No necessity, therefore, can be sufficient to 
 justify a house of representatives in giving up such a privilege ; for it 
 would be of little consequence to the people whether they were subject to 
 George or Louis, the king of Great Britain or the French king, if both 
 were arbitrary, as both would be if both could levy taxes without parlia- 
 ment.' ' Treason, treason !' cried one of the members when these words 
 were read ; but the report was accepted, and the message sent unaltered 
 to the governor. The same day he returned it, accompanied by a letter 
 requestfng that a part of it might be expunged, as disrespectful to the 
 king. It was then proposed to insert an amendment in the message, 
 expressive of loyalty; but a certain member crying 'Rase them, rase 
 them,' the obnoxious words, which had been underlined by the governor, 
 were erased ; ' it being obvious that the remonstrance would be the same 
 in effect with or without them.' The governor sent a vindication of his 
 conduct to the house, and prorogued the assembly before there was time 
 to answer it. ■ , 
 
 The year 1764 was prolific in measures calculated to agitate and arouse 
 the spirit of the Americans. Early in March an act was passed, which 
 
 * Tudor's Life of Otis, p. 61. 
 
 53* 
 
630 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 declared that the bills which had been issued by the several colonial go- 
 vernments, should no longer be regarded as legal currency ; an enactment 
 which, although in some cases it might have the beneficial effect of prevent- 
 ing an injurious excess of paper, was very prejudicial to the interests, as 
 well as galling to the feelings, of the colonists. On the 10th of March 
 the house of commons passed eighteen resolutions for imposing taxes and 
 duties on the colonies. The execution of that which declared that it might 
 be proper to impose certain stamp duties on them, was deferred to the 
 next session ; but the others were immediately enforced by ' An Act for 
 granting certain Duties in America ;' which, after stating that it was just 
 and expedient to raise a revenue there, imposed duties on silks and co- 
 lored calicoes from Persia, India, or China, and on sugar, wines, coffee, 
 and pimento, made the sugar and molasses act perpetual, reducing the 
 duty on molasses from six-pence to three-pence per gallon ; and this for the 
 express and sole purpose of raising a revenue. The same act increased 
 the number of enumerated commodities, laid new and harsh restrictions 
 on commerce, re-enacted many of the obsolete laws of trade, and provided 
 that all penalties and forfeitures, accruing under any of them, might be 
 sued for, at the election of the informer, in any court of record or of admi- 
 ralty, or in that of vice-admiralty to be established over all America. The 
 declaration which was made, that all these duties should be devoted to the 
 maintenance of an army for the defence of the colonies, was by no means 
 satisfactory : it was indeed urged by the ministry, to prove to Americans 
 that the money which was raised from them would ultimately be spent 
 again among their own inhabitants ; but the colonists sagaciously conjec- 
 tured, that now they had no other enemy than a few exhausted tribes of 
 Indians, there must be some other design than that of defence in main- 
 taining a standing army among them ; and they could attribute the plan 
 to no other source than a desire on the part of the ministry to secure the 
 destruction of their liberties by military force. 
 
 The direct assertion by the British parliament of its right to tax the 
 colonies, accompanied, as it evidently was, by a determination to carry the 
 principle into almost immediate effect, excited the most extensive clamor 
 and agitation, not only among individuals, but in the minds of the consti- 
 tuted authorities. ' Taxation without representation is tyranny,' was the 
 universal watchword ; the proposed exaction was everywhere the topic of 
 conversation, and the subject of the severest animadversion. Every day 
 beheld the affection of the Americans for the parent country sensibly di- 
 minish, while the disposition to resist by force was silently but effectually 
 fostered. Several of the provincial assemblies sent instructions to their 
 agents in London to employ every means to prevent the obnoxious mea- 
 sure being carried into effect. 
 
 The people of Boston, at their meeting in May, instructed their repre- 
 sentatives to the general court on this important subject. In these instruc- 
 tions, (which were drawn up by Samuel Adams, one of the committee 
 appointed for that purpose,) after commenting on the sugar and molasses 
 act, they proceed to observe : ' But our greatest apprehension is, that these 
 proceedings may be preparatory to new taxes ; for if our trade may be 
 taxed, why not our lands ? why not the products of our lands, and every 
 thing we possess or use ? This, we conceive, annihilates our charter 
 rights to govern and tax ourselves. It strikes at our British privileges, 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 631 
 
 which, as we have never forfeited, we hold in common with our fellow- 
 subjects who are natives of Britain. If taxes are laid upon us in anv 
 shape, without our having a legal representation where they arc 'laid we 
 are reduced from the character of free subjects, to the state of tributary 
 slaves. We, therefore, earnestly recommend it to you to use your utmost 
 endeavors to obtain from the general court all necessary advice and in- 
 struction to our agent, at this most critical juncture. We also desire you 
 to use your endeavors that the other colonies, having the same interests 
 and rights with us, may add their weight to that of this province ; that by 
 united application of all who are aggrieved, all may obtain redress.' 
 
 This was the first act in the colonies, in opposition to the ministerial 
 plans of drawing a revenue directly from America; and it contained the 
 first suggestion of the propriety of that mutual understanding and corres- 
 pondence among the colonies, which laid the foundation of their future 
 confederacy. The house of representatives of Massachusetts, in June fol- 
 lowing, declared, ' That the sole right of giving and granting the money of 
 the people of that province, was vested in them, or their representatives, 
 and that the imposition of duties and taxes by the parliament of Great 
 Britain upon a people not represented in the house of commons, is abso- 
 lutely irreconcilable with their rights ; that no man can justly take the 
 property of another, without his consent; upon which original principles, 
 the power of making laws for levying taxes, one of the main pillars of the 
 British constitution, is evidently founded.' The same sentiments are ex- 
 pressed, though in stronger language, in their letter of instructions to their 
 agent. ' If the colonists are to be taxed at pleasure,' they say, ' without 
 any representatives in parliament, what will there be to distinguish them, 
 in point of liberty, from the subjects of the most absolute prince? If we 
 are to be taxed at pleasure, without our consent, will it be any consolation 
 to us, that we are to be assessed by a hundred instead of one ? If we are 
 not represented, we are slaves.' The house, also, at the same time, ap- 
 pointed a committee, to sit during the recess of the court, to write to the 
 other colonies, requesting them to join in applying for a repeal of the 
 sugar act, and in endeavoring to prevent the passage of the act laying 
 stamp duties, or any other act imposing taxes on the American provinces. 
 
 In addition to the acts and declarations of the colonial legislatures, va- 
 rious individuals enlightened and animated the colonists by numerous 
 publications both in the newspapers and by separate pamphlets. Among 
 the latter, ' The Rights of the Colonists asserted and proved,' by Mr. Otis, 
 and ' The Sentiments of a British American,' by Oxenbridge Thacher, 
 were particularly distinguished. Mr. Otis, among other things, declared, 
 ' That the imposition of taxes, whether on trade or on land, on houses or 
 ships, on real or personal, fixed or floating property in the colonies, is abso- 
 lutely irreconcilable with the rights of ^the colonists, as British subjects 
 and as men.' On the subject of the sugar and molasses act, Mr. Thacher 
 stated his objections, the first of which was, 'That a tax was thereby laid 
 on several commodities, to be raised and levied in the plantations, and to 
 be remitted home to England. This is esteemed,' he said ' a grievance, 
 inasmuch as the same are laid without the consent of the representatives 
 of the colonists. It is esteemed an essential British right, that no man 
 shall be subject to any tax but what, in person or by his representative, 
 he hath a voice in laying.' 
 
632 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In the winter of 1765, at the request of the other agents of the colonies, 
 Dr. Franklin, Jared Ingersoll, Mr. Jackson, and Mr. Garth, had a confe- 
 rence with Mr. Grenville, on the subject of the stamp duty. Mr. Ingersoll 
 was from Connecticut, and had been requested to assist Mr. Jackson in 
 any matters relating to that colony ; Mr. Garth was agent for South Caro- 
 lina, and he and Mr. Jackson were members of parliament. These gentle- 
 men, and particularly Dr. Franklin and Mr. Ingersoll, informed the 
 minister of the great opposition to the proposed tax in America, and most 
 earnestly entreated him, that if money must be drawn from the colonies 
 by taxes, to leave it with the colonists to raise it among themselves in such 
 manner as they should think proper, and best adapted to their circumstan- 
 ces and abilities. Dr. Franklin informed the minister, that the legisla- 
 ture of Pennsylvania had by a resolution declared, ' That as they always 
 had, so they always should, think it their duty to grant aids to the crown, 
 according to their abilities, whenever required of them in the usual consti- 
 tutional way.' 
 
 Neither the remonstrances of the colonists, however, nor the entreaties 
 of their agents, were of any avail with the ministry or parliament. The 
 bill for laying the stamp and other duties was soon brought before the 
 house, and petitions from the colonies of Virginia, Connecticut, and South 
 Carolina, were offered in opposition to it. The house, however, refused to 
 receive them ; in the first place, because they questioned or denied the 
 right of parliament to pass the bill; and in the second place, because it 
 was contrary to an old standing rule of the house, — ' that no petition 
 should be received against a money bill.' The majority against receiving 
 the petitions was very large, and those from the other colonies were not 
 offered. The petition from New York was expressed in such strong lan- 
 guage, that no member of the house could be prevailed upon to present it. 
 The admirable speech of colonel Barre in reply to Charles Townshend, 
 so familiar to all of us, although it produced a profound impression, did 
 not of course defeat the measure ; and the colonial petitions and remon- 
 strances, with the petition of the London merchants trading to America, 
 were equally unavailing. In the house of commons there were about two 
 hundred and fifty for, and only fifty against it. In the lords it passed 
 without debate, with entire unanimity ; and on the 22d of March it 
 obtained the royal assent. 
 
 This enactment, which was to come into operation on the 1st of No- 
 vember, excited the most serious alarm throughout the colonies. It was 
 viewed as a violation of the British constitution, and as destructive of the 
 first principles of liberty ; and combinations against its execution were 
 everywhere formed. The house of burgesses in Virginia, which was in 
 session when intelligence of the act was received, passed several spirited 
 resolutions, asserting the colonial rights, and denying the claim of parlia- 
 mentary taxation. The resolutions were introduced into the Virginia 
 assembly by the eloquent Patrick Henry, who, on the envelope of a copy 
 of them in his own hand-writing, has given the following interesting par- 
 ticulars : 'They formed,' says Mr. Henry, 'the first opposition to the 
 stamp act, and the scheme of taxing America by the British parliament. 
 All the colonies, either through fear, or want of opportunity to form an op- 
 position, or from influence of some kind or other, had remained silent. I 
 had been for the first time elected a burgess a few days before, was young, 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 633 
 
 inexperienced, unacquainted with the forms of the house, and the members 
 that composed it. Finding the men of weight averse to opposition and 
 the commencement of the tax at hand, and that no person was likely to 
 step forth, I determined to venture ; and alone, unadvised, and unassisted 
 on a blank leaf of an old law book wrote the within. Upon offering them 
 to the house, violent debates ensued. Many threats were uttered, and 
 much abuse cast on me, by the party for submission. After a lon<^ and 
 warm contest, the resolutions passed by a very small majority, perhaps of 
 one or two only. The alarm spread throughout America with astonishing 
 quickness, and the ministerial party were overwhelmed. The great point 
 of resistance to British taxation was universally established in the colonies. 
 This brought on the war, which finally separated the two countries, and 
 gave independence to ours. Whether this will prove a blessing or a curse, 
 will depend upon the use our people make of the blessings which a gra- 
 cious Gqd hath bestowed on us. If they are wise, they will be great and 
 happy. "If they are of a contrary character, they will be miserable. 
 Righteousness alone can exalt them as a nation.' 
 
 ' It was in the midst of this magnificent debate,' says his biographer, 
 Mr. Wirt, ' while he was descanting on the tyranny of the obnoxious act, 
 that he exclaimed in a voice of thunder, " Caesar had his Brutus — Charles 
 the First his Cromwell — and George the Third" — ("Treason," cried the 
 speaker ; " Treason, treason," echoed from every part of the house : it was 
 one of those trying moments which are decisive of character. Henry fal- 
 tered not for an instant ; but rising to a loftier attitude, and fixing on the 
 speaker an eye of the most determined fire, he finished his sentence with 
 the firmest emphasis,) — " may profit by their example. If this be treason, 
 make the most of it." ' 
 
 In the province of Massachusetts the dissatisfaction at the passing the 
 stamp act was strong, and was strongly manifested. On the meeting of 
 the legislature in May. it was recommended that there should be an early 
 meeting of committees from the houses of representatives or burgesses in 
 the several colonies, to consult together on their grievances and devise some 
 plan for their relief. In accordance with the views of the Massachusetts 
 legislature, the proposed convention was held at New York in October, 
 and consisted of twenty-eight delegates from the assemblies of the colonies, 
 excepting the assemblies of Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia, which 
 were either not in session, or were otherwise prevented from sending 
 representatives. Timothy Ruggles of Massachusetts was chosen president. 
 A declaration of rights and grievances was adopted. A petition to the 
 king, and a memorial to each house of parliament were also agreed on ; 
 and it was recommended to the several colonies to appoint special agents, 
 who should unite their utmost endeavors in soliciting redress. 
 
 The populace in various parts of the colonies were unwilling to wait 
 for the effect of the constitutional measures their representatives were 
 adopting. One day in the month of August the effigy of Andrew Oliver, 
 the proposed distributor of stamps in Massachusetts, was found hanging 
 on a tree, afterwards well known by the name of Liberty tree, in the 
 main street of Boston. At night it was taken down, and carried on a bier, 
 amidst the acclamations of an immense collection of people, through the 
 court-house, down King street, to a small brick building, supposed to have 
 been erected for the reception of the detested stamps. This building being 
 80 
 
634 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 soon levelled with the ground, the rioters next attacked Mr. Oliver's house, 
 and having broken the windows, entered it, and destroyed part of the fur- 
 niture. The next day, however, Mr. Oliver authorized several gentlemen 
 to announce on the exchange, that he had declined having any concern 
 with the office of stamp master ; but in the evening a bonfire was made, 
 and a repetition of this declaration exacted of him. On the 26th the tu- 
 mults were renewed. The rioters assembled in King street, and proceed- 
 ed to the house of the deputy register of the court of admiralty, whose 
 private papers, as well as the records and files of the court, were destroy- 
 ed. The house of Benjamin Hallowell, jun., comptroller of the customs,, 
 was next entered ; and elevated and emboldened by liquors found in his 
 cellar, the mob, with inflamed rage, directed their course to the house of 
 lieutenant-governor Hutchinson, who, after vainly attempting resistance, 
 was constrained to depart to save his life. By four in the morning one of 
 the best houses in the province was completely in ruins, nothing ^remain- 
 ing but the bare walls and floors. The plate, family pictures, most of the 
 furniture, the wearing apparel, about nine hundred pounds sterling, and 
 the manuscripts and books which Mr. Hutchinson had been thirty years 
 collecting, besides many public papers in his custody, were either carried 
 off or destroyed. The whole damage was estimated at two thousand five 
 hundred pounds. ^ 
 
 The town of Boston the next day voted unanimously, that the selectmen 
 and magistrates be desired to use their utmost endeavors, agreeably to 
 law, to suppress the like disorders for the future, and that the freeholders 
 and other inhabitants would do every thing in their power to assist them. 
 The officer appointed to receive the stamped paper, which was daily ex- 
 pected, having resigned his commission, the governor determined to receive 
 the paper into his own charge at the castle ; and, by advice of council, he 
 ordered the enlistment of a number of men to strengthen the garrison. 
 This caused great murmur among the people. To pacify them he made 
 a declaration in council, that he had no authority to open any of the pack- 
 ages, or to appoint a distributor of stamps ; that his views in depositing 
 the stamped paper in the castle, and in strengthening the garrison there, were 
 to prevent imprudent people from offering an insult to the king; and to 
 save the town, or province, as it might happen, from being held to answer 
 for the value of the stamps, as they certainly would be if the papers should 
 be taken away. This declaration the council desired him to publish, but 
 it did not stop the clamor. He was forced to stop the enlistment, and to 
 discharge such men as had been enlisted. The first day of November, 
 on which the stamp act was to begin its operation, was ushered in at Bos- 
 ton by the tolling of bells; many shops and stores were shut; and effigies 
 of the authors and friends of that act were carried about the streets, and 
 afterwards torn in pieces by the populace. 
 
 Nor was Massachusetts alone ; — the obnoxious act received similar treat- 
 ment in the other colonies. On the 24th of August a gazette extraordina- 
 ry was published at Providence, with Vox Populi vox Dei, for a motto ; 
 effigies were exhibited, and in the evening cut down and burnt. Three 
 days afterwards, the people of Newport conducted effigies of three obnox- 
 ious persons in a cart, with halters about their necks, to a gallows near tho 
 
 * Hutchinson's History of Massachusetts from 1749 to 1774. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 635 
 
 town-house, where they were hung, and after a while cut down and burnt 
 amidst the acclamations of thousands. On the last day of October, a body 
 of people from the country approached the town of Portsmouth, (New 
 Hampshire,) in the apprehension that the stamps would be distributed ; but 
 on receiving assurance that there was no such intention, they quietly re- 
 turned. All the bells in Portsmouth, Newcastle, and Greenland, were 
 tolled, to denote the decease of Liberty ; and in the course of the day, no- 
 tice was given to her friends to attend her funeral. A coffin, neatly orna- 
 mented, and inscribed with ' Liberty, aged cxlv. years,' was prepared for 
 the funeral procession, which began from the state-house, attended with two 
 unbraced drums ; minute guns were fired until the corpse arrived at the 
 grave, when an oration was pronounced in honor of the deceased : but 
 scarcely was the oration concluded, when, some remains of life having 
 been discovered, the corpse was taken up; and the inscription on the lid of 
 the coffin was immediately altered to ' Liberty revived ;' the bells sud- 
 denly struck a cheerful sound, and joy appeared again in every counte- 
 nance. In Connecticut, Mr. Ingersoll, the constituted distributor of stamps, 
 was exhibited and burnt in effigy in the month of August ; and the 
 resentment at length became so general and alarming, that he resigned his 
 office. 
 
 The spirit manifested by the citizens of New York produced a similar 
 resignation ; and the obnoxious act was contemptuously cried about the 
 streets, labelled, ' The Folly of England and Ruin of America.' The stamp 
 papers arriving toward the end of October, lieutenant-governor Colden took 
 every precaution to secure them. On the first of November, many of the 
 inhabitants of New York, offended at the conduct and disliking the politi- 
 cal sentiments of the governor, having assembled in the evening, broke 
 open his stable, and took out his coach ; and after carrying it through the 
 principal streets of the city, marched to the common, where a gallows 
 was erected, on one end of which they suspended his effigy, with a stamp- 
 ed bill of lading in one hand, and a figure of the devil in the other. 
 When the effigy had hung a considerable time, they carried it in proces- 
 sion suspended to the gallows to the gate of the fort, whence it was re- 
 moved to the bowling green, under the muzzle of the guns, and a bonfire 
 made, in which the whole pageantry, including the coach, was consumed, 
 amidst the acclamations of several thousand spectators. The next day, 
 the people insisting upon having the stamps, it was agreed that they 
 should be delivered to the corporation, and they were deposited in the city 
 hall. Ten boxes of stamps, which arrived subsequently, were committed 
 to the flames. 
 
 At Philadelphia, on the appearance of the ships having the stamps on 
 board, all the vessels in the harbor hoisted their colors half-mast high, the 
 bells were muffled, and continued to toll until evening. The body of 
 Quakers, with a part of the church of England and of the Baptists, seem- 
 ed inclined to submit to the stamp act; but great pains were taken to en- 
 gage the Dutch and the lower class of people in the opposition, and Mr. 
 Huges, the stamp master, found it necessary at length to resign. _ In 
 Maryland, Mr. Hood, the stamp distributor for that colony, to avoid resign- 
 ing his office, fled to New York ; but he was constrained by a number of 
 freemen to sign a paper, declaring his absolute and final resignation, in 
 Virginia, when the gentleman who had been appointed distributor ot 
 
636 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 stamps arrived at Williamsburg, he was immediately urged to resign ; 
 and the next day he so handsomely declined acting in his office, that he 
 received the acclamations of the people ; at night the town was illumi- 
 nated, the bells were rung, and festivity expressed the universal joy. 
 
 Associations had already been formed in the colonies, under the title of 
 the Sons of Liberty, and were composed of some of the most respectable of 
 their citizens. The association in New York held a meeting on the 7th 
 of November, at which it was determined that they would risk their lives 
 and fortunes to resist the stamp act. Notice of this being sent to the 
 Sons of Liberty in Connecticut, an union of the two associations was soon 
 after agreed upon, and a formal instrument drawn and signed ; in which, 
 after denouncing the stamp act as a flagrant outrage on the British consti- 
 tution, they most solemnly pledged themselves to march with their whole 
 force whenever required, at their own proper cost and expense, to the relief 
 of all who should be in danger from the stamp act or its abettors ; to be 
 vigilant in watching for the introduction of stamped paper, to consider all 
 who are caught in introducing it as betrayers of their country, and to bring 
 them if possible to condign punishment, whatever may be their rank ; to 
 defend the liberty of the press in their respective colonies from all viola- 
 tions or impediments on account of the said act; to save all judges, attor- 
 neys, clerks, and others from fines, penalties, or any molestation whatever, 
 who shall proceed in their respective duties without regard to the stamp 
 act; and lastly, to use their utmost endeavors to bring about a similar 
 union with all the colonies on the continent. In pursuance of this plan, 
 circular letters were addressed to the Sons of Liberty in Boston, New 
 Hampshire, and as far as South Carolina, and the proposal was received 
 with almost universal enthusiasm. 
 
 Societies were formed also in most of the colonies, including females, 
 and those of the highest rank and fashion, of persons who resolved to fore- 
 go all the luxuries of life, sooner than be indebted for them to the com- 
 merce of England under the restrictions imposed upon it by parliament. 
 These societies denied themselves the use of all foreign articles of cloth- 
 ing ; carding, spinning, and weaving became the daily employment of ladies 
 of fashion; sheep were forbidden to be used as food, lest there should not 
 be found a sufficient supply of wool ; and to be dressed in a suit of home- 
 spun was to possess the surest means of popular distinction. So true 
 were these patriotic societies to their mutual compact, that the British 
 merchants and manufacturers soon began to feel the necessity of uniting 
 with the colonies in petitioning parliament for the repeal of the obnoxious 
 law ; and the table of the minister was loaded with petitions and remon- 
 strances from most of the manufacturing and mercantile towns in the 
 kingdom. 
 
 PROGRESS OF THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 While the colonies were thus brought into a state bordering on insur- 
 rection by the injudicious and unjust measures of the Grenville adminis- 
 tration, the administration itself was rapidly hastening to its dissolution. 
 George III. had ascended the throne not long after the capture of Quebec ; 
 and in the following October, the patriot Pitt, who had devised and exe- 
 
history. fom- 
 
 ented the grand scheme of expelling the French from North America 
 resigned the seals of office. Lord Bute, who appears to have been a per- 
 sonal friend of the new king, was appointed Mr. Pitt's successor; and un- 
 der his brief administration the peace of Paris was concluded.' He was 
 succeeded by Mr. Grenville-, whose name will always bear an unhappy 
 notoriety as the author of the stamp act ; and whose measures have form- 
 ed the subject of the preceding division. However the king might approve 
 his political sentiments, and the king was a decided tory, Grenville was 
 not personally in favor with his majesty ; and the result was, (after some 
 unsuccessful negotiation with Mr. Pitt, who expressed his unwillingness 
 to go to St. James' ' without he could carry the constitution along^with 
 him,') the formation of the Rockingham administration. 
 
 On the twenty-second of February, 1766, a bill was introduced in the 
 house of commons for a repeal of the stamp act. The mover of the bill 
 was general Conway, the same individual who in the first instance had 
 denied the authority of parliament to impose it. On the proposed repeal 
 a warm and interesting debate ensued, and it was finally carried by a 
 large majority. In the upper house it was carried by a vote of one hun- 
 dred and five to seventy-one. 
 
 On the 19th of March, his majesty went to the house of peers, and 
 passed the bill for repealing the American stamp act, as also that for se- 
 curing the dependency of the colonies on the British crown. On this 
 occasion the American merchants made a most numerous appearance to 
 express their gratitude and joy; ships in the river displayed their colors ; 
 the city was illuminated ; and every method was adopted to demonstrate 
 the sense entertained of the wisdom of parliament in conciliating the minds 
 of the people on this critical occasion. In America, the intelligence was 
 received with acclamations of the most sincere and heart-felt gratitude by 
 all classes of people. Public thanksgivings were offered up in all the 
 churches. The resolutions which had been passed on the subject of im- 
 portations were rescinded, and their trade with the mother country was 
 immediately renewed with increased vigor. The homespun dresses were 
 given to the poor, and once more the colonists appeared clad in the produce 
 of British looms. 
 
 The administration of the marquis of Rockingham terminated in July, 
 1766, and a new ministry was formed, under the direction of Mr. Pitt, 
 composed of men of different political principles and parties. The duke 
 of Grafton was placed at the head of the treasury ; lord Shelburne was 
 joined with general Conway, as one of the secretaries of state ; Charles 
 Townshend was made chancellor of the exchequer ; Camden lord chancel- 
 lor ; Pitt had the privy seal, and was made a peer, with the title of the 
 earl of Chatham; and lord North and George Cooke were joint pay- 
 masters. Under this chequered administration, the scheme of taxing 
 America was revived. In May, 1767, the new chancellor of the exche- 
 quer submitted a plan of this kind to parliament. Charles Townshend 
 was a man of genius and talents, but of high passions, eccentric, and ver- 
 satile. He had warmly supported Grenville in the passage of the stamp 
 act, and had voted with the marquis of Rockingham in its repeal. The 
 ex-minister Grenville may indeed be considered the real author of the 
 
 54 
 
G38 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 second plan for taxing the colonies, for he was ever urging tile subject on 
 the new ministers.* 
 
 The measure proposed by Townshend to the house was for imposing 
 duties on glass, paper, pasteboard, white and red lead, painters' colors, and 
 tea, imported into the colonies. The preamble declared, ' that it was ex- 
 pedient to raise a revenue in America, and to make a more certain and 
 adequate provision for defraying the charge of the administration of jus- 
 tice and the support of the civil government in the provinces, and for de- 
 fraying the expenses of defending, protecting, and securing them.' The 
 earl of Chatham was then confined by sickness in the country; the bill 
 passed both houses without much opposition, and on the 29th of June 
 received the royal assent. 
 
 The conduct of the assemblies of Massachusetts and New York had 
 given great dissatisfaction in Great Britain. The refusal of the assembly 
 of the latter to comply with the requisitions of the mutiny act, in particu- 
 lar, had excited the indignation of the ministry and parliament to such a 
 degree, that three days after the passage of the new tax bill an act was 
 passed restraining the legislature of that province from passing any act 
 whatever, until they had furnished the king's troops with all the articles 
 required by the mutiny act. The ministry at the same time determined 
 to establish a new board of custom-house officers in America. An act 
 was therefore passed, enabling the king to put the customs and other duties 
 in America, and the execution of the laws relating to trade there, under 
 the management of commissioners to be appointed for that purpose, and to 
 reside in the colonies. This, as the preamble declares, would ' tend to the 
 encouragement of commerce, and to better securing the rates and duties, 
 and the more speedy and effectual collection thereof.' These three acts 
 arrived in America about the same time. 
 
 The appropriation of the new duties to the support of crown officers, 
 and to the maintenance of troops in America, was a subject of serious 
 complaint. It had long been a favorite object of the British cabinet to 
 establish in the colonies a fund, from which the salaries of the governors, 
 judges, and other officers of the crown, should be paid, independent of the 
 annual grants of the colonial legislatures. As these officers held their 
 places during the pleasure of the king, the people of Massachusetts, it will 
 be remembered, had uniformly resisted such establishment, though repeat- 
 edly urged on the part of the crown. On this subject the house of repre- 
 sentatives maintained, in resolutions indicative of great firmness, their 
 former purpose. The house also, during this session, addressed a circular 
 letter to the other colonies, stating the difficulties to be apprehended by 
 the operation of the late acts of parliament, and requesting their co-opera- 
 tion for redress. When the question of addressing a circular to the colo- 
 nies was first presented to the house it was opposed, as seeming to counte- 
 
 * ' Declaiming, as usual, one evening on American affairs, he addressed himself 
 particularly to the ministers. "You are cowards," he said; "you are afraid of the 
 Americans ; you dare not tax America." This he repeated in different language. 
 Upon this Townshend took fire, immediately rose and said, "Fear! fear! cowards! 
 dare not tax America ! I dare tax America." Grenville stood silent for a moment, and 
 then said, " Dare you tax America ? I wish to God I could see it." Townshend replied, 
 "I will, I will.'" — Manuscript papers of Dr. William S. Johnson, then in England a* 
 agent for Connecticut, quoted in Pitkin's History, vol. i. p. 217. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 639 
 
 nance the meeting of another congress, heretofore so offensive to the 
 British government ; and the motion was negatived. The subject was 
 afterwards reconsidered, and the letter so worded as to satisfy a lame 
 majority of the house. The other colonies approved of the proceedings 
 of Massachusetts, and joined in applying to the king for relief. 
 
 The circular letter of Massachusetts created no little alarm in the Bri- 
 tish cabinet. Directions were issued by the secretary of state to the o- ver- 
 nor of this colony, requiring him to demand of the house of representatives 
 a recantation of that offensive measure. This the house peremptorily 
 refused. They viewed the letter of lord Hillsborough as an unwarrant- 
 able attempt on their rights ; and in their answer to the communication, 
 of the governor on this subject, express themselves with no little warmth. 
 4 If the votes of the house were to be controlled by the direction of a minis- 
 ter,' they say, ' we have left us but a shadow of liberty !' On the question 
 to rescind, Mr. Otis, one of the representatives from Boston, said — ' When 
 lord Hillsborough knows that we will not rescind our acts, let him apply 
 to parliament to rescind theirs. Let Britain rescind their measures, or 
 they are lost forever.' On receiving information of the decision of the 
 house, the governor immediately dissolved the assembly. This ministerial 
 mandate to the other colonies was equally disregarded. 
 
 Americans looked with astonishment at such a system of policy proceed- 
 ing from a ministry of which lord Chatham constituted a part. They 
 found it impossible to reconcile the conduct now adopted towards them 
 with their ideas of his lordship's character. They had heretofore regarded 
 him as a friend, in whose honest and liberal principles they might securely 
 trust the management of all that concerned the colonies; but here was a 
 melancholy evidence before their eyes of the insincerity of ministerial pro- 
 fessions. In justice to the character of lord Chatham, however, it must be 
 observed, that he was not in parliament during any part of the time that 
 these measures of Mr. Townshend were under discussion. The state of 
 his health was such as not only to detain him from his seat in the house, 
 but to render him incapable of attending to any of the duties of his high 
 station ; and it appears that his opinion weighed but little with the men 
 whom he had raised to power. 
 
 Charles Townshend, from whom all the troubles and commotions that 
 were now rapidly spreading through the colonies in a great measure origi- 
 nated, did not live to witness their effects. He died in September, 1767, 
 and was succeeded as chancellor of the exchequer by Frederick lord North, 
 a young nobleman, then but little known in the political world, but who 
 will be found to make a conspicuous figure in the sequel of this history. 
 Very soon afterwards, lord Chatham, disgusted at the corrupt influence 
 which manifested itself in every act of the court, and sick of the political 
 world, resigned the privy seal. 
 
 The colonists meanwhile were adopting all the peaceable means in their 
 power to show their sense of the wrongs heaped upon them. Petitions, 
 memorials, and remonstrances to the king and parliament, and letters to 
 the individual friends of America, were addressed from all the legisla- 
 tures ; but the most favorable reply which any of them received was an 
 exhortation to suffer with patience and in silence. To suffer tamely, and 
 without seeking redress, however, was not the character of the sturdy sons 
 of freedom who inhabited the colonies. They entered into the same kind 
 
640 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of resolutions of non-importation, the effects of which had been so severely 
 felt by the traders in England under the stamp act. Boston, as before, 
 took the lead. At a town meeting held in October, it was voted that mea- 
 sures should be immediately taken to promote the establishment of domes- 
 tic manufactures, by encouraging the consumption of all articles of Ame- 
 rican manufacture. They also agreed to purchase no articles of foreign 
 growth or manufacture, but such as were absolutely indispensable. New 
 York and Philadelphia soon followed the example of Boston ; and in a 
 short time the merchants themselves entered into associations to import 
 nothing from Great Britain but articles that necessity required. 
 
 The new board of commissioners of the customs established at Boston 
 had now entered on the duties of their office. From the great excitement 
 at that place, a collision between the new custom-house officers and the 
 people was by no means improbable. The indignation of the people of 
 Boston was at length excited to open opposition by the seizure of Mr. 
 Hancock's sloop Liberty, for a violation of the revenue laws. Under the 
 idea that the sloop would not be safe at the wharf in their custody, the 
 custom-house officers had solicited aid from a ship of war which lay in 
 the harbor, the commander of which ordered the sloop to be cut from her 
 fastenings and brought under the guns of his ship. It was to prevent f his 
 removal that the mob collected ; many of the officers were severely 
 wounded in the scuffle, and the mob, being baffled in their attempts to re- 
 tain the sloop at the wharf, repaired to the houses of the collector, comp- 
 troller, and other officers of the customs, where they committed many acts 
 of violence and injury to their property. This riotous disposition conti- 
 nued for several days, during which the commissioners applied to the 
 governor for assistance, but his excellency not being able to protect them, 
 advised them to remove from Boston ; they consequently retired, first on 
 board the Romney man-of-war, and then to castle William. The excite- 
 ment at Boston was greatly increased about this time by the impressment 
 of some seamen belonging to that town by order of the officers of the Rom- 
 ney. The inhabitants of Boston were assembled on this occasion, and their 
 petition to the governor, praying his interference to prevent such outrages 
 for the future, shows to what a state of alarm, anxiety, and even despair, 
 they were then reduced. ' To contend,' they said, ' against our parent 
 state, is, in our idea, the most shocking and dreadful extremity ; but tamely 
 to relinquish the only security we and our posterity retain for the enjoy- 
 ment of our lives and properties without one struggle, is so humiliating 
 and base, that we cannot support the reflection.' 
 
 The general court of Massachusetts having been dissolved by governor 
 Bernard, who refused to convene it again without his majesty's command, 
 on the proposal of the selectmen of Boston to the several towns in the colo- 
 ny, a convention met in that town on the 22d of September, to deliberate 
 on constitutional measures to obtain redress of their grievances. The 
 convention, disclaiming legislative authority, petitioned the governor; 
 made loyal professions ; expressed its aversion to standing armies, to tu- 
 mults and disorders, its readiness to assist in suppressing riots, and pre- 
 serving the peace ; recommended patience and good order ; and, after a 
 short session, dissolved itself. 
 
 The day before the convention rose, advice was received that a man-of- 
 war and some transports from Halifax, with about nine hundred troops. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 641 
 
 had arrived at Nantasket harbor. On the day after their arrival, the fleet 
 was brought to anchor near castle William. Having taken a station which 
 commanded the town, the troops, under cover of the cannon of the ships 
 landed without molestation, and, to the number of upwards of seven hun- 
 dred men, marched, with muskets charged, bayonets fixed, martial music 
 and the usual military parade, into the common. In the evening the 
 selectmen of Boston were required to quarter the two regiments in' the 
 town ; but they absolutely refused. A temporary shelter, however, in 
 Faneuil hall, was permitted to one regiment that was without its camp 
 equipage. The next day, the state-house, by order of the governor, was 
 opened for the reception of the soldiers ; and, after the quarters were set- 
 tled, two field-pieces, with the main guard, were stationed just in its front. 
 Every thing was calculated to excite the indignation of the inhabitants. 
 The lower floor of the state-house, which had been used by gentlemen 
 and merchants as an exchange, the representatives-chamber, the court- 
 house, Faneuil hall — places with which were intimately associated ideas 
 of justice and freedom, as well as of convenience and utility — were now 
 filled with troops of the line. 
 
 Guards were placed at the doors of the state-house, through which the 
 council must pass in going to their own chamber. The common was 
 covered with tents. Soldiers were constantly marching and countermarch- 
 ing to relieve the guards. The sentinels challenged the inhabitants as 
 they passed. The Sabbath was profaned, and the devotion of the sanctuary 
 disturbed, by the sound of drums and other military music. There was 
 every appearance of a garrisoned town. The colonists felt disgusted and 
 injured, but not overawed, by the presence of such a body of soldiery. 
 After the troops had obtained quarters, the council were required to pro- 
 vide barracks for them, agreeably to act of parliament ; but they resolutely 
 declined any measure which might be construed into a submission to that 
 act. In a few weeks several more transports arrived at Boston from Cork, 
 having on board part of the sixty-fourth and sixty-fifth British regiments, 
 under colonels Mackey and Pomeroy. 
 
 The general court of Massachusetts was at length convened, on the 31st 
 of May, and their first act was to send a committee to the governor, assur- 
 ing him of their intention to make a thorough inquiry into the grievances 
 of the people, and to have them redressed ; and demanding of his excel- 
 lency to order the removal of the forces from the harbor, and from the 
 gates of the capital, during the sitting of the assembly. To this message 
 the governor replied, ' that" he had no control of the king's troops stationed 
 in the town or province, and that he had received no orders for their 
 removal.' 
 
 The assembly proved to be independent and resolute, and came to an 
 open breach with governor Bernard. This body was accordingly removed 
 to Cambridge, and the troops retained possession of the capital. On the 
 6th of July, the assembly received a message from the governor, desiring 
 funds for the expenditures of his majesty's troops, and provision for their 
 further quartering in Boston and Castle island, according to act of parlia- 
 ment. This measure was strenuously resisted, and all provision of the 
 kind was peremptorily refused. The prorogation of the assembly to the 
 10th of January following immediately ensued. 
 
 81 64* 
 
642 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 in August. 1769, Sir Francis Bernard was recalled; and left the admi- 
 nistration to lieutenant-governor Hutchinson. The occasion of his taking 
 leave was one of great joy U B -ton. The bells were rung, guns were 
 Sred fiom Mr. Hancock's wharf. Liberty tree was covered with flags, and 
 in the evening a great bonfire was made upon Fort hill. 
 
 In 1770, lord North was elevated to the premiership ; and his adminis- 
 tration will ever be celebrated by the fact, that it cost the country more 
 money, and lost it more territory, than that of any other man. His first 
 measure was for the repeal of the port duties of 1767. with the exception 
 of the duty on tea : this was to be retained in token of the suprema 
 parliament. This single reservation was of course sufficient to frustrate 
 all hopes of making this bill a peace-offering to the Americans. 
 
 The public mind in the colonies was still farther agitated by the conti- 
 nuance of the troops of the line in Boston. The inhabitants felt that : 
 presence was designed to overawe and control the expression of their sen- 
 timents, and the military appear to have viewed their residence in the 
 town in the same light. Under the excitement that was thus occasioned, 
 affrays were frequently occurring between the populace and the soldiers ; 
 it would appear that, as might be expected, neither party conducted 
 themselves with prudence or forbearance. On the one hand, the soldiers 
 are represented as parading the town, armed with heavy clubs, insulting 
 and seeking occasion to quarrel with the people ;* while, on the other, the 
 populace are declared to be the g _ sots, and the military to have acted 
 on the defensive. t Early in the evening of the oth of March, the inhabit- 
 . ere observed to assemble in different quarters of the town ; parties 
 of soldiers were also driving about the streets, as if both the one and the 
 other had something more than ordinary upon their minds. 
 
 About eight o'clock, one of the bells of the town was rung in such man- 
 ner as is usual in case of fire. This called people into the streets. A 
 number assembled in the market-place, not far from King street, 
 armed with bludgeons, or clubs. A - ..all fray between some of the inha- 
 tts arose at or near the barracks at the west part of the town, but it 
 was of little importance, and was soon over. A sentinel who was posted 
 at the custom-house, not far from the main guard, was next insulted, and 
 pelted with pieces of ice and other missiles, which caused him to call to 
 the main guard to protect him. Notice was soon given to captain Preston, 
 whose company was then on guard, and a sergeant with six men was sent 
 to protect the sentinel ; but the captain, to prevent any precipitate action, 
 followed them himself. There seem to have been but few people collected 
 when the assault was first made on the sentinel ; but the sergeant's guard 
 drew a greater number together, and they were more insulted than the 
 .el had been, and received frequent blows from snowballs and lumps 
 of ice. Captain Preston thereupon ordered them to charge ; but this was 
 no discouragement to the assailants, who continued to pelt the guard, 
 daring them to fire. Some of the people who were behind the soldiers, 
 and observed the abuse of them, called on them to do so. At length one 
 received a blow with a club, which brought him to the ground ; but, rising 
 again, he immediately fixed, and all the rest, except one, followed the 
 example. 
 
 * Bradford's History of Massachusetts, p. 205. f Hutchinson, p. 270 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 643 
 
 This seems, from the evidence on the trials and the observation of per- 
 sons present, to have been the course of the material facts. Three men 
 were killed, two mortally wounded, who died soon after, and several 
 slightly wounded. The soldiers immediately withdrew to the main guard 
 which was strengthened by additional companies. Two or three of the 
 persons who had seen the action ran to the lieutenant-governor's house, 
 which was about half a mile distant, and begged he would go to King 
 street, where they feared a general action would come on between the 
 troops and the inhabitants. He went immediately, and, to satisfy the 
 people, called for captain Preston, and inquired why he had fired upon the 
 inhabitants without the direction of a civil magistrate. The noise was so 
 great that his answer could not be understood ; and some persons, who 
 were apprehensive of the lieutenant-governor's danger from the general 
 confusion, called out, ' The town-house, the town-house !' when, with 
 irresistible violence, he was forced up by the crowd into the council 
 chamber. 
 
 There demand was immediately made of him, to order the troops to 
 withdraw from the town-house to their barracks. He refused ; but calling 
 from the balcony to the great body of people who remained in the street, 
 he expressed his great concern at the unhappy event; assured them he 
 would do every thing in his power to obtain a full and impartial inquiry, 
 that the law might have its course ; and advised them to go peaceably to 
 their homes. Upon this there was a cry — ' Home, home !' and a great 
 part separated, and went home. He then signified his opinion to lieute- 
 nant-colonel Carr, that if the companies in arms were ordered to their bar- 
 racks, the streets would be cleared and the town in quiet for that night. 
 Upon their retiring, the rest of the inhabitants, except those in the council 
 chamber, retired also. 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel Dalrymple, at the desire of the lieutenant-governor, 
 came to the council chamber, while several justices were examining per- 
 sons who were present at the transactions of the evening. From the evi- 
 dence it was apparent that the justices would commit captain Preston, if 
 taken. Several hours passed before he could be found, and the people 
 suspected that he would not run the hazard of a trial ; but at length he 
 surrendered himself to a warrant for apprehending him, and, having been 
 examined, was committed to prison. The next morning the soldiers who 
 were upon guard surrendered also, and were committed. This was not 
 sufficient to satisfy the people, and early in the forenoon they were in mo- 
 tion again. The lieutenant-governor caused his council to be summoned, 
 and desired the two lieutenant-colonels of the regiments to be present. 
 The selectmen of Boston were waiting the lieutenant-governor's coming 
 to council, and, being admitted, made their representation, that, from the 
 contentions arising from the troops quartered in Boston, and, above all, 
 from the tragedy of the last night, the minds of the inhabitants were ex- 
 ceedingly disturbed ; that they would presently be assembled in a town 
 meeting ; and that, unless the troops should be removed, the most terrible 
 consequences were to be expected. 
 
 The justices also of Boston and several of the neighboring towns had 
 assembled, and desired to signify their opinion, that it would not be possi- 
 ble to keep the people under restraint, if the troops remained in town. 
 The lieutenant-governor acquainted both the selectmen and the justices, 
 
644 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 that he had no authority to alter the place of destination of the king's 
 troops ; but that he expected the commanding officers of the two regi- 
 ments, and would let them know the applications which had been made. 
 Presently after their coming, a large committee from the town meeting 
 presented an address to the lieutenant-governor, declaring it to be the una- 
 nimous opinion of the meeting that nothing could rationally be expected to 
 restore the peace of the town, ' and prevent blood and carnage,' but the 
 immediate removal of the troops. The committee withdrew into another 
 room to wait for an answer. Some of the council urged the necessity of 
 complying with the people's demand; but the lieutenant-governor declared 
 that he would, upon no consideration whatever, give orders for their re- 
 moval. Lieutenant-colonel Dalrymple then signified, that, as the twenty- 
 ninth regiment had originally been designed to be placed at the castle, and 
 was now peculiarly obnoxious to the town, he was content that it should 
 be removed to the castle, until the general's pleasure should be known. 
 The committee was informed of this offer, and the lieutenant-governor rose 
 from council, intending to receive no further application upon the subject ; 
 but the council prayed that he would meet them again in the afternoon, 
 and colonel Dalrymple desiring it also, he complied. 
 
 Before the council met again, it had been intimated to them that the 
 ' desire ' of the governor and council to the commanding officer to remove 
 the troops, would cause him to do it, though he should receive no authori- 
 tative 'order.' As soon as they met, a committee from the town meeting 
 attended with a second message, to acquaint the lieutenant-governor that it 
 was the unanimous voice of the people assembled, consisting, as they said, 
 of near three thousand persons, that nothing less than a total and immedi- 
 ate removal of the troops would satisfy them. Ultimately the scruples of 
 the lieutenant-governor were overcome, and he expressed his desire that 
 the troops should be wholly withdrawn from the town to the castle, which 
 was accordingly done. The funeral of the victims was attended with ex- 
 traordinary pomp. Most of the shops were closed, all the bells of the 
 town tolled on the occasion, and the corpses were followed to the grave 
 by an immense concourse of people arranged six abreast, the procession 
 being closed by a long train of carriages belonging to the principal gentry 
 of the town. Captain Preston and the party of soldiers were afterwards 
 tried. The captain and six of the men were acquitted, and two were 
 brought in guilty of manslaughter ; a result which reflected great honoj 
 on John Adams and Josiah Quincy, the council for the prisoners, and on 
 the jury. 
 
 During the year 1771, nothing of moment occurred either in Boston 01 
 the colonies. The encouragement given by the agreement of the mer- 
 chants to smuggling, occasioned continual contests with revenue officers ; 
 and it appears that the magistrates, when appealed to, refused to interfere. 
 One circumstance, however, transpired, which must not be omitted. Early 
 in this year, Mr. Hutchinson received his appointment to the office of go- 
 vernor of Massachusetts, an office which his political opponents allege to 
 have always been the darling object of his ambition ; while he maintains, 
 that, however in ordinary times he might have desired it, he now ' deter- 
 mined, not only to desire to be excused from the honor intended for him, 
 but to be superseded in his place of lieutenant-governor ; and he wrote to 
 the secretary of state accordingly.' 
 
HISTORY. 545 
 
 The occurrences of the year 1772, afforded new sources of mutual 
 
 ani- 
 
 mosity. The destruction of his majesty's revenue schooner Gaspee, was 
 one of those popular excesses which highly incensed the British ministry. 
 Lieutenant Doddington, who commanded that vessel, had become very 
 obnoxious to the inhabitants of Rhode Island, by his extraordinary zeal in 
 the execution of the revenue laws. On the 9th of June, the Providence 
 packet was sailing into the harbor of Newport, and lieutenant Dodding- 
 ton thought proper to require the captain to lower his colors. This the 
 captain of the packet deemed repugnant to his patriotic feelings, and the 
 Gaspee fired at the packet to bring her to : the American, however, still 
 persisted in holding on her course, and by keeping in shoal water, dexte- 
 rously contrived to run the schooner aground in the chase. 
 
 As the tide was upon the ebb, the Gaspee was set fast for the night, and 
 afforded a tempting opportunity for retaliation ; and a number of fishermen, 
 aided and encouraged by some of the most respectable inhabitants of Pro- 
 vidence, being determined to rid themselves of so uncivil an inspector, in 
 the middle of the night manned several boats, and boarded the Gaspee. 
 The lieutenant was wounded in the affray ; but, with every thing belong- 
 ing to him, he was carefully conveyed on shore, as were all his crew. The 
 vessel, with her stores, was then burnt ; and the party returned unmolested 
 to their homes. When the governor became acquainted with this event, 
 he offered a reward of five hundred pounds for the discovery of the offend- 
 ers, and the royal pardon to those who would confess their guilt. Com- 
 missioners were appointed also to investigate the offence, and bring the 
 perpetrators to justice ; but, after remaining some time in session, they re- 
 ported that they could obtain no evidence, and thus the affair terminated ; 
 a circumstance which forcibly illustrates the inviolable brotherhood which 
 then united the people against the government. 
 
 Active resistance to the measures of the British government in relation 
 to the colonies, had for some time been principally confined to Massachu- 
 setts. The other colonists, however, had not been idle or indifferent spec- 
 tators of the scenes that had passed in Massachusetts. To remain long in 
 their present state seemed impossible ; and in the event of an opposition 
 by force, unity of action, as well as of sentiment, was all important. To 
 promote this object, the house of burgesses in Virginia originated what 
 ultimately proved a powerful engine of resistance — a committee for cor- 
 responding with the legislatures of the several colonies ; and by this 
 means a confidential communication and interchange of opinions was kept 
 up between them. 
 
 The British government determined to carry the duty on tea into effect, 
 and the East India company were authorized to export their tea free of 
 duties to all places whatever; by which means it could be furnished more 
 cheaply in America than before it had been made a source of revenue. 
 
 Confident of finding a market at their reduced prices, the company 
 freighted several ships with that article, and appointed agents for the dis- 
 posal of it. Cargoes were sent to New York, Philadelphia, Charleston, 
 and Boston. The inhabitants of the two former cities sent the ships back 
 to London ; and in the latter the tea was unloaded and stored in cellars, 
 where it finally perished. 
 
 At Boston, before the vessels arrived with it, a town meeting was called 
 to devise measures to prevent the landing and sale within the province. 
 
646 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The agreement not to use tea while a duty was imposed was now 
 solemnly renewed ; and a committee was chosen to request the consignees 
 of the East India company neither to sell nor unlade the tea which 
 should be brought into the harbor. They communicated the wishes of 
 the town to the merchants, who were to have the custody and sale of the 
 tea ; but they declined making any such promise, as they had received no 
 orders or directions on the subject. On the arrival of the vessels with the 
 tea in the harbor of Boston, another meeting of the citizens was immediately 
 called. ' The hour of destruction,' it was said, ' or of manly opposition, 
 had now come ;' and all who were friends to the country were invited to 
 attend, ' to make an united and successful resistance to this last and worst 
 measure of the administration.' A great number of the people assembled 
 from the adjoining towns, as well as from the capital, in the celebrated 
 Faneuil hall, the usual place of meeting on such occasions, but the meet- 
 ing was soon adjourned to one of the largest churches in the town. Here 
 it was voted, as it had been at a meeting before the tea arrived, that they 
 would use all lawful means to prevent its being landed, and to have it re- 
 turned immediately to England. 
 
 After several days spent in negotiations, the consignees still refused to 
 return the tea, and, fearing the vengeance of an injured people, they retir- 
 ed to the castle. The owner of the ship which brought the tea was una- 
 ble to obtain a pass for her sailing, as the officer was in the interest of 
 the British ministers. Application was then made to the governor, to 
 order that a pass be given for the vessel ; but he declined interfering in the 
 affair. When it was found no satisfactory arrangement could be effected, 
 the meeting broke up; but, late in the evening, a number of men, disguis- 
 ed as Mohawk Indians, proceeded to the vessels, then lying at the wharf, 
 which had the tea on board, and in a short time every chest was taken 
 out, and the contents thrown into the sea; but no injury was done to any 
 other part of their cargoes. The inhabitants of the town, generally, had 
 no knowledge of the event until the next day. It is supposed, the number 
 of those concerned in the affair was about fifty ; but who they were has 
 been only a matter of conjecture to the present day. 
 
 PROGRESS OF THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 The British ministry appear to have been highly gratified that the town 
 of Boston, which they ever regarded as the focus of sedition in America, 
 had rendered itself, by the violent destruction of the property of the East 
 India company, obnoxious to their severest vengeance. On the 7th of 
 March lord North presented a message from his majesty to both houses 
 of parliament, commenting on the outrageous proceedings at the town and 
 port of Boston. In a few days a bill was introduced ' for the immediate 
 removal of the officers concerned in the collection of customs from Boston, 
 and to discontinue the landing and discharging, lading and shipping, of 
 goods, wares, and merchandise, at Boston, or within the harbor thereof.' 
 The bill also levied a fine upon the town, as a compensation to the East 
 India company for the destruction of their teas, and was to continue in 
 force during the pleasure of the king. The opposition to this measure was 
 very slight, and it was finally carried in both houses without a division. 
 
HISTORY. 647 
 
 This, however, was only a part of lord North's scheme of coercion. He 
 proposed two other bills, which were intended to strike terror into the pro- 
 vince of Massachusetts, and to deter the other colonies from following her 
 example. By one of these, the constitution and charter of the province 
 were completely subverted, all power Jaken out of the hands of the peo- 
 ple, and placed in those of the servants of the crown. The third scheme 
 of lord North was the introduction of ' afbill for the impartial administra- 
 tion of justice in Massachusetts.' By this act, persons informed against 
 or indicted for any act done for the support of the laws of the revenue, or 
 for the suppression of riots in Massachusetts, might by the governor, with 
 the advice of the council, be sent for trial to any other colony, or to Great 
 Britain ; an enactment which, in effect, conferred impunity on the officers 
 of the crown, however odious might be their violations of the law. 
 
 These plans of the administration were opposed by Burke, lord Cha- 
 tham, Barre, and others, in language of the highest indignation. They 
 originated in mistaken views of the opinion and temper of the people. 
 The government, too, maintained that any measures were justifiable for 
 supporting the authority of the king and parliament, and calculated on 
 bringing the refractory and disaffected to submission by seventy and 
 force. 
 
 As a measure indicative of a determination to conduct the proceedings 
 against the refractory colonists with the utmost vigor, general Gage was 
 appointed, with powers of the most unlimited extent, to supersede gover- 
 nor Hutchinson. The offices of governor of the province of Massachu- 
 setts and commander of his majesty's forces in America were united in 
 his person. The intelligence of the passing of the Boston port bill had 
 preceded general Gage a few days. On the day after his arrival, the ge- 
 neral court having been dissolved by the late governor, a town meeting 
 was convened and very numerously attended. They declared and re- 
 solved, ' that the impolicy, injustice, inhumanity, and cruelty of the act, 
 exceed all their powers of expression; and therefore,' they say, 'we leave 
 it to the censure of others, and appeal to God and the world.' They 
 also declared it as their opinion, that, 'if the other colonies come into a 
 joint resolution to stop all importation from, and exportation to, Great 
 Britain, and every part of the West Indies, till the act be repealed, the 
 same would prove the salvation of North America and her liberties.' 
 
 The idea was probably entertained by the British ministry, that the 
 other colonies would be inclined rather to avail themselves of the commer- 
 cial advantages which the closing of one of the chief sea-ports would open 
 to them, than to make common cause with Boston, at the hazard of incur- 
 ring a similar penalty. In this instance, as in most others, the govern- 
 ment made a great miscalculation of American character. The several 
 colonies lost no time in expressing the deepest sympathy for the sufferings 
 of the inhabitants of Boston, and in contributing to their pecuniary neces- 
 sities, as well as in affording them moral countenance. In this patriotic 
 course Virginia took the lead. 
 
 The convention of Virginia recommended to the committee of corres- 
 pondence, that they should communicate with their several corresponding 
 committees, on the expediency of appointing deputies from the several 
 colonies of British America, to meet in general congress at such place 
 annually as might be deemed most convenient; there to deliberate on 
 
648 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 those general measures which the united interests of America might from 
 time to time require. 
 
 Similar expressions of determined opposition to the port hill, and assur- 
 ances of support to the disfranchised citizens of Boston, were made wher- 
 ever the act became known. In some places it was printed upon mourn- 
 ing paper, and hawked about the streets ; in others it was publicly burned, 
 with every demonstration of abhorrence. At New York there was a con- 
 siderable struggle between the friends of administration and the friends of 
 liberty, but the latter at length prevailed, by the influence and manage- 
 ment of two individuals, who had on several occasions manifested great 
 activity and zeal in their opposition to the obnoxious measures of the mi- 
 nistry. Addresses were also sent from Pennsylvania, the Carolinas, and 
 some other provinces, to the committee of Boston, assuring them of sup- 
 port, and declaring that they considered the cause of Boston as the com- 
 mon cause of the country. 
 
 The two last of the coercive enactments of the British legislature did 
 not reach Boston till July. By one, the governor alone was authorized to 
 appoint all civil officers ; and by the other, the counsellors were to be 
 selected by the king and his ministers in England. A list of those ap- 
 pointed was soon made known, and gave great dissatisfaction, as they 
 were the most unpopular characters in the province. To add to the anx- 
 iety which now pervaded every breast, a large military force was ordered 
 into the province, an act of parliament having been passed, which directed 
 the governor to provide quarters for them in any town he might choose. 
 
 It had been agreed by the delegates which had now been appointed by 
 most of the colonies, that they should meet in general congress in Sep- 
 tember ; and the desire to await the result of its determinations prevented 
 any violent proceedings during the interim ; while, however, great atten- 
 tion was given by the inhabitants to military discipline. Independent com- 
 panies were formed, who elected their own officers, many of whom had 
 served during the French war, and were well able to instruct their pupils 
 in military tactics. On the other hand, general Gage was no less active 
 in adopting measures calculated, in his estimation, to overawe the inha- 
 bitants, and to deter them from having recourse to force. With this view, 
 although ostensibly for the purpose of preventing desertion, he fortified 
 the isthmus which connects Boston with the main land, called Boston 
 neck, the only entrance by land into the town of Boston, and therefore the 
 only route by which, according to the port bill, the merchants and traders 
 could carry on their business. This measure, howeA r er, served only the 
 more to exasperate the people, and the subsequent seizure of the gunpow- 
 der at Charlestown added to their alarm. 
 
 Before daybreak, on the 1st of September, general Gage despatched a 
 party of soldiers to bring into his own custody a quantity of provincial 
 powder from the arsenal at Charlestown. Immediately this transaction 
 became generally known, the inhabitants of the neighboring towns flew 
 to arms, and agreed on Cambridge as a general rendezvous ; and it was 
 with great difficulty that they were dissuaded, by their more prudent lead- 
 ers, from marching at once to Boston to require the restoration of the pow- 
 der, or, in case of refusal, to attack the garrison. 
 
 It was under the excitement of these circumstances that, in defiance of 
 the act of parliament, and the governor's proclamation founded upon it, 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 649 
 
 prohibiting public assemblies, the county of Suffolk, of which Boston was 
 the capital, elected delegates to meet for the purpose of taking into consi- 
 deration the most proper course to be adopted in the present state of affairs. 
 With a boldness and decision surpassing that of any former assembly 
 they passed resolutions declaring themselves constitutionally exempt from 
 all obedience to the late measures of the British parliament, that the go- 
 vernment of the province was in fact dissolved, and that they should con- 
 sider all persons who dared to act in any official capacity under the new 
 regulations as open enemies of their country. They sent a copy of their 
 resolutions, and of their letter to the governor, with his answer, to the ge- 
 neral congress, upon whose judgment they rested the decision of their 
 future conduct. 
 
 This congress, which will ever be celebrated in the page of history, and 
 held sacred in the annals of liberty, met at Philadelphia, on the 5th of 
 September. Representatives from eleven of the colonies were present at 
 the opening, and those from North Carolina arrived shortly after ; Georgia 
 alone having demurred to send delegates. Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, 
 was elected president, and Charles Thompson, of Philadelphia, secretary; 
 and after a brief controversy on the mode of voting, which resulted in the 
 determination that each province should have only one vote, whatever 
 number of delegates might be present, the assembly proceeded to business 
 with all the solemnity of an organized legislature. 
 
 ' The most eminent men of the various colonies were now, for the first 
 time, brought together. They were known to each other by fame, but 
 they were personally strangers. The meeting was awfully solemn. The 
 object which had called them together was of incalculable magnitude. 
 The liberties of no less than three millions of people, with that of all their 
 posterity, were staked on the wisdom and energy of their councils. No 
 wonder, then, at the long and deep silence which is said to have followed 
 upon their organization ; at the anxiety with which the members looked 
 round upon each other, and the reluctance which every individual felt to 
 open a business so fearfully momentous. In the midst of this deep and 
 death-like silence, and just when it was beginning to become painfully em- 
 barrassing, Mr. Henry arose slowly, as if borne down by the weight of the 
 subject. After faltering, according to his habit, through a most impressive 
 exordium, in which he merely echoed back the consciousness of every 
 other heart, in deploring his inability to do justice to the occasion, he 
 launched gradually into a recital of the colonial wrongs. Rising, as he 
 advanced, with the grandeur of his subject, and glowing at length with all 
 the majesty of the occasion, his speech seemed more than that of mor- 
 tal man.'* Mr. Henry was followed by Mr. Richard Henry Lee, in a 
 speech scarcely less powerful, and still more replete with classic elo- 
 quence. One spirit of ardent love of liberty pervaded every breast, and 
 produced a unanimity as advantageous to the cause they advocated, as it 
 was unexpected and appalling to their adversaries. 
 
 One of the first acts of this assembly was the appointment of a commit- 
 tee, consisting of two from each colony, to state the rights of the colonists 
 in general, the several instances in which those rights had been violated, 
 and the means most proper to be pursued for obtaining a restoration of 
 
 * Wirt's Life of Henry, p. 105, 106. 
 S2 55 
 
650 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 them. The congress proceeded with great deliberation ; its debates were 
 held with closed doors, and it was not till the 14th of October that they 
 published a series of resolutions, embodying in spirited language their opi- 
 nions on the chief subjects of difference between the colonies and the mo- 
 ther country. An agreement was also signed by all the members to ab- 
 stain from commercial intercourse with Great Britain. 
 
 Upon the principles and in the spirit of the preceding resolutions, was 
 composed an address to the people of Great Britain, as also one to the 
 king ; a statement to the aggrieved colonies, and an address to the inhabi- 
 tants of Canada. These documents were drawn up with great ability. 
 The gentlemen selected from the several colonies for this memorable con- 
 gress were no less distinguished for their talents than their patriotism ; 
 and when perusing these state papers, no one can fail to regret that the 
 speeches delivered on that occasion by such distinguished statesmen and 
 orators as John Adams, John Jay, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, 
 John Dickinson, Samuel Chase, John Rutledge, and many others of that 
 illustrious band of patriots, are lost to the world. 
 
 During the session of the congress most of the colonies had adopted the 
 plan of instituting provincial assemblies, regardless of their old form of 
 government. In Massachusetts, general Gage had convoked a general 
 court, to assemble at Salem, on the 5th of October ; but events which sub- 
 sequently transpired, induced him to issue a proclamation dissolving the 
 assembly. The members, however, regarded that proclamation as illegal, 
 and met at Salem on the day appointed. After waiting in vain the whole 
 day for the governor's appearance to administer the oaths, they resolved 
 themselves into a provincial congress, and adjourned to Concord. After 
 appointing John Hancock president, and addressing a communication to 
 the governor, they again adjourned, to meet at Cambridge on the 17th. 
 Here they appointed a committee of safety, and a committee of supplies. 
 They also voted to enlist one-fourth of the militia as minute men, to be 
 frequently drilled, and held in readiness for service at a minute's warning; 
 and after appointing three general officers, they adjourned to the 23d of 
 November. 
 
 Before the close of the year the busy note of preparation resounded 
 through almost every colony. The Massachusetts committees were inde- 
 fatigable in providing for the most vigorous defence in the spring. They 
 had procured all sorts of military supplies for the service of twelve thou- 
 sand men, and had engaged the assistance of the three neighboring pro- 
 vinces of New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 
 
 While these hostile preparations were proceeding in America, the Bri- 
 tish monarch was meeting a new parliament. The king informed his 
 parliament, that a most daring resistance and disobedience to the law still 
 prevailed in Massachusetts, and had broken out in fresh violences ; that 
 these proceedings had been countenanced and encouraged in the other colo- 
 nies, and that unwarrantable attempts had been made to obstruct the com- 
 merce of the kingdom, by unlawful combinations ; and he expressed his 
 firm determination to withstand every attempt to weaken or impair the su- 
 preme authority of parliament over all the dominions of the crown. Ad- 
 dresses in answer to the speech, concurring in the sentiments expressed by 
 the king, were carried in both houses, by large majorities. 
 
 After the recess, parliament met on the 20th of January, and on the 
 
HISTORY. 651 
 
 same day lord Chatham moved, ' That an humble address be presented to 
 his majesty, most humbly to advise and beseech his majesty, that, in order 
 to open the way towards our happy settlement of the dangerous troubles 
 iu America, by beginning to allay ferments and soften animosities there • 
 and, above all, for preventing in the mean time any sudden and fatal ca- 
 tastrophe at Boston, now suffering under daily irritation of an army before 
 their eyes, posted in their town ; it may graciously please his majesty that 
 immediate orders may be despatched to general Gage for removing his 
 majesty's forces from the town of Boston, as soon as the rigor of the sea- 
 son and other circumstances, indispensable to the safety and accommoda- 
 tion of the said troops, may render the same practicable.' This motion 
 was supported by one of the most eloquent and impressive speeches ever 
 delivered by that distinguished statesman and orator. 
 
 Lord Chatham's motion was seconded by lord Camden, who affirmed 
 that ' whenever oppression begins, resistance becomes lawful and rio-ht ;' 
 and it was ably supported by the marquis of Rockingham and lord Shel- 
 burne ; but, like all other motions opposed to the views of the ministry, it 
 was lost by a large majority. The administration declared their determi- 
 nation never to relax in their measures of coercion, until America was 
 forced into obedience. This, however, did not prevent lord Chatham from 
 presenting to the house, soon afterwards, a bill, containing his favorite 
 plan ' for settling the troubles, and for asserting the supreme legislative 
 authority and superintending power of Great Britain over the colonies.' 
 Though this bill, as it contained a direct avowal of the supreme authority 
 of parliament over the colonies, in all cases except that of taxation, could 
 never have received the assent of the Americans, yet, as it expressly de- 
 nied the parliamentary power of taxing the colonies, without the consent 
 of their assemblies, and made other concessions, it was rejected by a large 
 majority on its first reading.^ 
 
 * Lord Chatham had shown this bill to Dr. Franklin before he submitted it to the 
 house of lords, but the latter had not an opportunity of proposing certain alterations 
 which he had sketched. Dr. Franklin, however, at the special request of lord Chatham, 
 was present at the debates upon it. Lord Dartmouth was at first disposed to have the 
 bill lie upon the table ; but lord Sandwich opposed its being received, and moved that it 
 be immediately ' rejected with the contempt it deserved. He could never believe,' he 
 said, ' that it was the production uf a British peer ; it appeared to him rather the work 
 of some American.' Turning his face towards Dr. Franklin, then standing at the bar, 
 ' He fancied,' he said, ' he had in his eye the person who drew it up, one of the bitter- 
 est and most mischievous enemies this country had ever known.' To this part of the 
 speech of lord Sandwich, the great Chatham replied, by saying 'that it was entirely 
 his own. This declaration,' he said, ' he thought himself the more obliged to make, as 
 many of their lordships appeared to have so mean an opinion of it ; for if it was so 
 •weak or so bad a thing, it was proper in him to take care that no other person should 
 unjustly share in the censure it deserved. It had been heretofore reckoned his vice 
 not to be apt to take advice ; but he made no scruple to declare, that if he were the first 
 minister of this countrv, and had the care of settling this momentous business, he should 
 not be ashamed of publicly calling to his assistance a person so perfectly acquainted 
 with the whole of American affairs as the gentleman alluded to, and so injuriously 
 reflected on ■ one whom all Europe held in estimation for his knowledge and wisdom, 
 and ranked 'with our Boyles and Newtons ; who was an honor, not to the English na- 
 tion only, but to human nature.'— Franklin's Works, vol. i. p. 322, 323. Pitkin, vol. 1. p. 
 312. Among the papers which had been laid before the house by lord Dartmouth, was 
 the petition of the congress to the king, in behalf of which the American agents, Dr. 
 Franklin, Mr. Bollan, and Mr. Lee, petitioned to be heard at the bar of the house. But 
 this privilege was refused to them by the ministers, on the ground that the congress 
 was an illegal body, and their petition was rejected by an unusually large majority. 
 
652 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 On the 20th of February, lord North astonished both his friends and 
 opponents, by introducing into the house of commons a proposition of 
 a conciliatory nature. This was at first opposed from all quarters, but 
 those who usually acted with the minister were finally persuaded to join 
 him in this measure. But it did not prevent Mr. Burke and Mr. Hartley 
 from presenting to the house their respective plans of reconciliation. 
 They were of course rejected by the ministerial majority. 
 
 While most of the colonies afforded sufficient occupation for the watch- 
 fulness of the British government, those of New England called forth the 
 most vigorous efforts of the royalists, both by sea and land. The naval 
 forces were frequently engaged in destroying armed American vessels, 
 congress having fitted out several, which were very successful in captur- 
 ing store ships sent with supplies of provisions and ammunition for the 
 royal army. At Gloucester, the Falcon sloop of war, having chased 
 an American vessel into the harbor, despatched three boats, with about 
 forty men, to bring her off, when the party were so warmly received by 
 tiie militia who had collected on the shore, that the captain thought it ne- 
 cessary to send a reinforcement, and to commence cannonading the town. 
 A very smart action ensued, which was kept up for several hours, but re- 
 sulted in the complete defeat of the assailants, leaving upwards of thirty 
 prisoners in the hands of the Americans. This repulse excited the British, 
 to deeds of revenge upon several of the defenceless towns on the coast, 
 and to declare that many of them should be reduced to ashes, unless the 
 inhabitants consented to an unconditional compliance with all their de- 
 mands. 
 
 Another occurrence also tended to mutual exasperation. In compliance 
 with a resolution of the provincial congress to prevent tories from convey- 
 ing out their effects, the inhabitants of Falmouth, in the north-eastern part 
 of Massachusetts, had obstructed the loading of a mast ship. The de- 
 struction of the town was therefore determined on, as an example of vin- 
 dictive punishment. Captain Mowat, detached for that purpose with armed 
 vessels by admiral Greaves, arrived off the place on the evening of the 
 17th of October, and gave notice to the inhabitants that he would allow 
 them two hours ' to remove the human species.' The next da}-, captain 
 Mowat commenced a furious cannonade and bombardment ; and a great 
 number of people, standing on the heights, were spectators of the confla- 
 gration, which reduced many of them to penury and despair. More than 
 four hundred houses and stores were burnt. Newport, Rhode Island, be- 
 ing threatened with a similar attack, was compelled to stipulate for a 
 weekly supply to avert it. 
 
 "Warlike operations were not confined to the sea-ports. Their success in 
 the reduction of Ticonderoga and Crown Point stimulated the Americans 
 to more extensive operations in the north ; and the movements of Sir G. 
 Carleton, the governor of Canada, appeared to call for them, congress 
 having reason to believe that a formidable invasion was intended from that 
 quarter. The management of military affairs in this department had been 
 committed to the generals Schuyler and Montgomery. On the 10th of 
 September, about one thousand American troops effected a landing at St. 
 John's, the first British port in Canada, lying one hundred and fifteen miles 
 only to the northward of Ticonderoga, but found it advisable to retreat to 
 Isle aux Noix, twelve miles south of St. John's. An extremely bad state 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 053 
 
 of health soon after inducing general Schuyler to retire to Ticonderojra 
 the command devolved on general Montgomery. That enterprising officer 
 in a few days returned to the vicinity of St. John's, and opened a battery 
 against it ; and the reduction of fort Chamblee, by a small detachment 
 giving him possession of six tons of gunpowder, enabled him to prosecute 
 the siege of St. John's with vigor. General Carleton advanced against 
 him with about eight hundred men ; but, in attempting to cross the St. 
 Lawrence, with the intention of landing at Langueil, he was attacked by 
 colonel Warner, at the head of three hundred Green Mountain boys, and 
 compelled to retire with precipitancy. This repulse induced the garrison 
 of St. John's to surrender, on honorable terms of capitulation. 
 
 While Montgomery was prosecuting the siege of St. John's, colonel 
 Ethan Allen, who had been despatched on a service necessary to that ob- 
 ject, hearing that Montreal was in a defenceless state, attempted its cap- 
 ture without the knowledge of his superior in command ; he was, however, 
 with a part of his detachment, taken prisoner, and, to the disgrace of 
 general Carleton, loaded with irons, and in that state sent to England. 
 After the capture of St. John's, Montgomery directed his attention to 
 Montreal, with different success. On his approach, the few British troops 
 there repaired on board the shipping, in hopes of escaping down the river; 
 but general Prescot, and several officers, with about one hundred and 
 twenty privates, were intercepted, and made prisoners on capitulation ; 
 eleven sail of vessels, with all their contents, fell into the hands of the 
 provincials. Governor Carleton was secretly conveyed away in a boat 
 with muffled paddles, and arrived safely at Quebec. General Montgomery, 
 leaving some troops in Montreal, and sending detachments into different 
 parts of the province to encourage the Canadians and to forward provisions, 
 advanced with his little army to Quebec, where he found, to his surprise, 
 that a body of American troops had arrived before. 
 
 General Washington, foreseeing that the whole force of Canada would 
 be concentrated about Montreal, had projected an expedition against Que- 
 bec in a different direction from that of Montgomery. His plan was to 
 send out a detachment from his camp before Boston, to march by way of 
 Kennebec river; and, passing through the dreary wilderness lying be- 
 tween the settled parts of the province of Maine and the St. Lawrence, to 
 penetrate into Canada about ninety miles below Montreal. This extraor- 
 dinary and most arduous enterprise was committed to colonel Arnold, who, 
 with one thousand one hundred men, consisting of New England infantry, 
 some volunteers, a company of artillery, and three companies of riflemen, 
 commenced his march on the 13th of September. It is almost impossible 
 to conceive the labor, hardships, and difficulties which this detachment had 
 to encounter in their progress up the rapid stream of the Kennebec, fre- 
 quently interrupted by falls, where they were obliged to land and carry 
 the boats upon their shoulders, until they surmounted them, through a 
 country wholly uninhabited, with a scanty supply of provisions, the season 
 cold and rainy, and the men daily dropping down with fatigue, sickness, 
 and hunger. 
 
 Arnold was indefatigable in his endeavors to alleviate the distresses of 
 his men, but to procure provisions for them was not in his power. They 
 were at one time reduced to so great an extremity of hunger, that the dogs 
 belonging to the army were killed and eaten, and many of the soldiers de- 
 
 55* 
 

 57-.7ZS 
 
 - - - 
 
 i 
 
 Arnold to general S * which 
 
 ■ I 
 
 . - 
 h 2" something as 
 
 - 
 : 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - -- 
 t s 
 
 * a siege nearly 
 
 a 
 
 : Mont* 
 i 
 livision: of hea 
 
 ■ '. . 
 
 St- ha - 
 
 I 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 653 
 
 The first barrier to be surmounted on that side was defended by a bat- 
 tery, in which were mounted a few pieces of artillery, in front of which 
 w. re a blockhouse and picket. The guard at the blockhouse, after giving 
 a random fire, threw away their arms and fled to the barrier, antl for a 
 time the battery itself was deserted. Enormous piles of ice impeded the 
 progress of the Americans, who. pressing forward in a narrow d 
 reached at length the blockhouse and picket. Montgomery, who was in 
 front, assisted in cutting down or pulling up the pickets, and adv: 
 boldly and rapidly at the head of about two hundred men, to force the 
 barrier. By this time one or two persons had ventured to return to the 
 battery, and, seizing a slow match, discharged one of the guns. Casual 
 as this lire appeared, it was fatal to general Montgomery and to two valu- 
 able young officers near bis person, who. together with bis orderly sergeant 
 and a private, were killed on the spot. Colonel Campbell, on whom the 
 command devolved, precipitately retired with the remainder of the divi- 
 sion. 
 
 In the mean time, colonel Arnold, at the head of about three hundred 
 ami fifty men, made a despei '. on the opposite side. Advancing 
 
 with the utmost intrepidity along the St. Charles, through a narrow path, 
 exposed to an incessant lire of grape-shot and musketry, as be approached 
 the firsl barrier at the Saut des Ala' 1 lots, he received a musket ball in the 
 which shattered the bone, and be was carried off to the ramp. Cap- 
 tain Morgan, who commanded a company of Virginia riflemen, rushed 
 forward to the batteries at their bead, and received a discharge of grape- 
 shot, which killed one man only. A few rules were immediately fired 
 into the embrasures, and the barricade was mounted ; the battery was in- 
 stantly deserted, but the captain of the guard, with the greater part of his 
 men, fell into the hands of the Americans. Morgan formed his men, but 
 from the darkness of the night and total ignorance of the situation of the 
 town, it was judged unadvisable to proceed. He was soon joined by lieu- 
 tenant-colonel Green and majors Bigelow and Meigs, with -everal frag- 
 ments of companies, amounting collectively to about two hundred men. 
 At daylight this gallant party was again formed; but after a bloody and 
 desperate engagement, in which they sustained the force of the whole 
 garrison three hours, they were compelled to surrender themselves prison- 
 ers of war.* 
 
 After this brave but disastrous assault, the commander of the American 
 
 * In Montgomery "the Americans lost one of the bravest and most accomplished 
 generals that ever led an army to the field. But he was not more illustrious for his 
 skill and courage as an officer, than he was estimable for his private virtues. All 
 enmity to him on the part of the British ceased with hi- life, and respeel to In- private 
 character prevailed over all other considerations. Hi- body was taken up the next day, 
 and he was decently interred. — Montgomery was a gentleman of good family in Ireland, 
 who, having married a lady and purehased an estate in New York, considered himself 
 as an American, and had served with reputation in the late French war. Congress 
 directed a monument to be erected to his memory, with an inscription expressive of 
 their veneration for his character, and of their deep sense of his 'many signal and im- 
 
 Eortant services ; and to transmit to future ages, as examples truly worthy of imitation, 
 is patriotism, conduct, boldness of enterprise, insuperable perseverance, and con- 
 tempt of danger and death.' A monument of white marble, with emblematic de- 
 vices, has accordingly been erected to his memory, in front of St. Paul's church in 
 New York. 
 
656 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATE& 
 
 troops did not muster more than four hundred effective men : in the hope, 
 however, of receiving reinforcements, they maintained a position at a short 
 distance from Quebec ; and, although the garrison was very superior in 
 numbers, the bravery the colonists had evinced, and the mixed character 
 of his own troops, disinclined general Carleton from leaving his ramparts 
 to attack the Americans. 
 
 In the end of May and beginning of June, generals Howe, Burgoyne, 
 and Clinton, with reinforcements from Britain, arrived at Boston. The 
 British general, in common with his troops, resolved on active operations ; 
 but every movement which they made was watched with an attentive eye 
 by zealous Americans in Boston, who found means to penetrate every de- 
 sign before it was carried into execution, and to transmit secret intelligence 
 to the American head-quarters. About the middle of June, it was sus- 
 pected that general Gage intended to cross the river Charles, on the north 
 side of Boston, and take possession of Breed's or Bunker's hill, in the 
 vicinity of Charlestown. 
 
 On the night of the 16th of June, upwards of one thousand Americans, un- 
 der colonel William Prescot, were ordered to proceed to this eminence, and 
 to intrench themselves upon it. The movement was not without difficulty 
 and danger ; for British vessels of war were lying both in the Medford 
 and Charles, on each side of the narrow peninsula. But the provincials 
 marched to the place in profound silence ; and, about midnight, began 
 their operations. They labored with such assiduity, that before the dawn 
 of day they had thrown up a breastwork, nearly across the peninsula, and 
 constructed a small redoubt on their right. 
 
 About four in the morning of the 17th of June, the American works 
 were observed by the captain of the Lively sloop of war, lying in the river 
 Charles, who instantly began a heavy fire upon them, and was soon joined 
 by the other ships, and by the battery on Copp's hill at Boston. The 
 Americans steadily continued their labors under a furious cannonade and 
 an incessant shower of balls and bombs ; but so harmless was this fearful 
 noise that they lost only one man in the course of the morning. As in 
 this post the Americans overlooked Boston, it was necessary to dislodge 
 them ; and, for this purpose, soon after mid-day, a detachment of British 
 troops, under the command of generals Howe and Pigot, crossed the river 
 in boats, and landed near the point of the peninsula; but, on observing the 
 formidable position of the Americans, they waited for a reinforcement, 
 which soon arrived. Meanwhile the steeples and the roofs of the houses 
 in Boston, the eminences in the adjacent country, and the ships in the 
 rivers, were crowded with anxious spectators, agitated by different hopes 
 and fears according to their different attachments and interests. The 
 main body of the American army encamped beyond Charlestown neck 
 were looking on ; and generals Clinton and Burgoyne, and other British 
 officers of high rank, took their station in the battery on Copp's hill to 
 view the approaching conflict. 
 
 While general Howe waited for this reinforcement, the Americans re- 
 ceived an accession of strength, under generals Warren and Pomeroy, 
 who crossed Charlestown neck under a brisk cannonade from the shipping 
 in the rivers, to join their countrymen and take part in the battle. By 
 their arrival the provincial force was increased to fifteen hundred at least. 
 The Americans also took advantage of general Howe's halt to strengthen 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 65T 
 
 part of their position, by pulling down some rail-fences, forming the stakes 
 into two parallel lines at a short distance from each other, and fillino- the 
 interval with hay. 
 
 The British detachment, consisting of upwards of two thousand men 
 advanced towards the American line. The light infantry, commanded by 
 general Howe, was on the right ; the grenadiers, under general Pigot, on 
 the left. They began the attack by a brisk cannonade from some field- 
 pieces and howitzers, the troops proceeding slowly, and sometimes halting, 
 to give time to the artillery to produce some effect. On advancing, the 
 left set fire to Charlestown, a thriving town, containing about three hun- 
 dred wooden houses, besides other buildings, and entirely consumed it 
 The rising flames added not a little to the grandeur and solemnity of the 
 6cene. 
 
 Secure behind their intrenchments, the Americans reserved their fire, 
 and silently waited the approach of the British, till within fifty or sixty 
 yards, when they poured upon them an incessant and well directed dis- 
 charge of musketry. The British returned the fire for some time, without 
 attempting to advance ; but the discharge from the American line was so 
 close and so destructive, that the troops at length ga've way, and fell back 
 towards the landing place. By the vigorous exertions of their officers, 
 however, they were again brought to the charge ; and the Americans, 
 again reserving their fire till the troops were very near, directed it against 
 them with the same deadly aim as before. Many fell : at one time, gene- 
 ral Howe, for a few seconds, was left alone, every officer and soldier near 
 him having been killed or wounded. The troops gave way a second time; 
 but at that critical moment Sir Henry Clinton arrived from Boston, and 
 was very active in leading them back to a third and more successful at- 
 tack, in which they entered the American lines with fixed bayonets. The 
 
 Battle of Bunker's Hill. 
 
 colonists had nearly exhausted their powder, and hence their fire . ha ^ 
 slackened. Being mostly armed with old rusty muskets, and ill provided 
 with bayonets, they were unprepared for a close encounter. They there- 
 fore retreated ; and, in passing Charlestown neck, were exposed to the fire 
 
 S3 
 
658 ROOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the Glasgow sloop of war, and two floating batteries, from which they 
 sustained their greatest loss. 
 
 The British troops had suffered so severely in the engagement, that no 
 pursuit was ordered ; and, indeed, a pursuit could have served no good 
 purpose, as the main body of the American army was at a small distance 
 beyond the neck, and the royal troops were in no condition to encounter 
 it. They were protected merely by the ships of war and floating batteries 
 in the rivers Charles and Medford. The battle lasted about an hour, 
 during the greater part of which time there was an incessant blaze of 
 musketry from the American line. 
 
 This was a severe battle ; and, considering the numbers engaged, ex- 
 tremely destructive to the British ; for nearly one half of the detachment 
 fell. According to the return made by general Gage, they lost one thou- 
 sand and fifty-four men ; two hundred and twenty-six of whom were slain 
 on the field, and eight hundred and twenty-eight wounded. Nineteen 
 commissioned officers were killed, and seventy wounded ; among the for- 
 mer was major Pitcairn, whose inconsiderate conduct at Lexington had 
 occasioned the first shedding of blood. 
 
 Among the killed on the side of the Americans were several lamented 
 officers; but the death of general Warren was particularly regretted. By 
 profession this gentleman was a physician of unsullied reputation. He 
 did every thing in his power to prevent a rupture ; but when an appeal to 
 arms became unavoidable he joined the colonial standard. 
 
 After the engagement. the British intrenched themselves on Bunker's 
 hill, the scene of action ; and the Americans on Prospect hill, at a small 
 distance in front of them. The colonists had been driven from their in- 
 trenchments ; the royal troops had suffered severely in the battle, and nei- 
 ther party was forward to renew the conflict. Each fortified his post, and 
 stood on the defensive. 
 
 On the 2d of July, general Washington, accompanied by general Lee 
 and several other officers of rank, arrived at Cambridge, the head-quarters 
 of the provincial army. On his journey he had everywhere been received 
 with much respect, and escorted by companies of gentlemen, who volun- 
 teered their services on the occasion. 
 
 The existence of armed vessels in the service of the colonies has already 
 been adverted to. From the peculiar situation of Massachusetts, it was 
 perceived that important advantages might be gained by employing armed 
 vessels on the coasts, to prevent the British from collecting provisions from 
 any places accessible to them, and to capture the enemy's ships loaded 
 with military stores. Before the subject of a naval armament was taken 
 up by congress, it appears that not only Massachusetts, but Rhode Island 
 and Connecticut had each of them two vessels, at least, fitted, armed, and 
 equipped by the colonial authorities. Subsequently, the general court of 
 Massachusetts passed an act for encouraging the fitting out of armed ves- 
 sels to defend the sea-coast of America, and for erecting a court to try and 
 condemn all vessels that should be found infesting the same. Shortly 
 afterwards, a committee of congress, appointed to devise ways and means 
 for fitting out a naval armament, brought in their report, which was 
 adopted. It was resolved to fit out for sea thirteen ships, five of thirty-two 
 guns, five of twenty-eight, and three of twenty-four guns ; a committee 
 was nominated, with full powers to carry the report into execution with all 
 
histoid. 659 
 
 possible expedition, and Ezekiel Hopkins was appointed commander. Thus 
 commenced the American navy. The advantages that had been antici- 
 pated from armed vessels were soon experienced. Captain Manly, of Mar- 
 blehead, one of the first who put to sea, on the 29th of November' took an 
 ordnance brig from Woolwich, containing, besides a large brass mortar 
 several pieces of fine brass cannon, a large quantity of small arms and 
 ammunition, with all kinds of tools, utensils, and machines, necessary for 
 camps and artillery; and, nine days after, three ships, from London, Glas- 
 gow, and Liverpool, with various stores for the British army. A brio-, 
 with fifteen thousand pounds of powder, was captured by a vessel fitted 
 out by the council of safety of South Carolina. The supplies obtained by 
 these means were of vast importance to the American army, which was in 
 very great want of ammunition and military stores. 
 
 Among other measures tending to promote the general welfare, congress 
 resolved that a line of posts should be appointed from Falmouth, in New 
 England, to Savannah, in Georgia; and Benjamin Franklin was unani- 
 mously chosen postmaster-general. They also directed the establishment 
 of an hospital, adequate to the necessities of an army consisting of twenty 
 thousand men ; and Dr. Church was appointed director and physician of 
 the establishment.^ 
 
 General Washington, on his first arrival in camp, found the materi- 
 als for a good army ; but they were in the crudest state. The troops 
 having been raised by different colonial governments, no uniformity exist- 
 ed among the regiments ; and imbued with the spirit of that very liberty 
 for which they were preparing to fight, and unaccustomed to discipline, 
 they neither felt an inclination to be subject to military rules, nor realized 
 the importance of being so. The difficulty of establishing subordination 
 was greatly increased by the shortness of the terms of enlistment, some of 
 which were to expire in November, and none to continue longer than De- 
 cember. Various causes operated to lead congress to the almost fatal plan 
 of temporary military establishments. Among the most important of these 
 were a prospect of accommodation with the parent state, and the want of 
 experience in the management of war upon an extensive scale. 
 
 The fear of accumulating expenses which the resources of the country 
 could not discharge, had a further influence to deter the American govern- 
 ment from the adoption of permanent military establishments ; for, al- 
 though the recommendations of congress, and the regulations of state 
 conventions, had, in the day of enthusiasm, the force of law, yet the ruling 
 power thought it inexpedient to attempt to raise large sums by direct taxes, 
 at a time when the commerce of the country was annihilated, and the cul- 
 tivators of the ground were subjected to heavy services in the field of war. 
 The only recourse was to a paper medium, without funds for its redemp- 
 tion, or for the support of its credit, and therefore of necessity subject to 
 depreciation, and, in its nature, capable of only a temporary currency ; 
 
 * Not long after his appointment, Dr. Church was detected in a traitorous correspon- 
 dence with the British in Boston. He had sustained a high reputation as a patriot, and 
 was at this time a member of the Massachusetts house of representatives. He was 
 tried, convicted, and expelled from the house of representatives; and congress after- 
 wards resolved, that he be closely confined in some secure gaol in Connecticut, without 
 the use of pen, ink, or paper ; and that no person be allowed to converse with him, ex- 
 cept in the presence and hearing of a magistrate, or the sheriff of the county. 
 
660 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 congress, therefore, was justly afraid of the expense of a permanent army. 
 Jealousy of a standing army had also a powerful influence upon the mili- 
 tary arrangements of America. Indeed this spirit early insinuated itself 
 into the legislative bodies of the colonies, and was displayed in many of 
 their measures : an indication of this feeling appears in the address pre- 
 sented by the provincial assembly of New York to general Washington, 
 while on his journey to the American camp. ' We have the fullest assu- 
 rance,' say they, ' that whenever this important contest shall be decided, 
 by that fondest wish of each American soul, an accommodation with our 
 mother country, you will cheerfully resign the important deposit committed 
 to your hands, and reassume the character of our worthiest citizen.' 
 
 The want of subordination was by no means the only difficulty with 
 which the commander-in-chief had to contend ; he soon made the alarming 
 discovery, that there w r as no more powder than would furnish each man 
 with nine cartridges. Although this dangerous deficiency was carefully 
 concealed from the enemy, yet the want of bayonets, which was very con- 
 siderable, could not be kept secret. The army was also so destitute of 
 tents as to be unavoidably lodged in barracks, a circumstance extremely 
 unfavorable to sudden movements, to health, and to discipline. There 
 was no commissary-general, and therefore no systematic arrangement for 
 obtaining provisions ; and a supply of clothes was rendered peculiarly 
 difficult by the non-importation agreements. Added to this there was a 
 total want of engineers, and a great deficiency of working tools. 
 
 The general, happily qualified at once to meet difficulties and to remove 
 them, took immediate care to organize the troops, to fit them for actual ser- 
 vice, and to make arrangements for the necessary supplies. Next to these 
 objects, he considered the re-enlistment of the army the most interesting. 
 To this essential point he had early solicited the attention of congress, 
 assuring that body that he must despair of the liberties of his country, 
 unless he were furnished with an army that should stand by him until the 
 conclusion of their enterprise. Congress at length resolved to raise a 
 standing army, to consist of about seventy-five thousand men, to serve for 
 the term of three years, or during the war; and that it should be composed 
 of eighty-eight battalions, to be raised in the colonies, according to their 
 respective abilities. Recruiting orders were accordingly issued; but the 
 progress in raising recruits was by no means proportioned to the public 
 exigencies. On the last day of December, when all the old troops not 
 en^a^ed on the new establishments were disbanded, there had been en- 
 listed for the army of 1776 no more than nine thousand six hundred and 
 fifty men. An earnest recommendation of general Washington to con- 
 gress to try the influence of a bounty was not acceded to until late in 
 January ; but during the winter the number of recruits was considerably 
 augmented. ' The history of the winter campaign,' says the biographer 
 of Washington, 'is a history of continued and successive struggles on the 
 part of the American general, under the vexations and difficulties imposed 
 by the want of arms, ammunition, and permanent troops, on a person in an 
 uncommon degree solicitous to prove himself, by some grand and useful 
 achievement, worthy of the high station to which the voice of his country 
 had called him.' 
 
 In the space of time between the disbanding the old army and the con- 
 stitution of an effective force from the new recruits, the lines were often in 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 661 
 
 a defenceless state ; the English must have known the fact, and no ade- 
 quate reason can be assigned why an attack was not made. 'It is not ' 
 says general Washington in his communications to congress, ' in the pace's 
 of history to furnish a case like ours. To maintain a post within musket 
 shot of the enemy, for six months together, without ammunition, and, at 
 the same time, to disband one army and recruit another, within that dis- 
 tance of twenty odd British regiments, is more, probably, than ever was 
 attempted. But if we succeed as well in the last as we have heretofore in 
 the first, I shall think it the most fortunate event of my whole life.' 
 Such a measure, with the organization and discipline of the men, will be 
 supposed to have employed every active power of the general ; yet this did 
 not satisfy his mind. He knew that congress anxiously contemplated 
 more decisive steps, and that the country looked for events of oreater 
 magnitude. The public was ignorant of his actual situation, and con- 
 ceived his means for offensive operations to be much greater than they 
 were ; and they expected from him the capture or expulsion of the British 
 army in Boston. He felt the importance of securing the confidence of his 
 countrymen by some brilliant action, and was fully sensible that his own 
 reputation was liable to suffer if he confined himself solely to measures of 
 defence. 
 
 To publish to his anxious country the state of his army, would be to ac- 
 quaint the enemy with his weakness, and to hazard his destruction. The 
 firmness and patriotism of general Washington were displayed, in making 
 the good of his country an object of higher consideration than the applause 
 of those who were incapable of forming a correct opinion of the propriety 
 of his measures. While he resolutely rejected every measure which in his 
 calm and deliberate judgment he did not approve, he daily pondered the 
 practicability of a successful attack upon Boston. As a preparatory step, 
 he took possession of Plowed hill, Cobble hill, and Lechmere's point, and 
 erected fortifications upon them. These posts brought him within half a 
 mile of the enemy's works on Bunker's hill ; and, by his artillery, he drove 
 the British floating batteries from their stations in Charles river. He 
 erected floating batteries to watch the movements of his enemy, and to aid 
 in any offensive operations that circumstances might warrant. He took 
 the opinion of his general officers a second time respecting the meditated 
 attack ; they again unanimously gave their opinion in opposition to the 
 measure, and this opinion was immediately communicated to congress. 
 Congress appeared still to favor the attempt, and, that an apprehension of 
 danger to the town of Boston might not have an undue influence upon the 
 operations of the army, resolved, ' That if general Washington and his 
 council of war should be of opinion that a successful attack might be made 
 on the troops in Boston, he should make it in any manner he might think 
 expedient, notwithstanding the town, and property therein, might thereby 
 be destroyed.' 
 
 General Howe had, in October, succeeded general Gage in the command 
 of the British army, and through the winter confined himself to measures 
 of defence. The inability of the American general to accomplish the great 
 object of the campaign, repeatedly pointed out by congress, was doubtless 
 a source of extreme mortification to him ; but he indulged the hope of suc- 
 cess in some military operations during the winter that would correspond 
 with the high expectations of his country, and procure him honor in his 
 
 56 
 
662 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 exalted station of commander-in-chief of the American army. Early in 
 January he summoned a council of war, in which it was resolved, 'That 
 a vigorous attempt ought to be made on the ministerial troops in Boston, 
 before they can be reinforced in the spring, if the means can be provided, 
 and a favorable opportunity shall offer.' 
 
 It was not, however, till the middle of February, that the ice became 
 sufficiently strong for general Washington to march his forces upon it 
 into Boston ; he was then inclined to risk a general assault upon the Bri- 
 tish posts, although he had not powder to make any extensive use of his 
 artillery; but his general officers in council voted against the attempt, and 
 in their decision he reluctantly acquiesced. By the end of the month the 
 stock of powder was considerably increased, and the regular army amount- 
 ed to fourteen thousand men, which was reinforced by six thousand of the 
 militia of Massachusetts. General Washington now resolved to take pos- 
 session of the heights of Dorchester, in the prospect that this movement 
 would bring on a general engagement with the enemy under favorable 
 circumstances ; or, should this expectation fail, that from this position he 
 would be enabled to annoy the ships in the harbor, and the troops in 
 the town. To mask the design, a severe cannonade and bombardment 
 were opened on the British works and lines for several nights in succes- 
 sion. As soon as the firing began on the night of the 4th of March, a 
 strong detachment marched from Roxbury over the neck of land connecting 
 Roxbury with Dorchester heights, and, without discovery, took possession 
 of the heights. General Ward, who commanded the division of the army 
 in Roxbury, had fortunately provided fascines before the resolution passed 
 to fortify the place ; these were of great use, as the ground was deeply 
 frozen ; and, in the course of the night, the party, by uncommon exertions, 
 erected works sufficient for their defence. 
 
 When the British discovered these works, nothing could exceed their 
 astonishment. Their only alternative was either to abandon the town, or 
 to dislodge the provincials. General Howe, with his usual spirit, chose 
 the latter part of the alternative, and took measures for the embarkation on 
 that very evening of five regiments, with the light infantry and grenadiers, 
 on the important but most hazardous service. The transports fell down in 
 the evening towards the castle with the troops, amounting to about two 
 thousand men ; but a tremendous storm at night rendered the execution 
 of the design absolutely impracticable. A council of war Avas called the 
 next morning, which agreed to evacuate the town as soon as possible. A 
 fortnight elapsed before that measure was effected. Meanwhile, the Ame- 
 ricans strengthened and extended their works ; and on the morning of the 
 17th of March the king's troops, with those Americans who were attached 
 to the royal cause, began to embark ; before ten, all of them were under 
 sail. As the rear embarked, general Washington marched triumphantly 
 into Boston, where he was joyfully received as a deliverer. 
 
 The issue of the campaign was highly gratifying to all classes ; and 
 the gratulalion of his fellow-citizens upon the repossession of the metropo- 
 lis of Massachusetts, was more pleasing to the commander-in-chief than 
 would have been the honors of a triumph. Congress, to express the pub- 
 lic approbation of the military achievements of their general, resolved, 
 ' That the thanks of congress, in their own name, and in the name of the 
 thirteen united colonies, be presented to his excellency general Washing- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 663 
 
 ton. and the officers and soldiers under his command, for their wise and 
 spirited conduct in the siege and acquisition of Boston ; and that a medal 
 of gold be struck, in commemoration of this great event, and presented to 
 his excellency.' In his letter, informing congress that he had executed 
 their order, and communicated to the army the vote of thanks, he says, 
 •They were, indeed, at first, a band of undisciplined husbandmen; but it 
 is, under God, to their bravery and attention to their duty, that I am in- 
 debted for that success which has procured me the only reward I wish to 
 receive — the affection and esteem of my countrymen.' 
 
 Although Halifax was mentioned as the destined place of the British 
 armament, general Washington apprehended that New York was their 
 object. On this supposition, he detached several brigades of his army to 
 that city, before the evacuation of Boston ; and as soon as the necessary 
 arrangements were made in the latter city, he followed with the main body 
 of his army to New York, where he arrived on the 14th of April. The 
 situation of New York was highly favorable for an invading army, sup- 
 ported by a superior naval force ; and general Washington doubted the 
 practicability of a successful defence ; but the importance of the place, the 
 wishes of congress, the opinion of his general officers, and the expectation 
 of his country, induced him to make the attempt ; and the resolution being 
 formed, he called into action all the resources in his power to effect it, and, 
 with unremitted diligence, pushed on his works. Hulks were sunk in the 
 North and East rivers ; forts were erected on the most commanding situa- 
 tions on their banks ; and works were raised to defend the narrow pas- 
 sage between Long and York islands. The passes in the Highlands, bor- 
 dering on the Hudson, became an object of early and solicitous attention. 
 The command of this river was equally important to the American and 
 the British general. By its possession, the Americans easily conveyed 
 supplies of provision and ammunition to the northern army, and secured 
 an intercourse between the southern and northern colonies essential to the 
 success of the war. If the river were in the hands of the British, this ne- 
 cessary communication would be interrupted, and an intercourse between 
 the Atlantic and Canada opened to them. General Washington ordered 
 the passes to be fortified, and made their security an object of primary 
 importance through every period of his command. 
 
 While these operations were carrying on in New England, general Ar- 
 nold, under all his discouragements, continued the blockade of Quebec ; 
 but, in the month of May, in a council of war, it was unanimously deter- 
 mined, that the troops were in no condition to risk an assault, and the 
 army was removed to a more defensible position. The Canadians at this 
 juncture receiving considerable reinforcements, the Americans were com- 
 pelled to relinquish one post after another, and by the 18th of June they 
 had evacuated Canada. 
 
 In Virginia, the zeal and activity which had been excited by the spirited 
 enterprise of Patrick Henry still continued to manifest themselves in vari- 
 ous parts of the colony. The governor's family, alarmed by the threaten- 
 ing march of Mr. Henry towards Williamsburgh, had already taken refuge 
 on board the Fowey man-of-war ; and only a few weeks elapsed before 
 lord Dunmore himself adopted the same means of personal safety. Soon 
 after fixing his residence on board the Fowey, his lordship required the 
 house of burgesses to attend him there ; but instead of obeying the requi- 
 
664 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 sition, they passed sundry resolutions, in which they declared that his 
 lordship's message was ' a high breach of the rights and privileges of the 
 house,' and that his conduct gave them reason to fear 'that a dangerous 
 attack was meditated against the unhappy people of the colony.' On the 
 24th of July the colonial convention met; they appointed a committee of 
 safety, passed an ordinance for regulating the militia, and for raising a 
 regular force of two regiments, the command of which was given to Pat- 
 rick Henry, who was also made the commander of all the forces raised, 
 and to be raised, for the defence of the colony. The ships of war belong- 
 ing to his majesty, which had been cruising in James and York rivers 
 during the whole summer, had committed many petty acts of depredation 
 and plunder along the shores, which the people now eagerly desired to 
 resent, and an opportunity of gratification soon offered. 
 
 The captain of the Otter sloop of war, on the 2d of September, ventured 
 upon one of his plundering expeditions in a tender, and was driven on 
 shore near Hampton by a violent tempest. The crew left the vessel on 
 the shore, and made their escape in the night, and next morning the people 
 boarded and set fire to her. This naturally roused captain Squire's resent- 
 ment, and he threatened instant destruction to the town ; but the committee 
 of safety at Williamsburgh, having heard of the affair, detached colonel 
 Woodford with three companies to repel the attack, which was so effectu- 
 ally done, that the assailants were soon glad to make a precipitate flight, 
 with considerable loss. This affair produced a proclamation from his lord- 
 ship, (who continued to hold his head-quarters on board one of the ships,) 
 in which he not only declared martial law, but freedom to all the slaves 
 who would join his standard. By this means he soon collected a crew 
 well suited to his designs ; and having fortified himself at the great bridge, 
 near Norfolk, continued for some time to commit such acts of wanton bar- 
 barity and contemptible depredations, as to disgust even those who had 
 until now continued friendly to the cause of the king. 
 
 The committee of safety finding themselves called upon to put a stop to 
 his lordship's savage warfare, despatched colonel Woodford to drive hirn 
 from his hold. Having arrived within cannon shot of lord Dunmore's 
 position, the Americans halted, and threw up some hasty intrenchments. 
 His lordship, hearing that the provincials amounted only to three hundred 
 men, badly armed, conceived the design of surprising them ; and for this 
 purpose captain Leslie, with the regulars and slaves, crossed the bridge 
 before daylight, and entered the camp of the provincials, just as they were 
 parading under arms. Captain Fordyce advanced to the attack of the 
 grenadiers, and was among the first that fell. The whole number of gre- 
 nadiers were either killed, wounded, or made prisoners, and the rest of the 
 royal party were obliged to make a rapid retreat. Disappointed in their 
 hopes, the governor's party abandoned their works the following night, and 
 retired to their shipping, leaving Woodford, who was now joined by colo- 
 nel Howe from North Carolina, the complete command of Norfolk. After 
 continuing to assail the coasts of Virginia for a considerable time, but al- 
 most everywhere unsuccessfully,* lord Dunmore was at length compelled 
 
 * On the 1st of January. 1771"). the town of Norfolk, in Virginia, was set on fire by 
 the British, under the direction of lord Dunnwre, and reduced to ashes. On the arrival 
 of the Liverpool man-of-war from England, a flag was sent on shore to put the question, 
 whether the provincials would supply his majesty's ship with provisions, and a negative 
 
HISTORY. 665 
 
 to abandon his hostile designs against the colonists. Some of his ships 
 were driven upon that coast, where the wretched fugitives were made pri- 
 soners by their own fellow-citizens, and immured in dungeons. To escape 
 a similar fate, Dunmore burnt the ships of least value ; and the miserable 
 remains of soldiers and loyalists, assailed at once by tempests, famine, and 
 disease, sought refuge in Florida, Bermudas, and the West Indies. 
 
 Notwithstanding the extent to which hostilities had been carried, a laro- 
 portion of the colonists had hitherto continued to entertain some hope of an 
 amicable termination of the dispute ; and it is evident, from the transac- 
 tions we are about to record, that many felt sincerely desirous not to frus- 
 trate such a result. The want of more regular and stable governments 
 had for some time been felt in those colonies where royal governments 
 had hitherto existed ; and in the autumn of 1775, New Hampshire applied 
 to congress for their advice and direction on this subject. In November, 
 congress advised the convention of that colony to call a full and free re- 
 presentation of the people ; when the representatives, if they thought it 
 necessary, should establish such a form of government as, in their judg- 
 ment, would best promote the happiness of the people, and most effectually 
 secure peace and good order during the continuance of the dispute between 
 Great Britain and the colonies. On this question the members of congress 
 were not unanimous. It was viewed by some as a step necessarily leading 
 to independence ; and by some of its advocates it was probably intended 
 as such. To render the resolution less exceptionable, the duration of the 
 government was limited to the continuance of the dispute with the parent 
 country. Soon afterwards similar directions and advice were given to 
 South Carolina and Virginia. 
 
 The last hopes of the colonists for reconciliation rested on the success 
 of their second petition to the king ; and the answer of their sovereign to 
 this application was expected with extreme solicitude. Information, how- 
 ever, was soon received from Mr. Penn, who was intrusted with the peti- 
 tion, that no answer would be given. This intelligence was followed by 
 that of great additional preparations to subdue the ' American rebels.' 
 The king, in his speech at the opening of parliament in October, not only 
 accused the colonists of revolt, hostility, and rebellion, but stated that the 
 rebellious war carried on by them was for the purpose of establishing an 
 independent empire. To prevent this he declared that the most decisive 
 and vigorous measures were necessary ; that he had consequently in- 
 creased his naval establishment, had augmented his land forces, and had 
 also taken measures to procure the aid of foreign troops. He at the same 
 time stated his intention of appointing certain persons with authority to 
 grant pardons to individuals, and to receive the submission of whole colo- 
 nies disposed to return to their allegiance. Large majorities in both 
 houses assured the king of their firm support in his measures for reducing 
 the colonists to obedience. The addresses, however, in answer to the 
 speech, were opposed with great ability. The project of employing foreign 
 troops to destroy American subjects was reprobated by the minority in the 
 strongest terms. The plans of the ministry, however, were not only ap- 
 proved by parliament, but by a majority of the nation. 
 
 answer being returned, it was determined to destroy the town. The whole loss was esti- 
 mated at three hundred thousand pounds sterling. The provincials themselves destroyed 
 the houses aud plantations near the water, to deprive the ships of every resource ol supply. 
 
 56* 
 
666 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The idea of making the colonists share their burdens could not easily 
 be relinquished by the people of Great Britain ; and national pride would 
 not permit them to yield the point of supremacy. War was now therefore 
 to be waged against the colonies, and a force sent out sufficiently powerful 
 to compel submission, even without a struggle. For these purposes the 
 aid of parliament was requisite ; and about the last of December an act 
 was passed, prohibiting all trade and commerce with the colonies, and 
 authorizing the capture and condemnation, not only of all American ves- 
 sels with their cargoes, but all other vessels found trading in any port or 
 place in the colonies, as if the same were the vessels and effects of open 
 enemies ; and the vessels and property thus taken were vested in the cap- 
 tors, and the crews were to be treated, not as prisoners, but as slaves. 
 
 The passing of this act shut the door against the application of the colo- 
 nies for a reconciliation. The last petition of congress to the king had, 
 indeed, been laid before parliament, but both houses refused to hear it, or 
 even to treat upon any proposition coming from such an unlawful assem- 
 bly, or from those who were then in arms against their lawful sovereign. 
 In the house of lords, on the motion of the duke of Richmond, Mr. Penn 
 was examined on American affairs. He stated, among other things, that 
 the colonists were desirous of reconciliation, and did not aim at indepen- 
 dence ; that they were disposed to conform to the acts regulating their trade, 
 but not to taxation; and that on this point a spirit of resistance was uni- 
 versal. After this examination the duke of Richmond moved a resolution, 
 declaring that the petition of congress to the king was a ground for a re- 
 conciliation of the differences between the two countries. This motion 
 was negatived, after a warm debate, by eighty-six to thirty-three. These 
 proceedings of the king and parliament, with the employment of sixteen 
 thousand foreign mercenaries, convinced the leading men in each colony 
 that the sword alone must decide the contest, and that the colonists must 
 now declare themselves totally independent of Great Britain. 
 
 Time, however, was still requisite, to convince the great mass of the 
 American people of the necessity of a complete separation from their parent 
 country, and the establishment of independent governments. The ablest 
 pens were employed throughout America, in the winter of 1775-6, on this 
 momentous subject. The propriety and necessity of the measure was 
 enforced in the numerous gazettes, and in pamphlets. Among the latter, 
 ' Common Sense,' from the popular pen of Thomas Paine, produced a 
 wonderful effect in the different colonics in favor of independence. Influ- 
 ential individuals in every colony urged it as a step absolutely necessary 
 to preserve the rights and liberties, as well as to secure the happiness and 
 prosperity of America.* 
 
 * The chief justice of South Carolina, William Henry Drayton, appointed under the 
 new form of government just adopted, in his charge to the grand jurors, in April, after 
 justifying the proceedings of that colony in forming a new government, on the princi- 
 ples of the revolution in England in 1G88, thus concludes: 'The Almighty created 
 America to be independent of Great Britain : let us beware of the impiety of being 
 backward to act as instruments in the Almighty hand, now extended to accomplish his 
 purpose; and by the completion of which alone, America, in the nature of humar. 
 affairs, can be secure against the crafty and insidious designs of her enemies, whc 
 think her power and prosperity already by far too great. In a word, our piety and 
 political safety are so blended, that to refuse our labors in this divine work, is to refuss 
 to be a great, a free, a pious, and a happy people.' — Pitkin, vol. i. p. 359. 
 
HISTORY 557 
 
 When the prohibitory act reached America, congress, justly viewing it 
 as a declaration of war, directed reprisals to be made, both by public and 
 private armed vessels, against the ships and goods of the inhabitants of 
 Great Britain, found on the high seas, or between high and low water 
 mark. They also burst the shackles of commercial monopoly, which had 
 so long kept them in bondage, and opened their ports to all the world, 
 except the dominions of Great Britain. In this state of things, it was 
 preposterous for the colonists any longer to consider themselves as holding 
 or exercising the powers of government under the authority of Great Bri- 
 tain. Congress, therefore, on the 10th of May, recommended to the as- 
 semblies and conventions of the colonies where no sufficient government 
 had been established, ' to adopt such government as should, in the opinion 
 of the representatives of the people, best conduce to the happiness and 
 safety of their constituents in particular, and America in general.' They 
 also declared it necessary, that the exercise of every kind of authority un- 
 der the crown should be suppressed, and that all the powers of govern- 
 ment should be exercised ' under the authority of the people of the colo- 
 nies, for the preservation of internal peace, virtue, and good order, as well 
 as for the defence of their lives, liberties, and properties, against the hostile 
 invasions and cruel depredations of their enemies.' This was a prelimi- 
 nary step to a general declaration of independence. Some of the colonial 
 assemblies and conventions about the same time began to express their 
 opinions on this great question. On the 22d of April, the convention of 
 North Carolina empowered their delegates in congress ' to concur with 
 those in the other colonies in declaring independency.' This, it is be- 
 lieved, was the first direct public act of any colonial assembly or conven- 
 tion in favor of the measure.* The convention of Virginia soon after- 
 wards expressed itself still more decidedly. After full deliberation, the 
 following resolutions were passed unanimously : — 
 
 ' That the delegates appointed to represent this colony in general con- 
 gress be instructed to propose to that respectable body, to declare the 
 United Colonies free and independent states, absolved from all allegiance to 
 or dependence upon the crown or parliament of Great Britain; and that 
 they give the assent of this colony to such declaration, and to whatever 
 measures may be thought proper and necessary by the congress for form- 
 ing foreign alliances, and a confederation of the colonies, at such time and 
 in the manner as to them shall seem best : provided that the power of 
 forming governments for, and the regulations of, the internal concerns of 
 each colony, be left to the respective colonial legislatures. 
 
 ' That a committee be appointed to prepare a declaration of rights, and 
 such a plan of government as will be most likely to maintain peace and 
 order in this colony, and secure substantial and equal liberty to the 
 people.'! 
 
 * Pitkin's Political and Civil History, vol. i. p. 361. 
 
 t ' This measure was followed by the most lively demonstrations of ioy. The spirit 
 of the times is interestingly manifested by the following paragraph from Purdie's paper 
 of the 17th of May, which immediately succeeds the annunciation of the resolutions :— 
 " In consequence of the above resolutions, universally regarded as the only door which 
 will lead to safety and prosperity, some gentlemen made a handsome collection for the 
 purpose of treating the soldiery, who next day were paraded in Waller's grove, before 
 brigadier-general Lewis, attended by the gentlemen of the committee of safety, tne 
 members of the general convention, the inhabitants of this city, &c. The resolution* 
 
668 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Early in the year the British government had prepared a considerable 
 expedition to reduce the southern colonies to obedience. The command 
 was intrusted to Sir Peter Parker and earl Cornwallis. On the 3d of 
 May, admiral Parker, with twenty sail, arrived at cape Fear. They found 
 general Clinton ready to co-operate with them. He had left New York, 
 and proceeded to Virginia, where he had an interview with lord Dunmore ; 
 but finding nothing could be effected in that colony, he repaired to cape 
 Fear, to await the arrival of the armament from England. Meanwhile, 
 the Carolinians had been making great exertions. In Charleston the ut- 
 most energy and activity was evinced. The citizens pulled down the valu- 
 able storehouses on the wharves, barricadoed the streets, and constructed 
 lines of defence along the shore. Abandoning their commercial pursuits, 
 they engaged in incessant labor, and prepared for bloody conflicts. The 
 troops, amounting to between five and six thousand men, were stationed in 
 the most advantageous positions. Amidst all this bustle and preparation, 
 lead was so extremely scarce, that the windows of Charleston were strip- 
 ped of their weights, in order to procure a small supply of that necessary 
 article for bullets. 
 
 Early in June, the armament, consisting of between forty and fifty ves- 
 sels, appeared off Charleston bay, and thirty-six of the transports passed 
 the bar, and anchored about three miles from Sullivan's island. Some 
 hundreds of the troops landed on Long island, which lies on the west of Sul- 
 livan's island, and which is separated from it by a narrow channel, often 
 fordable. On the 10th of the month, the Bristol, a fifty-gun ship, having 
 taken out her guns, got safely over the bar ; and on the 25th, the Experi- 
 ment, a ship of equal force, arrived, and next day passed in the same way. 
 On the part of the British every thing was now ready for action. Sir 
 Henry Clinton had nearly three thousand men under his command. The 
 naval force, under Sir Peter Parker, consisted of the Bristol and Experi- 
 ment, of fifty guns ; the Active, Acteon, Solebay, and Syren frigates ; the 
 Friendship, of twenty-two, and the Sphinx, of twenty guns ; the Banger 
 sloop, and Thunder bomb. On the forenoon of the 2Sth of June, this fleet 
 advanced against the fort on Sullivan's island, which was defended by 
 colonel Moultrie, with about three hundred and fifty regular troops, and 
 some militia. The Thunder bomb began the battle. The Active, Bristol, 
 Experiment, and Solebay, followed boldly to the attack, and a terrible 
 cannonade ensued. The fort returned the fire of the ships slowly, but 
 with deliberate and deadly aim ; and the contest was carried on during 
 the whole day with unabating fury. The Sphinx, Acteon, and Syren 
 were ordered to attack the western extremity of the fort, which was in a 
 very unfinished state ; but, as they proceeded for that purpose, they got 
 
 being read aloud to the army, the following toasts were given, each of them accompa- 
 nied by a discharge of the artillery and small arms, and the acclamations of all pre- 
 sent:—!. The American Independent States— 2. The grand congress of the United 
 States, and their respective legislatures.— 3. General Washington, and victory to the 
 American arms. — The union flag of the American states waved upon the capitol during 
 the whole of this ceremony; which being ended, the soldiers partook of the refreshments 
 prepared for them by the affection of their countrymen, and the evening concluded with 
 illuminations and other demonstrations of joy ; every one seeming pleased that the do- 
 mination of Great Britain was now at an end, so wickedly and tyrannically exercised 
 for these twelve or thirteen years past, notwithstanding our repeated prayers and remon- 
 strances for redress." ' — Wirt's Life of Henri/, p. 195. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 669 
 
 entangled with a shoal, called the Middle-ground. Two of them ran foul 
 of each other : the Acteon stuck fast ; the Sphinx and Syren got off; but, 
 fortunately for the Americans that part of the attack completely failed 
 
 It was designed that Sir Henry Clinton, with his corps, should co-one- 
 rate with the naval operations by passing the narrow channel which sepa- 
 rates Long island from Sullivan's island, and assail the fort by land • but 
 this the general found impracticable, for the channel, though commonly 
 iordable, was at that time, by a long prevalence of easterly winds, deeper 
 
 Attack on Fort Moultrie. 
 
 than usual; and even had the channel been fordable, the British troops 
 would have found the passage an arduous enterprise ; for colonel Thom- 
 son, with a strong detachment of riflemen, regulars, and militia, was posted 
 on the east end of Sullivan's island to oppose any attack made in that 
 quarter. The engagement, which began about eleven o'clock in the fore- 
 noon, continued with unabated fury till seven in the evening, when the 
 fire slackened, and about nine entirely ceased on both sides. Daring the 
 night all the ships, except the Acteon, which was aground, removed about 
 two miles from the island. Next morning the fort fired a few shots at the 
 Acteon, and she at first returned them ; but, in a short time, her crew set 
 her on fire and abandoned her. She blew up shortly afterwards. In this 
 obstinate engagement both parties fought with great gallantry. The loss 
 of the British was very considerable, upwards of sixty being killed, and 
 one hundred and sixty wounded ; while the garrison lost only ten men 
 killed, and twenty-two wounded. 
 
 Although the Americans were raw troops, yet they behaved with the 
 steady intrepidity of veterans. One circumstance may serve to illustrate 
 the cool but enthusiastic courage which pervaded their ranks. In the 
 course of the engagement the flag-staff of the fort was shot away ; but 
 sergeant Jasper leaped down upon the beach, snatched up the flag, fasten- 
 ed it to a sponge-staff, and, while the ships were incessantly directing their 
 broadsides upon the fort, he mounted the merlon and deliberately replaced 
 the flag. The fate of this expedition contributed greatly to establish the 
 popular government it was intended to destroy, while the news of it spread 
 
(670 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 rapidly through the continent, and exercised an equally unfavorable influ- 
 ence on the royal cause : the advocates of the irresistibility of British 
 fleets and armies were mortified and silenced ; and the brave defence of 
 fort Moultrie saved the southern states from the horrors of war for several 
 years. 
 
 In South Carolina the government took advantage of the hour of success 
 to conciliate their opponents in the province. The adherents of royal 
 power, who, for a considerable time, had been closely imprisoned, on pro- 
 mising fidelity to their country, were set at freedom and restored to all the 
 privileges of citizens. The repulse of the British was also attended with 
 another advantage, that of leaving the Americans at liberty to turn their 
 undivided force against the Indians, who had attacked the western frontier 
 of the southern states with all the fury and carnage of savage warfare. In 
 1775, when the breach between Great Britain and her colonies was daily 
 becoming wider, one Stuart, the agent employed in conducting the inter- 
 course between the British authorities and the Cherokees and Creeks, used 
 all his influence to attach the savages to the royal cause, and to inspire 
 them with jealousy and hatred of the Americans. 
 
 He found little difficulty in persuading them that the Americans, 
 without provocation, had taken up arms against Britain, and were the 
 means of preventing them from receiving their yearly supplies of arms, 
 ammunition, and clothing, from the British government. The Americans 
 had endeavored to conciliate the good will of the Indians, but their scanty 
 presents were unsatisfactory, and the savages resolved to take up the 
 hatchet. Deeming the appearance of the British fleet in Charleston bay a 
 fit opportunity, the Cherokees invaded the western frontier of the province, 
 marking their track with murder and devastation. The speedy retreat of 
 the British left the savages exposed to the vengeance of the Americans, 
 who, in separate divisions, entered their country at different points, from 
 Virginia and Georgia, defeated their warriors, burned their villages, laid 
 waste their corn-fields, and incapacitated the Cherokees for a considerable 
 time from giving the settlers further annoyance. Thus, in the south, the 
 Americans triumphed both over the British and the Indians. 
 
 On the 7th of June, the great question of independence was brought 
 directly before congress, by Richard Henry Lee, one of the delegates from 
 Virginia. He submitted a resolution, declaring ' that the United Colonies 
 are, and ought to be, free and independent states; that they are absolved 
 from all allegiance to the British crown ; and that all political connection 
 between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally 
 dissolved.' The resolution was postponed until the next day, and every 
 member enjoined to attend, to take the same into consideration. On the 
 8th it was debated in committee of the whole house. No question of 
 greater magnitude was ever presented to the consideration of a deliberative 
 body, or debated with more energy, eloquence, and ability. On the 10th 
 it was adopted in committee, by a bare majority. The delegates from 
 Pennsylvania and Maryland were instructed to oppose it, and the delegates 
 from some of the other colonies were without special instructions on the 
 subject. To give time for greater unanimity, the resolution was postponed 
 in the house until the 1st of July. In the mean time, a committee was 
 appointed to prepare a declaration of independence. During this interval, 
 measures were taken to procure the assent of all the colonies. 
 
HISTORY. QJi 
 
 On the day appointed, the resolution relating to independence was re- 
 sumed in the general congress, referred to a committee of the whole house 
 and assented to by all the colonies, except Pennsylvania and Delaware' 
 The committee appointed to prepare a declaration of independence selected 
 Mr. Adams and Mr. Jefferson as a sub-committee, and the orio-inal draft 
 was made by Mr. Jefferson. This draft, without any amendment by the 
 committee, was reported to congress, and, after undergoing several amend- 
 ments, received their sanction. 
 
 The course of time has now brought us to the decisive hour when a 
 new empire, of a character the most extraordinary, springs into being. 
 The world has known no rest since this grand confederacy took her rank 
 among the nations of the earth ; her example infused a power into the princi- 
 ples of liberty which for nearly two centuries had been dormant ; although in 
 another hemisphere, it has exercised more influence on the state of the 
 public mind in Europe than did the great struggle in the days of the com- 
 monwealth ; and the world will know rest no more, till, under whatever 
 form, the great lessons of freedom which American history enforces, have 
 been listened to, and embodied in action, by every nation of the globe. 
 
 FROM THE CAMPAIGN OF 1776 TO THAT OF 1779. 
 
 General Washington, after compelling the British to abandon Boston, 
 had made every possible preparation for the defence of New York, where 
 he had fixed his head-quarters. To second his exertions, the congress 
 instituted a flying camp, to consist of an intermediate corps, between regu- 
 lar soldiers and militia ; and called for ten thousand men from the states 
 of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware, to be in constant service to the 
 first day of the ensuing December ; and for thirteen thousand eight 
 hundred of the common militia from Massachusetts, Connecticut, New 
 York, and New Jersey. The command of the naval force destined to 
 operate against New York was given to admiral Howe, while his brother, 
 Sir William, was intrusted with the command of the army; and, in addi- 
 tion to their military powers, the brothers were appointed commissioners 
 for restoring peace to the colonies. General Howe, after waiting two 
 months at Halifax for expected reinforcements from England, sailed with 
 the force which he had previously commanded in Boston ; and, directing 
 his course towards New York, arrived on the 25th of June off Sandy Hook. 
 Admiral lord Howe, with part of the reinforcement from England, arrived 
 at Halifax soon after his brother's departure, and, without dropping anchor, 
 followed, and joined him on the 12th of July at Staten island. General 
 Clinton arrived there about the same time with the troops brought back 
 from the expedition of Charleston and South Carolina; commodore Ho- 
 tham also appeared there with the reinforcement under his escort ; and in 
 a short time the British army amounted to about twenty-four thousand 
 men, English, Hessians, and Waldeckers. 
 
 The royal commissioners, before they commenced military operations, 
 attempted to effect a reunion between the colonies and Great Britain. 
 Lord Howe announced his pacific powers to the principal magistrates of 
 the several colonies. He promised pardon to all who, in the late times, 
 had deviated from their allegiance, on condition of their speedily returning 
 
672 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 to their duty ; and, in case of their compliance, encouraged their expecta- 
 tion of the future favor of their sovereign. In his declaration, he observed, 
 'that the commissioners were authorized, in his majesty's name, to declare 
 any province, colony, county, district, or town, to be at peace with his 
 majesty; that due consideration should be had to the meritorious services 
 of any who should aid or assist in restoring the public tranquillity ; that 
 their dutiful representations should be received, pardons granted, and suit- 
 able encouragement to such as would promote the measures of legal govern- 
 ment and peace, in pursuance of his majesty's most gracious purposes.' 
 These pacific proposals were regarded by the Americans as only an attempt 
 to sow dissensions among them, and were never for a moment seriously 
 regarded by any of the patriotic party. The British forces waited so long 
 to receive accessions from Halifax, the Carolinas, the West Indies, and 
 Europe, that the month of August was far advanced before they commenc- 
 ed the campaign. The commanders, having resolved to make their first 
 attempt on Long island, landed their troops, estimated at about twenty-four 
 thousand men, at Gravesend bay, to the right of the Narrows. 
 
 The Americans, to the amount of fifteen thousand, under major-general 
 Sullivan, were posted on a peninsula between Mill creek, a little above 
 Red Hook, and an elbow of East river, called Whaaleboght bay. Here 
 they had erected strong fortifications, which were separated from New 
 York by East river, at the distance of a mile. A line of intrenchment 
 from the Mill creek inclosed a large space of ground, on which stood the 
 American camp, near the village of Brooklyn. This line was secured by 
 abatis, and flanked by strong redoubts. The armies were separated by a 
 range of hills, covered with a thick wood, which intersects the country 
 from west to east, terminating on the east near Jamaica. Through these 
 hills there were three roads ; one near the Narrows, a second by the Flat- 
 bush road, and a third by the Bedford road ; these were the only passes 
 from the south side of the hills to the American lines, excepting a road 
 which led to Jamaica round the easterly end of the hills ; and general 
 Putnam, agreeably to the instructions of general Washington, had detach- 
 ed a considerable part of his men to occupy them. 
 
 On the 26th, the main body of British troops, with a large detachment 
 of Germans, landed under cover of the ships, on the south-western extre- 
 mity of Long island, and advancing in three divisions, took post upon the 
 south skirt of the wood ; general Grant upon their left, near the coast ; 
 the German general, de Heister, in the centre, at Flatbush ; and general 
 Clinton upon their right, at Flatland. Only the range of hills now sepa- 
 rated the two armies, and the different posts of the British were distant 
 from the American camp from four to six miles. In the evening, general 
 Clinton, without beat of drum, marched with the infantry of his division, a 
 party of light-horse, and fourteen field-pieces, to gain the defile on the 
 Jamaica road. During the night he surprised an American party station- 
 ed here to give the alarm of an approaching enemy, and, undiscovered by 
 Sullivan, seized the pass. At daybreak he passed the heights, and de- 
 scended into the plain on the side of Brooklyn. Early in the morning, 
 general de Heister, at Flatbush, and general Grant, upon the west coast, 
 opened a cannonade upon the American troops, and began to ascend the 
 hill ; but they moved very slowly, as their object was to draw the attention 
 of the American commander from his left, and give general Clinton oppor- 
 
HISTORY. fffr} 
 
 tanity to gain the rear of the American troops stationed on the heights 
 General Putnam, in the apprehension that the serious attack would be 
 made by de Heister and Grant, sent detachments to reinforce general Sul- 
 livan and lord Sterling at the defiles, through which those divisions of 
 the enemy were approaching. 
 
 When general Clinton had passed the left flank of the Americans, about 
 eight o'clock in the morning of the 27th, de Heister and Grant vigorously 
 ascended the hill ; the troops which opposed them bravely maintained then- 
 ground, until they learned their perilous situation from the British columns 
 which were gaining their rear. As soon as the American left discovered 
 the progress of general Clinton, they attempted to return to the camp at 
 Brooklyn, but their flight was stopped by the front of the British column. 
 Jn the mean time, the Germans pushed forward from Flatbush, and the 
 troops in the American centre, under the immediate command of general 
 Sullivan, having also discovered that their flank was turned, and that the 
 enemy was gaining their rear, in haste retreated towards Brooklyn. 
 Clinton's columns continuing to advance, intercepted them ; they were 
 attacked in front and rear, and alternately driven by the British on the 
 Germans, and by the Germans on the British. Desperate as their situation 
 was, some regiments broke through the enemy's columns and regained the 
 fortified camp ; but most of the detachments upon the American left and 
 centre were either killed or taken prisoners. The detachment on the 
 American right, under lord Sterling, maintained a severe conflict with 
 general Grant for six hours, until the van of general Clinton's division, 
 having crossed the whole island, gained their rear. 
 
 Lord Sterling perceived his danger, and found that his troops could be 
 saved only by an immediate retreat over a creek near the cove. He gave 
 orders to this purpose ; and, to facilitate their execution, he in person at- 
 tacked lord Cornwallis, who, by this time having gained the coast, had 
 posted a small corps in a house, just above the place where the American 
 troops must pass the creek. The attack was bravely made with four 
 hundred men ; but his lordship being reinforced from his own column, and 
 general Grant attacking lord Sterling in the rear, this brave band was 
 overpowered by numbers, and those who survived were compelled to sur- 
 render themselves prisoners of war ; but this spirited assault gave opportu- 
 nity for a large proportion of the detachment to escape. General Wash- 
 ington passed over to Brooklyn in the heat of the action ; but, unable to 
 rescue his men from their perilous situation, was constrained to be the 
 inactive spectator of the slaughter of his best troops. The loss of the Ame- 
 ricans on this occasion, for the number engaged, was great; general 
 Washington stated it at a thousand men ; but his returns probably includ- 
 ed only the regular regiments. General Howe, in an official letter, made 
 the prisoners amount to one thousand and ninety-seven. Among these 
 were major-general Sullivan, and brigadier-generals Sterling and Wood- 
 hull. The amount of the killed was never with precision ascertained. 
 The British loss, as stated by general Howe, was twenty-one officers, and 
 three hundred and forty-six privates killed, wounded, and taken prisoners. 
 
 The British now encamped in front of the American lines, and on the 
 
 succeeding night broke ground within six hundred yards of a redoubt on 
 
 the left. In this critical state of the American army on Long island, — in 
 
 front a numerous and victorious enemy with a formidable train of artillery, 
 
 85 57 
 
674 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the fleet indicating an intention to torce a passage into East river to make 
 some attempt on New York, the troops lying without shelter from heavy- 
 rains, fatigued and dispirited, — it was determined to withdraw from the 
 island; and this difficult movement was effected with great skill and judg- 
 ment, and with complete success. 
 
 The defeat of the 27th made a most unfavorable impression upon the 
 army. A great proportion of the troops lost their confidence in their offi- 
 cers, and in themselves. Before this unfortunate event, they met the 
 enemy in the spirit of freemen fighting for their highest interests, and 
 under the persuasion that their thorough use of arms rendered them equal to 
 the disciplined battalions which they were to oppose. But on this occa- 
 sion, by evolutions which they did not comprehend, they found themselves 
 encompassed with difficulties from which their utmost exertions could not 
 extricate them, and involved in dangers from which their bravery could 
 not deliver them ; and entertaining a high opinion of the adroitness of the 
 enemy, in every movement they apprehended a fatal snare. * No sooner 
 had the British secured the possession of Long island, than they made 
 dispositions to attack New York. It was a serious question whether that 
 place was defensible against so formidable an enemy ; and general Wash- 
 ington called a council of general officers, to decide whether it should be 
 evacuated without delay, or longer defended. The general officers, in 
 compliance with the views of congress, were very averse from the abandon- 
 ment of the city ; and it was resolved, contrary to the individual opinion 
 of Washington, to endeavor to defend the city. 
 
 The army was accordingly arranged into three divisions, one of which, 
 consisting of five thousand men, was to remain in New York ; another, 
 amounting to nine thousand, was to be stationed at King's Bridge ; and 
 the residue of the army was to occupy the intermediate space, so as to 
 support either extreme. The unexpected movements of the British soon 
 evinced the correctness of the opinion of the general-in-chief ; and in a 
 second council it was determined, by a large majority, that it had become 
 not only prudent, but necessary, to withdraw the army from New York. 
 Several English ships of war passed up North river on the one side of 
 York island, and East river on the other side ; Sir Henry Clinton em- 
 barked at Long island, at the head of four thousand men, proceeded through 
 Newtown bay, crossed East river, and landed, under cover of the ships, at 
 Kipp's bay, about three miles above New York. Works of considerable 
 
 * These melancholy facts were thus narrated by general "Washington, in his letter to 
 congress : — 'Our situation is truly distressing. The check our detachment sustained on 
 the 27th ultimo, has dispirited too great a proportion of our troops, and filled their minds 
 with apprehension and despair. The militia, instead of calling forth their utmost efforts 
 to a brave and manly opposition, in order to repair our losses, are dismayed, intractable, 
 and impatient to return. Great numbers of them have gone off; in some instances 
 almost by whole regiments, by half ones, and by companies at a time. This circum- 
 stance of itself, independent of others, when fronted by a well-appointed enemy, superior 
 in number to our whole collected force, would be sufficiently disagreeable ; but when 
 their example has infected another part of the army, — when their want of discipline, 
 and refusal of almost every kind of restraint and government, have produced a like 
 conduct, but too common to the whole, and an entire disregard of that order and subor- 
 dination necessary to the well doing of an army, and which had been inculcated before, 
 as well as the nature of our military establishment Would admit of, — our condition is 
 still more alarming ; and with the deepest concern I am obliged to confess my want of 
 confidence in the generality of the troops.' 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 675 
 
 strength had been thrown up at this place, to oppose the landing of the 
 enemy ; but they were immediately abandoned by the troops stationed in 
 them, who, terrified at the fire of the ships, fled precipitately toward their 
 main body, and communicated their panic to a detachment marching to 
 their support. General Washington, to his extreme mortification, meUhis 
 whole party retreating in the utmost disorder, and exerted himself to rally 
 them ; but, on the appearance of a small corps of the British, they ao-ain 
 broke, and fled in confusion. Nothing was now left him but to withdraw 
 the few remaining troops from New York, and to secure the posts on the 
 heights. The retreat from New York was effected with a very inconsider- 
 able loss of men ; but all the heavy artillery, and a large portion of the 
 baggage, provisions, and military stores, were unavoidably abandoned. 
 
 The British, taking possession of New York, stationed a few troops in 
 the capital ; but the main body of their army was on York island, at no 
 great distance from the American lines. The day after the retreat from 
 New York, a considerable body of the British appearing in the plains be- 
 tween the two camps, the general ordered colonel Knowlton, with a corps 
 of rangers, and major Leitch, with three companies of a Virginia regiment, 
 to get in their rear, while he amused them by making apparent dispositions 
 to attack their front. The plan succeeded ; and a skirmish ensued, in 
 which the Americans charged the enemy with great intrepidity, and gain- 
 ed considerable advantage ; but the principal benefit of this action was its 
 influence in reviving the depressed spirits of the whole army. The armies 
 did not long retain their position on York island. The British frigates 
 having passed up North river under a fire from fort Washington and the 
 post opposite to it on the Jersey shore, general Howe embarked a great 
 part of his army in flat-bottomed boats, and, passing through Hellgate into 
 the sound, landed at Frog's neck. 
 
 The object of the British general was, either to force Washington out of 
 his present lines, or to inclose him in them. Aware of this design, gene- 
 ral Washington moved a part of his troops from York island to join those 
 at King's Bridge, and detached some regiments to West Chester. A coun- 
 cil of war was now called, and the system of evacuating and retreating was 
 adopted, with the exception of fort Washington, for the defence of which 
 nearly three thousand men were assigned. After a halt of six days the 
 roval army advanced, not without considerable opposition, along the coast 
 of "Long Island sound, by New Rochelle, to White Plains, where the Ame- 
 ricans took a strong position behind intrenchments. This post was main- 
 tained for several days, till the British having received considerable rein- 
 forcements, general Washington withdrew to the heights of North Castle, 
 about five miles from White Plains, where, whether from the strength of 
 his position, or from the British general having other objects in view, no 
 attempt at attack was made. 
 
 Immediately on leaving White Plains, general Howe directed his atten- 
 tion to fort Washington and fort Lee, as their possession would secure the 
 navigation of the Hudson, and facilitate the invasion of New Jersey. On 
 the ]°5th of November, general Howe, being in readiness for the assault, 
 summoned the garrison to surrender. Colonel Magaw, the commanding 
 officer, in spirited language, replied, that he should defend his works to 
 extremity. On the succeeding morning the British made the assault in 
 four separate divisions ; and having, after a brave and obstinate resistance, 
 
670 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 surmounted the outworks, again summoned the garrison to surrender. His 
 ammunition being nearly expended, and his force incompetent to repel the 
 numbers which were ready on every side to assail him, colonel Magaw 
 surrendered himself and his garrison, consisting of two thousand men, 
 prisoners of war. The enemy lost in the assault about eight hundred men, 
 mostly Germans. 
 
 The conquest of fort Washington made the evacuation of fort Lee ne- 
 cessary. Orders were therefore issued to remove the ammunition and 
 stores in it ; but, before much progress had been made in this business, 
 lord Cornwallis crossed the Hudson, with a number of battalions, with the 
 intention to inclose the garrison between the Hackensack and North rivers. 
 This movement made a precipitate retreat indispensable, which was happily 
 effected with little loss of men ; but the greater part of the artillery, stores, 
 and baggage was left for the enemy. The loss at fort Washington was 
 heavy. The regiments captured in it were some of the best troops in the 
 army. The tents, camp-kettles, and stores, lost at this place and at fort 
 Lee, could not, during the campaign, be replaced, and for the want of them 
 the men suffered extremely. This loss was unnecessarily sustained, as 
 those posts ought, unquestionably, to have been evacuated before general, 
 Howe was in a situation to invest them ; and this event was the more to 
 be deplored, as the American force was daily diminished by the expiration 
 of the soldiers' term of enlistment, and by the desertion of the militia. 
 
 These successes encouraged the British to pursue the remaining Ame- 
 rican force, with the prospect of annihilating it. General Washington, 
 who had taken post at Newark, on the south side of the Passaic, finding 
 himself unable to make any real opposition, withdrew from that place as 
 the enemy crossed the Passaic, and retreated to Brunswick, on the Rari- 
 ton ; and lord Cornwallis on the same day entered Newark. The retreat 
 was still continued from Brunswick to Princeton ; from Princeton to 
 Trenton ; and from Trenton to the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware. 
 The pursuit was urged with so much rapidity, that the rear of one army 
 was often within shot of the van of the other.* The winter being now 
 set in, the British army went into quarters, between the Delaware and th<3 
 Hackensack. Trenton, the most important post and barrier, was occupied 
 by a brigade of Hessians, under colonel Rawle. General Howe now issu- 
 ed a proclamation, in the name of his brother and himself, in which pardon, 
 was offered to all persons who, within the space of sixty days, should take 
 the oath of allegiance, and submit to the authority of the British govern- 
 ment. The effects of this proclamation were soon apparent. People from 
 several quarters availed themselves of it, and threw down their arms. No 
 city or town, indeed, in its corporate capacity, submitted to the British go- 
 vernment ; but many families of fortune and influence discovered an incli- 
 
 * ' On the 17th of Decemher, our army marched from Brunswick at four o'clock in 
 the morning, and about the same hour in the afternoon arrived at Princeton. This 
 place general Washington, in person, with Stirling's brigade, left not one hour before 
 the British arrived. At Princeton the British general waited seventeen hours, marched 
 at nine o'clock in the morning of the 8th, and arrived at Trenton at four o'clock in the 
 afternoon, just when the last boat of general "Washington's embarkation crossed the 
 river, as if he had calculated, it was observed, with great accuracy, the exact time ne- 
 cessary for his enemy to make his escape.' — Sttadmarfs History of the. American War, 
 vol. i. p. 220, 
 
HISTORY. ft?? 
 
 nation to return to their allegiance. Many of the yeomanry claimed the 
 benefit of the commissioners' proclamation ; and the great body of them 
 were too much taken up with the security of their families and their pro- 
 perty, to make any exertion in the public cause. Another source of morti- 
 fication to the Americans was the capture of general Lee, who had im- 
 prudently ventured to lodge at a house three miles distant from his corps.* 
 
 This was the most gloomy period of the revolutionary war. It was the 
 crisis of the struggle of the United States for independence. The Ameri- 
 can army, reduced in numbers, depressed by defeat, and exhausted by 
 fatigue, naked, barefoot, and destitute of tents, and even of utensils with 
 which to dress their scanty provisions, was fleeing before a triumphant 
 enemy, well appointed and abundantly supplied. A general spirit of de- 
 spondency through New Jersey was the consequence of this disastrous state 
 of public affairs. But in this worst of times congress stood unmoved; 
 their measures exhibited no symptoms of confusion or dismay ; the public 
 danger only roused them to more vigorous exertions, that they might give 
 a firmer tone to the public mind, and animate the citizens of United Ame- 
 rica to a manly defence of their independence. Beneath this cloud of 
 adversity, too, general Washington shone with a brighter lustre than in 
 the day of his highest prosperity. Not dismayed by all the difficulties 
 which encompassed him, he accommodated his measures to his situation, 
 and still made the good of his country the object of his unwearied pursuit. 
 He ever wore the countenance of composure and confidence, by his own 
 example inspiring his little band with firmness to struggle with adverse 
 fortune. 
 
 While Washington was retreating over the Delaware, the British, under 
 Sir Pelew Parker and general Clinton, took possession of Rhode Island, 
 and blocked up commodore Hopkins' squadron and a number of privateers 
 at Providence; but this measure was disadvantageous to the British, as it 
 required the presence of troops which might have been much more advan- 
 tageously employed. 
 
 The neighborhood of Philadelphia now becoming the seat of war, con- 
 gress adjourned to Baltimore ; resolving at the same time ' that general 
 Washington should be possessed of full powers to order and direct all 
 things relative to the department and the operations of the war.' _ In this 
 extremity, judicious determinations in the cabinet were accompanied with 
 vigorous operations in the field. The united exertions of civil and military 
 officers had by this time brought a considerable body of militia into their 
 ranks. General Sullivan too, on whom the command of general Lee s 
 division devolved on his capture, promptly obeyed the orders of the com- 
 mander-in-chief, and at this period joined him, and general Heath marched 
 a detachment from Peck's Kill. 
 
 * General Lee had been a British officer, and had engaged in the American service 
 before the acceptance of the resignation of his commission. Sir William H« ft >r this 
 reason pretended to view him as a traitor, and at first refused to admit him *° J" 5 P* 
 role, or to consider him as a subject of exchange. Congress directed die ^ommander. 
 in-chief to propose to Sir William Howe to exchange six field-officers for gene al Lee n 
 ease the proposal was rejected, that body resolved, that these office ^hould be close > 
 confined/and in every respect receive the treatment that general Le did The proposi 
 tion not bein- acceded to, the resolution of congress was carried into effect, by the exe 
 cmives of the states in whose custody the selected field-officers were with a degree of 
 severity which perhaps even the treatment of general Lee hardly wwmm tea. 
 
678 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The army, with these reinforcements, amounted to seven thousand men, 
 and general Washington determined to commence active and bold opera- 
 tions. He had noticed the loose and uncovered state of the winter quarters 
 of the British army, and contemplated the preservation of Philadelphia, 
 and the recovery of New Jersey, by sweeping, at one stroke, all the British 
 cantonments upon the Delaware. The present position of his forces 
 favored the execution of his plan. The troops under the immediate com- 
 mand of general Washington, consisting of about two thousand four hun- 
 dred men, were ordered to cross the river at M'Konkey's ferry, nine miles 
 above Trenton, to attack that post. General Irvine was directed to cross 
 with his division at Trenton ferry, to secure the bridge below the town, 
 and prevent the retreat of the enemy that way. General Cadwallader 
 received orders to pass the river at Bristol ferry, and assault the post at 
 Burlington. The night of the twenty-fifth was assigned for the execution 
 of this daring scheme. It proved to be severely cold, and so much ice was 
 made in the river, that general Irvine and general Cadwallader, after hav- 
 ing strenuously exerted themselves, found it impracticable to pass their 
 divisions, and their part of the plan totally failed. The commander-in- 
 chief was, however, more fortunate, and, though with much difficulty and 
 considerable loss of time, succeeded in crossing the river, and reached 
 Trenton by eight o'clock in the morning. 
 
 The brave colonel Rawle, the commanding officer, assembled his forces 
 for the defence of his post ; but he was mortally wounded by the first fire, 
 and his men, in apparent dismay, attempted to file off towards Princeton. 
 General Washington, perceiving their intention, moved a part of his troops 
 into this road in their front, and defeated the design. Their artillery being 
 seized, and the Americans pressing upon them, they surrendered. Twenty 
 of the Germans were killed, and a thousand made prisoners. By the fail- 
 ure of general Irvine, a small body of the enemy stationed in the lower 
 part of the town escaped over the bridge to Bordentown. Of the American 
 troops, two privates were killed and two frozen to death, and one officer 
 and three or four privates were wounded. Could the other divisions have 
 crossed the Delaware, general Washington's plan, in its full extent, would 
 probably have succeeded. Not thinking it prudent to hazard the fruits of 
 this gallant stroke by more daring attempts, the general the same day re- 
 crossed the Delaware with his prisoners, with six pieces of artillery, a 
 thousand stand of arms, and some military stores. 
 
 This display of enterprise and vigor on the part of the Americans asto- 
 nished and perplexed general Howe, and, though in the depth of winter, he 
 found it necessary to commence active operations. Such was the reviving 
 influence on the minds of the American soldiers, and such the skill which 
 the commander-in-chief exercised, that, after several successful operations 
 following that of Trenton, he not only saved Philadelphia and Pennsylva- 
 nia, but recovered the greatest part of the Jerseys, in defiance of an army 
 vastly superior to his, in discipline, resources, and numbers. Of all their 
 recent extensive possessions in the Jerseys, the English retained now only 
 the posts of Brunswick and Amboy. These successful operations on the 
 part of the Americans were immediately followed by a proclamation, in the 
 name of general Washington, absolving all those who had been induced 
 to take the oaths of allegiance tendered by the British commissioners, and 
 promising them protection on condition of their subscribing to a form of 
 
HISTORY. g79 
 
 oath prescribed by congress. The effects of this proclamation were almost 
 instantaneous. The inhabitants of the Jerseys, who had conceived a vio- 
 lent hatred to the British army, on account of their unchecked course of 
 plundering, instantly renounced their allegiance to Great Britain, and attach- 
 ed themselves to the cause of America. Several who were resolved to 
 avenge their wrongs, joined the army under general Washington, while 
 others rendered equal service to the side to which they attached themselves, 
 by supplying the American army with provisions and fuel, and by convey- 
 ing intelligence of the operations of the British army. 
 
 Before entering on the campaign of 1777, it will be proper briefly to no- 
 tice the state of affairs in Canada. The Americans still possessed Crown 
 Point and Ticonderoga, and were masters of lake Champlain. To dispos- 
 sess them of these posts was an arduous and a difficult task, inasmuch as 
 the British had not a vessel on lake Champlain to oppose the American 
 fleet. Difficult, however, as it was, general Carleton resolved to use every 
 effort to procure an adequate naval force, and at length succeeding in the 
 attainment of his object, he acquired a decided superiority. On the 11th 
 of October, the British fleet discovered that of their opponents very advan- 
 tageously posted off the island Valicour, with an intention of defending the 
 passage between that island and the western main. A schooner and some 
 gun-boats, being considerably ahead of the rest of the fleet, began the en- 
 gagement, which was continued for some hours on both sides with great 
 intrepidity. Brigadier-general Waterbury, in the Washington galley, 
 fought with undaunted bravery, until nearly all his officers were killed or 
 wounded, and his vessel greatly injured, when Arnold ordered the remain- 
 ing shattered vessels to retire up the lake towards Crown Point, to refit. 
 
 Two days afterwards they were overtaken by the British, and the action 
 was renewed. The Washington galley, crippled in the first action, was 
 soon obliged to strike and surrender. General Arnold, having obstinately 
 defended himself with great judgment and gallantry against a superior 
 force, was at length so closely pressed, that he was compelled to run on 
 shore his own vessel, the Congress galley, which, with five gondolas, was 
 abandoned and blown up. Of sixteen American vessels, eleven were taken 
 or destroyed ; of the British, two gondolas were sunk, and one blown up 
 with sixty men. The loss of men on each side was supposed to be nearly 
 equal ; that of the Americans was estimated at about a hundred. The 
 British army and fleet now established themselves at Crown Point, and 
 proceeded to strengthen the old fortifications, originally erected at this 
 place by the French in 1756 ; but they very soon abandoned this station, 
 and retired into Canada. 
 
 Having secured the Hessian prisoners on the Pennsylvania side of the 
 Delaware, Washington recrossed the river two days after the action, and 
 took possession of Trenton. Generals Mifflin and Cadwallader, who lay 
 at Bordentown and Crosswix with three thousand six hundred militia, 
 were ordered to march up in the night of the 1st of January, to join the 
 commander-in-chief, whose whole effective force, including this accession, 
 did not exceed five thousand men. The detachments of the British army 
 which had been distributed over New Jersey, now assembled at Princeton, 
 and were joined by the army from Brunswick under lord Cornwalhs. 
 From this position they advanced toward Trenton in great force, on the 
 morning of the 2d of January ; and, after some slight skirmishing with 
 
680 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 troops detached to harass and delay their march, the van of their army 
 reached Trenton about four in the afternoon. On their approach, general 
 Washington retired across the Assumpinck, a rivulet that runs through 
 the town, and by some field-pieces, posted on its opposite banks, compelled 
 them, after attempting to cross in several places, to fall back out of the 
 reach of his guns. The two armies, kindling their fires, retained their 
 positions on opposite sides of the rivulet, and kept up a cannonade until 
 night. 
 
 The situation of the American general was at this moment extremely 
 critical. Nothing but a stream, in many places fordable, separated his 
 army from an enemy in every respect its superior. If he remained in his 
 present position, he was certain of being attacked the next morning, at the 
 hazard of the entire destruction of his little army. If he should retreat over 
 the Delaware, the ice in that river not being firm enough to admit a pas- 
 sage upon it, there was danger of great loss, perhaps of a total defeat ; the 
 Jerseys would be in full possession of the enemy ; the public mind would 
 be depressed ; recruiting would be discouraged ; and Philadelphia would 
 be within the reach of general Howe. In this extremity, he boldly deter- 
 mined to abandon the Delaware, and, by a circuitous march along the left 
 flank of the enemy, fall into their rear at Princeton. When it was dark, 
 the army, leaving its fires lighted, and the sentinels on the margin of the 
 creek, decamped with perfect secrecy. About sunrise two British regi- 
 ments, that were on their march to join the rear of the British army at 
 Maidenhead, fell in with the van of the Americans, conducted by general 
 Mercer, and a very sharp action ensued. The advanced party of Ameri- 
 cans, composed chiefly of militia, soon gave way, and the few regulars 
 attached to them could not maintain their ground. General Mercer, while 
 gallantly exerting himself to rally his broken troops, received a mortal 
 wound. 
 
 General Washington, however, who followed close in their rear, now 
 led on the main body of the army, and attacked the enemy with great spirit. 
 While he exposed himself to their hottest fire, he was so well supported by 
 the same troops which had aided him a few days before in the victory at 
 Trenton, that the British were compelled to give way, and Washington 
 pressed forward to Princeton. A party of the British that had taken re- 
 fuge in the college, after receiving a few discharges from the American 
 field-pieces, surrendered themselves prisoners of war ; but the principal 
 part of the regiment that was left there, saved itself by a precipitate retreat 
 to Brunswick. In this action upwards of a hundred of the British were 
 killed, and nearly three hundred were taken prisoners. Great was the 
 surprise of lord Cornwallis when the report of the artillery at Princeton, 
 and the arrival of breathless messengers, apprized him that the enemy was 
 in his rear. Alarmed by the danger of his position, he commenced a 
 retreat ; and, being harassed by the militia and the countrymen who had 
 suffered from the outrages perpetrated by his troops on their advance, he 
 did not deem himself in safety till he arrived at Brunswick, from whence, 
 by means of the Rariton, he had communication with New York. 
 
 The successes of the American arms at Trenton and at Princeton were 
 followed by important consequences. The affairs of the United States 
 before these events, appeared to be desperate. Two thousand of the regu- 
 lar troops had a right, on the 1st of January, to demand their discharge. 
 
HISTORY. 531 
 
 The recruiting service was at an end, and general despondency prevailed. 
 The triumphs of the British through the previous parts of the campaign 
 produced a common apprehension, in the citizens of the middle states, that 
 any further struggle would be useless, and that America must eventually 
 return to her allegiance to Great Britain. Many individuals made their 
 peace with the commissioners, and took protection from the officers of the 
 crown ; and more discovered an inclination to do it, when opportunity 
 should present itself. General Howe supposed New Jersey restored to the 
 British government, and thought the war drawing to a close. But these 
 successes were considered as great victories, and produced important effects 
 upon the public mind. The character of the commander-in-chief propor- 
 tionably rose in the estimation of the great mass of American people, who 
 now respected themselves, and confided in their persevering efforts to secure 
 the great object of contention — the independence of their country. Other 
 causes had a powerful operation upon the minds of the yeomanry of New 
 Jersey. 
 
 The British commanders tolerated, or at least did not restrain, gross li- 
 centiousness in their army. The inhabitants of the state which they boast- 
 ed was restored to the bosom of the parent country, were treated not as 
 reclaimed friends, but as conquered enemies. The soldiers were guilty of 
 every species of rapine, and with little discrimination between those who 
 had opposed or supported the measures of Britain. The abuse was not 
 limited to the plundering of property. Every indignity was offered to the 
 persons of the inhabitants, not excepting those outrages to the female sex 
 which are felt by ingenuous minds with the keenest anguish, and excite 
 noble spirits to desperate resistance. These aggravated abuses roused the 
 people of New Jersey to repel that army to which they had voluntarily 
 submitted, in the expectation of protection and security. At the dawn of 
 success upon the American arms, they rose in small bands to oppose their 
 invaders. They scoured the country, cut off every soldier who straggled 
 from his corps, and in many instances repelled the foraging parties of the 
 enemy. Early in this year also the Americans were gratified by the arri- 
 val of a vessel from France at Portsmouth, in New Hampshire, with up- 
 wards of eleven thousand stand of arms, and a thousand barrels of powder; 
 and about the same time ten thousand stand of arms arrived in another 
 part of the United States. 
 
 This supply was, however, in some measure counterbalanced. In the 
 month of March the British sent out two detachments to destroy the Ame- 
 rican stores at Peekskill, on the North river, and at Danbury, in Connec- 
 ticut. Both succeeded in their attempt ; and although the stores destroy- 
 ed did not equal in quantity the report on which the expeditions were 
 planned, yet their loss was sensibly felt by the Americans in the active 
 season of the campaign. 
 
 Sir William Howe, having in vain attempted to entice or provoke gene- 
 ral Washington to an engagement, had, in June, retired with his army 
 from the Jerseys to Staten island. After keeping the American general 
 in long and perplexing suspense concerning his intended operations, he at 
 length sailed from Sandy Hook with about sixteen thousand men, entered 
 Chesapeake bay, and on the 24th of August arrived at the head of Elk 
 river. Generals Grant and Knyphausen having joined him on the 8th of 
 September Avith the troops under their command, the whole army moved 
 86 
 
682 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 onward in two columns toward Philadelphia, the possession of which was 
 now evidently the object of the British commander. Washington, who 
 regulated his movements by those of the enemy, had by this time, with the 
 whole American army excepting the light infantry, which remained on the 
 lines, taken a position behind Red Clay creek, on the road leading directly 
 from the enemy's camp to Philadelphia. The British rapidly advanced 
 until they were within two miles of the Americans ; while Washington 
 crossed the Brandywine, and took post on a height behind that river. 
 
 At daybreak on the morning of the 11th it was ascertained that Sir 
 William Howe in person had crossed the Brandywine at the forks, and 
 was rapidly marching down the north side of the river to attack the Ame- 
 rican army. The commander-in-chief now ordered general Sullivan to 
 form the right wing to oppose the column of Sir William. General Wayne 
 was directed to remain at Chadd's ford with the left wing, to dispute the 
 passage of the river with Knyphausen. General Green, with his division, 
 was posted as a reserve in the centre between Sullivan and Wayne, to 
 reinforce either, as circumstances might require. General Sullivan march- 
 ed up the river, until he found favorable ground on which to form his 
 men ; his left was near the Brandywine, and both flanks were covered 
 with thick wood. At half-past four o'clock, when his line was scarcely 
 formed, the British, under lord Cornwallis, commenced a spirited attack. 
 The action was for some time severe ; but the American right, which was 
 not properly in order when the assault began, at length gave way, and ex- 
 posed the flank of the troops that maintained their ground to a destructive 
 fire, and continuing to break from the right, the whole line finally gave 
 way. As soon as the firing began, general Washington, with general 
 Green's division, hastened towards the scene of action, but before his arri- 
 val Sullivan was routed, and the commander-in-chief could only check the 
 pursuit of the enemy, and cover the retreat of the beaten troops. During 
 these transactions general Knyphausen assaulted the works erected for the 
 defence of Chadd's ford, and soon carried them. General Wayne, by this 
 time learning the fate of the other divisions, drew off his troops. General 
 Washington retreated with his whole force that night to Chester. The 
 American loss in this battle was about three hundred killed and six hun- 
 dred wounded. Four hundred were made prisoners, but these chiefly of 
 the wounded. 
 
 Perceiving that the enemy were moving into the Lancaster road, towards 
 the city, general Washington took possession of ground near the Warren 
 tavern, on the left of the British, and twenty-three miles from Philadelphia. 
 The protection of his stores at Reading was one object of this movement. 
 The next morning he was informed of the approach of the British army. 
 He immediately put his troops in motion to engage the enemy. The ad- 
 vance of the two hostile armies met and began to skirmish, when a violent 
 6torm came on, which prevented a general engagement, and rendered the 
 retreat of the Americans absolutely necessary. The inferiority of the 
 muskets in the hands of the American soldiery, which had been verified in 
 every action, was strikingly illustrated in this retreat. The gun-locks be- 
 ing badly made, and the cartridge-boxes imperfectly constructed, this storm 
 rendered most of the arms unfit for use ; and all the ammunition was 
 damaged. The army was in consequence extremely exposed, and their 
 danger became the greater, as many of the soldiers were destitute of bayo- 
 
HisrroRT. gg3 
 
 nets. Fortunately the tempest, which produced such serious' mischief to 
 the Americans, prevented the pursuit of the British. Washington still 
 continued to make every effort to save the capital ; but Sir William Howe 
 having secured the command of the Schuylkill, on the 23d of September, 
 crossed it with his whole army ; on the 26th he advanced to Germantown ; 
 and on the succeeding day lord Cornwallis, at the head of a strono- detach- 
 ment, entered Philadelphia in triumph. 
 
 The American army, reinforced to eight thousand continental troops and 
 three thousand militia, took a position at Shippack creek, on the east side 
 of the Schuylkill, about twenty miles from Philadelphia, and sixteen from 
 Germantown. At the latter place was posted the main body of the British 
 army. The first object of Sir William Howe was to subdue the defences, 
 and remove the impediments of the Delaware, that a communication might 
 be opened with the British shipping. General Washington made every 
 effort to prevent the execution of his enemy's design, in the hope of forcing 
 general Howe out of Philadelphia, by preventing supplies of provisions 
 from reaching him. Of the attainment of this important object he had no 
 doubt, could the passage of the Delaware be rendered impracticable. For 
 this purpose works had been erected on a bank of mud and sand in the 
 river, near the confluence of the Schuylkill, and about seven miles below 
 Philadelphia. The place, from these works, was denominated Fort island, 
 and the works themselves fort Mifflin. On a neck of land on the opposite 
 shore of New Jersey, called Red Bank, a fort was constructed and mount- 
 ed with heavy artillery, and called fort Mercer. Fort island and Red 
 Bank were distant from each other half a mile. In the channel of the Dela- 
 ware, which ran between them, two ranges of chevaux-de-frise were sunk. 
 These consisted of large pieces of timber, strongly framed together, and point- 
 ed with iron, and they completely obstructed the passage of ships. These 
 works were covered by several galleys, floating batteries, and armed ships. 
 
 Sir William Howe having detached a considerable force from German- 
 town to operate against the works on the Delaware, general Washington 
 thought this a favorable opportunity to attack the British army in their 
 cantonments. The line of the British encampment crossed the village of 
 Germantown at right angles, near its centre, and its flanks were strongly 
 covered. The army, having moved from its ground about seven in the 
 afternoon of the 3d of October, began an attack about sunrise the next 
 morning. The advance of the column, led by Sullivan, and accompanied 
 by the commander-in-chief, encountered and drove in a picket, which pre- 
 sently gave way ; and his main body, soon following, engaged the light 
 infantry and other troops encamped near the picket, and forced them from 
 their ground. Though closely pursued, lieutenant-colonel Musgrove, with 
 six companies, took post in a strong stone house, which lay in the way of 
 the Americans, and severely galled them by a fire of musketry from the 
 doors and windows. General Washington immediately ordered a brigade 
 to surround the house ; but colonel Musgrove refused to surrender. 
 
 Four pieces of cannon were brought against him, but he sustained the 
 fire of them until major-general Gray, with the third brigade, and briga- 
 dier-general Agnew, with the fourth, came to his assistance, and attacked 
 the Americans with great spirit. In the mean time general Green arrived 
 with his column, and attacked the right wing of the British. Colonel 
 Matthews routed a party of the British opposed to him ; but being enveloped 
 
684 BOOK OF THE UNtTED STATES. 
 
 in a most extraordinary fog, he lost sight of the brigade to which he be- 
 longed, and was taken prisoner with his whole regiment. At length a 
 part of the right wing of the British attacked the Americans on the oppo- 
 site side of the town ; and the embarrassments among the American troops, 
 occasioned by the darkness, gave the English time to recover from their 
 consternation. Sullivan's division had penetrated far into Germantown ; 
 but the main body of the American army now commenced a retreat, and. 
 all efforts to rally it proved ineffectual. In this battle the loss of the Ame- 
 ricans in killed, wounded, and prisoners, was not less than twelve hundred 
 men, while that of the British did not exceed half that number. The 
 American army encamped again on Shippack creek, but soon after ad- 
 vanced to White Marsh, while the royal army removed from Germantown 
 to Philadelphia. 
 
 The works in the Delaware now engaged the attention of the British 
 and American generals. Lord Howe, by continued exertion, having over- 
 come the obstructions which the Americans had placed in the river at 
 Billingsport, a joint attack by sea and land was planned against Red Bank 
 and Fort island. The Augusta, a sixty-four gun ship, the Merlin frigate, 
 and several small armed vessels, moved up the Delaware to assault the 
 works on Fort or Mud island. Count Donop crossed into New Jersey 
 with twelve hundred Germans, and in the evening of the 22d appeared 
 before fort Mercer, on Red Bank. His assault was highly spirited, and the 
 defence intrepid and obstinate. Colonel Green, the commandant, whose 
 garrison did not exceed five hundred men, was unable adequately to man 
 the outworks ; but he galled the Germans in their advance, and on their 
 near approach he quitted them, and retired within the inner intrenchments. 
 They pressed forward with undaunted bravery, and the Americans poured 
 npon them a deadly fire. Count Donop was himself mortally wounded at 
 the head of his gallant corps ; the second in command soon after fell, and 
 the third immediately drew off his forces. The assailants had four hun- 
 dred men killed and wounded, while the garrison, fighting under cover, 
 had only thirty. In the mean time, fort Mifflin was attacked by the ship- 
 ping, and by batteries erected on the Pennsylvania shore. Incessant volleys 
 of bombs and cannon-balls were discharged upon it. But at ebb tide the 
 Augusta and Merlin grounded, and were burnt. The garrison supported 
 this tremendous fire without material injury. The resistance of the forts 
 on the Delaware far exceeding the expectations of the British commanders, 
 they adopted measures to overcome it without the hazard of a second 
 assault. They erected batteries upon Providence island, within five hun- 
 dred yards of the American fort. They also brought up their shipping, 
 gun-boats, &c, and from the 10th to the 16th of November, battered the 
 American works. By this time the defences were entirely beaten down, 
 every piece of cannon was dismounted, and one of the ships approached so 
 near fort Mifflin as to throw hand-grenades from her tops into it, which 
 killed the men upon the platform. The brave garrison received orders to 
 quit the post. Red Bank being no longer useful, its garrison and stores 
 were also withdrawn on the approach of lord Cornwallis with five thousand 
 men to invest it. 
 
 While these inauspicious operations were carried on in the south, the 
 northern portion of the country was a theatre of events that more than 
 counterbalanced them. A principal object of the British in the campaign 
 
HISTORY. 685 
 
 'of this year, was to open a free communication between New York and 
 Canada. The British ministry were sanguine in their hopes, that, by 
 effecting this object, New England, which they considered as the soul of 
 the confederacy, might be severed from the neighboring states, and com- 
 pelled to submission. In prosecution of this design, an army of British 
 and German troops, amounting to upwards of seven thousand men, exclu- 
 sive of artillery, was put under the command of lieutenant-general Bur- 
 goyne, an enterprising and able officer. The plan of operations consisted 
 of two parts. General Burgoyne with the main body was to advance by 
 way of lake Champlain, and force his way to Albany, or, at least, so far as 
 to effect a junction with the royal army from New York ; and lieutenant- 
 colonel St. Leger, with about two hundred British, a regiment of New 
 York loyalists, raised and commanded by Sir John Johnson, and a large 
 body of Indians, was to ascend the St. Lawrence to lake Ontario, and from 
 that quarter to penetrate toward Albany by the way of the Mohawk river. 
 General Burgoyne arrived at Quebec in May. In the latter end of 
 June he advanced with his army to Crown Point, and from thence proceed- 
 ed to invest Ticonderoga, which was soon abandoned by the Americans, 
 under general St. Clair, who, after a distressing march, joined general 
 Schuyler at fort Edward, on the river Hudson. General Burgoyne, hav- 
 ing with incredible labor and fatigue conducted his army through the wil- 
 derness from Skenesborough, reached fort Edward on the 30th of July. 
 As he approached that place, general Schuyler, whose forces, even since 
 the junction of St. Clair, did not exceed four thousand four hundred men, 
 retired over the Hudson to Saratoga. Early in August St. Leger invested 
 fort Schuyler, and at first obtained some advantages over the Americans ; 
 but, by stratagem,* the Indians were induced to desert him, and finding 
 himself abandoned by seven or eight hundred of these important auxilia- 
 ries,! he decamped in great confusion, and .returned to Montreal, leaving 
 his tents, with most of his artillery and stores, in the field. While St. 
 Leger was thus unsuccessful at fort Schuyler, a detachment under colonel 
 Baum, despatched to seize a large depot in New Hampshire grants, was 
 also defeated by a body of militia under general Stark.l Meanwhile, 
 
 * Thacher's Military Journal, p. 107. 
 
 f It has ever been a source of reproach against the British, that they employed the 
 sanguinary Indians as their allies. The atrocities they committed might be somewhat 
 exaggerated by general Gates and others ; but that instances did occur, to the disgrace 
 of their civilized associates, cannot be denied. The melancholy case of Bliss M'Rea 
 will long be remembered. Captain Jones, her lover, an officer in the British army, 
 anxious on her account, engaged some Indians of two different tribes to convey her 
 away from among the Americans for the purpose of security ; fearing for her, probably, 
 on account of her father's being interested in the royal cause, and of her attachment to 
 himself. Having promised to reward the person who should bring her safe to him with 
 a barrel of rum, the two Indians, who had already conveyed her to some distance, dis- 
 puted which of them should present to captain Jones the object of his affections. Each 
 was anxious for the reward ; and that the other might not receive it, one of them killed 
 her with a blow of his tomahawk. Upon the first intelligence of what had happened, 
 Burgoyne obliged the Indians to deliver up the murderer, and threatened to put him to 
 death. Many\hought the threat would have been executed ; but he was pardoned upon 
 the Indians agreeing to terms enjoined them by Burgoyne, which the general thought 
 would be more efficacious than an execution to prevent similar mischiefs. — Gordon, vol. 
 ii. p. 544. 
 
 ± ' The colonel was furnished with the following curious instructions, which fell into 
 
 58 
 
686 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 general Burgoyne, having collected about thirty days' provision, and thrown 
 a bridge of boats over the Hudson, crossed that river on the 13th and 14th 
 of September, and encamped on the heights and plains of Saratoga. Ge- 
 neral Gates, who had recently taken the chief command of the northern 
 department of the American army, advanced toward the British, and en- 
 camped three miles above Stillwater. 
 
 On the night of the 17th, Burgoyne encamped within four miles of the 
 American army ; and about noon on the 19th advanced in full force against 
 it. The right wing was commanded by general Burgoyne, and covered 
 by general Frazer and colonel Breyman with the grenadiers and light in- 
 fantry, who were posted along some high grounds on the right. The front 
 and flanks were covered by Indians, provincials, and Canadians. The 
 left wing and artillery were commanded by major-generals Phillips and 
 Reidesel, who proceeded along the great road. Colonel Morgan, who was 
 detached to observe their motions, and to harass them as they advanced, 
 soon fell in with their pickets in front of their right wing, attacked them 
 sharply, and drove them in. A strong corps was brought up to support 
 them, and, after a severe encounter, Morgan was compelled to give way ; 
 but a regiment was ordered to assist him, and the action became more ge- 
 neral. The commanders on both sides supported and reinforced their re- 
 spective parties ; and about four o'clock, Arnold, with nine continental 
 regiments and Morgan's corps, was completely engaged with the whole 
 right wing of the British army. The engagement began at three o'clock 
 in the afternoon, and continued till after sunset, when the Americans 
 thought proper to retire, and leave the British masters of the field of battle. 
 The loss on each side was nearly equal, six hundred being killed and 
 wounded on the part of the British, and the same number on the side of 
 the Americans. No advantages resulted to the British troops from this 
 encounter; while the conduct of the Americans fully convinced every one 
 ' that they were able to sustain an attack in open plains with the intrepidi- 
 ty, the spirit, and the coolness of veterans. For four hours they maintained 
 a contest hand to hand ; and when they retired, it was not because they 
 were conquered, but because the approach of night made a retreat to their 
 camp absolutely necessary.' 
 
 the hands of general Stark : — <' To proceed to New Hampshire grants, cross the moun- 
 tains, scour the country, with Peter's corps (tories) and the Indians, from Rockingham 
 to Otter creek, to get horses, carriages, and cattle, and mount Reidesel's regiment of 
 dragoons ; to go down Connecticut river as far as Brattleborough, and return by the 
 great road to Albany, there to meet general Burgoyne ; to endeavor to make the country 
 believe it was the advanced body of the general's army, who was to cross Connecticut 
 river and proceed to Boston, and that at Springfield they were to be joined by the troops 
 from Rhode island. All officers, civil and military, acting under the congress, were to 
 be made prisoners. To tax the towns where they halted with such articles as they 
 wanted, and take hostages for the performance, &c. You are to bring all horses fit to 
 mount the dragoons or to serve as battalion horses for the troops, with as many saddles 
 and bridles as can be found. The number of horses requisite, besides those for the 
 dragoons, ought to be thirteen hundred ; if you can bring more, so much the better. 
 The horses must be tied in strings of ten each, in order that one man may lead ten 
 horses." This redoubtable commander surely must be one of the happiest men of the 
 age, to imagine that such prodigious achievements were at his command, — that such 
 invaluable resources were within his grasp. But, alas ! the wisest of men are liable to 
 disappointment in their sanguine calculations, and to have their favorite projects frus- 
 trated by the casualties of war. This is remarkably verified in the present instance ' 
 —Tkacher's Military Journal, p. 109. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 687 
 
 Both armies lay some time in sight of each other, each fortifying its 
 camp in the strongest manner possible. Meanwhile, the difficulties of 
 the British general were daily increasing ; his auxiliary Indians deserted 
 him soon after the battle of Stillwater ; and his army, reduced to little 
 more than five thousand men, was limited to half the usual allowance of 
 provisions ; the stock of forage also was entirely exhausted, and his horses 
 were perishing in great numbers ; the American army had become so aug- 
 mented as to render him diffident of making good his retreat ; and to 
 aggravate his distress, no intelligence had yet been received of the approach 
 of general Clinton, or of any diversion in his favor from New York. In 
 this exigency, general Burgoyne resolved to examine the possibility of dis- 
 lodging the Americans from their posts on the left, by which means he 
 would be enabled to retreat to the lakes. For this purpose he drew out 
 fifteen hundred men, which he headed himself, attended by generals Phil- 
 lips, Reidesel, and Frazer. This detachment had scarcely formed, within 
 less than half a mile of the American intrenchments, when a furious attack 
 was made, which, though bravely resisted, was decidedly to the advantage 
 of the assailants. General Burgoyne now became convinced that it was 
 impossible to conduct any further offensive operations, and endeavored to 
 make good his retreat to fort George. 
 
 Artificers were accordingly despatched, under a strong escort, to repair 
 the bridges, and open the roads, but they were compelled to make a pre- 
 cipitate retreat. The situation of general Burgoyne becoming every hour 
 more hazardous, he resolved to attempt a retreat by night to fort Edward; 
 but even this retrograde movement was rendered impracticable. While 
 the army was preparing to march, intelligence was received that the Ame- 
 ricans had already possessed themselves of the fort, and that they were 
 well provided with artillery. No avenue to escape now appeared. In- 
 cessant toil and continual engagements had worn down the British army ; 
 its provisions were nearly exhausted, and there were no means of procuring 
 a supply ; while the American army, which was daily increasing, was 
 already much greater than the British in point of numbers, and almost 
 encircled them. In this extremity, the British general called a council of 
 war; and it was unanimously resolved to enter into a convention with 
 general Gates. Preliminaries were soon settled, and the royal army, to 
 the number of five thousand seven hundred and fifty, surrendered prisoners 
 of war. 
 
 The capture of an entire army was justly viewed as an event that must 
 essentially affect the contest between Great Britain and America ; and 
 while it excited the highest joy among the Americans, it could not but have a 
 most auspicious influence on their affairs in the cabinet and in the field. 
 The thanks of congress were voted to general Gates and his army ; and a 
 medal of gold, in commemoration of this splendid achievement, was order- 
 ed to be struck, to be presented to him by the president, in the name of 
 the United States. 
 
 General Burgoyne's surrender is certainly, in a considerable degree, to 
 be attributed to the want of co-operation both on the part of general Carle- 
 ton, in Canada, and of Sir Henry Clinton, at New York. The latter, in- 
 deed, performed a service, which, if effected a little earlier, might possibly 
 have relieved Burgoyne. With nearly three thousand men, convoyed by 
 some ships of war under commodore Hotham, he conducted an expedition up 
 
688 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Hudson's river, in October, against the forts Montgomery and Clinton, 
 When arrived within a mile of the place of destination, the troops sepa- 
 
 Surrender at Saratoga. 
 
 rated into two columns; the one, consisting of nine hundred men, under 
 lieutenant Campbell, was destined for the attack on fort Montgomery ; the 
 other, under the immediate command of Sir Henry Clinton, was to storm 
 the stronger post of fort Clinton. The garrison, when summoned, having 
 refused to surrender, the assault was made on both forts at the same instant. 
 These fortresses, which were separated from each other by a creek only, 
 were commanded by governor Clinton, a brave and intelligent officer, who 
 made a gallant resistance from four in the afternoon, when the attack be- 
 gan, until dark; but, the post having been designed principally to prevent 
 the passing of ships, the works on the land side were incomplete and 
 untenable, and the assailants entered them with fixed bayonets. Most of 
 the garrison, however, effected their escape, under cover of the thick smoke 
 and darkness. 
 
 Having noticed the most important features of the military operations of 
 the year 1777, it will be proper, before entering on those of the following 
 years, to afford the reader some information on two very important points 
 — the progress made by the Americans in their foreign relations, and the 
 steps which had been taken to consolidate the general government. In 
 both cases it will be necessary, in order to give a clear and comprehensive 
 view of the subject, slightly to deviate from strict chronological order. 
 
 The contest between Great Britain and her colonies had not long com- 
 menced, before congress directed their attention to the possibility of attain- 
 ing foreign assistance. Towards the close of the year 1775, a committee 
 was appointed to hold secret correspondence with the friends of America, 
 both in Europe and other parts of the world.* Early in the year 1776, 
 the committee, seeing little prospect of an accommodation, and well aware 
 that France would be disposed to make great sacrifices to reduce the power 
 
 * The committee consisted of Mr. Harrison, Dr. Franklin, Mr. Johnson, Mr. Dickia 
 son, and Mr. Jay. 
 
HISTORY. 689 
 
 of Great Britain by the separation of her North American colonies, sent 
 Silas Deane, as a commercial and political agent, to the French court.* 
 Mr. Deane arrived in Paris about the 1st of July, and was indefatio-able 
 in pursuing the objectsof his mission ; and through Dr. Dubourg, a friend 
 to America, was in a few days introduced to Vergennes. His arrival at 
 Paris was immediately known in London, and lord Stormont was sent 
 express to Paris to watch his movements. Mr. Deane stated to the French 
 minister the objects of his mission, agreeably to his instructions, and in his 
 first conference he touched upon the subject of forming treaties with the 
 Americans in case of their declaring themselves independent. The Ameri- 
 can agent was favorably received by the French minister, and was asked 
 many questions in relation to American affairs. Vergennes informed Mr. 
 Deane, that though the French court estimated highly the importance of 
 American commerce, yet, considering the good understanding between the 
 courts of Versailles and London, they could not openly encourage the ship- 
 ping of warlike stores; but no obstructions of any kind, he said, would be 
 given. On the subject of independence, he observed that was an event in 
 the womb of time, and it would be highly improper for him to say any 
 thing on that point until it had actually taken place. This first conference 
 with the French minister ended much to the satisfaction of the American 
 agent. 
 
 As soon as the question of independence was decided in the affirmative, 
 congress took the subject of foreign affairs into their own hands ; and, on 
 the 11th of June, appointed a committee to prepare a plan of treaties with 
 foreign powers.! In the month of September, congress appointed Dr. 
 Franklin, Mr. Deane, and Mr. Jefferson, commissioners to proceed to 
 France. t Dr. Franklin and Mr. Lee arrived at Paris in December, and 
 the objects of their mission were soon made known to the French court. 
 The court was not yet prepared to acknowledge the independence of the Uni- 
 ted States, to form treaties with them, or openly to espouse the cause of the 
 Americans; to prove, however, his good wishes towards the United States, 
 the king ordered two millions of livres to be paid to them by quarterly 
 payments, which should be augmented as the state of his finances would 
 permit. The most profound secrecy, in relation to this donation, was en- 
 
 * ■' He was to appear in the character of a merchant, and was directed, among other 
 things, immediately after his arrival at Paris, to solicit an Interview with the count de 
 Vergennes, the French minister, and to inform him, that congress, being unable to ob- 
 tain for America the quantity of arms and ammunition necessary for its defence, had 
 despatched him to apply to some of the European powers for a supply. That he was in- 
 structed to make his first application to France, from an opinion that, in case of a total 
 separation of America from Great Britain, which every circumstance seemed to indicate, 
 it would be most proper to obtain and cultivate her friendship. That in such case the 
 commercial advantages formerly enjoyed by Great Britain would be transferred to France. 
 That the Americans were in want of clothing and arms for twenty-five thousand men, 
 with a suitable quantity of ammunition, and a hundred field-pieces. Mr. Deane was 
 also directed to sound the French minister with regard to forming an alliance with the 
 colonies, in case they should be forced to declare themselves independent.'— Pitkin, vol. 
 i. p. 387. The instructions will be found at length in the Diplomatic Correspondence 
 of the American Revolution, edited by J. Sparkes, vol. i. p. 5—9. 
 
 f This important committee consisted of Mr. Dickinson, Dr. Franklin, John Adams, 
 Mr. Harrison, and Robert Morris. 
 
 % Mr. Jefferson, on account of the situation of his family, being unable to accept ins 
 appointment, Arthur Lee, then in London, was substituted. 
 
 S7 **$ 
 
090 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 joined. The course of policy France intended to pursue, in the contest 
 between Great Britain and her colonies, was now obvious ; and with her 
 views of the subject, was perhaps, as it regarded herself at least, a very 
 natural as well as wise course, as she evidently entertained serious doubts 
 whether the states would be able to form a lasting union among them- 
 selves, or to persevere in maintaining their independence. 
 
 Although the court were thus undecided, the cause of the United States 
 was extremely popular in France, both among the people and the army, 
 and many French officers sought an opportunity of engaging in their ser- 
 vice. Among these the young marquis de la Fayette was most conspicu- 
 ous for his rank, and most distinguished for his ardor and enthusiasm. At 
 an early period he communicated to the American agents his wish to join 
 the republican armies. At first they encouraged his zeal, but learning the 
 disasters which preceded the victory at Trenton, they, with honorable 
 frankness, communicated the information to him, and added, that they were 
 so destitute of funds, that they could not even provide for his passage across 
 the ocean. ' If your country,' replied the gallant youth, ' is indeed reduc- 
 ed to this extremity, it is at this moment that my departure to join her ar- 
 mies will render her the most essential service.' He immediately hired a 
 vessel to convey him to America, where he arrived in the spring of 1777. 
 He was received with cordial affection by the people, became the bosom 
 friend of Washington, solicited permission to serve without pay, and was 
 appointed major-general in the army. 
 
 The disastrous state of American affairs at the close of the year 1776, 
 induced congress to attend more seriously to the subject of securing foreign 
 aid ; and a new committee was appointed. Some of the members of this 
 committee were disposed to make great sacrifices to obtain the aid of 
 France, and were almost prepared to offer her the same monopoly of 
 American commerce as had been enjoyed by Great Britain.* On the 
 30th of December, congress came to the resolution of sending commission- 
 ers to the courts of Vienna, Madrid, and Berlin, and to the grand duke of 
 Tuscany. t These commissioners were instructed to assure the courts to 
 which they were sent, that the Americans were determined to maintain 
 their independence, notwithstanding the suggestions of the British to the 
 contrary. 
 
 * ' To induce France to embark in the war, the American envoys were authorized to 
 stipulate, that all the trade between the United States and the West India islands, should 
 be carried on either in French or American vessels ; and were specially instructed to 
 assure the French king, that if, by their joint efforts, the British should be excluded from 
 any share in the cod-fishery of America, by the reduction of the islands of Newfound- 
 land and Cape Breton, and ships of war should be furnished, at the expense of the Uni- 
 ted States, to reduce Nova Scotia, that the fishery should be enjoyed equally between 
 them, to the exclusion of all other nations ; and that one-half of Newfoundland should 
 belong to France, and the other half, with Cape Breton and Nova Scotia, to the United 
 States. Should these proposals be insufficient to induce France to join in the war, and 
 the commissioners were convinced that the open co-operation of France could not other- 
 wise be obtained, they were directed to assure his most Christian majesty, that such of 
 the West India islands as might, in the course of the war, be reduced, should be yielded 
 to him in absolute property.' — Pitkin, vol. i. p. 392. 
 
 f William Lee was appointed commissioner to the courts of Vienna and Berlin, Ralph 
 Izard to the duke of Tuscany, and Dr. Franklin to Spain. Arthur Lee was afterwards 
 appointed, in the room of Dr. Franklin, to the Spanish court. While Mr. Lee was at 
 Berlin, his papers were stolen from his lodgings in a most extraordinary manner, end 
 the British envoy at the Prussian court was implicated in this transaction. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 691 
 
 The success of the arms of the United States by the capture of the army 
 of general Burgoyne, gave a new aspect to their affairs in France, and in- 
 deed throughout Europe. The American commissioners at Paris now stood 
 on commanding ground. The French court, aware of the views of the 
 British ministry in relation to the colonies, no longer hesitated about ac- 
 cepting the propositions of the American envoys. M. Gerard informed the 
 American commissioners, on the 16th of December, ' that after a lono- and 
 mature deliberation upon their propositions, his majesty had determined to 
 recognise the independence of, and to enter into a treaty of commerce and 
 alliance with, the United States of America ; and that he would not only 
 acknowledge their independence, but actually support it with all the meanc 
 in his power ; that perhaps he was about to engage himself in an expen- 
 sive war upon this account, but that he did not expect to be reimbursed by 
 them ; in fine, the Americans were not to think that he had entered into 
 this resolution solely with a view of serving them, since, independently 
 of his real attachment to them and their cause, it was evidently the inte- 
 rest of France to diminish the power of England, by severing her colonies 
 from her.' On the 6th of February, 1778, a treaty of commerce was- 
 signed by Franklin, Deane, and Lee, on the part of the United States, and 
 by M. Gerard on the part of France, together with a treaty of defensive 
 alliance, in case war should be the consequence of this commercial con- 
 nection. The essential and direct end of this alliance was, ' to maintain 
 the liberty, sovereignty, and independence, absolute and unlimited, of the 
 United States, as well in matters of government as of commerce.' 
 
 Before leaving this subject, it is necessary to state, that as, previous to 
 the recognition of independence by the court of France, it was imperative 
 that the intercourse with the American agents should be conducted indi- 
 rectly and with the utmost secrecy, the French government rendered their 
 secret assistance through the agency of M. Beaumarchais, who appears to 
 have been more desirous of serving himself than the Americans. The 
 mode in which he converted the gratuitous aid of the French court into 
 articles of charge in his accounts with the congress, and especially his re- 
 taining in his hands a million of livres out of the subsidy granted by the 
 French king, are circumstances too extraordinary to be entirely passed 
 over ; but our limits compel us to refer the reader for the details to that very 
 able work, Pitkin's Civil and Political History, and to the volumes of Di- 
 plomatic Correspondence already alluded to. 
 
 „ During the first stages of the revolution, the universal enthusiasm of 
 the people, directed toone common object, in some measure supplied the 
 place of a general legislative and executive power. The congress had 
 hitherto possessed no powers but such as were conferred by the instruc- 
 tions given by the state legislatures to their respective delegates ; but on the 
 11th of June, 1776, the day following that in which the resolution in fa- 
 vor of independence had been adopted, congress determined to appoint a 
 committee to prepare and digest the form of a confederation. This com- 
 mittee, on the 12th of July following, reported a plan of confederacy, con- 
 sisting of twenty articles, and on the 22d of the same month it was dis- 
 cussed in committee of the whole house, and was under consideration un- 
 til the 20th of August, when an amended draft was reported. The diffi- 
 culty in agreeing upon the details of the system, as well as the gloomy as- 
 pect of American affairs at this period, prevented congress from resuming 
 
692 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 this subject until April, 1777, when they resolved that two days In each 
 week should be employed upon it, ' until it shall be wholly discussed.' 
 The amended draft was considered and debated accordingly until the 26th 
 of June, when it was again postponed to the 2d of October, and was not 
 finally adopted by congress until the 15th of November. The outlines of 
 the system were, that the thirteen states formed a confederacy, under the 
 style and name of ' the United States of America ;' by which they enter- 
 ed ' into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their defence, the 
 security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding 
 themselves to assist each other against all force offered to or attacks made 
 upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or 
 any other pretence whatever.' This plan of union was to be proposed to 
 the legislatures of all the states, and, if approved, they were advised to 
 authorize their delegates in congress to ratify the same ; this being done, 
 it was to be conclusive. The plan was considered by the legislatures of 
 the several states in the winter of 1777-8, and by some was adopted with- 
 out amendments, by others various amendments were proposed. 
 
 The effect produced on the British cabinet, and on the nation at large, 
 by the intelligence of the surrender of general Burgoyne and his army, 
 can scarcely be described. The most brilliant success had been anticipat- 
 ed ; the most ignominious result had occurred. The pride of the nation 
 was humbled, and those who had disapproved of the war poured upon the 
 ministry a torrent of invective ; while the embarrassments of the ministry 
 were increased by the intelligence of the course which the hereditary ene- 
 my and rival of Great Britain had resolved to pursue. Under these cir- 
 cumstances it was determined in the cabinet to grant to America all that she 
 had demanded in the beginning of the contest. An act was passed, de- 
 claring that parliament would not, in future, impose any tax upon the colo- 
 nies ; and commissioners were sent over, authorized to proclaim a repeal 
 of all the offensive statutes, and to treat with the constituted authorities of 
 America. The commissioners, arriving at Philadelphia in the spring, com- 
 municated to congress the terms offered by Great Britain, which were, 
 however, unanimously rejected.^ 
 
 The arms of congress had been successful on the Hudson ; but many 
 difficulties arose in the execution of the convention of Saratoga. It had 
 been stipulated that general Burgoyne's army should embark at Boston for 
 
 * The letter communicating the refusal was signed by the president ; and it illustrates 
 the character of congress, and the history of this year. ' I have received the letter from 
 your excellencies, dated the 9th instant, with the inclosures, and laid them before con- 
 gress. Nothing but an earnest desire to spare the further efiusion of human blood 
 could have induced them to read a paper containing expressions so disrespectful to his 
 most Christian majesty, the good and great ally of these states, or to consider proposi- 
 tions so derogatory to the honor of an independent nation. The acts of the British par- 
 liament, the commission from your sovereign, and your letter, suppose the people of 
 these states to be subjects of the crown of Great Britain, and are founded on the idea 
 of dependence, which is utterly inadmissible. I am further directed to inform your ex- 
 cellencies, that congress are inclined to peace, notwithstanding the unjust claims from 
 which this war originated, and the savage manner in which it hath been conducted. 
 They will therefore be ready to enter upon the consideration of a treaty of peace and 
 commerce, not inconsistent with treaties already subsisting, when the king of Great 
 Britain shall demonstrate a sincere disposition for that purpose. The only solid proof 
 of this disposition will be an explicit acknowledgment of these states, or the withdraw- 
 ing his fleets and armies.' — Journals of Congress, vol. iv. p. 353. 
 
HISTORY. 593 
 
 Europe : but, at the time of signing the convention, the British General 
 seems not to have been aware that it is difficult for ships to reach the port 
 of Boston during the winter ; and that, owing to this cause, the embarka- 
 tion of his troops might be delayed till the ensuing spring. On beino- ap- 
 prized of this circumstance, general Burgoyne immediately applied to the 
 American commander-in-chief, desiring him to change the port of embarka- 
 tion, and to appoint Newport, in Rhode Island, or some other place on the 
 sound, instead of Boston ; and, in case this request should not be complied 
 with, soliciting, on account of his health and private business, that the 
 indulgence might be granted to himself and suite. General Washington, 
 not thinking himself authorized to decide on such an application, transmit- 
 ted it to congress, which took no notice of the matter further than to pass 
 a resolution, ' That general Washington be directed to inform general Bur- 
 goyne, that congress will not receive or consider any proposition for indul- 
 gence, or altering the terms of the convention of Saratoga, unless immedi- 
 ately addressed to their own body.' The application was accordingly made 
 to congress, who readily complied with the request in so far as it respect- 
 ed himself personally, but refused the indulgence to his troops, and ulti- 
 mately forbade their embarkation. 
 
 Congress watched with a jealous eye every movement of the conven- 
 tion army, and soon gave public indications of that jealousy. Early in 
 November, they ordered general Heath, who commanded in Boston, ' to 
 take the name, rank, former place of abode, and description of every per- 
 son comprehended in the convention of Saratoga, in order that, if after- 
 wards found in arms against the United States, they might be punished 
 according to the law of nations.' General Burgoyne showed some reluc- 
 tance to the execution of this order ; and his reluctance was imputed to no 
 honorable motives. 
 
 The British army in Philadelphia spent the winter in gayety and revel- 
 ry, injuring at once their own respectability and the cause which they were 
 employed to support. They disgusted the sober inhabitants by their irre- 
 gularities, and provoked them by their insolence ; so that many who had 
 hailed their arrival with cordial gratulations, felt a lively satisfaction when 
 the hour of their departure came. 
 
 General Washington quitted White Marsh, crossed the Schuylkill at 
 Sweed's ford, and, on the 19th of December, took a strong position at 
 Valley Forge, about twenty-six miles from Philadelphia. Had he retired 
 during the winter to the shelter of a large town, he must have gone to a 
 great distance from the British army, and left an extensive tract of country 
 open to their foraging parties ; or had he cantoned his men in the adjacent 
 villages, his army might have been beaten in detail and gradually destroy- 
 ed. But at Valley Forge he was sufficiently near Philadelphia to check 
 the foraging parties of the enemy, and his army was so much concentrat- 
 ed as to secure it from any sudden and desultory attack. 
 
 At Valley Forge the American commander-in-chief lodged his army in 
 huts formed of logs, with the interstices filled with mud, which constituted 
 very acceptable habitations to men long unaccustomed to the conveniences 
 of life. But, though sheltered from the storm by their rude dwellings, the 
 sufferings of the army from want of provisions and clothing were incredi- 
 ble. The winter was severe, and many of the men were without stock- 
 ings or shoes, and almost naked. The non-importation associations ren« 
 
69 1 
 
 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 dered cloth scarce at the commencement of hostilities ; the war rendered 
 importation difficult ; and the consumption exceeded the produce of the 
 home manufacture. Hence the army was left in a destitute and deplora- 
 ble condition ; and the line of march, from White Marsh to Valley Forge, 
 over rough and frozen roads, might have been traced by the blood from the 
 bare and mangled feet of the soldiers. Under the shelter of the huts their 
 Bufferings were at first considerably alleviated ; but in a short time the 
 
 Encampment at Valley Forge. 
 
 miseries of want, amounting almost to famine, were added to those of na- 
 kedness. In these trying circumstances numbers of the troops, especially 
 they who had been born in Europe, eluded the vigilance of the guards, and 
 deserted to the enemy in Philadelphia, carrying their arms along with them. 
 Many loyalists also joined general Howe ; so that the strength of his army 
 was sensibly increased. 
 
 Many representations on the wants and hardships of the army had been 
 submitted to congress, which had authorized the commander-in-chief to 
 seize provisions for his army wherever he could find them, within seventy 
 miles of head-quarters, paving for them with money, or giving certificates, 
 for the redemption of which the faith of the United States was pledged. 
 This odious power general Washington was extremely backward to exer- 
 cise : but at Valley Forge his necessities were so pressing that he was con- 
 strained to have recourse to it ; and, notwithstanding all his precautions, 
 the manner in which his orders were executed did not always soften the 
 rigor of this harsh measure. Men with arms in their hands, and support- 
 ed by authority, are seldom delicate in supplying their urgent wants. 
 
 The American commander-in-chief was illprovided with money, and 
 could make his payments only in paper of very uncertain value ; but the 
 supplies carried into Philadelphia were readily paid for by the British 
 troops in gold and silver ; and the patriotism of the people was not suffi- 
 ciently ardent to prevent them from carrying their goods to the best 
 market. It was. however, no easy matter for the country people to carry 
 provisions into Philadelphia without detection and punishment; for the 
 American detachments and patrols, though at a respectful distance, almost 
 encircled the city. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 695 
 
 While the army lay at Valley Forge, a plot was formed to remove gene- 
 ral Washington from the chief command ; and in that plot several mem- 
 bers of congress, and a very few military officers, were concerned. Insinu- 
 ations against the military talents of general Washington were industri- 
 ously circulated ; and the public attention was directed towards genera] 
 Gates, whose success at Saratoga had thrown a brilliant lustre round his 
 name. General Thomas Conway was an active agent in the plot ; and 
 many of the inhabitants of Pennsylvania, chagrined by the loss of'their 
 capital, and willing to devolve on the general who had twice, with inferior 
 forces, fought the enemy in their defence, the blame of those misfortunes 
 which had arisen from their own pusillanimity and carelessness in not 
 reinforcing the army, readily joined in the clamor. The conduct of gene- 
 ral Gates was equivocal, but he solemnly disclaimed all connection with 
 the faction. The officers of general Washington's army, strongly attached 
 to him, felt the liveliest indignation against those intriguers who wished 
 to remove their favorite leader from his command. 
 
 By the uniform tenor of his conduct, general Washington had won the 
 affection and esteem of almost all his troops, both officers and privates ; 
 and, fortunately for America, there was enough of discernment in congress 
 to resist the dark machinations of the faction, and to continue their brave 
 and upright commander-in-chief at the head of the army. His situation, 
 however, was by no means enviable. His army was much attached to 
 him ; but, weakened by disease, and irritated by nakedness and hunger, it 
 was almost on the point of dissolution. In the midst of the difficulties and 
 dangers with which he was surrounded, general Washington displayed a 
 singular degree of steady perseverance, unshaken fortitude, and unwearied 
 activity. Instead of manifesting irritable impatience under the malignant 
 attacks made on his character, he behaved with magnanimity, and earnest- 
 ly applied to congress, and to the legislative bodies of the several states, 
 for reinforcements to his army, in order that he might be prepared to act 
 with vigor in the ensuing campaign. 
 
 But to recruit and equip the army was no easy task. The great depre- 
 ciation of paper money rendered the pay of the soldiers inadequate to their 
 support; and, consequently, it was not likely that voluntary enlistment 
 would be successful, especially since the patriotic ardor of many had be- 
 gun to cool by the continuance of the war, and all knew that great hard- 
 ships and dangers were to be encountered by joining the army. The pay 
 even of the officers, in the depreciated paper currency, was wholly une- 
 qual to the maintenance of their rank. Some of them who had small pa- 
 trimonial estates found them melting away, while their lives were un pro- 
 fitably devoted to the service of their country ; and they who had no pri- 
 vate fortune could not appear in a manner becoming their station. A com- 
 mission was a burden ; and many considered the acceptance of one as con- 
 ferring rather than receiving a favor : a state of things highly disadvanta- 
 geous to the service ; for the duties of an office scarcely reckoned worth 
 holding will seldom be zealously and actively discharged. There was rea- 
 son to apprehend that many of the most meritorious officers would resign 
 their commissions ; and that they only who were less qualified for service 
 would remain with the army. • , 
 
 Cono-ress, moved by the remonstrances of the commander-in-chief, and 
 by the°complaints with which they were assailed from every quarter, de- 
 
696 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 puted a committee of their body to reside in camp during the winter ; and, 
 in concert with the general, to examine the state of the army, and report 
 on the measures necessary to be taken for placing it in a more respectable 
 condition. But the reforms in the army were tardily made. Congress 
 were fond of their own speculations, although experience had proved them 
 mischievous ; and were slow in rectifying the evils which arose from their 
 own errors. The state legislatures were backward in adopting coercive 
 measures for recruiting the army ; and each of them was jealous of bear- 
 ing more than its share of the war. At length, however, an efficient com- 
 missary-general was appointed ; the other departments were put on a 
 more desirable footing ; and vigorous measures were pursued to prepare 
 for the ensuing campaign. 
 
 During the winter there was a good deal of correspondence between the 
 generals respecting prisoners of war. Complaints were mutual ; and a 
 partial cartel was agreed to. 
 
 In consequence of the treaties concluded with her revolted colonies, 
 Great Britain declared war against France ; and the ministry, presuming 
 that assistance would be sent to the Americans, transmitted orders by the 
 commissioners, that Philadelphia should be evacuated, and the royal troops 
 concentrated at New York. The execution of these orders devolved upon 
 Sir Henry Clinton, who had been appointed commander-in-chief on the re- 
 signation of general Howe. On the 18th of June the enemy quitted the 
 city, and marched slowly eastward. Washington, leaving his huts in the 
 forest, hung upon the rear of the British army, watching for a favorable 
 opportunity to offer battle. On arriving at Monmouth, in New Jersey, 
 general Lee, who had lately been exchanged, was ordered to take the 
 command of five thousand men, and, early in the morning of the 28th, to 
 commence an attack, being assured that he should be supported by the 
 whole army. Lee made dispositions to attack accordingly, but perceiving 
 the main body of the English returning to meet him, he began to retreat. 
 Washington, advancing to render the promised support, saw him retiring, 
 rode forward, and addressed him in language implying disapprobation of 
 his conduct.* He then directed him to form his men on ground which he 
 pointed out, and there oppose the progress of the enemy. A warm en- 
 gagement ensued, and Washington, arriving with the main body of his 
 army, compelled the British to fall back. 
 
 The day had been intensely hot, and the troops were greatly fatigued,! 
 yet general Washington resolved to renew the engagement ; but there 
 were so many impediments to be overcome, that before the attack could be 
 commenced it was nearly dark. It was therefore thought most advisable 
 to postpone further operations until morning, and the troops lay on their 
 arms in the field of battle. I General Washington, who had been exceed- 
 
 * Lee, irritable and proud, could not forget the manner in which Washington had 
 addressed him, and in two passionate letters demanded reparation. A court-martial 
 was instituted ; he was found guilty of misconduct on the day of battle, and of disre- 
 spect to the commander-in-chief, and was suspended from command for one year. He 
 never afterwards joined the army, but died in seclusion just before the close of the war. 
 
 f In consequence of heat and fatigue, fifty-nine British soldiers perished without a 
 wound ; and several of the American soldiers died through the same cause. 
 
 % The loss of the Americans in this battle was eight officers and sixty-one privates 
 killed, and about a hundred and sixty wounded. Among the slain, and much regret- 
 ted, were lieutenant-colonel Bonner, of Pennsylvania, and major Dickenson, of Vir 
 
HISTORY. g97 
 
 ingly active through the day, and entirely regardless of personal danger, 
 reposed himself at night in his cloak, under a tree, in the midst of his sol- 
 diers. His intention of renewing the battle was, however, frustrated ■ the 
 British troops marched away about midnight in such profound silence' that 
 the most advanced posts knew nothing of their departure until morning. 
 The American general, declining all further pursuit of the royal armv, de- 
 tached some light troops to attend its motions, and drew off his soldiers to 
 the borders of the North river. Sir Henry Clinton, after remaining a few 
 days on the high grounds of Middleton, proceeded to Sandy Hook, whence 
 he passed his army over to New York. 
 
 The British having entered New York, Washington conducted his army 
 to White Plains. Congress returned to Philadelphia ; and in July receiv- 
 ed, with inexpressible joy, a letter from the count D'Estaing, announcing 
 his arrival on the coast of Virginia, with twelve sail of the line and six 
 frigates, with about four thousand troops on board. The count had intend- 
 ed to surprise admiral Howe in the Delaware, but adverse winds detained 
 him on the passage, until the British fleet had sailed for New York. He 
 appeared before that harbor, but on sounding, found that his largest ships 
 could not pass the bar. By the advice of Washington, a combined attack 
 upon the British forces at Newport, in Rhode Island, was resolved on. 
 General Sullivan, who had been appointed to command the troops, called 
 upon the militia of New England to aid him in the enterprise. His army 
 soon amounted to ten thousand men, and, as he was supported by the fleet,, 
 he felt confident of success. On the 9th of August, he took a position on 
 the north end of Rhode island, and afterwards moved nearer to Newport. 
 Admiral Howe, having received a reinforcement, now appeared before 
 the harbor, and the count instantly put to sea to attack him. A furious 
 storm, however, came on, which damaged and dispersed both fleets. As 
 soon as the weather permitted, each commander sought the port from 
 which he had sailed ; but great was the disappointment of the Americans 
 when D'Estaing announced his intention of proceeding to Boston to refit; 
 they earnestly remonstrated, but the count was inflexible. Deserted by 
 the fleet, the army could remain no longer with safety on the island. 
 General Sullivan, therefore, immediately retreated to his first position. He 
 was pursued and attacked by the enemy ; but they were gallantly resisted 
 and repulsed with loss. The next day the two armies cannonaded each 
 other, and the succeeding night the American general, deceiving the ene- 
 my by a show of resistance to the last, made a skilful retreat to the conti- 
 nent. It was a remarkable escape. The delay of a single day would pro- 
 bably have been fatal to the Americans ; for Sir Henry Clinton, who had 
 been impeded by adverse winds, arrived with a reinforcement of four thou- 
 sand men the very next day, when a retreat, it is presumed, would have 
 been impracticable. 
 
 At this period of the war hostilities were carried on with more than 
 usual acrimony. In several instances the British troops, and their allies, 
 
 ginia. The loss of the British army, in killed, wounded, and missing, is stated to have 
 been three hundred and fifty-eight men, including officers. Among their slain was 
 lieutenant-colonel Monckton, who was greatly and deservedly lamented. About a hun- 
 dred were taken prisoners ; and nearly a thousand soldiers, principally foreigners, 
 many of whom had married in Philadelphia, deserted the British standard during the 
 march. 
 
 SS 59 
 
698 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the American tories and native Indians, exhibited a barbarity deeply to be 
 lamented, wantonly destroying the property and injuring the persons of 
 peaceful unarmed inhabitants. While asleep in a barn at Tappan, colo- 
 nel Baylor's troop of light dragoons were surprised by general Grey, who 
 commanded his soldiers to use the bayonet only, and to give the rebels no 
 quarter. Incapable of defence, they sued for mercy ; but the most pa- 
 thetic supplications were heard without awakening compassion ; nearly 
 one-half of the troop were killed. To many, repeated thrusts were bar- 
 barously given as long as signs of life remained ; while some who had 
 nearly a dozen stabs through the body, and were left for dead, afterwards 
 recovered. A few escaped, and forty were saved by the humanity of a 
 British captain, who dared to disobey the orders of his general. With 
 feelings of revenge yet more barbarous, Wyoming, a happy and flourish- 
 ing settlement, on the eastern branch of the Susquehannah, in Pennsylva- 
 nia, was attacked by a band of tories and Indians. The conditions of the 
 capitulation were entirely disregarded by the British and savage forces, 
 and after the fort was delivered up, all kinds of barbarities were commit- 
 ted by them. The village of Wilkesbarre, consisting of twenty-three hou- 
 ses, was burnt ; men and their wives were separated from each other and 
 carried into captivity ; their property was plundered, and the settlement 
 laid waste. The remainder of the inhabitants were driven from the valley, 
 and compelled to proceed on foot sixty miles through the great swamp, al- 
 most without food or clothing. A number perished in the journey, princi- 
 pally women and children ; some died of their wounds, others wandered 
 from the path in search of food and were lost ; and those who survived call- 
 ed the wilderness through which they passed ' The Shades of Death,' an 
 appellation which it has since retained. Many other instances might be 
 adduced ; but it is better to suffer the record of them to perish.* 
 
 In the campaign of 1778 little on either side was accomplished. The 
 alliance with France gave birth to expectations which events did not fulfil ; 
 
 * We insert the following as an antidote to the feelings with which the ' glory' of war 
 is apt to inspire the breasts even of the generous and noble : — ' A short distance below 
 the battle ground there is a large island in the river, called Monockonock island. Seve- 
 ral of the settlers, while the battle and pursuit continued, succeeded in swimming to 
 this island, where they concealed themselves among the logs and brushwood upon it. 
 Their arms had been thrown away in their flight, previous to their entering the river, 
 so that they were in a manner defenceless. Two of them in particular were concealed 
 near and in sight of each other. While in this situation, they observed several of the 
 enemy, who had pursued and fired at them while they were swimming the river, pre- 
 paring to follow them to the island with their guns. On reaching the island they imme- 
 diately wiped their guns and loaded them. One of them with his loaded gun soon pass- 
 ed close by one of these men, who lay concealed from his view, and was immediately 
 recognized by him to be the brother of his companion who was concealed near him, but 
 who, being a tory, had joined the enemy. He passed slowly along, carefully examin- 
 ing every covert, and directly perceived his brother in his place of concealment. He 
 suddenly stopped and said, " So it is you, is it ?" His brother, finding that he was dis- 
 covered, immediately came forward a few steps, and, falling on his knees, begged him 
 to spare his life, promising to live with him and sorve him, and even to be his slave as 
 long as he lived, if he would only spare his life. " All this is mighty good," replied the 
 
 savage-hearted brother of the supplicating man ; " but you are a d d rebel ;" and, 
 
 deliberately presenting his rifle, shot him dead upon the spot. The other settler made 
 his escape from the island, and having related this fact, the tory brother thought it pru- 
 dent to accompany the British troops on their return to Canada.' — History of Wyoming* 
 p. 127, 
 
HISTORY. 699 
 
 but the presence of her fleets on the coast deranged the plans of the British ; 
 induced them to relinquish a part of their conquests; and prevented their 
 making any progress in the accomplishment of their design^. 
 
 The close of this year was distinguished by a change of the theatre of 
 war from the northern to the southern section of the confederacy. The 
 country, weak by its scattered population, the multitude of slaves, and the 
 number of tories, presented a prospect of easy victory. In the end of No- 
 vember, lieutenant-colonel Campbell, with two thousand five hundred men, 
 sailed from New York to the coast of Georgia. Having landed his troops, 
 he marched towards Savannah, the capital ; and defeating a small body 
 of Americans whom he met on his route, he immediately took possession 
 of the city. After the fall of the capital, Sunbury surrendered at discre- 
 tion ; and these were the only military posts in Georgia. 
 
 The campaign of 1779 was opened by general Lincoln, who had been 
 appointed to the command of the American troops in the southern depart- 
 ment. In April, leaving South Carolina, he marched into the interior of 
 Georgia ; upon which the British army, entering the state he had left, in- 
 vested Charleston, the capital. Lincoln hastened back to its defence; and 
 on his approach, the British retired to Stono ferry, where an action was 
 fought, and a few days afterwards they continued their retreat to Savan- 
 nah. The heat of the season suspended farther operations until Septem- 
 ber ; when count D'Estaing, with a fleet carrying six thousand troops, ar- 
 rived on the coast. The two armies, in concert, laid siege to Savannah. 
 At the expiration of a month, the count, impatient of delay, insisted that 
 the siege should be abandoned, or that a combined assault upon the ene- 
 my's works should immediately be made. General Lincoln determined 
 upon the latter course. Great gallantry was displayed by the French and 
 American troops, but the British repulsed the assailants, killing and wound- 
 ing nearly a thousand men,* while on their part the loss was small. The 
 next day the siege was raised, the French returning home, and the Ameri- 
 cans to South Carolina. 
 
 The operations of the British in the more northern parts of America 
 were predatory rather than military. In May, a naval and land force, 
 commanded by Sir George Collier and general Matthews, made a descent 
 on Virginia. On their arrival, they took possession of Portsmouth and of 
 Norfolk ; destroyed the houses, vessels, naval stores, and a large magazine 
 of provisions, at Suffolk ; made a similar destruction at Kemp's Landing, 
 Shepherd's, Gosport, Tanner's Creek, and other places in the vicinity ; 
 and, after setting fire to the houses and other public buildings in the dock, 
 yard at Gosport, embarked with their booty for New York. A similar ex- 
 pedition was soon after undertaken from New York against Connecticut, 
 by governor Tryon, with two thousand six hundred land forces, supported 
 by brigadier-general Garth, and accompanied by Sir George Collier with 
 armed%essels to cover the transports. Though checked in their march, 
 they entered New Haven about one in the afternoon, from which time un- 
 
 * Count Pulaski was mortally wounded in this assault ; and congress resolved that a 
 monument should be erected to his memory. He was a Polander of high birth, who 
 with a few men had carried off king Stanislaus from the middle of his capital, the 
 kin" after beui" some time a prisoner, made his escape, and soon after declared 1 ula.->- 
 ki an outlaw. Thus proscribed, he came to America, and offered his service to con- 
 gress, which honored him with the rank of brigadier-gsneral. 
 
700 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 til eight in the evening the town was subjected to almost indiscriminate 
 ravage and plunder. The royal army also plundered and burned the town 
 of Fairfield, and the greatest part of the neighboring village of Green 
 Farms. A few days afterward they laid the town of Norwalk in ashes. 
 
 Early in the season, colonel Clarke, of Virginia, who was stationed at 
 Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, achieved an enterprise conspicuous for bold- 
 ness of design, and evincing uncommon hardihood in its execution. With 
 only one hundred and thirty men, he penetrated through the wilderness to 
 St. Vincent's, a British post on the Wabash, in the heart of the Indian 
 country. His route lay across deep swamps and morrasses ; and in one 
 instance the party waded through water, often as high as the breast, for 
 nearly five miles. After a march of sixteen days, they reached the town, 
 which, having no intimation of their approach, surrendered without resis- 
 tance ; and a short time after, the fort capitulated. This fortunate achieve- 
 ment arrested an expedition which the enemy had projected against the 
 frontiers of Virginia, and detached several tribes of Indians from the Bri- 
 tish interest. 
 
 Congress, though its measures toward the Indians were conciliatory, 
 eould not secure the western frontiers. The Six Nations had been advis- 
 ed by that body, and had promised, to observe a neutrality in the war ; 
 but, excepting the Oneidas, and a few others who were friendly to the 
 Americans, those Indians took a decided part against them. The presents 
 and promises of Sir John Johnson and other British agents, with the de- 
 sire of plunder, induced them to invade the frontiers ; and wherever they 
 went, they carried slaughter and devastation. An expedition was there- 
 fore ordered against them, and general Sullivan, to whom the conduct of it 
 was intrusted, marched into their country. The Indians, on hearing of the 
 projected expedition, collected their strength, took possession of proper 
 ground, and fortified it with judgment. General Sullivan attacked them 
 in their works, and they sustained a cannonade of more than two hours ; 
 but they then gave way, and, after their trenches were forced, they fled 
 with precipitation. The victorious army, penetrating into the heart of 
 their country, laid it desolate. Their villages, their detached habitations, 
 their corn-fields, their fruit-trees and gardens, were indiscriminately de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 The campaign of this year, though barren in important events, was dis- 
 tinguished by one gallant enterprise, which reflected much honor on the 
 American arms. Stony Point, a fortress on the North river, had been 
 taken from the Americans, and strongly fortified by the British. It was 
 at this time garrisoned by about six hundred men, under the command of 
 lieutenant-colonel Johnson. General Washington, having obtained precise 
 information of the condition of the works, the nature of the ground in their 
 vicinity, the strength and arrangements of the garrison, and the disposition 
 of the guards, and having in person reconnoitred the post, resolved to attempt 
 the surprise of it. The execution of the plan was intrusted to general 
 Wayne, and the troops employed on this service were chiefly from New 
 England. At half-past eleven on the night of the loth of July, the 
 columns moved on to the charge at opposite points of the works, the van 
 of each with unloaded muskets and fixed bayonets; and at twenty minutes 
 after twelve both columns rushed forward under a tremendous fire of mus- 
 ketry and grape-shot, entered the works at the point of the bayonet, and, ar- 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 701 
 
 riving in the centre of them at nearly the same instant, compelled the Har- 
 rison to surrender at discretion A more gallant exploit has seldom been 
 performed, and the humanity of the victors was equal to their valor Not 
 
 r ;*. v 
 
 Capture of Stony Point. 
 
 withstanding the devastations in Connecticut, and the butchery of Baylor's 
 troop, the scene of which was near, not an individual suffered after resis- 
 tance had ceased. 
 
 On the approach of the inclement season, the American army built them- 
 selves huts for winter quarters. Positions were chosen most favorable for 
 the defence of the most important posts, and for covering the country. 
 The army was formed into two divisions ; one of" these erected huts near 
 West Point, and the other at Morristown, in New Jersey. The head-quar- 
 ters of the commander-in-chief were with the last division. Great distress 
 was felt this winter on account of the deranged state of the American 
 finances. General Green and colonel Wadsworth, gentlemen in every re- 
 spect qualified for the duties of their respective stations, were yet at the 
 head of the quarter-master and commissary departments, but the credit of 
 the country was fallen, they had not the means to make prompt payment 
 for articles of supply ; and they found it impossible to lay up large maga- 
 zines of provisions, and extremely difficult to obtain supplies to satisfy the 
 temporary wants of the army. Large sums had been annually raised and 
 expended, and the ability of the people to pay taxes had progressively de- 
 creased. To supply deficiencies, paper money, to the amount of about a 
 hundred and fifty millions of dollars, had been issued ; but this was de- 
 preciated, and at the close of 1779 thirty dollars in paper were of no more 
 value than one in specie. To purchase provisions with this money was 
 therefore first difficult and then impossible, and congress now found their 
 funds and their credit exhausted. Before the month of January expired, 
 the soldiers were put upon allowance, and before its close the whole stock 
 of provision in store was exhausted, and there was neither meat nor flour 
 to be distributed to the troops. To prevent the dissolution of the army, 
 the commander-in-chief was reluctantly driven to very vigorous mea- 
 sures : he apportioned to each county in the state of New Jersey a quanti- 
 
 59* 
 
702 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ty of meat and flour, according to the ability of each, to be brought into 
 camp in the course of six days. At the same time he wrote to the magis- 
 trates, stating the absolute necessity of the measure, and informing them, 
 that unless the inhabitants voluntarily complied with the requisition, the 
 exigency of the case would force him to obtain it by military exaction. 
 To the honor of the inhabitants of New Jersey, harassed as their country 
 had been, the full quantity of provisions required was cheerfully and sea- 
 sonably afforded. 
 
 PROM THE CAMPAIGN OF 1780 TO THE TERMINATION OF THE WAR OF THE REVO- 
 LUTION. 
 
 During the year 1780, the contest between Great Britain and her an- 
 cient colonies was carried on chiefly in the southern states. As soon as 
 Sir Henry Clinton ascertained that count D'Estaing had left the American 
 coast, he hastened to despatch an expedition against South Carolina, leav- 
 ing the garrison at New York under the command of general Knyphau- 
 sen. Early in February the troops landed within thirty miles of the capi- 
 tal. Governor Rutledge, to whom the assembly of South Carolina had 
 recently given extraordinary powers, ordered the militia to rendezvous ; but 
 the repulse at Savannah, at the close of the preceding campaign, had pro- 
 duced such a dispiriting effect, that but few complied. The defences of 
 Charleston consisted of a chain of redoubts, lines, and batteries, extending 
 from Ashley to Cooper river, on which were mounted upwards of eighty 
 pieces of artillery ; and on all sides of the town where a landing was 
 practicable, batteries were erected and covered with artillery. General 
 Lincoln, trusting to these defences and expecting large reinforcements, re- 
 mained in Charleston at the earnest request of the inhabitants, and, with 
 the force under his command, resolved to defend the place. 
 
 On the 21st of March the British fleet crossed the bar, and anchored in 
 Five Fathom Hole. Commodore Whipple, who commanded the American 
 vessels, finding it impracticable to prevent the enemy from passing over the 
 bar, fell back to fort Moultrie, and afterwards to Charleston. In a few 
 days the town was invested by sea and land, and the British commanders 
 summoned general Lincoln to surrender ; the demand was, however, met 
 with a firm refusal. The batteries of the first parallel were now opened 
 upon the town, and soon made a visible impression ; and to prevent the 
 reception of the reinforcements which general Lincoln expected, Sir Henry 
 Clinton detached lieutenant-colonel Webster with fourteen hundred men,. 
 by the advanced guard of which detachment the American cavalry, with 
 the militia attached to them, were surprised in the night of the 14th of 
 April, and completely routed and dispersed. The British now extended 
 themselves to the eastward of Cooper river ; and about this time Sir Hen- 
 ry Clinton received a reinforcement of three thousand men from New 
 York. The garrison having no reasonable hope of effecting a retreat, an 
 offer was made of surrendering the town ; but the proposed conditions 
 were rejected by the British commanders. 
 
 The besiegers in the mean time were daily advancing their works, and 
 had now completed their third parallel ; the garrison of fort Moultrie sur- 
 rendered ; and the broken remains of the American cavalry under colonel 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 703 
 
 White were again surprised by colonel Tarleton, and the whole either kill- 
 ed, taken, or dispersed. Sir Henry Clinton, thus successful in every ope- 
 ration, renewed his former offers to the garrison in case of their surrender ■ 
 but the terms, so far as they respected the citizens, not being satisfactory' 
 hostilities recommenced. The batteries of the third parallel now opened 
 on the town, and did great execution ; several houses were burned ; num- 
 bers of the besieged were killed at their guns ; and the British prepared 
 to make a general assault by land and water. At length a great number 
 of citizens of Charleston addressed general Lincoln in a petition, request- 
 ing his acceptance of the terms which had been previously offered. A 
 capitulation was consequently signed on the 12th of May, and the next 
 day major-general Leslie took possession of the town.* 
 
 The capital having surrendered, measures were adopted to overawe the 
 inhabitants of the country, and induce them to return to their allegiance 
 to the king. Garrisons were placed in different parts of the state, and two 
 thousand men were despatched towards North Carolina, to repel several 
 parties of militia, who were hastening to the relief of Charleston. Colo- 
 nel Tarleton, making a rapid march of a hundred and five miles in fifty- 
 four hours, met, at the Waxhaws, and attacked one of these parties, com- 
 manded by colonel Buford. The Americans, being defeated by his superi- 
 or forces, implored quarter ; but nearly the whole of them were either kill- 
 ed or too badly wounded to be removed from the field. This sanguinary 
 conduct spread dismay throughout the country, and imparted a similar 
 character to future conflicts. 
 
 Indignant at the treatment they received, great numbers of the inhabi- 
 tants seized their arms, and resolved on a vindictive war with their inva- 
 ders. A party who had taken refuge in North Carolina, chose colonel 
 Sumpter their leader. At the head of these he returned to his own slate, 
 attacked and defeated several scattered detachments from the British army ; 
 and by a succession of gallant enterprises he kept alive a spirit of deter- 
 mined hostility to Great Britain in every part of the state. His exertions 
 were rendered the more effective by the approach of four thousand men, 
 principally continentals, under the command of general Gates. Lord 
 Cornwallis, whom Sir Henry Clinton, on his return to New York, had left 
 chief in command, hastened to oppose the conqueror of Burgoyne. On 
 the night of the 15th of August he marched, with his whole force, to at- 
 tack the Americans in their camp at Clermont. They at the same hour 
 began to move towards Camden, where lord Cornwallis had his head- 
 quarters. As the two armies were marching on the same road, in oppo- 
 site directions, their advanced guards met and fired on each other about 
 half-past two in the morning. From some prisoners made on both sides, 
 the commanders learned each other's movements. 
 
 Both armies halted, and were formed, and the firing soon ceased, as if 
 
 * By the articles of capitulation, the garrison were to march out of the town and to 
 deposit their arms in front of the works ; but the drums were not to beat a British 
 march, nor the colors to be uncased. The continental troops and seamen were to keep 
 their baggage, and remain prisoners of war until exchanged. The militia were to be 
 permitted to return home as prisoners on parole ; and, while they should adhere to their 
 parole, were not to be molested by the British troops in person or property. The inhabi- 
 tants of all conditions were to be considered as prisoners on parole, and to hold their 
 property on the same terms with the militia 
 
704 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 by mutual consent. The ground on which the two armies thus acci- 
 dentally met, was exceedingly favorable to lord Cornwallis. A swamp on 
 each side secured his flanks, and narrowed the ground in front, so as to 
 render the superiority of the Americans in numbers of less consequence. 
 In the morning a severe and general action was fought. The charge of 
 the British was made with such vigor, that the Virginia militia threw down 
 their arms, and fled with the utmost precipitation ; and the greatest part 
 of the North Carolina militia soon followed their example. The Ameri- 
 can reserve was now brought into action, and general Gates, in conjunc- 
 tion with general Caswell, endeavored to rally the'militia at advantageous 
 passes in the rear of the field of action, but in vain. On the left and in 
 the centre the contest was more obstinately maintained by the Americans, 
 whose artillery did considerable execution ; but by the flight of the militia 
 their left flank was exposed, and the continentals, after a brave resistance 
 of nearly three-quarters of an hour, were thrown into confusion, and 
 forced to give way. The Americans lost the whole of their artillery, the 
 greatest part of their baggage, several hundred men, and some very valu- 
 able officers ; the loss of the British was also severe. 
 
 Sumpter, who had lately been victorious in a skirmish, retreated precipi- 
 tately on hearing of the defeat of Gates ; but supposing he was beyond 
 danger, he halted at the Catawba ford to refresh his troops. Here his sen- 
 tinels unhappily slept at their posts, and Tarleton's legion rode into his 
 camp before preparations could be made for defence. Between three and 
 four hundred were killed or wounded. The remainder were dispersed in 
 the woods, three hundred British prisoners w r ere released, and all the bag- 
 gage and stores fell into the power of the victors. 
 
 Apprehending the state to be subdued, Cormvallis adopted measures of 
 extreme severity to suppress every latent inclination to revolt. He direct- 
 ed that all who, having once submitted, had lately given aid to the armies 
 of congress, should be deprived of their property and imprisoned ; and 
 that all who had once borne arms with the British, and afterwards joined 
 the Americans, should suffer death. In consequence of these orders seve- 
 ral were executed, and many were reduced to poverty and wretchedness. 
 In these times of confusion and distress, the mischievous effects of slavery 
 in facilitating the conquest of the country became apparent. As the slaves 
 had no interest at stake, the subjugation of the state was a matter of no 
 consequence to them. Instead of aiding in its defence, they, by a variety 
 of means, threw the weight of their influence into the opposite scale. 
 
 Although his corps had been dispersed, general Sumpter speedily re- 
 collected a band of volunteers, and kept the field in South Carolina for 
 three months, when there was no continental army in the state. Varying 
 his position along the Evoree, Broad, and Tyger rivers, he had frequent 
 skirmishes with the enemy, whom he incessantly harassed. In Novem- 
 ber, he was attacked at Broad river by major Wemys, commanding a corps 
 of infantry and dragoons, but the British were defeated, and their com- 
 manding officer taken prisoner ; and in a few days afterward he was at- 
 tacked near Tyger river by colonel Tarleton, who, finding himself unable 
 to dislodge the Americans, retreated with considerable less, and left 
 Sumpter in possession of the field. The zeal, activity, and bravery of this 
 officer, at that trying period, procured him the thanks of congress and the 
 applause of his country. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 705 
 
 While the affairs of the south were in a state by no means encouraging 
 to the cause of independence, the general army under the command* of 
 Washington was in a state of insufferable destitution, and of consequent 
 mutiny. Two hundred millions of dollars in paper currency were at this 
 time in circulation upon the credit of the United States. Congress had 
 the preceding year solemnly pledged the faith of government not to issue 
 more than this sum, and the national treasury was now empty. Congress, 
 the head of the nation, had, therefore, no further command of the resources 
 of the country. The power of taxation, and of every coercive measure of 
 government, was vested in the state sovereignties, and a system which in 
 its execution required the conjoint agency of thirteen sovereignties, was too 
 complex for the prompt operations of a military body. In the course of 
 the winter, forage had failed, and many of the horses attached to the army 
 had died, or were rendered unfit for use. General Washington therefore 
 struggled with almost insuperable difficulties in supplying the army. The 
 pay of the officers also had now scarcely more than a nominal value ; and 
 the officers of whole lines belonging to some of the states, in a body, gave 
 notice, that on a certain day they should resign their commissions, unless 
 provision was made for their honorable support. 
 
 Congress possessed not the means to apply adequate remedies to these 
 threatening evils. They passed a resolution, indeed, " That congress will 
 make good to the line of the army, and to the independent corps thereof, 
 the deficiencies of their original pay, which had been occasioned by the de- 
 preciation of the continental currency;" but the promise of future compen- 
 sation from a country whose neglect was conceived to be the source of all 
 their sufferings, they deemed a feeble basis of dependence, at the moment 
 they were severely pressed by privations of every kind. Murmurs at 
 length broke out into actual mutiny. Two of the Connecticut regiments 
 paraded under arms, announcing their intention to return home, or by their 
 arms to obtain subsistence ; but by the spirited and prudent exertions of the 
 officers, the ringleaders were secured, and the regiments brought back to 
 their duty. 
 
 This disaffection was reported to New York, with the customary exag- 
 gerations of rumor. General Knyphausen, the commanding officer at that 
 post, supposing the American citizens and soldiers ripe for revolt, passed 
 over into New Jersey with five thousand men, to avail himself of favorable 
 events ; but the behavior of the Americans soon convinced him he had 
 been deceived in the report of their disaffected disposition. The troops 
 detached from the army to oppose his progress fought with obstinate brave- 
 ry ; and the inhabitants, seizing their arms with alacrity, emulated the 
 spirit and persevering courage of the regular soldier. The general, finding 
 he must encounter serious opposition, retreated to Elizabeth Point, opposite 
 to Staten island. In the mean time, Sir Henry Clinton, returning with 
 his victorious troops from Charleston, ordered a reinforcement to Knyphau- 
 sen, who, with the whole body, advanced a second time towards Spring- 
 field. The British were now opposed by general Green with a considera- 
 ble body of continental troops, and a severe action was fought, but the 
 Americans were forced, by superior numbers, to retire. General Green 
 took post with his troops on a range of hills, in the hope of being attacked ; 
 but the British, having burned the town, retreated, and the next day set 
 out on their return to New York. 
 89 
 
706 BOOK OF THE TJOTTED STATES. 
 
 Late in the spring the marquis la Fayette returned from France with 
 the pleasing intelligence that his government had resolved to assist the 
 United States, by employing this year a respectable land and naval force 
 in America. This grateful information reanimated the public mind, and 
 gave a new stimulus to the activity of congress, and of the governments of 
 the several states, that preparation might be made to co-operate with the 
 French armament on its arrival. Vigorous measures were in consequence 
 adopted by congress and by the states to recruit the army, to lay up maga- 
 zines, and to enable the general to comply with the reasonable expecta- 
 tions of their allies; but the agency of different bodies was necessary to 
 carry these public measures into effect, and their operation was dilatory. 
 
 Early in July the first division of French troops reached the American 
 shore, consisting of between five and six thousand men, with a large train 
 of battering and field artillery. These forces were commanded by count 
 de Rochambeau, whose government had placed him under the command 
 of general Washington. The count brought information that a second 
 division would follow him as soon as transports could be fitted out to bring 
 them. The principal French and American officers assiduously cultivated 
 a mutual affection between the two armies ; and the commander-in-chief 
 recommended to the officers of the United States to ingraft on the Ameri- 
 can cockade a white relief, as an emblem of the alliance of the two powers. 
 On the arrival of the French, the Americans were unprepared to act with 
 them, nor did the American general know what force would ultimately be 
 brought into the field; and before any thing could be effected, information 
 was brought that the second armament destined for America was blocked 
 up in the harbor of Brest, and would not this season reach the American 
 continent. The flattering prospect of terminating the war by the conquest 
 of the British posts in a moment vanished, and elevated views of brilliant 
 success were succeeded by grievous disappointment. 
 
 In this season of difficulty, of embarrassment, and of gloom, a circum- 
 stance occurred which excited the deepest interest throughout both armies, 
 and indeed in the breast of the inhabitants of all the states. The American 
 arm v was stationed in the strong-holds of the high lands fin both sides of 
 the North river ; and for the defence of this position, and to keep command 
 of the river, a fortress had been built at West Point, which was deemed 
 impregnable, and had acquired the appellation of the Gibraltar of America. 
 Of this post general Arnold solicited the command, and general Washing- 
 ton, far from suspecting any sinister views in an officer who had been so 
 zealous and active in the cause of his country, complied with the solicita- 
 tion. Arnold had, however, no sooner become invested with the command, 
 than he carried on a negotiation with Sir Henry Clinton, by which it was 
 agr< ed, that he should make such a disposition of his forces, as would ena- 
 ble the British general effectually to surprise West Point. The agent em- 
 ployed in this negotiation was major Andre, adjutant-general of the Bri- 
 tish army ; and to favor the communications, the Vulture, a British sloop 
 of war, had been previously stationed in North river, as near Arnold's 
 posts as could be without exciting suspicion. On the night of the 21st of 
 September a boat was sent from the shore^o fetch major Andre, and 
 Arnold met him at the beach, without the posts of both armies. Their 
 business not being finished until it was too near morning for Andre to re- 
 turn to the Vulture, Arnold, telling him he must be concealed until the 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 707 
 
 next night, conducted him within one of the American posts, where he 
 continued with him the following day. The Vulture having in the mean 
 time been compelled to alter her position, Andre could return to New York 
 in no other way than by land; changing his uniform, therefore, which he 
 had worn under a surtout, for a plain dress, he set out on horseback, under 
 the name of John Anderson, with a passport, signed by Arnold, ' to sro to 
 the lines of White Plains, or lower if he thought proper, he being on public 
 business.' When advanced a great part of the way, he was stopped by 
 three of the New York militia, and several papers, containing exact returns 
 of the state of the forces, ordnance, and defences at West Point, were found 
 in his boots. The captors, disdaining a proffered bribe of a purse of gold 
 
 Capture of Major Andre. 
 
 and permanent provision and promotion, on condition of their conveying 
 and accompanying him to New York, delivered him a prisoner to lieute- 
 nant-colonel Jameson, who commanded the outposts. Andre, with the in- 
 cautious permission of Jameson, procured a letter to be sent to Arnold, 
 informing him of his detention, which gave the traitor opportunity to 
 escape on board the Vulture,* in which he reached New York in safety. 
 
 * General Arnold early and warmly embraced the American cause. His enterpris- 
 ing spirit, his invincible fortitude, his heroic and persevering ardor in battle, had exalted 
 his militarv character in his own country and in Europe. Being incapacitated for the 
 duties of the field by the wounds he received before Quebec and at Saratoga, he was 
 appointed commandant in Philadelphia when the British evacuated that city. In this 
 flattering command, he adopted a style of living above his means, and soon found him- 
 self loaded with debt. To relieve himself he entered into various schemes of speculation, 
 and was unsuccessful in all. Hollow at heart, he had recourse to fraud and peculation. 
 These practices rendered him odious to the citizens, and gave offence to government. 
 At length formal complaints were lodged against him. and congress ordered his trial by 
 a court-martial. By this court he was f! iund guilty, and sentenced to be reprimanded by 
 the commander-in-chief. The sentence was approved by congress, and carried into exe- 
 cution by general Washington. fin the gold that was to reward his treason. Arnold ex- 
 pected relief from his pecuniary embarrassments: and his implacable spirit sought its 
 revenge of his country by betraying into the hand of her enemy the Gibraltar of -Ame- 
 rica. ^Upon his establishment in the army of Great Britain, he found it necessary to 
 make some exertions to secure the attachment of his new friends. With the hope of 
 
70S BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 At this very hour Washington arrived on his return from a conference 
 with the French general at Hartford. He repaired, without delay, to the 
 fort of West Point, where, however, he could learn nothing of a decisive 
 import. But some orders, issued by Arnold the day before, redoubled his 
 suspicions ; he returned to the quarters of the general, and at this instant 
 Jameson's messenger presented himself, and delivered the packet with 
 which he was charged. Washington seemed for the moment overwhelmed 
 by the discovery of a crime which ruined the fame of an American general, 
 and wounded the honor of the American army. Those who were near 
 him anxiously interrogated his looks in silence, which he broke by saying, 
 ' I thought that an officer of courage and ability, who had often shed his 
 blood for his country, was entitled to confidence, and I gave him mine. I 
 am convinced now, and for the rest of my life, that we should never trust 
 those who are wanting in probity, whatever abilities they may possess. 
 Arnold has betrayed us." Meanwhile, the precautions required by the occa- 
 sion were everywhere taken. General Heath, a faithful and vigilant officer, 
 was substituted for Arnold at West Point ; the commanders of the other 
 posts were admonished to be on their guard ; Green, who had been invest- 
 ed with the command of the army during the absence of Washington, re- 
 called within the forts the garrisons which the traitor had dispersed, and 
 marched a strong division near to the lines. General Washington referred 
 the case of Andre to the examination and decision of a board, consisting of 
 fourteen officers, who founded their report on his own statements ; they 
 reported it as their unanimous opinion, ' that major Andre ought to be con- 
 sidered as a spy, and that, agreeably to the laws and usages of nations, he 
 should suffer death ;' and he was, in accordance with their sentence, hung 
 as a spy.* 
 
 alluring many of the discontented to his standard, he published an address to the inha- 
 bitants of America, in which he endeavored to justify his conduct. This was followed 
 by a proclamation addressed 'to the officers and soldiers of the continental army, who 
 have the real interest of their country at heart, and who are determined to be no longer 
 the tools and dupes of congress and of France.' These proclamations did not produce 
 the effect designed. And in all the hardships, sufferings, and irritations of the war, 
 Arnold remains the solitary instance of an American officer who abandoned the side 
 first embraced in the contest, and turned his sword upon his former companions in arms. 
 He survived the war but to drag on. in perpetual banishment from his native country, 
 a dishonorable life. He transmitted to his children a name of hateful celebritv. He 
 obtained only a part of the debasing stipend of an abortive treason, and his complaints 
 soon caused it to be known, that all the promises by which he had been inveigled were 
 not fulfilled. He enjoyed, however, the rank of brigadier-general, but the officers of 
 the British army manifested a strong repugnance to serve with him. He possessed their 
 esteem while he fought against them ; they loaded him with contempt when treason 
 brought him over to their side. He resided principally in England after the conclusion 
 of the war, and died on the 14th of June, 1S01. 
 
 * The general officers who reported hi* case lamented the necessity they were under 
 to advise that as a spy he should be hung, and the heart of general Washington was 
 wrung with anguish when he signed his death warrant. But the fatal wound that 
 ■would have been inflicted on the country had Arnold's treason succeeded, made the sa- 
 crifice necessary for the public safety. The American officers universally discovered a 
 sympathy for the unfortunate sufferer, and the sensibikjy of the public was greatly ex- 
 cited on the occasion. His character is thus beautifmiy painted by the late general 
 Hamilton, who without envy might have contemplated his eminent qualities, for they 
 were not equal to his own. ' There was something singularly interesting in the charac- 
 ter of Andre. To an excellent understanding, well improved by education and travel. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 709 
 
 When the winter of 17S0 commenced, the troops of the northern army- 
 retired to the quarters which they had last occupied. Again they endured 
 distress at which patriotism feels indignant and humanity weeps. The 
 harvest had been abundant ; plenty reigned in the land, while want was 
 still felt in the camp of its defenders. Lassitude had succeeded enthusiasm 
 in the breasts of the people, and congress exerted its powers with too little 
 vigor to draw forth the resources of the country. The soldiers of the 
 Pennsylvania line stationed at Morristown, New Jersey, complained that, 
 in addition to sustaining sufferings common to all, they were retained in 
 service contrary to the terms of their enlistments. In the night of the 1st 
 of January, thirteen hundred, on a concerted signal, paraded under arms, 
 and declared their intention of marching to Philadelphia, and demanding 
 of congress a redress of their grievances. The officers strove to compel 
 them to relinquish their purpose. In the attempt, one was killed and 
 several were wounded. General Wayne presented his pistols, as if intend- 
 ing to fire. They held their bayonets to his breast ; ' We love and respect 
 
 Mutiny. 
 
 you,' said they ; ' but if you fire you are a dead man. We are not going 
 to the enemy. On the contrary, if they were now to come out, you should 
 see us fight under your orders with as much alacrity as ever. But we 
 will be amused no longer ; we are determined to obtain what is our just 
 
 he united a peculiar elegance of mind and manners, and the advantages of a pleasing 
 person. It is said that he possessed a pretty taste for the fine arts, and had himself 
 attained some proficiency in poetry, music, and painting. His knowledge appeared with- 
 out ostentation, and embellished by a diffidence that rarely accompanies so many talen s 
 and accomplishments, which left you to suppose more than appeared. His sentiments 
 were elevated, and inspired esteem; they had a softness that conciliated affection. His 
 elocution was handsome, his address easy, polite, and insmuating. By his merit he had 
 acquired the unlimited confidence of his general, and was making rapid progress in m. U- 
 tary rank and reputation. But » the height of his career, flushed with new hop 
 the execution of a project the most beneficial to his party that could be devised, be is at 
 once precipitated from the summit of prosperity, sees all the expectations of ^his ambiti.n 
 blasted, and himself ruined.' A handsome monument is erected to his memory in 
 Westminster abbey. » 
 
710 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 due.' They elected temporary officers, and moved off in a body towards 
 Princeton. General Wayne, to prevent them from plundering the inhabi- 
 tants, forwarded provisions for their use. The next day he followed, and 
 requested them to appoint a man from each regiment, to state to him their 
 complaints ; a conference was accordingly held, but he refused to comply 
 with their demands. They then proceeded in good order to Princeton, 
 where three emissaries from Sir Henry Clinton met them, and made libe- 
 ral offers to entice them from the service of congress. The offers were 
 indignantly rejected, and the emissaries seized and executed as spies. 
 Here they were also met by a committee of congress, and a deputation from 
 the state of Pennsylvania; and the latter, granting a part of their demands, 
 succeeded in persuading them to return to their duty. This mutiny, and 
 another in the Jersey line, which was instantly suppressed, aroused the 
 attention of the states to the miserable condition of their troops. The 
 amount of three months' pay was raised and forwarded to them in specie ; 
 it was received with joy, as affording an evidence that their country was 
 not unmindful of their sufferings. 
 
 The year on which we now enter decided the important contest which 
 engaged the attention of Europe, and of all the civilized world, in favor of 
 liberty, and, we must add, of justice. The boon of independence was not, 
 however, gained without adding to the long list of widows and orphans, 
 nor without augmenting the catalogue of cruelties more horrid than those 
 of the Indian tribes, because perpetrated by those who had no accumulated 
 antipathy of ages to palliate their hostility, but who only yesterday were 
 friends and brothers. The inhabitants of the Carolinas endured calamity 
 and distress from which humanity revolts. About equally divided in po- 
 litical sentiments, village was opposed to village, and neighbor to neighbor, 
 and their hostility became embittered by attack and reprisal, until pillage, 
 burning, and murder, became familiar to all.* Each party aimed at the 
 
 * The following instance will illustrate the horrible spirit of these times: — 'In the 
 hour of festivity, one Brown had indulged himself in indiscreet censure of the revolution- 
 ary party. He had done worse, — he had committed a fault less easily forgiven, — he had 
 ridiculed them. Being apprized that their resentment was excited, he attempted to 
 escape ; but he was closely pursued, brought back to Augusta, tried before a committee 
 of surveillance, and sentenced to be tarred and feathered and carted, unless he recanted 
 and took the oath of allegiance prescribed by the administration of Georgia. Brown 
 was a firm man, and resisted with a pertinacity that should have commanded the respect 
 of his persecutors. But the motions of a mob are too precipitate to admit of the intru- 
 sion of generous feeling. After undergoing the painful and mortifying penance pre- 
 scribed by the committee without yielding, it is too true that he was doomed to have his 
 naked feet exposed to a large fire, to subdue his stubborn spirit ; but in vain ; and he was 
 at length turned loose by a group of men, who never once dreamed that the simple Indian 
 trader would soon reappear an armed and implacable enemy. He first visited the loy- 
 alists of Ninety Six, concerted his measures with them, then made his way to St. Augus- 
 tine, received a colonel's commission, placed himself at the head of a band of desperate 
 refugees, and accompanied Provost in his irruption into Georgia. His thirst for revenge 
 appeared afterward insatiable, and besides wantonly hanging many of his prisoners, he 
 subjected the families of the whigs who were out in service to accumulated sufferings 
 and distress. It was not long after he was left in command at Augusta by the British 
 general, that colonel Clarke, with a determined party of the militia, whose families he 
 had persecuted, aimed a well-directed blow at his post. But Brown proved himself a 
 man of bravery and conduct, and he well knew that at all times he was fighting for his 
 life. After a severe and partially successful contest, the approach of a party of Indians 
 obliged Clarke to retreat, and leave his wounded behind him, with a letter addressed to 
 
HISTORY. 7H 
 
 extirpation of the other, and the whole country presented a scene of 
 slaughter and of blood. The American generals seized every occasion to 
 discountenance such vindictive and barbarous conduct, while, with few 
 exceptions, the British permitted and even accelerated their perpetration. 
 
 The reduction of Savannah and Charleston encouraged the British to a 
 vigorous invasion of North Carolina. The whole army of general Green, 
 which had at the close of last year advanced from Hillsborough to Char- 
 lottetown, consisted of about two thousand men, more than half of whom 
 were militia. With this inconsiderable body of troops, miserably provided, 
 general Green took the field against a superior regular force, which had 
 already marched in triumph two hundred miles from the point of its debarka- 
 tion. Soon after Green took the command, he divided his force, and sent 
 general Morgan with a respectable detachment to the western extremity 
 of South Carolina, where the tories were destroying the whigs without 
 mercy and without restraint, and marched with the main body to Hick's 
 creek, on the north side of the Pedee. On the entrance of general Morgan 
 into the district of Ninety-six, lord Cornwallis, who was preparing for the 
 invasion of North Carolina, that he might not leave an enemy in his rear, 
 ordered colonel Tarleton to proceed with about eleven hundred men, and 
 drive him from his position. Tarleton had two field-pieces, and a superi- 
 ority both of infantry and cavalry. With these advantages, he engaged 
 Morgan at the Cowpens, near Pacolet river, on the 17th of January. The 
 British, led to the attack by Tarleton himself, advanced with a shout, and 
 poured in an incessant fire of musketry. The American militia, though 
 they received the charge with firmness, were soon compelled to fall back 
 in the rear of their second line ; and this line, in its turn, after an obstinate 
 conflict, was compelled to retreat to the cavalry. At this juncture lieute- 
 nant-colonel Washington made asuccessful charge on captain Ogilvie, who, 
 with about forty dragoons, was cutting down the retreating militia ; lieu- 
 tenant-colonel Howard almost at the same moment rallied the continental 
 troops, and charged with fixed bayonets, and the militia instantly followed 
 the example. By these sudden and unexpected charges, the British, who 
 had considered the fate of the day decided, were thrown into confusion, 
 and driven from the ground with great slaughter. Howard and Washing- 
 ton pressed the advantage which they had respectively gained, until the 
 artillery and a great part of the infantry had surrendered.* Seldom has a 
 victory, achieved by so small a number, been so important in its conse- 
 quences. It deprived Cornwallis of one-fifth of his force, and disconcerted 
 his plans for the reduction of North Carolina. He sought, however, to 
 repair, by active exertions, the loss which he had suffered, and determined, 
 
 Brown, requesting that he would parole them to their plantations. But Brown's thirst 
 for revenge knew no bounds. It had been irritated in this instance by a wound which 
 confined him to his bed. The unhappy prisoners, twenty-eight in number, were all 
 hung ; thirteen of them were suspended to the railing of the staircase, that he might 
 feast" his eyes with their dying agonies.'— Johnson's Life of General Green. 
 
 * Upwards of three hundred of the British were killed or wounded, and above five hun- 
 dred taken prisoners ; ei°ht hundred muskets, two field-pieces, two standards, thirty-five 
 baggage wagons, and one hundred dragoon horses, fell into the hands of the conquerors. 
 Ot^the^Americans. twelve men only were killed, and sixty wounded. Congress, in li<>n.»r 
 of the good conduct of general Morgan, presented him a gold medal ; to lieutenanU 
 eolonels Washington and Howard, medals of silver ; and to colonel Pickens, a sword. 
 
712 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 if possible, to intercept Morgan, and compel him to restore the trophies of 
 his victory. This resolution led to a military race, which may be, without 
 exaggeration, termed one of the most celebrated in history. Each army 
 strove to precede the other at the fords of the Catawba, from which both 
 were equally distant. The American troops endured almost incredible 
 hardships, being sometimes without meat, often without flour, and entirely 
 destitute of spirituous liquors. A large portion of the troops were without 
 shoes, and, marching over frozen ground, marked with blood every step of 
 their progress. On the twelfth day after the engagement, Morgan reached 
 the fords and crossed the Catawba ; and two hours afterwards Cornwallis 
 arrived, and, it being then dark, encamped on the bank. During the night, 
 a heavy fall of rain made the river impassable, which gave Morgan an op- 
 portunity to remove the prisoners beyond the reach of his pursuer. 
 
 The movements of the royal army induced general Green immediately 
 to retreat from Hick's creek; and, leaving the main army under the com- 
 mand of general Huger, he rode a hundred and fifty miles through the 
 country to join the detachment under general Morgan, that he might be in 
 front of lord Cornwallis, and so direct both divisions of his army as to form 
 a speedy junction between them. Lord Cornwall^, after three days' delay, 
 effected the passage of the Catawba, and recommenced the pursuit. The 
 Americans, continuing their expeditious movements, crossed the Yadkin 
 on the 3d of February, and secured their boats on the north side ; but the 
 British, though close in their rear, were incapable of crossing it through the 
 rapid rising of the river from preceding rains, and the want of boats. This 
 second remarkable escape confirmed the impression on the minds of the 
 Americans, that their cause was favored by Divine Providence. After a 
 junction of the two divisions of the American army at Guildford court- 
 house, it was concluded, in a council of officers called by general Green, 
 that he ought to retire over the Dan, and to avoid an engagement until he 
 should be reinforced. 
 
 » Lord Cornwallis kept the upper countries, where only the rivers are 
 fordable, and attempted to get between general Green and Virginia, to cut 
 oft" his retreat, and oblige him to fight under many disadvantages; but the 
 American general completely eluded him. So urgent was the pursuit of 
 the British, that, on the 14th of February, the American light troops were 
 compelled to retire above forty miles ; and on that day general Green, by 
 indefatigable exertions, transported his army over the Dan into Virginia. 
 Here again the pursuit was so close, that the van of the British just arrived 
 as the rear of the Americans had crossed. The continental army being 
 now driven out of North Carolina, ear! Cornwallis left the Dan, and pro- 
 ceeded to Hillsborough, where he set up the royal standard. Green, per- 
 ceiving the necessity of some spirited measure to counteract his lordship's 
 influence on the inhabitants of the country, concluded, at every hazard, to 
 recross the Dan. After manoeuvring in a very masterly manner to avoid 
 an action with Cornwallis three weeks, his army was joined by two bri- 
 gades of militia from North Carolina, and one from Virginia, and also by 
 four hundred regulars. 
 
 This reinforcement giving him a superiority of numbers, he determined 
 no longer to avoid an engagement, and, on the loth of March, he accepted 
 battle ; but at the first fire the North Carolina militia, who were in the 
 front line, fled ; the second line was also routed. The continentals, who 
 
HISTORY. f-j 3 
 
 composed the third, fought with their usual bravery, and for an hour and 
 half maintained the conflict with great firmness. They at length gave 
 way, but retreated in good order, the slaughter they had made in the ene- 
 my's ranks preventing pursuit. The victory, won by a far inferior force, 
 was more glorious than advantageous to the British army. Soon after the 
 action, lord Cornwallis began a march toward Wilmington. General 
 Green, on receiving intelligence of this movement, put his army in motion 
 to follow him, and continued the pursuit to Ramsay's mill, on Deep river. 
 Cornwallis, having halted and refreshed his men about three weeks at 
 Wilmington, marched across the country to Petersburg, in Virginia. 
 
 Before general Green was aware that lord Cornwallis intended to enter 
 Virginia, he had formed the bold resolution of returning into South Caro- 
 lina. Marching towards Camden, where nine hundred men, under the 
 command of lord Rawdon, were posted, he took a position on Hobkirk's hill, 
 about a mile from the British intrenchments. Here the Americans were 
 attacked on the 25th of April. In the beginning of the action their bravery 
 gained advantages, which, in its progress, were lost by the premature retreat 
 of two companies, occasioned by the death of their officers. At this reverse 
 of fortune, Green retired a few miles from the field, both armies having 
 sustained nearly an equal loss. 
 
 Several British posts in South Carolina speedily fell into the power of 
 the brave and active partisans, who, with small bodies of troops, were ever 
 present where oppression was to be resisted or glory won. Lee joined 
 Marion; and, on the 15th of April, they unexpectedly presented themselves 
 before fort Watson, a British post on the Santee. It was an Indian mound, 
 rising thirty or forty feet above the level of the plain. Neither the garrison 
 
 Attack on Fort Watson. 
 
 nor the assailants had artillery ; but in a few days the Americans construct- 
 ed a work on an unusual plan, which overlooked the fort, and from the 
 top of which the riflemen fired with such unerring aim that not a man of 
 the o-arrison could show himself without certain destruction. On the 23d, 
 the Harrison, consisting of one hundred and fourteen men, capitulated. 
 " Orano-eburo" and fort Motte surrendered to Sumpter. Lee captured 
 a 90 60 * 
 
714 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 fort Granby, and Marion drove from Georgetown the troops stationed to 
 defend it. Immediately after the surrender of fort Granby, lieutenant- 
 colonel Lee marched to Augusta, and joined brigadier-general Pickens, 
 who, with a body of militia, had some time before taken post in the vicinity ; 
 and these two able officers jointly carried on their approaches against fort 
 Cornwallis. Two batteries were erected within thirty yards of the parapet 
 which overlooked the fort; and from them the American riflemen shot into 
 the inside of the works with effect. The garrison, almost entirely burying 
 themselves underground, obstinately refused to capitulate until resistance 
 became useless, and then the fort, with about three hundred men, surrender- 
 ed on honorable terms of capitulation. The Americans, during the siege, 
 had about forty men killed and wounded. On the 22d of May, general 
 Green laid siege to Ninety-six, which was defended by lieutenant-colonel 
 Cruger, with upwards of five hundred men. The works of the besiegers 
 were carried forward with indefatigable industry and success until the 18th 
 of June, when, on intelligence of the approach of lord Rawdon for the 
 relief of the place, it was concluded to attempt its reduction by assault. 
 The assailants displayed great resolution ; but, failing of success, general 
 Green raised the siege, and retreated over the Saluda. 
 
 Lord Rawdon having returned to England, the command of the British 
 troops in South Carolina devolved upon lieutenant-colonel Stewart ; who, 
 in the beginning of September, took post at Eutaw Springs. General 
 Green marched against him from the hills of Santee. The rival forces 
 were equal, amounting on each side to two thousand men. On the 8th an 
 attack was nlade by the Americans ; a part of the British line, consisting 
 of new troops, broke and fled ; but the veteran corps received the charge 
 of the assailants on the points of their bayonets. The hostile ranks were 
 for a time intermingled, and the officers fought hand to hand ; but lieu- 
 tenant-colonel Lee, who had turned the British left flank, charging them at 
 this instant in the rear, their line was soon completely broken, and driven 
 off the field. They were vigorously pursued by the Americans, who took 
 upwards of five hundred of them prisoners. The British, on their retreat, 
 took post in a large three-story brick house, and in a picketed garden ; and 
 from these advantageous positions renewed the action. Four six-pounders 
 were ordered up before the house ; but the Americans were compelled to 
 leave these pieces and retire. They formed again at a small distance in 
 the woods ; but general Green, thinking it inexpedient to renew the despe- 
 rate attempt, left a strong picket on the field of battle, and retired with his 
 prisoners to the ground from which he had marched in the morning. In 
 the evening of the next day, lieutenant-colonel Stewart, leaving seventy of 
 liis wounded men and one thousand stand of arms, moved from Eutaw 
 towards Charleston. The loss of the British, inclusive of prisoners, was 
 supposed to be not less than eleven hundred men. The loss of the Ameri- 
 cans, in killed, wounded, and missing, was about half that number. This 
 battle was attended by consequences very advantageous to the Americans, 
 and may be considered as closing the revolutionary war in South Carolina. 
 Brilliant as were the successes of general Green in the Carolinas, if was 
 in Virginia that the last great stroke in favor of American independence 
 was to be effected. The army under the commander-in-chief had passed 
 another distressing winter, and symptoms of mutiny had again manifested 
 themselves, but were happily suppressed. Deplorably deficient of provi- 
 
HISTORY - . JY5 
 
 sions and supplies, and promised reinforcements being grievously delayed, 
 Washington still remained undiscouraged, and determined, in conjunction 
 with the French fleet, to resume vigorous operations. New York was the 
 destined point of the combined attack; but the large reinforcements which 
 had recently arrived there, and other unfavorable circumstances, induced 
 the commander-in-chief, so late as August, entirely to change the plan of 
 the campaign, and to resolve to attempt the capture of the army of lord 
 Cornwallis, which had now taken up a position at Yorktown, in Virginia. 
 The defence of West Point, and of the other posts on the Hudson, was 
 committed to general Heath, and a large portion of the troops raised in the 
 northern states was for this service left under his command. 
 
 General Washington resolved in person to conduct the Virginia expedi- 
 tion. The troops under count Rochambeau, and strong detachments from 
 the American army, amounting to more than two thousand men, and con- 
 sisting of the light infantry, Lamb's artillery, and several other corps, were 
 destined for it. By the 25th of August the whole body, American and 
 French, had crossed the North river. An intercepted letter of general 
 Washington's, in which he communicated, as the result of a consultation 
 with the French commanders, the design to attack New York, had excited 
 the apprehensions of the British general for the safety of that city. This 
 apprehension was kept alive, and the real object of the Americans conceal- 
 ed, by preparations for an encampment in New Jersey, opposite to Staten 
 island, by the route of the American army, and other appearances, indicat- 
 ing an intention to besiege New York ; and the troops had passed the 
 Delaware, out of reach of annoyance, before Sir Henry suspected their 
 destination. General Washington pressed forward with the utmost expe- 
 dition, and at Chester he received the important intelligence that count de 
 Grasse had arrived with his fleet in the Chesapeake, and that the marquis 
 St. Simon had, with a body of three thousand land forces, joined the mar- 
 quis de la Fayette. Having directed the route of his army from the head of 
 the Elk, he, accompanied by Rochambeau, Chatelleux, Du Portail, and 
 Knox, proceeded to Virginia. They reached Williamsburg on the 14th of 
 September, and immediately repaired on board the Ville de Paris, to settle 
 with count de Grasse the plan of operations. The whole body of American 
 and French troops reached Williamsburg by the 25th of September. At 
 this place the allied forces were joined by a detachment of the militia of 
 Virginia, under the command of governor Nelson, and preparations were 
 soon made to attack the intrenchments of lord Cornwallis. 
 
 Yorktown, the head-quarters of lord Cornwallis, is a village on the south 
 side of York river, the southern banks of which are high, and where ships 
 of the line may ride in safety. Gloucester point is a piece of land on the 
 opposite shore, projecting considerably into the river. Both these posts 
 were occupied by the British ; and a communication between them was 
 commanded by their batteries, and by several ships of war. The main 
 body of lord Cornwallis' army was encamped on the open grounds about 
 Yorktown, within a range of outer redoubts and field-works ; and lieute- 
 nant-colonel Tarleton, with a detachment of six or seven hundred men, 
 held the post at Gloucester point. 
 
 The legion of the duke de Lauzun, and a brigade of militia under gene- 
 ral Weedon, the whole commanded by the French general De Choise, were 
 directed to watch and restrain the enemy on the side of Gloucester ; and 
 
716 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the grand combined army, on the 30th of September, moved down to the 
 investiture of Yorktown. On the night of the 6th of October, advancing 
 to within six hundred yards of the English lines, they began their first 
 parallel, and labored with such silence and diligence, that they were not 
 discovered until morning, when the works they had raised were sufficient 
 to protect them. On the 9th, several batteries being completed, a heavy 
 cannonade was began. Many of the British guns were dismounted, and 
 portions of their fortifications laid level with the ground. On the night of 
 the 11th, the besiegers commenced their second parallel, three hundred 
 yards in advance of the first. This approach was made so much sooner 
 than was expected, that the men were not discovered at their labor until 
 they had rendered themselves secure from all molestation in front. The 
 fire from the new batteries was still more furious and destructive. From 
 two British redoubts, in advance of their main works, and flanking those 
 of the besiegers, the men in the trenches were so severely annoyed, that 
 Washington resolved to storm them. 
 
 The enterprise against one was committed to an American force under 
 the marquis de la Fayette, that against the other to a French detachment. 
 Colonel Hamilton, who led the van of the former, made such an impetuous 
 attack that possession was soon obtained, with little slaughter. The French 
 detachment was equally brave and successful, but sustained greater loss. 
 On the 16th, a sortie was made from the garrison by a party of three hun- 
 dred and fifty, commanded by lieutenant-colonel Abercrombie, who forced 
 two batteries, and spiked eleven pieces of cannon ; but the guards from 
 the trenches immediately advancing on them, they retreated, and the pieces 
 which they had hastily spiked were soon rendered fit for service. In the 
 afternoon of the same day the besiegers opened several batteries in their 
 second parallel ; and in the whole line of batteries nearly one hundred 
 pieces of heavy ordnance were now mounted. The works of the besieged 
 were so universally in ruins as to be in no condition to sustain the fire 
 which might be expected the next day. In this extremity, lord Cornwallis 
 boldly resolved to attempt an escape by land with the greater part of his 
 army. His plan was to cross over, in the night, to Gloucester point, and 
 forcing his way through the troops under De Choise, to pass through Mary- 
 land, Pennsylvania, and Jersey, and form a junction with the royal army 
 at New York. In prosecution of this desperate design, one embarkation 
 of his troops crossed over to the opposite point ; but a violent storm of 
 wind and rain dispersed the boats, and frustrated the scheme. 
 
 On the morning of the 17th the fire of the American batteries rendered 
 the British post untenable. Lord Cornwallis, perceiving further resistance 
 to be unavailing, about ten o'clock beat a parley, and proposed a cessation 
 of hostilities for twenty-four hours, that commissioners might meet to settle 
 the terms on which the posts of York and Gloucester should be surrender- 
 ed. General Washington, in his answer, declared his ' ardent desire to 
 spare the effusion of blood, and his readiness to listen to such terms as 
 were admissible ;' but to prevent loss of time, he desired ' that, previous to 
 the meeting of the commissioners, the proposals of his lordship might be 
 transmitted in writing, for which purpose a suspension of hostilities for 
 two hours should be granted.' The terms proposed by his lordship were 
 such as led the general to suppose that articles of capitulation might easily 
 be adjusted, and he continued the cessation of hostilities until the next day. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 717 
 
 To expedite the business, he summarily stated the terms he was willing to 
 grant, and informed earl Cornwallis, that if he admitted these as the basis 
 of a treaty, commissioners might meet to put them into form. Accordingly 
 viscount de Noailles and lieutenant-colonel Laurens, on the part of "the 
 allies, and colonel Dundas and major Ross, on the part of the English 
 met the next day, and adjusted articles of capitulation, which were to be 
 submitted to the consideration of the British general. 
 
 .Resolving not to expose himself to any accident that might be the con- 
 sequence of unnecessary delay, general Washington ordered the rough 
 draft of the commissioners to be fairly transcribed, and sent to lord Corn- 
 wallis early next morning, with a letter expressing his expectation that the 
 garrison would march out by two o'clock in the afternoon. Hopeless of 
 more favorable terms, his lordship signed the capitulation, and surrendered 
 the posts of York and Gloucester, with their garrisons, to general Wash- 
 ington ; and the shipping in the harbor, with the seamen, to count de 
 Grasse. The prisoners, exclusive of seamen, amounted to more than seven 
 thousand, of which between four and five thousand only were fit for duty. 
 The garrison lost, during the siege, six officers and five hundred and forty- 
 eight privates, in killed and wounded. The privates, with a competent num- 
 ber of officers, were to remain in Virginia, Maryland, or Pennsylvania. 
 The officers not required for this service were permitted on parole to re- 
 turn to Europe, or to any of the maritime posts of the English on the Ame* 
 rican continent. The terms granted to earl Cornwallis were, in general, 
 the terms which had been granted to the Americans at the surrender of 
 Charleston; and general Lincoln, who on that occasion resigned his sword 
 to lord Cornwallis, was appointed to receive the submission of the royal 
 army. The allied army, to which lord Cornwallis surrendered, amounted 
 to sixteen thousand ; — seven thousand French, five thousand five hundred 
 continental troops, and three thousand five hundred militia. In the course 
 of the siege they lost, in killed and wounded, about three hundred. The 
 siege was prosecuted with so much military judgment and ardor, that the 
 treaty was opened on the eleventh, and the capitulation signed on the thir- 
 teenth day after ground was broken before the British lines. 
 
 The capture of so large a British army excited universal joy, and on no 
 occasion during the war did the Americans manifest greater exultation. 
 From the nature and duration of the contest, the affections of many had 
 been so concentrated upon their country, and so intense was their interest 
 in its fate, that the news of this brilliant success produced the most raptur- 
 ous emotions, under the operations of which, it is said, some were even 
 deprived of their reason, and one aged patriot in Philadelphia expired. 
 
 The day after the capitulation general Washington ordered, ' that those 
 who were under arrest should be pardoned and set at liberty;' and an- 
 nounced, that ' divine service shall be performed to-morrow in the different 
 brigades and divisions. The commander-in-chief recommends, that all the 
 troops that are not upon duty do assist at it with a serious deportment, and 
 that sensibility of heart which the recollection of the surprising and par- 
 ticular interposition of Providence in our favor claims.' Congress, as soon 
 as they received general Washington's official letter giving information of 
 the event, resolved to go in procession to the Dutch Lutheran church, and 
 return thanks to Almighty God for the signal success of the American 
 arms ; and they issued a proclamation, recommending to the citizens of the 
 
718 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 United States to observe the 13th of December as a day of public thanks- 
 giving and prayer. 
 
 While these successful operations had been carrying on in Virginia, Sir 
 Henry Clinton endeavored, if possible, to recall Washington, or at least to 
 divert his attention, by some daring enterprise in the north. Giving to the 
 traitor Arnold, who had just returned from his destructive expedition to 
 Virginia, the command of a strong detachment, he sent him against New 
 London, a flourishing city situated upon the river Thames, in his native 
 state. Nearly opposite, on a hill in Groton, stood fort Griswold, which 
 was then garrisoned by militia, hastily summoned from their labors in the 
 field. Against this fort Arnold despatched a part of his troops. It was 
 assaulted on three sides at the same moment. The garrison, fighting in 
 view of their property and their homes, made a brave and obstinate resis- 
 tance. By their steady and well-directed fire many of the assailants were 
 killed. Pressing forward with persevering ardor, the British entered the 
 fort through the embrasures. Immediately all resistance ceased. Irritated 
 by gallantry which should have caused admiration, a British officer inquir- 
 ed who commanded the fort. 'I did,' said colonel Ledyard, 'but you do 
 now;' and presented him his sword. He seized it, and, with savage cru- 
 elty, plunged it into his bosom. This was the signal for an indiscriminate 
 massacre. Of a hundred and sixty men, composing the garrison, all but 
 forty were killed or wounded, and most of them after resistance had ceased. 
 Seldom has the glory of victory been tarnished by such detestable barbarity. 
 The British then entered New London, which was set on fire and consum- 
 ed. The property destroyed was of immense value. Perceiving no other 
 object within the reach of his force, Arnold led back his troops to New York. 
 
 A circumstance which evidently exercised a very favorable influence on 
 American aff-v ■•« during this period should not be omitted — the institution 
 of a national bank. The plan of it was projected by Robert Morris, one 
 of the delegates of Pennsylvania, a man of high reputation, and well versed 
 in affairs of commerce and finance, whom congress had appointed treasurer. 
 He assigned to this bank a capital of four hundred thousand dollars, divid- 
 ed in shares of four hundred dollars each, in money of gold or silver, to be 
 procured by subscriptions. Twelve directors were to manage the bank, 
 which was denominated by congress, ' The President, Directors, and 
 Company of the Bank of North America.' To the financial skill and in- 
 defatigable efforts of Mr. Morris in the treasury department, it has been 
 thought our country was scarcely less indebted, than to the valor of her 
 soldiers and the wisdom of her statesmen. Under his auspices, public 
 credit revived ; the army was pacified ; and a new impulse given to every 
 operation in the field and the cabinet. 
 
 During this fortunate year also the compact of the confederation was 
 rendered complete. Much difficulty had been experienced in obtaining its 
 ratification. Various and sometimes conflicting amendments had been pro- 
 posed by the states respectively ; but they had successively yielded to the 
 opinion that a federal compact would be of vast importance in the prosecu- 
 tion of the war. One of the greatest impediments had hitherto been, that 
 within the chartered limits of several states there were immense tracts of 
 vacant territory, which, it was supposed, would constitute a large fund of 
 future wealth ; and the states not possessed of this advantage insisted on 
 considering this territory as a joint acquisition, to be applied to the common 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 719 
 
 benefit. The cession made by Virginia, the preceding year, of its north- 
 west territory, was now accepted by congress, and, to the great joy of Ame- 
 rica, the confederation was completed.* 
 
 The result of the last campaign convinced the British nation that Ame- 
 rica could not be subdued by force ; and led to a change of administration 
 and pacific overtures. Parliament met on the 27th of November, 1781 ■ 
 and though the speech from the throne still breathed a spirit of hostility' 
 and answers from both houses were procured in accordance with it, yet 
 not long after the recess, the ministers found themselves in a minority in 
 the house of commons. On the 22d of February, 1782, general Conway 
 moved an address to the king, praying, ' that the war on the continent of 
 North America might no longer be pursued for the impracticable purpose 
 of reducing that country to obedience by force ; and expressing their hope, 
 that the earnest desire and diligent exertion to restore the public tranquil- 
 lity, of which they had received his majesty's most gracious assurances, 
 might, by a happy reconciliation with the revolted colonies, be forwarded 
 and made effectual ; to which great end his majesty's faithful commons 
 would be ready to give their utmost assistance.' This motion being lost 
 by a single vote only, was, five days after, renewed, by the same gentle- 
 man, in a form somewhat different, and was carried ; and an address in 
 pursuance of it presented to the king. Not yet satisfied with the triumph 
 obtained over the ministry, and considering the answer of the king not 
 sufficiently explicit, the house of commons, on the 4th of March, on the 
 motion of general Conway, declared, that all those who should advise, or 
 by any means attempt, the farther prosecution of offensive war in America, 
 should be considered as enemies to their king and country. In this state 
 of things it was impossible for the ministry longer to continue in power, 
 and on the 19th they relinquished their places. A new administration 
 was soon after, formed — the marquis of Rockingham was placed at the 
 head of the treasury, and the earl of Shelburne and Mr.' Fox held the im- 
 portant places of secretaries of state. 
 
 Soon after their appointment, the new ministers sent a Mr. Oswald to 
 France, to sound the French court, as well as Dr. Franklin, on the subject 
 of peace. In a conference with the count de Vergennes, Mr. Oswald was 
 informed that the French court were disposed to treat for peace, but could 
 do nothing without the consent of their allies ; and the count expressed a 
 wish that Paris might be the place of meeting for entering upon this im- 
 portant business. About the 18th of April the British agent went back to 
 London, and on the 4th of May returned to France with the assent of the 
 British cabinet to treat of a general peace, and for that purpose to meet at 
 Paris. 
 
 One of the first measures of the new administration was to appoint Sir 
 Guy Carleton commander-in-chief in America, in the room of Sir Henry 
 Clinton, and to authorize admiral Digby and himself to treat for peace. 
 One object of conferring this power was to induce congress to agree to a 
 separate treaty. Sir Guy Carleton arrived in America on the 5th of May, 
 and two days afterwards informed general Washington that he and admiral 
 Digby were authorized to treat for peace, and requested a passport for their 
 secretary as the bearer of despatches to congress on the subject. A copy 
 
 * Marshall's Life of Washington, b. iv. chap. 8. 
 
720 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of this letter was forwarded by the general to that body ; but the members 
 being determined not to negotiate without their allies, refused the pass- 
 port. The same commissioners, on the 2d of August following, sent a 
 second letter to the American commander, informing him that negotiations 
 for a general peace had commenced at Paris, and that Mr. Grenville had 
 full powers to treat with all the parties at war, and that, by his instructions, 
 ' the independency of the thirteen provinces was to be proposed by him, in 
 the first instance, instead of being made a condition of a general treaty.' 
 
 A majority of the new British cabinet very early determined to offer 
 America unlimited unconditional independence, as the basis of a negotia- 
 tion for peace, and so instructed their minister, Mr. Grenville. This was 
 a favorite measure with the marquis of Rockingham ; on this point, how- 
 ever, the cabinet was divided. The earl of Shelburne, though he acqui- 
 esced, was still opposed, and it was one of the last measures to which the 
 king would assent. The illness of the marquis of Rockingham, and his 
 death, which happened on the 1st of July, produced no little delay and 
 difficulty in the negotiations. The appointment of lord Shelburne as first 
 lord of the treasury produced an open rupture in the cabinet. Lord John 
 Cavendish, Mr. Fox, and some others, resigned their places. In conse- 
 quence of this, William Pitt was made chancellor of the exchequer, and 
 Thomas Townshend and lord Grantham secretaries of state. There can 
 be little doubt that the king, as well as lord Shelburne, still entertained a 
 distant hope that some arrangement might be made with the Americans 
 short of an open and express acknowledgment of their independence ; and 
 the views of the latter on this point, probably, had no little influence in 
 placing him at the head of the administration.* Parliament adjourned on 
 the 11th of July, having passed an act at the close of the session, authoriz- 
 ing the king to conclude a peace or truce with the Americans. 
 
 The instructions of congress to the American commissioners not to con- 
 clude peace without the consent of France, rendered their situation com- 
 plicated and embarrassing. There were several questions which the Ame- 
 ricans deemed of the first importance, in which the French court either 
 felt no interest, or were opposed to the American claims. The principal 
 of these points referred to the right of fishery on the Grand bank, and the 
 western boundary of the United States. On the latter point, Spain, who 
 was also a party to the negotiations, was extremely desirous of limiting as 
 much as possible the extent of the American territory. These circumstan- 
 ces occasioned much difficulty and considerable delay. At length the 
 American commissioners determined to agree to a provisional treaty with- 
 out the concurrence of the French court. Mr. Oswald, who had succeeded 
 Mr. Grenville, on the part of the British government, strongly urged the 
 propriety of the American loyalists being compensated for the losses they 
 had incurred during the struggle for independence ; but this proposition 
 
 * Among; the papers of Dr. Franklin was found the following memorandum : 'Im- 
 mediately after the death of lord Rockingham, the king said to lord Shelburne, "I will 
 be plain with you ; the point next my heart, and which I am determined, be the conse- 
 quence what it may, never to relinquish but with my crown and life, is, to prevent a 
 total unequivocal recognition of the independence of America. Promise to support me 
 on this ground, and I will leave you unmolested on every other ground, and with full 
 power as the prime minister of this kingdom." The bargain was struck.' — Franklin's 
 Works, vol. v. p. 326. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 721 
 
 vras met by a counter one from Dr. Franklin, that a similar arrangement 
 should be made by Great Britain in favor of the Americans who had suf- 
 fered in their property from the destruction carried on by the British 
 troops. This point was therefore ultimately waved, and other difficulties 
 being overcome, a provisional treaty was agreed to on the 30th of Novem- 
 ber ; and after great delay, occasioned by the strenuous endeavors of the 
 court of Madrid to procure the cession of Gibraltar by Great Britain, pre- 
 liminary treaties of peace were signed on the 20th of January, 1783, 
 between France, Spain, and Great Britain. 
 
 On the 24th of March, intelligence of a general peace reached America 
 by a letter from the marquis de la Fayette ; and orders were immediately 
 issued, recalling all armed vessels cruising under the authority of the Uni- 
 ted States. Congress soon after received official information of the aoree- 
 ment between the ministers of the United States and Great Britain, and 
 of the exchange of ratifications of the preliminary articles between Great 
 Britain and France ; and, on the 11th of April, they issued a proclamation, 
 declaring the cessation of arms, as well by sea as by land, agreed upon 
 between the United States and his Britannic majesty, and enjoining its 
 strict observance. On the 19th of April, peace was proclaimed in the Ame- 
 rican army by the commander-in-chief, precisely eight years from the day 
 of the first effusion of blood at Lexington. 
 
 The independence of the United States was acknowledged by Sweden 
 on the 5th of February ; by Denmark, on the 25th of February ; by Spain, 
 on the 24th of March ; and by Russia, in July ; treaties of amity and com- 
 merce were also concluded with each of those powers. On the 8th of 
 June, general Washington addressed a letter to each of the governors of 
 the several states in the Union, on the present situation, and what appeared 
 to him the wisest policy, of the United States. In this paternal and affec- 
 tionate letter he stated four things which he conceived to be essential to 
 their well-being, and even to their existence, as an independent power : 
 'An indissoluble union of the states under one general head; a sacred re- 
 gard to public justice ; the adoption of a proper peace establishment ; and 
 the prevalence of that pacific and friendly disposition, among the people of 
 the United States, which will induce them to forget their local prejudices 
 and politics, 4:o make those mutual concessions which are requisite to the 
 general prosperity, and, in some instances, to sacrifice their individual ad- 
 vantages to the interest of the community.' 
 
 The definitive treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United 
 States of America was signed at Paris on the 3d of September, by David 
 Hartley, Esq., on the part of his Britannic majesty, and by John Adams, 
 Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay, on the part of the United States. The 
 provisions of the treaty attest the zeal and ability of the American negotia- 
 tors, as w^ell as the liberal feelings which actuated the British ministry. 
 The independence of the United States was fully acknowledged. The 
 right of fishing on the banks of Newfoundland, and certain facilities in the 
 enjoyment of that right, were secured to them forever; and territory was 
 ceded to them more extensive than the most sanguine had dared to antici- 
 pate or to hope. 
 
 In December, 1782, the officers of the American army, still retained in 
 service but unemployed, forwarded to congress a petition, praying that all 
 arrears which were due to them might be discharged, and that, instead of 
 91 61 
 
722 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 half-pay for life, a sum equal to five years' full pay should be paid or se- 
 cured to them when disbanded. The delay of congress to comply with 
 this request produced an alarming agitation in that portion of the army 
 stationed at Newburgh. An address to the officers was privately circulat- 
 ed, written with great ability, and admirably well fitted to work upon those 
 passions which recent sufferings and gloomy forebodings had excited in 
 every bosom. The writer boldly recommended that, as all the applications 
 to the sympathy and justice of congress had failed of success, an appeal 
 should be made to their fears. Fortunately, the commander-in-chief was 
 in the camp. Though conscious that the officers had just cause of com- 
 plaint, he was aware that duty to his country, and even friendship for 
 them, required that he should prevent the adoption of rash and disorderly 
 expedients to obtain redress. Calling them together, he, by a calm "and 
 sensible address, persuaded them to rely still longer upon the disposition 
 of congress to perform for them whatever the limited means of the nation 
 would permit. In a letter to that body, giving an account of these occur- 
 rences, he maintained and enforced the claims of the officers with such 
 pathos and strength of reasoning, that their request was granted. 
 
 On the 18th of October, congress issued a proclamation for disbanding 
 the army. Yew York was evacuated by the British on the 25th of No- 
 vember, and the Americans took possession of the city the same day ; and 
 a short time after the army was disbanded, and again mingled with their 
 fellow-citizens.* 
 
 General Washington, taking an affectionate leax r e of his officers, repaired 
 to Annapolis, where congress was sitting, and there, at a public audience, 
 with dignity and sensibility, resigned his commission as commander-in- 
 chief of the American armies. Then, with a character illustrious through- 
 out the world, he returned to his residence at Mount Vernon, possessing 
 the sincere love and profound veneration of his countrymen. 
 
 WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 The exhausting effect of their exertions was felt by the people of the 
 United States for a considerable period after peace, as well as indepen- 
 dence, had been secured. The enthusiasm of a popular contest terminating 
 in victory began to subside, and the sacrifices of the revolution soon became 
 known and felt. The claims of those who toiled, and fought, and suffered 
 
 * The following eulogium from the lips of an eloquent living statesman, when plead- 
 ing for the relief of the illustrious survivors, conveys a just idea of the honorable conduct 
 of this band of patriots : — ' The army was to be disbanded ; but it was unpaid. It was 
 to lay down its own power; but there was no government with adequate power to per- 
 form what had been promised to it. In this critical moment what is its conduct ? Does 
 it disgrace its high character? Is temptation able to seduce it ? Does it speak of right- 
 ing itself? Does it undertake to redress its own wrongs by its own sword? Does it 
 lose its patriotism in its deep sense of injury and injustice? Does military ambition 
 cause its integrity to swerve? Far, far otherwise. It had faithfully served and saved 
 the country, and to that country it now referred, with unhesitating confidence, its claim 
 and its complaints. It laid down its arms with alacrity ; it mingled itself with the mass 
 of the community ; and it waited till, in better times, and under a new government, its 
 services might be rewarded, and the promises made to it fulfilled. We can hardly re- 
 cur to this example too often, or dwell on it too much, for the honor of our country, and 
 of its defenders.' — The Speeches and Forensic Arguments of Daniel Webster, p. 356, 357 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 723 
 
 in the arduous struggle, were strongly urged, and the government had 
 neither resources nor power to satisfy or to silence them. The federal 
 head had no separate or exclusive fund. The members of congress depend- 
 ed on the states which they respectively represented, even for their own 
 maintenance, and money for national purposes could only be obtained by 
 requisitions on the different members of the confederacy. On them it be- 
 came necessary immediately to call for funds to discharge the arrears of 
 pay due to the soldiers of the revolution, and the interest on the debt which 
 the government had been compelled to contract. The legislatures of the 
 different states received these requisitions with respect, listened to the 
 monitory warnings of congress with deference, and with silent and inactive 
 acquiescence. Their own situation, indeed, was full of embarrassment. 
 The wealth of the country had been totally exhausted during the revolution. 
 Taxes could not be collected, because there was no money to represent the 
 value of the little personal property which had not been, and the land 
 which could not be, destroyed; and commerce, though preparing to burst 
 from its thraldom, had not yet had time to restore to the annual produce 
 of the country its exchangeable value. The states owed each a heavy 
 debt for local services rendered during the revolution, for which it was 
 bound to provide, and each had its own domestic government to support. 
 
 Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that each state was anxious 
 to retain for its own benefit the small but rising revenue derived from 
 foreign commerce ; and that the custom-houses in each commercial city 
 were considered as the most valuable sources of income which the states 
 possessed. Each state, therefore, made its own regulations, its tariff, and 
 tonnage duties, and, as a natural consequence, the different states clashed 
 with each other ; one nation became more favored than another under the 
 same circumstances; and one state pursued a system injurious to the in- 
 terests of another. Hence the confidence of foreign countries was destroy- 
 ed ; and they would not enter into treaties of commerce with the confede- 
 rated government, while they were not likely to be carried into effect. A 
 general decay of trade, the rise of imported merchandise, the fall of pro- 
 duce, and an uncommon decrease of the value of lands, ensued. 
 
 The distress of the inhabitants was continually on the increase ; and in 
 Massachusetts, where it was most felt, an insurrection of a serious character 
 was the consequence. Near the close of the year 1786, the populace 
 assembled to the number of two thousand, in the north-western part of the 
 state, and, choosing Daniel Shays their leader, demanded that the collection 
 of debts should be suspended, and that the legislature should authorize the 
 emission of paper money for general circulation. Two bodies of militia, 
 drawn from those parts of the state where disaffection did not prevail, 
 were immediately despatched against them, one under the command of 
 general Lincoln, the other of general Shepard. The disaffected were dis- 
 persed with less difficulty than had been apprehended, and, abandoning 
 their seditious purposes, accepted the proffered indemnity of the government. 
 
 The time at length came when the public mind gave tokens of being 
 prepared for a change in the constitution of the general government — an 
 occurrence the necessity of which had long been foreseen by Washington 
 and most of the distinguished patriots of that period. Evil had accumu- 
 lated upon evil, till the mass became too oppressive to be endured, and the 
 voice of the nation cried out for relief. The first decisive measures pro- 
 
724 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ceeded from the merchants, who came forward almost simultaneously in al! 
 parts of the country, with representations of the utter prostration of the 
 mercantile interests, and petitions for a speedy and efficient remedy. It 
 was shown, that the advantages of this most important source of national 
 prosperity were flowing into the hands of foreigners, and that the native 
 merchants were suffering for the want of a just protection and a uniform 
 system of trade. The wise and reflecting were convinced that some decid- 
 ed efforts were necessary to strengthen the general government, or that a 
 dissolution of the Union, and perhaps a devastating anarchy, would be inevi- 
 table. The first step towards a general reformation was rather accidental 
 than premeditated. Certain citizens of Virginia and Maryland had formed 
 a scheme for promoting the navigation of the Potomac and Chesapeake 
 bay, and commissioners were appointed by those two states to meet at 
 Alexandria, and devise some plan of operation. These persons made a 
 visit to Mount Vernon, and, while there, it was proposed among themselves 
 that more important objects should be connected with the purpose at first 
 in view, and that the state governments should be solicited to appoint 
 other commissioners, with enlarged powers, instructed to form a plan for 
 maintaining a naval force in the Chesapeake, and also to fix upon some 
 system of duties on exports and imports in which both states should agree, 
 and that in the end congress should be petitioned to allow these privileges. 
 This project was approved by the legislature of Virginia, and commission- 
 ers were accordingly appointed. The same legislature passed a resolution 
 recommending the design to other states, and inviting them to unite, by 
 their commissioners, in an attempt to establish such a system of commercial 
 relations as would promote general harmony and prosperity. Five state* 
 only, in addition to Virginia, acceded to this proposition, namely, Mary- 
 land, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York. From thesa 
 states commissioners assembled at Annapolis, but they had hardly entered 
 into a discussion of the topics which naturally forced themselves into view, 
 before they discovered the powers with which they were intrusted to be so 
 limited, as to tie up their hands from effecting any purpose that could be 
 of essential utility. On this account, as well as from the circumstance 
 that so few states were represented, they wisely declined deciding on any 
 important measures in reference to the particular subjects for which they 
 had come together. 
 
 This convention is memorable, however, as having been the prelude to 
 the one which followed. Before the commissioners adjourned, a report 
 was agreed upon, in which the necessity of a revision and reform of the 
 articles of the old federal compact was strongly urged, and which contained 
 a recommendation to all the state legislatures for the appointment of depu- 
 ties, to meet at Philadelphia, with more ample powers and instructions. 
 This proposal was eventually carried into effect, and, in conformity with 
 it, a convention of delegates from the several states met at Philadelphia in 
 May, 1787. Of this body of eminent statesmen, George Washington was 
 unanimously elected president. They deliberated with closed doors during 
 a period of four months. One party in the convention was anxious to 
 enlarge, another to abridge the authority delegated to the general govern- 
 ment. This was the first germ of parties in the United States ; not that 
 materials were wanting, for the dissensions of the revolution had left behind 
 some bitterness of spirit, and feelings that only awaited an opportunity foi 
 
HISTORY. 725 
 
 their disclosure. The divisions in the convention proved the foundation 
 of many a subsequent struggle. At length a constitution was agreed on, 
 which, after being reported to congress, was submitted for ratification to 
 conventions held in the respective states. This constitution differs, in 
 many important particulars, from the articles of confederation ; and, by its 
 regulations, connects the states more closely together, under a o-eneral ail d 
 supreme government, composed of three departments, legislative, executive, 
 and judicial; and invested with powers essential to its being respected, 
 both by foreign nations and the states whose interest it was designed to 
 secure. The provisions and characteristics of this interesting and impor- 
 tant political code, will receive the consideration to which they are so justly 
 entitled in another department of our work. 
 
 As that party which was desirous to extend the powers of the constitu- 
 tion had been the most anxious for the formation of this system, and the 
 most zealous advocates for its adoption, it almost naturally followed that 
 the administration of it was committed to their hands. This party, which 
 might, from their opinions, have been denominated nationalists, or, in more 
 modern phraseology, centralists, acquired the name of federalists, while 
 the appellation of anti-federalists was given to their antagonists. The lat- 
 ter, ardently attached to freedom, imagined that rulers, possessing such 
 extensive sway, such abundant patronage, and such independent tenure of 
 office, would become fond of the exercise of power, and in the end arrogant 
 and tyrannical. The former, equally devoted to the cause of national 
 liberty, contended that to preserve it an energetic government was neces- 
 sary. They described, with powerful effect, the evils actually endured 
 from the inefficiency of the confederation, and demanded that a trial at 
 least should be made of the remedy proposed. 
 
 In eleven states, a majority, though in some instances a small one, de- 
 cided in favor of the ratification of the constitution. Provision was then 
 made for the election of the officers to compose the executive and legisla- 
 tive departments. In the highest station, the electors, by a unanimous 
 vote, placed the illustrious Washington ; and to the office of vice-president, 
 by a vote nearly unanimous, they elevated John Adams, who, in stations 
 less conspicuous, had, with equal patriotism, rendered important services 
 to his country. On the 23d of April the president elect arrived at New 
 York, where 'he was received by the governor of the state, and conducted 
 with military honors, through an immense concourse of people, to the 
 apartments provided for him. Here he received the salutations of foreign 
 ministers, public bodies, political characters, and private citizens of distinc- 
 tion, who pressed around him to offer their congratulations, and to express 
 their joy at seeing the man who had the confidence of all, at the head of 
 the American republic. On the 30th of April the president was inaugu- 
 rated. Having taken the oath of office in an open gallery adjoining the 
 senate chamber, in the view of an immense concourse of people, who 
 attested their joy by loud and repeated acclamations, he returned to the 
 senate chamber, where he delivered an appropriate address. 
 
 The same disinterested spirit which had appeared in the general, was 
 shown in the president. Having, at his entrance on the military service, 
 renounced every pecuniary compensation, he now ' declined any share in 
 the personal emoluments which may be indispensably included in a perma- 
 nent provision for the executive department;' and requested that the pecu- 
 
 61 # 
 
726 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 niary estimates for the station in which he was placed, might, during- his 
 continuance in it, ' he limited to such actual expenditures as the public 
 good may be thought to Tequire.' 
 
 The government being now completely organized, and a system of 
 revenue established, the president proceeded to make appointments of 
 suitable persons to fill the offices which had been created.* After a labo- 
 rious and important session, in which perfect harmony subsisted between 
 the executive and the legislature, congress adjourned on the 29th of Sep- 
 tember to the first Monday in the succeeding January. 
 
 At the next session of congress, which commenced in January, 1790, 
 Mr. Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury, made his celebrated report 
 upon the public debts contracted during the revolutionary war. Taking an 
 able and enlarged view of the advantages of public credit, he recommend- 
 ed that not only the debts of the continental congress, but those of the 
 states arising from their exertions in the common cause, should be funded 
 or assumed by the general government ; and that provision should be made 
 for paying the interest, by imposing taxes on certain articles of luxury, and 
 on spirits distilled within the country. The report of the secretary was 
 largely discussed, and with great force of argument and eloquence. In 
 conclusion, congress passed an act for the assumption of the state debts, 
 and for funding the national debt. By the provisions of this act, twenty- 
 one millions five hundred thousand dollars of the state debts were assumed 
 in specific proportions ; and it was particularly enacted, that no certificate 
 should be received from a state creditor which could be ' ascertained to 
 have been issued for any purpose other than compensations and expendi- 
 tures for services or supplies towards the prosecution of the late war, and 
 the defence of the United States, or of some part thereof, during the same.' 
 
 Thus was the national debt funded upon principles which considerably 
 lessened the weight of the public burdens, and gave much satisfaction to 
 the public creditors. The produce of the sales of the lands lying in the 
 western territory, and the surplus product of the revenue, after satisfying 
 the appropriations which were charged upon it, with the addition of two 
 millions which the president was authorized to borrow at five per cent., 
 constituted a sinking fund to be applied to the reduction of the debt. The 
 effect of these measures was great and rapid. The permanent value thus 
 given to the debt produced a result equal to the most favorable anticipations. 
 The sudden increase of monied capital derived from it invigorated commerce, 
 and consequently gave a new stimulus to agriculture. 
 - It has already been stated, that when the new government was first 
 organized, but eleven states had ratified the constitution. Afterwards 
 North Carolina and Rhode Island, the two dissenting states, adopted it ; 
 the former in November, 17S9, the latter in May, 1790. In 1791, Ver- 
 mont adopted it, and applied to congress to be admitted into the Union. 
 An act was also passed, declaring that the district of Kentucky, then part 
 of Virginia, should be admitted into the Union on the 1st day of June in 
 the succeeding year. 
 
 * At the head of ihe department of state he placed Mr. Jefferson ; at the head of the 
 treasury, colonel Hamilton ; at the head of the war department, general Knox ; in the 
 office of attorney-general, Edmund Randolph ; at the head of the judicial department, 
 Mr. Jay. The associate justices were John Rutledge, of South Carolina, James Wilson, 
 of Pennsylvania, William Cushing, of Massachusetts, Robert Harrison, of Maryland, 
 and John Blair, of Virginia. 
 
HISTORY. 727 
 
 During the year 1790, a termination was put to the war which, for seve- 
 ral years, had raged between the Creek Indians and the state of' Georgia. 
 Pacific overtures were also made to the hostile tribes inhabiting the banks 
 of the Scioto and the Wabash. These being rejected, an armyof fourteen 
 hundred men, commanded by general Harmer, was despatched against 
 them. Two battles were fought near Chillicothe, in Ohio, between suc- 
 cessive detachments from this army and the Indians, in which the latter 
 were victorious. Emboldened by these successes, they continued to make 
 more vigorous attacks upon the frontier settlements, which suffered all the 
 distressing calamities of an Indian war. 
 
 In the course of this year was completed the first census or enumeration 
 of the inhabitants of the United States. They amounted to three millions 
 nine hundred twenty-one thousand three hundred and twenty-six, of which 
 number six hundred ninety-five thousand six hundred and fifty-five were 
 slaves. The revenue, according to the report of the secretary of the treasury, 
 amounted to four millions seven hundred and seventy-one thousand dollars ; 
 the exports to about nineteen, and the imports to about twenty millions. A 
 great improvement in the circumstances of the people began at this period 
 to be visible. The establishment of a firm and regular government, and 
 confidence in the men whom they had chosen to administer it, gave an 
 impulse to their exertions which bore them rapidly forward in the career 
 of prosperity. 
 
 Pursuant to the authority contained in the several acts on the subject of 
 a permanent seat of the government of the United States, a district of ten 
 miles square for this purpose was fixed on, comprehending lands on both 
 sides of the river Potomac, and the towns of Alexandria and Georgetown. 
 A city was laid out, and the sales which took place produced funds for 
 carrying on the necessary public buildings. 
 
 The war in Europe had embraced those powers with whom the United 
 States had the most extensive relations. The French people Regarded the 
 Americans as their brethren, bound to them by the ties of gratitude ; and 
 when the kings of Europe, dreading the establishment of republicanism in 
 her borders, assembled in arms to restore monarchy to France, they looked 
 across the Atlantic for sympathy and assistance. The new government, 
 recalling the minister whom the king had appointed, despatched the citizen 
 Genet, of ardent temper and a zealous republican, to supply his place. In 
 April, 1793, he arrived at Charleston, in South Carolina, where he was 
 received by the governor and the citizens, in a manner expressive of their 
 warm attachment to his country, and their cordial approbation of the change 
 of her institutions. Flattered by his reception, and presuming that the na- 
 tion and the government were actuated by similar feelings, he undertook 
 to authorize the fitting and arming of vessels in that port, enlisting men, 
 and giving commissions to cruise and commit hostilities on nations with 
 whom the United States were at peace ; captured vessels were brought 
 into port, and the consuls of France assumed, under the authority of M. 
 Genet, to hold courts of admiralty on them, to try, condemn, and authorize 
 their sale. The declaration of war made by France against Great Britain 
 and Holland reached the United States early in the same month. The 
 president, regarding the situation of these states, issued his proclamation of 
 neutrality on the 9th of May. In July, he requested the recall of M. Ge- 
 net, who was soon afterwards recalled, and succeeded by M. Fauchet. 
 
728 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 After the defeat of St. Clair by the Indians, in 1791, general Wayne was 
 appointed to command the American forces. Taking post near the country 
 of the enemy, he made assiduous endeavors to negotiate a peace. Failing 
 in these, he marched against them at the head of three thousand men. On 
 the 20th of August, 1794, an action took place in the vicinity of one of the 
 British garrisons, on the banks of the Miami. A vigorous charge roused 
 the savages from their coverts, and they were driven more than two miles 
 at the point of the bayonet. Broken and dismayed, they fled without 
 renewing the combat. In this decisive battle, the loss of the Americans in 
 killed and wounded, including officers, was one hundred and seven. After 
 remaining on the banks of the Miami three days, general Wayne returned 
 with the army to Au Glaize, having destroyed all the villages and corn 
 within fifty miles of the river. The Indians still continuing hostilities, 
 their whole country was laid waste, and forts were erected in the heart of 
 their settlements. The effect of the battle of the 20th of August was in- 
 stantly and extensively felt. To the victory gained by the Americans is 
 ascribed the rescue of the United States from a general war with the 
 Indians north-west of the Ohio. 
 
 The year 1794 is distinguished by an insurrection in Pennsylvania. In 
 1791. congress had enacted laws laying duties upon spirits distilled within 
 the United States, and upon stills. From the commencement of the ope- 
 ration of these laws, combinations were formed in the four western counties 
 of Pennsylvania to defeat them, and violence was repeatedly committed. 
 In July of the present year, about one hundred persons, armed with guns 
 and other weapons, attacked the house of an inspector of the revenue, and 
 wounded some persons within it. They seized the marshal of the district 
 of Pennsylvania, and compelled him to enter into stipulations to forbear 
 the execution of his office. Both the inspector and the marshal were 
 obliged to fly. These and many other outrages induced president Wash- 
 ington, on the 7th of August, to issue a proclamation, commanding the 
 insurgents to disperse, and warning all persons against aiding, abetting, or 
 comforting the perpetrators of these treasonable acts. On the 25th of 
 September the president issued a second proclamation, admonishing the 
 insurgents, and declaring his fixed determination, in obedience to the duty 
 assigned to him by the constitution, ' to take care that the laws be faithfully 
 executed.' Fifteen thousand men, placed under the command of governor 
 Lee, of Virginia, were marched into the disaffected counties. A few of 
 the most active leaders were seized and detained for legal prosecution. 
 The great body of the insurgents, on submission, were pardoned, as were 
 also the leaders, after trial and conviction of treason. 
 
 Great Britain and the United States had each been incessantly complain- 
 ing that the other had violated the stipulations contained in the treaty of 
 peace. For the purpose of adjusting these mutual complaints, and also 
 for concluding a commercial treaty, Mr. Adams had been appointed, in 
 17S5, minister to the court of St. James' ; the British ministry then de- 
 clined negotiating on the subject ; but after the constitution of 17S9 was 
 ratified, ministers were interchanged, and the discussion was prosecuted 
 with no little zeal. In 1794, Mr. Jay being then minister from the United 
 States, a treaty was concluded, which, in the spring of the next year, was 
 laid before the senate. That body advised the president to ratify it, on 
 condition that an alteration should be made in one of the articles. The 
 
HISTORY. 729 
 
 democratic party, however, exclaimed in intemperate language against most 
 of the stipulations it contained ; and the partisans of France swelled the 
 cry of condemnation. 
 
 Public meetings were held in various parts of the Union, at which reso- 
 lutions were passed, expressing warm disapprobation of the treaty, and an 
 earnest wish that the president would withhold his ratification. General 
 Washington, believing that an adjustment of differences would conduce to 
 the prosperity of the republic, and that the treaty before him was the best 
 that could, at that time, be obtained, gave it his assent, in defiance of popu- 
 lar clamor, and issued his proclamation stating its ratification, and declaring 
 it to be the law of the land. 
 
 A resolution moved in the house to make the necessary appropriations 
 to carry the British treaty into effect, excited among the members the 
 strongest emotions, and gave rise to speeches highly argumentative, elo- 
 quent, and animated. The debate was protracted until the people took up 
 the subject. In their respective corporations meetings were held, the 
 strength of parties was fully tried, and it clearly appeared that the great 
 majority were disposed to rally around the executive. Innumerable peti- 
 tions were presented to congress, praying them to make the requisite ap- 
 propriations. Unwilling to take upon themselves the consequences of 
 resisting the public will, they yielded to this call. 
 
 During the year 1795, a satisfactory treaty was concluded with Spain 
 And with the regency of Algiers. 
 
 The last two or three years had witnessed several changes in the impor- 
 tant offices of the nation. On the first day of the year 1794, Mr. Jefferson 
 resigned the office of secretary of state, and was succeeded by Mr. Eandolph. 
 On the last day of January, 1795, Mr. Hamilton retired from the office 
 of secretary of the treasury. He was succeeded by Oliver Wolcott. At 
 the close of the year 1794, general Knox resigned the office of secretary 
 of war, and colonel Pickering, of Massachusetts, was appointed in his place. 
 In August, Mr. Randolph having lost the confidence of the president, and 
 having in consequence retired from the administration, Mr. Pickering was- 
 appointed his successor in the department of slate, and James M'Henry, of 
 Maryland, was made secretary of war. No one of the republican party 
 being now at the head of any of the departments, many of the leaders of 
 that party withdrew their support from the administration ; but the confi- 
 dence of the people in the integrity and patriotism of the president experi- 
 enced not the slightest abatement. 
 
 The conduct adopted by France towards the American republic continued 
 to be a source of vexation. M. Fauchet charged the administration with 
 sentiments of hostility to the allies of the United States, with partiality for 
 their former foes, and urged the adoption of a course more favorable to the 
 cause of liberty. Mr. Morris, the minister to Paris, having incurred the 
 displeasure of those in power, was recalled at their request, and his place 
 supplied by Mr. Monroe. Being an ardent republican, he was received in 
 the most respectful manner by the convention, who decreed that the flags 
 of the two republics, entwined together, should be suspended in the legis- 
 lative hall, as a mark of their eternal union and friendship. M. Adet was 
 appointed soon after to succeed M. Fauchet. He brought with him the 
 colors of France, which he was instructed by the convention to present to 
 the congress of the United States. But France required more than pro- 
 92 
 
730 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 fessions and hopes, and more than by treaty she was entitled to claim. 
 She wished to make the states a party in the war she was waging with 
 the despots of Europe. Failing in this, she adopted regulations highly 
 injurious to American commerce, directing her cruisers to capture in certain 
 cases the vessels of the United States. In consequence of these regulations, 
 several hundred vessels, loaded with valuable cargoes, were taken while 
 prosecuting a lawful trade, and the whole confiscated. Believing that the 
 rights of the nation were not asserted and vindicated with sufficient spirit 
 by Mr. Monroe, the president recalled him, and Charles C. Pinckney, of 
 South Carolina, was appointed in his stead. In the summer of 1796, he 
 left the United States, instructed to use every effort compatible with na- 
 tional honor, to restore the amicable relations which had once subsisted 
 between the sister republics. 
 
 As the period for a new election of a president of the United States ap- 
 proached, after plain indications that the public voice would be in his favor, 
 and when he probably would have been chosen for the third time unani- 
 mously, Washington determined irrevocably to withdraw to the seclusion 
 of private life. He published, in September, 1796, a farewell address to 
 the people of the United States, which ought to be engraven upon the hearts 
 of all his countrymen. 
 
 On the 7th of December, 1796, the president for the last time met the 
 national legislature. On the 4th of March, 1797, he attended the inaugu- 
 ration of his successor in office. Having paid his affectionate compliments 
 to Mr. Adams, as president of the United States, he bade adieu to the seat 
 of government, and hastened to the delights of domestic life. He intended 
 that his journey should have been private, but the attempt was vain ; the 
 same affectionate and respectful attentions were on this occasion paid him 
 which he had received during his presidency. 
 
 THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF JOHN ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 
 
 When the determination of Washington not again to accept of the presi- 
 dentship left open the high office to the competition of the leaders of the 
 great political parties, no exertion was spared throughout the Union to give 
 success to their respective claims. The federalists, desiring that the system 
 of measures adopted by Washington should be pursued, and dreading the 
 influence of French sentiments and principles, made the most active efforts 
 to elect John Adams. The republicans, believing their opponents less 
 friendly than themselves to the maxims of liberty, and too much devoted 
 to the British nation and to British institutions, made equal exertions to 
 elect Thomas Jefferson. The result was the choice of Mr. Adams to be 
 president, and Mr. Jefferson to be vice-president. 
 
 Mr. Pinckney had been appointed minister plenipotentiary to the French 
 republic in 1796. The object of his mission was stated, in his letter of 
 credence, to be, ' to maintain that good understanding which, from the 
 commencement of the alliance, had subsisted between the two nations ; and 
 to efface unfavorable impressions, banish suspicions, and restore that cor- 
 diality which was at once the evidence and pledge of a friendly union.' 
 On inspecting his letter of credence, the directory announced to him their 
 determination ' not to receive another minister plenipotentiary from the 
 
HISTORY. 731 
 
 United States until after the redress of grievances demanded of the Ame- 
 rican government, which the French republic had a right to expect from it.' 
 The American minister was afterwards obliged, by a written mandate, to 
 quit the territories of the French republic. Besides other hostile indica- 
 tions, American vessels were captured wherever found ; and, under the 
 pretext of their wanting a document, with which the treaty of commerce 
 had been uniformly understood to dispense, they were condemned as prizes. 
 
 In consequence of this serious state of the relations with France, the 
 president, by proclamation, summoned congress to meet on the 15th of 
 June ; when, in a firm and dignified speech, he stated the great and unpro- 
 voked outrages of the French government. Having mentioned a disposi- 
 tion indicated in the executive directory to separate the people of America 
 from their government, ' such attempts,' he added, 'ought to be repelled 
 with a decision which shall convince France and all the world that we are 
 not a degraded people, humiliated under a colonial spirit of fear and sense 
 of inferiority, fitted to be the miserable instruments of foreign influence, 
 and regardless of national honor, character, and interest.' He expressed, 
 however, his wish for an accommodation, and his purpose of attempting it. 
 In the mean time, he earnestly recommended it to congress to provide 
 effectual measures of defence. 
 
 To make a last effort to obtain reparation and security, three envoys ex- 
 traordinary were appointed, at the head of whom was general Pinckney. 
 These ambassadors also the directory refused to receive. They were, 
 however, addressed by persons verbally instructed by Talleyrand, the mi- 
 nister of foreign relations, to make proposals. In explicit terms, these un- 
 official agents demanded a large sum of money before any negotiation could 
 be opened. To this insulting demand a decided negative was given. 
 
 When these events were known in the United States they excited gene- 
 al indignation. The spirit of party appeared to be extinct. The treaty of 
 alliance with France was declared by congress to he no longer in force ; 
 and authority was given for capturing armed French vessels. Provision 
 was made for raising immediately a small regular army, and, in case events 
 should render it expedient, for augmenting it. A direct tax and additional 
 internal duties were laid. To command the armies of the United States, 
 president Adams, with the unanimous advice of the senate, appointed 
 George Washington. He consented, but with great reluctance, to accept 
 the office, declaring, however, that he cordially approved the measures of 
 the government. 
 
 The first act of hostility between the two nations appears to have been 
 committed by the Insurgente, which was in a short period after so signally 
 beaten by an American frigate. The schooner Retaliation, lieutenant- 
 commandant Bainbridge, being deluded into the power of this vessel, was 
 captured and carried into Guadaloupe. Several other United States armed 
 vessels were in company with the Retaliation, and pursued by the French 
 squadron, but were probably saved from capture by the address of lieute- 
 nant Bainbridge, who, being asked by the French commodore what was 
 the force of the vessels chased, exaggerated it with so much adroitness as 
 to induce him to recall his ships. The Constellation went to sea under the 
 command of captain Truxton. In February, 1799, he encountered the In- 
 surgente, and, after a close action of about an hour and a half, compelled 
 hereto strike. The rate of the Constellation was thirty-two guns, that of 
 
732 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the Insurgente forty. The former had three men wounded, one of whom 
 shortly after died, and none killed ; the latter had forty-one wounded, and 
 twenty-nine killed. This victory, which was so brilliant and decisive, with 
 such a wonderful disparity of loss, gave great eclat to the victor and to the 
 navy. Commodore Truxton again put to sea in the Constellation, being 
 destined to renew his triumphs, and the humiliation of the foe. In February, 
 1800, he fell in with the Vengeance, a French ship of fifty-four guns, with 
 which he began an engagement that lasted, with great obstinacy and spirit 
 on both sides, from eight o'clock in the evening till one in the morning, 
 when the Vengeance was completely silenced, and sheered off. The Con- 
 stellation, having lost her main-mast, was too much injured to pursue her. 
 The captain of the Vengeance is said to have twice surrendered during the 
 contest, but his signals were not understood amidst the darkness of night 
 and the confusion of battle. 
 
 The United States, thus victorious in arms at home and on the ocean, 
 commanded the respect of their enemy ; and the directory made overtures 
 of peace. The president immediately appointed ministers, who, on their 
 arrival at Paris, found the executive authority in the possession of Buona- 
 parte as first consul. They were promptly received, and in September, 
 1800, a treaty was concluded satisfactory to both countries. 
 
 The services of Washington had not been required in his capacity of 
 commander-in-chief; but he did not live to witness the restoration of peace. 
 On Friday, December 13, while attending some improvements upon his 
 estate, he was exposed to a light rain, which wetted his neck and hair. 
 Unapprehensive of danger, he passed the afternoon in his usual manner ; 
 but at night was seized with an inflammatory affection of the windpipe, 
 attended by fever, and a quick and laborious respiration. Respiration be- 
 came more and more contracted and imperfect until half-past eleven on 
 Saturday night, when, retaining the full possession of his intellect, he ex- 
 pired without a struggle. Thus, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, died 
 the father of his country. Intelligence of this event, as it rapidly spread, 
 produced spontaneous, deep, and unaffected grief, suspending every other 
 thought, and absorbing every different feeling. Congress, then in session 
 at Philadelphia, immediately adjourned. The senate of the United States, 
 in an address to the president on this melancholy occasion, indulged their 
 patriotic pride, while they did not transgress the bounds of truth, in speak- 
 ing of their Washington. 
 
 According to the unanimous resolution of congress, a funeral procession 
 moved from the legislative hall to the German Lutheran church, where an 
 oration was delivered by general Lee, a representative from Virginia. 
 The procession was grand and solemn ; the oration impressive and eloquent. 
 Throughout the Union similar marks of affliction were exhibited ; a whole 
 people appeared in mourning. In every part of the republic funeral ora- 
 tions were delivered, and the best talents of the nation were devoted to an 
 expression of the nation's grief. 
 
 In the year 1S00 the seat of government of the United States was re- 
 moved to Washington, in the district of Columbia. After congratulating 
 the people of the United States on the assembling of congress at the per- 
 manent seat of their government, and congress on the prospect of a resi- 
 dence not to be changed, the president said : ' It would be unbecoming the 
 representatives of this nation to assemble for the first time in this solemn 
 
HISTORY. 733 
 
 temple, without looking up to the supreme Ruler of the universe, and im- 
 ploring his blessing. May this territory be the residence of virtue and 
 happiness ! In this city may that piety and virtue, that wisdom and ma<ma- 
 nimity, that constancy and self-government, which adorned the oreat cha- 
 racter whose name it bears, be forever held in veneration ! Here, and 
 throughout our country, may simple manners, pure morals, and true religion, 
 flourish forever !' 
 
 At this period a presidential election again occurred. From the time of 
 the adoption of the constitution, the republican party had been gradually 
 increasing in numbers. The two parties being now nearly equal, the con- 
 test inspired both with uncommon ardor. The federalists supported Mr. 
 Adams and general Pinckney : the republicans, Mr. Jefferson and colonel 
 Burr. The two latter received a small majority of the electoral votes ; and 
 as they received also an equal number, the selection of one of them to be 
 president devolved upon the house of representatives. After thirty-five 
 trials, during which the nation felt intense solicitude, Mr. Jefferson was 
 chosen. Colonel Burr received the votes of the federalists, and lost, in 
 consequence, the confidence of his former friends. By the provisions of 
 the constitution he became, of course, vice-president. 
 
 A second census of the inhabitants of the United States was completed 
 in 1801. They amounted to five millions three hundred and nineteen 
 thousand seven hundred and sixty-two, having in ten years increased nearly 
 one million four hundred thousand. In the same number of years the ex- 
 ports increased from nineteen to ninety-four millions, and the revenue from 
 four millions seven hundred seventy-one thousand, to twelve millions nine 
 hundred and forty-five thousand dollars. This rapid advance in the career 
 of prosperity has no parallel in the history of nations, and is to be attributed 
 principally to the institutions of the country, which, securing equal privile- 
 ges to all, gave to the enterprise and industry of all free scope and full 
 encouragement. 
 
 In 1802, the state of Ohio was admitted into the Union. It was for- 
 merly a portion of the north-western territory, for the government of which, 
 in 1787, an ordinance was passed by the continental congress. In thirty 
 years from its first settlement, the number of its inhabitants exceeded half 
 a million. The state of Tennessee, which was previously a part of North 
 Carolina, and which lies between that state and the river Mississippi, had 
 been admitted in 1796. 
 
 The right of deposit at New Orleans, conceded to the citizens of the 
 United States by Spain, and necessary to the people of the western country, 
 had, until this period, been freely enjoyed. In October, the chief officer 
 of that city prohibited the exercise of it in future. This violation of a 
 solemn engagement produced, throughout the states of Ohio and Kentucky, 
 indignant clamor and violent commotion. In congress a proposition was 
 made to take possession by force of the whole province of Louisiana; but 
 a more pacific course was adopted. Knowing that the province had been 
 ceded, although not transferred, to France, the president instituted a nego- 
 tiation to acquire it by purchase. In April, 1803, a treaty was concluded, 
 conveying it to the United States for fifteen millions of dollars. Its acqui- 
 sition was considered by the United States of the greatest importance, as 
 it gave them the entire control of a river which is one of the noblest in the 
 
 world. 
 
 62 
 
734 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 At this period, also, there was another important acquisition of territory. 
 The friendly tribe of Kaskaskia Indians, reduced by wars and other causes 
 to a few individuals, who were unable to defend themselves against the 
 neighboring tribes, transferred its country to the United States; reserving 
 only a sufficiency to maintain its members in an agricultural way. The 
 stipulations on the part of the United States were, to extend to them pa- 
 tronage and protection, and to give them certain annual aids, in money, 
 implements of agriculture, and other articles of their choice. This ceded 
 country extends along the Mississippi from the mouth of the Illinois to and 
 up the Ohio ; and is esteemed as among the most fertile within the limits 
 of the Union. 
 
 The United States had for some time enjoyed the undisputed repose of 
 peace, with only one exception. Tripoli, the least considerable of the Bar- 
 bary states, had made demands founded neither in right nor in compact, 
 and had denounced war on the failure of the American government to 
 comply with them before a given day. The president, on this occasion, 
 sent a small squadron of frigates into the Mediterranean, with assurances 
 to that power of the sincere desire of the American government to remain 
 in peace; but with orders to protect our commerce against the threatened 
 attack. It was a seasonable and salutary measure ; for the bey had already 
 declared war ; and the American commerce in the Mediterranean was 
 blockaded, while that of the Atlantic was in peril. The arrival of the 
 squadron dispelled the danger. The Insurgente, which had been so honora- 
 bly added to the American navy, and the Pickering, of fourteen guns, the 
 former commanded by captain Fletcher, the latter by captain Hillar, were 
 lost in the equinoctial gale, in September, 1S00. 
 
 In 1801, the Enterprise, of fourteen guns, captain Sterrett, fell in with 
 a Tripolitan ship of war of equal force. The action continued three hours 
 and a half, the corsair fighting with great obstinacy, and even desperation, 
 until she struck, having lost fifty killed and wounded, while the Enterprise 
 had not a man injured. In 1803, commodore Preble assumed the command 
 of the Mediterranean squadron, and after humbling the emperor of Morocco, 
 who had begun a covert war upon American commerce, concentrated most 
 of his force before Tripoli. On arriving off that port, captain Bainbridge, 
 in the frigate Philadelphia, of forty-four guns, was sent into the harbor to 
 reconnoitre. While in eager pursuit of a small vessel, he unfortunately 
 advanced so far that the frigate grounded, and all attempts to remove her 
 were in vain. The sea around her was immediately covered with Tripolitan 
 gun-boats, and captain Bainbridge was compelled to surrender. This mis- 
 fortune, which threw a number of accomplished officers and a valiant crew 
 into oppressive bondage, and which shed a gloom over the whole nation, 
 as it seemed at once to increase the difficulties of a peace an hundred fold, 
 was soon relieved by one of the most daring and chivalrous exploits that is 
 found in naval annals. Lieutenant Stephen Decatur, then one of commo- 
 dore Preble's subalterns, proposed a plan for re-capturing or destroying the 
 Philadelphia. The American squadron was at that time lying at Syra- 
 cuse. Agreeably to the plan proposed, lieutenant Decatur, in the ketch 
 Intrepid, four guns and seventy-five men, proceeded, under the escort of 
 the Syren, captain Stewart, to the harbor of Tripoli. The Philadelphia 
 lay within half gun-shot of the bashaw's castle, and several cruisers and 
 gun-boats surrounded her with jealous vigilance. 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 735 
 
 The Intrepid entered the harbor alone, about eight o'clock in the evening 
 and succeeded in getting near the Philadelphia, between ten and eleven 
 o'clock, without having awakened suspicion of her hostile designs. This 
 vessel had been captured from the Tripolitans, and, assuming on this occa- 
 sion her former national appearance, was permitted to warp alongside, 
 under the alleged pretence that she had lost all her anchors. The moment 
 the vessel came in contact, Decatur and his followers leaped on board 
 and soon overwhelmed a crew which was paralyzed with consternation! 
 Twenty of the Tripolitans were killed. All the surrounding batteries 
 being opened upon the Philadelphia, she was immediately set on fire, and 
 not abandoned until thoroughly wrapped in flames; when, a favoring breeze 
 springing up, the Intrepid extricated herself from her prey, and sailed 
 triumphantly out of the harbor amid the light of the conflagration. Not 
 the slightest loss occurred on the side of the Americans to shade the splen- 
 dor of the enterprise. 
 
 In July, 1804, commodore Preble brought together all his forces before 
 Tripoli, determined to try the effect of a bombardment. The enemy bavin"- 
 sent some of his gun-boats and galleys without the reef at the mouth of 
 the harbor, two divisions of American gun-boats were formed for the pur- 
 pose of attacking them, while the large vessels assailed the batteries and 
 town. On the 3d of August this plan was put in execution. The squad- 
 ron approached within gun-shot of the town, and opened a tremendous 
 fire of shot and shells, which was as promptly returned by the Tripolitan 
 batteries and shipping. At the same time the two divisions of gun-boats, 
 the first under the command of captain Somers, the second under captain 
 Stephen Decatur, who had been promoted as a reward for his late achieve- 
 ment, advanced against those of the enemy. The squadron was about 
 two hours under the enemy's batteries, generally within pistol-shot, rang- 
 ing by them in deliberate succession, alternately silencing their fires, and 
 launching its thunders into the very palace of the bashaw ; while a more 
 animated battle was raging in another quarter. Simultaneously with the 
 bombardment the American gun-boats had closed in desperate conflict 
 with the enemy. Captain Decatur, bearing down upon one of superior 
 force, soon carried her by boarding, when, taking his prize in tow, he 
 grappled with another, and in like manner transferred the fight to the ene- 
 my's deck. 
 
 In the fierce encounter which followed this second attack, captain Deca- 
 tur, having broken his sword, closed with the Turkish commander, and, 
 both falling in the struggle, gave him a mortal wound with a pistol-shot, 
 just as the Turk was raising his dirk to plunge it into his breast. Lieu- 
 tenant Trippe, of captain Decatur's squadron, had boarded a third large 
 gun-boat, with only one midshipman and nine men, when his boat fell off, 
 and left him to wage the unequal fight of eleven against thirty-six, which 
 was the number of the enemy. Courage and resolution, however, con- 
 verted this devoted little band into a formidable host, which, after a san- 
 guinary contest, obliged the numerous foe to yield, with the loss of fourteen 
 killed und seven wounded. Lieutenant Trippe received eleven sabre 
 wounds, and had three of his party wounded, but none killed. Several 
 bombardments and attacks succeeded each other at intervals throughout the 
 month. Day after day death and devastation were poured into Tripoli 
 with unsparing perseverance, each attack exhibiting instances of valor and 
 
736 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 devotedness which will give lustre to history. The eyes of Europe were 
 drawn to the spot where a young nation, scarcely emerged into notice, was 
 signally chastising the despotic and lawless infidel, to whom some ol her 
 most powerful governments were then paying tribute. 
 
 On the 4th of September, commodore Preble, in order to try new expe- 
 riments of annoyance, determined to send a fireship into the enemy's har- 
 bor. The Intrepid was fitted out for this service, being filled with powder, 
 shells, and other combustible materials. Captain Somers, who had often 
 been the emulous rival of Decatur in the career of glory, was appointed to 
 conduct her in, having for his associates in the hazardous enterprise lieute- 
 nants Wadsworth and Israel, all volunteers. The Argus, Vixen, and 
 Nautilus, were to convey the Intrepid as far as the mouth of the harbor. 
 Captain Somers and lieutenant Wadsworth made choice of two of the 
 fleetest boats in the squadron, manned with picked crews, to bring them 
 out. At eight o'clock in the evening she stood into the harbor with a 
 moderate breeze. Several shot were fired at her from the batteries. She 
 had nearly gained her place of destination when she exploded, without 
 having made any of the signals previously concerted to show that the crew 
 was safe. Night hung over the dreadful catastrophe, and left the whole 
 squadron a prey to the most painful anxiety. The convoy hovered about 
 the harbor until sunrise, when no remains could be discovered either of 
 the Intrepid or her boats. Doubt was turned into certainty, that she had 
 prematurely blown up, as one of the enemy's gun-boats was observed to be 
 missing, and several others much shattered and damaged. 
 
 Commodore Preble, in his account, says, that he was led to believe ' that 
 those boats were detached from the enemy's flotilla to intercept the ketch, 
 and without suspecting her to be a fireship, the missing boats had suddenly 
 boarded her, when the gallant Somers and the heroes of his party observ- 
 ing the other three boats surrounding them, and no prospect of escape, 
 determined at once to prefer death, and the destruction of the enemy, to 
 captivity and torturing slavery, put a match to the train leading directly to 
 the magazine, which at once blew the whole into the air, and terminated 
 their existence ;' and he adds, that his ' conjectures respecting this affair 
 are founded on a resolution which captain Somers and lieutenants Wads- 
 worth and Israel had formed, neither to be taken by the enemy, nor suffer 
 him to get possession of the powder on board the Intrepid.'^ Soon after 
 these events, commodore Preble gave up the command in the Mediterranean 
 to commodore Barron, and returned to the United States. His eminent 
 services were enthusiastically acknowledged by his admiring fellow-citizens, 
 as well as those of his associates in arms, ' whose names,' in the expressive 
 language of congress on the occasion, ' ought to live in the recollection and 
 affection of a grateful country, and whose conduct ought to be regarded as 
 an example to future generations.' 
 
 While the squadron remained before Tripoli other deeds of heroism 
 were performed. William Eaton, who had been a captain in the American 
 army, was, at the commencement of this war, consul at Tunis. He there 
 became acquainted with Hamet Caramauly, whom a younger brother had 
 excluded from the throne of Tripoli. With him he concerted an expedition 
 against the reigning sovereign, and repaired to the United States to obtain 
 
 * Goldsborou^h's Naval Chronicle 
 
HISTORY. 737 
 
 permission and the means to undertake it. Permission was en-anted the 
 co-operation of the squadron recommended, and such pecuniary assistance 
 as could be spared was afforded. To raise an army in Egypt, and lead it 
 to attack the usurper in his dominions, was the project which had been 
 concerted. In the beginning of 1805, Eaton metHamet at Alexandria, and 
 was appointed general of his forces. On the 6th of March, at the head of 
 a respectable body of mounted Arabs, and about seventy Christians, he set 
 out for Tripoli. His route lay across a desert one thousand miles in 
 extent. On his march, he encountered peril, fatigue, and suffering, the 
 description of which would resemble the exaggerations of romance. On 
 the 25th of April, having been fifty days on the march, he arrived before 
 Derne, a Tripolitan city on the Mediterranean, and found in the harbor a 
 part of the American squadron destined to assist him. He learnt also that 
 the usurper, having received notice of his approach, had raised a considera- 
 ble army, and was then within a day's march of the city. No time was 
 therefore to be lost. 
 
 The next morning he summoned the governor to surrender, who returned 
 for answer, ' My head or yours.' The city was assaulted, and after a con- 
 test of two hours and a half, possession was gained. The Christians 
 suffered severely, and the general was slightly wounded. Great exertions 
 were immediately made to fortify the city. On the 8th of May it was 
 attacked by the Tripolitan army. Although ten times more numerous 
 than Eaton's band, the assailants, after persisting four hours in the attempt, 
 were compelled to retire. On the 10th of June another battle was fought, 
 in which the enemy were defeated. The next day the American frigate 
 Constitution arrived in the harbor, which so terrified the Tripolitans that 
 they fled precipitately to the desert. The frigate came, however, to arrest 
 the operations of Eaton in the midst of his brilliant and successful career. 
 Alarmed at his progress, the reigning bashaw had offered terms of peace, 
 which being much more favorable than had before been offered, were ac- 
 cepted by Mr. Lear, the authorized agent of the government. Sixty thou- 
 sand dollars were given as a ransom for the unfortunate American priso- 
 ners, and an engagement was made to withdraw all support from Hamet. 
 The nation, proud of the exploits of Eaton, regretted this diplomatic inter- 
 ference, but the treaty was subsequently ratified by the president and senate. 
 
 During the year 1804, the Delaware Indians relinquished to the United 
 States their title to an extensive tract east of the Mississippi, between the 
 Wabash and Ohio, for which they were to receive annuities in animals and 
 implements for agriculture, and in other necessaries. This was an im- 
 portant acquisition, not only for its extent and fertility, but because, by its 
 commanding the Ohio for three hundred miles, and nearly half that distance 
 the Wabash, the produce of the settled country could be safely conveyed 
 down those rivers, and, with the cession recently made by Kaskaskias, it 
 nearly consolidated the possessions of the United States north of the Ohio, 
 from lake Erie to the Mississippi. 
 
 Early in the following year Mr. Jefferson was re-elected to fill the pre- 
 sident's chair by the decided majority of sixty-two votes against sixteen, a 
 circumstance which he viewed as an indication of a great decay in the 
 strength of the federal party* George Clinton was also elected vice-pre- 
 sident. 
 
 * Memoirs and Correspondence of Thomas Jefferson, vol. iv. p. 34. 
 93 62 * 
 
738 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 During the year 1806, a circumstance occurred which put to the test the 
 attachment of the inhabitants of the southern and western states, as well as 
 the good faith of the American government in her foreign relations. Colo- 
 nel Burr, whose character and influence had formerly encouraged him in 
 the hope of filling the highest office of his country, subsequently lost the 
 public confidence and fell into obscurity. While unobserved by his fellow- 
 citizens he was by no means inactive; he was employed in purchasing 
 and building boats on the Ohio, and in engaging men to descend that river. 
 His professed intention was to form a settlement on the banks of the 
 Washita, in Louisiana ; but the nature of his preparations, and the incautious 
 disclosures of his associates, led to the suspicion that his real object was of 
 a far different character. 
 
 ' His conspiracy,' says president Jefferson, in a letter to the marquis de 
 la Fayette, 'has been one of the most flagitious of which history will ever 
 furnish an example. He meant to separate the western states from us, to 
 add Mexico to them, place himself at their head, establish what he would 
 deem an energetic government, and thus provide an example and an instru- 
 ment for the subversion of our freedom. The man who could expect to 
 effect this with American materials must be a fit subject for Bedlam. No- 
 thing has ever so strongly proved the innate force of our form of govern- 
 ment as this conspiracy. Burr had probably engaged one thousand men 
 to follow his fortunes, without letting them know his projects, otherwise 
 than by assuring them the government approved of them. The moment a 
 proclamation was issued, undeceiving them, he found himself left with 
 about thirty desperadoes only. The people rose in a mass wherever he 
 was, or was suspected to be, and by their own energy the thing was crush- 
 ed in one instant, without its having been necessary to employ a man of 
 the military but to take care of their respective stations. His first enter- 
 prise was to have been to seize New Orleans, which he supposed would 
 powerfully bridle the upper country, and place him at the door of Mexico. 
 It is with pleasure I inform you that not a single native Creole, and but 
 one American, of those settled there before we received the place, took any 
 part with him. His partisans were the new emigrants from the United 
 States and elsewhere, fugitives from justice or debt, and adventurers and 
 speculators of all descriptions.' In August, 1807, he was tried before chief- 
 justice Marshall, and the evidence of his guilt not being deemed sufficient 
 he was acquitted. The people, however, very generally believed him 
 guilty. 
 
 The American government at this period began to be seriously affected 
 by the contest which was raging in Europe. Under the guidance of the 
 splendid talents of Napoleon the military prowess of France had brought 
 most of the European nations to her feet. America profited from the de- 
 struction of the ships and commerce of other nations ; being neutral, her 
 vessels carried from port to port the productions of France and the depen- 
 dent kingdoms ; and also to the ports of those kingdoms the manufactures 
 of England : indeed, few ships were found on the ocean except those of the 
 United States and Great Britain. These advantages were, however, too 
 great to be long enjoyed unmolested. American ships carrying to Europe 
 the produce of French colonies were, in the early stage of the war, captured 
 by British cruisers, and condemned by their courts as lawful prizes ; and 
 now several European ports under the control of France were by British 
 
HISTORY. 739 
 
 orders in council, dated in May, 1806, declared in a state of blockade, 
 although not invested with a British fleet; and American vessels attempt- 
 ing to enter those ports were also captured and condemned. France and 
 her allies suffered, as well as the United States, from these proceedings ; 
 but her vengeance fell not so much upon the belligerent as upon the neu- 
 tral party. By a decree, used at Berlin in November, 1806, the French 
 emperor declared the British islands in a state of blockade, and of course 
 authorized the capture of all neutral vessels attempting to trade with those 
 islands. From these measures of both nations the commerce of the United 
 States severely suffered, and their merchants loudly demanded of the go- 
 vernment redress and protection. 
 
 This was not the only grievance to which the contest between the Euro- 
 pean powers gave rise. Great Britain claimed a right to search for and 
 seize English sailors, even on board neutral vessels while traversing the 
 ocean. In the exercise of this pretended right, citizens of the United States 
 Avere seized, dragged from their friends, transported to distant parts of tbe 
 world, compelled to perform the duty of British sailors, and to fight with 
 nations at peace with their own. Against this outrage upon personal liberty 
 and the rights of American citizens, Washington, Adams, and Jefferson had 
 remonstrated in vain. The abuse continued, and every year added to its 
 aggravation. In June, 1S07, a circumstance occurred which highly and 
 justly incensed the Americans. The frigate Chesapeake, being ordered on 
 a cruise in the Mediterranean sea, under the command of commodore Bar- 
 ron, sailing from Hampton roads, was come up with by the British ship 
 of war Leopard, one of a squadron then at anchor within the limits of the 
 United States. An officer was sent from the Leopard to the Chesapeake, 
 with a note from the captain, respecting some deserters from some of his 
 Britannic majesty's ships, supposed to be serving as part of the crew of the 
 Chesapeake, and inclosing a copy of an order from vice-admiral Berkeley, 
 requiring and directing the commanders of ships and vessels under his 
 command, in case of meeting with the American frigate at sea, and without 
 the limits of the United States, to show the order to her captain, and to re- 
 quire to search his ship for the deserters from certain ships therein named, 
 and to proceed and search for them ; and if a similar demand should be 
 made by the American, he was permitted to search for deserters from their 
 service, according to the customs and usage of civilized nations on terms of 
 amity with each other. 
 
 Commodore Barron gave an answer, purporting that he knew of no such 
 men as were described ; that the recruiting officers for the Chesapeake had 
 been particularly instructed by the government, through him, not to enter 
 any deserters from his Britannic majesty's ships; that he knew of none 
 such being in her ; that he was instructed never to permit the crew of any 
 ship under his command to be mustered by any officers but her own ; that 
 he was disposed to preserve harmony, and hoped his answer would prove 
 satisfactory. The Leopard, shortly after this answer was received by her 
 commander, ranged along side of the Chesapeake, and commenced a heavy 
 fire upon her. The Chesapeake, unprepared for action, made no resistance, 
 but having suffered much damage, and lost three men killed, and eighteen 
 wounded, commodore Barron ordered his colors to be struck, and sent a 
 lieutenant on board the Leopard, to inform her commander that he con- 
 sidered the Chesapeake her prize. The commander of the Leopard sent 
 
740 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 an officer on board, who took possession of the Chesapeake, mustered he* 
 crew, and, carrying off four of her men, abandoned the ship. Commodore 
 Barron, finding that the Chesapeake was very much injured, returned, with 
 the advice of his officers, to Hampton roads. On receiving information of 
 this outrage, the president, by proclamation, interdicted the harbors and 
 waters of the United States to all armed British vessels, forbade intercourse 
 with them, and erdered a sufficient force for the protection of Norfolk, and 
 such other preparations as the occasion appeared to require. An armed 
 vessel of the United States was despatched with instructions to the Ameri- 
 can minister at London, to call on the British government for the satisfaction 
 and security which this outrage required. 
 
 Buonaparte having declared his purpose of enforcing with rigor the Berlin 
 decree ; the British government having solemnly asserted the right of search 
 and impressment, and having intimated their intention to adopt measures 
 in retaliation of the French decree, the president recommended to congress 
 that the seamen, ships, and merchandise of the United States should be 
 detained in port to preserve them from the dangers which threatened them 
 on the ocean ; and a law laying an indefinite embargo was in consequence 
 enacted. A few days only had elapsed when information was received 
 that Great Britain had prohibited neutrals, except upon most injurious 
 conditions, from trading with France or her allies, comprising nearly every 
 maritime nation of Europe. This was followed in a few weeks by a de- 
 cree issued by Buonaparte, at Milan, declaring that every neutral vessel 
 which should submit to be visited by a British ship, or comply with the 
 terms demanded, should be confiscated, if afterwards found in his ports, or 
 taken by his cruisers. Thus, at the date of the embargo, were orders and 
 decrees in existence rendering liable to capture almost every American 
 vessel sailing on the ocean. In the New England states, the embargo, 
 withholding the merchant from a career in which he had been highly 
 prosperous, and in which he imagined that he might still be favored by 
 fortune, occasioned discontent and clamor. The federalists, more nume- 
 rous there than in any other part of the Union, pronounced it a measure 
 unwise and oppressive. These representations, and the distress which the 
 people endured, induced a zealous opposition to the measures of the go- 
 vernment. 
 
 The president, in his message on the opening of the tenth congress, 
 stated the continued disregard shown by the belligerent nations to neutral 
 rights, so destructive to the American commerce ; and referred it to the 
 wisdom of congress to decide on the course best adapted to such a state of 
 things. ' With the Barbary powers,' he said, ' we continue in harmony, 
 with the exception of an unjustifiable proceeding of the dey of Algiers 
 towards our consul to that regency,' the character and circumstances of 
 which he laid before congress. 'With our Indian neighbors the public 
 peace has been steadily maintained. From a conviction that we consider 
 them as a part of ourselves, and cherish with sincerity their rights and 
 interests, the attachment of the Indian tribes is gaining strength daily, is 
 extending from the nearer to the more remote, and will amply requite us 
 for the justice and friendship practised towards them. Husbandry and 
 household manufacture are advancing among them, more rapidly with the 
 southern than northern tribes, from circumstances of soil and climate ; and 
 one of the two great divisions of the Cherokee nation has now under con- 
 
HISTORY. 74 1 
 
 sideration to solicit the friendship of the United States, and to be identified 
 with us in laws and government in such progressive manner as we shall 
 tnink best.' 
 
 Mr. Jefferson, following and confirming the example of Washington, 
 determined not to continue in office for a longer term than eight years.' 
 ' Never did a prisoner,' says the president of the American republic, ' re- 
 leased from his chains, feel such relief as I shall on shaking off the shackles 
 of power. Nature intended me for the tranquil pursuits of science, by 
 rendering them my supreme delight. But the enormities of the time's in 
 which I have lived have forced me to take a part in resisting them, and to 
 commit myself on the boisterous ocean of political passions. I thank God 
 for the opportunity of retiring from them without censure, and carrying 
 with me the most consoling proofs of public approbation. I leave every 
 thing in the hands of men so able to take care of them, that if we are des- 
 tined to meet misfortunes it will be because no human wisdom could 
 avert them.' 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF MR. MADISON. 
 
 Mr. Jefferson was succeeded in the presidency by Mr. Madison. One 
 of the first acts of congress under the new president was to repeal the em- 
 bargo ; but at the same time to prohibit all intercourse with France and 
 England. 
 
 In the non-intercourse law a provision was inserted, that if either nation 
 should revoke her hostile edicts, and the president should announce that 
 fact by proclamation, then the law should cease to be in force in regard to 
 the nation so revoking. On the 23d of April, Mr. Erskine, minister pleni- 
 potentiary from his Britannic majesty to the United States, pledged his 
 court to repeal its anti-neutral decrees by the 10th of June ; and, in conse- 
 quence of an arrangement now made with the British minister, the presi- 
 dent proclaimed that commercial intercourse would be renewed on that 
 day ; but this arrangement was disavowed by the ministry ; and, in Octo- 
 ber, Mr. Erskine was replaced by Mr. Jackson, who soon giving offence to 
 the American government, all farther intercourse with him was refused, 
 and he was recalled. 
 
 The Rambouillet decree, alleged to be designed to retaliate the act of 
 congress which forbade French vessels to enter the ports of the United 
 States, was issued by Buonaparte on the 23d of March. By this decree, 
 all American vessels and cargoes, arriving in any of the ports of France, or 
 of countries occupied by French troops, were ordered to be seized and 
 condemned. 
 
 On the 1st of May congress passed an act, excluding British and French 
 armed vessels from the waters of the United States ; but providing, that 
 if either of the above nations should modify its edicts .before the 3d of 
 March, 1811, so that they should cease to violate neutral commerce, of 
 which fact the president was to give notice by proclamation, and the other 
 nation should not, within three months after, pursue a similar course, com- 
 mercial intercourse with the first might be renewed, but not with the other. 
 
 In August the French government assured Mr. Armstrong, the American 
 envoy at Paris, that the Berlin and Milan decrees were revoked, the revo- 
 cation to take effect on the first day of November ensuing. Confiding in 
 
742 book or the united states. 
 
 this assurance, the president, on the second day of November, issued his 
 proclamation, declaring that unrestrained commerce with France was allow- 
 ed, but that all intercourse with Great Britain was prohibited. 
 
 Great Britain, having previously expressed a willingness to repeal her 
 orders whenever France should repeal her decrees, was now called upon 
 by the American envoy to fulfil that engagement. The British ministry 
 objected, however, that the French decrees could not be considered as re- 
 pealed, a letter from the minister of state not being, for that purpose, a 
 document of sufficient authority ; and still persisted to enforce the orders in 
 council. For this purpose British ships of war were stationed before the 
 principal harbors of the United States. All American merchantmen, de- 
 parting or returning, were boarded, searched, and many of them sent to 
 British ports as legal prizes. The contempt in which the British officers 
 held the republican navy, in one instance, led to an action. Commodore 
 Rogers, in the President frigate, met in the evening a vessel on the coast 
 of Virginia; he hailed ; but, instead of receiving an answer, was hailed in 
 turn, and a shot was fired, which struck the main-mast of the President. 
 The fire was instantly returned by the commodore, and continued for a 
 few minutes, when, finding his antagonist was of inferior force, and that 
 her guns were almost silenced, he desisted. On hailing again, an answer 
 was given, that the ship was the British sloop of war Little Belt, of eighteen 
 guns. Thirty-two of her men were killed and wounded, and the ship was 
 much disabled. 
 
 For several years the Indian tribes residing near the sources of the 
 Mississippi had occupied themselves in murdering and robbing the white 
 settlers in their vicinity. At length, the frontier inhabitants being seriously 
 alarmed by their hostile indications, in the autumn of 1S11 governor Har- 
 rison resolved to move towards the Prophet's town, on the Wabash, with a 
 body of Kentucky and Indiana militia, and the fourth United States regi- 
 ment, under colonel Boyd, to demand satisfaction of the Indians, and to 
 put a stop to their threatened hostilities. His expedition was made early 
 in November. On his approach within a few miles of the Prophet's town, 
 the principal chiefs came out with offers of peace and submission, and 
 requested the governor to encamp for the night ; but this was only a treache- 
 rous artifice. At four in the morning the camp was furiously assailed, 
 and a bloody contest ensued ; the Indians were however repulsed. The 
 loss on the part of the Americans was sixty-two killed, and one hundred 
 and twenty-six wounded, and a still greater number on the side of the 
 Indians. Governor Harrison, having destroyed the Prophet's town, and 
 established forts, returned to Vincennes. 
 
 In November reparation was made by the British for the attack on the 
 Chesapeake. Mr. Foster, the British envoy, informed the secretary of the 
 United States, that he was instructed to repeat to the American govern- 
 ment the prompt disavowal made by his majesty, on being apprized of the 
 unauthorized act of the officer in command of his naval forces on the coast 
 of America, whose recall from a highly important and honorable command 
 immediately ensued, as a mark of his majesty's disapprobation; that he 
 was authorized to offer, in addition to that disavowal on the part of his 
 royal highness, the immediate restoration, as far as circumstances would 
 admit, of the men who, in consequence of admiral Berkeley's orders, were 
 forcibly taken out of the Chesapeake, to the vessel from which they were 
 
HISTORY. 743 
 
 taken ; or, if that ship were no longer in commission, to such seaport of 
 the United States as the American government may name for the purpose ; 
 and that he was also authorized to offer to the American government a 
 suitable pecuniary provision for the sufferers, in consequence°of the attack 
 on the Chesapeake, including the families of those seamen who fell in the 
 action, and of the wounded survivors. The president acceded to these 
 propositions ; and the officer commanding the Chesapeake, then lying in 
 the harbor of Boston, was instructed to receive the men who were to° be 
 restored to that ship. The British envoy, however, could give no assu- 
 rance that his government was disposed to make a satisfactory arrangement 
 of the subject of impressment, or to repeal the orders in council. & These 
 orders, on the contrary, continued to be enforced with rigor ; and, on the 
 restoration of a free commerce with France, a large number of American 
 vessels, laden with rich cargoes, and destined to her ports, fell into the 
 power of British cruisers, which, since 1803, had captured nine hundred 
 American vessels. 
 
 Early in November, 1811, president Madison summoned the congress. 
 His message indicating an apprehension of hostilities with Great Britain, 
 the committee of foreign relations in the house of representatives reported 
 resolutions for filling up the ranks of the army ; for raising an additional 
 force of ten thousand men ; for authorizing the president to accept the 
 services of fifty thousand volunteers, and for ordering out the militia when 
 he should judge it necessary; for repairing the navy ; and for authorizing 
 the arming of merchantmen in self-defence. A bill from the senate, for 
 raising twenty-five thousand men, after much discussion, was also agreed 
 to by the house. 
 
 The American congress, although continuing the preparations for war, 
 still cherished the hope that a change of policy in Europe would render 
 unnecessary an appeal to arms till May in the following year. Towards 
 the close of that season, the Hornet arrived from London, bringing informa- 
 tion that no prospect existed of a favorable change. On the 1st of June, 
 the president sent a message to congress, recounting the wrongs received 
 from Great Britain, and submitting the question, whether the United States 
 should continue to endure them, or resort to war. The message was con- 
 sidered with closed doors. On the 18th, an act was passed, declaring war 
 against Great Britain ; and the next day a proclamation was issued. 
 Against this declaration, however, the representatives belonging to the 
 federal party presented a solemn protest, which was written with great 
 ability. 
 
 At the time of the declaration of war, general Hull was also governor of 
 the Michigan territory, of which Detroit is the capital. On the 12th of 
 July, with two thousand regulars and volunteers, he crossed the river 
 dividing the United States from Canada, apparently intending to attack 
 Maiden, and thence to proceed to Montreal. Information was, however, 
 received, that Mackinaw, an American post above Detroit, had surrendered 
 to a large body of British and Indians, who were rushing down the river 
 in numbers sufficient to overwhelm the American forces. Panic-struck, 
 general Hull hastened back to Detroit. General Brock, the commander at 
 Maiden, pursued him, and erected batteries opposite Detroit. The next 
 day, meeting with no resistance, general Brock resolved to march directly 
 forward and assault the fort. The American troops awaited the approach 
 
744 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the enemy, and anticipated victory ; but, to their dismay, general Hull 
 opened a correspondence, which ended in the surrender of the army, and 
 of the territory of Michigan. An event so disgraceful, occurring in a 
 quarter where success was confidently anticipated, caused the greatest mor- 
 tification and amazement throughout the Union. 
 
 General Van Rensselaer, of the New York militia, had the command of 
 the troops which were called the army of the centre. His head-quarters 
 were at Lewistown, on the river Niagara, and on the opposite side was 
 Queenstown, a fortified British post. The militia displaying great eager- 
 ness to be led against the enemy, the general determined to cross the river 
 at the head of about one thousand men ; though successful at first, he was 
 compelled, after a long and obstinate engagement, to surrender. General 
 Brock, the British commander, fell in rallying his troops. 
 
 The army of the north, which was under the immediate command of 
 general Dearborn, was stationed at Greenbush, near Albany, and at Pitts- 
 burgh, on lake Champlain. From the latter post, a detachment marched 
 a short distance into Canada, surprised a small body of British and Indians, 
 and destroyed a considerable quantity of public stores. Other movements 
 were anxiously expected by the people ; but, after the misfortunes of Detroit 
 and Niagara, the general deemed it inexpedient to engage in any important 
 enterprise. 
 
 While, on land, defeat attended the arms of the republic, on the ocean 
 we gained victories, which compensated our loss, and gained us immortal 
 glory. On the 19th of August, captain Hull, commanding the Constitution, 
 of forty-four guns, fell in with the British frigate Le Guerriere. She ad- 
 vanced towards the Constitution, firing broadsides at intervals; the Ameri- 
 can reserved her fire till she had approached within half pistol-shot, when a 
 tremendous cannonade was directed upon her, and in thirty minutes, every 
 mast and nearly every spar being shot away, captain Dacres struck his 
 flag. Of the crew, fifty were killed and sixty-four wounded ; while the 
 Constitution had only seven killed and seven wounded. The Guerriere 
 received so much injury, that it was thought to be impossible to get her 
 into port, and she was burned. Captain Hull, on his return to the United 
 States, was welcomed with enthusiasm by his grateful and admiring 
 countrymen. The vast difference in the number of killed and wounded 
 certainly evinced great skill, as well as bravery, on the part of the Ameri- 
 can seamen. But this was the first only of a series of naval victories. On 
 the 18th of October, captain Jones, in the Wasp, of eighteen guns, captured 
 the Frolic, of twenty-two, after a bloody conflict of three-quarters of an 
 hour. In this action the Americans obtained a victory over a superior 
 force; and, on their part, but eight were killed and wounded, while on 
 that of the enemy about eighty. The Wasp was unfortunately captured, 
 soon after her victory, by a British ship of the line. On the 25th, the 
 frigate United States, commanded by captain Decatur, captured the British 
 frigate Macedonian. In this instance, also, the disparity of loss was asto- 
 nishingly great : on the part of the enemy, a hundred and four were killed 
 and wounded ; on that of the Americans, but eleven. The United States 
 brought her prize safely to New York. A most desperate action was 
 fought on the 29th of December, between the Constitution, of forty-four 
 guns, then commanded by captain Bainbridge, and the British frigate Java, 
 of thirty-eight. The combat continued more than three hours ; nor did 
 
HISTORY 745 
 
 the Java strike till she was reduced to a mere wreck. Of her crew a 
 hundred and sixty-one were killed and wounded, while of that of the Con- 
 stitution there were only thirty-four. 
 
 These naval victories were peculiarly gratifying to the feelings of the 
 Americans ; they were gained in the midst of disasters on land, and by 
 that class of citizens whose rights had been violated ; they were o- a iried 
 over a nation whom long continued success had taught to consider them- 
 selves lords of the sea, and who had confidently affirmed that the whole 
 American navy would soon be swept from the ocean. Many British 
 merchantmen were also captured, both by the American navy and by 
 privateers, which issued from almost every port, and were remarkably 
 successful. The number of prizes made during the first seven months of 
 the war exceeded five hundred. 
 
 At the commencement of the session of congress held in the autumn of 
 1S12, the president, in his message, stated that immediately after the de- 
 claration of war, he communicated to the British government the terms on 
 which its progress might be arrested ; that these terms were, the repeal of 
 the orders in council, the discharge of American seamen, and the abandon- 
 ment of the practice of impressment ; and that the ministry had declined 
 to accede to his offers. He also stated that, at an early period of the war, 
 he had received official information of the repeal of the orders in council ; 
 that two propositions for an armistice had been made to him, both of which 
 he had rejected, as they could not have been accepted without conceding 
 to Great Britain the right of impressment. The rejection of these propo- 
 sitions was approved by the national representatives, who, far from aban- 
 doning the ground they had taken, adopted more vigorous measures for the 
 prosecution of the war. 
 
 While the war was proceeding in America, a friendly power abroad 
 interposed for its termination. Soon after the spring session of congress, 
 an offer was communicated from the emperor of Russia of his mediation, 
 as the common friend of the United States and Great Britain, for the pur- 
 pose of facilitating a peace between them. The offer was immediately 
 accepted by the American government, and provision made for the con- 
 templated negotiation. Albert Gallatin, James A. Bayard, and John 
 Quincy Adams, were appointed commissioners, and invested with the 
 requisite powers to conclude a treaty of peace with persons clothed with 
 like powers on the part of Great Britain. They were also authorized to 
 enter into such conventional regulations of the commerce between the two 
 countries as might be mutually advantageous. The two first-named envoys 
 proceeded to join their colleague at St. Petersburg!), where he then was as 
 resident minister from the United States. A commission was also given 
 to the envoys, authorizing them to conclude a treaty of commerce with 
 Russia, with a view to strengthen the amicable relations, and improve the 
 beneficial intercourse, between the two countries. 
 
 On the 24th of May, congress was convened by proclamation of the pre- 
 sident. Laws were enacted, imposing a direct tax of three millions of 
 dollars ; authorizing the collection of various internal duties ; providing for 
 a loan of seven and^a half millions of dollars ; and prohibiting the merchant 
 vessels of the United States from sailing under British licenses. Near the 
 close of the session, a committee appointed to inquire into the subject made 
 94 63 
 
746 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 a long report upon the spirit and manner in which the war had been con- 
 ducted by the British. 
 
 The scene of the campaign of 1813 was principally in the north, towards 
 Canada. Brigadier-general Winchester, of the United States army, and 
 nearly five hundred men, officers and soldiers, were made prisoners at 
 Frenchtown, by a division of the British army from Detroit, with their 
 Indian allies, under colonel Proctor. Colonel Proctor leaving the wounded 
 Americans without a guard, the Indians returned, and deeds of horror fol- 
 lowed. The wounded officers were dragged from the houses, killed, and 
 scalped in the streets. The buildings were set on fire. Some who at- 
 tempted to escape were forced back into the flames, while others were put 
 to death by the tomahawk, and left shockingly mangled in the highway. 
 The infamy of this butchery does not fall upon the perpetrators alone, but 
 extends to those who were able, and were bound by a solemn engagement, 
 to restrain them. The battle and massacre at Frenchtown clothed Ken- 
 tucky and Ohio in mourning. Other volunteers, indignant at the treachery 
 and cruelty of their foes, hastened to the aid of Harrison. He marched to 
 the rapids of the Miami, where he erected a fort, which he called fort 
 Meigs, in honor of the governor of Ohio. On the 1st of May it was in- 
 vested by a large number of Indians, and by a party of British troops from 
 Maiden, the whole commanded by colonel Proctor. An unsuccessful 
 attempt to raise the siege was made by general Clay, at the head of twelve 
 hundred Kentuckians ; but the fort continued to be defended with bravery 
 and skill. The Indians, unaccustomed to sieges, became weary and dis- 
 contented ; and, on the 8th of May, they deserted their allies. The Bri- 
 tish, despairing of success, then made a precipitate retreat. 
 
 On the northern frontier a body of troops had been assembled, under the 
 command of general Dearborn, at Sackett's Harbor, and great exertions 
 ■were made by commodore Chauncey to build and equip a squadron on 
 lake Ontario, sufficiently powerful to contend with that of the British. By 
 the 25th of April the naval preparations were so far completed, that the 
 general and seventeen thousand troops were conveyed across the lake to 
 the attack of York, the capital of Upper Canada. On the 27th, an advan- 
 ced party, commanded by brigadier-general Pike, who was born in a camp, 
 and bred a soldier from his birth, landed, although opposed at the water's 
 edge by a superior force. After a short but severe conflict, the British 
 were driven to their fortifications. The rest of the troops having landed, 
 the whole party pressed forward, carried the first battery by assault, and 
 were moving towards the main works, when the English magazine blew 
 up, with a tremendous explosion, hurling upon the advancing troops im- 
 mense quantities of stone and timber. Numbers were killed ; the gallant 
 Pike received a mortal wound ; the troops halted for a moment, but, reco- 
 vering from the shock, again pressed forward, and soon gained possession 
 of the town. Of the British troops, one hundred were killed, nearly three 
 hundred were wounded, and the same number made prisoners. 
 
 The object of the expedition attained, the squadron and troops returned 
 to Sackett's Harbor, and subsequently sailed to fort George, situated at the 
 head of the lake. After a warm engagement, the British abandoned the 
 fort, and retired to the heights at the head of Burlington bay. 
 
 While the greater part of the American army was thus employed, the 
 British made an attack upon the important post of Sackett's Harbor. On 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 747 
 
 ine 27th of May, their squadron appeared before the town. Alarm guns 
 instantly assembled the citizens of the neighborhood. General Brown's 
 iorce amounted to about one thousand men ; a slight breastwork was 
 hastily thrown up at the only place where the British could land, and be- 
 hind this he placed the militia, the regulars, under colonel Backus, formino 
 a second line. On the morning of the 29th, one thousand British troops 
 landed from the squadron, and advanced towards the breastwork ; the 
 militia gave way, but by the bravery of the regulars, under the skilful 
 arrangement of general Brown, the British were repulsed, and re-embarked 
 so hastily as to leave behind most of their wounded. 
 
 The sea-coast was harassed by predatory warfare, carried on by large 
 detachments from the powerful navy of Great Britain. One squadron, 
 stationed in Delaware bay, captured and burnt every merchant vessel 
 which came within its reach, while a more powerful squadron, commanded 
 by admiral Cockburn, destroyed the farm-houses and gentlemen's seats 
 along the shore of Chesapeake bay. Frenchtown, Havre-de-Grace, Fre- 
 dericktown, and Georgetown were sacked and burnt. Norfolk was saved 
 from a similar fate by the determined bravery of a small force stationed on 
 Craney island, in the harbor. A furious attack was made upon Hampton, 
 which, notwithstanding the gallant resistance of its small garrison, was 
 captured. 
 
 The ocean was the theatre of sanguinary conflicts. Captain Lawrence, 
 in the sloop of war Hornet, on the 23d of February, met the British brig 
 Peacock, and a fierce combat ensued. In less than fifteen minutes the 
 Peacock struck her colors, displaying at the same time a signal of distress. 
 The victors hastened to the relief of the vanquished ; the same strength 
 which had been exerted to conquer was equally ready to save ; but the 
 Peacock sunk before all her crew could be removed, carrying down nine 
 British seamen, and three brave and generous Americans. On his return 
 to the United States, captain Lawrence was promoted to the command of 
 the frigate Chesapeake, then in the harbor of Boston. For several weeks 
 the British frigate Shannon, of superior force, had been cruising before the 
 port ; and captain Broke, her commander, had announced his wish to meet, 
 in single combat, an American frigate. Inflamed by this challenge, captain 
 Lawrence, although his crew was just enlisted, set sail on the 1st of June 
 to seek the Shannon. Towards evening of the same day they met, and 
 instantly engaged, with unexampled fury. In a very few minutes, and in 
 quick succession, the sailing master of the Chesapeake was killed, captain 
 Lawrence and three lieutenants were severely wounded, her rigging was 
 so cut to pieces that she fell on board the Shannon, captain Lawrence 
 received a second and mortal wound, and was carried below ; at this instant, 
 captain Broke, at the head of his marines, gallantly boarded the Chesa- 
 peake, when resistance ceased, and the American flag was struck by the 
 British. Of the crew of the Shannon twenty-four were killed and fifty-six 
 wounded. Of that of the Chesapeake, forty-eight were killed and nearly 
 one hundred wounded. The youthful and intrepid Lawrence was lament- 
 ed, with sorrow deep, sincere, and lasting.* 
 
 * The capture of this ill-fated ship by the English frigate Shannon was mainly owing 
 to a bugleman's desertion of his quarters. Nothwithstanding the fall of captain Law- 
 rence and the principal officers of the Chesapeake early in the action, had the buglemun 
 
748 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The next encounter at sea was between the American brig Argiis and 
 the British brig Pelican, in which the latter was victorious. Soon after, 
 the American brig Enterprise, commanded by lieutenant Burrows, captured 
 the British brig Boxer, commanded by captain Blyth. Both commanders 
 were killed in the action, and were buried, each by the other's side, in 
 Portland. 
 
 While each nation was busily employed in equipping a squadron on 
 lake Erie, general Clay remained inactive at fort Meigs. About the last 
 of July, a large number of British and Indians appeared before the fort, 
 hoping to entice the garrison to a general action in the field. After wait- 
 ing a few days without succeeding, they decamped, and proceeded to fort 
 Stephenson, on the river Sandusky. This fort was little more than a 
 picketing, surrounded by a ditch, and the garrison consisted of but one 
 
 whose duty it was to call the boarders sounded his horn when ordered, the crew would 
 have promptly repaired to the deck, and the issue of the engagement been, in all proba- 
 bility, different. As it was, the usual signal was not sounded that the enemy were 
 boarding, and when some midshipmen ran below to pass the word, the seamen knew 
 not what was meant, were thrown into confusion, and abandoned their quarters. 
 
 Previous to the two ships falling foul of each other, the fire of the Chesapeake made 
 unexampled destruction on board the Shannon. All the damage that the enemy receiv- 
 ed was before they boarded. In the short space of eight minutes, the Shannon was so- 
 cut in her hull by the Chesapeake's broadsides that it was with difficulty she could be 
 kept afloat during that night, and she had eighty-eight of her crew killed and wounded, 
 while the Chesapeake was comparatively uninjured. 
 
 The Chesapeake was rated as a thirty-six gun frigate but mounted forty-nine ; the 
 Shannon mounted fifty-two carriage guns and had a picked crew of four hundred men. 
 The seamen of the Chesapeake were fresh recruits, and little or no opportunity had been 
 afforded to exercise and discipline them. 
 
 It was on the morning of the first of June that the Shannon appeared off our harbor 
 and tauntingly displayed her colors. The Chesapeake was lying at anchor below fort 
 Independence. As soon as the enemy's flag was seen, she fired a gun and ran up the 
 American flag. Preparation was at once made for sailing, and when the tide served, 
 she got under way. The Shannon stood immediately down the bay, followed by the 
 Chesapeake under a press of sail. 
 
 Every elevated spot in Boston which commanded a view of the sea was crowded 
 with anxious spectators. But the ship proceeded so far to the eastward that the conflict 
 could not be seen. A large number of boats sailed out to witness the result, and brought 
 back the melancholy tidings, that when the smoke of the cannonade had dispersed, the 
 English colors were seen flying on board the Chesapeake, and soon after both vessels 
 standing towards Halifax. The suspense that ensued for more than a fortnight was 
 painful in the extreme. The fate of no one was known, though it was generally anti- 
 cipated from the intrepid character of captain Lawrence that he had fallen a martyr to 
 his country . 
 
 Captain Lawrence was first wounded in the leg, but he refused to be carried below 
 until he was mortally wounded by a grape-shot. He continued, however, to issue his 
 orders from the cockpit ; ' Fight her till she sinks — keep the guns going ;' and when 
 told that the enemy had carried the upper deck, he sent that emphatic and memorable 
 message, ' Don't give up the ship.' When apprized of the unhappy issue, he exclaimed, 
 ' The Shannon was whipped when Heft.' 
 
 Captain Broke, of the Shannon, was dangerously wounded at the close of the action 
 by the stroke of a sabre. He was delirious for a long period, but recovered and went 
 to England. He lived long enough to be made an admiral, but within a year or two 
 has deceased. He was a generous as well as brave officer, and never would have allow- 
 ed the carnage to take place which was committed on board the Chesapeake, after her 
 .surrender, had he been aware of it. If it be true, as there is good reason to believe, 
 that he was wounded while stooping to save the life of one of the Chesapeake's crew 
 whom one of his men was mangling, his memory deserves to be embalmed, as well by 
 Americans as by his countrymen. — Boston Atlas. 
 
HISTORY. Jaq 
 
 hundred and sixty men, who were commanded by major Croo-han a youth 
 of twenty-one. The force of the assailants was estimated at about four 
 hundred in uniform, and as many Indians ; they were repulsed, and their 
 loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, is supposed to have' exceeded 
 one hundred and fifty ; those of the remainder who were not able to escape 
 were taken off during the night by the Indians. The whole loss of major 
 Croghan during the siege was one killed and seven slightly wounded 
 About three the next morning the British sailed down the river, leaving 
 behind them a boat containing clothing and considerable military stores. 
 
 By the exertions of commodore Perry, an American squadron had been 
 fitted out on lake Erie early in September. It consisted of nine small 
 vessels, in all carrying fifty-four guns. A British squadron had also been 
 built and equipped, under the superintendence of commodore Barclay. It 
 consisted of six vessels, mounting sixty-three guns. Commodore Perry, 
 immediately sailing, offered battle to his adversary, and on the 10th of 
 September the British commander left the harbor of Maiden to accept the 
 offer. In a few hours the wind shifted, giving the Americans the advan- 
 tage. Perry, forming the line of battle, hoisted his flag, on which were 
 inscribed the words of the dying Lawrence, 'Don't give up the ship.' 
 Loud huzzas from all the vessels proclaimed the animation which this motto 
 inspired. About noon the firing commenced; and after a short action two 
 of the British vessels surrendered, and the rest of the American squadron 
 now joining in the battle, the victory was rendered decisive and complete. 
 The British loss was forty-one killed, and ninety-four wounded. The 
 American loss was twenty-seven killed, and ninety-six wounded, of which 
 number twenty-one were killed and sixty-two wounded on board the flag- 
 ship Lawrence, whose whole complement of able-bodied men before the 
 action was about one hundred. The commodore gave intelligence of the 
 victory to general Harrison in these words : ' We have met the enemy, 
 and they are ours. Two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop.' 
 
 The Americans were now masters of the lake ; but the territory of 
 Michigan was still in the possession of colonel Proctor. The next move- 
 ments were against the British and Indians at Detroit and Maiden. Ge- 
 neral Harrison had previously assembled a portion of the Ohio militia on 
 the Sandusky river ; and on the 7th of September four thousand from 
 Kentucky, the flower of the state, with governor Shelby at their head, arriv- 
 ed at his camp. With the co-operation of the fleet, it was determined to 
 proceed at once to Maiden. On the 27th the troops were received on 
 board, and reached Maiden on the same day ; but the British had, in the 
 mean time, destroyed the fort and public stores, and had retreated along 
 the Thames towards the Moravian villages, together with Tecumseh's In- 
 dians, amounting to twelve or fifteen hundred. It was now resolved to 
 proceed in pursuit of Proctor. On the 5th of October a severe battle was 
 fought between the two armies at the river Thames, and the British army 
 was taken by the Americans. In this battle Tecumseh was killed, and 
 the Indians fled. The British loss was nineteen regulars killed, and fifty 
 wounded, and about six hundred prisoners. The American loss, in killed 
 and wounded, amounted to upwards of fifty. Proctor made his escape 
 down the Thames. p 
 
 On the 29th of September the Americans took possession of Detroit, 
 which, on the approach of Harrison's army, had been abandoned by the 
 
 63* 
 
750 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 British. Preparations were now made for subduing Upper Canada, and 
 taking Montreal; but owing to the difficulties attending the concentration 
 of the troops, and perhaps also to the want of vigor in the commanders, 
 that project was abandoned, and the army under Wilkinson, marching to 
 French Mills, there encamped for the winter. This abortive issue of the 
 campaign occasioned murmurs throughout the nation, and the causes which 
 led to it have never been fully developed. The severest censure fell upon 
 general Armstrong, who was secretary of war, and upon general Hampton. 
 The latter soon after resigned his commission in the army, and general 
 Izard was selected to command the post at Plattsburgh. 
 
 Major-general Harrison, commander-in-chief of the eighth military district 
 in the United States, issued a proclamation, stating, that the enemy having 
 been driven from the territory of Michigan, and a part of the army under 
 his command having taken possession of it, it became necessary that the 
 civil government of the territory should be re-established, and the former 
 officers resume the exercise of their authority. He therefore proclaimed, 
 that all appointments and commissions which have been derived from Bri- 
 tish officers were at an end ; that the citizens were restored to all the rights 
 and privileges which they enjoyed previously to the capitulation made by 
 general Hull on the 15th of August, 1812 ; and, until the will of the go- 
 vernment should be known, directed that all persons having civil offices in 
 the territory of Michigan, at the period of the capitulation of Detroit, 
 should resume the exercise of the powers appertaining to their offices re- 
 spectively. 
 
 The United States squadron, chased by commodore Hardy with a supe- 
 rior naval force, had taken refuge in the harbor of New London, where 
 the decayed and feeble state of the fortifications afforded a precarious de- 
 fence. The menacing appearance of the British squadron at the entrance 
 of the harbor, and the strong probability that the town would be destroyed 
 in the conflict, which had been long expected, produced among the inhabi- 
 tants the greatest consternation. In this moment of alarm, the major- 
 general of the third division, and the brigadier-general of the third brigade, 
 considered themselves justified, at the earnest entreaty of the citizens, in 
 summoning the militia to their assistance. Governor Smith, of Connecti- 
 cut, approved this proceeding, and immediately forwarded supplies, and 
 adopted measures of defence. ' On this occasion,' said the governor to the 
 legislature, ' I could not hesitate as to the course which it became my duty 
 to pursue. The government of Connecticut, the last to invite hostilities, 
 should be the first to repel aggression.' 
 
 The Indians at the southern extremity of the Union had imbibed the 
 same hostile spirit as those at the north-western. They had been visited 
 by Tecumseh, and by his eloquence had been persuaded that the Great 
 Spirit required them to unite and attempt the extirpation of the whites. In 
 the fall of 1812, a cruel war was carried on by the Creeks and Seminoles 
 against the frontier inhabitants of Georgia. General Jackson, at the head 
 of two thousand five hundred volunteers from Tennessee, marched into the 
 country of the Indians. Overawed by his presence, they desisted for a 
 time from hostility ; but, after his return, their animosity burst forth with 
 increased and fatal violence. Dreading their cruelty, about three hundred 
 men, women, and children, sought safety in fort Mimms, in the Tensaw 
 settlement. Although frequent warnings of an intended attack had been 
 
HISTORY. 75 1 
 
 given them, yet, at noonday, on the 30th of August, they were surprised 
 by a party of six hundred Indians, who, with axes, cut their way into the 
 fort, and drove the people into the houses which it inclosed. To these 
 they set fire. Many persons were burnt, and many killed by the tomahawk. 
 Only seventeen escaped to carry the horrid tidings to the neighboring sta- 
 tions. The whites resolved on vengeance. 
 
 Again general Jackson, at the head of three thousand five hundred mili- 
 tia of Tennessee, marched into the southern wilderness. A detachment 
 under general Coffee encountering at Tallushatchie a body of Indians, 
 a sanguinary conflict ensued. The latter fought with desperation, neither 
 giving nor receiving quarter, until nearly every warrior had perished. 
 Yet still was the spirit of the Creeks unsubdued, and their faith in victory 
 unshaken. With no little sagacity and skill they selected and fortified 
 another position on the Tallapoosa, called by themselves Tohopeka, 
 and by the whites Horseshoe Bend. Here nearly a thousand warriors, 
 animated with a fierce and determined resolution, were collected. Three 
 thousand men, commanded by general Jackson, marched to attack this 
 post. To prevent escape, a detachment under general Coffee encircled 
 the Bend. The main body advanced to the fortress ; and for a few minutes 
 the opposing forces were engaged muzzle to muzzle at the port-holes ; but 
 at length the troops, leaping over the walls, mingled in furious combat 
 with the savages. When the Indians, fleeing to the river, beheld the 
 troops on the opposite bank, they returned and fought with increased fury 
 and desperation. Six hundred warriors were killed ; four only yielded 
 themselves prisoners ; the remaining three hundred escaped. Of the 
 whites, fifty-five were killed, and one hundred and forty-six wounded. 
 
 It was deemed probable that further resistance would be made by the 
 Indians at a place called the Hickory-ground ; but on general Jackson's 
 arriving thither in April, 1814, the principal chiefs came out to meet him, 
 and among them was Wetherford, a half-blood, distinguished equally for 
 his talents and cruelty. ' I am in your power,' said he ; 'do with me what 
 you please. I have done the white people all the harm 1 could. I have 
 fought them, and fought them bravely. There was a time when I had a 
 choice ; I have none now, even hope is ended. Once I could animate my 
 warriors ; but I cannot animate the dead. They can no longer hear my 
 voice ; their bones are at Tallushatchie, Talladega, Emuckfaw, and Toho- 
 peka. While there was a chance of success I never supplicated peace ; but 
 my people are gone, and I now ask it for my nation and myself.' Peace 
 was concluded, and general Jackson and his troops enjoyed an honorable 
 but short repose. 
 
 It was the declared intention of the British to lay waste the whole Ame- 
 rican coast, from Maine to Georgia. Of this intention demonstration was 
 made by their descent upon Pettipauge, and the destruction which follow- 
 ed in that harbor. Early in April, a number of British barges, supposed 
 to contain about two hundred and twenty men, entered the mouth of Con- 
 necticut river, passed up seven or eight miles, and came on shore at a part 
 of Saybrook called Pettipauge, where they destroyed about twenty-five 
 vessels. Guards of militia were placed without delay at nearly all the 
 vulnerable points on the seaboard, and where troops could not be stationed 
 patrols of videttes were constantly maintained. 
 
 On the 25th of April, admiral Cochrane declared, in addition to the ports 
 
752 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and places blockaded by admiral Warren, all the remaining ports, harbors, 
 bays, creeks, rivers, inlets, outlets, islands, and sea-coasts of the United 
 States, from Black Point, on Long Island sound, to the northern and 
 eastern boundaries between the United States and the British province of 
 New Brunswick, to be in a state of strict and rigorous blockade. On the 
 other hand, the president of the United States issued a proclamation, de- 
 claring that the blockade proclaimed by the British of the whole Atlantic 
 coast of the United States, nearly two thousand miles in extent, being inca- 
 pable of execution by any adequate force actually stationed for the purpose, 
 formed no lawful prohibition or obstacle to such neutral and friendly vessels 
 as may choose to visit and trade with the United States ; and strictly 
 ordered and instructed all the public armed vessels of the United States, 
 and all private armed vessels commissioned as privateers, or with letters 
 of marque and reprisal, not to interrupt, detain, or molest any vessels be- 
 longing to neutral powers, bound to any port or place within the jurisdic- 
 tion of the United States ; but, on the contrary, to render all such vessels 
 all the aid and kind offices which they might need or require. 
 
 The pacification in Europe offered to the British a large disposable force, 
 both naval and military, and with it the means of giving to the war in 
 America a character of new and increased activity and extent. The friends 
 of the administration anticipated a severer conflict, and prepared for greater 
 sacrifices and greater sufferings. Its opposers, where difficulties thickened 
 and danger pressed, were encouraged to make more vigorous efforts to 
 wrest the reins of authority from men who, they asserted, had shown them- 
 selves incompetent to hold them. The president deemed it advisable to 
 strengthen the line of the Atlantic, and therefore called on the executive 
 of several states to organize and hold in readiness for immediate service a 
 corps of ninety-three thousand five hundred men. 
 
 The hostile movements on the northern frontier were now becoming 
 vigorous and interesting. In the beginning of July, general Brown, who 
 had been assiduously employed in disciplining his troops, crossed the Nia- 
 gara with about three thousand men, and took possession, without oppo- 
 sition, of fort Erie. In a strong position at Chippewa, a few miles distant, 
 was intrenched an equal number of British troops, commanded by general 
 Kiall. On the 4th, general Brown approached their works ; and the next 
 day, on the plains of Chippewa, an obstinate and sanguinary battle was 
 fought, which compelled the British to retire to their intrenchments. In 
 this action, which was fought with great judgment and coolness on both 
 sides, the loss of the Americans was about four hundred men, that of the 
 British was upwards of five hundred. Soon afterwards, general Biall, 
 abandoning his works, retired to the heights of Burlington. Here lieute- 
 nant-general Drummond, with a large reinforcement, joined him, and as- 
 suming the command, led back the army towards the American camp. On 
 the 25th was fought the battle of Bridgewater, which began at four in the 
 afternoon and continued until midnight. After a desperate conflict the 
 British troops were withdrawn, and the Americans left in possession of the 
 field. 
 
 The loss on both sides was severe, and nearly equal. Generals Brown 
 and Scott having both been severely wounded, the command devolved up- 
 on general Ripley. He remained a few hours upon the hill, collected the 
 wounded, and then returned unmolested to the camp. This battle was 
 
HISTORF. 753 
 
 fought near the cataract of Niagara, whose roar was silenced hy the thunder 
 of cannon and the din of arms, but was distinctly heard during the pauses 
 of the fight. The American general found his force so much weakened, 
 that he deemed it prudent again to occupy fort Erie. On the 4th of 
 August it was invested by general Drummond with five thousand troops. 
 In the night between the 14th and 15th, the besiegers made a daring assault 
 upon the fort, which was repelled with conspicuous gallantry by the garri- 
 son, the former losing more than nine hundred men, the latter but eighty- 
 four. The siege was still continued. On the 2d of September, general 
 Brown, having recovered from his wounds, threw himself into the fort, and 
 took command of the garrison. For their fate great anxiety was felt by 
 the nation, which was, however, in some degree, removed by the march 
 from Plattsburgh of five thousand men to their relief. After an hour of 
 close fighting they entered the fort, having killed, wounded, and taken one 
 thousand of the British. The loss of the Americans was also considerable, 
 amounting to more than five hundred. On the 21st of September, the 
 forty-ninth day of the siege, general Drummond withdrew his forces. 
 
 The march of the troops from Plattsburgh having left that post almost 
 defenceless, the enemy determined to attack it by land, and, at the same 
 time, to attempt the destruction of the American flotilla on lake Champlain. 
 On the 3d of September, Sir George Prevost, the governor-general of 
 Canada, at the head of fourteen thousand men, entered the territories of 
 the United States. On the 6th they arrived at Plattsburgh. It is situated 
 near lake Champlain, on the northern bank of the small river Saranac. 
 On their approach, the American troops, who were posted on the opposite 
 bank, tore up the planks of the bridges, with which they formed slight 
 breastworks, and prepared to dispute the passage of the stream. The 
 British employed themselves for several days in erecting batteries, while 
 the American forces were daily augmented by the arrival of volunteers and 
 militia. Early in the morning of the 11th, the British squadron, command- 
 ed by commodore Downe, appeared off the harbor of Plattsburgh, where 
 that of the United States, commanded by commodore M'Donough, lay at 
 anchor prepared for battle. At nine o'clock the action commenced. Sel- 
 dom has there been a more furious encounter than the bosom of this trans- 
 parent and peaceful lake was now called to witness. During the naval 
 conflict the British on land began a heavy cannonade upon the American 
 lines, and attempted at different places to cross the Saranac ; but as often 
 as the British advanced into the water they were repelled by a destructive 
 fire from the militia. At half-past eleven the shout of victory heard along 
 the American lines announced the result of the battle on the lake. Thus 
 deprived of naval aid, in the afternoon the British withdrew to their in- 
 trenchments, and in the night they commenced a precipitate retreat. Upon 
 the lake the American loss was one hundred and ten; the British, one 
 hundred and ninety-four, besides prisoners. On land, the American loss 
 was one hundred and nineteen ; that of the British has been estimated as 
 high as two thousand five hundred. 
 
 The inhabitants of the middle and southern states, anticipating a great 
 
 augmentation of the English force, and uncertain where the blow would 
 
 fall, made exertions to place every exposed position in a posture of defence. 
 
 About the middle of August, a British squadron of between fifty and sixty 
 
 95 
 
754 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 sail arrived in the Chesapeake, with troops destined for the attack of Wash- 
 ington, the capital of the United States. 
 
 A body of five thousand of them having landed, an action was fought at 
 Bladensburg, six miles from Washington. General Winder commanded 
 the whole American force; commodore Barney the flotilla. The British 
 were commanded by major-general Ross and rear-admiral Cockburn. The 
 Americans were repulsed, and the British advanced towards the capital. 
 A body of militia had been assembled in this emergency ; but the president 
 and heads of departments, on reviewing the force brought out for defence, 
 despaired of success, and dispersed. General Ross, at the head of about 
 seven hundred men, took possession of Washington, and burned the capitol, 
 or senate-house, the president's house, and public offices, the arsenal, the 
 navy yard, and the bridge over the Potomac. The loss of the British in 
 this expedition was nearly a thousand men, in killed, wounded, and missing ; 
 the loss of the Americans was ten or twelve killed, and thirty or forty 
 w T ounded. Commodore Barney's horse was killed under him, and himself 
 wounded in the thigh and taken prisoner ; but he was parolled on the field 
 of battle for his bravery. The capture of Washington reflected no credit 
 upon those by whom it ought to have been defended ; but the destruction 
 of the national edifices was still more disgraceful to the character of the 
 invaders. The whole civilized world exclaimed against the act, as a viola- 
 tion of the rules of modern warfare. The capitals of most of the European 
 kingdoms had lately been in the power of an enemy ; but in no instance 
 had the conqueror been guilty of similar conduct. The act was also as 
 impolitic as it was barbarous ; it naturally excited an indignant spirit 
 throughout the republic, and led its inhabitants to vie with each other in 
 exerting all their faculties to overcome the ravagers of their country. 
 
 After the capture of Washington, the British army re-embarked on board 
 the fleet in the Patuxent, and admiral Cockburn moved down that river, 
 and proceeded up the Chesapeake. On the 29th of August the corporation 
 of Alexandria submitted to articles of capitulation, and the city was deliver- 
 ed up to the British. On the 11th of September the British admiral ap- 
 peared at the mouth of the Patapsco, fourteen miles from Baltimore, with 
 a fleet of ships of war and transports amounting to fifty sail. The next 
 day six thousand troops were landed at North point, and commenced their 
 march towards the city. In this march, when the foremost ranks were 
 harassed by a brisk fire from a wood, major-general Ross was mortally 
 wounded. A battle was fought on this day. The American forces, the 
 militia, and the inhabitants of Baltimore, made a gallant defence, but were 
 compelled to retreat ; the British, however, abandoning the attempt to get 
 possession of the city, retired to their shipping during the night of the 13th 
 of September. 
 
 On the ocean, the Essex, commanded by captain Porter, after a bloody 
 combat, struck to a British frigate and sloop of war, whose united force 
 was much superior. The American sloop Peacock captured the Epervier, 
 of equal force. The sloop Wasp, commanded by captain Blakely, captur- 
 ed the Reindeer, and afterwards, in the same cruise, sunk the Avon, both 
 of superior force. She made several other prizes, but never returned into 
 port ; she probably foundered at sea. 
 
 The closing scene of this unnecessary and disgraceful war, the more de- 
 testable when contemplated as a series of human sacrifices for the preser- 
 
HISTORY. 755 
 
 ration of a commercial system, was creditable to the genius and bravery of 
 the American republic. The operations of the British in Louisiana were 
 commenced by a small expedition, the naval part under the command of 
 captain Percy, and the troops under colonel Nicholls. They landed and 
 took forcible possession of Pensacola, and were aided by the Spaniards in 
 all their proceedings ; they collected all the Indians that would resort to 
 their standard ; and colonel Nicholls then sent an officer to the piratical 
 establishment at Barataria to enlist the chief, Lafitte, and his followers in 
 their cause ; the most liberal and tempting offers were made them. 
 
 These people, however, showed a decided preference for the American 
 cause ; they deceived the English by delay ; conveyed intelligence of their 
 designs to the governor at New Orleans, and offered their services to de- 
 fend the country. Disappointed in securing their aid, the expedition pro- 
 ceeded to the attack of fort Bowyer, on Mobile point, commanded by ma- 
 jor Lawrence, with one hundred and thirty men. The result, however, 
 was a loss to the besiegers of more than two hundred men ; the commo- 
 dore's ship was so disabled that they set fire to her, and she blew up, and 
 the remaining three vessels, shattered and filled with wounded men, re- 
 turned to Pensacola. While the British thus sheltered in this place, where 
 they were busily occupied in bringing over the Indians to join them, gene- 
 ral Jackson formed an expedition of about four thousand men, regulars and 
 militia, to dislodge them. He summoned the town, was refused entrance 
 by the Spanish governor, and his flag of truce was fired upon ; the British 
 soldiers being in the forts, where their flag had been hoisted, in conjunction 
 with the Spanish, the day before the American forces appeared. Prepara- 
 tions were immediately made to carry the place ; one battery having been 
 taken by storm, with slight loss on either side, the governor surrendered, 
 the English having previously retired on board their ships. The forts be- 
 low, which commanded the passage, were blown up, and this enabled the 
 English fleet to put to sea. 
 
 General Jackson then evacuated the Spanish territory, and marched his 
 troops back to Mobile and New Orleans, which he reached on the second 
 day of December. Having reviewed a corps of volunteers the day of his 
 arrival, he immediately proceeded to visit every post in the neighborhood, 
 to give orders for adding fortifications, and establishing defensive works 
 and outposts in every spot where the enemy might be expected, as there 
 was the greatest uncertainty where a landing would be made ; he mingled 
 with the citizens, and infused into the greater part his own spirit and ener- 
 gy- By his presence and exhortations they were animated to exertions 
 of which before they were not supposed to be capable. All who could 
 wield a spade, or carry a musket, were either put to work upon the fortifi- 
 cations, or trained in the art of defending them. The Mississippi, upon 
 the eastern bank of which New Orleans stands, flows to the ocean in seve- 
 ral channels ; one, leaving the main stream above the city, runs east of it, 
 and forms in its course lake Pontchartrain and lake Borgne. Early in 
 December, the British entered this channel, with a force of about eight 
 thousand men, a part of whom had just left the shores of the Chesapeake, 
 the remainder having arrived direct from England. 
 
 A small squadron of gun-boats, under lieutenant Jones, was despatched 
 to oppose their passage into the lake. These were met by a superior force, 
 and after a spirited conflict, in which the killed and wounded of the British 
 
756 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 exceeded the whole number of the Americans, they were compelled to sur- 
 render. The loss of the gun-boats left no means of watching the move- 
 ments of the enemy, or of ascertaining where the landing would be made. 
 Orders were given for increased vigilance at every post ; the people of 
 color were formed into a battalion ; the offer of the Baratarians to volunteer, 
 on condition of a pardon for previous offences, if they conducted themselves 
 with bravery and fidelity, was accepted. General Jackson, after applying 
 to the legislature to suspend the act of habeas corpus, and finding that they 
 were consuming these extreme moments in discussion, proclaimed martial 
 law, and from that moment his means became more commensurate with 
 the weight of responsibility he had to sustain. 
 
 On the 22d the British, having landed, took a position near the main 
 channel of the river, about eight miles below the city. In the evening of 
 the 23d, general Jackson made a sudden and furious attack upon their 
 camp. They were thrown into disorder ; but they soon rallied, and fought 
 with a bravery at least equal to that of the assailants. Satisfied with the 
 advantage first gained, he withdrew his troops, fortified a strong position 
 four miles below New Orleans, and supported it by batteries erected on 
 the west bank of the river. On the 28th of December, and the 1st of 
 January, vigorous but unsuccessful attacks were made upon these fortifica- 
 tions by the English. In the mean time both armies had received rein- 
 forcements ; and general Sir E. Packenham, the British commander, re- 
 solved to exert all his strength in a combined attack upon the American 
 positions on both sides of the river. With almost incredible industry, he 
 caused a canal, leading from a creek emptying itself into lake Borgne to 
 the main channel of the Mississippi, to be dug, that he might remove a 
 part of his boats and artillery to that river. On the 7th of January, from 
 the movements observed in the British camp, a speedy attack was antici- 
 pated. This was made early on the Sth. The British troops, formed in 
 a close column of about sixty men in front, the men shouldering their mus- 
 kets, all carrying fascines, and some with ladders, advanced towards the 
 American fortifications, from whence an incessant fire was kept up on the 
 column, which continued to advance, until the musketry of the troops of 
 Tennessee and Kentucky, joined with the fire of the artillery, began to 
 make an impression on it which soon threw it into confusion. 
 
 For some time the British officers succeeded in animating the courage of 
 their troops, making them advance obliquely to the left, to avoid the fire 
 of a battery, every discharge from which opened the column, and mowed 
 down whole files, which were almost instantaneously replaced by new 
 troops coming up close after the first ; but these also shared the same fate, 
 until at last, after twenty-five minutes' continual firing, through which a 
 few platoons advanced to the edge of the ditch, the column entirely broke, 
 and part of the troops dispersed, and ran to take shelter among the bushes 
 on the right. The rest retired to the ditch where they had been when 
 first perceived, four hundred yards from the American lines. There the 
 officers with some difficulty rallied their troops, and again drew them up 
 for a second attack, the soldiers having laid down their knapsacks at the 
 edge of the ditch, that they might be less encumbered. And now, for the 
 second time, the column, recruited with the troops that formed the rear, 
 advanced. Again it was received with the same galling fire of musketry 
 and artillery, till it at last broke again, and retired in the utmost confusion 
 
HISTORY. 757 
 
 In vain did the officers now endeavor, as before, to revive the courage of 
 their men ; to no purpose did they strike them with the flat of their 
 swords, to force them to advance ; they were insensible of every thing but 
 danger, and saw nothing but death, which had struck so many of their 
 comrades. 
 
 The attack had hardly begun, when the British commander-in-chief, Sir 
 Edward Packenh'am, fell a victim to his own intrepidity, while endeavoring 
 to animate his troops with ardor for the assault. Soon after his fall, two 
 other generals, Keane and Gibbs, were carried off the field of battle, dan- 
 gerously wounded. A great number of officers of rank had fallen ; the 
 ground over which the column had marched was strewed with the dead 
 and wounded. Such slaughter on their side, with scarcely any loss on 
 the American, spread consternation through the British ranks, as they 
 were now convinced of the impossibility of carrying the lines, and saw 
 that even to advance was certain death. Some of the British troops had 
 penetrated into the wood towards the extremity of the American line, to 
 make a false attack, or to ascertain whether a real one were practicable. 
 These the troops under general Coffee no sooner perceived, than they 
 opened on them a brisk fire with their rifles, which made them retire. The 
 greater part of those who, on the column's being repulsed, had taken shel- 
 ter in the thickets, only escaped the batteries to be killed by the musketry. 
 During the whole hour that the attack lasted, the American fire did not 
 slacken for a single moment. By half after eight in the morning, the fire 
 of the musketry had ceased. The whole plain on the left, as also the side 
 of the river, from the road to the edge of the water, was covered with the 
 British soldiers who had fallen. About four hundred wounded prisoners 
 were taken, and at least double that number of wounded men escaped into 
 the British camp ; and a space of ground, extending from the ditch of the 
 American lines to that on which the enemy drew up his troops, two hun- 
 dred and fifty yards in length, by about two hundred in breadth, was lite- 
 rally covered with men, either dead or severely wounded.* Perhaps a 
 greater disparity of loss never occurred ; that of the British in killed, 
 wounded, and prisoners, in this attack, which was not made with sufficient 
 judgment, and which, besides, was embarrassed by unforeseen circumstan» 
 ces, was upwards of two thousand men ; the killed and wounded of the 
 Americans was only thirteen. 
 
 The events of the day on the west side of the river present a striking 
 instance of the uncertainty of military operations. There the Americans 
 were thrice the number of their brave assailants, and were protected by 
 intrenchments ; but they ingloriously fled. They were closely pursued, 
 until the British party, receiving intelligence of the defeat of the main army, 
 withdrew from pursuit, and recrossed the river. They then returned and 
 resumed possession of their intrenchments. General Lambert, upon whom 
 the command of the British army had devolved, having lost all hopes of 
 success, prepared to return to his shipping. In his retreat he was not mo- 
 lested ; general Jackson wisely resolving to hazard nothing that he had 
 gained in attempting to gain still more. 
 
 The Americans naturally indulged in great joy for this signal victory. 
 
 * Historical Memoir of the War in Louisiana, by Major A. L. Latour, Engineer in 
 the United States Army. Philadelphia, 1816. 
 
 64 
 
758 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Te Deum was sung at New Orleans, and every demonstration of gratitude 
 manifested by the inhabitants of the Union generally. The state of Lou- 
 isiana passed votes of thanks to several of the officers concerned in the de- 
 fence, and omitted general Jackson, in consequence of his having set 
 aside the action of the civil authorities and proclaimed martial law. 
 
 Although the results of the war had been honorable to the American 
 arms, a large portion of the inhabitants of the New England states were 
 unceasingly opposed to the measures of the administration. The governor 
 of Massachusetts convoked the general court of that state ; the legislature 
 of Connecticut was about to hold its usual semi-annual session ; and the 
 legislature of Rhode Island also assembled. When these several bodies 
 met, what should be done in this unexampled state of affairs became a 
 subject of most solemn deliberation. To insure unity of views and concert 
 in action, the legislature of Massachusetts proposed a ' conference,' by dele- 
 gates from the legislatures of the New England states, and of any other 
 states that might accede to the measure. Their resolution for this purpose, 
 and the circular letter accompanying it, show, that the duty proposed to be 
 assigned to these delegates was merely to devise and recommend to the 
 states measures for their security and defence, and such measures as were 
 'not repugnant to their federal obligations as members of the Union.' 
 
 The proposition was readily assented to by several states, and the dele- 
 gates appointed in pursuance of it met at Hartford, on the 15th of December 
 following. The convention recommended, 1. That the states they repre- 
 sent take measures to protect their citizens from ' forcible draughts, con- 
 scriptions, or impressments, not authorized by the constitution of the Uni- 
 ted States.' 2. That an earnest application be made to the government of 
 the United States, requesting their consent to some arrangement, whereby 
 the states separately, or in concert, may take upon themselves the defence 
 of their territory against the enemy, and that a reasonable portion of the 
 taxes collected within the states be appropriated to this object. 3. That 
 the several governors be authorized by law to employ the military force 
 under their command in assisting any state requesting it, to repel the in- 
 vasions of the public enemy. 4. That several amendments of the constitu- 
 tion of the United States, calculated in their view to prevent a recurrence 
 of the evils of which they complain, be proposed by the states they repre- 
 sent for adoption either by the states' legislatures, or by a convention chosen 
 by the people of each state. Lastly, That if the application of these states 
 to the government of the United States should be unsuccessful, and peace 
 should not be concluded, and the defence of these states be still neglected, 
 it would, in their opinion, be expedient for the legislatures of the several 
 states to appoint delegates to another convention, to meet at Boston, in 
 June, with such powers and instructions as the exigency of a crisis so mo- 
 mentous may require. The effect of these proceedings upon the public 
 mind in the aggrieved states was alike seasonable and salutary. The 
 very proposal to call a convention, and the confidence reposed in the men 
 delegated to that trust, served greatly to allay the passions, and to inspire 
 confidence and hope. Nor was the influence of this body upon the national 
 councils less perceptible. "Within three weeks after the adjournment of 
 the convention and the publication of their report, an act passed both houses 
 of the national legislature, and received the signature of the president, 
 authorizing and requiring him to ' receive into the service of the United 
 
HISTORY. 759 
 
 States any corps of troops which may have heen or may be raised, organ- 
 ized, and officered, under the authority of any of the states,' to be 'em- 
 ployed in the state raising the same, or an adjoining state, and not else- 
 where, except with the consent of the executive of the state raisino- the 
 same.' Before the commissioners who were sent to confer with the go- 
 vernment could reach Washington, a bill passed the senate, providing for 
 the payment of the troops and militia already called into service under the 
 authority of the states. The arrival of the treaty of peace at this juncture 
 rendered all farther proceedings unnecessary. 
 
 During the preceding year the British government had declined to treat 
 under the mediation of Russia, and a direct negotiation had been agreed 
 on. Ghent was ultimately determined as the place of meeting ; and in the 
 autumn of 1814 the commissioners prosecuted their labors, but at first with 
 very doubtful success. By the 24th of December a treaty was agreed upon 
 and signed by the plenipotentiaries of the respective powers at Ghent ; and 
 in February of the following year it received the ratification of the presi- 
 dent.* 
 
 While the people of the United States were rejoicing at the return of 
 peace, their attention was called to a new scene of war. By a message 
 from the president to the house of representatives, with a report of the 
 secretary of state, it appeared that the dey of Algiers had violently, and 
 without just cause, obliged the consul of the United States, and all the 
 American citizens in Algiers, to leave that place, in violation of the treaty 
 then subsisting between the two nations ; that he had exacted from the 
 consul, under pain of immediate imprisonment, a large sum of money, to 
 which he had no just claim; and that these acts of violence and outrage 
 had been followed by the capture of at least one American vessel, and by 
 the seizure of an American citizen on board of a neutral vessel ; that the 
 captured persons were yet held in captivity, with the exception of two of 
 them, who had been ransomed ; that every effort to obtain the release of 
 
 # By the first article of this treaty it was agreed that there shall be a firm and uni- 
 versal peace between his Britannic majesty and the United States, and between their 
 respective countries, territories, cities, towns, and people, of every degree, without ex- 
 ception of places or persons ; and that all hostilities, both by sea and land, shall cease 
 as soon as this treaty shall have been ratified by both parties. By the third article, all 
 prisoners of war taken on either side, as well by land as by sea, shall be restored as 
 soon as practicable after the ratifications of this treaty. By the fourth article, the de- 
 cision of the conflicting claims of the United States and of Great Britain to several islands 
 in the bay of Passamaquoddy was referred to two commissioners, one to be appointed 
 by his Britannic majesty, and one by the president of the United Slates, with the advice 
 and consent of the senate ; and it was agreed, in the event of the two commissioners 
 differing upon all or any of the matters referred to them, or of their not acting, they 
 shall make report or reports to their respective governments, which report or reports 
 they agreed to refer to some friendly sovereign or state, to be then named for that pur- 
 pose, and engaged to consider such decision to be final and conclusive. By the ninth 
 article, the United States engaged to put an end, immediately after the ratification of 
 the present treaty, to hostilities with all the tribes or nations of Indians with whom 
 they may be at war at the time of such ratification, provided they shall agree to desist 
 from all hostilities against the United States ; and his Britannic majesty, on his part, 
 entered into a correspondent engagement on the like condition of their desisting from 
 all hostilities against him and his subjects. The tenth articlehas respect to the abolition 
 of the slave-trade; 'Whereas the traffic in slaves is irreconcilable with the principles 
 of humanity and justice ; and whereas both his majesty and the United States are desirous 
 of continuing their efforts to promote its entire abolition ; it is hereby agreed that both 
 the contracting parties shall use their best endeavors to accomplish so desirable an object.' 
 
760 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the others had proved abortive ; and that there was some reason to believe 
 they were held by the dey as means by which he calculated to extort from 
 tbe United States a degrading treaty. The president observed, that the 
 considerations which rendered it unnecessary and unimportant to com- 
 mence hostile operations on the part of the United States were now termi- 
 nated by the peace with Great Britain, which opened the prospect of an 
 active and valuable trade of their citizens within the range of the Algerine 
 cruisers; and recommended to congress the consideration of an act de- 
 claring the existence of a state of war between the United States and the 
 dey of Algiers, and of such provisions as might be requisite for the prose- 
 cution of it to a successful issue. A committee of congress, to whom was 
 referred a bill ' for the protection of the commerce of the United States 
 against the Algerine cruisers,' after a statement of facts, concluded their 
 report by expressing their united opinion, ' that the dey of Algiers considers 
 his treaty with the United States as at an end, and is waging war with 
 them ;' and in March war was declared against the Algerines. 
 
 An expedition was immediately ordered to the Mediterranean, under the 
 command of commodore Bainbridge. The squadron in advance on that 
 service, under commodore Decatur, lost not a moment after its arrival in 
 •the Mediterranean in seeking the naval force of the enemy, then cruising 
 in that sea, and succeeded in capturing two of his ships, one of them com- 
 manded by the Algerine admiral. The American commander, after this 
 demonstration of skill and prowess, hastened to the port of Algiers, where 
 he readily obtained peace, in the stipulated terms of which the rights and 
 honor of the United States were particularly consulted by a perpetual 
 relinquishment, on the part of the dey, of all pretensions to tribute from 
 them. The impressions thus made, strengthened by subsequent transac- 
 tions with the regencies of Tunis and Tripoli, by the appearance of the 
 larger force which followed under commodore Bainbridge, and by the judi- 
 cious precautionary arrangements left by him in that quarter, afforded a 
 reasonable prospect of future security for the valuable portion of American 
 commerce which passes within reach of the Sarbary cruisers. 
 
 President Madison, in his message to the congress of 1S16, having ad- 
 verted to the peace of Europe and to that of the United States with Great 
 Britain, said, he had the ' satisfaction to state, generally, that they remain- 
 ed in amity with foreign powers.' He proceeded to say, that the posture 
 of affairs with Algiers at that moment was not known ; but that the dey 
 had found a pretext for complaining of a violation of the last treaty, and 
 presenting as the alternative war or a renewal of the former treaty, which 
 stipulated, among other things, an annual tribute. 'The answer,' says the 
 president, ' with an explicit declaration that the United States preferred 
 war to tribute, required his recognition and observance of the treaty last 
 made, which abolishes tribute, and the slavery of our captured citizens. 
 The result of the answer had not been received. Should he renew his 
 warfare on our commerce, we rely on the protection it will find in our na- 
 val force actually in the Mediterranean. With the other Barbary states 
 our affairs have undergone no change. With reference to the aborigines 
 of our own country,' he continues, ' the Indian tribes within our limits 
 appear also disposed to remain in peace. From several of them purchases 
 of lands have been made, particularly favorable to the wishes and security of 
 our frontier settlements, as well as to the general interests of the nation 
 
HISTORY. 761 
 
 In some instances, the titles, though not supported by due proof, and clash- 
 ing- those of one tribe with the claims of another, have been extinguished 
 by double purchases, the benevolent policy of the United States preferring 
 the augmented expense to the hazard of doing injustice, or to the enforce- 
 ment of justice against a feeble and untutored people, by means involving 
 or threatening an effusion of blood. I am happy to add that the tranquillity 
 which has been restored among the tribes themselves, as well as between 
 them and our own population, will favor the resumption of the work of 
 civilization, which had made an encouraging progress among some tribes ; 
 and that the facility is increasing for extending that divided and individual 
 ownership, which exists now in movable property only, to the soil itself ; 
 and of thus establishing, in the culture and improvement of it, the true 
 foundation for a transit from the habits of a savage to the arts and comforts 
 of social life.' 
 
 The doubtful state of the relations between the United States and the 
 dey of Algiers, to which the president alluded in his message, arose either 
 from a strong impulse of the love of extortion in the dey, or from the influ- 
 ence of some foreign personages ; the rising differences were, however, 
 settled by the prudent management of the American consul, Mr. Shaler, 
 and peace has not since been broken on the part of the Algerines. 
 
 Among the incidents of domestic interest which indicate the rapid growth 
 and increasing prosperity of the republic, we may notice the formation of 
 the territory of Indiana into a state, and its admission into the Union ; the 
 progress of canals in various states ; the institution of a national bank ; and 
 the arrival of many thousand emigrants, chiefly from Great Britain. Trea- 
 ties were, during this year, negotiated with the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and 
 Cherokee Indians, ceding large portions of their respective territories to 
 the United States, and acknowledging their tribes to be under the protection 
 of the republic. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MONROE. 
 
 The term of Mr. Madison's administration having expired in the year 
 1S17, James Monroe was inaugurated president, and Daniel D. Tompkins 
 vice-president. In his speech to congress on his inauguration, the presi- 
 dent expresses sentiments in which every true friend to the human race 
 will fully concur. ' It is particularly gratifying to me,' says Mr. Monroe, 
 ' to enter on the discharge of these official duties at a time when the United 
 States are blessed with peace. It is a state most consistent with their pros- 
 perity and happiness. It will be my sincere desire to preserve it, so far as 
 depends on the executive, on just principles, with all nations, claiming no- 
 thing unreasonable of any, and rendering to each what is its due.' 
 
 During this year the republic received another accession by the erection 
 of the territory of Mississippi into a state, and its admission into the Union. 
 By the act of admission it is provided, that the public lands, while belong- 
 ing to the United States, and for five years from the day of sale, shall be 
 exempted from all taxes; that lands belonging to the citizens of the United 
 States residing without the state shall never be taxed higher than lands 
 belonging to persons residing within the state; and that the river Missis- 
 sippi, and the navigable rivers and waters leading into it, or into the gulf 
 of Mexico, shall be common highways, and forever free of toll or duty to 
 96 64* 
 
7G2 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 all the citizens of the United States. In return for this concession, congress 
 provided, that, after paying a debt to Georgia and indemnifying certain 
 claimants, five per cent, of the net proceeds of the public lands lying 
 within the state shall be devoted to the making of roads and canals for the 
 benefit of the state. 
 
 In the summer of this year an expedition was undertaken against East 
 Florida by persons claiming to act under the authority of some of the re- 
 volted Spanish colonies. The leader of this expedition styled himself 
 ' Citizen Gregor M'Gregor, brigadier-general of the armies of the united 
 provinces of New Grenada and Venezuela, and general-in-chief, employed 
 to liberate the provinces of both the Floridas, commissioned by the supreme 
 governments of Mexico and South America.' The persons that combined 
 for this purpose took possession of Amelia island, at the mouth of St. 
 Mary's river, near the boundary of the state of Georgia. The president, 
 apprized of this transaction, ordered an expedition, consisting of naval and 
 land forces, to repel the invaders, and to occupy the island. A squadron, 
 under the command of J. D. Henley, with troops under the command of 
 James Banhead, arrived off Amelia island on the 22d of December, and 
 the next day took possession of it, hoisting the American flag at Fernan- 
 dina. The president, in a message to congress relative to the capture, 
 observed : 'In expelling these adventurers from these posts it was not in- 
 tended to make any conquest from Spain, or to injure, in any degree, the 
 cause of the colonies.' The real reason of the measure seems to have 
 been, that the invasion interfered with endeavors which were then making 
 on the part of the United States to obtain the cession of the Floridas from 
 the Spaniards. 
 
 In the following year the Union received the accession of another state, 
 that of Illinois. At the time of its admission, the government of the Uni- 
 ted States granted to the slate one section or thirty-sixth part of every 
 township for the support of schools, and three per cent, of the net proceeds 
 of the United States' lands lying within the state for the encouragement of 
 learning, of which one-sixth part must be exclusively bestowed on a college 
 or university. The constitution happily provides that no more slaves shall 
 be introduced into the state. In 1S19, the Alabama territory was admitted 
 as a state into the Union ; and the Arkansaw territory was, by an act ot 
 congress, erected into a territorial government. In the following year the 
 district of Maine was separated from Massachusetts, formed into a distinct 
 state, and admitted into the Union. 
 
 During this year the American congress did themselves honor by pro- 
 viding more effectually against carrying on the slave-trade. The enact- 
 ment declared, that if any citizen of the United States, being of the ship's 
 company of any foreign ship or vessel engaged in the slave-trade, or any 
 person whatever being of the crew or ship's company of any ship or vessel 
 owned by, or navigated for, any citizens of the United States, shall on 
 foreign shore seize any negro or mulatto, not held to service or labor by 
 the laws either of the states or territories of the United States, with intent 
 to make him a slave, or shall decoy or forcibly bring or receive him on 
 board with such intent, he shall be adjudged a pirate, and on conviction 
 shall suffer death. 
 
 A treaty for the cession of the Floridas was concluded at Washington, 
 February 22, 1819, between Spain and the United States. In the vear 
 
history. 763 
 
 1321, it was reluctantly ratified by the king of Spain, and possession was 
 ■.aken of those provinces according to the terms of the treaty. On the 1st 
 of July, general Jackson, who had been appointed governor of the Floridas, 
 issued a proclamation, declaring ' that the government heretofore exercised 
 over the said provinces under the authority of Spain has ceased, and that 
 that of the United States of America is established over the same ; that the 
 inhabitants thereof will be incorporated in the union of the United States, 
 as soon as may be consistent with the principles of the federal constitution, 
 and admitted to the enjoyment of all the privileges, rights, and immunities 
 of the citizens of the United States ; that in the mean time they shall be 
 maintained and protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty, property, 
 and the religion they profess ; that all laws and municipal regulations which 
 were in existence at the cessation of the late government remain in full 
 force, and all civil officers charged with their execution,' with certain ex- 
 ceptions and limitations, 'are continued in their functions.' On the 7th of 
 July, the colonel commandant. Don Jose Gallava, commissioner on the part 
 of his Catholic majesty, made to major-general Jackson, the commissioner 
 of the United States, a delivery of the keys of the town of Pensacola, of 
 the archives, documents, and other articles, mentioned in the inventories, 
 declaring that he releases from their oath of allegiance to Spain the citizens 
 and inhabitants of West Florida who may choose to remain under the do- 
 minion of the United States. On the same day, colonel Joseph Coppinger, 
 governor of East Florida, issued a proclamation to the inhabitants, an- 
 nouncing that, on the 10th day of this month, 'possession will be given to 
 colonel Robert Butler, the commissioner legally authorized by the United 
 States.' The American authorities were accordingly put in possession of 
 the Floridas. 
 
 During this year Missouri was admitted as a state into the Union, form- 
 ing the eleventh state added to the thirteen confederated states which sign- 
 ed the declaration of independence, making the present number of the 
 United States twenty-four. The proposition for the admission of this 
 state, which was brought forward in the session of 1819, produced vehe- 
 ment discussion in the congress, and excited an intense interest throughout 
 the whole Union. The inhabitants of Missouri, the territory having been 
 considered as a part of Louisiana, had derived from their connection with 
 the Spaniards and French the custom, which they deemed equivalent to 
 the right, of possessing slaves ; it was proposed, however, in admitting the 
 territory to the privileges of a state, to prevent the increase and to insure 
 the ultimate abolition of slavery, by the insertion of the following clause : 
 ' Provided, that the further introduction of slavery or involuntary servitude 
 be prohibited, except for the punishment of crimes whereof the party shall 
 have been duly convicted ; and that all the children born within the said 
 state after the admission thereof into the Union shall be free at the age of 
 twenty-five years.' Judging from the previous views and measures of the 
 general government, in similar and analogous cases, it could hardly have 
 been conjectured, that the result of proposing such a limited and qualified 
 restriction would be doubtful. The house of representatives, after a short 
 but animated debate, refused to pass the bill without the restriction ; but the 
 senate refused to pass the bill with it ; consequently the bill itself was lost, 
 and Missouri still continued under her former territorial government. 
 
 Such was the rapidity with which the several proceedings passed in the 
 
764 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 two houses of congress, that it was scarcely known beyond its walls that 
 such a question was agitated, before it was decided. When, however, it 
 came to be generally known what principles had been advanced, what 
 votes had been given, with what ardor and vehemence the advocates of 
 slavery had urged their demands, not merely upon the justice, the reason, 
 and good sense of congress, but upon their interests, their prejudices, and 
 their fears, by how slender a majority a measure had been checked, which, 
 in the estimation of many of the best friends of American liberty, would 
 have been productive of incalculable and interminable mischiefs, it excited 
 a feeling of universal surprise and alarm. It is instructive to observe that 
 many of the staunchest advocates of liberal ideas, who delighted in appro- 
 priating to themselves exclusively the name of republicans, suffered their 
 jealousy of the interference of the congress in the internal goverment of an 
 individual state to engage them on the side of the perpetuators of slavery. 
 Jefferson, who prided himself in being the devoted friend of liberty, thus 
 expresses himself: 'The real question, as seen in the states afflicted with 
 this unfortunate population, is, are our slaves to be presented with freedom 
 and a dagger? For, if congress has the power to regulate the conditions 
 of the inhabitants of the states within the states, it will be but another ex- 
 ercise of that power to declare that all shall be free. Are we then to see 
 again Athenian and Lacedemonian confederacies ? to wage another Pelo- 
 ponnesian war to settle the ascendency between them ? Or is this the 
 tocsin of merely a servile war ? That remains to be seen ; but not, I hope, 
 by you or me. Surely they will parley awhile, and give us time to get out 
 of the way.'^ The consequence of this combination was the passing of the 
 bill for the admission of Missouri in the next session of the congress, with- 
 out the restricting clause. 
 
 No circumstances of particular interest in the transactions of the general 
 government occurred till the year 1S24, when articles of a convention be- 
 tween the United States of America and Great Britain for the suppression 
 of the African slave-trade were subscribed at London by plenipotentiaries 
 appointed for that purpose. By the first article, the commanders and com- 
 missioned officers of each of the two high contracting parties, duly author- 
 ized by their respective governments to cruise on the coasts of Africa, 
 America, and the West Indies, for the suppression of the slave-trade, are 
 empowered, under certain restrictions, to detain, examine, capture, and 
 deliver over for trial and adjudication by some competent tribunal, any 
 ship or vessel concerned in the illicit traffic of slaves, and carrying the 
 flag of the other. 
 
 In the spring of this year a convention was also concluded between the 
 United States of America and the emperor of Russia. By the third article 
 of this convention it was agreed, ' that, hereafter, there shall not be formed 
 by the citizens of the United States, or under the authority of the said 
 states, any establishment upon the northern [north-west] coast of America, 
 nor in any of the islands adjacent, to the north of fifty-four degrees and 
 forty minutes of north latitude ; and that, in the same manner, there shall 
 be none formed by Russian subjects, or under the authority of Russia, 
 south of the same parallel.' 
 
 This year is signalized in American history by the visit of the venerable 
 
 * Memoirs, vol. iv. p. 347. 
 
HISTORY. 765 
 
 la Fayette, on the express invitation of congress. He arrived in the har- 
 bor of New York on the 13th of August, and proceeded to the residence 
 of the vice-president at Staten island. A committee of the corporation of 
 the city of New York, and a great number of distinguished citizens, pro- 
 ceeded to Staten island to welcome him to their capital. A splendid 
 escort of steam-boats, decorated with the flags of every nation, and bearing 
 thousands of citizens, brought him to the view of assembled multitudes at 
 New York, who manifested their joy at beholding him, by acclamations 
 and by tears. At the city hall the officers of the city and many citizens 
 were presented to him; and he was welcomed by an address from the 
 mayor. While he was at New York, deputations from Philadelphia, Bal- 
 timore, New Haven, and from many other cities, arrived with invitations 
 for him to visit them. After remaining a few days at New York, he pro- 
 ceeded to Boston, where he met with the same cordial reception. The 
 general soon after returned to New York, visited Albany and the towns 
 on Hudson's river, and afterwards passed through the intermediate states 
 to Virginia. He returned to Washington during the session of congress, 
 and remained there several weeks. Congress voted him the sum of two 
 hundred thousand dollars, and a township of land, as a remuneration, in 
 part, of his services during the war of the revolution, and as a testimony 
 of their gratitude. 
 
 In the year 1825, John Quincy Adams was inaugurated president of 
 the United States, and John C. Calhoun, vice-president. In his speech to 
 congress the president took a retrospective view to the epoch of the confe- 
 deration. ' The year of jubilee since the first formation of our union,' 
 observed Mr. Adams, ' has just elapsed; that of*the declaration of our 
 independence is at hand. Since that period, a population of four millions 
 has multiplied to twelve. A territory bounded by the Mississippi has 
 been extended from sea to sea. New states have been admitted to the 
 Union, in numbers nearly equal to those of the first confederation. Trea- 
 ties of peace, amity, and commerce, have been concluded with the princi- 
 pal dominions of the earth. The people of other nations, inhabitants of 
 regions acquired, not by conquest, but by compact, have been united with 
 us in the participation of our rights and duties, of our burdens and bles- 
 sings.' Having noticed the progress of agriculture and of settlements, of 
 commerce and arts, of liberty and law, Mr. Adams thus sketches the features 
 of the administration of the preceding president : ' In his career of eight 
 years, the internal taxes have been repealed ; sixty millions of public debt 
 have been discharged ; provision has been made for the comfort and relief 
 of the aged and indigent among the surviving warriors of the revolution ; 
 the regular armed force has been reduced, and the constitution revised and 
 perfected ; the accountability for the expenditure of public moneys has 
 been made more effective ; the Floridas have been peaceably acquired, 
 and our boundary has been extended to the Pacific ocean ; the indepen- 
 dence of the southern nations of this hemisphere has been recognised, and 
 recommended, by example and by counsel, to the potentates of Europe; 
 progress has been made in the defence of the country, by fortifications and 
 the increase of the navy; towards the effectual suppression of the African 
 traffic in slaves ; in alluring the aboriginal hunters of our land to the culti- 
 vation of the soil and of the mind ; in exploring the interior regions of the 
 Union ; and in preparing, by scientific researches and surveys, for the fur- 
 
766 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ther application of our national resources to the internal improvement of 
 our country. In this brief outline of the promise and performance of my 
 predecessor, the line of duty for his successor is clearly delineated. To 
 pursue to their consummation those purposes of improvement in our com- 
 mon condition instituted or recommended by him, will embrace the whole 
 sphere of my obligations.' 
 
 The transactions between the United States and the Indian tribes have 
 occasioned considerable discussion among the philanthropists of both the 
 new and the old world ; we shall, therefore, notice the treaties which were 
 formed somewhat particularly. In February, a treaty was concluded with 
 the Creek nation of Indians. The commissioners on the part of the United 
 States represented to the Creeks, that it is the policy and wish of the gene- 
 ral government, that the several Indian tribes within the limits of any of 
 the states of the Union should remove to territory to be designated on the 
 west side of the Mississippi river, as well for the better protection and 
 security of the said tribes, and their improvement in civilization, as for 
 the purpose of enabling the United States, in this instance, to comply with 
 a compact entered into with the state of Georgia, on the 24th of April, 
 1802. The chiefs of the Creek towns assented to the reasonableness of 
 the proposition, and expressed a willingness to emigrate beyond the Mis- 
 sissippi, those of Tokaubatchee excepted. The Creeks accordingly, by 
 the first article of the treaty, ceded to the United States all the lands within 
 the boundaries of the state of Georgia. now occupied by them, or to which 
 they have title or claim, lying within certain described boundaries ; and 
 by the second it was agreed, that the United States will give in exchange 
 for the lands hereby acquired the like quantity, acre for acre, westward of 
 the Mississippi, on the Arkansas river. Other stipulations favorable to 
 the equitable claims of the emigrating parties were made ; particularly 
 that a deputation may be sent to explore the territory herein offered them 
 in exchange ; and if the same be not acceptable to them, then they may 
 select any other territory west of the Mississippi, on Red, Canadian, Ar- 
 kansas, or Missouri rivers, the territory occupied by the Cherokees and 
 Choctaws excepted ; and if the territory to be selected shall be in the occu- 
 pancy of other Indian tribes, then the United States will extinguish the 
 title of such occupants for the benefit of the said emigrants. 
 
 The Kansas Indians, by treaty, ceded to the United States all their 
 lands both within and without the limits of Missouri, excepting a reserva- 
 tion beyond that state on the Kansas river, about thirty miles square, in- 
 cluding their villages. In consideration of this cession, the United States 
 agreed to pay three thousand five hundred dollars a year for twenty years; 
 to furnish the Kansas immediately with three hundred head of cattle, three 
 hundred hogs, five hundred fowls, three yoke of oxen, and two carts, and 
 with such farming utensils as the Indian superintendent may deem neces- 
 sary ; to provide and support a blacksmith for them ; and to employ per- 
 sons to aid and instruct them in their agricultural pursuits, as the president 
 may deem expedient. Of the ceded lands, thirty-six sections on the Big 
 Blue river were to be laid out under the direction of the president, and 
 sold for the support of schools among the Kansas. Reservations were also 
 made for the benefit of certain half-breeds ; and other stipulations mutually 
 satisfactory. It was also agreed, that no private revenge shall be taken 
 by the Indians for the violation of their rights ; but that they shall make 
 
HISTORY. 767 
 
 their complaint to the superintendent or other agent, and receive justice in 
 a due course of law ; and it was lastly agreed, that the Kansas nation 
 shall never dispose of their lands without the consent of the United States, 
 and that the United States shall always have the free right of navigation 
 in the waters of the Kansas. 
 
 A treaty was also concluded with the Great and Little Osages, at St. 
 Louis, Missouri. The general principles of this treaty are the same as 
 those of the treaty with the Kansas. The Indians cede all their lands in 
 Arkansas and elsewhere, and then reserve a defined territory, west of the 
 Missouri line, fifty miles square ; an agent to be permitted to reside on the 
 reservation, and the United States to have the right of free navigation in 
 all the waters on the tract. The United States pay an annuity of seven 
 thousand dollars for twenty years; furnish forthwith six hundred head of 
 cattle, six hundred hogs, one thousand fowls, ten yoke of oxen, six carts, 
 with farming utensils, persons to teach the Indians agriculture, and a 
 blacksmith, and build a commodious dwelling-house for each of the four 
 principal chiefs, at his own village. Reservations were made for the 
 establishment of a fund for the support of schools for the benefit of the 
 Osage children ; and provision was made for the benefit of the Harmony 
 missionary establishment. The United States also assume certain debts 
 due from certain chiefs of the tribes ; and agree to deliver at the Osage 
 villages, as soon as may be, four thousand dollars in merchandise, and two 
 thousand six hundred in horses and their equipments. 
 
 In May a general convention of peace, amity, navigation, and commerce, 
 between the United States of America and the republic of Colombia, was 
 signed by the president, at Washington. • 
 
 The fiftieth anniversary, the jubilee, as it was termed, of American inde- 
 pendence, was observed throughout the states with great enthusiasm, and 
 was rendered additionally interesting by the remarkable circumstance that 
 both Adams and Jefferson, eminent men among the fathers of their country, 
 died on that day. 
 
 The opposition to the administration of Mr. Adams gained strength and 
 development by daily increase, and numerous parties combined for its 
 support or overthrow in various parts of the country. These parties were 
 generally of a geographical character, and in the nineteenth congress it 
 was usually found that the representatives from the southern, took sides 
 directly opposed to those from the northern and western states. A reso- 
 lution was expressed in some quarters to put down the administration at 
 every hazard, no matter what might be its policy, its integrity, or its 
 success. The cry of corruption was re-echoed by office seekers, and the 
 more desperate portion of the oppositionists, till it began to gain currency 
 with the public, and proved sufficient to secure the downfall of the admi- 
 nistration against which it was raised. 
 
 The Panama mission was a fruitful subject of clamor and opposition. 
 It was stigmatized as imprudent, unnecessary, at variance with our true 
 and prevailing policy, and pregnant with peril. Charges of extravagance 
 in expenditures were next brought against the heads of the government, 
 and resolutions were introduced in congress, intimating that the executive 
 patronage was too large, and ought to be diminished. The assertion of 
 the president of his constitutional authority to appoint, during the vaca- 
 tion of congress, diplomatic agents to transact the foreign business of the 
 
768 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 country, was represented as the assumption of an undelegated power. 
 Every opportunity was seized to represent the policy of the federal authori- 
 ties as tending towards consolidation, and as indicating a disposition for 
 an expensive and magnificent scheme of government. 
 
 In conformity with the views of the opposition, a nomination for the 
 next presidency was immediately made, and in October, 1825, the legisla- 
 ture of Tennessee recommended general Jackson to the suffrages of the 
 people of the United States for the highest office in their gift. The nomi- 
 nation he formally accepted, in an address delivered before both houses of 
 the legislature of that state, in which he resigned his seat in the senate. 
 In this address he plainly intimated his dissatisfaction at the result of the 
 late presidential election, and a willingness to sanction an opposition to 
 the administration on the ground of its corrupt origin. This same ground 
 had been taken by the adherents of the vice-president in the discussion of 
 Mr. M'Duffie's proposed amendment of the constitution in the first ses- 
 sion of the nineteenth congress. The public mind was irritated and 
 exasperated by these charges, which were diffused with an industry and 
 ^eal to be paralleled only by their baseness. Accusation and recrimina- 
 tion became frequent and passionate, and the most bitter and indignant 
 feelings took place of the tranquillity that had so long reigned in the politi- 
 cal world. 
 
 At length the charge of corruption was brought from a responsible 
 quarter, and an investigation ensued, which resulted in the complete ac- 
 quittal of the parties accused. Directly after the adjournment of the 
 eighteenth congress, a letter appeared, bearing date the 8th of March, 
 1825, purporting to relate a conversation with general Jackson, in which 
 he said that a proposition had been made to him by Mr. Clay's friends 
 to secure his election to the presidency, on condition that Mr. Adams 
 should not continue as secretary of state. This proposition was said to 
 have been indignantly repelled. A correspondence immediately ensued 
 on this subject between Mr. Beverly, the author of the letter in question, 
 and general Jackson, in which an account of the negotiation alluded to 
 was given at length, and the general disclaimed making any charge against 
 Mr. Clay, and denied having accused him of being privy to the commu- 
 nication. Testimony was now produced by Mr. Clay and his friends, 
 which completely refuted the charge of bargain, and hurled it with scorn 
 in the teeth of his enemies. It was proved beyond a question that in 
 voting for Mr. Adams in the house of representatives, Mr. Clay and his 
 friends had acted with entire consistency, and that any other course would 
 have indeed laid them open to the charge of gross and palpable violation 
 of the principles they had always professed in relation to the election. 
 But the accusation had been made to answer the purpose for which it was 
 framed, and the opposition to the administration had found a permanent 
 basis to build upon. 
 
 Mr. Adams continued to act on the principles which he had professed 
 in his inaugural speech, of administering the government without regard 
 to the distinctions of party. In the distribution of offices he asked merely 
 as to the qualifications of the candidates, not of their political opinions. 
 No one suffered by that ruthless policy, which bears so close a resemblance 
 to the proscription of the Roman emperors ; the one striking at life itself, 
 the other at the means of life. It is difficult to say which of the two is 
 
HISTORY. 759 
 
 the more cruel, but they are surely equally unjust and vindictive. The 
 system which makes the presidential chair a mere scramble for office, and 
 the chief executive of the nation a dispenser of loaves and fishes to political 
 adherents, is too mean, narrow, and contemptible, not to be subversive of 
 all the best purposes of government, and must end in the subversion of 
 government itself. The political forum is converted into an arena of battle, 
 and the first moments of victory are sacred to spoil, devastation, and rapine. 
 The lust of gold stifles the cry of mercy, and all the rules of honorable 
 warfare are violated in the fierceness and vindictiveness of triumph. 
 Office holders should be content with fulfilling the duties of their respec- 
 tive stations, and not consider themselves in the light of mere partisans, 
 rewarded for upholding a particular man or set of men. The people pay 
 them for a different service. Mr. Adams regarded this subject in its true 
 bearings, and he acted in it with the stern and fearless integrity which has 
 marked the whole course of his political life. Regardless of consequences, 
 he was perhaps often injudicious in the diffusion of executive patronage, 
 and sometimes furnished the enemy with artillery to be employed in the 
 destruction of his own citadel. 
 
 But however the efforts of the opposition might embarrass the move- 
 ments of the administration, they could not retard the rapid progress of the 
 country in wealth and prosperity. The great works of internal improve- 
 ment contemplated by the act of April, 1824, were prosecuted with great 
 spirit and vigor. Many routes for roads and canals were surveyed, and 
 a great mass of topographical knowledge was thus collected at Washington. 
 The attention of the general government was also directed to many other 
 subjects of internal improvement, such as the navigation of several im- 
 portant rivers, building lighthouses, piers, and removing obstructions from 
 bays and harbors. The navigation of the Mississippi and Ohio was much 
 improved during this year, by the removal of snags and other impediments 
 from their channels. An impulse was thus given to the efforts of the 
 state governments, and canals and roads were laid out in various direc- 
 tions. Manufacturing establishments flourished with great vigor, and 
 gave proofs of becoming lasting sources of wealth and employment to the 
 national industry. In the year ending September 30, 182(3, the value of 
 domestic manufactures exported amounted to five millions eight hundred 
 and fifty-two thousand seven hundred and thirty-three dollars, of which 
 one million one hundred and thirty-eight thousand one hundred and 
 twenty-five dollars consisted of cotton piece goods. The increase of ton- 
 nage in the United States during 1826, was one hundred eleven thousand 
 and seventy-nine tons, being double the increase of any one of the preced- 
 ing twelve years. In conformity with the plan proposed for the settlement 
 of the remaining tribes of the aborigines on the west of the Mississippi, 
 provision was made for the removal thither of such Indians as were dis- 
 posed to emigrate. Fourteen hundred Shawnees, and about seven hundred 
 Creeks, removed in this manner to spots selected by themselves. The 
 Cherokees refused to cede another foot of land, notwithstanding the efforts 
 made by the general government to procure such a cession of territory as 
 would satisfy the claims of Georgia. The north-western Indians now 
 gave hostile indications, and attacked and murdered some American citi- 
 zens ; but by the prompt measures adopted by governor Cass, the murder- 
 ers were given up and tranquillity again restored. 
 
 97 65 
 
770 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Congress having adjourned without passing any law for the purpose of 
 meeting the restrictive measures of the British government in respect to 
 v the colonial trade, the president issued a proclamation, dated March 17th, 
 closing the ports of the United States against vessels from the British 
 colonies, which had been opened by the act of 1822. By this measure the 
 British restrictions were completely reciprocated, and the president was 
 sustained in it by public opinion. 
 
 The second session of the nineteenth congress commenced on the 4th 
 of December, 1826, when the two houses were organized in the usual 
 manner. The message of the president on this occasion gave a clear 
 account of our foreign relations, and made particular reference to the 
 controversy with Great Britain on the colonial trade. The death of the 
 emperor Alexander of Russia was mentioned in terms which the friendly 
 feelings displayed by that monarch towards this country seemed to require. 
 Our commercial connections with France and the Netherlands were repre- 
 sented to be placed on a more favorable basis than at the commencement 
 of the preceding congress. In the post-office there had been received dur- 
 ing the year a surplus of eighty thousand dollars above the expenditures. 
 The revenue was sufficiently large to authorize the application of seven 
 millions sixty-seven thousand and thirty-nine dollars to the reduction of 
 the public debt, and three millions nine hundred and forty-four thousand 
 three hundred and fifty-nine dollars to the payment of interest. A system 
 was recommended for the permanent increase of the navy ; the unsettled 
 land claims in Florida and Louisiana; the works of internal improvement, 
 reported by the board of engineers ; and the attention of congress was 
 particularly called to the irregularities of the Brazilian and Buenos-Ayrean 
 squadrons towards neutral flags. The estimates of appropriations for the 
 different departments of the government were submitted with the message ; 
 and a system of cavalry tactics prepared during the summer under the 
 direction of the war department. " These were the most important topics 
 suggested by the message. 
 
 The Creek controversy, which might have been considered as happily 
 settled by the treaty of 22d of April, was still to continue a subject of 
 excitement. Instead of waiting till the tribes had removed from their 
 ceded lands, governor Troup ordered the surveyors employed by him to 
 enter the Indian territories and commence the surveys, previous to the 
 time prescribed by the treaty for the removal. The Indians resisted these 
 encroachments, and the governor ordered out a force of militia. In this- 
 posture of affairs, the president determined to support the laws of the Union 
 by the authority which the constitution had placed in his hands, previously 
 submitting the affair to congress, to have it determined whether it were 
 necessary to resort to any new measures. On the 5th of February he 
 transmitted to both houses of congress a message, in which he gave a plain 
 statement of the facts, and declared his determination to enforce the laws, 
 and fulfil the duties of the nation by all the force committed for that pur- 
 pose to his charge. ' That the arm of military force will be resorted to 
 only in the event of the failure of all other expedients provided by the 
 laws, a pledge has been given by the forbearance to employ it at this time. 
 It is submitted to the wisdom of congress to determine, whether any fur- 
 ther acts of legislation may be necessary or expedient to meet the emer- 
 gency which these transactions may produce*' 
 
HISTORY. 771 
 
 Great excitement was displayed in both houses on the receipt of this 
 message. The committee of the representatives, to which it was referred, 
 reported that it ' is expedient to procure a cession of the Indian lands in 
 the state of Georgia, and that until such a cession is procured, the law of 
 the land, as set forth in the treaty at Washington, ouijht to be maintained 
 by all necessary, constitutional, and legal means.' The firmness of the 
 president brought the governor of Georgia to reason, and he addressed a 
 letter to the delegation of that state at Washington, submitting to the de- 
 cision of congress, and denying any intention of a resort to force, except 
 the sovereignty of the state came into collision with the United States. 
 A cession of the Creek land in Georgia was finally procured, and the dis- 
 pute in respect to this portion of the Indian territory was put at rest. 
 
 A bill for an additional protection on woollens was agitated during this 
 session, and finally laid on the table by the casting vote of the vice-presi- 
 dent. The defeat of this measure occasioned much discussion in all parts 
 of the Union, and stimulated the friends of this branch of industry to re- 
 newed exertions. In Pennsylvania a state convention was proposed, to 
 choose delegates to attend a general convention at Harrisburg on the 30th 
 of July, 1S27. Other states answered with alacrity to this invitation, and 
 a meeting was held at the appointed time, of delegates in the highest de- 
 gree respectable in point of talent, weight of character, and dignity of 
 standing. The reports of their committees, on various subjects connected 
 with domestic industry, exhibited the importance and the necessity of in- 
 creased protection, and a memorial to congress, drawn up in conformity 
 with these views, was unanimously adopted. These proceedings were 
 received in the southern states with much dissatisfaction. They were 
 represented as at war with their best interests, and with the spirit of the 
 constitution. No means were omitted to raise a strong excitement in the 
 community, in opposition to all increase of the woollen duty ; but at the 
 time of the twentieth congress, the public mind was more and more im- 
 pressed with the opinion that effectual measures would be resorted to for 
 the relief of this branch of national industry. 
 
 We have not room for a detailed account of the various measures of 
 Mr. Adams' administration. During the whole of it the United States 
 enjoyed uninterrupted peace ; for the foreign policy of the government 
 had nothing in view but the maintenance of our national dignity, the ex- 
 tension of our commercial relations, and the successful prosecution of the 
 claims of American citizens upon foreign governments. 
 
 A portion of these claims upon Sweden and Denmark was obtained, 
 and the claims which arose against the Brazilian government, during the 
 war between that power and Buenos Ayres, were speedily adjusted by the 
 liquidation of the claims. The exorbitant pretensions of Great Britain 
 respecting the West India trade were resisted, although at the expense of 
 the direct trade between the United States and the British islands. 
 
 The difficulties which occurred in carrying into effect the treaty of 
 Ghent, relative to deported slaves, and other property taken away, having 
 been found insurmountable, the sum of ofie million two hundred and four 
 thousand nine hundred and sixty dollars, which was amply sufficient, was 
 obtained from the British government in satisfaction of these claims. A 
 convention was also concluded with that government, and a mode provided 
 for the peaceable settlement of the long pending and finally threatening 
 
772 BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 dispute concerning the north-east boundary of the United States. The 
 treaty of commerce between the United States and Great Britain, and the 
 convention effecting a temporary compromise of their conflicting claims to 
 the territory west of the Rocky mountains, both of which expired by their 
 own limitation, October 20th, 182S, were renewed for an indefinite period, 
 with liberty to either party to terminate them, on giving one year's notice. 
 Some commercial difficulties, which grew out of an adherence of the go- 
 vernment of the Netherlands to the principles of discriminating duties, 
 were adjusted to mutual satisfaction. New treaties of amity, navigation, 
 and commerce, in which the liberal principles maintained by the United 
 States, in her commercial and foreign policy, were generally recognised, 
 were concluded with Colombia, Austria, Sweden, Denmark, Guatemala, 
 and the Hanseatic league. 
 
 It was, however, in the domestic policy of the government, that the cha- 
 racter of the administration was most strongly displayed. During its 
 continuance in office, new and increased activity was imparted to those 
 powers vested in the federal government, for the development of the 
 resources of the country ; and the public revenue liberally expended in 
 prosecuting those national measures to which the sanction of congress had 
 been deliberately given, as the settled policy of the government. 
 
 In the condition which we have described, in peace with all the world 
 with an increasing revenue, and with a surplus of five millions one hun- 
 dred and twenty-five thousand six hundred and thirty-eight dollars in the 
 public treasury, the administration of the government of the United States 
 was surrendered by Mr. Adams, who became a private citizen, to general 
 Jackson, his successor. 
 
 Thus ended the administration of Mr. Adams ; an administration marked 
 by definite and consistent policy and energetic councils, governed by up 
 right motives, but from the beginning devoted to the most violent opposi 
 tion and a signal overthrow. The election which terminated in the defea 
 of Mr. Adams was marked with extreme bitterness, asperity, and profligacy. 
 On both sides the press was virulent, libellous, and mean. No privac) 
 was safe, no confidence was sacred ; even the tombs of the illustrious dead 
 were violated, and their ashes defiled. The arts of party warfare were 
 more insidious than the arts of savage treachery, and its arms more ruth- 
 less than the tomahawk or the scalping knife. Calumny and falsehood 
 were the usual resources of the most violent partisans, and the only wea- 
 pons that they never for a moment laid aside. The brave soldier was de- 
 scribed as a malignant savage, and the experienced statesman as a mar- 
 who had purchased by intrigue a position that he was determined to main 
 tain by corruption. It must be most sincerely hoped that an era may nevei 
 again arrive in our history to be stamped so indelibly with the brand of 
 shame ; that public opinion will ever require of the public press a more- 
 decent regard to the charities of life and the duties of truth. 
 
 We will not undertake a sketch of the administration of president Jack- 
 son. The events of his rule are not yet ripe for the historian. His mea- 
 sures have not yet produced their full results. His policy has not yet 
 compassed its complete development. There is too much party feeling 
 and party prejudice for and against the chief magistrate, to permit or 
 justify such a sketch as would suit the purpose of the present volume. All 
 the readers of this work are too familiar with the details of this adminis- 
 
HISTORY. 773 
 
 tration to desire so meagre an account of them as could be crowded into 
 the end of a volume. We cannot close this volume, however, without 
 avowing that our researches have led us to the conviction, that the United 
 States have reached a measure of prosperity, both individual and national, 
 never before witnessed on so extensive a scale. It cannot be denied that 
 there exist in them a real and substantial equality of civil and political 
 rights ; a general diffusion, not only of the necessaries, but of the comforts 
 of life ; a high degree of mental activity, animating the mass of society; 
 not only the facility of acquiring, but the actual attainment, of practical 
 knowledge ; and enterprises of internal improvement which surpass in 
 extent and importance those of the richest nations on the globe ; thirteen 
 millions of inhabitants, governed, or rather governing themselves, and pre- 
 serving a state of order and subordination to legal authority, almost with- 
 out military aid, and, what will surprise some still more, almost without 
 taxes, while empires ruled on despotic principles, whose peculiar boast is 
 the adaptation of their system to promote internal peace and tranquillity, 
 are as much exposed to domestic convulsions as they are to foreign war ; 
 and, finally, a rapidity in the advance of population, and of improvement 
 in all the arts of life and society, alike unprecedented in the past, and 
 baffling all conjecture for the future. 
 
775 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 For the purpose of presenting a general 
 statement of the present resources of the 
 United States, in the most important de- 
 partments, we present a condensed summa- 
 ry of the reports of the secretaries of the 
 genera] government, with tabular views. 
 
 WAR DEPARTMENT. 
 
 November 27, 1834. 
 
 Since my last annual report, no military 
 movement of any importance, with the ex- 
 ception of the expedition of the regiment 
 of dragoons, has been rendered necessary. 
 The reports and information which have 
 reached the department respecting the situ- 
 ation of the army are highly gratifying. 
 In its discipline, its moral character, and 
 the general performance of its duties, the 
 government and the country have every 
 reason to be satisfied with its condition and 
 prospects. As a safeguard for the frontiers, 
 as a school of practical instruction, as a 
 depository of military information, and as 
 the means of preparing and providing in 
 peace for the exigencies of war, the present 
 military establishment has fully answered 
 the objects of its organization and support. 
 And it is but an act of justice to state, that, 
 in all the essential requisites of capacity 
 and conduct, the officers of the American 
 army do honor to themselves and their coun- 
 try. 
 
 It is well known, that some of the western 
 tribes of Indians, roaming through the ex- 
 tensive prairies west of Arkansas and Mis- 
 souri, particularly the Camanches and Kio- 
 was, have, for some years, interrupted the 
 peace of that quarter, by predatory attacks 
 upon our citizens and upon the indigenous 
 and emigrant Indians, whom we are under 
 obligations to protect. Their war parties 
 have annoyed our citizens in their inter- 
 course with the Mexican states, and have 
 rendered the communication difficult and 
 hazardous. It became necessary to put a 
 stop to this state of things, either by amica- 
 ble representations or by force. Those re- 
 mote tribes have little knowledge of the 
 strength of the United States, or of their 
 own relative weakness ; and it was hoped 
 that the display of a respectable military 
 
 force, for the first time, in their country, 
 would satisfy ihem that further hostilities 
 would lead to their destruction. The dra- 
 goons, being peculiarly adapted to this ser- 
 vice, were ordered to penetrate into that 
 region, and to endeavor, by peaceable re- 
 monstrances, to establish permanent tran- 
 quillity ; and if these should fail, to repel 
 any hostile demonstrations which might be 
 made. Fortunately, the efforts to introduce 
 amicable relations were successful, and the 
 object of the expedition was obtained, with- 
 out a single act of hostility. Colonel Dodge, 
 who led the expedition, and his whole com- 
 mand, appear to have performed their du- 
 ties in the most satisfactory manner ; and 
 they encountered with firmness the priva- 
 tions incident to the harassing service up- 
 on which they were ordered. It is to be 
 regretted that the prevalence of sickness 
 prevented the whole regiment from joining 
 in this duty, as the same zeal for the public 
 interest pervaded the whole. That sickness 
 deprived the country of some valuable lives, 
 and, among others, of brigadier-general 
 Leavenworth. Impelled by his anxiety to 
 forward the views of the government, he 
 exposed himself, while yet weak, to the 
 hardships of a border campaign, and sunk 
 under the malady which these induced. 
 His high personal character, his services 
 during the late war, and his exemplary offi- 
 cial conduct since, are too well known to 
 you to require from me any thing more 
 than this brief allusion to his worth and 
 fate. 
 
 Among the accompanying documents 
 will be found a full statement of the pro- 
 ceedings of colonel Dodge, and of the satis- 
 factory result of his expedition. 
 
 The report of the chief engineer contains 
 a summary of the various objects intrusted 
 to his supervision, and of their progress and 
 condition. It will be seen that the Cumber- 
 land road, east of Wheeling, will be soon 
 completed, in the manner required by an 
 act of last session, and for the amount al- 
 lowed by law. No further appropriations 
 will be asked for. As much progress has 
 been made in the other works as the ad- 
 vanced state of the season when the appro- 
 priations were made would permit. 
 
776 
 
 APPEMLiX. 
 
 I beg leave to ask your particular atten- 
 tion to that part of the report of the chief 
 engineer which recommends an addition to 
 the number of officers of his corps. I be- 
 lieve the public service requires this mea- 
 sure. Similar reasons call for a reorgani- 
 zation of the topographical corps, and the 
 officer at the head of it has submitted a 
 prujet for this purpose which, while it will 
 render that corps more efficient, will not 
 increase the public expense. 
 
 The present condition of the work at the 
 Delaware breakwater is shown in the re- 
 port of the quartermaster-general, and in 
 that of the commission lately instituted by 
 your orders to examine it. It has been 
 known for some time that gradual deposi- 
 tions were making in the vicinity of this 
 work, by which the depth of water was 
 somewhat reduced. But, until this season, 
 the process was so slow and uncertain, that 
 no anxiety was felt with respect to its final 
 effect upon this great national improve- 
 ment. Recently, however, the accumula- 
 tion of sand in the artificial harbor has been 
 much more rapid, and indicated the neces- 
 sity of a thorough examination by scientific 
 persons, in order to ascertain, if possible, 
 the causes of this occurrence, and to check 
 or obviate them. The views of the officers 
 selected for this purpose will be found in 
 their report ; and, agreeably to your direc- 
 tions, they have been adopted by the de- 
 partment. An estimate for one hundred 
 thousand dollars, to be applied to this work, 
 is among the annual estimates of the de- 
 partment, and if approved by congress, that 
 sum will be appropriated in the manner 
 pointed out by the report, to the completion 
 of that part of the work already begun, and 
 yet unfinished. In the mean time, by a 
 series of observations, frequently and care- 
 fully taken, the probable operation of the 
 tides and currents may be ascertained, and 
 the best remedy to counteract them pointed 
 out. 
 
 The act of March 2, 1829, ' to continue 
 the present mode of supplying the army of 
 the United States,' expires, by its own limi- 
 tation, on the 2d of March next. The sub- 
 sistence department, which was continued 
 by this act, has been found highly useful 
 to the army, and beneficial to the public, 
 by the efficiency and economy of its admi- 
 nistration. From my own knowledge of its 
 officers and operations, as well as from 
 what I have otherwise learned of these, I 
 feel called upon to present this subject par- 
 ticularly to your attention, satisfied that 
 the continuance of the department is- de- 
 manded by the best interest of the service. 
 
 Disclosures have been made during the 
 
 past season, showiig the necessity of a 
 thorough investigation into the operatioD of 
 the laws granting pensions and gratuities 
 for military services. It is ascertained 
 that many frauds have been committed ; 
 some in the application for pensions, and 
 others in the continuance of these payments. 
 As these disclosures have been the result of 
 accident, it is impossible to judge to what 
 extent frauds may have been committed ; 
 but enough has occurred to satisfy me that 
 some new mode of proceeding is essentially 
 necessary to detect and check these abuses. 
 The provision of law for the establish- 
 ment of a pension office as a branch of this 
 department, expires, by its own limitation, 
 at the end of the present session of con- 
 gress. It is essential to a due execution of 
 the duties connected with the system of 
 pensions and gratuities for military servi- 
 ces, that this arrangement should be re- 
 newed and continued. The applicants and 
 grantees are so numerous; the aggregate 
 amount disbursed so great, equalling at 
 least three million two hundred thousand 
 dollars annually; and the doubtful ques- 
 tions, both of fact and principle, so fre- 
 quent and complicated, that unless a 
 branch of administration, carefully super- 
 intended, is devoted exclusively to this ser- 
 vice, the public interest must materially 
 suffer. 
 
 The commission for the adjustment of 
 unsettled relations with the Indians west 
 of the Mississippi terminated, by the pro- 
 visions of the act instituting it, in July last. 
 Important benefits have resulted from the 
 labors of the commissioners in the adjust- 
 ment of difficult questions connected with 
 the Indians of that region, and in the treaty 
 arrangements which have been entered into 
 by them. The country assigned for the 
 permanent residence of the eastern Indians 
 has been so apportioned among them, that 
 little difficulty is anticipated from conflicting 
 claims, or from doubtful boundaries ; and, 
 both in quality and extent, there can be no 
 doubt but that the region allotted to them 
 will be amply sufficient for their comforta- 
 ble subsistence during an indefinite period 
 of time. 
 
 An important council has been held at 
 fort Gibson by colonel Dodge, and by major 
 Armstrong, the superintendent of Indian 
 affairs, with the chiefs of several of the 
 tribes of that quarter, including some of 
 the wandering bands, whose predatory ope- 
 rations have heretofore kept the frontier in 
 ! alarm. At this council, the situation of 
 the Indians was fully discussed, and arnica- 
 ' ble relations established. It is to be hoped 
 ] that the feelings with which they separated 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 777 
 
 ■will be permanent, and their intercourse 
 hereafter uninterrupted. 
 
 The acts of the last session of congress, 
 on the subject of Indian affairs, have intro- 
 duced important changes into those rela- 
 tions. Many of the provisions of former 
 laws had become inappropriate, or inade- 
 quate, and not suited to the changes which 
 time and circumstances had made. In the 
 act regulating the intercourse with the va- 
 rious tribes, the principles of intercommu- 
 nication with them are laid dow r n, and the 
 necessary details provided. In that for the 
 reorganization of the department, the num- 
 ber of officers employed has been much re- 
 duced, and the current expenses diminished. 
 
 The system of removal has changed es- 
 sentially the prospects of the emigrants, and 
 has imposed new obligations upon the Uni- 
 ted States. A vast tract of country, con- 
 taining much more than one hundred mil- 
 lions of acres, has been set apart for the 
 permanent residence of these Indians, and 
 already about thirty thousand have been* 
 removed to it. The government is under 
 treaty stipulations to remove nearly fifty 
 thousand others to the same region, includ- 
 ing the Illinois and lake Michigan Indians, 
 with whom a conditional arrangement has 
 been made. This extensive district, em- 
 bracing a great variety of soil and climate, 
 has been divided among the several tribes, 
 and definite boundaries assigned to each. 
 They will there be brought into juxtaposi- 
 tion with one another, and also into con- 
 tact, and possibly imto collision with the na- 
 tive tribes of that country ; and it seems 
 highly desirable that some plan should be 
 adapted for the regulation of the intercourse 
 among these divided communities, and for 
 the exercise of a general power of supervi- 
 sion over them, so far as these objects can 
 be effected consistently with the power of 
 congress, and with the various treaty stipu- 
 lations existing with them. It is difficult, 
 indeed, to conceive how peace can be pre- 
 served, and the guaranty of protection held 
 out to the eastern Indians fulfilled, without 
 some legislative provision upon this subject. 
 
 The ordinary expenditures of the Indian 
 department have been reduced to the sum 
 of fifty-nine thousand eight hundred dollars ; 
 a material diminution, which the provisions 
 of the law of the last session, organizing 
 that department, has rendered practicable, 
 and which brings down its expenditures to 
 a sum less by one-half than the average an- 
 nual amount for some years past. 
 
 Lew. Cass. 
 
 NAVY DEPARTMENT. 
 All the services required of our naval 
 force have been promptly performed ; our 
 98 
 
 commerce has been protected in the remote 
 as well as the neighboring seas ; our na- 
 tional character has been sustained at home 
 and abroad ; while a large portion of our 
 naval officers, seamen, and marines, have 
 been kept in active service, under a strict 
 discipline, calculated to fit them for all the 
 duties which may be required of them, 
 whether in defending our property on the 
 ocgan from pirates or open enemies, our 
 shores from hostile aggression, or our flag 
 from insult. 
 
 An inspection of our navy yards at Ports- 
 mouth, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, 
 Washington, and Norfolk, made m August 
 and September last, in company with the 
 commissioners of the navy board, has 
 afforded me the most satisfactory evidence 
 of our means, in a short time, of increasing 
 our navy to any extent the exigencies of 
 our country may require. 
 
 The officers in charge of those stations 
 perform their duties with great ability and 
 zeal; the building and repairing of ourships 
 are conducted with despatch and economy ; 
 and the ample materials on hand for naval 
 purposes are preserved with the greatest 
 care, and by all the means which science 
 and experience can suggest to prevent de- 
 cay. 
 
 Our naval force consists of six ships of 
 the line and seven frigates now building, 
 for the completion of which additional ap- 
 propriations to the amount of $1,527,640 
 will be required ; of five ships of the line, 
 two frigates, and six sloops of war in ordi- 
 nary, requiring repairs which will cost 
 $1,362,000, in addition to the materials on 
 hand for that purpose ; and of one ship of 
 the line, four frigates, eight sloops of war, 
 and six schooners in commission ; in all, 
 twelve ships of the line, thirteen frigates, 
 fourteen sloops of war, and six schooners. 
 Besides which, the frames of ships procured, 
 or under contract, for the gradual increase 
 of the navy, and other materials on hand 
 or under contract for that purpose, will 
 afford the means of bringing into the ser- 
 vice, as soon as it can probably be required, 
 an additional force of five ships of the line, 
 eleven frigates, seven sloops of war, and 
 two schooners, the building of which may 
 be immediately commenced on launching 
 our vessels now upon the stocks. 
 
 Our vessels in commission during the 
 past year have been employed, as heretofore, 
 in protecting our commerce in the Mediter- 
 ranean, in the West Indies, on the coast of 
 Brazil, and in the Pacific ocean. 
 
 Our naval force, consisting of commission 
 and warrant officers, petty officers, seamen, 
 ordinary seamen, landsmen, and boys, 
 amounts to six thousand and seventy-two ; 
 
778 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 and our marine corps, under its new organi- 
 zation, will consist of commissioned officers, 
 non-commissioned officers, musicians, and 
 privates, to the number of one thousand two 
 hundred and eighty-three ; making a total 
 of seven thousand three hundred and fifty- 
 five. 
 
 The dry docks at Boston and Norfolk- 
 have fully answered the most sanguine ex- 
 pectations that were formed of their useful- 
 ness. They are now deemed indispensable 
 to a speedy and economical repair of our 
 larger vessels. But the two already finish- 
 ed are not sufficient for the purposes of our 
 navy. An additional dry dock, at some 
 intermediate point between Boston and 
 Norfolk, would greatly promote the pur- 
 poses for which our navy is established and 
 maintained. As a site for such additional 
 dry dock, the harbor of New York presents 
 greater advantages than are to be found in 
 any other situation ; among which may be 
 enumerated the great commerce of the 
 place, the facilities which the city of New 
 York affords for recruiting seamen, and for 
 procuring all materials, as well as for em- 
 ploying skilful mechanics and laborers ne- 
 cessary for repairing vessels. 
 
 It can hardly be doubted that the power 
 of steam is soon to produce as great a revo- 
 lution in the defence of rivers, bays, coasts, 
 and harbors, as it has already done in the 
 commerce, intercourse, and business of all 
 classes of men in Europe as well as Ame- 
 rica. This subject has already attracted 
 the attention of the maritime powers of 
 Europe ; and our honor as well as safety 
 requires that no nation, whose fleets may 
 come in conflict with ours, should be in ad- 
 vance of us in the science and application 
 of this power, upon which the success of 
 our future wars with them may depend. 
 Should the power of steam, as a means of 
 defence, produce all the effects that may be 
 justly anticipated, it will diminish, in some 
 instances, the necessity of permanent forti- 
 fications on our coasts, by substituting those 
 which may be moved from place to place 
 as they may be wanted, and in our own 
 waters become the formidable engines of 
 attack as well as defence. 
 
 I can add nothing to what has been fre- 
 quently urged in favor of a peace establish- 
 ment for our navy ; but must be permitted 
 to state, what has often before been stated, 
 that the compensation of the commanders 
 of our ships on foreign stations is altogether 
 inadequate to an honorable discharge of 
 their duties. They are compelled to incur 
 expenses beyond the amount of their pay 
 and rations, or decline to receive and return 
 civilities uniformly offered to them on such 
 
 stations, and upon which our friendly rela- 
 tions with foreign nations may, in some de- 
 gree, depend. 
 
 It is believed that the discipline and har- 
 mony of the officers and men of the navy 
 proper, and of the marine corps, will be 
 promoted by placing the marine barracks 
 without the bounds of the different navy 
 yards with which they may be connected. 
 This arrangement would create but little 
 additional expense to the government. The 
 marine barracks at Portsmouth, should it 
 be thought proper to retain them as such, 
 are at a sufficient distance, and might be 
 easily separated from that part of the navy 
 yard in which ships are built and repaired, 
 and in which are placed the workshops and 
 stores of that station. 
 
 Under the first section of the act concern- 
 ing naval pensions and the navy, pension 
 fund, passed the 30th of June last, fourteen 
 pensions to widows have been renewed, and 
 thirty-seven original pensions have been 
 granted, in pursuance of the provisions of 
 that act. These constitute a heavy charge 
 upon that fund, and require for their pay- 
 ment annually the sum of $16,062. 
 
 Under the second section of that act, the 
 sum of $141,303 80 has been reimbursed 
 to the fund for the cost of the stock of the 
 bank of Columbia, heretofore purchased by 
 the commissioners of the fund, with interest 
 thereon from the period at which said bank 
 ceased to pay interest to the time of reim- 
 bursement. $141,300 of the amount has 
 been vested in the stock of the bank of the 
 United States, as authorized by the act of 
 congress of the 10th of July, 1832. 
 
 The number of invalid pensioners is two 
 hundred and eighty-seven. Should all of 
 them claim, which is improbable, the amount 
 required for their annual payment will be 
 $23,321. 
 
 The number of widow pensioners, includ- 
 ing those under the act of the 30th of June 
 last, is one hundred and nine ; and the 
 amount required for their annual payment 
 is $24,023, making the annual charge, ac- 
 cording to the present pension roll, $47,254. 
 
 Of the privateer pension fund, the act of 
 congress of the 19th of June last revived 
 five years' pensions to widows of officers, 
 seamen, and marines, slain or lost on board 
 of private armed vessels. 
 
 The amount to the credit of the navy hos- 
 pital fund, on the 1st instant, was $35,559 04. 
 The increase of the fund arising from de- 
 ductions in the settlement of accounts in 
 the fourth auditor's office will be nearly 
 $16,000 per annum. The expenditures for 
 several years will probably not exceed $13,- 
 000 per annum. This will leave balances 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 779 
 
 not wanted for current expenses. The pro- 
 priety of authorizing by law the investment 
 of such balances in some well secured, pro- 
 ductive stock, is respectfully suggested. 
 
 Of the appropriations heretofore made for 
 the suppression of the slave-trade, there re- 
 mains in the treasury a balance of $ 14,21c 
 91. It is not believed that any further ap 
 propriation for this purpose is necessary at 
 this time. 
 
 In the report of my predecessor, of the 
 30th of November last, an estimate of the 
 expense of purchasing and maintaining a 
 lithographic press was submitted, as a means 
 of procuring charts and blank forms for this 
 department, as well as for the several navy 
 yards and vessels in commission, as also 
 for the purpose of multiplying copies of 
 drawings connected with the survey of the 
 coast. As, in my opinion, the employment 
 of such a press would be a saving of time 
 and money, in the duties now performed 
 by clerks and draughtsmen in this depart- 
 ment, and the branches of service connect- 
 ed with it, I respectfully renew the applica- 
 tion for the necessary appropriation for this 
 press ; and annex hereto copies of the letters 
 of the commissioners of the navy board, and 
 of lieutenant Charles Wilkes jr., heretofore 
 laid before congress, in favor of this appli- 
 cation. 
 
 The charge of the coast survey, now un- 
 der the superintendence of Mr. Hassler, 
 was, on the 1 1th day of March last, transfer- 
 red from the treasury to the navy depart- 
 ment, to which it was thought more proper- 
 ly to belong. The report of Mr. Hassler, 
 of the 17th of May last, and his supplementa- 
 ry report of the i 1th of last month, with the 
 maps, draughts, and sketches accompanying 
 the same, herewith transmitted, show the 
 progress already made in this work under 
 the law of 1832, and its connection with the 
 progress made in the same in the year 1817. 
 
 From what has been done in this survey, 
 we may reasonably hope that this important 
 work will advance with all the aid which 
 science, skill, and industry can give it, and 
 in a manner as honorable to the govern- 
 ment under whose auspices it was begun, 
 and has been continued, as it will be useful 
 to the present and to future ages. 
 
 The information wanted for accurate and 
 detailed estimates of the necessary appro- 
 priations for the continuance of the coast 
 survey, cannot easily be obtained until fur- 
 ther experience shall enable the officers en- 
 gaged in it to introduce more S3'_stem in the 
 detail of duties and expenditures in their 
 work than they have heretofore been able 
 to do. 
 
 The sum of thirty thousand dollars was 
 appropriated for this purpose the past year, 
 
 and it is believed that an equal sum will be 
 wanted for the ensuing year, as stated in 
 the estimates. 
 
 MAHLON DlCKERSON. 
 
 GENERAL POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT. 
 November 29, 1834. 
 
 The report which I had the honor to make 
 on the 30th November, 1832, exhibited a 
 balance due from this department on the 
 1st July, 1833, beyond the whole amount 
 of its available funds, of $195,208 40. 
 
 The expenses for the transportation of 
 the mail necessarily continued undiminish 
 ed till the close of the year 1833, prior to 
 which date the retrenchments stated in that 
 report could not take effect ; consequently 
 the balance of debt against the department 
 continued to augment till that period. 
 The gross amount of posta- 
 ges was, from July 1st 
 
 to December 31st, 1833, $1,375,437 28 
 The total expenses of the 
 
 department for that half 
 
 year, .... 1,495,82886 
 
 The balance of the debt 
 against the department, 
 beyond the amount of its 
 available funds, was, on 
 the 1st of January, 1834, 315,599 98 
 
 From the 1st of January, 1834, the re- 
 trenchments in the transportation of the 
 mail began to take effect ; and from that 
 period the revenues of the department have 
 exceeded its expenses. 
 The gross amount of posta- 
 ges was, from January 
 1 to June 30, 1834, 1,448,269 69 
 
 The total expenses of the 
 department for the half 
 year ending the 30th of 
 June, 1834, . 
 
 1,400,762 45 
 
 This sum, deducted from 
 the gross amount of pos- 
 tages for that period, 
 leaves a revenue beyond 
 the amount of expenses 
 for the half year from 
 January 1 to June 30, 
 1834, of 
 
 This sum, deducted from 
 the deficit existing Janu- 
 ry 1, 1834, . 
 
 Reduces the balance of debt 
 which existed against the 
 department on the 1st of 
 July, 1834, to 
 
 47,507 24 
 315,599 98 
 
 $268,092 74 
 
780 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Such was the financial condition of the 
 department on the 1st day of July last. 
 The amount of this debt has been continu- 
 ally diminishing to the present time, and it 
 continues to diminish in an increased ratio, j 
 
 On the 1st day of July, 1834, the balance 
 of the account with banks was 8398,616 99 
 agninst the department, consisting of loans, 
 $275,000, and overchecks to the amount of 
 $123,619 99. In this statement, the diffe- 
 rence between loans and •overchecks is ra- 
 ther nominal than essential. 
 
 The contracts for the southern section, in- 
 cluding the states of Virginia, North Caroli- 
 na, South Carolina, and Georgia, and the 
 territory of Florida, which will expire with 
 the current year, have been renewed to take 
 effect from the 1st of January next, on such 
 terms as will effect an annual saving from 
 the amount now paid for transportation in 
 that section, of about . $120,000 
 
 Additional retrenchments 
 
 have also been made in 
 
 the expense of transpor- 
 tation subsequent to my 
 
 last report, to the annual 
 
 amount of about . . 59,000 
 
 Varying from the estimate 
 only . 
 
 $444 74 
 
 The net proceeds for posta- 
 ges for the year ending 
 30th June, 1834, were 
 then estimated at . 2,037.410 81 
 
 The actual net proceeds of 
 postages for that year 
 were .... 1,927,644 44 
 
 Falling below the estimate 
 by the sum of 
 
 $109,766 37 
 
 Making, together, an annu- 
 al saving from the 1st of 
 January next, of . 
 
 $179,000 
 
 From the savings thus effected, together 
 with the current excess of revenue in favor 
 of the department, it may be safely calcu- 
 lated, that, without any reliance upon an 
 increase in the gross amount of postages, 
 the revenues of the department will exceed 
 its expenditures during the ensuing calendar 
 year, to the amount of $270,000. 
 
 From a careful estimate, it may be an- 
 ticipated, with entire confidence, that, be- 
 fore the close of the year 1835, the whole 
 halance of debt against the department will 
 be extinguished. It was never regarded 
 by either of the parties in the character of 
 a debt of the government, but a mere expe- 
 dient to anticipate the resources of the de- 
 partment, based upon the credit of the re- 
 sources alone. The means of its liquidation 
 within a reasonable time were always with- 
 in the legal control of the department, and 
 no other means have at any time been 
 sought or desired by the department. 
 
 In my report of November, 1833, the ex- 
 pense for transporting the mail, and for in- 
 cidentals, from July 1 to December 31, 
 1833, was estimated at . $1,061,644 71 
 The actual expense for that 
 
 period was . . . 1,061,199 97 
 
 Thus it appears that the expenses of the 
 department have not essentially varied from 
 the estimate ; but the net revenue arising 
 from postages has fallen short of the esti- 
 mate then made more than a hundred thou- 
 sand dollars. 
 
 Though the amount of revenue arising 
 from postages for the year ending June 30, 
 1834, did not equal the estimate, yet there 
 was a considerable increase above the 
 amount of the preceding year. The gross 
 amount of postages for the year ending 
 June 30, 1833, was . . $2,616,538 27 
 For the year ending June 
 
 30, 1834, it was . . 2,823,706 97 
 
 Making an increase in the 
 gross amount of . 
 
 $207,168 70 
 
 The net amount of posta- 
 ges, after deducting com- 
 missions to post-masters, 
 and the contingent ex- 
 penses of their offices, 
 was, for the year ending 
 June 30, 1833, . . $1,790,254 65 
 
 For the year ending June 
 
 30, 1834, it was . . 1,927,644 44 
 
 Making an increase in the 
 net proceeds of 
 
 $137,389 79 
 
 The finances of the department continue 
 to be in an improving condition ; and the 
 solicitude which has been shown to obtain 
 mail contracts, the reduced rates at which 
 they have been taken for the southern sec- 
 tion, and the zeal with which contractors 
 generally persevere in their services to the 
 department, furnish ample demonstration 
 that its credit is unimpaired. 
 
 The number of post-offices in the United 
 States was, on the 1st of July last, ten thou- 
 sand six hundred and ninety-three, being 
 an increase of five hundred and siAty-six 
 over the number reported last year. 
 
 The annual amount of transportation nan 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 781 
 
 been but slightly varied since my last re- 
 port. The mail is now carried in stages 
 and steam-boats about sixteen million nine 
 hundred thousand miles a year, and on 
 horseback and in sulkies about eight mil- 
 lion six hundred thousand miles, making, 
 together, about twenty-five million five hun- 
 dred thousand miles a year. 
 
 The multiplication of rail-roads in different 
 parts of the country promises, within a few 
 years, to give great rapidity to the move- 
 ments of travellers, and it is a subject wor- 
 thy of inquiry, whether measures may not 
 now be taken to secure the transportation 
 of the mail upon them. Already have the 
 rail-roads between Frenchtown, in Mary- 
 land, and Newcastle, in Delaware, and be- 
 tween Camden and South Amboy, in New 
 Jersey, afforded great and important facili- 
 ties to the transmission of the great east- 
 ern mail. The rail-road between this city 
 and Baltimore will soon be completed, and 
 the distance from the post-office in this 
 place to that of Baltimore will not be ma- 
 terially varied from the present road, thirty- 
 eight miles. From Baltimore, by Port De- 
 posit, in Maryland, to Coatesville, in Penn- 
 sylvania, the line for a rail-road is located, 
 and the stock subscribed for its completion ; 
 and from Coatesville to Philadelphia a rail- 
 road is made and in operation. The dis- 
 tance between Baltimore and Philadelphia, 
 on this road, will be one hundred and seven- 
 teen miles ; about eighteen miles greater 
 than the present land route. From Phila- 
 delphia to Trenton bridge, about twenty- 
 eight miles, the rail-road is nearly complet- 
 ed ; and, from New Brunswick, in New 
 Jersey, to Jersey City, on the west side of 
 the Hudson river, opposite the city of New 
 York, thirty miles, the rail-road is in a state 
 of progress. When these works shall be 
 completed, the only interval will be between 
 Trenton and New Brunswick, about twenty- 
 six miles, to complete an entire rail-road 
 between this place and the city of New 
 York; and it cannot be supposed that the 
 enterprising state of New Jersey will long 
 delay to perfect a communication of such 
 great importance, passing through most of 
 her Jargest and most flourishing towns. 
 
 When this shall be done, the whole dis- 
 tance between this city and New York, on a 
 continuous rail-road, will not exceed two hun- 
 dred and forty miles, and the journey may 
 be performed, at all times, with certainty, 
 allowing ample time for stopping at impor- 
 tant places on the road, in sixteen hours, 
 and ordinarily in a shorter period. If pro- 
 vision can be made to secure the regular 
 transportation of the mail upon this and up- 
 on other rail-roads which are constructing, 
 
 and, in some instances, already finished, it 
 will be of great utility to the public ; other- 
 wise these corporations may become exor- 
 bitant in their demands, and prove eventu- 
 ally to be dangerous monopolies. 
 
 W. T. Barry. 
 
 TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 
 
 December 2, 1834. 
 
 The secretary of the treasury respectfully 
 
 presents the following report, in obedience 
 
 to the ' Act supplementary to the act to 
 
 establish the treasury department.' 
 
 He would invite the attention of congress, 
 
 I. TO THE PUBLIC REVENUE AND EXPENDITURES. 
 
 The balance in the treasu- 
 ry, on the 1st of January, 
 A. D. 1832, was . 
 
 The actual receipts into the 
 treasury during the year 
 A. D. 1832, from all 
 sources, were 
 
 Making the whole amount 
 in the treasury in that 
 year, .... 
 
 The actual expenditures 
 during the same year, in- 
 cluding the public debt, 
 were .... 
 
 The balance in the treasury, 
 on the 1st of January, A. 
 D. 1833, was, therefore, 
 
 In addition to this balance, 
 the receipts during the 
 year 1833 were, from all 
 sources, 
 viz. 
 
 Customs, . 
 
 Lands, 
 
 Dividends on bank stock, 
 
 Sales of bank stock, . 
 
 Incidental items, 
 
 These made, with the above 
 balance, an aggregate of 
 
 The expenditures during 
 A. D. 1833 were . 
 viz. 
 
 Civil list, foreign inter- 
 course, and miscellane- 
 ous subjects, 
 
 Military service, including 
 fortifications, ordnance, 
 Indian affairs, pensions, 
 arming militia, and in- 
 ternal improvements, 
 
 Naval service, including 
 
 gradual improvement, . 
 
 66 
 
 $4,502,914 45 
 
 31,865,561 16 
 
 36,368,475 61 
 
 34,356,698 06 
 
 2,011,777 55 
 
 33,948,426 25 
 
 29,032,508 91 
 
 3,967,682 55 
 
 474,985 00 
 
 135,300 00 
 
 337,949 79 
 
 35,960,203 80 
 24,257,298 49 
 
 5,716,245 93 
 
 13,096,152 43 
 3,901,356 75 
 
?82 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Public debt, 
 
 Thus a balance was left in 
 the treasury on the 1st of 
 January, 1834, amount- 
 ing to . 
 
 The receipts into the treasu- 
 ry, ascertained and esti- 
 mated, during A. D. 
 1834, are computed to be 
 
 Of these the receipts during 
 
 the first three quarters 
 
 are ascertained to have 
 
 been .... 
 
 viz. 
 
 Customs, .... 
 
 Lands, .... 
 
 Dividends of bank stock, ) 
 
 Sales of bank stock, 
 
 Incidental items, ) 
 
 And those during the fourth 
 quarter, it is expected, 
 will be ... 
 
 Thus, with the balance on 
 the 1st of January, 1834, 
 they form an aggregate 
 of .... 
 
 The expenditures of the 
 whole year are ascertain- 
 ed and estimated to be 
 
 Of these the expenditures 
 during the first three 
 quarters are ascertained 
 to have been 
 viz. 
 
 Civil list, foreign inter- 
 course, and miscellane- 
 ous, .... 
 
 Military service, including 
 fortifications, &c. 
 
 Naval service, including, 
 &c 
 
 Duties refunded, 
 
 Public debt, 
 
 The expenditure for the 
 fourth quarter including 
 $4,462,330 99, on account 
 of the public debt, it is 
 supposed, will be about 
 
 Thus leaving, on the 1st of 
 January, 1835, an esti- 
 mated balance of . 
 
 81,543,543 38 
 
 11,702,905 31 
 
 20,624,717 94 
 
 16,324,717 94 
 
 12,740,872 25 
 3,076,475 50 
 
 507,370 19 
 
 4,300,000 00 
 
 32,327,623 25 
 25,591,390 91 
 
 16,545,342 92 
 
 3,475,527 08 
 
 8,349,400 06 
 
 2,913,183 12 
 108,546 19 
 
 1,698,686 47 
 
 9,046,047 99 
 
 $6,736,232 34 
 
 This balance includes what has before 
 been reported by this department as not 
 available, the sum of about $1,400,000, but 
 which is now ascertained to be reduced to 
 about the sum of $1,150,000, making the 
 Computed available balance on the 1st of 
 
 January, 1835. to be $5,586,232 34. It is 
 estimated that of former appropriations 
 there will remain unexpended, at the close 
 of this year, the sum of $8,002,925 13. Of 
 this amount, it is supposed that only $5,- 
 141,964 27, will be required to accomplish 
 the objects intended by the current appro- 
 priations, leaving the sum of $999,742 93 
 applicable, afterwards, under permanent 
 appropriations; and that of $1,523,308 79, 
 to be applied in aid of the appropriations 
 for the ensuing year, without reappropria- 
 tion, as will be seen in the estimates when 
 submitted, and the balance of $337,909 14, 
 which has not been required at all, or sea- 
 sonably, for the objects contemplated in its 
 appropriation, and will, therefore, be carried 
 to the surplus fund. In the examination 
 of this result as to outstanding appropria- 
 tions, it should be noticed that one small 
 amount of unclaimed interest on the public 
 debt, and another of unfunded debt, though 
 chargeable on the treasury, are not includ- 
 ed. Embracing those, and the amount ap- 
 plicable, afterwards, to permanent appro- 
 priations, there would not be money enough 
 in the treasury to pay at once every claim 
 outstanding ; but, excluding them, it will 
 be seen that the effective unexpended funds, 
 on the 1st of January, 1835, will be $5,586,- 
 232 34, to meet what will be required for 
 the remaining and unexpended appropria- 
 tions, being $5,141,964 27; or, in other 
 words, that our available means then on 
 hand to discharge all the old and existing 
 claims on the treasury, with the exceptions 
 before named, will be about $444,268 07 
 more than their actual amount. 
 
 The next subject deserving consideration 
 is the condition of 
 
 II. THE PUBLIC DEBT. 
 
 All the four and a half per cents, out- 
 standing at the commencement of the pre- 
 sent year, have been redeemed, except the 
 sum of $443 25. Money sufficient to meet 
 the whole balance was placed in the United 
 States bank and its branches, as commis- 
 sioners of loans, in May last, and that por 
 tion not yet paid to the holders of the debt 
 still remains in those depositories. 
 
 A part of the five per cent, stock created 
 in March, A. D. 1821, amounting to $4,- 
 712,060 29, was all of the 123 millions of 
 debt existing in A. D. 18L6, and of the 
 subsequent additions to it, which was left 
 to be redeemed. It did not become payable 
 till the 1st of January, 1835; but as there 
 was sufficient money in the treasury for 
 the purpose, and it having been considered 
 beneficial to the public to save, as far as 
 practicable, all the accruing interest, early 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 783 
 
 in July last, agents were employed by this 
 department to purchase, at par if possible, 
 the whole of the remaining debt. Between 
 that time and the 30th ultimo, the depart- 
 ment had succeeded in redeeming about 
 $49l,25S 35 of it, and additional purchases 
 are constantly making. In October last the 
 undersigned gave notice that the whole of 
 this debt, unredeemed after the 1st of Janu- 
 ary next, would cease to bear interest, and 
 would be promptly paid after that date, on 
 application to the commissioners of loans in 
 the several states. Under authority from 
 the commissioners of the sinking fund, this 
 department has since placed, and made 
 arrangements to place, seasonably, in those 
 offices, ample funds for the above purpose. 
 Thus, before the close of the year, the whole 
 will either be paid, or money provided to 
 pay it ; and the United States will present 
 that happy, and probably, in modern times, 
 un preeedented spectacle, of a people substan- 
 tial ly free from the smallest portion of a 
 public debt. 
 
 Considering these facts, it was deemed 
 proper to charge the whole amount of the 
 remaining debt to the expenditures of the 
 present year. Interest on all not paid be- 
 fore the 30th ultimo has been computed till 
 the 1st of January next, the time being so 
 short ; and the account for the payment of 
 the public debt, during the year, will then 
 stand as follows : 
 All the disbursements on 
 account of the public 
 debt during the year 
 1834 will be, as before 
 shown, . . . $6,161,017 46 
 
 Of which there will have 
 
 been applied to principal, 5,964,774 93 
 And to interest, . . 196,242 53 
 
 Making, together, the sum above mentioned 
 The stocks which will have been redeem 
 ed by the application of this sum during 
 the year, are — 
 Of the residue of the ex- 
 changed 4^ per cent. 
 stock, issued under the 
 act of the 26th of May, 
 1824, .... $1,252,625 90 
 The residue of the 5 per 
 cent, stock issued under 
 the act of 3d March, 1821, 4,712,060 29 
 Certain portions of unfund- 
 ed debt, ... 38 74 
 And treasury notes, . . 50 00 
 Making, in all, the principal before named. 
 There is an unfunded debt 
 
 of about . . . $37,733 05 
 
 Consisting of claims regis- 
 tered prior to 1798, for 
 services and supplies 
 
 during the revolutionary 
 
 war, of about . . $27,437 96 
 
 Treasury notes issued dur- 
 
 ng the last war, . . 5,975 00 
 
 And Mississippi stock, . 4,320 09 
 
 Nothing has been paid on any of these 
 during the present year, except $88 74. 
 But should the certificates ever be present- 
 ed, which is not very probable as to many 
 of them, the means undoubtedly will al- 
 ways exist for their payment at this depart- 
 ment. 
 
 III. THE ESTIMATES OF THE PUBLIC REVENUE 
 AND EXI'ENDITUKES FOR THE YEAR 1835, 
 
 Next require attention, and are as follows : 
 
 The receipts into the trea- 
 sury from all sources dur- 
 ing the year 1835, are 
 estimated at . . $20,000,000 00 
 
 viz. 
 
 From customs, . . 16,000,000 00 
 
 Public lands, . . . 3,500,000 00 
 
 Bank dividends and mis- 
 cellaneous receipts, . 500,000 00 
 
 To which add the balance 
 of available funds in the 
 treasury on the 1st Janu- 
 ary, 1835, estimated at 5,586,232 34 
 
 And they make, together, 
 
 the sum of . . . $25,586,232 34 
 
 The necessary appropriations for the yea» 
 1835, including those under new and perma- 
 nent acts, are estimated at $15,660,232 73 ; 
 but the whole expenditures for the service 
 of that year are estimated to require the 
 additional sum of $1,523,308 79, which 
 has before been appropriated and mention- 
 ed as applicable to the wants of 1835 with 
 out a reappropriation, making together, 
 
 $17,183,541 52 
 viz. 
 
 Civil, foreign intercourse, 
 
 and miscellaneous items, 2,788,225 85 
 
 Military service, &c, pen- 
 sions, and the appropria- 
 tions under the act of 7th 
 June, 1832, . . . 9,672,654 50 
 
 Unclaimed interest on pub- 
 lic debt, . . . 50,000 00 
 
 Naval service and gradual 
 
 improvement, . . 4,672,661 17 
 
 To this add, as a contin- 
 gent expenditure, about 
 half of the amount of the 
 average excess of appro- 
 priations beyond the esti- 
 mates during the last 
 three years, . . 2.500,000 00 
 
 And they make the sum of $19,683,541 52 
 
784 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Leaving an available balance in the treasu- 
 ry at the close of the year 1835, or on the 
 1st of January, 1836, estimated at $5,902,- 
 690 82. 
 
 But should the whole amount of former 
 appropriations, current and permanent, that 
 will be outstanding on the 1st of January, 
 1835, and be needed to complete the servi- 
 ces of former years, amounting, in all, as 
 before shown, to the sum of $(5,141,707 20, 
 be actually called for during the year 1835, 
 there would be an apparent deficiency in 
 the treasury on the 1st of January, 1836. 
 It usually happens, however, that, of the 
 new and the old appropriations, a sum of 
 five or six millions remains uncalled for at 
 the commencement of each year ; and 
 hence no real deficit is then anticipated, 
 nor much, if any, excess after defraying all 
 the expenditures then chargeable to the 
 treasury. 
 
 This estimate of receipts is formed on 
 the supposition that the value of imports 
 during the ensuing year, and especially of 
 those paying duties, will not differ essen- 
 tially from the average value during the 
 last three years. Though our population 
 has within that period probably increased 
 over one million, yet our manufactures and 
 internal trade have probably increased 
 nearly in an equal proportion ; and this cir- 
 cumstance, coupled with the greater caution 
 and frugality practised during the past 
 year, and still continuing, will, it is believed, 
 tend to prevent any considerable augmenta- 
 tion in the consumption or importation of 
 foreign articles. 
 
 The imports during the year ending Sep- 
 tember 30, 1834, are estimated in value at 
 $123,093,351, being, compared with the 
 preceding year, an increase of $14,101,541. 
 Those during the three past years have, on 
 an average, been about $111,038,142. 
 
 The exports during the same year are 
 estimated at $97,318,724, of which $74,444,- 
 429 were in domestic, and $22,874,295 in 
 foreign products, being, compared with the 
 preceding year, an increase of $6,655,321, 
 of which $3,802,399 were in articles of do- 
 mestic, and $2,852,922 in those of foreign 
 products. The average exports during the 
 last threeyears have been about $91,719,690, 
 of which $69,407,976 are the average in 
 articles of domestic products, and $22,311,- 
 714 in those of foreign. 
 
 It will thus be seen, that the imports of 
 the last year varied in amount $12,055,209 
 from the average of the three past years, 
 and those paying duties are believed to 
 have varied much less. It is therefore, in 
 connection with the reasons before named, 
 considered safe to infer that the imports of 
 
 the ensuing year may not differ materially 
 from that average. Should they not so dif- 
 fer, the revenue from customs will probably 
 correspond in substance with that of the 
 past year, except so far as it maybe chang- 
 ed by the whole amount of all the importa- 
 tions when compared with the above ave- 
 rage ; because the classes and value of 
 articles paying duty, for aught which is 
 known, will probably be similar, and the 
 rate of duties on them will not, by existing 
 laws, be essentially altered till the 31st De- 
 cember, A. D. 1835. 
 
 The revenue from the sale of public lands 
 has been estimated at half a million more 
 than the amount it was estimated for the 
 current year, and one million more than 
 the amount for 1833. This estimate would 
 have been made still larger, had not the 
 sales of the Chickasaw lands, which will 
 probably exceed half a million of dollars, 
 been pledged by treaty to other purposes, 
 and not to the general revenue of the go- 
 vernment. This large computation is found- 
 ed on the facts of the progressive increase 
 for some time evinced ; the sum actually 
 received during the past year; the great 
 quantity of new and saleable lands corning 
 into market ; the enlarged demand for them 
 to satisfy the necessary wants of our grow- 
 ing population, and of the emigrants from, 
 Europe ; and the high prices which their 
 produce fortunately obtains both at home 
 and abroad. 
 
 The revenue from bank dividends has 
 been estimated at somewhat less than here- 
 tofore, in consequence of the sales of our 
 bank stock, under the act of July 10, 1832, 
 for the investment of the accruing income 
 of the navy pension and hospital funds, hav- 
 ing already amounted to $656,600, and on, 
 which the treasury can now receive no divi- 
 dends applicable to general purposes. It 
 might, perhaps, be advisable to deduct a 
 still further sum to meet any contingency 
 like that of the present year, in which the 
 United States bank, without the consent of 
 this department, or the sanction of congress, 
 and without any forewarning of its intention, 
 seized on about $170,041 of the estimated 
 revenue from this source, and has since 
 withheld it from the public treasury. 
 
 Levi Woodbury. 
 
 WEST POINT. 
 As this institution is one of the highest 
 importance to the country, and as its situa- 
 tion is consequently interesting, we have 
 condensed the reports of two of the most 
 important committees appointed for its ex- 
 amination, as a valuable addition to this ap- 
 pendix. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 785 
 
 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE COURSE 
 OF STUDIES. 
 
 The committee on the course of studies 
 report as follows : 
 
 The only preliminary knowledge requir- 
 sd for admission into the military academy 
 is reading, writing, and the first elements 
 of arithmetic. 
 
 The science which is justly made the ba- 
 sis of instruction at the academy, is mathe- 
 matics. By far the greater part of the first 
 two years is devoted to the pure science, 
 and its applications are met with in nearly 
 all the studies of the remaining course. 
 The examinations included algebra, syn- 
 thetic, descriptive, and analytical geometry, 
 plane and spherical trigonometry, mensura- 
 tion and surveying, perspective, and the 
 differential and integral calculus. These 
 examinations were, on the whole, highly 
 satisfactory, and showed, at the same tune. 
 ih" fidelity of the professors, and the assi- 
 duity of their pupils. 
 
 Natural philosophy is the principal study 
 of the second class, A thorough examina- 
 tion in mechanics halving been held in Janu- 
 ary, tin 1 class were now only questioned 
 generally on the subject, and the examina- 
 tion was principally confined to electricity, 
 magnetism, optics, and astronomy, with 
 which studies the class exhibited a compe- 
 tent acquaintance. Your committee are 
 pleased to have it in their power to speak 
 in terms of just praise of the manner in 
 wliirh this departmi nl is conducted. 
 
 The second class were also examined on 
 chemistry, and your committee were well 
 satisfied with their performance, especially 
 when they consider the unmerited disadvan- 
 under which the department labors 
 Instead of having an independent organiza- 
 tion, established by law. it exists only by 
 executive authority. In the merit roll, 
 chemistry is valued at least one-third of 
 natural philo O] hy. The acting professor, 
 who has occupied his chair, with acknow- 
 ledged ability, for many years, has only the 
 pay of a second lieutenant, and is outrank- 
 ed, at the academic board, by the assistant 
 professors, many of whom have been his 
 pupils. Your committee cordially join in 
 the recommendations made by previous 
 boards, that the department of chemistry, 
 including mineralogy and geology, be placed 
 on the footing of the other schools, having 
 j-ermanent professor, and two officers acting 
 assistant professors, to one of whom the 
 subjects of mineralogy and geology might 
 be specially intrusted. 
 
 Engineering, and the science of war, con 
 stitute the principal studies of the senior 
 
 ass. The first examination held was on 
 99 
 
 these subjects, and it was certainly such as 
 must have proved satisfactory to the board. 
 The general excellence of the drawings 
 exhibited, and of the sketches executed on 
 the black boards during the examination, 
 was particularly striking. 
 
 Infantry and artillery tactics, and pyro- 
 techny, also form important parts of the 
 instruction of the cadets ; but as these sub- 
 jects have been specially referred to the 
 committee on military affairs, it has not 
 been judged proper to introduce them into 
 the present report, any further than to state 
 that the examination on ballistics exhibited 
 one of the most direct and interesting appli- 
 cations of mathematics to the military art, 
 and that it was conducted in a manner equal- 
 ly creditable to the professor and his pupils. 
 
 A part of the first two years is devoted 
 to the study of the French language, with 
 which the cadets are required to become at 
 least so far acquainted as to understand its 
 grammar, to be able to pronounce, it intelli- 
 gibly, and to translate it readily into Eng- 
 lish. They are also exercised in writing 
 French themes. It is also to be regretted 
 that very few of them make such progress 
 as to be able to speak the language. The 
 examinations in this department were as 
 satisfactory as could be reasonably expect- 
 ed from the time allotted to the study. 
 
 In this academy, great attention is very 
 properly paid to the art of drawing, the 
 practical applications of which are so fre- 
 quent and important in the military profes- 
 sion. The proofs of proficiency in figure, 
 landscape, and topographical drawing, were 
 very satisfactory. During part of the pre- 
 sent academical year, this department was 
 under the superintendence of a distinguish* 
 ed artist, whose resignation and removal 
 from the country are subjects of general 
 regret. 
 
 The instruction in grammar, rhetoric, 
 moral philosophy, and political science, is 
 confined to the senior year, which is loaded 
 with professional studies. But five hours 
 in two weeks are allotted to the recitations. 
 The professor, therefore, justly complains 
 of the want of time for conveying adequate 
 instruction in his department. It appears 
 to your committee that this evil might be 
 remedied, first, by extending the requisites 
 of admission to the degree which they have 
 
 rec mended ; and, secondly, by teaching 
 
 rhetoric to the third class instead of the first. 
 This study ought not to be postponed until 
 incorrect habits of speaking and writing 
 may be confirmed ; and, besides, your com- 
 mittee are informed that time can be at 
 present better spared in the second than in 
 any other year of the course. 
 
 6fi* 
 
786 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 The library consists of more than eight 
 thousand volumes of works, for the most 
 part immediately relating to the subjects 
 taught at the academy, the whole appearing 
 to be judiciously selected, well preserved, 
 and kept under good regulations. 
 
 Among the books at present in the library, 
 is a very curious and interesting series of 
 about one hundred volumes of old works on 
 mathematics, natural philosophy, and astro- 
 nomy, containing, among others, the works 
 of Galileo, Kepler, and Leibnitz, and the 
 original editions of lord Napier's logarithms. 
 
 Though the subject of the public build- 
 ings has been referred to another committee, 
 the committee on the studies hope they will 
 fee excused if they call the attention of the 
 board to the rooms appropriated for the phi- 
 losophical apparatus, the chemical laborato- 
 ry, the mineralogical cabinet, and the libra- 
 ry. These rooms are not only inadequate 
 to their several purposes, but they are un- 
 safe. The furnaces of the chemical labora- 
 tory are in a room with a wooden floor, im- 
 mediately below the philosophical appara- 
 tus and the library, and no part of the whole 
 building is fireproof. Besides, the labora- 
 tory and the philosophical apparatus are 
 placed in the same rooms in which the 
 classes are assembled to lecture, while the 
 accommodation is scarcely sufficient for 
 either of these purposes singly. On the 
 whole, your committee think a new fire- 
 proof building, with rooms for a laboratory, 
 the apparatus, a museum, and the library. 
 and with suitable halls for experimental 
 lectures, is exceedingly desirable. Your 
 committee also think that an astronomical 
 observatory ought to be established at this 
 place. Its importance as a school of prac- 
 tice for cadets who may hereafter be called 
 upon, as engineers, to conduct topographical 
 and geodisical operations, cannot but be 
 felt ; an excellent position for it is presented 
 on the laud, where the instruments could 
 be seated on the solid rock; the building 
 could be constructed at a very moderate 
 cost, and all the instruments necessnry to 
 furnish it are already in possession of the 
 government. 
 
 Respectfully submitted to the board by 
 the committee. 
 
 R. M. Patterson, Chairman. 
 
 June 14, 1834. 
 
 RETORT OF THE MILITARY COMMITTEE. 
 
 The committee on military affairs and 
 discipline directed, first, their inquiries to 
 the class on engineering, and, in common 
 with the other members of the board, they 
 were highly delighted with the proficiency 
 of the cadets. They were surprised to 
 
 learn that the course of military engineering 
 lasted only four months, and they must 
 particularly commend the industry of both 
 professors and students, which enabled the 
 latter to acquire so much knowledge in so 
 short a time. 
 
 The examination on civil engineering 
 was likewise highly satisfactory, and shows 
 the particular care paid to it in the institu- 
 tion. The use to which government, in 
 time of peace, employs the officers of the 
 army, renders these studies particularly im- 
 portant, and the country at large will be 
 pleased to learn the attention paid to them. 
 In this department, likewise, models are 
 wanted, and could be procured with very 
 little trouble, and at trifling expense. 
 
 The examination on artillery showed in 
 the cadets a thorough knowledge of the 
 theory of this science ; and their exercises 
 in field manoeuvres, target firing, fireworks, 
 and the explosion of a mine, left no doubt 
 as to their attainments in the practice. The 
 target firing took place under very unfavo- 
 rable circumstances, owing to the bad quali- 
 ty of the ordnance. The text-books in this 
 department are principally translations, or 
 compositions of the best foreign works, exe- 
 cuted by the instructer himself, and highly 
 creditable to his zeal and to his industry. 
 The laboratory was examined, and the ca- 
 dets seen to go through the preparation and 
 manufacture of every sort of fireworks em- 
 ployed in war. The rockets were peculiarly 
 remarkable for their brilliancy, and the 
 space they went over, as compared with 
 their size. 
 
 The ordnance was found by your com- 
 mittee very defective. The pieces are 
 generally worn out, and some of them have 
 been condemned as worthless. The shot re- 
 ceived is very bad, and. being in general 
 too small for the pieces, and of irregular 
 figures, prevents any accuracy at target 
 firing. The committee, however, have 
 learned that a requisition has been made 
 upon the ordnance department, and that a 
 compliance with it is looked for during the 
 course of the present season. The commit- 
 tee have observed that all the carriages 
 were of the oldest models, and they are of 
 opinion that no pains ought to be spared to 
 provide this institution with the newest and 
 most approved inventions and models, in 
 order not to teach the cadets to use and 
 employ arms and machines which they will 
 have nothing to do with when they enter 
 on actual service. 
 
 The committee heard the examination 
 upon infantry tactics, and saw the cadets 
 exercising with great skill and precision. 
 The manoeuvres of light infantry have been 
 
APPENPIX. 
 
 787 
 
 successfully introduced, and although prac-| 
 tised but a short time, weie very well exe- 
 cuted. The arms were examined, as well 
 as the accoutrements, and were found in 
 the most complete order. The committee 
 found fault only with the shape of the but- 
 ton used in the cadet's uniform. They are 
 too large and most inconvenient. When 
 the belt, owing to the size of the cadets, 
 comes to pass over one of them, either a 
 most unseemly protrusion is created, or a 
 hole made through che belt, which entirely 
 destroys the uniformity. It is considered 
 that bullet buttons could be advantageously 
 replaced by flat, or nearly flat buttons. 
 
 The committee next directed their atten- 
 tion to the military duties required from the 
 cadets, and found them not to be oppressive, 
 nor to abstract any more time from their 
 studies than is absolutely necessary in order 
 to preserve discipline, and give them mili- 
 tary and soldierlike habits of precision. 
 
 The discipline was examined in its vari- 
 arings, and seemed excellent. By 
 man/ inquiries, it was ascertained that 
 whilst power on the one hand was exercised 
 in the most paternal manner, and always 
 for the good of the service, on the other 
 hand the officers and professors were gene- 
 mil v found to be beloved and respected — a 
 happy state of things, which the committee 
 cannot commend too much. Some of the 
 regulations contained in the pamphlet which 
 was distributed amongst the board seemed, 
 at first sight, rather severe; but it was 
 found compensated by the mildness of its 
 execution. It is believed, indeed, that few 
 er offences have taken place under this libe- 
 ral system than if too much rigor should be 
 exercised. 
 
 The committee have been highly pleased 
 with all that they have seen ; and, extend- 
 ing their observations to the vast field of 
 improvements, they beg leave to suggest 
 that, since the United States have now ad 
 ded to their army a regiment of cavalry, 
 the cadets ought likewise to be instructed in 
 cavalry tactics. Thirty or forty horses 
 would be sufficient, and could be used at 
 the same time to teach the cadets the service 
 of light artillery. The importance of these 
 two branches of military knowledge is too 
 obvious to require the committee to say any 
 more on the subject. 
 
 Another suggestion the committee wish 
 to make is, as to the necessity of a large 
 hall, where military exercises may be, to 
 some extent, conducted in winter. It is 
 thought that this would be, in a high degree, 
 conducive to the health and comfort of the 
 cadets. 
 
 Before taking leave of this subject, the 
 
 committee will indulge in a few observa- 
 tions upon the general results of the insti 
 tntion. However dangerous standing ar- 
 mies are to a nation's liberty in time of 
 peace, they nevertheless possess immense 
 advantages in time of war. The only 
 way to reconcile the dangers and advanta- 
 ges of a standing army is, to organize it in 
 such a way that it may prove, as it were, 
 elastic, so as to be able, in the shortest time, 
 to assume, from the smallest possible size, 
 the largest. In order to obtain this desidera- 
 tum, a military academy is absolutely ne- 
 cessary, where the higher branches of the 
 military science should be taught. Officers 
 of infantry and cavalry can easily be recruit- 
 ed from the rank and file of the army ; but 
 the engineers, the staff, and the artillery re- 
 quire men educated for these professions. 
 In time of peace, those cadets who cannot 
 be employed in these corps are embodied 
 in the infantry and cavalry; but, as soon 
 as war should be declared, their services 
 would be required in the scientific depart- 
 ments of the army, which would partake of 
 the general increase, and their places in the 
 line would be supplied either from the citi- 
 zens generally, or from the rank and file 
 of the armj r . From all these observations 
 made by your committee, they are of opi- 
 nion that the military education received at 
 West Point fulfils entirely the objects of an 
 institution, the necessity of which can 
 scarcely be doubted. 
 
 The whole of which is respectfully sub- 
 mitted. 
 
 Achille Murat, Chairman. 
 
 NAVY EXPENSES FOR 1835. 
 
 There will be required for the navy dur- 
 ing the year 1835, in addition to the unex- 
 pended balances that may remain on hand 
 on the 1st day of January, 1835, the sum 
 of three million six hundred and eighty- 
 nine thousand eight hundred and fifty-one 
 dollars and sixty-seven cents. 
 1st. For pay and subsis- 
 tence of the officers of the 
 navy, and pay of seamen, $1,505,126 67 
 2d. For pay of superinten- 
 dents, naval constructers, 
 and all the civil establish- 
 ment at the several 
 yards, . . . 63,110 00 
 
 3d. For provisions, . 450,000 00 
 
 4th. For the repairs of ves- 
 sels in ordinary, and the 
 repairs and wear and 
 tear of vessels in com- 
 mission, . • • 974,000 00 
 5th. For medicines and 
 surgical instruments, 
 
788 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 hospital stores, and other 
 expenses on account of 
 the sick, 
 6th. For improvements and 
 necessary repairs of navy 
 yards, viz. 
 
 At Portsmouth, N. H., . 
 At Charlestown, Mass., 
 At Brooklyn, N. Y., 
 At Philadelphia, . 
 At Washington, . 
 At Gosport, Va., . 
 
 $40,000 00 
 
 39,925 00 
 99,500 00 
 46,120 00 
 3,520 00 
 10,000 00 
 100,450 00 
 
 At Pensacola, 
 
 For Sackett's Harbor, . 
 
 7th. For ordnance and ord- 
 nance stores, 
 
 8th. For defraying the ex- 
 penses that may accrue 
 for various objects not 
 enumerated, . 
 
 9th. For contingent expen- 
 ses for other objects not 
 herein before enumerated, 
 
 $44,600 00 
 500 00 
 
 15,000 00 
 
 295,000 00 
 
 3,000 00 
 
 $3,689,85167 
 
 TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE WAR DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Statement showing the amount of the appropriations made for the service of the 
 year 1834, for objects under charge of the War Department ; the amount of the 
 estimates for the same for 1835 ; and the amount of the difference between them; 
 arranged with reference to the different bureaux having charge of the disbursements 
 for the several branches of the public service. 
 
 Appropriated 
 for 1834. 
 
 Indian department, viz. 
 
 Current expenses, 
 
 An unities, removal, (fee, under treaty stipulations 
 Pension department 
 Adjutant-general's department 
 Topographical department 
 Medical department 
 Purchasing department . 
 Subsistence department 
 Ordnance department 
 Quartermaster's department 
 Paymaster's department, including pay, &c, of 
 
 officers, &c, of the military academy 
 Engineer department 
 Miscellaneous .... 
 
 Total 
 
 119,045 
 1,224,474 
 
 1,215.281 
 
 20,000 
 
 30.000 
 
 36,500 
 
 325,748 
 
 361,900 
 
 787,102 
 
 938,300 
 
 1,600,281 
 
 2,241,189 
 
 103,441 
 
 Estimated 
 for 1S35. 
 
 9,003,261 88 
 
 59.800 00 
 735,800 00 
 702,718 47 
 
 25,000 00 
 31,500 00 
 154,387 00 
 311.700 00 
 592,734 00 
 613,000 00 
 
 1,514.265 25 
 
 1,004,560 00 
 
 3,50000 
 
 5777S,964"72 
 
 Estimates 
 for 1835, less 
 than the ap- 
 propriation 
 for 1834. 
 
 59,245 00 
 488,674 06 
 512,562 53 
 
 20,000 00 
 
 5,000 00 
 
 5,000 00 
 
 171,361 00 
 
 20,200 00 
 194,368 10 
 325,300 00 
 
 86.015 75 
 
 1,236,629 25 
 
 99,941 47 
 
 3,224,297 16 
 
 War Department, November 25, 1S34. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 789 
 
 PENSIONS. 
 
 A statement showing the amount of funds transmitted to the pension agents of the 
 several states and territories, for paying pensions in 1834. 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Rhode Island . 
 
 Vermont 
 
 New York city 
 
 Utica agency . 
 
 Buffalo do. 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania . 
 
 Pittsburg agency 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 East Tennessee 
 
 West Tennessee 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Jonesboro 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Michigan territory 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Arkansas territory 
 
 agency 
 
 Total 
 
 Invalids. 
 
 15,948 04 
 
 14,048 93 
 
 12,457 56 
 
 5,312 40 
 
 756 00 
 
 9,089 01 
 
 68,S22 43 
 
 2,142 10 
 
 907 00 
 
 4,445 60 
 
 13,845 97 
 8,646 51 
 1,948 00 
 
 15,726 86 
 
 7,034 00 
 
 8,057 20 
 
 2,157 30 
 
 945 30 
 
 875 66 
 
 13,952 70 
 4,204 80 
 3,803 01 
 7,053 99 
 3,870 40 
 520 00 
 2,682 00 
 5,474 66 
 
 7,283 80 
 4,388 33 
 3,422 18 
 
 Act 1818. 
 
 Act June 
 
 
 7, 1832. 
 
 60,160 
 
 95,865 
 
 62,832 
 
 92,719 
 
 75,004 
 
 202,219 
 
 38,356 
 
 160,933 
 
 9,864 
 
 83,163 
 
 61,184 
 
 124,617 
 
 175,698 53 
 
 468,187 
 
 4,080 
 
 12,766 
 
 756 
 
 9,673 
 
 35,520 
 
 85,863 
 
 32,016 
 
 120,693 
 
 29,520 
 
 51,564 
 
 4,032 
 
 293 
 
 11,568 
 
 15,165 
 
 1,616 
 
 9,219 
 
 30,600 
 
 145,929 
 
 19,496 
 
 94,523 
 
 9,136 
 
 55,616 
 
 5,936 
 
 52,449 
 
 43,104 
 
 159,913 
 
 10,296 
 
 29,130 
 
 5,832 
 
 41,576 
 
 46,808 
 
 69,022 
 
 864 
 
 1,812 
 
 960 
 
 11,141 
 
 3,504 
 
 40,527 
 
 1,440 
 
 13,305 
 
 — 
 
 14,658 
 
 10,279 
 
 32,747 
 
 2,252 
 
 1,624 
 
 2,316 
 
 22,844 
 
 — 
 
 2,164 
 
 794,849 53 
 
 2,321,919 
 
 War Department, Pension Office, November 7, 1834. 
 
790 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ^ s 
 
 >>^ 
 
 •52 s 
 
 I § 
 
 
 %i 
 
 S^3 
 
 2tT 
 
 V> 
 
 53 V 
 
 8-« 
 
 8«i 
 
 •~ CO 
 rS fo 
 
 H '-' 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 be a> 
 
 Cn 5 
 
 3 « 
 
 rt o 
 
 "o o 
 
 50 £ 
 
 T3 
 
 C 
 
 Nw-HC-)'*naat*c 
 
 OOODlOOWKOMMX 
 i-l CO CO -J2 CM >0 — t- 1-" ^" 
 
 oq_aq_i-H oo_r»_©_© cm — cc 
 
 >o oT ^ -* h" co" qd — ' oo o 
 
 'S* ■Q' CO CO >0 >— r-ilO 
 
 C1tO>O"<*<Mt^00VfttO00 
 
 ni^noio-iM^tif 
 
 t^CMiXTC-I^CTlC-lt^-^o 
 
 "^!> tc t» i-i cm o o^co — i 
 oTco — oo t~ © oi oo"co~oo' 
 
 U2 CM CM OJ 00 O Oi ** -<* CO 
 C) N -J OI H C O (C N tC 
 ^VO CM VO^OC CO 00 CM CO Co 
 CM CO O «5" Iti" — '< i-< CO' CM -*' 
 
 <?-roca th-^ocio 
 
 OS CO OS CO 00 CO CM 
 
 00 C O (M M (M lO C. "* '£ 
 L-OtC-rr^CO-fOC-HCOCO 
 
 t~- tc — i q_q nqc. o '-C 
 --roc" t~"td i- r-^oTas i> 
 
 CM CO 00 O CO 
 CO >0 IQ . O O 
 CC vo I- HO) 
 
 CM 00 ' 
 
 00 -H* ' 
 
 xtf O ■ 
 
 •re lO 
 
 ~"*~ao' 
 
 ~* CM 
 
 O CM 
 CM CM I 
 
 dooooohthckmo; 
 
 CHMOClCOMOl-^H 
 
 lOCJNIMOOOOl'STfn 
 CM CM ■* »! h CT. O (C N (C 
 
 ■jioimiocc co_ oo^cm^oo ro 
 
 CM 'oo O tcflO i-n'i-Tco'C'f -*)<" 
 
 019li0 5HCM' J COH 
 C C T W UO W H >o 
 
 CO r- 1 O *0 Cl — 1< i— < O OS O 
 lOOO^KHC. t?001O> 
 H C IM N CT* Tf 1^ 00 © 
 
 lO^OWN^ 
 
 t~- CO O CM CO tC O O 
 
 coi>tircocoococo 
 cc c. *-> © O I> t-H 
 
 CO CO CC C 00 CM -* 00 ^f 
 
 (BfMOOiWOOini 
 CM^CM^O 00 ec C^^O_ 
 
 cTc-T^tc a-' oo' r^x-ToT 
 
 CO ** CM i-H lO rf -^ 
 
 OOOllONMIMlOCl^tC 
 "OcC'*-s<C0-3<00-^fC0C0 
 
 h ID H O O W Oi O! O <O b 
 
 ** -f"oo' fC ccT i-f t-ToToT r~ 
 
 cocor^i>*-r* l o^co*o 
 
 ^ W (M H lO i* ^f 
 
 cot^i— icor^oococoioo 
 
 i'ioaioi6coo''-ii^d 
 onionMMoioiNo 
 
 r-^t-^CM'rH-f'^-rco'^-rr-^tif 
 
 'S-CM(M'*'-<tD>0'0-* 
 
 n^iMHifn co 
 
 OOOOOOOOOoO 
 r-l-Ci'a'T3-0'T3-C r C-C!13 
 
 O C3 2 
 
 •s § g.s- 
 
 lu 
 
 o 
 
 ID 6 
 
 tfj £ "y. •- ^ C3 -^ 
 >- V) c-< vf C <*- £i X 
 
 — ^3 — ^r o o >- — 
 
 ooooo-roo 
 
 
 4-T^J< OOOOOOOOO 
 
 r". 
 
 tf5co r c _ c'3'^3'T2'e , ^ r a'T3 
 
 i/ 
 
 i-i oo ~ 
 
 
 "^ § 
 
 s* 
 £ 
 
 few ^ -r b B'c-' 3 S 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 -s g-s g g-s'.ssS §3 
 
 H 
 
 S 5 ^ .= .2 ^ .'£ S %- ^ g 
 
 
 tv- -3 >- 
 
 
 oo . 2 . 
 
 rt p 
 
 ooooc-roo 
 flflROR i^Qfi 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 791 
 
 RAILROADS AND CANALS. 
 
 The increase of rail-roads and canals in 
 the United States, of late years, has been so 
 rapid and constant, that the most careful 
 reader of a daily newspaper can scarcely 
 have retained them in his recollection. 
 Almost every week we hear of new works 
 of internal improvement in progress, not in 
 one section of the Union only, but in the 
 south and west, as well as in the north and 
 east ; and wherever the enterprising Ame- 
 rican has chosen a site for his residence, and 
 the operations of his industry and skill. A 
 recent publication, by Mr. Tanner, of Phila- 
 delphia, containing a brief description of all 
 the canals and rail-roads in the United States, 
 now completed or in progress, will there- 
 fore be regarded as a valuable acquisition 
 to those who desire to keep pace with the 
 march of improvement. The work is small, 
 but comprehensive. It is embellished with 
 a carefully engraven map of the United 
 States, upon which the canals and rail-roads 
 in each state are accurately marked ; and 
 the accompanying letter-press descriptions 
 fully elucidate the extent, courses, points of 
 commencement and termination, length, 
 ascent and descent, locks and inclined 
 planes, tunnels, bridges, cost of construction. 
 &c. of these important works. The de- 
 scriptions are arranged under the head's of 
 the states, so that any road or canal may be 
 referred to without delay. 
 
 MAINE. 
 
 Length. Cost. 
 
 Cumberland and Oxford 
 
 canal 20£ miles $250,000 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 Bow canal 3£ $25,000 
 
 Amoskeag canal 50,000 
 
 Hookset canal 825 feet 17,000 
 
 Union canal 9 miles 50,000 
 
 VERMONT. 
 
 There are several canals in this state, 
 viz. Bellows' Falls, Aterquechey, and 
 White River, all of which are designed to 
 overcome falls in the Connecticut river. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Canals. 
 
 Middlesex canal 27 $528,000 
 
 Pawtucket 1£ 
 
 Blackstone 45 600,000 
 
 Montague 3 
 
 South Hadley 2 
 
 Rail-roads. 
 
 Boston and Worcester 45 est. $883,904 
 
 Boston and Providence 46 
 
 Boston and Lowell 25 
 
 Length. Cos' 
 Qnincy 3 
 
 Besides sevpral proposed roads. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 Stonington rail-road 46 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Farmington canal 22 $600,000 
 
 Enfield canal 5£ 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 Canah. 
 Erie canal 363 $9,500,000 
 
 Champlain canal 72 1,179,972 
 
 Hudson and Delaware 65£ 
 Lackawaxen 53 
 
 This is a prolongation of the Hudson and 
 Delaware canal. Thirty-six miles of its 
 total length are in the state of Pennsylvania. 
 Oswego 38 $525,115 
 
 Seneca 20 214,000 
 
 Chemung 31 300,000 
 
 Crooked Lake 7 120,000 
 
 Tonnewanta 13 
 
 Harlaem 3 
 
 Chittenango 14 
 
 Canals in progress. 
 Chenango 93 est. 944,800 
 
 Black River 40 
 
 Sodus canal 
 
 Kail-roads. 
 Mohawk and Hudson 16 $700,000 
 
 Schenectady and Saratoga 20 250 900 
 
 Catskill and Canajoharie 70 (in progress.) 
 Ithaca and Oswego 29 150,000 
 
 Rochester, (in progress) 
 Schenectady and Utica 80 
 Ruth 5 
 
 Rochester and Batavia 28 
 Troy and Ballston 52 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 Canals. 
 
 
 
 Delaware and 
 
 Raritan 
 
 
 canal 
 
 
 43 
 
 Morris 
 
 
 101 
 
 Salem 
 
 
 4 
 
 Washington 
 
 
 1 
 
 Rail-roads. 
 
 
 
 Camden and A 
 
 mboy 
 
 61 
 
 Paterson and Hudson 
 
 16 
 
 Jersey city and New 
 
 
 Brunswick 
 
 
 28 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Canals. 
 Central Division Penn- 
 sylvania canal 171£ 
 Western Division do. 194 $3,000,000 
 Susquehannah Div. do. 39 1,039,256 
 West Branch canal 65 927,378 
 North Branch Division 6£ 1,096,178 
 Extension of the above 
 to Lackawana 14 220,594 
 
792 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Length. Cost. 
 
 Lenrth. Cost. 
 
 Delaware division of 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 
 
 
 Pennsylvania canal 
 
 59 
 
 1,275,705 
 
 Washington Branch 
 
 
 
 Pittsburg and Erie ca- 
 
 
 
 canal 
 
 1* 
 
 25,974 
 
 nal, as far as com- 
 
 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 Ik est. 372,208 
 
 pleted 
 
 25 
 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 
 French Creek (in pro- 
 
 
 
 Canals. 
 
 
 
 gress) 
 
 254 
 
 
 James River 
 
 
 
 Schuylkill canal 
 
 108 
 
 2,500,176 
 
 Jackson River 
 
 30* 
 
 023,295 
 
 Union canal 
 
 82 
 
 
 Balcony Falls 
 
 6| 
 
 340,000 
 
 Lehigh Company's ca- 
 
 
 
 Dismal Swamp 
 
 23 
 
 
 nals 
 
 46 
 
 1,558,000 
 
 Rail-roads. 
 
 
 
 Conestoga Navigation 
 
 18 
 
 
 Manchester 
 
 13 
 
 
 Codorus do. 
 
 11 
 
 
 Petersburg and Roa- 
 
 
 
 West Philadelphia ca- 
 
 
 
 noke 
 
 594 
 
 
 nal 
 
 
 
 Portsmouth and Roa- 
 
 
 
 Rail-roads. 
 
 
 
 noke 
 
 80 
 
 
 Columbia rail-road 
 
 81 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 Richmond and Peters- 
 
 
 
 Alleghany Portage 
 
 32 
 
 
 burg 
 
 214 (in 
 
 progress.) 
 
 Mauch Chunk 
 
 5 
 
 
 Richmond and Freder- 
 
 
 
 Room Run 
 
 5 
 
 
 icksburg 
 
 64 
 
 do. 
 
 Mount Carhon 
 
 7 
 
 
 Belleplain 
 
 11 
 
 
 Schuylkill Valley 
 
 15 per mile 5,500 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 
 Schuylkill rail-road 
 
 13 
 
 7,000 
 
 Lake Drummond canal 
 
 5 
 
 
 Mill Creek 
 
 7 
 
 20,000 
 
 North West canal 
 
 6 
 
 
 Mine Hill and Schuyl- 
 
 
 
 Weldon canal 
 
 12 
 
 
 kill Haven 
 
 20 
 
 160,000 
 
 Clubfoot and Harlow 
 
 
 
 Pine Grove 
 
 4 
 
 
 canal 
 
 14 
 
 
 Little Schuylkill 
 
 23 
 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 
 Lackawaxan 
 
 16i 
 
 100,000 
 
 Charleston and Augus- 
 
 
 
 "West Chester 
 
 9 
 
 90,000 
 
 ta rail-road 
 
 1361 
 
 
 Germantown 
 
 7 
 
 
 Canals. 
 
 
 
 Lykens Valley 
 
 
 
 Santee canal 
 
 22 
 
 700,000 
 
 Philadelphia and Tren- 
 
 
 
 Winyaw 
 
 74 
 
 
 ton 
 
 264 
 
 
 Catawba 
 
 
 
 Central rail-road 
 
 51 
 
 
 Saluda 
 
 64 
 
 
 Oxford, from the Co- 
 
 
 
 Drehr's 
 
 1* 
 
 
 lumbia rail-road to 
 
 
 
 Lorich's 
 
 1* 
 
 
 the Maryland line, 
 
 
 
 Lockhart's 
 
 2| 
 
 
 (now in progress) 
 
 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 
 Norristown and Read- 
 
 
 
 Savannah and Oge- 
 
 
 
 ing, (in progress) 
 
 49 
 
 est. 947,425 
 
 chee canal 
 
 16 
 
 165,000 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 
 Matamaba and Bruns- 
 
 
 
 Chesapeake and Dela- 
 
 
 
 wick 
 
 12 
 
 
 ware canal 
 New Castle and French- 
 
 13£ 
 
 2,200,000 
 
 ALABAMA. 
 
 Decatur rail-road 62 (in 
 
 progress.) 
 
 town rail-road 
 
 16 
 
 400,000 
 
 Huntsville canal 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 MISSISSIPPI 
 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 
 St. Francisville and 
 
 
 
 Canals. 
 
 
 
 Woodville rail-road 
 
 26 
 
 
 Chesapeake and Ohio 
 
 3414 
 
 
 Vicksburg and Weston 
 
 37 
 
 
 Port Deposite canal 
 
 10 
 
 
 LOUISIANA. 
 
 
 Potomac Falls 
 
 24 
 
 
 New Orleans and Pont- 
 
 
 
 Great Falls 
 
 1200 yards 
 
 chartrain rail-road 
 
 5 
 
 80,000 
 
 Rail-roads. 
 
 
 
 Canals. 
 
 
 
 Baltimore and Ohio 
 
 804 
 
 
 La Fourche canal 
 
 
 
 Baltimore and Susque- 
 
 
 
 L. Veret canal 
 
 8 
 
 
 hannah 
 
 76 
 
 
 New Orleans and Pont- 
 
 
 
 Baltimore and Port De- 
 
 
 
 chartrain canal 
 
 6 
 
 
 posite 
 
 
 
 KENTUCKY. 
 
 
 Baltimore and Wash- 
 
 
 
 Louisville and Port- 
 
 
 
 ington 
 
 37| est. 1,433,644 
 
 land canal 
 
 li 
 
 730,000 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 793 
 
 Lexington and Ohio 
 
 rail-road est. 1,000,000 
 
 OHIO. 
 
 Ohio and Erie canal 307 
 
 Miami canal 68 746,852 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 Rideau canal 129£ (in progress.) 
 
 Welland canal 
 
 In addition to these roads and canals, va- 
 rious others, some of them of great magni- 
 tude, are spoken of in several states, par- 
 ticularly in Pennsylvania, New York, New 
 Jersey, Maryland and Kentucky. In the 
 course of a few years, they will no doubt 
 all be completed. 
 
 SUMMARY OF THE STATE BANKS. 
 
 General abstract of the number and situation of the State Banks, derived from returns made to 
 the legislatures of the several states in 1833 and 1834 ; compiled under the direction of the 
 clerk of the House of Representatives from materials collected by Mr. Wilde ; laid before 
 Congress June 24, 1834. 
 
 States. 
 
 No. 
 
 Capital Stock 
 
 Notes or bills in 
 
 Specie and spe- 
 
 Banks. 
 
 paid in. 
 
 circulation. 
 
 cie funds. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 3 
 
 2,576,118*89 
 
 1,238,682.00 
 
 286,795.02 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 5,708,015.00 
 
 2,557,227.49 
 
 228,470.14 
 
 Georgia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 6,534,691.02 
 
 3,055,003.19 
 
 1,273,874.02 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1,875,418.63 
 
 838,091.14 
 
 211,805.72 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 16,064,755.00 
 
 3.271,230.00 
 
 1,568,293.46 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 28,236,250.00 
 
 7,889,110.67 
 
 922,309.84 
 
 Maine 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 2,727,000.00 
 
 1,303,671.00 
 
 108,403.76 
 
 Maryland 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 5,270,091.67 
 
 1,433.698.42 
 
 595,506.47 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2,666,805 45 
 
 1,510,426.15 
 
 113,320.47 
 
 New York 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 24,780,264 00 
 
 15,933,122.62 
 
 3,372,938.22 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1,824,725.00 
 
 981,144.00 
 
 242,142.73 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1,156,318.48 
 
 1,862,442.19 
 
 220,742.35 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 2,271,300.00 
 
 1,238,643.50 
 
 464,171.89 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1,986,625.00 
 
 64S.639.00 
 
 186,591.25 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 17,061,944.51 
 
 10,366,232.61 
 
 2,909,105.66 
 
 Rhode Island . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 7,488,748.00 
 
 1,268,813.03 
 
 401,281.95 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1,243,827.47 
 
 1,520,880.66 
 
 86,455.58 
 
 Virginia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 5,694,500.00 
 
 5,598,392.33 
 
 937,751.90 
 
 Vermont 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 912,000.00 
 
 1,468,394.00 
 
 692,632.99 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 3,337,305.00 
 
 1,109,389.82 
 
 432,077.66 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tota 
 
 
 405 
 
 139,416,703.12 
 
 65.093,231.82 
 
 14,254,571.08 
 
 General estimate of the situation of tliose State Banks from which no returns were received. 
 ■ [From the document laid before Congress June 24, 1834.] 
 
 States. 
 
 No. 
 
 Capital Slock 
 
 Notes or bills in 
 
 Specie & specie 
 
 Banks. 
 
 paid in. 
 
 circulation. 
 
 funds on hand. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 2 
 
 1,732,089.00 
 
 815,789.00 
 
 191,197.00 
 
 Delaware 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 2,000,000.00 
 
 504,000.00 
 
 222,500.00 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 7,600,000.00 
 
 1,522,500.00 
 
 650,000.00 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1,000,000.00 
 
 590,000.00 
 
 43,000.00 
 
 New Jersey . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 2,500,000.00 
 
 1,448,000.00 
 
 227,000,00 
 
 New York 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 2,975,000.00 
 
 1.887,280.00 
 
 284,565,00 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 2,000,000.00 
 
 1,862,000.00 
 
 220,000,00 
 
 Indiana . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 150,000.00 
 
 75,000.00 
 
 15,000,00 
 
 Illinois . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 200,000.00 
 
 100,000.00 
 
 20,000.00 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 4,000,000.00 
 
 1,297,278.00 
 
 373,182.50 
 
 Maryland 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 4,000,000.00 
 
 1,008,000.00 
 
 445,000.00 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1,000,000.00 
 
 590,000.00 
 
 43,000.00 
 
 Florida . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1,000,000.00 
 
 600.000.00 
 
 60,000.00 
 
 Michigan 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 500,000.00 
 
 300,000.00 
 
 30,000.00 
 
 Maine . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 50,000.00 
 
 45,704.00 
 
 2,689.07 
 
 Total 
 
 101 
 
 30,707,089.00 
 
 12,645,551.00 
 
 5,827.133.57 
 
 Brought down 
 
 400 
 ~~ 506~ 
 
 139,416,703.12 
 
 65,093,231.82 
 
 14.254,571.08 
 
 Total 
 
 170,123,799 12 
 
 77,738,782.32 
 
 17,081,704.65 
 
 United States Bank 
 
 
 35,000,00. ) 
 
 10,298,577.90 
 
 13,863,897.99 
 
 Grand Total 
 
 
 205,123,792. i~ 
 
 88,037,360.70 
 
 30,945,602.64 
 
 
 10( 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 67 
 
 
794 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 DEPOSIT BANKS. 
 
 List of the State Banks employed as Depositories of the Public Money, with a statement of 
 their conditions according to the latest returns. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Bills in 
 circulation. 
 
 Specie. 
 
 Maine Bank, .... 
 
 Portland, 
 
 Me. 
 
 $105,000" 
 
 $37,195 
 
 $11,051.77 
 
 Commercial Bank, 
 
 Portsmouth, 
 
 N. H. 
 
 67,000 
 
 64,502 
 
 32,677.15 
 
 Burlington Bank, . . 
 
 Burlington, 
 
 Vt. 
 
 102,000 
 
 75,a36 
 
 32,544.99 
 
 Commonwealth Bank, 
 
 Boston, 
 
 Mass. 
 
 500,000 
 
 105,723 
 
 41,507.80 
 
 Merchants' Bank, . 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 750,000 
 
 174,108 
 
 50,466.09 
 
 Merchants' Bank, . . 
 
 Salem, 
 
 do. 
 
 400,000 
 
 31,798 
 
 3,304.31 
 
 Arcade Bank, 
 
 Providence, 
 
 R.I. 
 
 187,800 
 
 22,702 
 
 9,179.05 
 
 Bank of Bristol, 
 
 Bristol, 
 
 do. 
 
 147,260 
 
 37,749 
 
 3,131.00 
 
 Newport Bank, 
 
 Farmers' and Mechanics' Bank, 
 
 Newport, 
 
 do. 
 
 120,000 
 
 45,283 
 
 8,099.00 
 
 Hartford, 
 
 Ct. 
 
 
 
 
 Mechanics' Bank, . . 
 
 New Haven, 
 
 do. 
 
 472,580 
 
 13S.573 
 
 
 New London Bank, 
 
 New London, 
 
 do. 
 
 150,000 
 
 57,967 
 
 21,026.51 
 
 Middletown, .... 
 
 Middletown, 
 
 do. 
 
 419,300 
 
 140,334 
 
 
 Bank of America, 
 
 New York, 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 2,001.200 
 
 397,866 
 
 369,496.0** 
 
 Mechanics' Bank, . 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 2,000.000 
 
 719,830 
 
 281,714.00 
 
 Manhattan Co., 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 2,050,000 
 
 530,417 
 
 175,980.43 
 
 Mechanics' and Farmers'Bank, 
 
 Albany, 
 
 do. 
 
 442,000 
 
 202,098 
 
 25,607.00 
 
 Girard Bank, .... 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 
 Pa. 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 466,220 
 
 113,697.90 
 
 Moyamensing Bank, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 125.000 
 
 109,590 
 
 41,586.73 
 
 Harrisburg Bank, . 
 
 Harrisburg, 
 
 do. 
 
 158,525 
 
 361,186 
 
 38,708,13 
 
 Union Bank, .... 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 Md. 
 
 1,843,125 
 
 272,835 
 
 100,609.36 
 
 Bank Metropolis, . . . 
 
 Washington, 
 
 D. C. 
 
 500,000 
 
 160,283 
 
 209,521.90 
 
 Bank Alexandria, . < 
 
 Alexandria, 
 
 do. 
 
 500,000 
 
 78,742 
 
 13,278.65 
 
 Bank of Virginia, 
 
 Richmond, 
 
 Va. 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 821,000 
 
 197,076.16 
 
 " Branch do. . . 
 
 Norfolk, 
 
 do. 
 
 440,000 
 
 1S6,140 
 
 16,943.83 
 
 " Branch do. . . 
 
 Petersburg, 
 
 do. 
 
 450,000 
 
 585,065 
 
 86,750.15 
 
 " Branch do. . . . 
 
 Fredericksburg, 
 
 do. 
 
 300.000 
 
 375,360 
 
 45,363.60 
 
 " Branch do. . . 
 
 Lynchburg, 
 
 do. 
 
 300,000 
 
 435,240 
 
 16,366.84 
 
 Planters' Bank, . . 
 
 Savannah, 
 
 Geo. 
 
 535,560 
 
 135,765 
 
 110,184.62 
 
 Bank of Augusta, . . . 
 
 Augusta, 
 
 do. 
 
 600.01 10 
 
 581,375 
 
 162,170.40 
 
 Branch Alabama, . 
 
 Mobile, 
 
 Ala. 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 203,170 
 
 115,555.02 
 
 Planters' Bank, . . 
 
 Natches, 
 
 Mis. 
 
 2,666,805 
 
 1,510,426 
 
 113,220.47 
 
 Union Bank, .... 
 
 New Orleans, 
 
 La. 
 
 5,500,500 
 
 1,281,000 
 
 291,587.87 
 
 Commercial Bank, . . 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 817.835 
 
 145,000 
 
 135.903.73 
 
 Union Bank, , . . 
 
 Nashville, 
 
 Ten. 
 
 1,243,827 
 
 1,520,880 
 
 86,455.58 
 
 Lou. Savings Institution, 
 Franklin Bank, . . 
 
 Louisville, 
 
 Ken. 
 
 
 
 
 Cincinnati) 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 9S6.625 
 
 322,747 
 
 110,624.05 
 
 Commercial Bank, . 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 325,892 
 
 75,967.20 
 
 Bank of Michigan, 
 
 Detroit, 
 
 Mfch. 
 
 350,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 60,000.00 
 
 Farmers' andMechanics'Bank, 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 700,000 
 
 180.000 
 
 15,000.00 
 
 The public moneys deposited in twenty-five of the above banks about the 1st of February, 1834, accord- 
 big to the statement of Mr. Hardin, amounted to $11,485,525.74. 
 
AFPnfNDDL 
 
 79$ 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 Table, exhibiting the value of Imports from, and Exports to, each foreign country, during the 
 wear ending on the 30th SepUmbcr, 1833. 
 
 - , . 
 
 Vain* of 
 «• Imports. 4 
 
 , Value of Kx porta, 
 
 Cjfntrfsai ." »V ■ 
 
 Domiwllc Pio-~I 
 dure. 
 133:1 7;CT 
 
 Foreign Tro- 
 'duce. 
 »48t».fr7T 
 
 Total. 
 
 I Riuwla * .. " "•. •''• • 
 
 ' |2,7MW 
 
 |7d.l^"5 
 
 3 Pruiwia • . . . 
 
 12,1,570 
 
 12 -12 
 
 
 12,3)3 
 
 3 Swollen and Norway , 
 
 1,169,097 
 
 u\\ ■■*: 
 
 711,383 
 
 an.sia 
 
 4 Swr.ti.ih Wen 1i..I.m 
 
 (,• 32,203 
 
 loo 163 
 
 5,057 
 
 106,220 
 
 6 Denmark ....... 
 
 2s, 172 
 
 180,511 
 
 112,453 
 
 292,064 
 
 fl Pan Ish W«t Indies 
 
 1,138,700 
 
 1,279,670 
 
 267,200 
 
 1,546 -70 
 
 7 Netherlands . 
 
 , 1,166,856 
 
 1, 4,353 
 
 722,409 
 
 2,356,762 
 
 i 8 Dutch East Indies . '. . 
 
 750,290 
 
 93,852 
 
 680,989 
 
 774,841 
 
 9 Dutch Wen Indie* 
 
 .380,871 
 
 .288,205 
 ' 92,515 
 
 54,038 
 
 312,243 
 
 10 Dutch Guiana . . . ... 
 
 49,326 
 
 
 '.'2.^15 
 
 11 Belgium . . • \f 
 
 12 England 
 
 13 Scotland .. . , , . « . 
 
 139,628 
 
 644,112 
 
 361.199 
 
 l/o '.611 
 
 36,663,315 
 
 29,582,673 
 
 1,452,763 
 
 31,' :".,lll 
 
 "1,025,229 
 
 1,186,469 
 
 21,058 
 
 1,207,527 
 
 14 Ireland ....... 
 
 152,280 
 
 120,482 
 
 
 120,483 
 
 16 Gibraltar ....... 
 
 182,508 
 
 673,076 
 
 164,670 
 
 737,616 
 
 18 Malta ....... 
 
 31,073 
 
 50,823 
 
 
 50, 828 
 
 17 British East Indies 
 
 1,832,059 
 
 136,156 
 
 18S,ft43 
 
 324,099 
 
 18 British Wert Indie* 
 
 1,358,239 
 
 1,754,306 
 
 59,700 
 
 1,814,065 
 
 19 British Guiana ...... 
 
 7,448 
 
 4,752 
 
 
 4,752 
 
 SO British American Colonies 
 
 1,793,393 
 
 4,390,081 
 
 81,003 
 
 4,471,084 
 
 21 Cape of Good Hop* 
 
 13,700 
 
 7,562 
 
 
 7,563 
 
 23 St. Helena ...... 
 
 
 7,854 
 
 
 7,854 
 
 23 Mauritius ....... 
 
 21,621 
 
 
 
 
 24 Hanse Towns ...... 
 
 2,227,726 
 
 2,103,110 
 
 795,186 
 
 2,901,298 
 
 25 France on the A;. tr. tic .... 
 
 12,351,526 
 
 9,769,685 
 
 9,196,812 
 
 Il,f<6«,197 
 
 26 France on the Me. iiterranean *. 
 
 27 French East Ind: a ..... 
 
 1,080,062 
 
 1,036,898 
 
 763,828 
 
 1,605,724 
 
 19,993 
 
 
 
 
 28 Bourbon 
 
 
 6,588 
 
 2,968 
 
 9,554 
 
 29 French West I r.-ies . ... 
 
 511,212 
 
 613,719 
 
 24,346 
 
 638,063 
 
 80 French Guiana . . , , 
 
 
 4,693 
 
 
 4,893 
 
 81 Spain on the Atlaclic . . r , 
 
 337,794 
 
 201,619 
 
 24,571 
 
 226,190 
 
 33 Spain on the Mediterranean . ' . . 
 33 Teneriffe and other Canaries) . . . 
 
 806,714 
 
 136,150* 
 
 546 
 
 136.606- 
 
 148,090 
 
 24,313 
 
 I5,:i55 
 
 39,668 
 
 34 Manilla and Phi'i; • Kesj 
 
 604.498 
 
 1,021 
 
 8.376 
 
 0. '-97 
 
 35 Cuba . . ... 
 
 9,754,7*7 
 
 3,966,113 
 
 1,706,587 
 
 5,672,7(111 
 
 38 Other Spanish W ert k'-Uea . . 
 37 Portugal o 
 
 1,879,324 
 
 •>( :.-| t)o«2 
 
 27,398 
 
 421,304 
 
 170,189 
 
 73 31.1 
 
 5,330 
 
 78,R43 
 
 38 Madeira ' . 
 
 319.349 
 
 11\3I1 
 
 15,642 
 
 134, 0*3 
 
 39 Fayal and the other Azores . 
 
 26.281 
 
 1 S,3«7 
 
 3,528 
 
 21,015 
 
 40 Cape de Verde Islands . . . ; 
 
 41 Italy 
 
 39,318 
 
 162,033 
 
 44,987 
 
 2ri7,<r20 
 
 999,134 
 
 70.36-1 
 
 301,822 
 
 372, 1>6 
 
 43 Sicily . . . . . . < . 
 
 165,714 
 
 li,l23 
 
 2,940 
 
 9,063 
 
 43 Trieste ....... 
 
 314,611 
 
 i .'■.."•17 
 
 408,447 
 
 654,064 
 
 44 Turkey 
 
 786,044 
 
 16. 203 
 
 618,471 
 
 685,679 
 
 4S Hayli ....... 
 
 1,740,058 
 
 1,1 17,-0') 
 
 230,154 
 
 1,427,063 
 
 48 Mexico ....... 
 
 6,452,818 
 
 1,610,314 
 
 3,753,777 
 
 6,403,091 
 
 47 Central America ..... 
 
 267,740 
 
 267,760 
 
 307,258 
 
 575,016 
 
 48 Honduras . . 
 
 101,615 
 
 70,522 
 
 28,724 
 
 99,248 
 
 49 Colombia ' ( 
 
 1,524,622 
 
 439,984 
 
 . 617,559 
 
 957,543 
 
 60 BrazU . 
 
 6,089,693 
 
 2,474,553 
 
 797,546 
 
 3,272,101 
 
 61 Argentine Republic ..... 
 
 1,377,117 
 
 404,391 
 
 205,337 
 
 609,728 
 
 63 Chili ........ 
 
 334,130 
 
 730,140 
 
 733,600 
 
 1,463,910 
 
 63 Pent 
 
 654,630 
 
 
 
 
 64 South America, generally .... 
 
 18,409 
 
 121,050 
 
 
 121,0V) 
 
 66 China ....... 
 
 7,641,670 
 
 637,774 
 
 895,985 
 
 M33.759 
 
 68 Europe, generally . , . , , 
 
 
 45,430 
 
 520 
 
 48.050 
 
 67 Asia, do. . • . . . 
 
 369,425 
 
 60,153 
 
 677,042 
 
 -KV "4 
 
 68 Africa, do. .... . 
 
 69 West Indies, da .... . 
 
 441,809 
 
 215,222 
 
 120,146 
 
 XV '3 
 
 
 353,061 
 
 14,713 
 
 y: r~l 
 
 80 South Seas ....... 
 
 91,567 
 
 63.303 
 
 79,793 
 
 1J0, ■ ■*} 
 
 61 Sandwich Islands 
 
 1,094 
 
 
 
 
 82 Northwest Coast of America 
 
 
 23,293 
 
 11,266 
 
 33,658 
 
 63 Uncertain pons ... 
 
 1,811 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 108,113,311 
 
 70.3! 7,698 
 
 j 19,«22,73o 
 
 •:' irj 
 
*96 
 
 1PPENDCL 
 
 Imports and Exports of each state and territory, in the year ending S<.pt<mier 30th, 193J ; 
 and the tonnage, December 31, 1532. 
 
 
 Value of Irr.[>:rtj- 
 
 V«Ju«r ■'( Experts 
 
 Txjui-t, 
 
 States and 
 
 In American 
 
 In f reifn 
 
 Total 
 
 1 
 
 | J/uCil of io- 
 
 Dec- 31, 
 
 1533. 
 
 
 Teasels. 
 
 veueU. 
 
 
 produce. 
 
 J .cr. 
 
 l . . ; - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rooa&3t50tf 
 
 Me. 
 
 $1,170,106 
 
 1*10,15* 
 
 $l,3bO,3oa 
 
 $*J-9,!-7 
 
 , K»,644 
 
 tl.0iy.a31 
 
 laxriisi 
 
 N. H. 
 
 167,75-1 
 
 
 167,754 
 
 145,355 
 
 9,903 
 
 IV. i. 3 
 
 17.USS4 
 
 Vt. 
 
 623,260 
 
 
 523,260 
 
 377,390 
 
 ■ 
 
 377 ssi 
 
 1.S3I 4 
 
 Mass. 
 
 19,447,267 
 
 433,«4 
 
 19.94H 91 1 
 
 5,150,5?! 
 
 4 M2 j SS 
 
 ■J--- i ;..- 
 
 1 
 
 R. I. 
 
 1,041,836 
 
 450 
 
 1 042,286 
 
 330,669 
 
 154,612 
 
 IV ;-! 
 
 - . . 
 
 CotL 
 
 347,01-5 
 
 1 " 
 
 352.014 
 
 427,< 
 
 
 427,003 
 
 :. -> -.} 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 61,832,033 
 
 1 
 
 55,51-,44'j 
 
 15,411,296 
 
 9,9^.--21 
 
 2S,3u5,U< 
 
 
 N.J. 
 
 170 
 
 
 170 
 
 30,353 
 
 1,900 
 
 32,753 
 
 33,143 53 
 
 Perm. 
 
 9,730,204 
 
 720.936 
 
 10,451,250 
 
 2,671. rwo 
 
 1,407,651 
 
 1 - 
 
 B3,i6a u 
 
 Del. 
 
 
 9.043 
 
 9,043 
 
 45.911 
 
 
 45,911 
 
 
 Md. 
 
 , 4,904,009 
 128,577 
 
 533,04-* 
 
 5,437,057 
 
 3,3<il,ill4 
 
 761,153 
 
 4,0( i 167 
 
 
 •D. Col. 
 
 21,463 
 
 150,046 
 
 931.366 
 
 21,430 
 
 1,002.816 
 
 \7.Z1S 3 
 
 Va. 
 
 651,805 
 
 133,5?6 
 
 690,391 
 
 4,459,534 
 
 8,053 
 
 4,467,5.37 
 
 43 -77 .55 
 
 N. C. 
 
 188,927 
 
 9,331 
 
 198,758 
 
 432,986 
 
 49 
 
 133,1 15 
 
 32,142 17 
 
 S. C. 
 
 919,037 
 
 533,613 
 
 1.517,705 
 
 8,337,512 
 
 96,313 
 
 8,431,: 25 
 
 15,560 75 
 
 Ga. 
 
 132,113 
 
 1 -6.-77 
 
 318,990 
 
 6,270,010 
 
 
 6,2711,040 
 
 8,651 45 
 
 Al. 
 
 197.608 
 
 61,310 
 
 265,918 
 
 4,522,221 
 
 5,740 
 
 4,527,961 
 
 7,210 31 
 
 Mo. 
 
 5,881 
 
 
 5,881 
 
 
 
 
 
 La. 
 
 6,658,916 
 
 2431,539 
 
 9,590,505 
 
 16,133,457 
 
 2,807,916 
 
 18,941,373 
 
 61,171 73 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 4,980 
 
 3,373 
 
 8,353 
 
 , 225,544 
 
 
 225,544 
 
 9,6.-3 72 
 
 Flo. T. ■ 
 
 45,205 
 
 40,131 
 
 85,336 
 
 64,613 
 
 192 
 
 64, 503 
 
 1.911 23 
 
 Mich. T. 
 
 63,876 
 
 
 63,876 
 
 9,054 
 
 
 9,064 
 
 1,753 74 
 
 Ten. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 3,047 1 
 
 Misaip. 
 K. West, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 925 43 
 1,091 73 
 
 Total 
 
 98,060,772 
 
 10,057,539 
 
 103,115,311 
 
 70,317,698 
 
 19,822,735 
 
 90,140,133 |1,43U,450 21 
 
 TONNAGE OF THE PRINCIPAL SEA-PORTS OR DISTRICTS. 
 Dec. 31, 1832. 
 
 New York, 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 293,832 
 
 Providence, 
 
 R.I. 
 
 i9,lob 
 
 Boston, • 
 
 Mass. 
 
 171,045 
 
 Belfast, 
 
 Me. 
 
 18,576 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Pa. 
 
 77,103 
 
 Plymouth, 
 
 Mass. 
 
 17,669 
 
 Hew Bedford, 
 
 Mass. 
 
 70,550 
 
 Portsmouth, 
 
 N. H. 
 
 17,126 
 
 New Orleans, 
 
 La. 
 
 61,171 
 
 Norfolk. 
 
 Va. 
 
 15,790 
 
 Portland, 
 
 Me. 
 
 47,942 
 
 Passamaquoddy, 
 
 Me. 
 
 13,370 
 
 Baltimore, 
 
 Md. 
 
 47,129 
 
 Gloucester, 
 
 Mass. 
 
 13,266 
 
 Bath, 
 
 Me. 
 
 33,480 
 
 Wilmington, 
 
 N. C. 
 
 13,265 
 
 Salem, 
 
 Mass. 
 
 30,293 
 
 Charleston 
 
 s. c. 
 
 13,244 
 
 Nantucket, 
 
 do. 
 
 28,580 
 
 Vienna, 
 
 Md. 
 
 13,129 
 
 Barnstable, 
 
 do. 
 
 28,153 
 
 Bristol, 
 
 R.I. 
 
 12,879 
 
 Waldoborough, 
 
 Me. 
 
 24,948 
 
 Bridgetown, 
 
 N.J. 
 
 12,690 
 
 New London, 
 
 Ct. 
 
 24,225 
 
 Fairfield, 
 
 Ct. 
 
 10,892 
 
 Penobscot, 
 
 Me. 
 
 22,115 
 
 Alexandria, 
 
 D.C. 
 
 10,599 
 
 Newbaryport, 
 
 Mass. 
 
 20,131 
 
 Pittsburgh, 
 
 Pa. 
 
 10.091 
 
APPENDIX, 
 
 EPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1831 
 
 797 
 
 Srmmary statement of the value of the Etports of the frrmnth , » 
 
 THE SEA. 
 
 Fisheries — 
 Dried or cod fisheries 
 Pickled fish or river fisheries, herring, 
 
 shad, salmon, mackerel 
 Whale and other fish oil 
 Spermaceti oil 
 Whalebone 
 Spermaceti candles 
 
 THE FOREST. 
 
 Skins and furs 
 
 Ginseng .... 
 
 Product of tcood — 
 
 Staves, shingles, boards, dec 
 
 Other lumber . 
 
 Masts and spars 
 
 Oak bark, and other dye . 
 
 All manufactures of wood 
 
 Naval stores, tar, pitch, rosin, and turpen- 
 tine .... 
 
 Ashes, pot and pearl 
 
 AGRICtTLTTTRE. 
 
 Product of Animals — 
 
 Beef, tallow, hides, and horned cattle 
 Butter and cheese .... 
 Pork, (pickled,) bacon, lard, live bogs 
 Horses and mules .... 
 Sheep \ 
 
 Vegetable food — 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Flour 
 
 Indian corn 
 
 Indian meal 
 
 Rye meal 
 
 Rye, oats, and other small 
 
 Biscuit, or ship bread 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Apples 
 
 Rice 
 Indigo 
 
 grain and 
 
 • 1.969,191 
 
 249,036 
 
 32,625 
 
 93,609 
 
 3-18,641 
 
 483,712 
 614,398 
 
 958,076 
 258,452 
 2,151,558 
 167,330 
 21,464 
 
 pulse 
 
 Tobacco . , 
 
 Cotton . 
 
 All other agricultural products 
 Flax-seed 
 Hops . 
 Brown sugar . 
 
 2<J,592 
 
 5,613,010 
 
 337,505 
 
 534,309 
 
 140,017 
 
 102,568 
 
 252,555 
 
 52,052 
 
 33,262 
 
 2,744,418 
 
 ISO 
 
 MANTJTACTURES. 
 
 Soap and tallow candles 
 Leather, boots, and shoes 
 
 •712,317 
 
 277,973 
 
 924,810 
 
 42,589 
 
 185,329 
 
 259,451 
 
 841,933 
 183,11)4 
 
 3,961,212 
 
 3,556,8S0 
 
 9,839,468 
 
 228,300 
 
 92,963 
 
 7,635 
 
 8673,076 
 213.510 
 
 67* 
 
 •2,402,469 
 
 4,986,339 
 
 13,395,348 
 
 5,755,968 
 36,191,105 
 
 328,598 
 
T99 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Household furni'ure '. . . 
 Coaches and other carriages 
 .Hats, saddlery, and wax 
 Spirits from grain, beer, ale, and porter 
 Snuff and tobacco . . * . 
 
 Lead 
 
 Linseed oil and spirits of turpentine 
 
 Cordage .... 
 
 iron — pig, bar, and nails 
 
 Castings .... 
 
 Manufactures of * 
 Spirits, from molasses 
 Sugar (refined) and chocolate 
 Gunpowder .... 
 
 Copper and brass 
 Medicinal drugs . ... 
 
 Cotton piece goods — • 
 
 Printed or colored . 
 • White . ' . . . 
 
 Nankeens .... 
 
 Twist, yarn, and thread . 
 
 All other manufactures of 
 
 Flax and Hemp — / , ' 
 
 Cloth and thread . , . 
 
 Bags, and all manufactures of 
 "Wearing apparel \ 
 Combs, buttons, and brushes 
 TJmjDrellas and parasols 
 Leather and morocco skins, not sold per pound 
 Printing presses and type 
 Fire engines and apparatus 
 Musical instruments . 
 Books and maps .... 
 Paper and other stationery . • . 
 Paints and varnish 
 Vinegar . . . 
 Earthen and stone ware 
 Manufactures of glass 
 
 do. tin, pewter, and lead . 
 
 do. marble and stone . < 
 
 do. gold and silver, and gdld leaf 
 Gold and silver coin 
 Artificial flowers and jewelry 
 Molasses, trunks, brick, and lime 
 Domestic salt - 
 
 Articles not enumerated — . 
 Manufactured 
 Other 
 
 S 
 
 $421,721 
 
 1,802,116 
 
 2,054 
 
 104,335 
 
 202,291 
 
 $200,635 
 
 28,830 
 
 455,070 
 
 144,069 
 
 283,973 
 
 5,685 
 
 30,293 
 
 23,140 
 
 72.177 
 
 ■ 48,009 
 
 113,626 
 
 28,463 
 
 42,475 
 
 139,164 
 
 203,880 
 
 126,355 
 
 2,532,517 
 
 5,964 
 
 18,955 
 
 43,943 
 
 146,127 
 
 21380 
 
 38267 
 
 16,599 
 
 9,791 
 
 5,400 
 
 48.946 
 
 46.4S4 
 
 22,552 
 
 3347 
 
 12,159 
 
 93,494 
 
 4,938 
 
 5,0S7 
 
 3bl 
 
 366,842 
 
 10,433 
 
 13,753 
 
 18,211 
 
 600.S92 
 332,649 
 
 $2,837,430 
 
 3,485,600 
 
 933,541 
 70,317,698". 
 
 
 "' 
 
• 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 799 
 
 TTe, the people of the United States, in 
 order to form a more perfect union, esta- 
 blish justice, insure domestic tranquillity 
 provide for the common defence, promote 
 the general welfare, and secure the blessings 
 of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do 
 ordain and establish this constitution for the 
 United States of America. 
 
 . * ARTICLE I. 
 
 Section 1—1. AH legislative powers here- 
 in granted shall be vested in a congress of 
 the United States, which shall consist of a 
 senate and house of representatives. 
 
 Section 2.— 1. The house of representa- 
 tives shall be composed of members chosen 
 every second year, by the people of the 
 several states; and the electors in each 
 state shall have the qualifications requisite 
 for electors of the most numerous branch 
 
 States shall be ' composed of two senators 
 
 shThL Sl * yearS; aod "^-senator 
 J u T,\° ne Tote " 2 " Immed.arelvr after 
 hey shall be assemb-i. m consequence of 
 the first election, they shall be divided as 
 equally as may be, into three classes Tht 
 seats of the senators of the first class shall 
 be vacated at the expiration of the second 
 year of the seconder at the eipS 
 of the fourth year, and of the third class at 
 he expiration of the sixth year, so that one- 
 third may be chosen ewry second year • 
 and if vacancies happen, by resignation or 
 otherwise, during the recess of the legisla- 
 ture of any state, the executive thereofmay 
 make temporary appointments until the 
 next meeting of the legislature, which shall 
 then filLsuch vacancies. 3. Xo*person shall 
 be a senator who shall not have attained to 
 the age of thirty years, and been nine years 
 a citizen of the United States, and who 
 
 of the state legislature. 2. No person shall shall not, when elected Van m 
 tl H e f P - e r matlVe , Wh ° ShallDOt have ^- that- state for which hTsEu^S^ f 
 tamed to the age of twenty-five years, and The vice-president of the United "SfU n 
 been seven years a citizen of the United be president o ! the sen- but £5? £' 
 gates, and who shall not, when elec.edfeo vote, unless he ^ be ^a'llv di'^d ^ 
 
 *haU n £e ± taat °^ ha p State ia Which he P e ~* ^UchCeTetKrofficerf' 
 •Shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and and also a president vtb i*mr™7„,<t' 
 
 direct taxes shall be apportioned among the sence of the vIce-nresK^ffi- n hi ^n 
 
 several states which may be included with- exercise th XJtf ^SdSrfSJjSS 
 
 in this union according to their respective States. 6. The senaSwr.k?? 
 
 numbers, which shall be determined by power to try a 11 Trnpe^hme^-s When 
 
 adding to the whole number of free persons, sitting for that purpofe^-ThTbe on h 
 
 including those bound to service for a termor affirmation. When £? presided a ^ 
 
 &r^ ad r e u 1U K dmg IndianS DOt ^^F nited States is ^thTcffi uS b 
 three-fifths of all other persons. The acta- preside ; and no person shal be rS?-5S 
 
 al enumeration shall be made within three without 'the concurrent To ,w^V ' J 
 
 ££ f% ft 6 - *K meetmS ° f the Con " the members Present T^j^r in 
 gress/>f the United States, and within eve- cases of impeachment shall not ex°Alf.,r 
 
 ■'2ann?rT, e K ^ u^l ^^ " such lher than to remova t m offic^a" Ui ." 
 ?㪣 f 6y ShaU - byla _ w direCt - The qualification to hold and enjoy anr office 
 number of representatives shall not exceed of honor, trust, or profit, under th^UnSed 
 one for every thirty thousand, but each States; but the party convicted shall never- 
 State shall have at least one representative ; theless be liable and subject to rndtSnent 
 tW,r fw ei VJ merat ' on sh aH °e made, trial, judgment, and punishment acc^S 
 the state of New Hampshire shall be enti- to law. 
 
 tied to choose three ; Massachusetts, eight ■ 
 Rhode Island and Providence Plantations' 
 one ; Connecticut, five ; New York, six ■ 
 New Jersey, four ; Pennsylvania, eight • 
 Delaware, one ; Maryland, six ; Virginia) 
 ten; North Carolina, five ; South Carolina, 
 five ; and Georgia three. 4. When vacan- 
 cies happen in the representation from any 
 state, the executive authority thereof shall 
 issue writs of election to fill up such va- 
 cancies. 5. The house of representatives 
 shall choose their speaker and other officers, 
 
 Section 4— 1. The times, places, and man- 
 ner of holding elections for senators and 
 representatives, shall be prescribed in each 
 state by the legislature thereof; but the con- 
 gress may, at any time, by law, make or alter 
 such regulations, except as to the places of 
 choosing senators. 2. The congress shall 
 assemble at least once in every year, and 
 such meeting shall be on the first Mon lay in 
 December, unless they shall by law appoint 
 a different day. 
 
 Suction 5— 1. Each house shall be the 
 
 »„j ck ii v .i. , * • .» .' "<■<■""""■ — A - ^aca noose snail setae 
 
 and shall have the sole power of impeach- judge of the elections, returns, and qaahS- 
 
 IDe c t '».- »o . „,, , . „ cations of its own members; and a ma ority 
 
 buttons — 1. The senate of the United I of each shall constitute a quorum to do iuii 
 

 800. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 ness ; but a smaller number may adjourn | 
 from day to day, and may be authorized to I 
 compel the attendance of absent members. ! 
 in such manner and under such penalties as J 
 each h°use may provide, 2. Each house; 
 may determine the rules of its proceedings, 
 
 j§ punish its members for disorderly beha- 
 vior 1 , and, with the concurrence, of two- 
 thirds, expel a member. 3. Each house 
 shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and 
 from time to time publish the same, except- 
 ing such parts as may in their judgment re- 
 quire secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the 
 members of either house, on any question, 
 shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those pre- 
 sent, be entered on the journal. 4. Neither 
 house, during the session of congress, shall, 
 
 . without the consent of the other, adjourn 
 for more than three days, nor to any other 
 place than that in which the two houses shall 
 be sitting. 
 
 Section 6. — 1. The senators and repre- 
 sentatives shall receive a compensation for 
 their services, to be ascertained by law, and 
 paid out of the treasury of the United States. 
 They shall, in all cases^ except treason, 
 felony, and breach of the peace, be privi- 
 leged from arrest during their attendance at 
 the session of their respective houses, and 
 in going to or returning from the same ; 
 and for any speech or debate in either house 
 they shall not be questioned in any other 
 place. 2. No senator or representative shall, 
 during the time for which he was elected, 
 be appointed to any civil office under the 
 authority of the United States, which shall 
 
 * have been created, or the emoluments 
 whereof shall have been increased, during 
 such time ; and .no person holding any office 
 under the United States shall be a member 
 of either house during his continuance in 
 office. 
 
 Section 7. — 1. All bills for raising reve- 
 nue shall originate in the house of repre- 
 sentatives ; but the senate may. propose or 
 concur with amendments, as on other bills. 
 2. Every bill which shall have passed the 
 house of representatives and the senate, 
 shall, before it become a law, be presented 
 to the president of the United States ; if he 
 approve, he shall sign it ; but if not, he 
 shall return it, with his objections, to that 
 house in which it shall have originated, who 
 shall enter the objection at large on their 
 journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, 
 after such reconsideration, two-thirds of 
 that house shall agree to pass the bill, it 
 shall be sent, together with the objections, 
 to the other house, by which it shall like 
 wise be reconsidered, and if approved by 
 two-thirds of that house, it shall become a 
 law. But in all such cases, the votes of 
 
 both houses shall be determined by yeas and 
 nays, and the names of the persons voting 
 for and against the bill shall be entered on 
 the journal of each house respectively. If 
 any bill shall not be returned by the presi- 
 dent within ten days (Sundays excepted) 
 after it shall have been presented to him, the 
 same shall be a law in like manner as if he 
 had signed it, unless the congress by their 
 adjournment prevent its return ; in which 
 case it shall not be a law. 3. Every order, 
 resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence 
 of the senate and house of representatives 
 may be necessary, (except on a question of 
 adjournment,) shall be presented to the 
 president of the United States ; and before 
 the same shall take effect, shall be approved 
 by him, or being disapproved by him, shall 
 be repassed by two-thirds of the senate and 
 house of representatives, according to the 
 rules and limitations prescribed in the case 
 of a bill. 
 
 Section 8. — The congress shall have pow-. 
 er — 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, im- 
 posts, and excises; -to pay the debts and 
 provide for the common defence and gene- 
 ral welfare of the United States ; but all 
 duties, imposts, and excises, shall be uni- 
 form throughout the United States : 2. To 
 borrow money on the credit of the United 
 States : 3. To regulate commerce with fo- 
 reign nations, and among the several states, 
 and with the Indian tribes : 4. To establish 
 a uniform rule of naturalization, and uni- 
 form laws on the subject of bankruptcies 
 throughout the United States : 5. To coin 
 money, regulate the value thereof, and of 
 foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights 
 and measures : 6. To provide for the pun- 
 ishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
 current coin of the United States : 7. To 
 establish post-offices and post roads : 8. 
 To promote the progress of science and use- 
 ful arts, by securing, for limited times, to 
 authors and inventors, the exclusive right to 
 their respective writings and discoveries : 
 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the su- 
 preme court : To define and punish pira- 
 cies and felonies committed on the high 
 seas, and offences against the law of na- 
 tions : 10. To declare war, grant letters 
 of marque and reprisal, and make rules 
 concerning captures on land and water : 11. 
 To raise and support armies ; but no appro- 
 priation of money to that use shall be for a 
 linger term than two years : 12. To pro. 
 vide and maintain a navy : 13. To make 
 rules for the government and regulation of 
 the land and naval forces : 14. To provide 
 for calling forth the militia to execute the 
 laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, 
 and repel invasions : 15. To prbvide fa* 
 
APPE.VDDL 
 
 801 
 
 organizing, arming, and disciplining the 
 militia, and for governing such part of them 
 as may be employed in the service of the 
 United States, reserving to the states re- 
 spectively the appointment of the 
 and the authority of training the militia ac- 
 cording to the discipline prescribe^ by con- 
 gress: 16. To exercise^exclusive legislation 
 in all cases whatsoever over such district, 
 (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, i 
 by cession of particular states, and the ac-, 
 ceptance of congress, become the se it of 
 government of the United States. a r . ! to 
 exercise like authority over all plai 
 chased,by the consent of the legislatu 
 the state in which the same shall be. fo: the 
 erection of forts, magazines, arsenal.--, 
 yards, and other needful buildings: — md, 
 17. To make all laws which shall be ri 
 sary and proper for carrying into exe> 
 the foregoing powers, and all other p 
 vested by this constitution in the govern 
 of^he United States, or in any department 
 or officer thereof. 
 
 '. Section °- — 1. The migration or importa- 
 tion of such persons as any of the s 
 now existing shall think proper to a 
 sEall not be prohibited by the congress prior 
 to the year one thousand eight hundre I 
 •eight, but a tax or duty may be impo 
 such importation, not exceeding ten dollars j 
 for each person. 2. The privilege of the] 
 •writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus; 
 ed, unless when, in cases of rebellion o: in- 
 vasion, the public safety may require it. 3. j 
 No bill of' attainder,, or ex post facto lav.-,' 
 shall be passed. 4. No capitation or < 
 direct tax shall belaid, unless in proportion 
 to the census or enumeration herein b 
 directea to be taken. 5. No tax or 
 shall be laid on articles exported from any 
 \state. No preference shall be given by any j 
 regulation of commerce or revenue to 
 ports of any one state over those of another : | 
 nor shall vessels bound to or from one s 
 be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in 
 another. 6. No money shall be drawn j 
 from the treasury, but in consequence of 
 appropriations made by law : and a regular 
 statement and account of the receipts an '. [ 
 expenditures of all public money shall be 
 published from time to time. 7. No title 
 of nobility shall be granted by the United 
 States, and no person holding any office of 
 profit or trust under them shall, without 
 the consent of the congress, accept of any 
 
 E resent, emolument, office, or title of any 
 ind whatever, from any king, prince, or 
 foreign state. 
 
 Section 10. — 1. No state shall enter into 
 any treaty, alliance, or confederation ; grant 
 letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; 
 101 
 
 emit bills of credit ; make any thing bnt 
 _• 1 1 and silver coin a tender in payment of 
 lebts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post 
 fa to law, or law impairing the obligation 
 of contracts ; or grant any title of nobility. 
 2. No state shall, without the consent of the 
 congress, lay any imposts or duties on im- 
 ports or exports, except what may be abso- 
 lutely necessary for executing its inspection 
 laws ; and the net produce of all duties and 
 imposts laid by any state on imports or ex- 
 p rts, shall be for the use of the treasury of 
 the United States, and all such laws shall 
 be subject to the revision and control of the 
 congress. No state shall, without the con- 
 sen: oi the congress, lay any duty of tun- 
 nage, keep troops or ships of war in time of 
 peace, enter into any agreement or compact 
 with another state, or with a foreign power, 
 or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or 
 in so :h imminent danger as will not admit 
 
 • -: ■ 
 
 ARTICIJE II. 
 
 S rtion 1. — 1. The executivenower shall 
 
 be rested in a president ot {he United 
 
 of America. He shall hold his office 
 
 during the term of four years, and, together 
 
 j vice-president, cftosen for the same 
 term, be elected as follows : 2. Each state 
 shall appoint, in such manner as the legis- 
 lature thereof may direct, a number of elec- 
 tors, equal to the whole number of senators 
 
 resentatives to which the state may 
 be entitled in the congress ; but no senator 
 
 tentative, or person holding an office 
 of trast or profit under the United States, 
 shall be appointed an elector. [3. The 
 electors shall meet in their respective states, 
 and v >te by ballot for two persons, of whom 
 one at least shall not be an inhabitant of 
 the same state with themselves. And they 
 shall make a list of all the persons voted 
 for, and of the number of votes for each ; 
 which list they shall sign and certify, and 
 transmit sealed to the seat of the government 
 of the United States, directed to the presi- 
 dent of the senate. The president of the 
 senate shall, in the presence of the senate 
 and house of representatives, open all the 
 certifi rates, and the votes shall then be 
 counted. The person having the greatest 
 numrer of votes shall be the president, if 
 sueh number be a majority of the whole 
 number of electors appointed ; and if there 
 be more than one who have such majority, 
 and have an equal number of votes, then 
 the house of representatives shall immedw. 
 atelv choose, by ballot, one of them for 
 president ; and if no person have a majori- 
 ty, then, from the five highest on the list, the 
 said house shall, in like manner, choose the 
 president. But, in choosing the preiiden^ 
 43 
 

 ' 
 
 
 .:-... ~ - . 
 
 ^ 
 
 802 
 
 APPEM)IX. 
 
 the votes shall be taken by states, the repre- J offences againrt the fnt'.e! S".a!e«. excepl 
 scntation from each state having one vote -.'in ca.sc> of impeachment. 2 IJ<r shall 
 a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a have p>w.-r, by at. 1 «ri:n the a '.vice and 
 
 member or members from two-third.* of the 
 states, and a majority of all the states shall 
 be necessary to a choice. In ever)' case, 
 after the choice of the president, the person 
 having the greatest number of votes of the 
 electors shall be the vice-president. But if 
 there should remain two or more who have 
 equal votes, the senate shall choose from 
 them, by ballot, the vice-president.]* 4. 
 The congress may determine the time of 
 choosing the electors, and the day on which 
 they shall give their voles ; which day shall 
 be the same throughout the United States. 
 5. No person, except a natural born citizen, 
 or a citizen of the United States at the time 
 of the adopiion of this constitution, shall be 
 eligible to the office of president ; neither 
 shall any person be eligible to that office 
 who shall not have attained to the age of 
 thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a 
 resident within the United States._ ft. In 
 case of the removal of the president from 
 office, or of his death, resignation, or ina- 
 bility to discharge the powers anddutu 
 the said office, the same shall devolve on the 
 vice-president, and the congress may, by 
 law, provide for the case of removal, death, 
 resignation, or inability, both of the presi- 
 dent and vice-president, declaring what offi- 
 cer shall then act as president, and such 
 officer shall act accordingly, until the dis- 
 ability be removed, or a president shall be 
 elected. 7. The president shall, at stated 
 times, receive for his services a compensa- 
 tion, which shall neither be increased nor di- 
 minished during the period for which he 
 shall have been elected, and he shall not 
 receive within that period any other emolu- 
 ment from the United States, or any of 
 them. 8. Before he enter on the execution 
 of his office, he shall take the following oath 
 or affirmation : 9. ' I do solemnly swear. 
 (or affirm,) that I will faithfully execute the 
 office of president of the United States, and 
 •will, to the best of my ability, preserve, pro- 
 tect, and defend, the constitution of the Uni- 
 ted States.' 
 
 Section 2.— 1. The president shall be com 
 
 consent of the senate, to make tret:.? s, pro- 
 vided two-thirds of the senator* present 
 concur ; and he .-hill Dominate, an I, by and 
 with the advice at. ! consent of the senate, 
 shall appoint ambassador*, .other putha 
 ministers and a ges of the »a» 
 
 preme court, and all other o5.-ers of the 
 United States, whose apporntmesis are not 
 herein otherwise nroviJed ior. aai which 
 shall be established by law. Bat the coc- 
 gress may* by law, veM the appointment jo/ 
 such inferior officers as they think proper 
 in the president alone, in the courts of 
 law, or in the heads of departments. 3. 
 The president shall have power to fill up all . 
 vacancies that may happen "during the re- 
 cess of the senate, hy granting commissions 
 which shall expire at the end of their neit 
 session. 
 
 Section 3.— 1. He -ball, from time to time, 
 ive to congress information of the Mala 
 of the Union, and recommend to their con- 
 sideration such measure* as he <L;i!l ju lga 
 necessary and expedient: Le may, 'on 
 extraordinary occasions, advene both 
 houses, or either of them, ani, in case of 
 disagreement between them, w-.rh respect 
 to the time of adjournment, he may ad- 
 journ them to such time as he shall think 
 proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and 
 other public ministers ; he shall take care 
 that the laws be faithfully executed; and 
 shall commission all the officers of the Uni- 
 ted States. 
 
 Section 4.— 1. The president, vice-presi- 
 dent, and all civil officers of the hnited 
 States, shall be removed from office on im- 
 peachment for, and conviction of, treason, 
 bribery, or. other high crimes and misde- 
 meanors. 
 
 article m. 
 Section 1.— 1. The judicial power of the 
 United States shall be vested in one supreme 
 court,, and in such inferior courts as tbe con- 
 gress may, from time to time, ordain and es- 
 tablish. The judees. both of the supreme 
 and inferior courts, shall hold their offices 
 during good behavior; and shall, at stated 
 
 matidor-in-ehief of the army and navy of the times, receive for their services a coinpensa- 
 
 Uniled States, and of the militia of the se- 
 veral states, when called into the actual ser- 
 vice of the United States ; he may require 
 the opinion, in writing, of the principal offi- 
 cer in each of the cxecjtfive departments, 
 upon any subject relating to the duties of 
 their respective offices ; and he shall have 
 power to grant reprieves and pardons for 
 
 • Ttits clauie wis annulled by thi 12th article under 
 Amendment*. 
 
 tion which shall not be diminished during 
 their continuance in pffice- 
 
 Section 2.— 1. Tbe judicial pow shall 
 extend to all cases in law and equ.ry a^ng 
 under this constitution, the laws of tbe 
 United States, and treaties made, or whicn 
 shall be made, under their authority ; to aU 
 cases affecting ambassadors, other puMM» 
 ministers, and consuls; to all cases of ad- 
 miralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to con 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 803 
 
 trovevsies to which the United States shall 
 be a party ; to controversies between two or 
 more slates ; between a state and citizens 
 of another state ; between citizens of dif- 
 ferent states ; between citizens of the same 
 state claiming lands under grants of dif- 
 ferent states ; and between a state, or the 
 citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, 
 or subjects. 2. In all cases affecting am- 
 bassadors, other public ministers and con- 
 suls, and those in which a state shall be a 
 party, the supreme court shall have original 
 jurisdiction. In all the other cases before 
 mentioned, the supreme court shall have 
 appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and 
 fact, with such exceptions, and under such 
 regulations, as the congress shall make 
 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases 
 of impeachment, shall be by jury, and 
 such trial shall be held in the state where 
 the said crime shall have been commit- 
 ted ; but when not committed within any 
 state, the trial shall be at such place or 
 places as the congress may by law have di- 
 rected. 
 
 Sectio?i 3. — 1. Treason against the United 
 States shall consist only in levying war 
 against them, or in adhering to their ene- 
 mies, giving them aid and comfort. No per- 
 son shall be convicted of treason unless on 
 the testimony of two witnesses to the same 
 overt act, or on confession in open court. 2. 
 The congress shall have power to declare the 
 punishment of treason ; but no attainder of 
 treason shall work corruption of blood, or 
 forfeiture, except during the life of the person 
 attainted. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 Section 1. — 1. Full faith and credit shall 
 be given in each state to the public acts, 
 records, and judicial proceedings of every 
 other state. And the congress may, by ge- 
 neral laws, prescribe the manner in which 
 such acts, records, and proceedings shall be 
 proved, and the effect thereof. 
 
 Section 2. — 1. The citizens of each state 
 shall be entitled to all privileges and immu- 
 nities of citizens in the several states. 2. 
 A person charged in any state with treason, 
 felony, or other crime, who shall flee from 
 justice, and be found in another state, shall, 
 on demand of the executive authority of the 
 state from which he fled, be delivered up, 
 to be removed to the state having jurisdic- 
 tion of the crime. 3. No person held to 
 service or labor in one state, under the laws 
 thereof, escaping into another, shall, in con- 
 sequence of any law or regulation therein, 
 be discharged from such service or labor ; 
 but shall be delivered up on claim of the 
 party to whom such service or labor may be 
 due. 
 
 Section 3. — 1. New states may be admit- 
 ted by the congress into this Union ; but no 
 new state shall be formed or erected within 
 the jurisdiction of any other state, nor any 
 state be formed by the junction of two or 
 more states, or parts of states, without the 
 consent of the legislatures of the states con- 
 cerned, as well as of the congress. 2. The 
 congress shall have power to dispose of, and 
 make all needful rules and regulations re- 
 specting the territory or other property be- 
 longing to the United States ; and nothing in 
 this constitution shall be so construed as to 
 prejudice any claims of the United States, 
 or of any particular state. 
 
 Section 4.— 1. The United States shall 
 guaranty to every state in this Union a re- 
 publican form of government, and shall 
 protect each of them against invasion ; 
 and, on application of the legislature, or 
 of the executive, (when the legislature 
 cannot be convened,) against domestic vio- 
 lence. 
 
 ARTICLE V. 
 
 1. The congress, whenever two-thirds of 
 both houses shall deem it necessary, shall 
 propose amendments to this constitution ; 
 or, on the application of the legislatures of 
 two-thirds of the several states, shall call a 
 convention for proposing amendments, 
 which, in either case, shall be valid to all 
 intents and purposes, as part of this consti- 
 tution, when ratified by the legislatures of 
 three-fourths of the several states, or by con- 
 ventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one 
 or the other mode of ratification may be pro- 
 posed by the congress ; provided, that no 
 amendment which may be made prior to the 
 year one thousand eight hundred and eight, 
 shall in any manner affect the first and 
 fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first 
 article ; and that no state without its consent 
 shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the 
 senate. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 
 1. All debts contracted, and engagements 
 entered into, before the adoption of this con- 
 stitution, shall be as valid against the 
 United States under this constitution as 
 under the confederation. 2. This constitu- 
 tion, and the laws of the United States 
 which shall be made in pursuance thereof, 
 and all treaties made, or which shaL be 
 made, under the authority of the United 
 States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; 
 and the judges in every state shall be bound 
 thereby ; any thing in the constitution or 
 laws of any state to the contrary notwith- 
 standing. 3. The senators and representa- 
 tives before mentioned, and the members of 
 the several state legislatures, and all execu- 
 tive and judicial officers, both of the United 
 
S04 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 States and of the several states, shall be 
 bound by oath or affirmation to support 
 this constitution : but no religious test shall 
 ever be required as a qualification to any 
 office or public trust under the United 
 States. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. 
 
 1. The ratification of the conventions of 
 nine states shall be sufficient for the esta- 
 blishment of this constitution between the 
 stales so ratifying the same. 
 
 AMENDMENTS 
 
 To the constitution of the United States, ratified ac- 
 cording to the provisions of the fifth article of the 
 
 foregoing constitution. 
 
 Art. 1. Congress shall make no law respecting an 
 establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free ex- 
 ercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or 
 of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to 
 assemble, and to petition the government for a redress 
 of grievances. 
 
 Art. 2. A well regulated militia being necessary 
 to the security of a free state, the right of the people 
 to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 
 
 Art. 3. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be 
 quartered in any house without the consent of the 
 owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be 
 prescribed by law. 
 
 Art. 4. The right of the people to be secured in 
 their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against 
 unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 
 violated ; and no warrants shall issue but upon pro 
 bable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and par 
 ticularly describing the place to be searched, and the 
 persons or things to be seized. 
 
 Art. 5. No person shall be held to answer for a 
 capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a pre- 
 sentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in 
 cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the 
 militia, when in actual service, in time of war or 
 public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for 
 the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life 
 or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, 
 to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, 
 liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor 
 shall private property be taken for public use, without 
 just compensation. 
 
 Art. 6. In all criminal prosecutions the accused 
 ehall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by 
 an impartial jury of the stale and district wherein the 
 crime shall have been committed, which district shall 
 have been previously ascertained by law, and to be 
 informed of the nature and cause of the accusation : 
 to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to 
 have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in 
 his favor ; and to have the assistance of counsel for 
 his defence. 
 
 Art. 7. In suits at common law, where the value 
 in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right 
 of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no fact tried 
 by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any 
 court of the United States, than according to the rules 
 of the common law. 
 
 Art. 8. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor 
 
 excessive fines imposed, nor cruel an! unusual pu 
 nishments inflicted. 
 
 Art. 9. The enumeration in tlie constitution of 
 certain rights shall not be constructed to deny and 
 or disparage others retained by the people. 
 
 Art. 10. The | owers not delegated to the United 
 States by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to lha 
 states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to 
 the people. 
 
 Art. 11. The judicial power of the United Slates 
 shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or 
 equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the 
 United States by citizens of another state, or by citi- 
 zens or subjects of any foreign state. 
 
 Art. 12. § 1. The electors shall meet in their re- 
 spective states, and vote by ballot for president and 
 vice-president, one of whom, at least, shall not be an 
 inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they 
 shall name in their ballots the person voled for as 
 president, and in distinct ballots the person voted for 
 as vice-president; and they shall make distinct lists 
 of all persons voted for as president, and of all persons 
 voted for as vice-president, and of the number of votes 
 for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and 
 transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the 
 United States, directed to the president of the senate; 
 the president of the senate shall, in the presence of 
 the senate and house of representatives, open all the 
 certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the 
 person having the greatest number of votes for presi- 
 dent shall be the president, if such number be a 
 majority of the whole number of electors appointed: 
 and if no person have such majority, then from the 
 persons having the. highest numbers, not exceeding 
 three, on the list of those voted for as president, the 
 house of representatives shall choose immediately, 
 by ballot, the president. But, in choosing the presi- 
 dent, the votes shall be taken by states, the represen- 
 tation from each state having one vote; a quorum for 
 this purpose shall consist of a member or members 
 from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the 
 states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the 
 house of representatives shall not choose a president, 
 whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, 
 before the fourth day of March next following, then 
 the vice-president shall act as president, as in the case 
 of the death or other constitutional disability of the 
 president. 
 
 2. The person having the greatest number of votes 
 as vice-president shall be the vice-president, if such 
 number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
 appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then 
 from the 'wo highest numbers on the list the senate 
 shall choose the vice-president; a quorum for the 
 purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole num- 
 ber of senators, and a majority of the whole number 
 shall be necessary to a choice. 
 
 3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the 
 office of president shall be eligible to that of vice- 
 president of the United States. 
 
 Art. 13. If any citizen of the United States shall 
 accept, claim, receive, or retain any title of nobility 
 or honor ; or shall, without the consent of congress, 
 accept and retain any present, pension, office, or 
 emolument of any kind whatever, from any emperor, 
 kins, prince, or foreign power, such person shall 
 cease to be a citizen of the United States, and shall 
 be incapable of holding any office of trust or profit 
 under them, or either of them.