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 DAVIS, BAEDEEN & CO., Publishers, Syracuse, N. Y. 
 

 CVi 
 
 THE 
 
 'Wii 
 
 a 
 
 
 EMBODYING THE INSTRUCTION GIVEN BY THE AUTHOR AT 
 
 TEACHERS' INSTITUTES. 
 
 IN NEW YORK AND OTHER STATES, 
 
 AND ESPECIALLY INTENDED TO ASSIST 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS 
 
 IN THE 
 
 PEACTICAL WORK OF THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 
 
 E/V.DeGRAFRA. m. 
 
 Second Edition. Carefully Revised. 
 
 PRICE ONE DOLLAR AND A HALF. 
 
 SYRACUSE, N. Y.: 
 Davis, Bardeen & Co., Publishers. 
 
 1878. 
 
 Copyright, E. V. DeGraff, 1877, 
 
LB 155"^ 
 
 TO THE 
 TEACHEKS OF OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 
 TO WHOM 
 HAVE BEEN ENTRUSTED THE TEACHING 
 AND 
 THE TRAINING OF THE RISING GENERATION, 
 THIS VOLUME, 
 WRITTEN FOR THEIR AID AND ENCOURAGE- 
 MENT, 
 IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICAIED 
 BY THEIR FRIEND, 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Manuals, both general and special, have been pub- 
 lished, relating to the teacher's work. Information 
 scattered through a multitude of volumes is usually 
 inaccessible to those by whom it is most needed ; 
 and consequently, the most important results of study 
 and research are often of no avail to those whose 
 special office it is to apply them to a practical pur- 
 pose. Hence the need of works that present in a 
 condensed form, and so as to be easily referred to, 
 the important facts of pedagogy. 
 
 Accordingly, the first announcement of this work 
 was greeted with the most earnest expressions of ap- 
 probation and welcome. The design was to prepare 
 a work which, while comprehensive and complete 
 within its scope, would like, the dictionary, be upon 
 every teacher's desk, to be consulted whenever occa- 
 sion might require, thus afibrdiug information and 
 practical aid at every exigency of his daily labors. 
 
 The School Boom Guide, it must be born in mind, 
 is but a pioneer, opening out, it is hoped, a wide 
 path for future literary and professional eflbrt iu the 
 same direction. The author is by no means so pre- 
 sumptuous as to suppose that he has produced a 
 work without fault or blemish ; it will doubtless share 
 the fate of all books of its class, the scrutinizing crit- 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 icism of the public. In future editions of the work, 
 pains will be taken to correct what is faulty and to 
 improve what is imperfect ; any assistance which 
 those who appreciate the aim of the work may be 
 able to render that end, will be gratefully acknowl- 
 edged. 
 
 The views contained in this Manual are the result 
 of a prolonged experience in the school-room and in 
 teachers' institutes. 
 
 The labor expended in the preparation of the 
 volume was very great. It has formed a daily sub- 
 ject of thought for the past five years. Many of the 
 lessons have been revised three or four times. 
 
 This is hardly the place to confess how often the 
 task was about to be abandoned from the dispropor- 
 tion felt to exist between its magnitude and the limited 
 powers that could be summoned to execute it ; but it 
 was as often resumed, and is now completed — com- 
 pleted, but not PERFECTED. 
 
 This work has been prepared with three objects in 
 view : first completejiess, that nothing be wanting to 
 assist the teacher or student; second, correctness, that 
 nothing erroneous be taught ; and, third, brevity, 
 that its readers might not be obliged to 7'ead volumes 
 in order to learn lioio to teach the difierent subjects. 
 
 To carry out the plan of this book, much reading, 
 as well as much thinking, has been done ; to tell 
 where and by whom {\ns.fact or that method was ob- 
 tained is an impossibility. 
 
 Wishing to do justice to everybody, no claim that 
 may be fairly made to any idea, fact, or method in it 
 
AlSl AID: NOT A SUBSTITUTE. -o 
 
 will be disputed ; but it is hoped that something may- 
 be left even when all claims are satisfied. Nothing, 
 however has been taken from others and used with- 
 out close investigation. All facts, methods and prin- 
 ciples found in the book, come whence they may, 
 have been fused into a common whole. The whole — 
 this collecting and uniting of the scattered fragments 
 of thought concerning education — this system, — is 
 what the author asks credit for, if credit be deemed 
 his due. 
 
 In every subject the author has given : first, an in- 
 troduction, followed by several lessons upon the 
 same subjects ; second, explicit directions.; third, 
 cautions to be observed ; and fourth, results to be 
 attained. 
 
 It is hoped that in this volume a systematic treatise 
 for the special guidance of the teacher may be found 
 upon all subjects taught in our public schools. 
 
 As a preparation for the successful study and prac- 
 tice of this book, it is necessary to understand the 
 several branches of knowledge taught. 
 
 After the students or teachers become familiar with 
 the subjects, they should study the directions, — or, 
 as they are termed — methods of teaching. 
 
 By study, much may be accomplished with it; 
 without stud}'-, little. 
 
 The wise teacher will remember that the methods 
 presented in this work are offered as aids to honest 
 effort, not as substitutes for personal exertion. 
 
 The teacher who uses them as mere machines for 
 lessening the labor of thinking, will fail. No one can 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 succeed by blind imitation. All successful teachers 
 must work out their own salvation in reaching a 
 rational solution of the problems presented by their 
 profession. 
 
 These methods are the fruits of practical experience 
 and definite principles of action. The teacher should 
 study, digest and appropriate the underlying princi- 
 ples, before attempting to apply the forms. 
 
 There can be no efficient substitute for the individ- 
 uality ot the teacher. 
 
 The power of a formal method lies in its sugges- 
 tiveness; it gives direction to the* thoughts of the 
 honest inquirer and pilots him toward the goal of suc- 
 cess: but he must attain it by his own persevering 
 eflort. 
 
 Teaching is an art as well as a science ; it requires 
 apprenticeship in doing things as well as in reasoning 
 out relations. 
 
 The condition of success in every calling is per- 
 sonal strength ; the armor of Achilles would be only 
 a burdensome obstruction to a stripling. Hobby 
 riding gives a delusive appearance of progress, but 
 the age runs away from the rider. 
 
 The author acknowledges his indebtedness to the 
 educational works of the various publishing houses 
 of New York : among thera, Scribner, Armstrong & 
 Co.; IvisoD, Blakeman, Taylor & Co, ; A.. S. Barnes 
 & Co ; Harper & Brothers; Clark &Maynard ; Tain- 
 tor Brothers, Merrill & Co. ; and D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 To all who have aided in the work , the thanks ot 
 the author are due ; it could not have possessed the 
 
PEEFAGE TO SECOND EDITION, mi 
 
 value which may, with considerable confidence, be 
 attributed to it, had it not been for cordial support ; 
 and certainly could not have earned the approval 
 w^hicli it may justly be expected to receive. The 
 author also takes occassion to express his obligations 
 to the many friends who have afforded valuable aid 
 in giving important advice, or in affording needed in- 
 formation. Among the number are Dr. Joseph Alden, 
 president of the State Normal School at Albany; 
 Miss Minnie Sherwood, principal of public school, 
 Auburn, N. Y. ; John Kennedy, Buffalo, N. Y. ; also 
 to associate instructors, school commissioners and 
 superintendents of public schools. 
 
 To all of these the author would extend his grate- 
 ful acknowledgment for encouragement and valua- 
 ble suggestions. 
 
 Sincerely hoping that this Manual will contribute 
 to the cause of education, it is most respectfully sub- 
 mitted to the public. 
 
 Albany, November 1, 1877. 
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The first edition of this work having been eutirelj^ 
 
 sold before it was received from the binder, I am 
 
 compelled co make this revision more hasty than I 
 
 could have desired. The subjects have been entirely 
 
 rearranged and indexed by head-lines, however, and 
 
 many corrections have been made. I shall be glad 
 
 of suggestions for future revision. 
 
 E. V. DeGRAFF. 
 Albany, December 15, 1877. 
 
"Words are things ; and a small drop of ink, falling like 
 dew upon a thought, produces that which makes thousands, 
 perhaps millions, think." — Byron. 
 
 "The fool hath planted his memory with an army of 
 words , ' ' — Shakspeare. 
 
 "In the commerce of speech use only coin of gold and 
 silver. ... Be profound with clear terms, and not with 
 obscure terms." — Jaubert. 
 
 "It is highly important, that whatever we learn or know, 
 we should know correctly ; for xmless our knowledge 
 be correct, we lose half its value and usefulness." — Con- 
 versations on Botany. 
 
READING. 
 
 Methods Used in Teaching Children to Read. 
 
 MetTiods. 
 
 1. The Word Method. 
 
 2. The Object Method. 
 
 3. The Phonic Method. 
 
 4. The Phonetic Method. 
 
 5. The Phonotypic Method. 
 
 6. The Word-Building Method. 
 
 7. The Looii-and-say Method. 
 
 8. The Sentence Method. 
 
 9. The Drawing Method-. 
 
 10. The A, b, c, or Alphabetic Method. 
 
 That teachers may distinguish good methods from 
 poor ones, descriptions will be given of some of the 
 plans employed for the first lessons in reading. 
 
 Some are old, long, unnatural and tedious, afford- 
 ing little else than monotony to stimulate the child's 
 desire to learn. Others may be shorter, but none the 
 less unnatural and arbitrary. 
 
 Some are unphilosophical, and leave no cause for 
 surprise that so many children flounder at the very 
 threshold of knowledge, the very place that should 
 be made most attractive. The Word Method will 
 receive close attention, and it is hoped -that those 
 teachers who are not familiar with it will study it 
 and use it. 
 
10 READING. 
 
 How to Teach Pupils to Read by the Word 
 Method. 
 
 I. Directons, 
 
 1. Call the attentioQ of the children to some ob- 
 lect. 
 
 2. Ask questions about the object. 
 
 3. Talk to the children about the object. 
 
 4. Ask the children to give the name of the object. 
 
 5. Show a picture of the object. 
 
 G. Make a drawing on the board of the object. 
 
 7. Print and write the word on the board. 
 
 8. Let the pupils copy the word on their slates. 
 
 9. Group words into phrases. 
 
 10. Group words into sentences. 
 
 11. After the pupils learn one sentence, use it in 
 making other sentences. 
 
 12. Select words that are the names of familiar ob- 
 jects. 
 
 II. Cautions. 
 
 1. Present only two or three new words for each 
 lesson. 
 
 2. Teach the children to recognize words as signs 
 of ideas. 
 
 3. At first give no attention to the elements of which 
 words are composed ; as the elementary sounds, and 
 letters. 
 
 4. Attempt no spelling of any of the words. 
 
 ///. Results. 
 
 1. Knowledge. 
 
 2. Naturalness of expression. 
 
 3. Fluency. 
 
THE WORD METHOD. 11 
 
 Remarks. — In the earliest stages of the course, 
 teaching precedes learning ; the child's steps are 
 guided and upheld by the teacher ; his way is made 
 clear for him, and his difficulties are anticipated. It 
 is essential that the child shall have a liking to the 
 work in which he is engaged. It is the spirit of the 
 teacher rather than his methods that ensures success 
 in teaching little ones to read. 
 
 In the word method, we begin by teaching words, 
 leading the children to recognize them as wholes. 
 This method is now used extensively ; it was the 
 method used by the race in developing the language. 
 Nature is the guide of both parents and children. 
 There is a fitness in her means that secures, in the 
 most simple way, ihe most desirable ends. We 
 have become artificial, mechanical in teaching ; we 
 need to retrace our steps and imitate nature's process. 
 Follow Nature's Plan. 
 
 Kature begins with objects — the idea first, its signs 
 second, and the ability to represent the idea of its 
 signs third — the natural order of learning language, 
 and the natural order of using it, are made to corres- 
 pond. The word soon becomes familiar to the child. 
 It is the object of thought. 
 
 The word method begins with words, and not let- 
 ters. To teach the word " hat " it does not teach first 
 the letters \ a, t^ and say " hat ; ' but it takes the word 
 and calls it " 7w?," without any reference to the fact 
 that the printed word is made up ot letters. 
 The Thing Before the Sign. 
 
 The thing before the sign is the rule in teachine:. 
 
12 READING. 
 
 Words tbat are not signs of things can be illustrated 
 by examples: for instance, white^ by showing the 
 color; runs^ by showing the act; on, by showing the 
 position, etc. By this method it will take no more 
 time to teach the word, its elementary sounds, letters 
 and spelling, than the letters alone by the old way of 
 teaching the letters first. 
 
 Let the teacher aim to get the children to talk freely. 
 If possible, present a real object to the class ; a pic- 
 ture, or a drawing. Ask questions to draw out what 
 the children know of the object. You now have ex- 
 cited an interest; show the class the word ; point or 
 write the word under the drawing ; tell the children 
 that the word is a picture of the real object ; require 
 the children to pronounce it several times ; print the 
 word in several places on the board; and require the 
 children to pronounce it in concert. 
 
 In like manner teach quality words, for example 
 "red ;" show an object that is red, and print on 
 the board the words, '' a red cap," and request pupils 
 to read the phrase. That the plan of teaching chil- 
 dren to read by the word method may be more clearly 
 understood and readily applied, the following direc- 
 tions are given : 
 
 How to Teach the Word Method. 
 
 Let the»teacher begin by a familiar conversation 
 with the children about some object. It is of little 
 importance what words are taught first, if the words 
 are short ones and familiar to the children by use in 
 conversation, and the object which the words repre- 
 
WOBJDS THE OBJECTS OF TEOUGET. 13 
 
 sent and the pictures can be readily sliown. The ob- 
 ject of the talk and questions should be to put the 
 child in conscious possession of a knowledge of the 
 thing, or of what the word represents. 
 
 When the child has this knowledge, and not before, 
 the teacher may show him the sign, i. e„, the word. 
 
 As soon as the word is presented the child should 
 print it on his slate. A little practice will enable the 
 child to print it readily. The printing will fix the 
 word in the juind. 
 
 In very many of the best schools in our cities the 
 children are taught at first to write the word ; not 
 permitted to print it for the reason, that in after life 
 we use the script, not the printed forms. 
 
 If the pupils are receiving, as they should be, daily 
 lessons in writing, in a very short time they will 
 be able to copy the sentence fjom the board on the 
 slates. 
 
 This is a very important exercise, not only on ac- 
 count of the practice in writing which it afl'ords, but 
 for giving the children something attractive and use- 
 ful to do, and preventing mischievous habits, greatly 
 lightening the burdens of disciplining them. The 
 teacher should take some sharp instrument and rule 
 one side of the slate, and the children should be en- 
 couraged to do the work neatly and correctly. 
 Letters and Sounds. 
 
 The child knows nothing of vowels, consonants 
 and articulation ; nothing about letters, when he looks 
 upon the printed page. 
 
 The word, the word ! This is the object of thought. 
 
14 READING. 
 
 The printed word is tlie object presented to tlie mind 
 
 of the cliild. It is presented through the eye. It is 
 
 known by its form ; the child learns to recognize the 
 
 words by tlieir forms, as it learns to recognize other 
 
 ol)jects. The names of the letters are no guides to 
 
 the correct pronounciation of words, and they can be 
 
 of no possible service to the children in learning to 
 
 read. 
 
 After the children have made considerable progress 
 
 in reading words, the teacher may call their attention 
 
 to the elementary sounds of which the words are 
 
 composed. 
 
 Combined Method, 
 
 Some teachers combine the Word and Phonic 
 Methods, and after the word is learned by sight, 
 teach the elementary sounds. This is not necessary 
 to this plan of teaching reading, and if the teacher 
 thinks best, may be omitted. 
 
 Children have been taught to read in a very few 
 weeks by this plan, and we would encourage prim- 
 ary teachers to try it. It is very useful in cultivating 
 distinctness in articulation, and in aiding the chil- 
 dren to acquire new words. 
 
 The Names ol Letters. 
 
 When the pupils have been made familiar with the 
 words that have been taught by sight, so as to readily 
 pronounce them, and give their elementary sounds, 
 the teachers may call the attention of the children to 
 the names of their letters; but as a rule the children 
 will learn the names of the letters soon enough, with- 
 out any help from the teacher. 
 
THE OBJECT METHOD. 15 
 
 As soon as the letters are taught, by all means 
 show their use by putting them together and mak- 
 ing the word; use the same letters in forming new 
 words. 
 
 There is but little variance between the Object 
 Method and the Word Method. The introductory 
 part is the same, and both should be combined in 
 order to interest the children. Whole words should 
 be presented, and the pupils required to pronounce 
 them, without spelling, by sight. Subsequently the 
 analysis of these words into sounds and letters may 
 be taught. 
 
 First, teach words that are the names of things; 
 then words representicg the names of qualities and 
 actions. The little connective words and those that 
 are used as substitutes for other words, should not be 
 taught until they are needed in the construction of 
 phrases and sentences. 
 
 We will briefly refer to the other methods used in 
 teaching children to read. 
 
 The Object Method. 
 
 The children's attention is first directed to some 
 object with which they are familiar by sight, name 
 and use. 
 
 The teacher shows the object to the children, and 
 the name is given by the children. If they cannot 
 give the name, the teacher tells them. The teacher 
 presents a picture of the object, or makes a drawing 
 of it upon the board; then the name is plainly writ- 
 ten under the drawing. The pupils are now taught 
 to distinguish from one another the object, the picture 
 of it, and the word representing it. 
 
16 READING. 
 
 Steps in Reading by the Objeet Method. 
 
 The following order should be observed in teach- 
 ing beginners lo read by the Object Method, as used 
 by N. A. Calkins, Assistant Superintendent of 
 Schools in New York city: 
 
 First Step. — Teach whole words by sight that are 
 already known by hearing, as signs of objects, quali- 
 ties and actions. 
 
 Secojid Ste]). — Teach the analysis of the word by 
 its elementary sounds. 
 
 TTdrdHejj. — Teach the analysis of the word by the 
 names of its letters, and their order in spelling it. 
 
 Fourth Stej). — Require the pupils to pronounce the 
 word; sound it; spell it. 
 
 Fifth Step. — Group words into phrases and sent- 
 iences. 
 
 The children will learn new w^ords by comparing 
 the known words with the unknown. 
 The Phonic Method. 
 
 Every intelligent and unprejudiced mind will wel- 
 come any means by which loose and bad habits of 
 enunciation may be cast off, and correct ones formed 
 in their stead. 
 
 . Children who have been taught and accustomed to 
 say judgmunt for judgment, read'a for reading, an 
 for and, muss for must, parent for parent, pttss for 
 pass, etc., will not be likely, by a single effort, to set 
 their speech right. By well directed and persevering 
 effort they can do it; with proper guidance and en- 
 couragement they will do it. A thorough knowledge 
 of the elementary sounds is essential to success in the 
 
THE PHONIC METHOD. 17 
 
 Phonic Method. It must be made a careful study 
 and the teacher should master it. 
 
 The Phonic Method consists in making the learner 
 acquainted with the powers of the letters, so that 
 when words are before him, he may, by uttering the 
 sound of each letter in succession, construct for him- 
 self the sound of the word. Such a method, says 
 John Gill, of the Normal College, Cheltenham, it is 
 impossible to have in a language like the English. A 
 purely phonic method is possible only where the 
 number of letters and elementary sounds correspond 
 where the same letter always represents the same 
 sound, and where, in the spelling of words, the num- 
 ber of letters and of sounds agree. But these condi- 
 tions in English are impossible. The letters are but 
 five-eighths of the elementary sounds; one letter often 
 represents two or more sounds; some sounds are re- 
 presented by more than one letter, and often letters 
 are found not sounded at all. 
 
 The principal advantage of this method is, that it 
 puts into the hands of the children a key by which 
 they may be able to help themselves The element- 
 ary sounds must be known before the children can 
 take a single step in advance, without the aid of the 
 teacher. By following the word method strictly, 
 the child is unable to advance, except as it is assisted 
 by the teacher. 
 
 The best results have been gained by the primary 
 teachers in using the Phonic Method as auxiliary to 
 the Word Method, but not as a substitute for it. The 
 word must be the unit of thought; it is the natural 
 
18 BEADING. 
 
 way to begin with the units of language, wliich are 
 words. Language deals with thoughts; words are 
 symbols of thought. 
 
 Letters are elements of the forms of words; simple 
 sounds are the elements of the sounds of words; 
 neither of these elements are units in language. The 
 child must know the sounds and the names of the 
 letters ; through these aids it may be able to help 
 itself. This process, however, is not adapted to the 
 child, until it has learned some words as wholes, as 
 units of language, and as representations of thoughts. 
 
 Another advantage also is, it teaches the children 
 from the beginning to enunciate distinctly; many 
 other advantages are gained by combining the Word 
 and Phonic Methods. 
 
 With all the plans that have been considered, let 
 the teachers bear in mind that children can never 
 learn to read with any degree of ease until they are 
 able to call instantly the words in the sentence with- 
 out stopping to analyze them. 
 
 By the method suggested, children are enabled to 
 
 read with more interest and expression in a far 
 
 shorter time than by the plans heretofore generally 
 
 pursued. 
 
 The Phonetic Method. 
 
 The Phonic and Phonetic Methods are distinct; 
 the phonetic method provides signs to represent all 
 the sounds of the language, using the common letters 
 each to denote but one sound of that letter, and pro- 
 viding slight modifications of these letters to denote 
 other sounds. This method is used with success in 
 those schools provided with Leigh's Phonetic Reader. 
 
THREE MO HE METHODS. 19 
 
 The Phouotypic Method. 
 
 This is another form of the Phonic Method, pro- 
 viding a character or letter for each sound in the 
 language. 
 
 The pupil is required to learn forty or more letters 
 in place of twenty-six. 
 
 There are those who claim that pupils will learn 
 holh methods, and become able to read better there- 
 by, in a given time, than they usually do when 
 taught entirely from the common print. 
 
 This method may be used with success ; but, as 
 the schools are not provided with books on the 
 Phonotypic plan, we will not enlarge upon it. 
 The Word-Building Method. 
 
 Its plan is to begin with words ot or,e letter, as A, 
 I, O, and gradually form new words by prefixing or 
 affixing single letters. The child is taught first to 
 pronounce the word, then the letters that form it. 
 Separate letters of the alphabet and spelling are 
 taught by asking questions similar to the following : 
 
 " What letter is placed after a to form an?''' 
 
 " What after an to form and ? " 
 
 " What before and to form land? " 
 
 The Look-and Say Method. 
 
 This method is that in which, after the children 
 have mastered the alphabet, all words are read with- 
 out spelling. 
 
 Attention is directed to each word as a whole, and 
 its sound associated with it as a whole. 
 
 In no case is the learner allowed to spell a word 
 that he may afterwards recognize and pronounce it. 
 
20 READING. 
 
 The following things are advanced in favor of this 
 method : 
 
 First — For mastering the word by the eye. 
 
 Second — For recognizing the word in the sign, and 
 for acquiring practical acquaintance with the number 
 of letters and syllables. 
 
 Third— YoY its suitability to the circumstances of 
 common schools. 
 
 The above reasons must commend tliis method to 
 many teachers who have not received special train- 
 ing. It best meets the requirements of class in- 
 struction. In the class, the aim is to bring out the 
 energies of all. This is done through emulation and 
 self-respect. 
 
 Now when spelling is permitted, a child has little 
 rducement to exert itself to retain a word once seen ; 
 but let spelling be forbidden, let the remembrance of 
 the word be thrown on the eye, and emulation will 
 stimulate some to retain it, and to give it when called 
 upon ; and self-respect will be appealed to in the 
 others, not to require to be always told by a sharper 
 companion. It is a method which requires no special 
 preparation, like the phonic, and therefore may be 
 entrusted to an inexperienced teacher. 
 The Sentence Method. 
 
 In this method the teacher does not begin with the 
 letters, nor with sepai ate words, but with words in 
 combination, that express a thought. Using this 
 combination of words as a unit, the separate words 
 are learnetl, as the separate letters are learned by the 
 Word Method, that is, without special effort and al- 
 most, if not quite, unconsciously. 
 
TEE. SENTENCE METHOD. 21 
 
 In teaching this method let it be the aim of the 
 teacher, not so much to teach separate sounds, letters 
 and words, as to teach and secure the proper expres- 
 sion of thought. 
 
 The letters and words must be known, but as they 
 will necessarily become known by this method with- 
 out much special teaching, they are regarded and 
 treated as of secondary importance for the time 
 being. 
 
 The attention of the childen should be directed to 
 the thought. To this end, real objects and facts are 
 at first employed to appeal to the senses and to de- 
 mand of the child words to give the thought oral 
 expression. 
 
 In learning to talk, children acquire ideas from ob- 
 jects, and then seek language to express them. It 
 requires a combination of words to express a thought, 
 or to give birth to a new idea or thought. 
 
 The advantages claimed for this method over others 
 are: 
 
 First — It is a perfectly natural way — teaching the 
 child to read very much as he learned to talk. 
 
 Second — The attention of the child is directed to 
 the expression of the thought, hence he reads easily 
 and naturally. 
 
 Third — It makes the child thoughtful, hence it 
 cultivates his intelligence. 
 
 Fourth — In doing this work, it is claimed that it 
 accomplishes all that the other methods do, without 
 additional time. 
 
22 READING. 
 
 The Drawing Method. 
 
 As all words are made up of the letters of the 
 alphabet, and differ from each other only in the or- 
 der and number of letters, the tirst step in teaching 
 reading, whatever may have been the subsequent 
 method has been to teach the children these charac- 
 ters. 
 
 Many have ben the devices to accomplish this, but 
 this method we will present as one of the most suc- 
 cessful. It is the Drawing Method ; that is of teach- 
 ing the child to draw the letter, and then learn its 
 name. 
 
 This process combines from the first the two great 
 instruments of teaching and reproducing — the former 
 giving knowledge, and the latter testing it and giv- 
 ing skill. 
 
 Since curiosity, which is so strong in the child, 
 seeks its gratification in finding new forms, this 
 method of drawing can be used as a means of train- 
 ing his eye to quickness and accuracy of observation. 
 Lessons should be given upon straight, curved and 
 crooked lines, that the children may know what is 
 meant by the terms used. 
 
 By actually drawing and naming the parts of a 
 letter, its form and name, as a whole, may be easily 
 impressed on the memory of the pupil. In this 
 manner the learning of the alphabet, instead of be- 
 ing a spiritless task, as it has too often proved, is 
 exceedingly attractive to the child and becomes a 
 valuable aid in cultivating the sense of sight. 
 
 This method may be used with a fair degree of 
 success in ungraded schools. 
 
THE ALPHABET METHOD. 23 
 
 The Alphabet, or A B C Method. 
 
 The children by this method, are taught the names 
 of the letters, and they begin to spell words at first ; 
 this is a method of learning spelling and reading at 
 ■ once, or ratlier of learning to read by learning to 
 spell. Spelling may be learned through readmg, but 
 reading through spelling never. The attempt to 
 combine two things in one lesson, by diverting the 
 learner's attention, interferes with his progress in 
 recognizing the words. 
 
 This method was universally used years ago, and 
 even now is used in many of the ungraded schools. In 
 the best schools, the name or alphabetic method is 
 superseded by some of the modern ways. It is an 
 imperfect method in that the names of the letters do 
 not guide to the pronunciation of the word. 
 
 Take the word mat; by the same method, the 
 name of the first letter is em ; the second letter is e, 
 and the third tee; — pronounced em a tee ; by the 
 phonic it becomes m-a-t. 
 
 This method produces halting, stumbling readers, 
 and it is now abandoned by all good teachers of 
 reading ; it also lays the foundation for mechanical, 
 unintelligible reading, which characterizes most of 
 the schools where it is taught. 
 
 Remarks. — We have given ten different methods 
 of teaching reading ; to those who have no method, 
 we hope that we offer one, at least, that they may 
 use with success. 
 
 Give direct attention to the primary classes in 
 reading ; if a child is not taught to read well during 
 
24 BEADING. 
 
 the first two years in school, he will probably be a 
 poor reader through life. 
 
 Primary Reading. 
 
 I. Directions. 
 
 1. Train the pupils to pronounce the words readily 
 at sight. 
 
 (a) Print or write the words on the board in 
 
 columns ; pupils pronounce them at sight. 
 (&) Write difiicult words on the board, and sylla- 
 bicate them ; mark the accented syllables ; 
 pupils pronounce them, 
 (c) Require the pupils to pronounce the words 
 
 forward ; reverse. 
 {d) Require the pupils to bring in a portion or 
 all of the reading lesson upon the slate ; 
 pupils read the lesson from the slate. 
 {e) Alternate. 
 
 //. Cmitions. 
 
 1. Present to the pupils only one difficulty at a 
 time 
 
 2. Never permit the pupils to spell words in read- 
 ing. 
 
 3. Insist upon correct articulation and pronuncia- 
 tion. 
 
 Remarks. — If the pupils in the first lessons of 
 reading are taught correctly, they will not spell 
 words audibly. 
 
 Many ol the common faults in reading may be 
 traced to the improper methods in use during the 
 first lessons in this subject. Bad habits at this period 
 
BEAD WORDS, NOT LETTERS. 25 
 
 usually cling to the pupils during all their school 
 days, and often seriously affect their entire future 
 progress. 
 
 Tiie first lessons in reading are of the greatest im- 
 portance, and they should be given in a proper 
 manner. 
 
 To do this successfully there must be a system in 
 the plans pursued. 
 
 Reading Words. 
 
 The pupils must be familiar wih the words of the 
 lesson, so that they can readily pronounce them at 
 sight. 
 
 The teacher should introduce a short preliminary 
 exercise, for calling the words at sight, as follows : 
 
 Teacher and children alternating one word each ; 
 boys and girls alternating one word each ; careless 
 pupils alternating with class ; each pupil reading a 
 line as rapidly as possible. 
 
 In no instance should the teacher let a pupil stop 
 to spell a word. The plan is in violation of the fun- 
 damental laws of teaching. It attempts to compel 
 the child to do two things at the same time, and to 
 do both in an unnatural manner, viz. : to learn read- 
 ing and spelling simultaneously, and reading through 
 spelling. 
 
 Heading has to deal with sounds and signs of 
 thoughts. Spelling rests on a habit of the eye, which 
 is best acquired by writing. 
 
 In attempting to teach rei.ding through spelling the 
 effort distracts the attention from the thought ; read- 
 ing furnishes facilities for teaching spelling; but spell- 
 
26 READING. 
 
 ing does not furnish a suitable means for teaching 
 reading. If spelling is permitted, a love of reading 
 is not enkindled ; good readers are not produced. 
 The above lesson on "Primary Reading," if faith- 
 fully presented, will remedy the defects and not 
 make halting, stumbling readers. 
 
 Phonics. 
 
 The teacher should be familiar with the sounds of 
 the letters, and require the pupils to practise on them 
 two or three minutes daily. Let it be a lively exer- 
 cise, and insist upon clear, distinct articulation. 
 
 Difficulties. 
 
 Attend to one difficult point at a time ; see that the 
 pupils understand it and are able to reproduce what- 
 ever you teach them. 
 
 Primary Reading. 
 
 Further Directions. 
 
 1. Train the pupils to read in natural tones. 
 
 (a) Request the pupil to look off the book and 
 
 tell what he reads. 
 (5) Select a good reader ; request pupils to imitate. 
 (c) Teacher illustrate how a sentence should be 
 
 read. 
 
 2. The teacher should illustrate and define diflBcult 
 words. 
 
 {a) Illustrate by objects, pictures, drawings and 
 diagrams. 
 
 3. No definitions should be given to those words 
 whose meaning can be inferred from the context. 
 
MAKE HASTE SLO WL Y. 27 
 
 4. Every piece should be carefully studied before it 
 is read aloud. 
 
 Kemakks. — Reading should not be a mere me- 
 chanical exercis^e. The end of reading is not to 
 give vocal utterance to a succession of words, but to 
 give expression to thought and feeling. 
 
 Reading is the most important subject taught in 
 school. It is especially important that it be 
 thouroghly taught in the primary classes. The 
 *' sing-song drawl " and the " nasal twang," whicli so 
 often prevail in the school-room, should be avoided. 
 
 Almost all children can be taught to read well ; 
 they imitate, unconsciously and naturall)'', the voices 
 ot their playmates. 
 
 Teachers too Ambitious. 
 
 Many of tlie teachers are too ambitious in one 
 direction, that is, to promote pupils to higher books, 
 when they are not qualified. 
 
 This is a great mistake. Perhaps three-fifths of 
 the pupils of our country are reading in books which 
 they do not understand, or in which they take no 
 interest ; this is one of the principal causes of me- 
 chanical reading ; through this error in judgment, 
 the pupils have acquired a drawling way, a lifeless, 
 mechanical style. 
 
 Reformation Needed. 
 
 I am glad to admit that a reformation has begun 
 in this department of instruction, but it will need the 
 constant and varied efforts of teachers and parents 
 for years in order to overcome the effects that have 
 already resulted from past negligence. 
 
28 READINa. 
 
 Means of Improvement. 
 
 Let the teacher select (from some book or maga- 
 zme) a story which he will be sure shall interest the 
 pupils. 
 
 Let him give the book containing it to a pupil, 
 asking him to read the story over a few times, to 
 become familiar with it ; and at or near the close 
 of school, let the pupil read it aloud to his school- 
 mates. 
 
 As he reads, do not discourage him by too frequent 
 interruptions, but occasionally, when he relapses into 
 a drawl, repeat the passage, kindly, in a better way 
 and ask him to notice and imitate your manner. 
 
 When he has ended, read to them yourself some 
 
 other good stov}'', and let your style be worthy of 
 
 imitation. 
 
 Reading Sentences. 
 
 Let the standard for good reading be its resem- 
 blance to good conversation. 
 
 The pupils may be led to attend to the thoughts 
 expressed, by requiring them to find out what the 
 sentences tell without reading them aloud. The 
 teacher may aid them by proceeding in a manner 
 similar to the following: Request the class to study 
 the first sentence, and each member to raise a hand 
 when able to tell what the sentence is about. Call 
 upon different pupils to state, in their own language, 
 what the sentence tells ; in this way they will readily 
 learn to read with easy conversational tones. 
 
 Distinct Enunciation. 
 
 Special care should be taken in this step to train 
 
THE TEACHER SHOULD BEAD WELL. 29 
 
 pupils in habits of clearness and distinctness of 
 enunciation ; also to read in an easy, speaking voice. 
 Overcome the faults in reading by taking up one 
 kind at a time, and continue the practice until the 
 pupils clearly perceive the fault and take proper 
 means to correct it. 
 
 The Teacher Should be a Good Reader. 
 
 As a requisite essential to success, the teacher 
 of reading should be a good reader. With proper 
 management it is a very easy matter to make children 
 read well, and even the teacher that is a tolerable 
 reader may teach pupils to read. That children 
 have learned to read under such teachers I am will, 
 ing to admit, because the fact is evident ; but that 
 they have been taught by their masters 1 do not 
 admit, for it is impossible for any person to teach 
 well what he does not understand. 
 
 If a child has sometimes learned to read under an 
 
 incompetent instructor, it has been, not because of 
 
 the teacher, but in spite of him ; and the question is, 
 
 not how much has he learned, but how much would 
 
 he have learned had the teacher been qualified to 
 
 teach him. 
 
 Difficult Words. 
 
 The young pupil's knowledge of the meaning of 
 words is limited. One object of reading is to increase 
 the knowledge of words. No definition should be 
 given to those words whose meaning can be inferred 
 from the context. 
 
 Resource should be had to a dictionary only when 
 he cannot think out the meaning from the context. 
 
30 READING. 
 
 The child learns the meaniDg of words by hearing 
 them used — seldom by formal definition. 
 
 The teacher may impress the idea by resorting to 
 objects, this is the natural way. Sometimes pictures 
 may be at hand to throw light upon the word ; again, 
 a drawing may be given at the board to illustrate the 
 meaning of the word. 
 
 Defining Words in Primary Classes. 
 
 In no case should a definition be committed to 
 memory and mechanically recited. 
 
 The meaning should be inferred from the context, 
 and the pupil requested to use the word correctly in 
 a short sentence. 
 
 Let the pupil tell what the word means in his own 
 language. 
 
 A definition is a general truth, a deduction ; chil- 
 dren should be taught primary truths, and, as their 
 reason develops, deduce the definitions, rules and 
 principles. Develop correct ideas, then give defini- 
 tions. We must not encourage teachers to require 
 pupils to commit the definitions to memory in the 
 primary reading books. But we would insist that 
 the pupils understand the meaning of the words used. 
 
 <' Mind the Pauses." 
 
 Teachers sometimes instruct pupils to stop and 
 count "one" at a comma, "one, two," at a semi- 
 colon. This leads to a mechanical, unnatural style 
 of reading. First attend to the reading of sentences, 
 and lead the pupils to see how the pauses aid in 
 understanding the meaning. Do not teach reading 
 
QUALITIES OF THE VOICE. 31 
 
 as if attention to " pauses " is the chief object to be 
 attained. 
 
 Reciting definitions of pauses is not only useless 
 but it leads to a great waste of time. Teach the use 
 of the pauses in the lesson, instead of tlie definition 
 of them. A few teachers pay no attention to the 
 explanation of the words, but turn their attention 
 almost entirely to the names and the pronouuciation ; 
 important points, to be sure, but by no means the 
 life-giving elements of good reading. 
 
 Qualities of the 'Voice. 
 
 Pure Tone — It is a clear, full and cheerful tone. It 
 is the language of common conversation. 
 
 Rotund lone — It is the pure tone, rounded, deep- 
 ened and intensified. It is the language of sublimity, 
 grandeur, aw^e and reverence. 
 
 Aspirate Tone — It is whispered utterance. It is the 
 language of hate, fear and secrecy. 
 
 Guttural Tone — It is a sepulchral tone and has its 
 resonance in the throat. It is the language of hate, 
 rage and contempt. 
 
 Pectoral Tone — It is low pure tone. It is the lan- 
 guage of deep feeling, sorrow. 
 
 Falsetto Tone — It is a very high tone. It is the 
 language or irritability, etc. 
 
 Emphasis. 
 
 Definition. 
 
 1. A particular stress of voice given to certain 
 words, or parts of a discourse ; a distinctive utterance 
 of words specially significant. 
 
33 READING. 
 
 What Constitute the Emphatic Word or Words. 
 
 1. A new idea or fact, one now presented for the 
 first time, constitutes the emphatic word or words. 
 
 2. That which presents no new or dominant fact 
 or thought, is the unemphatic clause. 
 
 Characteristics that Mark Unemphatic Glauses. 
 
 1. Repetition. 
 , 2. Anticipation. 
 
 3. Sequence. 
 
 4. Subordination. 
 
 5. Knowledge beforehand. 
 
 Rules iu Reading. 
 
 Do not require children to commit the rules to 
 memory in reading. They are hindrances instead of 
 helps. If the teachers know how to read, those aids 
 in which many school-books abound, are worse than 
 useless, because positively injurious. 
 
 The competent teacher needs but two rules by 
 which to be guided in teaching the pupils to read : 
 
 First — Make the pupils understand what is to be 
 read. 
 
 Second — Require them to read naturally. To 
 expect a child to read what it does not understand 
 is unreasonable, and yet nothing is more common. 
 
 It is idle to put marks, rules and directions whether 
 by words or characters, into books intended to be 
 read by children, for the reason that they seldom or 
 never use them. 
 
READING. 33 
 
 Special Preparation for Reading, 
 
 The teaclier sliould carefully study the reading 
 lesson ; sliould be familiar with the pronunciation of 
 every word, including its literal and its received 
 meaning. He should give the pupils the history of 
 the author and some of his prominent characteristics, 
 — this will add to the interest. Should awaken 
 thought in the minds of the pupils, — this will secure 
 interest. It matters not how simple the lesson may 
 be, previous preparation is indispensable. Previous 
 study will add new power and generate better 
 methods by means of which success will be insured. 
 The teacher will become independent, self-reliant, 
 and a " law unto himself." 
 
 Intermediate Reading". 
 
 /. Directions. 
 1. Teach and train the pupils to understand. 
 {a) The prominent objects mentioned. 
 (&) The prominent facts mentioned concerning 
 
 the object, 
 (c) What they read, and to be able to tell the 
 
 story, or the principal facts in the lesson. 
 {d) The connected thought, and to express it 
 orally and written. 
 
 //. Cautions. 
 
 1. Attend to one subject of criticisim at a time, 
 and require pupils to correct. 
 
 2. Practice on one sentence at a time. 
 
 3. See that all the pupils understand the thought, 
 and are able to express it. 
 
 4 Examine the subject carefully before reading-. 
 
84 READING. 
 
 III. Results. 
 The pupils in the Intermediate Classes in Reading 
 should be able — 
 
 1. To pronounce the words accurately. 
 
 2. To define the words. 
 
 3. To understand the subject-matter. 
 
 4. To explain the language. 
 
 5. To account for marks of punctuation. 
 
 6. To point out what is true, beautiful and good 
 in the sentiment. 
 
 7. To show the manner of delivery, and give 
 reason for it. 
 
 Remarks. — The number of those who can be 
 properly called good readers in our schools, is small ; 
 but how large is the number who can read quite 
 indiflerently, or very poorly. 
 
 As a general thing it rau.^t be admitted that read- 
 ing has not been well taught in our schools. It has 
 received formal attention and frequent inattention. 
 Time enough is given to the exercise, but not enough 
 
 attention. 
 
 Intellectual Exercise. 
 
 The elocutionary part of reading should receive 
 but little attention in the intermediate classes. With 
 so many pupils under your training, it cannot be 
 expected that you will go into all the minutia of 
 elocutionary drill. Your aim must be to teach well 
 what you undertake to teach. You cannot even 
 hope to make all your pupils accomplished elo- 
 cutionists, but you can make them good and 
 intelligent readers. When you find a pupil that 
 
A MODEL LESSON, 35 
 
 takes to elocution it may be well to encourage it, 
 but not to the neglect nor the expense of other sub- 
 jects of instruction. It may be asked, what is good 
 reading? I call that good reading when a person 
 reads distinctly, gives the sense with such intonation 
 and emphasis as to be pleasant to the hearer, and in 
 Buch a manner as to be easily heard and readily 
 understood. 
 
 Take, for example, the following beautiful selec- 
 tion, and see how many pertinent questions may be 
 asked in reference to it : 
 
 Nelly. 
 Nelly sat under the apple tree, 
 
 And watched the shadows of leaves at play, 
 And heard the hum of the honey bee. 
 
 Gathering sweets through .the sunny day. 
 
 Nelly's brown hands in her lap were laid ; 
 
 Her head inclined wiih a gentle grace ; 
 A wandering squirrel was not afraid 
 
 To stop and peer in her quiet face. 
 
 Nelly was full of a pure delight, 
 Born of the beauty of earth and sky. 
 
 Of the wavering boughs, and the sunshine bright, 
 And the snowy clouds that went sailing by. 
 
 Nelly forgot that her dress was old. 
 
 Her hands were rough and her feet was bare ; 
 
 For round her the sunlight poured its gold, 
 And her cheeks were kissed by the summer air. 
 
 And the distant hills in their glory lay. 
 And soft to her ear came the robin's call : 
 
36 READING. 
 
 'Twas sweet to live on that summer day, 
 For the smile of God was over all. 
 
 And Nelly was learning the lesson sweet 
 
 That when the spirit is full of care, 
 And we long our father and God to meet, 
 
 We may go to nature, and find him there. 
 
 1. Where did Nelly sit ? 
 
 2. What two things did she do ? 
 
 8. What is meant by the leaves at play ? 
 
 4. What were the bees doing ? 
 
 5. What is said of Nelly's hands ? 
 
 6. What is said of her head ? 
 
 7. What is said of the squirrel ? 
 
 8. Of what was Nelly full? 
 
 9. What is meant by being full of pure delight? 
 
 10. Of what four things was it born? 
 
 11. What is meant by being born of these things ? 
 
 12. What did Nelly forget ? 
 
 13. Why did she torget these things? 
 
 14. What is meant by the sunlight pouring its 
 gold ? 
 
 15. What is meant by kissed by the summer air ? 
 
 16. What is said of the distant hills ? 
 
 17. What is meant by the phrase in their glory lay? 
 
 18. What is said of the robin? 
 
 19. Why was it sweet to live on that summer day? 
 
 20. What lesson was Nelly learning? 
 
 21. What is the meaning of gathering ? Inclined ? 
 Peer ? Boughs ? Nature ? 
 
 22. Make sentences in which those words in some 
 of their forms shall be used correctly. 
 
RHETORICAL DIVISIONS. 37 
 
 23. Write a short composition about Nelly. 
 
 Directions. — The piece is descriptive and should 
 be so read as to give the hearer a clear idea of the 
 scenes described. State each thing mentioned as 
 though you were telling some person what you had 
 seen. 
 
 The frequent or occasional study of reading 
 lessons in this manner will be attended with two 
 advantages. The pupils will read them better, for 
 they will have a sympathy for the author, and a 
 more intelligent perception of the meaning. 
 
 The answering of the question will prove very 
 serviceable, by unfolding the sense of the piece, and 
 thus enabling one to read it more understandingly. 
 It will produce tliought^ and whenever we produce 
 thought we secure interest. 
 
 In intermediate classes constant attention should 
 be given to punctuation, accent, inflection, emphasis 
 and correct pronunciation. 
 
 Explanations of historical, biographical or scien- 
 tific allusions, should be given by the teacher and 
 reviewed in subseqfuent recitations. 
 
 Rhetorical Division of Language* 
 
 (a. Letters. 
 I b. Dialogues. 
 '1. Prose, \ e. History. 
 
 j d. Essays. 
 
 A /-I ^ ^ •*• ^ {€• Orations, etc, 
 
 A. Composition. \ and [>^ Y-^^iovd. 
 
 I b. Lyric. 
 LS. Poetry, ^ c. Epic. 
 
 d. Dramatic. 
 \o. Elegy. 
 
38 REABINa, 
 
 1. Humorous. 
 ►. Subject Matter, -j 2. Pathetic. 
 3. {Sublime. 
 
 1. Narrative. 
 C, Discourse. - -(2. Descriptive 
 
 3. Didactic. 
 
 Note. — Tlie teaclier in the higher classes should 
 train the pupils on the above. Let them tell the 
 difference between prose and poetry ; the subject 
 matter and the discourse. 
 
 General Remarks on Reading. 
 
 No subject is of more importance than how to 
 teach Reading understaodingly. Good reading is 
 calculated to develop the mind, the body and the 
 imagination. Although so important, yet how sadly 
 neglected is the powder of reading. Teachers are 
 able to give the definitions of Arithmetic, Geography 
 and Grammar, but few can give an intellectual defi- 
 nition of reading. 
 
 Elocution is the art of speaking so as to be heard, 
 so as to be felt, so as to impress. • The first essential 
 is to speak or read so as to be heard distinctly. Never 
 speak above or below your natural voice ; if you do 
 so, the effect will be lost. The three great rules that 
 all should observe in reading or speaking, are : " Be 
 sure you have something to say ; be careful how you 
 say it ; and stop when you are done." Speak so that 
 the listener may understand you ; speak so as to be 
 felt, hence be in earnest ; if you do not feel what 
 you say, you cannot expect your hearers to have any 
 feeling. 
 
CORRECT SPECIAL FA UL TS. 39 
 
 How may you Teach so as to Carry Out 
 these Conditions. 
 
 We answer, study so as to thoroughly understand 
 what you teach. If you do not know what is re- 
 quired, you are not qualified to teach, and in order to 
 become qualified you must listen to good examples. 
 
 Attend to Faults. 
 
 If you have a fault, attend to it, overcome it by 
 practice. Much time must be taken in correcting 
 bad habits of reading, but you must take the time. 
 But whatever you do, be sure to teach the pupils to 
 do it in the right way. If the teacher wishes to 
 succeed he must learn how intonation and articula- 
 tion are to be taught. Before he can teach it he must 
 learn it. It can only be acquired through study. 
 
 Rules in books might as well be omitted ; correct 
 reading must be taught by example. The object of 
 teaching reading is to make good readers. Before 
 good reading and good speaking can be taught it is 
 necessary to learn how to articulate distinctly and 
 pronounce correctly. If you are careless in one 
 single point, your pupils will be careless not only on 
 that point but on others. 
 
 In reading you must give each sound its true value. 
 The requirements in reading are two-fold : 
 
 First — To express rightly what you read, and 
 
 Second — To do this pleasantly and naturally. A 
 perfect understanding of what you read is the founda- 
 tion ; you must understand the thoughts of the author 
 and make the thoughts your own. 
 
40 BEADING. 
 
 It is the exception to find good readers in our 
 schools ; the reason is because pupils are not required 
 to stud3' the lesson as in otlitr branches. 
 
 Expression. 
 
 This adds force, meaning, beauty and power to the 
 
 passage. After the pupils can speak distinctly, they 
 
 should be taught to express the sense, to give the 
 
 exact meaning. In no other way can this be taught, 
 
 than through study on the part ot the pupils. They 
 
 must read and think. 
 
 Posture. 
 
 Pupils should be taught how to stand, and they 
 should not be allowed to utter a word until they 
 assume a position to give full force to their utterance ; 
 they should not be allowed to appear awkward, 
 
 Do not allow your pupils to mumble words, smother 
 sounds and destroy the sense of a passage. 
 
 The position should be perfectly eas}^ natural and 
 graceful ; the posture should indicate the sentence to 
 be spoken. Insist upon your pupils always taking an 
 easy, graceful and gentlemanly or ladylike position 
 in reading or speaking. 
 
 Breath. 
 
 Another important point is to know how to breathe 
 properly. It is well to exercise the lungs before we 
 commence to read. The power of the reader or 
 speaker consists in having perfect control of his 
 breathing, so as to utter his words in a proper and 
 most eflf'ective manner. It is only when you have 
 perfect control of the breathing that you can give 
 full expression to words and sentences. 
 
HOW TO SUCCEED. 41 
 
 How to Gain Success in Reading. 
 
 The surest way to attain success in reading is to 
 begin to develop thought. Reading may be reduced 
 to a few general rules, name!}'' : You must com- 
 mence at the right place — at the beginning ; go in 
 the right direction ; have a high standard in view ; 
 be perfectly natural ; cultivate by all means natural- 
 ness. If the pupils have unnatural tones, make 
 them repeat after you sentences and whole passages. 
 This will insure correct pronounciation, distinctness 
 of utterance and expression. 
 
 Let me caution you against placing dependence 
 upon rules of inflection of the voice given in reading 
 books. All that you need is to fully understand the 
 thought ; when you have the thought fully, you will 
 know all about inflection of the voice. If a person 
 cannot translate what he reads into his own language, 
 he most assuredly does not understand it. If you 
 cannot bring out in your own languge the full mean- 
 ing of the lesson, you are not the one to teach, and 
 you should either adopt some other avocation, or go 
 through a rigid course of reading. 
 
 A great deal of teaching in reading is a positive 
 injury to schools, and all because the teacher does 
 not know how to teach. " Practice makes perfect ; " 
 rapidity and correctness are attained only through 
 frequent repetition. No one ever arrives at distinc- 
 tion by sitting with arms folded ; you must be will- 
 ing to think, to exercise, to labor. It is not an easy 
 thing to become a good reader, it is only acquired 
 through practice — continual practice. There is no 
 other way than through practice. 
 
42 READING. 
 
 The following rules are taken from *' Kidd's Elo« 
 cution." -Tbey should be carefully studied and 
 practiced: 
 
 i^V.s^— Understand well what is read. 
 
 Second — See to it that pupils never read without 
 fulfilling the conditions of proper position and pos- 
 ture, 
 
 Make them take the position God intended them to 
 take; train, not teach; there is a difference between 
 the two. 
 
 Third — Insist upon frequent and natural breathing. 
 Good breathing is essential to health. 
 
 Fourth — Reach the heart of the pupil. This is 
 done by interesting them, by making them under- 
 stand what they read. 
 
 Fifth — Cultivate "a perfectly easy, distinct and 
 natural voice, avoid all labored efforts ; let the voice 
 come out full. Let pronunciation be correct, inflec- 
 tion natural ; give the best models, but never rules. 
 Make pupils repeat the pronunciation of words they 
 are in the habit of mis-pronouncing. Modulation 
 and intonation should be varied but always natural. 
 
 Sixth — Have your pupils speak with naturalness. 
 If the subject be understood any one will speak 
 naturally. Train them to speak by the highest 
 standard they possess. 
 
 Seventh — Be in earnest. If the pupil has not an 
 earnest manner, it proves that he does not understand 
 his subject. 
 
MECHANICAL READING. 43 
 
 These Conditions are Absolutely Necessary lo 
 Success in Reading. 
 
 Teacher, whatever else you may teach, do not 
 consider the reading exercise an unimportant one. 
 Teach and train the pupils to be readers It is the 
 art of arts, and in it are the germs of growth and 
 development. 
 
 We read in the Bible at the eighth chapter of 
 Nehemiah, eighth verse, how they used to read in 
 olden times: 
 
 " So they read in the book in the law of God dis- 
 tinctly, and gave the sense, and caused them to un- 
 derstand the reading." 
 
 There are different kinds of reading, which are 
 nlso often confounded ; mechanical reading ; intelli- 
 gent reading ; and intellectual reading. 
 
 Mechanical reading, per se, is no reading at all ; it 
 is but a form of voice training. It may include pro- 
 nounciation, articulation, enunciation, inflection, 
 tone, pause, harmony, rhythm, and emphasis. A 
 child may learn every one of these, in a foreign lan- 
 guage, — learn them to perfection, it he be well drilled 
 in them by means of directions and imitation, and 
 yet not understand one word of what he reads while 
 he gives them. 
 
 An intelligent reader is one who understands what 
 he reads, who takes in the author's thought. There 
 are various degiees in intelligent reading. One per- 
 son takes in the author's thought very vaguely, 
 another much more clearly, another quite clearly and 
 definitely. It is not possible for a young child to be 
 
U HEADING, 
 
 more than an intelligent reader, but as he grows older 
 he should become more ; j^et how many adults there 
 are who never get beyond the child's power of read- 
 ing. Take, for instance, the well-informed man who 
 never will be wise ; he is eminentlj' an intelligent 
 reader, but there is no hope for him that he will ever 
 become an intellectual reader. 
 
 Intellectual reading is not only a taking in, clearly 
 and definitely, of the author's meaning, but it is also 
 a ready recognition of the relation of that meaning, 
 a prompt assimilation of it, and a consequent growth. 
 This is the kind of reading that reigns in the stu- 
 dent's den and the philosopher's study. That man 
 who has the original power, or the acquired habit, 
 which is often more than an equivalent for the origi- 
 nal power, to grasp readily and clearly the meaning 
 of what he reads, is always one whom all others 
 envy. And yet this power, valuable beyond calcu- 
 lation, may be given to each child in our schools, if 
 we can but find the right way to secure it for him. 
 
 The question then is : How shall we train our 
 children so that they shall become not only intelli- 
 gent but intellectual readers?— so that they shall 
 become not only intellectual silent readers, but also 
 accomplished oral readers? 
 
 By assigning to the lesson in voice-training all 
 those exercises which pertain to voice-culture and 
 discipline of the organs, also drill in pronounciation 
 and a consideration of emphasis and pauses, illus- 
 trated by mistakes taken from yesterday's lesson and 
 difficuties in today's, we shall relieve the reading 
 
BO NOT PERMIT INTERRUPTION. 45 
 
 lesson proper of the necessity of taking note of all 
 that machinery which produces efi'ect, and leave the 
 teacher and class time and opportunity to study the 
 thought the passage contains, and to give it a free 
 and natural expression. Let it be understood by the 
 class as well as the teacher, that the reading lesson 
 should be a clear, clean-cut process of thought carried 
 on to expression, and should not be interrupted by 
 continued, trivial and harrassing corrections. What 
 is more painful than to see a child rise in his class, 
 full of the thought the passage contains, confident rn 
 his power to give it good expression, his eye a-kindle 
 and his cheeks aglow, and then to see him suddenly 
 brought to a blank stand-still by a dozen upraised 
 hands and snapping fingers, because, forsooth, he 
 has omitted an " a," or a " the,*' or misspelled some 
 simple word he knew quite well, or skipped some 
 useless comma ? 
 
 Where such practices are allowed, the reading- 
 lesson becomes a mere game in pronuciation, and a 
 correct handling of the voice according to rules. 
 Such games are good to make the children keen- 
 sighted, quick-thoughted, and correct ; but their place 
 is not in the reading-lesson, and if we keep them 
 there we shall go on forever teaching only words, 
 words, words. 
 
 Let us have first the thought, then the expression, 
 and last and least, the mechanical defects. Better 
 that the thought should be full-born, and clothed in 
 garments with here and there a rent, than that it 
 should be still-born and the garments without a flaw. 
 
46 READING. 
 
 As in language, the thought is the root of which 
 the word is the blossom, so in reading, an under- 
 standing of the author's meaning is the root of which 
 oral reading is the blossom. If, then, we find our 
 blossoms defective, it behooves us to look to the 
 condition of the roots. 
 
 But what method will help us here ? How can we 
 make sure that a child understands what he reads? 
 Children imitate so easily, ^nd habit counterfeits 
 nature so closely, how can we be sure that we are 
 not misled? Only by studying the lesson with 
 children ; only by having before every reading-lesson 
 a language-lesson upon the subject-matter of the 
 reading ; only by compelling the children, by means 
 of questions, to think, to reason, and to express. To 
 express the thoughts of the lesson, first in their own 
 words, and then in the words of the book ; also, 
 whenever the subject-matter may be, from any cause 
 whatsoever, vngue to the children's minds, by illus- 
 trating it with objects, with pictures, — printed pic- 
 tures, and outline pictures drawn upon the black- 
 board, and with what the English training-schools 
 call " picturing out words." 
 
PHONICS. 
 
 This important subject receives but little attention 
 in the public schools of the country. Why it is 
 omitted, when it adds so much beauty to expression, 
 is a question unanswered by thousands. 
 
 The object of teaching this subject should be — 
 
 First — To train the organs of hearing so that the 
 children may readily distinguish the sounds heard in 
 speaking and reading 
 
 Second — To train the organs of hearing so that the 
 pupils may learn to produce the sounds correctly in 
 using language. To acquire an articulation which 
 shall be at once accurate and tasteful, it is necessary : 
 
 1. To obtain an exact knowledge of the elementary 
 sounds of the language. 
 
 3. To learn the appropriate place of these sounds. 
 
 3. To apply this knowledge constantly in convers- 
 ing, reading and speaking, with a view to correct 
 every deviation from propriety which we may detect 
 in expressing them. 
 
 A good articulation is not to be acquired in a day, 
 nor from a few lessons. Practice should begin with 
 the alphabet, and continue through the whole course 
 of education, and even then there will remain room 
 for improvement. 
 
48 PHONICS. 
 
 Great care should be taken in giving these lessons, 
 that the class repeat each exercise until all the pupils 
 can make every sound and combination which it 
 contains, readily and perfectly. 
 
 The teacher should make the sounds, and then 
 require the pupils to imitate them. The pupils 
 should stand or sit erect, and use the natural tones 
 of the voice. Only one or two sounds should be 
 taken for a lesson. 
 
 The exercise should not continue more than five 
 minutes ; it may be introduced in the reading or 
 spelling exercise, or the whole school may join in it. 
 
 Tell the children " to open the mouth and move 
 the lips," to speak distinctly and to enunciate every 
 sound perfectly. Time should not be wasted in the 
 endeavor to teach children definitions or descrip- 
 tions of the various sounds of the letters. The chief 
 aim should be to train the organs of hearing to 
 acuteness, and the organs of speech to flexibility and 
 accuracy. 
 
 Notation Marks or Diacritical Signs. 
 
 The pupils should be taught the correct sounds 
 and the signification of the diflTerent marks. All the 
 vowels and many of the consonants have marks to 
 distinguish their sounds. 
 
 After a sound is learned the teacher should write 
 the letter on the board with its proper mark. The 
 pupils should be required to copy and to reproduce 
 every exercise. Let the drill be thorough. 
 
 Tell the pupils that when a short horizontal line is 
 placed above the vowels — called the macron — it indi- 
 
SUGGJESTIONS. 49 
 
 cates the long sound ; that a short curved line with 
 curve downward placed above the vowels — called 
 a 5r(!?««— indicates the short sound ; that two dots 
 placed above the letter a indicate the Italian sound, 
 etc. 
 
 We find but very few teachers who are able to 
 give all the sounds of the English language correctly, 
 and many are unable to tell the kind of a mark or 
 sign that indicates a certain sound. 
 
 It requires study and practice. We need not 
 
 expect distinct speaking so long as we neglect this 
 
 important art. 
 
 Sugf^estions. 
 
 1. Train the organs of hearing to distinguish 
 readily and accurately the different sounds of lan- 
 guage. 
 
 2. Train the organs of speech to produce these 
 sounds with ease and accuracy. 
 
 3. Train the pupils to the correction of faults of 
 enunciation and pronunciation in reading and speak- 
 ing. 
 
 4. Train pupils in every lesson upon the elements. 
 
 5. Master the analysis before you attempt to teach 
 it. 
 
 6. Let the drill be accurate 
 
 The following pages are taken by permission from 
 Hoose's " Studies in Articulation," the standard book 
 upon the subject, published by Davis, Bardeen & Co., 
 Syracuse, N. Y. Price 50 cts. 
 
50 PHONICS. 
 
 VOWELS = TONIC ELEMENTS. 
 
 1. Long a = a+e = e = ey = ao = aw 
 =z ca ^= ay ■=! ei ■=! ai = aiyh = eigli = alf-=. 
 a compound, or diphthongal sound, with its 
 radical or initial tone in 2,-U, and the close 
 or vanish in e-ve : the vanish is not heard 
 until the mouth begins to close while attempt- 
 ing to prolong the radical, thus throwing the 
 tongue up towards the roof of the mouth, 
 which chancres the tone into the vanish in e. 
 
 Both initial and vanish are capable of in- 
 definite prolongation; *yet for a the vanish 
 must be very brief 
 
 Note. — When used as a word, and unemphatic, a has 
 a very brief sound, approaching to that of u, or o, or 
 possibly e. 
 
 FOR PBACTICE. 
 
 1. ale, fate, Kate, hate, mate, gray, gate, re. 
 
 2. prate, reign, eight, ratio, neigh, amen, slain, 
 straio-ht. 
 
 S. chamber, squalor, main, aid, tiara, yea^ 
 pain, obey, wraith, player, apparatus, pa- 
 
vowFL somrns. 51 
 
 tron, strata, patriotic, aye, Dey, heinous, 
 say, tomato, bate, whey, data, caret, slate, 
 gauge, gaol, jail, day, break, veil, grey, pray- 
 er, shaik, half-penny, sleigh, ray, strait, 
 daze, prey, graze, rajah, prays, rail, pale. 
 
 2, Short a = a^ = ua =z al =: aa = a sim- 
 ple element. Yet a better study of it is given 
 
 by Eush, who considers it = a-f-e-rr = a 
 compound sound, the initial in a-^, and the 
 vanish in e-rn This appears more clearly if 
 the tone, a, be inflected either upwards or 
 downwards : the vanish is heard only at the 
 very closing of the sound, as the vocal or- 
 gans begin to relax their tension. The van- 
 ish is very short; the radical is incapable 
 of being prolonged, and is to be uttered with 
 staccato brevity. The tongue is raised not 
 so high as for e, and higher than for a ; the 
 mouth is wider open than for e. 
 
 An attempt to prolong the tone produces a 
 drawl. 
 
 It is held, as above remarked, that the 
 sound of a has no vanish; perhaps it ia 
 very generally so regarded. 
 
52 PHONICS. 
 
 This sound should never, in practice, "be 
 allowed to degenerate into that of Italian a, 
 or that of short e. 
 
 (See Nos. 4 and 8, following.) 
 
 FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 1. man, cat, bat, rat, hat, mat, mall, gap, sat, 
 marigold, chanticleer, vat, accurate, pecan, 
 salver, guaranty. 
 
 ^. plaid, bade, jack, jag, algebra, maltreat, 
 albite, adder, chap, adage, alternate, tassel, 
 accident, talc, seraglio, guarantee. 
 
 3. national, rational, salmon, stamp, patriot- 
 ic, half-penny, raillery, raspberry, passage, 
 valet, pansy, radices, exact, plat, wax, 
 strand, Isaac. 
 
 3. Long before R, ^ = e = ai^ = ga = et = 
 hei = a simple element, with possibly the 
 initial in a, but without any vanish. 
 
 Or, better by far, a may be regarded as a 
 modification of e-nd, by which it is to be 
 understood that, with the vocal organs placed 
 so as to utter e, the sound of a be attempted, 
 steadily holding the organs the while rigidly 
 for e as far as possible, taking special care 
 
rOWIJL SOUNDS. 53 
 
 that there be no vanish, or different sound, 
 heard at the close of the utterance. 
 
 This tone is a distinct one, neither a, nor 
 a, and should be mastered by practice ; it is 
 not a sound modified by r, although followed 
 by it. 
 
 The extremes to be studiously avoided are 
 a and a; properly uttered, it is a firm and 
 pleasant tone. 
 
 The tone is a long sound, capable of being 
 continued without destroying its quality. 
 
 FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 1. bare, fare, share, hair, care, chair, ne'er, 
 
 stare, glare, stair, mare, chary, lair, laird, 
 
 h^re. 
 ^. where, heir, rare, there, spare, prayer, e'er, 
 
 square, swear, barely, chare, aware, bear, 
 
 4ir, flare. 
 8. harelip, solitaire, solidare, their, pear, pair, 
 
 tear, tare, parent, fairy, ere, staring, paring, 
 
 insnare, blare, daring, wear, scare, pare, 
 
 dare, scarce. 
 
 4. Italian 'i. =^ an =z ua =: ea =. al = e :=: 
 ah = a. simple element usually so regarded. 
 
54 PHONICS. 
 
 CONSONANTS. 
 
 SUBVOCAL (SUBTONIC) AND ASPIRATE (ATONIC) ELEMNTS. 
 
 Note. — All subtonics have "a momentary termina- 
 tive portion of tlie subtonic sound," called the vooule; 
 it approaches e-rr, 
 
 35. B = 6e = a simple element, subvocal^ 
 short, explosive. To make the sound : Close 
 the lips and separate the jaws as if to pro- 
 nounce the word b-oy ; close the back nostrils 
 with the soft palate ; then allow the vocalized 
 breath to compress itself within the mouth, 
 until the lips are suddenly forced apart by 
 the compression. 
 
 All vocality ceases instantly at the separat- 
 ing of the lips. 
 
 FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 y. boy, babe, bay, boil. 
 ^. bat, bite, bit, bank. 
 
 36. ^ (soft) = s = a simple element ; as- 
 pirate, capable of being continued, yet should 
 be very short. 
 
CONSONANT SOUNDS. 55 
 
 It is made by bringing into contact, or very 
 nearly so, the front teeth only ; open the lips, 
 draw back from the front teeth the end of 
 the tongue as if to pronounce the words (^-ent, 
 s-icn, and emit between the tongue and teeth 
 or upper gum the unvocal breath only. 
 
 FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 1. qite, song, ^ion, sing. 
 
 2. nie9e, cipher, sell, Qeutury. 
 
 37. ■€ (hard) = -eh = ^^ = (qu — k+w) = 
 ck = gh ^= qii = a. simple element ; aspirate, 
 abrupt, short, percussive. 
 
 To make the sound : Open the mouth as 
 if to pronounce the word ^-at, holding the 
 unvocal breath abruptly stopped at the larynx, 
 or upper windpipe, compressing the breath 
 the while within the windpipe and lungs; 
 then allow the compressed breath to escape 
 suddenly and forcibly through the mouth, but 
 without vocality. 
 
 FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 /. -chorus, kind, tak, pi^nie, king, liquor. 
 £. lichen, €all, lick, bu€hu, hough. 
 
56 PHONICS. 
 
 RECAPITULATION AND INDEX. 
 
 
 VOWEL ELEMENTS. 
 
 Page No. ^ — >. 
 
 13-14 
 
 1 a=a-f e=e(=No. 11)... ale, dey. 
 
 14-15 
 
 2 a. ..at. 
 
 15-16 
 
 3 a=g(=:No. 10)... air, ere. 
 
 16-17 
 
 4 a... arm. 
 
 17-19 
 
 5 a... ask. 
 
 19-20 
 
 6 a=:6 (=^0. 22)... awe, ought. 
 
 20 
 
 7 a==:o (i=No. 18). ..what, ox. 
 
 20-21 
 
 8 e=i (=No 15)... eve, shire. 
 
 21-22 
 
 9 e...niet. 
 
 22 
 
 10 e=a(=No. 3)... ere, air. 
 
 22 
 
 11 e=:a (=N.-). 1).. dey, ale. 
 
 22-24 
 
 12 e = i=rry ( - jSTos. 16, 32)... her, sir, 
 
 
 syrt. 
 
 24-25 
 
 13 i=:a+e=:y (=N"o. 30)... Ice, by. 
 
 25-26 
 
 14 i=y (=rNo. 31)... m, symbol. 
 
 26 
 
 15 1=6 {— 3o. 8) . . . shire, eve. 
 
 26 
 
 16 i=y=e (^ISTos. 32, 12)... sir, syrt, 
 
 
 her. 
 
rOWUL ELEMENTS. 57 
 
 Page No. 
 
 26-27 17 or=5TSo...old. 
 
 27-30 18 6=a {=^o. 7)... ox, what. 
 
 30 19 6=ii (=No. 26). ..son, iip. 
 30-31 20 0=00=11 (=rNos. 23, 2 7)... do. too, 
 
 rule. 
 
 31 21 9 = ^ = Ti ( = Nos. 24, 28) . . .wolf, 
 
 good, put. 
 31 22 6=3, {=1^0. 6)... ought, awe. 
 
 31 23 oo = urro (=Nos. 27, 20)... too, 
 
 rule, do. 
 
 32 24 00 = u = 9 (= Nos. 28, 21). . .good, 
 
 put, W9lf. 
 
 32-33 25 u=e+^...flue. 
 33-34 26 u=6 (=^0. 19)... up, son. 
 34-35 27 u=o = oo (=Nos. 20, 23)... rule, 
 do, too. 
 
 35 28 u=9 = oo (rrrNos. 21, 24). ..put, 
 
 W9lf, good. 
 35-36 29 u...b{irn. 
 
 36 30 y=l (=1^0. 13). ..by. Ice. 
 
 36 31 y=:i (=No. 14)... symbol, in. 
 
 36 32 y=:e=i (=Nos. 12, 16)...syrt, her, 
 
 sir. 
 
 36-37 33 oi=oy=oTi...oil, boy. 
 
 37 I 34 ou=ow=6-f ^...our, now. 
 
58 PHONICS. 
 
 CONSONANT ELEMENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 41 
 
 No. 
 
 35 b...babe. 
 
 41^2 
 
 36 Q (soft)=s (=:N"o. 58)...9eiit, sing. 
 
 42-43 
 
 37 € (hard)=^]i=k{=msA0,4:7).,. 
 
 
 €at, "Chorus, kine. 
 
 43-44 
 
 38 cli=t + sli (neai'ly) . . .chvLVch. 
 
 44 
 
 39 9h (soft) = sh ( = No. 60)...Qliaise, 
 
 
 shun. 
 
 44 
 
 40 €h (7z.«rcr)=k=€(=Nos. 47, 37)... 
 
 
 •ehorus, kine, €at. 
 
 44 
 
 41 d...day. 
 
 45 
 
 42 f=ph(=N'o. 54)... fan, phantom. 
 
 45-46 
 
 43 g (Jiard) . . .gay. 
 
 46 
 
 44 g (so/i() =d + zh (nearly) = } (=No. 
 
 
 46)... gem, jay. 
 
 46-47 
 
 45 h...hay. 
 
 47 
 
 46 j=d+zh (nearly)=g (=No 44)... 
 
 
 jay, gem. 
 
 47 
 
 47 k = -e = €h ( =r ]^os. 37, 40) = qu... 
 
 
 kine, -eat, -ehorus, coquette. 
 
 48 
 
 48 l...luU. 
 
 48-49 
 
 49 m...maim. 
 
CONSONANT ELEMENTS. 59 
 
 No. 
 
 50 n...nun. 
 
 51 ng~n (—No. 62)... sing, ink. 
 
 52 ii=iig (=]Sro. 51)... ink, sing. 
 
 53 p=pli (=]Sro. 54)... pay, naphtha. 
 
 54 ph=f (—No. 42)... phantom, fan. 
 
 55 qu=k-}-w... queen. 
 
 56 r {initial) .. .YR^. 
 
 57 r (final) .. .osiY. 
 
 58 s (sha^y) = 9 ( = No. 36)... sing, ^ent. 
 
 59 § {soft, or vocal) = z (^rNo. 70)... 
 
 ha§, zone. 
 
 60 sh=9h (=No. 3 9)... shun, ^haise. 
 
 61 t...tent. 
 
 62 th (s7ia?;p)...thin. 
 
 63 fh (flat or vocal).., ihj. 
 
 64 V... valve. 
 
 65 w=oo (very short) (nearly) .. .'Vfm.di. 
 
 66 wh=h + w...what. 
 
 67 X (s/iar^)=k + s...box. 
 
 68 ^ (so/Q=g4-z...e5ist. 
 
 69 y...you. 
 
 70 zr=§ (rrNo. 59) =zh...zone, hag, 
 
 zho. 
 
 71 z=zh (=No. 72)... azure. 
 
 72 zhrrz (=:No. 71)... azure. 
 
SPELLING. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 It cannot be denied that the orthography of the 
 English language is a difficult one. In a general way 
 there are no principles governing it ; but a very few 
 rules can be called to mind and these have so many 
 exceptions that we are uncertain about orthography. 
 
 There are only three rules that I have found of 
 practical value : 
 
 1. " Monosyllables and words accented on the last 
 syllable, ending in a single consonant, preceded by a 
 single vowel, double the final consonant before an 
 addition beginning with a vowel." 
 
 2. " The diphthong ' ei ' usually follows * c,' while 
 its companion ' ie ' is generally used after other con- 
 sonants." 
 
 3. Words ending in final " y," preceded by a vowel 
 form their plurals by adding " s'." Jt will be seen at 
 once that English spelling must be learned to a great 
 extent arbitrarily ; but a little industry and attention 
 will enable any student to master it. 
 
 Results Unsatisfactory. 
 
 Everybody knows how imperfectly spelling accom- 
 plishes its purpose ; there is no reason why any 
 
XmSA TISFA CTOB T RES TIL T8. 61 
 
 student should habitually spell words badly. Any 
 person may learn to spell. 
 
 No teacher of spelling is necessary or useful to 
 persons who can read and write. If the student 
 would learn to spell words let him use words. Let 
 him write every day ; and in writing, whenever he 
 shall come to a word which he does not certainly 
 know how to spell, let him look for it in his diction- 
 ary and study its spelling and meaning. 
 
 Mechanical Spelling. 
 
 Too often the spelling is a mere *' parrot exercise," 
 in that its results are rapidly lost as soon as the atten- 
 tion is given to something else. Inattention is a fruit- 
 ful source of ill spelling. Time is wasted upon oral 
 spelling, and bad habits are formed by spelling new 
 words pupils do not understand. 
 
 Combination of Spelling* 
 
 I should connect spelling and reading with writing 
 from the very outset. As soon as the child can pro- 
 nounce the alphabet on this plan he will be able to 
 write it, and then as he advances he must continue 
 to write all the spelling lessons and as much of the 
 reading lessons as time will admit. It is a rare thing 
 to find children seven years old able to read a word 
 of manuscript, — much less to write well. A little 
 instruction given by the teacher each day upon this 
 special study, will make the children good penman 
 in a few week's time. This is not an impossibility- 
 teachers, try it. It is a very valuable pelp. 
 
63 
 
 SPELLlNa, 
 
 accordion, 
 
 beefsteak, 
 
 diphtheria, 
 
 occurence, 
 
 tranquillity, 
 
 centennial, 
 
 dissipate, 
 
 lilies. 
 
 alpaca, 
 
 caterpillar, 
 
 surcingle, 
 
 succotash, 
 
 vaccinate, 
 
 collision, 
 
 valleys, 
 
 primer. 
 
 During the past year I have pronounced the fol- 
 lowing words to twenty-one Institutes in the State of 
 New York, viz: 
 
 melodeon, 
 billiards, 
 harelip, 
 inflammatory, 
 exaggerate, 
 brilliancy, 
 tyrannical, 
 numskull, 
 erysipelas. 
 The average spelling of the teachers, including 
 public school, union school, academy and normal 
 school teachers is sixty-three per cent. One county 
 stood at eighty-five per cent, and one at twenty per 
 cent. Only three teachers from the twenty-oue 
 counties spelling all the words correctly. 
 
 The following list has been given at institutes, 
 with similar results : 
 
 Judgment, infringement, abridgment,, acknowl- 
 edgment, tranquillity, dissyllable, bilious, lilies, 
 eying, vying, halos, inseparable, privilege, licentiate, 
 conscientious, intercede, supersede, sacrilegious, in- 
 flammation, quizzical, contrariwise, mucilage, mil- 
 lenium, metallic. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 I. Directions. 
 
 I. Require the pupil to pronou7ice the — • 
 
 (a) Word accurately before spelling, 
 
 (b) Letters accurately. 
 
BIBEGTIONS AND CAUTIONS. 63 
 
 (c) Syllables accurately. 
 
 (d) Word accurately after spelling, 
 
 (e) Words of the succeeding lesson ac- 
 curaiely before study. 
 
 (f) Require the pupil to name every 
 
 thing necessary to the correct writ- 
 ing or printing of the wordy as the 
 capital letter, hyphen, apostrophe, etc. 
 
 (g) Require the pupils to copy the words 
 
 of the succeeding lesson several 
 times before spelling. 
 
 2. Let every fifth exercise be a review. 
 
 3. Require misspelled words to be writ- 
 ten correctly. 
 
 4. Review often and advance slowly. 
 
 II. Cautions, 
 I. The teacher should — 
 
 (a) Pronounce the word only once. 
 
 (b) Never repeat a syllable. 
 
 (c) Not permit the pupil to repeat a 
 
 syllable. 
 
 (d) Require pupils to divide one syll- 
 
 able from another by a. pause. 
 
 (e) Give no undue emphasis on mtac- 
 cented syllables. 
 
64 SPELLING. 
 
 (f) Not permit the pupil to try the 
 second time on a word. 
 
 (g) Explain new words. 
 
 III. Besults. 
 
 1. The correct spelling of words. 
 
 2. The correct pronunciation of words. 
 Remarks — In teaching Spelling, the instructor 
 
 should aim to give interest to the exercise by fre- 
 quently varying the] mode of recitation. But what- 
 ever course is pursued, the following directions 
 should be strictly adhered to : 
 
 a. That the word should be pronounced distinctly; 
 just as it would be pronounced by a good reader or 
 a good speaker. In giving out the words to a class, 
 teachers sometimes commit the error of parting from 
 the ordinary pronounciation, for the sake of in, 
 dicating the orthography. No undue emphasis or 
 prolongation of the utterance of a syllable should be 
 given by the teacher. 
 
 b. That the pupil should spell once only on a word; 
 as all beyond will be merely guessing. 
 
 For employment between recitations the children 
 should be permitted and encouraged, and required 
 and compelled, to write all the exercises they read or 
 spell upon their slates. 
 
 Importance of Written Spelling. 
 
 The best way to study a spelling lesson is to require 
 the pupils to write it several times on their slates. 
 The practice of requiring pupils to study the lesson 
 
WIIITTLJ^T SPELLING. 65 
 
 a given Dumber of times, only teaches them to hurry 
 over their study, and not to study to any purpose. 
 
 It is not the number of times a lesson has been 
 studied that should be considered the mark of eflfort, 
 but the ability to spell every word in the lesson. 
 
 fnipoi tancc of Teaching Writing, 
 
 There is no reason why every child in every school 
 should not be a good penman at a very early age. 
 
 The advantage of this acquisition to the children 
 cannot be overrated ; for, besides the mechanical 
 skill, the child has the means of constant employ- 
 ment which will keep him from idleness and mis- 
 chief, and the live te<icJier can make this skill bear 
 upon almost every exercise in other branches of in- 
 struction. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 I, Directions. 
 
 1. Preparation for the lesson. 
 
 {a) Pronounce the word accurately. 
 
 (&) Use it in the construction of a sentence. 
 
 (c) Define it. 
 
 {d) Write a sentence containing it. 
 
 2. Materials — Book, pen and ink. 
 
 3. Require the pupils to write the word neatly, as 
 soon as pronounced. 
 
 4. At the close of the written exercise, the teacher, 
 or some pupil, should spell the word orally. 
 
 5. The pupil should check the misspelled words. 
 G. Every misspelled word, and word omitted,should 
 
 be written correctly in the Appendix, with its num- 
 ber and the number of the column. 
 
66 SPELLING. 
 
 7. All blanks, letters or words erased, inserted, 
 ■written over, or written indistinctly, should be con- 
 sidered as errors. 
 
 8. The teacher should examine the pupil's work, 
 and keep a record of the scholarship. 
 
 9. Begin all words with small letters, except proper 
 
 names. 
 
 //. Cautions. 
 
 1. The teacher should give sufficient time to the 
 exercise. 
 
 2. The direction number eight must be adhered to 
 strictly ; any violation will be counted the same as a 
 misspelled word. 
 
 3. If words are found unchecked, they should be 
 marked with a cipher. 
 
 4. Every word which the student checks for him. 
 self will deduct one ; every word checked with a 
 cipher will deduct five ; any correction whatever 
 made in the column will deduct ten. 
 
 Remaeks. — "The old adage, 'Eyes are better than 
 ears,' nowhere holds good with greater force than in 
 learning to spell." Familiarity with words as written, 
 such as will give the knowledge of all the letters and 
 their proper position, is necessary to the power of 
 writing them correctly. Such familiarity is obtained 
 only fro:n frequently seeing or writing them.* The 
 only way to produce words accurately is to make 
 them familiar to the eye; hence the well-known fact 
 that persons who read much, as compositors, or write 
 much, as copyists, invariably spell correctly ; hence 
 also the common practice, when people are in doubt 
 
ORAL SPELLING. 67 
 
 between two forms of words, to write them both, 
 when tbe eye instanlly decides on the right thing. 
 
 Value ot Oral Spelling. 
 
 Spelling is the right formation of words witli their 
 proper letters. Spelling is either oral or written. 
 Oral spelling does not give the ability to write words 
 correctly ; but it must not Irom this fact be deemed a 
 useless exercise. Long used as a basis of learning to 
 read, and still clung to by many, notwithstanding 
 the discovery of a better method, there must 1)6 
 something in it. It has already been shown that its 
 special claim of giving the learner the powers of the 
 letters, so that he may pronounce new words for 
 himself cannot be allowed. What it did do, was to 
 make familiar to the ear words that otherwise would 
 have been altogether strange, and sufficiently distin- 
 guishable by the eye to enable the learner to recog- 
 nize them again when met with in his reading lessons. 
 Other reasons may be assigned for the tenacity with 
 which the old practice of setting spelling lessons 
 has been clung to. It found favor with parents 
 as furnishing some school work at home. And it 
 found favor with teachers, as giving the only means 
 with the younger children, or with the very poor, of 
 forming those habits of attention, application, perse- 
 verance and retention which are the characteristic 
 features of a system of tasks. 
 
 Discovery of Mistakes. 
 
 The detection of every mistake with least loss of 
 time is of the first importance. Careful examination 
 
68 SPELLING. 
 
 of each slate by tlie teacher is most likely to secure 
 this, but it is open to the fatal objection that it occu- 
 pies much time and leaves the class idle. In some 
 schools monitors are appointed to examine the slates 
 and to correct the mistakes. This, apart from the 
 difficulty of getting properly qualified monitors, is 
 objectionable, as yielding the monitors no adequate 
 return for their long and irksome task, to which must 
 be added the possibility of unfaithfulness. The plan 
 of allowing the children to inspect each other's slates 
 is open to serious objections, not the least of which is 
 the distrust it seems to imply. Sometimes the chil- 
 dren compare their slates with the lesson in the book, 
 or written on the black-board: a plan which has the 
 advantages of throwing the labor on the child, and 
 of having the corrections made at the same time, all 
 l^at is needed being a vigilant oversight, to see that it 
 is faithfully done. But the method which to our 
 mind is the best, is to dictate but one or two senten- 
 ces, and then to have each sentence spelled through, 
 either by the teachers or by the scholars in turn, every 
 mistake being underlined. 
 
 Corrections. 
 
 The correction of mistakes should appeal to the 
 eye, not to the ear. Pains should be taken to ascer- 
 tain the cause of any common defect. For this pur- 
 pose the word should be written on the black-board, 
 and alongside of it the correct form; the two should 
 be compared, and the cause of the mistake discov- 
 ered. Often this will be a lesson on the stnicture of 
 a class of words, and probably prevent similar mis- 
 
METHODS. 69 
 
 takes afterwards. After this has been done, the whole 
 class should write the word in its correct form, and 
 then the words should be dictated afresh; if any 
 now have mistakes, they should be required to write 
 he words three or six times, according to the degree 
 of carelessness shown. Sometimes it may be well to 
 direct the children themselves to write correctly the 
 words they have underlined, this making them atten- 
 tive while the words are being spelled. But, as a gen- 
 eral thing, thus is open to the objection that it ap- 
 peals to the eye, and that it does not occupy the chil- 
 dren who have spelled all correctly. 
 
 Methods in Spelling. 
 
 I. Constructi'ce Method. 
 
 1. The teacher should request the pupils : — 
 {a) To name a few familiar words. 
 (&) To construct with block or card letters. 
 
 (c) To spell the words by the sound of the letters. 
 
 (d) To copy the words on their slates. 
 {e) To tell the silent letters. 
 
 (/) To spell the words by the name of the letters. 
 {g) To use each word correctly in a sentence. 
 
 //. Objective Method. 
 1. The teacher should request the pupils : — 
 {a) To bring to school a number of objects of the 
 
 same kind. 
 (5) To examine them carefully, 
 (c) To name the parts. 
 {d) To spell and write the words. 
 {e) To tell the uses of the parts. 
 
70 SPELLING. 
 
 (/) To introduce the word into a sentence. 
 {g) To name the properties of the parts. 
 (Ji) To write a short composition, reproducing 
 the words. 
 
 Cleneral Plan* 
 
 I. Object. 
 
 II. General propeities. 
 
 III. Parts. 
 
 IV. Properties of parts. 
 V. Uses of parts. 
 
 VI. General uses. 
 
 Different Methods ot Spelling. 
 
 First Method. 
 
 Spelling and defining. 
 
 1. Assign an object to every pupil. 
 
 2. Pupils find the meaning. 
 
 3. Pupils name the parts, qualities, uses, etc. 
 
 4. Write a short composition, reproducing the 
 
 words. 
 
 Second Method. 
 
 1. Teacher write a certain number of words on the 
 board, requiring the pupils to copy. 
 
 2. The pupils learn to define them. 
 
 3. The pupils use them in composition of a sen- 
 tence. 
 
 Thijd Method. 
 
 1. Require the pupils to spell the names of : — 
 (a) Countries. 
 {b) States, 
 (c) Counties. 
 {d) Cities. 
 
METHODS. 71 
 
 {e) Towns. 
 
 (/) Divisions of Laud. 
 
 {g) Divisions of Water. 
 
 (Ji) Classes of Objects. 
 
 (i) Occupations. 
 
 0') Animals, Minerals, etc. 
 
 (k) Trees. 
 
 (0 Fruits. 
 
 (m) Flowers. 
 
 {n) Vegetables. 
 
 Fourth Method. — Dictation. 
 
 1. The teacher should have a Dictation Exercise 
 once a week. 
 
 2. Dictate complete statements to the pupils. 
 
 /. The Direction of the above Exercise. 
 
 1. Write your full name on the paper ; punctuate 
 it. 
 
 2. Number the sentences. 
 
 3. Construct every letter accurately. 
 
 4. No erasures of letters or words. 
 
 5. No insertion of letters or words. 
 
 6. No writing over of letters or words. 
 
 7. No prompting 
 
 8. Use capital letters correctly. 
 
 9. Use punctuation marks correctly. 
 
 10. Cross the " t's" and dot the •' i's." 
 
 ifl) Teacher or pupil write the correct form on 
 
 the board. 
 (&) Those who make mistakes in spelling, or in 
 
 any of the directions, should be required to 
 
 correct them. 
 
72 SPELLING. 
 
 (c Teacher should carefully examine the papers. 
 
 {d) Find the per cent. 
 Remarks. — However thorough the drill in spelling 
 may be from the lessons of the speller and reader, 
 every teacher should have frequent and copious ex- 
 ercises in spelling words from other sources. These 
 should be words in common use, chosen as far as 
 possible from the range of the pupil's observation, 
 including the new words that arise in object lessons, 
 in geography, arithmetic and grammar. The more 
 difficult of these words should be written in columns 
 on the board, and studied and reviewed with the 
 same care as lessons from the speller and reader. 
 Failures in spelling these words should be marked 
 as errors, the same as failures in any other lessons. 
 
 Various Modes of Conducting Exercises In 
 Spelling. 
 
 1. Read a short sentence distinctly, and require 
 every word to be spelled by the class, — the first 
 pupil pronouncing and spelling the first word, the 
 next pupil the second, and so on until all the words 
 in the sentence have been spelled. (An excellent 
 exercise ; it demands attention.) 
 
 2. It will be well in oral spelling to make all the 
 members of the class responsible for the accurate 
 spelling of each and every word. 
 
 If the first member of the class misspells the word 
 given toj him, let the teacher proceed and give out 
 the next word, without intimating whether the first 
 w^ord was correctly or incorrectly spelled. 
 
 If the second pupil thinks the first word was not 
 
STUDY DIFFIC UL T WOBDS. 73 
 
 spelled correctly, be will spell it instead of the one 
 given to him, and so on through the class, each being 
 expected to correct any error that may have been 
 committed. If the first pupil spells a word incor- 
 rectly, and no one corrects it, let all be charged with 
 a failure This mode will amply compensate for its 
 frequent adopticm. 
 
 Require Study on the Difficult Words. 
 
 Two-thirds of the words in the English language 
 need but little study. The remainder can be mastered 
 only by study. The pupils should be urged to study 
 the difficult words. 
 
 3. Another mode of conducting the exercise of 
 spelling is the following, and we may add that for 
 more advanced schools it possesses some advantages : 
 
 Let the teacher write legibly on the board twenty 
 or more difficult words, and allow them to remain 
 long enough to be carefully studied by the school. 
 A few minutes before the exercise let all the words 
 be erased from the board. Let each pupil provide 
 himself with a slip of paper, following the order as 
 directed in the previous exercises. The teacher will 
 pronounce the words and the pupils will write them. 
 
 After the words have been wu'itten, let the slips be 
 collected and taken by the teacher, who may him- 
 self — aided by some of the pupils — examine the 
 slips, and mark the words spelled incorrectly. Sub- 
 sequently, let the teacher read the result to the whole 
 school, stating the number of errors committed by 
 the several pupils ; after which the papers may be 
 returned for correction. If there is a good board in 
 the room, a few pupils should write the lesson on it. 
 
74 SPELLINa. 
 
 4. An attractive mode, which may answer for oral 
 or written spelling, is the following : 
 
 The instructor pronounces a word which is to 
 be spelled by the first in the class, who will name 
 immediately another, commencing with the final 
 letter of the first word which is to be spelled by the 
 next pupil ; and he in turn will name another word, 
 and so on through the class. It will awaken thought 
 and interest. 
 
 5 . Another mode which has its advantages is the 
 following : 
 
 Let the teacher dictate some twenty or twenty-five 
 words to the class, requiring the members to write 
 them on their slates. These words are to be care- 
 fully examined and studied by the pupils, who are 
 also to be required to incorporate each word in a 
 sentence, which shall illustrate its meaning and show 
 that it is understood by them. 
 
 After these sentences have been read and erased 
 from the slates, let the words be dictated again, to be 
 written and examined with special reference to the 
 orthography. 
 
 The teacher should keep a copy of all words dictated 
 to the pupils and hold them responsible for the cor- 
 rect spelling in review. 
 
 Importance of Spelling. 
 
 Teachers should give close attention to this impor- 
 tant subject, for truly it has been said, " To spell 
 one's own language well is no great credit to him for 
 he ought to do it ; but to spell it ill is a disgrace, be- 
 cause it indicates extremely poor attention and loose 
 
ITS IMPORTANCE. 75 
 
 scholarship." We have a great number of spelling- 
 books, grammars, and other aids, but with all these, 
 poor spellers greatly abound. 
 
 One cause of the frequency of poor spelling may 
 be found in the neglect with which the spelling 
 lesson is treated in schools. It is often crowded 
 into a few minutes and passed over in a very hurried 
 and imperfect manner, and if any exercise must be 
 omitted the spelling lesson is the neglected one. 
 Another cause may be found in a feeling, not very 
 uncommon, that spelling is undeserving the atten- 
 tion of any but very young pupils. 
 
 From the beginning let your pupils understand 
 that the spelling lesson will always receive its due 
 share of atention, and its due time. Hold your 
 pupils responsible for the correct spelling of every 
 word at the regular recitation and upon reviews. 
 
 As soon as the pupils can write, which, in a well- 
 conducted school, is about as soon as they can read, 
 special instruction in spelling with script letters 
 should be introduced, and children should be re- 
 quired to write and to spell orally every word in 
 their reading, and in all other lessons. If accuracy 
 and neatness in every particular be required, habits 
 of careful attention will be formed. 
 
 The child must be taught to spell correctly, before 
 twelve years old, as this habit is seldom acquired 
 after that age. 
 
 Spelling Used only in Printing and Writing* 
 
 A good speller is one who habitually gives the 
 correct form to every word in his written exercises. 
 
76 SPELLINa. 
 
 It is only in printed and written language that cor- 
 rect spelling possesses any value. Oral spelling is 
 noi a test of accuracy. It is impossible to memorize 
 by their letters all the words in our language. If we 
 wish to make pupils excellent spellers, we must 
 cultivate the powers of observation and memory. If 
 habits of carelessness and inaccuracy are allowed to 
 be formed in childhood, no ordinary efforts in after 
 life can overcome the defects or supply the deficien- 
 cies that result from such bad habits. 
 
 General Rules for Spelling. 
 
 Rule 1. Write no word unless sure of its orthogra- 
 phy and signification. 
 
 Rule 2. Consult the dictionary in case of doubt. 
 
 Rule 3. Apply the rules for derivatives. 
 
 Remarks. — Rules for spelling are of but little use 
 in primary classes, or in fact in any classes. It may 
 be well to memorize them, as they may prove of a 
 little use in spelling of derivatives. 
 
 Exercise in Orthoepy 
 
 1. sacrifice, C. torrid, 
 
 2. memoriter, 7. often, 
 
 3. pedagogy, 8. pretty, 
 
 4. equable, 9. finance, 
 
 5. truths, 10. mercy. 
 Exercise in Orthoepy, with Diacritical Marks. 
 
 1. sac'riflce, 6. tor'id, 
 
 2. memor'iter, 7. often, 
 8. pSd'agogy, 8. pret'ty, 
 
 4. 5'quable, 9. ftnSnQe, 
 
 5. truths, 10. mer'cy. 
 
RULES AND EXERCISES. 77 
 
 Note. — The teacher should write these words on 
 the board, and let the pupils pronounce them. 
 
 Exercise in Orthoepy. 
 
 1. finale, 6. inquiry, 
 
 2. apparatus, 7. employe, 
 
 3. orotund, 8. condolence, 
 
 4. iugular, 9. dessert, 
 
 5. enervate, 10. pronunciation. 
 
 Same Words with Diacritical Marks 
 
 1. fi'na'le, 6. inqul'ry, 
 
 3. appara'tus, 7. Employe, 
 
 3. o'rotund, 8. condo'lence, 
 
 4. iCi'gular, 9. dessert', 
 
 5. 5n5r'vate, 10. pronuncia'tion. 
 
 Exercises in Orthoepy. 
 
 1. aye 6. acclimate, 
 
 3. area, 7. apparent, 
 
 3. almond, 8. aspirant, 
 
 4. alias, 9. allopathy, 
 
 5. arctic, 10. albumen. 
 
 Same Words with Diacritical Marks* 
 
 1. ii'ye, 6. accli'mate, 
 
 2. iT'rea, 7. appar'ent, 
 
 3. a'lmond, 8. ttspir'ant, 
 
 4. a'lias, 9. Sllop'athy, 
 
 5. Arc'tic, 10. Slbu'men. 
 
78 SPELLING. 
 
 Exercise in Orthoepy. 
 
 1. Appalachian, 6. Colorado, 
 
 2. Am'azon, 7. Cobo'es, 
 
 3. New Oi'leans, 8. Virgi'nia, 
 
 4. New'foundland, 9. Arkan'sas, 
 
 5. Shawan'gunk, 10. Ausa'ble. 
 
 Remarks — *' Exactness in articulation cannot exist 
 without close discrimination and careful analysis." 
 The preceding exercises on tbe correct pronunciation 
 of words should receive attention. It would be well 
 for the teacher to write on tbe board a list of words 
 pronounced incorrectly by the pupils, and require the 
 pupils to correct them. 
 
 Inquiries are made so frequently about books for 
 written spelling that it is thought best to give the 
 names of some of the books and publishers. Any 
 of them may be obtained of Davis, Bardeen & Co., 
 Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 Patterson's Exercise Book — Small 25 cts., large 50 
 cts. ; Sheldon & Co , New York. 
 
 Sherwood's Written Speller — 12 cts. ; George Sher- 
 wood & Co., Chicago, 111. 
 
 The Bulletin Blank Speller, prepared by Henry B. 
 Buckham, Principal Buffalo State Normal School — 
 15 cts. each, $10.00 per hundred ; Davis, Bardeen «& 
 Co., Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
PENMANSHIP. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 But little need be said on this subject, for the 
 reason that the authors of the various systems of 
 penmanship have placed before the public " Hand- 
 Books" on the subject, so that teachers may qualify 
 themselves to teach it. A moment's reflection will 
 suffice to convince any one of the importance of this 
 art ; it is intimately connected with all the commer- 
 cial and social relations of life. 
 
 When we reflect that a brief practice, a few months 
 at the farthest, under a competent instructor, will 
 enable even a child to command and use this noted 
 instrument, I would ask, is it not a shame that 
 pupils frequently leave school at the age of twelve 
 years unable to write even a tolerable hand ? Writing 
 is virtually ignored as a branch of study in a majority 
 of our common schools. It should not be placed in 
 the background : rather in the foreground of our 
 educational work. Writing is the complement of 
 Drawing, and both these are complements of Reading. 
 In our best schools pupils are taught to write the first 
 year. 
 
 Writing, as a medium for communicating thought, 
 is almost as important as speaking. Scrawls that 
 
80 PENMANSHIP. 
 
 cannot be read may be compared to talking that can 
 not be understood. If the teachers would attain 
 excellence in Penmanship they must master the 
 principles and faithfully practise them. Writing 
 cannot be thoroughly taught by imitation; it must be 
 made a study for a few months' time, and then all the 
 difficulties will be removed. We have seen hundreds 
 of teachers who could not tell what kind of lines 
 were used in making the letter " n." Good penman- 
 ship should be exacted as a qualification of our public 
 school teachers. 
 
 As a general rule teachers dislike to teach writing 
 because they do not know how. Let the teachers of 
 our public schools learn to write aud at the same 
 time learn to teach the art. Children like to write, 
 never need urging when the instruction is imparted 
 profitably and correctly. One year at school with 
 the qualified teacher would enable every pupil to 
 write a plain hand We hope the brief instruction 
 on this subject will pay good interest on the time 
 expended on its study. 
 
 Penmanship. 
 
 f 1. Left side. 
 
 I. Position. - ^^-^^'Tt'.ir 
 
 j 6. Right oblique. 
 
 [4. Right side. 
 
 IL Movement. 
 
 1. Finger. 
 
 2. Fore-arm. 
 
 3. Combined. 
 [4. Whole-arm. 
 
POINTS TO BE OBSERVED. 
 
 81 
 
 III. Lines. 
 
 IV. Slant. 
 
 fl. Base-line. 
 
 ! 2. Head-line. 
 
 \ 3. Intermediate-line. 
 
 ( 4. Top-line. 
 
 j 1. Main-slant. 
 
 ( 3. Connective-slant. 
 
 V. Space. 
 
 1. Height. 
 
 2 Width. 
 
 3 Length. 
 
 '1. Slants, 
 
 VI. Construction.' 
 
 j; 
 
 Main. 
 
 2 Anp-lpc; -! ^^'^ Lower. 
 ^. Angles. -j ^^^ Upper. 
 
 <l Tiirnc; i <^") Lower, 
 l^d. iurns.-j(^^^ Upper. 
 
 r>^^«««<^,-^« * L Right curve, 
 Connective -^g^ Left curve. 
 
 fl. Small. 
 
 VII. Form. 
 
 1. Short, (thirteen,) 
 
 2 Semi-extended, (four.) 
 
 3. Extended or loop,(nine) 
 
 2. Capital. — Three Classes. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 fl- 
 
 I ^• 
 
 I 3. 
 
 Principles. -( 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 Straight line. 
 Right curve. 
 Left curve. 
 Extended loop. 
 Direct oval. 
 Reversed oval. 
 Capital stem. 
 
 IX. Spacing.- 
 
 '1. Between letters, one and one- 
 fourth spaces; except a, d, g and 
 q, two spaces. 
 
 2. Between words, one and one- 
 
 half spaces. 
 
 3. Between sentences, two spaces. 
 
82 
 
 PENMANSHIP. 
 
 ' 1. Count one on the first stroke, two 
 on the second, and so on, until 
 the last stroke ; then repeat one. 
 X. Counting. { 2. Count one on the combination ; 
 and one at the end of a word. 
 3. In writing a copy, pronounce 
 the word before counting. 
 
 XL Shading. -{ Five different forms. 
 
 I 
 XII. Requisites. < 
 
 1. Good teaching. 
 
 2. Good copy. 
 
 3. Good desk. 
 
 4. Good paper. 
 
 5. Good pens. 
 
 6. Good pen-holders, 
 
 7. Good ink. 
 
 8. Blotter. 
 
 9. Pen-wiper. 
 
 10. Practice paper. 
 
 11. Blackboard. 
 13. Covers. 
 
 XIII. Opening. ^ 
 
 1. Position. 
 
 2. Adjust book. 
 
 3. Find copy. 
 
 4. Adjust arms. 
 
 5. Open inkstand. 
 
 6. Take pens. 
 
 7. Take ink. 
 
 8. Ready. 
 
 9. Write. 
 10. CouDt. 
 
POINTS TO BE OBSERVED. 83 
 
 1. Wipe pens. 
 
 2. Pass pens. 
 
 3. Position. 
 
 vT-vr r-i • j 4. Close inkstand. 
 XIY. Closing. ^ 5 ^^^^ pen-wiper. 
 
 6. Close books. 
 
 7. Pass books. 
 ^8. Position. 
 
 PenmaDship. 
 
 I. Directions. 
 
 2. Construct and illustrate the letters on the board. 
 
 2. Give instruction and practice on individual 
 letters. 
 
 3. Teach writing as a simultaneous exercise. 
 
 4. Require the pupils to — 
 
 {a) Analyze the letters ; first, in concert, with the 
 
 elements ; second, with the principles. 
 {b) Analyze the letters with precise language 
 
 before execution, 
 (c) Write slowly in the beginning. 
 {d) Write on the board daily. 
 (e) Write without lifting the pen from the 
 
 paper. 
 (/) Write with the slate-pencil in the beginning. 
 
 Pass an oral examination weekly ; written 
 
 examination monthly. 
 
 //. Cautions. 
 
 1. Teach and train the pupils to know. 
 
 2. Teach and train the pupils to execute. 
 
 3. Teach and train the pupils to criticise. 
 
 4. Teach and train the pupils to correct. 
 
84 PENMANSHIP. 
 
 III. Besults. 
 
 fl. Accuracy. 
 ^ r ^^'^^t^ I 3. Symmetry. 
 
 1. Legibility. - j 3 uniformity. 
 
 2. Beauty. 
 
 3. Rapidity. 
 
 1^4. Neatness. 
 
 Position. 
 
 The position of the body is of great importance to 
 correctness and freedom of execution. We should 
 first teach the correct position of the body, arms, 
 hands and feet, and absolutely insist that every pupil 
 shall sit in this manner unless prevented by some 
 physical deformity. Teachers sometimes make a 
 great mistake ; they show the proper position but 
 neglect to insist upon it. 
 
 Whatever the position, the pupils should learn to 
 sit easily upright aud keep the shoulders square. 
 Left Position. 
 
 Sit with the left side making an angle of forty-five 
 degrees with the desk ; place the book nearly square 
 with the desk a little to the right of the body. 
 
 This position is the most tavorable for writing on 
 
 large books. 
 
 Ftvnt Position 
 
 Sit directly facing the desk, near to it, with the 
 feet level on the floor, and the fore-arms resting 
 slightly on the desk in front, at right angles to each 
 other. The right arm should rest iightly on the edge 
 of the desk, on the muscles below the elbow. Adjust 
 the book so that the right arm will be at right angles 
 to the lines on which you are to write. 
 
MAUK THE POSITION. 85 
 
 Bight- Oblique. 
 
 The Right-Oblique position varies from the full 
 right position in having the right side but partially 
 turned toward the desk, and the arms and book 
 placed obliquely on the desk. 
 
 Right Position. 
 
 Turn the right side near to the desk but not in 
 contact with it ; keep the body erect, the feet level 
 on the floor ; place the right arm parallel to the edge 
 of the desk, resting on the muscle just forward of the 
 elbow. Let the left hand be at right angles to the 
 right and resting on the book, keeping it parallel 
 with the edge of the book. 
 
 Movement. 
 
 In writing, the instruments used are the pen- 
 fingers, the fore-arm and the whole arm movements. 
 A free, easy movement produces a graceful line, 
 while a stiff, cramped one produces a rough, irregular 
 line. The training of the muscles of the arm and 
 hand must be attended to by the teacher. In the 
 first attempts at writing, the muscles may not prop- 
 erly perform what the mind directs ; but by frequent 
 and careful practice they are rendered obedient to 
 the will. So important is this training that some 
 authors institute tracing exercises to educate the 
 hand to regular movements. 
 
 Finger Movement. 
 
 This movement is made by the extension and re- 
 traction of the pen-fingers and the thumb, and it is 
 
86 PENMANSHIP. 
 
 chiefly used in making tiie upward and downward 
 strokes. It is used mainly in making single letters. 
 This movement and its exact position should be 
 carefully taught. 
 
 Fore-Arm Movement. 
 
 This movement is made by resting the arm on the 
 muscles below the elbov5r,~that is, the muscles be- 
 low the elbow are used as the centre of motion, 
 giving a lateral movement. It may be employed in 
 making strokes in any direction. 
 
 Combined Movement. 
 
 This movement consists in the united action of the 
 fore-arm, hand and fingers, the fore-arm acting on 
 its muscular rest as a centre. This movement an- 
 swers the requirements of business use better than 
 any other. 
 
 Whole-Arm Movement. 
 
 The whole-arm movement consists in the use of 
 
 the whole-arm from the shoulder, the elbow being 
 
 raised slightly from the desk. This movement is 
 
 mainly used for striking large capitals. For practice 
 
 it is highly beneficial, giving steadiness and ease to 
 
 the movement. 
 
 Lines. 
 
 Writing is the complement of Drawing. It is 
 
 supposed that instruction has been given upon simple 
 
 geometrical lines. 
 
 Base Line. 
 
 The horizontal line on which the writing rests, is 
 called the Base Line. 
 
TECHNICAL TERMS. 87 
 
 Head Line. 
 
 The horizontal line to which the small letter ex- 
 tend, is called the Head Line. 
 
 Intermediate Line. 
 
 The horizontal line to which the semi-extended 
 letters reach, is called the Intermediate Line. 
 
 Top Line. 
 
 The horizontal line to which the loop or extended 
 letters extend, is called the Top Line. 
 
 Slants. 
 
 A straight line standing to the right of a vertical, 
 forming an angle of 52 degrees with the horizontal, 
 eives the Main Slant. 
 
 Connective Slants. 
 
 Curves which connect straight lines in small 
 letters are made on an angle of 30 degrees, and 
 called the Connective Slant. 
 
 Space. 
 
 Heiglit. 
 
 The unit for measuring the height of letters is the 
 small letter " j" without the dot, both for small and 
 capital letters, and is called a space. 
 
 Width, 
 
 The unit for measuring the width of letters is the 
 diskmce between the two slanting straight lines in the 
 small letter "?*" taken horizontally, and is called a 
 space. 
 
PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Length. 
 
 The length of the letter, taking " j" for the stand- 
 ard, is a trifle greater than the width. 
 
 Construction. 
 
 The construction of a letter is to tell the height, 
 width, angles, turns and slant. 
 
 Angles. 
 
 The angle is formed by a straight line meeting a 
 
 curved line. 
 
 Turns. 
 
 The turn is formed by a curve line meeting a 
 straight line ; it should be made as short as possible, 
 without making an angle. 
 
 Form — {Small Letters) 
 The short letters are — 
 
 ^^ II J a^j 9ty 771, i^j a J a^ cc^ e^ Cj, t^ d. 
 
 The semi-extended letters are — 
 The extended or loop letters are — 
 
 4 ^ ^ ^/^/^/^/''/C^ 
 
 Gapital Letters. 
 Capital letters are divided into three classes : 
 
 First class- 
 
 ^. ^. m. ^. 
 
PRINCIPLES. 89 
 
 Second class — 
 Third class — 
 
 (3< ©4! (S#; ^(^ (^ c^ 
 
 Principles. 
 
 1. A straight line on the main slant, is the First 
 Principle. 
 
 2. A right curve, usually on the connective slant, 
 is the Second Principle. 
 
 3. A left curve, usually on the connective slant, is 
 the Third Principle, 
 
 4. A loop upon the main slant, is the Fourth 
 Principle. 
 
 5. A direct oval or capital O, is the Fifth Principle. 
 
 6. A reversed oval upon the main slant, is the Sixth 
 Principle. 
 
 7. The capital stem is the Seventh Principle. 
 
 Spacing. 
 
 The spacing should be carefully watched in writ- 
 ing ; nothing adds more beauty to writiog than uni- 
 form and correct spacing. 
 
 Couniing. 
 
 To keep the members of the class together and 
 produce a steady and uniform movement, it is nec- 
 essary to apply time to the movements of the pen 
 
90 FENMENSHIP. 
 
 in writing. Some pupils move too rapidly, without 
 
 taking pains to make the letters ; others move too 
 
 slowly, with an irregular, tremulous motion. The 
 
 best results have been attained by counting; we 
 
 believe it to be the best and only way to teach pupils 
 
 to write in a body. Directions are given in the 
 
 tabulation. 
 
 Shading 
 
 This adds beauty to the writing, but it should be 
 used very sparingly. Capital letters should be 
 used very sparingly. Capital letters should be 
 shaded, but it is not necessary to shade small letters. 
 
 Requisites. 
 
 In order to progress, pupils should be supplied 
 with good materials. Nothing is gained by placing 
 in children's hands poor materials. The blackboard 
 should be used in every exercise. 
 
 Qpeiiin§:. 
 
 The same order and system should prevail in the 
 exercises in writing as in any other, and all the pupils 
 should be required to write during the exercise ; for 
 any deficiency they should be instructed that it must 
 be made up, the same as in any other recitation. 
 
 Seldom do we see the whole school engaged in the 
 writing exercise. Open and close the exercise care- 
 fully ; have a system. 
 
 General Hemakks — The pupils on their first 
 entrance into the school-room, should be supplied 
 with a slate ruled on one side: if not ruled the teacher 
 should rule it. The slate pencil should be long. 
 
SUGGESTIONS. 91 
 
 Instruction should be given on Lines the first day, 
 and tlie teacher should place the lines on the board 
 and require the pupils to copy. After they retire to 
 their seats, they should be requested to reproduce the 
 work. This will give them employment, and lead 
 to the mastery of penmanship in a very lew months. 
 Pupils should first be taught to make all the letters 
 on their slates, and after they can make them readily 
 they may then use the lead pencil and paper. Pen 
 and ink should not be placed in their hands until 
 they can make all the letters, both small and capital, 
 readily and perfectly. 
 
 All the exercises of the school require more or less 
 writing, and the teacher should begin it at an early 
 day. Some teach pupils to print at first ; while I do 
 not think this to be the correct way, yet good results 
 have been attained. Pupils can be taught to form 
 the script characters as early as the printed. 
 
 In the schools of Columbus, Ohio, St. Louis, Mo., 
 New York and Brooklyn,* and many other cities, the 
 pupils are taught to write the first year. They have 
 attained the most satisfactory results in spelling and 
 in reading through the teaching of penmanship. 
 We know from experience in the school room that 
 children under eight years of age can be made good 
 penmen in one year's time. We would encourage 
 teachers to try it; if at the end of the year you have 
 not succeeded, Uame yourself. 
 
 Analysis ol a Letter. 
 
 i. — ^he letter ^^i ^^ is one space in JieigM 
 
92 PENMANSHIP. 
 
 and two spaces in widtli^ coynpcsed of the 
 riglit curv6j main slant^ and the right 
 curve. 
 
 Remarks. — The analysis above is all that is neces- 
 sary at first, but a fuller one may be give.n after they 
 understand the parts, as follows : 
 
 i. — She letter ^^i^^ is one space in height 
 and two spaces in width, composed of the 
 right curve ^ upper angle ^ main slaiit. lower 
 
 turn, and the right curve. 
 
 Also it may be analyzed by principles, viz : 
 i. — 3'he letter ^^i^^ is composed of the 
 second principle, first principle^ and the 
 second principle. 
 
 List of Manuals on Penmanship. 
 
 Key to Spencerian Penmanship — $1.50 ; Compen- 
 dium of do., $1.75 ; Theory of do., 25 cts. ; Ivison, 
 Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York. 
 
 Manual of Penmanship — $1.25 ; Potter, Ainsworth 
 & Co., New York. 
 
 Hand-Book of Penmanship — 50 cts. ; VanAntwerp, 
 Bragg & Co. , Cincinnati. 
 
DRAWING. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 How it ever came to pass that arithmetic should be 
 taught to the extent attained in the public schools of 
 the civilizd world, while geometry is almost wholly 
 excluded from them, is a problem from which the 
 author of this manual has often sought a solution, 
 but with only this result, viz. : that arithmetic, being 
 considered an elementary branch, is included in all 
 systems of instruction ; but,, geometry, being re. 
 garded as a higher branch is reserved for systems of 
 advanced education, and is, on that account, reached 
 by but very few of the many who need it. 
 
 The error here is fundamental. Instead of teach- 
 ing the elements of all branches, we teach elementary 
 branches much too exhaustively. The elements of 
 Geometry are much easier to learn, and are of more 
 value when learned, than advanced Arithmetic ; and, 
 if A is to leave the school with merely a common 
 school education, he would be much better prepared 
 for the active duties of life with a little Arithmetic and 
 Sf/me Geometry, than with more Arithmetic and no 
 Geometry. 
 
 Unthinking persons frequently assert that young 
 
94 BRA WING. 
 
 children are incapable of reasoning, and that the 
 truths of Geometry are too abstract in their nature to 
 be apprehended by them. 
 
 To these objections, it may be answered, that any 
 ordinary child, five years of age, can deduce the con- 
 clusion of a syllogism if he understands the terms con- 
 tained in the propositions ; and that nothing can be 
 more palapable to the mind of a child than forms, 
 magnitudes, and directions. 
 
 There are many teachers who imagine that the per- 
 ceptive faculties of children should be cultivated ex. 
 clusive/y in early youth, and that the reason should be 
 addressed only at a later period. 
 
 It is certainly true that perception should receive 
 a larger share of attention than the other faculties 
 during the first school years ; but it is equally certain 
 that no faculty can be safely disregarded, even for a 
 time. The root does not attain maturity before the 
 stem appears ; neither does the stem attain its growth 
 before its branches come forth to give birth in turn 
 to leaves ; but root, stem and leaves are found simul- 
 taneously in the youngest plant. 
 
 That the reason may be profitably addressed 
 through the medium of geometry at as early an age 
 as seven years is asserted by no less an authority than 
 President Hill of Harvar-d College, who says, in the 
 preface to his admirable little geometry, that a child 
 seven years old may be taught geometry more easily 
 than one of fifteen. 
 
 The author holds that this science should be taught 
 in all primary and grammar schools, for the same 
 
GEOMETRY AND DRAWING. 95 
 
 reasons that apply to all other branches. One of these 
 reasons will be stated here, because it is not suflBcient- 
 ly recognized even b}'^ teachers. It is this : 
 
 The prime object of school instruction is to place 
 in the hands of the pupil the means of continuing his 
 studies without aid after he leaves school. The man 
 who is not a student of some part of God's works 
 cannot be said to live a rational life. It is the proper 
 business of the school to do for each branch of science 
 exactly what is done for reading. 
 
 Children are taught to read, not for the sake of 
 what is contained in their readers, but that they may 
 be able to read all through life, and thereby fulfil one 
 or the requirements of civilized society. So, enough 
 of each branch of science should be taught to enable 
 the pupil to pursue it after leaving school. 
 
 If this view is correct, it is wrong to allow a pupil 
 to reach the age of fourteen years without knowing 
 even the alphabet of Geometry. He should'be taught 
 at least how to read it. 
 
 It certainly does seem probable, that if the youth 
 who now leave school with so much Arithmetic, and 
 no Geometry, were taught the first rudiments of the 
 science, thousands of them would be lead to the study 
 of the higher mathematics in their mature years, by 
 reasons of those attractions of Geometry which 
 Arithmetic does not possess. 
 
 The author would combine Geometry and Drawing, 
 and make it purely a development exercise. But 
 very little attention has been given to this subject in 
 the schools of this country. It is one of the first 
 
96 DBA WING. 
 
 subjects that should receive attention in the primary 
 classes. There is no subject that will produce such 
 satisfactory results in so short a time as Drawing. 
 It gives a good discipline to the mind, as it deals at 
 first with geometrical terms, as lines, angles, circles, 
 etc. It is an exercise well calculated to develop 
 reason and judgment on the part of the pupils. The 
 eye is trained to observe and compare objects ; and 
 the hand is trained to execute. 
 
 It should precede all the primary work in the 
 school ; should be taught before reading, spelling, 
 writing numbers, etc. It is the complement of writ- 
 ing and map-drawing ; it is a source of endless amuse- 
 ment and instruction. How much more quick and 
 satisfactory is the process of delineating an object 
 by drawing, than that of describing it by words. 
 The requirement of this art necessitates also the right 
 use of the faculties of sight, observation, imitative- 
 ness and even conception. 
 
 Precedence is always given to knowledge, and not 
 to manual execution. The teacher who has at the 
 end nothing to show but finely drawn lines, has given 
 poor instruction. His class should be able to sustain 
 a thorough examination, based on the principles of 
 geometrical terms. It is expected that the teacher 
 will thoroughly instruct the pupils in the methods of 
 work, and in the definitions of terms, a thing that 
 cannot be done without frequent review. 
 
 Elementary Drawing, when taught in a rational, 
 systematic manner, is one of the easiest and one of 
 the most delightful things to teach to children. Like 
 
ELEMENTARY BEFINTIONS. 97 
 
 other studies it must be made compulsory, and not 
 be left to the decision of the teacher and pupil. 
 
 There must be examinations and promotions, as in 
 other branches. 
 
 Satisfactory results in drawing are no more de- 
 pendent upon special gitts on the part of pupils, 
 than satisfactory results in arithmetic are dependent 
 upon special mathematical gifts. It is only neces- 
 sary that the pupils set about the study of drawing as 
 they set about the study of arithmetic, geography or 
 grammar. 
 
 Elementary Definitions of Drawing. 
 
 1. That which has position but no dimensions, is a 
 Point. 
 
 2. That which has length, but neither breadth nor 
 thickness, is a Line. 
 
 8. A line that does not change its direction at any 
 point, is a Straight Line; it indicates the shortest 
 distance between two points. 
 
 4. A line that changes its direction at every point, 
 is a Curved Line. 
 
 5. A line that clianges its direction at some of its 
 points, is a Broken Line. 
 
 6. A straight line that points to the centre of the 
 earth, is a Vertical Line 
 
 7. A straight line that points to the horizon, is a 
 Horizontal Line. 
 
 8. A straight line that is neither vertical nor hor- 
 izontal, is an Oblique Line. 
 
 9. A line that bends regularly, and if continued, 
 would form the circumference of a circle, is a Simple 
 Curve. 
 
98 DBA WING. 
 
 10. A line composed of two or more simple carves, 
 is a Compound Curve. 
 
 11. A plane figure bounded by a compound curve 
 struck from two centers, is an Ellipse. 
 
 12. A line that is regular in all its parts is a Regu- 
 lar Broken Line. 
 
 13. A line that is irregular in some of all of its 
 parts, is an Irregular Broken Line. 
 
 14. Lines that extend in the same direction and 
 whose opposite points are always the same distance 
 from one another throughout their entire length, are 
 Paralled Lines. 
 
 15. Lines where the points are connected are Con- 
 tinuous. 
 
 16. Lines where the points are disconnected are 
 Discontinuous. 
 
 17. The difference in the direction of two straight 
 lines, is an Angle, 
 
 18. An angle which is formed by the meeting of 
 two straight lines perpendicular to each other, is a 
 Right Angle. 
 
 19. An angle which is less than aright angle, is an 
 Acute Angle. 
 
 20. An angle which is greater than a right angle, is 
 an Obtuse Angle. 
 
 21. A plane figure having three sides, is a Triangle. 
 
 22. A triangle that has one right angle, is a Right- 
 Angled Triangle. 
 
 23. A triangle that has one obtuse angle, is an Ob- 
 tuse-Angled Triangle. 
 
 24. A triangle whose angles are all acute, is an 
 Acute- Angled Triangle. 
 
ELEMENTARY DEFINITIONS. 99 
 
 25. A triangle where the three sides are equal to 
 each other, is an Equilateral Triangle. 
 
 26 A triangle where the three sides are of unequal 
 length, is a Scalene Triangle. 
 
 27. A triangle where two of its sides are equal, is 
 an Isosceles Triangle. 
 
 28. A plane figure having four sides, is a Quad- 
 rilateral. 
 
 29. A quadrilateral that has no two sides parallel, 
 is a Trapezium. 
 
 30. A quadrilateral where only two sides are par- 
 allel, is a Trapezoid. 
 
 31. A quadrilateral whose opposite sides are par- 
 allel, is a Parallelogram. 
 
 32. A right-angled parallelogram, is a Rectangle. 
 
 33. A parallelogram whose opposite sides are equal 
 but which has no right angles, is a Rhomboid. 
 
 34. A parallelogram with four equal sides, but the 
 angles not right angles, is a Rhombus. 
 
 35. A figure having four equal sides and four right 
 angles, is a Square, or an Equilateral Rectangle. 
 
 36. A figure that has four right angles, but only its 
 opposite sides equal, is an Oblong. 
 
 37. A plane figure bounded by a curved line, every 
 part of which is equally distant from a point within 
 called its centre, is a Circle. 
 
 38. A straight line drawn from the centre to the 
 circumference, is a Radius. 
 
 39. A straight line drawn through the centre and 
 touching the circumference on both sides, is the 
 Diameter. 
 
100 
 
 DBAWIKG. 
 
 40. Lines drawn from side to side, passing through 
 the centre, are the Diameters of a Square. 
 
 41. Lines.connectiug the opposite angles of a square 
 are called the Diagonals of a Square, 
 
 43. The straight line connecting the ends of a curve 
 is the Base. 
 
 43. The perpendicular distance from the base to 
 the highest point of the curve is the Altitude. 
 
 44. A straight line which touches the circumfer- 
 ence of a circle at two points, but which is shorter 
 than the diameter, is a Chord. 
 
 45. Any part of the circumference of a circle is an 
 
 Arc 
 
 Geometry. — Elementary Exercise. 
 
 A. Point and Lines. 
 I Point. 
 
 fl. Straight. 
 
 II. Line. \ 2. Curved. 
 
 ^3. Broken 
 
 a. 
 
 i; 
 
 Vertical. 
 
 Horizontal. 
 
 Oblique. 
 
 Simple. 
 
 Compound. 
 
 Elliptical. 
 
 Regular. 
 L'reffular. 
 
 I Parallel. 
 
 I 
 
 J-Continu- 
 J [ous. 
 
 I Discon- 
 j [tinuous. 
 
 B. Combination of Straight Lines. 
 
 I. Andes. 
 
 1. Bight. 
 
 2. Acute. 
 
 3. Obtuse. 
 
 Two lines. 
 
 fl 
 
 n. Triangles. 
 
 Classified, 
 according 
 to sides. 
 Classified 
 according -j 2. 
 to angles. ( 3. 
 
 Equilateral. ") 
 Scalene. | 
 
 Isosceles. 
 Right-angled. 
 Acute-angled. 
 Obtuse-angled J 
 
 Three 
 
 lines. 
 
MANTIALS OF LBAWING. 101 
 
 ri. Trapezium. J 1. Square. 1 
 
 III. Qliaflri- J 2- Trapezoid. ( 1. Rectangle. 1 2. Oblong. I Four 
 I'jlprQlQ I 3. Parorog'ms.K 2. Rhomboid. (lines. 
 
 ^<^^^^<^^^' I 1 3. Rhombus. J 
 
 All who produce good figures should be allowed 
 to place them on the board. This will hint to others, 
 and encourage all to do well enough to be allowed 
 to draw on the board. Some of these figures the 
 teacher gives to the class as dictation exercises, either 
 in the present shape or modified. Figures should 
 never be drawn less than an inch in size, and the 
 •pupil should take positions three or four feet away, 
 to criticise his work. If the class is large, divide it 
 into equal parts, and let one draw at the board each 
 day, while the others draw on their slates. 
 
 The teacher needs to study a Manual on Drawing, 
 'n order to teach it thoroughly and successfully. 
 Among others we would refer them to Krusi's 
 Manuals of Drawing, Synthetic, Analytic and Per- 
 spective, 75 cts. each, published by D. Appleton & 
 Co., New York ; Smith's Manual, Primary $1.25, and 
 Intermediate |2.50, published by L. Prang & Co., 
 Boston ; Bartholomew's Manual $1.25, published by 
 Potter, Ainsworth & Co., New York ; Mark's First 
 Lessons in Geometry, 90 cts., published by Ivison, 
 Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York. 
 
"Part l : LANGUAGE. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 They who feel an inward call to teach and en- 
 lighten their countrymen, should deem it an import- 
 ant part of their duty to draw out the stores of thought 
 which are already latent in their native language, to 
 purify it from the corruptions which time brings upon 
 all things, to endeavor to give distinctness and pre- 
 cision to whatever in it is confused, or obscure, or 
 dimly seen. 
 
 We do not wish to condemn the study of grammar ; 
 every teacher should ^mderstand it, and pupils who 
 are able to digest the science and assimilate the 
 knowledge should be encouraged to study it. But 
 we believe that a majority of pupils have formed a 
 distaste for the study of grammar, because it was in- 
 troduced at too early an age. Lessons in Language 
 should receive attention from the first ; but they should 
 be free from all definitions, grammatical rules, analy- 
 sis and parsing ; these only clog the memory and 
 signify nothing but mere notions of general terms. 
 
 Definitions and rules are results, and we should 
 seek to attain these results by practical work through 
 the study of the art of Language ; then, and not 
 
OBJECT OF LANGUAGE LESSONS. 103 
 
 until then, shall we arrive at a knowledge of their 
 character and an appreciation of their usefulness. 
 
 The Object to Tench Pupils to Speak and Write 
 Correctly. 
 
 The object of the study of grammar is " Jb teach thf 
 art of correct expression and the science of language.'' 
 The study of our text book on grammar, does not as a 
 rule, attain these results. Why? Because grammar, 
 proper, is the study of the science of language. 
 Technical grammar belongs to the advanced course, 
 and a majority of our pupils, who leave school before 
 the age of twelve years, should pursue the study of 
 language, which would be of use through life ; 
 whereas the study of grammar will be of but little, 
 if any, use. 
 
 In Language we believe that the duty of preparing 
 the soil, and planting the seed, is with the primary 
 teacher. Correct sentences should alicays be used in 
 the presence of the pupil ; if the teacher be careful in 
 this direction, in no case using incorrect language, 
 the ear becomes accustomed to forms of expression, 
 and the child will unconsciously acquire the correct 
 forms It cannot be learned by setting children to 
 classifying, conjugating or declining. They must 
 learn the art of language and through the art come up 
 to the science. Language is a growth. It cannot be 
 stereotyped. Language and thought have reciprocal 
 influence. Right habits of language produce right 
 thinking, and vice versa. The language of a person 
 is a test and evidence of his thoughts and mental cul- 
 ture. The chief cause of alarm is on account of the 
 
104 LANGUAGE. 
 
 woful ignorance of English and the faulty use of our 
 mother tongue among nominally intelligent and edu- 
 cated people — even among teachers, who of all others 
 should use pure language. The teacher is responsi- 
 ble for the language of his pupils. 
 
 Good Language— How Acquired. 
 
 We acquire language through imitation ; the 
 pupil who has always heard good language, 
 will use goo4 language ; his ability to use good lan- 
 guage does not depend upon his knowledge of gram- 
 mar, but upon his having heard good English, read 
 good English and practised good English. Without 
 further comment upon language, we would say, that 
 whatever else may be omitted in teaching, — no teacher 
 can afford to dispense with the language exercise. 
 
 "I had rather speak five words with my understanding, 
 that by my voice I might teach otiiers also, than a thous- 
 and words in an unknown toni-ue." — / Cor. XIV : 19, 
 
FIRST LUSSONS. 105 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 /. Directions. 
 
 1. Ask the children to tell the names of the objects— 
 
 a. In the school-room, the yard, the house, etc. 
 
 b. Made of wood, iron, gold, wool, cotton, etc. 
 
 c. Manufactured by the carpenter, moulder, etc. 
 
 2. Ask the pupil to tell the names of the parts of 
 
 things. 
 
 3. To name some of the qualities of things. 
 
 4. To tell the uses of things. 
 
 IT, Cautions. 
 
 1. Insist on correct articulation. 
 
 2. Form correct ideas ; then insist on the intelligent 
 
 use of the terms. 
 
 3. Let every exercise bear upon the correct use of 
 
 language. 
 
 in Results. 
 
 1. The command of language. 
 
 2. The concise use of language. 
 
 3. Increased mental power. 
 
 KEMARKS. 
 
 The pupils at first will mention the names of things 
 in the wildest confusion. The teacher listens patiently 
 for a few seconds, then kindly bids them stop, and 
 tells them to begin at a certain part of the room and 
 to speak one at a time, and name things in order. 
 
 In the answers constant attention must be paid to 
 the pronunciation of words — distinct and correct artic- 
 ulation being one of the first requisites of correct 
 language. 
 
106 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Yet this should not be insisted upon to such an 
 extent, as to make it irksome to the pupils. The child 
 can attain perfection only gradually, and the teacher 
 should encourage but not drive. Indeed, the child 
 needs no driving ; he will work cheerfully and zeal- 
 ously with the leader who has learned the art of 
 working with the child. 
 
 As the names of objects are given by the children, 
 the teacher should write these names in columns 
 on the board, requiring the children to spell each 
 word as it is written, assisting or correcting when 
 necessary. 
 
 Let the children say something about each object, 
 the teacher helping them to determine how far the 
 terms they apply are appropriate. 
 
 The teacher should add to these descriptions the 
 names, and lead the children on to the formation of 
 simple statements in their shortest form. 
 
 Capital Letters and the Full Stop. 
 
 In the written exercise, the children should be led 
 to observe that each sentence begins with a capital 
 letter, and ends with a period. The teacher will 
 use JUDGMENT in the assignment of the directions in 
 each lesson. 
 
 The dire-ctions should be written on the board, one 
 at a time, and the pupils requested to follow the 
 directions, and read the statements from the slate. 
 After an exercise has been carefully examined, the 
 teacher should require the class to reproduce it. 
 
 The children may be supplied with little books, in 
 which to write out these lessons at home. For some 
 
PARTS OF OBJECTS. 107 
 
 time tbey should not be required to originate any- 
 tliing for themselves, but merely to reproduce that 
 which has been taught in school. They will lind 
 pleasure in doing that which they can do well. 
 
 When all the objects in the room have formed the 
 subjects of such lessons, those in the play-ground, the 
 street, or in the fields, may be resorted to, gradually 
 extending the circle to more remote objects. 
 
 At least a dozen lessons of this description should 
 
 be given. 
 
 Parts of Objects. 
 
 After giviug lessons on objects, the teacher will ask 
 the pupils to name the parts of objects, and the num- 
 ber of those parts. This is the second step in lan- 
 guage. 
 
 In these exercises, the teacher should be careful not 
 to let the children call that a part, which is mere- 
 ly a property or an accident. A part of a material 
 object is a portion of it ; if the part is removed, the 
 object will be diminished in size and weight. It is 
 improper, then, to consider as parts the lines and 
 surfaces of objects. 
 
 The exercises on the parts of objects should be 
 varied in many ways, so as to arouse and maintain a 
 lively interest in the pupils. 
 
 For example — the parts of Sipin are the head, shaft 
 and point ; of a chair, legs, rounds, seat and hack. 
 
 The first step to be taken in language is to obtain 
 ideas. The second is the proper expression of the 
 ideas when obtained. 
 
 To acquire ideas, it is necessary to cultivate habits 
 of observation ; to use the eyes in noticing not only 
 
108 LANGUAGE. 
 
 entire objects, but also their different parts ; to con- 
 sider their qualities, uses, operations and effects ; 
 together with their relations to other things. The 
 mind employed in such processes acquires material 
 for its own operations, and develops ideas and 
 thoughts as it were spontaneously. 
 
 For this exercise in language it is proposed that the 
 children be required to enumerate the parts of some 
 visible object, according to the following 
 
 Example, 
 
 A House. 
 Its parts are : 
 The stone, The sills. The plates. The ceiling, 
 The mortar. The posts, The rafters. The floor. 
 The joists, The doors, The shingles. 
 The beams, The nails. The chimneys, 
 
 Example* 
 
 Glass. 
 Its qualities : 
 
 It is hard, inodorous, 
 
 solid, colorless, 
 
 smooth, heavy, 
 
 bright, durable, 
 
 transparent, inflexible, 
 
 brittle, insoluble, 
 
 cold, dry, 
 
 tasteless, fusible, etc. 
 Its uses : 
 
 For windows to admit the light. 
 For spectacles to assist the sight. 
 For useful vessels, such as goblets, pitchers, bottles, 
 phials, lamps, etc. 
 
 Thus far we have endeavored to teach the subjects 
 methodically, so as to teach the pupils the power of 
 
HA VE A DEFINITE FLAN. 109 
 
 rajnd, complete^ and accurnie observation, and to pre- 
 pare them for concise, complete, and accurate descrip- 
 tion. 
 
 The teacher in order to give the children informa- 
 tion on qualities of object?, so that they may form 
 correct impressions, should subject the object to more 
 or less complicated experiments. The names of some 
 of these qualities, e. g., compressibility, flexibility, 
 etc., must be fully illustrated 
 
 This exercise will furnish abundant opportunity for 
 the energetic teacher to invent various means of enter- 
 tainment and instruction. 
 
 Interrogate the children closely upon the uses of 
 objects, and require them to write short compositions 
 about objects, to tell the name, parts, qualities and 
 uses. 
 
 The Teacher must have a Plan. 
 
 The teacher must have a plan of presenting 
 subjects. Experience daily proves that an vnprepared 
 lesson, or what may be termed extem'pore teaching is 
 sure to be difl"use and indifierent ; besides the teacher 
 must NEVER FAIL to enter the class well prepared, 
 not only in regard to the object on which he intends 
 to exercise his class, but upon the order in which 
 the exercises are to be conducted, and upon the man- 
 ner in which the individual pupils are to be interro- 
 gated. He must himself have clear and distinct ideas, 
 must observe accurately and think carefully, conciseog 
 and correctly. 
 
 Without these requisites the teacher will fail iu 
 language ; with them he will accomplish results foi 
 which generations will thank him. 
 
no LAKOUAOE. 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 I. Directiona. 
 
 1 Give the children words similar in pronunciation, 
 but different in spelling. 
 2. Ask the children — 
 
 a. To find the words in the spelling-book. 
 
 b. To write all the words they know, that have 
 
 the words mentioned in them. 
 
 c. To make a spelling-lesson of the words named. 
 
 d. To write statements, using the words named. 
 
 e. To write a composition, using the statements. 
 
 II. Cautions, 
 
 1. Require the children to answer, in full state- 
 
 ments. 
 
 2. Give constant attention to distinct articulation. 
 
 3. Correct the common errors in pronunciation. 
 
 4. Make the exercise 2)'^€asant and indructive. 
 
 III. Results, 
 
 1. The children will understand the meaning of 
 
 words. 
 
 2. They will learn correct simple expression. 
 
 3. They will learn how to write and spell. 
 
 An exact copy of a lesson given in the Primary 
 Department of the State Normal School in Buffalo, 
 New York, is here appended. 
 
 The words for practice, beech and beach. List of 
 words, given by the pupils : 
 
 /. Beech. II, Beach. 
 
 1. beech-tree, 1. sand-beach, 
 
 2. beech-nut, . 2. shell-beach, 
 
A NORMAL LESSON. Ill 
 
 3. 
 
 beech-leai, 
 
 8. 
 
 pebbly-beach, 
 
 4. 
 
 beecli-wood, 
 
 4. 
 
 beach-timber, 
 
 5. 
 
 beech-root, 
 
 5. 
 
 Rye-beach, 
 
 6. 
 
 beech-twig, 
 
 6. 
 
 ocean-beach. 
 
 7. 
 
 beech-bark, 
 
 
 
 8. 
 
 beech-oil. 
 
 
 
 Sentences. 
 
 /. Beech; a tree. 
 
 1. The J^^c^i- trees make a nice shade in summer. 
 
 2. The beech has a smooth green bark. 
 
 3. The squirrel hides htech-u\xi& in his hole for win' 
 ter. 
 
 4. Beech-wood snaps in the fire. 
 
 II. Beach; a sandy shore. 
 
 1. Year before last we all went to B.ye-beacJi in 
 vacation. 
 
 2. O, see the pretty pebbles I picked up on the 
 beach ! 
 
 3. What fun it is to walk barefoot on the dry warm 
 saud, down on the beach. 
 
 III. Compositions. 
 
 1. A beech-tree is a very large forest tree. It has 
 little three-cornered beech-nuts on it. I was out in 
 the country once and I saw very many little shells of 
 the beech-nuts where the squirrels had been. The 
 beech-wood snaps when you put it into the fire, and 
 makes a very hot fire. 
 
 2. I went down to the Beach one day and the sand 
 was all smooth. I was on the Beach of Lake Mich- 
 igan once and made little houses of the Beach pebbles 
 in the sand. Rye Beach is where the people go to 
 bathe in the summer. 
 
 3. A squirrel is a animal that eats Beech-nuts. 
 When you burn beech-wood it crackles and snaps all 
 on the carpet like ashes. The beech-tree grows to be 
 very large and when it is very large men go and chop 
 them into wood the beech-nut is very good to eat I 
 had some twice and they were good sometimes people 
 
113 LAKGUAQE. 
 
 get oil from the nuts ; beech leaves are good to chew 
 they have a sour taste they are very good; beech nuts 
 are big as the end of the finger they are three-cornered 
 the beech-nut tree grows in Europe and america. 
 
 The last was written by the youngest girl in the 
 class, aged eight. All are printed just as written. 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Children from eight to ten years of age may be able 
 to do the work, if the teacher carefully follows a plan. 
 
 The teacher should spell and pronounce the words, 
 if the children caDnot,and also tell their exact meaning 
 and illustrate them, if possible ; try to draw a 
 picture at the board, — an indifferent one is better 
 than none. 
 
 The object is to teach spelling, writing and correct 
 simple expression. 
 
 The exercise will not prove irksome^ but very 
 pleasant and instructive. 
 
 All erroneous expressions made use of by the chil- 
 dren should be immediately corrected and the proper 
 words FIXED upon the mind by repetition. 
 
 In the daily work of the school-room, all definitions 
 of the meaning of words, and all descriptions of 
 places, objects, or events, whether given by the teacher 
 to the children, or dieted from them, should be 
 clothed in simple and definite language, and fixed in 
 the memory by repetiUon. 
 
 The children should be trained to give complete 
 answers to all questions which are put to them. Ex- 
 perience teaches that nothing more tends to make an 
 idea clear to the mind, and to render it a permanent 
 possession, thence the act of clothing it in accurate laii- 
 cjuage. 
 
SUGGESTIONS. 113 
 
 Monosyllabic answers, as '* yes " and *' no " should 
 be rejected, except when they express all that can be 
 said on the subject. 
 
 The value of such instruction has not hitherto been 
 sufficiently appreciated, but it is hoped that these les- 
 sons will show how suited it is to the youthful mind 
 and calculated *o promote mental training. 
 
114 LANOUAOE. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 1. Directions. 
 
 1. Hold au object before the pupils and ask them 
 to say something about it. 
 
 2. Place objects of the same kind in their hands, 
 and let the pupils describe them; first an oral, second a 
 written description. 
 
 3. Let the pupil compare objects, and tell their dif- 
 ferences, as paper and leather, lead and iron, wood 
 and stone, etc. 
 
 4. Let the pupils ascribe different qualities to one 
 and the same object. 
 
 5. Let the pupils ascribe the same quality to various 
 objects. 
 
 6. Let them apply many descriptive terms, appli- 
 cable to various objects. 
 
 7. Let them point out the value of each word and 
 state what it adds to the description. 
 
 IL Cautions. 
 
 • 1. See that the children form correct ideas. 
 
 2. Correct all improper expressions. 
 
 3. Fix the new word in the mind by frequent re- 
 views. 
 
 4. The teacher should assist the children in deter- 
 mining the suitability of words, correcting when 
 necessary. 
 
 5. Encourage the children to reproduce lessons at 
 home. 
 
 HI. Results. 
 
 1. To train the children to see. 
 
 2. To teach them to compare. 
 
 3. To train them to do. 
 
 4. To train them to tell what they see and do. 
 
 1 
 
MAKING SENTENCES. 115 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The teacher should require the pupils to answer in 
 complete statements^ and encourage them to examine 
 the objects very carefully 
 
 In the oral description let the children give the sjen- 
 eral properties, as the form and color; then the parts, 
 properties and uses. In the written description re- 
 quire the work to be expressed neatly, giving atten- 
 tion to spelling^ writing^ capital letters^ and punctu- 
 ation. 
 
 The teacher will write the name of some familiar 
 object on the board, and will call upon the children 
 to apply to it various qualities, writing them as they 
 give them. It may be necessary to assist the child- 
 ren in determining the suitability of the qualities, 
 and also in spelling the more difficult words. 
 
 We may suppose a lesson in which the given name 
 
 is " paper " It would present itself in such a form as 
 
 this: — 
 
 The paper is white. 
 The paper is thin. 
 The paper is smooth. 
 The paper is pliable, etc. 
 
 The teacher should next lead the children to notice 
 that the word "paper" need only be written once, 
 and that the four sentences may be contracted into 
 one. Then the teacher directed by the children 
 writes: — 
 
 Paper is white, thin, smooth and pliable. 
 
 The children then read this over, and are lead to 
 perceive the necessity for commas in those places 
 where the words "the paper is" are omitted, and 
 also the use of the word " and " between the last two 
 
116 LANGUAGE. 
 
 words of the sentence. Cover the board and require 
 the children to reproduce the lesson. 
 
 When the same quality is attributed to many ob- 
 jects, it would present itself in such a form as this:— 
 Glass is brittle. 
 Chalk is brittle. 
 Coal is brittle. 
 Glass, coal, and chalk are brittle. 
 Iron is hard. 
 Flint is hard. 
 Glass is hard. 
 Iron, flint, and glass are hard. 
 
 The children should be led to notice the stops as be- 
 fore, and the change of the word " is " for " are." 
 
 Let the children observe that each sentence be- 
 gins with a capital letter, and ends with a period. 
 Examine each slate, and require the children to re- 
 produce correct copies. 
 
 Let the children observe that words used in a 
 series are separated by a comma. 
 
 Require the children to write many sentences, un- 
 til this fact is fixed in the mind. 
 
 A practical knowledge of language can only be 
 acquired through an intelligent use of it ; children 
 should be taught to speak and write the English lan- 
 guage correctly^ to be able to detect the more frequent 
 errors and correct them. These results can only be 
 accomplished through intelligerd teaching. 
 
 Children should not be taught the final deductions 
 of the science of language, which are definitions; 
 they should not commit to memory arbitrary rules, 
 but learn the correct use of language. The ordinary 
 methods of teaching grammar do little to establish 
 this. 
 
COMPOSITIONS BEGUN. 117 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 /. Directions. 
 
 1. Ask the pupil to give a name that will apply to 
 everything which they can perceive. 
 
 2. Ask the pupils — 
 
 a. To classify the difierent kinds of matter. 
 
 b. To name the different classes. 
 
 c. To name things that belong to the individual 
 
 classes, 
 
 d. To observe and tell what animals and mgeta- 
 
 bles do. 
 e To notice and tell what animals can do which 
 the vegetable cannot do. 
 
 f. To observe the diflferences between the food 
 
 of plants, and that of animals. 
 
 g. To write a statement using the words named, 
 h. To write a short composition, combining the 
 
 statements. 
 
 II. Cautions. 
 
 1 *' Never assist the child to do a thing that it can 
 do itself " with reasonable effort. 
 
 2. Remember that it is a difficult thing to form a 
 thought and express it. 
 
 ///. Results. 
 
 1. It will arouse the curiosity of the pupils. 
 
 2. It will enlist their undivided attention. 
 
 3. It will cause them to observe closely. 
 
 4. It will teach them the importance of classifica- 
 tion. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The aim of these language lessons is to enlarge the 
 
118 LANGUAGE. 
 
 circle of the pupil's knowledge respecticg the objects 
 brought under inquiry. The true aim is not only to 
 impart knowledge rightly^ and teach the elements of 
 order, but to train the powers of the pupil. This is 
 its dignity ; this its peculiar distinction. The main 
 design is the growth and development of the whole 
 being. 
 
 In order to teach language effectively we must begin 
 the process, as nature meant we should : by furnish- 
 ing the children with the elements out of which lan- 
 guage is created, namely, a knowledge of material 
 things. 
 
 The teacher should place upon the table a number 
 of articles, that belong to the mineral, vegetable and 
 animal kingdoms. He should ask the children to 
 examine them carefully^ and to tell a name that will 
 apply to all of them. (It would be well to ask the 
 children to bring different things from their homes.) 
 
 The children will give the following names: arti- 
 cles, objects, substances ; they may not be able to give 
 the termihoX, you wish, which is "matter" Write 
 the words on the board, and tell the children that the 
 term matter, is the one that you wish. 
 
 Classification. 
 
 After the children become /am«7iar with this term, 
 you may ask them to put all the objects of the same 
 kind into groups. They will learn to classify objects — 
 a very important lesson. The teacher will then ask 
 the children to name the different groups, viz : min' 
 eraly vegetable and animal. (It may prove a surprise to 
 some of the children, that they belong to the animal 
 kingdom.) 
 
FIRST IDEAS: THEN EXPRESSION. 119 
 
 Many lessons may be given, requiring the children 
 to name things that belong to the different classes. 
 
 The teacher should require the children to bring in 
 long lists of these names ; an exercise of this nature 
 will prove very pleasant and instructive. 
 
 Let the children observe that the animals move 
 about, and plants are stationary ; that animals and 
 plants take food, breathe, grow and die ; that plants 
 feed on minerals ; and animals on vegetables and 
 animals. 
 
 The teacher should be very careful about assisting 
 the children; it may be well to let a question remain 
 unanswered for a day or so and see if the pupils can- 
 not find out the answer by a few hours' study. 
 
 At first, with the exercises on language, the teacher 
 should reach the mind only through the senses, either 
 directly or indirectly, with the assistance of memory 
 and imagination. 
 
 We learn by observation ; the human mind first 
 perceives the impressions made upon by external 
 objects and phenomena through the various inlets of 
 the soul — the senses, and forms them into clear and 
 distinct ideas. 
 
 We are, then, justified in stating that the principal 
 aim of school education is to teach the pupils how to 
 
 FORM IDEAS AND HOW TO EXPRESS THEM 
 
120 LANOVAOR 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 We introduce at this point a new class of objects, 
 
 viz: Words in regard to some of their offices. We 
 
 have examined the nature and functions of other 
 
 things and have made use of the facts thus obtained 
 
 as material for language development. Words, as 
 
 will be seen, can be made to give us a large stock of 
 
 working material to be used in advancing the Art of 
 
 Language. 
 
 The Noun. 
 
 Teacher—'' What is this ?" 
 
 Pupil— '' A.\)q\\:' 
 
 " Spell the word bell ?" 
 
 Note: — Pupil spells the word, and teacher writes it 
 on the board. Obtain and dispose of, similarly, the 
 following: book, pencil, cup, Henry, Aurora. 
 
 " What are these on the board ?" 
 
 "They are words." 
 
 " Pronounce this word: Henry. " 
 
 " Henry." 
 
 *' When you see or bear this word, of what do 
 you think ?" 
 
 " I think of a boy." 
 
 "What boy?" 
 
 "My brother." 
 
 "Why, when you hear this word, do you think 
 of him ?" 
 
THE JVOUK 121 
 
 '* Because that is his name." 
 
 " What kind of word is it ?" 
 
 " A name word." 
 
 *' Of what is it the name ?" 
 
 *' It is the name of a person." 
 
 "Of what is the word cup a name ?" 
 
 *' The name of a thing." 
 
 " Find other words upon the board that are the 
 names of things." (Pupils find pencil, boolf, bell.) 
 
 " Of what do you think when you speak this 
 word ?" (referring to the word Aurora.) 
 
 "Of a town." 
 
 " Why do you think of a place ?" 
 
 "Because it is the name of a place." 
 
 "Find another word and tell of what that is the 
 name." 
 
 " Wednesday is the name of a day." 
 
 " What is each of these words ?" 
 
 "A name." 
 
 "Does any one know another word that means 
 the same as name ?" (No hands are raised.) 
 
 "You may call these words nouns." (Pupils 
 spell ) 
 
 " What is a noun ?" 
 
 *' A name is a noun." 
 
 "Give me twelve names." (Pupils give names 
 and spell them.) 
 
 For to-morrow write : 
 
 1. Ten words that are the names of persons. 
 
 2. Ten words that are the names of things. 
 
 3. Ten words that are the names of places . 
 
122 LAKOUAGE. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 The Common Noun. 
 
 " What is this ? " (touching one of the boys.) 
 
 "A boy." 
 
 ** What are you? " (addressing a boy.) 
 
 " A boy." (Address several boys and obtain 
 similar replies.) 
 
 " By what name may all of you be called ?" 
 
 "Boys." 
 
 " A boy may open the door." (Several boys start 
 to obey.) 
 
 " Why do so many of 5^ou start when I speak ? 
 
 " We don't know which one you mean." 
 
 u Why ? " 
 
 " Because the name boy belongs to each of us." 
 
 " What name belongs to each of you ? " 
 
 "Boy." 
 
 " What have you learned to call a word that is a 
 name ? " 
 
 " A noun." 
 
 " What then is the word boy ? " 
 
 *' A noun." 
 
 " Why is it a noun ? " 
 
 " Because it is a name." 
 
 "Because the name applies to each of you, what 
 kind of a name is it ? " 
 
Tim COMMON NOVN. 123 
 
 ' A common name." 
 
 " What kind of a noun is it ? " 
 
 " A common noun." 
 
 '' What is a common noun ?" 
 
 " A common name is a common noun." 
 
 " But when is a name common ? " 
 
 " When it applies to each one of the same kind of 
 objects." 
 
 ** What, then, is a common noun ? " 
 
 " A name that applies to each one of the same 
 kind of objects is a co)nmon noun." 
 
 " Peter, bring me five things that have a common 
 name. What are these called? " 
 
 " Books." 
 
 " What name may be given to each boy and girl 
 is this school ? " 
 
 ** Pupil." 
 
 " What common name may be given to Miss , 
 
 Miss , and Miss ? " 
 
 ' ' Teacher. " " Lady." • * Woman. " 
 
 "What kind of nouns are pencil, pupil, teacher, 
 lady, boy, girl ? " 
 
 " Common nouns." 
 
 For to-morrow write a list of : 
 
 1. Twenty common nouns that are names of ar- 
 ticles of furniture. 
 
 2. Twenty common nouns that are names of 
 tools. 
 
 3. Twenty common nouns that are names of vege- 
 tables. 
 
 4. Twenty common nouns that are names of min- 
 erals. 
 
134 LANGVAOM. 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 The Proper Noun* 
 
 *' Jane, write your name on the board." (Pupil 
 does so.) " What have you written ?" 
 
 ** I have written my name." 
 
 " Why do you say *' my name ? " " 
 
 " Because it belongs to me.'* 
 
 '* What other person in your family has the same 
 name ?" 
 
 ''No other person has the same name." 
 
 " Class : why do you think a different name from 
 ^any other in her family was given ?" 
 
 "To tell her from the others.*' 
 
 "To how many of her family does the name 
 Jane belong ?" 
 
 "It belongs to one.'* 
 
 " What is this name ?" 
 
 " This name is a noun.*' 
 
 " What is a noun ?*' 
 
 *' A name is a noun." 
 
 " Because this name belongs to one only, what 
 kind of a noun is it ?** 
 
 "It is a particular noun." 
 
 " You may call it a proper noun. What is a proper 
 noun ?" 
 
 " A particular name is a proper noun.*' 
 
THE PROPER NOUK 125 
 
 " To how many does a proper noun belong ?** 
 
 " It belongs to one." 
 
 *' Give a name that is common to those three 
 things. " (Pointing to a pile of books.) 
 
 " Book." 
 
 '* Give the proper name." 
 
 "Monroe's First Reader, Webster's Dictionary, 
 Thomson's Arithmetic." 
 
 " Open your readers and find five proper nouns." 
 (Pupils do so.) " With what kind of letter is each 
 begun?" 
 
 "With a capital letter." 
 
 " Find a proper noun that does not begin with a 
 capital letter." (Pupils fail to find one.) 
 
 1. Write ten proper nouns that are the names of 
 men. 
 
 2. Write ten proper nouns that are the names ol 
 women. 
 
 8. Write ten proper nouns that are the names of 
 places. 
 
 4. Write ten proper nouns that are the names ol 
 divisions of time. 
 
126 LANOUAGE. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 The Possessive Form of Nouns. 
 
 "What is this?" 
 
 *' That is a hat." 
 
 " Whose hat is it ? " 
 
 ♦' William's." 
 
 *' Make a statement of what you say." 
 
 "That is William's hat." (Some of the pupils 
 write this statement on the board ; the others write 
 it on their slates.) 
 
 •' What is the word William's ? " 
 
 *' A noun." 
 
 "What kind -of a noun ?" 
 
 " A proper noun." 
 
 " For what is it used in the sentence ?" 
 
 " To tell whose hat." " To tell who owns the hat." 
 
 " You may say posesses, instead of owns." 
 
 " To tell who possesses the hat." 
 
 "Speak the word as we commonly hear it." 
 (Pupils do so.) 
 
 " Speak the word as it is here used." (Pupils do 
 so ) 
 
 [This should be repeated, with this and other 
 nouns, until the pupils perceive clearly, and can 
 state the difference between the sounds of the two 
 forms.] 
 
POSSESSIVE FOmiS. 137 
 
 "Open your books and find names used as we 
 have used the name William in this sentence." 
 (Pui)ils find many words and pronounce them.) 
 
 " What is the diflereuce in the sounds of these 
 words, and the same words as they are commonly 
 called ? " (Pupils state.) 
 
 " What do you find in the printed word to repre- 
 sent that dilference ? " 
 
 " An apostrophe and a letter s." 
 
 " As you look at the words William and William's, 
 what difference can you see ? " 
 
 " One has more letters than the other." " A differ- 
 ence in the size of them." "A difference in the form 
 of them." 
 
 " Because William is the way we commonly use 
 the word, what form may we call it ? " 
 
 " The common form." 
 
 " What shall we call the other form ? " (Pupils 
 do not know.) 
 
 *' You may call this the possessive form of the 
 noun." (Pupils spell the word.) 
 
 1. Write ten common nouns in the possessive 
 case. 
 
 2. Write ten proper nouns in the possessive case. 
 In like manner develop all the Part of Speecfiy as 
 
 the adjective, pronoun, verb, etc., and make immedi- 
 ate application of tTie terms developed. This will lead 
 the pupils pleasantly into the Science of Language, 
 and it will become a rational study. 
 
128 LANOVAOE. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 Quoted \^'orcls. Quotation Marks. 
 
 ** What is an exclaiming sentence ?" (Pupils give 
 definition.) 
 
 '* John, give an exclaiming sentence." 
 
 " O, how cold it is ! " 
 
 *' Mary, tell me what John said." 
 
 " John said, * O, how cold it is.' " 
 
 [Pupils repeat, spell words and write upon their 
 slates, after which teacher writes upon the board 
 without punctuating. Two other sentences are 
 obtained and similarly disposed of.] 
 
 *' Read what John said." 
 
 "•O, how cold it is!'" 
 
 " What are you doing when you speak the words 
 that he said ? " 
 
 '• Copying his words." ** Repeating his words.** 
 
THE COMMA. ISO 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 The Comma — Its Use in a Succession ot 
 Particulars. 
 
 ** I want you to tell me, by writing on your slates, 
 five things that this knife has." 
 
 [The pupils at the age of those for whom these 
 lessons are intended will, almost without exception, 
 write five sentences.] 
 
 " This knife has a handle." 
 
 *' This knife has a blade." 
 
 *'This knife has a back." 
 
 "This knife has a spring." 
 
 " This. knife has rivets." 
 
 '* How many sentences have you written ? " 
 
 c'Five." 
 
 "See how many times you have written the words 
 this, knife^ has, and a. Can you not shorten the work 
 by putting all you have to say into one sentence?" 
 (Pupils write.) 
 
 " The knife has a handle and blade and back and 
 spring and rivets." 
 
 " Listen closely. I am going to ask you another 
 question. What is the use of the of the words 
 handle, blade, back, spring and rivets ? What did 
 you discover ? " 
 
130 LANQUAOE. 
 
 " You said and, only before the last word." 
 
 ** Now, I think you can give the sentence that you 
 have been writing, and have it just right. Who will 
 try ? " (Hands are raised.) 
 
 " The knife has a handle, blade, back, spring and 
 rivets." 
 
 " That is right. All repeat." (Pupils repeat, and 
 write on their slates.) 
 
 "There is a question unanswered. Who can 
 give it ? " (Hands are raised.) 
 
 " What is the use of the words handle, blade, back, 
 spring and rivets ? " 
 
 *' Right. Who will answer it ? " 
 
 '* To show what the knife has." 
 
 " Because they are all used for that purpose, what 
 may we say about them." 
 
 " They are used in the same way." " They are 
 used alike." 
 
 " Now, turn to your books, and find words that 
 are used alike, and see how they are written ; then 
 we shall know whether our work is right or not. 
 What do you discover ? " 
 
 " There is a comma after each of the words except 
 the one before the last." (Pupils correct the work 
 on their slates. 
 
 "You say these words are used in the same way. 
 How many words in this sentence are used in the 
 same way ? " 
 
 "Five." "Many." "Several." 
 
 " Which now makes the best answer to my ques- 
 tion — five, many or several ? " 
 
THE COMMA. 131 
 
 " Several." 
 
 "I think so. We have learned something about 
 the use of the comma, and I want you to tell me 
 what it is. " 
 
 '* When several words are used in the same way, a 
 comma is placed after the one before the last." 
 
 [Teacher ought now to suggest many kinds of 
 sentences containing successions or particulars, and 
 have them all written and carefully criticised. Drill 
 on this lesson should continue several days.] 
 
183 LANOVAOE. 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 /. Directions. 
 
 1. The teacher will select a familiar theme and ask 
 suggestive questions. 
 
 2. Write the correct answers on the board. 
 
 Theme — Water, 
 
 a. Where does the water come from' 
 
 b. How does it reach the clouds? 
 
 c. In what form is it carried? 
 
 d. What causes it to fall to the earth ? 
 
 e. Is rain useful? 
 
 f. In what way is it useful? 
 
 Theme— A Journey. 
 
 a. The starting point. 
 
 b. Time of departure. 
 
 c. Mode of travel. 
 
 d. Destination. 
 
 e. Appearance of the country. 
 
 f. Kind of trees, flowers, etc. 
 
 g. Return. 
 
 Caution. — Enlarge upon the idea of criticising an} 
 correcting by the pupils. 
 
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES. 133 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 /. Directions. 
 
 1. Tell or read a short story, and require the pupils 
 to reproduce it. 
 
 2. Write a letter to a wealthy merchant in New- 
 York city, requesting a situation as salesman in his 
 store. 
 
 3. Write an advertisement describing a lost child. 
 
 4. Write a composition on each of the following 
 proverbs, explaining its meaning, and showing how 
 far it is true : — 
 
 a. " Fortune favors the brave." 
 
 b. "All is well that ends well." 
 
 c. " Strike while the iron is hot." 
 
 d. "A little pot is soon hot." 
 
 e. " Out of sight out of mind." 
 
 5. Take some poem of several stanzas, and write 
 your opinion of it. 
 
 6. Write a letter to the "New York Times," giv- 
 ing an account of a railway accident. 
 
 7. Write an allegory comparing tobacco to a thief. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Perhaps as easy a method as any to induce the 
 younger class of pupils to make their first efforts at 
 composition is to read or relate to them a short, but 
 interesting story, and desire them to write an outline 
 of it, as full and extended as they can within a given 
 time. In such an exercise the thoughts are already 
 furnished and the only labor of the pupil is, to place 
 
134 LANOUAQK 
 
 them in their proper connection and clothe them with 
 good language. In an exercise of this kind the pupil 
 takes one of his first lessons in generalization; he 
 learns to separate and classify facts, selectiug the 
 most important, and rejecting those of little conse- 
 quence. A similar course should be observed by 
 students in History, writing each day a fair outline 
 of the subject-matter contained in the pages of their 
 lesson. 
 
 Theme— Abraham Lincoln. 
 
 /. Ei8 Early Life. 
 
 a. Birth. 
 
 b. Childhood. 
 
 c. Youth. 
 
 d. Manhood. 
 
 e. Difficulties. 
 
 II. His After Life. 
 
 a. Occupation. 
 
 b. Election to the Presidency. 
 
 c. Administration. 
 
 d. Assassination. 
 
 e. Burial. 
 
 III. His Character. 
 
 a. Simplicity. 
 
 b. Uprightness. 
 
 The Influence of Kind Words. 
 
 I. A Kind Word costs nothing, yet its influence may las 
 through a life-time, 
 
 a. Kind words at home. 
 
 b. Kind words in school. 
 
 c. Kind words to friends. 
 
 d. Kind words to our inferiors. 
 
 e. Kind words to strangers. 
 
 f. Kind words to animals. 
 
" THE INFLUENCE OF KIND WORDS:' 1^5 
 
 II. The Influence upon the Speaker. 
 
 a. They gain him friends. 
 
 b. They gain him a reputation for amiability. 
 
 c. They keep alive his kindly feelings. 
 
 d. They produce images of beauty in his mind 
 
 e. They win for him love and gratitude. 
 
 III. The Influence upon the Hearer. 
 
 a. They shame him out of anger. 
 
 b. They comfort him in grief. 
 
 c. They soothe him in pain. 
 
 IV. The Influence upon Children. 
 
 V. Influence upon the Poor. 
 VI. Influence upon Other People. 
 
 a. The morose. 
 
 b. The misanthopic. 
 
 c. The wicked. 
 
 d. The weak. 
 
 VII. Uses of Kind Words. 
 VIII. Value of Kind Words. 
 
 IX. Compared with : 
 
 a. Angry words. 
 
 b. Cold words. 
 
 c. Hot words. 
 
 d. Bitter words. 
 
 e. Vain words, idle words, empty words, profane 
 
 words, &c. 
 
 X. Conclude by any instances you may be able to 
 recall, of the influence of kind words, in your exper- 
 ience ; as, an anecdote or incident. 
 
 It is almost impossible to over-estimate the in- 
 fluence of a kind word. Years after the speaker has 
 forgotten it, or the occasion upon which it was 
 spoken, the hearer will feel the result of the encour- 
 
136 LANGUAGE. 
 
 agement it gave him, the diiiiculty it smoothed or the 
 sorrow it comforted. Especially to the weak, the 
 aged or the erring, should we ofl'er these aids in life's 
 rough path. Costing nothing, they may prove pearls 
 of the highest price. They have the wondrous prop- 
 erty that they can never prove harmful, either to the 
 speaker or the hearer. They cannot injure, they can- 
 not cause contention, they cannot raise harsh feeling. 
 Cherish, then, the kind heart, full of love for your 
 fellow creatures, and kind words will spring to your 
 lips, to bless and comfort all around you. 
 
 Politeness. 
 
 I. Definition. 
 
 Ease and grace of manner, united to a desire 
 to please others, and a careful attention to their 
 wants and wishes. 
 
 II. Politeness exacts of us : 
 
 a. Unselfishness, in our care for the comfort or 
 
 pleasure of others. 
 
 b. Elegance of manner, m our desire to please 
 
 by our deportment. 
 
 c. Deference toward our superiors, either in age, 
 
 station or importance. 
 
 d. Kindness to our inferiors, either children or 
 
 servants. 
 
 III. Value of Politeness. 
 
 a. It proceeds from the impulse of a kindly 
 
 nature, proving a good heart. 
 
 b. It will admit of a great degree of polish, prov- 
 
 ing a finished education. 
 
 c. It gives respect where it is due, and thus wins 
 
 consideration in return. 
 
 d. It gives kindness to infei-iors, and thus wins 
 
 respect and gratitude from them. 
 
 e. It promotes good feeling among friends. 
 
 f. It prevents discords, even among enemies. 
 
'' politeness:' 137 
 
 I V. Natural Foliteness. 
 
 a. Proceeds from the heart without instruction. 
 
 b. Often to be found among us the rough and un- 
 
 cultivated, even if more clumsily expressed 
 than among the educated and retined. 
 
 V. Acquired Politeness. 
 
 a. The observance of points of etiquette ano' 
 
 good breeding by the well educated. 
 
 b. Mere polish of manner, often covering a self 
 
 ish, hard nature. 
 
 VI. Politeness in dif event Countries. 
 
 a. The etiquette of one nation often considered 
 
 rude or intuiting in another. 
 
 b. Every race, even the most savage, has some 
 
 form of outward politeness. 
 
 c. Name any peculiar form of etiquette you may 
 
 have seen or read of. 
 
 VII. Politeness in Children and Young People is one of the 
 most winning and graceful of attributes. It is a mis- 
 taken idea to fancy rudeness' a token of manliness or 
 bravery. Bayard, one of the bravest of Cavaliers, 
 was one of the most finished gentlemen mentioned in 
 history. 
 
 VIII. Perfect Politeness may be defined as the union of 
 natural politeness of the heart, and the acquired Polite- 
 ness of Etiquette and Custom. Holmes describes the 
 combination : 
 
 " So gentle blending courtesy and art, 
 That wisdom's lips seem'd borrowing friendship's 
 heart." 
 
 Wisdom is Wealth. 
 
 I. Wealth may be defined as 
 
 a. Great possessions. 
 
 b. A large amount of worldly good. 
 
 II. Mere Money may, it is true, be considered as Wealth, 
 but are there not more precious possessions, worldly 
 goods far more valuable f 
 
138 LANGUAGE. 
 
 III. Poverty, it is true, will impede our search for Wisdom, 
 as ice shall lack : 
 
 a. Time for study, if obliged to earn a livelihood. 
 
 b. The means of buying books. 
 
 c. The advantages of good instruction. 
 
 IV. But Wisdom once gained is preferable to Money, for 
 these reasons : 
 
 a. Once gained it cannot be taken from us, while 
 
 money may be lost by a thousand reverses. 
 
 b. It can never be given to us, but we must taste 
 
 the sweets of exertion and enjoy the reflec- 
 tion that we have earned our treasures. 
 
 c. We can never acquire wisdom by theft, or 
 
 inherit it when dishonestly acquired, as we 
 might mere money. 
 
 d. Wisdom is independence. The man who has 
 
 acquired knowledge, can in a great measure 
 control his own future. His opportunities 
 for earning money are largely increased ; his 
 pleasures lie in his love of reading and study, 
 and are therefore always open to him ; he is 
 respected by his fellow men ; he never feels 
 the weariness of the vacant mind, if reverses 
 come to him — his wisdom enables him to 
 meet them bravely and often to conquer 
 them. 
 
 V. Conclusion. 
 
 In starting, therefore, in life, the possession of wis- 
 dom is far preferable to the possession of mere 
 money, if ignorance is the price of the latter. A fool 
 can never win honor or even respect, if he were to 
 possess unbounded riches ; all the pleasures that can 
 be purchased are nothing compared to the delights of 
 a cultivated mind and a refined intellect. 
 
 Seek, therefore, to gain wisdom, that you may 
 possess that true wealth that can never betaken away 
 from you, that you will never lose, that you may im- 
 part freely to others, and in so imparting increase 
 your own store rather than diminish it. 
 
'' WISDOM IS WEALTHS 139 
 
 Whose life most brightly illuminates the pages of 
 the past — the wise man's or the rich man's ? 
 
 In the history of the future, aim rather to figure as 
 a Socrates than as a Croesus. 
 
 Compare the life of the wisest man you can re- 
 member, and that of the richest man. 
 
 Knowledge is Power ; Wisdom is Wealth. 
 
 Absent Friends. 
 
 I. Introduction. 
 
 In this world of change, every one is called upon 
 to feel the pain of separation from friends endeared 
 by association or acts of kindness. The dearest 
 friends are severed by circumstances, often having 
 the ocean between them. 
 
 II. Treatise. 
 
 a. Affection is kept warm by kind remembrance. 
 
 b. Tender recollection will dwell upon words 
 
 spoken by the absent, and the memory of 
 their acts will be cherished with pleasure. 
 0. Their return to us, or our joining them, will 
 be anticipated with delight. 
 
 d. The circumstances under which separation 
 
 took place, will seriously affect our thoughts. 
 
 1. Parting in anger. Time heals rage. 
 
 2. Parting in affection. Time increases love. 
 
 3. Parting in sorrow. Anticipated joy of meet- 
 
 ing again. 
 
 e. Separation by death. 
 
 1. Memory of friends becomes then a holy 
 
 and pleasant duty. 
 
 2. Faults are forgotten when the grave closes 
 
 over them. 
 
 3. Virtues are remembered with reverence 
 
 when associated with death. 
 
 4. But few homes are without their unforgot- 
 
 ten dead, whose memory is associated with 
 some spot or hour. 
 
140 LANOUAOE. 
 
 f. Compare the pain of parting and the pleasure 
 of meeting. 
 
 1. After a journey. 
 
 2. After years of separation. 
 
 3. Hope of. reunion in another world. 
 
 " The joys of meeting pay the pangs of absence; 
 Else who could bear it?" [Rowe. 
 
 General Directions. 
 
 1. Make a plan or outline of the essay before writ- 
 
 ing any part of it. 
 
 2. Note down in writing any useful thought that 
 
 may occur to you while you are collecting 
 material for your composition. 
 
 Fxercise in Synonyms. 
 
 1. Custom — Jiabit. — Cws^twi respects the action ; habit 
 
 the actor. By custom we mean the frequent 
 repetition of the same act; by habit the effect 
 which that repetition produces on the mind or 
 body. 
 
 2. Pride — vanity. — Pride makes us esteem ourselves; 
 
 vanity makes us desire the esteem of others. 
 
 3. Enough— sufficient. — Enough relates to the quan- 
 
 tity which one wishes to have of anything; 
 sufficient, all that is needed. 
 
 4. Remark — observe. — We remark in the way of 
 
 attention, in order to remember ; we observem 
 the way of examination, in order to judge. 
 
 5. Qualified — Competent. — Qualified, having the train- 
 
 ing, skill, knowledge ; competent, having the 
 power. 
 
 6. Entire— complete— perfect. — Entire, having all its 
 
 parts ; complete, all its appendages ; 'perfect, all 
 essentials, without flaw. 
 
 7. Eortiiude — coura';e. — Fortitude, power to endure 
 
 pain ; courage, power to face danger. 
 
 8. Vocation — avocation. — Vocation is the calling or 
 
 profession ; avocation, the temporary employ- 
 ment. 
 
SYNONYMS. 141 
 
 9. Excuse — pardon — forgive. — We excuse slight 
 ojffences ; we pardon manifest faults ; we for- 
 give sin. 
 
 10. Grand — sublime. — Lovely, pretty, beautiful. (We 
 
 omit definitions.) 
 
 11. Amuse — divert— ejitertain. — Amuse, to pass time 
 
 lightly and pleasantly away ; Divert, lo 
 turn one's thoughts to something of a livlier 
 interest ; entertain, to put the mind into 
 agreeable contact with others, as through con- 
 versation, or a book. 
 
 12. Arduous — Jiard—difficiLlt. — Difficult, anything that 
 
 requires more or less exertion to perform it ; 
 hard, that which requires a decidedly greater 
 effort to perform it ; arduous, that which re- 
 quires strenuous and perserving effort to per- 
 form it. 
 Gospel. — Derived from the Saxon adjective G6d, 
 meaning good and spell, a narrative — the good 
 narrative, or glad tfdings. 
 
 This can be made a very pleasant and instructive ex- 
 ercise ; the teacher should explain and illustrate the 
 synonyms, and require the pupils to form sentences, 
 using the words correctly. It will teach precision in 
 the use of words ; great care should be taken 
 to distinguish between the general meanings and par- 
 ticular applications. 
 
 Instruct the pupils to use simple^ plain terms ; com- 
 pare the quotations below and stud}'' the difference in 
 the simplicity of the thought. 
 
 "Life is real, life is earnest ; and the grave is not 
 its goal. Dust thou art, to dust returnest, was not 
 spoken of the soul." — Longfellow. "Life is the definite 
 combination of definite composite heterogeneous 
 changes, both simultaneous and successive, in corres- 
 pondence with external co-existences and sequences." 
 — Herbert Spencer. 
 
143 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Common Mistakes. 
 
 1. ** We have no corporeal punishment here" said 
 
 a teacher. Corporal means having a body. 
 Corporeal is opposed to spiritual. Say, corporal 
 punishment. 
 
 2. " Set down and rest yourself;" say, sit down. 
 
 3. " WAo do you mean?" say, lohom. 
 
 4. " He has got rfy s]ate;" oxmigot. 
 
 5. *' Wlio done it ; ' say, lolw did it. 
 
 6. '■'■ I intended to have icritten a letter yesterday;" 
 
 say, to tcrite. 
 
 7. " The girl speaks distinct-^'' say, distinctly. 
 
 8. " He lives at New York;" say, in New York. 
 
 9. " He made a great splurge-^^ say, he made a blust- 
 
 ering effort. The first savors of slang. 
 10. "My brother lays ill of a fever;" should be my 
 brother lies ill of a fever. 
 
 Vulgarism. 
 
 The following words and expressions should be 
 strictly avoided in conversation and in writing. Only 
 a few of the many hundreds in use by un£ducated 
 people, will be noticed. 
 
 1. " Acknowledge the corn," — instead of to admit. 
 
 2. *' Ain't," — instead of is not, or isn't. 
 
 3. "Awful," — instead of ugly or difficult. 
 
 4. "Beat out," — instead of tired. 
 
 5. " Dreadful," — instead of very. 
 
 6. ** Hopping mad," — instead of very angry. 
 
 7. " Strapped," — wanting or out of money. 
 
 8. " Wrathy," — instead of angry. 
 
 9. Female, — incorrectly used to denote a person of 
 
 the female sex. ' ' To speak of a woman simply 
 as a female, is ridiculous." 
 
 The teacher should keep a record of all the mis- 
 takes made by the pupils, and encourage them to do 
 the same. Once a week they should be written on 
 
FINAL SUGGESTIONS. 143 
 
 the board, and corrected by the pupils ; the teacher 
 assisting "when necessary. 
 
 The pupils should be required to copy in a note- 
 book, the exercises in a form similar to the above. 
 
 Let the pupils learn the correct way of speaking by 
 a correct use of the term. Arbitrary rules are of little 
 use in the beginning. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The teacher, at first, will assist the pupils to classi- 
 fy subjects, draw outlines and form correct tabula- 
 tions. Questions may be used for a brief time, to 
 teach classification ; but should be cast aside as soon 
 as possible. The teacher should always require 
 pupils to hand in an outline of the subject. This 
 plan will cultivate individuality and originality and 
 give the pupils a training, intellectually, that will 
 prove of great service in after life. 
 
 As a special science, language is abstruse in charac- 
 ter, applying mainly to reason ; hence it belongs to 
 the advanced course. As an imitative art, it applies 
 mainly to perception, hence it belongs in the primary 
 course. Grammar is a special science, and should be 
 taught through the use of it, rather than the use 
 through the science. 
 
 Closing Remarks on the Manner oi Teaching 
 Language. 
 
 The teacher must not attempt to do any more than 
 she can do well. It would not do, for instance, to 
 select an object in which the properties to be illus- 
 trated were not well developed, nor an object with 
 which the pupils were not familiar. 
 
Ui LANGUAGE. 
 
 Every lesson should be given in such a way as to 
 draw out the perceptive powers of the pupil by lead- 
 ing him to reflect on what he sees, or to analyze the 
 object before him. It is at first though', strange — 
 although it is true — that powers are to be strengthened 
 only by teaching the pupil to think upon what he 
 
 sees. 
 
 How to Conduct a Lesson. 
 
 1. Prepare yourself before hand on the subject, 
 
 fixing in your mind exactly what subjects j^ou 
 will bring up, just what definitions and illus- 
 trations you will give or draw out of the class. 
 
 2. Have the work marked and written down in the 
 
 form of a synopsis. 
 
 3. Use the board in all exercises ; write on it tech- 
 
 nical words, classification of the knowledge 
 brought out in the recitation, and whenever 
 possible, illustrative drawings. 
 
 4. Whenever the subject is of such a nature as to 
 
 allow it, the teacher should bring in real ob- 
 jects illustrative of it and encourage the chil- 
 dren to do the same. 
 
 5. Do not burden the pupil with too many new 
 
 technical phrases at a time, nor fall into the 
 opposite error of using only the loose common 
 vocabulary of ordinary life which lacks scien- 
 tific precision. 
 
 Recapitulation . 
 
 To name once more in a brief manner the cardinal 
 points to be kept iti mind constantly by the teacher. 
 
 1. Discuss the topics thoroughly 
 
 2. Do not overljurden the pupil's memory. 
 8. Do not distract his power of attention. 
 
 4. ."Never take up a topic that you are unable to ex- 
 
 plain and illustrate so clearly as to make the 
 pupil understand it. 
 
 5. Avoid all phases of thesubjectthat will tend to 
 
 confuse rather than enlighten. 
 
TOPICS FOR THE SCIIOOT^ROO}[. 145 
 
 6. Draw out in a conversational way the experi- 
 
 ence and information wliicli your scholars al- 
 ready possess on the subject. 
 
 7. Never omit to show by a synopsis on the board, 
 
 what has been discussed in the lesson, its clas- 
 sification and relation. 
 
 8. Require short weekly compositions of the pupils, 
 
 expressing in their own language their ideas 
 on the subject. 
 
 We have presented a few language lessons, sugges- 
 tive, only, as to the manner of teaching. 
 
 Teachers who have not taught language we 
 would encourage to begin, and make provision 
 for it on the daily programme. 
 
 Arithmetic, geography and reading do not form 
 the sole basis of elementary education; and some of 
 the sad experiences of the past few years in speaking 
 and writing the English language, prove that lan- 
 guage should have a very prominent place in the 
 programme. 
 
 Topics for Brief Lectures in the School-Room* 
 
 By spending ten or fifteen minutes each day, 
 in a familiar, conversational lecture, upon some 
 topic or object, selected from the following list, 
 not only will the scholars be interested and 
 learn many new truths in a way to remember 
 them, but the teacher himself will derive great ad- 
 vantage from his preparation for such an exercise. 
 Whenever it can be done, the means of illustration 
 should be at hand, to demonstrate to the eye, and 
 thus fasten upon the mind, the facts and reasoning of 
 Ihe lecturer. " The curiosity of the pupils should be 
 
146 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 excited, and questions and remarks from theqi en- 
 couraged, and by these means they will be led to 
 closer habits of thought and observation. 
 
 1. Glass. 
 
 17. 
 
 Cinnamon. 33. Gold. 
 
 2. India-rubber 
 
 .18. 
 
 Nutmeg 
 
 34. Silver. 
 
 3. Leather. 
 
 19. 
 
 Ginger. 
 
 35. Mercury. 
 
 4. Sponge. 
 
 20. 
 
 Cloves. 
 
 36. Lead. 
 
 5. Wool. 
 
 21. 
 
 Water. 
 
 37. Copper. 
 
 6. Wax. 
 
 22. 
 
 Oil. 
 
 38. Iron. 
 
 7. Whalebone. 
 
 23. 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 39.- Tin. 
 
 8. Bread. 
 
 24. 
 
 Butter. 
 
 40. Lime. 
 
 9. Ivorv. 
 
 25. 
 
 Cheese. 
 
 41. Coal. 
 
 10. Chalk. 
 
 26. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 42. Granite. 
 
 11. A pin. 
 
 27. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 43. Salt. 
 
 12. A pencil. 
 
 28. 
 
 Rice. 
 
 44. Slate. 
 
 13. A brick. 
 
 29. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 45. Feather. 
 
 14. An acorn. 
 
 oO. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 46. Coral. 
 
 15. A cork. 
 
 31. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 47. Guttapercha. 
 
 16. A stone. 
 
 32. 
 
 Silk. 
 
 48. A piece of fur. 
 
 1. Rotoundity of the earth. 6. 
 
 Phases of the moon. 
 
 2. Spheroidal form of the 7. 
 
 Tides. 
 
 earth. 
 
 
 8. 
 
 Ec]ii)ses. 
 
 3. Origin and use of sa't 9. 
 
 Electricity. 
 
 in the sea 
 
 
 10. 
 
 Mariner's compass. 
 
 4. Commerce. 
 
 
 11. 
 
 Circulation of the 
 
 5. The seasons. 
 
 
 
 blood. 
 
 Questions for Debate. 
 
 Is tlie farmer the most useful member of society? 
 
 Does wealth tend to exalt the human character? 
 
 Has civilization increased human happiness? 
 
 Are great men the greatest benefactors of the world? 
 
 Is intemperance a greater evil than war? * 
 
 Do inventions improve the conditions of thelaboring 
 
 classes? 
 Is the expectation of reward a greater incentive to 
 
 exertion than the fear of punishment? 
 Do savage nations possess the right to the soil? 
 
COMPOSITIOX SUBJECTS. 
 
 147 
 
 the 
 
 Is the mind of woman inferior to that of man? 
 
 Is the pen mightier than the sword? 
 
 Has increased wealth a favorable influence on 
 
 morals of the people? 
 Did the Crusades benefit Europe? 
 Was the invention of gunpowder an evil? 
 Is the existence of political parties an evil? 
 Is the pulpit a better field for eloquence than the bar? 
 
 Subjects for Compositions. 
 
 Spring. 
 
 Flowers. 
 
 A Thunder-storm. 
 
 What becomes of the 
 Rain ? 
 
 Snow. 
 
 Mountains. 
 
 Forests. 
 
 The Beauties of Nature. 
 
 Our Country. 
 
 The Study of History. 
 
 Peace. 
 
 War. 
 
 The Ruins of Time. 
 
 The Fickleness of For- 
 tune. 
 
 A Dream. 
 
 A Ray of Light. 
 
 A Drop of Water. 
 
 Immutability of Change. 
 
 Town and Country. 
 
 Never Give Up. 
 
 Benevolence. 
 
 History «of a Looking- 
 Glass. 
 
 Power of Mind. 
 
 The Bible. 
 
 The Ruins of Time. 
 
 The Sunny Side. 
 
 Blessings of Hope. 
 Flowers of Memory. 
 The Prairies. 
 Unity in Diversity. 
 The Starry Heavens. 
 By- gone Hours. 
 Immortality of the Soul. 
 Influence of the Great and 
 
 Good. 
 Poetry of Nature. 
 Music of Nature. 
 Memory of our Fathers. 
 Matter and Mind. 
 The Stuff that Dreams are 
 
 made of. 
 Spring. 
 The Seasons. 
 Heat. 
 Light. 
 
 The Spirit of Discovery. 
 The Art of Printing. 
 Newspapers. 
 Novelty. 
 The Sun. 
 The Rainbow. 
 The Moon. 
 The Aurora Borealis. 
 The Stars. 
 The Earth. 
 
148 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 The Shady Side. 
 
 Human Genius. 
 
 A-im High. 
 
 Past and Present. 
 
 Book of Nature. 
 
 Hope On, Hope Ever. 
 
 Nature's Mysteries. 
 
 The Contrast. 
 
 Magic of Kindness. 
 
 Cost of Civility, 
 
 Tilings that Cost Noth- 
 ing. 
 
 The'Orphan. 
 
 The Rolling Stone. 
 
 Teachers. 
 
 Loved Faces. 
 
 We Bloom to-day, to- 
 morrow Die ! 
 
 The Wreath of Fame. 
 
 Reflections of a Look- 
 ing-glass. 
 
 Early Companionship. 
 
 Music of the Sea-shell. 
 
 Letter from the Town. 
 
 Letter from the Country. 
 
 Tricks of Trade. 
 
 Keepsakes. 
 
 My Room-mate. 
 
 The True Friend. 
 
 What sjiall we Read ? 
 
 School Associations. 
 
 Paddle your own Canoe. 
 
 Star of Home. 
 
 One by One. 
 
 I've Wandered in Dreams 
 
 Philosophy of a Tear. 
 
 JSIusic ot the Spheres. 
 
 Oppression the Nursery 
 of Reform. 
 
 The Study of Geography. 
 
 The Pleasures of Travel- 
 ling. 
 
 The Applications of Steam. 
 
 Rivers. 
 
 To-morrow. 
 
 The Ocean. 
 
 Manufactures. 
 
 The Influence of Woman. 
 
 Hero-worship. 
 
 The True Hero. 
 
 Sources of a Natioli's 
 Wealth. 
 
 Commerce 
 
 Early Rising. 
 
 Cheerfulness. 
 
 The Uses of Biography. 
 
 The Backwoodsman. 
 
 Punctuality. 
 
 Curiosity. 
 
 Foppery. 
 
 Gardening. 
 
 Modern Delusions. 
 
 Young America. 
 
 The Multiplication of 
 Books. 
 
 The Philosopher's Stone. 
 
 Nature and Art. 
 
 The Freedom of the Press. 
 
 The Present. 
 
 The Past. 
 
 The Future. 
 
 Silent Influence, 
 
 The Monuments^ of An« 
 tiquity. 
 
 Rome was not built m a 
 day. 
 
 The First Stroke is Half 
 the Battle. 
 
JIEFEREKCE BOOKS. 149 
 
 Beacon - lights of the Make Hay while the Sun 
 
 World. ■ shines. 
 
 The Book. Necessity is the Mother of 
 
 Peaceful Conquests. of Invention. 
 
 A Picture of Fancy. A Soft Answer Turneth 
 
 Leaflets of Memory. away Wrath. 
 
 Silent Influence. Avoid Extremes. 
 
 For the benefit of the teachers, I would refer them 
 to the following list of books on Language, any of 
 which will be sent on receipt of the price by the 
 School Bulletin^ Syracuse, N. Y. : — 
 
 Quackenbos's Illustrated Lessons in Language, 
 published by D. Appleton & Co., New York, PO cts. 
 
 Bigsby's Language Lessons, published by Ginn 
 & Heath, Boston, 50 cts. 
 
 Swinton's Language Series, published by Harper & 
 Brothers, New York, $2.15. 
 
 Graded Lessons in English, published by Clark & 
 Mayuard, New York, 50 cts. 
 
 Hadley's Language Lessons, published by Scribnej*, 
 Armstrong & Co., New York, 50 cts. 
 
 Zander's Outlines of Composition, published by R. 
 S. Davis & Co., Boston, 94 cts. 
 
 Barnard's Oral training, published by A. S. Barnes 
 &Co., New \ork, $1.00. 
 
 Hailman's Outlines of Object Teaching, pub- 
 lished by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New 
 York, $1.00. 
 
 Sheldon's Lessons on Objects, published by 
 Scribner, Armstrong & Co., New York, |ll.75. 
 
 Welch's Object Lessons for Primary Schools, pub- 
 lished by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York, $1.00. 
 
 How to Write a Composition, published by Dick 
 & Fitzgerald, 18 Ann St., New York, 50 cts. 
 
 First Lessons in English Language, published by 
 VanAntwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati, 35 cts. 
 
LETTER-WRITING. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Good letter-writing is one of the main springs of 
 business, and one of the strongest connecting links 
 of common life. It were to be wished that more 
 attention were paid to the subject of letter-writing 
 in our schools. In the present day, when ignorance 
 is deservedly at a discount, and when so much is ex- 
 pected of every one, even in a humble position in 
 life, there is no reason why letters should furnish so 
 many examples of outrageous grammar and absurd 
 diction. 
 
 A habit of expressing oneself distinctly, and 
 ever without pretension, ought to be inculcated in 
 early life. 
 
 When the difficulties of spelling have once been 
 conquered, there will be little difficulty in enabling 
 the pupil to acquire such simple forms of letter- 
 writing as are necessary to the ordinary correspond- 
 ence of business. 
 
 In reference to the more polite correspondence, 
 we do not suppose it can be of any great use 
 to those whose personal gifts have been carefully im- 
 proved by education, for "true ease in writing," 
 as Pope snys, "comes by art, not chance.* 
 
INTMODUCTORY. • 151 
 
 But to many, whose opportunities have been less 
 brilliant, a few suggestions may be offered which may 
 prevent being at a loss how to begin, or how to state 
 a particular topic, and which, if not leading to the 
 production of a good letter, may at all events pre- 
 vent anything like positive awkwardness or inele- 
 gance. 
 
 Greater attention will be given to the mechanical 
 structure of a letter than to its literary finish. 
 
 Those who wish to carry the subject to a greater 
 extent, may receive aid from works upon Language 
 and Letter Writing. 
 
 The chief end and aim of this chapter on Letter- 
 Writing, is to give a correct guide in the matter ot 
 mechanical detail and in the combination of the parts 
 of a letter. It is hoped that this subject will receive 
 attention, and that all the pupils who are not thor- 
 oughly FAMiLiAii v»'ith it, may be taught how to 
 WRITE A LETTER. It is of uiorc importance than the 
 thousand-and-one facts taught in Geography, that are 
 readily forgotten ; or the discipline received from mul- 
 tiplying X + y by X -I- y. 
 
152 LETTER-WRITING. 
 
 DEAD LETTERS. 
 
 A Pathetic and Ridiculous Array of Stras 
 Mail matter. 
 
 (■Washington Correspondence.) 
 One can hardly realize that there'is a daily average 
 of 12,000 or 15,000 dead letters, or about 400,000 a 
 month. Allowing one person to a letter, there are 
 400,000 persons every month who undertake to send 
 letters either without stamps, without addresses, or 
 with cancelled stamps, insufiicient postage, illegi- 
 ble or incorrect addresses. Many of them are 
 without either stamp or address, and often with no 
 signature which gives the slightest clue to persons 
 sending them. There are 40,000 a month received 
 that either lack postage or address, or else have in- 
 sufficient or cancelled stamps, and, strange as it may 
 seem, these are sometimes the most valuable letters, 
 often containing currency or drafts for large amounts 
 of money. It is estimated that there is about $3,000,- 
 000 in drafts and about $75,000 in cash received yearly 
 through dead letters. This is all returned, if possi- 
 ble, to the persons sending it ; but if any portion of 
 it fails to find a claimant, it is turned over to the 
 Post Office fund. 
 
 Very little difficulty is experienced in restoring the 
 checks and drafts to the rightful owners, but the 
 
DEAD LETTERS. 153 
 
 money generally comes in small sums, and is usually 
 sent in the most careless, haphazard fashion, and the 
 loss of these small sums, and the ignorance or care- 
 lessness with which they are launched upon a jour- 
 ney, represent a deal of sufleriug and disappoint- 
 ment. Some hard working man may send $20, the 
 saviugs of a month's labor, to his wife and little 
 ones, whom he has had to leave behind him ; but, 
 alas, he is one of forty thousand who trust to Provi- 
 dence, without stamp or address, or else his writing 
 or orthography are beyond mortal ken, and so the 
 poor wife never gets the pittance which is her all. 
 
 The paradise of fools, "to few unknown," is the 
 mentaV comment as one sees the many evidences of 
 people's carelessness, foolishness and stupidity which 
 are displayed at the Dead Letter Office Museum. 
 Arranged in glass cases on the four sides of the room 
 are all these waifs of travel, displayed with a view 
 to their respective attractions, and suggestive of the 
 treachery of postage stamps and the adverse fate 
 which sometimes overtakes even mail bags. There 
 is everything known to the useful and ornamental ; 
 everything not smaller than a thimble or larger than 
 a stovepipe hat. 
 
 Such a pathetic array of might-have-beens, so elo- 
 quent of disappointments and blighted hopes! Locks 
 of hair — there are whole switches of them — and as 
 for photographs, we are told that there are forty 
 bushels of them in the basement of the building. 
 But fancy yourself the recipient of a nice parcel from 
 the hands of the postman some morning, which upon 
 
151 LETTER-WRITING. 
 
 being opened discloses a live snake ! Whether one 
 would go into raptures or hysterics at such a treasure 
 would be a matter of taste, I suppose. But, then, 
 people do send snakes through the mail, and some- 
 times they come back to the Dead Letter Office for 
 want of a claimant, and we see them leading a se- 
 renely spiritual existence in a glass jar among other 
 stray postal curiosities. It is a fact that a postmaster 
 once found a small live alligator disporting among 
 the letters and papers in a mail bag. 
 
 It is very amusing to see the letters opened, and 
 guess at their contents before Ihey are brought to 
 light. Three out of five from a bundle of unad- 
 dressed letters contained money, one of them a $5 
 note. Then there are such quantities of dress sam- 
 ples in letters. One would imagine that all woman- 
 kind had discovered a language in the interchange of 
 these scraps of dress fabrics. One half show their 
 prosperity in bits of silks and satins, and the other 
 half in slips of sixpenny calico, and it is only in the 
 Dead Letter Office that they meet on common ground. 
 Certainly every fifth letter contains a photograph, 
 and I don't imagine that any great care is taken to 
 return lost photographs ; but any one so bereaved has 
 the privilege of rummaging among the forty bush- 
 els of human "counterfeits" which have accumu- 
 lated here. 
 
 During November, 1876 more than 400,000 let- 
 ters, newspapers and postal cards, were received 
 for delivery by the letter carriers of New York 
 eity, of which 20,000 were returned by them as unde- 
 
DHJAD LETTERS. 155 
 
 liverable on account of incorrect and illegible super- 
 scriptions. Four million and a half accumulate an- 
 nually in the United States. 
 
 From the above statistics, and the testimony of 
 many postmasters, it is evident that it is the impera- 
 tive duty on the part of the teacher, to give instruc- 
 tion in Letter Writing. Considering the carelessness 
 of the average American in the matter of directing 
 letters, this fact does not speak well for American 
 teachers. 
 
 It has been taken for granted, that pupils, wbo 
 could parse and analyze a simple sentence, bound the 
 states and territories, and explain an example in cube 
 root, could write a passable letter ; but this is a 7nis- 
 tdke. A majority of our pupils are only able to do 
 what has been taught to them, and that tJiorouglily. 
 It is not enough to say to your pupils "that you 
 should be able to write a good letter ;" you should 
 teach them HOW TO WRITE A LETTER. 
 
156 
 
 LETTER- WRITING. 
 
 HOW TO TEACH LETTER-WRITING. 
 
 I. Directions^ — 
 
 1. Develop every part of the letter. 
 
 2. Illustrate and explain each part on the board. 
 2. Require pupils to copy the correct form. 
 
 4. Require pupils to reproduce each part. 
 
 5. Carefully examine the pupils' work. 
 
 6. After all the parts of the structure of a letter 
 have been taught iliorouglily^ and the pupils have been 
 drilled sufficiently, require them to reproduce the whole 
 correctly. 
 
 7. Teach them how to place the superscription 
 upon the envelope, and require them to hand in a 
 letter properly written, folded, inserted and carefully 
 superscribed. 
 
GENERAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 157 
 
 liETTER-WRITING. 
 
 '1. Social.- I j;^-jD^™estic 
 
 Classifica- 
 tion of 
 Letters. 
 
 I. Private - 
 
 S. Business j«;P--f- 
 3. Miscellaneous. 
 
 oductory, etc. 
 
 t4. Postal Cards. 
 I^II. Public, or Open. 
 
 Structure of Letters. 
 
 A* Materials. 
 
 ia. Size. 
 h. Quality, 
 c. Color. 
 
 3. Ink— Color. 
 
 8- Envelopes. I «;Si_^^e._._ 
 
 4. Pen. 
 
 'I. Position and Arrangement. 
 
 B. Heading.- 
 
 'l.Post-Office.-j^^ 
 
 II. Parts 
 
 , vSt. 
 
 [1. Place < 2. County or City. 
 U- State. 
 
 i ri. Month. 
 
 U. Date. A 3. Day of the Month. 
 
 .1 
 
 III. Punctuation, 
 
 i:: 
 
 Year. 
 
 Position and Arrangement, 
 
 i (1 Address i 1-N^ame& title 
 
 C. Introduction. \ II. Parts \ ' '^^' Directions, 
 
 f ( 3. Salutation. 
 
 11. Punctuation. 
 
 VI Model •! ^' ^"siness. 
 
 \ 3. Social & Miscellaneous. 
 
158 
 
 LETTER- WRITING. 
 
 (1. Besfinning. 
 D. Body of the Letter. ■{ II. The Margin. 
 
 [ill. Paragraphing. 
 
 E. ConcluBlon. 
 
 I. Position and Arrangement. 
 
 r 1. Complimentary Close, 
 n. Parts. \ 2. Signature. 
 
 3. Address. 
 Ill, Punctuation. 
 
 F. Folding, 
 
 G. Superscription - 
 
 ' I. Position and Arrangement. 
 
 1. Name and Title. 
 II. Parts. h( I 1. Postoffice 
 
 2. Directions •< 2. County. 
 
 III. Punctuation. 
 ,IV. Legibility, 
 
 ( 3. State. 
 
 H. Stamps. - 
 
 i;: 
 
 1. Place. 
 
 How put on. 
 
irOW TO TEACH IT, 15'J 
 
 " How shall I teach the pupil to write a letter ? " 
 Try the following method : — Ask him, — 
 
 1. What are you going to write about? Get the 
 real fact or incident, and have him write it down in 
 proper form, as his subject. 
 
 2. What is the^irsniiing you wish to tell about ? 
 Tell him to write that down by itself, as he wishes 
 to tell it. Proceed thus, with the several items, 2d, 
 3d, and so on, till he thinks of nothing more. So 
 far, you have the material. Now for the order. 
 Ask him, — 
 
 3. Which of these really ought to come first ? If 
 he hits on the right one, have him number it 1. If 
 he is wrong, point out the right item. Proceed in 
 the same way to find the proper second item, and so 
 on to the end. This settles the order. Now con- 
 sider the paragraphs. Ask, — 
 
 4. Which of these seem to belong together in a 
 group ? Have them numbered a second time, as Tf 
 1, 2. etc. Show the proper method for spacing the 
 first lines of paragraphs. Attend next to the expres- 
 sion. Ask,»— 
 
 5. What ungrammatical words or expressions do 
 you find ? Whatever such he finds, correct by in- 
 terlining. Such as he fails to find, point out and 
 have corrected. 
 
 6. What long words can be changed for short, 
 simple words, or those in better taste ? Have the 
 changes made by interlining. Next, consider the 
 capitals and punctuation. Ask, — 
 
 7. What words should begin with capitals ? Have 
 these marked. 
 
160 LETTER- WRITING. 
 
 8. Where do we •want a full separation ? Have 
 the period inserted. And so proceed, if other points 
 are needed. 
 
 Now require a complete draught to be made. 
 When this is done, examine and correct it under the 
 pupil's close observation, explain the corrections 
 made. Lastly, require a carefully written copy 
 according to the corrections. 
 
 Classification of Letters. 
 
 The classification given in the tabulation should be 
 written on the board and explained by the teacher. 
 
 The names of the classes are so plainly descriptive 
 as to render formal definitions unnecessary. 
 
 Structure of Ijctters. 
 
 This means an arrangement of its several parts, so 
 as to present a pleasing appearance. 
 
 Materials. 
 
 Papee. — The materials for letter writing should be 
 of good quality. Good materials cost only a trifle 
 more than poor ones. The paper for business cor- 
 respondence should . be white or tinged with blue. 
 The size of the paper should be adapted to the size 
 of the envelope to be used. 
 
 In business correspondence, it is not in good taste 
 to use tinted or colored paper. 
 
 Ink. — Avoid the use of all fancy inks, and use sim- 
 ple black ; all other colors fade. 
 
 Envelopes. — Do not use envelopes of irregular and 
 fancy shape, and let them be adapted in size and 
 color, to the paper. 
 
THE HEADING. 161 
 
 Sealing- Wax. — This is now principally used on 
 valuable letters and packages. It adds very much to 
 the appearance of a letter to seal it neatly with wax. 
 Heading. 
 
 The heading includes the place and date. If your 
 letter is to consist of one page only, the proper posi- 
 tion for the heading is on the first line. If less than 
 one page, proportionally lower ; so that the space at 
 the bottom of the page may be equal to the space at 
 the top. Begin the heading a little to the left of the 
 middle of the page, and if it is too long to be placed 
 within the limit of a half line, let it be extended for 
 completion to the next line below. It usually occu- 
 pies two lines, but never more than three ; when two 
 lines are used the second should begin farther to the 
 right than the first. Business letters should always 
 be dated at the top ; some place the date at the bot- 
 tom ; this form is used more generally in social cor- 
 respondence. When placed at the bottom it must 
 be near the left edge of the paper, one line below the 
 signature. 
 
 Place. — The Heading of a letter should be self- 
 explaining. The name of the State and the County 
 should always be expressed, unless the letter is ad- 
 dressed to a very large city, like New York or Bos- 
 ton. If the letter is written in a city, the street and 
 number should be expressed. The Heading should 
 hefiiU and complete, so that when a person answers 
 the message, he ma}' know where to send it. 
 
 Date. — The date includes- the month, day of the 
 month, and the year; if letters are used after the 
 
163 LETTER-WRITING. 
 
 figures, let them be placed on a line with the figures, 
 and not a little above the line. The best letter writers 
 omit the letters after the figures, although it is by no 
 means improper to use them 
 
 Punctuation. — The parts of the Heading should 
 be separated by commas, and a period should be 
 placed at the close of the Heading and after abbre- 
 viations. The ordinal adjectives 1st, 5th, 27th, are 
 not abbreviations, and they should be followed by a 
 comma. The Heading is an abridged form of a sen- 
 tence, composed of phrases, and phrases are usually 
 set off by commas 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The teacher should write, or have written, on the 
 board the correct form of the Heading of a letter, call- 
 ing attention to the position and arrangement of the 
 parts, capital letters, and punctuation. He should 
 require the pupils to copy the correct form on their 
 slates, spell the words, and give the correct position 
 and arrangement of all the parts. 
 
 Various Headings should be given by the teacher 
 until the pupils are thoroughly familiar with them. 
 A few lessons methodically given, will secure mas- 
 tery. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Position. — The names of the persons to be ad- 
 dressed should be given on the line below the head- 
 ing, at the right and near the marginal line. It may 
 occupy one, two, or three lines ; the first line ot the 
 address should contain the name and title alone ; it 
 should begin even with all the lines of the page, ex- 
 
THE NAME AND TITLE. KJS 
 
 cept the heading and those that commence par- 
 agraphs. 
 
 Directions, — The directions should be as full in the 
 address as in the heading ; the letter should be self- 
 explaining ; it should contain not only the name and 
 residence of the writer, but also the name and resi- 
 dence of the person to whom it is written. 
 
 The American form of correspondence places the 
 address before the salutation, except in letters of an 
 official character ; then it is placed at the close of the 
 letter, at the left of the signature : this corresponds 
 with the English style. 
 
 Name and Title. 
 
 The name should be written in full ; for example, 
 we write to J. C. Knox, Colorado Springs, Colorado; 
 as it stands now it may mean James C. Knox or Jen- 
 nie C. Knox. It is better, unless the party is well- 
 known, to write the full Christian name, and not the 
 initials of the name. Too much pains cannot be taken 
 in the address of letters and the superscription of 
 envelopes. In New York city there are two hundred 
 persons by the name of John Smith ; in order to 
 avoid confusion and allay the passion of mail carriers, 
 it would be better for all correspondents to write the 
 full name^ the proper title and the name and the num- 
 ber of the street. 
 
 Title. — The common titles are Mr., Mrs., Miss 
 and Esq. Mr. is an abbreviation of Mister ; Mrs. is 
 an abbreviation of Mistress, but pronounced Hisses^ 
 which is written Mrs,; Miss is not considered ac 
 
164 LETTER- WRITINO. 
 
 abbreviation, but a contraction, from the word Mis- 
 tress. When this title is applied to two or more 
 ladies of the same name, both forms are used by 
 grammarians, Miss and Misses ; the latter may be con- 
 sidered as the prevailing usage. Esq. is an abbrevia- 
 tion of Esquire. 
 
 Salutation. — This term should never be omitted; 
 it expresses politeness, respect or affection. The term 
 employed in writing to a man is bir, Bear Sir, or My 
 dear Sir. 
 
 The word Dear implies that the parties are ac- 
 quainted ; My dear Sir, suggest intimacy or friend- 
 sliip. 
 
 In addressing a married woman, the following 
 form is usual, including the title and christian name 
 of the husband : 
 
 Mrs. Dr. J. J. Anderson, 
 
 105 Madison Avenue, 
 
 Albany, N. Y. 
 Madam, — 
 
 In the use of the salutation, it is better to be too 
 formal than too familiar. 
 
 To use a term of affection when no endearment ex- 
 ists between the parties, is highly improper. It is 
 assuming undue familiarity, not warrantable in busi- 
 ness correspondence. Such a term prefixed to the 
 name addressed as, Dear Brown, or Friend Hayes, or 
 even Dear Sir, ov My dear Sir, is not proper in busi- 
 ness messages. 
 
 The salutation used in addressing a woman mar- 
 ried or a single woman, is Madam^ Dear Madam, or 
 My dear Madam. In writing to a young unmarried 
 
' ' D EAR MISS BLANK.'' 105 
 
 lady, it is customary to omit the salutation and ad- 
 dress her with the title prefixed to her surname, as 
 Miss Howell, and then write the address at the bottom 
 of the letter, at the left. 
 
 J. Willis Westlake says, *' In writing to a lady who 
 is a stranger or a mere acquaintance, persons often 
 feel a delicacy (unnecessarily so, it seems to us,) 
 about saying ' Dear Miss Blank,' or 'Dear Madam.' 
 Dear does not mean any more in ' Dear Miss,' than 
 it does in 'Dear Sir.' Surely no lady would hesi- 
 tate to use the latter form of address in writing to a 
 gentleman of her acquaintance; and the gentleman 
 would be a fool to suppose she intended to make love 
 to him by so doing. When Miss or Dear Missis used 
 in the introduction it must be followed by the lad3''s 
 name; as 'Miss Flora May,' 'Dear Miss Barnes.'" 
 
 We should use the full form in the salutation ; as. 
 Gentlemen, not Gents; Sir, not Sr ; Dear, and not Dr. 
 
 Place of the Salutation. — The salutation should 
 begin at the same distance from the marginal line as 
 the paragraphs. 
 
 If the address is omitted at the beginning of the 
 letter, the salutation should be placed on the first line 
 below the heading, a little to the right of the margin, 
 so that the places of beginning the paragraphs may 
 be uniform and correspond to the salutation. 
 
 Punctuation. — Place a period at the end of the 
 address. The address and the salutation are not in 
 the same grammatical person, the address being in 
 the third person, and the salutation in the second. 
 
 Authorities disagree about the punctuation mark 
 after the salutation. 
 
166 LETTEBrWRITING. 
 
 Some place a colon ; some a semi-colon ; and others 
 a comma. The best authorities use the comma, when 
 the body of the letter begins one line below the salu- 
 tation, and a comma and a dash when the body of 
 the letter begins on the same line as the salution. Tn 
 the English form of letter writing, the salutation, 
 simply, is placed at the beginning of the body of the 
 letter, and the address at the close of the lettef, little 
 at the left. 
 
 This form is used in America by correspondents, 
 and it is believed that the best usage sanctions it. 
 
 Margin. — Always preserve a margin in letters, and 
 in all forms of manuscripts. The French preserve 
 two margins, one at the left, and one at the right ; 
 this adds to the appearance of the letter, making it 
 correspond to the printed page; in America only the 
 left margin is retained. The introduction to social 
 and miscellaneous letter?, in form, is just the same 
 as in business letters. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 All of the above points in the introduction of a let- 
 ter, should be neatly written on the board. The 
 teacher should call attention to each part, its exact 
 form and place. 
 
 He should require the pupils to copy the correct 
 form on their slates ; and upon review, require them 
 to spell the words, give the correct position and 
 arrangement of all the parts, and punctuate the intro- 
 duction correctly. At this point in the instruction 
 review the heading and the introduction. 
 
 It is delightful to be able to write a good letter, and 
 
 1 
 
PARAGRArillXO. 167 
 
 it is certainly a fjreat pleasure to read one. Surely, 
 in this, like every other accomplishment, " practice 
 makes perfect," and as it is a valuable one, the pupils 
 should at once set to work with a determination to 
 conquer the difficulties of writing. 
 
 THE BODY OF THE LETTER. 
 
 The body of the letter is composed of two part«i, 
 properly ; the Beginning and the Paragraphs. It is 
 the message itself, exclusive of the heading, introduc- 
 tion and conclusion. 
 
 The Beginning. — When the address occupies two 
 or more lines, the body of the letter should begin di- 
 rectly after the salutation, and on the same line ; 
 when the salutation is simply used at the beginning 
 of the letter, the body of the letter should begin on 
 the next line below, little to the right of the salutation. 
 
 The salutation should never be placed so far to the 
 right of the sheet of paper, as to leave room for only 
 one or two words after it. 
 
 Paragraphing* 
 
 The same rules should govern us in writing, as in 
 printing, with the exception of the right margin. The 
 paragraph should always be used, when necessary. 
 It indicates the beginning of a new subject, or of dif- 
 ferent and disconnected things. 
 
 The first word of a paragraph begins farther to the 
 right than the beginning of the other lines. The first 
 word of the first paragraph commences after the salu- 
 tation ; the first word of the second paragraph should 
 fall directly under the salutation, and so on with the 
 
1 68 LETTER- WRITING. 
 
 remaining paragraphs. All paragraphs should begin 
 at the same distance from the marginal line. Preserve 
 this order and it w'Jl add to the mechanical structure 
 of the letter. 
 
 THE CONCLUSION. 
 
 The conclusion of a letter is the part added to the 
 body of the letter. 
 
 Position and Arrangement.— It should be placed 
 at the foot of the letter. 
 
 Complimentary Close. — This includes the lan- 
 guage, the closing compliments; it should begin a 
 little to the right, but near the middle of the first line 
 below the body of the letter, about the same distance 
 from marginal line as the heading. They may be 
 broken into two lines, but it is not necessary. 
 
 If composed of two lines, the second should com- 
 mence a little to the right of the first; commence the 
 first line with a capital letter, also the second. 
 
 Signature. — In writing the signature, begin a lit- 
 tle at the right of the complimentary close, on the 
 next line below. A letter should always be signed 
 in a legible hand, and this includes accuracy, sym- 
 metry, uniformity and neatness. The full name 
 should be written. Thousands of letters are dropped 
 into the post offices having no name subscribed. It 
 is well to write the address under the signature if 
 you wish an answer to your letter; particularly if 
 your letter is mailed at some other point aside from 
 your regular residence. 
 
 Punctuation.— A comma should be placed after 
 the complimentary close, and a period after the 
 signature. 
 
THE SUPERSCRIPTION. 169 
 
 Folding. — Neatly folding a letter will add very- 
 much to its appearance. This is a simple thing, but 
 it should be learned. 
 
 Note-Paper. — Fold up the bottom so that it shall 
 be nearly equal to the width of the envelope, (sup- 
 posing that the envelope is adapted to the paper,) 
 turn down the top in the same manner, and press the 
 folds neatly together. 
 
 Letter-Paper. — Turn the bottom edge up so that 
 it shall be nearly equal to the length of the envelope; 
 then proceed in the same manner as above. 
 
 This form may be observed in folding for an ordi- 
 nary envelope ; if the letter is to be enclosed in an 
 official envelope it must be folded thus: Turnup the 
 lower edge equal to the width of the envelope, and 
 fold the top down over it 
 
 SUPERSCRIPTION. 
 
 We have finished the letter and are now ready to 
 superscribe it. This superscription is written on the 
 outside of the envelope. It consist of the name and 
 title, post-office, county and state. 
 
 Position. — Every item must be on a separate line. 
 The first line consisting of the name and title, should 
 begin below and at the left of the centre ; the 
 second should begin a little farther to the right ; the 
 third a little farther than the second, and so on. 
 
 The spaces between the lines and the space below 
 the last, should be equal. 
 
 Great pains should be taken in writing the super- 
 scription, and the full form should always be used. 
 Each part should be written legibly. It is always 
 
170 LETTER- WRITING. 
 
 the safer way to express the name of the county un- 
 less the letter is directed to a large city. 
 
 Punctuation. — Place a period after abbreviations; 
 when the abbreviation is at the end of a line, place 
 a comma after each line, and a period at the close. 
 
 Stamp. 
 
 A stamp should always be placed upon the envelope. 
 It should be placed upon the upper right-hand cor- 
 ner, about a sixteenth of an inch from the upper and 
 the right- edges. Pains should be taken to put it on 
 carefully. 
 
 PRACTICAL HINTS IN LETTER WRITING, 
 
 Thus far in the discussion of the subject of letter 
 writing, we have called attention to the structure of 
 the letter, the mechanical part. Simple as it may 
 seem, it will require study on the part of those 
 teachers who are not familiar with it. There are 
 two other divisions important in themselves, the 
 Rhetoric of Letters and the Literature of Letters, 
 which should be made a study, if the teacher is not 
 already familiar with them. 
 
 We cannot give an extended discussion of the 
 above named divisions, but will throw out a few 
 pi'actical Jiints, calling attention to the Rlietoric and 
 Literature of Letters. 
 
 Inteelineations. — This is a habit, and must be 
 overcome. The insertion of letters or words exhibits 
 to the reader a degree of carelessness, that is not ex- 
 cusable. 
 
 Copy and re-copy, until every part of the letter 
 
SPECIAL HLVTS. 171 
 
 pleases the eye. An hour or two devoted to careful 
 copying will secure the result. 
 
 Blots. — Never allow a blot to be seen in your let- 
 ters ; it is slovenly. 
 
 Flourishes. — Avoid flourishing in letter writing ; 
 it is indicative of a kind of dash-and-display charac- 
 ter. A person of this stamp would be quite apt to 
 wear an Alaska diamond pin, alligator boots, steel- 
 pen coat, part his hair in the middle and use a slim 
 cane. 
 
 Cross-lines. — If it is necessary to write more mat- 
 ter than can be properly placed on the pages of a let- 
 ter, use another sheet of paper. There is no excuse 
 for the person to write on the margins of the sheet 
 and over the body of the letter. It is in very poor 
 taste, to say the least. 
 
 Underlinings. — In reading, certain words are 
 emphatic, and when properly emphasized increase 
 the intensity of the thought. 
 
 In icniing, it also adds force to the expression to 
 to underline certain words ; but indiscriminate under- 
 lining ceases to add efiect. 
 
 Erasureso 
 
 Avoid erasures ; it indicates a lack of interest and 
 attention to the subject. The same rules should hold 
 good in writing as in printing. 
 
 It disfigures the letter and it is a sign of careless- 
 ness, and it is always the better way to rewrite the 
 letter, if there is time, than to send it subject to the 
 criticisms of others. 
 
172 LETTER- WRITING. 
 
 Postscript. 
 
 This is something added to a letter after it is prop- 
 erly finished, and should generally be avoided. 
 
 When the writer has received new information af- 
 ter the letter is finished, it may then be added. It is 
 not best to get into the liabit of appending postscripts. 
 No topic of importance, compliment or affection, 
 should be expressed in the postscript. 
 
 The Character «&. 
 
 The character & may be used between the sur- 
 names of a business firm or between the initial letters 
 of Christian names; but as a rule it should not be 
 employed to take the place of the word for which it 
 stands. 
 
 Figures for Words. 
 
 Figures are used for dates, time of day, rates, quan- 
 tities, prices, and in bills, book-keeping, aggregate 
 amounts, etc. In commercial paper it is best to use 
 both figures and words. 
 
 Lead Pencil Writing. 
 
 Business letters are generally preserved, and as 
 lead pencil marks are easily blurred or erased, it is 
 not business-like to use the lead pencil in correspond- 
 ence. 
 
 Bombast. 
 
 Use the simplest terms ; descriptive words and 
 fine words are not used by educated people : young 
 persons do not like to use simple nouns, but resort 
 to the use of adjectives, high sounding words, pom- 
 pous expression and parade of language. 
 
WffAT WORDS TO AVOID. 17S 
 
 The language of simplicity should characterize all 
 correspondence. 
 
 Slan^ Words. 
 
 The words we use are an index to the mind and 
 heart. Your letter will be accepted as a type of your 
 mind and an index to your thoughts. No gentleman 
 or lady will resort to the use of slang terms. Slang 
 phrases are utterly inconsistent with true dignity 
 of thought, word or deed. 
 
 Foreign Words. 
 
 It is not considered a good taste to use foreign 
 words, unless necessity requires them. It is better to 
 use pure English. 
 
 Tautology. 
 
 This is quite common with inexperienced writers; 
 when a fact has been stated once, — the point made 
 distinctly and clearly, it only confuses the idea, to 
 attempt a repetition. 
 
 Books on Letter-Writing. 
 
 Analysis of Letter Writing ; Ivison Blakeman, 
 Taylor & Co., New York. $1.50. 
 
 How to Write Letters, Sower, Potts & Co., Phila« 
 delphia. $1.00. 
 
174 LETTER-WRITING. 
 
 MODELS OF HEADING. 
 
 Model 1. 
 
 £^^^ y^, y^//. 
 
 Model 2. 
 
 
 Model 3. 
 
 ^ yy ^ ' ^^y 
 
 Model 4. 
 
 K^^ £^^y yc?//. 
 
 Model 5. 
 
 22 Clinton Street, 
 
 Troy N. Y., May 11, 1877. 
 
MODEL ADDRESSES. 
 
 175 
 
 MODELS OF INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ^^ (2P-iZ^c://-cYy'Z^a(.i& CrS^V^.etS'J^ 
 
 ^^■i^■^^-/</■■^1e^■y■■^' ,- 
 
 Model 3. 
 
 e^ 
 
 tp cr tPi- ^-^^ ir» -^:^ 
 
 
 ^eaf-^ ti^^^es^/ 
 
 ^^tp/-/i>' -/^cr-z^tp^y i&^G. 
 
 Model 3. 
 
 €■■^^■1' or 1/^7^ //■^.■^■^tS-^^ 
 
 
1 rfi LET TER- WRITING. 
 
 Model 4. 
 
 ^^..^^/^/^/Q^ a^^^i^^ ii^a-i'gts yc^-t^-/^ 
 
 
 
 ■/A€>g>f-^'j'y -f?^^. 
 
 Model 5. 
 
 Q^/u. Ma M. ^/iumuy. 
 
 ^i^oai /tend j/ai^ai ^ etc* 
 
MODEL INSh'RUCTIONS. 177 
 
 ENGLISH INTRODUCTION 
 
 ITIodel 1. 
 
 Dear Sir, — 
 
 Yours was received, etc. 
 
 Mr. Jcmies Doe, 
 
 25 Benton Street, 
 
 Albany, N. Y. 
 
 Model 2. 
 
 Gentlemen, — 
 
 Send me 500 bar r els of Sugar, etc 
 
 Dexter & Jones, 
 21 Broadway, 
 
 Albany, JS'. T. 
 
178 LETTER-}} BITING. 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 For social letters, the following forms are 
 used : 
 
 YoiiT friend ; Yours with esteem ; 
 Yours very respectfully ; Yours rery 
 sincerely^ etc. 
 
 For business letters, the following forms are 
 used : 
 
 Truly yours ; Yours respectfully ; 
 Yours very truly ; Yours. 
 
 For official letters : 
 
 I luive the honor to he, Sh\ 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 C. L. 
 
 I have the honor to he. 
 
 Very respectfully^ 
 Your most obedient servant^ 
 
 H. C. D. 
 
 1 
 
 I am. Sir, 
 
 Your obedient servant.^ 
 ' S. H. 
 
 Very respectfully, 
 
 Your obedient servant., 
 
 S. A. 
 
A SISTER'S LETTEii. 179 
 
 FORM FOR SOCIAL LETTER. 
 
 Canandaigua^ New Yorl'. 
 
 My dear Sister, — 
 
 In reply to your letter 
 
 of the 18t7i hist. I her/ to assure you 
 
 tJiat I shall he happy to meet you on 
 
 Wednesday next at Albany, at tlie 
 
 hour mentioned hy you. 
 
 We are pleased, to Imow that you 
 loill visit us. 
 
 Your lomng sister, 
 
 Mary Perlxins. 
 
 J/Z.s'.y Luloj Perkins, 
 
 Gorham Stred, 
 
 Caiianddiguti. 
 
180 LETTER- WRITIN G. 
 
 BUSINESS LETTER. 
 
 Albany, JY. F., May 28, 1877. 
 
 Supt. O. B. Bruce, 
 
 Bingliaonton, N. Y. 
 Sir, — Yours of March IQtli was duly 
 recewed. It gives me pleasure to in- 
 form you that I sliall he ahle to accom- 
 pany you on the proposed excursion 
 next August. 
 
 Yours very respectfully, 
 William Watson, 
 288 Madison Ave,, 
 Albany, N. Y. 
 
MODEL SUPERSCRIPTIONS. ]8] 
 
 FORM OF SUPERSCRIPTION. 
 
 9ir 0zra. WiU^r^ 
 
 Miss (g^^ W. ^% 
 SOS S^Ti (^venuo^ 
 
 <MoeAest^e'r. 
 
 Sen&see ^o. 
 
 0olor(ido^ 
 
 0olor(ido Springfs^ 
 
ARITHMETIC. 
 
 INTRODUCTON. 
 
 In order to teach arithmetic successfully the teacher 
 should have an idea of the subject as a whole. The 
 most difficult part of the subject — as in all subjects — 
 is the fundamental part ; and unless that is thoroughly 
 taught, the after results will be unsatisfactory. It 
 must be admitted that more time is given to the sub- 
 ject of mathematics in the schools than to any other 
 study. 
 
 It is an important study, but it should not receive 
 an undue proportion of time, — it should not be pur- 
 sued at the expense nor to the neglect of other studies 
 of equal importance, as language, reading, spelling, 
 etc. 
 
 Nothing is gained by passing rapidly through the 
 primary part. Pupils should be perfectly familiar 
 with all the fundamental operations ; able to write 
 numbers with five and gix periods without hesitation ; 
 add rapidly and accurately long columns of figures; 
 and perform all computations in the fundamental 
 rules with dispatch. The first part of arithmetic 
 should be simple, and the lesson should be given 
 orally by the teacher. More attention should be 
 given to the study of procefises than to analym— 
 
TOO MUCH TIME TO ARITHMETIC. 183 
 
 computation comes first, then calculation. The subject 
 should be presented in its logical order. — every part 
 held n.p separately and individually, and the fact 
 fixed in the mind. 
 
 When the truth is once understood, the pupil 
 should be trained to work skilfully, thoughtfully 
 and accurately. 
 
 Much reasoning should not be required of the 
 pupils during the primary course. The aim should 
 be to make them see 7iow to do. 
 
 But little attention should be given to definitions; if 
 used they should be fully understood and explained, 
 otherwise they may be committed to memory, and 
 this is not necessary during this period. The pupils 
 should be able to explain the processes, but they 
 should not be required to commit the rules to memory^ 
 nor the principles. 
 
 Definitions, rules and principles are deductions, — 
 do not burden the children with these. 
 
 The Science of Arithmetic Receives too Much 
 Attention. 
 
 Definitions, rules and principles have to do with 
 the science of arithmetic. 
 
 Thomas Hill, says, in his book, "The True Order 
 of Studies," that " the science of arithmetic receives 
 so much attention that the art is neglected." The 
 primary object of arithmetic should not be to develop 
 the reasoning power, but to make pupils skilful in 
 computation. 
 
 He further says, that "A child should not be 
 expected or required to reason at an early age. Any 
 
184 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 direct training of the logical powers before the age 
 of twelve yegirs is premature, and in most cases, a 
 positive injury to the pupil. The common sense 
 view would give facts before reasoning. Reasoning 
 upon facts is the work of a maturer mind." grant- 
 ing this to be true, arithmetic is taught backwards 
 in many cases ; beginning with reason instead of 
 observation. 
 
 For the reason above quoted rules and definitions 
 should not be committed to memory until a later 
 
 period. 
 
 First Ideas of Number. 
 
 The teacher should begin the lessons in number 
 with objects, using pencils, crayons, pebbles, books; 
 also a numeral frame. 
 
 The object is to lead the children to the percep- 
 tion of the idea of numbers, as exemplified in sur- 
 rounding objects. 
 
 The idea to be gained at first is that of one, as it is 
 the basis of all arithmetical calculations. 
 
 The teacher should hold up one object before the 
 class; as one pencil, one crayon, etc., until every 
 child understands what is meant by one. 
 
 Tell the pupil that one is the word that expresses 
 " the how many," the number. 
 
 After you have tuugbt the word one, then teach 
 the character that represents it. 
 
 " Develop the idea, then give the term ; educate 
 the eye, then employ the hand ; cultivate the use of 
 language, then exercise memory." 
 
 Pupils should not count one, two, three, etc., 
 
TEE UNIT. 185 
 
 naming the abstract term ; they should say one 
 pencil, one crayon, one book. 
 
 Proceed in the same manner to teach two ; by 
 holding up two objects of diiferent kinds. After 
 they are made familiar with the number of objects, 
 let marks be made on the blackboard ; then the 
 characters that represent the number of marks. Let 
 children reproduce at their seats the work given at 
 the board by the teacher. 
 
 Value of Numtoers. 
 
 At this point see that the pupils get the idea of 
 
 the value of number, by comparing a greater group 
 
 of objects. 
 
 Order of Numbers. 
 
 Care should be taken to teach the order of num- 
 bers, so that the children can tell what number 
 comes before and what after any given number. This 
 may be illustrated with the class, or the picture of a 
 ladder. 
 
 Teach the pupils in the same way to write num- 
 bers to 99. Give no instruction about units and 
 
 tens, etc., until a later period. 
 
 Teach the subject so thoroughly that your suc- 
 cessor will not be obliged to instruct in it. 
 
 Numeration and Notation. 
 
 THE UNIT. 
 
 The pupils have been taught thus far to deal with 
 ones. They are now supposed to be familiar with 
 numbers to 1000. They may now be taught that 
 there is another name — unit, which means a single 
 
186 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 thing — that may be used with the figures, as one unit, 
 two units, etc. 
 
 THE TEN. 
 
 At this stage the teacher may provide several small 
 sticks, about the size of matches. Take several 
 sticks and let the pupils count ten ; tie these up in a 
 small bundle and call it one ten ; proceed in the same 
 manner until ten bundles have been made ; now let 
 them count the bundles. Next let them see that one 
 bundle contains ten sticks, or ten units, or ten ; two 
 bundles, twenty sticks, or twenty units, or twenty ; 
 and so proceed until you reach the hundred. 
 
 Write numbers on the board to correspond to the 
 object and groups ; let them read the numbers, as 
 one ten and one unit, one ten and two units ; twenty, 
 two tens ; thirt}'', three tens, etc. 
 
 INotation. 
 
 When the pupils can readily read columns of units 
 and tens, they may be required to write these num- 
 bers on the slate. The teacher may dictate the num- 
 bers. Let them write numbers below 100, and ask 
 them what they used to write the number. For 
 example, write 86. How did you write it ? With 8 
 tens and 6 units, etc. 
 
 Numeration. 
 
 They have been already taught that ten units make 
 one ten ; and ten tens make one hundred. Now let 
 them read the numbers. For example 123 ; three 
 units, two tens, one hundred, read 123 units. The 
 teacher, after suflicient drill, should obtain bundles 
 with 100 sticks. 
 
ORDERS OF UNITS. 187 
 
 Supplement these illustrations with dictation exer- 
 cises, and so proceed until the pupils are made 
 familiar and can write numbers readily from dicta- 
 tion on the slates and at the board, and read their 
 
 values. 
 
 Orders of Units. 
 
 The pupils must have a clear idea that units may 
 differ in size and value — that one of anything is a 
 unit, whether large or small. One bushel is a unit ; 
 one dollar is a unit; one cent is a uuit. The}'^ have 
 already been taught that numbers are built up of 
 simple "ones," so far as 100 ; that each ten is con- 
 sidered as a whole, or 1 ten ; that each hundred is 
 regarded as a whole, or 1 hundred. 
 
 Now they are prepared to see what is meant by a 
 unit of the first order, of the second order, of the 
 third order, etc 
 
 This step is sometimes omitted in teaching number. 
 It is a very important one ; it should be carefully 
 taught and the pupils thoroughly drilled upon it. 
 
 Let them see that it is the position of a figure in a 
 number that determines its value. 
 
 Teachers are too ambitious in advancing pupils in 
 arithmetic. 
 
 Some teachers will promote to higher classes pupils 
 that could not pass an examination in notation and 
 numeration. Frequently we find pupils ciphering in 
 percentage, that fail in writing and reading a number 
 of four figures. Never let pupils pass beyond the 
 fundamental rules until they are familiar with them, 
 and are able to readily apply them. 
 
188 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 They will make slow progress in the advanced 
 steps if this is not understood, — they will make 
 rapid progress if it is thoroughly understood. 
 
 Teach so thoroughly that your successor may not 
 be obliged to unteach what has been taught. 
 
 Too much pains cannot be taken with notation, 
 numeration and addition, The law of increase and 
 decrease may be thoroughly developed with these 
 rules 
 
 Again we repeat, "not how much but how well." 
 
 Adding. 
 
 OBJECTS 
 
 Begin the subject in the same way as the first, with 
 objects. Marks upon the blackboard may be used 
 after the children have become familiar with adding 
 objects. Use the numeral frame but see that the 
 children do not confound counting with adding. 
 
 Concrete Numbers. 
 
 Let pupils add concrete numbers without having 
 the objects before them. When they become very 
 expert in computation, let them add numbers con- 
 cretely from one to fifty. The teacher should not 
 leave this division of the subject until the children 
 can announce the sum of any two concrete numbers 
 that may be given, instantly. Confine the problems 
 to numbers less than ten. 
 
 Adding by Figures» 
 
 These exercises at first should be very simple : 
 first, by adding one to all the numbers less than ten ; 
 then two ; then three, etc. 
 
ADDITION. 189 
 
 After sufficient drill has been given, and the pupils 
 can give instantly the sums of all numbers less than 
 ten, proceed in the same way with all the decades to 
 one hundred. This grouping of [numbers will form 
 a pleasing and profitable drill. Do not let the pupils 
 add numbers in the following manner : For example. 
 What is the sum of 8 apples, 7 apples and 4 apples ? 
 7 apples and 8 apples are 15 apples ; 15 apples and 4 
 apples are 19 apples. Rather have them say : 8 
 apples, 15 apples, 19 apples. Simply anounce the 
 results and do not allow them to count. 
 Addition Tables. 
 
 The teacher should see that the tables are thor- 
 oughly committed to memory by requiring pupils to 
 recite them backward and forward regularly and ir- 
 regularly. Excite emulation among the members of 
 the class in regard to the mechanical execution of 
 the work, because careless habits formed will ever be 
 a source of annoyance to both teacher and pupil. 
 
 Construct the addition tables at first by the use of 
 objects. 
 
 Great care should be taken that the pupils be not 
 hurried over these early steps too rapidly. Teach 
 the combination of only one number at a lesson. 
 "Make haste slowly." Teach them to add rapidly 
 and correctly. 
 
 German Method of Teaching Rapid Addition. 
 2 3 
 
 ^ 2 + 4 ^ ^ 3 + 4 ^ 
 
 2+6 3+6 
 
 4 5 1 
 
 (1.) (3.) 
 
190 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 2 8 
 
 4+2 ^ ^ 5+3 ^ 
 
 4+8 6 5+7 4 
 
 8 3 7 
 
 
 
 (3.) (4.) 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 3 
 
 2 
 9 5 
 
 2 + 3 
 
 2 + 7 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 1 
 
 4 + 5 
 
 9 
 (5.) (6.) 
 
 In circle No. 1 begin with 2, add 4, and write the 
 results about the circle. When the result exceeds 
 nine, write the right hand figure only. Beginning 
 with 1, passing to the right, we have the following : 
 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, 26,^ 30, 34, 38, 42, etc. ; again 
 beginning with 2, passing to the left, we have the 
 following : 2, 8, 14, 20, 26, 82, 88, 44, 50, etc. 
 
 In order to form the circular tables, take any num- 
 ber less than ten and add a number to it, and con- 
 tinue the successive additions until you repeat the 
 first figure ; write these numbers about the circle. 
 
 Begin with the number 1, and add the number to 
 10 ; and so on with each number. 
 
IT IS THE FIRST STEP WHICR COSTS. 191 
 
 This exercise will produce great ambition in the 
 school, and all pupils like to take part in it. At 
 first call on the pupils to recite in concert ; subse- 
 quently, by dividual drill. Time them, and see how 
 many seconds they will require to add 100. Only 
 six of the tables are given ; many others may be 
 made by the teacher. The Germans have attained 
 grand results through these circular tables. In con- 
 nection with these exercises pupils should be required 
 to add columns of figures ; at first, short columns, 
 with figures less than five ; gradully increase until 
 they become ready and rapid in computation. 
 
 An experience of eight years at institutes has 
 revealed sad results in adding simple columns of 
 figures. In mauy instances the teachers had not 
 been taught to add properly in their youth, and I have 
 frequently received twenty-five different answers to 
 a problem like the following : 
 
 Add 8989, 7898, 7897, and 9876. 
 
 The pupils should be taught the combinations of 
 numbers ; combining the 4 and the 5 will always 
 produce a 9 ; a 6 and a 5 a 1 ; 9 and 5 a 4 ; 8 and 5 a 
 3 ; 7 and 5 a 2, etc., and by a daily systematical drill 
 the pupils will overcome this hesitancy, which is a 
 common fault in American schools. No rule in 
 Arithmetic is used so much as addition, and great 
 cafe should be taken with primary classes. 
 
 We are thus particular and emphatiCy concerning 
 the early steps of mathematical education, because 
 it is " the first step which costs." Much more labor 
 is required to unlearn than to learn. The teachers 
 
]92 ABITmiETIC. 
 
 for the younger classes should possess particular 
 aptness for impartiug instruction. Such teachers 
 deserve and should receive the highest icages, 
 
 Analysis of Problems in Addition. 
 
 WBITTEN ARITHMETIC. 
 
 After the pupils have mastered the fundamental 
 rules, and their reasoning powers begin to develop, 
 the teacher should require an analysis of the prob 
 lem. 
 
 The mechanical operation — the doing part, should 
 not be confounded with the logical operation — the 
 thinking part. 
 
 Problem in abstract numbers : 
 
 What is the sum of 8764,9789,5786, and 9843? 
 
 Mechanical Part. 
 
 8764 
 9789 
 5786 
 9843 
 
 34,182 
 Logical or Analytical Part. 
 
 Analysis : — I have written the numbers so that 
 units of the same order stand under each other. 
 For convenience I will begin at the right hand; adding 
 the first order, the sum is 23 units. As ten units 
 make one ten, 22 units are equal to 2 tens and 2 
 units ; I will write the 2 units in the order of units, 
 and add the two tens to the order of tens ; and so pro- 
 
SUBTRACTION. 193 
 
 ceed with each order, giving the reasons for every 
 step. 
 Eequire the pupils to deduce the rule from the 
 
 analysis. 
 
 Analysis of Concrete Problem. 
 
 Problem .-—If a horse cost $120, and a wagon $110, 
 and a harness $90, what will be the entire expense ? 
 
 Anaysis:—i:\i(i entire expense will be the sum of 
 $120, $110, and $90 ; equal to $220. 
 
 The simplest and the most concise analysis should 
 be taught to the children. No unnecessary words 
 should be allowed in the analysis of a problem. 
 
 Subtraction. 
 
 This subject should be taught as addition, begin- 
 ning with objects. First, by taking away one object, 
 then two, etc. After they have become familiar 
 with this process, then use marks on the board, sub- 
 sequently using concrete numbers without having 
 objects before them. At first ask the pupils to answer 
 in concert, followed by individual drill. 
 
 Subtracting by Figures. 
 
 After the children have become familiar with the 
 preceding processes, the teacher may write numbers 
 on the board as far as 9, and require the children to 
 subtract one, then two, then three, etc. Vary the 
 processes. 
 
 Subtracting by figures when the figure in the sub- 
 trahend is greater in value than the corresponding 
 figure in the minuend. 
 
 Problem : Subtract 456 from 824. 
 
194 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Mechanical Operation, 
 
 824 ^^ 7 11 14 
 456 °^ 4 5 6 
 
 368 3 6 8 
 Logical, or Analytical Operation. 
 
 I have written the numbers as in addition, writing 
 the subtrahend under the minuend. 
 
 Begin at the right hand to subtract. 6 units from 
 4 units I cannot take ; take 1 ten from the 2 tens and 
 it equals 10 units ; 10 units and 4 units are 14 units ; 
 
 6 units from 14 units equal 8 units; write underneath 
 in the units order 
 
 Five tens from 1 ten I cannot take ; take one hun- 
 dred from 8 hundred and it equals 10 tens ; 10 tens 
 and 1 ten equal 11 tens ; 5 tens from 11 tens equal 6 
 tens ; write it underneath in the tens order. Four 
 hundred from 7 hundred leave 3 hundred, etc. 
 
 By this process it will be observed that the form of 
 the minuend was changed without altering its value. 
 The subtrahend in form remained unchanged. The 
 teacher should see that the pupils understand that 8 
 hundred, 2 tens and 4 units are of the same value as 
 
 7 hundred, 11 tens and 14 units. 
 
 This is a simple analysis and easily understood. 
 
 Second Aiialysis : — I cannot take 6 units from 4 
 units ; will add 10 units to 4, equal 14 units ; 6 units 
 from 14 units equal 8 units ; as I have added 10 units 
 to the minuend, in order to preserve the equality, I 
 must add 10 units or 1 ten to the subtrahend : addine: 
 1 ten to 5 tens equal 6 tens • 6 tens from 2 tens I can- 
 
MINUEND PROBLEM. 195 
 
 not take ; 1 will add 10 tens to 2 tens, equal to 12 
 tens ; 6 tens from 12 tens equal 6 tens ; as I have 
 added 10 tens or 1 hundred to the minuend I must 
 add 1 hundred to the liundreds in the subtrahend ; 4 
 hundred and one hundred are 5 hundred, and 5 hun- 
 dred from 8 hundred leave 3 hundred. This is gov- 
 erned by the principle which says, adding equal num- 
 bers to both minuend and subtrahend does not alter 
 the value of the remainder. 
 
 This analysis should be required in addition to the 
 first, but not preferred to it. 
 
 When there are Ciphers in the Minuend. 
 
 Problem /—Subtract 456 from 1000, 
 
 Mechanical Operation. 
 
 9 9 10 
 10 
 
 4 5 6 
 
 5 4 4 
 
 Analysis : — There are no units in the units order, 
 no tens in the tens order, no hundreds in the hun- 
 dreds order. In 1000 there are 9 hundred, 9 tens and 
 10 units. 6 units from 10 units equal 4 units ; 5 tens 
 from 9 tens equal 4 tens ; 4 hundred trom 9 hundred 
 equal 5 hundred. (The form of the minuend has 
 been changed, but not its value.) Deduce the rule. 
 
 Multiplication. 
 
 As in the preceding rules, begin this subject with 
 objects, and build up all the tables at first with 
 objects. 
 
196 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Analysis of a Concrete Problem. 
 
 Pnhlem /—What will 40 books cost at $9 apiece ? 
 
 Analysis .-—Since one book cost $9, 40 books will 
 cost 40 times 19, equal to $360. 
 
 The teacher should insist that the pupils use the 
 true multiplier in all concrete problems. Too much 
 attention has evidently been paid to the higher parts 
 of arithmetic, to the neglect of the very elements. 
 The teacher should see that the pupils analyze, or are 
 able to analyze, every problem at this stage. 
 
 Arithmetic, if taught logically, is well calculated 
 to develop the mental faculties ; if taught mechani- 
 cally, as is often the case, a pupil may even pass 
 through a book with but little thought. Drill upon 
 the multiplication table. Require pupils to say it 
 forward, backward and irregularly. .- 
 
 Division* - , , 
 
 Commence with objects ; ask questions as follows: - ''^''^ 
 What have I on my table ? One apple. How many 
 times can I take one apple from it ? Once. What 
 have I placed on my table ? Two pencils. How 
 many times can I take one pencil from my table? 
 Two times. Each may place one watch on his desk. 
 How many times can you take one watch from your 
 desk ? Once. Place three drums on your desk. 
 How many times can you take three drums from 
 your desk ? Once. How many times can you take 
 one drum from the desk ? Three times, &c. 
 
 Place eight books on the desk. How many times 
 can you take four books from the desk ? 
 
SURTKACTION MALE CLEAR. 197 
 
 How many times can you take two books ? Once, 
 iwke, three, times, four times. How many times can 
 you lake one book? Once, twice, &c. Place sixteen 
 birds on the desk. How many times can I take four 
 birds from them ? 
 
 Place ten flags on the desk, and divide them into 
 two equal parts ; how many flags in each part ? 
 Place nine books on the desk, and divide them into 
 three equal parts ; how many in each part ? Take 
 away one part, how many parts will remain ? Take 
 away one part, how many books will remain ? 
 Place sixteen birds on the desk, and divide them 
 into four equal parts ; how many birds are there in 
 each part ? 
 
 By the use of oral abstract questions, thus : How 
 many two's in 8 ? In 2 ? In 14 ? In 10 ? How 
 many times can four be taken from 8 ? From 24 ? 
 From 32 ? Twelve is how many times 2 ? How 
 many times 4 ? How many times 6? How many 
 times are four contained in 8 ? In 12 ? In 20 ? &c. 
 Sixteen contains 2 how many times ? Contains 4 ? 
 Contains 8 ? &c. What is one-third of 9? Of 15? 
 Of 21 ? Of 18? &c. 
 
 Primary Arithmetic. 
 
 With the long established methods in arithmetic 
 it seems impossible to advance anything that is new. 
 
 Some teach first the subject of addition, then sub- 
 traction, etc. Others begin with 1, and teach all 
 there is to know about it before passing over to 
 another number. Teaching for instance the number 
 
198 ARITmiETIO. 
 
 1, they make the children perform all the operations 
 possible within the limits of this number. The 
 child lias to see and to keep in mind that — 
 
 1 + 1=3,1x1 = 1 1-1=:0, l-^l = l, etc. 
 
 2 + 1=3, 3 X 1=3, 2-1 = 1, 2^1=2, etc. 
 
 The whole circle of operation up to 2 was ex- 
 hausted before the child progressed to the number 
 3, which was to be treated in the same way. 
 
 Why adhere to the more scientific categories of 
 addition, etc, in the primary grade, whei'e they do 
 not help to make the subject any clearer to the child? 
 
 The first four process are naturally connected, and 
 will appear so in the child*s mind. 
 
 If you take away 1 from 2, and 1 remains, the 
 child in knowing this also understands implicitly 
 the opposite process of adding 1 to 1 and its result. 
 
 Multiplication and division are, in the same way, 
 nothing but another way for adding and subtracting, 
 so that we might say one operation contains, and 
 may be shown to contain, all the others. 
 
 '* You must teach the child to know the numbers 
 in some way or other," but "to know a number 
 really means to know also it most simple relations to 
 the number contained therein." Any child who 
 knows a number and its relation, must be also able 
 to perform the operations of addition and subtrac- 
 tion, etc., with it, as they are the direct result of 
 comparing two numbers with each other. 
 
 Only when the child can perform all these opera- 
 tions, for instance, within the limits of 2, can it be 
 supposed really to have a perfect knowledge of this 
 
CLEAR CONCEPTIONS. 199 
 
 number. This seems to be a rational method and 
 worthy of a trial ; it has proved superior in practice 
 to the methods in use. 
 
 A full exposition of it may be found in Beebe's 
 First Steps Among Figures, published by Davis, 
 Bardeen & Co. , Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 Pupils Must Acquire Clear Conceptions 
 of Processes. 
 
 Acquaintance with the process is the first step 
 towards practical skill in any operation ; and the 
 more intelligent it is, the sooner is skill acquired. 
 
 A knowledge of the process must precede any 
 attempt to give theory or to supply a rule. Theory, 
 in fact, implies that the conceptions it embraces are 
 already in the mind, and the rule is universal that it 
 spriugs from or is based on practice. 
 
 The process must be made clear by examples from 
 experience, aided in every possible way by sensible 
 representations, either objects, marks, or diagrams. 
 When these have set forth the process, it should be 
 made familiar by well-constructed examples to be 
 worked mentally. 
 
 Facility of Computation. 
 
 This, when a process is clear and intelligent, is a 
 matter only of memory, and depends on practice. 
 The two things to be secured are accuracy and 
 rapidity. Some of the devices by which this im- 
 portant habit may be established, are, a thorough 
 knowledge of all the tables, and much practice in 
 computation. 
 
200 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Written Analysis. 
 
 The teaclier should require the pupils to bring in 
 to the daily recitation a written analysis of one or two 
 problems. The mechanical process also should be 
 required, and the work should be neatly and cor- 
 rectly expressed. This work should be examined 
 by the teacher, else the pupils will lose interest in 
 its performance and become careless in the mechani- 
 cal execution. 
 
 Examine and ckoss-examine the pupils in theik 
 work, and see ip they can give a reason yob. 
 every step. 
 
 Suggestions to Teachers. 
 
 1. We cannot impress too strongly upon the 
 teacher^s mind that each lesson in arithmetic 
 must he at the same time a lesson in language. 
 As the pupil in the primary grade should be 
 generally held to ansiver in complete sentences 
 with clear and distinct articulation^ so especially 
 in arithmetic, the teacher should insist on Jluency, 
 smoothness and neatness of expression, and lay 
 special stress upon the p)rocess of the solution of 
 each example. As long as the language for the 
 number is not perfect, the idea of the number is 
 also defective. An example is not done lohen the 
 result has been found, but when it has been solved 
 in a proper way. Language is the only test by 
 which the teacher can ascertain v)hether or not 
 the' pupils have perfectly mastered any step. 
 
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 201 
 
 2. Teachers should avoid asking too many 
 questions. Such questions, moreover^ as by con- 
 taining half the answer, prompt the scholar, 
 should be omitted. The pupil should do the 
 talking as much as possible. 
 
 3. Every process ought to he illustrated by 
 means of an application to objects. Finger 
 lines, or any other objects, will answer the pur- 
 pose, but objects of some kind should always be 
 presented to the class. 
 
 By this method of teaching the pupil will not 
 be able to pass over much ground, but what he 
 does know, he will know thoroughly. 
 
 iVb new numbers should be commenced before 
 the previous one is perfectly mastered. It would 
 he a mistake to suppose that in teaching accord- 
 ing to this plan, memory is ?iot required on the 
 part of the child. Memory is an i?nportani 
 factor here, as it is in all i7i struct ion. I say this 
 boldly, though I know with some teachers it has 
 become almost a crime to say that memory holds 
 its place in education. To have a good memory 
 is, 171 their eyes, a sigfi of stupidity. Reviews 
 must frequently and regularly take place, and, 
 lastly, propositions must be thoroughly memo- 
 rized. 
 
202 ARlTEMmiG. 
 
 Fallacies iu the Analysis of Problems in the 
 Fundamental Rules. 
 
 Problem : — James had five cents and he found seven 
 more ; how many had he then ? 
 
 Addition. 
 
 First Step. — James had five cents and he foun J 
 seven more ; how many had he then? 
 
 Second Step — He had as many as the sum of five 
 cents and seven cents. 
 
 Third Step — Five cents plus seven cents are twelve 
 -cents. 
 
 Fourth Step. — Therefore, if James had five cents, 
 and he found seven more, he then had twelve cents. 
 
 Remarks. — In the above analysis, — as it is given in 
 many schools — the pupils have used fifty-one words. 
 No business man in solving this problem, would use 
 this rigmarole of words. If the teacher repeats the 
 problem, it is not necessary for the pupil to repeat it. 
 There is no objection — that is, no plausible one — to 
 the pupil's reading the problem from the book. 
 
 The great object sought for in the study of arith- 
 metic, is to develop and strengthen the reasoning powers. 
 
 It is a positive injury to require pupils to commit 
 to memory simple arithmetical problems, that are of 
 no value whatever after the answer is attained. 
 
 We encourage teachers to use a simple concise 
 analysis, instead of requiring pupils to commit to 
 memory the formulas found in too many text-books. 
 The following analysis is to be preferred, and it is 
 used by experienced teachers : — 
 
AJ!^ALYSIS. 203 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 Since James had five cents, and found seven cents, 
 he had the sum of five cents and seven sents, equal 
 to twelve cents. 
 
 In this analysis we have used twenty-three words ; 
 
 in the first fifty one words. "Therefore," etc., at 
 
 the close of a problem is an unnecessary repetition of 
 
 words. 
 
 Subtraction. 
 
 Aiialysis.] 
 
 First Step — A boy having seven marbles, lost five 
 of them ; how many had he left ? 
 
 Second Step — He had as many left as the difierence 
 between seven marbles and five marbles. 
 
 Third StepSeyen marbles minus five marbles are 
 two marbles. 
 
 Fourth Step — Therefore, if a boy having seven 
 marbles lost five of them, he had two left. 
 
 Simplified Analysis. 
 
 Since a boy having seven marbles lost five of them, 
 he had left the difference between seven marbles 
 and five marbles, equal to two marbles. 
 
 In the first analysis we have used fifty-two words ; 
 in the second twenty-five words. 
 
 Multiplication. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 First Step— At seven dollars a pair, what will five 
 pairs of boots cost ? 
 Second Step— It one pair cost seven dollars, five 
 
204 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 pairs will cost five times seven dollars ; (or more 
 frequently, seven pairs which are seven times one 
 pair.) 
 
 T'hird Step — Five times seven dollars are thirty-five 
 dollars. 
 
 Fourth Step — Therefore, at seven dollars a pair^ 
 five pairs will cost thirty-five dollars. 
 Si'mpUjied Analysis. 
 
 Since one pair cost seven dollars, five pairs will 
 cost five times seven dollars, equal to thirty-five 
 dollars. 
 
 In the first analysis we have used thirty-four 
 words ; in the second seventeen words. 
 
 Division. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 First Step — If a man laid out one hundred dollars 
 for cows, and paid tw^enty dollars for each one he 
 bought, how many cows did he buy ? 
 
 Second Step — If one cow cost twenty dollars, he 
 bought as many cows for one hundred dollars as 
 twenty is contained times in one hundred. 
 
 Tihrd Step — Twenty is contained times in one 
 hundred, five times. 
 
 Fourth aS/^jo— Therefore, if a man laiti out one 
 hundred dollars for cows, and paid twenty dollars 
 for each one that he bought, he boughi five cows. 
 
 Simplified Analysis, 
 He bought as many cows as twenty dollars is con- 
 tained times in one hundred dollars, or five times. 
 He bought five cows. 
 
DIVISION. 205 
 
 Some meet with dilficulty in analyzing problems 
 in division, when they consist of concrete numbers. 
 Division is finding how many times one number can 
 be subtracted from another of the same kind. 
 
 Dollars can be divided by dollars and by nothing 
 else. Yards can be divided by yards, and nothing 
 else, and so on for any other things that might be 
 mentioned. That dollars can only be divided by 
 dollars arises from the fact that division is but a 
 short process of finding how many times one number 
 or quantity can be subtracted from another, and we 
 can subtract only dollars from dollars ; therefore we 
 can divide dollars only by dollars. 
 
 ExamiJle — Divide |42 equally among 6 men. Now 
 we cannot divide $42 by men nor by 6 ; but if we 
 give each man a dollar, that will require $6, and $6 
 can be subtracted from '$43 seven times. Hence 
 we can give each man a dollar seven times, or we 
 can give him $7 at one time. 
 
 After the operation is performed, we may call the 
 7, seven dollars ; then the 6 will be a mere number, 
 and thus, indirectly, we may divide $43 by 6. 
 
 Practically, however,a all such operations are per- 
 formed abstractly, as 43, 6. 7, taken as mere num- 
 bers, and then mere logic decides upon the names. 
 
 Order of Solving Problems. 
 
 1. Require the pupils to state the conditions and 
 the demands of the problem. 
 
 2. Logical operation or analytical steps. 
 
 3. Mechanical operation. 
 
 4. Analysis. 
 
206 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 5. Conclusion. 
 
 6. IJediiction of the rule- 
 
 7. Definitions. 
 
 8. Tabulated review. 
 
 The study and solution of examples and their dis« 
 cussion in the class involve the following points : 
 1. Correct reading. 
 3. Examination preparatory to solution. 
 
 3. Analysis and solution. 
 
 4. Retracing steps 
 
 5. Readiness in solving and explaining problems. 
 Proper Results of Arithmetical Study. 
 
 fl. Correct perception. 
 
 l.Me„talcMscipUne||KXtii!:?°- 
 
 14. Attention. 
 
 2. Practical busi- ( 1. Accuracy, 
 ness preparation. ■< 2. Expertness. 
 
 ( 3. Rapidity. 
 
 3. Preparation for 
 advanced study. 
 
 Cautions to be Observed in Teaching 
 Arithmetic* 
 
 1. Present single ideas, single facts and single dif- 
 ficulties. 
 
 2. Call up each point in the lesson frequently. 
 
 3. Teach simple processes. 
 
 4. Keep the mind in an active state. 
 
 5. See that pupils get a clear perception of princi- 
 ples. 
 
 6. Fix and hold the attention. 
 
MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 207 
 
 Mental Arithmetic. 
 
 There should be no difference between the analysis 
 of a problem in mental and in written arithmetic. The 
 only difference between the two books is that the 
 mental arithmetic contains problems in which the 
 computation may be performed mentally, without re- 
 course to written symbols ; also, the answers are not 
 expressed. It is a fact that those pupils who have 
 been trained carefully in mental arithmetic, take up 
 the principles of higher mathematics more readily. 
 The language used should be sufficient to render the 
 solution of the example clearly intelligible to a 
 listener, yet so brief as not to retard, unnecessarily, 
 the process of mental calculation. The mental 
 arithmetic should both precede and accompany the 
 written arithmetic, step by step. In fact it would be 
 much the better way to select a text-book that con- 
 tained exercises'in both the mental and the written 
 arithmetic. In mental arithmetic the language 
 should be clear, and the words enunciated distinctly. 
 No hesitancy should be permitted — pupils should 
 pass through the solution rapidly. Pupils should be 
 required to construct original problems, and random 
 exercises should be given by the teacher in addition, 
 subtraction, multiplication and division, to teach 
 rapidity and accuracy in computation. 
 
 The teacher should give problems of a practical 
 nature to the class. 
 
 Written Arithmelic. 
 
 There is a great deal of perfectly barren mathe- 
 mrtical knowledge in this country, particularly 
 
2r"^ ARITHMETIC. 
 
 among those who have studied, not for knowledge, 
 but for a certificate or a diploma. 
 
 Not unfrequently do we meet with teachers who 
 can demonstrate problems in Algebra and Geometry, 
 who at the same time cannot make the least applica- 
 tion of them. Again, we have met teachers who 
 have graduated at the higher institutions of learn- 
 ing, who have passed over the rules of arithmetic — 
 finished the study — who would fail to solve a prob- 
 lem like the following : 
 
 How many feet in a board 12 ft. in length, and 13 
 inches wide? 
 
 They seem to be unaware that the rules of arith- 
 metic were ever intended for any practical use. 
 
 Such KiioAvledge of Doubtful Utility. 
 
 Knowledge, so confined and abstract, is of doubt- 
 ful utility, even as a mental discipline. Both theory 
 and practice should be united, or else wc preceive 
 nothing of the beauties of mathematics. " Detached 
 propositions and abstract mathematical principles 
 give us no better idea of true and living science than 
 detached words and abstract grammar would give us 
 of poetry and rhetoric." Small acquirements in 
 mathematics serve only to make us timid, cautious 
 and distrustful of our own powers — but a step or 
 two further gives us life, confidence and power. 
 
 Should We Study Mathmatics for the 
 Discipline ol the 31iad ? 
 
 The n^ere study of the mathematics will give but 
 little discipline. The object, and the only object, 
 
FOR DISCIPLINE, OR FOR USE? 209 
 
 should be to understand the subject studied, and if 
 that understanding is attained, the highest mental 
 discipline that the subject can yield will surely be 
 attained. 
 
 Those who study for an object so indirect and 
 indefinite can never be decidedly successfuly. And 
 those who teach with no other view than giving 
 discipline to the minds of their pupils, never more 
 than half teach. 
 
 Let a person undertake the study of any science 
 with no other object than the discipline of the mind, 
 the science will come to him with the utmost diffi- 
 culty. But let him commence the study with the 
 determination to understand it, and the science will 
 come to him with ease, and with it will come a 
 discipline of mind, the most pure and lasting that 
 
 man can attain. 
 
 Objects Sought. 
 
 The objects sought in arithmetical study should 
 
 be two-fold, — to give practical skill, including clear 
 
 insight into processes, facility in computation, and 
 
 readiness in dealing with practical problems; and 
 
 to make it an exercise in exact thinking. The 
 
 former is considered the primary object, because 
 
 demanded by the requirements of the pupil, who is 
 
 at school to be fitted for business ; but the latter as 
 
 securing a higher discipline of the mind, and as 
 
 giving a clearer insight into the nature of the work, 
 
 is of almost equal value. In pursuit of the former 
 
 object, the teacher will succeed the best who tries to 
 
 make the whole course of instruction and practice 
 
 disciplinary. 
 
210 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Logical and Mechanical Steps. 
 
 In the application of arithmetic there are two dis- 
 tinct operations, the logical one and the mechanical 
 one. 
 
 In too many schools greater attention is given to 
 the mechanical ; to some extent this is quite neces- 
 sary, and pupils should be made very familiar with 
 elementary processes. But after they become expert 
 in computation, greater attention should be given to 
 calculation, — the thinking The undisciplined direct 
 their attention more to the domg than the thinking, 
 when it should be the reverse ; and nearly all the 
 efforts of the good teacher are directed to make his 
 pupils reason correctl3^ If a person fails in an arith- 
 metical problem, the failure is always in the logic, for 
 false logic directs to false reasoning, and true logic 
 points out true operations. 
 
 The study of mathematics is a beautiful one, and 
 if taught properly it accustoms the mind to habits of 
 investigation ; if the knowledge is digested and 
 assimilated, it tends to produce an exact mind. 
 
 Pupils should be able to explain the processes, but 
 they should not be required to commit to memory 
 the rules or principles. 
 
 Questions as to Intellectual Arithmetic. 
 
 Is it absolutely established by fact and theory that 
 no harm results from requiring pupils to repeat ver- 
 batim the examples in intellectual arithmetic, — said 
 examples having been first enunciated by the teacher, 
 the pupils having no books ? 
 
SHO TJLD PROBLEMS BE LEARNED ? 211 
 
 It is suggested from the following considerations, 
 whether harm does not result : 
 
 First — Does not the requirement cultivate spas- 
 modic or momentary effort to retain the words, and 
 tlms lead partically to the habit ot forgetting them, 
 thus developing a most pernicious habit of forgetting 
 other facts that are important to remember ? 
 
 Secand — Does not the requirement so tax the recol- 
 lecting powers of the pupil that his reasoning powers 
 must necessarily be less active, and hence less devel- 
 oped? 
 
 Third — Is not the great object sought for in the 
 study of mathematics, to develop and strengthen the 
 reasoning powers ? 
 
 Fourth — Is not that one best disciplined m'entally 
 who is able to attend to and follow his own mental 
 powers or operations in his process of reasoning? 
 
 Fifth — Does the requirement to memorize tend to 
 strengthen or develop the habit of analytical reason- 
 ing? 
 
 Sixth — Is it not a positive injury to require pupils 
 to commit to memory simple arithmetical problems 
 that are of no value after the answer is obtained? 
 
 Seventh — Cannot a verbal memory be far better 
 
 cultivated by requiring pupils to commit facts, words 
 
 it may be, that are absolutely necessary to a correct 
 
 scholarship? 
 
 Fractions. 
 
 The term unity in mathematical science is applied 
 to any number or quantity regarded as a whole ; the 
 term unit in arithmetic, to any number that is used 
 as the base of a collection. 
 
212 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Every number, either integral or fractional, has 
 the unit 1 for a primary base. 
 
 A quantity rei^arded as a whole, called a unit^ is 
 the primary base of every fraction. 
 
 One of the equal parts of a unit called the frac- 
 tional unit, is the secondary base of every fractional 
 number. 
 
 The value of a fraction is the number of times it 
 contains the unit 1. 
 
 The quantity or unit that is divided into equal 
 parts, is the unit of the fraction. 
 
 One of the equal parts is called a fractional 
 
 UNIT. 
 
 In I of a pound, 1 pound is the unit of the frac- 
 tion, and i of a pound the fractional unit. 
 
 A Fractional unit or a collection of fractional units 
 is a FRACTION. (Or it may be considered one or more 
 of the equal parts of a unit, these parts correponding 
 to fractional units.) 
 
 Two integers are required to express a fraction : 
 one above a short horizontal line to denote the num- 
 ber of fractional units, called the numerator ; it 
 numbers, or expresses, how many are taken. The 
 other, below the line, expresses how many frac- 
 tional units it is divided into, and is called the de- 
 nominator ; it denominates or names and expresses 
 how many fractional units are equal to a unit. 
 
 The numerator and denominator taken together 
 are called terms of the fraction. 
 
 Fractions are of three kinds, common, decimal, 
 and duodecimal. One or more of the equal parts 
 
FRACTIONS. 213- 
 
 of a quantity, expressed by two numbers, one 
 written above the other with a line between them, is 
 a COMMON FRACTION — 5,5 and i. 
 
 Its denominator is other than ten, or some power 
 ©f ten. 
 
 A fractional number, whose value is less than a 
 unit, is a pkopee, fraction, as ?,S. 
 
 Remarks. —A proper fraction is so termed because 
 it expresses a value less than 1. An improper frac- 
 tion is not properly a fraction of a unit, the value 
 expressed being equal to or grater than 1. 
 
 A single fraction, either proper or improper, is a 
 
 SIMPLE FRACTION, \ | 
 
 A fraction of a fraction, or several fractions joined 
 by of, is termed a Compound Fraction, as 2 3 of 6-8 
 of 3-12. 
 
 A fraction in the numerator, or denominator, or 
 
 "- ^ 
 both, is termed a Complex Fraction, as — -^ 
 
 6 9 
 
 Dividing unity by any number is termed a Recip- 
 rocal; thus the reciprocal of 4 is ^. 
 
 An integral number added to a fractional number 
 is termed a Mixed Number, as 3 4- 1, 7 4-2 
 
 Remark. — The sign of addition is usually omitted. 
 
 General Principles. 
 
 1. Multiplying the numerator increases the value 
 of the fraction. 
 
 2. Multiplying the denominator decreases the value 
 of the fraction. 
 
 3. Multiplying both numerator and denominator 
 
814 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 by the same number does not alter the value of the 
 fraction. 
 
 4. Dividing the numerator decreases the value of 
 the fraction. 
 
 5. Dividing the denominator increases the value of 
 the fraction. 
 
 6. Dividing both numerator and denominator by 
 the same number does not alter the value of the frac- 
 tion. 
 
 Demonstrations of the Principles. 
 
 1. Because it increases the number of fractional 
 units while the value of the fractional unit remains 
 the same. 
 
 2. Because it diminishes the valueoi the fractional 
 unit, while the number remains the same; it dimin- 
 ishes the value of the fractional unit because the unit 
 of the fraction is divided into a greater number of 
 tractional units, and each fractional unit is as many 
 times less in value as there are units in the multiplier. 
 
 3. Because it increases the number of fractional 
 units as many times as it decreases the value of the 
 fractional unit; that is in the same ratio. 
 
 4. Because it diminishes the number of fractional 
 units, while the value of the fractional unit remains 
 the same. 
 
 5. Because it increases the value of the fractional 
 unit, while the number xQn\^mB the same; it increases 
 the value of the fractional unit because the unit of 
 the fraction is divided into a less number of fractional 
 units, each fractional unit being as many times 
 greater in value as there are units in the divisor. 
 
FRACTIONS, 215 
 
 6. Because it diminishes the number of fractional 
 
 units as many times as it increases -the value of the 
 
 fractional unit. 
 
 Principles. 
 
 1. If the numerator be multiplied by any number, 
 the number of fractional units will be increased as 
 many times as there are units in the multiplier, 
 
 2. If the numerator be divided by any number, 
 the number of fractional units will be diminkhed as 
 many times as there are units in the divisor. 
 
 3. If the denominator be multiplied by any num- 
 ber, the fractional units will be diminisJied as many 
 times as there are units in the multiplier. 
 
 4 If the denominator be divided by any number, 
 the value of the fractional units will be increased as 
 many times as there are units in the divisor. 
 
216 ARITHMETIC . 
 
 Analysis of a Fraction. 
 
 Naming the quantity or unit divided, tlie value of 
 one of its fractional units, tlie number of fractional 
 units, the denominator, numeratoi and the terms of 
 the fraction, is to analyze a fraction. 
 
 Thus: Analyze the fraction |-. 
 Analysis. 
 
 - is a fraction because it expresses 4 of the equal 
 parts of a unit. 1 is the unit of the fraction, or the 
 unit that is divided to form the fraction. ^ is the 
 fractional unit, or one of the equal parts of the unit 
 divided. 5 is the denominator, it names the parts; 
 it shows that the unit is divided into 5 equal parts; 
 it tells the size or value of each part. 4 is the nume- 
 rator; it numbers the parts taken to form the frac- 
 tion; it is written above the line. 4 and 5 are the 
 terms of the fraction, and its value is 4 f 5. 
 To Reduce Fractions to their Lowest Terms. 
 Problem and Operation. 
 
 Reduce ^ to its lowest terms. 
 
 Operation. 
 16-:-4— ^_ 
 20-:-^ 5' 
 
 Analysis 
 
 Dividing -by ^ r=: — ; as the numerator and de- 
 
 ° 26 •'^ 4 5 ' 
 
 nominator are prime to each other, the fraction is 
 reduced to its lowest terms. This depends upon the 
 following principle: Dividing both terms of the frac- 
 tion by the same number does not alter the value of 
 the fraction, because the number of fractional units 
 
REBTICTION OF FRACTIONS. 217 
 
 is decreased as many times as the value of tlie frac- 
 tional unit is increased. (Deduce the rule.) 
 
 To Reduce an Improper Fraction to an Integer 
 or a Mixed Number. 
 
 Problem and Operation. 
 
 125 
 
 Reduce —^ to an integral number. 
 
 ^ ,. 125-:-5 — ^^ ^125 25 ok 
 
 Operation: -^-.^.s— 25, or 5) —=-=25. 
 Analysis. 
 
 In 1 there are 5 fifths; in 125 fifths, as many ones 
 as 5 is contained in 125, or 25. This depends upon the 
 following principle: Dividing both terms of the 
 fraction by the same number does not alter the value 
 of the fraction; the same reason as when we reduce 
 fractions to their lowest terms. (Deduce the rule.) 
 
 To Reduce an Integer or Mixed Number to an 
 Improper Fraction. 
 
 ProUem and Operation. 
 Reduce 49 g^ to fifths. 
 
 Operation: y x 49= -g-* 
 
 • _245 2 _247. 
 
 5 +5 "5"' 
 
 Analysis. 
 In 1 there are 5 fifths ; in 49 ones, 49 times 5 fifths, 
 or 245 fifths: plus 2 fifths equals 247 fifths. This de- 
 pends upon the following principle : Multiplying both 
 terms of the fraction by the same number does not 
 alter the value of the fraction, because the number 
 of fractional units is increased as many times as the 
 value of the fractional unit is decreased. (Deduce 
 the rule.) 
 
218 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 To Reduce Fractions to a Common Denomi. 
 nator. 
 
 Problem and Operation. 
 
 Reduce 
 
 i3, 3, 
 
 4, 15. 
 
 
 5 6 
 
 8 4 
 
 
 X24' 
 
 '2 
 "" 120 
 
 
 3X20 _ 
 
 _ bO 
 
 
 "6X20' 
 
 "" 120 
 
 
 4X15. 
 
 _60 
 
 
 "8x15" 
 
 "120 
 
 
 15x25 
 
 _375 
 
 
 4x25" 
 
 ~120 
 
 Analysis. 
 The least common multiple of the denominators is 
 120 ; dividing the least common multiple by the de- 
 nominator of the first fraction, we have the quotient 
 24; multiplying both terms of the fraction by 24, we 
 have 72 120ths. This depends upon the following 
 ing principle: multiplying both terms of the fraction 
 by the same number, does not alter the value of the 
 fraction, because it increases the number of fractional 
 units as many times as it decreases the value of the 
 fractional unit. (The same analysis for the remain- 
 ing fractions.) 
 
 Addition of Fractions. 
 
 Problem and Operation. 
 
 Add 3^^^ 2. 
 4 4 
 
 Operation : ^ i 1 _? — i i. 
 
 4"'' 4"" 4 4 - 
 
S UB TRA CTION OF FRA CTIONS, 219 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 As the fractions have the same fractional unit, we 
 
 may add the numerators ; _ plus - — -^r-l -* 
 
 4 4 4 4 
 
 Add ^ and ^• 
 
 8 7 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 As the fractions 5_ and ^ have different fractional 
 8 7 
 
 wmYs, first reduce tt em to fractions having the same 
 
 fractional unit. ^ is equal to ^; ^ is equal to ^; 
 8' 56 7 56 
 
 now as the fractions are of the ?-ame fraciional unit 
 value, we may add the numerators; ?5-i_l?=?? — i?Z. 
 
 56 ~'~ 56 56 56 
 
 (Deduce the rule.) 
 
 Subtraction of Fractions. 
 
 Problem and Operations. 
 
 Subtract ^ from ^. 
 5 4 
 
 Operation :_? ^ 
 
 5 20 
 ^ 15 
 
 4 20 
 15__8__7 . 
 20 20~"20 '^°^- 
 
 Analysis. 
 The fractions ^ and ^ have different fractional 
 
 5 4 
 
 units. First reduce the fraction to the same frac- 
 tional unit value. J equal ^; _^ is equal to _§ ; as the 
 
 4 20 5 20 
 
 fractions are of the same fractional unit value, we 
 
 may subtract one numerator from the other giving 
 
 us J_. (Deduce the rule.) 
 20 
 
220 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Multiplication of Fractions — To Multiply a 
 Fraction by an Integer. 
 
 Problem and Operation. 
 
 Multiply ^ by 4. 
 
 16 
 
 Operation : _^ x '^— ^ _i: 
 
 16 10 ~~ 2 
 
 16-^4 ■~"4~2 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 Multiplyina: ^ by 4, by multiplying the numerator 
 " 16 
 
 is equal to 8^ or 1. This depends upon the follow- 
 
 16 2 
 
 ing principle : Multiplying the numerator increases 
 
 the value of the fraction, because it increases the 
 
 number of fractional units, while the value of the 
 
 fractional unit remains the same. 
 
 Again, multiplying ^ by 4, by dividing the denom- 
 16 
 
 inator, is equal to ^ or }_. This depends upon the 
 
 4 2 
 
 following principle: Dividing the denominator in- 
 creases the value of the fraction, because it increases 
 the value of the fractional unit, while the number re- 
 mains the same; it increases the value of the frac- 
 tional unit, because the unit of the fraction is divided 
 into a less number of fractional units, and each frac- 
 tional unit is as many times greater in value as there 
 are units in the divisor. (Deduce the rule.) 
 
 To Multiply an Integer by a Fraction. 
 
 Problem and Operation. 
 Multiply 24 by f . 
 
MTIL TIPLIGA TION OF FRA CTI0N8. 221 
 Operation (a) : ^ >< 24=— 
 
 O 
 
 ^s,o— 1?— 16, Ans. 
 Operation (b) : i of 24=8. 
 
 Operation (c) : 24 X 2= 18 
 
 48^3 = 16, Ans. 
 Analysis of Operation. 
 
 (a) Once 24 is 24; j_ times 24 is ?^ ; 1 times 24 
 
 3 3 3 
 
 is 2 times ?! or ^_16, Ans. 
 
 3 3 
 
 (b) i of 24 is 8 ; i, 2 times 8 or 16, Ans. 
 
 : 3 
 
 (c) Multiplying 24 by 2=48; as tlie multiplier is 
 three times too great in value, the product is three 
 times too great in value. To give its required value 
 divide by 3, which gives us 16, Ans. (Deduce a 
 rule.) 
 
 Note. — See that the pupil understands that f of 1 
 is the same as i of 2. 
 
 To Multiply a Fraction by a Fraction. 
 Problem and Operation. 
 Multiply 1 by 5 . 
 7 8 
 
 Operation (a): 3 8 ^^ 
 y x-gor— ^ 
 
 7 '^ 8 ~"56 
 
 56 56 
 
 Operation (b) : J^x^ — 
 
 7 —7 
 
 15 15 
 
 7 X 8=^56 Ans. ' 
 
222 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Analysis of Operation. 
 
 (a) 3 multiplied by 1 or l=i ; i multiplied by to 
 
 7 8 7 7 1 
 
 is equal to 3^. Since J. multiplied by 1 is equal 8 
 
 56 7 8 
 
 ^ ,3^ multiplied by 5 will be equal to 5 times 3 or 15 
 
 56 7 8 56 56 
 
 (b) Multiplying ^ by 5 is the same as multiplying 
 
 7 8 
 
 by the eighth part of 5. First multiply 3 by 5 = 
 
 7 
 
 1^; as the multiplier is eight times too great in value 
 
 7 
 
 the product will be eight times too great in value; 
 
 hence to get its required value divide 13 by g, by 
 
 7 
 
 multiplying the denominator, which gives ^. 
 
 56 
 
 Division of Fractions— To Divide a Fraction 
 by an Integer. 
 
 Problem and Operation, 
 
 Divide 8 by K 
 
 5 
 
 Operation (a): ^-f. 3 __ 2^. 
 
 7 7 
 
 Operation (b) : 6 _^_^. 
 
 7 X o —21—7 
 
 Analysis, 
 Dividing^ by ^~.^; according to the principle 
 
 7 7 
 
 which says: Dividing the numerator decreases the 
 value of the fraction, because it diminishes the num- 
 ber of fractional units, while the value of the frac- 
 tional unit remains the same. 
 
 Again, dividing^ by 3, by multiplying the denom- 
 
 7 
 
 inator is equal to A; multiplying the denominator 
 21 
 
DIVISION OF FBA GTIONS. 223 
 
 decreases the value of the fraction, because it dimin- 
 ishes the value of the fractional unit, while the num- 
 ber of fractional units remains the same ; it dimin- 
 ishes the value of the fractional unit, because the 
 unit of the fraction is divided into a greater number 
 of fractional units, and each fractional unit is as many- 
 times less in value as there are units in the multiplier. 
 (Deduce the rule.) 
 
 To Divide an Integer by a Fraction. 
 
 Problem of Operation. 
 Divide 8 by 3. 
 
 Operation (a): ^ ^ ft— 4^- 
 5 ^ °~5 
 
 Operation (b) : g _i_ o — 2—* 
 
 o 
 
 2|-X 5=13|-- 
 In 1 there are 1; in 8, 8 times Arz:15; 12 divided by 
 
 3__ 5 5 5 5 
 
 5— loi. 
 
 (5) Divide 8 by 1, or the fifth part of three ; 
 5 
 divide 8 by 3 gives us 2f, now as the divisor is 
 
 five times too great in value, the quotient is only one- 
 fifth of its required value ; to get its required value 
 multiply the quotient by five, which gives us 131-. 
 (Deduce the rule.) 
 
 To Divide a Fraction by a Fraction. 
 
 Problem and Operation. 
 Divide f by f . 
 
224 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Operation (a): — >^ 3 — 
 
 4X28 
 Operation (b):-^^=| 
 
 8 8 -^^ 
 
 Operation (c):^=- 
 ^— — 
 
 3~~12 
 12 • 12"" 8 " 
 
 Analysis of Operation. 
 
 (a) 1 is contained in f, three-fourth times; i is 
 contained in f , three times f , or ^ times ; f will be 
 contained in -j> y of —^ or- times. 
 
 (b) Dividing f by 2 gives us | ; as the divisor is 
 
 three times too great in value, the quotient is only \ 
 
 of its required value ; multiplying the quotient | by 
 
 3 gives us ^=li Ans. 
 8 
 
 (c) Reduce f and f to a common denominator, f 
 
 is equal to ^; ^is equal to £ ; ^ divided by 8^ is 
 13 3 12 12 12 
 
 equal to ^ or \\. 
 
 8 
 
FINAL SUGGESTIONS. 225 
 
 General JRemarks. 
 
 It is not expected in a manual for teachers to ex- 
 plain every rule in arithmetic. A few rules have 
 been carefully explained and illustrated in detail ; 
 and these are suggestive only. The plan of this work 
 has been to give a course of reasoning leading to 
 those conclusions from which rules are drawn, — and 
 this is given in language free from technicalities, and 
 easy to be understood. 
 
 The explanations for "Written Arithmetic are so 
 given as to put the pupil into the place of the origi- 
 nal reasonei\ until he arrives at a conclusion from 
 which he can deduce the rule for himself. 
 
 After the pupils are familiar with the process 
 and have received sufficient drill, they should be 
 taught to analyze problems. The teacher should see 
 that the analysis is thoroughly understood and accu- 
 rately recited. They should be required to write out 
 an analysis, and the pupil that presents the most sim- 
 fU and concise analysis should write it on the board, 
 subject to the criticism of the class. See that the lan- 
 guage is used correctly ; that it tells " the truth, the 
 whole truth, and nothing but the truth.*'' Now, require 
 every member of the class to commit the analysis 
 verbatim, as he would a demonstration in Euclid — for 
 experience teaches that those pupils who are critically 
 close in committing verbatim the demonstrations in 
 Geometry make by far more accurate reasoners and 
 ready mathematicians. 
 
 There are teachers who allow a wide range in the 
 forms of analysis as long as the language is good and 
 
226 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 the reasoning logical. While we would insist upon 
 the development of individuality and originality on 
 the part of the pupils, yet, as mathematics is an ex- 
 act science, the language used in the analysis sJiouId 
 bd exact. 
 
 I cannot see how language may be cultivated if the 
 teachers allow a wide range in the use of words ; I 
 call that the best analysis which is the most simple 
 and concise. 
 
 Retracing the Steps in the Solution of a Prob- 
 lem. 
 
 It is very common for the pupil to suppose that to 
 explain an example simply means to state what ope- 
 rations — what processes were performed in reaching 
 the results. Hence, ^he will consider it an unreason- 
 able question if asked why he added or subtracted^ 
 multiplied or divided. 
 
 Such an explanation should never be accepted. To 
 explain a problem, means to assign a reason for each 
 of the several steps. I have heard the following 
 given as an analysis to a problem in division of frac- 
 tions. Divide f by |. 
 
 " Invert the terms of the divisor and proceed as in 
 multiplication." The rule tells lioic to solve the prob- 
 lem ; the analysis gives the reason for each step. 
 
 Practical Problems. 
 
 A large number of pupils who pass through the 
 entire arithmetical course in our best schools fail to 
 make application of their knowledge. This is owing 
 to a lack of practical application of the rules. For 
 
STICK TO THE PRACTICAL. 227 
 
 example, let them measure the school room, find out 
 the area, measure the yard, fields, etc, ; in all the 
 tables make a practical application at the time. 
 
 Too much time is wasted in solving problems in 
 continued addition, multiplication, division ; I have 
 known a class to linger a week upon casting out the 
 y'sin addition. All such subjects as these and many 
 others, like circulating decimals, true remainder, for- 
 eign exchange, alligation, algebraical and geometri- 
 cal problems, should be omitted in our public schools. 
 By those who wish to pursue advanced studies, the 
 subjects quoted may be studied ; bnt, as a majority 
 of the pupils leave school at the average age of 
 twelve years, they should be drilled upon the subjects 
 that they will be obliged to use through life. 
 
 I would go so far that when a class had finished a 
 portion of the arithmetic, — say to fractions, — every 
 member should be able to solve any problem under 
 the rules, giving a simple analysis, deducing the rule 
 and reproducing the definitions. 
 
 Problems. 
 
 The pupils should bring to the class upon their 
 slates or paper, problems already solved, with their 
 analysis. 
 
 The teacher should be sure to hear the lesson as- 
 signed, otherwise the pupil may become careless in 
 its preparation. After the pupils have recited what 
 they have prepared, they should be put to the test in 
 many ways ; the skilful teacher will not only examine 
 the pupils, but will cross-examine them. The teacher 
 should call upon pupils for an original problem ; 
 
228 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 should give them practical problems and not leave a 
 subject until they are able to make application of it, 
 under each subject discussed. These should be ex- 
 amined by the teacher, carefully corrected and re- 
 turned to the pupil. These exercises should be con- 
 tinued until good examples, illustrating any poin- 
 that may be presented, can be given in the class witht 
 out previous preparation. 
 
 They should be made familiar with the simplest 
 forms of commercial paper; able to write a negotia- 
 able note; cast interest upon notes where partial pay- 
 ments have been made; find the profit and loss upon 
 articles bought and sold. No subject is fully mas- 
 tered by the pupil until he is able to illustrate in this 
 manner. 
 
 Whatever text-books are used, many outside prob- 
 lems should be given. Among the books of prob- 
 lems published are the following: 1. The Regents' 
 Questions; 1866-1878; in book form, 25 cts.; key 25 
 cts. Boxes of these problems, each on a card-board 
 slip, with Key, $1.00. Davis, Bardeen & Co., Syra- 
 cuse, N. y. 2.|Wentworth's Arithmetical Problems, 
 75 cts. Harper & Bros., New York. 3. Robinson's 
 Arithmetical Problems, $1.00. Key, $1.00. Ivison 
 Blakeman, Taylor &BCo., New York. 4. Ray's Test 
 Examples, 45 cts. Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cin- 
 cinnati. 
 
GRAMMAR. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Oral ^sson.s should precede the study of the text- 
 book, as a preparation for it. The ideas involved in 
 the definitions should be developed, before the pupils 
 are required to commit these definitions to memory. 
 The contrary practice, once so common, is very dis- 
 couraging and injurious to the pupil, since it compels 
 him to learn by rote a mass of verbiage which is 
 perfectly unintelligible to him. 
 
 Our text-books appeal chiefly to the memory and 
 the ordinary grammar should be presented to a class 
 as the study of language. Another reason why pu- 
 pils so often dislike grammar is that they are hurried 
 over the subject so rapidly that they become bewil- 
 dered and utterly discouraged. 
 
 Grammar deals largely with abstract subjects, and 
 for this reason alone, time is an important element in 
 the attainment of proficiency. A great deal of time 
 is wasted upon this subject; if wisely presented, as it 
 should be, it will prove one of the most delightful 
 and interesting studies. 
 
 One of the most common faults in teaching gram- 
 mar is that of requiring pupils to commit to memory 
 ^00 many definitions, rules and observations. 
 
230 
 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 It is an abstract subject and at first it should be 
 taught orally, ; all the terms should be carefully 
 developed, explained, and fully illustrated by copious 
 examples. When these terms are fully understood, 
 theuj and not until then, should the pupils be required 
 to commit them to memory. As fast as the terms 
 are learned, the pupils should be required, in all 
 cases, to embody them in sentences of their own con- 
 struction. 
 
 Grammar. • 
 
 The Sentence. 
 
 I. develop tlw Sentence. 
 
 II. develop the parts of a f /. Subject. 
 
 Sentence. ^ -n r- ^ 
 
 I 2. /dedicate. 
 
 ^3. ^eclara= 
 
 tive. 
 
 III. develop the hinds of 
 Sentences (as to use^ 
 
 <J 2. zfnterro^a^ 
 tive. 
 
 3. J'mpera'= 
 tive. 
 
 4. Sxclama^ 
 
 IV. develop the forms of 
 Sentences (as to prop^ 
 ositions^ 
 
 rij. 
 
 7. Simple. 
 
 < 2. Complex. 
 3. 'Compound. 
 
PRELIMmAIlT imTRUGTION. 231 
 
 V. Seach the correct use of Capital S^et'^ 
 
 ters. 
 
 VI. SeacJi the correct use of Punctuation 
 
 Jiarlcs. 
 
 Manner of Teaching the First Lessons in 
 Grammar. 
 
 The Sentence. — Lesson No. 1. 
 
 Ask the pupils to think of some object Ask them 
 how you may know the name of the object. They 
 perceive that before their thoughts can be known to 
 others they must express them. In order to commu- 
 nicate your thoughts, what must you use ? They 
 will discover that to express a thought, they must 
 use words. Now ask each, pupil to express the 
 thought, as " the bird sings;" " the tree grows;" "the 
 boy laughs;" " the clock ticks," etc. They are now 
 told that a thought expressed in words is called a 
 sentence. 
 
 Require the pupils to form several sentences oral- 
 ly, using the following analysis: 
 
 c/ first tliinlc about something j c/ use 
 
 words to express my thought. She words 
 
 used are: '^ She lird sings J ^ S'hese 
 
 words exvress a thought, and it is called a 
 
 sentence. ,&€ thought expressed in words 
 
 is called a sentence. 
 
233 GRAMMAR. 
 
 Tmhe Subject. 
 
 The pupils have already discovered that there must 
 be an object or subject of thought in the mind. And 
 when they tell their thoughts they speak of some ob- 
 ject or subject and tell something about it. They 
 are led to see this in every sentence. By repeated 
 trials they soon find that they can form no sentence 
 without speaking of something and telling something 
 about it. 
 
 From this explanation they will see that that of 
 which something is said or which is spoken of, is called 
 the subject; and that which tells what is said of the 
 subject is called the predicate. 
 
 Ask the pupils to express a sentence and analyze 
 it. *' The clock ticks." 
 
 ^^She clock ticks/-' is a tliougTit expressed 
 
 in words : it is a sentence j the word 
 
 '• clock ^^ represents the ohject spoken of j 
 
 it is the subject. S'he word '^ ticks ^^ rep=- 
 
 resents what is said of the clock j %t is the 
 
 predicate. 
 
 That of which something is said, is called the sub- 
 ject. 
 
 That which is said of the subject, is called the 
 predicate. 
 
 The Object. 
 
 By a similar process of development the pupils 
 are led to observe the object of a sentence. 
 
KINDS OF SENTENCES. 233 
 
 The teacher should write at the board all the sen- 
 tences given. 
 
 Kinds of Sentences. 
 
 It would be w ell for the teacher to ask questions 
 of the pupils and endeavor to get in reply the differ- 
 ent kir-ds of sentences, as asking, telling, etc. The 
 teacher should write these sentences as given by the 
 pupils on the board, and let the pupils discover the 
 differences. Let them see that every telling or decla- 
 tive sentence, ends with a period. Every asking or 
 interrogative sentence ends with the mark of interro- 
 gation, every exclaiming sentence with an exclama- 
 tion point, and every commanding or imperative sen- 
 tence with a period. 
 
 Review. 
 
 Note. — To be committed to memory. 
 
 /. c^ tlwuglit e^xprC'Ssed in words is a 
 sentence. 
 
 2. SJiat of wliicli something is said^ is 
 called the sicbject. 
 
 3. Shat which tells what is said of the 
 subject^ is called the predicate. 
 
 4. Shat which receives the act^ expressed 
 iy the predicate, is called the odject. 
 
 5. Svery sentence should heyin with a 
 capital letter. 
 
234 GRAMMAR. 
 
 6. Sveri/ sente^ice sltould end ivitk a 
 vunotuation marh. 
 
 The Telling, or Declarative Sentence. 
 
 Leswi No. 2. 
 
 Q. Make a sentence about this cap.. 
 
 A. The cap is red. 
 
 Note. — The teacher writes it on the board, while 
 the pupils spell the words. 
 
 Q. What did you do when you made this sen- 
 tence ? 
 
 A. "We told you something said about the cap. 
 
 Q. Becaase this sentence tells or says something, 
 what kind of a sentence may we call it ? 
 
 A. We may call it a telling sentence. 
 
 Q. What then is a telling sentence ? 
 
 A. A sentence that tells or declares something. 
 
 Q. What mark must be placed after the last word 
 of every telling sentence ? 
 
 A. A period. 
 
 Q. What have we learned in our lesson of to-day? 
 
 S4. S4 sentenc& that tells sometliing^ is 
 
 called a telling^ or declarative sentence. 
 
 ^Ve must place a period after the last 
 
 word of every telling , or declarative sen-^ 
 
 tence. 
 
 Note. — Require the pupils to write on their slates 
 the definition of a sentence, subject, predicate, ob- 
 
IMPEEA TIVE SENTENCES. 235 
 
 ject, a telling sentence and the rule for punctuation. 
 Let the pupils spell the words, and examine the 
 slates carefully . 
 
 The Asking, or Interrogative Sentence. 
 
 T. I will ask you a question, and will write it on 
 the board. " Do you love study ?" What did I do ? 
 
 Pa. Tou asked a question. 
 
 T. Because it asks a question, what kind of a sen- 
 tence is it? 
 
 Pa. An asking sentence. 
 
 2\ What is an asking sentence ? 
 
 Pa. A sentence that asks a question, is an asking 
 sentence . 
 
 Note. — Let the pupils repeat, spell w^ords and 
 write the definition on their slates; ask them to ex- 
 amine the reading books, and bring in asking sen- 
 tences. 
 
 Drill upon the above until every member knows 
 how to use the period and interrogation mark. 
 
 The Commanding, or Imperative Sentence. 
 
 T. Tell me to do something. Can I use another 
 word instead of tell ? 
 Pa. You can use command. 
 T. Give me a command . 
 Pu. Hand me a cup. 
 T. What does this sentence do ? 
 Pa. It makes a command. 
 T. What kind of a sentence may we call it ? 
 Pa. A commanding sentence. 
 
236 GRAMMAR. 
 
 T What is a commanding sentence ? 
 Pu. A sentence that expresses a command is a 
 commanding sentence. 
 
 T. What mark have I placed after the last word 
 of the commanding sentence? 
 Pu. . A period . 
 
 T. How do I begin a commanding sentence? 
 Pu. With a capital letter. 
 T. How do I close it ? 
 Pu. With a period. 
 T. What is a sentence? 
 
 What is a telling sentence ? 
 
 What is an asking sentence? 
 
 What is a commanding sentence ? 
 
 How do I close every asking sentence ? 
 
 How do I close every telling sentence ? 
 
 Write five telling, five asking, and five com- 
 manding sentences. 
 
 Write the definitions of the telling, asking and 
 commanding sentence. 
 
 The Exclaiming, or Exclamatory Sentence. 
 
 T. If you should see a house on fire, what would 
 you say ? 
 Pu. O, see the fire ! A house on fire ! 
 T. What would you call these expressions ? 
 Pu. Exclamations 
 T. What do these sentences do ? 
 Pu. They make exclamations, 
 T. What kind of sentences are they ? 
 Pu. Exclaiming sentences. 
 
EXCLAIMING SENTENCES. 237 
 
 T. What is an exclaiming sentence ? 
 Pu. A sentence tLiat makes an exclamation, is an 
 exclaiming sentence. 
 
 T. What word do you find after the last word ? 
 
 Pu. An exclamation point. 
 
 T. You may all write an exclaiming sentence. 
 
 Note. — Require the pupils to repeat all the defini- 
 tions, — see that they understand the idea before com- 
 mitting them to memory. Let them construct and 
 write many sentences, and hold them rigidly to the 
 correct use of capital letters and punctuation marks, 
 and require neatness in every exercise. Work on 
 each sentence until it is right. If necessary to suc- 
 cess, be willing to work three days on one short les- 
 son. "Not how much, but how well should be the 
 motto " 
 
 Review. 
 
 Note. — To be committed to memory. 
 
 /. S4 thought expressed in words is a, 
 Senteyice. 
 
 2 J S€ sentence tliat tells or declares 
 sometlhing is a Selling or declaring Sen= 
 tence. 
 
 3. Softer the last word of every Selliyig 
 or ^eclariyig Sentence we must place a 
 period 
 
238 GRAM3fAB. 
 
 4. 64 sentence that aslcs a question is 
 an S4sTcing or interrogating Sentence, 
 
 5. S4fter the last word of every S€sTcing 
 or J-nterrogative Sentence we must place 
 an interrogation marTc. 
 
 6. <S€ sentence that expresses a com= 
 mand is called a Commanding or Jm= 
 perative Sentence. 
 
 'r. S4fter the last word of every Com=- 
 mandiyig or imperative Sentence, we must 
 place a period. 
 
 8. 64 sentence that maTces an exclama^ 
 tion is an Sxclaim.ing or Sxclamatory 
 Sentence, 
 
 9. Softer the last word of every Sxclaim= 
 ing or Sxclamatory Sentence, we must use 
 
 the exclamation point. 
 
 Note. — Simple as this may seem, it requires on the 
 part of the teacher a great deal of patience to teach 
 it thoroughly. This is a very important subject, and 
 the pupils should be able to make practical applica- 
 tion of the above points. " Make haste slowly." 
 TIseB of Capital Letters. 
 
 The attention of the pupils should be called to the 
 
SENTENCES AND PROPOSITIONS. 239 
 
 capital letters at the beginning of all these different 
 sentences. This is very important, and one of the 
 most practical rules in grammar. Eequire written 
 exercises to be brought into the class, subject to the 
 criticism of the class and the teacher. 
 
 Recapitulation. 
 
 After the pupils have been made thoroughly famil- 
 iar with the sentence, subject, predicate and object, 
 also the kinds of sentences, capital letters and punc- 
 tuation marks, they should be required to form sen- 
 tences and analyze them, and write the definitions 
 of all the terms that have been taught. A perfect 
 understanding of the thought to be expressed is essen- 
 tial to correct analysis ; hence, the first step should 
 be to prepare the pupils to analyze sentences they 
 themselves have constructed. When they shall be- 
 come quite expert at this, they may analyze the 
 thoughts of others. 
 
 Let it be the aim of the teacher to present the sub- 
 ject so pleasantly and attractively that pupils will not 
 say, as is often the case, "what a dry, distasteful, 
 uninteresting subject." 
 
 Sentences Classified According to their 
 Propositions. 
 
 Lesson 1. 
 
 T. Jennie, what have you in your hand ? 
 Pu. " I have a book." (Teacher writes the answei 
 on the board.) 
 
 T. What is the subject ? 
 Pu. The subject is "I." 
 
240 GjRAMMAB. 
 
 T. WLat is the predicate ? 
 Pu. "Have a book." 
 
 S'. 'When the subject and predicate ex= 
 press a conplete thought it is called a 
 
 single proposition. 
 
 T. You may now repeat it. 
 
 Pu. Suppose it does not express a complete 
 thought? Oh, Mary, you are thinking. 
 
 T. It may, or it may not, express a complete 
 thought, and still be a proposition ; for a proposition 
 is the union of a subject and a predicate. In the 
 example. " I have a book," the thought is complete. 
 In the example, " If I go,' it is incomplete; both 
 are propositions. 
 
 Fred, do you like all the boys in school ? 
 
 Pu. I like the boys who study. 
 
 T. Read the first proposition. 
 
 Pu, "I like the boys." 
 
 T. That is right: why is that a proposition? 
 
 Pu. Because it is the union of a subject and a 
 predicate. 
 
 T. What kind of a proposition is it ? 
 
 Pu. A single proposition, because it expresses com- 
 plete sense. 
 
 T. Do the words *' who study," make sense ? 
 
 Pu. They do not, if used alone, but with the other 
 proposition, they assist to complete the sense. 
 
 T. That is right. Are the words "who study," a 
 proposition ? 
 
 Pu, They are ; because it is the union of a subject 
 
SENTENCES AND PROPOSITIONS. 241 
 
 and predicate. A proposition by itself may or may 
 not form a sentence. 
 
 T. What is such a proposition as "who study," 
 called ? Do you know ? 
 
 Pu. It is called the second proposition. 
 
 T. You might call it that, but it would not be defi- 
 nite : we will call it a clause, as it performs different 
 offices. 
 
 T. In the sentence *' I like the boys who study," 
 which do you think is the principal proposition ? 
 
 Pu. "I like the boys." 
 
 2\ Why do you think that is the principal ? 
 
 Pu. Because it is that which expresses the leading 
 thought. 
 
 T. That is right. Let all repeat that. That which 
 expresses the leading thought is the leading proposi- 
 tion. 
 
 Pu. But what of the words " who study ?" 
 
 T. Do they make complete sense ? 
 
 PiL. They do not; they seem to have something 
 to do with the principal proposition. 
 
 T. That is right, John. They tell the kind of boys. 
 We may call them the " study boys." It is not the 
 principal proposition. What shall we call it ? In a 
 
 regiment we have principal officers and (Fred 
 
 answers) "subordinate." That is right, Fred. As 
 the words " who study " modify the principal prop- 
 osition we will call it a subordinate clause. Now, 
 my brave fellows, what is a subordinate clause? 
 
 Pu. The clause that modifies the principal propo> 
 sitiou, is a subordinate clause. 
 
243 GBAMMAR. 
 
 T. You may all repeat it slowly; so you see that 
 subordinate parts or elements are those that belong to 
 other elements. They are called subordinate because 
 they are under in order, or in importance. 
 
 T. Now, let us find another kind of proposition. 
 I see two boys in the park. Tell their names. 
 
 Pu, Charles and Frank. 
 
 T. What are they doing ? 
 
 Pu. Charles runs and Frank walks. 
 
 (Teacher writes answer at the board.) 
 
 T. Read the first proposition ? 
 
 Pu. " Charles runs." 
 
 T. Read the second proposition ? 
 
 Pu. " Frank walks." 
 
 T. Does the last proposition belong to any word 
 in the first ? 
 
 Pu. It does not. 
 
 T. Does the first proposition belong to any word 
 in the second ? 
 
 Pu. It does not. 
 
 T. Does the first proposition express a complete 
 thought in itself ? 
 
 Pu. It does. 
 
 T. Does the second proposition express a com- 
 plete thought in itself ? 
 
 Pu. It does. 
 
 T. Since each proposition expresses a thought by 
 itself, meaning that it is not dependent, what shall 
 we call it ? I will tell you. We call the proposi- 
 tions co-ordinate. It means that the propositions are 
 of equal rank. We will now repeat. Propositions 
 of equal rank or order are caled co-ordinate. 
 
KII^BS OF SENTEN'CES. 243 
 
 S'. S4 sentence composed of one propo= 
 sit ion is called a simple sentence : a sen= 
 tence composed of a principal and suh= 
 ordinate propositions^ is called a complex 
 sentence j a sentence composed of two or 
 more co-ordinate propositions is called a 
 compound sentence. 
 
 Note.— The teacher should not leave this division 
 until the pupils can bring into the recitation written 
 examples of all the different sentences. Also, re- 
 quire the pupils to analyze the sentences. 
 
 Beview. 
 
 /. S€ proposition is. the union of a sub= 
 ject and a predicate. 
 
 2. r9l proposition ly itself may or may 
 not form a sentence. 
 
 3. S4 single proposition is a sentence 
 when it expresses a complete thought. 
 
 4. £4 proposition may form an element 
 of a sentence J it is then called a clause. 
 
 5. She principal proposition of a sen= 
 tence is that which expresses the leading 
 thought. 
 
244 
 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 6. S4 siibordinat& proposition is one- that 
 77iodifie'S th& principal. 
 
 ^. ^0 ^ordinate propositio7is ar& those of 
 equal ranlc' in the same senteyice, 
 
 8. f&i simple sentence is one composed 
 of iut 07ie proposition, 
 
 9. S4 complex sentence is one composed 
 of a principal and one or more siibordi^r 
 nate propositions. 
 
 70. 64 compound sente7tce is one com^ 
 
 posed of two or more co-ordinate proposi=> 
 
 tions. 
 
 Classificaiion of Sentences and their Ele- 
 ments. 
 
 Sentences, 
 
 Clauses, 
 
 Phrases, 
 
 Subjects, 
 
 Predicates, 
 
 Objects, 
 
 Attributes, 
 
 Modifiers, 
 
 'Simple, 
 
 are classified in respect ■{ Compound, 
 to form and use, as 
 
 ^ Complex. 
 
 are ciassmeu | ueciarauve, | cimruia,- 
 Sentence*; t in respect to j Interrogative, ! tive 
 ^^^''^°^^^' (^ kind or prop- 1 Imperative, ( or^ 
 osition, as [^Exclamative, J negative 
 
 ) 1 •- J • ♦ ( Principal, 
 
 Clauses, [ f^, classmed m respect ) g^^i^ordinate, 
 ' r to kmd and proposition, ] Co-ordinate . 
 
GENERAL FORMULA. 
 
 245 
 
 are classified in respect / Prepositional, 
 f.. i.i^^ ^ }• Infinitive, 
 
 Phrases, 
 
 Sentences, 
 Clauses, 
 Phrases, J 
 
 Elements 
 
 of 
 Sentences 
 
 Elements / 
 of Phrases C 
 
 to kind. 
 
 ) Participial, 
 
 f Substantive, 
 are classified in respect! Adjective, 
 to office and use. 1 Adverbial, 
 
 t Independent. 
 
 Principal, 
 
 S Subject, ( Verb, 
 Predicate, jCopui^^-d 
 
 I Object, 
 ) Modifiers. 
 
 arp olflssifipd ( Principal, j Connective, 
 are classilied J ^ Subsequent, 
 
 ^^^^ ' Adjunct, j Words, 
 I Modifiers. 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ . .. ( Coordinate, 
 Conjunctions] g^^^^^.^.^^^^^^ 
 
 Conjunctive Adverbs, 
 Connecting Elements ^ Copulas, 
 
 are classified into 
 
 Phrases, 
 
 Relative Pronouns, 
 
 Prepositions. 
 
 Independent Elements ( Interjections, 
 ^ , T . , -N bubstantives, 
 
 are classed into | ^^^.^^ ^^ Euphony. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 That we begin to teach where the philosopher 
 ends, is singularly applicable to the three extra 
 subjects of elementary schools — geography, grammar 
 and reading. 
 
 Few among teachers have seen that the scientific 
 study of a subject implies that the mind has been 
 first furnished with the ideas and facts which form 
 the subject-matter of it, and which it is the province 
 of science to explain and classify. 
 
 As a branch of school instruction, Geography has 
 two stages, — a preparatory, and a S} stematic or 
 scientific one. 
 
 Primary Geography. 
 
 In the primary or preparatory, the object should 
 be to furnish the mind with so much of the material 
 as is necessary to make the systematic study interest- 
 ing and profitable ; in the advanced or scientific 
 study, the aim should be careful teaching to make it 
 an instrument of intellectual discipline. 
 
 Geography acquires its full value as a branch of 
 education only when it loses the character of an 
 accumulation of facts, undigested by the child's mind, 
 
FIEST STEPS IN GEOGRAPHT, 247 
 
 and becomes real In his memory, linked by association 
 with the world of thought and action which immedi- 
 ately surrounds it or that which is within it. 
 
 Tell the child to observe the lines of the map which 
 hangs perpetually before his eyes, and talk to him 
 only of the names upon it, and you will soon weary 
 his attention ; but speak to him of the living men who 
 inhabit that country, — tell him of their stature and 
 aspect and dress, and ways of life, and ot their forms 
 of worship; speak of its climate — of the forms 
 of vegetable and auimal life with which his eye 
 would be conversant if he dwelt there — of trees and 
 flowers, and you excite him to a new life. 
 
 First Step. 
 
 /. Talk about the earth as a whole — of what it is 
 composed and what may be found upon. it. 
 
 The heavens catch the child's atieution early, and 
 he wishes to know about the sun, moon and stars. 
 He has a general knowledge of the earth ; he has 
 learned something about land and water, varieties of 
 surface, the location of places, vegetable products, 
 natural and cultivated, and the animal and mineral 
 kingdoms. 
 
 These things may he said to comprise the elements, 
 ot geographical study; and they may be made the 
 subjects of direct study by the children. 
 
 With these, the study of geography may begin ; 
 not by learning words from a book., but by actual 
 observation, guided by the oral instruction of the 
 teacher. 
 
248 GEOGBAPHY. 
 
 In teaching the first step in geography, explain tc 
 the children that the sun, moon and stars are large 
 balls, and that they resemble the ball we live upon. 
 Tell them that we call this ball the earth, and that 
 " the earth liangeth upon nothing," floating free in 
 space like a bird in the air, To excite the pupils' 
 curiosity, and give them a correct idea of the form of 
 the earth, blow a few soap bubbles before them, and 
 let them float in the air, Tell ihem that a body of 
 the shape of a ball is called a globe or a sphere. 
 Talk about the outside ot different objects and tell 
 them that the outside of an object is called the sur- 
 face. The outside of the earth is called the surface 
 of the earth. 
 
 The immense magnitude of the great globe he can- 
 not as yet imagine ; at first be content to see that he 
 understands its form and motion. 
 
 Let the children see that if they should walk on the 
 earth a certain number of hours or days in any direc- 
 tion, they would come to the water. 
 
 They will now see that the surface of the earth is 
 composed of land and water. 
 
 Tell them the fiict that one-fourth of the earth's 
 surface is land and that three-fourths is water. 
 
 Now explain to the child the figures on the globe ; 
 which is meant for land, which for water, and show 
 him his own country. 
 
 Draw an oblong figure upon the board and divide 
 it into four parts, let three parts represent the water 
 and one part the land. Draw a circle upon the board 
 and let three parts represent the water and one part 
 
LESSON'S ON THE GLOBE. 249 
 
 the land. Use colored chalk. The illustrations will 
 tend to impress the correct ideas on the mind. 
 *' Happy illustrations excite curiosity." 
 
 Now, on looking at the globe, the first thing that 
 must strike every one is, how much more water there 
 is on it than dry land. Tell the children that we may 
 ride for days and weeks on the water and not see any 
 land. 
 
 Let them see how very unequally the land. is 
 arranged, instead of being spread evenly all over 
 the surface ; it is collected together, some portions 
 very large and some very small. Let them see the 
 roughness of the fields and roads and hills, not to 
 speak of the high mountains or depths of the sea. 
 
 In the foregoing account we have spoken of the 
 earth as a sphere, or a globe, or an exactly round 
 ball. But this though practically true for our pur- 
 pose, is not strictly correct, for the earth is not exactly 
 round. You can see it is not. On so big a ball as 
 the earth however, these things do not count for 
 much. The earth, although so large, so many miles 
 around it, may be traveled over — we can go around 
 it. A train of cars at the rate of 40 miles per hour, 
 would pass around the earth in about 26 days. 
 
 Now, ask the children what may be found upon 
 the surface of the earth ? They will give names to 
 the difl'ereut kinds of matter, such as trees, shrubs, 
 plants, rocks, and, hordes, cows, etc. 
 
 Let them see that the different things named may 
 be classified. Tell them to name the different things 
 found within the earth that do not grow : as iron, 
 
250 GEOGBAPHT. 
 
 lead, gold, silver, rocks, pebbles, sand, etc. Tell 
 them that these objects belong to the Mineral Class. 
 
 Tell them to name the things only that grow out of 
 the earth : as trees, plants, shrubs ; the different 
 kinds of trees, plants and shrubs. Tell them that 
 these objects belong to the Vegetable Glass. 
 
 Tell them to name the animals that are found on 
 the land, in the water, and in the air. Tell them 
 that these objects belong to the Animal Glass. 
 
 Ask the children which class they belong to, and 
 
 tell them wherein they differ. That plants grow, 
 
 breathe, take food and die. That brutes do the same ; 
 
 but that men differ in that they also possess a mind 
 
 and a soul. 
 
 For Recitation. 
 
 1. The earth is a large ball or shpere. 
 
 2. Its surface is composed of land and water ; one- 
 fourth is land and three-fourths are water. 
 
 3. Minerals, vegetation and animals are found upon 
 
 the earth. 
 
 Second Step. 
 
 11. Give instruction upon the relative position oj ob- 
 jects and places. 
 
 Draw their observation to relation, position or 
 place, beginning with the situation of the things 
 which they see around them, and the distances of 
 these from each other. Question the children as to 
 the position of objects before them, and lead them 
 to describe how they are placed with regard to each 
 other, as above, below, on this side or that side, etc. 
 The teacher should represent the positions of these 
 
POINTS OF COMPASS. 251 
 
 objects on the board and request the pupils to copy 
 
 the representations on their slates. These exercises 
 
 will prepare them to appreciate the value of a map. 
 
 Proceed with fixed divisions of space. Make clear 
 
 the limits and form of its boundaries. 
 
 Study the position of objects and places in regard 
 
 to absolute and relative distances. Make the school 
 
 room the first division of space. Map with accuracy 
 
 all the things learned, and have the pupils reproduce 
 
 the representations. 
 
 Third Step. 
 
 III. Give the children a knowledge of the cardinal 
 points of the compass in their use in geographical des- 
 cription. 
 
 East and West. 
 
 When children have been accustomed to determine 
 the relative position of objects, they must be let to 
 consider ^^aces in the same point of view ; and to this 
 end they should be made acquainted with the use of 
 the several points of the compass. 
 
 Let the class face the North. Ask them to point 
 where the sun rises and where it sets. Tell them that 
 the place in the heavens where it rises is called the 
 East — that in which it sets, the West. Excite them 
 to observe, both at home and at school, that the sun 
 rises in the East and sets in the West. 
 
 Close the lesson by a stimultaneous repetition, 
 
 *'That direction in which the sun rises is called the 
 East ; and that in which it sets, the West." 
 North and Sonth. 
 
 Commence this with a repetition of the preceding 
 
252 GEOORAPHY. 
 
 one. Call on the children to place themselves with 
 their right hand to the East and their left to the 
 West, and then tell them that the point directly 
 before them is the North, and that directly behind 
 them the South. 
 
 Aslc them to repeat together, " If we stand with our 
 right hand to the East and our left hand to the West, 
 the point directly before us is the North, and that 
 directly behind us, the South." Ask the pupils to face 
 the East, the South, the West and the North. Let 
 the children place a stick or draw a line with the 
 chalk on the floor, in the direction of North, South, 
 East and West. 
 
 In such exercises the object is to occupy only so 
 much time upon each new idea as may suffice iofix 
 it on the mind. A figure should be drawn on the 
 hoard representing the compass, or better still a small 
 compass should be exhibited. The teacher should 
 see to it that the children are firm on one step of the 
 ladder of knowdedge, before they proceed to another, 
 and not iceary and disgust them, by keeping them 
 too long o'n one subject. 
 
 Semi' Cardinal Points. 
 
 When we wish to represent the situation of differ- 
 ent places on paper or on a slate, we call the top 
 North, the bottom South, the right hand East and 
 the left hand West. The teacher writes the four 
 cardinal points on the board But are things or 
 places always exactly at the North, the South, the 
 East or the West ? Where may they be ? They 
 
POINTS OF COMPASS. 253 
 
 ma}'^ be between any two of these points. A point 
 
 half way between North and East is Northeast. 
 
 Wliat doyou think half way between North and West 
 
 is called ? Develop the other semi-cardinal points in 
 
 the same way. j^rill upon the above facts. Draw a 
 
 square at the board and let the children mark and 
 tell the cardinal and semi-cardinal points. 
 
 Draw a circle on the board and mark off the prin- 
 cipal and intermediate points. 
 
 Let the teacher draw the outline of the roc^m on 
 the floor in chalk, and mark the position of objects 
 within it, and when a map of the room is substituted, 
 place it first in a horizontal position. 
 
 Let the pupils place the different articles in the 
 room along the northern, the eastern, southern and 
 western boundaries 
 
 Require them to draw the room according to the 
 same scale, and mark the relative positions of the 
 objects. 
 
 Let them measure the length of the school room by 
 a foot measure ; see that it is correctly done. 
 
 Let the childien see that we cannot represent the 
 dimensions of the room on the board by using the 
 scale of feet, but that we must use the scale of inches. 
 Now let one foot of the room be represented by one 
 inch on the slate or board. If the room is twelve 
 feet long, how many inches shall we make oar line 
 on the slate? Twehe. Proceed in the same manner 
 until the children obtain a correct idea of a scale. 
 For example, the inch, the foot, the yard, the rod 
 and the mile. 
 
254 GEOGBAFBY. 
 
 Teach the location of streets and the direction of' 
 them ; the public building, etc. Let the children see 
 that in geography we need not say top and bottom, 
 right and left, but we call them north, south, east 
 and west. When you are in front of a globe or a 
 map, the top is north, the bottom is south, the right 
 hand is east, and the left hand is west. 
 
 Fourth Step. 
 
 IV. Give instruction and drill upon geographical 
 definitions. 
 
 La?id Divisions. 
 
 Draw an irregular figure on the board represent- 
 ing one of the divisions of the earth,— say, South 
 America, In drawing the coast, (that is, a rib or 
 side — the edge of the land near tbe sea,) make the 
 projections and indentations prominent, so that we 
 may be able to use the figure to give the children a 
 correct idea of the shape of land and water divisions. 
 Tbe larger figure will represent one ot the mainlands 
 of the world, as distinguished from islands, which, 
 though large, are still evidently surrounded by the 
 sea ; and it is called a Continent. 
 
 A prominent projection of land from the const, — 
 not quite an island, not quite surrounded by the 
 water, — is called a Peninsula. It proj(Cts from i he 
 mainland or body, and generally is quite narrow at 
 tbe point of projection and gradually widens. 
 VVbere there is a Peninsula there ought to be an 
 Isthmus, which is a neck of land connecting it with 
 the mainland. 
 
DIVISIONS OF WATER. 255 
 
 Proceed in the same manner to develop all the 
 land divisions. Continue the drill until all the 
 children understand what is meant by the terms 
 used — such as Continent, Penin,nila, etc. 
 
 Let the children draw many figures until they are 
 perfectly familiar with all the land divisions. 
 
 Water Divisions. 
 
 Let the children see that all the water of the earth 
 
 belongs to one great ocean, sometimes called the sea. 
 
 Tell them that the ocean is the largest bodj'^ of water. 
 
 Talk to them about the extent of the ocean, what is 
 
 found within its waters, and the great thoroughfares 
 
 of commerce. 
 
 Gulf and Bay. 
 
 Draw a figure with a prominent indentation in the 
 coast, and let the children see that a recess in the 
 coast is called a Gulf and Bay. The gulf is usually 
 the narrower and deeper, and the bay broader and 
 more open of the two. In fact, the words are used 
 without exactness of distinction. 
 
 A narrow passage of water between two continents, 
 not very deep, is called a Strait. A Sound is also a 
 narrow passage of water between two continents or 
 islands, but much deeper. All of the water divisions 
 may be represented on the board in such a manner 
 as to convey very correct impressions. Develop all 
 the terms in the same manner. 
 
 The teacher should not be content until these terras 
 are thoroughly understood and mastered. The object 
 of them all is to teach the pupils about the earth, 
 and they are of no use if they do not do that. Get the 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 pupils into the nabit of looking at the country itself 
 
 finding out all the ideas they can and what they all 
 
 mean. 
 
 Begin at Home. 
 
 The most important spot for us all in this and 
 many other respects is our homes. What sort of a 
 country is it ? What about its hills and mountains ; 
 its valleys and plains ; its resouices and thorough- 
 fares? Can you answer all these questions? It is 
 that sort of inquiry, begun at your own home and 
 gradually inclining to other countries and scenes till 
 you know all about them, which is the useful part of 
 that great science of man and nature of which Geog- 
 raphy is an important part. There is no subject 
 which unites you to a higher, happier life, than 
 Geography. Keep your eyes open, and you will see 
 something to study every day of your life. 
 
 How to Teach Geograpy. 
 
 Instruction in Geography embraces two depart- 
 ments, viz : Primary and Advanced. 
 
 Primary Geography should be strictly objective; 
 Advanced must of necessity be subjective. 
 
 Objective instruction operates on objects present 
 to the senses, perceiving in them certain principles 
 and relations, and gradually realizing that the princi- 
 ples herein perceived are common to all objects of 
 the same kind. 
 
 This involves conception, generalization, and 
 finally abstraction, — this is the law of development. 
 
 I. Teach direction, and apply it to the school- 
 house and immediate surroundings. 
 
GENERAL DIRECTIONS 
 
 II. Teach dimensions, especially in the smaller 
 denominations, with frequent tests. Direction and 
 dimensions are essential to conception of space and 
 distances in space. 
 
 III. Proceed with fixed divisions of space. Make 
 clear the form of its boundaries. 
 
 Study the position of things within the space in 
 regard to distances and directions. Make the school 
 room the first division of space. Map with accuracy 
 all the things learned ; have the pupils reproduce the 
 maps. 
 
 IV. Take the school-house grounds as the second 
 division of space and apply the preceding principles ; 
 thence In succession the district, the township, the 
 county, the State, the nation, the world. 
 
 V. Study the vegetation, the animals, and the min- 
 erals of the smaller spaces. Give names and uses, 
 distinguishing the wild animals and vegetation from 
 those which are cultivated. 
 
 VI. Study the occupations and the trades of the 
 people. 
 
 VII. Study the manufactures and the forces em- 
 ployed in driving the machinery. 
 
 VIII. Study the commerce and the transportation. 
 IX.'Study the social, religious and political organ- 
 izations. 
 
 The above may be all taught objectively ; for ex- 
 amples of them come within the perception of every 
 ordinary child, if he be but taught to use it. 
 
 This local geography should be exhausted before 
 undertaking the general study of the world ; it gives 
 the basis of understanding the subjective treatment 
 
258 GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 Advanced Geography, 
 
 I. Study the form, size aud position of llie earth. 
 
 II. Study its surface in respect to land and water 
 and their rehitions. 
 
 III. In studying particular divisions pursue a nat- 
 ural order, viz ; outlines, surface, climate, vegetation, 
 minerals, animals, nations. 
 
 General Caution. 
 
 The geography of the common school is not true 
 geography ; it is a miserable hotch-potch of insignifi- 
 cant fragments, and is utterly unworthy the great 
 name it bears and the time it occupies. Gigantic 
 facts, magnificent generalizations, splendid specula- 
 tions, involving, as they do, the mightiest problems 
 in several of the other sciences, are certainly not fit- 
 ting food for little children's minds. Their imagina- 
 tions are confounded at its first propositions. The 
 huge round world, swinging unsupported in limited 
 space, and wheeling with an inconceivable velocity 
 along its trackless orbit, parcelled into vast expanses 
 of contment and still vaster oceans, and peopled with 
 a billion of human beings, what a conception is this to 
 oflfer to a little child ! Picture it, explain, illustrate 
 it as we will, it still remains a great mystery of which 
 nothing is learned but the vaguest ideas. Nor are 
 its later problems less difficult than these first and 
 fundamental notions. The alternations of day and 
 night, with their varying lengths in different latitudes 
 and diflerent seasons ; the variety and succession of 
 the season and their relation to climate ; the preces- 
 sion of the equinoxes ; the movements of the tides ; 
 
MAP-DBA WING. 259 
 
 the flow of the oceanic currents ; the sweep of the 
 winds ; the great laws of climate ; the geographical 
 distribution of plants and animals, and the migra- 
 tions and varying civilizations of the human race ; — 
 these surely are not questions for mere tyros in learn- 
 ing and novices in study to solve. 
 
 Map-Drawing, 
 
 Suggestions. 
 
 1. Begin with the school-room and draw a plan of 
 it on the board. 
 
 2. Draw around it the plan of the yard. 
 
 3. Let the children measure the dimensions of the 
 room and the yard and draw^ the plan to various 
 scales. 
 
 4. Draw a map of the neighborhood, village, city, 
 etc. 
 
 5. Let the pupils indicate the various streets, 
 public buildings, etc. 
 
 7. Give thoeough drill. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Introductory. 
 Advanced Geography enables us to give some cul- 
 ture to the understanding. Facts have to be classified, 
 generalizations to be made, laws to be discovered and 
 the connection of causes and eflects to be established. 
 It is now clearly understood that the most profitable 
 way of teaching the geography of a country is to take 
 up its physical features first, and then the facts which 
 
260 GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 depend upon them. To be made acquainted with the 
 phy&ical features of a country is as nece-saiy to a 
 geographer as the knowledge of the bones and great 
 blood vessels of the human frame is to the anatomist. 
 One in order to understand the real geography of a 
 country, — its organic structure, if I may ^o call it, the 
 form of its skeleton — that is, of its hills ; the magni- 
 tude and course of its veins and arteries, — that is, of 
 its streams and rivers ; — should conceive it as a whole 
 made up of connected parts ; and then the position of 
 man's dwellings, viewed in reference to these parts, 
 becomes at once easily remembered, lively, and 
 intelligible besides. 
 
 The use of the blackboard in teaching geography 
 is now general. Its relation to the use of maps is 
 better understood than it was. It furnishes the means 
 of exhibiting any portion of a map on a larger scale, 
 and bringing out prominently any feature that may 
 be required — maps often confusing because so 
 crowded. 
 
 By means of colored chalk, the separate classes of 
 facts may be kept distinct and their relation more 
 clearly shown. All facts presented to the eye are 
 impressed on the mind. "The faithful sight en- 
 graves the knowledge with a beam of light." 
 
 In the treatment of this subject, Physical and Poli- 
 tical Geography will be associated as inseparable — as 
 one subject — with this fact overlooked geography be- 
 comes a mass of meaningless details, without either 
 cause or correlation, while its study degenerates into 
 men role work. 
 
GENERAL FEATURES. 2G1 
 
 Study of North America. 
 
 /. Position. 
 
 1. North America is in the Western Hemisphere. 
 
 2. It is the Northern Grand Division. 
 
 3. It is found in the New World. 
 
 11. Extent. 
 
 1. It extends from the Arctic Ocean almost to the 
 Equator. 
 
 2. It is about 4,800 miles in length. 
 
 3. It is about 3,000 miles in width. 
 
 4. Area in square miles 8,929,660. 
 
 5. Comparative size — It is double the size of 
 Europe, but only one-half as large as Asia. 
 
 ///. Form. 
 1. In form this Grand Division is triangular. 
 
 IV. Outline. 
 
 1. Its outline is irregular. 
 
 2. The projections and indentations are prominent. 
 
 3. The Northern Coast is the most irregular. 
 
 4. The Atlantic seaboard is much more indented 
 by bays and gulfs thtin the Pacific coast 
 
 5. These inbreakings furnish good harbors, and 
 this is a commercial advantage. 
 
 V. Coast. 
 NoKTHERN Coast. 
 
 1. The principal projections from the Northern 
 coast are the Peninsulas of Labrador, Melville and 
 Boothia. The principal capes are Cape Charles, Cape 
 Chidley, Cape Bathurst, aud Cape Barrow. 
 
263 OEOaRKPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 2. The principal indentations are Hudson's Bay, 
 James Bay, Ungava Bay, and Coronation Gulf. 
 
 3. Tbe adjoining islands are Southampton, Fox 
 Land, Prince William's Land, Prince of Wales, 
 Prince Albert, Melville, and Grinnell's Land. 
 
 4. The commercial advantages are limited. 
 
 Eastern Coast. 
 
 1. The principal projections from the Eastern 
 coast are Peninsula of Nova Scotia, Cape Cod, Cape 
 May, Cape Charles, Cape Henry, Cape Hatteras, 
 Cape Lookout, Cape Canaveral, and Peninsula of 
 Yucatan. 
 
 2. The principal identations are the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence, Bay of Funda, Massachusetts Bay, Cape 
 Cod Bay, Long Island Sound, Narragansett Bay, 
 and Chesapeake Bay. 
 
 8. The adjoining islands are New Fouudland, Cape 
 Breton, Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, Long Island, 
 Bermuda, Bahama, and the West Indies. 
 
 4. The commcrc al advantages are unlimited, 
 since the Atlantic seaboard lies nearest the great 
 markets of the Old World. 
 
 Southern and Western. Coast. 
 
 1. The principal projection from Ihe Southern 
 coast is the Peninsula of Florida; from Western 
 coast, Corrientes, Cape St. Lucas, Peninsula of Cali- 
 fornia, Cape Mendocino, Cape Flattery, and the 
 Peninsula of Alaska. 
 
 2. The principal indentations are the Gulf of 
 Mexico, Bay of Campeche, Bay of Honduras, Gulf 
 
GENERAL FEATURES. 263 
 
 of California, San Francisco Bay, Gulf of Georgia, 
 Bristol's Ba}', and Norton Sound. 
 
 3. The adjoining islands on the Western coast are 
 Vancouver's, Queen Charlotte's, Sitka, Kodia and 
 Alulian. 
 
 VL Straits. 
 
 1. The straits on the Northern coast are Davies' 
 Strait, Hudson's Strait, Frobisher's Strait and Bark's 
 Strait ; on the Eastern coast, Strait of Belleisle and 
 Florida Strait ; on the Western coast, Strait of Juan 
 de Fuca. 
 
 2. The commercial advantages are limited ; few 
 harbors are found on the Southern and Western coast. 
 
 VIL Belief, 
 
 1. The vertical configuration of the continent or 
 island — that is, its elevation as a whole — varied by 
 plains, table lands, mountains and valley, is called 
 its relief. 
 
 The relief may be said to consist of elevation and 
 depressions. 
 
 The forms of relief are exceedingly varied ; the 
 elevations when they reach or exceed 1000 feet are 
 called plateaus or taJjle lands ; when less than 1000 
 feet, are called plains or low lands ; the term hill is 
 applied to ridges less than 2000 feet in elevation. 
 
 A knowledge of the reliefs of continents is of the 
 utmost importance. 
 
 A difierence in altitude of no more than 330 feet, 
 is sufficient to produce a temperature of one degree, 
 being equivalent to a difference of seventy miles in 
 latitude. 
 
264 GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMEfilCA. 
 
 Again, the relief of a continent controls its drainage, 
 shaping the river basins and directing the course of 
 the rivers, and influences to a certain extent the 
 direction and character of the winds and the distri- 
 bution of rivers. 
 
 VIIJ. Common Features of Continental Relief. 
 
 1. Structure of Continents. — According to the 
 theory of modern geographers there are six contin- 
 ents. There are certain grand features common to 
 all — a peculiar combination of mountain systems, 
 plateaus and plains. Each continent has upon one 
 side of the centre a great mass of elevated lands, 
 usually extending throughout its entire length, and 
 constituting the 'primary feature of its structure. On 
 the opposite side is found a similar, though smaller 
 and less elevated mass extending through a part of 
 the continent, and constituting the secondary feature 
 of the continental structure. Between the primary 
 and secondary elevations is a central depression, 
 which forms the third feature common to all contin- 
 ents. 
 
 These elevated masses are sometimes called the 
 main axis and secondary axis of a continent. There 
 is a marked unity of structure — one common plan 
 pervading all the continents. In each of the two 
 Americas, the main axis extends through the entire 
 length of the continent. The main axis lies near the 
 Western shore ; the secondary axis near the Eastern. 
 Vast low plains occupy the interior ; but the plains 
 on the seaward slope of the axis are only of limited 
 extent. 
 
MO TmTAlN SYSTEMS. ■ 265 
 
 IX. Surface of North America. 
 
 The surface of North America is naturally divided 
 into five parts : The Western or Pacific Highland ; 
 the Low Central Plain ; The Eastern or Atlantic 
 Highland ; and the Pacific and Atlantic Slopes. 
 
 a. Western or Pacific Highland. — The Pacific 
 Highland, or Great Plateau Belt, which forms the 
 primary feature of North America, occupying 
 almost all of the Western half of North America, 
 extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Isthmus of 
 Panama. 
 
 This region consists of a vast plateau, surmounted 
 by two lofty mountain systems, the Rocky Mountains 
 on the East and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade 
 ranges on the West, with numerous shorter paralled 
 ranges lying between them. The breadth of the 
 plateau between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra 
 Nevadas is not less than GOO miles, and the more 
 Northern portions have a breadth of about 300 miles ; 
 the plateau is quite low in the North, but rises grad- 
 ually as it extends to the South. The elevation in- 
 creases, though a succession of swells and depres- 
 sion, from 800 feet near the Arctic shore to 8000 feet 
 in the table-land of Mexico, whence it decreases 
 rapidly Southward. 
 
 The Rocky Mountains form the main watershed in 
 the United States, and five of the largest rivers, — 
 the Missiouri, the Rio Grande ; the Colorado, the 
 Columbia and the Yukon. It includes three basins — 
 the basm of the Columbia and the Colorado rivers, 
 and between them the Great Basin of Utah. 
 
266 GEO GRAF HT OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 The Pacific Plateau extends from the Rocky Chain 
 on the east to the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Moun- 
 tains on the "West. Their Eastern slope is short and 
 abrupt, its base resting upon the plateau, which is 
 from 2,000 to 4000 feet in elevation. The Western 
 slope is long and gentle, descending into extensive 
 valleys which are but little above the level of the sea. 
 
 Low mountains called the Coast Range lie between 
 these border chains and the Pacific Ocean. The 
 Coast Ranges North of Cape Flattery is broken into 
 a series of islands. 
 
 The Rocky Mountains rise to a height of 8000 feet 
 above the surrounding country ; they are from 12000 
 to 15000 feet above the sea level. 
 
 h. The Atlantic Highlands form the secondary 
 feature of the continent, and they extend from the 
 Northern coast of Labrador nearly to the Gulf of 
 Mexico ; approaching, but not meeting the Western 
 highlands on the South. This region consists of the 
 plateau of Labrador, with the Laurentide Moun- 
 tains on the North of the St. Lawrence, and the 
 Appalachian System and the adjacaut low plateaus 
 on the South. 
 
 2. The Labrador Plateau is about 2,000 feet in 
 elevation, and the Laurentide Mountains are rarely 
 above 4,000 feet. 
 
 3. The Appalachian region is composed of a suc- 
 cession of low, parallel mountain ranges, separated 
 by long, trough-like valleys ; and a plateau about 
 2,000 feet high, which descends gently from the 
 crest of the westernmost range towards the interior 
 of the continent. 
 
 I 
 
GREAT PLAINS. 267 
 
 The average height of the mountain chain is about 
 3,000 feet. The highest peaks are from 6,000 to 
 6,700 feet in elevation. It has very little table land. 
 
 c. The Low Central Plain lies between the two 
 highlands of the continent, which, with but slight 
 variations of level, stretch from the Arctic shores 
 to the Gulf of Mexico. A slight swell near the centre, 
 designated the Height of Land, separates it into two 
 parts, one descending northward to the Arctic Ocean, 
 the other southward to the Gulf. This swell which 
 connects the Atlantic with the Pacific highlands, is 
 from 1,000 to 2,000 feet above the level of the sea. 
 The Central Plain is formed by the long, gentle slope 
 descending eastward from the base of the Rocky 
 Mountains. 
 
 3. On the South their intersection is marked by 
 the position of the Mississippi River. On the North 
 a broad low swell, approximately parallel with the 
 Rocky Mountains, extends from Lake Superior to 
 the Arctic Shores, separating the Northern plain into 
 two vast basins. 
 
 3. The Western basin, which is narrow and elon- 
 gated, is connected with the Eastern by a break in 
 the dividing swell, through which the Nelson River 
 flows to Hudson Bay. The Eastern basin, which is 
 more expanded, is partly below the level of the sea 
 and covered by the waters of Hudson Bay. 
 
 4. A series of remarkable depressions, occupied by 
 the great lakes of the Mackenzie and Saskatchewan 
 river systems. — Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, 
 and Winnepeg — marks the intersection of the north- 
 ern swell with the slope from the Rocky Mountains. 
 
268 GEOGBAPHY OF NORTH AMK^ICA. 
 
 5. On the Height of Land, near its junction with 
 tbe northern swell, are three vast depressions, diverg- 
 ing from a common centre, with a depth reaching 
 considerably below the level of the sea. These are 
 filled by the waters of the great lakes — Superior, 
 Michigan and Huron. 
 
 Similar, though less extensive, basins in the St. 
 Lawrence valley are occupied by lakes Erie and 
 Ontario. 
 
 6. The Central Plain consists of two immense 
 slopes,— the Northern being the Arctic Plain, the 
 Southern the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 7. The Mississippi Valley occupies one-half of the 
 entire area of the United States. The surface is un- 
 dulating; parts are hilly; on tlie whole, the surface is 
 that of a plain, with slopes toward the centre from 
 off the two highland regions and a general slope from 
 the height of land Southward to the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 8. The Plains. — The name of the Plains is given 
 to a section of the country extending a considerable 
 distance to the Eastward of the Rocky Mountains. 
 It may be called a sloping plateau ; there is no well 
 defined limit at which the name of plateau must be 
 exchanged for that of a plain. 
 
 d. The Pacific Slope extends from the crest of the 
 Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Ranges westward to 
 the Pacific Ocean. Its average width is about 150 
 miles. Between these ranges and some lower eleva- 
 tions along the coast is enclosed the great California 
 Valley. 
 
 e. The Atlantic Plains is the slope from the Alle- 
 
GENERAL FEATURES. 2G9 
 
 ghany Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. It varies in 
 width according as the mountains approach or recede 
 from the sea coast. Upon the Northern coast of the 
 United States it is about 50 miles in width ; at the 
 mouth of the Hudson River, it varies to a mere strip 
 of coast ; it broadens southward to a width of 3000 
 miles. 
 
 The teacher should take up the rivers, lakes, 
 climate, etc., as the next subject in order for study, 
 based upon the following order, viz : 
 
 X Rivers. 
 
 1. Classification by river-systems. 
 
 2. Description of particular rivers. 
 
 a. Length and size. 
 
 b. Availability for navagation. 
 
 c. Availability for water-power. 
 
 3. (Rivers of the particular locality.) 
 
 XL Lakes. 
 
 1. Description. 
 
 2. Uses. 
 
 a. As yielding fish. 
 h. For navigation. 
 
 XLL. Climate 
 
 1. As determined by latitude. 
 2 As modified by particular causes, — altitude, 
 proximity to the sea or the great lakes, winds, etc. 
 
 3. (At the home of the pupil, — local geography.) 
 
 XIIL. Natural Advantages. 
 1, (At the home of the pupil, — local geography.) 
 
270 GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 2. On the surface of the earth. 
 
 a. Nature of the soil with reference to agricul- 
 
 ture. 
 
 b. Forrests, — nature and uses of the woods. 
 
 c. Facilities for transportation aflbrded by the 
 
 sea, rivers, lakes, etc. 
 
 3. Within the earth. 
 
 a. Useful minerals and metals — as coal, build- 
 ing material, iron, copper, lead, etc. 
 h. Precious metals, — as gold and silver. 
 
 4. In the waters. 
 
 a. Sea-fisheries. 
 
 h. Lake and river fisheries. 
 
 X/F. Industries^ or Occupations, 
 
 1. Agriculture. 
 
 a. Relative importance among the industries 
 
 of the State. 
 h. The crops raised. 
 
 c. Statistics of crops. 
 
 d. Cattle, sheep and hog raising. 
 
 2. Manufacturing. 
 
 a. Relative importance. 
 
 5. Articles produced, 
 
 c. Statistics of manufactures. 
 
 4. Mining. 
 
 a. Metals or minerals found. 
 h. Mines, to what extent worked. 
 
 5. Lumbering. 
 
 a. Locality of the forests. 
 h. Description of the method. 
 
BLACKBOARD TABULATION. 271 
 
 5. The Fisheries. 
 
 «, Locality of the fisheries. 
 b. Kinds of fish taken. 
 
 6. Commerce, 
 
 a. What is exported. 
 
 b. What is imported. 
 
 e. Means of transportation. 
 
 XV. Internal Improvements. 
 
 1. Railroads. 
 
 a. Local railroads. 
 
 b. Trunk-lines. 
 
 2. Canals. 
 
 3. Navigation on lakes and rivers. 
 
 Blackboard Tabulation of the Relief. 
 
 North America. 
 
 '1. The Plain. 
 
 2. Rocky Mountains. 
 
 3. Pacific Plateau. 
 L Western Highlands. ■{ 4. Cascade Range. 
 
 5. Sierra Nevada. 
 
 6. Coast Range. 
 
 7. Pacific Slope. 
 
 II. Eastern Highlands. 
 
 "1. Atlantic Slope. 
 
 2. Appalachian System. 
 
 3. Western Slope. 
 
 4. Tide Region. 
 
 5. Plateau of Labrador. 
 
 6. Laurentide Mountains. 
 
 TTT Cpntral Plain i ^' Northern Slope, Arctic Plain. 
 111. i^enirai nam. ^ ^ Southern Slope, Miss. Slope. 
 
272 GEOGRAPHY OF NE W YORK 8TA TE. 
 
 IV. Height of Land. 
 
 After this subject has been taught objectively and 
 fully illustrated, the above tabulation should appear 
 oQ the board and the pupils be required to recite 
 topically. 
 
 The pupils should name every important item con- 
 nected with the relief, and the teacher should require 
 the pupils to write a composition, using the tabula- 
 tion as an outline 
 
 It is expected that after the subject is taught 
 objectively all the divisions will be tabulated in a 
 similar manner. 
 
 NEW YORK STATE. 
 Special Study. 
 
 I. Position of the State. 
 
 1. It is situated between the Atlantic Ocean and 
 two of the Great Lakes. 
 
 Its land boundaries, separating it from Pennsj'l- 
 vania. New Jersey, New England and Canada are 
 straight lines, and constitute nearly one-third of the 
 entire boundary of the State. Their total length is 
 541 miles. The remaining boundaries, 879 miles in 
 length, are all navigable waters, except 17 miles on 
 Poultney river. They include 352 miles on Lakes 
 Erie, Ontario and Champlain ; 281 miles on Rivers 
 Niagara, St. Lawrence, Poultney, Hudson, Kill van 
 KuU and Delaware, and 240 miles on Long Island 
 Sound and the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Boundaries of the State : — It is bounded on the 
 
POSITION AND OUTLINE. 273 
 
 North by the Dominion of Canada, Vermont and 
 Connecticut ; on the East by Vermont, Massachusetts, 
 Connecticut and the Atlantic Ocean ; on the South 
 by the Atlantic Ocean, New Jersey and Pennsyl- 
 vania ; on the West by New Jersey, Pennsylvania 
 and the Dominion of Canada. 
 
 //. Outline. 
 
 The form of the State is very irregular. 
 
 Ill E.i:tent. 
 
 1. Its area is 47,000 square miles. 
 
 2. Its population is 4,698,958. 
 
 3. Its extreme length is 330 miles, exclusive of 
 Long Island, the length of which is 120 miles. 
 
 Its extreme breadth, from the Canada line to the 
 South point of Staten Island, is 312 miles. 
 
 IV. Coast. 
 
 1. It has but a little sea-coast, and this is found in 
 the South-eastern portion of the State, containing one 
 of the best harbors in the world. 
 
 2. It has an extensive lake coast on its Western, 
 Northern and Eastern portions, containing many har- 
 bors. 
 
 3. There are no prominent projections of penin- 
 sulas or capes from this State, but indentations are 
 frequent on the lake-coasts, forming excellent har- 
 bors. 
 
 Harbors. 
 
 New Nork Bay, lying South of Manhattan Island, 
 between Long Island and Staten Island, affords an 
 
274 GEO GRAPHT OF NE W YORK ST A TE. 
 
 excellent harbor ; on Lake Erie are two harbors at 
 Buffalo and Dunkirk ; on Niagara Kiver are two har- 
 bors at Tonawanda and Lewiston ; on Lake Ontario 
 are fine harbors at Genesee, Sodus, Oswego, Sackett's 
 Harbor and Cape Vincent ; on the St. Lawrence is 
 one harbor at Ogdensburg ; on Lake Champlain are 
 four harbors at Rouse's Point, Plattsburg, PortHeniy 
 and Whitehall ; Sagg Harbor is on the Eastern part 
 of Long Island. 
 
 Adjoining Islands. 
 
 The islands adjoining the North-eastern portion of 
 the State are Manhattan, Staten, Long, Governor's, 
 Bedlow's, Ellis — the three last belong to the United 
 States. Blackwell's, Randall's, Ward's, Hart's, 
 Fisher's, Plum, Gardner's, and Shelter Islands are 
 found in the East River and Long Island Sound. 
 New York city, situated on Mahattan Island, 
 contains two United States Forts ; and Bedlow's and 
 Ellis Islands are used for store-houses of amunition. 
 Forts are located upon either side ot New York 
 Bay on Long Island and Staten Island. 
 
 The islands in Lake Champlain are Valcour, Crab, 
 Schuyler, North Hero and South Hero. 
 
 The principal islands in the Northern St. Lawrence 
 are Carlton, Grenadier, Fox, Mills and Grindstone. 
 
 The Thousand Islands are in the Southern part, 
 near the mouth of the St. Lawrence. 
 
 The principal islands in the Niagara are the Grand, 
 Squaw, Strawberry, Rattlesnake, Tonawanda, Beavei 
 and Goat. 
 
COAST AND SURFACE. 275 
 
 V. Surface. 
 
 The greater part of the State lies in the Eastern 
 Highland, and has a very diversified surface. 
 
 The North-eastern and Eastern parts are moun- 
 tainous ; the Southern part undulating. It has a 
 wonderfully varied surface. Its high and wooded 
 mountain ranges, its extensive valleys and broad 
 plateaus, its many beautiful lakes, water courses, 
 cascades and rapids, and its vast extent of highly 
 fertile soil, render it one of the most important por- 
 tions of the American continent. 
 
 Long Island is mostly a low and level sandy plain, 
 
 broken in the Northern part by low hills of sand and 
 
 gravel. 
 
 Adirondack System. 
 
 1. The North-eastern i ortion is covered by the 
 Adirondack System, which are the highest and most 
 rugged in the State, and consist of a number of 
 nearly parallel ranges, having many interlocking 
 spurs. They extend from the North-east to the 
 South-west, and are composed of the St. Lawrence, 
 Ohateaugay, Ausable acd Clinton ranges. The 
 highest peaks are found in the Ansable range ; 
 Mount Marcy 5402 feet in height ; Mclntyre 5201 ; 
 Gothic 5000; Dix481G; and Seward 4284 feet. 
 
 Highlands. 
 
 1. Lying in the same general direction as the 
 Appalachain System, are the rugged and torest-clad 
 Highlands, consisting of several nearly parallel 
 mountain chains, which extend across the Hudson 
 
276 GEO GRAPET OF NE W YORK S TA TE. 
 
 into the Eastern portion of the State. The High- 
 lands are a continuation of the Blue Ridge, which, 
 after crossing Pennsylvania and New York, ends vn 
 the Green Mountains of Vermont and New Hamp- 
 shire. The Catsbergs and Hildeibergs are continua- 
 tions of the westward ranges of the Alleghanies. 
 The highest peaks of the Highlands are Butter Hill, 
 Crow's Nest and Bear Mountain ; these are in Orange 
 County. Bull Hill, Anthony's Nose and Breakneck 
 are in Putnam County; and Beacon Hill in Dutchess 
 
 County. 
 
 Shawangunk Mountains. 
 
 North and West of the Highlands are the Shawan- 
 gunk Mountains, a continuation of the Blue or 
 Kittatinny. This l(mg and broken crest, 2000 feet 
 high, is separated from the Highlands, by a broad 
 undulatiug valley, which is an extension of that 
 known in Pennsylvania as the Cumberland Valley. 
 Catskill Mountains. 
 
 North of the Shawangunk Mountains are the Cats- 
 kill, the highest in this portion of the State. They 
 are broken into many peaks, the highest having an 
 altitude of about 2800 feet. 
 
 The mountains of this region all belong to the 
 great Appalachain System ; the chain is made up of 
 a succession of ridges, whose prevailing course is 
 parallel with each other and with the general coast 
 line of the continent. 
 
 The general character of the Appalachain range 
 in New York is a gradual change from mountains 
 to hills, which finally sink away in the low lands of 
 the great St. Lawrence basin. 
 
MOUNTAINS. 277 
 
 To the West and North of the Shawangimk the 
 Catskills are piled up, one upon another, in sublime 
 majesty — the whole view being unsurpassed in the 
 grandeur and sublimity of its character. From the 
 Summit of Overlook Mountain more than 250 peaks 
 of the Catskill range may be seen, including Round 
 Top, Black Head, Table Mountain, Peak Amoose, or 
 Slide Mountain, Enbaumberg, High Point and Mt. 
 Tobias. 
 
 Three distinct ranges or collections of parallel 
 ridges pass through New York State, from South- 
 west to North-east. 
 
 The first or most easterly of these is the con- 
 tinuation of the great Blue Ridge of Virginia, Mary- 
 land, and Pennsylvania, the main portions of which, 
 passing through the North-western corner of New 
 Jersey, forms the Shawanguuk Mountain, which, 
 extending between Sullivan and Orange counties, 
 strikes the Hudson in the southern part of Ulster 
 county. South-east of this long ridge a succession 
 of smaller ridges run parallel with it, some of which 
 cross Orange and Rockland into Putnam and 
 Dutchess counties, east of the river. The gap 
 through which the Hudson flows is across these 
 smaller ridges, whose highest summits rise to heights 
 varying from one thousand to seventeen hundred 
 feet above tide-water. The Taghanic and Green 
 Mountains of Western Massachusetts and Vermont 
 are probably prolongations of the Blue Ridge. This " 
 range culminates in the Highlands upon the Hudson. 
 The highest peaks are 1,000 to 1,7000 feet above tide. 
 
278 GEO GRAPEY OF NE W YORK ST A TE. 
 
 The mountains are rocky and precipitous, and unfit 
 for cultivation. 
 
 Tlie second series of these ridges enters the State 
 from Pennsylvania, and extending through Sullivan, 
 Ulster and Green counties, terminates in the beauti- 
 ful Catskills, a short distance west of the Hudson. 
 Its highest peaks are from 3,000 to 3,800 feet 
 above tide. Helderbergs are spurts from this series. 
 Their summits are generally covered with old red 
 sandstone. 
 
 The third series passing through Broome, Dela- 
 ware, Otsego, Schoharie, Montgomery, and Herki- 
 mer counties, reappears beyond the Mohawk, and 
 there constitutes the Adirondack Mountains, among 
 whose summits the Hudson finds its source. The 
 culmination of the whole Adirondack System is Mt. 
 
 Marcy. 
 
 Palisades. 
 
 In the South-eastern part of the State, are found 
 the picturesque Palisades whose left perpendicular 
 walls of gray rock begin in New Jersey, opposite 
 Manhattan Island, and border the Hudson for about 
 20 miles. 
 
 A Height of Land extends from the central part 
 westward, bordering on Lake Ontario. It is sup- 
 posed that the waters of this lake once extended to 
 
 this ridge. 
 
 Valleys. 
 
 The State abounds in beautiful and fertile valleys. 
 The long and low valleys of the Hudson and the 
 Mohawk meet almost at right angles near the mid- 
 
VALLEYS. 279 
 
 die of the Eastern boundary, and divide the State 
 into three distinct sections, each having marked 
 peculiarities. 
 
 In the Southern part of the State are found the 
 valleys of Delaware, Susquehanna and Chemung ; 
 in the Western, the beautiful valley of Genesee. 
 The greater part of the State West of the Catskill 
 and Shawangunk Mountains is a broad plateau, 
 highest in the southwest. 
 
 The southern part of the region is drained by the 
 numerous branches of the Susquehanna, Alleghany 
 and Delaware ; the Northern portion by streams 
 flowing into Lake Ontario. All of these have cut 
 long and deep valleys and gorges across the plateau. 
 South of the line of water-shed between the two 
 sets of streams the plateau is for the most part 
 covered with hills, the highest in Cattaraugus and 
 Chautauqua counties, having an altitude of 2,500 feet 
 above the sea. 
 
 North of the water-shed a beautiful rolling coun- 
 try descends in a series of broad terraces to a low 
 and level belt along the shores of Lake Ontario. 
 
 The most remarkable features of the terrace region 
 are the transverse valleys extending from South to 
 North. 
 
 In the Northern part of the State are found the 
 valleys of Lake Champlain and the St. Lawrence. 
 
 Direction of Slopes. 
 
 In the Northeast the slope of the land is towards 
 Lake Champlain. In the East towards the Hudson 
 and the Mohawk valleys In the South towards 
 
280 GEOaRAPHT OF NEW YOBK STATE. 
 
 Pennsylvannia. In the West towards Lake Erie 
 and the River Niagara. In the North towards Lake 
 Ontario and the River St. Lawrence. 
 
 VI. Rkers. 
 
 I. Classification of riDer-sysiems. 
 
 St. Lawrence System. 
 
 The "Western slope of the A.dirondacks gives rise 
 to various small rivers called the St. Lawrence Bysiem 
 The rivers constituting this system are the Oswegat- 
 chie, Grass, Racket, St Regis, Salmon and Black ; 
 the last flowing into lake Ontario, the others into 
 the river St. Lawrence. 
 
 Lake System. 
 
 A secondary water-shed is formed by a Height of 
 Land between and to the North of the head-stream 
 of the Susquehanna, which rises in Otsego Lake, 
 and the head-stream of the Alleghany, which turns 
 northward into New York. This height of Land 
 forms the " divide " between the streams flowing 
 northward into Lake Onatrio and westward into 
 Lake Erie, southward into Pennsylvania, and east- 
 ward into the Hudson river. 
 
 The rivers constituting the Lake System are : The 
 
 Tonawanda, Bufi"alo and Cattaraugus, which flow 
 
 into Lake Erie and Niagara River ; and the Genesee 
 
 and Oswego which flow into Lake Ontario. The 
 
 latter is the outlet of a series of lakes in Central 
 
 New York. 
 
 Southern System. 
 
 The rivers constituting the Southern System are 
 
BIVEB SYSTEMS. 281 
 
 the Delaware, wliich receives the waters of the 
 Popacton and the Neversink upon the East; the 
 Susquehanna which receives the waters of the 
 Unadilla creek and the Chenango on the ^orth, and 
 on the West the Chemung, which receives the waters 
 of the Conhocton on the North and the Tioga on 
 the South ; and the Alleghany which discharges its 
 waters into the Ohio. 
 
 Hudson River System. 
 
 The rivers constituting this system are the Schroon, 
 Battenkill, Hoosac and Croton, Eastern tributaries 
 to the Hudson ; and the Walkill, Rondout, Sacon- 
 daga and Mohawk, Western tributaries to the latter 
 river ; West Canada Creek is the Northern tributary 
 of the Mohawk and Schoharie the Southern. 
 
 The Ausable and the Sfranac rivers discharge their 
 waters into Lake Champlain. 
 
 //. Description of particular rivers. 
 The Hudson River, 
 
 The Hudson has its most remote sources among 
 the highest peaks of the Adirondac Mountains, 
 4,000 feet above tide-water. Its numerous upper 
 branches unite and thence follow a southerly course, 
 broken by numerous falls and rapids, to Troy, where 
 it meets tide-water. The remaining 150 miles are 
 navigable by large steamers and coasting crafts. 
 Ships can ascend to Hudson. 
 
 The length " of the Hudson is 300 miles. Among 
 the streams which drain the great Atlantic slope, 
 none is more attractive than the noble river at whose 
 
282 GEOGBAPHY OF NEW YORK STATE. 
 
 month stands the Empire City of the Western 
 
 World. 
 
 Susquehanna River. 
 
 Its length is 400 miles ; it rises in Otsego Lake . 
 flows in a winding course South into Chesapeake 
 Bay. In size it is one of the principal rivers of the 
 State, but it is too shallow and too rapid in its fall to 
 be of mucli advantage for navigation. 
 
 Genesee River. 
 
 The Genesee River is 110 miles in length ; it rises 
 in the Northern part of Pennsylvania and flows 
 North into Lake Ontario. It has washed out deep 
 gorges and contains five water-falls ; on the upper 
 Genesee are three cataracts of 60, 90, 110 feet, called 
 Portage Falls ; on the lower two cataracts. The 
 Genesee Falls at Rochester are 96 feet high, besides 
 the rapids above and a broken fall of 84 feet but 
 a few miles below. 
 
 The Genesee River is navigable for 7 miles, from 
 
 its mouth to the Lower Falls. It passes through 
 
 one of the most fertile valleys in Western New 
 
 York. 
 
 Niagara River. 
 
 The Niagara River forms the Western physical 
 boundary of New York State, and la 40 miles in 
 length. The cataract of Niagara is the grandest and 
 most celebrated water-fall in the world. Niagara 
 River, which receives the drainage of four of the 
 great lakes, and is from two to three miles wide 
 immediately below Grand Island, here becomes very 
 much narrower. 
 
RIVERS. 283 
 
 It inishes with great rapidity over its rocky bed, 
 falling 52 feet in about a mile, and presents a vast 
 expanse of wildly tossing waters, its surface every- 
 where lashed into foam. 
 
 At the lower edge of these rapids the river is divid- 
 ed by Goat Island, and leaps in two broad sheets 
 over the precipice, falling with a thundering sound 
 into the chasm below. 
 
 The smaller, or American Fall, is 164 feet high; 
 the Canadian or horseshoe Fall, is about 150 feet. 
 
 The Gorge, seven miles in length, is as wonderful 
 as the cataract itself. Its width varies from 1200 to 
 600 feet, and its lofty vertical walls distinctly show 
 that the falls were once at the Northern end of the 
 chasm, and that they have in the course of ages 
 slowly cut this deep and remarkable channel through 
 the solid rocks. 
 
 This river is spanned by two suspension bridges; a 
 foot bridge at the Falls and a carriage and railroad 
 bridge two miles below. It is navigable from its 
 mouth to Lewiston. 
 
 Mohawk River. 
 
 The Mohawk Eiver takes its rise on the Western 
 slope of the Adirondack Mountains, and flows south 
 and then eastward into the Hudson. 
 
 It has cut a deep gorge through or e of the spurs 
 of the Adirondack System of Mountains at Little 
 Falls. At Cohoes the river flows over a rocky 
 declivity 78 feet in height, of which 40 feet is a 
 perpendicular fall. The main fall is 900 feet wide, 
 and the banks above are wild and precipitous. 
 
284 GEO GRAFHY OF NE W YORK ST A TE. 
 
 In the Northern tributary of the Mohawk — the 
 West Canada Creek — is found Trenton Falls, con- 
 taining five falls, and descending 200 feet in three- 
 quarters of a mile. 
 
 These Falls are unsurpassed in beauty, and are 
 visited by thousands. 
 
 Delaware River. 
 
 The Delaware River rises in the Catskill Moun- 
 tains, flows south into Delaware Bay. It forms a 
 part of the Western boundary of New York, and is 
 navigable to Trenton, 75 miles. It is a highway of 
 transportation for coal and iron. 
 
 Alleghany River. 
 
 Rises partly in Western New York and partly in 
 the Alleghanies, flows Sonth-west into the Ohio ; it 
 is the northern and main constituent of the Ohio; 
 navigable to Olean, N. Y., 260 miles. 
 
 Seneca River. 
 
 The Seneca river takes its rise in Seneca Lake, 
 flowing through the outlet of Cayuga Lake, receiving 
 the waters of the Clyde River, and discharging its 
 waters into the Oswego River. 
 
 The inlet of Lake Oneida is the Wood River, and 
 its outlet is the Oneida River, which unites with the 
 Seneca and forms the Oswego River. 
 
 Harlem River. 
 
 Harlem River separatf-s Manhntten Island from the 
 mainland, and merg(s into Spuyten Duyvil Creek, 
 which connects Harlem River with the Hudson 
 
R1VEB8. 285 
 
 thereby forming Manhattan Island. Through this 
 estuary, tide-water flows, the currents meeting at or 
 near Kingsbridge, about a mile from the Hudson. 
 
 East Uiver. 
 
 The East River extends from New York Bay to 
 Long Island Sound ; it is about 26 miles in length 
 and forms a part of the Eastern boundary of New 
 York city. 
 
 Bronx River. 
 
 This river, in connection with East, forms the 
 Eastern boundary of New York city. 
 
 Croton River. 
 
 The Croton River is about 40 miles in length and 
 
 discharges its waters into the Hudson. This river 
 
 supplies New York city with water. The water is 
 
 carried in an aqueduct built of solid masonry, and 
 
 follows the course of the Hudson. The entire cost 
 
 of the Croton works at their completion was $14,- 
 
 000,000. 
 
 Water Falls and Gorges. 
 
 Among the most noted Water Falls are Lyon's 
 Falls, in Black River, Lewis County, 63 feet ; High 
 Falls, in Warren County, 60 feet ; Glens Falls, in 
 Warren County, 50 feet; Ausable Falls, in Essex 
 County, 100 feet ; Buttermilk Falls, in Tonawanda 
 Creek , Genesee County, 90 feet ; Taghanic Falls, in 
 Tompkins County, 230 feet; Enfield Falls in the same 
 county, a series of Cascades, 230 feet ; Fall Creek, 
 also in Tompkins, having five Cascades and a fall of 
 500 feet within a mile ; Chittenango Falls in Madi- 
 
286 GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK STATE. 
 
 son County, 136 feet ; High Falls, in Ulster County, 
 50 feet ; and the Kaaterskill Falls in Greene County, 
 with two Cataracts, one of 180 and the other of 89 
 feet. 
 
 In Schuyler County are found Watkins Glen and 
 Havana Glen. 
 
 Id Schoharie County is found a noted Cave, called 
 
 Howe's Cave, that has been explored for five miles. 
 
 It is situated upon the Albany and Susquehanna 
 
 Railroad. 
 
 Mineral Springs. 
 
 New York is noted for its numerous mineral 
 Sprmgs. Among medicinal springs, the following 
 are places of resort : Saratoga and Ballston Springs, 
 in Saratoga County ; New Lebanon and Stockport, in 
 Columbia County ; Massena, in St Lawrence County ; 
 Richfield in Otsego County ; Avon, in Livingston 
 County ; Clifton in Ontario County ; Sharon, in 
 Schoharie County; Chittenango, in Madison County ; 
 and Alabama, in Genesee County. 
 
 VII. Lakes. 
 
 Boundary Lakes 
 
 The lakes are a distinguished feature of this State. 
 Numbers of these lie wholly within its borders ; but 
 the Great Lakes, properly so-called, lie on its borders. 
 
 Lake Erie* 
 
 Lake Erie, on the West, is 268 miles in length and 
 from 30 to 54 miles in width. Average depth 120 
 feet, and 564 feet above the mouth of the Hudson. 
 
LAKES. 287 
 
 Lake Ontario. 
 
 Lake Ontario is next in size, and is elliptical in 
 form ; it is 190 miles in length and 56 miles in width. 
 Its entire Southern shore, east of Niagara River, is 
 within New York State. Average depth 500 feet and 
 231 feet above the mouth of the Hudson. 
 
 Lake Champlain* 
 
 Lake Champlain is a long, narrow sheet of water 
 famed for its beauty. Its extreme length is 134 
 miles, with a breadth of from one-half to ten miles. 
 Its waters are clear, deep and cold. Its depth in 
 some places is 300 feet. 
 
 Fort Ticonderoga. 
 
 This is a favorite place of resort for summer tour- 
 ists, and is full of historic interest. The old fort, on 
 the high bluflF near the steamboat wharf, is in a dilap- 
 idated condition, but enough remains of its ruined 
 bastions to make it a most interesting subject for the 
 study of those who have any reverence for the mem- 
 ory of our early days as a nation. 
 
 Inland Lakes. — Lake George. 
 
 " Horicon " (the Silvery Waters) is an Indian name 
 often applied to this unrivaled gem of American 
 lakes. The Indians themselves called it Can-i-a-deri- 
 oit — the tail of the lake. The French discovered it 
 in 1609, and named it Saint Sacrement. 
 
 The entire number of Interior Lakes in the State 
 is estimated at 650. 
 
 The whole Adirondack region is intersected and 
 diversified by a net work of lakes and streams, which 
 
288 GEOaKAPHT OF NEW YORK STATE. 
 
 render it picturesque and beautiful in an almost 
 unequalled degree. 
 
 In this region of the State there are several 
 hundred lakes ; the principal ones are the Schroon, 
 Placid, Raquette, Long, Cranberry, Upper Saranac, 
 Lower Saranac, Tuppers, Chateaugay, Chazy,Peseco 
 and Pleasant. 
 
 The most remarkable and important feature is a 
 series of beautiful lakes lying in the transverse 
 valleys of Central New York. 
 
 The following are the principal lakes of this 
 region : Drained by the Genesee — Hemlock, Hone- 
 oye, Canadice and Conesus ; the first of these supplies 
 the city of Rochester with water ; by the Oswego — 
 Canandaigua, Keuka, Seneca, Cayuga, Owasco, 
 Skaneateles, Cross, Onondaga, Otisco, Cazenovia and 
 Oneida ; by the Susquehanna — Otsego and Schuy- 
 ler ; by the Alleghany — Chautauqua. 
 
 YIIL Climate. 
 
 New York State has a wider range of climate than 
 any other state in the Union. In the interior there 
 are great extremes of temperature. 
 
 The Ocean modifies the climate of the South- 
 eastern part ; the Great Lakes modify the climate of 
 the North-western and Western part ; the most ex- 
 treme climate is found in the North-eastern part. 
 
 IX. On the Natural Advantages. 
 1. On the surface of the earth. 
 
 {a) The soil in the valleys is very productive. The 
 Mohawk Valley and its islands raise vast quantities 
 
NATURAL ADVANTAGES. 289 
 
 of broom-corn, supplying more than half the United 
 {States with brooms. The Genesee Yalley raises vast 
 quantities of corn and potatoes. 
 
 The Northern Counties, the high regions along the 
 Hudson, and the Southern border are the chief stock 
 and dairy districts; grain is the principal product of 
 the rich terraces and lowlands of the west. Hops 
 are chiefly produced in Madison, Oneida, Otsego and 
 Schoharie; tobacco in the valley of the Chemung 
 and in Onondaga and Wayne Counties; grapes and 
 other fruits in the terrace region, in the Hudson Val- 
 ley, and on Long Island. Near the City of New 
 York market gardening and the supply of milk are 
 very important interests. 
 
 ijb) Forests. — Forests still cover a great portion of 
 the State, and furnish a large amount of lumber In 
 the Southern tier of counties, and in the Adirondack 
 region, pine, hemlock, and other evergreens are the 
 principal trees. Other parts of the State have a great 
 variety of maple, hickory, chestnut, ash, beech, pine, 
 spruce, oak, elm, ash and locust. 
 
 (c) Facilities. — The facilities for transportation 
 are abundant; the rivers, lakes, etc., affording means 
 of easy transportation. 
 
 2. Within the Earth — Minerals. 
 
 {a) The most useful Minerals and Metals are found 
 in the Eastern half of the State from Staten Island to 
 Canada. The chief mines are in Orange, Dutchess, 
 Essex, Clinton, Oneida and Wayne Connties. Lime- 
 stone is abundant in the greater part of the State; 
 
290 GEOaRAPEY OF NEW YORK STATE. 
 
 granite, slate, flag, bluestone and cement — the three 
 last mentioned are found in Ulster County; and brick 
 clay on the banks of the Hudson. 
 
 Lead, zinc, copper, arsenic, manganese, gypsum 
 and water lime are found in considerable quantities. 
 
 Traces of gold are found in the rock formation on 
 the East bank of the Hudson, near Poughkeepsie. 
 
 The salt springs of Onondaga County supply the 
 most extensive salt works in the United States. The 
 product in 1874 was 6,000,600 bushels. 
 
 {b) In the Waters. — Cod aud mackerel fisheries 
 are extensively carried on off the coast of Long 
 Island, and the rivers have been stocked with fish. 
 
 THE METROPOLIS AND LEADING CITIES 
 OF THE STATE. 
 
 New York. 
 
 The population of New York city is 1,104,523. It 
 is the first city of the Western Hemisphere in popu- 
 lation, wealth and commerce, and destined to be the 
 metropolis of the civilized world. It is situated on 
 Manhattan and several smaller islands and the ad- 
 iacant main lands. Manhattan Island is 13^ miles 
 in length, and from 1 to 2 miles in breadth. 
 
 The extreme length of New York city proper is 16 
 miles, its greatest width 4^ miles, and its area 4 H 
 square miles, 22 being on Manhattan Island. It now 
 includes a portion of Westchester county, inclusive 
 to Bronx River. 
 
JN-HW YORK CITY, 291 
 
 New York is called the " Empire State " and the 
 city the " Metropolitan City." It is not only noted for 
 its extensive commerce and wealth, but for the num- 
 ber of its magnilScient hotels, banks, churches and 
 jDrivate dwellings, and for its Central Park. 
 
 Within a radius of 20 miles from the City the total 
 population is nearly 2,000,000. Of this number, 560,- 
 000 are within the neighboring counties of New 
 York, and 395,000 in those of New Jersey. 1,809,000 
 were within the radius of ten miles. These limits in- 
 clude many large manufacturing cities and towns, 
 great commercial depots and thriving villages, whose 
 chief interests are so closely conuected with those of 
 New York that these communities practically con- 
 stitute an essential part of the metropolis. Twenty, 
 seven steam ferries, twenty converging railways, and 
 numerous steamboat lines, enable vast multitudes of 
 those whose homes are in these outlying suburbs to 
 attend to their daily business in the great city. 
 
 ih) Advantages of Location. 
 New York is pre-eminently a commercial city. In 
 this respect it ranks among the most important in the 
 world. Its harbor is of unsurpassed excellence. 
 Lower Bay presents eighty-eight, and New York Bay 
 about twenty-seven square miles of anchorage. The 
 island has nearly twenty-five miles of water-front, and 
 the suburbs at least as much more. Great numbers 
 of steamboats ply on Long Island Sound and the Hud- 
 son ; on the latter a single "tug "may frequently be 
 seen with a "tow" of from fifteen to fifty barges, 
 canal boats, and other craft. Many lines of ocean 
 
292 GEOGEAPRT OF NUW YORK STATE. 
 
 steamers run to the chief ports of the West Indies, 
 South America, Great Britain, France, Germany, the 
 Netherlands, Belgium, and the Atlantic coast of the 
 United States. 
 
 The port of New York has more than one-half of 
 the foreign trade of the Union, and collects about 
 two-thirds of all the duties on imports. The internal 
 and coasting trade is also enormous. 
 
 Brooklyn, 
 
 in Kings County, is the third city in the United 
 States in population. It is situated on East River 
 and New York Bay, at the Western extremity of 
 Long Island, opposite New York, and covers about 
 twenty-one square miles. Its immense commercial 
 interests and advantages are among its chief featurjes. 
 The city has a water-front of about eight and a half 
 miles, entirely occupied with piers, slips, ferries, 
 ware-houses and storage yards, and is one of the 
 greatest grain depots in the world. The Atlantic 
 Docks are a long four-sided basin in the South- 
 western part of the city. The basin is twenty-five 
 feet deep, and covers forty acres. It has about two 
 miles of wharfage, and is surrounded, except at the 
 entrance, by storage houses, substantially built of 
 granite and brick, and covering twenty acres more. 
 South of this are the Erie basin of sixty acres, and 
 the Brooklyn basin of forty acres. The value of the 
 articles stored in the various warehouses of the water 
 front has in some years exceeded $260,000,000, em- 
 bracing every variety of staple domestic and impor- 
 ted produce, grain being the chief item. 
 
LEADING CITIES. 293 
 
 Brooklyn is connected with New York by twelve 
 steam ferries, which ply day and night. In 1872 they 
 conveyed over 60,000,000 passengers and an enor- 
 mous number of loaded vehicles. The two cities 
 will soon be more closely connected by a gigantic 
 suspension bridge, now in great part completed. Two 
 massive stone piers, 268 feet high, and built on the 
 opposite margins of the river, will support four 
 cables of steel wire, each sixteen inches in diameter. 
 These cables will sustain the roadways. The bridge 
 will be 85 feet wide, its central span from pier to pier 
 1,595 feet, and its total length about 6,000 feet. 
 
 Buffalo, 
 
 a city of Erie County, is situated on a gently sloping 
 plain at the Eastern end of Lake Erie, at the head of 
 Niagara River, and at its junction with Buffalo 
 Elver. It has an extensive system of beautiful pub- 
 lic parks, connected by broad boulevards, A tunnel 
 supplies the city with pure water from the middle of 
 the bed of Niagara. 
 
 The situation of the city, and its facilities for the 
 reception and transportation of merchandise, make 
 it a very important commercial centre. It is the ter- 
 minus of the Erie Canal, of several of the most im- 
 portant of trunk railroads, and of the navigation of 
 the upper lakes. It has a water- front of two and a 
 half miles on Lake Erie, and of equal length on 
 Niagara River. Its harbor, which is one of the best 
 on the lakes, has three divisions, and is protected by 
 extensive breakwaters. 
 
 The city has an immense traffic, grain being the 
 
294 GEOaRAPET OF NEW YORK STATE. 
 
 leading item, Only second to this is the trade in 
 live stock. It is also largely engaged in shipping coal 
 to the Central States and Canada. Its manufactures 
 are important. Iron manufactures in great variety 
 constitute the chief industry. All of the iron ves- 
 sels on the Great Lakes were built at Buffalo. There 
 are numerous tin, copper and sheet-iron works, brass 
 founderies, furniture, barrel, and boot and-shoe fac- 
 tories, carriage, wagon, and car shops, flour mills, 
 tanneries and breweries, 
 
 Albany, 
 a city of Albany County, is the capital of the State. 
 It is favorably situated for commerce on the west 
 bank of the Hudson, near the head of tide-water and 
 of navigation. It is also the terminus of the Erie- 
 Canal and of five railroads. The city is a great grain 
 market, and the chief lumber, market of the State 
 Among the public buildings and noted institutions 
 are the State Library, the Geological and Agricul. 
 tural Hall, the State Normal School, the State Hall, 
 and the City Hall. The new Capitol, a vast granite 
 structure yet unfinished, will be the most splendid 
 public building in America excepting the Capitol at 
 Washington. Population 86,013. 
 
 Rochester, 
 
 a city of Monroe County, is situated on Genesee 
 River, seven miles from Lake Ontario, at the junction 
 of the Erie with the Genesee "Valley Canal and of 
 the New York Central wiih several other railroads. 
 Besides the large railway traffic, there is considerable 
 export and import trade with Canada. 
 
LEADING CITIES. 295 
 
 Withia the city limits the river has three falls of 
 96, 25 and 84 feet, and furnishes an enormous amount 
 of water-power. The chief products are flour, cloth- 
 ing, boots and shoes, leather, furniture, carriages and 
 wagons, iron castings and machinery. Rochester is 
 surrounded by a very fertile country, largely occupied 
 with nurseries of fruit and ornamental trees. Some 
 of these nurseries are among the largest in the world. 
 
 Population, 81,673. 
 
 Troy, 
 
 a manufacturing city of Rensselaer County, on the 
 East bank of the Hudson, six miles above Albany, is 
 at the head of tidewater, and of steam navigation, 
 and at the principal outlet of Erie and Champlain 
 Canals. It is the center of five railroads. Its iron 
 and iron manufacturers are among the most import- 
 ant in the United States. They embrace every form 
 of iron and steel, of iron and steel castings, and of 
 wrought, hollow, and pressed ware. Troy is also 
 the chief seat of the shirt and collar manufacture, 
 and has a large lumber trade. It also manufactures 
 bells, mathematical instruments, and linen goods. 
 
 Population, 48,821. 
 
 Syracuse, 
 
 is a manufacturing city of Onondaga County, at the 
 head of Onondaga Lake and at the junction of the 
 Erie and Oswego Canals. It is an important railroad 
 centre, having seven diverging lines. Salt is the 
 chief interest. Among the great variety of manu- 
 facturing establishments are blast-furnaces, steel 
 works, and rolling-mills. The product has reached 
 $14,000,000 a year. Population, 54,396. 
 
296 GEO GRAPHY OF NEW YORK ST A TE. 
 
 Utica, 
 
 a city of Oneida County, is at the South bank of the 
 Mohawk, at the junction of the Erie and Chenango 
 and of the New York Central and several other rail- 
 roads. It is noted for its extensive cheese trade. Its 
 various manufactures have amounted to $8,000,000 a 
 year. Population, 32,070, 
 
 Oswego, 
 a city of Oswego County, is beautifully situated on 
 Lake Ontario, at the mouth of Oswego River and on 
 the Oswego branch of Erie Canal. It has a delight- 
 ful summer climate, well-shaded trees and many 
 handsome buildings, and is the seat of a State Nor- 
 mal and Training School. Four railways give com- 
 munication with other parts of the State, with Penn- 
 sylvania, and the West. Daily lines of steamers run 
 to the St. Lawrence, Niagara, Toronto, and Chicago 
 The harbor aflbrds three miles of wharfage on the 
 lake and river, and is protected by extensive break- 
 waters. The city is a great grain depot and has a 
 large trade in Canadian barley and lumber, and in 
 Pennsylvania coal. Oswego River falls 110 feet in 
 twelve miles, 36 feet within the city limits, and 
 affords extensive water-power. There are many 
 flouring-mills and iron-works, ship-yards, and the 
 most extensive starch-factory in the world. Popula- 
 tion, 22,455. 
 
 Elmira. 
 
 a city of Chemung County, is situated on both sides of 
 Chemung River and on the Erie and Northern Central 
 Railways. It is handsomely laid out in a broad and 
 
SMALLER CITIES. 297 
 
 fertile valley. Newton Creek, a branch of the 
 Chemung, furnishes abundant water-power. It has 
 rolliog-mills and other iron-works, flour-mills, brew- 
 eries and tanneries. Among other productions are 
 boots and shoes, agricultural implements, edge tools, 
 and carriages Population, 20,538. 
 
 Kingston, 
 
 a commercial and manufacturing city of Ulster 
 County, is situated on the Western bank of the Hud- 
 son and on Rondout Creek, which forms its harbor, 
 and is here navigable for three miles. The city is 
 the terminus of the Delaware and Hudson Canal and 
 of two railroads. It has four miles of wharfage, and 
 employs a large number of steamboats and barges in 
 the river trade. It is the centre of the ice industry, 
 one of the most important on the Hudson. Hy- 
 draulic cement, for which Ulster is noted, is shipped 
 to the amount of 1,500,000 pounds a year. Besides 
 this there are immense amounts of coal brought by 
 the canal ; also blue stone, bricks, lime, and lumber. 
 Population, 20,474. 
 
 Poughkeepsie, 
 
 a city of Dutchess County, is mostly situated on high 
 land on the East bank of the Hudson River. It is 
 the largest city between New York and Albany, and 
 is connected with those cities by the Hudson River 
 Railroad and several steamboat lines. The Pough- 
 keepsie, Hartford and Boston Railroad connects it 
 with New England. A great railroad bridge across 
 the Hudson is about to be constructed. The city has 
 
298 QEOGBAPHY OF NEW YORK STATE. 
 
 an important trade with the neighboring farmiDg dis- 
 trict, a large river trade, and extensive manufactures. 
 It has a rolling-mill, iron furnaces, and founderies, 
 and ship-yards. From its educational advantages it 
 is sometimes called the "City of Schools." Vassar 
 College, for young ladies, is about two miles East of 
 the city. Population, 19,859. 
 
 Auburn, 
 
 is a manufacturing city of Cayuga County, on New 
 York Central Railroad and Southern Central Rail- 
 road, two miles from Owasco Lake, on its outlet, 
 which supplies one of the best water-powers of the 
 State ; nine dams ; falls IGO feet within city. It 
 manufactures cottons, woolens, carpets ; reapers, 
 machine-shops, tool-factories, flouring-mills, and 
 mowers and other agricultural implements ; and has 
 breweries. Valuable lime-stone quarries are within 
 the city limits. It is handsomely built on high, un- 
 even ground. Population, 18,359. 
 
 Cohoes, 
 
 is a manufacturing city of Albany County, at Cohoes 
 Falls, and on the right bank of the Mohawk at its 
 confluence with the Hudson, and on Erie Canal near 
 its junction with the Champlain Canal ; it has two 
 railroads. The Mohawk falls 120 feet in a mile and 
 a half, 70 feet just above the city, and is remarkable 
 for its picturesque beauty, besides being one of the 
 best water-powers in the United States. Very 
 large cotton-mills. Knit-goods a prominent indus- 
 try. Cohoes produces about one-third of all hosiery 
 made in the United States. Population, 17,516. 
 
ISMALLER CITIES. 299 
 
 Newburgh, 
 
 a city of Orange County, on a plateau and steep 
 slope on West bank of the Hudson. Terminus of 
 branch of Erie Railway. Ferries to Fishkill, and to 
 Dutchess Junction on Hudson River Railroad ; ter- 
 minus of New York, Boston and Montreal Railway. 
 Important trade with rich agricultural country ; river 
 trade ; ships cattle, milk, butter, fruit, etc. Manu- 
 factures extensive : machinery, castings, brass, car- 
 pets, cotton-goods, paper, soap, and cement-pipe. 
 Noted for containing Washington's headquartcj's, 
 and as the place of the disbandment of the army of 
 the Revolution. Population, 17,327. 
 
 Yonkers, 
 
 a residential city of Weschester County, on East bank 
 of the Hudson, adjoining New York City. Beau- 
 tifully situated on rising ground opposite the Pali- 
 sades. On Hudson River Railroad and two others. 
 Nepperhan, or Saw Mill River, furnishes water- 
 power. Considerable manufacturing. Population, 
 17,327. 
 
 liOng Island City, 
 
 a city of Queens County, near the Western end of 
 Long Island, opposite New York, has ten miles of 
 water-front on East River and Newtown Creek. 
 Wide streets and avenues. Two ferries. Terminus 
 of three railroads and freight depot of another. Great 
 depot for storage and shipment of kerosene. Lum- 
 ber-yards, oil-refineries, pianos, carriages, jewelry, 
 etc. Population, 15,609. 
 
300 GEO GRAF BY OF NE W YORK ST A TE. 
 
 Binghamtoii; 
 
 a city of Broome County, at junction of Susquehanna 
 and Clienango Rivers, and on Chenango Canal and 
 Erie Railroad at junction of three others. Hand- 
 somely laid out. The Chenango furnishes water- 
 power. Numerous manufactures ; flour and lumber. 
 Population, 15,550. 
 
 Schenectady, 
 a city of Schenectady County, on the South bank of 
 the Mohawk and both sides of Erie Canal. On New 
 York Central and three other railroads. Largely 
 engaged in manufacturing. Broom factories, engine 
 and boiler, locomotive, and other iron works ; knit- 
 ting mills. Seat of Union College. Population, 
 
 12,748. 
 
 liOckport, 
 
 a city of Niagara County, on Erie Canal and New 
 York Central Railroad. In rich agricultural district. 
 Large quarries of excellent limestone and sandstone. 
 Erie Canal here falls 60 feet by six locks ; surplus 
 water furnishes three quarters of a mile of hydraulic 
 canal and immense water-power. Flour, saw, cotton, 
 and woolen mills. Population, 12,624. 
 
 Rome, 
 a city of Oneida County, on West bank of Mohawk, 
 at junction of Erie and Black River Canals, and of 
 New York Central with two other railroads. Wide 
 shaded streets ; public and private parks and foun- 
 tains. Large general trade. Numerous manufac- 
 turing establishments. Site of Fort Stanwix and 
 Battle of Oriskiny. Population, 11,922. 
 
SMALLER CITIES. 301 
 
 Ogdensburg, 
 
 a city of St. Lawrence County, on St. Lawrence 
 River at junction of the Oswegatchie, and four miles 
 above the rapids. Regi:'larly laid out and hand- 
 somely built. Called the "Maple City" from its 
 many and beautiful shade trees. Ferries to Prescott 
 in Canada, and a line of many steamers to Chicago. 
 Foreign and domestic commerce both important. 
 Receives immense quantities of grain and lumber. 
 Excellent water-power ; flour, lumber, shingles and 
 staves. Population, 10,076. 
 
 Watertown, 
 
 a beautiful commercial and manufacturing city of 
 Jeflerson County, on Black River, ten miles from its 
 mouth in Lake Ontario. Large trade with rich agri- 
 cultural country, abounding in iron and limestone. 
 Railroad connection with. New York and the coal 
 regions. Abundant water-power. Black River falls 
 112 feet in two miles within the city limits. Flour, 
 lumber, printing paper, and many other manufac- 
 t.uries. Population, 10,041. 
 
 Hudson, 
 a city of Columbia County, beautifully situated on 
 high ground on East bank of Hudson River, at the 
 head of ship navagation, 116 miles from New York. 
 On Hudson River Railroad at terminus of Hudson 
 River and Boston Railroad. Connects with New 
 York Central by a branch. Large trade ; pressed hay 
 the leading article. Extensive manufactures of iron 
 and of iron machinery, goods and .wares. Popula- 
 tion, 8,828. 
 
302 GEOGRAPHY OF NE W YORK ST A TE. 
 
 ORAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 State of New STork. 
 
 1. Map and bound the entire State. 
 
 2. How many counties in the State ? 
 
 3. What is a State ? 
 
 4. What is a County ? 
 
 5. Where was the first settlenient in New York 
 made? 
 
 6. By whom ? 
 
 7. Whence did they come? 
 
 8. In what year? 1614. 
 
 9. Where did they locate ? 
 
 10. Was the State inhabited previous to that time? 
 
 11. By whom, and what became of them ? 
 
 12. Describe Lake George. 
 
 13. Describe Lake Erie. 
 
 14. Describe Chautauqua Lake. 
 
 15. Describe Lake Canandaigua. 
 
 16. Describe Crooked Lake. (Keuka). 
 
 17. Describe Seneca Lake. 
 
 18. Describe Cayuga Lake. 
 
 19. Describe Owasco Lake. 
 
 20. Describe Skaneateles Lake. 
 
 21. Describe Oneida Lake. 
 
 22. Describe Otsego Lake. 
 
 23. What river is the outlet of Lake Erie ? 
 
 24. Of Lake Ontario ? 
 
 25. Of Lake Champlain ? 
 
 26. What outlet has Canandaigua Lake? 
 
 27. Crooked Lake ? 
 
 28. Seneca Lake ? 
 
ORAL QUESTIONING. 303 
 
 29. Cayuga Lake? 
 80. Owasco Lake? 
 31. Oneida Lake? 
 32 Skaneateles Lake ? 
 38, Lake George? 
 
 34. What river receives the waters from the central 
 lakes? 
 
 35. In what direction do the waters of each lake 
 flow? 
 
 36. What lake between Vermont and New York? 
 37 What lakes between New York and Canada? 
 
 38. Describe Niagara River. 
 
 39. Mohawk River. 
 
 40. St. Lawrence River, 
 
 41. Genesee River. 
 
 42. Harlem River. 
 
 43. East River. 
 
 44. Hudson River. 
 
 45. Through what counties does the Mohawk River 
 flow? 
 
 46. Of what is Mohawk River a Branch? 
 
 47. What is a branch ? 
 
 48. What river flows into the east end of Lake 
 Ontario? 
 
 49. What mountains in New York ? 
 
 50. Where are the Adirondack mountains? 
 
 51. Where are the Catskill mountains ? 
 
 52. Where are the Plighlands? 
 
 53. Which is the highest mountain in New York ? 
 
 54. Its elevation ? 
 
 55. What bay in the southern part of the State ? 
 
304 GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK STATE. 
 
 56. Where is Manhattan or New York Island, and 
 what waters surround it? 
 
 57. Staten Island ? 
 
 58. Long Island? 
 
 59. Goat Island? 
 
 60. Thousand Islands? 
 
 61. What Island west of Long Island? 
 
 62. What Sound between Long Island and Con- 
 necticut ? 
 
 63. Describe the Erie Canal. 
 
 64. Genesee Valley Canal. 
 
 65. Oswego Canal. 
 
 66. Chenango Canal. 
 
 67. By what railroad would you travel from Utlca 
 to Binghamton ? 
 
 68. What canal crosses the State ? 
 
 69. Its length? 364 miles. 
 
 70. What waters does it connect? 
 
 71. What city at the east end ? 
 
 72. What city at the west end ? 
 
 73. On what canal can you sail from Lake Erie to 
 Lake Ontario? 
 
 74. On what canal do you sail from Lake Erie to 
 Hudson River? 
 
 75. On what canal do you sail from Syracuse to 
 Oswego ? 
 
 76. On what water can you sail from New York to 
 Albany ? 
 
 77. On what water can you sail from Albany to 
 Buffalo? 
 
 78. How many cities in the State of New York ? 
 
ORAL QUESTIONING. 305 
 
 79. Locate and describe the following cities, and 
 give the population of each : 
 
 Rochester, Auburn, 
 
 Syracuse, Utica, 
 
 Troy, Schenectady, 
 
 Albany, Pougbkeepsie, 
 
 Elmira, New York, 
 
 Brooklyn, Rome, 
 
 Buffalo, Binghamton, 
 
 Hudson, Kingston, 
 
 Long Island City, Lockport, 
 
 Newburg, Ogdensburg, 
 
 Oswego, Watenown, 
 
 Yonkers, Cohoes. 
 
 80. "What city of New York is the seat of govern- 
 ment ? 
 
 81. Mention the the State buildings in Albany. 
 
 82. How many State Senators convene at Albany ? 
 
 83. Their term of office ? 
 
 84. How many Assemblymen ? 
 
 85. Their term of office ? 
 
 86. What constitutes our Senatorial District ? 
 
 87. What constitutes our Assembly District ? 
 
 88. Give the population of the State. 
 
 89. Its area in square miles. 
 
 90. In the basin of what great rivers is New York? 
 
 91. Trace those rivers on the map. 
 
 lloAV to Draw the Outline oi New York State. 
 
 The tirst point will represent the north-eastern 
 extremity of New Y^'ork. Name it "1 ; " the second 
 point one inch below the first, name it " 2 ; " the third 
 
306 GEOaBAPHY OF NEW YORK STATE. 
 
 point one inch below the second, name it '* 3 ; " the 
 fourth point one inch below the third, name it " 4 ;" 
 one inch at the left of point "3" a point, name it 
 " 5 ; " two and a fourth inches to the left of " 5" a 
 point, name it " 6 ; " one-half an inch above " G " a 
 point, name it " 7 ; " one-half an inch to the ri.iht of 
 " 7 " a point, name it " 8 ; " one-fourth of an inch 
 above " 8 " a point, name it " 9 ; " place a point mid- 
 way between " 9 " and " 2," name it '* 10 ; " one-half 
 of an inch above " 10 " a point, name it " 11 ; " three- 
 fourths of an inch at the left of " 1 " a point, name 
 it "12 ; " place a point mid-way between '* 2" and 
 "3," and a point mid-way between "3" and "4 ;" 
 one and one-fifth inches to the right of point " 4 " 
 and a little above, a point, and name it " 13 ; " this 
 point will indicate the eastern extremity of Long 
 
 Island. 
 
 Blackboard Outline. 
 
 The unit of measurement may here be 10 inches. 
 Whatever length the unit may be, it represents the 
 length of Lake Champlain, which is 134 miles. 
 
 From 2 to 3, from 3 to 4, and from 3 to 5 each are 
 equal to the first distance. The Northern boundary 
 of Massachusetts is midway between 2 and 3. 
 
 From 5 to 6 IS two and one-fourth times the first 
 distance, and it is in line with the Southern boundary 
 of Massachusetts. From 6 to 7 and from 7 to 8 are 
 each one-half of first distance. Lake Ontario ex- 
 tends as far West as the State ; its Eastern shore is 
 midway between the Niagara River and the Eastern 
 boundary of the State, and the distance between the 
 
SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 307 
 
 Southern shore and the Southern boundary of the 
 State is three-fourths of the first distance. The 
 width of Lake Ontario is one-half of the first dis- 
 tance. From 1 to 13 is three-fourths of the first 
 distance. 
 
 Suggestions to the Teacher. 
 
 The teacher should draw the map on the black- 
 board to a certain scale, and require the pupils to 
 draw the same on the blackboard, slates or paper. 
 The teacher should furnish a measure for the children, 
 and require them to reproduce a correct drawing of 
 the map. Measures either six inches or one foot long, 
 as desired, may be obtained of Davis, Bardeen & Co., 
 Syracuse, for $1.00 a hundred 
 
 The physical features should be represented first ; 
 these and other conditions are antecedent to the facts 
 of descriptive geography.. 
 
 Helps in Teaching Geography. 
 
 In teaching the geography of New York State, the 
 first requisite is a good Map of the State. Of late 
 years this has been ditBcult to procure. The map 
 drawn by John H. French and published in 1858 by 
 Robert Pearsall Smith, is now scarce and costly, as 
 well as old. A new map has just been published, 
 however, three and a half feet by four, giving county 
 boundaries and with the towns brightly colored. It 
 costs $2.00, and should hang in very school-room in 
 the State. 
 
 For young scholars, and indeed for older ones too, 
 Dissected Maps are of great value. Two of these 
 
308 GEOGEAPEY OF NEW YORK STATE. 
 
 are published at 75 cents each, one of New York 
 State, cut up into counties, and the other of the 
 United States, cut up into states. To properly place 
 these counties and states impresses their relative 
 positions very effectively. 
 
 Of books relating to the history and characteristic 
 features of New York State, the Historical and 
 Statistical Gazeteer, published at the same time with 
 French's Map, is now scarce and out of date, and no 
 similar work has since been published. The His- 
 tory of New York State, by S. S. Randall, formerly 
 Deputy State Superintendent, will be found interest- 
 ing and of great value. The price is $1.50. 
 
 The Natural History of the State of New York, 
 in twenty-two large quarto volumes, profusely illus- 
 trated, is indeed a magnificant work, having cost the 
 State some $500,000. Complete sets are rare, and 
 worth $100.00 or more ; but separate volumes in 
 Zoology, Botany, Geology, etc., can frequently be 
 purchased at comparatively low rates, and should be 
 eagerly studied by the teacher. 
 
 Any ot the above may be purchased of Davis, 
 Bardeen & Co., Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
HISTORY. 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Our schools can permit their pupils to devote but 
 a small portion of their time to the study of history. 
 If all other studies were neglected, a life time is 
 much too short to acquaint one's-self fully with all 
 the facts of history. 
 
 The facts of history comprise the sum of the events 
 that man has brought about in all the teeming cen- 
 turies since first he inhabited the earth. The number 
 is beyond the power of imagination to conceive, and 
 Historians do not attempt to enumerate them. They 
 describe some of the grandest and most interesting 
 features of a nation's life, and leave the rest to be 
 inferred or forgotten. 
 
 Study the Causes. 
 
 History describes the past conditions and actions 
 of men, and investigates the causes which have 
 operated to produce them. History should be taught 
 from a series of progressive stand-points. 
 
 In the history of every nation tJiere are certain 
 prominent events from which as centres other 
 minor events have seemed to emanate, and to which 
 the}' bear reference. It is only of these great events 
 
310 HISTORY. 
 
 that we need to know the dates or the minute par- 
 ticulars. It is a useless waste of time and labor to 
 commit to memory a great number of dates to be 
 speedily forgotten. Only such dates should be 
 committed to memory as are indispensible as land- 
 marks in history. The sequence of events, rather 
 than the precise date of each, is what is chiefly nec- 
 essary. 
 
 Ordinary Methods Useless. 
 
 The teaching that goes under this name in schools 
 is generally a farce. It consists usually in stringing 
 together the names and dates with a few facts of the 
 least important kind. Or, if more is attempted, it is 
 reading in a text-book ; in which case generally 
 there is little within a child's sympathy or compre- 
 hension, and together are often jumbled, without 
 purpose or method, facts of the most diverse kind, 
 from which it is impossible to gain a clear concep- 
 tion of any of its elements. When such an array of 
 facts are given as a whole to a child, they can produce 
 nothing but embarrassment. 
 
 Conditions Under which Taught. 
 
 The conditions under which history is likely to be 
 taught must be fully understood before determining 
 what to attempt or how to attempt it. When school 
 life is short, little, if anything, can be done. Reading, 
 writing and arithmetic must be taught ; if the pupils 
 remain in school a few years instead of a few months 
 teachers may be able to give one or two lessons 
 weekly ; these should be oral lessons. If they pass 
 through the grades they should take it up as one of 
 
DISCIPLINE AND INFLUENCE. 311 
 
 the regular studies. In our common schools much 
 time cannot be given to it consistently with the 
 claims of other studies ; yet it should receive atten- 
 tion and a certain number of lessons should be given 
 every term. 
 
 History of Their Own Country. 
 
 A knowledge of the history of their own country 
 is about all that can be expected of pupils in our 
 common schools, but in the higher schools it should 
 be extended to universal history. 
 
 No one can well do without this knowledge, and 
 to the citizens it seems indispensable. The law should 
 require the history of the United States to be taught 
 in every school. 
 
 Intellectual Discipline. 
 
 The study of history furnishes a valuable intel- 
 lectual discipline. To this.end a simple preliminary 
 outline sketch should be carefully fixed in the minds 
 of the pupils. We would refer the teacher to the 
 lessons on history. 
 
 Moral Influence. 
 
 History presents many examples of good and great 
 men and women who honored by their noble deeds 
 the age and country in which they lived. 
 
 JVJoral examples have more influence upon the 
 young than moral precepts. The heart is more easily 
 moved to virtue by incidental teaching than by 
 direct teaching. The great deeds of the past have 
 been done by beings like themselves, and they 
 cannot resist the desire to know them. In this study 
 
312 HISTORY. 
 
 they see life ; in other studies they come into the 
 possession of interesting facts and principles by 
 observation and by experiment. 
 
 The history of such men as Washington, Franklin, 
 Lincoln, and scores of others, will prove an incen- 
 tive to American youth, and the moral seeds sown 
 in open hearts will germinate and eventually pro- 
 duce rich fruit. 
 
 Little Interest in the Stndy. 
 
 The reason why pupils take so little interest in the 
 study of history is principally on account of the 
 fragmentary manner in which the subject is presented 
 in our text-books. Lessons in history should be 
 assigned by topics, and not by pages. All verbatim 
 recitations of sentences and paragraphs should be 
 strtctly forbidden, and the pupils should be required 
 to state the facts in their own language. 
 
 Necessity of a Knowledge of History. 
 
 It should be taught as a methodical record of im- 
 portant events. To every American citizen some 
 knowledge of the history of his country is useful ; 
 he should know of the founding, progress and 
 growth of liberty in his own country. Towards the 
 preservation of good government and the permanency 
 of our institutions, it is necessary that the principles 
 of government and the leading events of history be 
 taught in our American schools. 
 
 The idea of national unity and patriotism should 
 rise above the stripes of party and the turmoils of war, 
 and plant itself as the one thing vital to American 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING, 313 
 
 institutions. That the subject of history may secure 
 
 attention from the teacher, and study from the 
 
 pupils, is the sincere wish of every loyal American 
 
 citizen. 
 
 Methods of Teaching History. 
 
 I. Directions. 
 
 1. Interest the pupils by a familiar talk. 
 3. Examine the lessons with the pupils. 
 
 3. Draw maps and locate important places. 
 
 4. Let the maps be examined and criticised. 
 
 5. Bring out the prominent, salient facts, with 
 clearness. 
 
 6. Require pupils to classify and tabulate the 
 lesson, and recite from the tabulation. 
 
 7. Do not require dates too freely. 
 
 8. Let the pupils state the causes of the diflerent 
 wars, and their effects. 
 
 9. Teach history as a methodical record of im- 
 portant events. 
 
 10. An Objective Representation should be given 
 by means of maps and charts ; drawings and diagrams 
 should be placed on the board of all the important 
 matters in the history of the nation. 
 
 History, (Model Form.) 
 
 I. Directions. 
 
 1. What event? 
 
 2. What causes ? 
 
 3. What battle? 
 
 4. What time ? 
 
 5. What place? 
 
 6. What persons ? 
 
314 HISTORY. 
 
 7. What means? 
 
 8. Wb at losses? 
 
 9. What results? 
 
 Taking the directions for the model form, we have 
 the following lesson : History of the Battle of Bunker 
 
 mil. 
 
 1. What event ? Revolutionary "War. 
 
 f 1. Ivights of arbitrary 
 I government claimed 
 fl. Remote^ by the J^riiish. 
 I 1 2. Character of the 
 
 2. What causes? -( |^ King George III. 
 
 u. 
 
 Direct. ( 1. Importation Act. 
 ( 2. Slump Act. 
 
 3. What Battle? Bunker Hill. 
 
 4. What time? 1775, June 17th. 
 
 5. What place? Breed's Hill. 
 
 ■American f^^^ Gen. Ward. 
 Amencan ^^. ^ Prescott. 
 Generals, ^y^^^^ Putnam. 
 \^{d) Gen. Warren. 
 
 6. What persons?^ 
 
 {{a) Gen. Gage. 
 British | [b) Gen. Howe. 
 Generals.-! (c) Gen. Clinton. 
 I id) Gen. Bur- 
 L goyne. 
 
 « .rx-i , oil- American — limited. 
 
 7. What means ?] 2^ British-unlimited. 
 
 fl. American — 
 
 115 killed, 805 wounded 
 
 8. What losses? ■{ and 82 prisoners. 
 
 I 2. British— 
 
 (, 1054 killed and wounded. 
 
HE VIEWS. 315 
 
 fl. Remote — 
 
 I Gaining our Inde- 
 
 fl. American. -( peudence. 
 
 I 2. Direct — 
 
 n TiTi, * 1* o I Encouraging. 
 
 9. What results? j fl. Remote- 
 
 L2. British. ^ 3^ Direct- 
 
 [ Discouraging. 
 This model form may apply to a period of our 
 country's history, or to a battle of that period. 
 
 Associate, as far as possible, geographical knowl- 
 edge with the historical. 
 
 Tabulated Forms. 
 
 1. Discoveries and Explorations. 
 
 2. Settlements. 
 
 3. Wars and Adjustment of rival claims, culmi- 
 nating in the birth of the nation. 
 
 4. Period of Presidents. 
 
 Reviews, 
 
 1. Chronological. 
 
 2. Biographical. 
 
 3. Geographical. 
 
 The review should take three distinct forms. In the 
 Chronological, the pupil should state all of the prin- 
 cipal dates ; in the Biographical all that has been 
 learned in regard to particular individuals; and in the 
 Geographical, whatever he can state of all important 
 facts relating to the history of a locality. 
 
 These reviews may be made spirited exercises, by 
 requesting the class to write a few of the essential 
 dates, the sequence of important events, the names 
 
316 mSTOEY. 
 
 of important individuals. The system of the re- 
 views above suggested must, if faithfully carried out, 
 result in a thorough unifying of the general subject 
 
 of history. 
 
 Incidental Lessons. 
 
 Many of the facts of history may be given in read- 
 ing, and especially in geography lessons Such facts 
 would embrace pictures of social condition, growth 
 of manufactures and of populous districts, actions 
 that have made celebrated, particular places, and in- 
 cidents in the lives of remarkable men. 
 
 Such facts are to be given that the mind, furnished 
 with some of the material of history, may pursue 
 with more advantage to itself its systematic study. 
 
 Lessons on any subject are thus more adhesive than 
 when given to a mind entirely ignorant of it. 
 
 Remarks, — In all your teaching the principle of 
 proceeding from the known to the unknown must 
 be followed. A clear picture of the present must be 
 drawn, embracing, in their order, all of the above 
 particulars. The method, whatever it may be, 
 should quicken the pupils' observation, and lead 
 them to see some importance in the matters of every- 
 day life. Every succeeding lesson should bring up 
 vividly the condition of man in the past, and com- 
 pare it, in its several particulars, with things now. 
 This will make more and more evident how great 
 has been the change, and how much for the better. 
 The pupils should see how events, both great and 
 small, have contributed to the prosperity and the 
 advancement of the people. 
 
C UL Tl VA TE THE INTELLECT. 317 
 
 — J- 
 
 Aim in reaching History. 
 
 The aim might be to cultivate the intellect, for 
 which it has rich and varied matter adapted to exer- 
 cise each of its faculties. 
 
 The aim in teaching history should be to inculcate 
 those moral lessons which it is the office of history to 
 teach by example. What, for instance, could be 
 better adapted to produce a spirit of contentment and 
 thankfulness, than a clear knowledge of the present 
 condition of our country, with its superiority over 
 that of other nations ? What better opportunity can 
 be desired for showing and enforcing the necessity of 
 character and skilled industry than is afforded, while 
 tracing the improvements and the progress of our 
 nation for the past one hundred years? 
 
ELEMENTARY NATURAL 
 SCIENCE. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Can the Natural Sciences be profitably taught to 
 the average pupils in our schools ? Our first inquiry- 
 leads us to distinguish between the natural and the 
 artificial studies to which the children are introduced. 
 
 The child's mind is an instrument for acquiring 
 rather than using knowledge. He voluntarily begins 
 the study of nature. Here he goes to school long 
 before his parents send him. He touches with child- 
 hand many forces, and tries to grasp them. His 
 studies are natural, for they are in the order of his 
 mental developement. Stu^iy is play ; play is study. 
 The objective part of mathematics unfolds to hitn 
 the shapes and numbers of things. He begins physics 
 with the weight of his toy, or watching the ripple 
 and dash of brook, or the whirl of the water wheel. 
 He opens his botany when he plucks a flower, dis- 
 tinguishing color and form. He notices the material 
 of rocks, and gathers various stones like a zealous 
 mineralogist. 
 
 A child confined as most of our pupils are to the 
 reading, writing and arithmetic method of discipline, 
 
FA CTS BEFORE L GIC. 319 
 
 might as well be brought up in a desert as in the 
 world of beauty and power which surrounds hini. 
 His eyes are gradually closed to a thousand alluring 
 truths; his ears are dulled to the myriad voices of 
 nature. It is a just inference from these considera- 
 tions, and an acknowledged fact, that, to a mnjority 
 of pupils in the public schools, the acquiring of 
 knowledge is uninteresting and positively irksome. 
 
 But right teaching requires that the child's powers 
 of knowing accurately, should be developed, and 
 hence should begin and largely continue with his 
 senses. Words and number, over which so much time 
 is spent in reading, spelling and arithmetical problems, 
 are valuable to his mental development, as they are 
 associated with things really known. Hence the ele- 
 ments of science furnish the proper material for such 
 study. Knowledge is not power to the child, if it is 
 abstract. He cannot use knowledge which lies be- 
 yond the sphere of his daily observation and experi- 
 ence. What the State needs is intelligent citizens, 
 and intelligent youth from whom they can be made. 
 These come of the power of knowing and judging 
 accurately. We claim for the Natural Sciences this 
 effect on the child. They deal with facts more sen- 
 sible than those of arithmetic. The parts of a leaf 
 or a flower are definite, easily comprehended, and 
 classified with certainty. This is true of the nature 
 and species of the common animals, shells and in- 
 sects, the constituents of a stone, the qualities of an 
 acid or gas, the history of a rock traced in forms of 
 life, the nature and effect even of geological changes. 
 
 No wide range of knowledge is required to under- 
 
320 ELEMENT AB Y NA TUBAL SCIENCE. 
 
 stand definitely and surely scientific facts simply pre- 
 sented to the youthful mind. It easily comprehends 
 them as a whole. We claim, therefore, that to what- 
 ever degree the reasoning faculties should be devel- 
 oped 'to furnish the child-mind with power, this is 
 best secured by its reasoning on facts and things 
 rather than on ideas of the imagination, or history, 
 or morals, to which children's studies are usually 
 confined. The last knowledge gained by man is the 
 correct understanding of human nature, or the causes 
 of human actions. The sciences teach the relations 
 of cause and effect in their clearest manifestations. 
 With enlarged comprehension the child may learn 
 the secondary character of causes. He will trace 
 their relation to efi'ects with the certainty of convic- 
 tion to his mind. Thence will be imparted the ele- 
 ment of positiveness to the pupil's acquirements and 
 habits of character. He learns to act unwaveringly 
 on what he knows, and to know positively that upon 
 which he acts. Correcting by his own observations 
 the conclusion to which he is lead by the inductive 
 methods of scince, he gains independence in thought 
 with that confidence in his own powers of judging 
 which are the safeguards in his character and of his 
 rights as a freeman under our republican institutions 
 Thus early introduced to the elements of science, 
 the foundations of his character as a citizen are more 
 broadly laid, The child becomes more excursive in 
 thought, more inventive through familiarity with the 
 mechanisms of nature, and more appreciative of the 
 wealth and beauty of his country's resources. Taught 
 to observe, he never ceases to be aflfected by the 
 
SHOULD IT BE TAUGHT? 321 
 
 chaDging lines and hues in nature whicli his daily 
 vision embraces, and the elements of a true esthetic 
 culture find place in him which will add to his cer- 
 tain worth and power as a citizen. The old idea that 
 knowledge is for discipline is faithfully maintained 
 in our education. Yet knowledge is one of the nat- 
 ural desires of the mind. The true science of educa- 
 tion will make it a pleasure. This will require for 
 the senses larger opportunity than they now enjoy. 
 Moreover, we owe to the State and its free institu- 
 tions, to raise the standard of intelligence and cul- 
 ture among the people, among mechanics, farmers, 
 merchants, and laborers in the mill or the street. A 
 discernment of the true nature and qualities of things 
 in their daily use will secure this far better than drills 
 in spelling, arithmetic and grammar. The mass of 
 our citizens are not intelligent enough to understand 
 one-half the instruction contained in a good weekly 
 newspaper. 
 
 We make, therefore, this demand for the sciences 
 — first, that they have an equal place with the usual 
 studies of primary and grammar and district schools ; 
 secondly, that our teachers be required to make plain 
 the elements of the sciences to pupils below fourteen 
 years of age, at the expense of rote-drills and prob- 
 lems in arithmetic, grammatical analysis, spelling 
 without definitions, and the time spent in preparing 
 for pretentious written examinations, imposed at too 
 early an age, that have become one of the worst 
 abuses of an artificial system in public-school work. 
 
 We are concerned next with the methods of teach- 
 ing these sciences in district schools, or grades below 
 
322 ELEMENT AR Y NAT URA L SCIENCE. 
 
 the high school. The efforts of authors of element 
 ary text-books in science are not entirely successful ; 
 most of them are still too technical. There is less 
 vividness in the statement of the facts of science, less 
 personification and idealizing of the study than a 
 child's apprehension demands. The ancients taught 
 tbeir children the forces and sounds and shapes of 
 the waters and fields and forests, by personitications 
 of nymphs and dryads, gods and godesses, in whose 
 histories and habits they were personally interested. 
 So should the stories of insects, fishes, mollusks, 
 birds, and well-known animals, or of plants and 
 . stones, be told without text-books by the teacher, with 
 scientific truthfulness as to their modes of life and 
 motion. Thus children would become familiar with 
 their living forms. With text-books still defective, 
 the teacher's opportunity lies in what President Hill 
 calls the incidental method. Let her have specimens 
 of minerals, leaves, insects, flowers, pictures of birds 
 and animals, and simple apparatus for illustrating 
 chemical and physical forces, in order to make real 
 to her classes the subjects of the lesson. By a hun- 
 dred well-selected stereoscopic pictures she could 
 teach physical and political geography as effectively 
 as the shapes, circles, and seasons of the earth by a 
 globe. Thus the text-book in the hands of a sugges- 
 tive and excursive teacher will become secondary to 
 her personal power to make knowledge real and in- 
 teresting to the youngest pupils in her classes. Yet 
 the text-book in science will give the study equal 
 dignity to the arithmetic in the mind of the scholar, 
 
PURPOSES 01 OBJECT TEAGHINa. 323 
 
 while it corrects liie unscientific or garrulous ten- 
 dencies of the teacher. 
 
 Moreover, no other studies will so naturally develop 
 the personal power of the teacher. Proceeditjg 
 by the method of nature, step by step from the 
 known to the unknown, she will awaken enthusiasm 
 in the class, and from the fulness of her devotion to 
 the subject there will be an overtiow into the minds 
 of the pupils. Rote-teaching in these elements of 
 science is utterly defenceless. Ever}'- class of facts 
 and every principle involved should have illustration 
 from the wide range of nature. The living way of 
 Sauveur in language, should be applied to the scien- 
 ces. Every sense and power of the child can be 
 grasped and applied to them by the live teacher. 
 
 Chief Purposes of Object Lessoos. 
 
 The chief piirijoses of the object lessons are two: 
 first, to cultivate habits of careful observation and 
 reflection ; and second, to give facility in oral de- 
 scription. When properly given they involve the 
 systematic discipline of the perceptive faculties and 
 of the judgement, the imagination and the memory of 
 facts, and in the use of language. 
 
 The metlwd that should be pursued is that known 
 as the objective method. This presents two distinct 
 though intimately related departments; perceptive 
 teaching, in which the object, as an acorn, an egg, a 
 leaf, or a piece of coal, is directly presented to the 
 pupil's senses; and conceplive teaching in which im- 
 pressions previously received are recalled, arranged 
 and utilized, the objects themselves being presented 
 
324 ELEMENTARY NATURAL SCIENCE. 
 
 to the senses during the lesson. A lesson upon an 
 oak, an elephant, or a thunder storm would fall 
 under the latter department. The use of pictures, 
 models, or other sensible representations of objects, 
 is an important combination and modification of 
 the two departments. 
 
 Definitions should be very sparingly introduced, and 
 never in the first stages of a subject. If given at all, 
 they shonld sum up knowledge already attained. 
 They should be as brief as possible and shonld be 
 carefully prepared for by a process at once inductive 
 and objective. The words organic, inorganic, vege- 
 table, animal and mineral, are prominent among the 
 very few terms requiring definition. In every stage 
 of the lessons, with the exception of a few indispen- 
 sable definitions, the language used by the pupil 
 should be entirely his own, and all set forms of 
 words should be carefully avoided. "Familiar ob- 
 jects," and familiar animals, plants and minerals 
 should take precedence of all others in the selection 
 of topics. 
 
 The process employed will necessarily present two 
 distant stages in accordance with the two chief pur- 
 poses of these lessons already referred to. The first 
 may be called the analytic or preparatory, and fur- 
 nishes the principal discipline of the powers of ob- 
 servation and reflection. In this stage, which is largely 
 conversational, the teacher leads the pupils by ques- 
 tions or otherwise to discover or remember the prop- 
 erties or peculiarities of an object, or to state any 
 other important tacts associated with it. The points 
 thus considered should be written upon the black- 
 
CA UTIONS AS TO OBJECT LESSONS. 335 
 
 board is very brief synoptical form, but each only 
 after it has been dwelt upon. 
 
 The vital element in this part of the work, that 
 which gives it a living interest to the pupil, is the 
 discovery or learning of new facts or the gaining of 
 new ideas about the object under consideration. It 
 is evident that from the nature of the case this im- 
 portant element must be chiefly limited to the first 
 presentation of the object. Reviews, although for 
 certain purposes indispensable, soon become, at least 
 as far as this element is concerned, much like " a 
 thrice-told tale." This makes it all the more import- 
 ant that the teacher should have an outline of the 
 lesson carefully prepared beforehand, so as to be sure 
 to include the points most likely to be interesting 
 and instructive. Any additional point or fact after- 
 wards drawn from the class may be readily incor- 
 porated. 
 
 It should also be remembered that the effort to 
 "develop the perceptive powers" of children has 
 its limit, especially when applied to large classes. In 
 teaching a little group of four or five, comparatively 
 little difficulty should be found by ihe skilful teacher 
 But when the class ranges in number from forty to 
 sixty in the grammar school, and to seventy-five in 
 the primary, and when at the same time owing to the 
 pressure of the other and more directly important 
 exercises of a graded school the time given to oral 
 lessons is limited to a very few minutes, it is very 
 evident that the problem is a very different and a 
 much more formidable one. 
 
 In the first lesson upon any given object or phe- 
 
326 ELEMENTARY NA TUBAL SCIENCE. 
 
 nomenon, unless great care is taken to prevent it, a 
 few pupils of naturally quick perceptions will give 
 most of the responses, and the rest of the class will 
 thus be as really "told " by their classmates as if the 
 information had been given by the teacher. 
 
 It is true that in both cases there is an exercise of 
 the perceptive faculties ; but it is obvious that the 
 mental 'condition in which we follow and verify a 
 statement made by another is usually one of far less 
 vigorous and profitable activity than that in which 
 we discover a fact of ourselves. The tormer may be 
 called the perception of discovery, the latter the per- 
 ception of verification. Nevertheless, from the very 
 nature and condition of class-teaching, the lower and 
 less profitable form of the mental exercise will be 
 the predominating one. The methods of reducing 
 this evil to a practical minimum will be obvious to 
 the experienced teacher. It is also well for us to 
 consider how large a part of what we call our own 
 knowledge has become ours only through our verify- 
 ing the statements and perceptions of others. 
 
 The processes and results of this first or preparatory 
 
 stage of the work, important and interesting as they 
 
 may be, are entirely subordinate to the second stage. 
 
 The preparatory stage collects the material for the 
 
 work that is to follow : the lumber, lime, bricks and 
 
 stone for the edifice that is now to be constructed 
 
 with them. 
 
 Subject — Salt. 
 
 Let us suppose that the subject of our lesson is 
 Salt. The teacher has given the lesson with due at- 
 tention to the requirements of the objective method. 
 
OBJECT LESSON: SALT. 327 
 
 The qualities, as learned by the senses, the kinds, uses 
 and sources of salt have been considered. To these 
 points have been added the chief source of our own 
 supply, the singular fact that it is a mineral food, its 
 necessity to the health of the body, a brief reference 
 to its ancient use as a symbol of hospitality and to 
 certain superstitions which still cling to it, together 
 with such other simple and interesting facts as seemed 
 appropriate. 
 
 In that stage of the lesson which we have now 
 reached, the chief discipline is of the memory of 
 facts. *'What do you know or remember about 
 salt ?" should be the teacher's only question, except 
 when an error is made in the statement of facts, 
 when a proper question or two should lead to its 
 correction, not by the teacher, but by the class. The 
 points as written upon the blackboard in the order 
 in which the pupils remember them will be some- 
 thing like the following, omitting the prefixed 
 numerals, which will presently be explained : 
 
 Salt 
 
 3. Taste, 9. Springs, 6. Made into Soda, 
 
 4. Seasoning, 10. Ocean, 2. Soluble, 
 
 1. White, " 11. Sparkling, 13. Hospitality, 
 
 7. Kinds, 12. Granular, 14. Superstitions, 
 
 8. Mines, 5. Preserves meat and fish. 
 
 The next step is to have the class, not the teacher, 
 condense and arrange this miscellaneous list of items 
 into a brief and orderly synopsis. This is a point of 
 prime importance, but is so simple in practice that 
 any ordinary class will need but one illustration in 
 order to apply the principle. With beginners this 
 
328 ELEMENT AR T NAT URAL SCIENCE. 
 
 will be best understood by illustrating with some 
 short story — one well-known to Jthe pupils is best. 
 "Whittington and his Cat would do admirably. Write 
 the chief points of the legend on the blackboard in 
 brief, synoptical form, but in an absurdly illogical 
 order : 
 
 *' Whittiugton — a chest of gold — goes to sea — born 
 in London — Mayor — cat given him — dies respected — 
 poor boy, etc, etc." 
 
 If now the teacher will begin to tell the story, fol- 
 lowing the exact order of the synopsis, the class will 
 soon object, and may readily be led to number the 
 items in the order in which they should be stated in 
 telling the story. 
 
 A very little practice will enable a class to number 
 the items relating to salt substantially as they are 
 numbered in the synopsis already given. When 
 these are arranged according to the principles of 
 object teaching, they will condense into — 
 
 Salt. 
 
 1. Qualities— 3 : White; soluble; saline taste. 
 
 2. Kinds— 3 : Rock ; bay ; table. 
 
 3. Uses — 3: Seasoning; preserving meat, etc. ; soda. 
 
 4. Sources — 3 : Mines ; springs ; ocean. 
 
 5. Associations — 3 : Hospitality ; superstitions. 
 
 In making up a final synopsis such as this, great 
 care should be taken not to overload a subject by a 
 multiplicity of details. To accomplish this, only the 
 most important items of the irregular synopsis should 
 be taken. To attempt more is to cause the lesson to 
 break of its own weight. Most of the objects prop- 
 
S UG OES TIONS FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 329 
 
 erly selected as the basis of the lessons of the lower 
 grades may readily be reduced to from seven to ten 
 items. The smaller the number the better. 
 
 Now what use is to be made of this synopsis ? It 
 is obvious that if the pupil has the synopsis before 
 him on the blackboard and is called upon to state 
 without being questioned what he knows about salt, 
 the synopsis will be to him a brief set of arranged 
 suggestions or notes, and that with a little practice he 
 will be able with its aid to make a " continuous oral 
 statement." But a much more important use can be 
 made of this synopsis. 
 
 The next step is to train the class to reproduce it 
 for themselves. This will be found to be of great 
 practical importance, and is indeed indispensable. 
 The memory will now be called into exercise to re- 
 member the facts and the brief notes with which 
 they are associated. The iudgment will be trained 
 to arrange them in their logical order of sequence. 
 When by many lessons this has been made a mental 
 habit, the influence of the training will be felt upon 
 ail the other school lessons, as well as through life. 
 There are several ways of accomplishing this step of 
 reproducing the synopsis. The following is one of 
 the most simple, expeditious and efficient. Skilful 
 teachers will readily devise methods of their own : 
 
 i^'n^— Write the seven to ten or more items upon 
 the blackboard in their proper order. This has 
 already been determined by the pupil. Place its 
 proper number before each item. 
 
 Second — Tell the pupils to look carefully at the 
 items and try to remember them, and that you will 
 
330 ELEMENTARY NATTJRAL SCIENCE. 
 
 presently require tbem to be written in the same way 
 upon the slates and from memory. 
 
 Third — Cover the synopsis with a newspaper or 
 the convenient screen, and at a given signal let the 
 pupils try to reproduce it upon their slates. 
 
 Fourth — Call upon one to read what he has written, 
 and let the rest of the class, without looking upon 
 their slates, tell what he has omitted or what error 
 he has made. Then give all a briet opportunity to 
 correct and complete. Have the slates cleaned, and 
 try once or twice more, if necessary, until a reason- 
 ably correct result is obtained. Clean the synopsis 
 from the blackboard. 
 
 Fifth — The final step is obvious. It is that for 
 which all that precedes has been the preparation. Let 
 a suflScient number of pupils be called upon one after 
 another to make a connected oral statement of such 
 facts and ideas as each can properly recall, glancing 
 from time to time, as he may find it necessary, at the 
 synopsis upon his slate. 
 
 Specimen Object Lesson* 
 The Bear — Use Pictures. 
 
 Special points to be developed. 
 
 Parts — Broad head ; strong, clumsy body, covered 
 with long coarse hair; stout thick legs, short tail; large, 
 slightly pointed ears; small, bright eyes; front teeth 
 in both jaws; canine teeth (two in each jaw), long, 
 strong and slightly curved backwards; molars broad 
 and surmounted with tubercles; five toes on each 
 foot, each having a long, stout curved claw or nail, 
 fitted for digging or climbing (not retractile). Sole of 
 foot naked; simple stomach. 
 
OBJECT LESSON: THE BEAR. 331 
 
 Habits. 
 
 Eats animal and vegetable food ; walks on its flat 
 feet (hence called plantigrade) ; climbs trees, noc- 
 turnal ; stands readily on hind feet ; uses fore feet for 
 defence by striking or hugging. 
 
 Uses. 
 
 Flesh, leather, fur, curiosity. 
 
 Dwell on adaptation of parts to habits and uses. 
 Miscellaneous and Popular. 
 
 Cunning, unsocial ; spends the winter in caves in 
 hollow trees, almost without food ; dangerous and 
 formidable ; sometimes called Bruin. (Why ?) 
 
 A few lessons should be given with the use of pic- 
 tures, upon the lion, tiger, wolf, fox, racoon. The 
 cat, dog and bear being the types of the families to 
 which they respectively belong, the matter furnished 
 above will serve in all essential particulars for class- 
 ifying the other animals. 
 
 Give lessons on likenesses and diff"erences ; from 
 the former get the idea and term carnivorous, and 
 from the latter the following : 
 
 f Cat family. 
 Dog " 
 Bear " 
 
 i. X " 
 
 Note. — The other families of this order are not 
 given, because to attempt so much would defeat the 
 object of the lessons. 
 
 Models for identifying or describing : 
 
 Oral. 
 The lion is a wild, ferocious, toe-walking animal 
 that belongs to the cat family of carnivorous animals. 
 
 Carnivorous Animals -l 
 
332 ELEMENTAB Y NAT TIBAL SCIENCE. 
 
 Carniverous 
 Animals. 
 
 Written. 
 Wild. 
 
 Digitigrade I Cat family. 
 
 Claws retractile. J -' 
 
 Front teeth in both jaws. " 
 Canine, long hooked, 
 
 fitted for tearing. 
 Molars, uneven, sharp, 
 
 fitted for cutting. 
 Simple stomach. 
 
 Carnivorous. 
 
 After each animal studied has been identified ac- 
 cording to plans given, and a general talk had upon 
 the whole order, a composition should be written 
 upon the subject, Carnivorous Animals. 
 
 Several weeks may be spent profitably upon a com- 
 parison of Herbivorous and Carnivorous animals. 
 
 The following points are suggested : 
 
 Kinds of teeth. - ■ Kinds of food. 
 
 Kinds of stomachs. 
 
 Shape and comparative" 
 size of trunks, espec- 
 ially the abdominal 
 region. 
 
 Nature of food. 
 
 Quantity of food. 
 
 Acuteness of senses. 
 
 Pliability of 
 structure. 
 
 osseous 
 
 \ \ 
 
 Manner of obtaining 
 food. 
 
 Manner of obtaining 
 food. 
 
FORMULA FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 333 
 
 Freedom of motion of 
 the limbs. 
 
 Kinds of feet. 
 
 \ ■{ 
 
 Manner of obtaining 
 food. 
 
 Muscular power. 
 (Relative.) 
 
 Limbs as weapons of 
 oflence or defence. 
 
 The animal in each or- 
 der most remote from 
 the type. 
 
 (Hog, bear.) 
 
 i General habits, man- 
 •< ner of obtaiuiag 
 ( food. 
 
 Obstacles to be over- 
 come in obtaining 
 food. 
 
 Food, (both kinds.) 
 
 The work indicated by this paper will require more 
 time than that of the preceding papers. 
 
 General Formula. 
 
 I. Directions^ 
 
 1. Let the pupils describe the apparatus. 
 
 2. Let the pupils perform the experiments. 
 8. Let the pupils announce the experiments. 
 
 4. Use simple objects and illustrations. 
 
 5. Proceed by rudimentary facts. 
 
 6. Proceed by individual cases to deduce laws. 
 
 7. Let the principles be developed by the pupils. 
 
 8. Let the pupils perceive that we arrive at results 
 by three diflferent ways : 1st, by observation ; 2d, by 
 experiment ; 3d, by effects. 
 
 II. Cautions, 
 
 1. Speak slowly. 
 
 2. Repeat carefully. 
 
334 ELEMENTAB Y NA TUBAL SCIENCE. 
 
 3. Use simple language. 
 
 4. Unite points on the board. 
 
 5. Require pupils to copy. 
 
 6. Keep close to the subject. 
 
 7. Require pupils to answer in complete statements. 
 
 8. Repeat experiments and illustrations. 
 
 9. Reproduce each lesson carefully. 
 
 10. Never use a term that has not been fully devel- 
 oped. 
 
 11. Guide the pupil's thoughts, but do not lead them. 
 13. Arrange a definite plan. 
 
 13. Work so as to secure and hold attention. 
 
 14. Let your object be to guide pupils to see clearly 
 and infer correctly. 
 
 General Formula. 
 
 L Objects should he presented^ 
 
 1. To the senses, or perception. 
 
 2. To the reflective or reasoning powers. 
 
 3. Their features should be thoroughly memorized. 
 
 II. Ideas are developed, 
 
 1. By appealing to the senses. 
 
 2. By comparison. 
 
 3. By experiment. 
 
 4. By reason. 
 
 Lesson on Divisibility. 
 
 The teacher should have on the table different arti- 
 cles, as slips of wood, a lump of coal, piece of 
 glass, brick, stone, etc., glass jar containing water, 
 cochineal, carmine, etc. 
 
LESSON ON DIVISIBILITY, 335 
 
 First, let the pupils describe the articles, as " You 
 hold in your hand a piece of pine wood ten inches 
 in length, two inches in breadth and one-half an inch 
 in thickness." See that they express the truth and 
 use accurate language. 
 
 "You hold in your hand a lump of coal about as 
 large as a hen's egg." 
 
 " You have in your hand a piece of a brick about 
 four inches in length, four inches in breadth, and two 
 inches in thickness." 
 
 " You hold in your hand a glass jar containing one 
 quart of clear water," etc., etc. 
 
 The teacher may now place in the hands of the 
 pupil a small slip of wood and tell him to do some- 
 thing with it. The pupil will either break, cut or 
 split it. The teacher will ask him to observe what he 
 has done with it. The pupil will answer, " I have 
 broken it." The teacher will so question the pupils 
 as to draw out an answer similar to the following : 
 " The wood may be separated into parts." 
 
 Again, the teacher will request one of the pupils 
 to take the hammer and do something with the coal. 
 The pupil will break it, and he perceives that the 
 coal may be broken into pieces. 
 
 The teacher will so question the pupil as to draw 
 out the following answer: "Coal may be separated 
 into parts." So proceed with the brick, glass, stone, 
 iron, etc., and lastly take the glass lar and put in it 
 a few grains of cochineal, carmine or indigo, and let 
 the pupils notic-e the effects. They will say that the 
 cochineal is coloring the water ; let them see that the 
 
336 ELEMENTAR Y NAT URAL SCIENCE. 
 
 cochineal is separated into thousands of parts ; lead 
 them to say that cochineal " may be separated into 
 parts." The teacher should write all the facts on the 
 board, and require the pupils to spell the words. See 
 that the children begin every statement with a capi- 
 tal letter and end it with a period. 
 
 The lesson thus far developed will appear on the 
 board in the following form : 
 
 1. Wood may be separated into parts. 
 
 2. Coal may be separated into parts. 
 
 3. Glass may be separated into parts. 
 
 4. Brick may be separated into parts. 
 
 5. Iron may be separated into parts. 
 
 6. Cochineal may be separated into parts. 
 Pupils should be required to copyjthe above neatly, 
 
 and reproduce it. They should be lead to perceive 
 that all objects may be separated into parts. At this 
 stage ask them to give a general name to all things 
 that they can perceive. They will give the names : 
 things, objects, articles, substance, matter, — perhaps 
 not the latter; if they do not give the name matter, 
 the teacher should give it. Tell the pupils that 
 " matter" is the term you wish them to use. Now 
 lead them to perceive that that " Matter may be sep- 
 arated into parts." Now tell them that this properly 
 is called by a certain term. Divisibility, and lead them 
 to develop the definition from the knowledge already 
 possessed. For example, that property of matter, 
 which allows it to be separated into parts is Divisi- 
 bility. 
 
LESSON ON DIVISIBLITY. 33? 
 
 The lesson will now appear on the board in the 
 following form : 
 
 1. Wood may be separated into parts. 
 
 2. Coal may be separated into parts. 
 
 3. Glass may be separated into parts. 
 
 4. Brick may be separated into parts. 
 
 5. Iron may be separated into parts. 
 
 6. Cochineal may be separated into parts. 
 
 7. Musk may l)e separated into parts, etc. , etc. 
 General Laic — All matter may be separated into 
 
 parts. 
 
 Dtjinition — Divisibility is that property of matter 
 which allows it to be separated into parts. 
 
 The pupils should memorize the General Law and 
 Definition. The teacher may give extended informa- 
 tion in relation to divisibility, speaking of a grain of 
 musk, of the small portions it throws off, and of va- 
 rious minerals. 
 
RECITATIONS. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 As it is considered more important to digest what is 
 learned than merely to acquire it, the manner of con- 
 ducting a recitation becomes of the highest import- 
 ance. It is to be expected that the pupils carry 
 away with them the habits of mind that the class- 
 training engenders. The ability of the teacher to 
 make each recitation a model of the best method of 
 investigating a subject and of expressing the results, 
 is the highest recommendation for the position he 
 holds. 
 
 Discipline is only a means, whereas the recitation 
 is an end. A failure here is a failure altogether. It 
 has definite and rational aims to be carefully sought 
 after and earnestly pursued. It is the most delicate 
 part of all the school work. Here the teacher may 
 exhibit skill, tact, and individuality ; the inventive 
 powers are to be taxed to their utmost, in order to 
 bring about the desired results. 
 
 Main Object of tlie Reeitiation. 
 
 The main object is to develop the powers of the 
 pupils, and this development will be attained in 
 proportion to the ability, capacity, and ingenuity of 
 the teacher. 
 
METHODS IN REGIT A TIOK. 339 
 
 The conditions of success in school work are as 
 fixed as the axioms of mathematics. Intense interest, 
 activity, self-reliance, well-directed effort — these are 
 the essential features of all efficient methods. Any 
 method of conducting recitations that embraces 
 these is a good one. Different teachers do not always 
 succeed best with the same method. 
 
 Adaptation and variety are cardinal principles in 
 education. The safe rule is: Employ tlie method which 
 will best enable yau to effect the desired results. 
 
 How to Conduct a Recitation* 
 
 I. Essentials. 
 
 7. 64 irief reproduction of the preced'^ 
 ing lesson. 
 
 Z. S€ hrief review of the preceding les^ 
 son, 
 
 3. Rehearsal and critical examination 
 of the daily lesson. 
 
 4. Recapitulation of the daily lesson. 
 
 5. 64dequate preparation for the ad=^ 
 vanced lesson. 
 
 II. Objects op the Recitation. 
 /. 3he development of the faculties. 
 Z. She acquisition of Tcnowledge. 
 5. J'ts application to the use of life. 
 
340 RECITATIONS. 
 
 III. Ends of the Recitations. 
 
 /. S'o develop individuality. 
 
 2. 3o encourage originality. 
 
 3. So cultivate self=reliance and self= 
 possession. 
 
 4. So cultivate sentiments of justice, 
 
 Toindness^ forhearance and courtesy. 
 
 5. S'hat the development and the growth 
 
 of the pupils J physically^ intellectually and 
 morally^ may he carefully nurtured^ and 
 hravely prepare them for life^ s service. 
 
 IV. Aims to be Attained in Conducting a Recitation. 
 
 1. To teach " one thing at a time, and that well." 
 
 2. To fix and hold the attention. 
 
 3. To develop the power of close observation. 
 
 4. To cultivate exact, concise, and ready expres- 
 sion. 
 
 5. To increase the attainments of the class. 
 
 6. To determine the pupils' habits and methods of 
 study, and to correct whatever is faulty either in 
 manner or matter. 
 
 7. To ascertain the extent of preparation on the 
 part of the pupil. 
 
 8. To encourage the work. This is important to 
 prevent apostasy — "backsliding.'* 
 
 9. To give preliminary drill on subsequent lessons, 
 
ENDS TO BE ATTAINED. 341 
 
 showing what is to be done and Jiow it is to be done. 
 This needs special attention. 
 
 10. To hear reports on subjects assigned at pre* 
 vious recitations. 
 
 11. To require pupils to answer in full and com- 
 plete propositions 
 
 12. That no pupil should speak till recognized by 
 the teacher — the chairman of the meeting. 
 
 13. Tte pupil should rise when called upon to re- 
 cite. 
 
 14. The teacher is not expected to recite, nor repeat 
 the pupils' answers. 
 
 15. That system, neatness and accuracy should 
 characterize all work. 
 
 16. That criticism, given in the spirit of kindness, 
 should be indulged at every recitation. 
 
 17. That the recitation should cease when there is 
 any confusion in the room. 
 
 18. Aim to reach general principles. 
 
 19. Remember that in primary work the " how " 
 always precedes the " why." 
 
 20. Master subjects rather than pages. 
 
 21. Remember that mind-training is more import- 
 ant than mere knowledge. 
 
 22. Avoid wandering ; keep the object of the les- 
 son before you. 
 
 23. Avoid leaning in slavish dependence upon the 
 text-book. 
 
 24. Use judgment in the assignment of lessons. 
 
 25. Propound questions promiscuously. 
 
 26. State the question — then call upon the pupil. 
 
342 RECITATIONS, 
 
 27. When the pupil is called upon to recite, permit 
 no interruptions, as speaking without permission, 
 holding up hands, etc. 
 
 28. Cultivate honesty in every recitation. 
 
 29. Never '* show off" pet classes or pet pupils. 
 
 30. Do not talk too much about order. 
 
 31. Cultivate language in the pupils ; let every ex- 
 ercise bear upon the correct use of language. 
 
 32. Close recitation promptly. 
 
 33. Dismiss the class in order. 
 
 34. Be cheerful, active and energetic. 
 
 35. Thoroughly master yonr subjects. 
 
 36. " Make haste slowly." 
 
 37. Do not yourself remove diflSculties, but teach 
 pupils to overcome, to master them ; in all instruction 
 *' never remove a ditficulty which the pupil has the 
 power to remove." 
 
 38. Allow no questions foreign to the recitation to 
 be asked. 
 
 39. Allow no hesitation during recitation. 
 
 40. Give entire time and attention to the recitation. 
 
 41. Require expertnessin mechanical operations. 
 
 42. Comprehend the difference between memory 
 of words, and knowledge. 
 
 43. Comprehend the difference between *' hearing 
 a recitation," and teaching. 
 
 44. The skilful teacher will always prepare his 
 class for any difficulty which may meet them in the 
 advance lesson. He may explain the difficulty oral- 
 ly ; he may solve an example, not in the book, which 
 shall meet the difficulty; he may give the class a pre- 
 
BEQUISITIES. 343 
 
 liminary drill on the rule, or on a series of more dif- 
 ficult examples under any rule, or in miscellaneous 
 examples under a number of rules. Such prepara- 
 tion, judiciously given, is calculated to keep up the 
 ambition of all the class, by removing all excuses for 
 laziness and discouragement. 
 
 45. Remember that true education is the forming 
 for life of correct habits of thmking, feeling and doing. 
 
 Y. Requisites for the Recitation. 
 /. c9^ liv&^ intelligent teacher. 
 
 2. Recitation seats. 
 
 3. S€n abundance of hIacMoard. 
 
 4. S4pparatus^ — such as globes^ charts^ 
 maps^ numerical frame, measures, etc. 
 
 6, Reference boohs. 
 
 6. ^all bell. 
 
 */. Proper ventilation. 
 
 8. Squal temperature, 
 
 VI. Pkeparation by the Teacher. 
 
 /. General preparation^ always special 
 if possible. 
 
 a Should have a Icnowledge of mental 
 and moral philosophy. 
 
 3. Should have an abstract of each day^s 
 worh. 
 
344 RECITATIONS. 
 
 4. Should Jonow liow to ^' us&^^ hoohs, 
 dut not ahuse them. 
 
 Remarks on ** How to Conduct a Recita- 
 tion." 
 
 Repi'oduction. 
 
 No permanent results can be attained in teaching 
 "without thorough, careful and repeated reproduction 
 of lessons. 
 
 After a lesson has been given and recited by the 
 pupils in the subsequent recitation, they should be 
 required to restate what they learned in the preceding 
 lesson, using good language and distinct and definite 
 propositions. No questions should be asked by the 
 teacher — and if the work has been done as it should be 
 in the preceding exercise, there will be no need of any. 
 
 In primary classes, require oral reproduction; in 
 intermediate and senior classes, written reproduction. 
 Reviews. 
 
 In the review the teacher asks questions of the pu. 
 pils, direct and general ; pupils are required to con- 
 struct tabulation on the board, and recite from the 
 tabulations. It is well to let the pupils ask questions 
 of each other — this will inspire the pupils with a de- 
 sire for study and make them ready, prompt and self- 
 reliant. 
 
 The teacher should institute weekly reviews, both 
 
 oral and written. 
 
 Rehearsal. 
 
 This is perhaps the most delicate part of the reci- 
 tation. To so conduct it that pupils may pass a 
 
TEE OBJECT OF EBVCATION. 345 
 
 thorough examination requires skill, judgment and 
 experience. The teacher is not expected to render 
 assistance in this division of the recitation; the pu- 
 pils mnst do ilie work^ and give clear proof of their 
 comprehension of the lesson. If they cannot do it, 
 the teacher is in fault, and not the pupils. 
 
 During this part of the recitation, the teacher 
 should not take the time " to recite;" it is the pupils' 
 time. That is a very poor teacher who will do the 
 work that should be done by the pupil. 
 
 Recapitulation. 
 
 Before the class is excused, let thorn give the lead- 
 ing, salient points of the lesson — a summary — a di- 
 gest of the whole. 
 
 Give Preliminary Drill upon Subsequent 
 Lessons* 
 
 A great deal of time is lost in the school, because 
 pupils do not know what to do or liow to do it In 
 all primary classes oral instruction should precede 
 pure recitation. In fact, in all classes, where it is 
 necessary, oral instruction should be given. 
 
 I would not be understood to say that the teacher 
 must tell the child all he is to learn ; he should use 
 the rational oral method, and not the old, antiquated 
 text-book method. 
 
 Objects of the Recitation. 
 
 The main object of an education is to teach a child 
 self-control — physical, intellectual and moral. This 
 can be done only through a harmonious development 
 of all his powers. 
 
346 BE CITATIONS. 
 
 They should be so taught in school that they may 
 have a desire to pursue other studies; able to acquire 
 knowledge by observation, investigation and study. 
 The knowledge imparted should be applied, as far as 
 may be, to practice. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 In recitations, the expression of the thoughts which 
 the pupil has acquired by study, should be embodied 
 in his own language. 
 
 If the lesson contains captions, mathematical defi- 
 nitions, principles or tables, or fixed rules, they 
 should be accurately recited in the words of the au- 
 thor. The mind should be the depository of thoughts 
 and not of mere words and si-ius. 
 
 In the class-recitation the pupil should be required 
 to stand erect while reciting. This will give him 
 confidence and self-reliance. 
 
 It should not be known beforehand what order 
 will be pursued in conducting the recitation. If 
 called on consecutively, some will be inattentive; if 
 called on promiscuously, the idle and inattentive will 
 be called more frequently. 
 
 Every teacher must set to it that each pupil is so 
 classified as to be required to perform a full amount 
 of mental labor. "Each mind must be taxed." It 
 is the wise teacher who is able to adapt his treatment 
 and instruction to the wants of each and all. 
 
 Teachers are quite apt to call out the bright, intel- 
 ligent pupils in the recitation; but let us remem.ber 
 that mere scholarship does not make the man; do 
 not slight those who are dull, slow to understand. 
 
HONOR THOSE WHO LABOR, 347 
 
 Our calculations may be entirely subverted; in ac- 
 tive life he wins who is more industrious and labori- 
 ous than his fellow-men. 
 
 Honor those who Laboro 
 
 It is not the one who bears away the highestxhon- 
 ors in the colleges, as a rule, that attains to the high- 
 est positions in life. The world has reversed the 
 decision, and awarded the merit and honor to him 
 who has paved his way to distinction and usefulness 
 by toil and sweat and tears. 
 
 Such are Nathaniel Bowdiich, the mathematician; 
 Benjamin Franklin, the philosopher ; George Pea- 
 body, the philanthropist ; Abraham Lincoln, the 
 statesman, and Ulysses S. Grant, the general. 
 
 I would not intimate that scholarly ability is not 
 desirable, but this is not always the test. Long and 
 merited toil is the price of merited honor. He who 
 has gained the highest marks of professional life has 
 risen step by step, not by genius, but by labor. 
 Make the Recitation Interesting. 
 
 Another practical suggestion in this connection is : 
 strive to make the recitation attractive and interest- 
 ing. This requires thought and professional skill. 
 The teacher should carefully study each lesson be- 
 fore meeting the class, not merely to enable him to 
 understand what he teaches, but to be able to so con- 
 duct the recitation that he will awaken and keep alive 
 the interest of his pupils. The gxand test of the 
 teacher's ability, and the secret of his success is found 
 in his power to inspire his pupils with earnestness 
 and enthusiasm. To wake up mind, is his first and 
 most important duty. A true teacher is alive and in 
 
348 
 
 RECITATIONS. 
 
 earnest; his heart throbs with tenderness and emo- 
 tion; his blood flows freely through his veins, and 
 imparts cheerfulness and vigor to his whole being. 
 Enthusiasm speaks out in his voice, glows in his 
 countenance and flashes from his eye. We need in 
 active service more of those live teachers; teachers 
 that can bring order out of confusion, light out of 
 darkness, and awaken to activity the slumbering pow- 
 ers of the intellect. 
 
 Our Country Needs Teachers. 
 
 The country needs "teachers and schools," not 
 "keepers of schools." The country needs men and 
 women "to conduct rational recitations," not to hear 
 classes. The country needs masters, and mastery is 
 attained only through voluntary and persistent labor. 
 Michael Angelo says: " Trifles make perfection, but 
 perfection is no trifle." The teacher should be 
 watchful, faithful and prayerful. Then, and not un- 
 til then, will he attain success in teaching. 
 Recitation. 
 
 MetJiods 
 
 in 
 TeacJiing. 
 
 < 
 
 I. Text-booJi, ^ 
 
 ( 1. Rote, 
 ' memori- 
 ter. 
 2. na- 
 tional. 
 
 1. Rote, 
 
 2. Ra- 
 tional. 
 
 II. Oral, 
 III. Socraiic. 
 ly. Topic or Subject 
 
 V. Discussion, 
 VI. Lecture, 
 
UNTRAINED TEACHERS. 349 
 
 The above methods are used in the schools, and 
 many other ways not entitled to the name of method. 
 
 The text book method is purely English, and by 
 some it is a " much abused " method. 
 
 When teachers simply require the pupils to com- 
 mit a lesson to memory and recite it mechanically, 
 this is an abuse of the method. The subject is one 
 of unusual interest at the present time, for the reason 
 that so much is said and written for and against the 
 so-called "oral *' and " text-book " methods, respect- 
 ively. While on the one hand the text book method 
 is stigmatized as a dead mechanical memorizing of 
 the words in the book and then a parrot-like repeti- 
 tion of the same to the teacher, who sits behind the 
 desk and looks on the book to see that the lesson is 
 given verbatim, on the other hand the oral system 
 is acused of relieving the pupils from the necessity 
 of study ; of throwing all the work upon the teacher. 
 
 Untraiaed Teachers. 
 
 No doubt there are legions of unskilful, untrained 
 or negligent teachers in the country. I am inclined 
 to think that they far outnumber the skilful and 
 pains-taking ones — and it is hardly fair to judge of , 
 the methods, when they misuse the position and the 
 instruments placed in their hands so far as to make 
 the text-book a procrustean bed and the recitation a 
 benumbing process to the faculties of the child. 
 The mere memorizing of the context is no index 
 to the understanding of it. A school-mistress once 
 said to a little girl : " How is it, my dear, that you do 
 not understand this simple thing? *' " I do not know, 
 
350 EXCITATIONS. 
 
 indeed," she answered with a perplexed look ; * but 
 I sometimes think I have so many things to learn 
 that I have no time to understand." 
 
 It is not best to condemn a method that has been 
 in use fcr hundreds ot years, because all cannot 
 attain good results. But systems should not have 
 their merits adjudged by their results in the hands of 
 bunglers ; they should be compared in their results 
 as achieved at the hands of those who have mastered 
 the methods. A system is not responsible for the 
 failures of those who do not follow out its principles. 
 
 Grand results have been attained with the text, 
 book method, by adopting the rational method of 
 recitation, — appealing to reason, to a proper under- 
 standing of the context before memorizing. The latter 
 is preferred by all rational teachers. 
 Oral Method. 
 
 The method is purely German, and like the text- 
 book method has its friends and foes. In some 
 schools the teachers lecture before the children, and 
 require them to reproduce the exact language of the 
 lecture. In this case it is as much a rote or memor- 
 iter exercise as the text-book method. 
 
 In other schools, the teachers ask suggestive ques- 
 tions, — they excite the pupils' curiosity, awaken the 
 mind and easily hold the attention. The pupils do 
 the work, and infer the answers through their powers 
 of perception. This is real education. This is the 
 rational oral method. 
 
 The advantage of class-recitation may be found in 
 both oral and text-book methods, chiefly, I think, in 
 
ORAL VS. TEXT-BOOK TEACHING. 351 
 
 the latter. We believe in a combinatioa of the two 
 methods. We, in America, can neither use the text- 
 book method, which in Eoglish, nor the oral method, 
 which is German. We need to Americanize them, 
 and our best teachers, already, are in the advance 
 and working out grand results. 
 
 Oral and Text-Book Methods Compared. 
 
 The American method is the philosophical combi- 
 nation of both, — uniting the merits and rejecting the 
 faults. Oral methods predominate properly in 
 American primary schools ; text-book methods in 
 secondary schools and colleges ; and we return again 
 to oral methods, or lectures, iu the professional 
 schools. The true place for oral methods is in pre- 
 paratory work. Oral instruction should lead to and 
 prepare for the text-book. 
 
 The best work in American schools is found in a 
 judicious combination of both methods. Oral in- 
 struction alone, if carried through a course of instruc- 
 tion, even if teachers are prepared to give it, is not 
 the best method. It should lead to a mastery of 
 other thoughts than those on the printed page. The 
 most effective teaching uses both the oral and text- 
 book methods. If used properly, oral teaching will 
 teach the pupils how to investigate. Oral instruc- 
 tion, in its results, is of the highest importance to 
 American citizenship. Youna; children have few 
 ideas, for they have heard little, read little, and their 
 observation has not been developed. 
 
 Oral instruction takes a more permanent hold of 
 the mind than memorizing from books. It affords 
 
352 EEGITATIONS. 
 
 the learner an opportunity to ask questions as the 
 lesson proceeds, and gives the teacher the entire con- 
 trol of the youthful minds that lie fallow before 
 him. It opens also a field for enthusiasm in teach- 
 ing and learning, where everything with some teach- 
 ers is mere drudgery. It would give life where there 
 is nothing now but worn and worthless machinery 
 in our public schools. 
 
 Children are too often made to commit to memory 
 names and dates and rules, without a proper under- 
 standing of them. The text-book becomes the real 
 instructor, and not the living man or woman who 
 should impart instruction. 
 
 We would not discard the text-books entirely, 
 neither would we exclude them. 
 
 The proper place for oral instruction is in the 
 primary department ; and in other classes the oral 
 instruction should be of such a character as to 
 simply prepare the pupils for study ^ so that no time 
 may be wasted. 
 
 Pupils should be made to study their text-books ; 
 learn short lessons ; be asked by the teachers not 
 only the questions in the books, but others that will 
 test their knowledge and awaken their interest. 
 
 Some pupils learn readily from their text-books, 
 and get along with a little explanation. Some are 
 more dull and need the stimulus of recitation, of 
 questions and answers, and of illustrations. 
 
 The Socratic Method. 
 
 By skilful questioning the pupii is led to discover 
 the truth, and trained to think. Subjects are devel- 
 
TOPICAL TEACHING. 353 
 
 oped from the standpoint of the learner. The teacher 
 stimulates and directs, but never crams. Pupils are 
 encouraged to present their own thoughts. If cor- 
 rect, the teacher deepens and widens these views by 
 suggestive illustrations. If incorrect, the absurdity 
 is shown by leading the pupils to discover the legiti- 
 mate consequences. Thus the burden of thought 
 and research is thrown upon the learner, who, at 
 every step, feels the joy of discovery and victory, 
 and the conscious pleasure of assisting the teacher. 
 Such teaching results in development^ growth and 
 education. " The exercise of the child's own powers, 
 stimulated and directed, but not superseded, by the 
 teacher's interference, ends both in the acquisition of 
 knowledge and in the invigoration of the powers for 
 future acquisition." 
 
 This old, old method is slowly but irresistably 
 tending to become universal. Mere school keepers, 
 rote teachers, quacks, shams and fossils will never 
 adopt this plan of teaching ; but as teachers become 
 familiar with the science of teaching, they will neces- 
 sarily use the Socratic method of giving instruction. 
 It is the natural method. 
 
 The Topical Method. 
 
 In this method the pupils are trained to tell conse- 
 cutively their own thoughts. 
 
 The art of connected discourse is essential ; hence 
 by our best teachers the topical method is made the 
 basis of the recitation. This should be required of 
 every class in school, whenever the subject will 
 admit of it. No other method can so easily secure 
 
354 RECITATIONS. 
 
 the results to be accomplished. Pointed, searching 
 questions are asked whenever necessary, and instruc- 
 tion is given in the Socratic method. At any moment 
 any member of the class is liable to be called on to 
 explain a diflculty, to answer a question, or to con- 
 tinue the topic. Thus life, vigor, undivided atten- 
 tion, and effective individual effort are secured and 
 maintained throughout the recitation. 
 
 Prompting, in all its forms, is inartistic and per- 
 nicious. The aim is to train the pupils to habits of 
 independent expression, as well as independent thought. 
 The exclusive use of the topic method is an extreme 
 to be studiously avoided, as it excludes instruction 
 and fails to elicit the intense interest and the earnest 
 effort of every member of the class. It should have 
 a limited use in the primary department, more ex- 
 tended in the intermediate and senior departments. 
 In the primary classes, the terms may be developed 
 individually, and written on the board ; thus forming 
 a complete tabulation and classification. 
 
 The pupils should be required to review the terms 
 written on the board, without any assistance from 
 the teacher. 
 
 In intermediate and senior classes, the pupils 
 should be taught to tabulate and classifj'-, and recite 
 from the tabulation. 
 
 The Discussion Method. 
 
 Briefly and pointedly pupils present their argu- 
 ments in favor of their respective positions. Crit- 
 icisms are urged and answered. Every point is 
 sharply contested. The reasons for and against are 
 carefully weighed. 
 
TI:A GHINa B T LEO TUBES. 355 
 
 Educationally tlie discussion method stands higli. 
 It is like the interest excited in debate ; in these 
 mental conflicts, the utmost power of the pupil is put 
 forth. 
 
 There is no better way to cultivate independence, 
 self-assertion, liberality, and the habit of treating an 
 opponent courteously and fairly. The discussion 
 method supplements the Socratic and topic methods. 
 It breaks up monotony, dissipates stupidness and 
 insipidity. 
 
 From the primary school to the university this 
 method maj be used to incalculable advantage; but 
 in all cases it must be kept well under the control 
 and direction of the teacher. 
 
 Perhaps there is no method that will excite greater 
 interest than this rational method. There is less ex- 
 amining, less artificial training and more solid devel- 
 opment. The discussion method is pre-eminently 
 the method to make thinking men and thinking 
 
 women . 
 
 The Lecture Method. 
 
 Lecturing is another method of instruction which 
 has its uses and abuses. A lecture by the teacher 
 should never be substituted tor a recitation by the 
 class. Many teachers suppose that the measure of 
 their ability as instructors is the power they have to 
 explain and illustrate before their classes ; and hence 
 spend the most of the time assigned to recitation 
 in the display of their own gifts of speech. But in 
 the recitation room the good teacher has but little to 
 say. His ability is tested more by his silence than by 
 
356 RECITATIONS. 
 
 his loquacity ; by his power to arouse and direct the 
 activity of his pupils, more than by his own actions. 
 In professional schools and in the advanced classes 
 in colleges, the time for recitation is largely spent in 
 this way. The lecturer outlines the subject, suggests 
 the jSelds of research, indicates the. line of thought, 
 gives much information and stimulates the pupils to 
 effort. It the student, by long continued effort makes 
 the lecture his own, great will be the results. 
 
 But nowhere in this country has the lecture method 
 alone given entire satisfaction. It has been found 
 necessary to institute oral and written examinations 
 in order to make it effective. 
 
 The conversational lecture gives results. The 
 class by skilful questions are led into rich fields of 
 Diought. Topics are discussed by the teacher and 
 the pupils. Questions are asked that produce thought; 
 experiments are performod that elicit attention; pu- 
 pils are led to draw inferences from what they per- 
 ceive. This method was admirably used by the wise 
 Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. From these great 
 masters modern teachers may learn important 
 lessons. 
 
 The lecture method is utterly out of place in the 
 primary classes. Wherever it has been used it proves 
 a failure. 
 
 Whenever a teacher gives a lecture to his pupils, 
 he should require them to take notes, and recite after 
 every formal lecture. It is well for the teacher to 
 write on the board a tabulated classification, and re* 
 quire the pupils to copy. 
 
LAWS OF QUESTIONimh 357 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 Whatever method the teacher may follow, ojne 
 end should be attained; the best possible develop- 
 ment of true manhood and womanhood. The inquiry 
 may rise, wbat is the end of study, recitation 
 and instruction? 
 
 Not the attainment of knowledge, but discipline — 
 POWER. It is undoubtedly a fact that " secular educa- 
 tive will make a good man better, but a had man 
 worse." 
 
 Education, then, is not the storing of knowledge, 
 but the developrdent of power ; and the law of de- 
 velopment is thorough exercise. 
 
 Any system of education, therefore, which weakens 
 the motive, or removes the necessity of laborious 
 thinking is false in theory and ruinous in practice. 
 
 There is only one way to acquire knowledge, and 
 that way is through study — the voluntary and cou' 
 tinual application of the mind to a subject. 
 
 Laws of Questionini:* 
 
 1. Questions should be clear and concise. 
 
 2. Questions should be to the point. 
 
 3 Questions should be adapted to the capacity. 
 
 4. Questions should be logical. 
 
 5. Questions should not be ambiguous. 
 
 6. Avoid questions that give a choice between two 
 answers. 
 
 7. Avoid direct questions. 
 
 8. Avoid set questions. 
 
 9. Avoid general questions. 
 
358 RECITATIONS. 
 
 10. Avoid questions that simply exercise the 
 faculty of memory. 
 
 Object oi Questions. 
 
 1. To find out what the pupils know. 
 
 2. To ascertain what they need to know. 
 8. To awaken curiosity. 
 
 4. To arouse the mind to action. 
 
 5. To illustrate; to explain,— when necessary. 
 
 6. To impart knowledge not found in the text- 
 book. 
 
 7. To fix knowledge in the mind. 
 
 8. To secure thoroughness. 
 
 Cautions to be Observed in Questioning. 
 
 1. Ask questions only once. 
 
 2. Vary the questions. 
 
 3. Begin the exercise with an easy question, 
 
 4. Let your questions be connected. 
 
 5. When a question is asked, do not suggest the 
 first words of the answer. 
 
 6. Enunciate every question with distinctness. 
 
 7. Anticipate answers ; arrange suggestive ques- 
 tions. 
 
 8. Never neglect or ridicule an answer. 
 
 9. " Never tell a child what you could make that 
 child tell you," 
 
 10. Question the lesson into the minds of the 
 pupils, and question it out again. 
 
 11. Lead the pupil by a pleasant question to dis- 
 cover his own mistake, instead of directly charging 
 him with it. 
 
 L, 
 
FIRST PRINCIPLES. 359 
 
 Maxims, or First Principles. 
 
 I. " The idea should go before the word which 
 expresses it — or^ in other words, a clear and dis- 
 tijict cojiception of an object should be ifnpressed 
 upon the mind, before the 7iame or term which 
 expresses it be co??imitted to memory J^ 
 
 II. " In the process of instruction, nothing {if 
 possible) should be assigned to the young merely 
 as a taskr 
 
 III. " Everything that is cheerful and exhilar- 
 ating to the young should be associated with the 
 business of edfication." 
 
 IV. " In the practice of teaching, the principle 
 of emulation should be discarded." 
 
 V. " Corporal punishment should be seldom or 
 never inflicted — and when it is determined upon 
 as the last resort, it should be inflicted with calm- 
 ness and affection.^^ 
 
 VI. " Children should not be long confined in 
 school — and Jtever any longer than they are actu- 
 ally employed in it." 
 
 VII. " Young people should always be treated 
 as rational creatures, and their opinion occasion- 
 ally solicited as to certain points and scholastic 
 arrangements P 
 
 VIII. " Reproof should always be tendered 
 with the utmost confidence and mildness." 
 
360 RECITATIONS. 
 
 IX. " One great object of education shoald be 
 to fix the aite?itio7i on the subjects we wish to ex - 
 plain and elucidate.'''' 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 A principle of teaching is a law based upon the 
 condition of the minds of those to be taught. 
 
 Very meagre will be the results of those teachers 
 who instruct regardless of principles. There may 
 be apparent advancement, but there will be no real 
 progress. 
 
 If the first principle were uniformly introduced 
 into education it would overturn almost every system 
 of instruction which has hitherto prevailed. We may 
 ask in the name of all that is wise, what is gained if 
 we stock and overburden the memories of children 
 with a medley of words to which no correct ideas 
 are attached? A child may repeat hundreds of verses 
 and yet be entirely ignorant of the meaning of 
 almost every proposition. In the original formation 
 of language, the objects of nature must first have 
 been observed and known, before words or signs 
 were fixed upon to distinguish them ; the children 
 should be made to feel a desire for terms to express 
 their ideas ; and, in this case, the ideas and the 
 words which express them will afterwards be insep- 
 arably connected. 
 
 Pains should be taken to carry out the intent of 
 the second principle. The teacher cannot be too 
 careful not to disgust at the first process of learning. 
 Frequently revengeful feelings are excited by re- 
 
MAKE STUDY PLEASANT. 361 
 
 quiring children to remain after school hours, and 
 commit lines of poetry to memory, or perform some 
 menial duty. 
 
 Teachers are sometimes at fault for unlearned les- 
 sons on the part of pupils, because they have not 
 told the children wJiat to do or how to do it. If the 
 young understand the nature and objects of their 
 work, and the manner in which it should be prose- 
 cuted, they will find a pleasure in endeavoring to 
 surmount every apparent difficulty. The work should 
 be represented both as a duty and a pleasure. 
 
 It will give pleasure both to teacher and pupils to 
 practise the import of the third principle. 
 
 A smile from the teacher lightens the labor of the 
 school, and lessens the burdens of the day. 
 
 School rooms should be spacious, light and airy, — 
 well ventilated, comfortably heated during winter 
 and erected in delightful and commanding situations. 
 The walls should be adorned with pictures, mottoes, 
 vines and ornaments. 
 
 The school-room should be made as homelike as 
 possible, as inviting as public halls. Teachers should 
 frequently exhibit amusing and instructive exper- 
 iments, and ask the children to assist them. The 
 children should be gratified occasionally with excur- 
 sions into interesting parts of the country, to view 
 the works of nature and thus increase their love of 
 the beautiful. Everything should be so conducted 
 that all their scholastic exercises may be connected 
 with delightful associations. 
 
 In the practice of the fourth principle, we believe 
 
362 BE CITATIONS. 
 
 that the principle of emulation should be discarded. 
 Many teachers have asserted that they could not con- 
 duct education without the aid of this principle. "We 
 believe that commedation for improvement needs 
 to be practised much more frequently than reproof 
 for deficiency. 
 
 It is better to cultivate a love of knowledge for its 
 own sake, that is for the pleasure it imparts and also 
 for the sake of the increased good it will enable us 
 to do for ourselves and for our fellow-beings. 
 
 By appeals to parental authority and influence ; by 
 eflbrts to form correct public sentiment in schools, 
 so that it shall be unpopular to do wrong ; by culti- 
 vating in the pupils a sense of obligation to God, of 
 his constant inspection, and of his interest in all their 
 concerns, the children may be stimulated to do right. 
 
 We believe that to encourage pupils to do right is 
 the safest way ; not always the easiest, but the best. 
 
 In an intellectual point of view emulation may be 
 satisfactory to the few that excel ; satisfactory to 
 parents and guardians, who are led to form false 
 estimates of their progress and acquirements by the 
 places they occupy in their respective classes ; but 
 it almost uniformly produces an injurious effect on 
 the moral temperament of the young and on their 
 companions whom they excel. 
 
 One grand end of instruction, which has been too 
 much overlooked, is to cultivate and regulate the 
 moral powers, — to produce love, affection, concord, 
 humility, self-denial and other moral graces. But 
 the principle of emulation has a tendency to produce 
 
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. 363 
 
 jealousy, envy, hatred and other malignant passions. 
 Besides it is only a very few in every class that can 
 be stimulated to exertion by this principle, and these 
 few are generally of such a temperament as to require 
 their ambitious disposition to be restrained, rather 
 than excited. A material prize is the least effectual 
 mode of accomplishing the desired object; it is found- 
 ed on injustice, inasmuch as it heaps honors and em- 
 oluments on those to whom nature has already been 
 most bountiful. 
 
 In the curiosity of children, there is sufficient and 
 natural stimulant of the appetite for knowledge, and 
 we live in a world abounding in the means of useful 
 and pleasurable gratifications. 
 
 All that is required of teachers is to aid the facul- 
 ties with affection and judgment. A certificate of 
 diligence and good conduct seems to be all that is 
 necessary to distinguish from the vicious, tbe idle, 
 the slothful, those who have employed their lime and 
 talents in a proper manner. 
 
 In the fifth principle, which says : ** Corporal pun- 
 ishment should be seldom or never inflicted," etc., is 
 one of the unsolved problems of the day. Whether 
 we have a healthier form of discipline in our Amer- 
 ican families and schools, can only be answered cor- 
 rectly by the wise fathers and mothers who have 
 passed their four score years. We can but believe 
 that corporal punishment, as it is generally adminis- 
 tered, is something revolting and degrading in its 
 character, and the necessity of resorting to it gener- 
 ally indicates that there has been a want of proper 
 
864 BEC1TATI0N8. 
 
 training in the earlier stages of life. It is vain to 
 imagine that children can be whipped into either 
 learning or religion ; and if an enlightened and 
 judicious mode of tuition were universally adopted 
 there would seldom be any necessity for resorting to 
 such a stimulus But in the modes of teaching which 
 now generally prevail, corporal punishment is almost 
 inevitable. 
 
 Corporal punishment, rudeness, ridicule and re- 
 proach are altogether incompatible with a system of 
 moral and intellectual instruction which is calculated 
 to allure the minds of the young. 
 
 Corporal punishment has generally a hardening 
 efl'ect on the minds both of young and old. 
 
 A blacksmith brought up his son, to whom he was 
 very severe, to his own trade. The urchin was 
 nevertheless an audacious dog. One day the old 
 vulcan was attempting to harden a cold chisel which 
 he had made of foreign steel, but could not succeed. 
 "Horse-whip it, father," exclaimed the youth, "if 
 that will not harden it, nothing will." 
 
 Little need be said on tbe sixth principle ; but all 
 will agree that a school ought never to serve the pur- 
 poses of a prison. If the primary classes are incapa- 
 ble of preparing the lessons themselves, they should 
 be provided with slates and pencils and taught how 
 to draw, to write and make figures. In mild weather 
 they should have frequent recesses, and be called in 
 when their lessons are to be explained. 
 
 The seventh principle, if fully practised, will aid 
 materixilly in school government. The reasons for 
 
LAWS OF TEACHING. 365 
 
 the treatment they receive, and for the exercises pre- 
 scribed, in so far as they are able to appreciate them, 
 should be stated occasionally, and explained and 
 illustrated. 
 
 The eighth principle is one of the most important 
 ones. Plato said, " a teacher should never punish in 
 anger." When reproofs are uttered in passion, and 
 ■with looks of fury, they seldom or never produce 
 any good effect, and not unfrequently excite a spirit 
 of revenge against the reprover. 
 
 The ninth and last principle should be put in 
 practice by teachers. But few seem to do it. 
 
 The habit of attending to what one reads and what 
 one hears is a most important habit. 
 
 In order to fix the attention, we must "continually 
 think about it," study the subject, and get the powers 
 under control. Pupils should be taught to investigate^ 
 to study ^ to think, to notice every object within the 
 reach of their vision, and to give an account of what 
 they have seen or heard. 
 
 All of these circumstances have a tendency to 
 induce a habit of attention, without which there can 
 be no solid improvement in any department of 
 instruction. The teacher should not proceed with 
 the exercises of the school without the undivided 
 attention of every pupil. It is the imperative duty 
 of the pupils to attend, provided the teacher is 
 capable of instructing them. 
 
 Laws of Teaching. 
 
 1. Know thoroughly and familiarly whatever you 
 attempt to teach. 
 
366 RECITATIONS. 
 
 2. Gain and keep the attention of your pupils, and 
 excite their interest in the subject. 
 
 3. Use language which your pupils fully under- 
 stand, and clearly explain every new word required. 
 
 4. Begin with what is already known, and proceed 
 to the unknown by easy and natural steps. 
 
 5. Excite the self-activity of the pupils, and lead 
 them to discover the truth for themselves. 
 
 6. Require pupils to re-state fully and correctly in 
 their own language, and with their own illustrations, 
 the truth taught them. 
 
 7. Review, review, review, — carefully, thoroughly 
 and repeatedly. 
 
 Note. — These laws underlie and control all suc- 
 cessful teaching. Nothing need be added to them ; 
 nothing can be safely taken away. 
 
 Principles of Teaching. 
 
 1. " Teach objects before names." 
 
 2. *' Teach ideas before words." 
 
 3. ** Teach thoughts before sentences." 
 
 4. " Knowledge before definitions." 
 
 5. " Proceed from the known to the unknown." 
 
 6. '* Proceed from the concret to the abstract." 
 
 7. " Proceed from the simple to the complex." 
 
 8. " Proceed from the particular to the general." 
 
 9. *' Proceed from rudiments to principles." 
 
 Suggestions to Teachers. 
 
 1. Show the necessity of a subject before you begin 
 to teach it. 
 
 2. Require one subject to be understood, before 
 taking up another. 
 
SUGGESTIONS. 367 
 
 3. Require everything that is taught, to be repro- 
 duced by the pupils. 
 
 4. Always take up subjects in their logical order. 
 
 5. That which is attempted should be thoroughly 
 mastered. 
 
 6. Remember that all the powers are developed by 
 being judiciously and vigorously exercised. 
 
 7. Remember that knowledge is of little value 
 unless it can be utilized. 
 
 8. Remember that a lesson is not given until it has 
 been received. 
 
 Suggestions to Young Teachers. 
 
 1. Make weekly or bi-weekly inspections of all 
 books held by the pupils, holding each responsible 
 for the rigbt use of the same. This will prevent 
 much mutilation and destruction of books. 
 
 2. In the class-room, teachers should not confine 
 the attention of the pupils exclusively to what is 
 found in the books. " Books are but helps," or in- 
 struments; and while that which is contained in 
 them should be judiciously used and thoroughly 
 understood, yet, so far as time will permit, the teacher 
 can, to advantage, introduce such matters as are not 
 only valuable in themselves, but such as will tend to 
 impress the subject of the lesson more firmly upon 
 the mind. 
 
 3. Be judicious and sparing in awarding credit or 
 discredit marks ; to be lavish, would render them 
 cheap and comparatively valueless. 
 
 4. Before reproving delinquents in recitation, first 
 inquire whether or not they have studied, and, if so. 
 
368 RECITATIONS. 
 
 what effort has been made. Some pupils may devote 
 much time and labor to the acquirement of their 
 lessons, and j^et in the classroom be weak in recita- 
 tion ; and to denounce such would tend to dis- 
 courage rather* than stimulate. 
 
 5. During a recitation, the attention of all should 
 be engaged upon the lesson or subject under con- 
 sideration, 
 
 6. When a pupil applies for assistance m any 
 question, do not accomplish the whole yourself, 
 neither send him away entirely unaided; but after 
 he has studied the subject faithfully, present to him 
 one or two of the leading principles involved, and 
 then leave him to develop the matter himself. Too 
 much aid is sometimes icorse than too little. 
 
 7. Teachers should, before entering on their duties 
 for the day, be thoroughly conversant with the sub- 
 ject of each lesson. A teacher, while conducting a 
 recitation, should never be obliged to refer to the book 
 or map for the purpose of ascertaining whether or 
 not the pupil is correct in his answer. Besides dis- 
 playing a weakness on the part of the teacher, there 
 arises in the mind of the pupil the query — why 
 should I study what my teacher does not know? 
 
 The teacher should be first well acquainted with 
 the true answer to every question, and the correct 
 pronunciation of every word in the several lessons. 
 It will be seen that many advantages attend this plan; 
 the chief ot which are — much time is saved, the 
 teacher instructs with more facility and success, and 
 the pupil, observing the familiarity of the teacher 
 
SCTGGESTIOJSrS. 869 
 
 with the several subjects, feels for him a greater re- 
 spect 
 
 8. In hearing a lesson give the pupil time to answer 
 when it appears he has a correct idea, and merely 
 hesitates to find words to ex press -himeelf; but when 
 it is evident that he is ignorant of the answer, wait- 
 ing is but a loss of time. 
 
 9. Be sure the pupils have gained ideas. Words, 
 without ideas, clog the mind. 
 
 10. A teacher taking charge of a new class, should 
 at first advance it beyond the farthest point it had 
 previously attained in each study. In case the 
 teacher finds the new class deficient in what has been 
 passed over, he should not turn back until about two 
 weeks have elapsed, when all necessary reviews may 
 be made. When a class passes under the control of 
 another teacher, a sudden retrograde movement 
 would produce discontent in the class. At the same 
 time, the teacher should avoid allusion tending to 
 disparage the course of his predecessor in the estima- 
 tion of the class. 
 
 11. The hearing of lessons should not occupy more 
 than one hour and a half daily ; the remainder of the 
 day being devoted to actual teaching, when the 
 lessons for the following day may be explained by 
 the teacher. In Grammar Schools, answering in 
 CONCERT should be abolished. 
 
 12. Whenever practicable, teach by means of ob- 
 jects, or through the medium of the eye ; in Geo- 
 giaj^hy, use globes and maps; in Astronomy, use 
 orrery, globes and diagrams ; in Spelling, frequently 
 
370 RECITATIONS. 
 
 require the pupils to write the words or sentences 
 given. 
 
 13. If you would have no drones in your school, 
 talk at each recitation to the dullest in your class, 
 and use all your ingenuity in endeavoring to make 
 him comprehend. The others, then, will be sure to 
 understand. 
 
 14. Make each exercise as attractive as possible. 
 Think out your methods beforehand, and illustrate 
 freely. 
 
 15. Cultivate self-control ; never be led into con- 
 fusion, and above all be in earnest. 
 
 16. Be cheerful and smile often. A teacher with 
 a long face casts a gloom over everything, and event- 
 ually chills young minds and closes young hearts. 
 
 17. Use simple language when you explain lessons. 
 Long words are thrown away in the school-room. 
 
 13. Thoroughly test each pupil on the lesson, and 
 do not be afraid of repetition. Review every day, 
 or much will be lost. 
 
 19. Do not try to teach too much ; better teach a 
 little and teach it well. 
 
 20. Endeavor to make your pupils understand the 
 meaning of what they study. Probe the matter to 
 the bottom, and get at the real knowledge of your 
 scholars. 
 
 21. Cultivate the understanding, and do not appeal 
 directly to the memory, 
 
 22. Lay the foundation of knowledge firmly and 
 well. 
 
 23. Impart right principles and lead your pupils 
 
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING. 371 
 
 to a higher level, to a nobler range of thought. 
 Endeavor to accomplish all that skill, intelligence 
 and love can suggest. 
 
 What now you do, you know not, 
 
 Eut shall hereafter know, 
 When the seed which you are sowing, 
 
 To a whitened field shall grow. 
 
 'Tis a rich young Foil you're tilling. 
 Then scatter the good seeds well ; 
 
 Of the wealth of the golden harvest 
 Eternity will tell. 
 
 24. Teach your pupils to fight manfully in the 
 warfare of good against evil, truth against error ; and 
 above all, let tlie eternal principles of right and 
 wrong govern your own life, and form a part of 
 your own character. If you do this, you will *' sow 
 beside all waters, and eventually bring home your 
 sheaves rejoicing." 
 
 Principles ol Teaching. 
 
 1. Teach and train the eye to perceive correctly. 
 
 2. Teach and train the ear to understand correctly. 
 
 3. Teach and train the hand to execute correctly. 
 
 4. Teach and train the tongue to speak correctly. 
 
 5. Teach and train the pupils to reproduce cor- 
 rectly. 
 
 6. ''Begin at the beginning." 
 
 7. " Follow a natural order." 
 
 8. " Classify knowledge." 
 
 9. ** Master principles." 
 
DISOIPLINART EXERCISES. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 An experience of several years enables the author 
 to assert that disciplinary and calisthenic exercises 
 are best for maintaining the discipline of schools ; 
 they invigorate the body, improve the carriage and 
 impart habits of punctuality, quickness, courtesy 
 and obedience. 
 
 The pupils almost invariably delight in them ; the 
 exercises of the drill give them physical vigor and 
 alacrity ; they learn insensibly and in a pleasurable 
 way the need of mutant and cheerful obedience. In 
 this chapter we intend to explain the manner of con- 
 ducting such exercises. 
 
 We shall use the plainest and simplest terms, with 
 less reference to the taste of the critic then to the 
 convenience and profit of the pupil. 
 
 A large proportion of our teachers are young and 
 inexperienced. They are earnest and energetic ; 
 they are desirous of learning how to accomplish their 
 duties fully and pleasantly ; and they are thankful 
 for any instruction in means and method. These 
 exercises are offered as suitable to be joined to labor, 
 or thrown around it in disguise. It is hoped that the 
 
DISCIPLINARY COMMANDS. 373 
 
 instruction liere given will be sufficiently plain to 
 enable every teacher to put it into practice. 
 
 Much depends upon presenting the subject prop- 
 erly to the pupils. It will not do to force the matter 
 upon them, nor even let it seem too much your own 
 plan. Start it quietly, and tell them the use of the 
 exercise, and they will urge you to drill them. The 
 exercise is one in which all may take part, and they 
 will soon be convinced of the merits of the plan. 
 
 In preparation for your first, and for every drill, you 
 must have thoroughly studied and practised every 
 movement which you are to teach. 
 
 In demeanor be energetic, prompt and decided ; 
 use no waste words, and err, if at all, on the side of 
 severity, rather than of familiarity. 
 
 Directions. 
 
 Disciplinary Commands. 
 
 A. The Word of Caution. B. The Word of Execution. 
 
 '1. Side by side, 
 3. Face Front, 
 3. Not too close, 
 
 I. Pupils. . ..Form the Line !^' ^- ^^^,^?^ J|;^ ^1^1^^ 
 
 I 5. Head to the right, 
 
 I 6. Arms by the side, 
 
 7. Fingers extended, 
 
 1 7. No talking &c. 
 
 fl. Face to the Front, 
 I 3. Chin close to neck 
 
 n. Pupils Attention !^ | *«'™^ 
 
 5. Eyes to the Front, 
 ^ 6. Body erect. 
 
374 BISCIPLINAR Y EXER CISES. 
 
 III. Head j Eyes Right. —Front. 
 
 Movement. ] Eyes Left. — Front. 
 
 Movement ] ^- ^^^^ ^^^^' 
 
 Movement. J 3 ^^^^^^ -p^^^ 
 
 {1. Mark time March, 
 2. Forward March, 
 3. File right March, 
 4. File left March. 
 
 VI. Halt. 
 
 Cautions 1. Require perfect silence, 
 
 2. Do not talk too much, 
 
 3. After giving a command, wait until 
 
 it is executed. 
 
 4. Explain each new position, before 
 
 execution. 
 
 5. Take up one movement at a time, 
 
 6. Keep exact step, 
 
 7. Keep steady time, 
 
 8. Persevere. 
 
 Pupils, form the Line ! 
 
 The command, "Pupils, form the Line!" I will 
 explain : It means, make a line, side by side, facing 
 one way ; not too close to each other; without 
 crowding ; as you come up, do not crowd in at the 
 centre of the line, but seek a place at the left ; (allow 
 no talking, laughing, or even smiling.) Let your 
 arms hang naturally at your sides, the fingers ex- 
 tended, palms of the hands turned in and the elbows 
 touching each other lightly. Turn your head to the 
 
WORDS OF COMMAND. 375 
 
 right, (not your shoulders,) and look along the line 
 to see if you are not too far forward or behind. If 
 forward, fall back ; if behind, come forward. 
 
 The teacher should take pains with each one to 
 see that he now obeys the directions in every one 
 of these particulars. Give praise and encourage- 
 ment when deserved. 
 
 Pupils, Attention! 
 
 At this command, you will think over every par- 
 ticular : the position of the head, eyes, chest, arms 
 and feet. You will remain in a perfect and quiet 
 position until another command is given to you— 
 
 '■^ Dii>missed ! '''' 
 
 Eyes, Bight! 
 
 The word of caution is, " eyes." You are warned 
 by that word that something is to be done with eyes. 
 You are to do nothing until you have the word of 
 execution, which is, ' ' Right." As soon as you hear 
 that, you are to remain in this position until you 
 hear the command, *' Front ! " when you are to re- 
 sume the first position. Now, we will give you a 
 trial—" Eyes— Right ! " " Eyes— Left ! " 
 
 Let there be a careful drill and a review of all the 
 commands. Never forget that "Front'' must fol- 
 low each command. 
 
 Right, Face ! 
 
 This movement is performed by throwing the weight 
 of the body on the left foot, making the heel of that 
 foot the pivot on which the body turns, the right foot 
 being raised very slightly and brought around while 
 turning to the right position. In turning, be carefu] 
 
376 DISGIPLINAR Y EXER CISE8. 
 
 not to sway the body or bend the knees. Do not 
 
 move with a jerk. 
 
 About, Face! 
 
 At the word "about," the position of the "rest" 
 is assumed with the feet ; at the word " face," turn 
 on the left heel completely around, bringing the 
 right foot to the side of the left ; to make the move- 
 ment tell, so that the executions of the order may be 
 simultaneous, it will be well to require a stamp of 
 the right foot as it is brought back, at the word 
 "about." Do not go on to order "face" until 
 " about " is well learned. This is a diflQcult motion. 
 Be patient ; spend much time on it. 
 
 The " left, face ! " is done in the same way, except 
 that the head is turned to the left. 
 
 It would be well to arrange the pupils according 
 
 to height, as this will add to their appearance. The 
 
 *' facings" are rather difficult, yet very important 
 
 movements. 
 
 Marching Movement. 
 
 Mark Time, March ! 
 
 At the word of caution, the weight of the body 
 rests upon the right foot ; the left foot is held ready 
 to take a step. At the word " March," the left foot 
 is thrown forward, as if to advance, and brought 
 back to place : the right foot follows in the same way. 
 
 There is no advancing, and care must be taken to 
 
 bring the feet back into their tracks, or the line will 
 
 be broken. 
 
 Forward, March! 
 
 While marking time, give "forward, march,'' 
 
WORDS OF COMMAND. 377 
 
 taking care to pronounce the word " march " as the 
 right foot strikes the floor. 
 
 Marching, either from marking time or from a halt, 
 must be by " the left foot first." 
 
 Halt! 
 
 The command, *' halt," stops them. The word 
 
 "halt" must always be given just as either foot 
 
 strikes the ground. 
 
 Rest! 
 
 '*Rest" is performed by bringing] the hands to- 
 gether, the left crossed over the right ; arms at full 
 length ; left foot brought at right angles with the line; 
 right foot thrown back, the bottom three inches in 
 the rear of the heel of the left ^oot and parallel with 
 the line ; weight of the body on the right foot. 
 
 If any one find himself getting behind, he must 
 take longer steps. " Lengthen the pace but never 
 lose the time." While marching by file, if you wish 
 to turn to the right or left, command, *' File — Right !" 
 or "File— Left!" 
 
 This order is obeyed by the file-leader, and the 
 rest follow him." The pupils must remember to 
 preserve while marching the exact fronting distance, 
 sixteen inches. 
 
 In marching, watch every movement and see that 
 the pupils are in perfect order. When the command 
 " Halt ! " is given, require the pupils to stop instantly. 
 
 Proper Space. 
 
 In marching, let there be a space of about sixteen 
 inches between the pupils. Insist that the body shall 
 
378 ■ DISCIPLINAhY EXERCISES. 
 
 not be allowed to sway about while marking time ; 
 that the head shall be kept erect ; that the eyes be 
 directed to tbe front, striking the floor or ground 
 twelve paces off; and that the arms and hands be 
 held correctly. 
 
 One Movement at a Tbne. 
 
 Teach one movement a day, and in a few days 
 
 your pupils will be familiar with all the movements. 
 
 They should be drilled upon these movements before 
 
 taking up Calisthenics. The discipline of the school 
 
 will be very much easier if the teacher will introduce 
 
 a system ; two or three minutes practice each day 
 
 will insure success, and add to the happiness of the 
 
 pupils. 
 
 Calisthenics. 
 
 A systematic drill of a few minutes each day will 
 relieve the monotony of school-room routine. 
 
 Children in the primary classes become very 
 weary; ''activity is a law of childhood — inactivity 
 is the symbol of death, if not death itself." The 
 pupils will take interest in the exercise and beneficial 
 results will be attained. It will improve the pupils 
 in their walk, giving a lighter step, producing grace 
 and symmetry in all their movements. It will give 
 vigor, and tone up pupils to increased effort in 
 study. 
 
CALISTiIENICS. 
 
 379 
 
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380 
 
 DISCIPLINARY EXERCISES. 
 
 I. Chest Exercise. 
 
 Command — Chest Exercise — Position — Play ! 
 
 Command. — At the word of command the pupils 
 should, in this and in the following exercises, take 
 the positions promptly, with decision, and in perfect 
 time. 
 
 Position. — Stand erect, with heels together, and ou 
 the same line ; toes turned equally out, and forming 
 with each other an angle of 60'' ; knees straight, with- 
 out stiffness; shoulders square and falling equally ; 
 arms hanging naturally by the side, with elbows near 
 the body ; hands firmly closed ; head well set, and 
 eyes directly to the front. 
 
 1st Movement. ■{ 
 
 1. Right hand on chest. 
 
 2. Left hand on chest. 
 
 3. Right arm extended horizontally 
 
 in front, four times. 
 
 4. Left arm extended horizontally 
 
 in front, four times. 
 
 5. Alternate ; right arm, return ; left 
 
 arm, return ; two times. 
 Simultaneous, both arms, four 
 times. 
 
 2. Movement. < 
 
 1. Right hand on chest. 
 
 2. Left hand on chest. 
 
 3. Right arm perpendicularly down- 
 
 ward, four times. 
 
 4. Left arm perpendicularly down- 
 
 ward, four times. 
 
 5. Alternate. 
 
 6. Simultaneous. 
 
CALISTHENICS. 
 
 381 
 
 1. Right hand on chest. 
 
 2. Left hand on chest. 
 
 3. Right arm extended horizontally 
 
 to the right, four times. 
 4 Left arm extended horizontally 
 to the left, four times. 
 
 5. Alternate. 
 
 6. Simultaneous. 
 
 3d Movement. 
 
 II. Arm-pit Exercise. 
 
 Command — Arm-pit Exercise — Position — Play ! 
 
 1. Right hand at arm-pit. 
 
 3, Left hand at arm-pit. 
 
 3. Right ai m perpendicularly down- 
 ward, four times. 
 
 4 Left arm perpendicularly down- 
 ward, four times. 
 
 5. Alternate. 
 
 6. Simultaneous. 
 
 1st Movement. 
 
 2d Movement. \ 
 I 
 
 1. Hands in the same position as 
 
 before. 
 
 2. Right arm, four times. 
 
 3. Left arm, four times. 
 
 4. Alternate. 
 
 5. Simultaneous. 
 
 3d Movement. 
 
 '1. Hands in the same position as 
 before. 
 
 2. Right arm parpendicularly up- 
 
 ward, four times. 
 
 3. Left arm perpendicularly up- 
 
 ward, four times. 
 
 4. Alternate. 
 
 5. Simultaneous. 
 
383 
 
 DISCIPLINARY EXERCISES. 
 
 III. Shoulder Exercise* 
 
 Command — Shoulder Exercise — Position — Play / 
 
 1st Movement ■> 
 
 2d Movement. 
 
 I. Raise the right shoulder, 4 times. 
 3. Raise the left shoulder, 4 times. 
 
 3. Alternate. 
 
 4. Simultaneous. 
 
 1. Right shoulder, forward, once. 
 
 2. Right shoulder, upward, once. 
 8. Right shoulder,backward,once. 
 4. Right shoulder,downward,once. 
 5 Repeat, two times. 
 
 6. Left shoulder, forward, once. 
 
 7. Left shoulder, upward, once. 
 
 8. Left shoulder, backward, once. 
 
 9. Left shoulder, downward, once. 
 10. Repeat, two times. 
 
 II. Alternate. 
 
 12. Simultaneous. 
 
 IV. Elbow Exercise* 
 
 Command — EWow Exercise — Position — Play ! 
 
 f 1. Hands on hips, fingers front. 
 2. Throw the right elbow back, four 
 times. 
 Throw the left elbow back, four 
 times. 
 4. Alternate. 
 
 1st Movement 
 
 .] 
 
 2d Movement. 
 
 5. Simultaneous. 
 
 '1. Right elbow, forward, once. 
 
 2. Right elbow, backward, once. 
 
 3. Repeat, three times. 
 
 4. Left elbow, forward, once. 
 
 5. Left elbow, backward, once. 
 
 6. Repeat, three times. 
 
 7. Alternate, four times. 
 
 8. Simultaneous, four times. 
 
CALISTHENICS, 
 
 383 
 
 V. Arm Exercise. 
 
 Command — Arm Exercise — Position — Flay ! 
 
 1st Movement. 
 
 1. Hands together, in front. 
 
 2. Left hand, retain position. 
 8. Right hand thrown back, eight 
 
 times ; clap the hands. 
 
 4. Right hand, retain position. 
 
 5. Left hand thrown back, eight 
 times ; clap the hand. 
 
 6. Alternate, clap the hands. 
 ^7. Simultaneous, clap the hands. 
 
 TI« Hand and Finger Exercise 
 
 Command — Hand Exercise — Position — Play ! 
 
 f 1. Stand erect, with hands at side, 
 I and fingers firmly closed. 
 
 2. Right hand twist, as in boring 
 1st Movement. \ with a gimlet, tour times. 
 
 3. Left hand, four times. 
 
 4. Alternate, four times. 
 
 5. Simultaneous, four times. 
 
 1. Right hand extended perpendic- 
 
 ularly upward, rotate four 
 times. 
 
 2. Left hand, four times. 
 
 3. Alternate, four times. 
 
 ^4. Simultaneous, four times. 
 
 '1. Right arm extended perpendicu- 
 larly upward, with fingers 
 spread apart, and shut, four 
 times. 
 
 2, Left arm, four times, 
 
 3. Alternate, four times. 
 ^4. Simultaneous, four times. 
 
 2d Movement. 
 
 3d Movement. ■< 
 
384 
 
 DISCIPLINARY EXERCISES. 
 
 VII. Head and Neck Exercise. 
 
 Command — Head and Neck Exercise — Position — Play! 
 
 f 1. Turn the head horizontally to the 
 right so that the face will be 
 on the shoulder, four times. 
 
 2. Turn the head horizontally to the 
 left, four times. 
 
 3. Alternate. 
 
 1st Movement. ^ 
 
 2d Movement. 
 
 3d Movement. 
 
 '1. Bow the head to the front, four 
 
 times. 
 - 2. Head backward, four times. 
 3. To the right, four times. 
 ^4. To the left, four times. 
 
 1. To the front, once. 
 
 2. To the right, once. 
 
 3. To the back, once. 
 
 4. To the left, once. 
 
 VIII. Arm Exercise. 
 
 Command — Arm Exercise — Position — Play I 
 
 1st Movement. 
 
 2d Movement. 
 
 f 1. Palms together. 
 
 2. Arms extended, horizontal, front. 
 
 3. Right arm, four times. 
 , 4. Left arm, four times. 
 
 I 5. Alternate, 
 [6. Simultaneous. 
 
 f 1. Position like No. 1. 
 
 I 2. Swing right arm from the hori- 
 I zontal front up to the perpen- 
 
 I dicular, four times. 
 
 ■^ 3. Swing left arm from the hori- 
 I zontal front up to the perpen- 
 
 I dicular, four times. 
 
 I 4. Alternate. 
 
 (_5. Simultaneous. 
 
CALISTHENICS. 
 
 385 
 
 '1. Position as in No. 1. 
 2. Swing the right arm outward and 
 backward, four times. 
 3d Movement. -( 3. Swing the left arm outward and 
 1 backward, four times, 
 
 i 4. Alternate. 
 1^5. Simultaneous. 
 
 IX. Stepping Exercise. 
 
 Command — Stepping Exereise — Position — Play ! 
 
 (1. Place the hands about the waist, 
 1 thumbs in front. 
 
 2. Step obliquely to the right, front, 
 
 1st Movement. - 
 
 4. 
 
 ri. 
 
 2. 
 
 2d Movement. 
 
 3d Movement. ■< 
 
 four times. 
 Step obliquely to the left, front, 
 
 four times. 
 Alternate. 
 
 Same position as in No. 1. 
 Step obliquely to the right, rear, 
 four times. 
 3. Step obliquely to the lefl, rear, 
 
 four times. 
 4j Alternate. 
 '1. Same position as in No. 1. 
 
 2. Step to the right, four times. 
 
 3. Step to the left, four times. 
 
 4. Alternate. 
 
 X. Slapping Exercise. 
 
 Command — Slapping Exercise — Position — Play ! 
 
 n 
 
 1st Movement. 
 
 horizontally 
 
 Arms extended 
 front. 
 
 2. Palms together. 
 
 3. Strike left hand with right, four 
 
 times. 
 
 4. Strike right hand with left, tour 
 
 times. 
 
 5. Alternate. 
 
 6. Simultaneous. 
 
386 
 
 DISCIPLINARY EXERCISES. 
 
 2d Movement. 
 
 f 1. Arms perpendicular. 
 
 I 2. Strike left hand with right, four 
 
 I times. 
 
 3. Strike right hand with left, four 
 
 times. 
 
 4. Alternate. 
 
 5. Simultaneous. 
 
 1. Arms placed behind. 
 
 2. Strike left hand with righit, four 
 
 times. 
 
 3. Strike right hand with left, four 
 
 times. 
 
 4. Alternate. 
 
 5. Simultaneous. 
 
 3d Movement. 
 
 XI. Chopping Exercise. 
 
 Command — CJiopping Exercise — Position — Play ! 
 
 f 1. Hands raised above the head to 
 I the right, four times. 
 
 1st Movement. \ 2. Hands raised above the head to 
 the left, four times. 
 Alternate. 
 
 Hands raised above the head to 
 the left, four times. 
 
 Hands raised above the head to 
 the right, four times. 
 
 Alternate. 
 
 13. 
 
 2d Movement. 
 
 13 
 
 'Play, 
 
 XII. Moving Exercise. 
 
 Command — Moving Exercise — Position- 
 
 f 1. Arms to the right. 
 
 I 2. Move horizontally to the left, in 
 
 I front, four times. 
 
 3. Move horizontally to the left, at 
 the right, four times. 
 
 4. Move horizontally to the left, 
 behind, four times. 
 
 5. Move horizontally to the left, at 
 the left, four times. 
 
 Movements. 
 
CALISTHENICS. 
 
 387 
 
 XIII. Sawing Exercise. 
 
 Command — Sawing Exercise — Position — Play ! 
 
 
 '1. Elbow above the line of the 
 
 
 shoulder. 
 
 
 2. Down in front, four times. 
 
 
 3. Turn to the right, down, four 
 
 Movement. - ■ 
 
 times. 
 4. Turn to the rear, down, four 
 
 
 times. 
 
 
 5. Turn to the left, down, four 
 
 
 times. 
 
 
 [6. To yourplace. 
 
 XI 
 
 [V. Trunk Exercise. 
 
 Movements. - " 
 
 Command — Trunk Exercise — Position — Play ! 
 
 1. Hand about the waist, thumbs in 
 
 front. 
 3. Bend the body horizontally 
 
 front, four times. 
 
 3. Bend the body horizontally to 
 the left, four times. 
 
 4. Bend the body horizontally to 
 the rear, four times. 
 
 5. Bend the body horizontally to 
 the right, four times. 
 
 General Remarks and Explanations. 
 
 These exercises are intended for those teachers 
 who have learned no system. They are simple, and 
 by taking one exercise at a time the whole series 
 may soon be put in practice. Much of the benefit 
 derived from Calisthenics is from the alternation of 
 rigid and relaxed muscles. There should be an 
 accent to the motion, and that accent should occur 
 on the outward movement ; hence the muscles 
 should be firm in the outward movement, and re- 
 laxed in the return. 
 
388 DISCIPLINARY EXERCISES. 
 
 The Position. 
 
 The position the children are to assume should be 
 explained before the command is given. When the 
 *' Exercise " is called, all should take position in- 
 stantly. The beauty of the exercise consists in 
 regularity. 
 
 On the word " Play," the musician should begin 
 instantly, and the pupils should begin at the same 
 instant, following their leader. 
 
 Explain all the Movements. 
 
 The teacher should take pains to explain all the 
 movements before he requires execution ; and then 
 see that all understand them, else there will be no 
 uniformity in the movements. 
 
 Direction of Movement. 
 
 This order is tabulated under the head of *' Calis- 
 thenics," and it means the line of course in which we 
 move. All movements made before are called 
 *' front ; " those made directly on the right or left are 
 called " extended ; " those made between the " front" 
 and " extended" are called " oblique ;'* and, lastly, 
 those made back of the extended are called " back- 
 oblique," or backward. All motions made on a line 
 with the shoulder are called " horizontal ; " all below 
 a liae with the shoulder are called " descending ; " 
 
 all above a line with the shoulder are called '* ascend- 
 ing." 
 
 Order of 3Iovement. 
 This means the successive order in which the right 
 or left hand, arm, etc., are used in the movements. 
 
CALISTHENICS. 389 
 
 Single movement is when the movements are made 
 first with the right hand or arm ; then with the left, 
 each a certain number of times, generally four ; 
 second, alternate with the right and left a corres- 
 ponding number of times ; and third, a stimultaneous 
 movement of the right and left the same number of 
 times. 
 
 Double order is made with both hands simul- 
 taneously. 
 
 Time. 
 
 The best way to teach the time, is to count, at first. 
 Count one on the outward movement ; two on the 
 return, and so on, till you count eight. Commence 
 all movements with the right hand, arm, etc. Count 
 eight for the right hand, then eight for the left, eight 
 on the alternate movement and eight on the stimul- 
 taneous action. 
 
 List oi Books on Calisthenics and Gym- 
 nastics. 
 
 Root's School Amusements — A. S. Barnes & Co., 
 New York. $1.50. 
 
 Smart's Manual of Calisthenics — Wilson, Hinkle 
 & Co., New York. 20 cts. 
 
 Potter's Manual of Reading— Harper & Brothers, 
 New York. $1.40. 
 
 Diadem of School Songs, by Wm. Tillinghast— 
 Davis, Bardeen &> Co., Syracuse. 50 cts. 
 
SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 School organization is a system of arrangement 
 designed to secure constant employment, efficient in- 
 struction and moral control. It aims at providing 
 the means of instructing and educating the greatest 
 number in the most efficient manner, and by the 
 most economical expenditure of time and money. 
 
 Organization puts each child in its proper place ; 
 allots to each class proper work, — proper in kind and 
 amount ; secures to each subject the time that is just- 
 ly its due ; arranges the work, both as to place and 
 kind, so as to preserve a quiet room, and properly 
 distributes the work, so that no interest of the school 
 in any of its parts shall suffer. 
 
 I know full well the anxiety with which the young 
 and inexperienced teacher anticipates the opening 
 of the first school. The first questions that arise in 
 the mind are: What sliall I do? How shall I do it? 
 When shall I do it f 
 
 To organize, govern and discipline a school suc- 
 cessfully, requires in-born qualities. It is very much 
 easier for a general to command an army, than for a 
 teacher to govern a school ; for a general has to con- 
 sider only immediate results, besides being invested 
 
HOW TO BEGIN. 391 
 
 with absolute power, while the teacher has to con- 
 sider chiefly results to be attaiued in the future, and 
 he is forbidden by considerations of his own and the 
 pupils' good, to exercise other than qualified author- 
 ity. 
 
 Choice ol a School. 
 
 The young teacher should not select a difiicult 
 school at first. Too many teach for the pecuniary 
 reward, and others do not consider whether or not 
 they are adapted to particular schools. 
 
 Contract. 
 
 The contract should be in writing and express def- 
 initely the conditions. Both parties should have a 
 copy. Like all other business, it should be done in a 
 business-like manner. Printed forms for these con- 
 tracts may be obtained of Davis, Bardeen & Co., 
 Syracuse, N. Y., at ten cents a pair. 
 
 Preparation for First Day's Work. 
 
 This is ail important. The seeds of failure are fre- 
 quently sown the first hour. The teacher should 
 have a plan in his mind ; jvst what he iciUdo ; hoic he, 
 will do it; and when ?Le will do it. He should not try 
 to accomplish too much the first day ; must not be too 
 anxious about courting the favor of pupils — good dis- 
 cipline cannot be established in a day ; should use 
 ■words expressive of friendly feelings and good inten- 
 tions; should not let frowns cloud the brow% even 
 though all may not be, at the outset, just as one might 
 wish ; should leave nothing to the impulse of the 
 moment ; should be firm, watchful and uniform, and 
 should endeavor to make ihe first impression pleasant. 
 
392 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION: 
 
 The First Exercises, 
 
 Do not attempt to hear recitations the first morn- 
 ing ; after opening the school with a general exercise, 
 let them all join in singing some familiar piece ; this 
 will dispel embaiTcissment. 
 
 Enrolling the Pupils. 
 
 Write on the board the requirements, and pass 
 slips of paper, letting all that can write hand in the 
 following, viz : 
 
 1. The full christian name. 
 
 2. The full christian name of parent or guardian. 
 
 3. Residence. 
 
 4. Age. 
 
 Let some pupils pass around and take the names, 
 etc., of those who cannot write. 
 
 Classification* 
 
 In the highest classes institute a written examina- 
 tion. This can be made a test exercise in spelling, 
 penmanship, and the use of language. The ques- 
 tions need not be difficult ; ten questions upon the 
 diflerent subjects will test the knowledge of the pii- 
 pils as well as twenty. The pupils that cannot write 
 should be examined orally, and a record kept of the 
 standing of each pupil. It is not best to make sud- 
 den and radical changes ; better adopt the classifica- 
 tion of your predecessor, if you have not confidence 
 in your own ability. 
 
 Make all changes gradually and quietly and let the 
 pupils see that it is for their interest and the good of 
 the school. 
 
THE BAIL Y PR GRAMME. 393 
 
 Forming Classes. 
 
 After havino; carefully graded the pupils, then at 
 tempt a temporary classification. It will be impossi 
 ble to adopt a permanent classification at first, and the 
 pupils should so understand it. 
 
 There should not be more than four grades in the 
 public schools. The primer and first reader should 
 constitute the D grade ; the second reader, the 
 grade ; the third reader, the B grade ; and the fourth 
 reader the A grade. The number of classes in each 
 grade should not exceed four, and, by close classifica- 
 tion, they need not exceed this number. 
 
 Programme of Exercises. 
 
 The teacher is now ready to draw up the ^j^an of 
 ■work, specifying the number of classes and the time 
 of beginning, ending, and the length of each recita- 
 tion. 
 
 The programme should provide for study as well 
 as for recitation. 
 
 Advantages of a programme : — 
 
 1. It lessens the labor of teaching. 
 
 2. It makes teaching more effective. 
 8. It promotes good order. 
 
 4. It cultivates systematic habits. 
 
 5. It promotes the ambition of pupils. 
 
 While it is well to follow the programme carefully, 
 yet the organization and discipline must not be too 
 mechanical, or pupils will tire of it. No change 
 in classes should be made for visitors, unless by 
 special request. 
 
394 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Class Movements. 
 
 Pupils should be seated according to classification, 
 so far as practicable, and graded according to height, 
 seating the tallest pupi!s in the rear. The teacher 
 should have the entire charge of seating the pupils. 
 Teachers should change seat-mates when advisable, 
 As a rule it is not best to place pupils of the same 
 temperament together. The class movements should 
 be conducted with precision, and no disorder should 
 be allowed in the room. In no instance should the 
 school-room be used as a play ground. 
 
 Proper Care ol the School-Koom. 
 
 The pupils should not be allowed to deface, de- 
 stroy, or in any way injure the school property. They 
 should be required to keep the school-room in perfect 
 order, and have a place for their books and imple- 
 ments of work. 
 
 Special Privileges. 
 
 But very few special privileges should be granted 
 to pupils, such as leaving seats, speaking to one 
 another, asking questions of teachers, making com- 
 plaints to teachers, receiving help from the teacher, 
 etc. In a thoroughly organized school the granting of 
 these privileges take but little, if any time. 
 Keep up a Spirit of Work. 
 Extract from the Report of Supt. William T. Harris. 
 St. Louis. 
 
 Listlessness in the school-room is traced to : 
 
 1. Lack of proper ventilation. 
 
 2. Lack of equal temperature. 
 
WANTED : A SPIlilT OF WORK. 395 
 
 3. Too long recitations for the strength of the 
 pupils. 
 
 4. Injudicious and too frequent concert recitation. 
 
 5. The practice of " l^eeping in " pupils at recess or 
 after school for failure in lessons or misbehavior. 
 
 6. Lack of definite analysis of the subject of the 
 lesson by the teacher during recitation. 
 
 7. Substitution of individual explanation on the 
 part of the teacher for correction (in the class) of bad. 
 habits of study. 
 
 On entering the room of a careless or inexperienced 
 teacher, the visitor is struck by the lifeless atmos- 
 phere that seems to pervade both teacher and pupils. 
 The pupils all turn their gaze upon him as he enters 
 and stare abstractedly, forgetful of the presence of 
 the teacher and of the purpose of their attendance at 
 school. The teacher languidly, or with a slight flush 
 of surprise and embarassment, invites to a seat. After 
 a little, the pupils settle back into the condition pre- 
 vailing berore the entrance of the visitor. The pupils 
 at their seats are variously employed : many are lean- 
 ing over their desks, their faces full of ennni ; others 
 are endeavoring to relieve the tedium of the slow 
 creeping hour by ingenious devices of their own — 
 pin-traps, spit-balls, picture-books under the desks, 
 writing notes to their fellows, making caricatures on 
 slates, scratching furniture, telegraphing on a small 
 scale, etc., — some have books open before them, 
 others not ; the class that is "on the line" for recita- 
 tion are leaning against the blackboards behind them, 
 or against the desks in front of them ; some are pay, 
 ing attention to the lesson, others are busied with the 
 
396 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 
 
 jDupils at tbeir seats. The teacher is distracted and 
 confused. 
 
 Take the room as a whole, and the lack of the one 
 sphit that should prevail in it is painful to witness. 
 The almost audible sigh of the w-hole is : "Oh, that 
 school were out ! " The visitor thinks of theLostos- 
 Eaters and of the 
 
 "Land 
 In which it seemed always afternoon ; 
 All round the coast the languid air did swoon, 
 Breathing like one that had a weary dream," 
 The visitor (who has come to inspect the school) 
 looks carefully into the methods of instruction and 
 discipline in order that he may discover the primary 
 causes of this failure, and suggest its remedy. 
 
 He notes : " This teacher has no force ; she has 
 no hold over these pupils ; she does not make up her 
 mind at the outset that she will have tlds and not that ; 
 she commands incessantly, and does not wait to see 
 whether any command is obeyed ; she obviously has 
 not prepared herself on the lesson before coming to 
 school, for, see, she holds the text-book in her hand 
 and is closely confined to the text while she asks 
 questions; at obvious allusions to the subject of the 
 previous lesson she does not pause to call it up, nor 
 does she illustrate the dilficult portions of the lesson 
 for to-da}'^ ; while she is looking in the book for the 
 next question a pupil has answered the previous one 
 inaccurately, or has omitted the essential point ; she 
 treats the important and unimportant questions alike; 
 no wonder the pupils are listless !" 
 
 But he sees that this phase is not the only one 
 wherein the teacher acts like a novice ; in the more 
 
IS YOUR SCHOOL LIKE THIS? 397 
 
 general programme similar defects manifest them- 
 selves which he notes accordingly: 
 
 The class is too large and too much time is taken 
 to hear it ; the lesson for the next day is too long, and 
 no directions are given as to how to study it; all those 
 who fail are kept in at recess or after school ; some 
 receive individual explanations, and consequently 
 get in the habit of crowding around the teacher's 
 desk, and of depending on his direct assistance. 
 Added to this, the teacher hears many parts of ihe 
 lesson in concert, and the consequence is, only those 
 portions of the lessons are dwelt upon that are most 
 mechanical, for only such can be recited in concert 
 — discriminating and original answers cannot be 
 in concert — concert answers must be something ver- 
 batim and short answers: "Yes, sir," "No, sir," 
 "Atlantic Ocean," and the. like. Complete answers 
 are made by the smart pupils, while the dull ones 
 follow the lead and join in towards the end of the 
 answer. The bright pupil answers the whole : 
 "twenty-five thousand miles ;" the less bright one 
 says : " five thousand miles ;" and the dull one : 
 " thousand miles ;" the dullest comes in at the word 
 " miles." These pupils have not the power or disci- 
 pline of mind to concentrate their attention for so 
 long a recitation ; they get fatigued before it is 
 through, and listlessness is the result. 
 
 Again : " The ventilation is not attended to, and 
 the impure air causes incipient congestion of the 
 brain, and a few of the delicate ones have headaches, 
 while all feel that apathy and indifference which ie 
 its premonitory symptom.'* 
 
898 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 
 
 *' Most important is the failure of the teacher ; she 
 does not practise a system of definite analysis of the les- 
 son at recitation. She asks probing questions only sel- 
 dom ; the pupil is not made to seize the subject and 
 analyze it till he thoroughly understands it. The 
 leonsequence is, he does not know how to study the 
 next lesson, nor when he has learned it, and 
 therefore does not study at his seat, having no definite 
 sense of his deficiency and of his ability to overcome 
 it." 
 
 These causes of failure when generalized may be 
 traced to one prevailing defect on the part of the 
 teacher. And this may be described thus : The 
 teacher fails because she does not pay careful atten- 
 tion to the power for work which her pupils acjtually 
 possess, and so lay out tasks and secure their accomp- 
 lishment f\,& to increase constantly this power for work. 
 Previous preparation on the part of the teacher is in- 
 dispensable for this result. Everything should be 
 digested by the teacher before entering the school- 
 room ; she should re-inforce the moments by the hou7'S, 
 and ttus be able at all times to bring to bear the en- 
 tire weight of her character upon the pupil. The 
 practice of keeping the pupil in at recess for failure 
 in lessons is very baneful in its eflfects. The cause 
 of the failure is probably owing to inability to con- 
 centrate his mind, and here the cure prescribed is 
 calculated to heighten the disease. The teacher 
 should get the lesson into such shape that the pupil 
 can master it by a general assault, and he should not 
 be allowed — at home or in school — to make a dissi- 
 pated, scattering attack on it. 
 
PliOGBAMME FOR UNGBABED SCHOOLS. 399 
 
 PROGRAMME FOR AN UNGRADED SCHOOL. 
 
 D. Class— 1st Term. 
 
 Reading— First Reader, lialf thiough ; give special 
 attention to tone. 
 
 Numbers— («) Learn figures. 
 
 [h) Add and subtract by ones with tables. 
 (c) Count, notate and numerate to 50. 
 Spelling— All the new words in the reader. 
 Writing— The words learned in reading and writing 
 the pupil's own name with correct use of 
 capitals. 
 
 D. Class— 2d Term. 
 Reading— Last half of Reader. 
 
 Numbers— (a) Addition and Subtraction and Multi- 
 plication by I's and 2's ; Min. and 
 Prod, not to exceed 24. 
 (J) Roman Numerals found in reader. 
 
 Spelling— Same as first term. 
 
 Writing— Words learned with proper use of capitals. 
 Place— («) The cardinal and semi-cardinal points and 
 applications. 
 (&) Lessons preparatory to giving the bound- 
 ary of the room, such as ceiling, cor- 
 ners, sides, &c. 
 Color— Distinguishing and naming color. 
 Size -General idea of size ; large and small ; larger 
 and smaller ; largest and smallest. Also, 
 long and short, with the three degrees, 
 Also, height, with the degrees. 
 
400 SCHOOL ORaANIZATION. 
 
 C. Class— 1st Term. 
 
 Reading — Half Second Reader ; special attention 
 given to pronunciation and tone. 
 
 Numbers — (a) Addition and subtraction and multi- 
 plication with tables of I's, 2's and 
 3's ; sum or min. not to exceed 36. 
 
 (Z») Addition of columns of tens and units; 
 no figures greater than three, and the 
 sum of no column greater than 36. 
 
 (c) Roman Numerals with reading. 
 
 Spelling — All words used in reading by sound and let- 
 ter. 
 Writing — Instruction from board. 
 
 Place — {a) Draw map of streets or roads of Village or 
 District, and locate buildings. 
 (b) Name town and district officers. 
 
 C. Class— 2d. Term. 
 
 Reading — Finish Reader. 
 
 {a) Give instruction in vowels. 
 Numbers — {a) Addition and subtraction of I's, 2's, 
 3's, 4's, 5's ; sum or min. not to ex- 
 ceed 60. 
 (5) Multiplication and division ; the sum, 
 multiple and quotient not to exceed 
 12. 
 (c) Notation and numeration to 1,000,000. 
 Writing — Copy on the board. 
 
 Spelling — Words in reading lesson. 
 Place — ia) Teacher have map of county. 
 
PROGRAMME FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 401 
 
 [b) Children name, locate and bound towns. 
 
 (c) Tell direction each is from the other. 
 
 {d) Name towns through which railroads pass. 
 {e) Name and locate villages of each. 
 (/) Name and locate creeks and livers. 
 {g) Give population of towns and county. 
 {Jt) Explain and name county seat. 
 {i) Name town officers and duties of each. 
 {j) Draw map of county and give sq. miles. 
 {k) Review. 
 
 B. Class— 1st Term. 
 
 Reading— Half of Third Reader. Particular atten- 
 tion to pronunciation and modulation. 
 
 Numbers — Finish division— written and intellectual, 
 and review. Combination in notation and 
 numeration to 1,000,000. 
 
 Spelling — Words in Third Reader — abbreviations 
 found in reading or spelling. 
 
 Penmanship — Instruction from board and No. 4 
 Wri ting-Book. 
 
 Grammar — Primary, first-half. 
 
 Geography — One-half Primary, with drawing maps 
 of same. 
 
 B. Class— 2(1 Term. 
 
 Reading— Finish Third Reader. Particular attention 
 to pronunciation, modulation and inflec- 
 tion. 
 
 Numbers — Decimal and common fractions ; review. 
 Spelling — Words in Reader and Geography. 
 
402 SCHOOL OROANIZATION. 
 
 Penmanship — Class exercises and No. 5. 
 
 Grammar — Finish Primary, 
 
 Geography — Primary with map drawings for same. 
 
 A. Class— First Term. 
 
 Reading — Fourth Reader , attention to thought, ex- 
 pression and pronunciation, to precede the 
 exercise. 
 
 Arithmetic — Denominate numbers and simple and 
 compound interest. 
 
 Spelling — In word-book, words written. 
 Penmanship — Book 6 ; class instruction from board. 
 Grammar — Orthography and etymology. 
 Geography — With map-drawing. 
 
 A. Class— 2d Term. 
 Reading — Fourth Reader ; attention as before. 
 
 Arithmetic — Percentage, insurance, commission, 
 profit and loss, taxes, discount, govern- 
 ment securities and proportion. 
 
 Spelling — Word-book, words written. 
 
 Penmanship — Book 7, and class exercise. 
 
 Grammar — Syntax and review. 
 
 Geography. 
 
 School Exercise in History — Teacher write a fact 
 upon the board, talk about it and relate 
 incidents which they have gathered regard- 
 ing it. Review each day. 
 
 Civil Government — The same. ^ 
 
PROGRAMME FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 40S 
 
 Programme of Exercises for an Ungraded 
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404 
 
 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Programme of Exercises for a County 
 
 MOENING SESSION. 
 
 Monday. 
 
 Tuesday. 
 
 9 GO to 9 02-Roll Call. 
 9 02 to 910-Dev. Exer. 
 9 10 to 9 1.5— Singing. 
 9 15 to 9 50— lustruct'n. 
 9 50 to 9 55-Rest. 
 9 r5 to lu 30— lustruct'n. 
 ) 0.0 to 10 40— Rest. 
 
 10 40 to 11 15— lustruct'n. 
 11 15 to 11 VO— Rest. 
 
 11 20 to 11 55— lustruct'n. 
 11 55 to 12 00— Singing. 
 
 Roll Call. 
 
 Devotional Exer. 
 
 Singing. 
 
 School Organiz'n. 
 
 Rest. 
 
 Civil Government. 
 
 Rest. 
 
 Phonic Analysis. 
 
 Rest. 
 
 Language. 
 
 Singing. 
 
 Roll Call. 
 
 Devotional Exer. 
 
 Singing. 
 
 School Managem't. 
 
 Rest. 
 
 Language. 
 
 Rest. 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Rest. 
 
 Civil Government. 
 
 Singing. 
 
 AFTEEITOON SESSION. 
 
 Monday. 
 
 Tuesday. 
 
 2 00 to 2 02-Roll Call. 
 2 02 to 2 10— Siusing. 
 2 10 to 2 45— lustruct'n. 
 2 45 to 2 50-Rest. 
 
 2 50 to 3 25— lustruct'n. 
 8 25 to 3 35— Rest. 
 
 3 35 to 4 10— lustruct'n. 
 
 4 10 to 4 15--Rest. 
 
 4 15 to 4 50— lustruct'n. 
 3 50 to 5 00— Miscell'n's. 
 
 Roll Call. 
 
 Singing. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Rest. 
 
 Primary Reading. 
 
 Rest. 
 
 Spelling. 
 
 Rest. 
 
 Penmanship. 
 
 Query Box. 
 
 Roll Call. 
 
 Singing. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 Rest. 
 
 Geography. 
 
 Rest. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 Rest. 
 
 History. 
 
 Query Box. 
 
 EVENIITQ SESSION. 
 
 7 30 to 7 35-Singin2:. 
 
 7 35 to 8 00— Discussion. 
 
 8 00 to 9 00— Lecture. 
 
 Monday. 
 
 Tuesday. 
 
 Siuginsr. 
 
 Discussion. 
 
 Lecture. 
 
 Singing. 
 
 Discussion. 
 
 Lecture. 
 
 Sessions will begin promptly on time ; twenty minutes' notice 
 
FOR A TEACHERS INSTITUTE. 
 
 40t: 
 
 Teachers' Institute of One Week. 
 
 will be given by the ringing of the bell 
 
406 
 
 SCHOOL orqanization: 
 
 Another Pros:raniine of Exercises for an 
 Unsraded School. 
 
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 loll Call, Remarks, and Singing. 
 
 Reading. Reading. 
 
 Rcadini;. Reading. 
 READING. Reading. 
 Arithmetic. READING. 
 
 ESS. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Singing for All Grades. 
 
 Tj?ri°*'°?A Writing. PENMANSHIP AND SPELLING. 
 READING. Spelling. Geography. Geograpliy. 
 
 Printing. SPELLING. Geography. Geograpliy. 
 
 Printing. Language Lessons. GEOGKAF-'HY. Geographv. 
 
 Printing. Language Lessons. Composition. GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 RECESS. 
 
 SPELLING. Language Les-ous. Composition. Grammar. 
 
 Writing. LANGUAGE. C<imnosition. Grammar. 
 
 Writing. Language. COMPOSITION. Grammar. 
 
 Writing. Language. Composition. GRAMMAR. 
 
 Oral Lessons in Science, 3Iorals, and Government. 
 
 Singing and Dismission. 
 
 P 
 o 
 
 Singins for All Grades. 
 
 SPELLING. Arithmetic. Arithmetic. 
 Writing. ARITHMETIC. Arithmetic. 
 Writing. Arithmetic. ARITHMETIC. 
 Writing. Arithmetic. Aritiimetic. 
 
 NOON. 
 
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 OPENING EXERCISES-] 
 
 READING. Reading. 
 Printing. READING. 
 Printing. Arithmetic. 
 Printing. Arithmetic, 
 
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 IN (Mi-Hi-It-Ht-' oj (NCJlTjeO CO M 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 The strength, or it may be the weakness, of a 
 teacher, is no where so clearly shown as in the gen- 
 eral management of the school. 
 
 For the maintenance of healthy discipline, it is not 
 necessary that there should be great severity in the 
 punishment of offences. 
 
 Firmness is the first requisite to school management ; 
 the pupils must understand that the teacher has ab- 
 solute control ; that his authority is supreme ; and this 
 in most cases is sufiicient in itself to hold the evil 
 propensities of pupils in check. 
 
 On the contrary, a lack of firmness will encourage 
 the spirit of revolt, and make necessary frequent re- 
 sorts to punishments of one kind or another. 
 
 School government should be administered in such 
 a way that it shall he a reign of justice. The sense of 
 justice is strong even in the case of vicious children. 
 Ofi'ences will occur in the best conducted schools, but 
 the teacher must discriminate between trivial^ aggra- 
 vated and serious ox flagrant offences. 
 
 Children know that disobedience and wrong-doing 
 in general deserve punishment ; and providing that 
 
408 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 the degree of punishment does not exceed its just 
 bounds, no feeling of resentment "will be cherished 
 toward him who inflicts the penalty. 
 
 A teacher should not, generally, make a rule until 
 there is a necessity for it. When the teacher, through 
 close deliberation, thinks it to be for the best interest 
 of the school to make a rule, then, and not until 
 then, should he make it. It should then be enforced, 
 and for a violation of the rule, a penalty should be 
 inflicted. Children soon learn to feel a contempt for 
 a teacher who does not insist on respectful obedience; 
 they instinctively admire that firmness and decision 
 ■which metes out to ofi"enders their deserved punish- 
 ment. Complete success in school management at 
 the outset is not to be expected ; only by slow degrees 
 can dexterity in governing be attained. Common 
 sense is an important element in management. A 
 noble Quaker once said, " There are three things a 
 man needs to make him successful ; first, good health; 
 second, religion ; and third, good sense ; if he can- 
 not have but one of these, let it be good sense ; for 
 God can give him grace, and God can give him re- 
 ligion, but no man can give him common sense.''* 
 
 Administration. 
 
 The most difficult part of school work is the ad- 
 ministration. How often have I been asked, "tell 
 me how to govern my school ?" The subject is, in- 
 deed, one of the most important which can engage 
 the attention of teachers. It is one which calls for 
 experience, judgment and wisdom. Every pupil has 
 a conscience, which decides on all actions contem- 
 
NOT TOO MUCH, NOB TOO LITTLE. 409 
 
 plated or begun — decides whether the act is right or 
 wrong. One rule only, then, need be made : " Do 
 nothing which your conscience tells you is wrong '' 
 This covers the whole ground and a score of rules 
 will only weaken it. Some may say their conscience 
 is depraved, but it is never entirely seared. 
 
 Too much government may prove as injurious as 
 too little ; both may prove failures. The teacher 
 should govern as little and teach as much as possible. 
 In some schools there is more of government than 
 of teaching. The pupils should understand that in 
 no instance will the teacher stop the recitation to 
 manage a school or discipline a pupil. The teacher, 
 if he observes that a pupil is disorderly during reci- 
 tation, should bilently mark him, and attend to the 
 oflence during recess or at some convenient opportu- 
 nity. 
 
 All discipline has its spring in the character of the 
 teacher. It depends more on the man than on his 
 means. It is the character of the one that imparts 
 efficacy to the action of the other. 
 
 Character, not Reputation, is the Source of 
 Success. 
 
 Character is the source of success or failure in all 
 pursuits. So apparent is its influence in schools that 
 one who had many opportunities for observing has 
 said that, " a teacher has more need to watch himself 
 than his children, as the evils found in a school 
 are often traceable to some omission, iuconsiderate- 
 ness, hastiness of temper, want of firmness, or ab- 
 sence of principle in himself." 
 
410 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The school becomes a reflector of the teacher, and 
 in every case it will be a perfect reflector. A teacher 
 cannot appear what he is not in the presence of the 
 school. The thing is vain. Their eyes pierce through 
 every disguise. 
 
 He must be what he seems, and muot seem what 
 he is. 
 
 Teachers must Possess High and Noble 
 Qualities. 
 
 Love, honor, truthfulness sincerity, consistency, 
 justice, patience and judgment must be elements of 
 a teacher's character. Earnestness and cheerfulsnes 
 are also elements. Earnestness has great influence 
 over children ; cheerfulness is sunshine. 
 
 Sympathy with them in their trials, sports and 
 labors is an element of power: but fear, never. 
 
 Is there not a lesson prettily expressed in the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 *' He who checks a child with terror, 
 Stops its play, and stills its song, 
 
 Not alone commits an error. 
 But a great and moral wrong. 
 
 '* Give it play, and never fear it, — 
 
 Active life is no defect ; 
 Never, never break its spirit, — 
 
 CiLrh it only to direct. 
 
 ^" Would you stop the flowing river, 
 Thinking it would cease to flow ? 
 Onward it must flow forever,— 
 Better teach it where to go." / 
 
^' SOFT, GENTLE AND LOWr 411 
 
 Teacher Should Use Low Tones. 
 
 Very particularly must it be kept in view by the 
 teacher that quietness in governing is most naturally 
 allied with good discipline, A loud voice reiterating 
 commands in an authoritative tone, is often consid- 
 ered favorable to discipline. It is not really so. A 
 quiet way of issuing orders is favorable to quietness 
 of disposition among the pupils. It conveys a double 
 impression — that obedience is expected, and that 
 there is a large reserve force at command, if the 
 teacher should have occasion to need it to use. One 
 thing deserving careful consideration is the import- 
 ance of bringing the habit of obedience very early 
 into play. 
 
 If children are accustomed from their very earliest 
 school experience to move together in accordance 
 with fixed signals, the work of discipline is greatly 
 simplified. Simultaneous movements — as in rising, 
 taking seats again, or marching — always contribute 
 to the result in a very pleasing way. We would en- 
 courage the daily drill in Disdplinai^ Exercises and 
 Calisthenics, as well calculated to enforce prompt 
 obedience. 
 
 The first thing that a child should learn is obedience^ 
 All governments and all peoples have regarded filial 
 disobedience with great d isf avor. The teacher should 
 supplement the parent's work. 
 
412 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 School Discipline. 
 
 A. — Offences against the School and Means of 
 Correcting. 
 
 /. Communication, 
 
 1. Suggestion, advice, admonition. 
 
 2. Reproof, — make it unpopular. 
 
 3. Restraint of personal liberties. 
 
 4. Separate Seatmates. 
 
 5. Printed reports. 
 
 II. Loud Study. 
 
 1. Suspend exercises, until quiet 
 
 2. Train pupils to study with closed lips, 
 
 3. Reproof. 
 
 III. Laughing. 
 
 1. Suspension of exercises. 
 
 2. Pupils Irtugh until weary of it. 
 
 3. Reproof. 
 
 1 V. Moving Noisily. 
 
 1. Train the pupils how to walk, to stand, to sit, 
 and to move. 
 
 2. Always admonish them, when a command is 
 violated. 
 
 3. Let the pupils try again, until they do it quietly. 
 
 4. Slates should be covered. Teachers should set 
 the example. 
 
 F. Questions during Recitation. 
 
 1. Prohibit them. 
 
 2. Show impropriety. 
 
 3. Refuse to notice signals. 
 
 4. Reproof. 
 
CORRECTION OB COMMON OFFENCES. 413 
 
 Vl. Litter on the Floor. 
 
 1. Encourage neatness. 
 
 2. Require the floor to be in order. 
 
 3. Carefully inspect the floor in the presence of 
 the pupil, without -^ny remarks. 
 
 VII. Writing Notes. 
 
 1. Give them all the work they can do. 
 
 2. Read them, omitting names. 
 2. Ask for the writer. 
 
 4. Destroy the notes without reading them. 
 
 VIII. Uncleanliness. 
 
 1. Send pupils out. 
 
 2. Send pupils home. 
 
 3. Insist upon cleanliness. 
 
 7X Disorder. 
 
 1. A place for every thing, and every thing in its 
 place. 
 
 2. No changing of position, without permission. 
 
 3. Always to be held accountable for the care of 
 property. 
 
 4. Quiet attention when addressed. 
 Remark.— Instruct, train and drill pupils in habits 
 
 of order, manners and morals. 
 
 B. — Offences Against Pupils, and Means of 
 Correcting. 
 I. Tattling. 
 
 1. Shun impropriety— leads to gossip and slander. 
 
 2. Refuse to notice it. 
 
 3. Reprove. 
 
 4. Show its sinfulness. 
 
414 
 
 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 II. Quarrelling. 
 
 1. Persuade of sinfulness. 
 
 2. Oblige to play alone. 
 8. Make it unpopular." 
 
 ///, Untruthfulness. 
 
 1. Find out the cause. 
 
 2. Tell them the effect. 
 Cultivate honor. 
 
 1. Ignorance. 
 
 2. Thoughtlessness. 
 
 3. Selfishness. 
 
 4. Innate tendency. 
 
 '1. Loss of reputation. 
 
 2. Loss of character. 
 
 3. Loss of conscience. 
 
 4. General demoralization. 
 
 ,^i^ 
 
A WORD m Conclusion. 
 
 The facts of the past, the claims of the present, and 
 the responsibilities of the future suggest so much 
 which might be said, that I am somewhat perplexed 
 in deciding upon what I ought to say. Nevertlielesa 
 I have concluded to say a few words to the readers 
 of the Sclwol-Room Guide. 
 
 To Commissioners and Superintendents. 
 
 Upon you rest, to a great extent, the success of the 
 schools and the advancement of the educational in- 
 terests of this country. 
 
 It is by the recommending and licensing of com, 
 petent and eflScient teachers that you are the most 
 successful in promoting the interests of your charge. 
 Let the teachers recommended by you be selected 
 more with reference to social culture, exalted moral 
 character^ the development of true manhood and 
 womanhood, than to either scholarship or talent. This 
 you can do by selecting and recommending only such 
 persons as shall illustrate in their lives the moral les- 
 sons which should be set as an example in schools. 
 
 You stand pledged to further the interests, not only 
 of literature and science, but of the sublimest type 
 of morality. 
 
416 A WORD IN CONCLUSION. 
 
 If you would redeem this pledge you will not license 
 as a teacher any one who violates the law of moral 
 purity, who gives to social dissipation the hours that 
 belong to sleep, or who indulges in any practice of 
 vice. A sacred trust is committed to you, which, if 
 faithfully and wisely discharged, shall make your 
 own day beautiful and scatter blessings doing the 
 pathway of coming years. 
 
 Conclusions drawn from Experience. 
 
 An experience of twenty-five years in the field of 
 education has secured principles and conclusions 
 which may be considered not only general state- 
 ments, but facts. One fundamental fact thus gained 
 is, that the school should be an appendage of the 
 family, fitted to train the ignorant and weak by self- 
 sacrificing labor and love, and to bestow the most atten- 
 tion on the weakest, the most undeveloped and the 
 most sinful. It is exactly the opposite course to which 
 teachers are most tempted. 
 
 The bright, the good, the industrious, are those 
 whom it is most agreeable to teach, who win most 
 aflfection, and who promote the reputation of a 
 teacher, and of a school or a college. 
 
 To follow this principle, then, demands more clear 
 views of duty and more self-denying benevolence 
 than ordinarily abound. 
 
 Another general principle obtained by experience 
 is, that both quickness of perception and retentive- 
 ness of memory depend very greatly on the degree of 
 interest excited. 
 
 By this same general principle of quickening Intel- 
 
LESSONS TA UOUT BY EXPERIENCE. 4.17 
 
 lect by exciting interest, we have learned the impor- 
 tance of educating young persons with some practical 
 aim, by which, in case of poverty, they may support 
 themselves. 
 
 Another very interesting fact revealed by personal 
 experience is, that there is no knowledge so thorough 
 and permanent as that gained in teaching others. 
 
 Repeatedly has it been observed that a lesson or a 
 problem supposed to be comprehended was imperfect* 
 and corrected only in attempts to aid others in under- 
 standing it. In no other profession is the sacred 
 promise, " Give and it shall be given unto you,*' so 
 fully realized as in that of a teacher. 
 
 Another very important principle in acquiring 
 knowledge is to take but few branches at one time 
 and especially to have these associated in their 
 character, so that each is an assistance in understand- 
 ing and remembering the others. 
 
 There is a great loss of time and labor in the com- 
 mon method of pursuing four or five disconnected 
 branches of study. 
 
 The mind is distracted by the variety and feels a 
 feeble and divided interest in all. 
 
 In many instances, this method of cramming the 
 mind with uninteresting and disconnected details 
 serves to debilitate rather than to promote mental 
 power. The memory is the faculty chiefly cultivated, 
 and this at the expense of the others. 
 
 To Teachers. 
 
 I trust that I shall not be considered as transcend- 
 ing the proper limit of remark, if I should submit to 
 
418 A WORD IN CONCLUSION. 
 
 your consideration some thoughts relating to the 
 teacher's work. 
 
 In government, be gentle yet firm ; not anxious to 
 govern in those things which are innocent and 
 harmless, but to restrain practices which are unques- 
 tionably immoral by the exercise of all the authority 
 with which you are invested. 
 
 In order that you may worthily discharge the duties 
 which thus confront you at the threshold of your 
 field of labor, it is of the first importance that your 
 own habits of thought and life be wholly correct. 
 
 No one is fit to govern others until he has learned 
 to govern himself. Self-government and self-restraint 
 are not possible without intelligence and virtue. 
 
 The task of the teacher is one of great responsi- 
 bility and labor. 
 
 It is very much easier for a general to command an 
 army than for a teacher to govern a school ; for a 
 general has to deal with and consider only immediate 
 results, besides being invested with absolute power, 
 while the teacher has to consider chiefly results to be 
 attained in the future, and he is forbidden by consid- 
 eration of his own and the pupil's welfare to exercise 
 other than qualified power. 
 
 Then the military commander trains his soldiers to 
 wield only weapons against material fortifications, 
 while the teacher is to discipline those under his or 
 her care and control, in the skilful use of the mental 
 and moral powers, and prepare them to contend suc- 
 cessfully against superstition, begotten of ignorance, 
 against habits of thought and action which reach 
 
THE FINAL CA USE. 419 
 
 their root far back in the centuries and "against 
 spiritual wickedness in high places." Hence great 
 statesmen and victorious generals are of little value 
 in any country without eflScient teachers. 
 
 To our public schools we must look for those who 
 will be called upon to manage the affairs of families, 
 to transact the business of town and of state, to fill 
 the vacated bench of justice, to sit in the halls of 
 legislation, and to direct and control the church of 
 Gcd. 
 
 Upon the character of our schools and teachers, 
 therefore, depends the weal or^woe of unborn mil- 
 lions, the prosperity or downfall of our boasted in- 
 stitution s. 
 
 As the concluding thought, teachers and friends, 
 may we all bear in mind that our life in this world is 
 but the preparatory department in the School of God. 
 Let us be so attentive to the lessons given us by the 
 Great Teacher, that when the day of examination with 
 us severally shall come, we may hear the glad wel- 
 come "well done," and at last gather beyond the 
 Eiver, under the cloudless sky, undimmed by the 
 shade of night, there to renew our search for knowl- 
 edge and our labors of love, with immortal faculties, 
 which are least weary when most employed. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
vXt 
 
THE 
 
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 3. The School Bulletin Yeaii-Book.— Vol. I., 187'8. A compiett; 
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 4. Common School Lay,- for Common School Teachkks.— The stand- 
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 8. The Ri:(iENTs' Questions Sepaijatelt —Four volumes, cloth bounW, 
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 prepared for the purpose under direction of the Board of Regents. By 
 .Express, $S.50 a Heam ; bij Mail, Tive.nty-five Cents a Quire. 
 
 11. Beebk's First Steps among Figures. — The simplest and clearest 
 preparatory work in Arithmetic ever published. Adopted for exclusive use 
 m Ontario County. 10? pages. Board.*. Thirty-lhie Cnit>^. Teachers' 
 Edition, including the Pupils' Edition and a Key to both Editions. 300 
 pages. Cloth. One Dollar. 
 
12. A WoiiK IN Number. By Martha Roe. Intended for Junior ClasseB 
 and contaiuini,' ttiree years' work. 161 pages. Cloth. Fifty Cents. 
 
 13. BUADFOKD'S TUIKTY PkoBLEMS OF PERCENTAGE.— A drill-booli. 
 
 19 pages. Flexible cloth. Twentij-five Vents. 
 
 14. NoRTHAM'i^ Civil Government, fob Common Schools, to which is 
 appended the Constitution of the State of New Yorli, as recently amended. 
 Cloth, liandsomely bound. Seventii-five Cetits. 
 
 15. Dissected Maps of the State of New York and of the United 
 States. Each County and eacli State separate, and of exact shape. In neat 
 box, each. Seventy live Vents. 
 
 16. Studies in Articulation.— By James H. Hoose, Ph.D., I'rincipal 
 of the Cortland State Normal School. Thisnotonly analyze^^ e.-ich sound 
 in the language, but gives as illustrations hundreds of words commonly 
 mispronounced. Hon. W. D. Henkle, edit(»rof tlie National Teaiher, and 
 of Educational Notes and Queries, says : " It is needless to say that we 
 are pleased with this ])onk, for it presents just what we have for years 
 discussed in Teachers' Institutes, and urged should be taught in sciiools." 
 F{f(y Cents. 
 
 17. Frobisher's Good Selections.— This book admirably meets the 
 demand for a book of fresli pieces of pro^^e and poetry for liigher reading 
 classes. It contains 168 pages m clear type, and should be in the hands of 
 every teacher. Paper. Tivenfy-fl've l,ents ; boards, Forty Cents.. 
 
 18. Johonnot's School Houses.— This new and finely illustrated 
 octavo volume is the standard work upon School architecture, and should 
 be owned by every School Board. Two Dollfirs. 
 
 19. American Library op Education.— I. Locke's Essay on Edu- 
 cation. II. Locke on Readinir, and Milton on Education. III. Horace 
 Mann on Physiology in Schools. IV. University Addresses of Froude, 
 Carlyle, Mill, etc. V., VI. 1'he Bible in the Public Sciiools. Ttoenty-Jive 
 Cents each. 
 
 20. The Diadem of School Songs, by Wm. Tillinghast, with a Complete 
 System of Instruction, and pieces adapted to every occasion. 160 pages, 
 boards. Ffty Cents. 
 
 21. Ryan's School Record.— The entire record of a school may be kept 
 without copying, and a weekly report sent home each week, at the expense 
 per term of 14 weeks, for 56 pupils, of I'ifly Cents. 
 
 22. The Peaeody Class Record, a unique system of permanent class 
 reports. The plan of ruling and cutting must be seen to be appreciated. It 
 saves time as no other can. No. 1, 5 x 9 inches, 100 pages, $1.00 ; No. 2, 
 8x10'/^ inches, $1..50. 
 
 23. Shaw's Scholar's Register.— The recitation is marked i\7/ the jmpil 
 in lead pencil. The teacher marks the changes wiihink, makes the average 
 for the week, and carries it to the abstract. Specimens, Six Cents; ptr 
 dozen. Fifty Cents. 
 
 24. Commissioners' Certificates.— We now print the certificates issued 
 to teachers by nearly all the commisj^ioners of the State. We print the 
 name of the Commissioner, Comity and District, and bind in books of one 
 hundred each, of any grade wanted. One Dollar jjer book, lodage. Fif- 
 teen Cents. 
 
 25. Complete Illustrated Catalogue of these and the rest of the 
 School Bulletin Publications. Mailed to any address on receipt of two three- 
 cent stamps. 
 
 Davis, Bardeen k Co., Publishers, Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
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