JAPAN REFERENCE 
 
 LIBRARY 
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U. S. Government 
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 A SAMURAI AND "WIFE OF FORMER TIMES. 
 
JAPAN 
 
 COUNTRY, COURT, AND PEOPLE 
 
 £1 
 
 J, C. CALHOUN NEWTON, M.A., D.D. 
 
 Fleming H. Revell Co., 
 New York, Chicago, Toronto. 
 
 JAPAN REFERENCE 
 LIBRARY 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
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 OOcu 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1900, 
 
 By the Book Agents of the M. E. Church, South, 
 
 Iij the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
TO 
 
 ALPHEUS WATERS WILSON, D.D., LL.D., 
 
 LEADER IN FOREIGN MISSIONS, 
 GREAT PREACHER, 
 
 AND 
 
 A BISHOP IN THE CHURCH OF GOD, 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED 
 
 WITH SENTIMENTS OF HIGH REGARD 
 BY THE AUTHOR. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The writer of this book has taken advantage of the oppor- 
 tunities afforded him, while resident in Japan as missionary 
 and engaged in educational work, to gather material for a 
 comprehensive view of the country, court, and people. The 
 enforced leisure of a couple of years has enabled him to put it 
 in shape and offer it as a contribution to a better understand- 
 ing of that far Eastern nation. The expedition of Commo- 
 dore Perry, which in 1854 opened the country to foreign 
 intercourse, awakened interest in the character, conditions, 
 and possible future of the people. This interest has been in- 
 tensified by the war with China and the entrance of Japan, 
 under the operation of new treaties, into the community of 
 civilized nations. It is impossible as yet to forecast the far- 
 reaching results of these events. They have already pro- 
 foundly affected the life of the nation, and, in the nature of 
 the case, must influence its political and commercial and even 
 its religious relations with the Western world. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that it is still substantially a 
 heathen nation. The court and the people adhere to the old 
 faiths, with their attendant superstitions and consequent deg- 
 radation of character and life. It is true that there are many 
 individual instances of emancipation from this bondage; and 
 it may even be said that there is a widespread, uneasy sense 
 of the inadequacy of the ancient beliefs and worship to satisfy 
 the requirements of the new and broader life of these later 
 years. It may be considered a period of transition. But it is 
 to be expected, it may be reckoned as certain, that strenuous 
 effort will be made to reconcile these larger relations Avith 
 the outside world and the higher forms of thinking and living 
 required by them with the terms of the old religions. The 
 old problems worked out in ancient civilizations to their in- 
 evitable issues in disaster and ruin are to be tried again un- 
 der new conditions. The result cannot be in doubt. Mean- 
 time it behooves us especially of this Western world to give 
 
 (ix) 
 
x jai-an: country, court, people. 
 
 close and careful Reed to the movements in this great national 
 drama, to get as true and thorough insight as possible into 
 the characters and conditions involved and to have ourselves 
 in readiness by all honorable and Christian means to aid in 
 the development of Japan and the establishment of its gov- 
 ernment and social life upon foundations of righteousness 
 and truth, the only foundations which can insure perpetuity. 
 The gospel has done much in this behalf, but far more re- 
 mains to be done. We need to put in living association 
 with these people the finest forms of Christian life and the 
 best products of Christian thought. The forces of Christian 
 zeal directed and controlled by knowledge are called for; and 
 both zeal and knowledge require a genuine, Christlike sym- 
 pathy. It is the purpose of this book to help in all these di- 
 rections. It is not intended to supplant the more elaborate 
 works which deal with the same material. It is designed to 
 bring all that is essential to a right understanding of the 
 country, court, and people of Japan in comparatively small 
 compass within reach of all who take interest in the future of 
 the race and establishment of the. kingdom of God. It is sent 
 forth with the earnest prayer that it may move many to more 
 active and personal participation in this vast work of the 
 Church of God. A. W. Wilson. 
 
 Baltimore, Md., November 29, 1899. 
 
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CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 The Country. page 
 
 I. Japan: Where Is It? 1 
 
 II. Japan: Its Physiography 5 
 
 III. The Flora 17 
 
 IV. The Fauna 25 
 
 V. Fish in Japanese Waters 33 
 
 VI. TheMinerals : 34 
 
 PART II 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Mythical and Prehistoric Period — From an Unknown 
 Beginning to 400 A.D. 
 
 I. Origin of the World, Gods, and Men 37 
 
 II. Racial Origins of the Japanese 41 
 
 III. Primitive Life of the People 42 
 
 IV. The Primitive Religion 47 
 
 V. Political Ideas and Manner of Rule 54 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 Civilization from the Continent Brought In. 
 I. Introduction of Buddhism and Confucianism 58 
 
 II. The Chinese Learning 69 
 
 HI. Influence of New Religion and Learning at Court ... 72 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Rise of Military Nobles with Their Clans — Overthrow 
 of the Court Nobles — War of White and Red Roses. 
 I. Foundations of Feudalism Laid 83 
 
 II. General Progress of Civilization in This Period 92 
 
 (xiii) 
 
xiv japan: country, court, people. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Shoguns in Power — Emperors Held Down — Civil Wars 
 of Military Lords (1192-1603). PAGIC 
 
 I. The Duarchy Explained 97 
 
 II. Yoritorno's Feudal System 98 
 
 III. Christianity Enters 104 
 
 IV. The Spread of Christianity in This Period 112 
 
 V. Hideyoshi the Great — Invasion of Korea — Opposition 
 
 to the Christians 114 
 
 VI. Progress of Civilization During This Period 122 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Feudalism Settled under the Tokugawa Shoguns — Yedo 
 
 the New Military Capital — The Last of 
 
 the Christians (1603-38). 
 
 I. Founding of the Tokugawa Dynasty 128 
 
 II. The Tokugawa Era Described 133 
 
 1. A Period of Peace : 133 
 
 2. An Era of Unification 133 
 
 3. Stained with Bloody Persecution of the Chris- 
 
 tians (Catholics) 135 
 
 IH. Following Portuguese Example, Spaniards, Dutch, 
 and English Seek Trade with Japan; Finally All 
 Are Excluded Except Dutch 142 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 A Hermit JJation — Civilization of This Period of 
 National Seclusion (1638-1854). 
 
 I. The People — Characteristics 153 
 
 II. Modes of Living and Working — Strange Ways 154 
 
 III. Ranks and Classes of Society 170 
 
 IV. Customs and Manners 177 
 
 V. Farming 205 
 
 1. Rice Growing 207 
 
 2. Tea Raising and Curing 210 
 
 3. Tobacco and the Japan ese Pipe 215 
 
 4. Silk Culture 216 
 
 VI. At a Japanese Inn in the Olden Time 222 
 
 VII. A Great Daimyo's Retinue in the Olden Time 225 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Religions of Japan in the Nineteenth Century. page 
 
 I. The Shinto Religion 239 
 
 II. The Buddhist Religion and Ceremonies 237 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Japanese Arts — A Sketch. 
 
 Introductory Remarks 247 
 
 I. Lacquer Work 255 
 
 II. Bronze Work and Sculpture 259 
 
 HI. Painting : . 264 
 
 IV. Pottery Wares 270 
 
 V. Landscape Gardening 278 
 
 PART III. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Japan in Modern History (1854-1900). 
 Preparations for the Great Change from Old to 
 
 New Japan 280 
 
 I. The Opening of the Country (1854) by Perry, the 
 
 American 281 
 
 II. Townsend Harris, Another American in Japan 292 
 
 III. Stormy Seas 304 
 
 IV. War of Revolution and Restoration (1868) 315 
 
 V. Christianity Again Comes In 322 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The New Japan. 
 
 I. Laying New Foundations — New State 333 
 
 II. Foundation Laying of the Christian Church (1873-89).. 357 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Later Developments (1889-99.) 
 
 The First Parliament (1893) 383 
 
 The War with China (1894) 385 
 
XVI JAPAN: COUNTKY, COURT, PEOPLE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Results of the War: Expansion of Foreign Trade — 
 Internal Improvements — Anti-Christian Feeling under 
 Form of Nationalism, Reenforeed by Scientific Skepti- 
 cism 389 
 
 New Treaties, July 17, 1899 398 
 
 Turning Again to the Truth 400 
 
 CHAPTER rV. 
 
 Intercourse and Friendship between the United States 
 and Japan. 
 
 Diplomatic and Commercial Relations 402 
 
 Early Educational Influences Chiefly American 405 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 The Future. 
 Will Become a Christian Nation — Creed not Sectarian — 
 Reform in the Orient — Her Future Intercourse and 
 Trade with the United States, and What This Should 
 Mean for Asia 414 
 
 Index 422 
 
JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 THE COUNTRY. 
 I. Japan : Where Is It? 
 
 Japan is an island empire. It has more than one 
 thousand islands, large and small. Looking at the map 
 of the Eastern Hemisphere, we see that these islands, in 
 the form of a crescent, lie in the North Pacific Ocean, 
 off the eastern shores of Asia. On the north it is sepa- 
 rated from Siberian Russia by the Okhotsk Sea; on the 
 west, from Korea by the Japan Sea, and from China 
 by the Yellow Sea; while on the south and east it. is 
 washed by the Pacific Ocean, which spreads its vast ex- 
 panse of waters to our American shores. 
 
 Looking across the map to the Western Hemisphere, 
 we notice a similarity of position between Great Britain 
 and " Great Nippon,"* with respect to Europe and Asia 
 respectively. Great Britain, lying in the North Atlan- 
 tic, fronts the coast of Europe; Japan, in the North 
 Pacific, fronts Asia. Both are island empires of small 
 size; both close to the continental mainland, but not 
 of it, and evidently intended to be the great gateways 
 
 *The Japanese name of their country, called by foreigners 
 Japan, is Dai Nippon, and means the "Great Nippon." 
 
2 japan: countby, coukt, people. 
 
 of commerce from the Atlantic into Europe, and from 
 the Pacific into Asia, respectively. 
 
 Without desiring to make too much of this point of 
 geographical situation, Japan's place on the map of the 
 world is greatly to her advantage in the ever- increasing 
 trade and travel between America and the far East. 
 
 No other country is so long and narrow as Japan. 
 Stretching like a sea serpent from the Kurile chain of 
 islands in the northeast (see map) to the end of Formo- 
 sa, south of the Yellow Sea and near Southern China, 
 the distance is about two thousand five hundred miles; 
 "but the average width is only one hundred miles. The 
 whole area, Formosa and the Riukius included, is about 
 one hundred and sixty thousand square miles, being 
 equal to New York, Pennsylvania, and the two Vir- 
 ginias. The Riukius, once under the authority of Chi- 
 na, passed many years ago under Japan's dominion; 
 and Formosa, likewise, was ceded to her at the close of 
 the recent Japan-China war. 
 
 Again glancing along the map from the Aleutian 
 Group, possessions of the United States in the North 
 Pacific, the eye passes right along the whole length of 
 the Japanese sea serpent down to far Formosa, north 
 of the Philippines; so that both on the northeastern and 
 the southwestern ends of her island dominions Japan 
 almost touches American possessions. A further look at 
 the geography, and we see that the long, slender archi- 
 pelago which we name Japan is really only one section 
 of a series of island groups that stretch from the Malay 
 Peninsula, south of India, to Bering Sea. Japan, 
 then, is a portion of the immensely long ladder laid 
 down by the Almighty upon the ocean and connecting 
 Southern India with northern North America. Each 
 island is a round in the gigantic ladder, the like of 
 
JAPAN: WHERE IS IT? 3 
 
 which is not found elsewhere in the world's geogrr.phy. 
 When the writer first went to Japan, the time by ship 
 from San Francisco was twenty days. It is now re- 
 duced to fifteen; and from Vancouver, B. C, it is only 
 thirteen. When the Nicaragua Canal shall have been 
 cut through, the distance between our Atlantic Gulf 
 Coast and Japan will be shortened. The time from 
 New York via Nicaragua will then be the same as that 
 from Liverpool via the Suez Canal. 
 
 SCENE ON THE INLAND SEA. 
 
 There are in the Japan Archipelago four principal 
 islands, whose names and position it is important to 
 remember: Honshiu, the main island, and lying in the 
 center; Yezo (Hokkaido), northeast of Honshiu; Shi- 
 koku, south, and Kiushiu, southwest, respectively, of 
 the outstretched foot of Honshiu. The last two named 
 are separated from Honshiu by the Inland Sea, far famed 
 for its picturesque beauty. This sea is about six hun- 
 dred miles long from east to west. 
 
'■?:'. . :' 
 
JAPAN: ITS PHYSIOGRAPHY. 5 
 
 In American history we locate on the map the early 
 colonies, as Massachusetts, Virginia, and the Carolinas, 
 and we are glad to offer to our readers here a map of 
 Japan. By the aid of the map we not only locate the 
 four principal islands just named, but also the Riu- 
 kius and Formosa. We note, too, how Japan almost 
 touches Russia in the north, and that Korea, a penin- 
 sula of the continent, is just next door to Japan's west 
 coast. These geographical facts all have meaning that 
 will appear later. 
 
 The chief cities are Tokyo, formerly Yedo, the pres- 
 ent capital, with a population of 1,250,000; Kioto, the 
 old capital, three hundred and twenty-nine miles south- 
 west, with a population of 280,000; Osaka, forty-seven 
 miles farther southwest, with a population of 500,000, 
 and in domestic trade and manufactures the chief city 
 of the empire; besides many others not named here, 
 varying in population from 200,000 down to 25,000 
 people. Then there are the five treaty ports: Yokoha- 
 ma, on Tokyo Bay, and the port of the capital for for- 
 eign commerce; Hakodate, on the Yezo side of the 
 Tsuruga Channel; Niigata, on the west coast, a small 
 place; Kobe, near the eastern mouth of the Inland Sea, 
 next to Yokohama the largest port for foreign ships and 
 trade; and Nagasaki, on the western end of Kiushiu. 
 Nagasaki is the nearest port to Shanghai, Hongkong, 
 and Korea. 
 
 Besides the Inland Sea, there is another inland body 
 of water, Lake Biwa, eight miles from Kioto, and fa- 
 mous in Japanese legend, literature, and war. 
 
 II. Japan: Its Physiography. 
 
 It is a land of mountains. The general direction of 
 the mountain chains is southwest and northeast, with 
 
(6) 
 
japan: its physiography. Y 
 
 short ranges and spurs thrown off abruptly on either 
 side of the long backbone. The mountains gradually 
 increase in height as one comes from Yezo in the north, 
 or Kiushiu in the south, toward the center of the main is- 
 land, where Mount Fuji, the sacred mountain of the peo- 
 ple, and a few other peaks are truly Alpine. The moun- 
 tains are not so lofty nor so majestic as the great Rockies, 
 nor are they equal to the mountains of Western North 
 Carolina along the French Broad, and yet there is an 
 indescribable charm about the mountain scenery of Ja- 
 pan that must be seen to be appreciated. Unlike the 
 Blue Ridge, the mountains are broken up more fre- 
 quently into single peaks, making many deep gorges 
 and narrow valleys. One is almost always in sight of 
 mountain and sea. As the mountains rise near the sea- 
 shore, the plains are not wide, though the plain of 
 Kwanto and one or two others are exceptions. Kwan- 
 to (formerly designated Eastern Japan) includes several 
 provinces. Tokyo is in this plain. 
 
 Japan has been called the Switzerland of Asia; and 
 while her mountains may not be so majestic, yet, with 
 her seas, bays, and capes, and hundreds of islets sown 
 on every hand, she is much more than Switzerland; for 
 she combines the scenery of the seashore, the island, and 
 the mountain in many striking and picturesque ways. 
 Her coast lines are much indented, giving unexpected 
 turns to the contour of the land and sea lines. 
 
 Her coast ranges and island summits, even when al- 
 most bare of forest, are clothed with peculiar beauty and 
 freshness under the ever-varying tint of sunshine, sky, 
 and water, and seem a picture larger drawn than any 
 human artist can paint. 
 
 "The landscape of modern Japan is one of minute 
 prettiness. It is one continuous succession of mountains 
 
8 JAPAN: COUNTKY, COUKT, PEOPLE. 
 
 and valleys. The irregularities of the surface render it 
 picturesque, and the labors of centuries have brought 
 almost every inch of the cultivable soil in the populous 
 districts into a state of high agricultural finish. 
 The face of nature has been smoothed; the unkempt 
 luxuriance of forest and undergrowth has been so- 
 bered." (Griffis's "Mikado's Empire," p. 90.) 
 
 The rivers are all short and rapid, no stream being 
 navigable for five hundred miles. This lack of long 
 and navigable streams would be a calamity but for the 
 numerous inlets and windings of the seacoast — bays, 
 capes, peninsulas, promontories affording good harbors 
 for all kinds of shipping, from the little fishing boats to 
 be counted by the hundreds, to the great ocean steamers 
 that sail from San Francisco to Kobe and Shanghai. 
 Japan is evidently marked out for a great home trade as 
 well as foreign trade. The fact that only one-eighth 
 of the area is tillable proves what was said above: that 
 it is a country of steep mountains and narrow plains. 
 
 No one living in the country for a while needs to 
 be told that it is a land of volcanoes and earthquakes. 
 There are hundreds of extinct volcanoes, and eight- 
 een are now active. In fact, Japan is a slender vol- 
 canic rim of land, the volcanoes being huge funnels 
 turned upside down, the craters being the vents whence 
 at any time may burst forth the pent-up fires below. 
 At intervals during the centuries streams of lava have 
 flamed out from those gigantic funnels, flowing down 
 the heights and into the neighboring valleys, while great 
 volumes of steam were driving clouds of ashes upward 
 or shooting masses of hot stone high into the air, ob- 
 scuring the sun by day or the moon by night and darken- 
 ing the heavens, or else ever and anon lighting them with 
 billowy flames of awful portent. Sometimes the ashes 
 
JAPAN: ITS PHYSIOGRAPHY. 9 
 
 and stones are seized by the winds and driven to a great 
 distance. No one can tell when a volcano is going to 
 hurst forth or an earthquake make the earth to tremble. 
 Whether entirely dead apparently, or whether at the 
 bottom of the crater the water is scarcely boiling, and 
 sulphurous fumes slowly rising, in either case there may 
 be a sudden breaking forth of fiery forces that will 
 spread death all around and strike terror to the hearts 
 of the few men or beasts who may have escaped with 
 their lives. One thing we know: there is some kind of 
 connection between the earthquakes and the volcanoes. 
 That is, when there has been a period of frequent earth- 
 quakes, if the fires locked up under the ground can find 
 vent through some volcanic eruption, then the earth- 
 quakes cease. When the writer resided in Tokyo, ten 
 years ago, there was a period of unusual earthquake 
 activity by day and by night. Before breakfast and be- 
 tween meals, and in the night we were often suddenly 
 aroused by the shaking of the bed and other disturb- 
 ances of the house; but suddenly they ceased. The rea- 
 son, as we learned, was that a volcano had broken forth 
 in that region of Japan. 
 
 Fuji Yama (yama, "mountain"), rising majestically 
 from the plain of Quanto, sixty miles south of Tokyo, is 
 over twelve thousand feet high. This snow-headed giant, 
 like a proud monarch unconquered, lifting its head far 
 above all the surrounding plain and away up into the 
 clouds, and looking so solid, massive, and restful, has 
 more than once been the scene of terrible fires and smoke 
 bursting out from its hidden depths. The last eruption 
 occurred in 1707. We are told how at that time the 
 floating clouds of ashes turned day into night, how the 
 red-hot stones flew hissing through the air, and of fields, 
 temples, and villages that were covered with debris. 
 
(10) 
 
JAPAN: ITS PHYSIOGRAPHY. 11 
 
 Mount Fuji is visible from Tokyo, and is truly mag- 
 nificent, looming up across the distant spaces in solitary 
 grandeur. From the decks of ships entering the Bay of 
 Tokyo, or sailing southward along the coast from Yo- 
 kohama to Kobe, passengers are always eager to get a 
 glimpse of the celebrated mountain. If the sky is clear, 
 no one is disappointed. To the Japanese it is a sacred 
 mount, and hundreds of pious pilgrims visit yearly the 
 temple built upon it, thinking it the privilege of a life- 
 time to worship the rising sun from that sacred place so 
 high above the sordid world beneath. Standing guard 
 over all the provinces of the Kwanto plain, and covered 
 with perpetual snow, it has been the frequent subject of 
 poems and romances, and draws to itself the admiration 
 of the whole nation. It is the embodiment of their idea 
 of grace, simplicity, peace, and grandeur, as the follow- 
 ing lines show: 
 
 There on the border, where land of Kahi 
 
 Doth touch the frontier of Suruga's land, 
 
 A beauteous province stretching on either hand; 
 
 The clouds of heaven in reverent wonder pause, 
 
 Nor may the birds those giddy heights essay, 
 
 Or thy fierce fires be quenched beneath the snow; 
 
 What name might fitly tell, what accents sing, 
 
 Thine awful, godlike grandeur? 
 
 'Tis thy breast 
 
 That holdeth Narusha's flood at rest, 
 
 Thy side, whence Tusikawa's waters spring; 
 
 Great Fujiyama, towering to mortal men, 
 
 A god — protector watching o'er all Japan, 
 
 On thee forever let me feast mine eyes. 
 
 ("Manyoshu," translated by Prof. Chamberlain.) 
 
 The south side of Mt. Fuji slopes right down to the 
 sea, and is not accessible. The circumference of the 
 base is sixty-five miles, and scattered around it are 
 
12 JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE. 
 
 five lakes. Toward the summit there is a series 
 of crests till you reach the highest one, which is an 
 enormous rim surrounding the crater. Being an extinct 
 volcano, there is inside the crater a level space of about 
 two and one-half square miles, with a sink in the center, 
 from the bottom of which slowly escapes green vapor or 
 steam. According to legend, Fuji rose up in a single 
 night, while according to the same legend, Lake Biwa, 
 near Kioto, was formed the same night by a great sink- 
 ing of the ground. Probably false, it is to them a beau- 
 tiful legend that their grandest mountain and most 
 beautiful lake were both born in a night. Fujiyama, 
 once seen, is never forgotten. The impression always 
 made upon the writer whenever he has gazed upon it is 
 that of calm majesty. Surrounded by the struggling 
 world, in sight of the foaming, beating waves of the 
 sea, Mount Fuji seems ever peaceful, strong, sublime. 
 
 The earthquake is sometimes only less awful and de- 
 structive than the volcanic eruption. ' ' They are events, " 
 says Rein, "against which man can in no way pre- 
 pare himself. They are of all grades as to movement 
 and force, from the slight tremor scarcely perceived by 
 a busy person to the violent shock that shatters rocks, 
 upheaves the earth or suddenly sinks the ground, and 
 lays villages and towns in ruins." According to a myth- 
 ical story believed in by the lower classes, there is in 
 the great deep a giant fish which in its anger strikes 
 against the coast, making the land to tremble. Accord- 
 ing to another belief, a great monster is under Japan, 
 whose gyrations shake the land. 
 
 The story of the earthquakes and the havoc wrought by 
 them from 685 A.D. to the last one in 1892 is a terrible 
 chapter. The traditions teem with them. In 1703 an 
 earthquake, followed by a great fire, destroyed nearly 
 
japan: its physiography. 13 
 
 all of Tedo (Tokyo); and in 1830 Kioto was visited by 
 an earthquake that roared like thunder, overturning 
 most of the houses and killing thousands of people. 
 Again, in 1855, Yedo was destroyed by earthquakes, the 
 horrors of which still live in the minds of the oldest 
 people. It is said that over one hundred thousand 
 people perished and the city was turned into ruins. 
 
 The last destructive earthquake, in 1892, was in the 
 region of Grifu, Osaka, and other cities on the Imperial 
 railway from Tokyo to Kobe. This earthquake caused 
 all sorts of strange and terrible things, rumbling noises 
 underground, openings in the earth, upheavals in one 
 place and sinkings in another, breaking of river embank- 
 ments, twisting of railroad bridges, the scattering of sand 
 and mud over the rice fields, the overturning of houses, 
 followed by a fire that consumed them, many people being 
 caught by falling timbers. Houses demolished, 62,091; 
 people killed or wounded, 9,330. A fire usually follows 
 such violent earthquakes, for the reason that when the 
 house is overturned the fire box, or brasier, nearly always 
 ignites the light, combustible material inside Japanese 
 dwellings. The result is that many who are caught or 
 stunned by the falling debris are burned to death. 
 
 The writer remembers distinctly the earthquake just 
 mentioned. It extended south as far as Kobe, but with 
 less violence. It was in the early morning, and he was 
 saying his prayers. Having experienced many such a 
 few years before in Tokyo, he was at first not inclined 
 to be disturbed, but in an instant the shaking became too 
 violent for edifying devotions — a rush was made into the 
 open. The teees were shaking and the ground was un- 
 dulating like a field of waving wheat under the blowing 
 of the wind. It was a frightful time, but was soon over. 
 
 Japan is also subject to inundations. In 1895 the 
 
14 japan: countky, court, people. 
 
 coast northward of Sendai was visited by an awful flood- 
 ing from the sea that swept away scores of fishermen's 
 villages and destroyed about thirty thousand people ! Off 
 that coast, under the sea, was a mighty upheaval that 
 threw the waves mountain high upon the land with force 
 strong enough to sweep away every village. Repeated 
 two or three times, as the tidal waves receded they car- 
 ried out into the sea people and houses. It is a fact not 
 generally known in this country that the violent earth- 
 quakes and upheavals send a tremor half around the 
 globe, and that Prof. Millne's earthquake instruments 
 in England registered a slight movement. This shows 
 that the whole earth is connected inside by electric or 
 other equally mysterious currents. These awful nat- 
 ural evils, as earthquakes, volcanoes, and inundations, 
 like many other things that afflict ?nd destroy t\sn, are 
 hard to be understood. 
 
 The hot springs of Japan are unrivaled by thos of any 
 other] country. They are distributed in every section 
 from north to south, the sulphur springs being more nu- 
 merous in the districts of volcanoes. Some of them are 
 very hot, and in a few of them there is a hissing sound 
 and sulphur vapors, reminders of once-active volcanoes. 
 In some instances there are cracks in the earth from 
 which issue hot fumes where Japanese invalids sit for 
 hours, hoping for cures. To the superstitious these 
 openings in the earth are connected with the ' ' bad place " 
 down below and are so named; for example, atBeppu, 
 in Kiushiu, one is named o-jigohc (" great hell "); anoth- 
 er, Jco-jigoku (" little hell "). The most frequented are at 
 Arima, in the mountains back of Kobe. Thither many 
 invalids flock every season, either to drink the cold 
 mineral waters or bathe in the hot, and both are good 
 for divers ailments. 
 
japan: its physiogeaphy. 15 
 
 The climate of Japan, as in every other country, is an 
 important factor in the life of its people. It affects 
 vegetation more than any other one thing. As compared 
 with the United States, the atmosphere is very damp, a 
 result due to the existence of so many islands immediate- 
 ly surrounded by seas. In consequence the summer 
 heat is sultry, oppressive; the winter cold is raw and 
 pierces into the bones. Thus the extremes of heat and 
 cold, though not so marked by the thermometer, are 
 keenly felt by the body. There is a lack of thunder 
 and thunderstorms, due, it is said, to the lack of elec- 
 tricity in the atmosphere. Whether this be true or not, 
 there is a lack of something which the student is accus- 
 tomed to in America, and which he finds needful to sus- 
 tain his nervous energies in hard study. Not only do 
 foreigners, but Japanese students as well, have much 
 trouble from the " sick head." 
 
 There are also wide extremes of climate between sec- 
 tions not two hundred and fifty miles apart. For in- 
 stance, the southern coasts are almost tropical, while 
 the northwest coast is in winter piled with snow ten to 
 twelve feet deep. The northwest coast is swept by 
 currents from the Okhotsk Sea and by winds from Siberia 
 (messengers of the frigid zone), chilling the moisture 
 into snow; whereas the south and southeast coasts are 
 warmed by the Black Current (Kuroshio), that rises in 
 the hot, equatorial regions. This warm current, so 
 similar to the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic both as to 
 its origin and characteristics, flows northward by the 
 island of Formosa, strikes the southern shores of Kiu- 
 shiu, where its main stream bends eastward, flows along 
 the eastern coast of Japan till it turns again in a more 
 easterly direction, passing along south of the Aleutian 
 Islands and on toward the coasts of North America. 
 
16 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 The Black Current is so named "because in the sunshine 
 its waters are blue, which the Japanese sailors do not 
 distinguish from black. Its temperature, speed, and 
 volume all decrease as it flows northward. Origina- 
 ting, like our Gulf Stream, in .equatorial regions, and 
 taking direction from the earth's turning on its axis 
 and certain projecting coasts, influenced, too, by the 
 monsoons, this warm, black current is worth millions 
 to Japan, just as the Gulf Stream is to England. It 
 helps to make a semitropical climate and productions 
 along the southeast coast. 
 
 Winds also have much to do with climate. The 
 northeast winds from Siberia and the northeastern 
 from the Kuriles are freighted with cold, whereas the 
 south and southeastern winds are heat bringers. There 
 is a wind, called the typhoon, dreaded of all sailors. It 
 originates somewhere in the region of the Philippines 
 (see map), and prevails in August and September. It 
 has a circular movement around a moving center, and if 
 a ship is caught too near that center, woe is unto it. 
 At Kobe, where it is less severe, the writer has known 
 it to blow at intervals for several days in one direction. 
 Occasionally whole fleets of fishing boats are wrecked 
 in these cyclones of the sea, and great ocean steamers 
 do not always escape unhurt. 
 
 The one delightful season in Japan is the autumn, 
 say from September 15 to December 15. During this 
 period the weather is simply unsurpassed. It would 
 be difficult to imagine how it could in any way be im- 
 proved. The sky is usually perfectly clear, atmosphere 
 bracing; and the glorious sunshine, reflected from the 
 sea, or touching the neighboring mountains with em- 
 pyreal splendor, baptizes the whole landscape with a 
 wealth of varying tints and shadows of yellow brown 
 
THE FLORA. 17 
 
 grass, reddened leaf, overarching sky, and changing 
 tides. The scene is varied yet again by temple groves 
 of pines, clumps of waving bamboo, and evergreen ca- 
 mellias and palms that dot the landscape. 
 
 Dust storms do not generally prevail in Japan as in 
 China and West Texas, but in Tokyo there is much 
 wind and dust. The rainy season varies in different 
 parts. In Central and Southern Japan it begins in 
 June, continuing for forty or fifty days. It is the 
 summer rains that make the vegetation so luxuriant. 
 It is the frequent change from shower to sunshine in 
 the same day that produces the steamy weather so 
 disagreeable, that injures books, and makes shoes and 
 even clothing to mold overnight. 
 
 III. The Flora. 
 
 In the wealth and variety of the vegetable kingdom 
 this island empire offers an interesting field to those who 
 study botany. More than two hundred and fifty years 
 ago the Dutch surgeons and physicians stationed at the 
 Dutch trading post at Nagasaki used to write about the 
 plants of Japan, and thus they became known to the 
 scientific circles of Europe. Of course those Dutch- 
 men wrote in Latin. The Japanese, too, both by their 
 genuine love of nature and by reason of the Chinese 
 system of medicine so long in vogue, were led to give 
 close attention to plants and flowers. 
 
 What impresses the traveler in Japan is the freshness 
 of the landscape, and this in spite of the scarcity of 
 forests. It is the predominance of pines, firs, crypto- 
 merias, and cedars that gives to the thinly scattered 
 forests at the foot and up the sides of the hills and 
 mountains their fresh aspect. Besides, there are so 
 many smaller evergreens. From Tokyo southward 
 2 
 
18 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 these evergreens are to be seen: the bamboo in groves; 
 the orange orchards, the commonest sight; the tea bushes 
 with dark green leaves and white blossoms with yellow 
 center; camellias with dark glossy leaves and red, 
 white, and variegated blossoms; the palm with straight 
 shaft and tufted crown, besides others not mentioned here. 
 
 The most common trees are the pine, cedar, maple, 
 oak (two kinds), mulberry, persimmon, and willow* 
 The following are also common in Japan, but rarely 
 found in the United States: Cryptomeria; red-leaved 
 maple, keyaki, a hard wood of fine quality; kiri, used 
 for making wooden sandals; hinoki, a kind of cross be- 
 tween a pine and a poplar; lacquer tree, a species of su- 
 mach; camphor and tallow trees; eucalyptus tree, an 
 evergreen that furnishes an aromatic sap, said to be an- 
 timalarial, leaves bluish green; the bamboo, which is 
 more properly a cane; and, finally, the wistaria, a 
 heavy vine. 
 
 Nearly all of their domesticated plants were brought 
 from Korea, China, or India, such as rice, tea, and 
 mulberry (silk), the three staple products; the five ce- 
 reals, wheat, barley, beans, millet, and sorghum; the 
 vegetables, as daikon, eggplant, turnips, onions, toma- 
 toes, and potatoes (sweet). The fruit trees are not so 
 numerous as with us, though by importation from 
 America and Europe they have been increased since the 
 opening of the country, thirty years ago. 
 
 The orange and the persimmon deserve mention. The 
 orange is smaller than that of California, is grown in 
 great abundance, and is better adapted to table use on 
 account of its lobed meat, and thin, loos - ', skin. The 
 persimmon, uiilike the American prodi Jt — the old 
 field and opossum variety — is large and luscious, and 
 has been developed by culture into several distinct va- 
 
THE FLOEA. 19 
 
 rieties. Besides being highly prized by foreigners for 
 table fruit, the Japanese dry and pack them somewhat 
 after the manner of treating figs. Many of the or- 
 anges, as well as the persimmons, are seedless. Ap- 
 ples, peaches, grapes, apricots, and strawberries have 
 been introduced into the country, but, excepting the 
 grape, are not used much. The fruits just named, ex- 
 cept the grape, gradually lose some of their fine flavor 
 when grown in China and Japan. This is due perhaps 
 to the excessive moisture. 
 
 Meadow grasses, strange to say, are almost unknown 
 — strange indeed, when Japan clover is the name of a 
 grass that has been introduced into our own Southland 
 since the late civil war. And yet it is not strange when 
 one recalls the fact that, excepting fish, the Japanese, 
 under the influence of Buddhism, quit eating flesh cen- 
 turies ago, and the further fact that tillable ground is 
 too scarce in that coxmtry to allow meadows and cattle 
 grazing. The island of Yezo will probably become a 
 grass and cattle growing section. Apples too have been 
 introduced there from America and grown with some 
 success. 
 
 The wild flowers are abundant and of brilliantly va- 
 ried colors. The ferns too are numerous and of every 
 size and variety. The morning-glory has, it is said, one 
 hundred and twenty varieties. To the wild flowers add 
 a class of flowering shrubs which in America we culti- 
 vate, but which grow also wild in Japan — namely, azalias, 
 camellias, peonies, hydrangeas, irises, and chrysanthe- 
 mums. Among the cultivated flowers the chrysanthe- 
 mum is first. It is the national flower of Japan, the 
 imperial crest being the golden chrysanthemum with 
 sixteen petals. It has been carried to the highest de- 
 gree of perfection. 
 
20 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Quoting from Prof. Chamberlain's description of 
 chrysanthemum gardens in Tokyo ("Things Japanese," 
 p. 119) : " The mere variety is amazing. There is not only 
 every color, but every shape. Some of the blossoms 
 are immense. Some are like large snowballs, the petals 
 all smooth and turned in, one on the top of another. 
 Others resemble the tousled head of a Scotch terrier. 
 Some have long filaments stretched out like starfish, 
 and some, to counterbalance the giants, have tiny petals, 
 as if they were drooping hairs. The strangest thing of 
 all is the sight of five or six kinds, of various colors and 
 sizes, growing together on the same plant. Last No- 
 vember there were several plants with over three hun- 
 dred blossoms; one had four hundred and seventeen. 
 In other plants the triumph was just the opposite. The 
 whole energies of the plant are concentrated in pro- 
 ducing a single blossom. But what a blossom! One 
 tawny, disheveled monster of a chrysanthemum is 
 called ' Sleepy Head. ' Each variety has a quaint name. 
 One is the 'Fisher's Lantern,' a dark" russet; or the 
 ' Robe of Feathers,' a richly clustering pink and white; 
 or, loveliest of all, the 'Starlit Night,' a delicately 
 fretted creature like Iceland moss covered with frost." 
 
 The pluKi and cherry are cultivated for their fiowers. 
 The cherry atones for its unfaithfulness in not bearing 
 fruit by affording admiration to the festal crowds who 
 go forth to see its heavy banks of double blossoms. 
 
 Plum orchards are also much cultivated and admired 
 for the red, pink, and white blossoms. The red-leaved 
 maple is likewise planted in groups or rows, and much 
 admired for its " scarlet foliage." 
 
 Beside the flowering plants that grow on land there are 
 many beautiful water lilies; and there is the far-famed 
 lotus, with its round, large leaf lying for many days 
 
THE FLORA. 21 
 
 flat upon the bosom of the water, and its cuplike flower 
 perched upon the tall, graceful stem. The lotus is sa- 
 cred to Buddha, and is much prized in art as well. 
 
 The flowers are being increased by importing new ones 
 from America and Europe, such as roses and geraniums. 
 Japanese flowers have little fragrance, but it is a mis- 
 take to say they have none. 
 
 It is a remarkable fact that the vegetable kingdom of 
 Japan possesses not only a greater number of species 
 than any other known region of equal area — say three 
 thousand — but also a greater number and difference of 
 genera. Nor is this all, for while there are many spe- 
 cies found also in China, the Himalayas, and tropical In- 
 dia, it is both surprising and interesting that the whole 
 vegetable kingdom of Japan is strikingly similar to that 
 of the Appalachian system of the United States and the 
 plains of Canada. The flora of Japan is like that of the 
 Atlantic region of North America rather than the Pa- 
 cific. This is very strange. 
 
 Prof. Gray, the famous American botanist, says: "No 
 part of the world, beyond his own country, offers, as to 
 its vegetation, a greater interest to the botanist of the 
 United States than Japan, for there are very remarkable 
 relations which subsist between the flora of Japan and 
 that of the United States. 
 
 Before quitting the flora, so remarkably developed in 
 the Japanese Archipelago, a few words must be said 
 about the fine cryptomerias, a species of cedar, the 
 beautiful bamboo groves, and the wistarias. The cryp- 
 tomerias are often seen in temple and other groves. 
 Like the pine, they frequently grow one hundred feet 
 high and twelve feet in circumference. There is a 
 magnificent grove near the Shiba temples in Tokyo. 
 There is a proverb which says, "No one can say JcekJco, 
 
22 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 ' beautiful, ' till he has seen Nikko." The writer, having 
 never seen Nikko, can only repeat what others say who 
 have. Nikko is eighty miles north of Tokyo. 
 
 The tomb of the great Iyeyasu, founder of the Toku- 
 gawa dynasty, is there; and all that nature and art could 
 do has made it the most famous place in Japan as re- 
 gards scenery. The neighborhood around is marked 
 by very luxuriant and varied vegetation. The court 
 of the temple-tomb is adorned with a sacred grove of 
 cryptomerias of great height and size. The road lead- 
 ing to this temple is lined on either side for a distance 
 of twenty-five miles with those fine trees, which become 
 more stately as you approach the great Shogun's tomb, 
 and, according to Rein, "is an incomparably beautiful 
 and magnificent avenue." 
 
 The bamboo cane came originally from India, and is 
 now found in Japan in several species. One small 
 kind that grows to a finger's thickness is prized for 
 the thick hedges made of it. Another kind when 
 young has spots, and when old turns almost black, 
 and is highly prized for walking sticks, whistles, 
 etc., and is sent to other countries. But the large or 
 male bamboo is a tree in height, if not in thickness. 
 It is mosff valuable. In rich, damp soil at the foot or 
 on the side of hills it grows to a height of seventy-five 
 or one hundred feet, with a diameter of from three to 
 six inches. Of course, like all the cane family, it is 
 hollow, jointed, has a shaft perfectly straight, and no 
 branches except toward the top. It splits easily into 
 lengths of fifty feet, and as thin as you wish to have 
 them, and besides it is hard, durable, and elastic. It 
 combines more desirable qualities than any other wood 
 growth known to man. 
 
 Its rapid growth is a wonder. The shoots, appearing 
 

 (23) 
 
24 JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE. 
 
 just above ground in a night, within a week in good 
 soil reach a height of twenty to thirty feet. The 
 shoots when tender and boiled well are much enjoyed 
 as a spring vegetable. Growing in clumps, the shafts 
 straight as an arrow, the tiny branches at the top bear 
 lanceolate leaves, so that in the distance the foliage 
 has a floating, feathery appearance. As the whole 
 grove bends and waves to the winds, the feathery foli- 
 age of each tree touching and blending with the rest, it 
 graces the landscape with a charm unlike anything seen 
 in our country. Seeing that it would be almost im- 
 possible for the Japanese to live without the bam- 
 boo, some one has called the civilization of that in- 
 teresting country the "bamboo civilization." For as 
 to them no other food is so important as rice, so no 
 other wood growth is as needful as the bamboo. 
 
 The uses of the bamboo are so many and so varied it is 
 impossible to name them all. We mention the follow- 
 ing: for food, walking sticks, whistles, flutes, handles 
 of writing, painting, tooth, and dusting brushes, ladder 
 beams, rafters, laths, palings, posts, stakes,' poles, 
 props, scaffolding, rudder posts, masts, flagstaff s, fish- 
 ing rods, yardsticks, rules, shoulder sticks for peddlers 
 and water carriers, breastplate of armor, spears, fen- 
 cing swords, roof and eave gutters, water pipes, pumps, 
 pails, dippers, spittoons, pencil holders, flower vases, 
 chopsticks, ladles, hats, cages, sieves, chairs, litters, 
 bedsteads, tables, stands, bric-a-brac, mats, covers, sails, 
 picture frames, screens, fans, baskets of all kinds, boxes, 
 lattices, hedges, fences, rice bag probes, money holders, 
 napkin rings, curtain rings and poles, palanquins, and 
 pipe stems. The praises of the bamboo are often sung 
 by Japanese and Chinese poets, and it is a favorite sub- 
 ject with their artists on screens and wall kakemonoes. 
 
THE FAUNA. 25 
 
 The wistaria, introduced from China, is an old and sa- 
 cred ornamental vine. In some places it grows to a 
 great size, is long-lived, and runs to an almost incredi- 
 ble length. The flowers begin to appear in June, and 
 when full grown hang in dense, fragrant clusters of 
 purple, purplish white, and pure white, and sometimes 
 reach a length of two to three feet. 
 
 Among all the famous flower-viewing resorts of 
 Japan, none enjoys a greater popularity than the tem- 
 ple garden of Kameido, in the suburbs of Tokyo, with 
 its celebrated wistaria blossoms. Running to a great 
 length, this flowering vine is particularly adapted to 
 all kinds of trellises, arbors, courts, and passage ways. 
 Trained on horizontal arbors, the long pendent clus- 
 ters give to the overhead a striking appearance; like- 
 wise on the sides of bowers they make beautiful fes- 
 toons, especially upon overarching entrances. The 
 Japanese are too appreciative of the beautiful not to 
 prize the wistaria among many other ornamental plants. 
 
 IV. The Fauna. 
 
 The domestic animals are few. Sheep, hogs, mules, 
 goats, and asses are rarely seen. Horses are few and 
 are unsightly, small, vicious, and awkward in move- 
 ment, but very hardy. The cows are of the East In- 
 dies breed, black and small-sized, but well formed. 
 Like all Buddhist countries, meat eating is not encour- 
 aged; cattle raising in Japan is far behind agriculture. 
 Cows are not therefore generally raised for beef, milk, 
 and butter, but for plowing, drawing the two-wheeled 
 cart, or for pack saddle purposes. It is no uncommon 
 thing, at least in the region of Kobe, to see a line of 
 cows or bullocks, each with bags of rice upon the back, 
 slowly moving along the highway to town, the rice mill, 
 
 JAPAN REFERENCE 
 LIBRARY 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
26 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 or the rice brewery; or hitched to the carts going to 
 the same places. For all these uses the cow is very 
 slow, but trusty. Only occasionally when suddenly 
 meeting a foreigner at the turn of the road are the 
 cows at all inclined to stampede.* Horses too, with 
 pack saddles, may be seen bearing a load of wood, 
 boards, rice bags, or even a couple of long bamboo 
 poles. The absence of wagons, carriages, buggies, and 
 fine horses is very noticeable in Japan. The foreigner 
 misses these sights so familiar in his own country. In 
 a district back of the city of Kobe cattle raising has 
 been recently undertaken, and Kobe beef is becoming 
 noted in all the treaty ports. The Japanese in and 
 around these ports are learning to eat beef, and butter 
 too, which at the first has for them a very disagreeable 
 smell. 
 
 As for Japanese dogs, there are two kinds: the little 
 woolly pet, and the street dog with its foxlike head — a 
 cowardly beast. Cats are common, some with tails and 
 some contrariwise. 
 
 As for rats, there is no country that sports larger 
 specimens. It is a mistake to say that the Japanese, like 
 the Chinese, eat rats. There is a white variety of mice 
 which is a^reat pet with certain women. 
 
 The most common wild animals are the fox, monkey, 
 wild boar, deer, and bear. The fox, if not king among 
 beasts, is treated so by the people. To him is ascribed 
 the fearful power of bewitching people, cursing them 
 with madness, and causing the traveler to miss the 
 right road and wander on to destruction. He is natu- 
 rally dreaded; and when, as he often does, he prowls 
 
 * Most of the animals in Japan are at first a little skittish 
 of a foreigner, especially the dogs. 
 
THE FAUNA. 27 
 
 into the yard at night, and sets up his shrill, unearthly 
 howling, it makes the suddenly awakened Japanese feel 
 afraid. From experience the writer thinks that under 
 such circumstances it is enough to make anybody's hair 
 stand on end when thus suddenly aroused in the dead 
 hours of night. 
 
 As the messenger of the rice god (Inari Sama), the 
 fox is elevated to the rank of divinity. In many temple 
 courts in all parts of the country fox shi'ines may he 
 seen even to-day, in which are perched little white fox 
 images, objects of worship by the ignorant. For this 
 reason the Japanese are afraid to kill the fox. 
 
 Monkeys live in temple forests, as well as in the 
 mountains, and in some sections the name has been 
 attached to streams, mountains, and moors — e. g., saru- 
 ishi-kawa means "ape-stone-river." Monkey meat was 
 a few years ago exposed for sale in the markets of 
 Tokyo, but how it tastes the writer knows not. In the 
 language of the country, the monkey's cunning is used 
 to characterize men who have certain monkey qualities. 
 
 The flesh of the wild boar is also on sale in many of 
 the interior towns. In the old feudal times the Samu- 
 rai with bow and arrow had good sport in hunting him 
 in the hills. 
 
 Black bears with a white spot on the throat are hunt- 
 ed in the mountains for their flesh and skin, but are not 
 numerous. The brown bear of Yezo Island corresponds 
 to the grizzly in North America. Deer are very numer- 
 ous, and are found wild and in temple grounds. The 
 stag is smaller than the American stag. Kindly cared 
 for at the temples, they become very gentle and ap- 
 proach even a stranger from whose outstretched hand 
 they expect something to eat. In Yezo they abound, 
 and it is said that in the year 1874-1875 thirty thousand 
 
28 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 were killed. Venison is for sale in some interior markets. 
 "Wolves are scarce, and the tiger and wild cat almost en- 
 tirely unknown. Rabbits and squirrels are still found 
 in some sections in considerable numbers. 
 
 Domestic fowls are few, chiefly chickens and ducks, 
 though turkeys and pigeons are met with. Chickens 
 are raised chiefly for their eggs, and not much for their 
 meat. They do eat the fowl, but are not very familiar 
 with "spring chicken." Indeed, native breeds are 
 small, and their meat is tough. The fighting cock is a 
 small bird of red plumage, and, like his Japanese mas- 
 ter, is a game fighter. The crow, swallow, and spar- 
 row may also be called domestic bii - ds, for they are 
 guests of every village. The crow is often seen perched 
 upon the roofs of the houses. The hawk too seems to 
 fly around with freedom, as if there was no one to mo- 
 lest or make him afraid. The owl is the night bird. 
 
 In songsters the country is poor. The uguisu, or 
 nightingale, is the one exception. Though not equal to 
 our mocking bird, nor to the nightingale of Europe, 
 his notes are low, soft, clear, andflutelike, so that when 
 heard as one is climbing the paths or penetrating the 
 gorges of the mountains the effect is decidedly pleasing. 
 
 The skylark has interesting ways. As you walk the 
 paths dividing the cultivated plats or the road skirting 
 the rice fields, you will probably hear twittering notes 
 high overhead, and when you gaze upward you observe, 
 almost out of sight it may be, a lark rising in circles 
 toward the clouds, singing as he rises. In sunshine and 
 in rain he is accustomed to these circling flights of song 
 into the upper spaces, and thus teaches us a beautiful 
 lesson. 
 
 The principal waders are cranes, herons, and storks. 
 A species of heron lives in colonies, homing in the pines 
 
THE FAUNA. 29 
 
 and other trees of parks and temple groves. In Tokyo 
 large flocks were observed flying in the evening to their 
 roosting place. 
 
 The swimmers are numerous in certain sections, wild 
 ducks and geese being frequently seen in the moats and 
 ponds even in the heart of Tokyo, accompanied by a 
 third, the cormorant. The cormorant, once used for 
 fishing as in China, is not much used for that purpose 
 now. Speaking of wild ducks and geese, Rein says: 
 "In a pond ten or twelve miles from Sendai Bay ducks 
 and geese were so numerous that ten thousand rose at a 
 pistol shot. This case, however, is by no means repre- 
 sentative of the whole country. 
 
 The reptiles and insects call for a few words. Land 
 serpents are common, and, judging from the easy way 
 the Japanese have of handling them, they cannot be 
 very poisonous. One species they used to catch, cook, 
 and eat, as a nerve strengthener, so says Rein. In 
 summer not unfrequently one finds a snake in the yard 
 or in the house. At Beppu one of our missionary breth- 
 ren had quite a novel experience one night with snakes 
 in his room and even on his bed. Frogs, lizards, and 
 centipeds are in abundance. There are two kinds of 
 salamander, the ordinary and the giant species. The 
 giant species of salamander, formerly prized for the 
 cure of diseases, is now scarce, and will probably be- 
 come extinct. This is the more regrettable because they 
 are now almost extinct in the world. 
 
 The sea turtle is rare. In the small museum of the 
 Kwansei Gakuin, a Methodist mission college at Kobe, is 
 a turtle shell two and a half by two feet. The manu- 
 factured tortoise shells of Japan are all of imported ma- 
 terials, chiefly from Singapore, more recently from Lon- 
 don. The fresh- water tortoises are seen everywhere — 
 
30 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 in tiny lakes of yards, in temple tanks, where, under 
 the protection of priests and pilgrims, they live to a 
 great old age. In all Buddhist countries the tortoise is 
 a sacred creature, and kindness to it secures merit for 
 the soul. 
 
 It may be said in general that the Japanese are on bet- 
 ter terms with their domestic creatures than we Ameri- 
 cans are. For example, in the management of domestic 
 fowls and of the cow these are treated rather as if they 
 were a part of the household. As in Bible times, the 
 cow often has her stall under the same roof, at one end 
 or corner of the dwelling. It may be we are moving 
 away from the animal creation, so that we treat them as 
 aliens and servants, and not as friends or companions. 
 As a matter of course they feel this, and treat us in the 
 same unfriendly way. It is predicted that the horse 
 must soon go (out of our cities, at least); and if so, we 
 shall become still less familiar with and friendly to this 
 noble animal. It may be that with our advance in civ- 
 ilization we are becoming too artificial and cold, too far 
 removed from nature's teeming life and beauty. 
 
 The paradise for insects is Central and Southern Ja- 
 pan. Butterflies, moths, beetles, spiders, grasshoppers, 
 katydids, crickets, locusts, cockroaches, gnats, fleas, lice, 
 and mosquitoes abound. Some of the butterfl.es are large 
 — e. g., the broad- winged papilio, which is brilliantly 
 colored. There is the mantis, or prophet, a long-bod- 
 ied and long-legged insect, so named because it often 
 takes a position as if in prayer. The katydids, grass- 
 hoppers, and cicadse (sometimes called locusts) are very 
 numerous and very noisy. Grasshoppers in the day, 
 katydids at night and pleasant afternoons, and the cica- 
 dse all day, from the middle of May, to September, keep 
 the neighborhood full of noise. It is said that some- 
 
THE FAUNA. 31 
 
 times even the birds of the neighborhood quit chirping 
 because of the din made in their ears by swarms of lo- 
 custs. In summer innumerable multitudes of gnats or 
 fleas sometimes fill the air, reminding one of the plague of 
 gnats in Egypt. One kind, the butta, is really poisonous. 
 But the mosquitoes are the worst pest. Smaller than 
 our Southern mosquito, they more than make up for lack 
 of size by energy and persistence. Not content with 
 singing and stinging by night, they attack their victims 
 by day as well, so that low-quartered shoes and thin 
 stockings, or none at all, as is the case with most Jap- 
 anese in summer, call for the constant use of the fan in 
 self-defense. On the other hand, Japanese dwellings 
 are singularly free from our universal pest, the house 
 fly — a result due, probably, to the absence of horse sta- 
 bles, and that there are so few cows. 
 
 The silkworm and its spinning call for a few obser- 
 vations. The silkworm is preeminent among all worms 
 for its' silk- producing power. Like all plants or ani- 
 mals subject to centuries of culture, many new species, 
 each with its own marks of difference, have been devel- 
 oped. In Japan there are two species, named according 
 to the season: first, the spring spinners, which, as a 
 Japanese friend informs me, are born in spring and ear- 
 ly summer, and produce the best silk; and, second, the 
 summer spinners, that are not much prized. One au- 
 thority says there is considerable difference, not only 
 in the life and size of the silk-producing caterpillar, 
 but also in the form, the size, and the color of the co- 
 coons. The Japanese prefer the white- and- green spin- 
 ners. 
 
 There are several distinct life or transformation stages 
 of the silkworm. There is the butterfly, or moth, the 
 first stage; this lays the egg, the second stage; the egg 
 
32 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 hatches out into the caterpillar, third stage; and this, 
 spinning from the salivary glands inside its body the 
 finest thread, weaves around itself a thin case or hol- 
 low ball or cocoon, which is the fourth stage; then be- 
 coming a torpid, half-dead chrysalis in this inclosed 
 ball, it is in the fifth stage. It is this fifth or chrysalis 
 stage that becomes the first, when it comes forth the 
 following spring a beautiful butterfly, and thus com- 
 pletes the circle of changes. A very interesting fact 
 about the young hatched- out grubs is that they cast 
 their skins four times. When young — that is, to the 
 third casting — they must be fed three or four times a day. 
 Their food, as every one knows, is mulberry leaves, 
 which must be chopped up fine and given clean and dry. 
 To have healthy silkworms there must be a clean, dry 
 room, free from draft, with fresh air, no odors, and no 
 direct sunshine. Even the cleanliness of the keeper is 
 important. The keepers are generally women. If from 
 the neglect or poverty of their keepers the worms do not 
 get proper care, they become sickly and die by the hun- 
 dred. Just before the spinning time they lose their ap- 
 petite and become restless, often raising their body, and 
 are almost transparent. Inside, two spinning tubes, 
 running nearly the whole length of the body, are now 
 filled with a transparent, thick fluid (silk stuff), which 
 comes out through two small holes in the worm's head 
 as silk threads. But instantly the two fine threads are 
 glued into one as they are spun out. Spinning away, it 
 soon weaves around itself a network of silk threads. 
 In about six days the cocoon is completed, and the worm 
 is inside. And be it remembered, that cocoon is made 
 of one continuous silk thread, varying in length from 
 1,300 to 1,560 feet. The life of the silkworm is a pe- 
 riod of about thirty-five days. 
 
FISH IN JAPANESE WATERS. 33 
 
 V. Fish in Japanese Waters. 
 
 Many writers have justly referred to the importance 
 of fish as a daily food of the Japanese, and to the re- 
 markable variety and abundance of fishes found in the 
 markets of that country. Japanese and Chinese waters 
 appear to be richer in fish than any part of the ocean; in- 
 deed, inexhaustible, for hundreds and thousands of per- 
 sons have for generations been engaged in fishing with- 
 out any apparent decrease in the supply. Six hundred 
 species have already been distinguished and described. 
 The staff of scientific gentlemen sent out with Commo- 
 dore Perry's expedition in 1854 were impressed with 
 the wealth of the products of Japanese waters, and 
 have given us some descriptions and beautifully col- 
 ored drawings of several varieties. The remarkable 
 fertility of those waters has been explained by two or 
 three facts: (1) The summer monsoons from the In- 
 dian Ocean bring shoals of southern varieties; (2) the 
 winter monsoons from the Okhotsk Sea bring - many 
 northern species; and (3) as yet Japanese waters are not 
 much infested by pirate fish. Some one has said that 
 it is likely that in every region affected by endemic ail- 
 ment, as yellow fever, malaria, etc. , there is in that re- 
 gion some herb, some natural antidote for it, if man 
 will only find it; and so by God's good providence, 
 where fishes are most needed for daily food, the wa- 
 ters are richest in producing them. The mackerel, sal- 
 mon, and herring family are the most important. The 
 Japan Sea has been called the kingdom of the mackerel. 
 Salmon are in great quantities around the island of 
 Yezo, and the canning business has been started. Sar- 
 dines, too, a species of herring, are valuable for the 
 fish oil, and also for the fish guano used by gardeners 
 3 
 
34 JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE. 
 
 and farmers. The one fish preferred above all others 
 is the tai, the aristocratic fish. Another fish, the koi, 
 is noted for its strength' and endurance, and, as we shall 
 see later, plays an important part in a festival for boys. 
 Goldfishes abound. Eels and devilfish are frequently 
 seen in their markets. There are crabs, shrimps, and 
 oysters. The oysters are small, hardly worthy of men- 
 tion with our Baltimore and Chesapeake oysters. 
 Though whales are so near, the Japanese have never 
 done much in the way of whale fishing. Seaweed and 
 cuttlefish are gathered in great quantities and sent to 
 China and other countries. In 1891 the total export of 
 cuttlefish was worth more than seven and a half mil- 
 lions yen (the yen is equal to fifty cents). 
 
 VI. The Minerals. 
 
 For many centuries the Japanese were acquainted with 
 ores, clays, rocks, lime, precious stone, and in a limit- 
 ed way used them; but for their light wooden build- 
 ings little stone was required. For walls around their 
 castle heights, for bridges over ditches, and for the many 
 long stairs leading to temples and shrines on the top of 
 the hill, and for tombstones and monuments heavy blocks 
 or slabs were used, chiefly of granite. There was no 
 systematic or scientific knowledge of geology or miner- 
 als. Minerals were generally named from the place 
 where first discovered or worked. For example, gran- 
 ite is everywhere called Mikage stone, from the village 
 Mikage, near Kobe. 
 
 Concerning the gold in Japan, Marco Polo, who was 
 in China for seventeen years (1275-1292 A.D.) carried 
 back to Europe the most wonderful stories of its abun- 
 dance. "The lord of Japan," wrote he, "has a great 
 palace entirely roofed [ceiled] with fine gold. 
 
THE MINERALS. 35 
 
 Moreover, all the pavements of the palace and the 
 floors are entirely of gold in plates, like plates of 
 stone, a good two fingers thick." And it is now 
 known that Columbus, who had read Marco Polo and 
 studied his maps, in seeking a route across the Atlan- 
 tic to the far East, had hopes of these abundant treas- 
 ures in Zipangu (Japan). In ancient times there were 
 no doubt rich gold mines, but never enough for laying 
 gold pavements a good two fingers thick in palace 
 halls. The export of silver in considerable quanti- 
 ties for so long a time, first by the Portuguese and 
 Spaniards, then the Dutch, confirm the belief of Euro- 
 peans that the silver mines at least were very rich. 
 
 In copper, iron, coal, and antimony Japan is rich. 
 The iron ores are not the best; but copper is widely 
 distributed, is of fine quality, and was largely exported 
 by the Dutch. Antimony is also sent to foreign coun- 
 tries. Coal appears in many sections from the north- 
 ern island of Yezo to Kiushiu and the Riukius. In 
 Yezo the quantity is sufficient, it is said, for a yearly 
 output equal to England's for a hundred years. The 
 Kiushiu coal mines are the most noted. One of these 
 mines is almost under the harbor of Nagasaki, and sup- 
 plies foreign ships calling there from America and 
 China. Japan coals are soft, bituminous, and give off 
 much soot and smoke, and geologically are of a late 
 formation (Tertiary), and are by no means equal to 
 American or English coals. Coal oil wells have been 
 worked in profitable quantities, but are not equal to 
 the demand. American cases, five gallons each, and 
 marked "Philadelphia," may be seen in the remotest 
 corners of the empire. Recently, however, Russian 
 oil is competing with the American product. In a land 
 of volcanoes one would naturally expect plenty of sul- 
 
36 
 
 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 phur, and there is. The prevailing rock formations are 
 granite and schist; next limestones and sandstones, but 
 they are not abundant. Marble and slate are found in 
 some sections. Porcelain stone (kaolin clay) is plentiful, 
 from which are made the beautiful and famous porce- 
 lain wares. By examining the soil with a microscope 
 and by chemical analysis, scientific geologists can 
 prove that the land is largely volcanic. Several pre- 
 cious stones are found, rock crystals perfectly color- 
 less, the amethyst, topaz, agate, coral, chalcedony, 
 carnelian, green jasper, and a stone from which seals 
 are made. 
 
PART II. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE MYTHICAL AND PREHISTORIC PERIOD— FROM 
 AN UNKNOWN BEGINNING TO JfiO A.D. 
 
 I. Origin of the World, Gods, and Men. 
 
 Like the Greeks and our own Anglo- Sax on forefathers, 
 the Japanese had nothing better than traditions and 
 myths to depend upon for their knowledge and beliefs 
 concerning the cause of the world and of men. Those 
 myths are stories more or less imaginary or allegorical, 
 telling how gods and other superhuman beings came to 
 be, how they started the world and the human race; also 
 of certain marvelous exploits of ancestors and heroes. 
 In such a mass of myths and traditions in every pagan 
 nation we must admit that there are elements of truth 
 and religious instruction, but it is like a little wheat in 
 a hillock of chaff. Japanese mythologies, like those of 
 other nations,, are for the most part confused, unreason- 
 able, and in many cases ridiculous or repulsive. And 
 yet these myths have been the beliefs of this nation for 
 more than two thousand years, and hence must call for 
 some consideration. A nation's beliefs, however false, 
 are serious things. 
 
 The sources of our knowledge of the early beliefs and 
 traditions among the Japanese are two books; the oldest 
 in the language, the Ko-ji-ki (Records of Ancient 
 Things), written 712 A.D., and the Nihongi (Chroni- 
 cles), written 720 A.D. From these books, especially 
 
 (37) 
 
38 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 the first, we learn what the beliefs of the people were 
 concerning the beginning of all things, including their 
 gods, what their beliefs and ceremonies are based upon. 
 As Prof. Chamberlain, translator of the book, has said, 
 the Ko-ji-ki has preserved for us the mythology, man- 
 ners, language, and traditional history of the Japanese 
 more than any other book has done. According to this 
 book the origin of things is briefly this: There was 
 originally a confused mass, land, sea, and air being 
 mixed together, just as chaos was described by a poet 
 of Rome long afterwards: 
 
 No sun yet beamed from yon cerulean height, 
 
 No orbing moon repaired her horns of light, 
 
 No earth, self-poised, on liquid ether hung, 
 
 No sea its world-inclasping waters flung; 
 
 Dark was the void of air, no form was traced. — Ovid. 
 
 In some unexplained way the foamy, formless nebula 
 began to move, to condense, and heaven and earth were 
 separated, remaining, however, much closer to each 
 other than now, and the earth was softer and warmer 
 than now. It was not spirit first and then matter, but 
 matter existed before mind, and the gods were born or 
 evolved, some from the heaven and some from the earth. 
 In the plain of heaven were born three gods (Kami) who 
 afterwards died; and out of the warm, soft earth slime, 
 floating about like vast masses of hair, a germ sprouted 
 as of a reed sprout, and from this were born or grew 
 two more gods (JTami), who also died. 
 
 After these seven divine beings came forth in pairs, 
 the last being Izanagi and Izanami. Now by the will 
 of the heavenly gods, Izanagi and Izanami were directed 
 to consolidate the drifting earth slime into land. Ac- 
 cordingly, having received a jeweled spear, they stood 
 on heaven's bridge, floating just above the foaming 
 
IZANAGI AND IZANAMI. 39 
 
 abyss, and, reaching down, Izanagi stirred it till it gur- 
 gled and thickened a little, then as he drew up his spear 
 the dripping particles piled up and thickened, forming 
 an island. This island, afterwards named Awaji, in 
 the Inland Sea, was the beginning of Japan. Descend- 
 ing to this island, the divine pair produced seven other 
 islands, thus constituting the Grand Land of the Eight 
 Islands. This became to the Japanese their world and 
 heaven too, including gods and men in one divine coun- 
 try. Like the Greeks, who believed their land of Mount 
 Olympus to be the top and center of all countries, so 
 the Japanese believed that their country was the heav- 
 enly one, and therefore superior to all others. One of 
 their early writers says: 
 
 Japan is not a land where men need to pray, 
 
 For it is itself divine; 
 
 Yet do I lift up my voice in prayer. 
 
 Reminding us of a Greek myth, there is in the Ko-ji- 
 ki a story of the goddess Izanami's departure to the bot- 
 tom country. Izanagi went down after her, but, wait- 
 ing long at the gates while she consulted the gods, he be- 
 came impatient and rushed in, but was horrified at seeing 
 her putrefying body, the foulness of the place, and the 
 eight gods of thunder seated in the midst. Though the 
 ugly female deity of Hades would seize him, and armies 
 of demons pursued him, he escaped and blocked up the 
 Pass of Hades with a rock that a thousand men could 
 not lift. After this marvelous escape from Hades, Iza- 
 nagi purified himself by bathing in a stream, and from 
 his armor and garments gods were produced, and from 
 the rinsings of his body two evil gods came forth. From 
 his left eye Amaterasu, the sun goddess, was produced, 
 from his right eye the moon god, and from his nose 
 Susanowo, the voluptuous male deity. 
 
40 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Of all the Kami (gods) thus produced, the one es- 
 pecially to be noted is this sun goddess Amaterasu, be- 
 cause she is the center of their native Shinto religion, 
 if we may call it religion. Thia sun goddess, seeing 
 that the disorders had been settled in the ' ' Central 
 Land of -the Reed Plains" — i. e., Japan — sent down her 
 grandson, Ninigi, to dwell in and rule ovei* the country; 
 and he is the great grandfather of Jinimu Tenno, the 
 first Emperor of the Japanese. So then the Japanese 
 trace their ancestry through the line of their rulers di- 
 rectly back to the sun goddess in heaven. Before Ni- 
 nigi descended to a certain mountain on one of the 
 great islands, he received from the sun goddess certain 
 treasures, as the mirror, the emblem of her spirit, the 
 cloud-clustered sword, taken from the eight-headed 
 dragon's tail, and a precioxis round stone. The mir- 
 ror, sword, and stone are the insignia of imperial 
 sovereignty. The mirror is worshiped at the national 
 shrine of the sun goddess at Ise. No doubt many Shin- 
 toists believe to this day that these three things actually 
 came down from heaven. 
 
 This same sun goddess (Amaterasu) ordained food for 
 mankind, rice to grow in watery fields and other grains 
 on the dry uplands. She planted the mulberry upon 
 the hills of heaven, raised silkworms and wove silk, is 
 the author of agriculture, silkworm raising, and weav- 
 ing among men. 
 
 Out of the jumbled mass of myths and traditions as 
 contained in the ancient Ko-ji-ki mentioned above, we 
 have in this brief way set forth only what relates to the 
 Shinto beliefs concerning the beginning of the Japanese 
 world, their Kami (gods), and the descent of their rulers 
 from Amaterasu, the son goddess. It is only by seeking 
 some knowledge of these traditions that we can get an 
 
EACIAL ORIGINS. 41 
 
 understanding of the Shinto religion of the Japanese. 
 As among all pagan people, these myths and traditions 
 of the gods and their divinely begotten ancestors have 
 been impressed upon their many peculiar customs, and 
 furnished abundant material for treatment in their lit- 
 erature and arts. 
 
 II. Racial Origins op the Japanese. 
 
 In the Saxon chronicles Cerdic, early Saxon king, traces 
 his descent back through Baldaeg to the god Woden. 
 In Homer the great warrior kings of the Greeks are 
 spoken of as descended from gods or goddesses. So we 
 need not be surprised that in the Ko-ji-ki, Jimmu' 
 Tenno, the first Emperor of the Japanese, is said to be 
 descended from the Heaven Shining Deity (Amaterasu), 
 but unfortunately there are so many tribes mixed to- 
 gether in the earlier chapters of that book and so many 
 absurd and even immoral deeds attributed to them, that 
 it is hard to separate the truth from what is false in re- 
 gard to the Japanese race and the day of their coming 
 into Japan. 
 
 It is probable that "the savage deities," "very tu- 
 multuous," mentioned in the early part of the book, 
 means no more than that other chiefs and tribes were 
 already in the country; at any rate, when the chief and 
 the tribe who afterwards became the ruling Japanese 
 first came into the country there were people already 
 in the South, Northwest, and other quarters. Those in 
 the South (island of Kiushiu) were probably from 
 Korea and Malay India; those in the Northwest were 
 probably of Korean descent; those in the East were the 
 Emishi (Ainus), dwelling from earliest times in the 
 greater part of the main island. These Ainus probably 
 came down from Eastern Siberia. Erom the Ko-ji-ki 
 
42 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 we learn that all these earlier tribes were savages of a 
 low order and that they were finally conquered by the 
 Yamato- Japanese under their first king, Jimmu, and his 
 successors. The Ainus, particularly, were driven north- 
 ward out of the country — a la Americans and the Red 
 Indians. Racially the Japanese are a mixture com- 
 posed of a small Malay element in the South, a small 
 Siberian trace in the East and North, while in the cen- 
 ter was the chief stock that emigrated from the Asiatic 
 Continent through Korea into Japan. This chief stock, 
 named Yamato-Japanese, probably started originally 
 from Central Asia, and are kindred to the Scythians of 
 Herodotus, the Tartary Huns who in ancient times 
 swept westward toward Europe and eastward into East- 
 ern Asia. The faces one meets with in Japan show 
 unmistakably a mixed race, some being broad-faced 
 with low nose, others long-faced with sharp nose. 
 That the Yamatos came immediately from Korea ad- 
 mits of no reasonable doubt. 
 
 This conclusion, however, is due to the investiga- 
 tions of foreign scholars; as for the Japanese them- 
 selves, though proudly claiming to be an old nation, yet 
 when asked where they came from and when their fore- 
 fathers came into Japan, they are utterly unable to tell. 
 This lack of information as to the times and where- 
 abouts of their forefathers justly casts suspicion upon 
 their proud antiquity. 
 
 III. Primitive Life op the People. ■ 
 
 The primitive Japanese were barbarians probably 
 upon the same level as our Anglo-Saxon forefathers, 
 with rude ways of farming and some knowledge of the 
 useful arts. They knew how to make weapons and 
 tools of iron, the ax and the bow and arrow being men- 
 
PRIMITIVE LIFE OP THE PEOPLE. 43 
 
 tioned very early. From early times the men lived by 
 hunting and fishing. With bow and arrow and traps, 
 wild animals were taken; with hooks, cormorants, and 
 bamboo snares, fish were caught. Of course the women 
 aided in tilling the patches, dressing the game, and did 
 the weaving. In earliest times the taxes required were: 
 of the men, the products of the chase, wild flesh and 
 skins; of the women, the product of the loom, white 
 cloth made from the paper mulberry tree, and blue 
 hempen cloth. One thousand years after the tradi- 
 tional reign of their first king, Jimniu, there was little 
 writing, and as little commerce except by bartering. 
 In the earlier half of the Ko-ji-ki there is no mention 
 of books or money. Travel was chiefly on foot or boat 
 with oars without sails. Even Jimniu went on foot in 
 the campaign from Kiushiu into Yamato. For dwell- 
 ings they had rude houses and pits. The inferior sub- 
 ject tribes are spoken of as "earth spiders," referring 
 to their dug-out caves. The Hon. Ernest Satow, Brit- 
 ish Minister to Japan, having a thorough knowledge of 
 the Japanese language, and being an authority upon its 
 old forms, and translator of the ancient rituals, says: 
 "From the language of these prayers (dedication) we 
 learn that in the ancient times the palace of the sover- 
 eign was a wooden hut with its pillars planted in the 
 ground." (See p. 191, Vol. IX., Trans. Asiatic Society.) 
 Besides iron and copper, mention is made of the 
 carved jewels, mirror, and sword. In the use of 
 clothing and the specialization of garments the early 
 Japanese, says Prof. Chamberlain, had reached a high 
 level; "bright cloth, soft cloth, and coarse cloth" 
 are mentioned. Besides various garments for both 
 sexes, neck and arm bracelets, earrings but not finger 
 rings, mirrors, combs and dressing of the hair, and a 
 
44 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 few precious stones are spoken of. The hair was worn 
 in two knots, one on each side of the head, but without 
 decoration of jewelry. Skins were also used for cloth- 
 ing, and the art of dyeing was to some extent practiced. 
 
 The food consisted of fish, wild flesh, rice, and a few 
 simple vegetables. Rice was probably used from the 
 earliest times; there was no milk nor cheese, but an in- 
 toxicating liquor is mentioned even in the mythical age, 
 and so are chopsticks. The method of preparing food 
 was simple, cooking pots, cups, and dishes being men- 
 tioned, the last two of earthenware and leaves of trees. 
 Tables are not mentioned in connection with food, but 
 only in connection with offerings to the gods. The use 
 of fire for warming purposes is never mentioned. Do- 
 mestic animals in the prehistoric period were very few, 
 the horse for riding, never for drawing vehicles, the 
 barn door cock, and the cormorant for fishing. In the 
 later traditions dogs and cattle are also mentioned, but 
 sheep, swine, and cats are not yet introduced. 
 
 The family life of this period was of a low order. 
 Family names were unknown. The marriage rela- 
 tion was loose, a plurality of wives being not un- 
 common. Many things in the Ko-ji-ki are too im- 
 pure to be printed in English. There was much cruel- 
 ty also, as shown in the treatment of enemies and in the 
 severest punishment for trivial crimes. Junshi was for 
 many centuries practiced. When a ruler died some 
 of his retainers had to be buried alive up to their 
 necks. Standing planted in the earth, in a circle 
 around the grave of their chief, they were left to 
 starve, their eyes to be plucked out by crows, and 
 heads torn to pieces by dogs. This horrible cruelty 
 was abolished by the Emperor Suinin, 29 B.C. 
 
 Again, though they used the handbreadth for measure- 
 
PRIMITIVE LIFE OF THE PEOPLE. 45 
 
 ments, and though the sun by day and the crowing of 
 cocks by night were the only means for measuring the 
 hours, and though there are no pure Japanese words 
 for counting above ten, we cannot think with Griffis 
 that they could not count above ten. Although there 
 was little knowledge of the arts and no writing in the 
 earliest times, it is to be noted that even the primitive 
 Japanese had an aesthetic sense, and an appreciation 
 for nature that has since marked their descendants. 
 They were close observers of the world around them. 
 Their hearts responded nearly two thousand years ago 
 as they do to-day to the picturesque scenery of moun- 
 tains and seas; and the mighty upheavals of volcanoes 
 and earthquakes, and the sweeping typhoons, awakened 
 in their breasts strange feelings and a lively imagination. 
 The names of Japan in poetry and romance are almost 
 legion, and indicate a lively sense of their country's 
 natural aspects as well as its imagined nearness to 
 heaven. As a few examples, take the following: "The 
 Region between Heaven and Earth," "Island of the 
 Congealed Drop," "The Sun's Nest," "The Princess 
 Country" (princess refers to sun goddess), "The Grand 
 Land of Eight Islands," "Land of Thousand Au- 
 tumns," "Land of Fresh Rice Ears," " Central Land of 
 Reed Palms." Each of these islands has an alternative 
 name that sounds strange to modern ears — e. g. , one is, 
 "Rice-Ear True Youth;" another is poetically, "Prin- 
 cess of Great Food;" another, " Sun-Fronting-Luxu- 
 riant- Wondrous-Lord- Youth;" etc. The names of gods 
 and goddesses also refer continually to the various 
 parts and phenomena of the natural world. 
 
 Prof. Chamberlain, of the Imperial University of 
 Japan, says that "all prior to 400 A.D. is not reliable 
 history." Still we can roughly estimate certain im- 
 
46 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 provements in the rude civilization in those prehistoric 
 times, such as: that ponds and canals were dug — irriga- 
 tion ponds for rice growing — about the beginning of 
 the Christian era; that a smith, a pair of horses, and 
 a man knowing the ' art of brewing were sent over 
 as tribute from Korea; that the empress reigning in 
 the year 200 A.D. brought sons of Korean rulers 
 over as hostages, exacting also a tribute of gold and 
 silver; that a weaver from China came over, and a tribe 
 of clay workers came and settled in Idzumo, on the 
 west coast; and that a wise man was asked for and was 
 sent, his name being Wani-Kishi. This wise man from 
 Korea became the instructor of the crown prince, after- 
 wards Emperor Nintoku, about 300 A.D. We are also 
 informed that people coming over from Korea were put 
 to work on the pools and embankments, which probably 
 shows that Korea had been brought under Japan. Ac- 
 cording to the " History of the Empire of Japan," writ- 
 ten by Japanese and published by the Educational De- 
 partment, the compilation of national annals began in 
 the reign of Suiko, 620 A.D., and the use of letters 
 for recording events and dates, from about 400 A.D. 
 
 Japanese scholars have been so patriotic that in many 
 cases it leads to narrow-mindedness, and hence in their 
 histories they have not been inclined to frankly ac- 
 knowledge what has been borrowed from foreign coun- 
 tries; and now that Korea is so weak, small, and back- 
 ward, they are probably less inclined than ever to ac- 
 knowledge their debts to her. But just as Ireland was 
 once far in advance of England and sent light and let- 
 ters over to her, so in ancient times Korea was in ad- 
 vance of Japan. It is certain that Korea was inhabited 
 in the twelfth century B.C., and had then the elements 
 of Chinese civilization. 
 
THE PEIMITIVE RELIGION. 4t\ 
 
 IV. The Primitive Religion. 
 
 People are naturally religious all over the world, and 
 in all ages of human history, ancient and modern. The 
 Japanese were religious long before they had books. 
 Books cannot make religion, but religion in the heart 
 causes the writing of religious books. The ancient Jap- 
 anese had some kind of religion before coming into 
 Japan. As we thall see later, they were afterwards 
 blessed (or cursed) with two or three different religions, 
 but at first they had but one, called Shinto, which 
 means the "Way of the Gods." Out of the tangled 
 mass of strange and incredible legends and miraculous 
 stories of gods, men, and animals contained in the two 
 oldest books already mentioned, and in certain Shinto 
 rituals almost as old, it is impossible to weave a con- 
 sistent web of truth. In the first place, the earliest 
 Japanese were very childlike in their ideas, their hearts 
 exceedingly credulous. The Japanese word Kami, 
 translated "gods," has perplexed foreign scholars not a 
 little, for our word "god," or "deity," means too much 
 for the word Kami, which is by no means equal in the 
 minds of the Japanese to our high and holy God. In the 
 Japanese translation of our Old and New Testament, 
 the word Kami had to be used for want of a better one. 
 But by the Japanese it was applied to anything power- 
 ful, wonderful, or superior to the ordinary. It may be 
 a heavenly being, a man, animal, or a thing without 
 life. For instance, in the first part of the Ko-ji-ki a 
 peach is addressed as a Kami, or god, a certain sword 
 is considered to be a god, a toad gives advice to the 
 gods; a pheasant deity is mentioned, and the colossal 
 crow guides Jimmu in his eastward march. 
 
 There are gods for every imaginable thing, and of 
 every conceivable name, from a peach, a white boar, or 
 
48 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 white hare, up to the Heaven- Shining Great August Dei- 
 ty. There are gods of wind, thunder, trees, mountains, 
 valleys, moors, seas, boundaries, roads, fire, passes, the 
 kitchen, and so on indefinitely. Some of the names are cu- 
 rious, such as Great Food Deity, Brave Snapping Deity, 
 Rock Splitter, Tree Fork Deity, Water Sprinkler. The 
 mere names of gods in the Ko-ji-ki would fill several 
 pages. Some of the names are long — for example, His- 
 Swif t - Impetuous - Mate - Deity; and, His - Augustness- 
 Truly-Conqueror-I-Conquer-Conquering-Swift- Heaven- 
 ly-Great-Great-Ears, which is equal to some of the long, 
 high-sounding titles of a broken-down Spanish noble. 
 In one place a rock was turned into a god. (See Ko-ji- 
 ki, pp. 37, 38, 69, Chamberlain's translation.) 
 
 The gods of the ancient Japanese came by gradual 
 growth or were born, and some of them are said to have 
 "hid themselves" — that is, died. Speaking roughly, 
 they seem to be divided into heavenly and earthly, 
 those of the Yamato conquerors being the heavenly, 
 while the earthly ones belong to the "savage tribes." 
 And yet things are sometimes sadly mixed up among 
 the gods. For example, the god Susanowo is for a 
 while on the earth, then in heaven, and again in the 
 under world; sometimes he is ruling in power, some- 
 times suffering punishment or driven into exile. Not 
 only so, in the genealogies the evil and violent gods are 
 badly mixed with good ones. Heaven is only a coun- 
 terpart of the earth and not far above it, being origi- 
 nally connected by a bridge or a ladder. In heaven's 
 plain are trees and wells, a river and rocks; weaving, 
 weeping, marrying, and holding of assemblies. One 
 god is spoken of as gone to hunt birds and catch 
 fish. All this confirms the statement that the word 
 Kami, or "god," had a low and indistinct meaning. 
 
ANIMALS, ANOESTOBS, AND EMPERORS AS GODS. 49 
 
 Their religion, in brief, was a kind of nature worship 
 and ancestor worship combined called Shamanism, or 
 mythical zoology. The sun, moon, and trees, serpents, 
 foxes, and other animals, as well as myriads of unseen 
 spirits, good and bad, including also the spirits of dead 
 ancestors, are all objects of worship. In Shamanism, 
 sometimes called Animism, there may be some concep- 
 tion of a single supreme, all-powerful Creator; usually 
 there is not, but the government of the world and its 
 surroundings are believed to lie in the hands of legions 
 of spirits, of gods and demons. In time of disaster, 
 famine, epidemic, etc. , they imagined the universe to be 
 overcrowded with evil demons, that must be propitiated 
 by magic ritual, incantations, and even sacrifices. (See 
 "Religions of Japan," by Griffis, p. 15.) 
 
 The souls of dead parents were imagined as gods, with 
 power to bless or curse, and this element of ancestor 
 worship in the Shinto religion was magnified into great 
 importance in later times. The conquering Yamato- 
 Japanese adroitly used the custom of paying homage, so 
 as to magnify their Emperors in the eyes of the " savage 
 tribes," like the Ainus. Proclaiming their Emperor to 
 be the Son of Heaven, they demanded homage for him 
 as a divine being while yet alive. Thus gradually the 
 Emperor became the head and center of the Shinto re- 
 ligion, and even gods as well as men must obey him as 
 Heaven's supreme vicegerent upon earth. This, how- 
 ever, is not a singular thing in history. See how for 
 political reasons the Roman emperors had their statues 
 set up in the temples, in the squares and corners of 
 streets for the worship of the people! See how the 
 popes of Rome in the blazing light of this nineteenth 
 century have gotten themselves proclaimed infallible, 
 and as Christ's vicegerents upon earth claim to be the 
 4 
 
50 japan: countky, court, people. 
 
 supreme head of the Church, clothed with temporal pow- 
 er as well ! We need not marvel, therefore, at a similar 
 exaltation of Japanese Emperors as divine and as the 
 head of their religion and state alike. 
 
 Of dogma, or moral teaching for the guidance of con- 
 duct, the Shinto religion (if we may call it a religion) 
 was from the first almost destitute; they claimed that 
 commandments and codes of conduct were not needed 
 for the Japanese; such things were invented by the Chi- 
 nese because they were an immoral people with bad 
 hearts. 
 
 In those prehistoric days the same word was used 
 alike for palace and temple (Miya), pointing back unmis- 
 takably to a patriarchal system, the father of the tribe 
 being its king and priest in one person. And there are 
 indications that at the first the Emperor offered sacrifi- 
 cial worship, performing religious rites as the repre- 
 sentative of his people — first to Heaven, and then to his 
 own ancestors and other gods. The priests in that early 
 and simple period of society were not a separate class. 
 Upon fixed days the Emperor performed the sacred cer- 
 emony of washing himself as the representative of his 
 people, but afterwards a prince of the house or high 
 official of the court was sent as the Emperor's proxy to 
 bathe in the stream. We also learn that the three sacred 
 emblems — the jewel, mirror, and sword — at first kept in 
 the royal palace, were afterwards removed to the shrine 
 in Ise, dedicated to the heavenly ancestress Amaterasu, 
 and there guarded by the princess, sister of the Emper- 
 or. It thus came to be the custom for a kind of high 
 priestess to remain at the central national shrine. The 
 separation of temple from palace begun at Ise, as above 
 mentioned, was followed later by the fixing of shrines 
 in various places over the country, and this, of course, 
 
CEEEMONIAL OFFERINGS. 51 
 
 called for a class of persons to take charge of them — 
 "temple masters." 
 
 The offerings and sacrifices were of three kinds or 
 more. One was the thank offering, as the festival of 
 First Fruits, the feast of tasting the first rice.* There 
 was also at first a kind of monthly festival at the new 
 moon; afterwards it became semiannual. Offerings of 
 food and white cloth were likewise set before the 
 shrines of their gods. The white cloth is now repre- 
 sented in the form of white paper cut into notched 
 strips in a certain way, and seen to this day in Shinto 
 temples and shrines. Second, the Purification festivals. 
 Speaking of the ceremony of bathing by the Emperor 
 calls for remark upon what seems to have been always 
 a characteristic of the Japanese — a regard for cleanli- 
 ness, being in this respect different from the Chinese. 
 If not holiness in a moral sense, physical cleanliness is 
 at least a great matter with them. If ' ' cleanliness is 
 next to godliness," as saith John Wesley, then the Jap- 
 anese are on the way toward godliness. To the ancient 
 Japanese there were divers occasions of defilement: a 
 snake bite, contact of bird or insect with one's food, 
 sickness, and the circumstance of birth or death. The 
 last two being the most serious offenses against purity, 
 separate huts were built for one's birth and dying, after 
 which they were burned or demolished. This probably 
 explains why the royal palace was changed after the 
 death of the sovereign. Persons coming in contact 
 
 * In ancient times offerings were made in every household 
 to the New Food God, in royal palace and in huts of common 
 people. The earth itself was regarded a god, called Abun- 
 dant Food, to Avhom the head of each family must present 
 thank offerings; but afterwards this was performed by worn' 
 en. There are also gods of the kitchen. 
 
52 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 with another's birth or death must purify themselves, 
 Salt was also used for ceremonial purification, and at 
 the dedication of the royal palace sake brewed from rice 
 was sprinkled to purify he premises.* 
 
 At the present day, before the person approaches the 
 Shinto temple, he carefully washes his mouth at the 
 sacred stone font provided for the purpose in the tem- 
 ple court, and wipes clean his hands with the towel 
 hanging above it. He has at least a clean mouth and clean 
 hands, if not a clean heart. As Griffis says: "The root 
 idea of sin was pollution." And the rituals show that 
 from early times the "offenses" or defilements were to 
 be removed to the lower world and finally got rid of. 
 The expiatory offerings standing for the "offenses" 
 were cast into the streams, then carried into the sea, 
 then gulped down by a deity in the sea, and then .car- 
 ried to the Bottom Country, and so finally banished and 
 got rid of. Third, propitiatory offerings among the 
 Japanese included human sacrifices to certain gods, es- 
 pecially when about to go forth to battle; and this re- 
 minds us of the Greeks of Homer's time. It was called 
 
 * According to Mr. Satow, the dedicatory ceremony dates 
 from the setting up of the first Emperor Jimmvi's capital in 
 Yamato Province. The object of this ceremony was to pro- 
 pitiate the two deities of timber and rice, and to obtain their 
 protection for the sovereign's abode and his food against de- 
 filement by snakes, crawling worms, or birds flying in through 
 the smoke holes; from night alarms and the decay of the 
 building. Offerings arranged in order were presented to the 
 gods, consisting of a mirror, beads, spear, mantelet, mulberry 
 paper, and hempen thread. The sacred emblems of sov- 
 ereignty (sword, mirror, and precious stone) were deposited 
 in the royal hall; the four corners of the building were hung 
 with red beads, while sake, rice, and cut thread were scattered 
 inside the four corners. 
 
SUPERSTITIONS MULTIPLY. 53 
 
 O-chi-matsu-ri, the "honorable blood ceremony." In 
 this way they hoped to please their god and gain victo- 
 ry over their enemies. For example, when the Empress 
 Jingo Kogo was about to invade Korea (200 A.D.) the 
 " Country's Great Offerings " were made, and when she 
 reached the sea other offerings were made to the sea 
 god. The foundations of buildings were laid upon some 
 human victim seized for that purpose. This was to ap- 
 pease the demon or god of bad luck. Likewise when 
 dire calamity or danger fell upon them — the flood, vol- 
 canic or earthquake upheaval, famine or pestilence — 
 human victims were probably offered to dragons and sea 
 gods. Anything, in fact, that was precious was willing- 
 ly given up to satisfy the angry gods and evil spirits. 
 When a house was built certain ceremonies were ob- 
 served and arrows shot into the four quarters of heaven 
 to ward off the attack of evil spirits. This dedication 
 ceremony may be seen to-day, and is a weird and curious 
 affair. At stated times of the year the dwellings are 
 hung around with rice straw ropes to ward off the ap- 
 proach of evil, and even trees are thus festooned for the 
 same purpose. The curious cult of sacred trees, ser- 
 pents, horses, foxes, and even the phallic symbol, to- 
 gether with that of the demons of luck and misfortune, 
 caused to spring up in the minds of the ancient Japanese, 
 Koreans, and Tartar peoples north of China a tangled 
 undergrowth of superstitions and customs that still ex- 
 ist among the ignorant classes to an extent little under- 
 stood by many modern civilized Japanese. 
 
 Nor is the reason far to seek. The knowledge of 
 the true God, the one Creator and Divine Father, both 
 unifies and separates — unifies all the changes and ob- 
 jects of the universe under one intelligent system of 
 government, and separates the Creator from the ere- 
 
54: japan: countey, court, people. 
 
 ated world. But when the "boundary line between 
 the Creator and his world, or the eternal difference be- 
 tween mind and matter, is not clear, then anything that 
 lives, moves, or has power may be a god." The result 
 is, that to the bedarkened mind and imagination, in the 
 whole world of sky above, in the air around, upon, and 
 in the earth, in the waters of the great deep, and in the 
 dark regions of the lower world, there are multitudes 
 of gods and goddesses, demons, good or evil, who are 
 to be dreaded, worshiped, or appeased. 
 
 Nevertheless we welcome the fact that there is a basis 
 of truth, however much obscured, in all that confused 
 mass of traditions and superstitions. One of these 
 truths relates to the divine origin of man. When we 
 read in the Ko-ji-ki that the ancestors of the Japanese 
 are the descendants of the Heaven Shining Great Au- 
 gust Deity it reminds us of the closing words of St. 
 Luke's genealogies: "The son of Adam, which was the 
 son of God." (Luke iii. 38.) Another truth held by the 
 primitive Japanese as a thing taken for granted was the 
 future life of the soul. The existence and life of their 
 ancestors is logically implied in the custom of ancestor 
 worship. 
 
 V. Political Ideas and Manner op Rule. 
 
 Concerning the settlement and political beginnings of 
 the Japanese nation as gathered from the Ko-ji-ki, we are 
 able to sift out a few conclusions: 
 
 1. If the legends of the so-called "divine age" were 
 credible, we should have to believe that races of gods 
 held sway for a long time in the land of Japan, who re- 
 sisted successfully the first, second, and third expedi- 
 tions sent from heaven to quell the ' ' painfully uproar- 
 ious" and "savage deities," but that afterwards the 
 
POLITICAL IDEAS AND MANNER OE RULE. 55 
 
 Deity-Master of the Great Land abdicated in favor of the 
 August Grand Child, Ninigi, whom the sun goddess 
 wished to make sovereign of the country. 
 
 2. According to the earliest traditions, Idzumo, on the 
 west coast, is prior to Yamato; moreover it is neither 
 Idzumo nor Yamato to which Ninigi descends from 
 heaven, hut in the land of Kiushiu, in the southwest, 
 where his people, afterwards called Yamato-Japanese, 
 made their first settlement. 
 
 3. At first the government was not autocratic, but 
 there was some kind of assembly in which important 
 matters were discussed and decided. ("History of the 
 Empire of Japan," p. 26.) These assemblies were doubt- 
 less similar to the village assemblies of early tribes in 
 all parts of the world. The government was for many 
 centuries a mixed patriarchal feudalism. 
 
 4. Jimmu, the first of the Yamato-Japanese rulers, 
 was only a fighting, conquering chief, whose eastward 
 march from his original settlement in Kiushiu was re- 
 sisted by a "number of other chieftains, each exerci- 
 sing sovereignty in his own district." (Id., p. 26.) 
 His march was by slow stages, with successive settle- 
 ments for a considerable time in several places, requir- 
 ing more than sixteen years in passing from Kiushiu to 
 the river's mouth at Naniha, now the city of Osaka, a 
 distance of three hundred miles in a straight line. The 
 Japanese authors just quoted are constrained to say 
 (p. 32) that " Jimmu' s sway was limited to a few dis- 
 tricts in the neighborhood of Yamato," but the Ko-ji-ki 
 tells that Jimmu' s elder brother was killed in the bat- 
 tle with the native rulers of Yamato. That Jimmu 
 and his successors had for a long time only a limited 
 sway is clear: (a) From the number of tribes living in 
 the country, the Kumaso people, the Koshis, Idzumos, 
 
56 JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE. 
 
 the Kibi tribe, and in the east the Emeshi. (/j) The 
 many and long campaigns of the Yamato-Japanese 
 chiefs against these tribes, and the fact that for hun- 
 dreds of years they were not effectually conquered. 
 Even as late as the first century of our era, Yamato- 
 Dake, the great warrior prince, had to spend his whole 
 life fighting these tribes, one after another, and died be- 
 fore returning to the capital. As late as the regency 
 of Queen Jingo Koge (about A.D. 200), eight hundred 
 and fifty years after Jimmu's time, there was no settled 
 or widely extended empire, (c) The mention of "ter- 
 torial owners," even of Yamato and of the "rulers" of 
 Idzumo, with many other facts, clearly shows that Jini- 
 mu and his successors were for many centuries rulers of 
 only a part of what is now Japan, and that their domin- 
 ions were extended slowly by fighting. So that, while 
 in honor of the imperial house the early rulers of Ja- 
 pan may be spoken of as Emperors and their dominion 
 as an empire, it is not historically correct; on the con- 
 trary, Jimmu was the same kind of a warrior chieftain 
 as those of the Danes or the Norsemen who led their 
 followers fierce and strong from the north country into 
 England. All was rough, heroic, and fierce, and there 
 were laid the beginnings of a nationality which has re- 
 mained unbroken by any foreign power to this day. But 
 those beginnings were laid in struggle and by conquest 
 of the weaker peoples already in the country.* And 
 for many centuries after their first so-called Emperor it 
 
 * We cannot understand the ground for the statement bj' 
 the Japanese authors ("History of the Empire of Japan," 
 p 16) that "the Japanese Empire has an origin different 
 from that of other states. It owes nothing to aggression, 
 conquest, ' ' etc. This is certainly incorrect, the Ko-ji-ki being 
 witness. 
 
POLITICAL IDEAS AND MANNER OP RULE. 57 
 
 was no empire, certainly not until after Jingo's invasion 
 and conquest of Southern Korea. As to Queen Jingo's 
 conquest of Korea, however, Griffis has serious doubts, 
 and Prof. Chamberlain says: "There is no mention 
 of the subjugation of Korea in Chinese or Korean his- 
 tories, and the dates given in the Nihongi clearly show 
 the inconsistency of the whole story." 
 
 Still the evidences of contact with Korea are so nu- 
 merous, and the fighting qualities of the early Japa- 
 nese being reasonably assumed, we need not reject the 
 story of the Korean invasion as entirely unhistorical. 
 As for the Chinese, they were leaders in civilization 
 for three thousand years before Christ, and naturally 
 became the teachers first of the Koreans and then of 
 the Japanese; for the conquest of Korea by the Japa- 
 nese under Queen Jingo was the opening of the chan- 
 nel for a stream of enlightenment to flow from China 
 and Korea, a stream that flowed for many centuries. 
 
 About the year 285 A.D. the tribute from Korea was 
 brought by Wani, said to be a scholar who subsequently 
 taught that crown prince who afterwards became Em- 
 peror Nintoku. (See p. 46.) This Korean teacher was 
 naturalized, it is said, and his descendants were teach- 
 ers at court, and therefore we may suppose that a few of 
 the court officials and princes learned to read and write 
 a little Chinese. At least by the year 400 A.D. the 
 reigning sovereign sent out secretaries or chroniclers to 
 the seats of the district rulers for the purpose of record- 
 ing and forwarding to the capital important events and 
 doings. Hence it is probably safe to say that reliable 
 Japanese history began about 400 A.D. 
 
CHAPTER n. 
 
 CIVILIZA TION FR OM TEE CONTINENT BR TJQET IN. 
 
 I. Introduction of Buddhism and Confucianism. 
 
 Religion is the most powerful of all the things that 
 shape a nation's civilization. This is so because reli- 
 gious beliefs strike deeper into the heart. As is their 
 religion so are a people's thought and life. Now we are 
 come to the time when a new and foreign religion is 
 brought in. The introduction of Buddhism marks a 
 most important date in the history of the Japanese. It 
 was in 555 A.D., in the reign of Kimmei Tenno, the 
 twenty-ninth Emperor. In that year the ambassador 
 from a tributary state in Korea brought over an image 
 of Shaka (the Buddha) as a gift to the Emperor, also 
 some books explaining the Buddhist doctrines. 
 
 As Japan looked upon Korea and China as much ad- 
 vanced, and as the ambassador was not backward in 
 commending the new religion, informing his majesty 
 that all the* great countries this side of India had ac- 
 cepted the Buddhist religion, the Emperor was there- 
 fore favorably impressed, His Prime Minister, Iname, 
 likewise favored the new religion. But two other min- 
 isters of state said: "Not so; our country has its own 
 gods, and they perhaps will be angry if we worship a 
 foreign god." The Emperor said: "Let Iname try it." 
 And he, taking the image, forthwith set it up in a room 
 or shrine in his own house, and prayed to the new god. 
 But very soon there broke out upon the people an epi- 
 demic which the two ministers of state in superstitious 
 (58) 
 
BUDDHISM BROUGHT IN. 59 
 
 fear declared was a punishment for the worship of the 
 "foreign god." At their earnest entreaty the Emperor 
 ordered the image to be thrown into the canal * (where 
 now stands the great city of Osaka) and the house to be 
 destroyed. Thus the first effort to bring in Buddhism 
 failed. 
 
 Still later another and more successful attempt was 
 made, not, however, without bitter opposition. This 
 time two priests, a nun, and an image maker, some 
 books and images, and a temple carpenter were all sent 
 from Korea to the then reigning Emperor. In a little 
 while the Prime Minister, Umako, who had succeeded 
 his father, Iname, built temples and pagodas to Buddha. 
 Once more, as the story goes, a pestilence broke out 
 among the people, once more court officials protested 
 to the Emperor against the new gods and the new reli- 
 gion as being the cause of the people's afflictions, and 
 once more the decree went forth prohibiting the worship 
 of Buddha and commanding temples to be burned and 
 images thrown into the sea. But the plague stayed not; 
 it grew rather worse, and was explained to be a punish- 
 ment sent from Buddha, who had been insulted, and the 
 Prime Minister now got permission from the Emperor 
 to worship Buddha in his own house. 
 
 The next Emperor was for a long time ill, and suf- 
 fered so much that it occurred to him he should wor- 
 ship the new god, Buddha. The matter was discussed 
 by his ministers of state, and resulted in the formation 
 of two parties at court, the anti-Buddhists and pro- 
 Buddhists. A Buddhist priest was brought in to min- 
 ister by prayer and offerings in behalf of the sick Em- 
 
 * Afterwards, when Buddhism triumphed, a temple was 
 built near the place where that first image had been thrown 
 into the water. 
 
60 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 peror; but he died, and this was the occasion of an out- 
 break between the two parties. The Prime Minister, 
 Umako, and the Regent, Prince Shotoku, led a body of 
 troops against the anti-Buddhists, killing their leader 
 and another minister of state. The opponents of the 
 new religion were now either put out of the way or de- 
 prived of political power, and Prince Shotoku and the 
 Prime Minister devoted themselves with great zeal to 
 preaching the new faith. Thenceforth Buddhism began 
 its triumphant course, its first victory being won by the 
 sword. Umako, still Prime Minister, and still powerful 
 in the government, sent persons to Korea to study the 
 Buddhist doctrines, and he set apart a number of priests 
 and nuns, and -built temples for the new religion. 
 
 But it was in the reign of a woman, a later sovereign, 
 named Suiko, that Buddhism was publicly adopted as 
 the religion of the sovereign and the court. She issued a 
 proclamation to her subjects approving of the Buddhist 
 religion. Her Regent and nephew, Prince Shotoku, en- 
 couraged her in all this, and is known as the founder 
 of Buddhism in Japan. The Buddhist priests would 
 not like to claim a woman as their founder. Shotoku 
 is held in greatest reverence, and is said to have been a 
 prodigy from birth, that he could speak from the hour 
 he was born, could attend to many things at the same 
 time, and had a wonderful memory; hence is sometimes 
 named the Prince of Eight Ears. Using all his author- 
 ity and influence in favor of the new faith, orders were 
 issued to the crown prince and other princes of the 
 blood, and to the high ministers of state, to have images 
 made and set up. Ranks of honor were conferred upon 
 image makers, and grants of rice lands bestowed upon 
 them. In the old central provinces many temples were 
 built. It is indeed said thatseveral of the oldest Buddhist 
 
THE RULERS EMBRACE BUDDHISM. 61 
 
 temples in Yamato and the central provinces date their 
 foundation from Shotoku's time. He had large copper 
 images of Buddha made for each government officer, the 
 king of Korea sending a contribution of gold for the ex- 
 pense. The officials of the government, following the 
 Regent's example, rivaled each other in building tem- 
 ples and supporting them at their own expense. 
 
 After thirty years as Regent and chief man in the gov- 
 ernment, Shotoku died, but Buddhism went on. The 
 very next year the priests, nuns, and believers in Bud- 
 dha had become so numerous, and temples were in 
 so many places, that a general superintendent, or high 
 priest — a Korean, by the way — had to be appointed. 
 
 A few years after Shotoku's death, Umako, the ven- 
 erable Prime Minister, died, and soon after him Suiko, 
 the aged Empress. Thus the three advocates and found- 
 ers of Buddhism were all taken away, but the new reli- 
 gion was so well planted in the soil of Japan that it was 
 destined to completely change the mind of the nation. 
 
 Summing up, we find that from the first effort to in- 
 troduce Buddhism to Suiko's death (630 A.D.) seventy- 
 five years elapsed. During the first thirty-two years of 
 that period it failed to get a footing, but during the 
 next forty-three years it gradually extended through- 
 out the land. 
 
 Another noteworthy fact is that its first converts 
 were the rulers and princes at court. The Empress 
 Suiko did for Buddhism what Constantine the Great 
 did for Christianity in the Roman Empire. Since this 
 was the best she had ever heard, it is creditable to the 
 woman's heart that she so readily embraced the new 
 foreign religion and extended it among her subjects. 
 
 A brief account of this religion is in order. Bud- 
 dhism was originated in India by a man whose name 
 
62 japan: counts y, couet, people. 
 
 was Gautama (Shakya Muni), born probably about 500 
 B.C. The time of his birth is uncertain. 
 
 Taking a dark view of the world and Of human life, 
 he forsook his wife and little son and went away into 
 the hills. There he joined himself to a hermit living 
 in a cave, but being disappointed in not finding deliv- 
 erance from doubt and evil in the hermit's teachings, 
 he went forth again and spent a long time in meditation 
 and self-denial in the lonely fields. Finally, when 
 weakened and reduced in body, he found, as he imag- 
 ined, the True Path. 
 
 He had reached the conclusion that all evil is the re- 
 sult of desire, and all desire is the consequence of indi- 
 vidual existence; hence he concluded that the only way 
 to get rid of evil is to get rid of desire and of individual 
 existence. He also got the idea that for wrong deeds, 
 or indulgences in one's life, their effects must be suf- 
 fered in the next life, and so the ills and sorrows that 
 we now suffer are the result of bad deeds in a former 
 state of existence. This suffering in one lifetime the 
 effects of deeds done in a previous lifetime is known as 
 the law of Kharma. 
 
 Now as no one is able to get rid of desire in one life- 
 time, and as every one must suffer according to the law 
 of Kharma, so when one dies he must be born again in 
 another form, generally an animal of some kind — a 
 beast, reptile, or worm. This doctrine of being reborn 
 in another form after one dies is the doctrine of trans- 
 migration of souls, as held by the Greeks and other an- 
 cient peoples. If one has been very bad, the next time 
 he is born he will have to be a hog, loathsome snake, 
 or vile worm. And so there are for every one cycles of 
 living, dying, and being reborn, that go on for ages and 
 ages indefinitely. Finally a few, and only a few, reach 
 
THE BUDDHIST SYSTEM. 63 
 
 a state of deliverance called Nirvana. But what does 
 Nirvana mean? It means either the end of all existence, 
 annihilation, so say some scholars; or reabsorption of 
 the soul hack into the changeless ocean of existence, so 
 say others. Practically, either way amounts to the same 
 thing, for it is a salvation that ends in losing all individual 
 existence and activity. The soul has been literally lost. 
 He also taught that the world passes through cycles of 
 development, followed by corresponding periods of de- 
 cay, and that for each world cycle there is some sort of 
 incarnation such as Buddha himself was. In some of 
 the previous cycles the incarnation had been in the form 
 of an animal.* 
 
 As Shakya Muni, the founder, left his own wife and 
 children, so he taught that in order to reach the state 
 of Nirvana no one could marry, and hence his earlier 
 disciples in India were monks and nuns. And so 
 Buddhism, as originally taught, was not only atheistic 
 and materialistic, since Shakya left never a word about 
 God or a first creating cause of the world, but it was 
 also unfriendly to the family and social life of mankind. 
 Knowing nothing of the one true and living God and 
 Heavenly Father, this dreary system had at first no 
 God, no Saviour, and no worship. Afterwards, how- 
 ever, as it spread from India into China, Siam, and 
 other countries, it was changed, many gods and god- 
 desses being gradually added, Shakya Muni, named 
 the Buddha (Dai Butsu in Japanese), being consid- 
 ered the chief god. The blank idea of a motionless, 
 dead state of existence, Nirvana, was also changed into 
 something more real and pleasing to the senses. And 
 
 *It is difficult to decide whether Gautama himself taught 
 this theory of world cycles and incarnations, or whether his 
 disciples foisted it upon his system. 
 
64 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 when the Buddhists came over from Korea into Japan 
 they brought images, ceremonies, and superstitions. 
 They had temples, altars, and priests. They taught 
 penance, but allowed all to marry and engage in the 
 business of the world except the priests and nuns. 
 They proclaimed a doctrine of jigoku (hell), with its 
 monstrous devils and burning flames, where in purga- 
 torial torments the wicked are consigned; and paradise 
 (gohuraku), rude and sensuous, where the faithful are 
 happy. As we shall see later, the eating of flesh and 
 the killing of animals was forbidden, as in other Bud- 
 dhist countries. This was to avoid, as they supposed, 
 the eating of a grandfather, or a father, who might 
 have been reborn as a pig, cow, or some other animal, 
 the thought of which would have been horrible to their 
 children. 
 
 The moral teachings of Buddhism, as far as they go, 
 are not bad, and may be summed up in the five com- 
 mandments: (1) Against stealing, (2) against lying, (3) 
 against intemperance, (4) against murder, (5) against 
 adultery. 
 
 Resuming the story of the spread of Buddhism, after 
 the death of Empress Suiko, we find that, once adopted 
 by the rulers, the spread of this religion goes on apace, 
 so that not many decades pass befoi-e the reigning sov- 
 ereign commanded every house to have a Buddhist 
 altar, and forbade the slaying of animals and eating of 
 flesh, and a sovereign commanded copies of Buddhist 
 scriptures to be written, and images to be made for the 
 governors of provinces, and temples to be built for 
 priests and nuns. If man could be made religious and 
 good by commands of earthly rulers, and by building- 
 temples and casting images, then the Japanese ought 
 to have been the best of people. As a fact, however, 
 
FOUNDING OF NAEA, THE NEW CAPITAL. 65 
 
 most of the common people living in back-lying dis- 
 tricts would fain hold on to their old gods, worshiping 
 the sun and moon and dead ancestors. It was in this 
 period that Kara, the capital, was built in Yamato 
 Province. 
 
 The founding of the new capital was the work of 
 Gemmyo (A.D. 710), another female sovereign. Hith- 
 erto the capital had been moved from place to place, a 
 new one being set up every time a sovereign died; but 
 then it became fixed for about eighty years. The pal- 
 ace and left and right halves of the new capital are 
 built in a style and size never before known. During 
 the Nara epoch prosperity and progress were marked; 
 and nothing could exceed the devotion of the imperial 
 house to the Buddhist religion, says a Japanese histo- 
 rian. Here at Nara they built the temple of Todaiji, 
 one of the most remarkable in the land, and in which 
 rests the celebrated image of Buddha. This image of 
 bronze is enoi-mous in size, being fifty-seven feet high, 
 the head and shoulders proportionately large. As usual, 
 the image sits upon a huge lotus flower. It is the lar- 
 gest image of Buddha in Japan. Here, too, is a magnifi- 
 cent sacred grove, more than one hundred years old, in 
 which gentle deer roam at will and are fed from the 
 hands of pious pilgrims, nuns, and residents. How do 
 they know but that they may in this way be feeding an 
 ancestor, whose soul has been reborn in the deer form? 
 On either side of the road to the town there is a row of 
 towering cryptomerias and stone- columned lanterns, 
 making a beautiful avenue of approach. One of the 
 oldest towns in the country, with its temples, groves, 
 and imperial tombs, Nara is still held in reverence and 
 much frequented by native pilgrims and foreign tour- 
 ists. 
 
 5 
 
66 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 The priests of Buddhism have now become important 
 personages at court, as personal friends and advisers of 
 the ruler. It is related of one of them, named Gyogi, 
 who had been elevated to the position of prelate at court 
 and archbishop of the country at large, that he was the 
 first to teach the doctrine of Buddha's incarnations. As 
 indicated above, though the rulers Were all enthusiastic 
 disciples of the Buddhist faith, the masses of the nation 
 still preferred their old Shinto gods, who, as they be- 
 lieved, were the ancestors of their race, the founders of 
 their state, to whom indeed they owed the very exist- 
 ence of their nation. Now this prejudice of the people 
 the Buddhist priests cunningly overcame by saying that 
 Amaterasu, whom all the Japanese worship as the sun 
 goddess and ancestress of their first Emperor, was her- 
 self an incarnation of JBuddha. Thus Gyogi and his 
 priests began the policy of compromise by preaching to 
 the multitude in such a way as to give good standing to 
 the old national gods of the land, and at the same time 
 get them to accept Buddhism, with Buddha as their 
 chief god. This compromising policy worked well. 
 When people's prejudices are satisfied, they will more 
 easily practice an inconsistency. 
 
 When the capital was removed from Nara to Kioto 
 (A.D. 794), not only the Emperor, great nobles, and 
 high officials, but the people also, began to accept Bud- 
 dhism as the orthodox faith. After the new capital had 
 been laid out and the imperial palaces erected, all on a 
 scale of magnificence that eclipsed the Nara capital, the 
 priests commanding the patronage of the rulers and 
 contributions of the upper classes built great temples 
 and pagodas in a style of architecture and wealth that 
 rivaled even the imperial buildings. The priests, now 
 a great multitude, have become proprietors of broad 
 
BUDDHISM IN POWER. 67 
 
 estates, and the head priests, at least, have the wealth 
 and position of high government officials. Buddhism 
 is now the established religion, supported every way by 
 the government. 
 
 A little later a movement to popularize Buddhism 
 throughout the land was again taken up. There lived 
 at this time two remarkable priests, who went to China 
 to study, and returned, one of them to found a new 
 Buddhist sect, and to build near the new capital a cele- 
 brated temple on Mount Heizafn overlooking the palace. 
 This temple was to protect the imperial family from bad 
 luck, evil spirits, and the like, which, as they believed, 
 came from the northeast. Taking up the compromising 
 work named above, these two priests pushed it still far- 
 ther. Going through the country as popular preachers, 
 they taught that all of the Japanese gods were manifes- 
 tations of the one divine being, Buddha. The result 
 was a mixed religion of Buddhism and Shintoism, and 
 thus the new religion was completely popularized with 
 the people. They saw their old national gods not dis- 
 carded, but given honorable rank in the Buddhist pan- 
 theon of gods and goddesses, and this pleased them. 
 The adroit and time-serving Buddhist priests even par- 
 ticipated in the ceremony of Gosaeye — the procession and 
 worship of the imperial ancestors of the land. A few 
 facts illustrating how completely Buddhism had gained 
 the day may be added: 
 
 1. It became a custom with the Emperors, after sit- 
 ting upon the throne for a short while, to abdicate and 
 become priest- kings, retiring with shaven heads to some 
 temple palace. 
 
 2. The codes of law established in a former period 
 were afterwards almost entirely set aside by Buddhist 
 teachings and sanctions. 
 
(68) 
 
THE CHINESE LEARNING. "69 
 
 3. The great temples and monasteries at Kioto, and 
 the one at Nara, became castles and camps for the train- 
 ing of soldiers. The priests and lord high abbots, 
 haughty and powerful, wished to be surrounded by 
 bodies of priestly soldiers, and on more than one occa- 
 sion they marched, armed and armored, into Kioto to 
 enforce with spears and long swords their demand upon 
 the government. One of the Emperors had to invite a 
 powerful general of the Minamoto clan to come to the 
 capital to defend him against those temple priests and 
 soldiers. What a contrast this, since the time when by 
 command of an Emperor the image of Buddha was cast 
 into the sea and the shrine destroyed! but that was 
 more than five hundred years previous. 
 
 II. The Chinese Leakning. 
 
 Along with Buddhism came the Chinese learning. 
 Having no written language of their own, the mastery 
 of the complex Chinese characters, to know them at 
 sight, write them correctly, and to use the proper ones 
 for their Japanese words, must have been a most difficult 
 task. It is not, surprising, then, that so many years 
 passed from the time when Wani brought the characters 
 over from Korea till the day when the Japanese wrote 
 their first book* in those Chinese characters. The first 
 writings by Japanese consisted of brief chronicles of 
 events and doings reported to the central government. 
 In ancient times the writing men belonged to a certain 
 family, this knowledge or art being handed down from 
 father to son. Accordingly Wani, who was originally 
 a Korean, became a naturalized subject, and he and his 
 descendants were kept at the capital to write and teach 
 
 * See Ko-ji-ki, oldest extant book, 711 A.D. 
 
70 japan: court, country, people. 
 
 the Chinese characters. This became their authorized 
 and hereditary profession. In process of time schools 
 were set up for the teaching of young princes, sons of 
 nohles, and high officials. After the removal of the 
 capital to Kioto a sort of central university, so called, 
 was opened, where history, Chinese classics,* law, and 
 mathematics were studied. About this time a few 
 schools were also opened in some of the principal pro- 
 vincial towns for the sons of governors and other chief 
 officials. In the so-called university at Kioto almost 
 nothing of our modern sciences was known. Medicine, 
 botany, and the anatomy in vogue in China probably 
 received some attention. In China it seems that certain 
 men were appointed to experiment with medicine upon 
 monkeys, and to dissect their bodies. In this way 
 charts and diagrams were made, and these were proba- 
 bly used in Japan, but were afterwards found to be im- 
 perfect and false. It came to pass in process of time 
 that there arose a class of scholars in Japan who re- 
 garded the Confucian classics (named after Confucius, 
 a Chinese sage) and the Chinese philosophy as the 
 height of all human wisdom, the treasury of precept 
 and principle for the family, the guide for the right 
 conduct of "affairs of state, and the standard of literary 
 taste and composition. And without doubt there is in 
 the Chinese classics much excellent teaching touching 
 filial piety, fidelity, justice, and even benevolence. But 
 the cultivation of Chinese literature and composition 
 left the Japanese language and literature neglected as 
 unworthy of the attention of scholars and accomplished 
 
 *The classics are the four books (Great Learning, Doctrine 
 of the Mean, the Analects, Sayings of Mencius); and five can- 
 ons (Book of Changes, of Poetry, History, Kites, and Spring 
 and Autumn). 
 
THE CHINESE LEARNING. 71 
 
 persons. Every scholar must write in Chinese, scrupu- 
 lously affecting Chinese styles. This was strange, had 
 not precisely the same thing occurred among other na- 
 tions. Just as the educated few in Japan, despising 
 their own language, proudly affected the letters and 
 philosophy of China, so it was in Rome, where Greek 
 letters, art, and manners were much in vogue, in pref- 
 erence to the Roman, which were simpler. And in En- 
 gland too the educated classes of the court, gentry, and 
 clergy once came near discarding their vernacular for 
 Latin and Norman French. There are men still living 
 who, when boys at school, had to give as much time to 
 writing Latin verse as to their mother tongue.* In 
 Japan the bad fashion once set continued to be slavish- 
 ly followed for many centuries by the educated few. It 
 must be said to the credit of the Buddhist priests that, 
 with all their faults, they promoted the Chinese civili- 
 zation among the Japanese. As in Europe the clergy 
 were for a long time the chief teachers and bookmak- 
 ers, so in Japan the priests of the foreign religion were 
 leaders in spreading Chinese learning and arts. One 
 notable exception is that of the Sugawara family, not 
 priests, the members of which held for generations the 
 position of court teachers. It is said that several of the 
 Emperors, deeply versed in Chinese literature, were pa- 
 trons of letters and art and promoted the establishment 
 of schools and the formation of libraries in their capital. 
 Three of them were so skillful in writing the Chinese 
 characters as to earn the name "the three penmen." 
 Indeed the skilled penman was held in as high rank as the 
 j ainter. Penmanship in Japan and China, not being the 
 
 * The writer once heard the Dean of Westminster speak of 
 this and lament it. 
 
72 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 simple thing of writing the twenty-six letters of the al- 
 phabet, but requiring a knowledge of thousands of com- 
 plex characters, was regarded as a profession and a fine 
 art. Some of these characters are simple enough — for 
 examj^le, XI, mouth; U, sun or day; JU, mountain; 
 X^, man; etc. But others require ten or twelve dif- 
 ferent strokes and dots — for example, f% } gate or door; 
 ^, iron; J^, horse; etc. 
 
 ' III. Influence op New Religion and Learning 
 at Court. 
 
 The influence of the Buddhist creed and Chinese 
 learning was nowhere so quick and powerful as at the 
 throne and court. Scarcely had the Empress Suiko 
 and her Regent, _Shotoku, publicly embraced the Bud- 
 dhist religion before they began adopting Chinese mod- 
 els of government, official rank, and ceremony. It was 
 in her reign that the first official intercourse took place 
 Math China. The salutation was as follows: "The 
 sovereign of the Empire of the Rising Sun to the sover- 
 eign of the Empire of the Setting Sun." 
 
 Being not only a religious reformer, but a wise ruler 
 as well, Shotoku studied the government and modes of 
 court procedure of China, adapting them to his own 
 country. He compiled a kind of code of laws of seven- 
 teen articles based on the doctrines of Buddhism and 
 teachings of Confucianism. This was the first written 
 law for the Japanese. This first attempt was followed 
 by a more extended body of laws about the middle of 
 the seventh century, and named "Taikwa Reforms," 
 but was not completed until many years afterwards. 
 These reforms touched certain matters important to the 
 government and to the people, such as: 
 
 1. Measures relating to selling and holding lands. 
 
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 73 
 
 Brought up in democratic America, some of my younger 
 readers may be surprised to learn that the legal right to 
 hold land as private property was not recognized in 
 Japan until after 1868. Yet even under the Taikwa 
 reforms, steps were taken to stop the nobles and high 
 officials from grabbing all the lands. The common 
 people could not own land at all. But to every child 
 six years old, two-thirds of an acre was allotted, which 
 however reverted to the state for redistribution. This 
 reminds us of the law given by Moses to the Israelites, 
 the period of redistribution being the fiftieth year in- 
 stead of the sixth. Thus all the land was regarded as 
 the property of the state or crown. 
 
 2. Measures of taxation. The taxes were of three 
 kinds: so, yo, and cho. The so was eight sheaves of 
 rice out of every hundred, the estimated crop of a half 
 acre. The yo was ten days of public labor by every 
 man twenty-one years old, but might be paid in cloth 
 instead. The cho was a tax upon silk, fish, and other 
 productions got out in large quantities. 
 
 3. Reforms relating to local government. 
 
 The empire was divided into fifty-eight provinces and 
 five hundred districts, and the smallest unit for local ad- 
 ministration was the space occupied by five houses. The 
 people lived for the most part in towns and villages. On 
 the principal roads from the capital to the provinces were 
 relays of post horses. At important points on the way 
 were guardhouses, lookouts, and garrisons to arrest 
 suspicious persons and keep order. Curiously enough, 
 persons traveling in the interior were required to carry 
 a hand bell and a passport. Just when they had to jin- 
 gle the bell we are not told; of course the passport 
 had to be shown at the "road-doors" along the way. 
 At first the appointments to office in the provinces 
 
?4 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 and districts were to be upon the merit of the person, 
 according to the civil service theory in China; but this 
 plan did not work well, and the custom was renewed of 
 holding office for life, with a good prospect of the son's 
 holding the same position. As a matter of fact, office 
 holding was generally handed down from father to son 
 in certain ruling families in each town or village. 
 
 4. Administrative organization of central government. 
 In all nations there has been a slow growth of the various 
 offices and functions in governmental affairs. Away 
 back in primitive times, in the days of Abraham, for ex- 
 ample, it was the patriarch or prince of the tribe who 
 was in turn the judge, priest, and prophet, and the leader 
 in war. In process of time these different offices were 
 intrusted to certain persons, and generally to the head 
 of the same family in successive generations. The 
 first to be thus separated were men for priests and 
 prophets; later, men for judges; latest of all, the gen- 
 eral of the army. With us even now the President of 
 the United States is theoretically commander in chief 
 of all our army and navy. So among the Japanese 
 there was a slow growth of differing functions and de- 
 partments in the government. At first we see the Mi- 
 kado, or king, whose throne was his tent or hut, whose 
 capital was his camp. As judge he heard and decided 
 causes; as high priest, performed the ceremony of pu- 
 rification in behalf of his people; as general, he led 
 his fighting men to battle. Upon important matters 
 he consulted the assembled elders and head men as 
 his counsel or senate. Later there appeared with the 
 Mikado a kind of Prime Minister, and after that a Sho- 
 gun or general, while his brother or some prince of the 
 blood is the head of religious matters, a princess like- 
 wise becoming the priestess at the national shrine. Still 
 
CHINESE MODELS AT COUET. 75 
 
 later, in the Empress Stiiko's reign, besides the Prime 
 Minister, there appear two more high officials, the min- 
 ister of the left and the minister of the right; later still, 
 the minister of the interior. Along with these high 
 f unction aides eight boards were added, each in charge 
 of certain duties and departments of government; and 
 each board was again divided into bureaus. The gov- 
 ernment thus became thoroughly bureaucratic, as in 
 China; The Emperor no longer has personal oversight 
 and direction of government affairs. 
 
 Besides all this, six official ranks were created, each 
 rank being named by a word. Thus, first rank, virtue; 
 second, humanity; etc. Each of these ranks was di- 
 vided into a higher and lower order, making twelve or- 
 ders. Afterwards the number of distinctions or titles 
 was increased to nineteen. Now these orders or dis- 
 tinctions were not bestowed upon the individual, but 
 rather upon heads of families, and so handed down 
 to their sons. This whole system, attributed to Suiko's 
 Regent, Shotoku, an admirer of Chinese civilization, 
 was fashioned after the Chinese court and government, 
 and continued without much change until 1868. 
 
 Before touching upon the fifth feature of the Taikwa 
 reforms we would merely say that a third code of laws, 
 adopted a little later, was more thoroughly Chi- 
 nese than ever. This code of law and official proce- 
 dure, called the Taiho Statutes, was based upon the laws 
 of the Tang dynasty. It consists of two parts. The first 
 part is largely taken up with regulations pertaining to 
 the imperial court and officialdom generally, such as 
 rank, costumes, ceremonies; then religion, military de- 
 fense, buildings, etc. The second part is chiefly a 
 criminal code, and under the criminal code the penal- 
 ties were execution, exile, slavery, beating (stick), and 
 
76 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 scourging (whipping). In the trial of causes the dispu- 
 tants were sometimes required to submit to the ordeal 
 of plunging their hands in boiling water in the judge's 
 presence, and whoever could show hands unhurt was 
 accounted guiltless. The person accused of a crime 
 might be examined by torture to make him confess it, 
 and this custom continued until recent years. Some of 
 the early Christian missionaries of the Meiji era (1868) 
 have witnessed examination of the accused by torture, 
 a cruel custom now abolished. 
 
 The throne and court of Japan had taken on the 
 ceremony and pomp of the Chinese at the beginning of 
 the eighth century A.D.; for we read that when the 
 Emperor visited a certain palace to receive the New 
 Year's congratulations of his subjects, the princes of 
 the blood, the ministers of state, and other dignitaries, 
 wore for the first time duly prescribed official uniforms, 
 the whole ceremonial being conducted with the great- 
 est pomp and etiquette. Thenceforth the rules for 
 court ceremonies and gradations of official rank were 
 unchangeably fixed. 
 
 5. We may now return to consider the rules relating 
 to the census, or families and classes. These rules 
 had to do chiefly with the dividing of the people into 
 classes and ranks according to family descent, official 
 position, and the like. Some confusion had crept in. 
 The distinction between aristocratic families and the 
 inferior classes was becoming less clear. It was now 
 intended to distinguish the various families, their chief 
 branches and offshoots. All the people had to be clas- 
 sified into one of three classes : (1) those descended from 
 the deities; (2) those descended from the Emperor; and 
 (3) those of foreign descent. The basis of this classifi- 
 cation was the respect paid to noble families. 
 
ORIGIN OP SOCIAL CLASSES AND NAMES. 77 
 
 And thus we are brought face to face with a most 
 interesting question, and one beset with some difficulty 
 — namely, the origin of family names and social classes. 
 This is a question of interest to the student of civiliza- 
 tion in general, and the reader of Japanese history in 
 particular. It gives us the key with which to unlock 
 many doors of Japanese thought and social institutions, 
 explains many eventful turns in the history of this inter- 
 esting people, and is probably somewhat unique in the 
 development of their civilization. 
 
 To begin with, as previously indicated, the primitive 
 Japanese, like all primitive peoples, lived under a sort 
 of patriarchal system, the father of the tribe being its 
 ruler even when it had sub-families in it and num- 
 bered thousands of people. Under such a system fam- 
 ily names, as we now know the family, were not so im- 
 portant. Personal names were of course given, or, as 
 was the case among the Japanese, the children were 
 numbered in the order of their birth, first son, second 
 child, etc. 
 
 In the first stage of human civilization it is probable 
 that all of the members of the tribal family did all 
 kinds of work; for example, all are warriors, all hunt- 
 ers, fishermen, builders, according -to the season or 
 need. But when the Japanese came across from the 
 continent into the islands now named Japan, though 
 still patriarchal, they were already entering upon the 
 second stage of civilization — that is, the Mikado began 
 to make a distribution of authority and of labor among 
 his people. With these facts in mind we are prepared to 
 understand how family names and social classes took 
 -xieir origin, from one of three things, at least: 
 
 1. From the holding of office. From early times 
 governmental affairs were conducted by hereditary au- 
 
78 japan: countey, court, people. 
 
 thority, the original holder of an office handing it down 
 to his son for successive generations. It thus resulted 
 that family names were derived from official titles. 
 For example, the official title for persons conducting 
 religious duties and ceremonies was Nakatomi (literally, 
 intercessors) or Imbe, and so there came to be a family 
 of Nakatomis and of Imbes. In the same way a family of 
 Otomos arose, being at first the military title of those 
 commanding troops and guards. Of course at the first 
 the men selected for these posts were near kinsmen of 
 the Mikado, a son or brother. And this shows us how 
 a circle of court or noble families arose related by blood 
 to the sovereign. Again, among the common people 
 some were ordered to perform certain kinds of work for 
 the ruler, and this was from generation to generation 
 their work. Each class of workers was under the con- 
 trol of a head man, who generally belonged to some 
 branch of the ruler's family and received the official 
 title of Omi, Muraji, and soon; and these positions, be- 
 ing hereditary, resulted in forming a number of Omi 
 and Muraji families of the ruling class. Now while 
 this process of forming the ruling classes and families 
 from official position and title was going on, at the oth- 
 er end of the line there was 
 
 2. The origin of family names by occupation. Only 
 a few examples of the many must suffice. The makers 
 of jewels from jade and other stones were called Ta- 
 matsukuri, and this became finally their family or tribe 
 name. Cormorant keepers — i. e. , fishermen — took the 
 family name Kabane; rice tillers were called Tade; 
 road keepers Chimori; etc. — which afterwards became 
 common family or tribal names. Not only by custom 
 and convenience did the father and his descendants take 
 the name of their occupation as their family or clan 
 
BISE OP RULING FAMILIES. 79 
 
 name, but also by direct permission of the Mikado fam- 
 ilies or clans originated in the same fashion. For in- 
 stance, we read in the time of a certain ruler that the 
 stone- coffin makers and earthenware masters were es- 
 tablished as separate clans or tribes, each bearing these 
 names. And so other tribal families bearing the name 
 of Fishers, Butlers, Keepers, Bankers, were formed. 
 
 3. And yet another source of family names was some 
 signal event, exploit, or important place. For instance, 
 the tachibana (orange) was brought over from Korea, 
 and the man who brought the first one to the Mikado, 
 or who first grew it in Japanese soil, was nonored with 
 the name of Tachibana as a title of nobility; cf. 
 House of Orange in English history. 
 
 To this category belongs also a large number of 
 territorial lords who took the name of the province or 
 conquered district to which they had been appointed 
 governors, as their house or family name. It explains 
 itself when in the same paragraph in the Ko-ji-ki it is 
 said that "seventy kings and queens were all granted 
 rulerships in the various lands," and that "savage 
 deities and unsubmissive peoples were subdued in the 
 East and West." Each one of these territorial lords, 
 going down from the capital with a few military retain- 
 ers, took control of his assigned district, and so became 
 one of the ruling class; the conquered tribe meanwhile 
 becoming the serfs of his clan. Those territorial lords 
 vrere always ready to grab more lands, so as to increase 
 the number and strength of their clans. As a part of 
 the social system slavery existed. The slave class was 
 increased from time to time by the degradation of aris- 
 tocrats as a punishment, or by the employment of pris- 
 oners of war in servile labor. The common people were 
 regarded as the property of the aristocrats, being bought 
 
80 japan: countet, coubt, people. 
 
 and sold at the will of the latter. Marriage between 
 the ruling classes and the lower did not take place. 
 From the foregoing facts we see how the ruling families 
 and upper classes were formed, both those at the capi- 
 tal and the territorial lords in the provinces; and how 
 under them the serfs and common people gradually be- 
 came the inferior part of the clan. 
 
 Now it naturally came to pass that certain of the 
 noble or aristocratic families became more influential 
 with the throne than others, and either on account of 
 ability and wisdom, or by the favoritism of the sover- 
 eign, rose to higher position at court. It has always 
 been so. Among the first to rise into prominence after 
 the introduction of Buddhism was the Tachibana fami- 
 ly (Orange family), previously mentioned. The Suga- 
 wara house was also famous at court for their learning, 
 this being their family profession. They were the in- 
 structors of princes of the blood. The most conspicu- 
 ous noblemen of the Sugawara house was Michizane, 
 a man of lofty character and brilliant in Chinese learn* 
 ing. He rose to the position of Minister of the Inte 
 rior, and besides was the honest counselor of the young 
 Emperor whom he had taught as a boy prince. But 
 another noble family, the Fujiwaras, had for a long 
 time been more noted, honored, and powerful than any 
 other, nor did they like to see Michizane standing so 
 near to the Emperor and wielding so much influence 
 with him; therefore they had him sent into honorable 
 banishment as a viceroy in Kiushiu. There he died 
 about 900 A.D. After his death a great change of 
 opinion took place, and finally he was canonized with 
 the name of Ten j in (heavenly man), and in his honor the, 
 25th of every month was a holiday in all schools, and 
 the 25th of June was his annual festival. Boys learn- 
 
POWERFUL PUJIWARA FAMILY. 81 
 
 ing to write difficult Chinese characters, then so much 
 prized, had to pray to Tenjin for help. As is frequent- 
 ly the case in history, the powerful Fujiwaras were 
 ready to garnish his tomb since he was dead and out of 
 their way. Speaking of the Fujiwaras, there are few 
 examples in history of a noble family enjoying such ex- 
 traordinary honor and power in the affairs of royalty 
 and of state. According to legend, the ancestor of this 
 noble house came down with Jimmu's grandfather from 
 the heavenly plains. Therefore it ranks next to the 
 imperial house itself as the oldest and most honora- 
 ble family in the whole empire. Besides, there sprang 
 out of this family men of marked ability in controlling 
 men and directing affairs. Then again several circum- 
 stances helped their ambitions and fortunes. Owing to 
 the early death of one of the Emperors, the throne was 
 left to a mere child, which made a Regent necessary. 
 Now the Prime Minister was already a Fujiwara, and 
 the result was that both the Prime Minister and Regent 
 were of this proud family. Having once gotten affairs 
 under their hands, they were loath to give back the 
 reins when the child became a man. 
 
 Now and then a strong young Emperor was able to 
 assert his authority and to live out his days upon the 
 throne; but the most of them, becoming restless under 
 the restraints imposed upon them after reaching man- 
 hood, soon resigned and retired as priests or monks with 
 shaven head to a monastery. Thus for a considerable 
 period Japan was afflicted with a line of " child rulers," 
 and "ex-Emperors." This was just what the ambitious 
 and powerful Fuj iwaras liked. An other thing they liked 
 was the choosing of the queen from among their daugh- 
 ters. Thus it came to pass that the Prime Minister 
 or Regent was grandfather of the boy Emperor and had 
 6 
 
02 japan: country, couet, people. 
 
 charge of his education, and continued to exercise the 
 strongest influence over him after he was elevated to 
 the throne. Again (888 A.D.), another high office was 
 created, the office of Kwambaku, and of course it was 
 filled by a member of this powerful family. Kwamba- 
 ku means literally "to bolt the door." In early times 
 anybody had access to the throne or could send up 
 memorials to the sovereign concerning grievances and 
 evils touching the welfare of the country. This new of- 
 fice was created ostensibly to prevent his imperial maj- 
 esty from being annoyed by too many persons seeking 
 audience. But the Kwambaku soon learned how to 
 " bolt the door "against all persons tohom he did not wish 
 to see coming into communication with the Emperor. 
 It soon came to pass, therefore, that the Emperor could 
 see only such persons and receive such information as 
 this new doorkeeper chose to admit. 
 
 Shortly after this, Daigo came to the throne and ruled 
 for the long period of thirty years. By reason of his con- 
 cern for the welfare of the people, his reign is regarded 
 in Japanese history as the golden age. The arts flour- 
 ished, and the country was in comparative peace. But 
 under the affluence and arts at the court and capital, so- 
 cial corruption was lurking. The history of nations tells 
 how prosperity is often followed by decline. These 
 young Japanese Emperors became more addicted to the 
 pleasures and flatteries of their intriguing wives and con- 
 cubines than to the affairs of State. Even had they a de- 
 sire to look after the affairs of the empire, the door of 
 communication from the country to the throne was 
 barred. Thenceforth for a hundred and fifty years the 
 administration of the government was in the hands of 
 the Fujiwara family. But to the ancient and powerful 
 Fujiwaras a change came — even their downfall. 
 
CHAPTER in. 
 
 RISE OF MILITARY NOBLES WITH THEIR CLANS— 
 OVERTHROW OF THE COURT NOBLES— WAR OF 
 WHITE AND RED ROSES. 
 
 I. Foundations of Feudalism Laid. 
 
 From early times the Yamato-Japanese, like the an- 
 cient Romans, were surrounded by hostile tribes more 
 or less barbarous, tribes that must be conquered. And 
 even after the stage was reached properly called em- 
 pire, and Japan had apparently pacified the surrounding 
 regions, either by whipping them into subjection or 
 by blending the policy of marriage alliance with that 
 of bow and spear, there was ever and anon fresh out- 
 breaks. In Kiushiu and Shikoku, on the west coasts, 
 and in the Kwanto region eastward there were frequent 
 rebellions. In the remote provinces, especially on the 
 northern frontiers where the savages and still uncon- 
 quered Ainus dwelt, garrisons had to be stationed. 
 Indeed, in all the provinces bands of troops had to be 
 kept. In Kioto, now a rich Oriental capital, the six 
 guards, commanded by six generals, were maintained as 
 a kind of imperial guard. Then there was Korea, that 
 had occasionally to be looked after by sending over 
 troops to enforce the tribute, or give protection against 
 China. All this campaigning, fighting, and garrison- 
 ing, kept up at intervals for one thousand years, could 
 naturally produce but one result: a strong warlike 
 spirit. Like the Romans, the Japanese are a nation of 
 fighters. 
 
 As previously observed, the Tachibanas, Suguwaras, 
 
 (83) 
 
84 japan: country, couet, people. 
 
 Fujiwaras, and other noble families had stood in great 
 power at the capital, especially the Fujiwaras, who for 
 a long time had been the head of everything, including 
 military affairs as well. And so when the Emperors, 
 no longer following the example of earlier rulers, 
 ceased to lead their armies out to battle, it fell upon 
 some Fujiwara nobles to take the field and suppress 
 the rebellion. But after a while they also became 
 too fond of their pleasures or their literature at the 
 capital to enjoy the rough experiences of life and 
 warfare in the distant provinces or military districts. 
 Hence, though still receiving appointments as provin- 
 cial governors, they remained at the capital and sent 
 out to rule in their name some of the Samurai (military 
 gentry), or some young officer or noble selected from 
 other great families. The natural result of this policy 
 was the rise of a class of military nobles, with their 
 fighting clans, outside of the Fujiwara clan. This was 
 a great mistake. It encouraged the growth of two 
 powerful military clans led by military nobles, des- 
 tined to become rivals of the court nobles. The two 
 powerful military families or clans were the Taira and 
 the Minamoto. They played a leading part upon the 
 stage of national affairs of this period, and their strug- 
 gles in overthrowing the Fujiwaras, and then each 
 other, make celebrated chapters in Japanese history. 
 
 Just a word as to the origin of these two clans. These 
 also had royal blood in their veins, for they claim de- 
 scent in a branch line from former Emperors. The 
 Minamoto clan was descended from Emperor Seiwa, and 
 from this clan the celebrated warrior Yoritomo sprang. 
 The ancestor of the Taira clan was descended from 
 Emperor Kwammu, and gave to Japanese history the 
 great Kiyomori. The heads of these two clans, though 
 
RISE OF MILITARY NOBLES. 85 
 
 not counted now as members of the imperial family, 
 nevertheless because of their royal descent were in many 
 cases favored with positions in the central government 
 or with posts as provincial governors. According to 
 the fashion of the times, they acquired as provincial 
 governors rule over wide territory, and gathered around 
 themselves large bands of Samurai as military retainers. 
 Hitherto the Samurai had been compelled by custom to 
 attach themselves to the Fujiwara clan, but thenceforth 
 they began to follow the Tairas or Minamotos. That 
 part of the Taikwa reforms already mentioned, touch- 
 ing the unlawful getting of territory by the territorial 
 governors, failed in the end, like the rest. Afterwards, 
 as the imperial house declined in prestige and author- 
 ity, the practice of grabbing and holding possession of 
 large districts, nothwithstanding the Emperor's sover- 
 eign right, went on worse and worse. Smaller terri- 
 torial nobles and lords wishing to remove to Kioto, the 
 capital of fashion and pleasure, transferred their es- 
 tates to the great nobles, who gradually widened their 
 landed possessions. These large provincial landlords 
 were called Daimyos (great men) and had their own 
 military retainers, the Samurai, while the common peo- 
 ple now practically tilled their lands in serfdom. 
 
 We need not be told that the rising military chiefs of 
 the Tairas and Minamotos, following the example so long 
 set by the court nobles and provincial governors, began 
 likewise to extend their rule and possessions over large 
 districts. In fact, Kiyomori, the famous leader of the 
 Taira clan, before striking his final blow for supremacy 
 had gotten sway over thirty provinces. The Taira 
 chiefs established themselves for the most part in Cen- 
 tral and Southwest Japan; while the Minamotos, under 
 Yoritomo and his brothers, held their domains in 
 
86 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 the Kwanto, and other eastern and northern prov- 
 inces. Their territory being separated in this way, 
 there was for a while no conflict; hut as the day of 
 struggle for supremacy between these two clans ap- 
 proached, as meanwhile the power of the imperial house 
 declined, and the Fujiwaras became weak from luxury 
 and social corruptions, the times of lawlessness, dan- 
 ger, and confusion came on apace. In the first place, 
 those intriguing ex-Emperors wielded more power be- 
 hind the screens than the reigning Emperor; the high 
 police court at Kioto and the six imperial guards were 
 no longer able to punish offenders or prosecute unjust 
 officials; the provinces were being scurried and pillaged 
 by bands of marauders; the seacoasts, south and west, 
 were infested by pirates, some of them Japanese and 
 some of them Koreans; and then, worst of all, the reign- 
 ing Emperors were kept in ignorance of the real condi- 
 tion; and, to add still further to the troubles, the priests 
 and lord high abbots, with their castle temples and 
 retinues of armed soldiers, began to take a part in gov- 
 ernment intrigues. All of this was but the lowering of 
 the storm soon to burst upon the country. The fore- 
 warning of dreadful civil wars came in the year 939 
 A.D., when simultaneously east and west the stand- 
 ards of insurrection were raised, both directed against 
 the throne. They were both quickly quelled by play- 
 ing one military clan against the other, but for a while 
 they threatened to shake the whole empire. In the fol- 
 lowing century there were three rebellions in the east- 
 ern and northern provinces, the second one being 
 known as the "Nine Years' War," the third the "Three 
 Years' War." These were quelled by the Minamotos, 
 and thenceforward that clan held the power among the 
 military chiefs and Daimyos of the eastern provinces. 
 
IMPENDING STORMS. 87 
 
 The waves of the storm beat heavily upon the throne 
 and empire, "when, in the middle of the twelfth century, a 
 battle broke forth right in the capital, as a result of court 
 intrigues between the Emperor and an ex-Emperor; and 
 some military nobles, with their troops, were on one 
 side, and others, with their followers, on the other side. 
 This battle at the city gate is known as the " Hogen in- 
 surrection." But the Fujiwaras managed still to keep 
 in power. Their downfall was not yet. Quickly came, 
 however, another, the "Heiji insurrection." Though a 
 revolution of short duration, it was filled with momentous 
 events and results: such as the seizure of the Emperor by 
 the Minamotos; the overthrow of the Fujiwaras at last, 
 and death of their leader; the utter rout of the Mina- 
 motos, and death of the great leader Yoshitomo; and 
 the possession of the capital by the Tairas, with Kiyo- 
 mori at their head. Supreme power was now in the 
 hands of the Tairas, and their able chief, Kiyomori, got 
 himself appointed Prime Minister, the first time that a 
 military noble had ever been elevated to such a position. 
 He had now reached the zenith, for he saw his sister the 
 wife of one Emperor, and afterwards his daughter the 
 wife of another, and his sons and followers appointed 
 to all the high offices in the capital. He even saw his 
 own grandchild, Antoku, on the throne, so that he now 
 stood in the same relation to the imperial house as that 
 previously sustained by the proud Fuj iwaras. Besides all 
 this power and patronage at court, he held the military 
 power of the whole empire in his hands, so that, going 
 beyond even the proud Fujiwaras, he banished an ex- 
 Emperor to Sanuki Province, where he is said to have 
 died of starvation, and kept another ex-Emperor im- 
 prisoned in his newly built palace at Fukuhara. 
 
 And yet, notwithstanding this transcendent power and 
 
88 japan: countky, court, people. 
 
 glory, Kiyomori's career and that of his clan were short- 
 lived. Their downfall came quickly. Though the rival 
 clan, the Minamotos, seemed to be utterly broken, and 
 their great leader, Yoshitomo, slain, two of his children 
 were saved from the sword of the Tairas: the one named 
 Yoritomo, thirteen years old, the other a half-brother, 
 named Yoshitsune, an infant at his mother's breast. 
 These two boys were destined to regain the lost for- 
 tunes of their clan in a desperate civil war with the 
 Tairas. As the banner of the Minamotos was white, 
 and that of the Tairas red, we will call this war "The 
 War of the Red and White Banners." Indeed it is the 
 war of the Red and White Roses of English history re- 
 peated in Japan. 
 
 The child Yoshitsune, placed in a monastery to become 
 a monk, was so ruddy and fiery that the monks, not able 
 to manage him, named him the "Young Ox." Discon- 
 tented there, he made his escape to the far north, and 
 became a Samurai to the Daimyo of Mutsu, and in that 
 rough and barbarous region grew to be a soldier of great 
 skill and courage. Yoritomo, his brother, was sent into 
 exile in Idzu Province, to be kept under the eye of two 
 Taira officers. The farmers, seeing him as he passed 
 along the road from Kioto to Idzu, compared him to a 
 young tiger; but as he grew up he formed the habit of 
 politeness, courage, and the constant repression of his 
 feelings. Though reared in captivity, as it were, when 
 he became a man he married the beautiful daughter of 
 one of the officers who had him in charge, Hojo Toki- 
 masu, to whom he made known his purpose to avenge 
 his father's death, raise again the fallen banner of his 
 clan, and free the country from Taira rule. The young 
 tiger felt that it was time to go forth from his lair. At 
 first it seemed a lost hope, for he was driven from the 
 
RISING OF MINS AGAINST TAIRAS. 89 
 
 Hakone Mountains, where he had tried to start the 
 movement. But not discouraged, he afterwards took the 
 leadership of a small army at a country village, named 
 Kamakura, which afterwards became his capital. Here 
 he fixed his headquarters and began preparing for war. 
 This place, situated in a valley surrounded by hills on 
 all sides except where it looked out upon the sea, close 
 by, was well chosen. It was connected by a legend with 
 his grandfather, who built there a shrine to Hachiman, 
 god of war. From its inclosing hills the majestic Fuji 
 Mountain, so sacred to every Japanese, loomed into full 
 view not more than ten miles off. It was easily de- 
 fended, because just south of it was Hakone Pass, be- 
 tween the mountain and the sea, which made the pass- 
 ing of the enemy's forces from Kioto a difficult thing. 
 
 As the days went by, his little army kept increasing 
 by the coming of Minamoto chiefs, with their armed 
 bands, from different provinces east and north. Mean- 
 while Kiyomori, aware of this uprising, sent an army 
 toward Kamakura. The two armies met on the banks 
 of the Fuji River, but did not join battle. The Tai- 
 ra forces withdrew in the night. Yoritomo, strength- 
 ened by the coming of his brother with an army 
 from the north, and another from the Shinano high- 
 lands led by his cousin, was able to take the aggressive. 
 About this time the able but cruel Kiyomori fell ill, and 
 shortly died. His sore regret was that Yoritomo's head 
 had not been brought. His dying words were: "Do 
 not propitiate Buddha on my behalf, nor chant the sa- 
 cred liturgies. Only do this: cut off Yoritomo's head, 
 and place it before my tomb." But his son and suc- 
 cessor, Munemori, could not fulfill his father's dying 
 command; the head was never brought. On the con- 
 trary, shortly after this the first heavy battle was fought, 
 
90 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 and was a total defeat to the Taira army. When thia 
 news was brought to the capital, Munemori fled with all 
 his family into Shikoku, taking the young Emperor 
 Antoku and the imperial insignia — the sword, mirror, 
 and precious stone. 
 
 The victorious Minamotos now marched on the capi- 
 tal, and their arrival was greeted as a deliverance by 
 two ex-Emperors left there. The Emperor Antoku, now 
 a fleeing child, is straightway dethroned, and in his 
 stead Go-toba is made Emperor. They tarried not in 
 the capital, however, but hastened in pursuit of the flee- 
 ing Tairas. En route they razed to the ground Kiyomo- 
 ri's luxuriant palace built at Fukuhara, near where now 
 sits the modern and flourishing seaport city of Kobe. 
 Rushing on to Sanuki Province, in Shikoku island, they 
 again defeated the Tairas and burned their castle, but 
 did not capture either the Taira chief or the child Em- 
 peror. With barely time to escape, and with the Child 
 Emperor in the arms of his grandmother, the Tairas 
 sailed westward for Kiushiu. 
 
 The Taira clan had been strong in those central and 
 southwestern regions, and so at a place near the Shimo- 
 lioseki Straits of the Inland Sea the Tairas rallied for a 
 desperate struggle. They had a fleet of five hundred 
 war junks, into which were crowded women and chil- 
 dren as well as soldiers. Their banner was red. The 
 Minamotos had seven hundred j unks, armed and equipped 
 with fighting men only, and floating to the breeze above 
 them was their white banner. The odds were greatly 
 in favor of the Minamotos, but both sides fought to win 
 or die. The Tairas fought in desperation, knowing this 
 to be their last hope, and that their capture meant 
 death. They had also the imperial insignia, and the 
 person of the ruling sovereign was in their keeping. 
 
THE TAIBAS OVERTHROWN. - 91 
 
 Upon the other side, the Minamotos were resolved to 
 avenge their former downfall and cruel treatment at 
 the hands of their once-powerful enemies. There, in 
 1185 A.D., the greatest naval battle in Japanese annals 
 took place. The sea was red with blood. The Tairas 
 were defeated, destroyed. The grandmother, with 
 the Emperor in her arms, seeing that all was lost, 
 plunged into the sea, and both perished. Many com- 
 mitted suicide at the last moment. A few escaped to 
 the land, and hid away in the hills. Munemori and one 
 son were captured, brought away to appear before Yo- 
 ritomo at Kamakura, and afterwards beheaded. The 
 extermination which the Tairas once intended for the 
 Minamotos was mercilessly inflicted upon themselves. 
 Neither age nor sex saved any Taira from death if once 
 caught. It was a terrible downfall. 
 
 Yoshitsune, the victorious general, then notified his 
 brother at Kamakura of what had been done, expecting 
 to march at once to him and lay the trophies of victory 
 at his feet. But Yoritomo, with all his ability as lead- 
 er and organizer, could not stand the popularity of his 
 brother, gained by his victory over the Tairas, and so 
 made a shameful plot against his life. This dark deed has 
 been palliated by the statement that Yoritomo was led 
 by false charges to believe that Yoshitsune was really 
 intriguing against him and intended to make himself 
 the head of the empire. 
 
 After laying out and building his capital at Kama- 
 kura and organizing his government Yoritomo proceeded 
 in great state and arms to Kioto, where he presented 
 himself to the Emperor. All were astonished at the 
 splendor of his equipage. A brilliant reception was 
 given him, and festivals were celebrated for a month. 
 Then returning to his capital, about the year 1192 A.D., 
 
92 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 he was honored with the highest military dignity, that 
 of Sei-i-tai-Shogun, which became henceforth the he- 
 reditary title of the Minamoto Shoguns. This long 
 title means literally the "Eastern Barbarian Squelcher." 
 The court records and treasury department were trans- 
 ferred from Kioto to Kamakura, and though the Em- 
 peror was still recognized in a way as monarch and the 
 administration is carried on in his name, yet as a mat- 
 ter of fact Yoritomo and his successors hold the reigns 
 of government under the title of Shogun. The court 
 nobles have been overthrown, and the military nobles 
 now rule the country. Very soon the Emperors, the 
 legal sovereigns, become mere shadows. These are the 
 results of the War of the Red and White Banners. 
 
 II. General Progress of Civilization in This 
 Period. 
 
 The Influence of Buddhism. — It is true of Buddhism, 
 as of Romish Jesuitism, that it first brings some bless- 
 ing and then much evil. Undoubtedly the Japanese 
 got some good moral teachings from the Buddhist 
 priests. Their religious feelings were appealed to; they 
 were made to feel that this world is full of evil and 
 vanity, and tfo long for deliverance. In a measure their 
 religious hopes and fears were met by lurid descriptions 
 of paradise and hell. They were taught to pray, to fast, 
 to do penance, and deny the body in order to heap up 
 merit for the soul in the next birth. With much mix- 
 ture of falsehood, there was something to stimulate 
 conscience and give an outlook toward the future life. 
 Schools were encouraged, especially among the ruling 
 classes, and of course their novices in training for the 
 priesthood received some instruction. For object les- 
 sons in better styles of buildings than the Japanese ever 
 
CIVILIZATION OF THE PEEIOD. 93 
 
 had, the Buddhist temple served a good purpose, and 
 the Buddhist artists brought from China and Korea 
 models in sculpture, painting, and temple decorations. 
 All these things are a great means of progress to a com- 
 paratively barbarous people. But they go only so far, 
 no farther. It is Christianity only that can furnish the 
 power as well as the standard of continued and unlim- 
 ited progress. Unfortunately the Buddhist leaders, 
 when well established in the land and their followers 
 from among the rulers and nobles were numerous, and 
 when they had great temples and broad lands — in fact, 
 when they became rich and lived in ease — fell away even 
 below their own creed. They became worldly, proud, 
 loose in habits of living, even lawless. Of course this 
 soon produced a bad effect upon the morals, education, 
 and literature of the nation. 
 
 Mention is made of a university in Kioto and other 
 schools established by great nobles. Some of the Em- 
 perors were undoubtedly versed in the Chinese classics, 
 history, and poetry, and did much to help on the cause 
 of education among the aristocratic classes. Unfortu- 
 nately much of the scholarship was mere pedantry, im- 
 itating the Chinese style of composition, to the neg- 
 lect of the ^practical uses of learning. Nevertheless, 
 while it was all the fashion in court circles and among 
 scholars to affect high-sounding Chinese words and the 
 stilted style of composition, this period is accredited 
 with the working out of the Japanese syllabic aljmabet 
 called Jcatia. A famous priest, Kobo Daishi (died 835 
 A.D.), has the honor of completing this syllabary. By 
 shortening certain Chinese characters, forty-seven syl- 
 labic characters were gotten, simple and easily writ- 
 ten. Thus yJL was reduced to J, *, the sound i; g short- 
 ened gave ^, the syllable ro; \% was reduced to 
 
94 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 JJ, ho; etc. With these forty- seven characters one 
 can write the Japanese language wit"hout using any 
 Chinese characters at all. It is therefore creditable to 
 a few Japanese poets and novelists of this period that 
 they, contrary to the fashion of the Chinese style of 
 writing, used this syllabic Jcana, and cultivated a pure 
 Japanese style of composition. Some of these were 
 princesses and court ladies. These writers of pure Japa- 
 nese, say from 800 to 1200 A.D., make the golden age 
 in Japanese literature as distinguished from the Chinese 
 styles. Their writings, chiefly romance and poetry, are 
 now invaluable to modern Japanese scholars who wish 
 to know something about their language in those earlier 
 days, as well as for the pictures of Japanese customs and 
 manners that shine out from them. Education was con- 
 fined to the upper and ruling classes, and was not by 
 any means general. The common people had very little 
 communication or information as to the outside world. 
 The only light that reached them was probably a little 
 received from the Buddhist priests, but just how much 
 concern those priests had for the lower classes it is* hard 
 to say. 
 
 In style of living, just as in education, there was the 
 widest difference between the official classes at the cap- 
 ital and those living in country districts. Kioto, the 
 capital, was the center of magnificence and of pleasure. 
 The imperial palace was spacious, and its grounds were 
 beautifully laid out. The princes and great nobles 
 were housed in much the same style. Some of the 
 nobles, as well as the ministers of state, had suburban 
 residences built upon some height overlooking fine 
 scenery and wide prospects. All the arts and decora- 
 tions of the age, especially the art of decorative garden- 
 ing, which had already reached high development, were 
 
STYLE OF LIVING AT THE CAPITAL. 95 
 
 used to beautify those suburban yashikis. At the prin- 
 cipal gate of the great yashiJci stood two- wheeled carts, 
 lacquered in black, gold, and silver, and drawn by well- 
 groomed oxen, according to the fashion of the times. 
 Horses were not much used. As to dress, the court 
 nobles and their families wore gorgeous clothing, rich 
 brocades, embroidered silks. It got to be the fashion 
 with courtiers and high officials to despise the work of 
 government affairs and to give themselves to literary 
 culture, etiquette, and pleasure. Moonlight parties in 
 the autumn and morning parties in the spring were quite 
 fashionable, and the guests were regaled with music, 
 the making of poetry, and puns. Festive entertainments 
 at certain times were observed; one in April, when wine 
 cups were floated down the stream; another in Februa- 
 ry, the New Year season, when young pines on the hills 
 were pulled up by the roots; another in the fall, for 
 viewing the reddening maple leaves; and a fourth more 
 elegant and literary than all, when three boats, canopied 
 and richly decorated with flowers, floated out upon some 
 water, the boat being filled with persons accomplished 
 in Chinese poetry, music, and the like. Wine feasts 
 were also held, where, besides the wine, there were 
 songs and dancing. As to the dancing, it was never by 
 both sexes, but only by one person at a time. Later in 
 this period fashion, dress, and pleasure were so much 
 thought of among the upper classes that men be- 
 gan to imitate women by painting their eyebrows and 
 blacking their teeth. Looseness of morals followed. 
 The marriage relation was badly observed, and plurali- 
 ty of wives became fashionable, the wives still living, 
 not with their husbands, but apart in their own houses. 
 In short, according to a Japanese writer, "the first ob- 
 ject of the time was gratification of the senses." 
 
96 japan: countey, court, people. 
 
 While all this culture, wealth, and pleasure were be- 
 ing pursued at the capital by government officials and 
 court nobles, "in the country districts the people's 
 mode of life was almost uncivilized." In Kioto houses 
 were tiled, whereas in the country the people's rude 
 huts were thatched with straw. Their chief business 
 was farming. Their sports and games in the. villages 
 were at first few, but afterwards increased by dwarf 
 dances, puppet shows, juggling, fortune telling, etc. 
 In the country districts there were many abuses of gov- 
 ernment, roads were bad, and the few carriers and post 
 horses provided were for the officials only. Traveling 
 was on foot, food and cooking utensils all being carried 
 on the back. At sunset the traveler sought shelter in 
 some temple or shrine. Highway robbers were many; 
 or if one traveled by boat, the pirates were to be 
 dreaded. As mentioned in a former chapter, the Jap- 
 anese have always been careful of cleanliness. This 
 was in part due to the superstition that everywhere pre- 
 vailed. Even the sight of sickness and death being 
 regarded as an occasion of pollution, travelers were 
 often left on the roadside to die from hunger or disease; 
 and masters thrust out their own servants who had 
 some chronic disease, leaving them to die. In time of 
 epidemics multitudes of people were swept away. Re- 
 viewing this period, it seems that while the upper 
 or ruling classes were rising in intelligence and in 
 the arts of life, the common people were either put 
 down lower, or stood very little higher than they 
 did at the opening of this period, eight hundred years 
 previous. The twelfth century closed this long period 
 with civil, wars and a general overturning, to be fol- 
 lowed by more stress and strife in the future. What 
 the final result will be we shall see in the sequel. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SEOOUNS IN POWER— EMPERORS EELD DOWN- 
 CIVIL WARS OF MILITARY LORDS (1192-1603). 
 
 I. The Duaechy Explained. 
 
 A word about the dual government, and the author- 
 ity of the Emperors during this long period of over 
 five centuries, may not be out of place. No blooded 
 nobleman or military lord ever attempted to seize the 
 throne and make himself an Emperor. In all their strug- 
 gle to keep the supremacy the policy of the Shoguns was 
 to rule in the name of the Emperor. For centuries the 
 Emperors were held down, shut up in their palaces, set 
 up and put down as mere puppets in the hands of the 
 Shoguns, which reminds us of the mayors of the palace, 
 Charles Martel and Peppin the Short in French history. 
 And yet, for all that, there was a certain veneration for 
 their Emperors which the nation never lost; and there- 
 fore these Shoguns, the actual rulers, made an outward 
 show of respecting them too, even when they were con- 
 trolling them in the interests of their own ambitious 
 schemes. And so, in the quarrels and civil wars of the 
 period, whichever side was victorious enough to get 
 possession of the person of the Emperor, and thus make 
 a show of carrying out his will as the Son of Heaven, 
 had great advantage, whereas the other side was thrown 
 into the bad plight of being "rebels." 
 
 During this period there was a double system of gov- 
 ernment : two capitals, Kioto and Kamakura ; two 
 rulers, the nominal one, the Emperor, and the actual 
 7 (97) 
 
98 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 one, the Shogun; two governments, the throne and the 
 camp; two courts, the old aristocratic nobles at Kioto 
 and the military lords and Daimyos at Kamakura and 
 in the provinces. In the actual control of things the 
 Emperor counted for little, while the Shoguns were the 
 real rulers. Yoritomo, the founder of the Shogun- 
 ate and the new capital, saw to it that the territorial 
 lords, or Daimyos, should become his vassals, and he 
 confirmed the possession of their lands in order to unite 
 them directly to him as their liege lord. 
 
 II. Yoritomo' s Feudal System. 
 
 Kamakura is to-day an unimportant town of six 
 thousand, about fifteen miles westward from Yokoha- 
 ma, but it was once a prosperous city of probably a 
 million people. While his brother Yoshitsune and 
 other chief captains were fighting and winning victories 
 over the Tairas, Yoritomo was laying out and building 
 his new capital, Kamakura. And while there are to- 
 day only a temple to Hachiman (god of war), a mam- 
 moth bronze image to Buddha, and upon the top of the 
 knoll the tomb of Yoritomo, and while there are rice 
 fields and growing vegetables around the place, here once 
 stood the niansion of the Shogun and others less grand of 
 the military lords; here were splendid courts, avenues, 
 temples and monuments, military reviews, tournaments 
 and festivals, the shining armor, swords, and lances 
 of captains and their troops, the fine dressing of rich 
 merchants and their sons. All of this dazzled the eyes 
 of gay ladies who, though kept behind the screens, 
 heard and even saw all that was going on. Kamakura 
 had arisen in the East as a rival of Kioto; military 
 feudalism had been set up in Japan. Now and then, 
 during this period, there were times of peace and thrift; 
 
MILITARY FEUDALISM. 99 
 
 but the period as a whole is notorious for its civil wars 
 and bloody battles, intrigues and parties, disorder in 
 the towns and cities, and devastation of the crops in 
 the country districts. The poor peasantry suffered most 
 of all. Even the priests caught the spirit of war and 
 blood, and the great temples were nothing else than 
 fortified castles, where troops were quartered, whence 
 they sallied forth to take sides in the civil strife. But we 
 spare our readers a view of this wilderness of intrigues, 
 battles, assassinations, suicides, robberies, and devasta- 
 tions. Let a few examples tell the tale of the times. 
 
 Yoritomo, having reached the very zenith of power, 
 holding the reins both of civil and military government 
 in his hands, did not live long. Falling from his horse, 
 he died in 1199. Great in military affairs, as well as in 
 administration of government, he was suspicious, cruel, 
 and selfish. Like some others famous in history, it is 
 said of him that he usually mistreated those who had 
 served him best. A blot is upon his name for the way 
 he treated his brother, Toshitsune. As set forth in a 
 former chapter, this brave and able general, returning 
 from his victory over the Tairas, expected to present 
 himself, with his trophies, at Kamakura; hut, because 
 of his popularity in the eyes of the nation, Yoritomo 
 became jealous of him, and, listening to a false tale, 
 would not allow him even to enter the capital, kept 
 him waiting in a village outside, nor would he even 
 read his letters, in which he earnestly protested his faith- 
 fulness. Finally, pretending to believe him a traitor, 
 Yoritomo ordered that he be assassinated. Hunted from 
 place to place, he was at last murdered, and his head 
 brought. For this inhuman crime Yoritomo's name is 
 held in small honor, while Yoshitsune is one of the fa- 
 vorite heroes of the Japanese — an instance of the law 
 
100 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 of historical retribution. " Yoshitsune the brave, 
 the loving, the chivalrous, is the Japanese boys' 
 model; and on May 5, when the images of illustrious 
 heroes are set out in festive array, none, saving the 
 Emperor's, receives a higher place and greater honor. 
 No other thrills the hearts of Japanese boys like the 
 name of Yoshitsune." 
 
 After the death of Yoritomo his son succeeded to 
 the Shogunship, but was afterwards deposed and assas- 
 sinated in accordance with his grandfather's orders. 
 Then another son succeeded, but he was beheaded by 
 his nephew, and this may be taken as a sample of what 
 often happened during this period. Thus Yoritomo's 
 line of Shoguns came to an end 1219 A.D. Then the 
 Shogunship passed nominally to a succession of boy 
 princes, first of the Fujiwara family, and then of the 
 imperial house, but the real sway was held by the Hojo 
 family as Regents. As seen on a previous page, Yori- 
 tomo married into the Hojo family, which family are 
 now the real rulers. They exercise power in a double 
 sense — that is, over the Shoguns and over the Emperors. 
 They worked the wires and the schemes not only at 
 Kioto but also at Kamakura. But with all their selfish 
 scheming, the Hojos had their name made memorable 
 in history by the repelling of the invasion of the Chinese 
 and Monguls in 1291. 
 
 In Mongolia there had appeared a conqueror of 
 world-wide fame, Genghis Khan, sweeping away Tar- 
 tar kings and Chinese Emperors. His grandson, Ku- 
 blai Khan, extended the Mongul conquest into South 
 China and over a great part of Korea, and conceived the 
 project of conquering Japan also. He could see no 
 reason why the rulers of Japan should not bring tribute 
 and pay him homage like the rest of Asia. According- 
 
KUBLAI KHAN THREATENS JAPAN. 101 
 
 ly, lie sent envoys through Korea to Japan to caution 
 against the seeming indifference of her rulers to the 
 great conqueror, and the danger of such a course. A 
 second envoy was sent, but no answer was given; in- 
 stead thereof orders were issued by the Ho jo Regent to 
 expel the envoys. All this caused much uneasiness. 
 "And the Emperor sent a prayer written by himself to be 
 laid up before the national shrine in Ise for the heaven- 
 ly protection of the empire, and he caused such prayers 
 to be said at all the shrines and temples in the land." 
 Kublai sent one embassy after another, but Japan's 
 rulers refused to make answer to messages which were 
 really nothing else than national insults. Finally, en- 
 raged by this unaccountable refusal of Japan's rulers 
 to be treated as his tributary, he determined to chas- 
 tise them, and sent a fleet of one hundred and fifty war 
 junks against them. The Koreans were likewise or- 
 dered to reenforce his fleet. Appearing on the coasts 
 of Chikuzen and armed with guns which the Japanese 
 did not have, they made havoc with them firing at long 
 range; nevertheless the Daimyos of Kiushiu and their 
 followers made heroic defense. The Chinese com- 
 mander being seriously wounded and a heavy gale hav- 
 ing damaged his vessels, with the remnant of his fleet 
 he went away in the night. Once more Kublai sent an 
 envoy, but he was put to death at Kamakura; and once 
 again two envoys were sent, but the answer given them 
 was the sword. Of course the Shogun's government 
 knew what to prepare for, and so one of the Hojo 
 family was put in command of all the coasts west and 
 south; the imperial guards were sent from Kioto, and 
 orders issued to the Kiushiu Daimyos to build forts 
 along the coasts. 
 
 Kublai Khan, having now completely mastered China, 
 
102 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 sent against Japan an army of one hundred thousand 
 Chinese and ten thousand Koreans with a great fleet 
 of war vessels. This was in May, 1281 A.D. They 
 bore down upon the coasts near where the city of Na- 
 gasaki now stands. With their firearms and cannons 
 the Chinese had great advantage in bombarding forts 
 and slaughtering Japanese soldiers; But for all that, 
 the Japanese fought bravely, and it was impossible for 
 the invaders to effect a permanent landing. The Jap- 
 anese vessels, though smaller and not so well-equipped, 
 were swifter, and by quick, bold attacks several Chi- 
 nese vessels were set on fire or boarded, and their crews 
 slaughtered. For sixty days the Chinese army and 
 fleet were kept at bay. Providence intervened, and 
 a terrible storm swept down upon the Chinese fleet, 
 wrecking the ships and drowning multitudes of soldiers. 
 The surviving remnant took refuge in an island off the 
 coast, but they were attacked by Japanese troops and 
 either killed or captured, all except three who escaped 
 to tell the tale. That Chinese Armada sent against the 
 Japanese reminds one of a similar expedition two hun- 
 dred and fifty years later, the Spanish Armada against 
 England. The result was the same: a storm helped the 
 defenders of native land. Disappointed, the Chinese 
 and Tartars were taught to leave the Japanese alone. 
 As a result of this victory, they won reputation for 
 themselves and the nation. Hitherto they had stood in 
 considerable awe of the great and ancient China, but 
 now all diplomatic intercourse was broken off. This war 
 called out a patriotic spirit and for a while united all 
 hearts. The glorious victory brought increased honor 
 to military men, and to soldiering as a career. Another 
 curious result of this war was this: everybody was 
 deeply religious and "gladly paid the priests large sums 
 
FALL OF HOJO SHOGUNS. 103 
 
 of money for their prayers offered throughout the coun- 
 try. But when the war was over and the country deliv- 
 ered the priests still demanded money, saying it was 
 their prayers that had saved the land. This was turn- 
 ing prayers into pennies in an unexpected way. 
 
 Notwithstanding the united patriotism called out by 
 the recent Tartar invasion, very soon Japanese affairs 
 became more deplorable than ever. When the Em- 
 peror Godaigo succeeded to the throne (1318 A.D.) he 
 realized how low and weak the throne had become, and, 
 though compelled to abdicate, determined to throw off 
 the rule of the Hojo Shoguns and regain the throne. 
 Fond of pomp, luxury, and gayety, he showed considera- 
 ble energy in his efforts to regain the throne. He in- 
 invited the monks with their troops to join him, but the 
 attempt was a failure and the Hojos sent him in exile 
 to an island. Not discouraged, however, he made his 
 escape from the island, and, gathering another army, 
 marched upon Kioto. At this juncture there appeared 
 two chieftans who threw all their forces on the side of 
 the throne and against the Kamakura Shoguns. One 
 of them is a hero greatly admired of the Japanese to 
 this day, Kusunoki Asahige, who is held as a model of 
 patriotism and loyalty to the Emperor. The other 
 chieftian standing forth at this trying time was Nitta 
 Yoshisada, of whom we shall hear later. For a while 
 victory perched upon the imperial banners, the Sho- 
 gun's capital was attacked from three sides, and, though 
 his forces fought valiantly, Kamakura was captured 
 and burned. Thus the Hojo power fell, never to rise 
 again. The restoration of Godaigo to the throne gave 
 some hope of a return to the old single rule of the sov- 
 ereign, without the intervention of a Shogun; but it 
 Was a vain hope. 
 
104 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Strange to say, the Emperor did not prize the faithful 
 warriors Kusunoki and Nitta, who risked all for his 
 cause, but made the largest rewards of territory to 
 others less worthy. 
 
 Avoiding the confusing details of this dark and 
 troublesome time, it is sufficient to say that for about 
 sixty years there was a double dynasty of Emperors, 
 known as the Northern and Southern, and that in this 
 period of constant conflict the two patriotic chieftains 
 just mentioned perished, while on the contrary Takauji, 
 an ambitious member of the Ashikaga family, rose into 
 prominence and power. He got himself appointed 
 Shogun by one of the puppet Emperors of the Northern 
 Dynasty, returned to Kamakura, rebuilt the city, and 
 founded the third line of Shoguns — namely, the Ashi- 
 kaga Dynasty. Within less than one hundred and fifty 
 years two dynasties of Shoguns have risen and fallen, 
 the Minamoto and the Ho jo. We shall now have a 
 third. 
 
 III. Christianity Enters. 
 
 The Ashikaga line was closely connected with the 
 famous Minamoto family, and the first of this new dy- 
 nasty was Ashikaga Tajauji. During their reign the 
 disorders that prevailed under the Hojos continued. 
 The imperial throne sunk lower and lower, and the 
 military lords became more powerful, and the country 
 was more frequently torn with civil wars. Says Rein: 
 "How low the prestige of the Emperor was, is shown 
 by the fact that when one of them died in Kioto, about 
 the middle of the sixteenth century, his corpse had to 
 be kept forty days at the gates of the palace, because 
 the means were wanting to defray the costs of the pre- 
 scribed funeral ceremony. To the horrors of never- 
 ending civil wars were added about that time frequent 
 
FEUDAL LORDS IN POWER. 105 
 
 violent earthquakes, drought and failure of crops, fam- 
 ine and devastating diseases. Even the .consolation of 
 religion was wanting, for the Buddhist priests had 
 long been strangers to the duty of imparting whatever 
 of comfort or hope their poor religion might really 
 have; trade and industry, except for the equipment of 
 warriors, were quite neglected; the ruin became deeper 
 and more universal." 
 
 "About the year 1545 Kioto was so reduced that no 
 one could live in it, and any one who ventured to remain 
 amidst the ruins ran the risk of being burned, murdered, 
 or dying by starvation. The court nobility had left 
 the city and sought shelter and protection with the 
 feudal lords (Daimyos) in the provinces. The peasant's 
 lot was most miserable of all. Impoverished, his spirit 
 broken, and without hope of reaping the fruit of his 
 planting, he was inclined to leave untilled his field. 
 Bands of robbers followed the army through the coun- 
 try, making terror, lawlessness, and oftentimes want in 
 many a section of the country. Those living near the 
 coasts, especially west and south, turned away from 
 their shops and fields to the sea, where they followed 
 the life of the pirate." 
 
 Since now the succession of shogunship was heredita- 
 ry, the governorships of the provinces likewise became 
 so; that is to say, the governors were now fixed feudal 
 lords in their provinces; hence this period was marked 
 by the founding of powerful and almost independent 
 Daimyos, with their clansmen as vassals of the soil. 
 The more powerful ones rendered scant respect alike to 
 Shoguns and Emperors, and were ambitious to enlarge 
 their territory. It came to pass that while the Shogun 
 had a hard struggle to maintain his authority over the 
 Whole country, these powerful Daimyos were fighting 
 
(106) 
 
PORTUGUESE DISCOVER JAPAN. 107 
 
 among themselves, the stronger invading the weaker, 
 seizing his castle and making him his vassal. It was a 
 time of castle building. To-day, as the traveler passes 
 through the country he sees ever and anon the white 
 castles planted upon the heights. Those great cas- 
 tles, with their massive walls and wide moats below, 
 were built by the feudal lords or Daimyos of this pe- 
 riod. Each Daimyo must of course have his trained 
 retainers (Samurai), mailed and wearing two swords, 
 while the peasantry and artisan class are attached to 
 the soil in vassalage. « 
 
 Meanwhile, among the most important events of the 
 Ashikaga period were the coming of Roman Catholic 
 missionaries and the beginning of intercourse with Eu- 
 ropean nations. Marco Polo, a celebrated traveler 
 who came to China, and for seventeen years held a post 
 in Kublai Khan's court at Pekin, and who returned to 
 his native Venice in 1295, was the first to make Japan 
 known to the Europeans. But the first Europeans to 
 set foot in Japan were the Portuguese Mendez Pinto 
 and two others. In 1542 they landed on the south 
 coast of Kiushiu. At that time the Portuguese had not 
 only a flourishing trading settlement at Macao, on the 
 coast of China, but also other colonial ports in the 
 Straits Settlements and other places on India's coast. 
 Indeed, at that time Portugal and Spain were the lead- 
 ing nations of Europe in power upon the high seas, in 
 foreign trade, and in numerous colonies. Naturally, 
 Pinto and his companions were thinking about opening 
 trade with the Japanese. But what most interested the 
 Japanese, who now for the first time looked upon Eu- 
 ropean faces, were their beards and their guns. They 
 were quick to see that these guns were better than any- 
 thing they had for long-range fighting or for hunting. 
 
108 
 
 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 They welcomed the foreigners, quickly learned how to 
 shoot, and then how to make the guns themselves. A 
 great sensation was caused by one of these Portuguese 
 when, being a good shot, he took with him several Jap- 
 anese duck hunting, and brought down his first brace 
 of ducks. They hastened to the Governor and told 
 him of the great marvel. He at once asked for the 
 gun to be shown to him. After a stay of six months 
 an agreement was made allowing the Portuguese to 
 come with their ships for purposes of trade, and this 
 was the beginning of trade and intercourse with Eu- 
 ropeans. 
 
 This trade and travel to Japan was the opening of the 
 door for the coming in of Roman Catholic Christian- 
 ity. St. Xavier, the famous Jesuit missionary, had just 
 arrived from Europe at Goa, in South India. He met 
 there a Japanese named Anjiro, who had come thither 
 with the Portuguese, who had learned the Portuguese 
 language, and who had been baptized into the Roman 
 Catholic Church. Xavier was at once deeply interest- 
 ed in the Japanese nation, and, with Anjiro as his com- 
 panion, guide, and interpreter, he landed at Kagoshi- 
 ma, in Southern Japan, in 1549 A.D. After having to 
 leave several places on account of rivalries and jealous- 
 ies of local Daimyos, he came to Bungo, where he was 
 kindly received and encouraged in his work. After 
 preaching there with some success through Anjiro as 
 his interpreter, he went up to Kioto; but, after vain 
 efforts to obtain an audience with the Emperor, and 
 finding the city in a confused and dilapidated condi- 
 tion, he did not get the ear of the people as he had ex- 
 pected, and so returned to Bungo. In a few months 
 he left Japan and went on a mission to China, which 
 he never accomplished, because shortly afterwards he 
 
PREACHING OF CATHOLIC MISSIONARIES. 109 
 
 died on an island in the mouth of Canton River. In- 
 spired by his example, Roman Catholic missionaries 
 (Portuguese and Spaniards) began to pour into Japan. 
 It being a time of social, political, and moral demoral- 
 ization, as already observed, these missionaries attract- 
 ed to themselves many followers who longed for better 
 things. Indeed, their success in winning converts dur- 
 ing the first fifty years is remarkable. On pages 86 
 and 99 mention was made of the political confusion, 
 wretchedness, and civil wars of this period; but sud- 
 denly there appeared above this confusion and wretch- 
 edness a man who sought to restore to the troubled 
 country discipline and order, even though it must be 
 done with an iron hand. That man was Ota Nobuna- 
 ga, the first of the three great men in Japanese history. 
 Tracing his descent back to Kiyomori and the Taira 
 clan, he was the son of a soldier, and, like his father, 
 was of a warlike spirit, and, like him, was in favor of 
 standing up for the Emperors as the true rulers. Inher- 
 iting possessions in Owari Province, he soon won six 
 others with his sword. In his youth he was inclined 
 to be profligate, but when the steward of the house 
 committed suicide as a protest against his dissolute 
 course he completely reformed. But unfortunately, ac- 
 cording to the cruel and warlike spirit of the times, he 
 did not hesitate to use his sword upon those who op- 
 posed him, even his brother and father-in-law. The 
 fame of his bravery and unbroken victory in battle 
 spreading far and wide, he was appealed to from two 
 quarters. One of the young Ashikagas wished to be 
 Shogun instead of his brother, just assassinated. No- 
 bunaga secured the shogunship for the young prince, 
 but sometime afterwards deposed him, and this was 
 the end of the Ashikaga Shoguns. The Emperor also 
 
110 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 appealed to him to pacify the country, but this was a 
 much harder thing to do than setting up or putting 
 down a Shogun. He had sense enough to do one thing 
 at a time. He first restored order in the Emperor's 
 capital, so that people could in quietness pursue their 
 daily business. He repaired the Emperor's palace, the 
 bridges and streets inside and fortifications around the 
 city, and improved the roads in the surrounding dis- 
 tricts. The Emperor now appointed him Minister of 
 the Right. 
 
 Nobunaga, looking over the whole empire, would pac- 
 ify and govern it in the name of the Emperor, but he 
 saw two powerful obstacles in the way: one was the 
 Buddhist priests; the other, the strong and almost in- 
 dependent feudal Daimyos in the provinces. (We are 
 aware that, in strict order of time, the title Daimyo 
 came into use later.) For instance, in the Kwanto east- 
 ward, in the central provinces directly west, and in Kiu- 
 shiu the great Daimyos were carrying on their own wars 
 and feuds, caring little either for Shogun or Emperor. 
 Nobunaga also saw that he must destroy the strong cas- 
 tles which the haughty and corrupt priests of Buddha 
 had built % Among the strongest of these was the well- 
 fortified castle of Mt. Heizan, near Lake Biwa, and the 
 Hongwanji, in the city of Osaka. The former had at that 
 time three thousand buildings. Standing one day in 
 full view of its mountain site, he ordered his astonished 
 generals to destroy the place with fire and sword, saying: 
 "The priests transgress their own rules, eating flesh 
 and stinking vegetables (onions and garlic), keeping 
 concubines, and neglecting prayer and the sacred writ- 
 ings." The next day his command was carried out; 
 men, women, and children were slain, and buildings 
 
NOBQNAGA PERISHES. Ill 
 
 burned. Later he turned his wrath upon the Buddhist 
 castle at Osaka, whose priests had been his sworn ene- 
 mies for a decade of years. 
 
 His policy toward the Christian missionaries was 
 quite different. Seeing that their doctrines were taking 
 root in the land, he favored them, and built a chapel 
 at Kioto for the Jesuit preachers, and gave them a site 
 for a settlement near his own magnificent castle on Lake 
 Biwa. In various ways he helped them, and protected 
 them against the persecution of the Buddhists. 
 
 In overcoming the powerful territorial Daimyos, so as 
 to bring all of the country under one system of govern- 
 ment, he was joined by five able commanders, two of 
 whom, Hideyoshi and Iyeyosn, are destined to win 
 great and lasting renown. He had already defeated 
 the armies of the military lords in the Kwanto and far- 
 ther northward, and had sent his favorite and ablest 
 general, Hideyoshi, to bring the powerful Mori in the 
 west into subjection, when he met a violent death by 
 the treachery of one of his own generals. Seeing him- 
 self suddenly surrounded in a temple at Kioto, where 
 he had stopped for a day, he knew what it meant, and, 
 finding escape impossible, retired to an inner room, and, 
 setting fire to it, calmly committed hara Jciri and was 
 consumed with the building. This was in the year 1583. 
 He was only thirty-nine years of age. Had he lived, no 
 doubt he would have brought the whole country under 
 his rule, in the name of the Emperor. 
 
 The Buddhist priests and Roman Catholic historians 
 take opposite views of the character of this military 
 chieftain. The former regard him as a demon and perse- 
 cutor who deserved death. The latter speak of him as 
 a defender of the Church and friend of Christianity. 
 He did favor the Christians and help them, but it was 
 
112 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 probably with him a matter of state policy. He of 
 course saw that the morals and habits of the Catholic 
 teachers were better than those of the Buddhists. He 
 was not a Christian, for in a splendid temple which he 
 built he had his own statue set up with other idols, and 
 caused his own son to bow down to it along with his 
 other vassals. Nobunaga, it is said, was tall of stat- 
 ure, of unbounded ambition, but brave, magnanimous, a 
 lover of justice, an enemy of treason — a heart and spir- 
 it, say the Jesuits, that made up for many defects. He 
 had a quick and penetrating mind for planning a cam- 
 paign or leading a battle, and, ever seeking to read the 
 thoughts of others while concealing his own, he was 
 created to be a commander. Summing up his character, 
 we may say with Rein : ' ' Rising up in the midst of inter- 
 nal confusion, he stood as the champion of the Emperor's 
 right, as the overthrower of the Ashikaga Shogunate, 
 as the foe of Buddhists, whose power he checked, and as 
 the protector of Christianity, though a stranger to its 
 spirit." 
 
 IV. The Spread oe Christianity in This Period. 
 
 Under the protection of Nobunaga, the Christian 
 doctrine as taught by the Roman Catholics had spread 
 rapidly, so that about the year of his untimely death 
 (1583), there were in Japan two hundred churches, and 
 one hundred and fifty thousand converts, all this in less 
 than thirty-five years! In Kiushiu, where it was first 
 preached, the Christian faith had won several princes 
 or Daimyos, who as zealous converts induced their peo- 
 ple to pull down Buddhist temples and build Chris- 
 tian churches instead. The Daimyo of Tosa, in Shikoku, 
 also embraced the new doctrine in spite of the opposi- 
 tion of his leading men. On the mainland too, skirting 
 
NOBLES VISIT THE POPE. 113 
 
 the northern shore of the Inland Sea, from Na- 
 gato in the west, on through Harima and Setsu Prov- 
 inces, to Kioto and Lake Biwa, a distance of six hundred 
 miles, were many Christians, and among them a few 
 Daimyos, princes, and army officers were enrolled. A 
 large church in the capital was open daily for preaching 
 and mass, the same having been built by Nobutiaga him- 
 self; and there were said to be twenty thousand ad- 
 herents in and near the city. Besides the churches and 
 congregations of native Christians, the Jesuit mission- 
 aries had in Hondo, the main island, three settlements 
 where by the side of the church was the school or the 
 monastery — namely, at Kioto ; on Lake Biwa, near the 
 great castle, called "Nobunaga's Paradise;" and at Aka- 
 shi, in Harima. But the oldest Jesuit settlement was 
 at Funai (now Oita), in Kiushiu, where there was a flour- 
 ishing mission college. In the college twenty Portu- 
 guese fathers taught and bestowed academic degrees. 
 It was in Kiushiu that the Roman Catholic Church took 
 deepest root and won the most converts. Of the forty 
 churches in the city of Nagasagi, some of the most 
 splendid were built upon ground where before had stood 
 Buddhist temples. 
 
 About the time of Nobunaga's death, upon the ad- 
 vice of the Jesuits, an embassy of four young Japanese 
 nobles were sent from Nagasaki to visit the pope at 
 Rome. With letters of salutation and profession of 
 fidelity to the Church, and with suitable presents from 
 the three Daimyos of Kiushiu, they set sail for their long 
 voyage February 22, 1582. Going first to Madrid and 
 Lisbon, they were received in audience by Philip II. 
 The journey of these young princes through Portugal, 
 Spain, and Italy was a succession of ovations. When 
 they reached the Eternal City itself, they were received 
 
114 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 by high Church dignitaries with marked consideration. 
 It was regarded as an open trophy of the Church's tri- 
 umph in Asia, that these representatives of princes from 
 far-off Japan should come to bow the knee to the pope, 
 the head of the Church. This evidence of the conver- 
 sion of Japan's princes and nobles was taken as an off- 
 set against the mischief which Luther and other heretics 
 had wrought by their rebellion against the Holy Church. 
 After an absence of eight years, the embassy returned 
 to Nagasaki bearing letters from the pope to the Chris- 
 tians in Japan, but meanwhile great events and changes 
 had taken place, as we shall see in the sequel. 
 
 v. hldeyoshi the great invasion" oe korea 
 
 Opposition to the Christians. 
 
 The news of Nobunaga's death brought grief to the 
 Japanese and fear to the Jesuit missionaries. Ven- 
 geance quickly fell upon the officer who had treach- 
 erously caused Nobunaga's death, and his head was 
 brought and set up in front of the temple where the 
 treacherous deed had been committed. Meanwhile Hi- 
 deyoshi, hastening back to the capital, took command. 
 Nobunaga left two sons and an infant grandson, each 
 of whom had partisans among the generals and terri- 
 torial lords. But Hideyoshi espoused the cause of the 
 little grandson as the heir and successor to Nobunaga; 
 and so, becoming his guardian, he carried the grandchild 
 in his arms in the procession at the public funeral, thus 
 signifying to all the nobles, princes, and generals pres- 
 ent his purpose to control affairs in the interest of the 
 grandchild as Nobunaga's successor. The sons and gen- 
 erals of his old master at once opposed him, but he 
 overcame them either by fighting or by discreet negotia- 
 tion. 
 
HIDEYOSHI QUELLS HIS ENEMIES. 115 
 
 Hideyoshi had moved to Osaka and made that his 
 seat, rebuilding the old castle there, its walls more mas- 
 sive than anything ever known before. That castle stood 
 until the recent revolution in 1868. But while absent 
 eastward in Kwanto, negotiating with lyeyasu, with 
 whom he was glad to be at peace, a prince in Shikoku 
 made plans to attack and seize Osaka. Returning with 
 great speed, Hideyoshi crushed him. A little later he 
 prepared to bring into subjection Shimadzu, the power- 
 ful Lord Satsuma. This proud family had been the head 
 of the Satsuma clan in Kiushiu since 1193, and the clan 
 was noted for the bravery and skill of its warriors. At 
 this time Shimadzu claimed lordship over eight prov- 
 inces in Kiushiu, and hence when summoned by Hide- 
 yoshi to come to Kioto to pay homage to the Emperor 
 he stoutly refused. Moreover Hideyoshi's army sent to 
 chastise him was defeated; whereupon Hideyoshi him- 
 self took the field at the head of a great army of over 
 two hundred thousand and drove the Satsuma lord into 
 his stronghold at Kagoshima, where he compelled him 
 to submit. Thus Kiushiu was settled. Knowing when 
 to be tolerant in the hour of victory, he showed his 
 wisdom by restoring to Shimadzu his two rightful 
 provinces, making him give up the rest. Hideyoshi 
 wished to be appointed Shogun, but not being a de- 
 scendant of the Minamotos, and on account of his low 
 origin, he could not. But in recognition of his services 
 to the country the Emperor appointed him Kwambaku. 
 Of course the blue-blooded nobles were scandalized 
 that an upstart of so low an origin should be elevated 
 to this exalted position. But Hideyoshi proved that 
 he was not only a general of consummate genius, but an 
 administrator as well. He repaired and improved the 
 capital at Kioto, by erecting great buildings, by paving 
 
116 
 
 japan: country, court, teople. 
 
 with flagstones the bed of the Kano, that flows through 
 the city, and by fortifying Fushimi, an important out- 
 work. He brought everything into system and order 
 under the central government, and made regulations for 
 the survey and registry of lands and collection of taxes. 
 Many lands had been opened that had not been report- 
 ed to the government. Thenceforth two-thirds of the 
 crop must be paid to the state, one-third kept by the 
 
 HIDEYOSHI THE GREAT. 
 
 tiller. Besides the great castle which he built at 
 Osaka, he improved the town by opening canals and 
 building bridges, in this way laying the foundations of 
 the commercial career which it holds to this day. He 
 erected a great mansion at Kioto for his own residence. 
 Requesting the Emperor to visit him, a grand reception 
 was arranged for, and in the presence of all the nobles, 
 princes, and feudal Daimyos Hideyoshi had them swear, 
 allegiance to the imperial house. At his suggestion 
 
WAE IN THE KWANTO. 117 
 
 the Emperor ordered a procession. As they proceed in 
 great j)onap and splendor, Iyeyasu and Nobuwo, one of 
 Nobunaga's sons, rode in front of the imperial ox 
 coach, while Hideyoshi with twenty- seven feudal Dai- 
 myos or lords brought up the rear. It was a glorious day 
 for the man with the gourd flag, the boy who started 
 his career by currying and feeding Nobunaga's horses. 
 
 There was now only one section of the empire that 
 had not submitted to Hideyoshi's regime — namely, 
 the Kwanto provinces under Hojo Ujimasu; and they 
 must be brought into submission. Supported by Iye- 
 yasu, he marched with an overwhelming army against 
 the Hojo stronghold at Odowara, west of the modern 
 city of Yokahama. Hojo's- generals one after another 
 came forth and submitted. The result was the confis- 
 cation of the eight Kwanto provinces and their transfer 
 to Iyeyasu, who at Hideyoshi's suggestion set up his 
 feutlal castle and capital at the village of Yedo, in the 
 plain of Kwanto, at the head of Yedo Bay. This vil- 
 lage soon rose to be the most important city east of 
 Kioto, for, as we shall see, it became the capital of a 
 new dynasty of Shoguns, and is to-day the great capi- 
 tal of the new empire. In this campaign against the 
 Kwanto Hojos an incident occurred illustrating Hi- 
 deyoshi's Napoleonic cunning. It was necessary that 
 many horses should cross the Sea of Enshu, which was 
 rough at that season. The superstitious boatmen were 
 afraid to transport the horses in their boats, because, 
 as they said, the sea god, Ryugu, had a special dislike 
 for horses. Calling the boatmen to him, he told them 
 he was transporting these horses at the command of the 
 Emperor, and that the god was too polite to interfere 
 under these circumstances, but to make sure that all 
 would be right he would write a letter to Ryugu ex- 
 
118 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 plaining the matter and asking him to protect the boats. 
 Addressing the letter to "Mr. Ryugu," he threw it into 
 the sea, whereupon the boatmen seemed satisfied to take 
 the horses over. 
 
 From about the year 1590 peace and order prevailed 
 over the country, a state of things unknown for many 
 generations. But the active and ambitious spirit of 
 Hideyoshi had long been revolving plans for a war 
 outside of Japan's borders, the conquest of Korea and 
 China. Even before Nobunaga's death he had revealed 
 his purpose and asked for the revenues of Kiushiu to 
 be given to him for one year in order to enable him to 
 prepare for such a war. "I can do it," he said, "as 
 easily as a man rolls a mat under his arm." 
 
 As to justifying the invasion of Korea, did not Jingo 
 subdue that land, making it tributary to Japan? and 
 had not the Chinese and Tartars, supported always by 
 the Koreans, attempted to invade and subdue Japan 
 without any provocation? and had not Korea neg- 
 lected to bring tribute for many generations? In con- 
 sequence of misrule and civil wars it had been impossi- 
 ble to enforce tribute from Korea or punish China for 
 her unprovoked attack upon Japan. But now it was quite 
 different.. Hideyoshi's scheme was to bring the Ko- 
 reans into subjection first, and then use Korea as a base 
 of operations against China, and finally to unite these 
 three nations under the rule of Japan. He had proba- 
 bly learned that China had been easily conquered more 
 than once by foreign invaders. He therefore sent the 
 Warden of Tsushima Island, lying in the Japan Sea 
 halfway between the two coasts, to invite the king of 
 Korea to an audience with the Japanese Emperor. He 
 determined to insist upon presents being sent to Japan 
 by both China and Korea, and to demand of the Ko- 
 
HIDEYOSHl'S TEOOPS IN KOREA. 119 
 
 reans that they should interest themselves in gaining 
 China's consent; and if they refused, he would speedily 
 invade their country and compel them to march in the 
 vanguard against China. The Koreans refused. The 
 Emperor approving, Hideyoshi took the title of Taiko, 
 and ordered all the provinces to furnish troops, and 
 those along the coast next to Korea to furnish ships. 
 These preparations being completed (1592), an army of 
 one hundred and thirty thousand soldiers divided into 
 eight corps, and nine thousand sailors for the fleet, 
 made rendezvous at Karatsu, looking toward Korea. In 
 April Hideyoshi, having worshiped at the tombs of 
 Chuai and Jingo on the way, arrived and sent forth the 
 great expedition. The ships seemed to cover the whole 
 sea, and when they hove in sight of Korean shores the 
 natives there were filled with fear. 
 
 Konishi, a Christian general commanding a corps 
 composed chiefly of Christians, led the advance voyage. 
 The first to reach Korea, he landed at Fusan, where the 
 Japanese had from early times a trading port and set- 
 tlement, and there captured the Korean general. Then 
 Kato, commanding another corps not Christians, landed. 
 Between these two generals some bad feeling existed, 
 because the one was a Christian and the other hated the 
 Christians. Pushing with great vigor into the country, 
 but along different lines of march, for a time both ar- 
 mies swept everything before them. The Koreans re- 
 treated northward, and sent to China begging for help. 
 After much delay China did send a few troops; but the 
 Japanese had to contend with other enemies — namely, a 
 rigorous winter, and hunger. In fact, they were com- 
 pelled to retreat without finishing the war. Afterwards, 
 however, Hideyoshi recruited his army, gathered fresh 
 supplies, and ordered a renewal of the war, sending the 
 
120 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 same generals (Kato, the Christian hater, and Konishi, 
 the Christian) back to Korea. At first the Japanese 
 met with reverses; but notwithstanding the suffering 
 from frost-bitten hands and feet, and the scarcity of 
 food during a long siege, the Japanese, being rein- 
 forced, attacked the Chinese, completely routing them 
 in two successive heavy engagements. It was in one of 
 these battles, in the summer of 1598, that 38,700 heads 
 of Chinese and Koreans were taken. After the ears 
 and noses were cut off, the heads were buried in a heap. 
 The ears and noses, pickled in tubs, were sent back to 
 Kioto, and there buried under a mound with a stone 
 monument, upon which is inscribed "Mimizuka" (ear 
 mound). It may be seen standing to this day. 
 
 But Hideyoshi, the Taiko, never conquered Korea, 
 much less China. Unfortunately, in his older years 
 he had become sensual, and was ruining himself with 
 his vices. He died in September, 1598, when his ar- 
 mies were again gaining victories in Korea. For some 
 time being ill, he had become anxious about his armies, 
 and as death approached gave orders for their recall. 
 At the last, opening his eyes, he exclaimed: "Let not 
 the spirits of the one hundred thousand troops I have 
 sent to Korea become disembodied in a foreign land." 
 Thus ended an unfortunate chapter in Japanese history, 
 and thus closed the career of a man who had the milita- 
 ry genius, a capacity for remarkable administration, 
 and a power of inspiring the love of his soldiers equal 
 to that of Napoleon. Like Napoleon, he had unbridled 
 ambition, and besides in his later years of wealth and 
 power was given up to licentious habits. The imme- 
 diate results of his Korean wars were a few tubs of 
 pickled ears and noses, and a few bands of Korean pot- 
 ters brought over and settled in Satsuma, whence comes 
 
PERSECUTION OF THE CHRISTIANS. 121 
 
 the famous Satsuma ware. Iyeyasu, Hideyoshi's suc- 
 cessor, never really approved of the Korean war, and 
 did not renew it. A few years later Korea sent an en- 
 voy bringing presents and suing for peace. 
 
 At first Hideyoshi's policy toward the Christians was 
 a friendly one, but gradually he became suspicious of 
 them and became their persecutor. Some of the Chris- 
 tian priests, especially the Spanish Franciscans, lately 
 come from the Philippines, were so arrogant and vio- 
 lent that he ordered them to leave Japan, and prohib- 
 ited the people from becoming Christians. He even or- 
 dered the Nambanji church in Kioto to be destroyed. 
 The priests, however, carried on their work in private 
 houses, and the native converts kept on worshiping in 
 secret, with the result of ten thousand converts being 
 made yearly for several years. It is said, too, that the 
 quarrels between the Jesuits and the Franciscans, and 
 their mutual accusations, aroused Hideyoshi's suspi- 
 cions. These suspicions were confirmed by the gossip 
 of a Portuguese sea captain, reported to him. "The 
 king, my master," said the captain, "begins by sending 
 priests, who win the people first; then he dispatches 
 troops to join the native Christians, and the conquest of 
 the country is easy." And this was the explanation of 
 the vast dominions of Portugal's king, as he exhibited a 
 map of the same. This seemed to agree with what Hi- 
 deyoshi had heard about the Portuguese in the East 
 Indies and China, and he resolved to make such a thing 
 impossible in Japan. Therefore he ordered all foreign 
 teachers of religion to depart in twenty days, or else be 
 put to death. In consequence of this edict, in 1593 
 A.D., six Franciscans and three Jesuits were arrested in 
 Osaka and Kioto, taken to Nagasaki, and burned to 
 death. This was the first martyrdom of Roman Cath- 
 
122 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 olic missionaries by governmental edict. Portuguese 
 merchants might still trade in Japan until further or- 
 ders, "but must not, on pain of having their ships and 
 goods seized, "bring over any foreign religions. 
 
 The Roman Catholics, however, tell a different story. 
 They say the reason why Hideyoshi got angry with the 
 Christians was that when he sought to have certain 
 beautiful Japanese maidens brought into his harem 
 they positively refused because they were Christians. 
 This he considered an affront to his authority and high 
 position, whereas they ought to have considered it an 
 honor bestowed upon them. The foreign teachers and 
 priests he rightly considered responsible for these new' 
 morals among Japanese women, and hence resolved to 
 be rid of them. 
 
 VI. Progress of Civilization During This 
 Period. 
 
 Four hundred years is a long space, even in the life 
 of a nation. During this long period the intervals of 
 peace were short; and, while we are no advocate of 
 war, yet it is a historical fact that a period of war and 
 of struggle is often a period of invention, discovery, or 
 revolution that tells upon the nation's future. 
 
 As to arts and industries, the highest achievement 
 was probably in the making of swords and armor, it 
 being natural during so many wars that this line of art 
 should receive special attention. Indeed, sword making 
 and mounting was one of the fine arts. The occupation 
 of a sword smith was an honorable profession, the mem- 
 bers of which were often of gentle blood. Among the 
 upper classes, where trade and manual labor were de- 
 spised, it is not strange that this one occupation should 
 be an exception, for the soldier's career and his martial 
 
SWORD MAKING. 123 
 
 exploits were held in the very highest honor. To be a 
 Samurai, the retainer of a military chieftain, was to be an 
 honorable man of the ruling class; while to be a chonin, 
 a town man or trader, was to be a low man. The story 
 is that the ex-Emperor Gotoba not only gathered the 
 most famous sword smiths about him, but that he in- 
 dulged his fancy by making swords himself. For a long- 
 time Kioto was the home of the noted sword makers, 
 but afterwards the new military capital, Kamakura, at- 
 tracted them. There resided the prince of sword mak- 
 ers, Masamune, and the noted Myochin family, and many 
 others whose swords and armor are truly wonders of 
 skill and beauty. Like everything else, the profession 
 of sword smith was handed down in families from fa- 
 ther to son. The traditions of the ci'aft were many and 
 curious. During the critical hour when the steel edge 
 is being forged into the body of the iron blade it was 
 the custom to put on the robes and cap of the court no- 
 ble, and close the doors in order to labor in secrecy and 
 freedom from interruption, the half gloom adding to 
 the mystery of the operation. Sometimes, indeed, the 
 occasion was invested with religious sanctity, and a 
 tassel cord of straw, such as are hung before Shinto 
 shrines, was suspended between two bamboo poles in the 
 forge, thus converting it for the time into a sacred al- 
 tar. Those swords were famous for temper and keen 
 edge. A newly forged sword, especially if made for 
 a Shogun, must be tested upon human bodies, usual- 
 ly those of criminals, before being accepted; and it is 
 said that a sword of best workmanship must cut through 
 three bodies at one stroke. Dogs and beggars lying on 
 the roadside were not unf requently used for proving the 
 edge of a Samurai's sword. 
 
 As regards architecture, it is to be noted that, in spite 
 
124 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 of the continued wars, many great buildings were erected. 
 For example, the Kinkakuji (golden pavilion), the man- 
 sion of an ex-Shogun, upon North Mountain, overlook- 
 ing Kioto, was truly magnificent. The materials of 
 timber and stone being of the finest quality, the columns, 
 
 pagoda at nagoya. 
 doors, alcoves, and ceilings were decorated with gold 
 dust on lacquer, and it stands to-day, an interesting 
 relic of Kioto. Another celebrated building was Gin- 
 kdkuji (silver pavilion), on East Mountain, at Kioto, the 
 
OTHER ARTS. 125 
 
 columns, ceilings, etc., of this mansion being covered 
 with dust of silver. 
 
 The Ashikaga Shoguns of this period were strong be- 
 lievers in Buddhism, and the same ex-Shogun who built 
 the "golden pavilion" for his own residence erected a 
 Buddhist temple of unparalleled magnificence at Kioto. 
 Kioto, however, was for a good while eclipsed by the 
 military capital, Kamakura, in architectural wealth, and 
 particularly after Kioto became the scene of so many 
 battles, and the imperial palace, great temples, and 
 mansions of nobles were burned to the ground. About 
 the end of the fifteenth century the once-splendid city 
 was reduced to desolation, and the Emperors were una- 
 ble to restore the city for a long time. Of course the 
 building of so many great castles all-over the land by 
 lords and Daimyos encouraged the quarrying of heavy 
 stones and the erection of massive walls. We have 
 nothing in America that corresponds to the Cyclopean 
 walls surrounding Japanese castles. Built upon some 
 commanding mount, these white castles, visible from 
 afar, add much to the picturesque landscape, and always 
 attract the eye of travelers. 
 
 The arts of painting, pottery, lacquering, and sculp- 
 ture were cultivated and much patronized by the luxu- 
 rious nobles; even the military nobility, who at first 
 practiced severer habits of living, became addicted to 
 luxuries and arts, surrounding themselves in their man- 
 sions with the costliest paintings, porcelains, and lac- 
 quer work. It was in this period that translucent por- 
 celain was first made in Japan, the art having been 
 brought from China. The Cha-no-yu (tea ceremonial), 
 which had its origin under the Ashikagas, greatly stim- 
 ulated the production of fine porcelain wares. The art 
 of lacquering also made great progress in this period. 
 
126 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Further treatment of Japanese arts is reserved for a later 
 chapter. Japanese authors ("History of the Empire 
 Japan") say: "The blackest era of Japanese history 
 so far as concerned the preservation of public peace and 
 security of life and property was nevertheless a time of 
 marked artistic development." But their further state- 
 ment that in this respect Japanese history is different 
 from that of the mediaeval period in European history 
 cannot be accepted as correct, for it was in the mediaeval 
 period that those magnificent cathedrals and abbeys 
 arose which are monuments of grandeur and beauty. 
 
 In education little progress was made. The military 
 class, which was the ruling Class, found little time or 
 inclination in those stirring days for study of books. 
 Nevertheless there was developed a school of literature 
 distinctly Japanese. The Chinese learning was for the 
 most part confined to the priests and a few court nobles 
 not yet swept into the whirlpool of luxury and pleasure. 
 Now and then a Shogun or Emperor patronized letters 
 and schools. The geographical knowledge had without 
 doubt considerable expansion during this period. For- 
 eign intercourse, first at the time of Kublai Khan's in- 
 vasion, and then at the coming of the Portuguese and 
 Spaniards with their strange goods and guns, gave occa- 
 sion for inquiry about countries and people far across 
 the seas. It is a benefit to a people to get a wider geo- 
 graphical horizon. It was in this unsettled period that 
 so many Japanese on the coasts took to a life of piracy; 
 not being able to live in safety at home, they turned sea 
 robbers. And these forays upon the coasts and coasting 
 vessels of Korea and China added to their knowledge of 
 the seaports and the trade of those countries, and led 
 them to establish trading settlements in Macao, south 
 coast of China, Siam, Anam, the Philippines, Malacca. 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 127 
 
 In this period they made conquests of the Riukiu islands. 
 It appears that a little later than this Japanese vessels 
 made voyages even to Spanish- American ports on our 
 Pacific coast, and to India, Borneo, and Java. 
 
 Enough was said in a foregoing section about the op- 
 pressions and robberies inflicted upon the peasantry of 
 the farming districts. It could not have been a time of 
 prosperity to them. When the farmers groan the whole 
 nation feels it. 
 
 TOKUGAWA CREST. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 FEUDALISM SETTLED UNDER THE TOKUOAWA 
 SHOGUNS—YEDO THE NEW MILITARY CAPITAL 
 —THE LAST OF THE CHRISTIANS (1603-1638). 
 
 I. Founding of the Tokugawa Dynasty. 
 
 Of the three great men, Iyeyasu, the third one, now 
 comes to the forefront in Japanese affairs. Nobunaga 
 cleared the ground for his great successor, Hideyoshi, 
 who in turn laid the foundations upon which the wise 
 Iyeyasu settled and unified feudalism, making it firm 
 and unchangeable for two hundred and fifty years, As 
 Hideyoshi saw his death approaching he said to Iyeya- 
 su: "I foresee great wars after my death; I know there 
 is no one but you who can keep the country quiet. I 
 therefore bequeath to you the whole country. . . . 
 My son Hideyori is still young, and I beg you to look 
 after him; and when he is grown up I leave it to you 
 to decide whether or not he is to be my successor." 
 Iyeyasu, who traced his descent straight back to a hero 
 of the famous Minamoto clan, had already received 
 eight provinces in the Kwanto and set up his capital at 
 Yedo. He had fought under Nobunaga, at first against 
 Hideyoshi and then under him, and is now to be his suc- 
 cessor, and the f oundei of a new line of Shoguns known 
 in history as the Tokugawas. After Hideyoshi's death 
 certain proud and powerful Daimyos, as Mori, Choshu, 
 and Satsuma in South and Southwestern Japan, unwill- 
 ing to submit to the new ruler of the whole country, 
 formed a league against Iyeyasu and his Eastern vas- 
 (128) 
 
BATTLE OF SEKIGAHARA. 129 
 
 sals. According to the custom in trying times, the 
 league or covenant was sealed with a drop of blood 
 from the middle finger pressed with the thumb, nail 
 upon their respective signatures. Their first hostile 
 act was to seize Fushimi, a suburb at Kioto, from 
 which Iyeyasu was temporarily absent counseling with 
 his vassal barons in the Kwanto. He was watching, 
 and soon saw that once more the sword of civil war 
 must be drawn, and that it would be a terrible conflict. 
 As the armies of the southern league began to assemble 
 around Osaka, he was collecting his at Yedo. March- 
 ing thence with seventy-five thousand soldiers, he met 
 the armies of the league, numbering one hundred and 
 eighty thousand, and joined battle in October, 1600 
 A.D., at the village of Sekigahara, near Lake Biwa. 
 This battle was the bloodiest and most momentous ever 
 fought in Japanese history, and deserves to be recorded 
 among the decisive battles of the world. On one side 
 it was the old and proud Southerners leagued against 
 the new and rough eastern sections. The Kwanto, with 
 Yedo as the new capital, rescued only a few centuries 
 prievious from the barbarous Ainus, was still rough and 
 illy civilized compared to the ancient provinces of Sat- 
 suma and Choshu. Again, those Southern confeder- 
 ates were fighting for the principle of local independ- 
 ence, "State's rights," as it were, though they claimed 
 to be doing service for Hideyori, son of Taiko sama,* 
 under whom they had been vassals and generals. Still 
 further, on this side were the Christian Gen. Konishi 
 and his soldiers, who had done such hard fighting in 
 Korea; and therefore it was with this side that the 
 
 *Hideyoshi is often spoken of in history as the Taiko, 01 
 Taiko sama. 
 
130 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Portuguese missionaries naturally sympathized. The 
 native Christians also generally sided with the confeder- 
 ates. On the other side, Iyeyasu stood for the less-civ- 
 ilized East, for centralized government and for anti- 
 Christian paganism. 
 
 Sekigahara, where the deadly struggle between the 
 Southerners and the Easterners took place, is an open 
 rolling plain between the east shores of Lake Biwa and 
 the range of hills rising a little farther eastward. The 
 great national road, Nakasendo, passes right through 
 it, and here enters the northwestern road coming out 
 of Echizen Province. Near the eastern side of the 
 lake, situated on a hill, was the seat of the Portuguese 
 missionaries, easily visible from the battlefield. The 
 morning of the battle the confederate armies moved 
 into position before daylight, followed quickly by Iye- 
 yasu's. He remarked to his followers: "The enemy 
 has fallen into my hands." But a heavy morning fog 
 fell upon the plain, making it impossible for either side 
 to know just where the enemy was, and so neither side 
 dared to make the attack till the fog lifted. On the 
 side of the confederates were heavy odds in numbers, 
 but they lacked the unity of one supreme commander 
 and purpose in action; it was a league of different 
 armies. Iyeyasu's forces had one commander, one dis- 
 cipline and purpose. His banner was a golden fan on 
 a white field embroidered with hollyhocks. When the 
 fog lifted at 8 a.m., and the armies stood over against 
 each other ready for the awful conflict, the drums and 
 conches sounded from the centers the signal for battle. 
 Cannons and guns were used in the fighting, but the 
 most effective slaughtering was done by swords and 
 spears. Effective slaughtering is an unpleasant phrase, 
 but that is just what a battle means, either to kill, cap- 
 
BATTLE OF SEKIGAHAKA. 131 
 
 ture, or rout the enemy. At the first onslaught the 
 Easterners wavered and till twelve o'clock it was 
 doubtful which side would win. About twelve, the 
 tide turned, one of the generals with his followers de- 
 serted to Iyeyasu's side, and finally the confederates 
 broke and by evening were utterly routed. But they had 
 fought with desperate bravery, and forty thousand, ac- 
 cording to Japanese historians, fell upon the dust, never 
 to rise again. Multitudes of the wounded, fearing cap- 
 ture, committed hara Jciri to prevent that disgrace. 
 After the battle, as was the custom, the victorious side 
 gathered into the center of the battlefield, each soldier 
 bringing the heads cut off, and the prisoners, to be 
 counted. The soldiers who could show the most heads 
 or prisoners were, of course, the heroes of the day. A 
 mound named "Head Pile" still stands near the road 
 to mark the place where the confederates were buried, 
 and a monument stands upon the mound. 
 
 "It was fortunate," says Murray, "that Iyeyasu, the 
 victorious general, knew how to make sure the fruits of 
 such a victory. During the fighting he had not worn 
 his hemlet; but as soon as the victory was won ordered 
 it, and while putting it on he repeated to those around 
 him the proverb: 'After victory tighten your helmet 
 strings.'" 
 
 It was fortunate, too, that the victor was a man of 
 moderation and of peaceable disposition. To be sure, 
 several of the generals were captured and executed, 
 among whom were the Christians Konishi and Otai. 
 Being Christians, these two generals were under dark- 
 er suspicion of being allies of the Portuguese Jesuits 
 in some secret plan against the Japanese government. 
 Iyeyasu exercised what was then considered his un- 
 doubted right, that of portioning out the fief lands and 
 
132 
 
 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 daimiates to his own faithful vassals, and he provided 
 well for them, awarding them one hundred and fifty 
 daimiates out of three hundred and sixty-three. But 
 he spared many of the old and honorable Daimyos, es- 
 pecially the great Lords of Mori, Satsuma, and Choshii, 
 whom he treated with consideration after they came 
 forward and pledged allegiance to him. As before 
 said, he was in fact the founder of a new dynasty of 
 
 IYEYASU. 
 
 Shoguns, and received that title in 1603. The name 
 Tokugawa comes from the village where he was born. 
 Founder of a new line of rulers, he was the builder of 
 a new and great capital city, Yedo (now called Tokyo, 
 and greater to-day than ever), and inaugurated a long 
 period of peace and unity after so many centuries of 
 civil wars. He was a man of fine presence, had a re- 
 markable knowledge of men, was an able general, a 
 wise legislator and administrator, and what put him 
 
THE TOKUGAWA ERA DESCRIBED. 133 
 
 far above Nobunaga and Hideyoshi were his gentleness 
 and mercy. Buried in great pomp in 1616, in a splen- 
 did temple tomb, situated in the midst of a sacred 
 grove of towering cryptomerias at Nikko, he received 
 from the Mikado posthumous rank among the gods, 
 with the title, Sho-ichi-i-Tosho-Dai-Gongen — i. e., Su- 
 preme Highness, Light of the East-Great Incarnation 
 of Buddha. Pretty heavy titles, think you? 
 
 II. The Tokugawa Era Described. 
 
 1. It was a period of peace. With China and Korea 
 peace had been resumed. At home, barring the perse- 
 cution of the Christians and their final massacre at. 
 Shimabara, profound peace had been established. 
 Waiting patiently for his defeated enemies to come 
 and acknowledge him as the vassal lord of the whole 
 country, when they came he granted pardon, and Japan 
 had peace in all her borders. 
 
 2. It was an era of unification. For one thousand 
 years the frequent civil wars had prevented the grow- 
 ing together of the political sections and elements of 
 society into one consistent whole. Now these ele- 
 ments crystallize under one permanent system of gov- 
 ernment and fixed order of society. We do not mean 
 that during the long period of peace there was the 
 molding of a national life and unity such as we know, 
 for it is not in feudal paganism to realize the highest 
 national life, but it was superior to anything they had 
 known before. It was a collection of clans all under a 
 strong, moderate, and permanently established central 
 government, represented by the Shogun. Each Daimyo 
 of the clan paid tribute and allegiance to the central Sho- 
 gun at Yedo, and each in turn required the vassalage of 
 his own clansmen. Like William the Conqueror of En- 
 
134 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 gland, Iyeyasu adopted the safe policy of settling his 
 kinsmen and vassals in between the proud and strong 
 Daimyos whose intrigues might he feared. He knew 
 how conrpletely the feudal system had rooted itself in 
 the history and thinking of the Japanese people, and 
 with far-sighted statesmanship he built on the old foun- 
 dations. He knew that every new system in order to 
 be permanent must be an outgrowth of something that 
 has gone before, including what in the old is good and 
 lasting. The dual form of government had existed so 
 long and the Japanese had become so accustomed to it, 
 that Iyeyasu determined to perfect and keep it. 
 
 Nominally the Emperor is the head of the nation and 
 the fountain of rank, titles, etc. ; he is still regarded as 
 of divine descent and the father of the people, the Son 
 of Heaven, who is too sacred to touch with his hands 
 the common affairs of administration and the like. 
 This is the fiction indulged in by the people and en- 
 couraged by the Shoguns. Really the Emperors have 
 become effeminate, lovers of pleasure, incompetent to 
 rule, and are consequently kept in retirement in Kioto, 
 shut up in the palace with courtiers and wives. Prac- 
 tically their authority is small, and the people never 
 see their faces. 
 
 The Shogun at Yedo, while professing to rule in the 
 Emperor's name and receiving his title of Shogun from 
 him, actually holds the reins of full power in his 
 hands. He had his own army at his capital, and put 
 his own vassal Samurai to garrison the castle at Kioto 
 and Osaka, and in the region of the Kwanto, guarding 
 the approach to the capital. From his own family 
 and clan his advisers and officers of the central govern- 
 ment were chosen. 
 
 Iyeyasu's Legacy or Code of one hundred chapters 
 
^THE TOKUGAWA EEA DESCRIBED. 135 
 
 reflects the -mild and peaceful character of its author. 
 Each chapter treats of a single, separate subject. 
 Sixteen chapters consist of moral maxims and reflections, 
 quoted mostly from Confucius. Fifty -five chapters 
 treat of politics and governmental affairs. Twenty- 
 two chapters relate to matters of law. Seven chapters 
 recite incidents and experiences in his own life. While 
 the Code as a whole seems intended for the guidance of 
 the military or ruling class, it shows that he is also 
 mindful of the welfare of the pople. Pie says: "In 
 my youth my sole aim was to conquer unfriendly prov- 
 inces and take revenge upon the enemies of my ances- 
 tors; "but since I have come to understand the precept, 
 'To assist the people is to give peace to the empire,' I 
 have followed its teaching. Let my posterity hold 
 fast this principle, and any one turning his back upon 
 it is no descendant of mine. The people are the foun- 
 dation of the empire." (See Murray's "Japan," p. 202.) 
 
 Such democratic doctrine as this was the seed from 
 which two hundred and fifty years afterwards a consti- 
 tutional government grew and ripened into actual har- 
 vest. 
 
 3. But the early part of this period is stained with 
 the persecution and destruction of the Christians. 
 
 Doubtless our readers regard the introduction of Chris- 
 tianity by St. Xavier and his Jesuit brethren, their 
 conflicts and remarkable success for the first fifty 
 years, as the most interesting chapter in all this story of 
 Japan. We now come to a period of cruel persecution. 
 We have seen on a previous page how Nobunaga was 
 favorable to the Roman Catholics and hostile to the 
 Buddhists, and how the Catholics not only in Kiu- 
 shiu but also in Tamaguchi, Osaka, Sakai, and Kioto 
 built churches and schools and exerted a wide influence. 
 
136 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 In Nagasaki and Oita, besides churches, they had hos- 
 pitals and asylums; in the latter, a flourishing college. 
 We have also seen how Hideyoshi, who was at first fa- 
 vorable, became suspicious of the foreign missionaries, 
 the Jesuits; and the Franciscans, and began to persecute 
 them. 
 
 This change in the policy of the rulers of Japan to- 
 ward the Roman Catholics is clearly understood when 
 we consider a few facts. In the first place, the Jesuit 
 leaders incited the native converts to insult the gods and 
 deface the'images and shrines of the Buddhist religion. 
 Then the Franciscans, who had come from the Philip- 
 pines, after the Jesuits, quarreled with them, and their 
 mutual accusations only damaged the standing of both 
 in the eyes of Japanese rulers. A little later, when the 
 Dutch and English came seeking trade, they gave Jesuits 
 and Franciscans alike a bad name. The invasion of Hol- 
 land by Philip II. , Catholic king of Spain and Portugal, 
 had embittered the Dutch against the Roman Catholics. 
 The English too had cause for ill will toward the Cath- 
 olics and the Spanish Armada. Besides, Hideyoshi's 
 suspicions were strongly aroused by the gossip of a Por- 
 tuguese sea captain who was reported as saying: "The 
 king, my master, begins by sending priests, who win 
 over the people; and when this is done he dispatches 
 troops to join the native Christians, and the conquest" 
 is easy and complete." He now determined to stop the 
 Jesuits and their preaching by decreeing (1587) that all 
 foreign priests leave the country in twenty days or die; 
 but though ceasing for a while in public, they continued 
 to preach in private, and are said to have won ten thou- 
 sand converts in one year. In 1596 six Franciscans and 
 three Jesuits, and seventeen Japanese Christians were 
 taken to Nagasaki and burned. Persecution began to 
 
IYEYASU AND THE EOMAN CATHOLICS. 137 
 
 wax worse and worse, and even two or three army gen- 
 erals were put to death for their faith. 
 
 During lyeyasu's first years of rule the Christians 
 were not disturbed. He was too busy with affairs relat- 
 ing to the establishment of his own power throughout 
 country. Hence the bishops and priests of the Catholic 
 Church seemed at first to have good hope of his adopt- 
 ing a policy of toleration. In 1606 one of the bishops 
 was received in audience by him at Kioto, and treated 
 so cordially that he and his colaborers were much en- 
 couraged. But there were three things at least that 
 aroused lyeyasu's hostility against the Roman Catholics: 
 (1) The loose talk of that Portuguese sea captain had 
 no doubt been reported to him, causing him to fear that 
 Jesuits and Franciscans alike were political agents of the 
 Portuguese and Spanish rulers or the pope of Rome, 
 who were only watching their opportunity to set up 
 their rule in Japan. (2) Those foreign priests had 
 strangely forgotten that when they were paying court 
 to Hideyoshi's son they were placing themselves on the 
 side of lyeyasu's enemies, who had fought against him 
 at Segigahara. (3) The spirit of. religious toleration 
 was then unknown. There was no such thing as reli- 
 gious liberty at that time even in Europe. Not only 
 had France been torn for seventy years by civil wars, 
 that were also religious wars between Catholics and 
 Protestants, resulting finally in the expulsion of the 
 Huguenots, but Germany and Austria were likewise en- 
 gaged in religious wars — the Thirty Years' War; and in 
 England too, even the Protestants when in power perse- 
 cuted the Roman Catholics. Hence there was no other 
 course open to Iyeyasu but to hold to the Buddhist re- 
 ligion, and oppose with his might the Christians, or em- 
 brace Christianity and put down the Buddhists. Pre- 
 
138 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 cisely so, the Jesuits had taught the Christian princes in 
 Kiushiu that they must compel their subjects to renounce 
 Buddhism and accept Christian baptism. The Prince 
 of Akashi, in Harima Province, had bitterly persecuted 
 all his people who did not willingly receive baptism, 
 and Konishi, the brave Christian general, who had re- 
 ceived for his service a j:>art of Higo Province, had forced 
 baptism upon his people, and confiscated Buddhist tem- 
 ples and lands. Evidently, then, these Jesuits and their 
 Christian princes in Japan could not complain when 
 Iyeyasu began to use the same practice of persecution 
 against them which they had attempted against the 
 Buddhists. It should be noted, however, that the Ro- 
 man Catholic historians of this period give a different 
 reason for the persecution of the Christians — that is, that 
 because certain beautiful Christian maidens refused to 
 obey Hideyoshi's command to enter his harem, he be- 
 came enraged and resolved to crush out the Christian 
 sect, and as a good excuse for putting them down charged 
 the foreign teachers and priests with plotting against 
 Japan's independence. But unfortunately there is too 
 much evidence of political intrigue on the part of Jes- 
 uits in other countries, and of Romish claims for the 
 temporal authority of the pope. In view of the above- 
 mentioned facts, and in the spirit of the age, Iyeyasu 
 concluded that the further preaching and progress of 
 the Christians must be stopped. He issued a proclama- 
 tion in 1606 declaring that he had been pained to learn 
 that many had embraced the Christian faith contrary to 
 Hideyoshi's decree. He declared it to be hurtful to the 
 state for Japanese to become Christians, that all who 
 had done so must change, and ordered all the officers of 
 his court to see the edict strictly enforced. This clear- 
 ly shows that Iyeyasu feared the Jesuits as dangerous to 
 
PERSECUTION OP THE CHRISTIANS. 139 
 
 the country. His proclamation did not, however, detei 
 them from ptiblicly celebrating in the city of Nagasaki 
 in the most gorgeous manner the canonization of Igna- 
 tius Loyola, the founder of the Jesuit society. The 
 bishop, arrayed in robes and followed by the various or- 
 ders of Jesuits, Franciscans, and others, made a solemn 
 procession through the streets, making a public display 
 in direct violation of government edicts. This led to 
 severer measures. It is said that Iyeyasu discovered 
 about this time written proof of a plot on the part of 
 foreign priests and native converts to reduce Japan to 
 subjugation to a foreign power. At any rate, he deter- 
 mined to destroy the Christians root and branch, and 
 accordingly in 1614 issued a decree that all religious or- 
 ders, whether European or Japanese, should leave the 
 country, that the churches should be razed to the 
 ground, and native Christians renounce their faith. 
 Ten thousand troops were now sent to Kiushiu, where 
 the Christians were most numerous, to execute this de- 
 cree. Accordingly three hundred persons, including 
 all of the Jesuits, except twenty-seven, who hid them- 
 selves, were banished, and the most vigorous efforts 
 were made to compel the native Christians to recant. 
 
 The persecutions that now broke upon the heads 
 of the Christians were horrible beyond description. In 
 order to search out the Christians in every nook and 
 hole, so as to kill them or make them give up their faith, 
 a special inquisition was organized by the government. 
 The head of each house was examined and required to 
 swear that no Christian was with him, his wife, chil- 
 dren, servants, or passing traveler. A reward was of- 
 fered to any one giving information about the Chris- 
 tians and priests. In connection with this there was in- 
 troduced a test, the e-fumi, or trampling upon the Chris- 
 
140 
 
 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 tian's cross. A wooden or metal cross with the image 
 of Jesus was laid down, and each person was required to 
 trample it as an act of detestation or be at once arrest- 
 ed. Often parents would make their little children do 
 it to make them hate the "Jesus religion." 
 
 But with the perse- 
 up an enthusiasm and 
 overcome by the 
 government. Exiled 
 returning to the coun- 
 martyrdom; and 
 Christians were being 
 killed, oth- 
 came f o r - 
 c 1 a r i n g 
 tion to the 
 Christ, 
 from the country to 
 the Philippines; but 
 to meet with unquail- 
 and sword of their 
 Seizing the Chris- 
 wrapped them 
 throwing Jihem in a 
 They were thrown 
 grave, soon to be 
 burned, beheaded 
 hurled from the steep 
 cages to starve, with 
 to tempt them to re- 
 
 cutions there sprang 
 a courage hard to 
 powerful arms of the 
 priests kept secretly 
 try, as if desirous of 
 though Japanese 
 hounded, punished, 
 ers boldly 
 ward, de- 
 their devo- 
 cr oss of 
 Many fled 
 China, Formosa, and 
 thousands remained 
 ing heroism the fire 
 cruel persecutors. 
 tians, they sometimes 
 straw sacks, and, 
 heap, set fire to them. 
 alive into the open 
 filled up. They were 
 with the sword, or 
 precipice; put into 
 food placed outside 
 n ounce the faith, 
 crucified or hanged, 
 
 Sometimes they were 
 with feet fastened to a post and head downward, and 
 left in that condition to perish or recant. All accounts 
 (Roman Catholic, Dutch, Japanese) witness to the 
 
THE LAST OF THE CHRISTIANS. 141 
 
 courageous endurance of the native Christians in 
 Japan. 
 
 It was in 1624 that all foreigners except the Dutch 
 and Chinese were banished from the country by the Sho- 
 gun Iyemidzu. Fresh persecutions of native Christians, 
 even more terrible than the early ones, followed. Every 
 kind of torture was applied that barbarism could in- 
 vent. During all these years of horror and torture the 
 Christians had made no serious resistance; but in the 
 year 1636 the remnant left in Kiushiu were driven, it 
 seems, to desperation, and determined to defend them- 
 selves. Accordingly they gathered together in an old 
 abandoned castle of Arima, in Kiushiu, to the number 
 of thirty thousand. This event is known in Japanese 
 history as "the war of Shimabara" (Arima), by Ro- 
 man Catholic writers as "the massacre of Shimabara." 
 The Shogun sent an army to annihilate these peasants; 
 but only after a siege of three months, assisted, it is 
 said, by cannon which the Dutch loaned them, did 
 they succeed in capturing the castle. According to 
 Rein (p. 308), the massacre that ensued baffles descrip- 
 tion. All the besieged Christians were doomed to 
 death. Thousands of them were led to "Papenburg 
 Rock," in the harbor of Nagasaki, and there hurled 
 from the steep cliff into the sea; but the majority of 
 them were either killed in the fighting within the castle 
 or immediately afterwards. To-day the tourist, stand- 
 ing on the ocean steamship as it enters Nagasaki harbor, 
 will have pointed out to him that "Papenburg Rock," 
 whence in those bloody days the Christians were hurled 
 to death. "If any one doubts the sincerity and fervor 
 of the Christian converts of to-day, or the ability of the 
 Japanese to embrace a higher, form of faith, or their 
 willingness to suffer for what they believe, he has but 
 
142 JAPAN : COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE. 
 
 to read the accounts, in English, Dutch, French, Japa- 
 nese, and Latin, of various witnesses to the fortitude 
 of the Japanese Christians in the seventeenth century. 
 The annals of the primitive Church furnish no instances 
 of sacrifice or heroic constancy, in the Coliseum or Ro- 
 man arenas, that were not paralleled on the dry river 
 beds and execution grounds of Japan." 
 
 Finally, believing that the last vestige of the Chris- 
 tian name had been uprooted, the Japanese government 
 posted on the notice boards all over the empire the edict 
 of death against any person following or believing in 
 the "corrupt religion." And the word went forth from 
 the Japanese rulers that: "So long as the sun shall 
 warm the earth, let no Christian be so bold as to come 
 to Japan. Let all know that the King of Spain himself, 
 or the Christian's God, or the great God of all, if he 
 violate this command, shall pay for it with his head." 
 
 And yet the Christian name and faith among the Jap- 
 anese were not entirely wiped out, as was proved two 
 hundred and fifty years afterwards. 
 
 III. Following Portuguese Example, Spaniards, 
 Dutch, and English Seek Trade avith Japan; Fi- 
 nally All Are Excluded Except Dutch. 
 
 Whatever may be the truth about Columbus having 
 in mind Zipangu (Japan) when he set sail westward 
 across the Atlantic, it is certain that navigators hoped 
 to find a short route to Asia by sailing directly west. 
 The English Cabots and their successors hoped to find 
 a passage around the north of the new country which 
 Columbus had discovered; and it is said that even La 
 Salle, the French explorer in what is now Canada, was 
 seeking an overland route to Asia! And yet, for a 
 whole centuiy after the discovery of a passage to India 
 
SPANIARDS IN JAPAN. 143 
 
 by the Cape of Good Hope (1497), the commerce of Eu- 
 ropean nations was almost entirely in the hands of the 
 Portuguese. Because they had great possessions in In- 
 dia, and a nourishing trading colony at Macao, on the 
 coast of China, they got ahead of all the other European 
 nations and kept the bulk of the trade of Japan for 
 about a century. 
 
 Next after the Portuguese came the Spaniards. But 
 neither did the Spanish discovery of a passage through 
 the Straits of Magellan, and the settlement of Spaniards 
 in the Philippines, seriously interfere with the Portu- 
 guese monopoly of trade with China and Japan. With 
 New Spain (Mexico and Southern California) in their 
 possession, and Manila as a trading colony, the Span- 
 iards ought to have rivaled the Portuguese in these far 
 Eastern ports. And they did make an effort. Don Ro- 
 drigo, the Governor of Manila, made a visit (1608) to 
 the Shogun, in his palace at Suruga, who received him 
 in great state. In fact, the Shogun offered him a ship 
 of European model in which to sail to Mexico, and re- 
 quested Philip, King of Spain, to send fifty miners from 
 Mexico, who, as he had heard, were more skillful in 
 mining and smelting silver than his own people. A 
 little later a special embassador was sent with splendid 
 presents, asking leave for the Spaniards to build ships 
 from the forests of Japan and explore her coasts. This 
 was agreed to. Already the Spaniards were sending 
 ships once a year from Acapulco, in Mexico, to Manila. 
 And now the plan is to make Japan the third corner of 
 the great oceanic triangle of trade on the Pacific — namely, 
 Mexico, the Philippines, and Japan. A grand scheme 
 that! but it failed. It was prophetic, however; for 
 when the Americans shall have cut through the Nicara- 
 guan or Panama canal, then the triangle of ocean trade 
 
144 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 will be completed: the Gulf of Mexico, Manila, and Ja- 
 pan. But the poor Spaniard will have small part in it. 
 
 About this time (1609) the first Dutch ship, the Red 
 Lion, arrived at Hirado, a little northward of Nagasaki. 
 Both Portuguese and Spaniards did their utmost to 
 persuade the Japanese to refuse the Dutch. They told 
 the Shogun that Dutch ships were not true trading ves- 
 sels, but were sea pirates. The Shogun, having heard 
 of the wars between Spain and Holland, understood the 
 situation, and replied: "I have nothing to do with Eu- 
 ropean quarrels. " And well did the Portuguese dread 
 the Dutch, for they were the first Europeans to break 
 in upon the Portuguese monopoly in Eastern seas. The 
 Dutch out of the Red Lion were kindly received by the 
 old Daimyo at Hirado, and a deputation with presents 
 in the name of the king of Holland was safely conducted 
 to the Shogun' s court. Having got permission to estab- 
 lish a trading post for their ships at Hirado, they sailed 
 for Holland bearing a letter from the Japanese Shogun 
 to their king. The salutation of that letter is as fol- 
 lows: "I, Emperor and King of Japan, wish to the 
 King of Holland, who hath sent from so far countries 
 to visit me, greeting." The Dutch made a second voy- 
 age (1611) under Capt. Spex and secured a permanent 
 commercial charter. They at once erected a large 
 warehouse at Hirado; and twenty- five years afterwards, 
 when the Portuguese were expelled from the country, 
 they transferred their trading post to the little island 
 of Deshima, at Nagasaki. Thither a few ships came 
 yearly, and here stayed a superintendent, physician and 
 surgeon, a naturalist, and a few employees, a dozen men 
 in all. The Dutch made enormous profits by this trade. 
 
 At this point in the narrative comes the strange story 
 of William Adams. The- Dutch merchants at Amster- 
 
DUTCH SQUADRON AND WILL ADAMS. 145 
 
 dam were more powerful and richer than the English 
 merchants at London, and hence took into their service 
 on their ships enterprising Englishmen. William Ad- 
 ams was one of them. Born in England, when twelve 
 years of age he began a seafaring life. He shipped as 
 chief pilot of a Dutch squadron of five ships sailing for 
 India (1598), the ships being named Faith, Hope, Chari- 
 ty, Fidelity, and Good News. Notwithstanding their 
 good names, it was an ill-starred fleet; for of the five 
 ships, with five hundred men, only the Charity, with 
 twenty-four men, lived through the voyage. At that 
 time there were no mammoth steamships, with powerful 
 double engines, speeding their way through winds and 
 waves; but they had only small sailing vessels, illy pre- 
 pared for such long ocean voyages. When the Charity 
 reached Japan at last, only Adams and five or six of the 
 twenty-four starving men were able to walk. Adams 
 was sent to Osaka, where he met the Shogun "in a 
 wonderfully costly house," who treated him kindly and 
 asked him many questions about his country, the cause 
 of his coming to Japan, the countries England had wars 
 with, about his religion, and by what route he had come. 
 He replied that the English had long sought the East 
 Indies and desired friendship and trade with all kings; 
 that England had been at war with Portugal and Spain, 
 but was at peace with other countries. But when he 
 pointed out on a map of the world the passage through 
 the Strait of Magellan the Shogun showed plainly he 
 did not believe him. 
 
 Though thus kindly received, Adams was ordered 
 back to prison, where he was confined more than a 
 month, and expected every day to be taken out and cru- 
 cified according to the custom of the times, for the per- 
 secution of the Christians had begun. But although the 
 10 
 
146 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Portuguese did their utmost against Adams, the Shogun 
 understood their motive, and, calling for Adams again, 
 he held a long conversation with him, questioned him 
 closely, and then, to his surprise, set him at liberty. 
 The Shogun had discovered Adams's knowledge of ship- 
 builing and mathematics; and the man's skill stood him 
 in good stead, for he soon made himself very useful to 
 the Shogun by teaching his shipbuilders how to build 
 ships after the European model. But he was longing 
 to return to his native England to see his wife and chil- 
 dren. The Shogun recognized his services and sought to 
 make him content by giving him "a living like a lord- 
 ship in England, with eighty or ninety servants or 
 slaves." In this way Adams got a thorough knowledge 
 of the rulers, the people, and the country. His diary, 
 which has been published, is now invaluable as a pic- 
 ture of those times. Though living like a Japanese 
 nobleman, he was never satisfied, and sent a letter by a 
 Dutch ship to the English merchants in the island of 
 Java, and through them to his wife and children in En- 
 gland; he also urged the English to open trade in 
 Japan. 
 
 And sure enough the English came (1613) under Capt. 
 John Saris. Saris was welcomed at Hirado by the same 
 old Daimyo who had so kindly received the Dutch, and 
 he begged the Daimyo to send to the Shogun's capital 
 for Adams. In about twenty days he came, and what a 
 joyous meeting it was, especially for Adams! After all 
 these years in that strange land to see once more his 
 own countrymen direct from home! 
 
 Conducted by his fellow-countryman, Capt. Saris and 
 his company went up to the Shogun's court, where, 
 through the influence of Adams, he was received with 
 marked consideration. Capt. Saris has left interesting 
 
ENGLISH SEEKING TRADE. 147 
 
 observations of what he saw on his journey from Hiral- 
 do to Suruga, the Shogun's seat. Attended by seven- 
 teen of his own men, including merchants, he was lib- 
 erally furnished by the old Daimyo with a large galley 
 of twenty-five oars to the side, manned with sixty men, 
 the galley being handsomely fitted out with waist- 
 cloths and ensigns. They coasted along the Kiushiu 
 coast to the entrance of the Inland Sea (see map), through 
 which they passed till they reached Osaka, after a voy- 
 age of twenty days. Osaka, he says, had many timber 
 bridges across a river as wide as the Thames at London. 
 Passing up a river or canal from Osaka in a small boat, 
 he reached Fushimi, near Kioto. Here he saw the gar- 
 rison of three thousand soldiers kept to guard Kioto 
 and Osaka. The garrison was being changed and he 
 saw their array. They were armed with firearms, pikes, 
 swords, bows, and arrows, and marched five abreast 
 without music or colors. He was impressed with their 
 discipline and martial bearing. On the way he met the 
 general in the rear marching in great state, hunting and 
 hawking all the way, the hawks being managed after 
 the European fashion. From Fushimi they traveled on 
 horse to Suruga. It was the Tokaido road from Kioto 
 to Yedo, well built and level, and most of the way in 
 sight of the sea. 
 
 For Capt. Saris a palanquin was also furnished for 
 changing from his horse. The distance along the road 
 was marked every three miles by two little hillocks, 
 one on each side, and upon each hillock was planted a 
 fair pine tree trimmed in round shape. The great road 
 was full of travelers, many villages and towns were 
 passed, rivers crossed at ferries, and temples observed 
 in groves, "the pleasantest place for delight in the 
 whole country." At the town taverns where they 
 
148 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 lodged, horses and men were changed like the posts in 
 England. The people ate rice and fish chiefly, with 
 wild fowl, and plowed with horses and oxen, and raised 
 good red wheat. Besides sake, brewed from rice, they 
 drank warm water with their food.* 
 
 The entrance to the Shogun's seat, Suruga, was not 
 savory for the sight of several crosses with dead bod- 
 ies hanging. These corpses were often used by passing 
 Samurai to test their swords, and so by frequent hack- 
 ings were much cut up. The city had a population, so 
 he judged, of 250,000. The handicraftsmen dwelt out- 
 side of the city, so as not to disturb with their pound- 
 ing and hammering the richer and more leisurely sort. 
 After a day's preparation Saris was conducted into the 
 castle, bringing his presents upon small tables of 
 sweet-smelling wood, according to custom. Inside the 
 castle he passed three drawbridges, each with its 
 guard, and then, ascending handsome stone steps, he 
 was met by two grave and comely officers, the Shogun's 
 Secretary and Admiral, who led him into an antechamber. 
 After resting a bit upon the mats, the two officers rose 
 and conducted him into the Presence Chamber, in order 
 to make due reverence to the empty throne chair. It 
 was aboufrfive feet high, sides and back richly finished 
 in cloth of gold, but without a canopy. The presents 
 from his English King James, and his own, were laid 
 in order in this audience room. Presently, while wait- 
 ing in the antechamber, it was announced that His 
 Highness had arrived and was seated. Saris, now en- 
 tering alone, approached the Shogun and presented, 
 probably on bended knee, the king's letter. The Sho- 
 
 * On account of a violent colic that is so common the peo- 
 ple even to this clay drink but little cold water. 
 
CAPT. SARIS AND THE SHOGUN. 149 
 
 gun, taking it, raised it to his forehead as a mark of 
 respect, according to a custom still prevalent, and, 
 through his interpreter, kneeling near him, bade the 
 Englishman welcome, and to rest after his wearisome 
 journey, and said that an answer would he ready in a 
 day or two. In due time the answer to King James I.'s 
 letter, and an official copy of trading privileges,, were 
 handed to Saris, and he then returned to Hirado. 
 Shortly afterwards Capt. Saris, with the Shogun's 
 presents and the letter to King James, sailed away to 
 England. Adams, who had entered the English India 
 Company's service, and seven others, were left in 
 charge of the trading post at Hirado. But notwith- 
 standing this auspicious opening, the English did not 
 succeed in their trading enterprise in Japan. They 
 bought junks and made efforts to open trade from 
 Japan with Siam, Cochin China, and Korea; but the 
 Dutch pushed their enterprises and had the bulk of the 
 trade. Saving many large ships, they were too strong 
 for the English. In a few years war broke out between 
 the Dutch and English at home, and so the Dutch, 
 with several ships and an overpowering force of men, 
 attacked the English in Japanese waters and overcame 
 them. Finally, in 1623, discouraged over their losses, 
 the English abandoned their trade in Japan. To us 
 to-day it is strange reading that the Dutch toere too 
 strong for the English in shijos and trade. As already 
 stated, the rebellion of the peasant Christians at Shima- 
 bara greatly enraged the Japanese rulers against the 
 Portuguese, who had, as they believed, stirred up that 
 uprising. An edict was therefore issued forbidding 
 two things: first, any Portuguese coming to Japan for 
 any purpose; and second, any Japanese going out of 
 the country. 
 
150 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 And so it came to pass that the Dutch alone were 
 left in their little trading island at Nagasaki; and 
 they were practically shut up and treated as prisoners 
 in this island. With this slight exception the period of 
 open intercourse and trade with Europe was then 
 closed, and Japan entered upon a policy of rigid isola- 
 tian as a hermit nation. (We should say that the Chi- 
 nese were also allowed restricted trade in Japan along 
 with the Dutch.) And how can we explain this change 
 of policy? 
 
 There are two reasons, perhaps more. First, the 
 Japanese were afraid of the Roman Catholics, who had 
 gotten so much influence over certain princes, Daimyos, 
 and generals, especially in Kiushiu. Secondly, they 
 were afraid of becoming entangled in the broils and 
 wars of European nations, and of being attacked by 
 their ships and troops. India had been invaded, first 
 by Portuguese, then by the Dutch and French, and then 
 by the English. And thirdly, it may be that the morals 
 of many of the sailors and merchants of Europe who 
 came to Japan did not make a very favorable impres- 
 sion upon the Japanese. The Portuguese and Span- 
 iards were Roman Catholics, the Dutch and English 
 were Protectants; but whether they acted in such a 
 way as to make the Japanese respect and desire the 
 Christian religion is doubtful. If the example of Capt. 
 Saris's bad sailors is a representative one, we fear the 
 Japanese were not favorably impressed by their con- 
 tact with the Europeans. When Saris returned to 
 Hirado from his visit to the Shogun, seven of his 
 crew had run away and joined the Portuguese at Na- 
 gasaki, alleging that they had been used more like 
 dogs than men. During Saris's absence others, seduced 
 by drink and women, had committed great irregular- 
 
ALL EXCLUDED EXCEPT THE DUTCH. 151 
 
 ities, quarreling with the Japanese and among them- 
 selves, even to wounding, maiming, and death. Hav- 
 ing paid up a good many boarding-house and liquor 
 shop bills against his men, Saris sailed away. (See 
 Hildreth, p. 172.) Shameful patterns these of Chris- 
 tian civilization before the eyes of idolaters! Ah! if 
 the Roman Catholics had kept their hands from med- 
 dling with the Japanese government, and if the Protest- 
 ant, Dutch, and English had been pure in morals and 
 upright in their dealings, so that the- intercourse and 
 trade so auspiciously opened could have gone on, what 
 wonderful changes would have been wrought in the 
 minds of the Japanese! It has been charged against 
 the Dutch, who managed to keep their little trading 
 post and bring in their ships yearly, that they prac- 
 tically renounced Christianity and cringingly submit- 
 ted to all sorts of restrictions, insults, and indignities. 
 There is some truth in the charge; how much, we do 
 not care to discuss. That the profits of this trade were 
 enormous there is no question. The Dutch brought 
 their goods and carried away silver; and when the sil- 
 ver became scarce they shipped gold; and at last, when 
 silver and gold became scarce, they exported im- 
 mense quantities of copper. Before leaving the Dutch 
 and their trading post at Nagasaki there is one thing 
 we must thank them for: that with their little colony 
 they always kept a resident physician and surgeon and 
 a naturalist. Those scholars of scientific tastes, like 
 Kampfer and Siebold, studied as best they could the 
 country, its productions, the people, and their man- 
 ners ; and their historical and scientific writings, now 
 preserved in the great libraries of Europe and America,, 
 are highly prized as authorities for those times. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 A HEBMIT NATION— CIVILIZATION OF THIS PEBIOD 
 OF NATIONAL 8E0LUSI0N (1638-1854). 
 
 Christianity having been outlawed as a " corrupt 
 sect," dangerous to government and people, wooden 
 edict boards were hung up in all public places forbid- 
 ding the profession of the Christian faith, or the har- 
 boring of any teacher or disciple of it as a crime pun- 
 ishable with death, and large rewards were offered to 
 informers. As we have stated previously, all foreign- 
 ers and foreign Christians were forbidden to enter the 
 country; and all communication and trade with for- 
 eigners, with the slight exception of Dutch and Chi- 
 nese, were strictly forbidden. 
 
 The proud Samurai, despising all kinds of trade and 
 manual labor, only held the Dutch in lower contempt 
 for being willing to be shut up, as it were in prison, 
 for the sake of base gain. In keeping with the policy 
 of isolation adopted by the Tokugawa Shoguns, even 
 foreign books, writings, and pictures found in the pos- 
 session of a Japanese were seized, and the man's head 
 taken off. To prevent the possibility of trading over 
 sea with foreign countries, all ships above a given size 
 were seized and destroyed, and new ships had to be 
 built within the prescribed size. 
 
 The impression was everywhere sought to be made 
 upon the minds of the people that foreigners were dan- 
 gerous barbarians, worthy only of loathing and suspi- 
 cion — "hairy barbarians," wearing beard; and the pa- 
 triotic thing was to kill any of them that dare set their 
 (152) 
 
THE PEOPLE. 153 
 
 unhallowed feet upon Japan's sacred soil. Thus, with 
 her gates closed to the outside world, Japan remained 
 a hermit nation until the year of our Lord 1854, a space 
 of over two hundred years. Before passing on to the 
 story of more recent times we must pause to consider: 
 
 I. The People. 
 
 They have small bodies, yellow skins, black coarse 
 hair, dark eyes, lips rather thick, and nose not very 
 high. They have not so much of the almond eye as the 
 Chinese, and yet the shape of the eye is somewhat sim- 
 ilar. Unlike the Chinese, however, they are livelier 
 and quicker of movement, and more polite. They are, 
 in politeness and grace, the French of the Orient. Like 
 all Asiatic peoples, they are highly conceited, but, differ- 
 ent from their Chinese neighbors, are chivalric, brave, 
 and patriotic to the highest degree. No braver people 
 nor more patriotic ever breathed, nor can we withhold 
 our admiration for the self-sacrifices which they have 
 made in recent years for the love of their country. 
 They pride themselves on the antiquity of their nation. 
 As to their antiforeign feeling it was not originally a 
 national characteristic, but has been taken on as a re- 
 sult of historical experience with foreign peoples. 
 
 In agreement with the testimony of Adams, St. 
 Xavier spoke of the Japanese three hundred and fifty 
 years ago in one of his letters as follows : "I really 
 think that among barbarous nations there can be none 
 that has more natural goodness than Japan." Again 
 in the same letter: "They are wonderfully inclined to 
 see all that is good and honest, and have an eagerness 
 to learn." Griffis, who visited Kioto in 1873, s^ys: 
 "No people are more courtly and polished than the 
 Japanese; . . . the citizens of the Mikado surpass 
 
154 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 all others in Japan in refined manners and graces of 
 etiquette." As to their suspiciousness and lack of mu- 
 tual confidence or candor, this is not a defect peculiar 
 to Jajjanese more than to other idolatrous nations. 
 Mutual confidence is not a fruit Of idolatrous religion 
 and civilization. After residing among them for some 
 years, the writer is inclined to say that the Japanese 
 are quick-minded, lovers of the beautiful, polite, brave, 
 patriotic, eager to learn, but extremely self-conceited 
 and rather suspicious. For a delicate sense of propria 
 ty and gracefulness of manner, they probably have no 
 equals in the world. In the absence of aroused passion 
 or strong prejudice they are very kind-hearted; and 
 personally the writer has been well treated by them 
 ind holds many of them as his dearest friends. When 
 mger is aroused they are rather vindictive and cruel, 
 judged by our standards. This is due to long centuries 
 [ f feudalism, which not only justified but enjoined the 
 taking of revenge upon an enemy. Of one of their 
 marked characteristics, the passion for the beautiful, we 
 shall speak later when considering their fine arts. 
 
 II. Modes oe Living and Working. 
 Their ways of living are quite different from ours. 
 They do not live in town and country as we do, but in 
 town and village. No separate farmhouses are seen 
 there, but in villages they dwell, with the surrounding 
 neighborhood divided into little farms of from one to 
 five acres. The streets are narrow and for the most 
 part without pavements. Houses are built right on the 
 street, or, if a rich man's house, it is built in a large yard 
 cut off from the view of the street by a high wall and a 
 great gate. In Tokyo some wide streets with pave- 
 ments have been laid out recently. The houses, made 
 
(155) 
 
156 JAPAN : COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE. 
 
 of wood and plaster, are low and covered with tiles or 
 with straw thatch. 
 
 The roof is usually not steep, and the rafters always 
 extend at the eaves two and a half to three feet beyond 
 the walls. Upon the rafters are laid down thin sheet- 
 ing, and upon this sheeting mud is laid about two and 
 a half inches thick, and in this soft mud the tiles are 
 laid. These tiles, of burnt clay and of iron color, are as 
 wide as a man's double hands, are slightly convex and 
 have a flange on one edge and a groove on the other. 
 They make a very cheap, durable, and pretty roof. If 
 the roof is of straw, the straw is laid on six inches thick 
 and fastened at the comb by bundles of straw bent into 
 a half curve, laid on crosswise and fastened with 
 strong cords or tough root rope. Whether of tile or 
 thatch, the lack of chimneys is noticeable. For smoke 
 escape there is left in the roof a square hole that may be 
 closed with a wooden lid when it rains; but if the roof 
 is of thatch, the smoke escapes through the gables and 
 under the eaves. Now that the house is under roof the 
 walls are next to finish. First, instead of lathing nailed 
 on to the studs or posts, bamboo splits are wattled in 
 between the posts, and tied with strings. The mortar 
 is then pu± on and finished with white plaster. If it be 
 a poor man's house, there is no white-plaster finish of 
 the wall, and the most of them are very poor. On the 
 outside the walls are plastered in the same way except 
 that, for protection against the rain, there is a weather- 
 boarding from the ground six feet upward. These 
 boards are charred to make them last, and, on account 
 of scarcity of timber, are very thin, and nailed on in 
 upright fashion. With eaves extended at the top, and 
 this boarding at the bottom, the plastered or stuccoed 
 Walls last a. Ions: time against wind and rain. 
 
A JAPANESE DWELLING. 
 
 157 
 
 With no chimneys and small windows, how to get 
 sunshine and ventilation was an important question in 
 the evolution of the Japanese dwelling. To get the 
 warm sunshine, all of one side (the south side, if possi- 
 ble) and a part of another side of the house are made 
 moveable — that is, sliding doors about six feet by three, 
 
 
 
 
 4r}ji| 
 
 ll 
 
 It 
 
 INTERIOR VIEW OP JAPANESE HOUSE. 
 
 are set up side by side, all running in a groove above 
 and below; so that in daytime all are slided back into 
 a large upright box at one end of the house. These 
 sliding doors are called amaclos, and in an ordinary 
 house number from twelve to twenty. At night these 
 doors are all put in place and the whole side of the 
 house closed up. Every morning the first thing done 
 
158 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 is to slide back the amados, otherwise the house 
 would be very dark, and in summer hot, for the win- 
 dows are usually small. Now just inside a narrow 
 veranda is another sliding partition made of slender 
 frames covered with transparent paper, or, as in the 
 cut, filled in with glass. These are called sJioji. If when 
 the outside amados are slid back, it is too damp or 
 windy, the shojis remain shut; if it be both bright and 
 warm, then both amados and shojis are pushed back, 
 and you sit inside the house looking right out into the 
 open, and enjoy the fresh breeze or the scenery. By 
 this arrangement Japanese houses are delightfully cool 
 in summer, but disagreeable in winter. 
 
 Suppose, now, you are going to visit a Japanese house. 
 You first go through a low, slatted, double sliding gate 
 into a small vestibule. The floor of this vestibule is 
 cement or clay packed hard. To the one who appears 
 to receive you, you make a low bow, and are invited 
 to come "honorably up higher." This means that the 
 house floor is about two feet above that of the vesti- 
 bule. Giving humble thanks and leaving your shoes, 
 you get up on the floor, and soon observe that every- 
 where it is covered with a slightly yielding thick mat- 
 ting, laid down in pieces six feet long and three feet 
 wide. You notice, too, that there are no fixed wooden 
 or brick walls dividing the rooms, but that the sliding 
 papered frames (shoji) just described, serve for parti- 
 tions between them; and that these, easily taken out, 
 would throw almost all the house into one room. 
 When you look around you are surprised to see no 
 chairs, tables, or other furniture like ours. You ob- 
 serve too, the lack of fireplaces and stoves for heating, 
 but instead you see in the center of the room the hi- 
 bachi, the fire box or brasier, with a handful of charcoal 
 
INSIDE THE HOUSE. 159 
 
 slowly burning. Sitting around this kibachi upon mats 
 on the floor, you warm your hands and wrists, and as 
 for your feet you keep them warm by sitting on them 
 like the Japanese do — if yOu know how. You leave your 
 shoes in the little vestibule because the Japanese do 
 not sit on chairs or divans, or sleep on bedsteads (only 
 a few use our furniture now), or sit at tables as we 
 do; but for sitting, writing, sewing, eating, sleeping, 
 etc., they get right down upon the thick matting. In 
 order to keep this perfectly clean, the shoes, with 
 dust and dirt, must not be worn indoors. Should you 
 be invited to a meal, you discover no common table 
 with chairs set around for the whole family. While 
 eating, each one sits on the floor behind his little stand 
 six inches high, and receives his bowl of rice, drinks his 
 tea, eats his fish, and bits of vegetables without knives, 
 forks, or spoons. Instead of these, two slender sticks 
 ten inches long are used; and you would be surprised 
 to see how dexterously these chopsticks are used in 
 picking off the meat of the fish, etc. The tea is taken 
 without milk or sugar, and serves at meals for coffee 
 and milk. And should you be invited to stay all night, 
 you do not sleep on a high bedstead but on a single 
 pallet made down on the matting. During the day the 
 bedding is kept in a closet with sliding doors, called 
 the " push-put- in-place." The pillow is not a large, un- 
 healthful thing made of feathers, but is like a lady's 
 hand muff stuffed with cotton, or a wooden piece three 
 inches high and ten long placed under the neck. As 
 the Japanese are a cleanly race, every house except the 
 poorest has a bath and closet. 
 
 Traveling by Kago and Jinrikusha. — In feudal times 
 the common people walked; the upper classes rode in 
 kagos or sedan chairs. To a foreigner the sitting be- 
 
(160) 
 
JAPANESE DOCTORING. 161 
 
 comes very irksome, if not painful; but the Japanese, ac- 
 customed to bending their legs under them, and sitting 
 on their feet from childhood, can ride all day in such a 
 bamboo chair without great discomfort. The chair is 
 swung to a pole borne on the shoulders of two men, 
 one in front and one behind. The Kago is still used 
 for travel across the mountainous parts of the country. 
 Since the revolution, the jinrikusha has been invented 
 and introduced, and is now in all but universal use 
 among the middle and upper classes. It was the in- 
 vention, it is said, of a foreigner in Shanghai. Jin- 
 rikusha means, literally, " man-power- wheel," and, as 
 seen in cut, is a small two- wheeled vehicle with springs 
 and top, drawn by a man. This is a very convenient 
 way of travel, but it is hard upon the coolie who pulls 
 it. When the road is level and hard, the man can trot 
 along at a lively gait, but when weather is bad and 
 roads are heavy or hilly, such a life is very hard to the 
 pulling man. Indeed, it is said the average life of the 
 jinrikusha man is not more than ten years. In the cities 
 there are jinrikusha stations where you may engage fare 
 to any place in the town at an average rate of seven 
 cents per hour; if out of town and the distance is long, 
 you may travel by relays. But in either case be sure 
 to make your bargain well understood before you start, 
 otherwise you will surely have trouble at the end. 
 
 Japanese Doctoring. — To-day they have medical col- 
 leges and study the Western system of medicine, but 
 until recently the Chinese system was in vogue. This 
 was a mixture of science and superstition, or physic 
 and sorcery. As among so many other old nations, the 
 "medicine man" was a sacred person or priest. In 
 the first place the whole theory of diseases was based 
 upon certain teachings of Chinese philosophy as to the 
 11 
 
(162) 
 
JAPANESE DOCTORING. 163 
 
 male (yo) and female (in), principles in nature, the pos- 
 itive and negative. When these two principles are not 
 in right balance, then people got sick. 
 
 The doctor was a great man, and when called came in 
 considerable state in his kago. Tea was at once offered. 
 With no watches or thermometers, pulse and tempera- 
 ture were taken after a fashion. The point in the dif- 
 ferent pulses indicated had something to do with the 
 two principles above mentioned, and the question for 
 the doctor to decide was: Which one has got the upper 
 hand? The examination finished, and the hands washed 
 to purge away the impurity of the disease, the doctor 
 was 'offered refreshments. There was no fee for the 
 visit, but the doctor lived by selling his medicines. The 
 drug store had not yet separated from the doctor's office. 
 
 The medicines were made of herbs and the organs of 
 animals or insects. Powders, pills, and decoctions were 
 made of plants. The brain, heart, liver, and other 
 parts of insects, frogs, lizards, and quadrupeds were 
 dried and reduced to powder, and in this form were 
 supposed to have great healing virtue. 
 
 Acupuncture with a very fine needle were also prac- 
 ticed, especially for pains in the stomach and bowels. 
 The number of punctures ranged from one to twenty^ 
 depth from one-half to three-quarters of an inch. Mas- 
 sage was also practiced by a guild of blind men, who 
 made their living rubbing the skin and kneading the 
 muscles. Massage was recommended to persons fatigued 
 from walking, or suffering with back ache, rheumatism, 
 etc. Until 1870 the blind shampooers, a guild extend- 
 ing all over the land, with one office in Kioto and an- 
 other in Yedo, was divided into several grades and each 
 required examination and fee. The organization is not 
 now so flourishing, still the melancholy whistle of the 
 
(164) 
 
A DRY GOODS STORE. 165 
 
 blind shampooer, as he slowly feels his way along the 
 street, night or day, with staff in hand, is often heard. 
 Very skillful in rubbing the body, their one mistake is 
 rubbing downward instead of upward. 
 
 Another remedy used for many ailments was the moxa. 
 Little bits of dried plant, which we call mugwort, are 
 rolled up into a ball or cone and then ignited and ap- 
 plied to the body. Moxa was applied for fainting spells, 
 nose bleeding, rheumatism, and a hundred other ail- 
 ments. The burning of the moxa upon the naked skin 
 is painful, and hence was sometimes used as a punish- 
 ment for .bad children. Little black spots are often 
 seen upon the legs and backs of coolies, showing that 
 the moxa is still much iised. 
 
 Merchandising. — The accompanying cut gives a fair 
 idea of a Japanese dry goods store. The two young 
 men are clerks ; one is calculating with the soroban 
 (abacus) the cost of a jnece of goods which the lady 
 seated near wishes to buy. In Japan, as well as China, 
 the abacus is always used in making calculations, even 
 the smallest; and while they are very quick and accu- 
 rate in casting up figures with it, without it they are at 
 a great loss. All of the clerks are sitting, with legs 
 bent back under them. One is surprised the first time 
 he enters a Japanese shop (store) to see the merchant or 
 his clerk sitting upon the matted floor and apparently 
 indifferent to the selling of his goods. There is no po- 
 lite usher at the door to invite you in and inquire what 
 you wish. Nor does the clerk rise to receive you or in- 
 quire what you wish; you yourself must ask for what 
 you wish to see. In Japan there are no great stores as 
 in America, they are rather little shops or stalls. It is 
 the custom of the merchants to procure young boys as 
 apprentices through a go-between, whose business it is 
 
r _ , j— _ 
 
 ft 
 
 (166) 
 
STBANGE WAYS. 167 
 
 to find employees and bring them to their employers. 
 After years of service, the master raises them to the 
 rank of clerk, and if still faithful and capable frequent- 
 ly adopts one of them into his family and gives his 
 daughter in marriage, or sometimes gives him a little 
 money and sets up a branch shop or store bearing the 
 same name as the master or father-in-law. 
 
 Among those people the same domestic and economic 
 conditions exist to-day which obtained several genera- 
 tions ago among the English-speaking nations — that is, 
 in the same dwelling the master, his family, and ap- 
 prentices reside, the goods are on sale in the front 
 room or stall, while in the rear they are being manu- 
 factured. The store, the shop, and the family dwelling- 
 were one and the same place. 
 
 Strange Ways. 
 
 In matters of etiquette and form' they are quite differ- 
 ent from us. The left, not the right, is the side and 
 seat of honor. White, and not black, is the appropri- 
 ate color of mourning at funerals. We teach our chil- 
 dren not to make a noise when sipping milk or water, 
 but in Japan noise with the lips and breath when drink- 
 ing is a mark of polite appreciation. With us, women 
 must be given preference, but with them the women 
 must give preference and particular politeness to the 
 "lords of creation," for it is not proper in Japan for 
 the gentlemen to be humble or give precedence to ' ' weak- 
 er vessels." Again, the order of the family and given 
 names is directly the reverse of ours — for instance, John 
 Smith in Japan would be Smith John, and the titles 
 such as " Mr." "Rev." and the like are placed after the 
 name, so that Prof. Jones would be Jones Prof. The 
 title "San," meaning Mr., Mrs., or Miss, has become a 
 
(168) 
 
S3TBANGE WAYS. 
 
 169 
 
 well-nigh universal title applied to noblemen, gentle- 
 men, women, and servants alike, hence we are continu- 
 ally hearing such terms as "Physician Mr.," "Wheel- 
 man Mr.," "Cook Mr.," and even "Baby Mr." It is 
 said that when the steam cars were first brought into 
 the country some of the simple-minded country folk, 
 thinking them to be a thing of life and power, called the 
 cars "Steam Car Mr." 
 
 Their mental operations, as seen in the way they say 
 things, are quite different from ours; for example, the 
 preposition in English is a post-position in Japanese, 
 for it always follows the noun, hence they say: "Go up 
 mountain into." In short the order of thought in a 
 Japanese sentence is in general the direct reverse of ours, 
 so that in translating Japanese into English it is well to 
 begin at the end of the sentence and go backward. 
 
 With us it is not considered polite to speak much or 
 too well of one's self, but we do not carry it to the ex- 
 treme that the Japanese do; for they, in speaking of 
 one's self, his family, or concerns, must use humble and 
 depreciatory language, whereas for the person addressed 
 honorifics, longer forms, and even different words must 
 be used; for instance, my wife must be designated as an 
 ugly dunce of a thing, my son as a stupid fellow, but 
 your wife is an honorable lady, and the like. In fact 
 in polite language my son is translated by a different 
 word from your son. Foreigners are frequently per- 
 plexed to find a suitable word to apply to their wives 
 so as not to offend the tastes of the Japanese nor violate 
 their own sense of what is due their wives. As to say- 
 ing of my head that it simply aches and of your honora- 
 ble head that it aches or augustly suffers we foreigners 
 have no sort of objection, but when it comes to speak- 
 ing of our wives as stupid things we must draw the line. 
 
170 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Still further we notice that the Japanese way of work- 
 ing is often different from ours; for example, when wo 
 first went to Japan we were surprised to see so many 
 sitting down on the floor or ground when at work. We 
 observed blacksmiths as well as coopers and tinkers sit- 
 ting down flat on the ground. When passing one on 
 the street they turn to the left; the carpenter pulls his 
 plane and saw instead of pushing it. In many other 
 ways one is frequently impressed with the fact that he 
 is in the midst of a people of different modes of think- 
 ing, feeling, and acting; in fact, a civilization far re- 
 moved from ours. And yet their hearts and their needs 
 of soul are quite the same as ours. 
 
 III. Ranks and Classes of Society. 
 
 During the Tokugawa period the ranks and classes of 
 society were somewhat as follows: 
 
 f Nominal ruler, fount of 
 I. Teushi (Son of Heav- honors, head of na- 
 
 en), Emperor J tional religion, con- 
 
 > \ sidered divine, even 
 
 (_ before death. 
 
 II. Kuge,, Court Nobles. 
 
 'III. 81 to gun , 
 
 IV. Ills Nobles. 
 
 Actual ruler, with au- 
 thority of a king; his 
 relatives, with their 
 retainers, hold fief 
 lands as his vassals, 
 making a standing- 
 army of 80,000, the 
 "Hatamotos" (under 
 the flag). 
 
RANKS AND CLASSES. 171 
 
 V. Daimyos and Their Families. — The ancient no- 
 bility were allowed by Shoguns to keep part of their 
 lands as territorial lords. 
 
 While the Shogun had his own guards at his capital 
 and kept his own garrisons in the Osaka and Kioto cas- 
 tles, from his own family, clan, and vassals he chose 
 officers and advisers for the government; the Daimyos 
 were also recognized by appointing from the eighteen 
 great daimyates five of them as his Great Council, and 
 three others as a Second Council. 
 
 Each Daimyo had his own castle, his bands of Samurai, 
 and his feudal revenue estimated in rice, according to 
 which he paid tribute yearly to the Shogun. For ex- 
 ample, Satsuma had a revenue of 710,000 Jsoku of rice, 
 the. amount of yearly rent from his land. They were 
 allowed to control the affairs and people within their 
 own domains pretty much at will. But certain restric- 
 tions were laid upon them, respecting the increase of 
 their lands by marriage alliances or purchases, consent 
 of the Shogun being required. And as a mark of vassal- 
 age they were required to spend a part of every year in 
 their yashikis surrounding the Shogun's castle at Yedo. 
 The coming of these territorial lords from all parts, 
 with their proud princes and demure princesses, their 
 long train of armed Samurai and servants, brought eclat 
 to Yedo. 
 
 No other capital in the world enjoyed such a thing. 
 This explains why, in the older geographies, Yedo was 
 named the largest city in the world. As the time came 
 around for the Daimyos to leave their country yashikis 
 and go up to the capital, we can imagine what a stir 
 there was, and how the towns and taverns along the 
 highways would be decked out to honor the great Tono- 
 samas. And when these nobles with their families, borne 
 
172 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 in lacquered litters and attended by their armed guards, 
 were all entering the great military capital, the stately 
 processions and equipages must have presented a bril- 
 liant and impressive scene. 
 
 VI. The Samurai. — These were the haughty military 
 gentry and scholars of the clan, an exclusive hereditary 
 class. They were the guards of the Daimyos, for whose 
 defense and honor they were always ready to shed their 
 blood. They had no other business than serving their 
 lord, and keeping the common people in subjection, and 
 were fed from their lord's store of rice. During this 
 long era of peace (1638-1854) their time was spent m 
 fencing, tournaments, and other military sports, hunt- 
 ing, attending drinking bouts, and studying certain 
 books. Each one wore two swords, a long and short 
 one; the long one either for the defense of his lord or 
 to slay his own enemy, the short one to take his own 
 life in certain emergencies. They were supposed to be 
 ready always to protect the weak and innocent and to 
 die for their honor. The ruling class for so many gen- 
 erations, they naturally fell into the habit of despis- 
 ing all below them, and ofttimes treated them roughly. 
 They despised trade and money. "The sword is the 
 soul of the Samurai" well expresses the character of 
 that class, and accordingly the nation has a fearless, 
 warlike spirit. 
 
 VII. The Priest Class. — Among most of the older 
 nations priests have ranked next to the king, but in 
 Japan the foreign religion of Buddhism pushed aside 
 the native Shinto cult, whose head priests were of the 
 imperial family. Some of the chief abbots and head 
 priests among the Buddhists were of noble blood, yet 
 as a class they were below the Samurai. Buddhist 
 priests were supposed to be without wives or children. 
 
(173) 
 
174 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Boys intended for the priesthood, many of them or- 
 phans or sons of very poor fathers, had to live with the 
 priest in the temple as his servant or assistant. Occa- 
 sionally the son of a noble or prince of the blood was 
 set apart for a priest. During the Tokugawa period the 
 priests held subordinate rank as government officials; 
 but fell into considerable disrepute on account of their 
 sloth, ignorance, and immorality. The general superin- 
 tendent of the Shinto shrines was a noble of the impe- 
 rial house; and the Shogun as patron of Buddhism had a 
 nobleman appointed primate of the Buddhist temples 
 throughout the country. 
 
 VIII. The Common People. — They were divided into 
 three subclasses, each lower than the others. They were 
 not permitted to bear family names. (See ' ' History of the 
 Empire of Japan," p. 341.) 
 
 1. Farmers stood in higher rank and honor than arti- 
 sans and traders. From ancient times dependent upon 
 agriculture and fishing, and influenced by the example 
 of the Chinese, the Japanese held tillers of the soil in 
 the first rank among the commons. Being below the 
 Samurai, the farmers were, not allowed to wear swords, 
 to bear family names, nor intermarry with the higher 
 classes. They were, in fact", serfs of the soil and under 
 the control of the lords. Outside the castle toAvns, the 
 whole community dwelt in villages, and the peasants 
 were ruled by three classes of officials: The village elder 
 or mayor, the chief of the five families or streets, and the 
 representative of the five men. The whole village being 
 divided off into streets of five families, and these subdi- 
 vided again into groups of five persons, all the affairs of 
 the village, and of their little farms in the neighborhood, 
 their conduct, etc., were intrusted to these three offi- 
 cials. All matters of petition and appeal to the Daimyo 
 
THE COMMON PEOPLE. 175 
 
 01* lord of the manor were in the hands of the village eld- 
 ers, and regulations of land, taxes, irrigation ponds 
 and ditches, and all demands coming down from the 
 lord passed through them to the people. The village 
 elder was a great man among the Japanese commons. 
 If any matter of complaint or petition for relief con- 
 cerned the whole damryate, then all the village elders 
 acted in a body in behalf of their villages. Sometimes 
 the lords were very oppressive and ground their tenant 
 serfs into poverty. A notable instance of this is given 
 in the story of the Ghost of Sakura (Mitford's" Tales of 
 Old Japan "). Sometimes when their misery became un- 
 bearable and the village .elders had failed to get a hear- 
 ing at their lord's gates, the people turned out en masse 
 in their desperation, dressed in grass rain coats, with 
 sickles in their girdles instead of swords, and bamboo 
 poles upon their shoulders, and marched in a body to 
 the gates of their lord's yashiki. For this boldness they 
 may have to pay a few of their heads, but they have 
 made up their minds to die, for their wives and children 
 cannot live as things now are. 
 
 The farmers dwelt upon their lords' lands as hered- 
 itary tenants of the soil, paying as a rule forty per cent 
 rent yearly — sometimes fifty per cent. The average 
 amount of land ranged from an acre and a half to five. 
 Farm laborers received, besides food and clothes, a 
 yearly wage of from $9.50 to $37. Hired laborers rare- 
 ly got to eat of the rice which they cultivated. Their 
 staple food was millet, sweet potatoes, etc. On festival 
 days and anniversaries they received, as a rarity, buck- 
 wheat and barley. During the Tokugawa period the 
 peasant farmers fared better than during the previous 
 periods; yet, even in this long, peaceful period, they 
 were serfs of the soil and had a hard lot. 
 
176 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 2. The artisan stood in a class next to that of the 
 farmers. Each handicraft being handed down from fa- 
 ther to son for generations, it came to pass that some of 
 them became very skillful in certain productions. The 
 mechanics, like the peasant farmers, were serfs of their 
 native village, and could not move from place to place, 
 nor cross the boundaries of their lord's domain without 
 his permission. Under certain restrictions they were 
 allowed to form guilds, and each guild had its own 
 head man, and the members wore a certain letter or 
 other device woven into their outside garments. 
 
 3. The trading class was still lower than the artisan. 
 In fact, the mercantile class as we know it was hardly 
 existent in those days. The traders were only small 
 shopkeepers, peddlers, hucksters, not merchants in the 
 modern sense. Not only the Shogun, but the great Dai : 
 nryos as well, had their own warehouses and agents, and 
 ordered direct from the manufacturer, or themselves 
 manufactured such things as were needed. There was 
 little need, therefore, of the middleman, who stands be- 
 tween producer and consumer, buying from the one and 
 selling to the other. These facts show how the mer- 
 cantile class was not important in those times, and how 
 trading people were lower in the social scale. 
 
 4. The etas were an outlawed, outcast people, aAvay 
 below all the above-mentioned. Indeed, they were not 
 accounted as having any social rank whatever, for they 
 were not even regarded as men. Their origin is obscure, 
 some believing them to be descendants of the Koreans, 
 captured slaves; others, that they are the enslaved 
 remnant of the ancient Ainus. They were restricted to 
 the following kinds of work, considered exceedingly de- 
 grading: butchers, tanners, body burners, execution- 
 ers, and scullions of criminals. If an eta entered a 
 
CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 177 
 
 house of any true Japanese, it would at once be pol- 
 luted; hence they were required to live apart, as if they 
 were social lepers. We are glad that, after the revolu- 
 tion, the Emperor granted them standing room as hu- 
 man beings and citizens along with his other subjects. 
 Of course the shadow of the feudal system still rests 
 upon the whole fabric of Japanese society, and it can- 
 not be expected that the old lines of exclusion between 
 classes should be wiped out at once. 
 
 IV. Customs and Manners.* 
 In matters of etiquette and form the Japanese were 
 punctilious to the last degree. Every form must be 
 strictly observed, and many things which we do in an 
 informal way they do with due form and ceremony. 
 Special regard was had to precedence of class, rank, and 
 age. Just as it was among the European nations in 
 feudal times, so among the Japanese now; insignia, of- 
 fice, and rank count for much. Sometimes the airs and 
 dignity of a petty official are simply ridiculous in the 
 eyes of foreigners. The lower classes or ranks in offi- 
 cial circles must be careful to pay court to the higher. 
 The due respect of inferior to superior, of younger to 
 elder, of vassal to lord, was all-important in old Japan. 
 This was also a part of the Confucian code brought 
 over from China. 
 
 The etiquette of salutation and taking leave will il- 
 lustrate our point. On the street a simple low bow 
 and lifting the hat, if one is worn, is sufficient when 
 acquaintances pass each other without stopping. If 
 they stop, then the bows must be lower and more de- 
 Liberate, and must be repeated, interspersed with polite 
 inquiries and references to the weather, etc. The infe- 
 
 *Cf. "Mikado's Empire," p. 204. 
 12 
 
178 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 rior is of course more polite and deferential, in every 
 movement as well as in language. Even on the street 
 the one proposing to pass on must be careful to beg par- 
 don. Each is supposed to be at the service of the other, 
 and besides is delighted to be in the presence of his friend 
 or superior; hence it is impolite to appear to be in a 
 hurry in passing on. In short, to be in a hurry, except 
 on business for one's superior or lord, was always a 
 breach of good manners. Dignified, slow, and meas- 
 ured movements were the outward marks of a gentleman 
 and a scholar. If the salutation is indoors, then it is 
 always more elaborate and decorous. Indoors the par- 
 ties are, of course, down upon the floor, and so, being in 
 a kneeling or sitting posture, the bows must be lower 
 and salutations more elaborate. If marked respect is 
 intended, the bowing is low enough to touch the floor 
 with the forehead; meanwhile, thanks for some atten- 
 tions or kindness received in the past must be made in 
 words of grateful humility, and apologies for former 
 rudeness, or for not making an earlier call, must be of- 
 fered. Shaking hands was never practiced until re- 
 cently, nor was kissing ever considered good form. 
 
 Tea is always served to guests. The guest, entering 
 the guest room, stops at the lowest mat, the mat near- 
 est where he entered. The host will insist that he come 
 up higher — that is, nearer to the tokonoma, the raised 
 dais, or place of honor. The guest's good breeding and 
 proper regard for the rank, age, or position of his host 
 will decide how far up he should go. Almost imme- 
 diately after he is seated a clapping of the host's hands 
 brings the servant with tea canister and cups. The hi- 
 bachi and kettle are probably already in the center of 
 the room. The host then proceeds to make and serve 
 the tea, which the guest receives with a low bow and 
 
BIETH AND REARING OF CHILDREN. 179 
 
 thanks. The tiny teacups, upon small oval-shaped sau- 
 cers, are presented and received in polite, prescribed 
 form. The tea is brought to the lips and sipped lightly, 
 but with noise, the noise indicating appreciation. It is 
 impolite to take more than a few sips, and the same is 
 true of sweetmeats. In leaving, however, the sweet- 
 meats, done up in white paper, are offered, and the 
 guest puts them into his sleeve, with thanks. In pre- 
 paring the tea, setting out the cups, and presenting to 
 the guest, the point is to make every movement count, 
 but it must be done with ease and grace and as a matter 
 of natural habit. Any unnecessary movement or awk- 
 wardness, in any polite or ceremonial intercourse, is a 
 breach of good manners. No sugar or milk is served 
 with the tea. 
 
 Birth and Rearing of Children. — We speak only of 
 customs observed by high-class people. It is the cus- 
 tom to dress up the newborn babe in beautiful clothes, 
 and it is fashionable to put on a cap. On a certain day 
 the mother takes the child to the temple, where the 
 shaven priest gives to it a charmed name. On the 
 seventy-fifth or one hundredth day the baby linen is 
 left off, and this day is kept as a holiday. On the one 
 hundred and twentieth day the weaning ceremony is ob- 
 served. It is not the actual weaning from the mother's 
 breast. If a boy, the child is presented to the sponsor 
 or weaning father, who, receiving it upon his left 
 knee, takes rice which has been offered to the gods, 
 dips his chopsticks thrice into the rice and places it in 
 the mouth of the child, pretending to feed it. The 
 same is done with five rice cakes. This over, the child 
 is handed back to his parent or guardian, and the spon- 
 sor presents three cups of wine, drinking himself and 
 offering to the child. After this the child receives a 
 
(180) 
 
BEARING OP CHILDREN. 181 
 
 present from his sponsor. Dried fish is then brought 
 in and there is more passing of the wine cup. A pres- 
 ent is made by the babe to the sponsor, and then a 
 family feast is spread, according to the means of the 
 family. If tlie child is a girl, then the sponsor is a 
 woman. From the fifteenth day of the eleventh month 
 of the third year two locks of hair, one on each side 
 just in front of the ears and one at the back of the 
 head, are allowed to grow. Up to this time the whole 
 head has been kept shaven, but now the ceremony of 
 the hair cutting takes place. On this occasion also a 
 sponsor is chosen, and seven prescribed articles are 
 brought on a large tray: comb, scissors, thread, seven 
 rice sti'aws, etc. The child is placed facing the point 
 of compass supposed to be lucky for that year, and the 
 sponsor with scissors makes three snips each of the hair 
 upon the two temples and the center. Then follows 
 certain emblematical tying of hair, drinking of wine, 
 and so on. On the fifth day, eleventh month-, fourth 
 year, the child is invested with the haJcama, the loose 
 trousers worh by the Samurai. The child on this occa- 
 sion receives a dress of ceremony embroidered with 
 storks, tortoises, fir trees, and bamboos. The stork 
 and tortoise symbolize long life; the pine tree, an un- 
 changing heart; the bamboo, an upright and straight 
 mind. In the fifteenth year, a lucky day being chosen, 
 the most important ceremony of all takes place: that 
 which places the son among full-grown men. A per- 
 son of virtuous character is chosen to perform it. A 
 tray and earthenware wine cup are brought, whereupon 
 sundry ceremonies of drinking wine, and cutting and 
 tying up the hair after the fashion of a man are per- 
 formed. It is on this day he receives his name — i. e., 
 his name as a man. A high-class man of the olden times 
 
182 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 had three names: (1) his real name, known only to the 
 family and intimates; (2) the child name, known only 
 to the community; and (3) the man name. The man 
 name is frequently changed, as was the custom in Bible 
 times. 
 
 Schooling. — In the old times learning to write Chinese 
 characters was the principal part of a child's education, 
 and required years of diligent application. Only the 
 children of the upper classes had leisure enough for this. 
 The schools must have been noisy, as the children had to 
 sing out the characters as they wrote them stroke by 
 stroke, to prevent them from talking or meddling with 
 one another's tasks. During the Middle Ages education 
 was in the hands of the Buddhist priesthood. The tem- 
 ples were the schools. The accession of the Tokugawa 
 Shogunate (1603) brought a great change. The educated 
 classes became Confueianists. Accordingly the Con- 
 fucian classics were held in great honor, learned by 
 heart, commented upon as carefully as in China itself. 
 Besides the classics, instruction was given in Chinese 
 history, Japanese history, and literature. Education, 
 as a rule, was confined to the military and noble class- 
 es. The women of course got less. 
 
 Marriage Ceremonies. — The marriage ceremonies were 
 various, depending upon the rank and means of the 
 family. As it was in Bible times, the choosing of a 
 wife was a matter arranged by the parents through a 
 "go-between." The young men and maidens of Amer- 
 ica little realize what extraordinary privileges they en- 
 joy. Such liberties as pleasant walks, drives, accom- 
 panying one's sweetheart to church or public enter- 
 tainment, or spending an hour in the parlor with a 
 young lady friend is unknown in Japan. According 
 to Japanese etiquette, a girl from the early age of ten 
 
MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 
 
 183 
 
 must not associate or play with the boys, but only with 
 the girls, and must not talk to any young man except 
 her brothers; and as for receiving a gentleman friend, 
 never! When going out she is always accompanied by 
 her mother or maid. Marriage in Japan could not, as 
 a rule, be for love, for the reason that the young man 
 and lady have little or no acquaintance with each other 
 before betrothal, probably having not so much as spoken 
 to each other. So that such a thing as a young-man seek- 
 ing the heart and hand of a young lady whom he loves 
 is little known among that people. The only excep- 
 tion is where a young man has seen a young lady upon 
 the street with her mother and thinks he likes her, though 
 probably he has never spoken to her in his life. He 
 may place at the entrance to her house or apartments a 
 flowering plant in a pot. If it is left to wither, he 
 knows his hopes are vain; if it flourishes, he knows 
 that her parents are willing to entertain negotiations 
 for the betrothal of their daughter. The next thing is 
 to get his father to send the "go-between" to see about 
 it. But even in this case the rigid rules forbid the ro- 
 mance and pleasure of courtship. Not even by corre- 
 spondence is the young man permitted to address the 
 young lady. It is only among the lowest classes that 
 there is freedom of the sexes. 
 
 After the "go-between" has found a suitable young 
 lady for the son of his friend, an opportunity is some- 
 times given by mutual arrangement to get a look at the 
 girl he has never seen. This meeting is called the 
 "look-at-each-other meeting." There are three occa- 
 sions for this: at the home of the girl, upon the bridge, 
 and at the theater. But in each case the father or 
 mother is present. In fact, the girl is so bashful she 
 could hardly speak to the young man even should she 
 
184 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 desire to do so. But there are thousands of cases where' 
 the arrangements are made without consulting the 
 young people. In such cases, alas for the young man 
 who knows nothing about the girl who is to be his wife, 
 except what the ' ' go-between " or parents may tell him ! 
 Is she fat or slender, pretty or ugly, smart or stupid, 
 good-natured or sharp- tongued? Alas also for the girl 
 who knows as little about the man who is to be her hus- 
 band! It is nearer the truth to say that love is not 
 known in Japanese marriage till afterwards, and in many 
 cases never. Marriage is for another motive, the per- 
 petuity of the family name. In feudal times no greater 
 punishment could befall a family than to become extinct. 
 Hence the one aim of every girl is marriage, and the 
 one supreme qualification for her mission is amiable 
 obedience. This universal desire to perpetuate the 
 family name led to the custom of adoj)ting a son in case 
 no son is born in the house. Frequently the adoption 
 takes place early, and the adopted child is at once 
 betrothed to the daughter and both are brought up to- 
 gether. The custom of adoption prevails from the im- 
 perial family down, and complicates names and kin- 
 ship. Many a Biblical scholar, discussing the question 
 of Christ's genealogy as given by St. Matthew and St. 
 Luke, might learn a few useful things were he to study 
 more carefully the subject of family succession and 
 adoption among Oriental nations. Some so-called 
 "difficulties" would disappear, for the difficulties lie 
 not so much in the genealogy as in the mind of certain 
 scholars. 
 
 As a rule children are not betrothed so young as in 
 India, and yet in most cases years elapse before the 
 union is consummated. If the girl be ugly, stupid, or 
 very poor, her parents may have to wait a good while 
 
MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 185 
 
 before receiving proposals for her betrothal. -After the 
 fathers on both sides have agreed to the betrothal the 
 next step is to seal it by exchanging presents, which 
 consist of wine, dried fish, and a silk robe. The day 
 selected for the wedding must be a lucky day, there be- 
 ing certain days on which n'o Japanese would be willing 
 to be married. When the fixed day comes around the 
 bride sends beforehand, by her own maids, whatever 
 she is to take to her husband's home. It is said there 
 is considerable expense for a wedding outfit of dresses 
 sufficient to last her for many years. A proverb says: 
 ' ' Though a man be rich, if he have three daughters he 
 will become poor in marrying them off." Weddings in 
 Japan never take place in the morning, but only in the 
 evening. Again, with us the bridegroom joins the 
 bride at her father's house for the marriage, but in 
 Japan the bride is brought in a sedan chair to the house 
 of the groom's father. A little fire having been kin- 
 dled at the door and matting' spread Tipon the ground, 
 she leaves her father's house and enters the closed sedan 
 chair, borne upon the shoulders of men. Her parents, 
 the "go-between," the retainers of the bridegroom who 
 are sent to welcome her, and a few servants follow. 
 The servants carrying presents to the groom s family 
 bear brightly burning lanterns with the crest of the 
 bride's family upon them. The bride will be treated 
 by her husband's servants according to the presents, 
 hence her father sends presents to every member of the 
 groom's family, servants included. The marriage cere- 
 mony in olden Japan was not celebrated by priests with 
 prayers, vows, and blessings. It is not a religious but 
 a domestic and social function. 
 
 Briefly the marriage is as follows: The wedding room 
 is always decorated, especially the tokonoma, with 
 
186 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 pine, bamboo, and plum blossoms in vases, and three 
 picture scrolls hanging on the wall just behind the to- 
 kononia. In the middle of the room is placed a white 
 wooden table and upon it an artificial dwarf pine, and 
 at either end an old man and woman — dolls dressed 
 in ancient style. This decoration signifies wishes for 
 long life and prosperity to the couple. The moment 
 having arrived, the groom is seated upon a mat in front 
 of the tokonoma, the seat of honor, waiting in a solemn 
 manner; his bride then enters, moving slowly and grace- 
 fully, takes a seat next to him; and then the "go-be- 
 tween sit down in front of the couple. By the bride's 
 Mide sits two married ladies or two little girls. The 
 bride is dressed in a long white silk robe, heavily inter- 
 lined, over an under dress of white, with a thick white 
 veil that falls down upon her as a mantle. Generally 
 a lady's sleeve is one foot four inches, but the sleeves 
 of wedding dresses are two feet five inches; and the 
 silk sash, richly embroidered in gold, is eleven feet long 
 and is wound around her many times. Her tdbi, "half 
 hose," with divided big toe, are also of white silk. 
 Says Mr. Tamura, from whom these points are quoted: 
 "Any Japanese lady dressed in this way will be pretty, 
 becoming, and attractive." The groom also wears the 
 ceremonial dress made of silk in colors according to his 
 rank. All being quietly seated, two voices singing a 
 low Japanese song will be heard from the next room, and 
 thic will continue through the ceremony. A low white 
 wood stand is now brought in bearing three flat cups 
 placed each upon the other. This being placed in front 
 of the bride, one of the bridesmaids pours a little 
 sake from a wine jar decorated with two butterflies. 
 The smallest of the cups being passed to the bride, she 
 takes three sips and hands it to the groom; then 
 
188 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 follow the second and third cups. During the passing 
 of these cups, perfect solemnity prevails, because the 
 drinking of the sake together signifies that the couple 
 will share both joy and sorrow. When the third cup 
 is drunk the "go-between" announces to the parents 
 and friends that they are properly married. 
 
 A great feast is now spread in the same room, and the 
 bride, having retired to change her dress, reappears and 
 sits by her husband's side with uncovered face. This 
 is the most elaborate and expensive of all their feasts. 
 Meanwhile everybody comes and bows down before the 
 couple, making congratulations. Wine cups are ex- 
 changed for further good wishes by parents and rela- 
 tions. At this feast clam soup is always served. The 
 feasting continues to a late hour; and when all are gone, 
 and the couple have retired to their room, another cup 
 of wine is exchanged between them in the presence of 
 the "go-between's" wife, and this ends the ceremony. 
 The reader has doubtless noted the important part 
 played by the "go-between" all through from the be- 
 trothal to the end. For this he gets no fixed fee, but is 
 handsomely rewarded with a present; and if he does 
 not get what he thinks he ought to have had, he will 
 come oft^n to borrow money. 
 
 The married woman changes her name, the new name 
 being registered in the government office. Other 
 changes mark her now as a married woman. First, she 
 changes the style of her hair. There is but one style 
 for a married lady. Japanese women did not dress 
 their own hair, nor do they do it now, but pay a hair- 
 dresser from two to eight cents per week. They never 
 wear bonnets or earrings, but hair jewels, small combs 
 of gold, silver, coral, or tortoise, often very costly and 
 beautiful. Secondly, the married woman changes her 
 
AFTEE THE WEDDING. 189 
 
 dress for one of grave colors. Married Japanese ladies 
 never dress gayly like many American women do who 
 are even beyond fifty years. However rich and costly 
 the material, it is made up in the same plain and taste- 
 ful way as any other dress. The modest, elegant sim- 
 plicity of a high-class lady's costume in Japan is wor- 
 thy of admiration. Only women of bad reputation 
 wear gay and flashy clothes. Thirdly, she must shave 
 her eyebrows, to show that she is not single but mar- 
 ried. This is certainly an ugly custom. Fourthly, 
 she must blacken her teeth, which also disfigures the 
 woman no little. The blackened teeth are explained 
 to be a mark of subjection to her husband. This cus- 
 tom is now becoming obsolete. 
 
 There is no honeymoon for a Japanese bride and 
 groom. They take no bridal tour; but from the very 
 first the bride must rise early, see her mother-in-law and 
 her father-in-law, and ask how they rested, etc.; and 
 must mingle freely with the servants and make herself 
 immediately useful in household affairs. The truth is, 
 she has become a daughter and a helper in her mother- 
 in-law's house. It is good form for the bride and groom 
 to be at first reserved in manner toward each other in 
 the presence of the family and not show much affection. 
 She comes among strangers who are observing closely 
 her every step, and she has to prove herself acceptable to 
 the family by her amiable obedience. The trying cir- 
 cumstances of her case are explained by saying that, in 
 a sense, she has married the whole family — that is, she 
 nmst please them all, and obey not only her new hus- 
 band, to whom she is a stranger, but her mother-in-law, 
 father-in-law, and her husband's elder brother. After 
 the seventh day she may make a visit to her father's 
 house; but this over, she returns to her mother-in-law, 
 
190 japan: cquntry, court, people. 
 
 and does not go to housekeeping with her husband in a 
 separate home. In a good many instances all will be 
 sweet and lovely, but in many cases the mother-in-law 
 exercises strict and rightful control (in Japan so con- 
 sidered) over her new daughter-in-law. 
 
 This leads to the subject of divorce. We would not 
 make the impression that there are no happy homes in 
 that land, but we do affirm that the position of the wife 
 in Japan is by no means so desirable as in America. 
 If the young wife fails to satisfy the demands and ex- 
 pectations concerning her as a member of her father-in- 
 law's family, she may be divorced at once and sent back 
 to her father's house. Among the seven causes for di- 
 vorce, we mention: (1) disobedience to her husband's 
 parents; (2) no child; (3) jealousy; (4) a sharp and 
 gossiping tongue; and so on. Apart from all this, if her 
 husband dislikes her, he may at any time divorce her. 
 In some cases she is divorced because her mother-in-law 
 dislikes her. Only two or three years ago the statistics 
 showed that for that year the number of divorces was 
 one-third the marriages! But even if the husband does 
 not divorce his wife, he may have at the same time a 
 sort of second wife, supporting her and visiting her in 
 another p^,ce. Many other things might here be men- 
 tioned, but suffice it to say, the standard of marriage in 
 Japan is low, and the wife's position would be consid- 
 ered very hard by our American women. Plurality of 
 wives, or concubinage, brings poison and not peace into 
 the home. In Japan, China, and other idolatrous 
 countries these things have been practiced a long time. 
 
 Funeral Customs. — Originally the dead were disposed 
 of by burial, but after 700 A.D. the custom of burning 
 was introduced by Buddhist priests, and thenceforth 
 both were practiced. There was in feudal times, and 
 
FUNERAL CUSTOMS. 191 
 
 still is, much difference in the ceremonials of different 
 sects. We condense an account of a funeral as given by an 
 eyewitness a long time ago. The body, carefully washed 
 and head shaven, was dressed exactly as in life, and 
 placed with head to the north upon a mat, in front of 
 the butsudan (god altar) and covered with a white cloth. 
 Food is offered it, and all the family lament. During 
 the night candles are kept lighted, incense is burned, 
 and a feast with wine drinking is given to the watchers 
 and witnesses after the fashion of an Irish wake. At 
 the appointed hour the priests come in to chant the 
 prayers and readings, an assistant striking meanwhile 
 with measured strokes a small gong. The sound of the 
 gong mingling with the chanting of the priests produces 
 an impressively solemn effect upon a foreigner at least. 
 The eldest son and others of the family burn incense at 
 this time. The body having been put into a tub-shaped 
 coffin of white wood, placed in the tub in a sitting pos- 
 ture, is now borne from the house in a square bier ot 
 closed sedan chair, which is suspended from poles and 
 carried upon the shoulders of men. The funeral proces- 
 sion is different from anything seen in our country. At 
 the head move the men, some carrying flowers and ever- 
 greens, others banners and lanterns. Sometimes a large 
 cage with doves is drawn upon wheels. These birds 
 are to be liberated at the grave. Two tablets are car- 
 ried after the bier with appropriate inscriptions to the 
 dead, the date of his death, and the new name now giv- 
 en him by the priests. Following the tablets and bier, 
 all on foot, or riding in jinrikushas, is the procession of 
 mourners, servants, friends, and acquaintances, and the 
 priest in robes. The mourners, bearers, and all female 
 attendants are dressed in white. The mourners are 
 hired women, according; to Bible custom. The eldest 
 
192 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 son wears a rush hat that hangs down upon his shoul- 
 ders. At the neighboring mortuary temple further cer- 
 emonies by the priest are performed, incense is burned 
 and obeisance made to the wooden tablet, mentioned 
 above. After this the body is either buried or burned. 
 If burned, it is taken to a furnace prepared for the pur- 
 pose under a pavilion, in a hut, or in the open, where 
 the fire is ignited by the son or nearest relation, the 
 priest chanting a litany or hymn. 
 
 One thing painfully evident, and mentioned by Rein, 
 is, that, while the priest and mourners conduct the cere- 
 monies with outward solemnity, the rest of the compa- 
 ny display strange lightness and curiosity. That sym- 
 pathetic solemnity and silent reverence to which we are 
 accustomed are lacking at a pagan funeral. Another 
 strange circumstance is, that the seniors of the family 
 do not attend the funeral of the juniors; for example, 
 if the second or third son dies, neither father, mother, 
 elder brother, nor uncle can go out. 
 
 The mourning period, formerly very long, was ob- 
 served in three ways: by staying at home, by wearing 
 mourning garments, and by abstaining from wine and 
 flesh. For parents or for husband, the mourning gar- 
 ments were worn thirteen months; for a wife, ninety 
 days; abstinence from flesh was for fifty and twenty 
 days respectively. The inferior position of woman in 
 the East accounts for the difference in the mourning- 
 period. 
 
 Government officials were excused from staying at 
 home during the mourning period, and laboring classes 
 mourned only three days. When a member of the im- 
 perial family dies a notification is sent through the land 
 prohibiting music, singing, or the making of mirth for 
 a certain period. The whole nation is supposed to be 
 
HONORING THE DEAD. 193 
 
 in deep grief. Recently, when the Empress Dowager 
 died, even singing in family and chapel worship ceased 
 among the Christians during the prescribed time. 
 
 After the funeral, one of the inscribed tablets men- 
 tioned previously is placed upon the gravestone, under 
 which the urn containing a few bones and ashes of the 
 dead is buried. The other tablet is set upon the god 
 altar in the house, and tea, sweetmeats, etc., are placed 
 before it. Morning and evening food is offered, and 
 lights are kept burning day and night during the mourn- 
 ing period. The whole household is supposed to pray 
 before it morning and night. At stated times the priest 
 comes to chant prayers, for which he receives a small 
 fee. In recent times these usages are not so strictly ob- 
 served. On certain days as the 7th, 14th, and 21st, and 
 on the first and third anniversaries of the death, visits 
 must be made to the grave to pray and to burn incense. 
 Other customs in honor of the dead need not detain us 
 further, except to say that on the 15th of July a yearly 
 festival in honor of dead ancestors is kept. At this 
 time the spirits of their dead forefathers are believed 
 to come back and their thai (ancestral tablets) are taken 
 out of their cases and set in order, that food, consisting 
 of fruits and vegetables, may be placed before them, 
 incense burned, and flowers offered. On the 14th a 
 regular meal of rice, tea, etc., is served to the tablets as 
 to living guests. In the evening lanterns hung upon 
 bamboo poles are lighted before each grave, and this is 
 repeated on the 15th evening. On the 16th, before day- 
 break, all the articles placed at the graves are packed into 
 little boats made of straw with paper sails and carried in 
 procession with music and loud cries to the water's edge, 
 where, being launched qn the waters, the souls of the 
 dead are thus dismissed to return to their abodes. This 
 13 
 
194 JAPAN : COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE. 
 
 festival, called the "feast of lanterns," is still observed 
 with great enthusiasm and display at Nagasaki. From 
 the foregoing we see that ancestral worship is an im- 
 portant part of the religion of the Japanese. 
 
 Hara kiri means suicide by disemboweling. This re- 
 volting custom probably originated during the dark, 
 warring days of the Middle Ages. In those cruel times 
 every Japanese warrior knew that if he fell into the 
 hands of his enemies in battle his head would be cut off, 
 but before being killed some indignity would be heaped 
 upon him which he would be helpless to resist; and the 
 taking of his own life was the last desperate act to avoid 
 falling alive into the hands of his victors. It came to 
 be a universal custom for every Samurai to carry two 
 swords, the short one for performing hara kiri in case 
 of emergency. Starting in this way, it came to pass 
 afterwards that retainers took their own lives under cer- 
 tain circumstances to prove their fidelity to their chief. 
 If he had made some serious blunder, had failed to carry 
 out some command, and thus brought defeat or disaster 
 upon his chief, he purged himself of suspicion of treachery 
 by dying from his own hand. There grew up gradually 
 a code of honor, in which hara kiri had an important 
 place. As it was in the days of the duel code in certain 
 circles in our own Southland before the late civil war, 
 so no Japanese Samurai could endure an insult, but 
 must demand satisfaction; and if is not given, must 
 avenge himself and maintain his own honor as a gentle- 
 man by slaying the man who had insulted him. But 
 ofttimes, in avenging himself upon his enemy, he vio- 
 lated some law of the Shogun's government; and hence, 
 as soon as he had slain his enemy he must take his own 
 life, else be arrested and put to death by the govern- 
 ment. Women, too, wives and daughters of the military 
 
THE RONINS. 195 
 
 nobility, carried a halberd in their belts, and from their 
 childhood were instructed how to use it. Several in- 
 stances are on record of a vile brute being instantly killed 
 by one of these women. Many are the cases, likewise, 
 of lovers who, being prevented from marrying, or one of 
 them being in danger of arrest for some fatal deed, pre- 
 ferred to die together than to live separated. As the 
 years went on, it seems that the horror of death was 
 less dreaded, and suicide became easier; hence disap- 
 pointments and failures of divers kinds frequently led 
 to this form of suicide. What was at first a custom be- 
 came a privilege granted by the Shogun's government 
 to the military class, consisting of Daimyos and their 
 Samurai; that is to say, when one of them was guilty 
 of a crime punishable by death, the privilege was granted 
 him of dispatching himself in the presence of an officer 
 sent to witness it. In this way he saved his honor as a 
 Samurai, and prevented social disgrace from falling 
 upon his family. 
 
 The most noted instance of this is the story of "The 
 Forty-Seven Ronins." Ronin means "wave man" — a 
 Samurai who, having lost his chief, is cast adrift upon 
 the waves. The story of " The Forty-Seven Ronins " is 
 a bloody but a heroic one. Their vassal chief, Asana, 
 Lord of Ako, had been repeatedly insulted by Lord 
 Kutsuke, his superior in rank, and, not being able to 
 brook it longer, he drew his sword and attempted to kill 
 him on the spot. This took place within the precincts 
 of the Shogun's palace at Kamakura, and was therefore 
 a mortal crime. The government sentenced Asana to 
 death, together with forfeiture of his castle and the 
 downfall of his house, but granted him the privilege of 
 committing hara Tciri. This he promptly did in his own 
 mansion, in the presence of two officers, and his re- 
 
196 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 tainers at once became ronin, vassals tossed to and fro 
 without a chief. They were scattered, but before sep- 
 arating, forty-seven of them entered into covenant to 
 slay their dead chief's enemy, and so avenge his death. 
 To lull suspicion of their plot, they waited a year, and 
 then on a winter's night in December suddenly gathered 
 around Kutsuke's mansion, broke into it, overpowered 
 his guards, found their master's hated enemy, and slew 
 him. Cutting off his head, they marched rapidly to the 
 grave of their chief, Asana, at a temple near Yedo. 
 Washing the head at a spring near by, they presented 
 it as an offering to their dead chief's spirit, the leader 
 first, and then the rest of the band, burning incense. 
 
 Knowing that they must die, the leader engaged the 
 abbot of the temple, giving him all- the money they had, 
 and said: "When we forty-seven men shall have per- 
 formed hara kiri, I beg you to bury us decently. I rely 
 upon your kindness. This is but a trifle that I have to 
 offer; such as it is, let it be spent in masses for our 
 souls." As they expected, they were sentenced to com- 
 mit hara kiri, and handed over to four different Dai- 
 myos, who according to custom were to see the sentence 
 executed. Their corpses were carried to the same tem- 
 ple, and bwried in front of the tomb of fcheir chief. 
 When this was noised abroad, the people nocked thither 
 to pray at the graves of those faithful men, and reverent 
 hands still deck those graves with green boughs and 
 burn incense there. The armor and clothes they wore 
 have been stored in a room of the temple as relics. 
 That occurred two hundred and fifty years ago, and yet 
 it is a story very fresh in the admiration of the Japa- 
 nese. Nor can we dissent from Mitford's words: "This 
 terrible picture of fierce heroism it is impossible not to 
 admire. 
 
(197) 
 
198 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 As to the ceremony of Kara kiri, much has been writ- 
 ten. It is carried out in strict order of minutest rulea 
 and usages. For a description, as witnessed by Mitf ord 
 atHiogo in 1868,. see "Tales of Old Japan," p. 356. 
 We dismiss this disagreeable subject of hara kiri with 
 one observation. Repulsive as the thing is to us, it 
 proves that the Japanese esteem some things as more 
 valuable than life itself. And though they were mis- 
 taken in thinking they had a right to put an end to life 
 by their own hands, and may have been mistaken as to 
 what those things were that they counted above life, we 
 all agree that there are things worth more to us than 
 bodily life. We will never lay violent hands upon our 
 own body; but if in devotion to truth and duty — the 
 service of God and our fellow-men — we have to die, let 
 us die bravely. 
 
 In the olden times the Japanese were a sentimental 
 and light-hearted people. The upper classes had plenty 
 of leisure and plenty of chivalry. Work, hurry, and 
 money, in those romantic feudal times, did not bother 
 respectable people. The land is of volcanic origin, as 
 we saw at the outset,- and there have always been, and 
 still are, many volcanoes, some active, some silent; but 
 though these subterranean fires are always beneath their 
 feet and liable to burst forth at any hour, they have al- 
 ways been merrily indifferent to their danger, and fre- 
 quently go forth in picnic fashion to enjoy the sweets 
 and beauties of nature. In spite of terrific earthquakes, 
 floods, and pestilences, that from time to time come 
 upon them, there has never been that prosy or serious 
 feeling about life as with us. It is to be feared, how- 
 ever, that they are losing some of their light-hearted- 
 iiess, and will soon be addicted to hurry, bustle, and 
 aervous anxiety to make money, like the Americans. 
 
FLOWER FESTIVAL. 199 
 
 It has been said that Japan is the land of odorless 
 flowers, songless birds, tailless cats, and babies that 
 never cry — none of which is quite correct. The flowers 
 have not the fragrance that ours have; still, the plum 
 blossom, wild rose, sweet- smelling lilies, and cherry 
 blossoms do exhale some fragrance. While their flow- 
 ers are not so fragrant, the lack is more than made up 
 by the keener appreciation of flowers by the Japanese. 
 Beauty in nature, like truth in the Bible, is seen and 
 enjoyed by those only who have the right kind of eyes. 
 So fond are they of flowers and of nature, that accord- 
 ing to the season they have been accustomed to cel- 
 ebrate for generations a number of flower festivals. 
 When their favorite flower is in season multitudes take 
 holiday and go forth in gala dress to spend the day vis- 
 iting the gardens and orchards kept for the purpose in 
 suburbs of cities and towns. The many tea houses and 
 pavilions in or near the grounds afford opportunity for 
 looking at the beautiful blossoms, meanwhile sipping 
 tea and enjoying social gossip. 
 
 In the flower calendar there is: 
 
 1. The plum blossom — last of March to June. The 
 plum, coming first, is greeted with joy. It introduces 
 the spring with red and white, and that too while the 
 branches are without leaves. 
 
 2. The cherry trees in April exhibit a wealth of blos- 
 soms in white and delicate pink tints. In and around 
 Tokyo, and other places as well, they are planted in 
 great numbers in gardens and avenues for ornamental 
 purposes. These blossoms are double petaled and large, 
 and viewed from a distance when in full bloom the 
 trees look like domes or banks of pure snow; nor is 
 the effect dispelled when you draw near, for you are 
 surprised, if a foreigner, to see how large the blossoms 
 
200 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 are with triple petals densely set reminding one of 
 roses. Besides the white, there are the most delicate 
 pink blossoms. When the moon is out and the weather 
 fair, it is not uncommon among the Japanese to visit 
 the cherry gardens in the night in order to get a differ- 
 ent effect. Passing by the wistaria in May, the peony 
 tree and lilies in June and August, arid the sacred lotus 
 in August, we have: 
 
 3. The chrysanthemum festival in October to Novem- 
 ber. Says Chamberlain ("Things Japanese," p. 119): 
 "A curious sight is to be seen in Tokyo at the proper 
 season. It consists of chrysanthemums in all. shapes — 
 men and gods, boats, bridges, castles, etc. Generally 
 some historical or mythical scene is portrayed or some 
 tableaux." But it is into the Akasaka palace that the 
 elite of Tokyo society is admitted once a year to gaze 
 upon chrysanthemums which those who once see will 
 never again speak about chrysanthemums in New York 
 or London. Not only in Tokyo but everywhere com- 
 panies of people go out day and night to feast their 
 eyes upon the chrysanthemum, which has been brought 
 to perfection in Japan as nowhere else. The golden 
 chrysanthemum of sixteen petals is the Emperor's crest, 
 and it is therefore the national flower. 
 
 4. The red maples from November to December. 
 The Japanese are accustomed to class red leaves un- 
 der the head of flowers, and in the last of autumn the 
 red maple leaves glow to the dying year. There are 
 also varieties of the maple that are dwarfed, and have 
 beautiful red leaves not only in the autumn but when 
 they first unfold in spring. These are planted for or- 
 nament in temple groves and are greatly enjoyed by 
 those beauty-loving people. Besides these flower festi- 
 vals there are other social or domestic festivities and 
 
FLOWEK FESTIVAL. 201 
 
 parties. It was quite common, for instance, for a well- 
 to-do family to go out to a tea house where with feasting, 
 punning, music, and pantomime the whole day is spent. 
 On such occasions geisha (music girls) are engaged to 
 add to the merriment. Many of the tea houses are 
 perched upon the side or summit of a hill, and so af- 
 ford visitors a magnificent view of land and sea at once. 
 In some sections night parties are accustomed to go out 
 to, see the rising moon and the silver waters of the sea. 
 There is a favorite resort of this kind outside of Tokyo. 
 
 The New Year, the chief social and domestic festi- 
 val, is the one gala season of all the year. The houses 
 have all been cleaned beforehand, evergreens of pine 
 and bamboo have been planted on either side of the 
 door, and the rope of rice straw twisted into five or 
 seven strands is hung over the entrance, with fruits and 
 vegetables festooning rope and bamboo. The rope 
 separates the pure from the impure and wards off the 
 approach of evil spirits; the pine and bamboo are sym- 
 bols of long life and happiness; the fruits signify pros- 
 perity. 
 
 Every person, rising early, bathes and dons new 
 clothes, greets the rising sun with obeisance, and prays 
 before the thai, the ancestral tablets at the household 
 altar, and offerings of food and drink are made to the 
 gods. Greetings and presents are exchanged with pleas- 
 ant countenance and hearty wishes for good luck for a 
 thousand years. Rice cake of a certain kind and vege- 
 tables all consecrated at the temple are eaten on New 
 Year, and wine with spices is drunk. No other people 
 give so much care to making New Year calls. No peo- 
 ple with more beautiful courtesy are so careful to re- 
 turn thanks to friends, benefactors, and superiors for 
 kindness during the year just passed. 
 
202 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Festival of Dolls, 3d of April. — This is specially- 
 dedicated to the girls, and the whole of the sex appears 
 on this day in holiday garb, and mothers devote it ex- 
 clusively to their girls. The Japanese were accustomed 
 to store away among the heirlooms of the family their 
 dolls, so on this day they are brought out and set up in 
 order in the best room. The living dolls entertain these 
 inanimate ones, offering them both food and drink. In 
 Tokyo, especially where so many mammoth dolls are 
 made, the doll stores make a brilliant display at this 
 season, and are crowded with eager buyers. The mam- 
 moth ones, made of bisque or papier-mache, are sold at 
 high figures ; the wee ones, two and a half cents. ' ' Some- 
 times," says Mrs. Bramwell, writing about child life in 
 in Japan, "one meets a flock of gayly dressed little 
 maidens going out to tableaux, their faces wreathed in 
 smiles and tongues busily chattering. Upon the back 
 of each merry girl is strapped a brilliantly dressed new 
 doll imitating the omnipresent baby that sister always 
 carries upon her back when she goes out to play with 
 other sisters in the street or temple grove, similarly 
 mounted and strapped with babies. And where are 
 the small boys on that day? They may be seen in 
 knots on tb,e corners, sulking or pretending indiffer- 
 ence because it is not their day. " 
 
 Feast of Flags for Boys, 5th of May. — Outside of 
 every Japanese dwelling where for that year a male 
 child has been born, a tall pole has been set up with a 
 paper fish floating from it by a cord in the air. These, 
 some of them fifteen feet long, made in exact shape of 
 a fish, with mouth, eyes, and all, properly colored and 
 filled with air and floating to the breeze, announce to 
 the neighbors around the joy of the family in having a 
 baby boy. In a large city hundreds of them may be 
 
FESTIVALS OF DOLLS AND FLAGS. 203 
 
 seen swimming in the air around these tall poles. This 
 fish is the carp, and is said to be the strongest fish of all, 
 strong enough to leap up over the waterfall or swim 
 against the most rapid current, and with so much forti- 
 tude that even when cut in half it still moves with 
 strength as if unhurt. This fish then symbolizes the 
 heroism and fortitude which the parents wish their boy 
 to have. As the girls were given new dolls, so for this 
 May festival the shops display all sorts of images of 
 heroes, generals, soldiers, genii of strength and valor, 
 and toys, too, representing the regalia of a Daimyo in 
 procession with all kinds of things used in battle. The 
 writer has seen in Tokyo a company of boys out in May 
 drawing along the streets a two-wheeled cart with a 
 tall framework of wood upon it, and at the very top 
 the effigy of some hero or patron god decked out as a 
 model for a boy's ambition. Drums and streamers en- 
 liven the sight — the boys were happy. 
 
 Although the Japanese maybe losing some of their for- 
 mer light-heartedness, still there are many games which 
 the children enjoy immensely. Gorgeous displays of 
 things pleasing to children are still seen in some of 
 the courts and streets leading to the celebrated temples. 
 Street theatricals, showmen, fortune tellers, sleight-of- 
 hand performers, tumblers, story-tellers, candy ped- 
 dlers, toy sellers, conjurers, fire eaters, charmers, and 
 the like, are slowly disappearing from modern Japan, 
 but what will take their place is the question. Among 
 children's sports and games we mention shuttlecock 
 and battledoor. Upon Xew Year this is the universal 
 game for girls. Dressed in their new gay clothes, with 
 powdered faces and painted lips, and hair arranged with 
 greatest care, they flock out into the open air and spend 
 hours at this game. Proud of her skill, one girl man- 
 
204 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 ages two or three shuttlecocks at the same time; while 
 one is being tossed up two others are coming down at the 
 proper intervals. They are also fond of hopscotch and 
 various finger and string games, counting and singing as 
 the motions and clappings are gone through with. 
 
 Kite Flying. — Our American boys cannot compare 
 kites with the Japanese. Indeed, when the Japanese 
 fly kites, American kites are not there, they are not in 
 sight, they are not to be mentioned. Japanese kites 
 are of enormous size, with tails in proportion, are of 
 various shapes (hollow, flat, oblong, and square), and 
 are variously colored and decorated. Moreover, by a 
 series of strings drawn across like an iEolian harp, 
 they sing while they fly. This is a sport in which men 
 too engage with zest, especially during the New Year 
 holidays. They are sent up to a very great height, even 
 the large ones going out of sight. Sometimes as one 
 walks out in the evening, he hears from the heights 
 above deep humming sounds, and after searching the 
 sky he finally discovers two, three, or more of those 
 mammoth JEolian kites almost lost to sight. Some- 
 times again the sound is heard as a deep- toned serenade 
 from the upper air, but the kites themselves have gone 
 out of sight. A few years ago the writer's wife and 
 daughter, standing on a hill in Imaicho, in the city of 
 Tokyo, counted three hundred kites all flying at the 
 same hour. Two things stand out distinctly upon the 
 field of his memory, witnessed more than once in Ja- 
 pan: one is the sight of hundreds of white fishing sails 
 dotting the smooth surface of the sea in the early 
 morning; the other a fleet of kites like living boats 
 sailing the air and borne up against the sky in the 
 evening. 
 
 The outdoor sports of men are fencing, target shooting 
 
NOTES ON FARMING. 205 
 
 with bow and arrow, hunting, fishing, and wrestling. 
 Fencing is the most keenly enjoyed by the upper classes, 
 for it takes them back to their old-time native life, the 
 handling of the sword. Wrestling is practiced mostly 
 by a professional class of fat giant men. This has al- 
 ways been a great sport and is witnessed by the multi- 
 tudes. The grounds of the temple are the most fre- 
 quent arena for this sport. It is said that wrestling 
 was originally a sort of religious exercise and was in 
 some way under the auspices of certain temples that de- 
 rived a portion of revenue from it. It is considered the 
 highest honor among the guild of wrestlers to be per- 
 mitted to wrestle before the Emperor. 
 
 V. Farming. 
 
 Tokugawa Iyeyasu, founder of the last dynasty of 
 Shoguns, in one of his eighteen laws, declares that 
 farming was given by the sun goddess (Amaterasu). 
 Her temple in Ise must be cared for and rebuilt of new 
 MnoJci wood every twenty-one years, in order that the 
 land might have peace and the five cereals thrive. In 
 this high estimation put upon agriculture the ancient 
 Japanese imitated the Chinese. The words JSTo wa JKu- 
 ni no Moto, "farming is the foundation of the coun- 
 try," express the feelings of the Japanese. This is 
 clearly proved by their placing the farmer in higher 
 social rank than the artisan and merchant. During 
 the long period of peace from the year 1600 all foreign 
 commerce was restricted so as almost to prohibit it, 
 hence the energy of the nation was turned toward farm- 
 ing. And it was during this period that the land was 
 so much improved. Rein says that, while the taxes 
 upon the soil were high and had to be paid in kind, 
 yet, altogether, the lot of the Japanese peasant was a 
 
206 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 happier one than that of the peasants of Europe during 
 the Middle Ages. 
 
 The farming system of Japan may be briefly de- 
 scribed in a few sentences: 
 
 1. The small size of their farms — from a half to five 
 acres. 
 
 2. Probably the most perfect system of irrigation 
 and terraces in the world. For example, immediately 
 around the Kwansei Gakuin, a mission college near Kobe, 
 the writer found a network of connected irrigating 
 ditches and reservoirs arranged for storing the water 
 from the mountain streams, and distributing it in season 
 to the rice fields lying just below toward the sea. On 
 the hillsides for half a mile up level plats are made by 
 digging and dragging the earth from the upper to the 
 lower sides, and by building a stone wall on the lower 
 side of each plat to. hold the earth. Thus the water, 
 as soon as it floods one plat, is led into the one just be- 
 low, and so on until all are covered with water. In 
 the case of those plats down on the shore plain, a mud 
 wall a foot high is made, and through a hole or notch 
 made in this mud bank the water is led from one plat 
 to another till all are flooded. As one views the great 
 stretches of continuous rice fields extending along the 
 shore plain* for miles, and crosswise from the beach 
 away up the sides of the hills, and all flooded with wa- 
 ter, the landscape is a striking one, and presents a scene 
 the like of which is nowhere seen in America. These 
 terrace walls and level plats, numbered by hundreds, 
 are a triumph of the patient toil and industrial skill of 
 the Japanese. 
 
 3. The rotation of crops. In one year three crops in 
 succession, wheat or barley, rice, and some kind of 
 beans, or vegetables, are often raised in the same plat. 
 
RICE GROWING. 207 
 
 4. The fertilizing is a peculiar system, making use of 
 what with us usually goes into the sewage. 
 
 5. Japanese farming is really more like gardening, 
 for the soil is worked as we do our gardens. 
 
 6. The tools and implements are primitive and rude. 
 The work is exceedingly slow, and labor-saving ma- 
 chinery is unknown. We are told that in California 
 great fields of wheat are mowed down, the wheat 
 threshed out and filled into bags by the same huge ma 
 chine as it rolls along propelled by steam. A wagoii 
 follows in the wake picking up the bags, and the wheat 
 is ready for market. But in Japan the little patches 
 of wheat or barley are cut handful by handful with a 
 sickle, threshed out by flails, and the chaff is separated 
 from the wheat by the winnowing fan and the wind, 
 reminding us of the "winnowing fan" and the "wind 
 that blows the chaff away," of Bible times. 
 
 Rice Growing. — As stated in a former section, the 
 staple productions of the soil are rice, tea, and silk. 
 Rice planting is a great time, because rice is to them 
 the staff of life. It is grown in nearly every province. 
 After wheat harvest, water brought down from the res- 
 ervoir through a little ditch, or by a brook flowing di- 
 rectly from the mountain, is led into the small fields to 
 soften the ground for plowing and harrowing. Japan 
 being a narrow country, with valleys, plains, and 
 mountains close together, it is easy to lead down the 
 water trenches into the fields. After the water has 
 softened the ground somewhat, the farmer with his 
 cow (sometimes a horse) begins to plow, and, recross- 
 ing, plows again and again, till the whole is muddy 
 slush. It is a strange sight, a man with a cow plowing 
 and harrowing in water six inches deep. 
 
 Rice- planting season is in May, and men and women 
 
______^_____ 
 
 (208) 
 
 I 
 
RICE GROWING. , 209 
 
 take part in this work. Wading around in the water 
 and mud all the day cannot be pleasant work, but it is 
 said they often sing cheerful songs. The little plants 
 are brought from a bed where the seed was sown six 
 weeks before in a water-covered place. When the 
 plants are about six inches high, they are plucked from 
 the bed and transplanted into the rice plats in rows as 
 seen in the picture. 
 
 The harvesting of the rice is a time of rejoicing. 
 The rice has grown in water from the time of the plant- 
 ing until about three weeks before the ripening, when 
 it is drawn off. Though growing in the water, the 
 farmer and his family had to keep the ground around 
 the roots well stirred, and the fungus green that formed 
 around the stalk carefully cleared away. And now in 
 August the rice is ripe and ready for the sickle — for the 
 sickle is still used in cutting it. When cut it is tied 
 into bundles and hung upon poles on the spot. After 
 drying, the bundles are taken and with an iron tooth 
 hatchel the grains are separated from the stalks. The 
 next step is the cleaning of the grain — taking off the 
 husks so as to get clean, white rice. This is done eithei 
 at the public rice mill or at home. One often sees two- 
 wheeled carts loaded with uncleaned rice, drawn by 
 cows or by the farmer and his boy, going to town to 
 sell his rice, or to the mill to be cleaned, or to his own 
 cottage, where it is stored until cleaned. The rice 
 mill is simply a number of mortars and pestles worked 
 by a water wheel, the water being brought down from 
 the hills above. As one walks the narrow roads that 
 meander along between the rice fields, and skirting the 
 foothills, he frequently comes upon these rice mills, 
 where he sees the cow and the cart, or perchance a num- 
 ber of cows quietly standing or lying around near the 
 14 
 
210 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 mill, the cows that have brought the rice bags upon 
 their backs. And if one passes a line of cows thus load- 
 ed with bags of rice, he knows that a rice mill is near. 
 Much of the rice is cleaned, however, at home by hand, 
 or rather by the treading of feet. Under a little shed be- 
 side the house one often sees two or more mortars and 
 pestles. The pestles being attached to the end of hori- 
 zontal beams, and the beams being upon a pivot, a man 
 stands on the other end, and, by treading, works the pes- 
 tles up and down. This is slow work. Or,, sometimes 
 in the rice dealer's store one sees a half dozen men 
 in a row, all treading those pestle beams. This istheii 
 regular work. Large quantities of rice never enter into 
 the mouth as food, but as sake, rice-brewed beer. 
 Sake is their national drink, and immense quantities 
 are consumed yearly. Less intoxicating than whisky, 
 it has more alcohol than beer. The largest, longest, 
 and highest warehouses the writer has ever seen in that 
 land are the warehouses of the sake breweries. 
 
 The Japanese say that their rice is better than the 
 Chinese -product, and we think it is equal to our Caro- 
 lina rice. A few years ago, on account of the rice fam- 
 ine, immense quantities of Chinese rice were brought to 
 Japan to relieve the distress; but some of the people, al- 
 though in need of food, refused to eat the bad-smelling 
 Chinese rice. How much their national prejudice had 
 to do with the bad smell we know not. Large quanti- 
 ties of rice are shipped yearly to foreign countries, in- 
 cluding America. 
 
 Tea liaising. — Of the Ternstroemia family of ever- 
 green bushes and trees, the tea bush and the camellia 
 tree have become famous throughout the world, though 
 they are by no means grown in all countries. In China 
 and Japan they have for centuries been cultivated for 
 
TEA RAISING. 211 
 
 their leaves and flowers. Tea growing, next to rice, 
 furnishes the largest article of commerce in Japan. The 
 name for tea found in so many languages, and all ety- 
 mologically related, points back to China as the origi- 
 nal home of the tea plant. In Assam it is a tree, known 
 from ancient times. In China it is a hush; and in In- 
 dia it is a hybrid between the Assam tree and the China 
 bush. Tea-growing districts are limited on the north, 
 say in India and China, by the 36th degree of latitude, 
 and in Japan by the 40th. It will not grow in cold 
 countries, though it is a mistake to suppose it cannot 
 grow when exposed to moderate frost. 
 
 For Japan, the Uji district between Osaka and Lake 
 Biwa is the celebrated tea district. It grows best on a 
 moist, loose sandy loam on the gentle slopes of low hills, 
 especially on the southward slope; if on the level plain, 
 the ground is well drained. Both seeds and seedlings 
 •from the nursery are used in planting, which is in 
 autumn or spring. The distance between rows, and be- 
 tween bushes in the row, is about four and three feet 
 respectively. If there are wider intervals between rows, 
 then vegetables and roots are planted between them. 
 For vigorous growth of leaves the ground must be well 
 manured and deeply worked. The trimming too is very 
 important in order to get the greatest amount of foliage 
 surface and to regulate the height of the branches from 
 the ground. Trimming is done when the sap is low. 
 Being an evergreen, the bushes set out in regular rows 
 and trimmed to uniform height and size naturally at- 
 tract the eye of passers-by. In summer the contrast 
 between the yellow green of the rice fields, often 
 near by, and the dark green of the tea fields is 
 very pleasing. In winter such stretches of green as the 
 tea plantation presents are not the least attractive. The 
 
212 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 bushes are usually from two to three feet across, and 
 from three to four feet high, the limbs branch out thick- 
 ly, with many smaller branches making a dense mass of 
 leaves. The leaves are a dark glossy green, ovate in 
 form, slightly notched at the edges, and when young 
 are very tender, but as they grow old become thick and 
 stiff. 
 
 The bushes begin to yield leaves for picking the third 
 or fourth year, and flourish until the tenth or twelfth 
 year; then begin to decline until the eighteenth year, 
 when a new setting is necessary. In the tea district of 
 Uji there are some trees that yield leaves for twenty- 
 five or thirty years. The leaves are picked twice a year, 
 as a rule; the chief crop is in the spring, and the pick- 
 ing begins about the first of May. The second picking 
 is about six weeks later, but yields inferior leaves not 
 put upon the market, but kept for home use. After be- 
 ing picked the leaf is carried through a long process of 
 preparation. 
 
 1. Steaming the leaves. Rows of kettles or pans 
 are set in a long oven half filled with water and heated 
 by charcoal from beneath. Upon each pan is placed a 
 covered sieve with tea leaves spread out upon the bot- 
 tom. For a half minute the tea leaves in the sieves are 
 steamed to produce the tea odor. The sieve is now re- 
 moved, the leaves are spread out upon mats or tables, 
 where they are fanned and quickly cooled. 
 
 2. The firing comes next. For the firing, the leaves 
 are placed in large flat wooden or bamboo frames or 
 trays coated with cement underneath, and brought to a 
 slow heat with charcoal. Meanwhile a man almost 
 naked, and one to each frame or tray, is working the 
 leaves with his hands, lifting up into the air, stirring, 
 rolling, rubbing between his palms into balls, then 
 
(213) 
 
214 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 breaking up and repeating it. He continues this work 
 for several hours, until the mass takes on a dark olive 
 uolor and the separate leaves are twisted and rolled. 
 They are now spread out upon the drying frame, still 
 kept a little warm, until they become quite brittle. 
 The tea is now ready to be sorted and packed. 
 
 3. The sorting of the tea. In the picking, stems, 
 capsules, unhealthy or unequal leaves have gotten in 
 with the good leaves. With a bamboo sieve all these 
 impurities are separated as far as possible. Finally the 
 tea designed for export is spread out upon tables or 
 mattings, and girls go over it carefully, picking out ev- 
 ery impurity or thing that prevents the tea from having 
 a uniform appearance. It is now ready to be sent to the 
 treaty ports and sold to foreign exporters. 
 
 4. Second firing. Before sending it on its long sea 
 voyage to New York, London, or Paris, the exporter 
 subjects the tea to a second firing. For thjs purpose, 
 in the treaty ports like Kobe, there are large tea- 
 firing establishments, where hundreds of women and 
 girls work at the unhealthy business of standing over 
 tea ovens and rolling the leaves between their hands 
 until they are perfectly dry. If the tea is intended for 
 the American people, it is colored to suit their fanciful 
 taste, but the Japanese do not color their own. For the 
 coloring, a small quantity of powdered Prussian blue 
 and gypsum is sprinkled on in the last firing. The 
 powder is readily absorbed by the moist, warm leaves. 
 Most of the exported tea is green, being colored in this 
 way, and is shipped to the United States. The black 
 tea of China is prepared by some kind of fermentation. 
 As for the powdered tea, the Japanese consider it the 
 best, and it is the costliest. It is prepared from the 
 most delicate leaves and best bushes, put away with 
 
TINY TOBACCO PIPES. 215 
 
 care, and ground just before using. This tea is served 
 only on occasions of great ceremony, for instance, at high 
 tea parties, and is- not exported. The scenting of the 
 tea by using odorous blossoms such as jasmine, daphne, 
 and orange, like the coloring custom, is slowly declin- 
 ing. It is still practiced in China. The Japanese do 
 not drink cold water nor milk, hence tea is the con- 
 stant drink at meals and between meals. Although 
 tea was known from about 805 A.D., it did not become 
 the national drink till about 1400 A.D.; and it is a fact 
 that the Portuguese did not export tea from Japan to 
 Europe, nor did the Dutch. Only since the recent 
 opening of the country by Commodore Perry, in 1854, 
 has tea been an article of export. Now immense quan- 
 tities are shipped yearly. 
 
 Tobacco and the Japanese Pipe. — In 1607 a Japanese 
 physician at Nagasaki wrote in a family chronicle the 
 following: "Of late a thing has come into fashion 
 called tabako. It is said to have originated in Namban 
 (Portugal), and consists of large leaves which are cut up 
 and of which one drinks the smoke." The smoking 
 habit spread rapidly among all classes, men and women 
 alike. As James I. of England issued a decree against 
 its use all in vain, so the rulers of China and Japan at- 
 tempted to forbid their people the use of the noxious 
 weed. As for the Japanese pipe, it is a small affair, be- 
 ing about half the size of a lady's thimble. The Japan- 
 ese smoke fine- cut only, never chew, and only take a few 
 whiffs at a time; and as they draw the smoke into the 
 throat and puff out through the nostrils they properly 
 say ' ' drink tobacco " — that is, the smoke. 
 
 Passing by other agricultural industries such as 
 wheat and millet raised in small quantities, ginseng 
 and various oil-producing plants, as well as dyestuffs, 
 
216 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 cotton growing calls for a few words. The writer, 
 brought up in a cotton-growing State, was interested at 
 first in the cotton growing in Japan, but he saw noth- 
 ing worthy of comparison with our Southern cotton. 
 The plant is small, nor do the people seem to know how 
 to cultivate it, for everywhere the stalks are left too 
 thick in the row, and the yield is very small. But 
 now, when many and large cotton mills are being set 
 up in Japan, one would think that the authorities should 
 promote better methods of tillage and the planting of 
 better kinds of cotton seed. 
 
 Silk Culture. — If we speak of silk raising in Asia, 
 India has from ancient times produced it, but of late 
 has not increased; Turkey and Persia have declined in 
 its production; so that China and Japan are the foremost 
 countries for silk culture. In Europe the Greeks had 
 the first knowledge of the silkworm through Alexander 
 the Great's expedition to India. He sent silkworms to 
 his famous teacher, Aristotle, who was the first to de- 
 scribe them. In modern times Italy, Spain, France, 
 Germany, and other countries attempted silk culture; 
 but Italy, with France next, is the silk-producing coun- 
 try in Europe. In America efforts have been made to 
 raise silkworms, but with little success. When a child, 
 the writer used to hear his mother tell about the mul- 
 berry and silkworm growing of his grandmother in 
 South Carolina. It must have been on a small scale. 
 Japan, China, and Italy remain to-day the three chief 
 silk-growing countries in the world. It was not until 
 the fifth century of the Christian era that the silkworm 
 was brought over by immigrants from China or Korea. 
 The then reigning Emperor and Empress sought by 
 personal example to encourage the growing of mulberry 
 + ,rees and silkworms, but it did not become an impor- 
 
SILK CULTUKE. 217 
 
 tant national industry before the middle of the sixth 
 century. During the Tokugawa rule silk weaving 
 made great progress, owing to the use of fine costumes 
 by the noble and middle classes. It has been said that 
 when our early English forefathers were living by fish- 
 ing and hunting and dressed chiefly in skins the Chi- 
 nese were wearing silk; but this cannot be said of the 
 Japanese. Their rulers and nobles at court may have 
 worn silk from earlier times; but the weaving of white, 
 lustrous, figured silk damasks, and fine silk crape was 
 not known until very much later. 
 
 The three kinds of mulberry plantations are, first, the 
 low stump, so named because the stump is cut off near 
 the ground. Shoots put out all around the stump, 
 bearing large, strong leaves that are stripped off and 
 carried to the feeding silkworms; and this is the meth- 
 od in the level districts where the soil is loamy and deep- 
 ly worked. Secondly, high-stump plantation, where the 
 trunks are cut off six feet above the ground, as seen 
 in the hilly regions. Thirdly, the high trees, upon the 
 steeper slopes or narrow gorges where the mulberry is 
 allowed to grow wild, as it were. Trees properly cared 
 for live fifty or sixty years, but not more than forty if 
 neglected. The plantation is set with seedlings of a 
 year old and in rows at regular spaces. The mulberry 
 chiefly planted is the white-fruit kind. The black-fruit 
 variety that grows in America is not found in Japan. 
 Cultivated for centuries, there have been developed sev- 
 eral species of trees as well as silkworms. The people 
 who engage in silk raising keep the worms when feed- 
 ing and spinning in rooms in their dwellings, frequent- 
 ly in rooms built for the purpose. In order to do well 
 the rooms must be airy, dry, and perfectly clean. 
 This habit of cleanliness has improved the condition of 
 
218 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 the silk growers to a marked degree, as seen in their 
 clean houses and mats. No other branch of agriculture 
 has so beneficial an effect on the people. 
 
 As was stated on page 31, the butterfly, or moth, that 
 comes from the cocoon lays its eggs; and they are made 
 to lay upon paper boards and stick fast to the boards — 
 say forty thousand eggs to a board three feet by two. 
 During the winter these boards with the eggs are stored 
 away in a dry room, and carefully covered and wrapped 
 in paper to keep out the mice and the dampness. When 
 the hatching time draws nigh, the boards are brought 
 out into the hatching rooms and placed in a shady place 
 in the open air. The grubs are hatched in from twen- 
 ty-five to thirty days, usually in April and May. Arti- 
 ficial heat shortens the time. When the young worms 
 appear, they are transferred to hurdle beds of bamboo 
 splits, or matting, sprinkled with tender chopped leaves. 
 During the feeding period these beds must be cleansed 
 daily. A net made of hemp yarn is stretched just above 
 the beds, and when the worms have crawled up on 
 this netting, the bed beneath, with its droppings, dead 
 worms, and remnants of dead leaves, is taken away 
 and cleansed. Worms of the same age and size are kept 
 -together on the same hui'dle beds, the sluggish, sickly 
 ones being placed upon separate beds. After feeding 
 for about thirty-five days, and casting their skin four 
 times, the worms are ready to spin their cocoons. For 
 this purpose layers of stalks of some kind, or twigs of a 
 bush are laid in order over the hurdle beds. When the 
 worms begin they must have something of the kind to 
 which to fasten the first thread in spinning their co- 
 coons. The cocoons are about an inch long and half 
 as thick. The outside thread is thin, less valuable, and 
 is called floss silk. After separating this loose floss silk 
 
PAPER MAKING. 219 
 
 from the outside of the cocoon, the best ones are chosen 
 for breeding the next season, and the rest are exposed to 
 the hot sun or put in boiling water to kill the worm in- 
 side, now changed to a chrysalis. The next step is the 
 reeling of the silk from the cocoons or balls. In olden 
 times this was done by the silk grower, but now reeling 
 establishments are in operation that buy the cocoons 
 from the growers and reel off the silk by machinery. It 
 may be stated that since the country was opened, thirty 
 years ago, Japan has been exporting to foreign coun- 
 tries immense quantities of the various products of the 
 silkworm, from the egg up to the most costly damasks 
 and brocades, making a total annual export worth more 
 than thirty million dollars. 
 
 Paper making in Japan deserves brief mention. In- 
 deed, Rein devotes twenty -six royal octavo pages to this 
 subject. In the oldest accounts of the country the many 
 uses of paper are mentioned. Two hundred and fifty 
 years ago the Dutch traders observed it, and Kampfer 
 especially. It was used for many purposes other than 
 those known to us; not only for writing, book printing, 
 painting, wrapping, packing, etc., but also for fans, 
 screens, umbrellas, lanterns, dolls' clothes, waterproof 
 cloaks and tarpaulins, large rain hats, tobacco pouches, 
 pipe cases, boxes, windowpanes, leather, wood, and 
 even for iron. These numerous uses were due to the 
 lack of other suitable material — for example, lack of 
 glass — and also to the lightness, cheapness, and tough- 
 ness of their paper. 
 
 Our machine-made paper is smooth and pretty, but 
 very brittle. The Japanese hand-made paper is the 
 better for lightness, pliableness, and toughness. This 
 is because it was made of the inner bark of trees and 
 shrubs, chiefly the paper mulberry, and because the fiber 
 
(220) 
 
PAPER MAKING. 221 
 
 cells of the bark are not cut to pieces by machinery, but 
 are pounded and beaten. This softens while it leaves 
 the fibers long and tough, and when made into paper 
 sheets they are surprisingly tough, flexible, and as soft 
 as silk paper. On the other hand, their bark-made pa- 
 per is porous and thin, and not suitable for pen and ink, 
 but well suited to the little brush and thick India ink 
 which the Japanese and Chinese use in writing. After 
 the fashion of the Chinese, only one side of the leaves 
 of a book is printed. Every couple of leaves is left 
 uncut, so that the unprinted pages of each couple are 
 inside and unseen. It is said that the making of paper 
 was invented in China about 105 A.D. The art of 
 making paper from the bark of the mulberry was 
 brought from Korea to Japan about the beginning of 
 the seventh century, which was several centuries before 
 paper making was known in Europe.* It became one 
 of the most important branches of industry and trade in 
 Japan, and is so to-day, and this has led to the growing 
 of mulberry and other paper-yielding trees and shrubs 
 in many parts of the country. 
 
 Until recently paper making was carried on in many 
 dwellings, on a small scale, there being one or two vats 
 in a house. In the summer, when the family was busy 
 with the crops, paper making was suspended. The 
 commonest paper for writing, printing, and for hand- 
 kerchiefs, was named "hanshi." Recently machine- 
 made paper has come into use. These mills, and the 
 men to operate them or teach the Japanese, were intro- 
 duced from Europe. Besides the ordinary hanshi, a 
 kind of papier-mache, crape paper, leather paper, oil 
 
 *Hildreth supposes that Europe derived the idea of paper 
 hanging (wall papering), as a substitute for tapestry, from 
 Japan. 
 
222 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 paper, a soft, lustrous silk paper unsurpassed by any 
 country, and a paper resembling parchment almost as 
 tough as leather itself, were all manufactured by the 
 Japanese before the advent of the modern foreigner into 
 the country. We doubt if anywhere else in the world 
 as good a quality of parchment paper is made. Two or 
 three other uses are unknown to us — such as window 
 panes, shoji papering, and lanterns. 
 
 Other industries, either peculiar to the country or 
 carried on in a peculiar way — such as bamboo and 
 wicker work, matting and rugs, umbrella making, fans, 
 lanterns, sake brewing, and camphor distilling and re- 
 fining — might be interesting topics, but space is lacking. 
 
 VI. At a Japanese Inn in the Olden Time. 
 
 Of the seven great government roads built centuries 
 ago, the Tokaido (East Sea Road), from Kioto to Yedo, 
 was the most traveled. More than two hundred years 
 ago, when the Dutch trader, Kampf er, had to make the 
 annual visit to the Shogun and carry presents, he was 
 surprised at the number of people whom he met along 
 that great highway on his way to Yedo. Posthouses 
 were built at intervals of from six to fifteen miles to ac- 
 commodate travelers wishing to hire horses, porters, se- 
 dan chairs, a"nd footmen. These were not inns or hotels, 
 but were kept for stabling and hiring horses and bag- 
 gage carriers, which were let at fixed prices by the clerk. 
 Messengers were also kept day and night in waiting, 
 who carried from one posthouse to the next the letters, 
 edicts, and proclamations from the Shogun or great 
 Daimyos; swift-footed mail carriers they were. Put in 
 a black varnished box bearing the coat of arms of the 
 Shogun or prince sending them, and tied to a staff borne 
 on the shoulder, these communications were carried by 
 
AT AN INN IN THE OLDEN TIME. 223 
 
 fleet messengers to the next- posthouse. The messen- 
 gers ran two together, so that if one fell ill or became 
 disabled the other could run on. All travelers, even 
 Dainiyos, had to give the way when these messengers 
 bearing edicts from the Shogun came running and ring- 
 ing a small bell. Just as he reached the posthouse, and 
 even before stopping, the box was thrown to the mes- 
 senger there waiting for it, who instantly started in a 
 run to the next posthouse. In this way communications 
 were sent out from the Shogun' s capital with considera- 
 ble haste. 
 
 Kampfer tells us that the best inns were in those vil- 
 lages where the posthouses were. But even the well- 
 built ones were only one story, or, if two, the second was 
 low and good for storage only. Those inns, though 
 narrow in front as other houses, were deeper, running 
 back sometimes two hundred and forty feet, with a 
 pleasure garden in the rear inclosed within a neat white 
 plastered wall. The front side of the inn had small 
 lattice windows and a narrow veranda jutting right 
 on the street, which was without pavements, being con- 
 venient for mounting a horse without soiling the feet. 
 In the rear too was a similar veranda, where sat the 
 guests in the cool of the evening looking into the gar- 
 den with its pool, artificial mountain, and well-kept 
 trees and shrubs. The movable partitions and screens 
 between rooms were removed except when a person of 
 quality is a guest, so as to enable travelers passing along 
 the street to see clean through the house and back into 
 the little park or garden. The kitchen was in the fore 
 part, and was often filled with smoke, there being only a 
 hole in the roof for smoke to escape. Here the foot 
 travelers and the meaner sort of people lodged with the 
 servants. Rooms in the front were generally sorry 
 
224 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 and poor in comparison with those in the rear, which 
 were always reserved for officials and persons of qual- 
 ity, and were neat and clean to admiration. 
 
 He speaks of the recessed wall on one side of the 
 room, and of the dais where rest the vases filled with 
 flowers and green branches; and of the kakemono, or 
 hanging scroll, embroidered and hanging upon the wall 
 behind the flowers, with the drawing of some saint, 
 maxim, or bit of poetry by some celebrated scholar. 
 Written in large characters, or some scene of mountain 
 and sea, bird, bamboo, or plum blossoms; of the in- 
 cense brasier or vase, from which pleasant odors are ex- 
 haled into the room, in honor of a distinguished guest; 
 of some strange piece of wood wherein colors and 
 grains run in an unnatural way. He likewise men- 
 tions the scroll work in wood adorning the veranda and 
 the space just above the shojis; of the branch of a tree 
 or piece of rotten wood, or some stone remarkable for 
 its deformed or curious shape. All these the traveler 
 sees to-day. All along the road in those days, as it is 
 to-day, there were smaller inns, cook shops, tea houses, 
 sake and confection shops where the meaner sort might 
 for a few sen get refreshment. Even though sorry and 
 poor, there was always something to amuse travelers 
 and draw tnem in. In summer a pleasant arbor in front, 
 or a little garden or orchard seen through a passage in 
 the rear, with a pool or brook flowing down from the 
 hill close by, a rockery or grotto — all invite the weary 
 traveler to stop. Sometimes a couple of young girls, 
 well dressed, stand at the door and civilly invite travel- 
 ers. Here various eatables, besides tea and sake, were 
 sold: round cakes big as hen's eggs, filled inside with 
 black bean curd and sugar; root jelly cake cut into 
 slices and roasted; boiled or pickled snails, small fish 
 
DAIMYO'S RETINUE IN THE OLDEN TIME. 225 
 
 and shellfish; all sorts of plants, roots, sprigs, washed 
 and boiled, and innumerable dishes of seeds, powdered 
 roots, and vegetables dressed in different ways. The 
 common sauce for these dishes was soy. Then there 
 were sweetmeats of every color, more agreeable to the 
 eye than to the taste. Into the soup, ginger, or other 
 powdered root was sprinkled. The dishes were gar- 
 nished with leaves or slices of orange peel. 
 
 VII. A Great Daimyo's Retinue in the Olden 
 
 Time. 
 
 ■ A scene in feudal times, now vanished forever, is de- 
 scribed by Kampfer at length, but is here condensed. 
 In making their annual visit to Yedo the more powerful 
 Daimyos traveled with great pomp becoming as well their 
 own quality and wealth as the majesty of the great 
 Shogun to whom they were going to pay their homage. 
 He says that once he met the retinue of a powerful 
 Daimyo mustering about twenty thousand men; that 
 they marched in bands at intervals, and required two 
 days to pass them all; and on the third day he passed the 
 Daimyo himself, attended by his numerous court. To 
 avoid confusion of two great lords traveling the same 
 road at the same time, the posthouses and inns are be- 
 spoken beforehand. Notice boards fastened to high 
 bamboo poles inform the people along the way of the 
 expected arrival of such and such a Daimyo or imperial 
 governor. The roads are repaired, and everything along 
 the way put in neat and clean order; clerks and cooks 
 go before to secure lodgings, victuals, and provender. 
 After the clerks and cooks comes the heavy baggage in 
 small willow Jcoris lashed to horses' backs, with the 
 coat of arms of the Daimyo in large characters, or 
 chests covered with red lacquered leather borne upon 
 15 
 
226 jArAN: country, court, people. 
 
 men's shoulders. Next came smaller retinues, not of 
 the Daimyo, but of his chief officers and noblemen, 
 with pikes, bows, and arrows, umbrellas, sedan chairs, 
 and horses. Some of these officials are in sedan chairs; 
 others ride on horses. Then comes the Daimyo's own 
 train, marching in admirable -order, divided into ten 
 or twelve companies, headed each by an officer. 1. 
 Five fine horses, each led by two grooms, one on each 
 side, and followed by two footmen. 2. Five or six 
 richly clad porters bearing upon their shoulders lac- 
 quered chests, Japanned trunks, and baskets containing 
 the Daimyo's wearing apparel, each porter being attend- 
 ed by two footmen. 3. Five or more fellows carrying 
 in wooden cases pikes, short swords, and firearms. 4. 
 Two or more men bearing the pike of state, or other badge 
 of authority, adorned with a bunch of cock's feathers to 
 distinguish from other daimyos and lords. 5. A gen- 
 tleman bearing the Daimyo's hat under a velvet cover, 
 and attended by two footmen. 6. A gentleman attend- 
 ed by two footmen bearing the Daimyo's umbrella. *7. 
 More trunk bearers, etc. 8. Sixteen of the Daimyo's 
 pages and gentlemen of the bedchamber walking in front 
 of his sedan chair. 9. The Daimyo or prince himself 
 seated in a stately sedan chair. If dusty, the streets in 
 towns through which he has to pass are sprinkled. The 
 people retired within their houses, tightly closed, or 
 knelt behind screens in the front of the house, or else 
 retired to the field at a respectful distance from the road. 
 The Daimyo's chair was borne on the shoulders of 
 six men richly clad, others walking at the side to take 
 their turn; also two or three gentlemen of his bed- 
 chamber to wait on him and assist him in getting in and 
 out. 10. Two or three horses of state with saddles 
 covered with black velvet, each horse attended by two 
 
(22^ 
 
228 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 grooms and several footmen. 11. Two pike bearers. 
 12. Two persons carrying two baskets each of great 
 size. This great procession is closed up in the rear by 
 a nmltitude of domestics and subordinate officers of the 
 Daimyo, with their own servants, baggage, and other 
 utensils. The whole train is headed by the prince's 
 high steward seated in his sedan chair borne upon the 
 shoulders of men. If a son of a Daimyo or lord accom- 
 panies, he follows immediately behind his father's reti- 
 nue, with his own train of attendants. All except the 
 pike bearers, those who bear the sedan chair and the 
 livery men are clad in blue silk and march in elegant 
 order, with becoming gravity, and in so profound a 
 silence that not the least noise is made save what 
 arises from the motion and rustling of dresses and bag- 
 gage and the tramping of horses' feet. 
 
 Of course, when the great Shogun traveled, there 
 was a still greater retinue of troops, servants, horses, 
 and baggage. As he proceeded, a runner going ahead 
 cried out to the people to clear the road and to go down 
 upon the ground. "Shitaye! shitaye!" he cried — 
 "down! down!" and all in profoundest humility went 
 down upon the ground. Any person who did not go 
 down migkt lose his head instantly. Only a stroke or 
 two of a Samurai's sword would take his head off. All 
 of this display and parade was a part of the feudal sys- 
 tem. Officialdom, ceremony, and red tape played a 
 great part in those times. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 RELIGIONS OF JAPAN IN THE NINETEENTH 
 CENTURY. 
 
 I. The Shinto Religion. 
 
 At the time the country was opened, thirty years ago, 
 Buddhism was the principal religion among all classes; 
 howbeit, owing to the compromising policy of the Bud- 
 dhist priests centuries before, there had come to be a 
 mixing of Buddhism and Shintoism. The old national 
 Shinto gods were recognized and worshiped, even by Bud- 
 dhist believers (see p. 67), especially the sun goddess, the 
 imperial ancestors, and certain national heroes of legen- 
 dary fame. In some Shinto temples Buddhists had charge, 
 so that they were more Buddhist than Shinto. In every 
 important town a temple had been built to the sun god- 
 dess, the mother of the race, modeled after the first na- 
 tional shrine erected to her in Ise. Once a year, or at 
 least once in a lifetime, every Japanese must make a visit 
 to that shrine in Ise. Shinto temples are usually built 
 upon an eminence, in a retired spot, surrounded by a 
 grove of pine or cryptomerias. They are approached by 
 a grand avenue, at the entrance to which stands a torii, 
 or gateway, of wood or stone. Such surroundings would 
 indicate an imposing structure; but, passing through 
 the avenue or grove and drawing nigh, one finds a sorry 
 small building, usually about eighteen feet in length 
 and breadth. This plain structure is made of white, 
 unpainted, plaued wood, the pine or hinoki. Being, as 
 is claimed, a development of the primitive hut of their 
 
 (229) 
 
230 
 
 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 ancestors in Asia, the roof of those in purest style is 
 still of thatch, hut many have roofs of shingle, some of 
 copper sheeting. The rafters extend upward, crossing 
 the ridge pole in the form of an X, as seen in the picture. 
 The primitive hut had probably no floor, but Shinto 
 temples have floors raised some feet above the ground, 
 and a sort of balcony running around, with a flight of 
 stairs up to the entrance. 
 
 ENTRANCE TO SHINTO TEMPLE. 
 
 The temple proper consists of two rooms, front and 
 rear. In the front is a wand, from which hangs white 
 paper notched in a particular way, which represents the 
 white cloth made in ancient times from the paper mul- 
 berry and offered to the gods. Separated from the front 
 room by a latticed partition is the second sanctum, into 
 -which even the high priest enters not except on rare oc- 
 casions. (Cf. Heb. ix. 7.) Back there the emblem of 
 the god is kept within a box. This emblem is the sym- 
 
SHINTO TEMPLE. 231 
 
 bol of the august spirit of the god, and is usually a 
 mirror, sometimes a sword or a curious stone. The 
 mirror symbolizes a female god, and the sword a male 
 god. The absence of images in Shinto temples has 
 been variously and unsatisfactorily explained. Some say 
 it is because the ancient Japanese had no knowledge of 
 painting or sculpture, but many low and rude peoples 
 have had some kind of idols to represent their gods; 
 others have explained it by saying that originally the 
 Japanese were worshipers of one god only. 
 
 In front of the temple proper there is frequently a 
 kind of antechamber, or porch. Above this entrance is 
 a gong and a large rope hanging, which the worshiper 
 shakes to sound the gong in order to call the attention 
 of the god to his prayers. Never entering into the build- 
 ing, as we do in our churches, the worshiper stops here, 
 bows low the head, claps the hands, and offers worship. 
 In the temple yard in the front is a stone tank, where the 
 hands are washed preparatory to worship. After a very 
 brief worship, or generally, beforehand, a few copper 
 coins are cast upon the floor or into the alms chest. In 
 the courts of these temples may frequently be seen little 
 shrines dedicated to other Shinto gods, local deities, and 
 demigods. The fox shrine, with little white images of 
 the fox god, is a common sight here; and not unfre- 
 quently a sacred white horse is kept in a stall in the 
 temple precincts. At all these temples the priests sell 
 little white slips of paper inscribed with the title of the 
 god, which is esteemed a charm for the protection of the 
 family. This, or a wooden tablet of the same meaning 
 and purpose, may be seen pasted above the door to their 
 dwellings, or else kept near the god-shelf or altar inside 
 the house. The sale of these sacred charms brings 
 something to the living of the priests. Even to the old 
 
232 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 trees in the grove surrounding the temple a sacred char- 
 acter is ascribed, and a fillet of straw rope used to be 
 placed around them, as if they were tenanted by some 
 divine spirit. 
 
 Our own observation agrees with Mr. Satow's state- 
 ment that in the Shinto religion there are scarcely any 
 regular services in which the people take part, no assem- 
 blies like the Christian congregation, no songs, no preach- 
 ing. Only at the festival time is there an assembly, and 
 then they never enter into the temple. The worshipers 
 repair to the temple one by one, and return quickly. Nor 
 are the priests distinguished by their dress from ordinary 
 people; only when engaged in the morning and evening 
 offering is a peculiar dress worn. This consists of a 
 long, loose gown with wide sleeves, fastened at the 
 waist with a girdle, and a tall black cap, fastened upon 
 the head with a white fillet. ISfor are the Shinto priests 
 bound by any vows of celibacy, as are the Buddhist 
 priests, but are free to marry and adopt any career they 
 like. Young women are sometimes seen at temples, 
 acting as priestesses, but their chief duty is to perform 
 the sacred pantomime or dance in time of the festivals. 
 They are under no vows of celibacy. 
 
 Shinto services consist of certain formulae recited by 
 the priests, partly in praise, partly in petition, and of- 
 ferings of rice, fish, sake, vegetables. The Shinto sys- 
 tem was less severe than the Buddhist touching the 
 view of human existence and enjoyment. The devotees 
 of Shinto were more disposed to look on the bright side 
 of things, making holidays of their religious festivals, 
 and regarding people in sorrow and distress as unfit for 
 the worship of the gods, whose felicity ought not to be 
 disturbed by our pain and misery. Shinto festivals and 
 ceremonies are much simpler than those of the Bud- 
 
SHINTO PRIESTS AND RITUAL. 233 
 
 dhist. On the 1st and 3d of January, at the vernal 
 equinox in March, and on the 21st of November, the 
 Eniperor proceeds to the imperial chapel at his palace, 
 or sends a representative to Ise to worship the god of 
 heaven and to offer dutiful and reverent salutations to 
 the imperial ancestors. In November he makes thank 
 offerings of the new rice also. On the 11th of Novem- 
 ber there is a Shinto festival to commemorate Jimmu 
 Tenno's accession to the throne. On that day the 
 priests make special offerings to the gods and invoke 
 blessings upon the reigning Emperor. 
 
 Of the local festivals, the Gion Mdtsuri is the princi- 
 pal one, celebrated from the 17th to the 24th of July, to 
 the god Susanoo, at the Gion temple in Kioto. The 
 reader will remember that this god was the unruly 
 brother of the sun goddess (Amaterasu), who caused her 
 so much trouble both on the heavenly plain and upon 
 earth. Why they should worship such a wicked and 
 lawless creature is strange. Preparatory to this festi- 
 val the boys of the neighborhood are trained for several 
 days at beating drums, gongs, and in other musical per- 
 formances. The handsomest youth of all is chosen 
 for the ' ' ckigo " — that is, the victim to be offered up to 
 the god of the temple. In olden times he was no doubt 
 slain and offered, but now it is a symbolic ceremony. 
 The ckigo must visit the temple several times to pre- 
 pare himself. When the festival opens, the young folk 
 and all who take part in the performances repair to the 
 temple, dressed in light, flowing gala clothes. A great 
 two-wheeled cart, sometimes several, is brought out, 
 upon which rests a high frame, upon the top of which is 
 perched a curved spear. Upon a lower platf orm of this 
 frame is the band, with drums, gongs, and what not, 
 making a hideous kind of music. The cart, frame and 
 
234 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 all, decked out with curtains and streamers, is drawn 
 by a multitude of boys and men, by means of a very 
 long rope. As they move along the streets they are 
 followed by crowds of people, for this drawing of the 
 cart is considered an act of merit. It is indeed a hilari- 
 ous time. 
 
 The mikoshi is a decorated square shrine under a can- 
 opy ornamented with tinkling bells and chains, the 
 whole being borne upon a framework of poles upon 
 men's shoulders. In this portable shrine is the sacred 
 mirror, and the gohei — i. e., white paper cut into 
 notches in a particular manner and hanging from a 
 wand. Upon the top of the canopy is perched the 
 bronzed figure of the sacred phoenix, which to the cas- 
 ual observer is a rooster. As the wildly joyous crowd 
 go forth at night running and yelling in concert, as they 
 leap and toss the mikoshi with uplifted hands in rhyth- 
 mical measure, it is indeed an exciting scene. The 
 writer remembers distinctly a scene of this kind wit- 
 nessed by night years ago, in the city of Kioto. He had 
 just reached the eastern end of the bridge crossing the 
 river that goes through the city. As the rushing, noisy 
 mikoshi bearers passed by us, followed by multitudes of 
 excited people, Dr. "Walter Lambuth remarked that "to 
 be met by* such an excited crowd in China would be 
 dangerous to foreigners." We were not in the least 
 molested, and enjoyed the strange procession. 
 
 Sometimes, however, a Japanese citizen, who is not 
 popular on account of his oppressions, stinginess, or 
 other fault, suffers injury during this festival. Under 
 the idea that the mikoshi is guided by the spirit of the 
 god, it is borne to the door of some hated man, forcible 
 entrance is made, and punishment inflicted unon him for 
 his wickedness. 
 
SHINTO FESTIVALS AND GODS. . 235 
 
 The gosangi festival at Okayama is another local 
 festival. It is at night, and hundreds of people from 
 city and country assemble in the temple yard to wait 
 for the throwing of the gosangi. The gosangi is a sa- 
 cred wooden wand one foot long and two inches thick, 
 and it is believed that whoever can get possession 
 of it and take it to his house will have luck and bless- 
 ings during the year. Accordingly about 11 o'clock at 
 night it is thrown right into the crowd, and then follows 
 a struggle to seize it and run away. The struggle con- 
 tinues sometimes for hours, the gosangi being snatched 
 from one to another. 
 
 In the smaller local festivals, the village god, some 
 ancient prince or father of the district, a famous hero 
 or sage deified after death, is celebrated by the people 
 of the village. One can easily tell when a village fes- 
 tival is on hand by the noise and gayety. Near the 
 school where the writer lived and taught was a great 
 grove, and in the center of it a local temple chiefly Shin- 
 to. At a certain time in the year the festivities contin- 
 ue for three days, and the clanging of drums, gongs, and 
 cymbals was kept up every night till after midnight, and 
 all the day long. 
 
 Among the numerous household Shinto gods are the 
 following: 
 
 1. Amaterasu, sun goddess, worshiped as the morn- 
 ing and evening sun. 
 
 2. Ebisu, god of money, often seen on the god shelf 
 of business places. 
 
 3. Daikoku, god of property and estates. 
 
 4. Sumiyoshi, faithful retainer of Temmangu. 
 
 5. Temmangu (Michizane), deified and worshiped as 
 god of learning. 
 
 6. Inari, rice god and messenger of the gods. 
 
japan: country, court, people. 
 
 7. Kojin, god of health and the kitchen. 
 
 8. Kompira, protector against fire and storm, known 
 as the sea god. 
 
 9. Hachiman, originally god of war, also now over- 
 seer of family affairs. 
 
 10. Jingo Kogo, goddess and protector against disas- 
 ter, shipwrecks, etc. 
 
 The thai, ancestral tablets, also have place at the 
 household altar. Their position fluctuates. Accord- 
 ing to pure Shinto, they are reckoned as ancestral spir- 
 its of the dead, accounted to be divinities to be prayed 
 to; but according to Buddhism, they are departed souls 
 in purgatory to be prayed for, that they may be deliv- 
 ered therefrom. A festival of purification is observed 
 in the following manner. A caldron of boiling water 
 is prepared, and the people gather around it; an old wom- 
 an dips a heavy branch of some bush into this hot water 
 and brandishes it overhead. The warm copious shower 
 falls upon her and those near her, and thus they are 
 purified. 
 
 We saw how in the primitive religion the Emperor 
 performed the ceremony of purification in behalf of the 
 people; and it is probable that this old woman sprink- 
 ling the water upon herself and the people represents 
 the Emperor's sister, who in ancient times was high 
 priestess at the national shrine in Ise. The Shinto serv- 
 ices at a funeral are very simple. The officiating priest 
 always rides on horseback in the funeral procession. 
 It is almost needless to say that the reigning Emperor, 
 with his august ancestors, is the head and center of the 
 Shinto religion, and hence many opponents of Chris- 
 tianity try to make the point that to be Christian vio- 
 lates one's allegiance to the Emperor as the nation's di- 
 vinely descended head. 
 
BUDDHIST BELIGION. 237 
 
 II. The Buddhist Religion and Ceremonies.* 
 
 Visitors to Buddhist temples have often remarked 
 the resemblance of Buddhism to Roman Catholicism. 
 There is, however, a wide difference as to the original 
 doctrines of the two systems. Buddhism knows nothing 
 of salvation by grace, hut only by works; self-perfec- 
 tionment is by self-denial and meditation without the 
 vicarious death of a Redeemer. It does not; teach the 
 immortality of the soul in a way that Christians could 
 accept, for the state of Nirvana is practically the loss 
 of individual existence, and Buddhism is silent concern- 
 ing the existence of one supreme God, Creator of the 
 heavens and the earth. 
 
 But there is a real and very striking resemblance be- 
 tween Buddhism and Romanism in their outward sys- 
 tem and ceremony. Their sacred books have never been 
 translated into Japanese, but, like the Romanist, their 
 ritual service is in a foreign tongue, and it is said that 
 the priests themselves have an imperfect understanding 
 of the Sanskrit, or even the Chinese version of their sa- 
 cred books. Their priests, excepting one sect, are cel- 
 ibates like the Romish monks; they have monasteries, 
 nunneries, and orders of begging devotees; they have 
 pilgrimages, penances, fasts, and gods, the tinkling of 
 bells, counting of beads with their prayers, processions, 
 sale of indulgences, and a scale of merit, altars, candies, 
 images, pictures, incense, relics, prayers for the dead, 
 canonizing of saints; and, instead of the Virgin Mary, 
 "Mother of God," they have Maya, the "Mother of 
 Buddha." Though a Hindoo woman, unto her a temple 
 stands dedicated on the top of a mountain near Kobe. 
 
 There is also in Buddhism an elaborate system of priest- 
 
 *Seepage65.#: 
 
238 JAPAN : COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE. 
 
 ly hierarchj', with its gradations and orders, from tha 
 patriarch or archbishop at the head of the whole sect, 
 down to the servant or apprenticed novices, mere boys 
 in training. 
 
 Buddhist temples, unlike the Shinto, are noticeable 
 for size and interior splendor, at least these are the 
 characteristics of their head temples. These, usually 
 built upon an elevation either within or just outside 
 the town and overlooking it, are often the best and most, 
 conspicuous buildings in the place. They serve not 
 only for worship, but also for recreation and amuse 
 nient, being surrounded by spacious grounds adorned 
 with groves, gardens, and walks. This is especially 
 true of the Asakusa temple in Tokyo where are booths, 
 tea houses, sorcerers, fortune tellers, jugglers, singing 
 girls, and the like. As one approaches, the most no- 
 ticeable thing about a Buddhist temple is the gracefully 
 curved roof with its heavy tilings, supported, as he 
 afterwards sees, by massive columns. As you enter the 
 gateway into the temple yard — a very imposing gate, 
 usually — there is on one side a belfry where hangs the 
 large cup-shaped bell, that is sounded not by the striking 
 of a metal clapper, but by a swinging beam of wood with 
 which men strike the bell on the outside. Then a few 
 steps farther in is the stone laver like the one before 
 Solomon's temple in Jerusalem, where the people wash 
 their hands before worshiping. And on either side of 
 the paved or gravel walk leading to the temple there is 
 frequently a row of stone lanterns about five feet high. 
 When you reach the entrance to the temple you see on 
 either side a hideous, large image, generally painted 
 red, representing the guardian gods. These idols are 
 naked giants, with eyes and features distorted. One 
 has his mouth open; the other has his clinched. One has 
 
(239) 
 
240 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 a club in his right hand, the left hanging freely down; 
 the other stretches out both hands as if repelling some 
 one or parrying a blow, one fist being tightly clinched. 
 These hideous gods are the sentinels that guard the 
 sacred jdace. In some temples the guardian gods are 
 different from each other, one being the thunder god, 
 painted red; the other, the Avind god, painted blue. 
 These also have distorted eyas and features, and hold 
 thunderbolts in their hands, or bags of wind to strike 
 the approaching worshipers with awe. Sometimes, too, 
 the guardians of the temple are a pair of images in 
 stone of the sacred dogs, who sit on their haunches in 
 front of the temple. 
 
 Ascending the flight of wide steps at the entrance, 
 you reach the floor of the colonnade that runs along the 
 whole front of the temple or frequently around the 
 three sides of it. And here are the massive pillars that 
 support the great and heavy roof. For example, Kamp- 
 fer, over two hundred years ago, visited a temple at 
 Kioto, the great roof of which was supported by ninety- 
 four immense pillars, three feet through, and all painted 
 red. And to-day the mammoth Hongwanji temple in 
 Kioto has scores of great wooden pillars supporting its 
 enormousg curved roof. These columns, with the beams 
 and cornices above them, are painted, gilded, or lac- 
 quered; sometimes the native wood is polished and left 
 impainted. The beams and cornices are decorated with 
 carved dragons, bulls, hares, storks, and tortoises. 
 And all manner of mythical scenes and legends are rep- 
 resented in the interior decorations of such a temple. 
 In the gables are carved figures of animals that enter 
 into the twelve signs of the zodiac, as received from 
 China. After gazing for a while at the many pillars 
 and the elaborate carvings, you then take in the interior 
 
BUDDHIST CEKEMONIES. 241 
 
 plan of the buildings. Within the colonnade, and sep- 
 arated from it either by latticed partitions or paper 
 shojis, is the hall, and in this hall the people assemble 
 occasionally to hear the priests as they sit and preach, 
 or they enter here simply to pray. Again, in the rear 
 part of this hall is another inclosure containing the altar 
 and shrine, and within the shrine the image of Buddha 
 and two or three subordinate gods. This shrine is 
 beautifully decorated with lacquer and gold, and there 
 are flowers, candles, and holy incense, reminding one of 
 the altar and crucifix of a Roman Catholic church. It 
 is here in front of the altar and shrine that the priests 
 beat the gong, chant prayers, and read portions of the 
 sacred books which it is said they scarcely understand. 
 On either side of the shrine are hung in order upon the 
 walls the name tablets, names received after death of 
 the dead in the parish — that is, of those whose families 
 have paid money enough to get the priest's prayers for 
 parents and other kindred believed to be in purgatory. 
 
 Behind the temple, or adjoining it, are the rooms for 
 the priests and the attendants who have charge of the 
 place. In a great temple there is quite a retinue of 
 priests with their attendants. Those priests are sup- 
 posed to be without wives, and they go with shaven 
 heads and peculiar dress. Over a loose long gown of 
 white cotton they wear another with wide sleeves but 
 not so long, made of some thin black or yellow stuff. 
 Hanging loosely from the left shoulder and passing under 
 the right arm, a wide band of the same material passing 
 across the breast, is a loose cape of saffron color. This 
 represents the skin which the early disciples of Buddha 
 wore in India, and is a sign of their poverty and self- 
 denial. Not unfrequently the familiar rosary is seen 
 in their hands. The daily services of the priests begin 
 16 
 
242 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 before daylight. Residing once near a temple, the 
 writer remembers how, before daybreak every morning, 
 the temple drum and. gong were invariably heard. At 
 first the strokes were low and slowly measured, but 
 gradually grew more rapid, and were continued for an 
 hour or more. At the same hour another priest began 
 his prayers, chanting his sacred books. An important 
 part of the prayers were the masses for the dead who 
 had gone from the parish into purgatory. But for 
 those not able to pay the required price prayer was of- 
 fered, not by name but by wholesale, as it were. Of 
 course such wholesale prayer could not be so efficacious 
 in delivering miserable souls out of torment; but as the 
 poor people could not help it, their kindred must stay 
 longer in that place. From these paid prayers for the 
 dead, from funeral fees, and from the voluntary contri- 
 butions of rice, money, and sake, the priests got their 
 living. Some of the head temples own lands and other 
 properties that yield a yearly income. 
 
 Besides the regular priestly order, there are enthu- 
 siasts or impostors, pilgrim vagabonds living by beg- 
 ging, by pretending to drive away evil spirits, to find 
 lost things, discover robbers, interpret dreams, decide 
 the guilt or innocence of accused persons, predict the 
 future, and cure diseases which they perform through 
 the medium of a child into whom they pretend the spirit 
 enters, thereby being able to answer all questions. 
 
 One sect, the Nichiren, the most superstitious and 
 bigoted of all the Buddhists, claims special power in 
 driving away evil spirits from houses and from persons. 
 The fox spirit often possesses people of a supersti- 
 tious turn, who are nervously reduced, producing a 
 sort of double self that is very tormenting to the pos- 
 victim. Prof. Chamberlain, of the Imperial 
 
BUDDHIST FESTIVALS. 243 
 
 University, had a few years ago, when traveling on foot 
 in the country, a curious experience. It was in the sum- 
 mer of 1879, a great cholera year, and upon entering a 
 village in the evening he and his companion were ac- 
 cused of bringing into their village, at that sad season, 
 the evil spirit of the cholera. After much parleying and 
 standing in the drenching rain with night approaching, 
 the learned professor and his companion agreed that the 
 priests might be sent for. They came in white vestments, 
 bearing heavy branches of trees in their hands. Wav- 
 ing these dripping branches over them, the priests then 
 struck them on the back with swords, and after that the 
 spirit was supposed to be driven away, and they were 
 allowed lodging for the night. 
 
 Only a few words about Buddhist festivals. The 
 festivals described on pages 199-201 were social or na- 
 tional occasions, and only indirectly religious. The one 
 most written about by foreigners takes place the 7th of 
 the 7th month, at Nagasaki, and is called the feast of 
 the lanterns, or Tanabata, after the name of the star 
 Weaver, in the Milky Way. This is to give help and 
 comfort to the departed dead. At this festival the 
 priests perform special services, and at night there is 
 much masquerading both of men and of women. 
 
 The festival to Kwannon, the goddess of mercy, is 
 another night festival. The people flock out to watch 
 the stars, anxiously waiting to see a shooting star, or 
 the conjunction of two stars; and the climax is reached 
 when the seven stars come into a certain position in the 
 heavens, which appear to be just over the roof of the 
 temple, and which they are taught to believe fall into 
 the temple. 
 
 The bathing of Buddha's image was generally ob- 
 served in former times, and is still observed to some 
 
244 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 extent. A little image is brought out and the sweet 
 juice of some vegetable is rubbed over it, a little shrine 
 is made for it and it is then decorated with flowers. 
 This bathing of Buddha is done as an act of merit for 
 the soul. The Buddhists, unlike the Shintoists, hold 
 preaching meetings. Once a year, especially in winter 
 or spring, they hold protracted services. Every day for 
 ten days or two weeks preaching meetings are held in 
 the temple by the priests. The time between these 
 services is spent as a sort of holiday; occasionally meet- 
 ings are held in their houses, the congregation consist- 
 ing of the neighbors. The first and fifteenth days of 
 every month are universal holidays, partly social, partly 
 religious. 
 
 Hyakumariben was, according to the literal- meaning 
 of the word, a million prayers. These were prayers 
 for persons dangerously ill. The person about to die 
 sits in the center of a ring of persons, and the rosary is 
 passed around, each one repeating certain words and 
 counting a bead. This is repeated many times. There 
 is another Buddhist ceremony which takes place at 
 night. The writer once witnessed it at Arima, in the 
 hills a few miles back of Kobe. On an appointed 
 night the people march from the temple to a certain 
 level open space and form a great ring. In the center 
 is built a rude platform upon which stand the leaders, 
 who, when they drawl out certain words, all the peo- 
 ple in the ring cry out in a kind of chorus, meanwhile 
 stamping and swaying their bodies. Upon inquiry it 
 was stated by a Japanese on the spot that the object of 
 this performance was to get the soul of some one out of 
 purgatory. The doctrine of jjurgatory has a large 
 place in the belief of Buddhists, as of Romanists; and 
 many are the awful pictures of the unspeakably horri- 
 
BUDDHIST CEREMONIES. 245 
 
 ble tortures which Emma Sama, the god of hell, inflicts 
 upon the wicked. At the temple shops of image deal- 
 ers such pictures are always on sale.* 
 
 The Japanese are by nature lively and gay, but in 
 the bottom of their hearts are inclined to religion. 
 This is shown in all their history. Their acceptance of 
 Buddhism in the sixth century, and the great success 
 which the Roman Catholics had during the sixteenth 
 century, in winning converts both from the highest 
 ranks of life and from the common people, clearly show 
 that the Japanese race is inclined to religion. The 
 hold which many superstitions still have upon the 
 masses proves the same thing. Though Buddhism and 
 Shintoism alike have undoubtedly lost the influence once 
 held, there is to this day much evidence that speaks of 
 deep religious feelings and beliefs, unfortunately beliefs 
 too often utterly false. For instance, the wayside gods, 
 though often neglected, are not forgotten; one sees 
 them honored with offerings of flowers; the wayside 
 shrine is still in some neighborhoods replenished with 
 fresh light, and the neck of the idol bedecked with a 
 new red or yellow bib. Again, the little prayer flags 
 may still be seen stuck into the ground by the hundreds 
 as you approach some temple in the hills. And over 
 the doors of many dwellings of the common people 
 strips of paper or wooden tablets are tacked up with a 
 picture, or some sacred character upon it, procured 
 from Ise or Kompira. These are amulets or charms to 
 keep away evil spirits or calamities and plagues of dis- 
 ease, fire, and storm. 
 
 During the Tokugawa period the Buddhist was really 
 
 *When the writer first went to Japan, in 1888, there was 
 still celebrated near Tokyo, in the month of August, a reli- 
 gious festival to the devil. 
 
246 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 the established religion, and it received rich endowments 
 from the government. At the restoration, in 1868, it 
 was disestablished, and Shinto was reinstated as the 
 officially authorized religion of the Emperor and his 
 court; accordingly many Buddhist temples were "puri- 
 fied," stripped of their images and other paraphernalia 
 that betokened the Buddhist faith, and turned over to 
 Shinto priests. But the attempt was not successful, 
 the Board of Religion of the State was abolished and 
 the Buddhists regained some of their lost prestige. 
 To-day they are making a strong, not to say desperate, 
 effort to maintain their footing against Christianity 
 brought from America and Europe. As a rule the 
 priests are not intelligent and are morally loose. 
 Some of the Buddhists themselves have complained bit- 
 terly of the ignorance, indolence, and vice of their 
 priests. 
 
CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 JAPANESE ARTS— A SKETCH. 
 
 Introductory Remarks. 
 
 Fifty years ago a new impetus was given to interna- 
 tional arts and art industries by the great exhibition in 
 London, opened by the late Consort Prince Albert. By 
 means of other similar but larger displays in Vienna, 
 Paris, Philadelphia, and Chicago, a better acquaintance 
 with the art products of all nations is possible, and we 
 are made to see how other peoples dwelling on the other 
 side of the globe, and quite different from ourselves in 
 language and customs, have a sense of the beautiful, 
 feelings of taste, and skill to express those feelings in 
 their art. Like the religious instinct, the feeling of 
 the beautiful is natural, and therefore more or less de- 
 veloped in all nations, needing only to be enlightened 
 by true and lofty ideals. 
 
 It is remarkable that in no country is the union of 
 liberal and industrial art so close as in Japan, so that, 
 in the language of Regamey, the artist workman and 
 the workman artist are one person. No broad line of 
 distinction between liberal and technical art exists, 
 nor should it exist anywhere. From Plato down to 
 this day all attempts to define beauty have failed, but 
 the two important elements of proportion and har- 
 mony are no less essential in industrial than in liberal 
 art. Another fact not generally appreciated in Amer- 
 ica is that Japanese industrial art has had a felt influ- 
 ence upon the art industries of Europe and America. 
 
 (247) • 
 
248 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Many examples might be given. Suffice it to say that 
 the exhibit of Japanese art products at our Centennial 
 Exhibition (1876) caused a sensation in art circles; nor 
 was the sensation less noticeable two years afterwards 
 at Paris; and at the World's Exhibition at Chicago no 
 department received more attention than the Japanese 
 exhibit in art. The difference between the growth of 
 art in Eastern Asia and that of Europe is this: In the 
 latter the liberal arts of painting, sculpture, etc., sep- 
 arated from the industrial arts and went far in advance, 
 whereas in China and Japan industrial art took the 
 lead. Again, in Europe architecture all but reached 
 perfection — for instance, the Parthenon at Athens- 
 while in Eastern Asia it has always been of a low or- 
 der. In representation of the human form the Japa- 
 nese as compared with the Greeks stand in sorry con- 
 trast. The reason will be shown later. India, Persia, 
 China, Korea, and probably Holland, are the countries 
 whence the Japanese received certain forms and meth- 
 ods of art production. The debt which Japan owes 
 China can be told by the simple words borrowed, imi- 
 tated, excelled. That Japan is in advance of China in 
 art culture is everywhere allowed. 
 
 From 1787 to 1830 was the acme of the golden age of 
 art industry which began with the Tokugawa era. 
 Nikko, with its tombed temples, rich in carvings, in 
 decorations of lacquer and gold, is the silent monument 
 of that age's highest achievement. The conditions and 
 characteristics of Japanese art, though a subject of so 
 great interest, can only be briefly considered. The 
 three conditions of successful art are well fulfilled in 
 Japan: (1) an inborn passion for the beautiful, univer- 
 sal even among the very lowest and most ignorant, who 
 ■)ften have in the little yard of their hovel home a po* 
 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 249 
 
 of flowers or a bit of green; (2) keen observation and a 
 dexterous hand. A few years ago the writer heard a 
 lecture by an Englishman, accomplished in matters of 
 art, in which he stated that the Japanese eye was so 
 keen and accurate that their artists had caught certain 
 movements and poises of birds on the wing which ar- 
 tists of other countries had not detected. The extraor- 
 dinary deftness of hand and fingers is the result of 
 using for successive ages the brush in writing. Almost 
 every Japanese can sketch an object or draw a map. 
 Regamey tells us how the saleswoman in a seed shop, 
 squatting in the corner of her master's shop, takes her 
 brush and on the paper bag you are waiting for indi- 
 cates in a few strokes the picture of the plant which the 
 seed you are buying will produce. In learning to 
 write with a brush the difficult characters of their lan- 
 guage, the Japanese are continually training both eye 
 and hand for delicate, accurate, rapid, and easy execu- 
 tion of lines and curves. (3) Yet another condition is 
 furnished by the varied and attractive natural world 
 surrounding the people. Japan, like Greece, has all 
 the diversity of mountain and valley, winding coast 
 line with inlets and bays, peninsulas and islands. In 
 picturesque scenery of mountains and seas combined 
 it is more than Switzerland. Several less important 
 conditions in art culture have likewise been fulfilled — ■ 
 that is to say, the different branches of handicraft arts 
 are handed down in families, thus securing the benefit 
 of heredity; slow apprenticeship, the son or the ap- 
 prentice being put to his life work when a child; a pow- 
 erful memory and vivid imagination, whereby the 
 scene or object is held in the mind for an indefinite 
 time, ready to be reproduced with realistic feeling; 
 and patronage of great and powerful nobles. Artists 
 
250 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 were attached to the castle and court, and their work 
 was keenly appreciated by lords, Daimyos, and their 
 families. Lastly, Japanese artists had a contempt for 
 money. The artist worked on and on for the love of 
 art, without hurry, bringing all the concentrated enthu- 
 siasm of his soul upon his piece till it was brought to 
 perfection. The workman artist of old Japan had two 
 things greatly in his favor: (1) He was never in a hur- 
 ry, had time for study and meditation till the idea and 
 form of the object to be reproduced lived within him, 
 and also abundant time did he have for the execution of 
 his idea, returning a hundred times to the same point 
 till it was perfectly executed; (2) he was always sure 
 of appreciation. 
 
 Japan is the land of surprises in art as well as in 
 other things. One is often astonished at the mean and 
 sorry home of the artist. It is often nothing more than 
 a simple hut, lacking all conveniences and comforts, 
 and his workshop, like his living room, is the narrow- 
 est place. The writer was once in the little hovel of a 
 porcelain decorator, and his beautifully done designs 
 were in sharp contrast with his sorry surroundings. 
 Again, even in the homes of nobles and people of qual- 
 ity, patrons of art and possessors of art treasures, one 
 is struck by the absence of furniture, where everything 
 is simplicity itself, but very clean. Where, then,, is 
 their beautiful virtu? The Japanese do not like to 
 display their treasures and objects of virtu in recep- 
 tion halls, parlor, and dining room, as we do. Their 
 collections are stored away out of sight in the godown. 
 Occasionally, and for reasons, they bring forth their 
 prized objects of art, fine lacquer ware, ivory, porcelain, 
 'bronzes, pictures, silk robes, costly and rare swords 
 and armor handed down as heirlooms, and never more 
 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 251 
 
 than two or three choice pieces at a time. A single 
 vase, highly prized for its beauty and perfection of 
 finish, may be set out upon the raised dais of the toko- 
 noma, or a rare picture, mounted in damask bordering, 
 is hung upon the wall. After a time these are stored 
 away and other objects brought out. It is not so 
 much as great builders as in chaste and delicate dec- 
 oration of small things that their characteristic power 
 displays itself. But, though fond of decorative art of 
 every variety, and adepts in it to a degree unexcelled 
 by any other nation, there is also delicate taste in its 
 display that is more to be admired than the garish man- 
 ner too often seen in wealthy American circles. So 
 that we can say of the better classes, at least, that they 
 have a genius no less for etiquette than for art. 
 
 As to the materials and forms utilized in Japanese 
 art there is the richest variety: the Vitruvian curve, 
 arabesque and swastika, vines, flowers, slender graceful 
 bamboo, pine of normal and deformed shape, the leaf- 
 less and blooming plum, cherry, magnolia, flag and rush, 
 rocks, and water scences, gardens with little lakes and 
 miniature mountains, certain beasts, cranes and herons, 
 pheasants and nightingales, insects in motion and at 
 rest. Again, the animals of the Zodiac * appear in 
 Japanese art, especially in the gable carvings of some 
 of their temples. 
 
 As history progressed, its warriors, heroes, battles, and 
 castles came in for art treatment. Like other nations, 
 their religions, both Buddhist and Shinto, with their 
 mass of myths and traditions of gods and goddesses, 
 semidivine ancestors, deified Emperors and warriors, de- 
 mons and monsters, furnished a rich field of subjects 
 
 *The Zodiac, borrowed from China, came originally from 
 Persia or Assyria. 
 
252 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 for treatment in their art. About all the architecture 
 worth mentioning in Japan is from Buddhism. In the 
 interest of this religion, in 1600 the government issued an 
 edict requiring the inside of every house to be adorned 
 with the carved image of some Buddhist divinity. This 
 was bad religion, but it stimulated sculpture and carv- 
 ing. Besides all these, there ai-e four sacred creatures 
 that fill a very large place in decorative art, especially 
 bronzes, fabrics, and painting. 
 
 The Kirin (unicorn) means literally male and female 
 animal. According to their belief, it is represented in 
 their art with the body of a deer, tail of an ox, and a 
 single horn. As a messenger of mercy and benevolence 
 it is the noblest form of animal creation. As an incar- 
 nation of the five elements — earth, fire, air, water, and 
 ether — from which all things are made, the symbols of 
 this animal in philosophy came to be a cube and globe, 
 the pyramid with its five or more stories, and the tuft 
 of rays on gravestones. 
 
 The phoenix is the second of the incarnations, and is 
 of wondrous form and mystic nature. It has the head 
 of a pheasant, beak of a swallow, neck of a tortoise, and 
 features of the dragon or fish. Its plumage represents 
 the five colors, symbols of the five virtues, uprightness, 
 obedience, justice, fidelity, and benevolence. To this 
 wonderful bird there are a thousand references in art as 
 well as in literature. 
 
 The tortoise is a great and sacred creature in Japan 
 as well as in China, as frequently appears in their art 
 productions. It is not the common tortoise of our nat- 
 uralists, but a creature that rose up out of the Yellow 
 River in ages long gone by, with mystic writing upon 
 its back. From this divine tortoise all other tortoises 
 have come. .It lives a thousand years, hence is the sym- 
 
INTEODUCTOEY EEMAEKS. 253 
 
 bol of longevity in art and in literature. In pictures 
 and in sculpture it is often of colossal size, and serves 
 as pedestal of monument or tablet. Often, too, the stork 
 stands on the back of the turtle in art. With the pow- 
 er of transformation, it is one of the incarnations of the 
 legions of spirits that live around us. 
 
 The dragon is the chief of the four. This wonderful 
 creature fills the largest place in art, literature, and leg- 
 end. There are nine kinds of dragons, and artists never 
 tire in representing them in bronze, in wood, and upon 
 fabrics. It is also pictured on the imperial coat of arms 
 and on Japanese coins. Curled up like a snake, with 
 scales, tails, and horrible head mounted with horns, it 
 is the emblem of vigilance and strength. 
 
 Another group of designs often seen in bronze reliefs 
 are the seven gods of fortune. One frequently sees in Jap- 
 anese art the same object repeated in pairs, a combina- 
 tion which to us is either unintelligible or ill befitting, 
 because we do not know the legend, tradition, or proverb 
 referred to. For example, the lion and the peony, some- 
 times seen on a kakemono or screen, refer to an ancient 
 dance where a man personating a lion dances across a 
 bridge decorated with peonies. The deer and maple 
 scene originated with an ancient poem, and symbolizes 
 quietness or solitude. The lotus and silver heron used 
 in temple art represent the idea of purity. The plum 
 tree and nightingale signify early spring, but the crane 
 and turtle are emblems of prosperity and long life. The 
 homeward flight or alighting of wild geese is in the lan- 
 guage of art a reminder of home. The cuckoo and the 
 moon also sometimes appear in their art. This suggests 
 that while Japanese art is strongly realistic, it is also 
 abundantly symbolic. 
 
 No artists have shown such ability to be true to nature 
 
254 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 in the exactest details of her objects and scenes, and yet 
 there is a strange tendency to indulge in lawless fancy, 
 whereby the unnatural, the deformed, and hideous are 
 boldly set forth. While on the one hand so fond of na- 
 ture and true to her beauties, there is a freak of mind 
 that seems to revel in the caricature of nature's defects. 
 It has been stated that in Japanese painting there is no 
 perspective. That is not quite just; there is some, but 
 not enough. This is probably due to much concentra- 
 tion upon miniature work, and in which they excel all 
 other nations. In closing this introductory we touch 
 upon the most serious defect of Japanese art. We have 
 already stated that representations of the human form 
 as compared with that of the Greeks are very sorry. 
 The reason for this inability to portray with life and 
 spirit the human face and figure is the unfortunate lack 
 of any lofty idea of man. A high idea of free individ- 
 uality is not to be found in Oriental nations. Despot- 
 ism had too long crushed out the free spirit of the man. 
 The serious defect, then, of Japanese art, and of litera- 
 ture as well, is the lack of lofty and grand ideals. 
 There is love of nature, of the beautiful, and a genius 
 for execution; but the deep and all-pervading meaning 
 of nature ^ind man's place above nature are wanting — 
 wanting because the idea of God over all, uniting all 
 and elevating all into one sublime whole, is lacking. 
 Japanese art is marvelously skillful and beautiful, but 
 not sublime or deeply spiritual. It is handicapped by 
 the lack of Christian ideas and sentiments. The same 
 is precisely true of their literature. When Christianity 
 shall have been received into their hearts, and the view 
 of things, especially of man, is enlarged and lifted up 
 to God, there will spring forth from artists and poets a 
 new creation- 
 
LACQUEE WOEK. 255 
 
 I. Lacquer Work. 
 The art of lacquering is very ancient in Japan. Ac- 
 cording to Rein it is at the top of all their, industrial 
 arts. In this branch of their art the Japanese feeling 
 and skill more quickly asserted themselves independ- 
 ently of Chinese canons, and found a wide field for 
 their own creations; and in no other branch of art have 
 they so easily won recognition among civilized nations. 
 Indeed, there is no country that can compete with them 
 in the excellence and manifold applications of the lac- 
 quering art. Lacquer varnish is obtained from the lac 
 tree, a species of sumac growing in the northern parts 
 of the main island. On account of the poisonous action 
 of the lac, almost all of the lac tapsters come from one 
 community. Going out in the spring and summer, they 
 make what is called girdle cutting through the bark of 
 the tree, and with an iron spoon take the sap. Unlike 
 the sap of the sugar maple in Kentucky or Vermont, the 
 lac of this tree does not flow freely. The color of the 
 raw lacquer strained and ready for market is from a 
 gray to a tan brown, and it is a syrupy, sticky liquid. 
 Unlike our copal varnish, which is an artificial mixture, 
 lacquer varnish is a ready-made product of nature. 
 The following are some of its remarkable qualities: 
 (1) Gives off a poisonous vapor. (2) Turns black 
 when exposed to the light. (3) Is thinned with pul- 
 verized camphor — a liquid thinned by a solid. (4) 
 Has great hardness when it dries, and a mirrorlike luster 
 that increases with time. (5) Dries best in a damp at- 
 mosphere. (6) Resists destructive agencies, such as 
 the heat of boiling water, frost, etc., to such a degree 
 that its durability is measured by decades and centu- 
 ries. For instance, in the Berlin museum is a little lac- 
 quered box a hundred and eighty years old, and its 
 
256 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 luster is as if it were of yesterday. (7) Still an- 
 other excellence is that it may he applied to every 
 namahle article or ohject that has a smooth surface, 
 from the tiny medicine hox to the architectural orna- 
 mentation of palaces and temples; to articles made of 
 wood, sword scahbards, toilet, and present boxes, or 
 cabinets; metals of all kinds, papier-mache, leather, pa- 
 per, horn, tortoise shell, unglazed clay and porcelain 
 ware. At Nikko, a temple dedicated to one of the 
 great Shoguns has the floor of the outside gallery in 
 black lacquer upon which people walk barefooted; and 
 a sacred bridge in the same place, over which a reli- 
 gious procession is made once a year is done in red 
 lacquer. Frequently the columns of imperial palaces 
 and great temples are finished in red lacquer, put on 
 thick by successive coatings. There are two or three 
 distinct classes who engage in lacquering. There is 
 first the lacquer artisan, whose business it is to prepare 
 the piece by careful smoothing of the grain, filling up 
 holes and joints with a kind of paste, polishing the 
 surface, and then laying on the solid background of 
 lacquer by many successive coatings of varnish, care- 
 fully drying and polishing each coating till at last a 
 lacquer g»ound is obtained as smooth and lustrous as 
 plate glass. Sometimes as many as twelve, or even 
 twenty lacquer varnishings are put on the same surface. 
 If the piece is to be plain lacquer with one color, 
 nothing more is needed. 
 
 A second and superior class are not artisans but art- 
 ists, experts in lacquer painting and decorating. These, 
 handling the brush and other delicate instruments as 
 real artists, and putting on the designs in colors, gold, 
 silver, or what not, do not work simply according to 
 pattern, but devise their own designs from nature. 
 
IACQUER WORK. 257 
 
 There are divers methods and materials in 1 icquor doo 
 oration, yielding different effects or styles. Besides the 
 plain lacquering in one color, as indicated, there are 
 styles in variegated colors and shades, all, however, on 
 a flat surface. For instance, there is a combination of 
 the four colors, black, red, yellow, and green, which 
 produces a striking mottled effect. There is also imi- 
 tation of wood; for instance, a vase which Rein found 
 in a London shop was lacquered in imitation of red 
 sandal wood. It was three feet high, price five hundred 
 dollars. Again, there is gold, silver, bronze, and tin 
 lacquering, on a flat surface, obtained by sifting or 
 sprinkling the pulverized metal dust npon the lacquer 
 while it is moist, and when it has dried and the loosely 
 adhering particles are carefully rubbed off, then a fresh 
 coating of transparent varnish is laid on. In the same 
 way lacquering in powdered mother-of-pearl is pro- 
 duced. The oldest preserved specimen of lacquered 
 ware is a scarf box in which the priest used to keep the 
 scarfs of his order when not worn across the shoulder. 
 It is black, and dates from the seventh century. In the 
 eleventh and twelfth centuries the nobles at Kioto be- 
 came stylish enough to drive ox carts lacquered in black 
 and gold, stylish carts of state. Afterwards great prog- 
 ress was seen in that, besides the ground of plain gold, 
 sprinkled gold, and in imitation of the pear, shark's skin, 
 and grain of native wood, many elaborate designs were 
 introduced for decoration, blooming plants, vines, ara- 
 besques, bits of bamboo branch all on a flat surface, and 
 in colors of black, red, and gold, etc. 
 
 But a new feature of great importance was invented 
 
 about 1400 A.D. — namely, lacquering in relief. In the 
 
 Tokugawa period, from 1681 to 1709, the lacquer's art 
 
 reached the highest point of perfection, and many of 
 
 17 
 
258 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 the small chests, writing utensils, cases for keeping and 
 sending j>resents, sword scabbards, etc., in raised gold 
 are said to be veritable masterpieces. Landscapes, 
 streams and banks, mountains, clouds, geese, animals, 
 trees, and flowers, are built up in low relief by succes- 
 sive layers of lacquer varnish, in gold or bronze paste. 
 The vase mentioned above in imitation of red sandal 
 wood, was decorated with raised gold work, and inlaid 
 with ivory, and represented the seven wise men of Chi- 
 na, cranes, and bamboo. By combining the carving 
 and inlaying with the lacquering in relief, the most 
 elaborate and beautiful designs have been produced. 
 For illustration, take the cover of a box given by Rein, 
 and done by one of the old masters. Upon a ground 
 done in arabesque, the flowering branch of some shrub or 
 tree, with its leaves and twigs, its full-blown bloom and 
 buds, and two humming birds hovering above, is all 
 wrought out in carving and in relief, making a most strik- 
 ing picture. Nor has the artistic skill died out. In 
 1878 there was in the Japan sese collection at Paris a 
 piece which attracted attention for the elegance and 
 richness of its lacquer decoration. It was a three- 
 winged screen, and even in the presence of the best art 
 products from India, France, and England made a great 
 impression upon lovers of art. Quoting from Rein: 
 "A more beautiful ornamentation in i*aised gold lacquer 
 work is scarcely conceivable than the magnificently exe- 
 cuted red-and- white peony blossom in gold and silver, 
 chrysanthemums and other flowers with leaves which 
 adorn this screen." It was awarded the gold medal and 
 was sold for sixty thousand francs. Still another fea- 
 ture of Japanese lacquering is upon porcelain and 
 bronze. This is not an uncommon variation now used 
 in decorating bronze and porcelain vases. 
 
BRONZE WORK AND SCULPTURE. 259 
 
 II. Bronze Work and Sculpture. 
 In an earlier period religion did much to promote the 
 metal arts by the demand created for images, bells, and 
 censers. But in the Middle Ages, when all the upper 
 classes not only professed but practiced war, the for- 
 ging of weapons and armor became the important indus- 
 try of the nation. During this long period of war the 
 sword smith stood in the ranks of the learned profes- 
 sion, as we have already seen. For centuries veritable 
 artists devoted themselves to this honorable calling, 
 making a blade which for temper and edge could set at 
 defiance the famous swords of Damascus and Toledo. 
 It was not only the forging and tempering that called 
 forth such patient and enthusiastic effort, but it was the 
 work of other artists to decorate the hilt and finish the 
 scabbard, so that sword making engaged the best effort 
 of two classes of workmen artists, one in metals, one 
 in lacquering. It is said that the Goto family, noted 
 as sword smiths, took the designs of the celebrated Tosa 
 school of painters, reproducing them in miniature upon 
 their swords. It was a great honor to be the fortunate 
 owner of a sword engraved with the name of one of the 
 famous sword smiths, and for such blades fabulous 
 prices were often paid. It was a great honor, too, to 
 have many of these precious blades, some handed down 
 from warrior ancestors, some received as presents, and 
 others captured from the slain enemy. A poor, illy 
 clad man, wearing costly swords at his belt, was more 
 honored than one in rich costume with a common 
 sword. These traditions and sentiments naturally stim- 
 ulated the art of the sword smith. Masamxme, who 
 lived at the end of the thirteenth century, was the 
 most famous of all the sword smiths; and the Myochin 
 family was similarly distinguished as armor makers. 
 
260 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 An eagle, now in the Kensington Museum, London, 
 forged by one of the Myochins, is an admirable exam- 
 ple of their art, and cost five thousand dollars. When 
 the Iyeyasu dynasty of Shoguns was firmly established 
 upon the throne, and wars ceased in the land, other 
 branches of metal arts once more received considera- 
 tion. So that when the country was opened to foreign- 
 ers in 1868, there was no form of metal ornamentation 
 except galvanizing not perfectly understood by the na- 
 tives. The precious metals, as well as copper, bronze, 
 steel, and iron, all yielded to the skillful hand and ar- 
 tistic spirit of the workmen artists who understood per- 
 fectly the different methods of decorating and finishing: 
 casting, embossing, hammering, turning, engraving, 
 chasing, inlaying, plating, damascening, and coloring. 
 As an example in iron work, take one of their cast-iron 
 kettles. The kettle is the only vessel of the household 
 class of utensils that is decorated. The cover is usual- 
 ly made of bronze. Tablets of copper plate, bordered 
 in thick silver wire, are inlaid on the side of the kettle, 
 and on one of those plates there may be an inlaid cher- 
 ry tree and a nightingale perched in the branches. The 
 forged handle and the copper cover may also be deco- 
 rated with inlaid work. Speaking of inlaid work, it 
 should be remarked that the Jaj)anese understand the 
 methods of enameling upon metal, damascening and cloi- 
 sonne work. They have even perfected a mode of inlay- 
 ing in cast iron, as in forged iron, by a peculiar process 
 of softening the surface at the point where the inlaying is 
 to be done. Many of their large and beautiful bronze 
 vases are first cast and then softened at certain points, 
 and finally treated with inlaid and carved designs of 
 elaborate patterns. They have perfected three forms of 
 damascening: (a) The wire or narrow strips of gold and 
 
BRONZE WORK AND SCULPTURE. 
 
 261 
 
 silver fixed in the furrows rise above the surface, like 
 low relief; (b) the inlaid precious ruetal does not pro- 
 ject, but is flat with the surface; (c) there is a meshed 
 or netted work upon the surface. Another form of 
 treatment must be mentioned — namely, cloisonne enam- 
 
 GREAT IMAGE OF BUDDHA. 
 
 eling upon metal or porcelain. Fine filigree bands of 
 copper are fixed to the metal surface by soldering, and 
 the inclosed space is filled up in different patterns with 
 the enamel of pulverized glass, powder of lead, etc., 
 
262 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 and fused by heat. By repeating the enameling an ef- 
 fect in relief is produced. Upon porcelain, too, cloi- 
 sonne enamel has been applied. Another resource of 
 decoration developed by Japanese artists in metal is the 
 coloring effects. They give special attention to the 
 color, brilliancy, and sparkle of the metals to be used, 
 and sort out and combine their colors with all the care 
 of the painter. Giving his cast iron a dead black or 
 steel blue^ and combining with bronze and other metal- 
 lic colors, he heightens the effect of the decorating. 
 Besides the vases and censers of bronze, there are nu- 
 merous images and temple bells upon which they ex- 
 pend their. best skill. These images often astonish one 
 by their great size and exceedingly fine casting; the bells 
 likewise are numerous, and many of them true monu- 
 ments of the molder's art. Among the many images 
 of Buddha there are two that are most noted because 
 of their colossal proportions: one at Nara, the other 
 at Kamakura. As for the temple bells, the tourist 
 in Japan should be sure to see the one at Kioto, 
 and hear the one in the wood on Lake Biwa. When 
 heard on a summer evening, sounding far Over the lake 
 through the peaceful country, the impression upon the 
 mind of the stranger will never be forgotten. Often 
 has the writer sat in silence in the evening listening 
 to the sweet tones of their temple bells, and had min- 
 gled feelings of enjoyment and sadness. No church 
 bell which the writer has heard in America has the 
 mellow music of the temple bell in Japan. 
 
 There is little space to tell of their polished steel mir- 
 rors. At the back they are decorated in relief with 
 legendary persons, flowers, mottoes, etc. It has been 
 known for a long time that some of these metallic mir- 
 rors, when held up to reflect the sunlight upon the wall, 
 

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 1 W-^ 
 
 ► 
 
 
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 ►3 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 hj 
 
 
 tr 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 tr 1 
 
 
 
 *5E'* :;:: 
 
 ► 
 
 
 ►3 
 
 ■nE. ' 
 
 W 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 ►3 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 tH 
 
 HK 
 
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 T) 
 
 
 > 
 
 %i 
 
 2 
 
 
264 JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE. 
 
 mirrored also the raised figures at the back, and hence 
 they were called magic mirrors. Much has been writ- 
 ten about this curious phenomenon, and various explana- 
 tions given. 
 
 There are many tiny pieces of metal work, decora- 
 tions for swords, medicine cases, pipes, netsukes, 
 which are marvels both of the patience and delicate 
 skill of Japanese artists. These little articles, with 
 their chasing, carving, inlaying, and so on, represent in 
 miniature an entire landscape. For effective combina- 
 tion of materials and of colors to produce an appro- 
 priate effect, and for the exceedingly delicate and at the 
 same time most accurate details of the work, the Japa- 
 nese artists are unexcelled by those of any other nation. 
 It is only when the attempt is made to reproduce the 
 human form in marble that they fail to impart life and 
 spirit, and fall below the Greeks. 
 
 III. Painting. 
 
 For a long time there has been an enormous con- 
 sumption of pictures and illustrated albums, copies of 
 famous artists treating of every possible subject. In 
 the earlier periods three schools of painting had a pow- 
 erful influence: the Chinese, Korean, and Buddhist. 
 The beginning of the Imperial Academy dates from the 
 first of the eighth century; but we do not dwell here, 
 because we are seeking something more distinctly Jap- 
 anese. Of Kanawoka, who flourished until the begin- 
 ning of the ninth century, remarkable stories are told. 
 One tells of his horse, painted on a screen in a temple, 
 which was so lifelike that at night quitting his f rame he 
 galloped through the cultivated land in the neighbor- 
 hood, greatly to the annoyance of the farmers. Not- 
 withstanding such exaggerations, he was really one of 
 
PAINTING. 265 
 
 Japan's greatest painters. One of his pictures is said 
 to compare favorably with the work of the Italian mas- 
 ters three centuries later. Landscapes, animal life, 
 and figures were all produced by his brush. One of his 
 disciples, Kose, devoting himself to religious subjects, 
 has left a famous painting, the representation of the 
 tortures of the damned in Hades. Not till the begin- 
 ning of the eleventh century did there arise what might 
 be called a Japanese school of painting (Yamato-e) * 
 Though distinguished for its brilliant coloring, it re- 
 tained the Chinese defect as to the human figure and 
 artificial face. Along with this Yamato-e school there 
 appeared a rollicking priest named Toba, who started a 
 style of comedy and caricature, an Oriental Puck who 
 was original, simple, and skillful, and who could have 
 made people laugh innocently had he not have been so 
 coarse and vulgar. The troublesome times and civil 
 wars in the early Middle Ages were very unfavorable to 
 the progress of painting. At the beginning of the 
 thirteenth century, under the luxuriant Shoguns and 
 Regents of the Kamakura capital, languishing art be- 
 gan to revive, and the great Tosa school arose, named 
 from its founder. This school, as a modified form of 
 the Yamato, still exists. About a century after the re- 
 vival of Italian art a new impulse was given to Jap- 
 anese painting by a priest from China, Josetsu, who 
 came to Japan and established a monastic school. His 
 three pupils were the founders of schools of painting. 
 Chodensu, another Buddhist priest, divides with Josetsu 
 the honor of reviving Japanese art. As a painter of 
 Buddhist pictures he is said to be unequaled. Pro- 
 foundly religious, of childlike simplicity, and passion- 
 
 * Yarnato=ancient name for Japan, and e=picture. 
 
Wi) japan: country, court, people. 
 
 ately devoted to his art, lie reminds us of his Italian 
 contemporary, Michael Angelo. After "becoming known 
 at court, the Shogun asked him what he wished. He 
 replied: "For money and rank I have no need; one 
 change of raiment and a pot of rice suffice for my daily 
 wants." Some of his pictures still exist. One of them 
 in copy the writer has seen, made about 1400 A.D. It 
 is aivimmense painting thirty-nine feet long by twenty- 
 six feet wide, and rejjresents the death of Buddha. 
 
 Of the three famous discijdes of Josetsu, two of them 
 were Buddhist priests, which reminds us again of the 
 parallel fact in the Italian Renaissance that religion 
 stimulated the great masters. The first one, Sesshu, 
 went to China hojnng to drink in inspiration from the 
 masters there, but was so disappointed as to cry out: 
 "The mountains, rivers, grass, and trees shall be my 
 masters!" He showed such remarkable talent that the 
 Emperor of China gave him an order to paint a picture 
 uj;>on the palace wall. His best pictures are land- 
 scapes, the outlines being bold, color tinting sparse. 
 He also painted portraits, dragons, tigers, foliage, and, 
 though professing to follow nature, was never able to 
 throw off Chinese models. 
 
 Shubu, another monk, was equally skillful in land- 
 scape, figures, birds, and flowers. His outlines were 
 drawn in ink with a slight dash of color. 
 
 JCano, the founder of the third school of painting, 
 was born of noble family the same year as Angelo, and, 
 like him, lived to the great age of eighty-four. Kano 
 rambled through the land with empty purse, one change 
 of garment and his painting implements, sketching 
 whatever pleased him and paying for his food with the 
 creation of his brush. Simple, unambitious, and poor, 
 he would never flatter a lord to win his patronage. 
 
PAINTING. 267 
 
 After his marriage, his wife, who was also a painter, 
 "worked with him. His paintings were distinguished for 
 simplicity, freedom, and rapidity, showing force and 
 suggestiveness without effort. Though handicapped 
 by Chinese artificialities, originality flashed forth from 
 every picture, whether it were a mountain pass, a path- 
 way to a cottage, or a dragon. From about 1400 to 
 1700 this Kano school, together with the older Tosa 
 school, occupied the chief place in the art culture of the 
 country. The Tosa school of painters hovered around 
 the capital and drew scenes pleasing to court circles, 
 but the Kano school cultivated deities and Chinese 
 sages, landscapes, birds, and flowers. In this period 
 the great castles of the country had their gilded walls 
 embellished with enormous pictures. Passing over 
 several names of merit, and many more that swell the 
 list but add nothing to genuine art, we come to the end 
 of the eighteenth century, when a new fountain of gen- 
 ius opens. It is a fountain that flows directly from na- 
 ture, and not from the overworked models of Chinese 
 art. . Okiyo had the boldness to believe that something 
 better might be learned from nature than from the arti- 
 ficial and conventional teachers who had gone before. 
 His school, named OMyo,* while not entirely free from 
 the faults of the old schools, introduced more perspec- 
 tive, and showed delicacy and freedom, especially in 
 the treatment of landscapes. Their paintings are much 
 sought after. In the latter part of that century a great 
 effort was made by many painters to restore the Chi- 
 nese style and to improve it. 
 
 But about the beginning of the nineteenth century a 
 new head, and leader of the Okiyo school appeared, 
 
 *Also Shiden-e. 
 
268 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 making it still more natural, real, and popular. This 
 was Tlokusai, whose career was long and remarkable. 
 He was born in 1760, and died in 1849. Born of the com- 
 mon people, he and his school brought the art of paint- 
 ing from the castles of Daimyos and mansions of nobles 
 down to the masses. The first forty-five years of his 
 life were spent in obscurity, before he was induced to 
 establish himself in the capital, Yedo, as an industrial 
 artist and teacher of drawing. His characteristic as a 
 painter was life with its vigor and manifestations — "al- 
 ways and everywhere life." While there was nothing 
 in his pictures to shock the most aesthetic, no lack of 
 dignity in his sages and saints, no lack of might and 
 fierceness in his warriors, all his paintings and sketches 
 .were brightened by flashes of native humor and touches 
 of actual life. His real strength, indeed, lay in the pop- 
 ular sketches of the everyday life of the people, which 
 were recognized and enjoyed by everybody. Their cer- 
 emonies and amusements, historical episodes, homely 
 jokes and characters which the unlearned could under- 
 stand and enjoy, the household pet, a favorite flower, 
 any one of the thousand objects and scenes of everyday 
 life, found graceful reproduction by the magic touch of 
 his pencil. The result was that this realistic master 
 (realist of ev*eryday life and humor, but not of vulgari- 
 ty and indecency) was immensely popular. Pupils 
 flocked to his feet, and his woodcuts attracted imme- 
 diate attention by their novelty and beauty. To meet 
 the demand he began the publication of a series of en- 
 gravings, entitled "Ten Thousand Sketches." Besides 
 these, book after book appeared at intervals, each pic- 
 ture or sketch bearing the stamp of his easy touch and 
 clear insight into life. One of his books contained a 
 hundred views of the sacred and far-famed Mount Fuji. 
 
PAINTING. 269 
 
 He worked right on with verve and ease until he was 
 nearly eighty. At the age of seventy-five years he wrote 
 of himself: "It was at the age of seventy- three that I 
 came near to a comprehension of the true form and na- 
 ture of birds, of fishes, of plants, etc., and I am dissat- 
 isfied with all I produced prior to the age of seventy." 
 Though dying at the great age of eighty-nine, and after 
 such a remarkable career, he never received any reward 
 or word of recognition from those in high station, while 
 many artists of gentle birth, but without talent, received 
 for their lifeless pencilings both rank and pension. Ho- 
 kusai did more to make Japanese art immortal than any 
 other of the great names that might be named. Among 
 his many contemporaries and successors there is one 
 named Kyoscti, who, like his master, excelled in every- 
 thing, particularly in caricature. His boldness in pic- 
 torial sarcasm brought down the wrath of the rulers 
 upon his head, and got him into prison, but nothing 
 could smother the fire of his genius. He drew with 
 amazing vigor, and not without taste and delicacy of 
 feeling. Most of his pictures are colored and of small 
 size. As examples, Regamey describes two: "The first 
 represents a serpent that has just seized a sparrow. 
 Though so simple, every stroke of the brush tells: the 
 veiled eye, half-opening beak, the body pulled together 
 and palpitating under the serpent's tooth, the plucked- 
 out feathers flying away. This is in the midst of plants, 
 among pink flowerets, where glide tiny green spiders. 
 Which to admire most, the perfection of the execution 
 or the intense emotion suggested by the picture, one 
 cannot say. The second scene is a comedy: a sparrow, 
 flurried and stifled with surprise at the sight of a mole 
 coming out of the ground at his feet; startled, and with 
 wings wide apart, it makes the most expressive and comic 
 
270 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 grimaces." (See "Japan in Art and Art Industries," p. 
 44.) 
 
 The present condition of Japanese painting is said to 
 be that of decline. As in so many other things, Japa- 
 nese painters hardly know where they are. In 1876 the 
 government established a school of painting and draw- 
 ing in foreign style, but after about six years dropped 
 it. To-day there are some societies in the capital that 
 aim to cultivate painting in oil, after the manner of the 
 Western schools; but, with a very few exceptions, 
 nothing meritorious has yet been achieved. We are 
 confident, however, of better things for them in the fu- 
 ture. It takes time to change the modes and forms of a 
 nation's art. 
 
 IV. Pottery Wares. 
 
 Japanese pottery had its beginning in mercy. When 
 the Emperor Suinin's queen died, A.D. 3, one of his 
 courtiers suggested that clay images be substituted for 
 the human victims usually buried alive around the grave 
 of one of the imperial family. It was done, but those 
 clay figures were of the simplest unglazed workman- 
 ship. The invention of pottery and the use of the wheel 
 are ascribed by tradition to a Buddhist priest, Gyogi, 
 renowned in legend alike for his philanthropy and me- 
 chanical genius. Descended from the royal family of 
 Korea, he came over to Japan about 750 A.D. Before 
 this, unglazed wares were made for storing rice seed 
 and cooking, only a few vessels of a better finish for 
 the use of the Emperor in certain religious ceremonies 
 being required. Not till the first part of the thirteenth 
 century was there much demand for a better kind of 
 pottery. This new impulse was caused by the intro- 
 duction of the tea leaf and tea drinking from China by 
 the Buddhist priest, Yeisai. Bringing a jar of tea seed 
 
POTTERY WARES. 271 
 
 and a book of directions, the cultivation of tea spread 
 rapidly. The new beverage became very popular with 
 the upper classes, and accordingly there sprang up a 
 demand for more artistic jars and for cups suited to 
 "good form" for the new fashionable drink. To meet 
 this demand of fashionable people a Japanese potter 
 went to China, studied the modes of making good pot- 
 tery there, returned the fifth year to Seto, his native 
 village, set up kilns, and made a new ware quite supe- 
 rior to anything hitherto made in the country. These 
 new potteries at Seto won such prestige over all others 
 that very soon Setomono (mono — article) was the name 
 applied to all kinds of pottery ware, just as "China" 
 is with us. 
 
 It was just twelve years before the discovery of Amer- 
 ica, in the reign of one of the luxuriant Ashikaga dy- 
 nasty, that a second impulse was given to pottery arts. 
 This was the establishment of the tea ceremonial under 
 the distinguished patronage of the Regent, who retired 
 from the affairs of state to his great palace at Kioto. 
 This tea ceremonial, with its four cardinal principles of 
 hospitality, politeness, cleanliness, and tranquillity, and 
 its numerous observances and rules, had a wonderful in- 
 fluence in the artistic improvement of Setomono styles. 
 Professors and masters of this gentle philosophy wrote 
 books upon the tea ceremony, and it got to be all the 
 fashion among the gentry and nobles, and increased the 
 demand for exquisite qualities of tea pots, cups, ewers, 
 and the like. The many potteries naturally vied with 
 each other in meeting the taste of the dilettantes at Ki- 
 oto and Kamakura capitals. Besides, it was the wont 
 of the fastidious and luxuriant Regent to hold reunions 
 of noblemen and literati in his palace, to whom he sub- 
 mitted for their admiration or criticism every new and 
 
272 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 elegant addition to his collection of Setomono and of 
 lacquer ware as well. Of course every nobleman and 
 courtier must follow the example of the palace by 
 keeping a fine set of tea service. Up to this time the 
 ware made in Japan was coarse pottery and faience, but 
 not porcelain. So, to meet this new demand in cultured 
 society for something more artistic, a potter went to 
 China to get the secret of making porcelain. He got it, 
 but he did not get another secret longed for: the proc- 
 ess of decorating under the glaze and enameling over it. 
 So that we come to the latter part of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury before the production of Setomono of a strictly 
 Japanese manufacture is worthy of record in the history 
 of art. About 1570 a new era in the art of pottery 
 dawned. It was reserved to Hideyoshi the Great to give 
 his powerful patronage to the progress of this art. 
 Born of low parentage, but now a mighty ruler, he 
 wished to prove to his blue-blooded nobles, who de- 
 spised his low origin, that he was not only a warrior 
 and administrator of affairs, but also a master of their 
 own exquisitely refined tea ceremonial, the climax of all 
 their fashion and etiquette; doubtless, too, he wished by 
 his example to draw away the minds of the warlike Dai- 
 myos andgenerals, whose "souls were in their swords," 
 to softer, gentler pursuits. He visited in person some 
 of the chief potteries, rewarded excellence with money 
 or titles of honor, and even allowed in some districts 
 presents of stoneware and porcelain in lieu of revenue 
 and of military service. The consequence was in- 
 creased enterprise among the potteries throughout the 
 country. But being disappointed in the achievements 
 of the native artists, he ordered his commanding gener- 
 als in Korea to send back skillful Korean potters; hence 
 about the end of the sixteenth century nearly all the 
 
POTTEEY WARES. 273 
 
 chief potteries in Japan were either established or im- 
 proved by the aid of the Korean experts brought over 
 as captives from the war. In brief, then, Japan's ceram- 
 ic art had its real beginning about 1600, under instruc- 
 tion of Korean captives, and what went before was only 
 preparatory. 
 
 We may divide the ceramic wares of Japan into 
 three kinds: 
 
 (1) The coarse earthenware of clay, the paste of which 
 is not so carefully kneaded and sifted, for thick, heavy 
 vessels, either glazed or unglazed, such as we use in 
 kitchen, pantry, dairy, flower garden, and so on. It is 
 characteristic of all rude civilizations, being made by 
 hand without the wheel or molded in willow baskets 
 — the wheel is a later invention. 
 
 (2) Faience, a term probably equal to our term China 
 ware. The paste is made of kaolin clay, is crushed 
 and pulverized, and treated with one process after an- 
 other in its preparation. The glaze is composed of va- 
 rious metals mixed with lye. Faience may be applied, 
 then, to our ordinary table and chamber ware, as well as 
 to the more artistic pieces of decorated vases, pitchers, 
 and urns in our drawing-rooms. 
 
 (3) Porcelain is made chiefly of silica, quartz, or pul- 
 verized granite, and is always distinguished by the 
 thinness and translucency of the piece. This ware 
 usually yields a metallic ring to the snap of the fin- 
 ger. The glaze is composed of silica, lye, and various 
 metals. 
 
 The firings, first of the molded piece, which is then 
 called biscuit and which is porous and easily cut with 
 a sharp tool, and the subsequent firings to fix the glaze 
 and the various decorative designs, some under and 
 some above the glaze, need not detain us here. In the 
 18 
 
274 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 management of the glazes the Chinese were without 
 peers, hut finally the Japanese acquired the knowledge 
 of preparing hoth transparent and variegated glazes. 
 
 The process of decorating calls for a few words. 
 Though slow in getting into all the intricacies of the 
 process, Japanese artists at last mastered the art of pot- 
 tery decoration in all its hranches. For a long time the 
 Chinese blue, so solid and lustrous under the glaze, could 
 not he reproduced in Japan. For a long time, too, the 
 handling of polychromes and the shading of tints and 
 colors as when chocolate brown passes into amber, or 
 black is relieved with clouds and streaks of gray, was 
 an unsolved problem, but it was mastered. By certain 
 combinations they learned how to produce a marbled 
 surface in patches, imitating tortoise shell, and a green, 
 dully speckled surface like a Japanese pear. Various 
 designs and figures were applied under the glaze, 
 arabesque, Vitruvian curves and bands, vines, flow- 
 ers, birds and animals, in black, gold, silver, coral red, 
 etc. Above the glaze, with their usual simplicity of 
 means in achieving manifold and marvelous results, 
 they were likewise masters of the three chief methods 
 of decoration: (a) By applying with the artist's brush 
 pigments in paste, softed with water or oil, and fash- 
 ioned according to the desired design, sometimes pate 
 sur pate (paste upon paste), so as to get the design in 
 low relief; (b) with enameling of ground glass and other 
 material made into a paste and filling up the required 
 design; (c) with jewels set into the enameling while the 
 paste is moist. 
 
 Of the more than forty styles of ware named and de- 
 scribed by Capt. Brinkley, editor of the Japan Mail, 
 there is space here for only four or five of the more 
 famous ones. 
 
POTTERY WARES. 275 
 
 JTizen Ware. — The Hizen ware is, lie thinks, the most 
 important, and includes three varieties made in that 
 province. First, an enameled porcelain of old Japan, 
 specimens of which are in the earlier European muse- 
 ums, and famous in the seventeenth century for its ex- 
 cellent blue under the glaze and colored enamel over 
 the glaze. This ware was exported to Europe "by the 
 Dutch trading at Nagasaki. Secondly, another variety 
 was noted for the milk whiteness and softness of the 
 glaze, the blue under the glaze, and the delicate decora- 
 tion. This is said to be the finest jeweled porcelain in 
 Japan. A third style was distinguished for its blue or 
 pure white under the glaze, and its exquisite decora- 
 tions incised and in relief. 
 
 Kioto Ware. — Kioto became the center of the arts, and 
 hence many great potteries with hundreds of workmen 
 and scores of connoisseurs eventually settled there. A 
 few of the principal ones made porcelain, but for the 
 most part the Kioto ware was faience. For instance, 
 the Raku faience, so popular among the tea clubs, was 
 made there; Raku, being the seal conferred upon a fa- 
 mous potter by Hideyoshi the Great, continued to be 
 used as the stamp of that ware for thirteen generations. 
 Another ceramist of Kioto produced many beautiful 
 pieces of jeweled faience, of close hard paste, yellowish 
 or brownish white glaze, finely crackled and delicately 
 decorated in red, green, gold, and silver designs. Of the 
 Kioto porcelains, one was distinguished for the variety 
 of its glaze, coral red, spotted green, and the tasteful 
 blending of colors as well as for the finely executed 
 decorations in gold. 
 
 Satsuma Ware. — "Old Satsuma" was long the craze 
 of European collectors, but nine hundred and ninety- 
 nme pieces out of every thousand so named are simply 
 
276 JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE. 
 
 skillful forgeries. In 1598 the lord of Satsuma settled 
 near him seventeen Korean potters, who have increased 
 to five hundred families, and still cany on the same art. 
 The reason why old Satsuma is so rare is that it was 
 never produced for the general market, but only for 
 the great lord of Satsuma and his friends. Old Satsuma 
 was genuine enameled faience, noted for its great 
 purity and fine crackle, the ground being reddish brown 
 or cream, the paste being as close as ivory, and the 
 decoration over the glaze chaste rather than rich; later, 
 however, a richer gilding and enameling with brilliant 
 colors were introduced. A pottery set up in Satsuma 
 about the beginning of this century has acquired a 
 great reputation for the making of teapots, cups and 
 saucers, boAvls, and the like, while elsewhere the pro- 
 duction is chiefly vases and urns. 
 
 Kaga Ware (Kutani Porcelain). — From the Kutani 
 village, planted on a high mountain in the province of 
 Kaga, comes one variety of porcelain with enamel of 
 great brilliancy and beauty. In some cases large por- 
 tions of surface are completely covered with enamel in 
 green and yellow. In another variety, upon a back- 
 ground of russet red, silver decoration is freely used. 
 Later styles tend toward the glitter of gilding and red 
 coloring, which the Japanese do not much admire; but 
 they make tea, coffee, dinner, and dessert services pro- 
 fusely decorated in red and gold to meet the taste of 
 foreign buyers. 
 
 Oioari Ware (Seto). — The village of Seto will ever be 
 memorable in the history of ceramics, where was manu- 
 factured the first faience worthy of mention in indus- 
 trial art. Here were made the little tea jars and cups 
 of the tea clubs in the thirteenth century. Having be- 
 come headquarters for the tea ceremonial vessels, it 
 
POTTEKY WAEES. 277 
 
 came to pass that many of their tiny wares deserved 
 high admiration, the execution being perfect, the ma- 
 hogany, russet brown, amber, and buff glazes showing 
 wonderful luster and richness. At present Seto is the 
 chief place in Japan for porcelain. Nowadays, how- 
 ever, many of the porcelains spoken of as Owari 
 ware are decorated by a gild of artists living in Yoko- 
 hama and Tokyo. The designs, generally pictorial, 
 are put on with a brush in cheap paste, the little coffee 
 cups being decorated with tiny birds, flowers, fishes, 
 insects, or bits of bamboo branches; and the monster 
 vases six feet high in blue, white, and red. All this 
 wholesale production is for the market in America and 
 Europe. 
 
 Eggshell Porcelain. — Several villages in Mino Prov- 
 ince made fine porcelains in earlier periods. The egg- 
 shell porcelain, of wonderful delicacy, was produced, 
 which, so far as beauty and technique are concerned, 
 will bear comparison with China's best. The manu- 
 facture, confined to tiny tea bowls or wine cups invari- 
 ably plain on the inner surface, is decorated on the out- 
 side with designs of the utmost simplicity, illustrating 
 the charming combination of grace and boldness for 
 which Japanese art is remarkable. An example of this 
 exquisite decoration is given by Brinkley: "There is 
 an outline sketch of the peerless Mount Fuji, its blue 
 dome touched by golden clouds among which float a 
 flock of wild swans, or, perchance, a single branch of 
 plum blossom peeping through mists that hide a forest 
 of flowers." Another style of eggshell porcelain, known 
 as Tajima ware, is still more remarkable than the gos- 
 samer eggshell just mentioned. "One is inclined to 
 doubt," says Capt. Brinkley, "whether the celebrated 
 Vincennes flowers that deceived King Louis himself 
 
278 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 can have been more marvelously molded than some 
 specimens of the Tajima porcelains. As was said of 
 painting, so it has been feared that the ceramic art of 
 Japan has entered upon a decline, that the wholesale 
 production of cheap but gaudily decorated faience and 
 porcelain for the foreign market, and the loss of indi- 
 vidual patronage of the old princes and lords for whose 
 eye the best artists of old achieved their highest results 
 by years of quiet, persevering work, have cut the nerve 
 of genius and ambition." In this fear we do not share. 
 The conditions being changed requires time for adjust- 
 ment, but in due time this art will bloom again. 
 
 V. Landscape Gardening. 
 In landscape gardening and making of bouquets the 
 Japanese probably excel any other nation. It is really 
 a fine art. One thing that strikes the foreigner when 
 he walks into a flower garden is the total absence or the 
 paucity of the flowers, and the many evergreens to be 
 seen everywhere. This is because the purpose of every 
 garden is to reproduce on a small scale some famous 
 natural scene of Japan, some mountain like sacred Fuji 
 and its surroundings, some island or lake scene. As 
 Fuji hag lakes and streams not far from its base, this be- 
 comes the type of most of their flower gardens. The 
 writers upon landscape gardening divide off into schools, 
 and have considerable discussion upon the principles 
 and rules for laying off the garden. Copying a natural 
 scene, the .characteristic is variety. They are planned 
 also to hide a part as well as to reveal a part of the 
 scene, so that when one enters he cannot take in the 
 whole, but as he walks a surprise greets him at every 
 turn. The little Fuji, the clumps of trees and shrubs, 
 the bed of the river, or the little brook with rustic 
 
LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 279 
 
 bridge, the little lake, and the pebbled walks all show 
 the greatest variety. An American flower garden or 
 park would naturally appear monotonous to the Japa- 
 nese. The ground is too flat and the plan is too uniform 
 and regular, and so too much of it comes under the eye 
 at one time. The Japanese are exceedingly skillful in 
 giving a mere glimpse of a scene, here and there, excit- 
 ing suggestion and imagination more than our American 
 parks or gardens do. They are likewise skillful in the 
 dwarfing of trees. For instance, you may see a pine 
 sixty years old and perfect in every part, but not more 
 than one foot high. Another principle in landscape 
 gardening is to symbolize certain abstract ideas, such as 
 peace, old age, prosperity, etc. A famous master of the 
 flower art, as well as of etiquette, wrote much on the 
 subject and taught at the capital to many learners his 
 principles and rules. It is a kind of philosophy. With 
 the Japanese, branches with leaves and buds are treated 
 as flowers. There are two or three principles differen- 
 tiating the flower art of the Japanese from ours: (1) 
 Color and combinations of color are not so important in 
 Japanese eyes as with us; (2) the linear arrangement of 
 the bouquet rather than the circular cluster; (3) the sym- 
 bolic meaning of the flower counts for much; (4) admi- 
 ration of certain flowers founded upon tradition as to 
 their being lucky or unlucky. The study of the subject 
 of bouquet making and landscape gardening will soon 
 convince the foreigner that it is a difficult but graceful 
 accomplishment, and that the Japanese could teach us 
 some good lessons. 
 
PART III. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 JAPAN IN MODERN HISTORY (1854-1900). 
 
 Preparations for the Great Change from Old 
 to New Japan. 
 
 As seen on a previous page, the Portuguese and Span- 
 iards were driven away in the seventeenth century, 
 the English voluntarily abandoned their trade, and the 
 Dutch alone kept their trading post for over two hun- 
 dred years, but it was by submitting to be treated more 
 like prisoners than citizens of a free Christian nation. 
 
 Early in the present century foreign nations made re- 
 peated attempts to open trading relations with the coun- 
 try so long shut within itself. The Russians did not 
 cease their vain attempts till 1811; the English too sent 
 a ship in 1818, and again in 1849; but anxious as they 
 were to extend their commerce from India and China, 
 they failed to induce Japan's rulers to open trade with 
 them. 
 
 It was fear of foreign nations that led Iyeyasu and 
 his successors to shut up their country to itself, and the 
 reason why they did not fear the Dutch and made a 
 slight exception in their favor was because they could 
 insult them and treat them like captives. 
 
 Murray in his work on Japan says: "It is now plain 
 that this seclusion was a mistake. It would have been 
 of inestimable value to this enterprising people to have 
 kept in the race for improvement with the other nations 
 of the world." On the contrary, we believe that shut- 
 (280) 
 
PREPARING FOR A CHANGE. 281 
 
 ting up the country against foreign nations was at that 
 time wise; and that if things had gone on as they were 
 going, Japan would certainly have become a Roman 
 Catholic country, and probably fallen under foreign 
 rule. Nor can we find it in our hearts to condemn the 
 Japanese for their treatment of the Dutch. The Dutch 
 were there solely for gain, and not to promote civiliza- 
 tion or Christianity in any sense. The only course open 
 by which to avoid the danger of entangling foreign al- 
 liances was to limit the trading post to a dozen Dutch- 
 men in one port only, shutting them up in the little 
 island at Nagasaki and allowing a few ships to come 
 yearly to sell their cargoes under the most rigid regula- 
 tions. If the Dutch, simply for gain, were willing to 
 submit to such indignities, we cannot blame the Jap- 
 anese much for imposing it upon them to protect, as 
 they believed, themselves. 
 
 At any rate, it was never a European nation that suc- 
 ceeded in reopening the long-barred gates of Japan to 
 Western trade and light. This achievement was re- 
 served to the youngest of the Western nations, our own 
 American Republic. 
 
 I. The Opening or the Country (1854) by Perry, 
 the American. 
 
 The man who, under God's providence induced Japan 
 to change her long and rigid policy of exclusion and to 
 open her ports to foreign ships was the brave, accom- 
 plished, and Christian commodore of the United States 
 Navy, Mathew Calbraith Perry. 
 
 When Andrew Jackson set up his strong foreign pol- 
 icy, in 1832, he commissioned Edward Roberts, Esq., to 
 present to the Emperor of Japan a letter respecting 
 trade, but he died before reaching Japan. After the 
 
282 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 United States came into possession of California (1848) 
 our leaders naturally looked across the Pacific Ocean 
 and began to talk about trade with China and other 
 Asiatic countries. It was plain that the Pacific Ocean 
 would be a great highway of ships sailing from America 
 to the far East. Now Japan lay right along that great 
 highway to China, and, steam having been applied to 
 navigation, the coal supply for so long a voyage was the 
 important question. A ship could not carry coal enough 
 from San Francisco to China and return; it was indis- 
 pensable to our commerce with China, Korea, and Siam 
 that we should have access to coaling stations in Japan. 
 Besides this increasing trade with China, the Americans 
 began sending yearly many whaling vessels into the 
 seas north of Japan. About ten million dollars were 
 invested and ten thousand seamen were engaged year- 
 ly in the whale fisheries just north of Japan, but not 
 a friendly harbor was open on all those coasts. This 
 worked not merely inconvenience, but irreparable loss 
 of property and life. It was necessary, therefore, that 
 America and Japan should be friendly with each other, 
 that the latter should be open to our ships for coal, 
 and as a refuge for our shipwrecked whalers. 
 
 Again, the very currents of the Pacific Ocean, its 
 winds and storms, showed plainly that America and 
 Japan should have friendship and trade with each other. 
 For instance, our American whalers were not infre- 
 quently driven upon the northern shores as wrecks of 
 the storm; and thus at the mercy of the natives, instead 
 of receiving aid and protection, were seized as enemies 
 and imprisoned. On the other hand, every few years 
 Japanese junks, blown out to sea, were drifted by the 
 Black Current on to our Pacific Coast. In 1831 such a 
 junk, with several Japanese still alive, was drifted ashore 
 
OPENING OP THE COUNTRY BY AMERICA. 283 
 
 near the mouth of Columbia River. A vessel, named 
 the "Morrison," was fitted out in this country to carry 
 the unfortunates hack to their native land. But when 
 (1837) the vessel reached Yedo Bay, and the Japanese 
 officials came on board and found she was unarmed, 
 they refused to allow the unfortunates to come upon 
 their own native shores, and the next day actually fired 
 upon the defenseless ship, notwithstanding its mission 
 of humanity! 
 
 But the American ship Preble (1849) went to Ja- 
 pan upon a different errand. Our government in Wash- 
 ington, having learned that seventeen American seamen 
 had been imprisoned by the Japanese rulers, sent the 
 armed Preble to demand their release. Although the 
 Japanese with junks tried to prevent it, she proudly 
 steamed into Nagasaki harbor, and although cannons 
 from the heights above were trained upon the ship, the 
 fearless commander demanded the release of the Amer- 
 icans, and when the Japanese replied in haughty and 
 defiant terms he met them with the demand for the 
 immediate release of the prisoners in the name of the 
 United States Government. In two days the Ameri- 
 cans were released. 
 
 Hence it was that both from considerations of hu- 
 manity as well as the interests of international com- 
 merce between America and Asia, Japan must be in- 
 duced to come forth from her isolation and fear into 
 relations of friendship and trade with foreign nations. 
 
 For securing such a change on the part of Jaj)an no 
 other foreign government was in so favorable a posi- 
 tion as America; for Japan's rulers had no ground 
 whatever for prejudice against the Americans, for the 
 reason that the Americans had never shown anything 
 but kindness to Japanese unfortunates drifted upon 
 
284 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 our Pacific Coast, had never joined the Europeans in a 
 policy of conquest, nor had any Roman Catholic ever 
 sat in the Presidential chair at Washington. Presi- 
 dent Fillmore and the distinguished Secretary of State, 
 Daniel Webster, as well as his Secretary of Navy, of 
 literary fame, John P. Kennedy, all favored a formal 
 approach to Japan for the purpose of establishing rela- 
 tions of friendship and trade between the two nations. 
 Accordingly, early in 1852, preparations were begun for 
 the sending of twelve vessels upon such a mission. The 
 sending of so large and well-equipped a fleet was to se- 
 cure proper respect and reception at the outset, and to 
 prevent, if possible, any indignity such as the Japanese 
 had been accustomed to visit upon the Dutch. 
 
 Commodore Matthew C. Perry, brother of the hero 
 of Lake Erie, and himself a naval officer of long and 
 honorable career, was commissioned with full diplo- 
 matic powers to take command of the expedition. 
 Perry had many things in favor of his success, even 
 where all others had failed. He was born of a fami- 
 ly of seamen and naval officers; had seen service while 
 yet a lad in the war of 1812 with Great Britain; in the 
 Mexican war had commanded the largest squadron of 
 American men-of-war ever known; had been an educa- 
 tor and leader in developing our navy; was a strict dis- 
 ciplinarian, but just in all his demands; was a com- 
 mander of men, fearless in danger; a gentleman and 
 Christian of high character. 
 
 In November, 1852, Perry sailed from Norfolk, Va., 
 in the flagship Mississippi. As for these two names, 
 we cannot but believe that they were and are prophetic. 
 Norfolk is destined to be a great port of trade through 
 the Nicaraguan Canal with the far East; and the Mis- 
 sissippi River will yet bear upon its flowing tide to the 
 
COMMODORE PERRY. 
 
 (285) 
 
286 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 sea enormous quantities of steel, cotton, flour, machin- 
 ery for export to Japan, China, and Korea. After a 
 long voyage, and reorganization of his squadron in 
 Chinese waters, he sailed into the Japanese seas in 
 1853, and in July dropped anchor off the city of Uraga, 
 at the entrance of Yedo Bay. 
 
 Through information from the Dutch concerning the 
 sailing of the Americans, the Japanese were expecting 
 them; hut, having never seen steam vessels before, they 
 were surprised at the black "fire ships" of the barba- 
 rians when they saw the heavy clouds of dark smoke 
 pouring forth from the shij>s' funnels, and the vessels 
 plowing the waves against the wind. Yes, these mon- 
 sters of the deep caused consternation among people 
 and rulers alike. From the decks the people could be 
 seen running to and fro, troops gathering, and fortifica- 
 tions being thrown up at certain points. 
 
 Shortly after the Americans anchored, a fleet of Jap- 
 anese guard boats hove in sight, surrounded the Ameri- 
 can squadron, and attempted to come onboard. This, by 
 Perry's orders, was promptly refused. Finally, having 
 learned through his Dutch interpreter that the Vice 
 Governor was in one of the junks, he was allowed to 
 come on bo^d, but not to see the Commodore, a subor- 
 dinate officer being ordered to hear what he had to say. 
 The Vice Governor's demand "was that the foreigners 
 should not anchor here, but return immediately to Nag- 
 asaki, where the Japanese had always dealt with the 
 Dutch and Chinese. For over two hundred years, 
 whenever a Dutch ship came into Nagasaki harbor, the 
 Japanese authorities promptly put it under guard, went 
 on board, took possession of cargo, ammunition, firearms, 
 and even the books and symbols of their religion, until 
 the day of the ship's departure. They had a thought of 
 
OPENING THE COUNTRY BY PERRY. 287 
 
 treating the Americans in the same fashion, practically 
 as prisoners. But Commodore Perry opened their eyes 
 when he told them through his subordinate officer that 
 he would neither go back to Nagasaki, nor would he sub- 
 mit to the indignity of allowing his vessels to be sur- 
 rounded by guard boats; and that if the junks did not 
 go away immediately, he would order them dispersed 
 by force. As he had come on a mission of friendship 
 and peace from an independent nation, he would not 
 allow himself, his men, or ships to be treated as prison- 
 ers. He was the bearer of a letter from the President of 
 the United States to the Emperor of Japan, which could 
 be delivered only to a person of proper rank, and au- 
 thorized by the Emperor to receive it. 
 
 Perry showed remarkable knowledge of Japanese cus- 
 tom and etiquette, so important in their eyes, and a clear 
 insight into their character. This he had gathered by 
 long study of the books on Japan written by the Dutch. 
 He therefore adopted the only policy that had any 
 promise of success — namely, to combine firmness with 
 courtesy and ceremony, asserting for himself and gov- 
 ernment a dignity that must be respected, meanwhile 
 not demanding anything contrary to justice and right 
 among civilized nations. 
 
 Not only so, but the third day brought another anom- 
 aly. The Americans would transact no business on this 
 day; it was their Sunday, and they were Christians. 
 The commanders of Dutch vessels at Nagasaki had 
 yielded up even their Bibles and their prayer books, 
 everything that had the name or sign of Christ and his 
 cross; but these Americans are wreathing their ship's 
 capstan with the flag, and a big book is laid thereon, and 
 smaller ones are handed around. One in solemn manner 
 bows his head in prayer, all do likewise, and directly they 
 
288 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 sing, and the ship's hand with their instruments swell the 
 volume of music until it floats to the shore. The music 
 was "Old Hundred;" the hymn was " Before Jehovah's 
 awful throne, ye nations how with sacred joy;" the big 
 hook was the Bible. In the afternoon a minor official 
 was denied the decks of the ships; it was their rest day. 
 This was the Admiral's habit for many years. It was a 
 strange sight to the Japanese — the Christians chanting 
 the praises of the one true God and his Son Jesus Christ 
 in the harbor of a pagan city, the doing of which for 
 the past two hundred years would have cost Japanese 
 and Dutch alike their lives. It was a challenge and a 
 prophecy in the name of Christ. To-day, from a thou- 
 sand places by land and port, the Japanese are worship- 
 ing Christ without molestation. 
 
 The Japanese, with quick insight, saw that they dare 
 not treat these newcomers as they had habitually treated 
 the Dutch. The point gained by Perry was the courte- 
 ous reception of the President's letter and the establish- 
 ment of pleasant personal relations with the Governor 
 and other officials. The President's letter, engrossed 
 upon costly paper and incased in a gilded box costing 
 one thousand dollars, was delivered to commissioners 
 appointed by the Taikun to receive the same, and by 
 them carried up to Yedo, the capital. The Council of 
 Regents was much perplexed and pressed in mind, and 
 sat up the whole night considering this message from 
 the head of the American Republic. 
 
 As the Yedo rulers demanded time to answer the 
 President's letter, Perry remained only a few days, 
 meanwhile keeping his men busy surveying the bay to- 
 ward Yedo, and sailed away, saying to the Japanese 
 that in six months he would come again to get their an- 
 swer. Four days after Perry departed, a message was 
 
PEESIDENT FILLMORE' S LETTER. 289 
 
 sent to inform the Mikado at Kioto that an American 
 fleet had come, and that a letter from the American 
 President had been received. Forthwith, in distress, the 
 Mikado dispatched a messenger to the priest at Ise to 
 offer prayer for the peace of the empire, and for the di- 
 vine breath to sweep away the barbarians. (See "Mat- 
 hew Calbraith Perry," p. 345, by Griffis.) 
 
 The President's letter was in part as follows: 
 
 Millard Fillmore, President of the United States of America, to his Impe- 
 rial Majesty, the Emperor of Japan. 
 
 Great and Good Friend: I send, you this public letter by 
 Commodore Matthew C. Perry, an officer of the highest rank of 
 the navy of the United States, and Commodore of the squad- 
 ron now visiting your imperial dominions. I have directed 
 Commodore Perry to assure your Imperial Majesty that . . . 
 I have no other object in sending him to Japan but to propose 
 to your Imperial Majesty that the United States and Japan 
 should live in friendship and have commercial intercourse 
 with each other. . . . The United States reach from ocean 
 to ocean, and our territory of Oregon and California lies di- 
 rectly opposite to the dominions of your Imperial Majesty. 
 Our steamships can go from California to Japan in eighteen 
 days. ... I have directed the Commodore to mention an- 
 other thing. Many of our ships pass every year from California 
 to China, and great numbers of our people pursue the whale fish- 
 ery near the shores of Japan. It sometimes happens, in stormy 
 weather, that one of our ships is wrecked on your Imperial 
 Majesty's shores. In all such cases Ave ask and expect that 
 our unfortunate people should be treated with kindness, and 
 that their property should be protected, until we can send a 
 vessel and bring them away. We are very much in earnest in 
 this. . . . These are the only objects for which I have sent 
 Commodore Perry, with a powerful squadron, to pay a visit 
 to your Majesty's renowned city of Yedo: friendship, a supply 
 of coal and provisions, and protection for our shipwrecked 
 people. We have directed Commodore Perry to beg your Im- 
 perial Majesty's acceptance of a few presents; they are of no 
 value in themselves, but may serve as specimens of things 
 19 
 
290 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 manufactured in the United States, and they are intended as 
 tokens of our sincere and respectful friendship. 
 
 May the Almighty have your Imperial Majesty in his great 
 and holy keeping! 
 
 Your good friend, Millard Fillmore. 
 
 Edward Everett, Secretary of State. 
 [Seal attached.] 
 
 According to his word, Perry, with a larger squad- 
 ron of nine ships, made the second visit to Japan, Feb- 
 ruary, 1854, and this time, steaming farther up into the 
 bay, he cast anchor off where now sits the modern city 
 of Yokohama. When informed that he was now come 
 to get their answer to the President's letter, the Japa- 
 nese began a policy of evasion and delay. After wait- 
 ing several days and listening to their demands and 
 evasive answers, he moved his ships farther up the bay 
 toward Yedo, and notified them that he* was willing to 
 treat with them on the shore just opposite his present 
 anchorage; that if they continued to refuse him a suit- 
 able place, he should, in accordance with the usage of 
 civilized nations, go up to Yedo in order to treat with 
 the rulers in the capital. Lest he might sure enough 
 sail right up to Yedo, the Japanese suddenly changed 
 tack and agreed to meet Perry on Yokohama beach. 
 Accordingly a "treaty house" was thrown up, and the 
 report spread through all the towns and villages of the 
 region, as well as in Yedo, that their rulers were about 
 to treat with the foreign barbarians at that appointed 
 place. 
 
 On the 8th of March, 1854, a clear and beautiful 
 morning, crowds of excited people gathered upon the 
 bluffs overlooking the place — country folk, Samurai, 
 with swords and other feudal paraphernalia, crowded 
 out to see the strange spectacle of their own authorities 
 receiving as equals the foreign barbarians and treating 
 
TREATY MADE BY PERRY. 291 
 
 with thern. The Japanese officials, with their suites 
 and flying insignia of rank, could he seen standing on 
 the Tbeach near the water's edge, while others were in 
 their boats, with banners and other regalia, all waiting 
 eagerly the Commodore's coming. Attended by his 
 officers, marines, and sailors, numbering three hundred 
 men, all uniformed and armed, he was quickly rowed 
 to the shore, and, with the United States flag borne 
 aloft, was escorted to the "treaty house," where he 
 was received with much courtesy and conducted to seats 
 within. Treaty negotiations were now begun in ear- 
 nest, and after several days of such meetings, though 
 with less formality and much parleying, a treaty was 
 concluded. According to the treaty the Japanese were 
 to open two ports to the free access of American ships, and 
 the American government would send consular representa- 
 tives to reside there lohenever deemed advisably. 
 
 The two objects of Perry's mission had thus been 
 peacefully accomplished: humanity and trade. Pres- 
 ents also were exchanged in plenty. Indeed, Perry 
 had personally superintended the buying of a great 
 quantity of useful implements and machinery intended 
 as presents from the United States to Japan: steam en- 
 gines and rails, telegraph apparatus and wire, rifles, 
 gunpowder, sewing machines, clocks, plows, mowers, 
 maps, charts, books, wines, etc. Rails were laid, the 
 engine placed thereon, steam got up, and it was run 
 to the great astonishment and delight of the people. 
 As fear wore off, they drew nearer, and soon were glad 
 to mount the engine and ride around and around the 
 great circle like so many happy children. One mile of 
 telegraph line was also put in operation, to the infinite 
 astonishment of the Japanese. 
 
 Commodore Perry, by his commanding presence, his 
 
japan: country, court, people. 
 
 kindly consideration of all that was fair and right, 
 coupled with firmness and dignity, convinced the Japa- 
 nese officials that he was an extraordinary man. And 
 he was; he was both a great naval officer and a good 
 man. A constant reader of the Bible, he observed the 
 sanctities of the Sunday, even upon foreign seas. Re- 
 turning to America, where he was the recipient of hon- 
 ors in different cities and States, his stalwart frame 
 and iron will began to yield to the heavy strain so long 
 endured. He lived only till the 4th of March, 1858. 
 Dying in New York, there was profound grief, and 
 many distinguished men, civilians, army and naval offi- 
 cers, attended the funeral. Among the mourners were 
 many of the sailors who had been under him in the Ja- 
 pan expedition, as well as others who had fought in the 
 Mexican war with him.. A suitable monument marks 
 his grave at Newport, R. I. A better one is in his- 
 tory: his heroic deeds. 
 
 It should have been mentioned in the foregoing that 
 as soon as it was known that the Americans had suc- 
 ceeded in making a treaty with the Japanese, the Eng- 
 glish, Russians, and Dutch made similar treaties. And 
 so Japan was opened to the trade and Christian civili- 
 zation of the outside world, opened never again to be 
 closed. 
 
 II. Townsend Harris, Another American in Japan. 
 It was Commodore Perry's duty to press open a 
 barred door; it fell to Mr. Townsend Harris to keep it 
 open, to complete Perry's work by making a fuller 
 treaty of friendship and commerce. No more honor- 
 able chapter in the history of America's foreign inter- 
 course has ever been made than that of our first Consul 
 General and Plenipotentiary to Japan, in 1856-1861; nor 
 
TOWNSEND HARRIS, ANOTHER AMERICAN. 293 
 
 has any officer sent abroad to represent our government 
 had greater difficulties to overcome in the achievement 
 of a victory at once so signal in its consequences both 
 to Japan and to foreign nations, and so peaceful in the 
 means employed to win it. The story of Mr. Harris's 
 career in Japan, first as Consul General and then as Min- 
 ister, gathered chiefly from his own diary, remains to 
 be told. He was born in 1804, in New York State. 
 His parents were fond of books, and fostered in Town- 
 send a fondness for study. His mother was a stately 
 woman of keen intellect and engaging manners. His 
 grandmother, named Thankful, taught him to tell 
 the truth, fear God, and hate the British, all of which 
 he did to the end of his life. Neat in person, careful 
 in his dress, courtly in manner, he was a cultured 
 Christian gentleman who read the best books, both in 
 French and English, and was a successful business man. 
 For thirty-five years a resident of New York, for many 
 years the head of a prosperous mercantile house trading 
 with China, and for six years on the Pacific Ocean or 
 in the Orient, he gained an uncommonly good knowl- 
 edge of things and people in the Far East. In his ca- 
 reer is illustrated the truth that when God marks out by 
 his providence a certain man for an uncommon task in 
 life, his previous training and experience somehow turn 
 out to be a preparation for the" special task. 
 
 In accordance with Commodore Perry's treaty, Mr. 
 Harris was appointed consul general to Japan by Pres- 
 ident Pierce in 1855, and, after a long voyage around 
 the Cape of Good Hope, he reached Shimoda, one of 
 the two treaty ports, in August, 1856. Mr. Heusken, 
 a Hollander, was his clerk and Dutch interpreter. 
 
 Immediately upon his arrival, and even before land- 
 ing from the ship, he was met by annoyances and de- 
 
294 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 lays which seemed to him absurd, and which tried his 
 patience. The Governor of Shimoda tried to avoid 
 recognizing him as Consul General of America, wishing 
 to receive him only as one of Commodore Armstrong's 
 suite. He attempted to quarter Japanese officers, in his 
 house, "day and night to await his pleasure," really 
 to act as spies. The people were forbidden all deal- 
 ings with him, hoping thereby to force the buying of 
 things through a Japanese official; he was refused for 
 a long time the exchange of American money for Jap- 
 anese coin; and even the simple request for two Japa- 
 nese servants was delayed for a long course of negotia- 
 tions, evasions, and lying. Finally, when he became 
 thoroughly convinced that the Japanese officials, both 
 at Yedo and Shimado, were trying to prevent the 
 treaty with Perry from taking effect, Mr. Harris, tak- 
 ing occasion of the visit of a high Yedo official and the 
 Vice Governor of the town with their retinues, told 
 them plainly that they were lying, and that if they 
 wished any respect from him they rmtst tell him the truth. 
 Every little order for a trifling thing needed in his 
 household affairs required the longest delay and called 
 forth many excuses and promises; and the most ob- 
 vious regulations of the treaty were obstinately ob- 
 structed by mountains of difficulties and delays. 
 
 Of course it must be remembered, not as an excuse 
 for their lying but as a palliation of their slowness, that 
 all this treaty business and foreign consuls were new 
 things to the Japanese. If Consul General Harris 
 had submitted to be browbeaten and treated generally 
 like the Dutch at Nagasaki, the Japanese would have 
 known how to act, but they were now dealing with an 
 American. It must also be remembered that the ma- 
 jority of the most powerful Daimyos were bitterly op- 
 
HARKIS PEOCEEDS TO YEDO. 295 
 
 posing their Shogun for having made a treaty with the 
 Americans, and were now angry over the country be- 
 ing opened to foreign trade and intercourse, so that 
 probably Mr. Harris was not aware of the dangers that 
 threatened the Shogun' s government, making him afraid 
 to carry out the treaty. What added to the burdens 
 and difficulties, already too heavy upon Mr. Harris, was 
 the apparent neglect of the authorities at Washington 
 in not communicating with him. For more than a year 
 after reaching Shimoda he received not a letter from 
 America. His stores gave out, and, compelled to re- 
 sort to Japanese food, his life as an exile beset with 
 so many annoyances began to wear away, his spirits 
 and health failed. And yet in spite of it all he evinced 
 an unconquerable will, and determined to meet the 
 strategies and deceptions of the Japanese officials with 
 'iruth, honesty and truth always, and with this weapon 
 ke finally won victory. 
 
 A signal example was the case of the President's let- 
 ter. This letter, addressed to the Emperor of Japan, 
 then supposed to be the Taikun or Shogun, was in- 
 trusted to Harris with instructions to deliver it in per- 
 son at Yedo. The Japanese invented every possible 
 excuse to prevent him from going up to Yedo. But he 
 remained firm in his demand, and though for many 
 months they refused to answer his communications, 
 finally, after a year's delay, the Yedo rulers agreed 
 that he should come to the capital in the person of an 
 American envoy. 
 
 The Shogun issued a proclamation to the officials: 
 "The present audience with the American Ambassador 
 will be a precedent for all foreign countries and must 
 lie attended with great care. As intercourse with the 
 loreign countries necessitates repeal ox an regulations 
 
296 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 and restrictions, the matter is attended with difficulty, 
 the possible evils cannot he foreseen." 
 
 Elaborate preparations were made for the American 
 envoy's journey. The government issued another or- 
 der to the officials along the way: "When the Amer- 
 ican ambassador visits Yedo, each householder is to 
 keep his portion of the road swept clean; travelers may 
 pass as usual, but beggars must be removed, and guards 
 must be stationed at the small guardhouses to suppress 
 disorder; sight-seers may stand at designated places, but 
 noise and confusion are not to be allowed." Mr. Har- 
 ris with all his insight and consideration, did not then 
 understand either the difficulty or the personal danger 
 to himself in making this journey. 
 
 On Monday, November 23, 1857, he started from 
 Shimoda, and as the Shogun had decided to receive him 
 in the most honorable manner, a great retinue was or- 
 dered to escort him after the fashion of a great Daimyo 
 or military lord. Besides the flag, Mr. Harris's guards 
 had the arms of the United States marked upon their 
 breasts, and all the packages had covers in which were 
 worked the same, and several little pennants of the 
 United States were flying from short bamboo sticks at- 
 tached to the articles of baggage. A strange cavalcade 
 that, an American envoy traveling in state to the capi- 
 tal with a Japanese escort numbering three hundred 
 men, including the Vice Governor and other officials. 
 Striking into the great national road, thirty or forty 
 feet wide, and bordered by noble cypress, pine, fir, 
 and camphor trees, he traveled sometimes near the sea 
 in sight of many white fishing sails, then was hid among 
 the hills, or skirted the foot of the mountains, but 
 everywhere was treated with distinguished honor by 
 the curious people along the way, who, in holiday garb, 
 
HARRIS PROCEEDS TO YEDO. 297 
 
 had come out to see the great American barbarian; and 
 those of rank saluted him, while all below rank knelt 
 with eyes averted from him. At every stopping place 
 the house was decorated with strips of cloth festooning 
 gateways and door, and the imperial colors. A stake 
 was always in place for hoisting the United States 
 nag. He observed that the country seemed prosperous, 
 the people well fed and clean, an equal absence of 
 wealth and poverty. Only one unpleasant episode oc- 
 curred along the whole way. At the gates of the Ha- 
 kone Pass the Japanese officials were going to search 
 his palanquin according to their regulations respecting 
 Japanese subjects. To this Mr. Harris justly objected 
 because, as the envoy of a foreign government, he was 
 not subject to their regulations. They insisted, saying 
 that it was a mere matter of form, but he remained firm, 
 and threatened to go back to Shimoda before he would 
 submit. He was allowed to pass without examination. 
 
 After a week's journey Mr. Harris with his retinue 
 passed in state into Yedo, the streets for seven miles 
 being lined with people eager to see the great foreigner. 
 Thus escorted by officials and guarded by rows of po- 
 licemen, armed with two swords, and standing in front 
 of the lines of people, he rode in his palanquin through 
 streets, across bridges and moats, until finally, borne at 
 a full run by his bearers through the gateway of the 
 high castle wall of stone, he was received at one of the 
 Shogun's houses by a prince, and with warm welcome 
 assigned his apartments. This was in truth an impor- 
 tant event in .Mr. Harris's life and more important in 
 the history of Japan, for he was the first foreign repre- 
 sentative received at the capital with the rights and 
 honors of embassy fully recognized. 
 
 Eight persons of rank having been appointed " Com- 
 
298 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 missioners of the American Ambassadors' voyage to 
 Yedo," he was waited upon by them in state and arrange- 
 ments were made for an audience with the Shogun and 
 presentation of the President's letter. 
 
 Awaiting the day, they attempted to get him mean- 
 while to promise not to go about in the city. Misun- 
 derstanding their motives and not aware of the danger 
 to his life, he refused to promise. As a matter of fact 
 two ronin (roving, bullying rowdies without a liege 
 lord) had made a conspiracy to assassinate the Ameri- 
 can. They were arrested and afterwards died in prison. 
 The Japanese authorities were truly anxious about the 
 American's safety, but were ashamed to tell him the 
 true situation, and, being a brave man, he was liable to 
 embarrass them unknowingly by exposing himself to 
 attack. As a thing to be noted, on the first Sunday in 
 Yedo, Mr. Harris, assisted by Mr. Heusken, read the 
 full service for the day according to the prayer book of 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church. As the American was 
 the first foreign flag ever planted in the capital, so this 
 was the first Christian service of the Protestant Church 
 ever celebrated. With paper doors pushed back and 
 with voices to be heard through the building, the 
 American Envoy and devout Christian read the scrip- 
 tures anal prayers in the name of Jesus Christ, a name 
 forbidden to be worshiped under penalty of death. In 
 his diary for this Sunday Mr. Harris says: "I mean to 
 demand for the Americans the free exercise of their re- 
 ligion in Japan, and to demand the abolition of the 
 trampling on the cross which the Dutch have basely 
 witnessed for two hundred and thirty years at Naga- 
 saki. I shall be both proud and happy if I can be the 
 humble means of once more opening Japan to the 
 blessed rule of Christianity." 
 
Harris's audience with the shogun. 299 
 
 Upon the appointed day Mr. Harris was conducted 
 forth to be received in audience by the Shogun. We 
 will let him describe the ceremony, omitting here and 
 there some details. "I was attended by the same es- 
 cort as on my visit to the Prime Minister. My dress 
 was a coat embroidered with gold, after the pattern 
 prescribed from Washington — blue pantaloons with 
 gold stripes down the legs, cocked hat with gold tas- 
 sels, and pearl-handle dress sword. On arriving at 
 the second moat all except the Prince and myself had 
 to leave their palanquins, and just before reaching the 
 bridge the Prince left his, together with the horses, 
 spears and attendants- At the bridge I left mine, 
 crossed it accompanied by Mr. Heusken, my interpreter 
 bearing the President's letter, and proceeded to the au- 
 dience hall. Before entering I put on my new shoes 
 and waited awhile. Informed that the time for the sm- 
 dience had come, I passed down by the Daimyos, who 
 were seated like so many statues. As we approached 
 the audience chamber, the Prince threw himself upon 
 his hands and knees, and a chamberlain cried in a loud 
 voice: 'Ambassador American!' About six feet from the 
 door, I halted and bowed, then advanced to the middle of 
 the chamber, halted and bowed again, the Prime Minister 
 and Great Council being prostrated on my right, the 
 three brothers of the Shogun likewise prostrated on my 
 left. Pausing a few seconds, I addressed the Shogun as 
 follows: 'May it please your Majesty, in presenting 
 my letters of credence from the President of the United 
 States, I am directed to express to your Majesty the sin- 
 cere wishes of the President for your health and happi- 
 ness and for the prosperity of your dominions. I con- 
 sider it a great honor that I have been selected to fill the 
 high and important place of Plenipotentiary at the court 
 
300 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 of your Majesty; and, as my earnest wish is to unite the 
 two countries more closely in the ties of enduring friend- 
 ship, my constant exertions shall be directed to the at- 
 tainment of that happy end.' After a short silence the 
 Shogun began jerking his head backward over his left 
 shoulder, at the same time stamping with his right foot. 
 This was repeated three or four times; then in a pleas- 
 ant and firm voice he spoke what was interpreted as 
 follows: ' Pleased with the letter sent with the Ambas- 
 sador from a far-distant country, and likewise pleased 
 with the discourse. Intercourse shall continue for- 
 ever.' Mr. Heusken, who had remained back at the 
 entrance, now advanced, bringing the President's letter 
 and bowed three times, whereupon the Prime Minis- 
 ter arose and stood upon his feet by my side. Opening 
 the box and showing the letters, the Prime Minister 
 received them upon the palms of his two hands and 
 then placed them upon the lacquered stand near by. 
 He then prostrated himself again before the Shogun 
 and I faced him. After a moment's pause, he dis- 
 missed me with a courteous bow. So ended my audi- 
 ence. As for the Shogun, he was seated upon a chair on 
 a platform raised about two feet above the floor. From 
 the ceiling there was hung in front of him a grass cur- 
 tain, rolled up and kept in place by large silk cords and 
 heavy tassels. His dress was silk with a little gold 
 woven through it, but was far removed from royal 
 splendor. No rich jewels, elaborate gold ornaments, 
 nor diamond-hilted weapons were seen. His crown was 
 a black lacquered cap of a bell shape. There was no 
 gilding in the audience hall, the wooden posts thereof 
 being unpainted, nor was there any furniture in any of 
 the rooms except the brasiers and the chairs brought in 
 for my use." 
 
HARRIS CONCLUDES BETTER TREATIES. 301 
 
 The Prince told Mr. Harris that all present at the 
 audience were amazed at his "greatness of soul," and 
 his bearing in the presence of Japan's mighty ruler: they 
 had expected him to he humble, to quake, and to speak 
 with faltering voice. 
 
 Anxious to negotiate a fuller treaty than Perry's, short- 
 ly after the audience Mr. Harris began to urge the mat- 
 ter upon the attention of the Prime Minister, to whom 
 he said: "By negotiating a treaty with me who am 
 purposely come to Yedo alone and without a single 
 man-of-war, the honor of Japan should be saved and 
 the country gradually opened." He named three points 
 to be covered by the treaty: first, the residence of for- 
 eign ministers in Yedo; second, freedom of trade with 
 the Japanese without the interference of government 
 officers; third, the opening of additional ports. 
 
 He further pointed out the danger and humiliation 
 that now threatened China from the fleets of the for- 
 eign powers, and how similar danger might soon 
 threaten Japan; but showed that, by voluntarily enter- 
 ing into relations of friendship and commerce, Japan 
 could become a prosperous and powerful nation. The 
 discourse lasted two hours, and the Prime Minister was 
 deeply impressed. But obstacles were great that stood 
 in the way of Japan's coming into closer relations with 
 the American or other foreign nation. At that very 
 hour the Shogun's government was a seething caldron. 
 
 The leading men of the clans, as well as the court 
 officers, had been stirred up over the reception of the 
 foreign envoy, the representative of a barbarian coun- 
 try, at the capital, and the honors accorded him. In- 
 deed, the fires of internal strife over the question of 
 opening the country to foreigners were threatening to 
 break out against the Shogun's government, and plots 
 
302 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 to murder the foreign barbarians were freely made by 
 reckless ronin. But Mr. Harris continued to urge the 
 necessity of making a better treaty, and finally com- 
 missioners were appointed to negotiate it, and meet- 
 ings were held for the purpose. After tedious and 
 vexatious negotiations for six weeks, a treaty was con- 
 cluded. The Daimyos had to be consulted, the Shogun's 
 brothers and the Council of State had to be won over. 
 The treaty included every important point that Mr. 
 Harris contended for, and was really a treaty of friend- 
 ship as well as commerce; such as, residence of diplomat- 
 ic and consular agents; the opening of additional ports, 
 as Kanagawa (Yokohama), Nagasaki, Hiogo (Kobe), 
 and American citizens to reside therein; exchange of 
 foreign coin, religious freedom, limits of foreign travel 
 fixed; mediation of the United States in differences be- 
 tween Japan and European powers; the right of Japan 
 to buy or build ships of war in the United States, and 
 to engage men for scientific instruction, and for admin- 
 istrative advice, etc. It was signed July 29, 1858, but 
 was not to go into effect until July 4, 1859. This new 
 treaty was forthwith reported to the Mikado at Kioto 
 for his sanction. The Shoguns had seen the day when 
 he was little sought; but now, with the tremendous op- 
 position to the new move the government was attempt- 
 ing, it was very desirable to secure the sanction of the 
 hitherto mere nominal sovereign. The Shogun's min- 
 isters dispatched for this purpose urged upon the court 
 the necessity of discontinuing the old policy of exclud- 
 ing foreigners and foreign trade; but notwithstanding 
 insinuations, intimidations, and persuasions, the Mikado 
 was induced by his courtiers to firmly refuse. The 
 Mikado's ministers questioned the Shogun's messengers 
 closely. "Does not the national sentiment abhor the 
 
MIKADO REFUSES TO SANCTION TREATIES. 303 
 
 treaty? What do < 1854 ' and ' 1858,' dates in the treaty 
 signify? Do these dates not show that America is j& 
 country of the evil sect (Christianity) ? What security 
 give you that the barbarians, whom you would let re- 
 side in Hiogo, will not defame the sacred capital? " It 
 was impossible to satisfy these questions, for who can 
 satisfy prejudice and ignorance? The great Daimyos in 
 in the South and Southwest were bitterly opposed to 
 opening the country, and among many of the populace 
 likewise the same sentiment was rife. Placards were 
 posted in the streets inciting to vengeance upon the 
 traitors who had befriended "strange folks." Thus 
 Harris's treaty became the occasion for two parties: the 
 one, the Mikado party, that hated foreigners and would 
 drive them away; the other, the Shogun party, who, 
 though not loving the foreigner, said that the times 
 were changed and that Japan could no longer maintain 
 her isolation, but must enter into treaty relations with 
 the great foreign powers. Hence, in spite of the clamor 
 against it, the Shogun's government subsequently con- 
 cluded with Great Britain, Russia, France, and Hol- 
 land treaties based upon those with the United States. 
 
 Before going into the tumultuous period that fol- 
 lowed the signing of the treaty with the American 
 envoy, a few more words about Mr. Harris. The his- 
 torians have not generally given him justice, least of 
 all the British, who imagine that the presence of their 
 conquering fleets in Chinese waters was the chief cause 
 of Japan's willingness to conclude a treaty with the 
 Americans. And Harris did make a discreet allusion 
 to the warlike events taking place on China's coast, 
 but in fact he did not use threats, he rather used 
 moral suasion and relied upon the power of truth to 
 persuade. He kindly, patiently instructed the Sho- 
 
304 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 gun's ministers. As Lis diaries show, he from day to 
 day gave them what was practically a course of instruc- 
 tion in international law and commerce and the prog- 
 ress of modern nations. As Mr. Nitobe, the Japanese 
 author of "Intercourse between Japan and the United 
 States," says: "While Commodore Perry used mild 
 words, his conduct was to the Japanese audacious, and 
 backed by his fleet, which he never used, he neverthe- 
 less inspired awe; but Mr. Harris was both gentle in 
 words and action, and inspired confidence." 
 
 Let us consider for a moment what he did and how 
 he did it. Accompanied by only one foreigner, a Hol- 
 lander, with not a semblance of military power of arms 
 or ships, he succeeded by the forces of reason — intelli- 
 gent counsel, firmness, persistence, and by manifest 
 truthfulness and honesty- — in persuading the Japanese 
 rulers at Yedo to conclude this fuller treaty of com- 
 merce and friendship. As seen above, Great Britain 
 and other nations were not slow to take advantage of 
 the American's patient toil and unprecedented achieve- 
 ment. But it came near costing the noble American 
 his life. Nature too long overtaxed could no longer 
 stand up; directly upon his return from Yedo to Shi- 
 moda he fell dangerously ill of nervous fever, and was 
 for many weeks near the door of death. 
 
 III. Stormy Seas. 
 
 It was a critical time in the history of Japan, and as 
 the Shogun had been apoplectic, Ii Kamon, Lord of Ha- 
 kone was appointed Regent, and soon became the head 
 of the progressive party, that favored making treaties 
 and trade with foreign nations. 
 
 Mito, a powerful and scheming vassal lord, became 
 the head of the party that opposed trade and friendship 
 
II KAMON ASSASSINATED. 305 
 
 with the foreigners. He was connected by family with 
 the reigning Shogun, and by marriage with the imperial 
 house and the wealthiest Daimyos. 
 
 Ii Kamon was a resolute and shrewd statesman, and 
 as Regent had the reins of government in his own hands. 
 He therefore began a bold policy of supjjressing his op- 
 ponents by causing the arrest of influential men con- 
 nected with Mito, and of high officers of the Mikado's 
 court. Five of the more powerful Daimyos were de- 
 posed and their vast estates turned over to their sons, 
 yet mere children. 
 
 Mito himself was ordered to remain in his own 
 house as a prisoner, and spies were appointed to watch 
 him. 
 
 The Regent now rewarded his friends and supporters 
 by giving them high position in the government. Of 
 course he knew he was playing a dangerous game. The 
 thing he now had to fear was assassination, and sure 
 enough it came to him. On the morning of the 23d of 
 March, 1860, a great levee was to be held in the Sho- 
 gun's castle, and now that all his enemies had been put 
 down, it was to be a day to glorify the young Shogun 
 and his able Regent. But alas for the Regent! Scarcely 
 had he emerged from his mansion, borne in his palan- 
 quin to the castle, when he was rushed upon by armed 
 men and killed; his head was cut off and sent to Mito's 
 city, and there exposed. 
 
 Great confusion followed and nobody knew what to 
 look for next. The Shogun was a youth, and his cabi- 
 net seemed stunned now that their able head had been 
 lost. Nothing was done, though it was clear that 
 Mito's retainers had perpetrated the deed. The assas- 
 sins voluntarily confessed the deed and gave as their 
 reason that Ii Kamon had admitted foreigners into the 
 20 
 
306 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 country by treaty, and that this was contrary to the 
 will of the Emperor. 
 
 Two things appear in all this: First, the bitter hatred 
 of the military class toward the foreigners; secondly, 
 the Emperor felt "his face fouled" by the making of 
 a treaty with the "barbarians" without his consent. 
 
 The government, now weakened by the loss of the able 
 and resolute Regent, and the Emperor's displeasure over 
 the treaty having become known, the country would at 
 once have been plunged into civil war but for the fear 
 of the hated foreigners, who were now at the door. For 
 the first time in their history the Japanese leaders felt 
 they must stand united because of the presence of the 
 foreign powers, whom they feared. All wished the for- 
 eign barbarians driven away, but it was not done; even 
 Mito, their archenemy, did not come forward to lead the 
 glorious war against the handful of hated foreigners 
 within the two or three treaty ports. Instead of open 
 war,- the assassin's role toward the foreigners was 
 adopted. Outrages on foreigners now followed in quick 
 succession. 
 
 Pursuant to the Harris treaty, a minister was ap- 
 pointed to the Shogun's court in Yedo by the United 
 States government, and Mr. Harris* himself was the 
 man, with Mr. Heusken as the Legation secretary. 
 Other foreign ministers also took up residence in the 
 Shogun's capital. But on the 14th of January, 1861, 
 Mr. Heusken was attacked by night and murdered. 
 The Shogun's government was alarmed, and sent a note 
 warning the foreign legations not to attend Mr. Heus- 
 ken's funeral, lest there might be an attack upon all 
 of them; but they did attend, and there was no outbreak. 
 
 *See p. 293. 
 
JAPANESE EMBASSY TO WASHINGTON. 307 
 
 In July the British legation was attacked by rouin 
 banded together to kill the accursed foreigners, and this 
 notwithstanding the government had stationed a Japa- 
 nese guard. Several of the guards were killed, and two 
 Britishers were severely wounded. The Shogun's min- 
 isters were now filled with alarm, and humiliation too, 
 seeing that they were unable to protect the foreign le- 
 gations, and fearing the foreign powers might be pro- 
 voked into war. The truth is, the Shogun's government 
 was playing a false part by trying to keep the represent- 
 atives of foreign powers in the dark as to the unfriendly 
 complications that now existed between the two courts 
 of Yedo and Kioto, and as to the fact that the Southern 
 and Southwestern Daimyos were agitating the rights of 
 the Emperor and forming an anti-Shogun party. 
 
 Meanwhile, through the agency of Mr. Harris, an em- 
 bassy was sent by the Japanese to Washington. Com- 
 posed of influential personages, and everywhere received 
 with kindness and honor, the embassy's visit to San 
 Francisco, Washington, Baltimore, and other cities did 
 much good. It showed the Americans that among the 
 Japanese were men of astute minds and graceful man- 
 ners; and to the Japanese, that the Americans were not 
 "barbarians." Receiving such distinguished attention 
 and kindness, they felt ashamed, so they confessed aft- 
 erwards, of the haughtiness and cruelty which they had 
 inflicted upon foreigners that had come to their country. 
 
 In Japan, discontent and turmoil continued. The 
 years 1862-64 are memorable for the murderous attacks 
 upon foreigners. It seems that the anti-Shogun party 
 (the Imperialists) were determined, if possible, to bring- 
 on war between the Shogun's government and the for- 
 eign powers, and what increased the embarrassment of 
 the Shogun's ministers was the loss of Mr. Harris, who 
 
308 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 had become their trusted counselor and educator in ev- 
 erything pertaining to foreign affairs. Though they ad- 
 dressed a formal letter to President Lincoln, requesting 
 that Mr. Harris's resignation be not accepted, he felt 
 compelled to return to the United States, and they with 
 great regret saw him leave their country. In these stoimy 
 times, and sailing upon unknown seas, they felt the need 
 of such a foreign friend and counselor. The Hon. Rob- 
 ert H. Pruyn came as his successor, in April, 1862. Ev- 
 ery fresh outbreak upon the foreigners, the Shogun's 
 government being powerless to prevent it, was taken as 
 a positive proof of the folly and danger of opening the 
 country; and hence a strong party, led by the powerful 
 Daimyos of Choshu and Satsuma, gathered around the 
 Emperor as against the Shogun. Even the marriage of 
 the young Shogun to the Emperor's sister did not heal 
 the breach. 
 
 Meanwhile the Mikado requested an assembly of Dai- 
 myos at Yedo for a conference with the Shogun and his 
 ministers, one of his own court nobles being present as 
 his representative. This assembly brought no help to 
 the Shogun in his troubles. 
 
 Shimadzu, lord of Satsuma, having gone on to Yedo, 
 where he* was received coolly, and failing to influence 
 the Shogun to expel the foreigners, started back by the 
 great national road from Yedo to Kioto. When he was 
 near the newly opened treaty port of Yokohama, he and 
 his train were met by a party .of Englishmen who were 
 out for a ride, one C. L. Richardson being the leader. 
 Refusing to turn aside from the road, or even to salute 
 the Daimyo, as had been the custom for generations, and 
 though besought by his companions to turn back, Rich- 
 ardson rashly pushed forward, and when opposite the 
 Daimyo's palanquin was set upon by his guard and mor- 
 
ATTACKS UPON FOKEIGNEES. 309 
 
 tally wounded. The rest escaped. The British govern- 
 ment demanded an indemnity of $300,000 of the Shogun, 
 $100,000 of Satsuma, and the surrender of the slayers. 
 This was refused, and the matter was referred to Lon- 
 don. 
 
 Meanwhile, as early as the spring of 1863, another 
 assembly of Daimyos had taken place at Kioto, and the 
 Shogun himself, for the first time in over two hundred 
 years, had proceeded to Kioto to confer with the Em- 
 peror. The peaceful suburbs of the imperial capital 
 once more clanked with troops and arms, as if for war. 
 An edict from the Mikado was read out before this as- 
 sembly, saying it was his will that the obnoxious "bar- 
 barians " be brushed out, and the Shogun's Prime Minis- 
 ter was to fix the day. The Mikado now proposed to 
 make a pilgrimage with the Shogun to the temple of the 
 war god Hachiman, where he should deliver to him 
 Oj in's sword, to use in the holy war of driving out the 
 miserable ' ' barbarians. " But the Shogun feigned being 
 ill, and the holy war was never undertaken. But every- 
 where the Samurai were stirring; Kioto was increas- 
 ing, and Yedo was decreasing, and the anti-foreign side 
 was growing more determined against the Shogun's 
 policy of opening the country. Now that the Mikado 
 had said, "Brush away the barbarians!'''' it is loyal to 
 do so. 
 
 The American legation was attacked and burned, the 
 Minister, Mr. Pruyn, barely escaping. Fleeing to a 
 temple, he was warned of another attack, and had to 
 escape by going on board a Japanese vessel, that brought 
 him to Yokohama. The United States Consul and the 
 missionaries were likewise warned to flee for their lives. 
 An American merchant was threatened by his own 
 Japanese clerks and servants. A Mr. Stearns was at- 
 
310 japan: country, court, teoplE!. 
 
 tacked and robbed, and Mr. Robertson was seized while 
 sick in bed, and carried off to a swamp. 
 
 Twice even the Shogun's castle was destroyed by fire, 
 and a Japanese was assassinated merely for intimating 
 that the foreign powers were too strong for Japan. 
 Murderous assaults were made upon the British subjects 
 residing in the treaty port of Nagasaki; a French lieu- 
 tenant was assassinated a little afterwards, and two 
 British officers were murdered. 
 
 The Shogun's government was now placed between 
 two fires, on the one side unable to give protection to 
 the foreigners or carry out the treaties; on the other 
 side, it was being harassed by the imperialists under the 
 lead of the powerful Daimyos of Choshu and others. 
 
 Speaking of Choshu recalls a coup d'etat planned by 
 the Daimyo of that powerful clan. According to the 
 Oriental fashion, the sovereign is first seized, and then 
 through him whatever edicts and laws they desire to le- 
 galize their enterprise are issued. Choshu having been the 
 rallying ground of all the malcontents in the land, the 
 Daimyo, followed by a troop of Samurai of his own 
 province and ronin of other provinces, marched up to 
 Kioto and in collusion with several of the court nobles 
 were about to seize the Mikado, but the Shogun's spies 
 discovered the plot and the Mikado was informed in 
 time. In great anger he ordered the Choshu leaders 
 with their troops to leave the capital and never again to 
 enter its precincts. Thus disgraced, the Choshu peo- 
 ple, with seven court nobles, had to retire from Kioto. 
 
 In the summer of 1864 Choshu, having been greatly 
 reenforced, marched again on Kioto, intending to reen- 
 ter and take their old position. They were forbidden to 
 enter the city, and the troops of Satsuma, Aidzu, and 
 Echizen, under the command of the Regent, were there 
 
shogun's government in a turmoil. 311 
 
 and put themselves in readiness. The battle was at 
 the gates and in the streets, and the greater portion of 
 the city was destroyed by fire. The Choshu men were 
 overpowered, though they fought with bravery. A lit- 
 tle after this battle the embassy returned from Europe, 
 the second one sent abroad, making the astonishing state- 
 ment: "Not the foreigners, but we are the barbarians.'''' 
 This was traitorous news, but the Shogun's cause was 
 not bettered. The Shogun was ordered to chastise 
 Choshu, which he attempted to do, but in the first place 
 Satsuma refused to join him, and the Shogun" 1 s troops 
 were defeated in battle with the Choshu forces. The 
 Shogun lost prestige by his defeat, and never regained 
 it. Meanwhile the English squadron having been or- 
 dered to punish the Daimyo of Satsuma for the murder 
 of Richardson, sailed around to Kagoshima, Satsuma's 
 capital of 180,000 souls, and opened fire, almost destroy- 
 ing the city, and burned the Daimyo's three new ships, 
 recently bought. This opened the proud Daimyo's 
 eyes and he had to pay the full indemnity in cash, 
 and see his batteries, factories, etc., destroyed; but 
 though Immbled and convinced that it was folly to 
 measure arms with the foreigners, he resolved with 
 the characteristic energy and courage of the Kiushiu 
 people that he would get hold of the secret of their 
 power. He was therefore the first of the territorial lords 
 to send students to Holland to study, and he employed 
 Europeans to teach his people the arts and arms of 
 modern warfare. 
 
 The next year another most disastrous affair took 
 place, which both humbled the Daimyo of Choshu and 
 opened his eyes also to the true situation of Japan in 
 the presence of foreign powers. . He had procured from 
 Holland or other Western country some war ships 
 
312 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 armed and drilled his Samurai according to modern 
 ways, and had planted his batteries upon the heights 
 of the Shimonoseki straits, at the western mouth of the 
 Inland Sea. In June his batteries opened fire on the 
 United States ship Pembroke; the next month a French 
 man of war was seriously injured; and still later, a 
 Dutch vessel was attacked. Even one of the Shogurts 
 ships toas fired upon. 
 
 For these hostile acts the United States warship Wy- 
 oming was sent to bombard the place, and then two 
 French vessels went and did the same; but for all that, 
 Choshu was still defiant. Wherefore seeing the Sho- 
 gun was neither able to keep open the Inland Sea to 
 foreign ships, nor bring the Daimyo to a peaceful tem- 
 per of mind, the foreign powers united in an expedition 
 consisting of seventeen vessels, and went to pay their 
 respects and teach Choshu the error of his ways. The 
 attack of the united fleet, British, French, Dutch, and 
 American— ho wbeit the Americans had only one steam 
 vessel which had been chartered for the purpose of fly- 
 ing the United States flag — was made on the 5th' of Sep- 
 tember, 1864, and it brought the Choshu lord into abso- 
 lute submission. 
 
 The foreign ministers then called a conference with 
 the Shogun's foreign minister and demanded an indem- 
 nity of three million dollars. It is but just to say that 
 this sum was unnecessarily heavy and unreasonable. 
 The Shogun had apologized for the firing upon foreign 
 ships, and it was perfectly plain that in the disordered 
 condition of affairs he was unable to quell his unruly 
 and powerful Daimyos. It is therefore with gratifica- 
 tion that record .is here made of the act of Congress in 
 1873, by which our share of the indemnity, $785,000, 
 was voluntarily returned to Japan. 
 
THE TREATIES RATIFIED. 313 
 
 In the meantime the conflict between the Shogun's 
 government at Yedo and the Mikado's court at Kioto 
 became more threatening. Both parties were now con- 
 vinced that brushing out the foreigners was no easy 
 thing. The powerful Damryos of Satsuma and Choshu 
 had learned by experience the folly of that policy. 
 The southern Daimyos would no longer render alle- 
 giance to the Shogun, and like falling stars matters 
 hastened to a crisis, the issue being which should be su- 
 preme, the Mikado or the Shogun. Many of the wisest 
 men saw that, under the changed conditions of treaties 
 and trade with foreign nations, Japan must have one 
 head and not two. What hastened this conflict be- 
 tween Yedo and Kioto was the decision of the foreign 
 ministers to recognize only the legal head and sovereign 
 of the nation, and to demand the ratification of the 
 treaties by the Mikado. Accordingly Mr. Pruyn, the 
 American, and the other ministers proceeded to sea 
 from Yedo to Hiogo, and thence opened communica- 
 tion with Kioto, urging the Mikado to ratify the trea- 
 ties immediately. In November, 1865, the Mikado 
 formally ratified the treaties. This action greatly 
 strengthened the party of the imperialists against the 
 Shogun. 
 
 Shortly afterwards the young Shogun died in his cas- 
 tle at Osaka. His successor, under the title of Yoshin- 
 obu, took the reigns of government, but soon found 
 that the power and glory of the Tokugawas was fad- 
 ing away. Besides the action of the Daimyos of the 
 South and Southwest in rallying around the Mikado as 
 against the Shogun, and besides the recent action of 
 the foreign ministers in seeking the Mikado's sanction 
 of the treaties, thus proclaiming to the whole Japanese 
 world that he alone was the lawful sovereign, there 
 
314 
 
 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 was a third powerful source of influence destructive of 
 the Shogunate and favoring the restoration of the Mi- 
 kado's power. Under the light of the Dutch learning, 
 some of the brightest scholars of the nation had been 
 studying the history of other nations, and their own. 
 They had discovered in these studies that in the early 
 ages their nation had had hut one ruler, the Emperor, 
 who governed in his own person and authority; that 
 gradually the Shoguns had robbed him of his power, 
 until finally they pushed him aside and shut him up 
 in his palace, a shadowy and harmless, but sacred figure, 
 while they held the scepter of power over the nation. 
 These scholar patriots united their voice with the rest- 
 ive Southern Daimyos, crying, "Down with the Sho- 
 gun! up with the Emperor!" 
 
 We have spoken of the death of the Shogun; the be- 
 ginning of the next year (1867) saw the death of the 
 Mikado. He died of smallpox, a disease that the low- 
 est classes die of, and some were inclined to think that 
 this disease was sent upon the Emperor as a curse from 
 heaven because he sanctioned the treaties with the "bar- 
 barians." In the autumn of the same year the Daimyo 
 of Tosa sent a remarkable, memorial to the Shogun: 
 "The reason why Japan's affairs do not go straight is, 
 there are two heads, and the two sets of eyes and ears 
 turn in different directions. Your Highness should 
 give back the supreme power into the hands of the 
 sovereign, in order to lay the foundations upon which 
 Japan may take its place as the equal of other coun- 
 tries." The Shogun, upon this advice, addressed a 
 letter to his vassals, proposing to resign the Shogun- 
 ate and give back the supreme power into the hands 
 of the imperial court. Though none of his great 
 vassals openly opposed it, there was deep discontent. 
 
WAR OF REVOLUTION. 315 
 
 In November, 1867, the Shogun sent his resignation to 
 the Emperor. It was accepted in solemn form, but he 
 was requested to continue temporarily the administra- 
 tion of the government, excepting what pertained to 
 difficulties with the Daimyos. 
 
 IV. War of Revolution and Restoration (1868). 
 
 Though the Shogun had thus resigned, his vassal 
 Daimyos and lords of Kwanto and the North were by no 
 means ready to see the old and honored dynasty of the 
 Tokugawas fall to the ground in such a fashion, and 
 were determined to uphold the power of the Shogunate 
 if need be by fighting. In Yedo especially, the news 
 threw the city into excitement. They could not believe 
 it. It is said that the wavering Shogun soon regretted 
 his resignation, and that when he offered to give up the 
 government he was hoping that his resignation would 
 not be accepted. The Mikado had accepted his resigna- 
 tion, but requested him to continue the administration 
 of affairs temporarily. But certain astute personages 
 of the Mikado's court, together with leaders from among 
 the Southern Daimyos, who had labored so long for the 
 overthrow of the Tokugawa rule, were not willing to 
 wait. They determined upon a coup d'etat, by which to 
 make sure of the situation against the Shogun and his 
 supporters. Accordingly, with sudden surprise to the 
 Shogun, who was at that time staying in his Kioto cas- 
 tle, they seized the palace gates, dismissed the Aidzu 
 clan, who had always guarded them and who were loyal 
 to the Shogun, and replaced them by troops of Satsuma 
 and other Southern clans. The court nobles favorable 
 to the Shogun's cause were dismissed, and by a so-called 
 edict the offices of Kwambaku and Shogun were abol- 
 ished. A provisional government was forthwith planned, 
 
316 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 with suitable men for the several departments. A de< 
 cree was issued declaring that henceforth the govern- 
 ment of the country was solely in the hands of the im- 
 perial court. It was a revolution.. One of the first acts 
 of the new government was the recall of the Choshu 
 Daimyo and the banished court nobles who had in 1863 
 been expelled from Kioto; the Choshu troops were also 
 given an honored place with the royalist clans in guard- 
 ing the imperial palace. But who is the new Emperor? 
 He has not yet emerged before the public, but will do 
 so soon. The Shogun offended and the Aidzu and other 
 troops devoted to him being angered, he withdrew by 
 night from Kioto into his Osaka castle, forty miles away. 
 
 The situation was now critical; civil war was impend- 
 ing. The ex-Shogun, as we henceforth name him, hav- 
 ing been invited to come back to Kioto with the prom- 
 ise that he shall be treated with honor, was suspicious 
 of a plot against him, and resolved to proceed with a 
 body of troops and deliver the young Emperor from his 
 advisers. But by order of the court he was declared a 
 traitor and forbidden to enter the city. The "loyal" 
 army marched out against him, met him at Fushimi, near 
 Kioto, and the civil war's first battle was fought. The 
 ex-Shogun was badly beaten and retreated back to Osa- 
 ka castle, £nd thence fled by sea to Yedo, followed later 
 by troops of the Aidzu and other elans. Meanwhile 
 the foreign Ministers instructed their nationals in the 
 treaty ports to observe strict neutrality, furnishing arms 
 to neither side. 
 
 An outbreak upon the foreigners in Hyogo, which had 
 just been opened, was led by a captain of Japanese 
 troops. A company of noncombatant foreigners were 
 wantonly fired upon and stampeded. The new govern- 
 ment sent an envoy to wait upon the foreign ministers 
 
ENGLISH MINISTEE ATTACKED. 317 
 
 at Hyogo, and to declare by official letter that the Sho- 
 gun had resigned, and thenceforth the Emperor would 
 exercise the supreme power, and had established a for- 
 eign department in his government; and therefore that all 
 attacks upon foreigners would be punished and the trea- 
 ties carried out. The Japanese captain mentioned above 
 was sentenced to hara hiri and beheading. This letter, 
 delivered in the most solemn manner, was signed by the 
 young Emperor, Mutsuhito, being the first time that the 
 personal name of an Emperor has been made public. As 
 a proof of the good will of the new government the 
 foreign Ministers were invited to visit Kioto and be re- 
 ceived in audience by the young Emperor. England, 
 France, and Holland accepted. But when Sir Harry 
 Parks, the English minister, with his suite, was pro- 
 ceeding to the palace a murderous attack was made upon 
 him in the streets by two anti-foreign Samurai., The 
 next day the Emperor was visited in safety. A little 
 earlier a French officer and ten sailors were murdered 
 at Sakai, near Osaka. Three days later the murderers 
 were given up to be put to death, and when eleven had 
 committed hara Jciri in the presence of the French offi- 
 cer he interposed in behalf of the other nine, and their 
 lives were spared. In the meantime, the court having 
 mobilized an army and the Emperor having appointed 
 his uncle commander in chief, the civil war shifts to 
 Yedo, in the East. 
 
 First, the Shogun's troops burned down the Satsuma 
 Yashiki in Yedo, occupied by some Satsuma Samurai. 
 As the imperial army approached the Shogun sought 
 negotiations and agreed to evacuate his castle, surrender 
 his ships and munitions of war, and retire to private life 
 at Mito. So, leaving the capital founded by Tokugawa 
 Iyeyasu and made famous by a long and powerful rule. 
 
318 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 the last of the line disappeared from the field. The 
 Tokugawa dynasty of Shoguns thus passed into history, 
 never to live or flourish again. But the war was not 
 ended. The last of the Shoguns left Yedo, but his sup- 
 porters, in all more than twenty Daimyos of Kwanto and 
 the North, refused to disband, and continued the strug- 
 gle. On July 4th a battle was fought in the temple 
 grounds of Toyezan (now called Uyeno Park). The 
 rebels were defeated, and the most splendid of all the 
 Yedo temples was totally burned. 
 
 Having seized the high priest (an imperial prince) 
 and made him their Emperor, the rebels fled northward 
 to Aidzu. The struggle for the possession of the chief 
 towns in the North was an obstinate one. The Northern 
 braves defended their castles with courage and fortitude, 
 but at last all were captured, and they had to flee to 
 the island of Yezo. Meanwhile Admiral Enomoto, 
 commanding the ex-Shogim's fleet, and refusing to sur- 
 render it, escaped by night from Yedo Bay, and with 
 eight ships sailed to Hakodate, there to cooperate with 
 the land forces. It was the declared purpose of the 
 rebels to establish in Yezo Island a new kingdom, but, 
 after a fruitless struggle of a year and a half, Admiral 
 Enomoto surrendered his fleet, and the civil war came to 
 an end. Be" it said to the credit of the Emperor's gov- 
 ernment, that in the main clemency was extended to 
 the leaders of the rebel side. For example, Enomoto 
 was afterwards sent as Minister to St. Petersburg.* 
 
 Turning back to the events of the new imperial court 
 at Kioto, we discover that a government of eight de. 
 partments had been organized, including: (1) the su- 
 
 *One exception to clemency was the case of Kondo Isami, 
 who was brought in a cage to Yedo, beheaded, and his head 
 sent in liquor to Kioto. 
 
THE EMPEROR BECOMES ACTUAL RULER. 319 
 
 preme administration; (2) the Shinto religion; (3) for- 
 eign affairs, and so on. Able and far-seeing men were 
 behind every movement in the new order. One of 
 them, Okubo, made a novel and startling proposition 
 in a memorial addressed to the throne. It was, in 
 brief, that, contrary to the custom of his ancestors, the 
 Emperor should come forth from behind the screen, and 
 take the rule of the country into his own hands, sub- 
 jecting all his court and government to his personal su- 
 pervision; and that to this end the capital and court be 
 transferred from Kioto to Osaka. Okubo knew how 
 difficult it would be to abandon the old traditions and 
 set aside the age-long customs of the puppet Mikados 
 if the young Emperor remained in the old capital at 
 Kioto. Such a proposal in former times would have 
 been regarded as treason and would have cost the pro- 
 poser his life. But now the men who surround the 
 young Emperor breathe the freer air of a new life. Oku- 
 bo's plan was welcomed, and, after discussion, a change 
 of capital was decided upon. The young Emperor, Mut- 
 suhito, sixteen years old, came in person before the coun- 
 cil of state, court nobles, and Daimyos, and in their pres- 
 ence took an oath (April 17, 1869) as actual ruler, prom- 
 ising: (1) That a deliberative assembly shall be formed 
 and all questions decided by public opinion; (2) that 
 uncivilized customs of former times shall be abandoned; 
 (3) justice and impartiality according to nature shall 
 be made the basis of action; (4) intellect and learning 
 throughout the world shall be sought for. This char- 
 ter oath is the basis of the modern constitution of Ja- 
 pan. The youthful Emperor standing in the assembly 
 of the court and the Daimyos, and swearing to grant 
 them a representative assembly, and that the uncivil- 
 ized customs of Japan shall be broken away from, was 
 
320 
 
 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 a fine subject for a painting. Of course it is not to be 
 supposed that he realized the full meaning of the words 
 that he had been taught to use by his counselors, but 
 they evidently knew what they were doing. Follow- 
 ing the victorious army, the young Emperor and his 
 court bade farewell to ancient Kioto in November, 1869, 
 and set up his - throne in Yedo, his new capital, changed 
 to Tokyo. It was the Restoration. The one serious mis- 
 take — so far as we can see, the only mistake — which the 
 young Emperor's counselors made at that critical and 
 
 EMPEROR AND EMPRESS OP JAPAN. 
 
 revolutionary time was the hostile position taken toward 
 Christianity. The old edict of the Tokugawa Shoguns 
 against Christianity was renewed, as follows: "The 
 wicked sect called Christians is strictly prohibited. Sus- 
 pected persons shall be denounced to the officials, and re- 
 wards (for the information given) shall be distributed." 
 The foreign ministers protested, but without avail, ex- 
 cept that the words "wicked sect" were omitted. The 
 decree was issued under, the plea that universal public 
 sentiment against Christianity strongly demanded it. 
 
OPPOSITION' TO MISSIONARIES. 321 
 
 Just the year previous the Japanese authorities were 
 taken with surprise hy discovering a community of 
 Christians a little north of Nagasaki, a remnant of the 
 Roman Catholic Church that had not been extermi- 
 nated. Notwithstanding the severe laws and cruel 
 punishments carried out against Christians for two 
 hundred years, it is truly astonishing that a commu- 
 nity of them had secretly maintained their faith in a 
 dim way and handed it down through many genera- 
 tions. In 1868 the imperial government ordered the 
 whole community where the Christians lived, number- 
 ing three thousand, to be deported into exile and dis- 
 tributed as laborers among thirty-four Daimyos of the 
 land. Kido of Choshu, and a leader in these stirring 
 times of the War of the Restoration, was sent to Na- 
 gasaki to superintend the deportation of the condemned 
 Christians. • The English Consul at Nagasaki remon- 
 strated, with the result that only one hundred and 
 twenty harmless Christians were sent away by ship to 
 Kaga. Kido attempted to justify this barbarous treat- 
 ment by accusing the missionaries of having come to 
 Japan to tempt the people to violate the laws. This 
 was probably a natural mistake for the leaders of the 
 Restoration to make, but it was very unfortunate that 
 they should take up precisely the same position toward 
 Christianity as the Tokugwara Shoguns, whose rule was 
 now being overthrown. Though such a hostile feeling 
 toward Christianity was a great wrong and very unwise, 
 it was of a piece with the policy of the new imperialism 
 of the restoration in attempting to make the Shinto reli- 
 gion the state religion, the only religion of Japan, and 
 have the young Emperor recognized as the divine head 
 both of religion and of the state. The young Emperor's 
 advisers would have him launch the rew Japan upon 
 21 
 
322 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 the great stream of modern enlightenment and repre- 
 sentative government in the old ship of the heathen re- 
 ligion — an impossible thing. 
 
 V. Christianity Again Comes In. 
 
 For the facts in this section we are chiefly indebted 
 to the late revered Dr. Guido F. Verbeck, one of the 
 pioneer missionaries, and to "Ritter's History of Prot- 
 estant Missions in Japan." When, in 1854, it became 
 known in America and Great Britain that Japan had 
 made treaties of amity and peace with several Western 
 powers, the friends of missions were particularly inter- 
 ested in the event, for now at last that country was 
 again to be opened and Christianity to carry its message 
 of light and help to the millions of Japanese. If Chris- 
 tianity brought to them by the Roman Catholics in 
 1549 had been so successful, and native converts had 
 shown such heroic fidelity to the cross of Jesus in time 
 of fiery persecution, what might not now be hoped 
 from the introduction of the purer Protestant form of 
 the Christian religion? 
 
 As soon as permanent residence for foreigners in the 
 treaty ports was secured, which was not until 1859, 
 missionaries were sent out by three Protestant bodies, 
 the Protestant Episcopal, the United Presbyterian, and 
 the Dutch Reformed, all from the United States. 
 Prior to this, occasional visits had been made by mis- 
 sionaries in Shanghai, China; but there were no resident 
 missionaries until 1859. The next year the American 
 Baptists sent a missionary. For ten years these four 
 were the only missions represented in Japan. 
 
 The first period, from 1859 to 1872, was the period of 
 persecution and imprisonment. The missionaries, while 
 untouched by the violent hand of the rulers, were prac- 
 
THE MISSIONARIES PERSECUTED. 323 
 
 tically regarded as enemies of the country, "come to 
 tempt the people to violate the laws." As we have 
 seen, it was a time of political turmoil resulting, in the 
 overthow of the Tokugawa Shoguns at Yedo, and the 
 restoration of the Mikado to the throne. The state of 
 the country was peculiar, and often dangerous. The 
 missionaries, much to their grief, soon found they were 
 everywhere regarded with suspicion; and their inter- 
 course with natives, even within the "foreign settle- 
 ment" was constantly watched by government spies. 
 Indeed, for a period of four years after their arrival 
 the Shogun's government frequently sent officials 
 to visit the missionaries, as if making a friendly 
 call, hut really they were spies. In Yokohama no 
 teacher could he secured until March, 1869, and he was 
 a government spy. A proposal to translate the Scrip- 
 tures caused him to withdraw frightened. Even the 
 mention of Christianity would cause an involuntary 
 throwing of the hand to the throat, as a sign that the 
 Japanese would he beheaded if they should give ear to 
 such things. There was at that time a system of in- 
 formers and spies in full swing throughout the country; 
 there was no mutual confidence between man and man, 
 and hence the natives were all the more inaccessible to 
 the missionaries respecting the one and only cause for 
 which they had come. 
 
 There was naturally much that was perplexing, dis- 
 couraging, and dangerous to life and limb. Believing 
 that the missionaries had come to seduce them from 
 their loyalty to the god-country (Japan), and to corrupt 
 their morals generally, it was a time of murderous at- 
 tacks, without either warning or protection. The man 
 who killed a foreigner was a patriot, the more so if he 
 put an end to a teacher of the "wicked sect," a mission- 
 
324 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 ary. The missionaries dared not, at the risk of their 
 lives, set their feet beyond the limits of the treaty settle- 
 ment. It was contrary to treaty regulations, which the 
 missionaries could not wish to disregard; hut even had 
 it been lawful, it would have been extremely perilous, 
 because the first group of two-sworded Samurai the mis- 
 sionary would meet would be after cutting him to 
 pieces as if they were slashing a dog. These swagger- 
 ing Samurai were particularly hostile to foreigners, and 
 doubly so toward the missionary, and eager to slake the 
 thirst of their " rollicking blades " in his blood. While 
 the common people feared the missionaries, the ruling 
 class hated them, nor was it abated, as might have been 
 hoped, when the Shogun's government was replaced by 
 the restoration of the Emperor. For, as already seen, one 
 of the first acts of the Emperor was the renewal of the 
 edict against Christianity making it a crime along with 
 murder, arson, etc. The persecution of the Roman Cath- 
 olics from 1869 to 1872, as previously recorded, needs no 
 further comment here; it simply proves that the new ruler 
 and his advisers were in dead earnest when they issued 
 that edict. "In fact," says Dr. Verbeck, than whom 
 there is no more reliable witness, for he was on the 
 ground at the time, " even late in this period Christian- 
 ity was regarded in some communities with intense 
 hatred and fear, and the Joi (" barbarian expelling ") rage 
 was at its height." A few examples will suffice. Mr. 
 Satow, now the Hon. British Ambassador to Japan, and 
 two or three other foreigners went up to Yedo in 1869, 
 and as they walked through the city they met a number 
 of " rollicking blades " and angry scowls, but, being at- 
 tended by an armed guard, they were not attacked. 
 Mr. Verbeck, shut up in the school for so long without 
 air ond exercise, felt that he must get out, and though 
 
PERSECUTION OE THE CHRISTIANS. 325 
 
 he was accompanied by two of his students, who were 
 armed with two swords, being advised to do so, he 
 called to go with him four armed guards, instead of the 
 two usually alloted to a foreigner when he ventures to 
 go out. On the way he met a number of those "rol- 
 licking blades," and felt a sense of relief when once 
 safe at home again. 
 
 In 1868 a young Buddhist priest, baptized at Naga- 
 saki, was afterwards cast into prison, when Dr. Ver- 
 beck went away to live in the North, and endured much 
 suffering in various prisons for five years. 
 
 At a later date when inquiry was made of the Gov- 
 ernor of Kobe whether a native bookseller would be al- 
 lowed to sell the English Bible, the reply was that any 
 Japanese bookseller knowingly selling the Bible would 
 have to go to prison. Showing what native believers 
 had to endure in some parts, as late as 1871, the story 
 of Mr. O. H. Gulick's teacher at Kobe fully illustrates. 
 In the spring of that year the teacher and his wife were 
 arrested at the dead of night and thrown into prison. 
 His only crime was that he had been an earnest student 
 of the Bible and had expressed a desire to be baptized. 
 His wife was not then regarded as a Christian. Every 
 effort was made to secure his release, both by missiona- 
 ries and the American Consul at Kobe. To the mis- 
 sionaries the governor frankly stated that if the mar) 
 had received baptism there was no possibility of his es- 
 caping the death penalty; if he had not been baptized, 
 his life might be spared. Where the unfortunate man 
 had been imprisoned could not be discovered until some 
 time afterwards, when it transpired that, not being able 
 to withstand the miseries of his condition, he died in 
 prison in Kioto in 1872. 
 
 In 1869 one of the imperial Councilors was assas- 
 
326 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 siiiated in Kioto because he was suspected of being in- 
 clined toward the ' ' wicked opinions " — that is, Christian- 
 ity. It is on record that certain Christian dijDlomats 
 were urging upon a high official of the Japanese gov- 
 ernment the stopping of the persecution of Christians. 
 He remarked to them in reply that Christianity would 
 be opposed like an invading army. It seems that the 
 advisers of the government were laboring under the 
 gross misconception that the Protestant religion, no less 
 than the Roman Catholic, would undermine the throne; 
 and how could the Emperor allow the foundation of his 
 throne to thus be undermined by the wicked foreign re- 
 ligion ? It has been recorded that the governor of Yo- 
 kohama forbade the people going to Dr. Hepburn's free 
 dispensary because so many were flocking to him for 
 relief from their ailments. With these facts before us, 
 was ever a field so unpromising? When the profession 
 of Christian faith is proclaimed a crime to be punished 
 with death by the rulers of the land; when the lower 
 classes fear, and the upper classes cordially hate, the 
 missionaries; when they themselves are shut up, as it 
 were, in the narrow limits of the foreign concessions — 
 what could the missionaries do? Some of the Churches 
 in America, which had been so forward in sending out 
 the first missionaries to Japan, began now to think that 
 a mistake had been made, and impatiently wrote to 
 them, asking: "What are you doing?"- 
 
 There were two things, and only two, which the mis- 
 sionaries could do under such trying circumstances: win 
 the confidence of the Jaj>anese, and master their lan- 
 guage. By living forth the teachings of their own 
 Master and by diligent study of the language they were 
 sure of winning, finally, access to the ear and heart of 
 the nation. 
 
GROSS IMMORALITY. 327 
 
 But as to the mastery of the language, unfortunately 
 tfiere was not a single Japanese who knew how to im- 
 part it to a foreigner.* The Japanese had never made 
 a grammar of their own language, and knew little or 
 nothing ahout the scientific study of it, and of course 
 there was no Japanese-English dictionary, no manual nor 
 vocabularies. It was left to the missionary and consu- 
 lar bodies in Japan to make their own tools, the gram- 
 mars, manuals, and dictionaries, and so for their diffi- 
 cult work they must build the road, bridges and all, 
 as they proceed. 
 
 Respecting the religious and moral condition of the 
 nation, it was deplorable. The minds of the common 
 people were exclusively under the sway of Buddhism. 
 The upper classes were more or less influenced by Con- 
 fucianism; some of them affected a kind of Confucian 
 skepticism toward religion. Shintoism had little or no 
 religious influence. After the restoration Buddhism was 
 disestablished, and the effort made to make Shintoism 
 the national religion, with the Emperor as the divine and 
 recognized head. The revenues of the government were 
 withdrawn from the Buddhist priests and temples, and 
 men of rank were forbidden to enter the Buddhist 
 priesthood; many of their temples were "cleansed" 
 and turned over to the Shinto priests. The Buddhist 
 priests had for the most part been corrupt, lazy, and ig- 
 norant. And while there was little in the outward prac- 
 tice of Japanese paganism to shock a foreigner by its 
 cruelty or atrocity, nothing like the rites of the suttee 
 or Juggernaut in India, newcomers fresh from Ameri- 
 ca and Europe were shocked by the gross immorality of 
 the people. Dr. Verbeck says touching this matter: "In 
 
 *Even to this clay very few Japanese ever get the knack of 
 teaching their own language to foreigners. 
 
328 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 certain directions the most astounding moral callousness 
 and blindness were evinced. The general moral degen- 
 eracy of the people manifested itself most conspicuous- 
 ly in two features: in the absence of truthfulness, and 
 in a general ignorance of the commonest morals concern- 
 ing the relations of the sexes." Many painful and dis- 
 gusting spectacles were unavoidably witnessed by many 
 older missionaries in the streets, shops, and by the way- 
 side. 
 
 The two things named above, which the mission- 
 aries were to do — namely, to live according to the 
 spirit and precepts of their Master, and to learn the diffi- 
 cult language, did not fail, could not fail to break down 
 in the end the miserable prejudices and fears of the peo- 
 ple and rulers, and in some measure win their confi- 
 dence. 
 
 For many years the missionaries could do no direct 
 evangelizing, but it was a symptom' of the beginning of 
 toleration when the Shogun's government erected ex- 
 tensive buildings in Yedo where hundreds of young 
 men of the upper class were to be taught English and 
 French, and requested the missionaries to take charge. 
 It certainly meant a good deal when the Prince of Hi- 
 zen, before the revolution, and other princes and gov- 
 ernors after the revolution, engaged Drs. Verbeck and 
 Brown, Capt. James, and Prof. Griffis to take charge 
 of their newly formed schools for teaching to Japanese 
 young men of rank the foreign learning and the Eng- 
 lish language. 
 
 But how strong the opposition to the Christian reli- 
 gion had been is seen by the fact that, for the first 
 twelve years from 1859, the missionaries had baptized 
 only five Japanese in the south and five in the north 
 • — twelve years, and only ten converts! 
 
UNFRIENDLY EDICTS REMOVED. 329 
 
 The very first to receive Christian baptism was Yano 
 Riu, who was Rev. Dr. Ballagh's personal teacher. 
 Two others were baptized by Dr. Verbeck, young men 
 of rank of Hizen Province. They had been members of 
 a class of five, who were studying the Bible and Chris- 
 tian books at a distance of two days' travel! Not being 
 permitted to visit the missionary, they sent a messenger 
 to carry their questions and to bring answers, and thus 
 their hearts were opened to receive the truth and they 
 finally sought baptism. 
 
 The public edicts of the government against Chris- 
 tianity were taken down the thirteenth year after the 
 coming of the missionaries. Doubtless political reasons 
 had something to do with the removal of those edict 
 boards. For instance, the Hon. De Long, our American 
 Minister to Japan, gave warning to the Prime Minis- 
 ter, Prince Iwakura, that the friendly relations of the 
 United States government would be affected by the 
 official persecution of those who listened to Christian 
 teaching. In 1871 Prince Iwakura and a score of oth- 
 er high officials and leaders in the new government 
 went abroad as an embassy to visit the capitals of the 
 Western Powers to persuade those governments to repeal 
 the extraterritorial clause * in their treaties with Japan; 
 but in their interview with President Grant's Secretary 
 of State, in Washington, the embassy was confronted 
 with the story of Japanese being thrown into pris- 
 on because they were inclined to hear Christian teach- 
 ing, and were made to understand that the enforcing 
 of those edicts by the Japanese rulers could not be 
 
 * By the extraterritorial clause, the trial and punishment 
 of foreigners residing in the open ports of Japan were not 
 permitted to the native magistrates, but reserved to the for- 
 eign consuls stationed there. 
 
330 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 looked upon with indifference by the United States 
 government. The Prince, it is said, promptly informed 
 his government, and earnestly advised the immediate re- 
 moval of the edicts from the public notice boards. In 
 1872 their removal took place, quietly, silently. 
 
 No doubt, too, the gentlemen composing that famous 
 embassy, being sagacious and observant men, were 
 deeply impressed with the wide difference in the civ- 
 ilization of the nations of Christendom and that of their 
 own Japan; and when they returned, in 1873, having 
 failed to convince a single government that they were 
 competent to take charge of foreigners, they may not 
 have said in words, "Not the foreigners, but we are 
 the barbarians," but they probably felt it to be true. 
 However this may have been, without doubt the mis- 
 sionaries were the chief cause of softening the bitter 
 prejudices of the Japanese. Before that embassy was 
 sent abroad the quiet, harmless, humane, and enlight- 
 ened life of the missionaries had begun to attract remark. 
 There was a marked increase about that time in the num- 
 ber of young Japanese of the upper classes who came 
 seeking instruction from the missionaries. 
 
 The first organized church in Japan was indeed like a 
 grain of mustard seed for size. In 1872, thirteen years 
 after the doming of the first missionaries, the first Prot- 
 estant Christian church was organized, consisting of only 
 twelve members. It was in the foreign concession at Yo- 
 kohama, and under protection of the American flag. 
 
 "The Japanese Church was born in prayer." At 
 Christmas, 1871, a few English-speaking residents be- 
 gan holding prayer meetings in Yokohama. Some 
 Japanese students, partly out of deference to their 
 teachers and partly from curiosity, also attended. 
 Yet even a short time before, one of them had asked 
 
GENERAL GOOD RESULTS. 331 
 
 Rev. Dr. Ballagh what he must do to get a new heart. 
 During the week of prayer, in 1872, these prayer meet- 
 ings were held daily, and, as the Japanese were evi- 
 dently interested, they were continued for two months. 
 At the opening of each meeting the Acts of the Apos- 
 tles was read in course with the Japanese, and trans- 
 lated into their tongue. Soon a few of the Japanese 
 took part in prayer. After a week or two longer they 
 began to pray with great earnestness, even with tears, 
 beseeching God to give his Spirit to Japan as to the 
 early Church and the people that gathered to hear the 
 apostles. Captains of English and of American men- 
 of-war were present and were profoundly impressed. 
 
 It was as the fruit of these prayer meetings and of the 
 reading of the Book of the Acts, the first church was 
 organized. It was organized after the Presbyterian 
 order, the pastor chosen being Missionary Ballagh, the 
 elder and deacon being two older Japanese. The 
 church was named the "Church of Christ in Japan." 
 The creed was very short and simple. 
 
 Other results of this period are briefly: the publica- 
 tion of Dr. Hepburn's Japanese-English Dictionary 
 (1867), next to the Bible the best book for the mission 
 cause; and much dispensary work by the same man, 
 great numbers of Japanese flocking to him for medi- 
 cine and treatment; the starting of small classes for 
 the study of English in the missionaries' houses; the 
 small beginning of what afterwards became a girls' 
 seminary in Yokohama, and a missionary school on a 
 very small scale in Tokyo; the circulation of Chris- 
 tian books in Chinese, this not being forbidden; and the 
 building of Christian union churches in the foreign 
 concessions of the treaty ports. In this enterprise the 
 missionaries took active part. The union church in 
 
332 
 
 japan: country, court, people 
 
 Yokohama stands upon the site of the temporary 
 treaty house in which Commodore Perry made the first 
 treaty. Toward the erection of that comely house of 
 worship the Hon. Townsend Harris made a contribu- 
 tion of $1,000 on leaving Japan. Dr. Verbeck and one 
 or two others were engaged in teaching a part of every 
 day in the Kaisei Gakko, in Tokyo, which afterwards 
 grew into the present Imperial University. One direct 
 result of the missionary influence and example was to 
 cause the Japanese to feel how backward and defective 
 their own system of education was. Indeed, we shall 
 see that the indirect influences of the foreign mission- 
 aries were felt in many different directions. 
 
 B1PERIAL CRESTS. 
 
CHAPTER n. 
 
 THE NEW JAPAN. 
 
 Rittek says: " Most of the important turning points 
 in the history of Protestant missions in Japan stand in 
 close connection with certain changes in the political 
 life of the country." This is only what we should ex- 
 pect, for the influence of missions upon diplomacy, 
 upon commerce, and upon the education of a nation is 
 undoubtedly great. Christian missions in pagan or pa- 
 pal lands is both deeper and broader than some people 
 have thought. The second period of missions in Japan 
 begins from 1872 and ends with 1889, but this period 
 answers so exactly to a corresponding division in the 
 political history that we shall have to treat the two 
 series of political and missionary events somewhat to- 
 gether. 
 
 I. Laying New Foundations — New State. 
 A most important event at the very beginning of this 
 period was the return of Prince Iwakura's famous em- 
 bassy from a tour around the world. (See p. 329.) 
 Failing utterly to convince the rulers of the Western 
 nations that Japan was yet qualified to take charge of 
 foreigners, and having seen with their own eyes the 
 advanced civilization, power, and progress of Europe, 
 they were too sagacious not to ask themselves the rea- 
 son why. They must have realized that their own Ja- 
 pan had been a Rip Van "Winkle, with China and oth- 
 ers, sleeping in ignorant security for generations, while 
 the Christian nations had gone far in advance on the 
 
 (333) 
 
334 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 road of civilization. These gentlemen on their return 
 took again high position in the government and court, 
 and must have exerted a powerful influence in favor of 
 reform and progress. This desire to "catch up" led the 
 leaders of the new Japan to determined and sometimes 
 feverish efforts to push their nation into the stream of 
 modern progress. That mistakes were occasionaly made 
 was to be expected. A new pilot with a new boat sail- 
 ing through unmapped straits and channels is very 
 likely to run her upon the shallows or against the rocks 
 on one side or the other. 
 
 We omitted to state earlier that the young Emperor, 
 as soon as restored to the throne of his ancestors, at- 
 tempted to secure a kind of national assembly in ac- 
 cordance with his charter oath. An assembly was 
 called of men representing each clan, and chosen by 
 the Daimyos, and great hopes were set upon the useful- 
 ness of such a body. Its function was to deliberate: 
 upon the important affairs and problems that now con- 
 fronted the new government, and to give advice to the 
 Emperor. But it proved a failure. The members of it 
 were too conservative, in other words, too narrow and 
 ignorant for the new times. Like old wine skins, un- 
 suited to put the new wine in, they had to be set aside 
 after a few months. 
 
 Still another remarkable political event in Chinese 
 history took place early in the period under consid- 
 eration. It was the abolition of feudalism. Since 
 the Shogunate had been overthrown the whole mili- 
 tary system of feudalism, existing for nearly eight 
 hundred years, was naturally weakened, and only one 
 thing more was needed to end it, the surrender on 
 the part of the Daimyos of their feudal possessions 
 ind rights to the new Emperor. Such gifted and far- 
 
FEUDALISM ABOLISHED. 
 
 335 
 
 sighted statesmen as Kido and Okubo were convinced 
 that this was necessary to the successful carrying out 
 of the new order. And let it he recorded to the credit 
 of the most of the Daimyos that they voluntarily laid 
 at the foot of the imperial throne their fiefs and hered- 
 itary privileges. That was a notable paper in political 
 history, the memor'al presented to the Emperor "by the 
 great Daimyos of Choshu, Satsuma, Tosa, Hizen, Kaga, 
 and others afterwards (numbering in all two hundred 
 and forty), offering to their sovereign the lists of their 
 
 LEADING MEN OF NEW JAPAN. 
 
 men and lands. It was written by Kido, who had been 
 so prominent in the revolution, and gives, says Mur- 
 ray, supreme evidence of his learning and statesman- 
 ship. With lofty eloquence the memorial exclaims: 
 "The place where we live is the Emperor's land, and 
 the food we eat is grown by the Emperor's men. How 
 can we make it our own? We now reverently offer up 
 the lists of our possessions and men, with the prayer 
 that the Emperor will take good measures for rewarding 
 them to whom reward is due, and taking from those to 
 
336 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 whom punishment is due. Let the imperial orders he 
 issued for altering and remodeling the territories of the 
 various classes, etc." 
 
 So the Emperor issued a decree (August, 1869) abolish- 
 ing the daimiates and restoring their revenues to the im- 
 perial treasury; furthermore the rank of Daimyo and 
 court nohle (kuge), were united in one rank. For pur- 
 poses of government, prefectures (Ken), instead of daimi- 
 ates were created, and the Daimyos authorized to act as 
 governors of these Ken; but unfortunately they proved 
 unfit for their new office, and had to he substituted grad- 
 ually by competent persons. It cost the imperial gov- 
 ernment an immense sum of money. It would be nei- 
 ther just nor prudent to leave penniless the Daimyos 
 who had surrendered all their territories. The central 
 government had to borrow $165,000,000 in order to pay 
 to each Daimyo an equitable sum. But what was to be 
 done with the Samurai, who had constituted the stand- 
 ing armies of each clan and had been supported from 
 the revenues of their Daimyos? The central govern- 
 ment put many of the able-bodied ones into the army 
 and navy, made policemen of others, and appointed 
 some to government office. Later, the pensions pro- 
 vided for the Samurai were cajritalized into a lump sum 
 and paid off by the government. This was unfortunate 
 for many of them, for they spent it foolishly and quick- 
 ly, and, knowing nothing about work or business, many 
 were reduced to poverty and suffering, and, becoming 
 desperate, caused a civil war later on. To most of 
 them, however, as soldiers or policemen, or in office, 
 the new order brought no hardship; it pleased their 
 pride as bearers of the sword and rulers still in the 
 land. 
 
 Afterwards another reform in the social revolution 
 
LAST SCENES OF A DAIMYO. 337 
 
 took place. The eta, an outcast race, and the heimin, 
 the common people, were both admitted into the body 
 politic. Hitherto the heimin had no family names, 
 were in fact serfs of the soil, but now they may have 
 family names, and other civil rights as free individuals. 
 The liberation of the heimin from serfdom was the 
 morning dawn of human freedom, the beginning of the 
 end of Asiatic despotism, and the end of feudalism. 
 
 A closing scene to this age-long feudalism which for 
 better and worse had nourished in Japan is given by 
 Griffis. (" Mikado's Empire," pp. 533, 534.) As above 
 mentioned, the Daimyos proved unfit for governors of 
 Kens under the new order of things, and the central 
 government, having amply provided for them, decided 
 to order them all to come with their families to 
 Tokyo, there to live. The day came for :the Daimyo 
 of Echizen to bid farewell to his retainers, assembled 
 in the castle hall in Fukui, the capital of the clan. 
 Prof. Griffis, who had been sent out from America as 
 director of the Daimyos' New English school at Fukui, 
 was present, and thus describes the circumstances: "Oc- 
 tober 1, 1871. From an early hour the Samurai in 
 kamishimo (ceremonial dress) had been assembling in 
 the castle. I shall never forget the impressive scene. 
 All the sliding partitions were removed, making one 
 vast area of matting (one vast hall). In the order of 
 their rank, each in starched ceremonial dress, with 
 shaven crown and gun-hammer topknot, with hands 
 clasping the hilt of his sword held upright before him 
 as he sat on his knees, were the three thousand Samurai 
 of the Fukui clan. Those bowed heads were busy 
 thinking. It was more than a farewell to their feudal 
 lord, who was now to retire to private life as a gentle- 
 man of Tokyo. It was the solemn burial of the insti- 
 22 
 
338 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 tutions under which they had lived for seven hundred 
 years. I fancied I read their thoughts, somewhat as 
 follows: ' The sword is the soul of the Samurai, and the 
 Samurai the soul of Japan. Is the sword to be ungirt 
 and he thrown aside for the inkstand and the mer- 
 chant's ledger? Is the Samurai to become a trader? Is 
 honor to be reckoned less than money? Is Japan's 
 spirit to become degraded to the level of the sordid for- 
 eigners, who are draining our country's wealth? Our 
 children, too — what is to become of them? Must they 
 labor and earn their own bread? Must we whose fa- 
 thers were knights and warriors, and whose blood and 
 spirit we inherit, be mingled with the common herd? 
 Must we now marry our daughters to a trader, defile 
 our family line to save our own lives and fill our stom- 
 achs?' These thoughts shadowed the sea of dark faces 
 of the waiting vassals. When the coming of the Dai- 
 myo was announced one could have heard the dropping 
 of a pin in the silence. Matsudaira Mochiake, now Lord 
 of Echizen, but to-morrow a private nobleman, ad- 
 vanced down the wide corridor of the main hall. He 
 was a stern-looking man. He was dressed in purple 
 satin hakama, inner robe of white satin, and outer coat 
 of silk crape of dark slate color, embroidered on sleeves, 
 back, and*breast with the Tokugawa crest. In his gir- 
 dle was thrust his short sword with a hilt of carved and 
 frosted gold. His feet, cased in white cloth tabi, moved 
 noiselessly over the matting. As he passed every head 
 was bowed, every sword laid prone to the right, and 
 the prince with deep but unexpressed emotion advanced 
 amidst the ranks of his followers to the center of the 
 hall. There in a brief and noble address, read by his 
 chief minister, the history of the clan and their rela- 
 tions as lord and vassals, the revolution of 1868, and 
 
A DAIMYO'S FAEEWELL. 339 
 
 the cause thereof, the restoration of the imperial house 
 to power, and the Mikado's reasons for ordering the 
 territorial princes to restore their fiefs, were tersely 
 and eloquently recounted. He urged his vassals all to 
 transfer their allegiance to the Mikado and the imperial 
 house. Then, wishing them all success and prosperity 
 in their new relations, their persons, families, and es- 
 tates, in chaste and fitting language he bade his fol- 
 lowers a solemn farewell. On behalf of his vassals, 
 one of them read an address expressing their feelings, 
 with kindly references to the prince as their former lord, 
 declaring henceforth their allegiance to the imperial 
 house. This terminated the ceremony. The next day 
 the whole city was astir and the streets were crowded 
 with people from city and country, coming in their best 
 clothes to see their prince for the last time. It was a 
 farewell gathering of all his people, hundreds of old 
 men, women, and children weeping over the departure 
 of their lord. A regiment of one thousand men escorted 
 him to Takef u, twelve miles away. A few retainers, 
 his body servants, and physician accompanied him to 
 Tokyo." A scene like this probably occurred at every 
 provincial seat throughout Japan. To the people it was 
 the breaking up of their world. 
 
 The dying scenes of an old order of things are always 
 sad to look upon. This dying day of Japanese feudal- 
 ism would in any case be of deep interest to the student 
 of history; but here it is still more so, because it was not 
 only the end of feudalism for Japan, but for the world. 
 There is now no country where the feudal system pre- 
 vails to any extent worthy of mention. Here, then, 
 perished a social order and a system of government never 
 to reappear in the history of the world's civilization. 
 
 However, it is not to be supposed that these rapid 
 
340 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 currents of reform and progress were not met by strong 
 counter currents. There was still a strong anti-foreign 
 and an ti- Christian party, who believed that every step 
 away from the old order and customs, and any adoption 
 of foreign ways, meant ruin to Japan. The radical 
 changes made by the government aroused deep dissat- 
 isfaction in many quarters. A rise in prices angered 
 the common people, who said: "It is because they have 
 let the foreigners in." The Buddhist priests, galled 
 because of the government's harsh treatment of them, 
 were only too glad of an excuse to stir up their Bud- 
 dhist followers over the removal of the edict boards 
 against Christianity. 
 
 Against Prince Iwakura, in particular, there was bad 
 feeling. "This man, who comes back from the foreign 
 countries filled with their notions, is an enemy to our 
 Japan; let him be killed as a pest." And sure enough, 
 one January evening in 1873, as he was returning from 
 an interview with the Emperor, just outside the castle 
 moat, near the palace gates, he was attacked. His car- 
 riage was pierced and slit with spears and swords. 
 Iwakura, wounded in two places, jumped out on the 
 other side, next to the moat, fell, and rolled down the 
 bank into the water. Fortunately it was pitch-dark, 
 and the murderers were afraid to stay to search for him. 
 He recovered. Soon afterwards nine ronin were ar- 
 rested and beheaded for their attempted murder of the 
 Prime Minister. 
 
 But the discontent was especially rife among many 
 of the Samurai, who, because their pensions had been 
 decreased, and afterwards paid off in a lump sum and 
 most of it spent, were now, as they imagined, left to 
 starve. "Our swords," they said, "restored the Em- 
 peror to the throne, but now his advisers neglect us." 
 
SATSUMA REBELLION. 341 
 
 Trained only for war, too many of them were like the 
 proud eagle, that starves rather than become a seed eater. 
 Without occupation or support, they formed roving 
 bands ready to follow a leader in an uprising, especially 
 in the South and Southwest. Unfortunately two great 
 men who ten years before had fought for the Emperor 
 were now embittered: Shimadzu, of Satsuma, and Gen. 
 Saigo. Shimadzii was the prince whose guards had cut 
 down Richardson near Yokohama, and Saigo had been a 
 commanding general in the late war with the Shogun. 
 
 When the tall form and brave heart of Saigo went 
 over to the side of the discontented Samurai, then the 
 government became alarmed. He was holding a high po- 
 sition in the new government, but got angry because by 
 the counsel of Iwakura and Okuba the Emperor would 
 not declare war against Korea. Quitting the govern- 
 ment, he returned to Satsuma and began drilling his 
 men, but otherwise took no part in local insurrections. 
 But in 1876 the government struck the Samurai right 
 in their faces by issuing a decree forbidding them to 
 wear their swords, an ancient honor dearer than life 
 itself. Henceforth only those connected with army or 
 navy, or holding some office, could wear swords. The 
 swords of those discontented Samurai were a constant 
 menace to foreigners, and would be the occasion of for- 
 eign war. But the taking away of their swords was 
 more than they could stand; it was to deprive them of 
 the last mark of their rank and glory. And so Saigo 
 himself resolved to rise up against the government. 
 War broke out in 1877. But notwithstanding a valiant 
 struggle he was defeated, and died on the battlefield 
 either by his own hand or, by his order, at the hand of 
 a faithful follower. His head was cut off, to prevent 
 recognition and insult if he should be captured. But 
 
342 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 when the bloody head was brought to the imperial gen- 
 eral after the battle, he wept and ordered it to be treated 
 with honor. Strangely, Saigo died fighting against the 
 Very throne he had helped to restore. 
 
 This, called the "Saigo" or "Satsuma" rebellion, 
 cost Japan much blood and millions of money. After 
 this rebellion there was no more fighting. This was the 
 last open and violent struggle of the old Japan against 
 the new. Nevertheless, after this there still burned the 
 spirit of revenge; and the excellent and progressive gov- 
 ernment leader, Okubo, was the victim who had next to 
 be sacrificed upon the altar of enlightenment and liberty 
 in his country's behalf. Okubo was murdered in the 
 public highway, in broad daylight, May, 1878. 
 
 More than all his colleagues, Okubo was inclined to 
 foreign ideas, and more determined to raise his country 
 to the level of foreign countries. Resolute, modest, his 
 will was iron and his action rapid. He was the author 
 of many reforms. Warned of his danger, he said to his 
 friends that he believed Heaven would protect him if 
 his work was not yet done; otherwise, his life would not 
 be spared. His words were prophetic. His murderers 
 were, it is said, six Samurai who had escaped from the 
 Satsuma rebellion. The funeral, attended by princes, 
 noblemen, and foreign ambassadors, was the most im- 
 posing ever seen in Tokyo. Griffis says: "Okubo's tall, 
 arrowy form, heavy side whiskers, large expressive 
 eyes, and eager, expectant bearing gave him the look of 
 a European rather than a Japanese." 
 
 To the earlier part of this period belongs the reform 
 of the central government. It seems to be a combina- 
 tion of their ancient system of government modeled 
 after the Chinese court, and of the modern French min- 
 istries, as follows: 
 
IMPEEIAL GOVERNMENT ORGANIZED. 343 
 
 1. The Emperor, supreme in authority of every kind. 
 
 2. Dai jo Kwan, great Council of State: 
 
 (1) Emperor; 
 
 (2) Daijo Daijin, Minister-President; 
 
 (3) Sa Daijin, Minister of the Left; 
 
 (4) U Daijin, Minister of the Right. 
 
 3. Ministers of the ten departments: 
 
 (1) Ministry of Foreign Affairs; 
 
 (2) Ministry of the Interior; 
 
 (3) Ministry of Finance; 
 
 (4) Ministry of War; 
 
 (5) Ministry of Marine; 
 
 (6) Ministry of Education; 
 
 (7) Ministry of Religion (now abolished); 
 
 (8) Ministry of Public Works; 
 
 (9) Ministry of Justice; 
 
 (10) Ministry of Imperial Household. 
 
 The administration of the thirty-five Kens, into which 
 the whole country was divided (1876), was intrusted to 
 governors appointed by the Emperor. 
 
 Two or three international events require a word here. 
 
 The Foi'mosa imbroglio was brought about by an at- 
 tack made by the semisavage people of the island upon 
 some shipwrecked Japanese sailors. To teach them a 
 lesson, Japan sent to Formosa an expedition that made 
 short work of them. This led to complications with 
 China, which claimed sovereignty over that island, and 
 war was about to break out, but was averted by her 
 paying an indemnity to Japan for the expense of the ex- 
 pedition. Okubo was the man for the crisis. 
 
 That the Japanese world was moving was shown in 
 the scene enacted by the Japanese Ambassador standing 
 upright before the ruler of the Dragon Throne (China), 
 dressed in tight black coat and pants, white neckwear, 
 
344 japan: country, court., people. 
 
 and polished boots, making a treaty and bearing con- 
 gratulations from the young Emperor of the Sunrise 
 Empire. China had affected contempt for Japan be- 
 cause she was imitating the ways of the ' ' foreign devils " 
 of America and Europe. 
 
 The Korean affair was also peacefully settled. The 
 Koreans had fired upon a Japanese vessel seeking pro- 
 visions and coal, and this aroused the war spirit of the 
 nation. The Koreans had been treating the Japanese 
 vessel in distress as the Japanese used to treat the 
 American ships. An expedition after the pattern of 
 Commodore Perry's was dispatched (1876) to Korea 
 to bring about better relations. Negotiations result- 
 ed in treaties of amity and commerce, and thus the 
 last of the hermit kingdoms was opened to the world. 
 ■The United States and France had both made earnest 
 efforts to conclude such a treaty with Korea, but had 
 failed; this victory in diplomacy was left for the Japa- 
 nese to win. 
 
 Still another event of some international significance 
 was Japan's exhibit at our Centennial Exposition at Phil- 
 adelphia, in 1876. This was the first time in her history 
 that she ever attempted to offer her productions in a pub- 
 lic way to the gaze and scrutiny of the civilized world. 
 Japan was among the first to accept the invitation to 
 commemorate the centennial of American independence; 
 and her exhibition, especially of her art products, was 
 surprisingly well got up, and produced in art circles a 
 distinct sensation. Such art culture had not been cred- 
 ited to the Japanese. Nor was the sensation less marked 
 two years afterwards, when Japan's art exhibits were 
 uncovered at the World's Exposition in Paris. 
 
 Omitting many things, we can touch upon only a few 
 more reforms undertaken by the new government. 
 
REFORMS OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT. 345 
 
 First, the army and navy had to be reorganized. 
 It was a great innovation when soldiers were re- 
 cruited from all parts of the countiy and from the 
 lowest classes. Hitherto only the Samurai class had 
 the honor of bearing arms; now all persons from 
 twenty years upward were upon the same basis re- 
 specting conscription into the army. Of course the old 
 hemlets and armor, spears, bows and arrows were cast 
 aside, and the soldiers were clothed, armed, and drilled 
 in the foreign fashion. And all the numerous castles 
 that dotted the land, except fifty-five that were turned 
 over to the war department, were dismantled. That 
 must have been a strange sight to the people, and a sad 
 one to the Samurai, the dismantling of the seats of 
 honor and might of their old chiefs. Meanwhile the 
 naval department was also reorganized. The first war 
 ships of modern build were bought from the Dutch. 
 Among the first war vessels of the Restoration was the 
 Stonewall, presented by the United States government 
 at the close of the war between the States. The first 
 officers and commanders of the Japanese navy were 
 trained in England, France, and the United States. 
 
 The modern Western system of education was adopted 
 in 1873 by the issuing of a code of laws creating and 
 regulating a system of schools. As we shall see from 
 the study of the educational side of missions, the mis- 
 sionaries were the first teachers of the Japanese. When 
 Commodore Perry came to Japan the Dutch was the 
 only foreign tongue which a very few Japanese could 
 use, and that very badly. Among Perry's cargo of 
 presents for the Emperor of Japan was Webster's Dic- 
 tionary. Perry was a man of prophecy; the present 
 heir apparent to the imperial throne reads and speaks 
 English. 
 
346 japan: country, court, people. . 
 
 Immediately after the treaties went into operation 
 and ports were opened for foreign trade, residence, and 
 ships, the need for a knowledge of English was keenly 
 felt. Not the Dutch hut the English control the trade 
 of the high seas and ports of Asia. Anybody there- 
 fore among the Japanese who could spell a few English 
 words was in great demand. In those early days of the 
 open ports the demand for English was so pressing 
 that clerks from stores and sailors from their vessels 
 betook themselves to teaching English. Many of them 
 knew little more than the "three R's." Alas! many of 
 them were more familiar with vulgar, swearing words 
 than their English grammar. Their frequent oaths, even 
 in the schoolroom, puzzled their pupils, who could not 
 find such words in their spellers and small English dic- 
 tionaries. By and by, however, the Japanese discovered 
 that these sailors and carpenter teachers were impostors 
 of English learning by contrasting them with the 
 learned missionaries. So the career of the ^sailor mas- 
 ters in Japan came to an (un)timely end, being sup- 
 planted by the missionaries. 
 
 The Hon. William H. Seward, Lincoln's Secretary 
 of State, who afterwards visited Japan, wrote substan- 
 tially: "If the United States's influence in Japan is to 
 be successful, it must be based upon distinctions, not 
 merely of war and strength between nations. Instead 
 of navies and armies, let teachers be sent to instruct 
 them and establish schools where philosophy and 
 morals and religious faith may be taught with just re- 
 gard to their influence upon the social and domestic 
 life." These words of America's great statesman have 
 been fulfilled in a good degree. 
 
 It was in 1872 that Hon. Mr. Mori, then Charge 
 D' Affairs at Washington, sent circular letters to many 
 
MODERN EDUCATION ADOPTED. 
 
 347 
 
 of the colleges and university presidents in America 
 asking their opinion of the effect of education upon the 
 well-being of nations and requesting suggestions touch- 
 ing an educational system for Japan. 
 
 Japanese leaders like Mori, Fukuzawa, and others 
 admired Western ideas, and especially those of the 
 United States, and hence took the educational system 
 of America as a model for theirs. A comprehensive 
 system of government schools was the result. They 
 went beyond even ourselves, in that an educational de- 
 partment was created in the government, and the head 
 of it was made a cabinet minister; and the attendance of 
 children from six years was compulsory; the whole ex- 
 pense being provided for by appropriations made for 
 education out of the annual government budget. 
 
 Beginning at the bottom, there is: (1) the primary 
 schools; (2) the middle schools; (3) the seven higher 
 schools or colleges; and (4) the one Imperial Uni- 
 versity, the head of the whole system. Besides the 
 university there are normal schools both male and 
 female, and agricultural, commercial, and industrial 
 schools; more recently a school of fine arts. For the 
 children of the nobles, there was founded in Tokyo a 
 nobles' school for boys and a peeresses' school for girls. 
 It is to be observed that from the very first provision 
 was made for female as well as male common schools. 
 The Empress is the worthy patroness of the peeresses' 
 school in Tokyo, and takes the deepest interest in its 
 work. As a mere secular system of education it is ad- 
 mirable, and is as well jointed together as anything we 
 can show in any of our States. The equipment and ap- 
 pliances in the middle schools and colleges compare 
 well with corresponding institutions in this country. 
 
 English and other languages are regularly taught 
 
348 JAPAN: COUNTRY, COURT, PEOPLE. 
 
 from the middle schools upward. At first the mission- 
 aries were earnestly sought after to take charge of these 
 schools. For example, Dr. Verbeck was the first Presi- 
 dent of the university in Tokyo, from 1869 to 1874. The 
 missionaries not being able to devote sufficient time to 
 this outside work, afterwards not less than four hundred 
 other foreigners were engaged at high salaries to teach 
 in these new institutions. Later still, scores of the 
 brightest young men, who had been sent by the govern- 
 ment to the United States and other Western countries 
 to be educated, came back and were assigned high posi- 
 tions in the educational department and in the schools. 
 
 The eagerness of the Japanese youth for English 
 and other branches of foreign learning was a marvel. 
 They drank it in like thirsty men drink fresh water. 
 At first it was Webster's blue- back spelling book, Wil- 
 son's readers, Mitchel's geography-, Goodrich's histor- 
 ical series including United States history, and Quack- 
 enbos's natural history. Way land's "Moral Science" 
 and "Political Economy " made a new epoch when they 
 were introduced. It looked indeed as if the Japanese 
 leaders were intent upon making education the hand- 
 maid to religion. We shall see. Private schools also 
 sprang up here and there, notably that of Mr. Fuku- 
 zawa, in Tokyo, where some of the brightest young 
 men were educated, men who became prominent in 
 public life. 
 
 New Postal System. — Before this, letters were carried 
 according to the primitive system of runners. It cost 
 twenty- five cents to send a letter one hundred and fifty 
 miles. This cumbrous and slow way did not suit the 
 foreign settlers in the treaty ports, and hence the Eng- 
 glish, French, and American governments established a 
 system of post offices of their own in the open ports. 
 
MODERN PROGRESS. 349 
 
 But in 1871 the Japanese government adopted the for- 
 eign plan. The post office system is modeled after that 
 of the United States, and is superior to it. There is 
 free delivery at every man's door through the country, 
 extending even to the towns and villages in the remote 
 interior districts. There is nothing equal to this in 
 the United States. A few years after the foreign sys- 
 tem was introduced, it worked so well that Japan was 
 (in 1877) formally admitted into the International Post- 
 al Union. 
 
 New Police System. — As early as 1872 the police 
 force was organized in foreign fashion. The police- 
 men were taken from the Samurai class, who, heing 
 used to the exercise of authority over the people, fell 
 into their new posts and duties of quietly patrolling 
 the streets and keeping order as if they had been at it 
 for generations. At first they felt a hit awkward in 
 their new uniforms, caps, coats, pants, and boots, all 
 in foreign style, but as soon as they touched the hilts of 
 their swords, which they still wore at their sides, they 
 felt themselves to be the same old Samurai as of yore. 
 A Samurai is always at himself as long as he can feel 
 his sword. In every town and village these Samurai 
 police may be seen, and the people generally stand in 
 awe of them. The writer has frequently seen one of 
 the common people humbling himself before the j)o- 
 licemen in a manner quite uncommon in our country. 
 Nor would it be easy for a foreigner or a Japanese, 
 when once his name and residence are known, to es- 
 cape the eye of the police anywhere in the country, 
 for the whole force is subject to one central office in To- 
 kyo. Unlike ours, it is imperial or national. 
 
 Hitherto the foreigners' movements were particularly 
 watched by the policemen. In the first place, your pass- 
 
350 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 port from the government must be in your pocket when 
 you start, otherwise the policeman at the railway station 
 or the ship's wharf will turn you hack. And when you 
 land at your destination the first thing to do is to show 
 your passport, and when you get to the inn or stopping 
 place your name, age, nationality, and place of residence 
 must all he reported to the nearest police office. Some 
 foreigners, including the missionaries, found all this 
 red tape to he annoying sometimes, especially when the 
 police officer was disposed to put on official airs, but it 
 was right, for it was according to the treaties. As a 
 rule the writer has found the police to be reasonably 
 civil and considerate. 
 
 New Banking and Coinage System. — Abraham's 
 money was silver, weighed out upon the balances; 
 Japan's in the old feudal times was gold and silver bars, 
 and coins of gold and copper pieces. The wealthy 
 Daimyo could issue paper money current in his prov- 
 ince. But the New Japan has national money and 
 banks. In 1872 bank regulations were issued by the 
 government authorizing the opening of national banks 
 like ours in America. As many as one hundred and. 
 fifty soon sprang up, and afterwards many more. The 
 Bank of Japan in Tokyo was intended to be to Japan 
 what the Bank of London is to England. It has a paid- 
 up capital of ten million yen, and is the central bank 
 of the whole system, and handles the loans and bonds 
 of the government. All are under the superintend- 
 ence of the Treasury Department. The system of 
 coinage is like ours, the decimal, consisting- of dollars, 
 dimes, and coppers. Japan is now a part of the great 
 monetary system of the world, and checks of exchange 
 may be bought there upon any of the great banks of 
 Europe or America. And now that she has been made a 
 
MODEEN PROGEESS. 351 
 
 member of the International Post Office Money Order 
 Convention, money orders payable in any of the cities in 
 the civilized world may be bought in Japan. The national 
 mint, located in the city of Osaka, was of course, like all 
 other new enterprises, started under the superintendence 
 of foreigners, though now all the mint officials are Jap- 
 anese. It is a large establishment, and clean silver dol- 
 lars are turned out by the barrel daily Japan is a 
 silver country, though gold is also turned out in small 
 quantities. Arrangements have been made for adopting 
 a gold standard. 
 
 First Railroad. — The first railway opened in 1872 
 was only eighteen miles long, and extended from Yoko- 
 hama to Tokyo. It was built by English engineers, and 
 became the pattern of all the roads of the empire. In the 
 English system engines are low, coaches are small and en- 
 tered from the side. The coaches are in apartments, and 
 are of the first, second, and third class. While in elegance, 
 convenience, and speed Japanese railways cannot com- 
 pare with the American "palaces on iron wheels," Eng- 
 lish thoroughness and strength may be quickly seen in 
 the construction of the imperial trunk line running 
 now from Tokyo to Kobe. As yet there are no Pull- 
 man sleeping coaches. That was a high day for Japan 
 when on a clear October morning the Emperor made a 
 procession to the stone-built depot in Tokyo, attended 
 by princes of the blood, court nobles, members of the 
 foreign diplomatic corps, and many other distinguished 
 men, besides twenty thousand in promiscuous multitude. 
 His majesty and his suite stepped into the train, and 
 in the presence of that sea of expectant faces formally 
 declared the road open. As the train moved off the 
 national hymn, said to be over two thousand years old, 
 was played. When the train, passing flower-decked 
 
352 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 stations along the way, reached Yokohama the thun- 
 dering salutes from foreign war ships made congratula- 
 tions to the new Japan. Mr. Griffis,who was an eye- 
 witness that day, says, however, that all the pageant 
 and pomp paled before that other scene, when four 
 merchants in plain garb, approaching the Emperor, read 
 to him a congratulatory address, and he replied. To 
 us, with our democratic spirit, this would have small 
 significance; but in Japan it was little less than a so- 
 cial and political miracle, the lowest of the social class 
 speaking face to face with the Son of Heaven, their di- 
 vinely descended sovereign! It was proof of the birth 
 of a new Japan; that the merchant class is to be lifted 
 up from its despised place, giving commerce new 
 meaning and power in the future destiny of the nation; 
 that steam power will supplant the old method of go- 
 ing on foot or in the sedan chair and the hauling of 
 goods by two-wheeled carts pulled by men or cows. 
 
 First Telegraph Lines. — Even before the opening of 
 the first railway telegraphing was introduced into the 
 country, the first telegraph line being from Yokohama 
 to Tokyo. Afterwards telegraph lines were extended 
 from Tokyo as the heart of the system to all the prin- 
 cipal towns north and south. Commodore Perry's 
 men operated on shore both the railway and telegraph 
 on a small scale, and the people stood and marveled. 
 To-day they are familiar with the sight of the railway 
 train, telegraph wires and poles. Unlike the Chinese, 
 they were not the alarmed victims of fung-shui, and 
 did not rise up like them in excited mobs and tear up 
 the railway track or tear down the telegraph poles. 
 Japan has been admitted into the International Tele- 
 graph Convention, has cables laid under the sea be- 
 tween Nagasaki, China, Korea, and the Russian port 
 
MODERN PROGRESS. 353 
 
 Vladivostock. Messages may be sent all around the 
 world, reaching New York or New Orleans several 
 hours before they were started from Japan ! 
 
 Other Interned Improvements. — Besides the fore- 
 going there were public works, machine shops, naval 
 yards, customhouses, lighthouses, and buoys. As the 
 coastwise commerce increased, it became necessary to 
 to have modern-built lighthouses, the beacon lights for 
 ships, and the sailor's delight in the darkness. Har- 
 bors were improved; customhouses were established; 
 steamship companies were also organized, not only for 
 the coastwise trade, but for trade with Siberian Rus- 
 sia, Korea, China, and afterwards India. In this same 
 period several cotton and silk spinning factories and 
 paper mills were started. Of course it is to be under- 
 stood that all these new and unknown enterprises could 
 not be started by the Japanese without instruction and 
 superintendence from foreigners, and that the most of 
 the earlier ones were aided by government moneys. 
 Notably so was the case of the first steamship and 
 mining companies. When we say Japan made such 
 and such reforms or established certain modern enter- 
 prises, we mean that the government did it, not the peo- 
 ple. The day of individual enterprise apart from the 
 leadership and financial aid of the government was not 
 yet; but this brings us to the 
 
 First Steps toward Constitutional liberty of the Peo- 
 ple. — To the Americans, so long in the birthright of 
 personal rights and individual liberty, it may not be so 
 interesting a theme. We have seen that the first at- 
 tempt at a national assembly failed utterly. As a sort 
 of second attempt in the direction of a representative 
 government, the wise statesmen of the government in- 
 vited the governors of all the Kens to come to Tokyo 
 23 
 
354 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 to discuss, in the presence of the Minister of the Interior, 
 questions of roads, bridges, rivers, public works, build- 
 ings, taxes, relief of the destitute. Likewise the ques- 
 tion of local government, of towns, villages, and the 
 problem of prefectural assemblies were submitted to 
 these governors. In 1879, the beginning of local self- 
 government, a right so precious to every branch of 
 the Anglo-Saxon race, was taken when regulations 
 were issued for the holding of the city and prefectural 
 assemblies. An assembly building was put up in the 
 capital of every Ken, and though the governor was and 
 still is appointed by the sovereign, the people of each 
 Ken or Ken city chose their representatives to the Ken 
 assembly, which has considerable range of discussion 
 and decision in local affairs. These Ken assemblies 
 may be compared in size to the legislatures of small 
 States like New Jersey, Delaware, and Rhode Is- 
 land. 
 
 Early in this period the advocates of the rights and 
 liberties of the people, becoming bolder, began to agi- 
 tate for a true representative assembly, a congress or 
 parliament, elected by the people. Political meetings 
 Were held to promote the movement toward popular 
 rights. It is well to inquire just here, where did this 
 sentiment of the people's rights come from? Who 
 were the advocates of this strange doctrine, on Asiatic 
 soil, of representative government? Have not all the 
 Oriental governments from time immemorial been of 
 the nature of absolute despotisms? This movement for 
 popular rights was stirred into power by the young 
 men of the nation who had come in touch with foreign 
 ideas. Even before the revolution of 1868 the Shogun, 
 as well as some of the Southern Daimyos, had sent a 
 few picked young men of rank to study in Holland. 
 
RIGHTS OF THE PEOPLE. 355 
 
 And this explains how the advisers of the youthful Em- 
 peror when he ascended the throne caused him to swear 
 that he would grant a deliberative assembly. Those 
 advisers had been touched by the spirit of modern po- 
 litical freedom. Under the restoration still larger num- 
 bers of bright young men of high family were chosen 
 by the government and sent to England and the United 
 States to get their education, all their expenses being 
 paid out of the imperial treasury. What could be the 
 natural result? When these young men had spent sev- 
 eral years in the free air of America or Great Britain 
 and seen with their eyes the progress, power, and en- 
 lightenment of those countries, and had returned to 
 their native Japan, they were naturally not content 
 with the political conditions. They longed for more 
 liberty for their own nation. Then, too, the newspaper 
 press took up this cry for popular rights and began to 
 discuss it. The printing press, the newspaper, and the 
 monthly magazine were a new factor, a factor of won- 
 drous power in the national thought and feeling of 
 the nation. Here was a power for good or evil in 
 molding the public mind which no Asiatic government 
 had ever had to deal with. The Shimbun Zashi, started 
 in 1871 * by Kido, the distinguished Samurai of Choshu 
 and Councilor of State, began to advocate through its col- 
 umns the cause of constitutional government. But the 
 cabinet nipped all this in the bud by issuing severe rules 
 called the "Press and Political Meetings Regulations." 
 A newspaper might be suspended and the editor impris- 
 oned if he were not cautious in his writings, and a po- 
 
 *The real founder of Japanese journalism was Mr. John 
 Black, an Englishman. See " Things Japanese," page 258, by 
 Prof. Chamberlain. 
 
356 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 litical meeting must not be held without notifying the 
 police of the place, time, and nature of the subject. 
 And although Okuma, another leader and State Coun- 
 cilor, advocated the plans of a national assembly, the 
 ministers and leaders of the government decided rightly 
 that the nation was not yet ripe for so great a change 
 as popular self-government. But to satisfy the de- 
 mand which was evidently deepening and strengthen- 
 ing in the under swell of the nation's heart an imperial 
 rescript was issued to the nation declaring that in 1890 
 a constitution would be granted and a parliament cre- 
 ated. To prepare for this great and radical change in 
 their government, a commission was appointed and sent 
 abroad to study the codes of laws and the constitutions 
 of foreign countries. Count Ito, who had been Prime 
 Minister, was dispatched (1882) abroad to make a per- 
 sonal study of the institutions in those countries, and 
 upon returning was made the head of the bureau of 
 eminent lawyers, both foreign and Japanese, to pre- 
 pare the constitution and the new codes under it. This 
 was the work of years. Meanwhile further improve- 
 ments and reforms in the administration of the govern- 
 ment were introduced. For example, the cabinet with 
 a privy council, much like that of England, was organ- 
 ized, an army of useless officials was cut down, salaries 
 were reduced, and civil service rules for the appoint- 
 ment of men to office in the several departments in 
 Tokyo were put into operation. The local government 
 of the cities and Kens was also much improved. All 
 these things were the preparation for that great epochal 
 day, February 11, 1889, when the Emperor, in the pres- 
 ence of the most distinguished and- numerous assembly 
 ever gathered before him, proclaimed and granted a 
 constitution. 
 
FOUNDATIONS OF CHRISTIANITY. 357 
 
 II. Foundation Laying of the Christian Church 
 
 (1873-89). 
 
 Having seen the conflicts, changes, and progressive 
 movements in the new Japanese state, let us now turn our 
 eye upon the missionary field. Hand in hand with im- 
 portant political events set forth on previous pages, there 
 were corresponding movements in Christian missions; 
 and other events, which, though partly political, had 
 direct influence upon the missionary work. 
 
 The years 1873-74 are notable in missionary no less 
 than in political annals. There was (1) the partial adop- 
 tion of the Gregorian calendar. The old bunglesome 
 Chinese way of counting thirteen moons to the year was 
 set aside, and the modern method of twelve months, with 
 the new year beginning always with January 1, was 
 adopted. Sunday was adopted by the government as a 
 weekly holiday in all government offices and schools. 
 The missionaries still engaged in the government schools 
 refused positively to teach on Sunday, and foreign offi- 
 cials employed in the government service likewise re- 
 fused to work on that day; hence the Japanese authori- 
 ties made Sunday a weekly holiday for all who wished 
 it. The first step was thus taken for the beginning of 
 our Christian Sunday. The trading people and farmers 
 paid no attention, but went on with their ordinary busi- 
 ness, and those not Christian do so still. And (2) the 
 taking down of the public edict boards against the Chris- 
 tians. This was done by the government partly for 
 political reasons, and a sort of halfway apology was 
 made to the Christian haters for it; but, all the same, it 
 gave the cause of missions much advantage. It put 
 Christian preaching upon a different basis. No longer 
 could any fanatic say that the "Jesus doctrine" was 
 forbidden by the government, no longer say that being 
 a Christian was a crime punishable by death. 
 
358 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Again, in this time the missionary force was doubled. 
 Three new missionary societies entered the field for the 
 first time — namely, the Methodist Episcopal (United 
 States), the United Presbyterian (Scotch), the Society 
 for the Propagation of the Gospel (English), later the 
 Cumberland Presbyterian (United States), and English 
 Baptists. By the year 1882 there was a force of one 
 hundred and forty-nine male and female missionaries, 
 exclusive of wives, representing eighteen societies, 
 American and English. Not only so, but they were 
 thenceforth more successful, and better able to extend 
 their operations. Hitherto little or no preaching had 
 been attempted outside of the "treaty concessions." 
 But the missionaries felt that their work was for the 
 millions of Japanese, and were anxious to escape the 
 narrow limits of the foreign concessions, where so few 
 Japanese lived. They longed to go forth to preach to 
 the teeming cities beyond. To their joy they had won 
 sufficiently the confidence of the rulers to get passports 
 of travel into the interior, and so there sprang up a num- 
 ber of publicly advertised preaching places in Tokyo, 
 Yokohama, Osaka, and other cities; at first in the houses 
 or inns of a few willing natives. Afterwards these 
 preaching meetings, not without some fear, were opened 
 in the interior cities, and became the centers of a few 
 probationers. These inquirers, besides hearing the 
 preaching, were organized into classes for special in- 
 struction and prayer, the New Testament, catechism, 
 creed, and commandments being the subject-matter of 
 instruction. In process of time, after due examination 
 as to' their faith and experience in the things of Christ, 
 these were baptized. Later still, these little bands, not- 
 withstanding opposition of neighbors, and sometimes 
 bitter persecution, grew till they were able by the aid 
 
FIRST PREACHING IN THE INTERIOR. 359 
 
 of missionaries to rent or build small chapels. Then 
 small local churches were organized, and meanwhile the 
 congregations increased. Some were drawn out to hear 
 by curiosity, some to mock, and others by soul hunger, 
 they hardly knew for what, till their ears caught for the 
 first time the strange news of one God and Father in 
 heaven who pities and saves all who seek him. These 
 preaching places and small congregations were regularly 
 visited by the missionaries in circuit, and instruction giv- 
 en them. So that gradually there was developed a num- 
 ber of stations besides the central ones where reside the 
 missionaries. We have seen that the first church in Yo- 
 kohama had only twelve members. The second one was 
 organized in Tokyo with eleven. It was thought by 
 some to be a mistake, the organizing of such feeble 
 bands into churches, but in five years the Yokohama 
 church increased to one hundred and twenty-six, and 
 the Tokyo church to one hundred and twenty members. 
 In one decade from the birth of the first little church there 
 were thirty-seven stations and ninety-three churches. 
 It is said that the first extended and systematic preach- 
 ing tour in the interior cities was made by the Rev. Ir- 
 vine H. Correll, of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 When he started forth from Yokohama some advised 
 against it as an undertaking too perilous to life, and 
 that he could accomplish but little even if he came back 
 alive. Contrary to their fears, after many days of trav- 
 el and preaching, he returned unhurt. But it must not 
 be imagined that the hatred is all gone, for it continued 
 for a good while still. Many were the cases of perse- 
 cution relentlessly visited upon the head of a newly bap- 
 tized Christian. Mothers have been known to threaten 
 suicide when they learned that their sons were about to 
 receive Christian baptism. Even many years after the 
 
360 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 period under consideration, a daughter who had been 
 going to a mission school had received into her heart 
 the truth of Jesus, had in fact become an earnest student 
 of the New Testament, and when she asked her father's 
 permission to be baptized he got angry, shut her up in 
 her room for many days, and seized her New Testament. 
 But determined as he was to crush out her Christian 
 faith, she was more determined still, and said: "You 
 may take away the leaves of my Bible, but you cannot 
 take the truth out of my heart." She was so patient 
 and so firm that the father finally relented and suffered 
 her to receive Christian baptism. 
 
 That there was still opposition in high circles is 
 shown by a bitter, anti- Christian pamphlet issued about 
 this time, and indorsed by an introduction to it which 
 was written by the famous and influential Prince Shi- 
 madzu, of Satsuma. The charge was made that the 
 teachings of Jesus destroy both loyalty to the state 
 and obedience to parents, that the Christian religion is 
 an enemy alike to the country and family. "There- 
 fore the spread of this 'evil sect' must be stayed by 
 putting the Christians to death ! " And yet the Jesus 
 doctrine continued to spread. 
 
 As to the need of Christian schools the missionaries 
 in Japan almost without exception held the broader view 
 of Christian missions. They were convinced that the 
 one supreme ideal, as well as the one unchanging basis 
 of culture* is Christian. The story of the small classes 
 started and carried on in one mission is the same story 
 for all of them. For example, take the Dutch Reformed, 
 English Episcopal, and afterwards the Methodist Epis- 
 copal at Nagasaki, and we see that at first there were a 
 few Japanese who wished to learn English and other 
 branches: and a little later some of these were in the 
 
MEDICAL MISSIONAEIES. 361 
 
 Bible class. Then the Christian ladies connected with 
 the missions attempted the same kind of instruction for a 
 few Japanese girls. Out of these small beginnings the 
 foundations were laid for day and boarding schools, male 
 and female, and for Biblical seminaries for the training 
 of native young men for the ministry. The Methodist 
 Episcopal Mission was perhaps the most pronounced as 
 to its educational policy. It was their declared aim to 
 plant a day school by the side of each chapel. 
 
 The medical work in connection with Dr. Hep- 
 burn's dispensary in Yokohama has been mentioned. 
 This was the very first mission work in all that region. 
 Drs. Berry and Taylor (Congregational) and Lanius 
 (American Episcopal) and Faulds (Presbyterian) were 
 conspicuously active in medical work. The healing of 
 the bodies of the diseased and suffering is in direct line 
 with the humane work of our Lord when he dwelt 
 among men, and when done for the poor without mon- 
 ey and without price is proof of the benevolence that 
 lies at the heart of Chistianity, which appeals with 
 power to the tender feelings of pagan communities; 
 is something that cannot be spoken against, even by en- 
 emies. Dr. Berry started a medical class for Japanese in 
 Kobe, and hospitals opened by Drs. Taylor and La- 
 nius, where the poor were received as well as the rich, 
 made a deep impression on the people. These Chris- 
 tian doctors were not only kind, passing what they had 
 ever known, but they were far more skillful than their 
 native doctors, and gave relief and permanent cures in 
 many cases where the Japanese doctors had failed ut- 
 terly. Dr. Berry won so much confidence that the 
 Governor at Kobe granted him permission to teach 
 anatomy by dissection. He also gained great influence 
 by his advice given the authorities concerning the pre- 
 
362 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 vention of epidemic and other diseases by making re- 
 forms in sanitation. Very soon a change was noticeable 
 in the health of the prisoners even. Another of the 
 earlier medical hospitals was that of Dr. Faulds, in the 
 foreign concession of Tokyo. The banner that floated 
 above it had the red sun of the Japanese national flag, 
 but within it was the white cross. Thousands of the 
 afflicted in the great capital flocked to his hospital 
 yearly. Here, too, was organized a medical class for 
 the Japanese, and lectures were given on scientific sub- 
 jects. Dr. Faulds was recognized by the government, 
 and in time of a dreadful epidemic was clothed with 
 official authority. His hospital was very popular and 
 had a great run of usefulness, until the Japanese gov- 
 ernment, copying the example, built a hospital of its 
 own. 
 
 Still another form of missionary work was the liter- 
 ary. As in pagan Greece, Rome, and England, there 
 were absolutely no Christian books; so in Japan and 
 China it is the work of missions to translate the Bible 
 into the native tongue and publish Christian books and 
 tracts and circulate them. The first book ever pub- 
 lished by a missionary in Japan was Dr. Hepburn's 
 English- Japanese Dictionary, in 1867; and in the same 
 year he issued the first Christian tract. In the year 
 1872 a convention of missionaries met in Yokohama to 
 take steps for the translation of the entire New Testa- 
 ment. A translation committee was organized on that 
 day, but the difficulties were many. Even after the 
 manuscript may have been finished there were at that 
 time no movable type in Japan, the old Chinese system 
 of block type being still in use. The committee finally 
 completed the New Testament in 1880. The Old Tes- 
 tament was completed and printed in 1888. 
 
OSAKA CONFEKENCE. 
 
 363 
 
 Besides the Bible, Christian catechisms, prayer books, 
 creeds, and other Christian literature had to be created. 
 The Japanese are a reading people. The first Chris- 
 tian newspaper published in Japan was started in 
 1876, and was named Weekly Missionary, afterwards 
 changed to Fukuin Shimpo (Gospel News). In no 
 country is there so great an opportunity for the print- 
 ing press as in Japan. 
 
 The great Osaka Conference was held about the mid- 
 dle of this period. This Conference of a week, rep- 
 resenting all the missions, was in many senses a great 
 missionary convocation. This was the first time that 
 all the workers had met in solemn and yet joyous as- 
 sembly, and it was the first opportunity the younger 
 men ever had of sitting in Conference with the old pio- 
 neers. When Dr. Hepburn, the senior chairman, took 
 the chair, he spoke with a heart deeply moved of the 
 attitude of the country toward foreigners and Chris- 
 tianity, as contrasted with what it was when he ar- 
 rived twenty years before. When entering Yedo Bay 
 then, he did not even know whether missionaries would 
 be allowed to land. The hatred was then so fierce, the 
 laws against the Christians so relentless, he scarcely 
 hoped for a single convert for many years to come, but 
 had prayed with his wife for a home and field in Japan. 
 His prayers had been answered, and far more than his 
 hopes had been realized, and now he was privileged to 
 preside over so great an assembly of Christian laborers. 
 Many and important were the discussions of that Con- 
 ference, but more important still was the new spirit 
 that came upon all, the spirit of union, of hope and en- 
 thusiasm for the redemption of Japan from paganism. 
 
 Here were Americans, Englishmen, and Scotchmen; 
 Episcopalians, Baptists, and so on, all agreeing in love 
 
364 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 to sink out of sight their smaller differences and to 
 magnify the essentials of their common gospel. This 
 spectacle of brotherly love between different national- 
 ities and branches of Protestant Christianity, deeply 
 impressed the native Christians. They understood that 
 the Protestant missionaries were one at heart and truly 
 zealous for the salvation of their nation. 
 
 Hitherto, even the few native preachers had shared 
 with all the Japanese some of the same inherited preju- 
 dice against the missionaries because they were for- 
 eigners, and had underestimated their ability because 
 they could not speak the Japanese language as fluently 
 as themselves. That Osaka Conference gave a power- 
 ful impulse to all missionary operations, and marked a 
 new era of success in the history of missions. The im- 
 mediate result of the Conference was an increase in the 
 number and spiritual depth of prayer meetings in native 
 churches. The prayer meetings begun during the Con-" 
 ference were continued almost daily for weeks, not 
 only at Osaka, the seat of the Conference,' but at Kioto, 
 Tokyo, and in many places where native churches had 
 been planted. The burden of all the prayers both 
 among missionaries, and native Christians was for the 
 outpouring of the Holy Spirit. The results were first 
 the quickening of the native churches, next the gather- 
 ing in of multitudes of new converts; then the in- 
 creased popularity of the mission schools, and the wide 
 spread of Christian books, tracts, newspapers, and 
 magazines, and especially of the New Testament in 
 whole or in parts. Making some allowances for excess 
 of emotional excitement, there is no question as to the 
 genuineness of the revival fires that burned upon many 
 altars. Along . with the rising tide of Christianity in 
 the land, there was a manifest change of popular senti- 
 
(365) 
 
366 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 ment respecting foreign ideas and things in general. 
 This was seen in the mission schools being crowded 
 with eager pupils both male and female. 
 
 The small cuttings set in the ground some years pre- 
 vious in the treaty ports now sprang into great and 
 widely branching trees and many birds lodged in the 
 branches thereof. For illustration, at Nagasaki, the 
 Dutch Reformed and Methodist Episcopal missions each 
 had nourishing day and boarding schools, and the for- 
 mer a Biblical seminary; at Osaka, the Presbyterians 
 and English Episcopal schools were crowded to over- 
 flowing, and the latter started their Divinity School; at 
 Kobe the Congregationalists had their girls' school, 
 probably the best-equipped female mission school in 
 the empire; at Yokohama the Presbyterians rejoiced in 
 Ferris's Seminary for girls, which was then, and still is, 
 so widely and well known; in Tokyo the Meiji Gakuin, 
 with academic and theological departments, and the 
 Graham Seminary for girls, all Presbyterian; the Meth- 
 odist E]3iscopal college and theological seminary, as 
 well as their splendid girls' school, were all flourish- 
 ing to a remarkable degree; the Protestant Episco- 
 palians were equally encouraged with their St. Paul's 
 Boys' School and Divinity School; in Kioto, the old 
 capital, besides their girls' school and hospital and 
 school of nurses, the Congregationalists founded their 
 famous Doshisha College. In several important inte- 
 rior cities, also, mission schools were founded before 
 the end of this period, and all flourished. The substan- 
 tial character of this period, notwithstanding the loose 
 material always floated in during a time of high tide, 
 is seen in the marked growth of self-support in the na- 
 tive church, as well as in the rapid development of a 
 native ministry. Earlier, perhaps, than in any other 
 
FAVORING CIRCUMSTANCES. 367 
 
 mission field was the rise of influential Japanese pastors 
 and teachers. This was a distinct advantage, but it 
 was not without some danger to the healthy culture of 
 the native churches. 
 
 Other outward circumstances helped this extension 
 of Christianity. First, was the disestablishment of the 
 native religions by the government. The year after the 
 Osaka Conference, the state priesthood of Shinto and 
 Buddhist priests was abolished. The priests were no 
 longer appointed officials of the government with rank 
 and authority. It is remarkable how all corrupt priest- 
 hoods of corrupt religions follow even the bodies of the 
 dead with oppressive enactments. By law the family 
 names had to be registered in the temple books; other- 
 wise the priests could deny burial. But now this is 
 likewise abolished, and cemeteries were provided acces- 
 sible to Christians equally with others. Not that the 
 Christians were yet able to secure equal rights with 
 others, but the fact that Christians had some rights was 
 now recognized by the government, and the Shinto and 
 Buddhist priests were deposed from official rank and 
 authority. Secondly" as the return of Iwakura in 1873 
 from his visit to foreign capitals was the occasion of 
 beneficial changes, so the visit of Count Ito to the 
 countries of Europe to study their constitutions and 
 laws and his return to Japan had a marked influence upon 
 affairs. Being an Imperial Privy Councilor, he changed 
 the thought of the leading men of the country. Charged 
 with the distinguished and difficult duty of framing a 
 constitution for Japan, it could not escape his notice 
 that in a constitutional government religious liberty 
 was necessary. He had long been a zealous champion 
 of the Western civilization. It is stated on what ap- 
 pears to be reliable authority that in conversation with 
 
CHRISTIANITY FAVORED. 369 
 
 Emperor William and Prince Bismarck they reminded 
 him that ' ' Christianity was not a mere human inven- 
 tion for the maintenance of influence and power, but 
 was a reality in the hearts of men." Count Ito was 
 too able a statesman not to have made his impressions 
 known and felt in government circles respecting re- 
 ligious liberty for Japan. Thirdly, .a marked change at 
 any rate was noticeable in educated and government 
 circles. Many in prominent circles either openly pro- 
 fessed their acceptance of Christianity or expressed ad- 
 miration for its moral and enlightening teachings with- 
 out losing their standing. A notable example of this fa- 
 vorable turn was Mr. Fukuzawa, the editor of a leading 
 metropolitan daily ( TJie Times) and the principal of the 
 most famous private school in the empire. He came out 
 in a series of editorials and advocated the national accep- 
 tance of Christianity, not admitting, however, that he 
 personally needed it; but for its gentle, civilizing influ- 
 ence and for the standing jt would give Japan, he favored 
 its acceptance. Fourthly, it must be confessed that 
 Christianity was favored by many for prudential and 
 political reasons. It was felt that such a pro- Christian 
 position would strengthen the chances for treaty revi- 
 sion, a thing so ea.gerly desired, and place Japan upon an 
 equal standing with the great Western nations. Hence 
 not unfrequently government officials and wealthy 
 merchants would contribute considerable sums in sup- 
 port of Christian schools in their communities. Count 
 Itagaki, for example, gave the site for the building of a 
 Christian chapel near his country house, but he was by 
 no means a believer; but even doing that much was a 
 public recognition of the Christian religion. Fifthly, 
 there was a general and growing desire for English and 
 a knowledge of the Western civilization on the part of 
 24 
 
370 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 the youth of the country. The foreign language, cos- 
 tumes, and ways were fast coming into favor in edu- 
 cated and official circles of the younger generation; 
 while the ignorant and belated ways of their parents 
 and elders, ignorant of foreign history and sciences, 
 were looked down upon. Even the disuse of Chinese 
 characters in writing and printing the Japanese lan- 
 guage was seriously thought of, and a society to pro- 
 mote the use of the Roman characters in writing Japa- 
 nese was organized and a magazine was published as 
 the organ of this language reform. In fact, Old Japan 
 was about to be swept off her feet nolens volens, and out 
 into the swift flood of Western ideas and sentiments. 
 Such a movement, while right in its direction, was 
 dangerous in the extreme to the best interests of the 
 nation. 
 
 It was in the midst of this flush period of foreign 
 ideas that three missionary societies from America 
 founded missions in Japan. About the year 1886 the 
 Southern Methodists, Southern Presbyterians, and the 
 Baptists of the Southern Convention sent laborers to 
 this country, and it is a coincidence that, all three being 
 from the same Southern section of the United States, 
 occupied the southern and central portions of Japan. 
 
 As fo*r the Southern Methodists, who took Kobe as 
 their headquarters and proposed to occupy the region of 
 the Inland Sea, it was fortunate that their pioneers had 
 seen service in China. Dr. James W. Lambuth had 
 been nearly forty years a faithful laborer there; and his 
 son, Dr. Walter R. Lambuth, had been born there, 
 and, after completing his education in America, had 
 returned as a medical missionary. With apostolic zeal 
 and labors abundant, these men were remarkably suc- 
 cessful in winning quick access to the hearts of the 
 
ORGANIZED ENEMIES. 371 
 
 Japanese. With uncommon rapidity circuits were laid 
 out and mission stations occupied, small churches or- 
 ganized, and schools, male and female, founded. It 
 was also fortunate that Bishop A. W. Wilson, D.D., 
 LL.D., was in episcopal charge, and was in person 
 upon the ground in those early days of this young mis- 
 sion. 
 
 The other two sister missions, Southern Presbyte- 
 rian and Baptist, were also not without success in 
 those regions. The former is particularly strong in its 
 two centers, the cities of Kochi and Nagoya; the latter 
 is well planted at several points on the coasts of the 
 Inland Sea, and has a girls' school at Moji and one at 
 Himeji. It seems to he a fact that the representatives 
 of these Southern missions had a quick insight into the 
 peculiarities of Japanese character, and have been able 
 to work with a good degree of harmony. The Japa- 
 nese are a chivalrous people, and this must be recog- 
 nized and met in the same spirit. 
 
 We would not close this period leaving the impres- 
 sion that Christianity has conquered a peace in Japan. 
 On the contrary, adversaries at the close of this period 
 made a strong rally in the name of the native religions. 
 Every effort was made by the priests and devotees of 
 Shintoism and Buddhism to stir up the prejudice and 
 keep alive the hatred of the Jesus doctrine and the 
 cross. 
 
 In the island of Shikoku a society named ITasu 
 Taji ("Jesus enemies") was organized. The Shintoists 
 joined with the Buddhists in this hostile movement. 
 Take, as example, the threatening letter sent to four 
 Congregational missionaries then residing in Kioto, 
 and signed, "Patriots in the peaceful city, believers in 
 Shinto." The letter ran in part as follows: "To the 
 
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 EEV. WALTEB E. LAMBUIH, M.D., D.D. 
 
 (372) 
 
BISHOP ALPHEUS W. WILSON, D.D., LL.D., 
 A Leader of Missions. 
 
 (373) 
 
374 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 four American barbarians, Davis, Gordon, Learned, 
 and Greene: You come with sweet words in your mouth, 
 but a sword in the heart; bad priests, American barba- 
 rians, four robbers. You have come from a far coun- 
 try with the evil religion of Christ and as slaves of the 
 Japanese robber, Neesima. With bad teaching you are 
 gradually deceiving the people; but we know your 
 hearts and shall soon with Japanese swords inflict the 
 punishment of heaven upon you. . . . Hence take 
 your families and go quickly." When we recall how 
 many of the Japanese have been assassinated, and that, 
 according to the code of Old Japan, it was honor- 
 orable to murder a man for revenge and for patriotism, 
 if it had been openly announced beforehand, we cannot 
 think such a letter merely a piece of bravado. Had not 
 the police been very vigilant, the threat would probably 
 have been carried out. The means employed to check the 
 spread of Christianity were various: scurrilous pam- 
 phlets and magazines forbidding their followers to rent 
 houses to the Christians for chapels, persuading a hus- 
 band to divorce his wife because she had been a Chris- 
 tian, and so on. Others, with better views, attempted 
 reforms in Buddhism itself, and persuaded the priests 
 to stir out of their ignorance and laziness. Even edi- 
 tors of non- Christian papers, while professing no belief 
 in the Christian faith, warned the Buddhist leaders that 
 they could not hold their own against the energetic 
 propaganda of the missionaries if they did not arouse 
 themselves and reform abuses. 
 
 From the missionaries many of the Buddhists learned 
 methods of working. They established a college at 
 Kioto, their seat and center. The writer has himself 
 seen upon the shelves of its library English books upon 
 the Bible, and has met young Buddhist priests upon 
 
NEESIMA GOES TO AMERICA. 375 
 
 the cars with New Testaments in their hands. Their 
 aim was to study the Jesus doctrine so as to demolish 
 it. Girls' schools, young men's associations, copied 
 after the Young Men's Christian Association, Sunday 
 schools, and preaching meetings were opened in many 
 places. This uncommon activity of the Buddhists 
 shows clearly that they felt that they were losing 
 ground, losing their hold upon the people. And they 
 were losing. The number of pilgrimages and attend- 
 ants upon festivals as well as regular worshipers at 
 temples and shrines had decreased, and there was like- 
 wise a marked falling off in the receipts from contribu- 
 tions. As we shall see later, the strongest and last 
 rally against Christianity came from Shintoism. 
 
 As previously stated, the gospel bore fruit in Japan in 
 the rise of influential native pastors and teachers sooner 
 than in any other foreign field. Conspicuous above all 
 his fellows was Joseph Hardy Neesima, son of a Samurai. 
 So glad was his father when a son was born, he exclaimed, 
 " Shimeta" ("I have got it"), and this became his name. 
 He had a yearning for knowledge in early youth, and was 
 led to think about the true God by reading in the be- 
 ginning of a manual of geography : "In the beginning 
 God created the heaven and the earth. " * This he con- 
 trasted with many legendary gods of his own country, 
 and it made him dissatisfied. At that time death was 
 the punishment for every Japanese who left the country 
 without permission from the government, but stronger 
 than the fear of death was his longing for the truth and 
 the wonders of the Western countries. Finally, after 
 several failures, he got himself taken aboard a foreign 
 ship loading at Hakodate for Shanghai. Under cover 
 
 *It is a pity that theistic or Christian truth is now so 
 little recognized in our modern schoolbooks. 
 
(376) 
 
 JOSEPH II. NKESIMA. 
 
NEESIMA VISITS EUROPEAN CAPITALS. 377 
 
 of darkness he went in a little huckster's boat to the 
 ship, and, to escape the search of the police, had to hide 
 himself away until she sailed. The kind captain gave 
 him free passage to Boston, in consideration of which 
 he acted as a servant hoy, performing menial service, 
 naturally despised by all Samurai. Landing in Bos- 
 ton, the captain brought him to the owner of the ship, 
 Mr. Joseph Hardy, a zealous Christian man and member 
 of the Missionary Board of the Congregational Church. 
 In Mr. Hardy young Neesima found a father (Joseph 
 Hardy was his baptism name received in America), and 
 in his family a Christian home. The young man's 
 heart poured itself forth in the following prayer: "O 
 God, if you have eyes, look upon me; if you have ears, 
 hear me; with all my heart I wish to read the Bible 
 and to become civilized through the Bible." Mr. Har- 
 dy, his foster father, kindly educated him, first at Phil- 
 ip's Academy, then at Amherst College, and last at An- 
 dover Seminary. At that time no missionary of the 
 Congregational Church had been sent to Japan, and he 
 resolved to be a missionary to his people. In 1871 he 
 was commanded by Viscount Mori, then Minister from 
 Japan to our government at Washington, to go with 
 Prince Iwakura's embassy as its interpreter. Being 
 afraid to leave the United States, he was pardoned for 
 leaving Japan, and as he accompanied the embassy to 
 the great capitals of Europe, and saw with eager eyes 
 their great institutions, he was seized with the idea 
 which decided his future career — namely, that the civ- 
 ilization of Europe and America was based upon Chris- 
 tian education, and he therefore determined to found a 
 Christian school for his people and a school where na- 
 tive teachers might be trained. Traveling with the em- 
 bassy, he was brought into relation with men who were 
 
378 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 then and afterwards leaders in Japan's public affairs, 
 such as Iwakura, Ito, and Kido. He returned from 
 Europe to America, and was in 1874 appointed a mis- 
 sionary to Japan. About to sail, he was allowed to ad- 
 dress the annual meeting of the Missionary Board, and 
 his address was with so much power, as he pleaded for 
 his native country in its darkness, that all hearts were 
 moved. He asked for means to found a Christian col- 
 lege. He had written out his speech in full, but did 
 not use it. The night before he spent several hours 
 wrestling in prayer to God for his country, and so the 
 next day laid aside his written speech, and poured out 
 his soul in impassioned appeal that melted his hearers. 
 The immediate response was $3,500 for the purpose of 
 starting the Christian school. 
 
 Arriving in Japan, he joined the Congregationalist 
 missionaries in Kioto, and with them started an acad- 
 emy and a theological school under the name of the 
 "Doshisha." This school, begun in 1875 with only 
 eight pupils in rented rooms little better than sheds, 
 grew rapidly into a flourishing institution. By his 
 earnestness, constancy of purpose, and acquaintance 
 with the influential leaders of the country, the Govern- 
 or of Kioto, and cabinet ministers in Tokyo, he was 
 enabled to enlist an interest in this school on the part 
 of Japanese men of means and influence. As a result 
 he secured an endowment fund of 70,000 yen from the 
 Japanese, much of it given by his non - Christian 
 friends. 
 
 He became clearly convinced of the delusion and dan- 
 ger to many of his countrymen who were grasping for 
 the external benefits of Western civilization and mere 
 intellectual culture based upon the Western sciences. 
 He said: "The spirit of Christianity penetrates every- 
 
DEATH OF NEESIMA. 
 
 379 
 
 thing even to the bottom, so that, if we adopt only the 
 material elements of civilization, and leave out religion, 
 it is like building up a human body without blood." 
 Hence his cry was: "Christian education, and for this 
 purpose a Christian university." To accomplish this he 
 laid himself out day and night, planning, working, and 
 praying. A university was projected with several de- 
 partments, and from America $100,000 was received 
 for the founding of the department of natural sciences. 
 But he was not permitted to see his hopes fulfilled. In 
 January, 1890, being only forty-seven years old, he was 
 taken. His labor had been too much for his strength. 
 Two days before his death he called his friends to his 
 bed and exhorted them. Arousing all his remaining 
 strength, he pointed out on a map certain cities that 
 should be occupied by gospel workers, and for two of 
 them engaged personally to bear the expense of send- 
 ing preachers there at once. Thus passed from Japan 
 one who was perhaps the greatest of all her Christian 
 subjects. He united the spirit of Old Japan with faith 
 in Christ and heartiest devotion to him, probably as 
 perfectly as any Japanese Christian in the whole na- 
 tion. He loved his country, appreciated the better ele- 
 ments of her civilization, such as obedience to parents, 
 self-denial, simplicity of life, and unswerving honor, 
 all of which had been instilled into his heart as the 
 son of a Samurai; but saw how the Christian civiliza- 
 tion of America was immeasurably superior to the pa- 
 gan of his own nation. Educated in all the culture 
 of America, full of trust in God, and withal personally 
 modest and courageous, he was a living bond of union 
 between the missionaries and his native brethren; and 
 sometimes such a man was needed. 
 
 The Roman Catholics, after having been forbidden 
 
(380) 
 
DENOMINATIONAL STATISTICS. 381 
 
 for more than two hundred years, entered Japan again 
 when the country was opened by the Americans; but, 
 being under dark suspicion, they were for many years 
 compelled to work in a very quiet, unseen way. As 
 previously stated, all of the Catholic believers, de- 
 scendants of the Christians of the sixteenth and sev- 
 enteenth centuries, who would not renounce their 
 faith were torn from their native villages and distrib- 
 uted among the various provinces. In 1873 they were 
 released, and since that time the priests of the Romish 
 Church have been diligently laboring, and have estab- 
 lished orphanages, convents, schools, and churches in 
 many sections of the country. They now have 4 bish- 
 ops, 157 male and 102 female missionaries, 246 congre- 
 gations, with a total of adherents, including children, 
 of 53,000. 
 
 The Russo-Greek Church, presided over by the ven- 
 erable Bishop Nicolai, has had a mission since 1870, 
 but is not making rapid progress. Howbeit the Russian 
 cathedral is by far the most magnificent ecclesiastical 
 edifice in Tokyo. Built upon an eminence, it is a con- 
 spicuous building as seen from several quarters of the 
 great city. Being so much higher than the Emperor's 
 palace, and standing upon an eminence, the imperial 
 premises are easily visible from the lofty dome, which 
 fact at first caused the Japanese to murmur, but the 
 authorities permitted the structure to be finished not- 
 withstanding the murmurs. The statistics show a 
 membership of 24,531 and 169 churches. 
 
(382) 
 
CHAPTER HI. 
 
 LATER DEVELOPMENTS {1889-1899). 
 
 The First Parliament. — In accordance with the con- 
 stitution proclaimed in 1889, an election was held, 
 and the first national representative Diet was opened in 
 Tokyo, 1893. 
 
 The right of suffrage is quite limited: only those 
 whose annual income tax amounts to yen 15 and who 
 are twenty-five years old are allowed to vote. The 
 Diet consists of two houses, the Lords and the Com- 
 mons. It was opened by the Emperor with great cere- 
 mony, and the members were all dressed in the pre- 
 scribed "Prince Alberts." But, being the first experi- 
 ment in free representative government, it could scarce- 
 ly be expected that such a body of men, with no train- 
 ing in such duties, should be able to do great things, or 
 avoid serious blunders in what they attempted. Unac- 
 customed to free and open debate upon public meas- 
 ures, there was some abuse of their prerogatives upon 
 the floor, some unruly spirits, a disposition to be in- 
 subordinate to the presiding officer, and a factious tem- 
 per was particularly manifest toward the cabinet min- 
 isters, who appeared on occasion and addressed the 
 Lower House upon measures proposed by the govern- 
 ment. Very quickly, too, the body broke into numer- 
 ous parties, and legislation was blocked. 
 
 Like the English House of Commons, voting the gov. 
 eminent budget submitted by the ministry lies with the 
 Lower House. It was here that a serious conflict 
 quickly arose between the Opposition, led by the Lib- 
 erals, and the Government, represented by the Cabi- 
 
 (383) 
 
384 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 net. The real issue back of all questions of budgets 
 and policies was whether or not the ministry was re- 
 sponsible to the Parliament, or to the Throne only. 
 By the constitution the cabinet ministers were appoint- 
 ed and removed by the Emperor, and hence the con- 
 servative or government party held that the ministry 
 was responsible to the Throne only, and not in any 
 wise to the Parliament, for their policy or measures, 
 and that to insist upon responsibility to Parliament 
 was to invade the sovereign rights of the Emperor. 
 
 The answer to this was the refusal of the Lower 
 House to grant the budget for governmental expenses. 
 The rejoinder from the Throne was the immediate pro- 
 roguing of Parliament. In due time a new Parliament 
 convened. It took the same stand and met the same 
 fate — dissolved and sent home by imperial edict. The 
 defeat of the Opposition was oft repeated, and as often 
 resolutely renewed. Thus the conflict went on until 
 1898, when at last victory was won in the overthrow of 
 the ministry — the cabinet was forced to resign. We 
 may conclude, then, that from that time the ministry 
 was to be held responsible to the Parliament as well as 
 to the Throne, that the regime of the party govern- 
 ment, as in England, has been inaugurated in Japan. 
 All wen-wishers of this nation, and all concerned for 
 the political reformation of Asia's despotic systems, 
 are watching with uncommon interest the outcome of 
 constitutional government in that country. No doubt 
 in process of time there will be a widening of popular 
 suffrage; but it is well that for the present the sover- 
 eign should continue to rule with a strong hand; for 
 the people are not yet ready for a popular form of gov- 
 ernment. More than once the Throne has saved the 
 nation from political shipwreck. 
 
THE CHINA-JAPAN WAR. 385 
 
 The War with China. — Since the times of the Em- 
 press Jingo Kogo (circ 200 A.D.) Japan has claimed 
 some sort of suzerainty over Korea. But China has 
 ever claimed the same. Sometimes Korea's rulers sent 
 presents and paid court to one and then the other, and 
 sometimes carried water on both shoulders by sending 
 what was considered as tribute to both at once. Since 
 Japan entered upon her career of enlightenment and 
 political reform she has looked with impatience upon 
 China's unhealthful influence in Korea. The civil dis- 
 orders and barbarity there were sources of danger to 
 the peace of Japan herself. A treaty was entered 
 into with China, regulating their mutual relations to 
 Korean affairs, and in the spirit of that treaty Japan 
 attempted to lead the weak and tottering little king- 
 dom along a better path, but invariably China's posi- 
 tion was reactionary. Civil disorders increased, and 
 several attacks were made upon the Japanese, not only 
 in the treaty ports, but also in Seoul, the Korean cap- 
 ital. Japan dispatched troops thither to protect her 
 own nationals and her trade. This China resented in 
 such a way that war was declared, and hostilities began 
 in 1894. Japan's armies quickly took possession of 
 Seoul, and the seat of war was on Korean soil, or in 
 waters contiguous. All the world knows the result. 
 In almost every battle, whether on land or sea, the 
 Chinese were ingloriously defeated. China's war ships 
 being either captured or disabled, the war having been 
 pushed northward into Chinese territory, Mukden, the 
 ancient Mantchoo capital, having been captured, and the 
 Liau-Tung peninsula occupied by Japan's armies, Pe- 
 kin itself was in danger of capture. The Chinese, 
 therefore, besought the American Ministers at the 
 court of Pekin and Tokyo to intercede for an armistice 
 25 
 
386 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 and peace negotiations. To this Japan agreed, and at 
 once suspended fighting. Li Hung Chang, the wily dip- 
 lomat, was sent as China's representative; and Japan's 
 was the able statesman, Count Ito. The treaty of 
 peace was signed at Shimonoseki, April, 1895. Hon. 
 John W. Foster, President Harrison's Secretary of 
 State, was besought to" act as China's counselor in that 
 critical hour. 
 
 By the treaty, China had to pay an indemnity and re- 
 linquish to Japan the island of Formosa and the Liau- 
 Tung Peninsula; hut, by the joint remonstrance of Rus- 
 sia, France, and Germany, Japan was constrained to 
 cede back to China that peninsula. That was a very 
 unjust demand upon the part of those three powers. 
 By all the rightful claims and usages of the conqueror 
 in war, as often illustrated in the history of Europe and 
 America, Japan had a legitimate claim upon the Liau- 
 Tung Peninsula for the purpose of making it an integral 
 part of her own empire. But she yielded to the inevi- 
 table, not being able to contend against Russia, backed 
 as she was by France and Germany. Nor has Russia 
 allowed China to forget that she befriended her in the 
 hour of humiliation. It is not probable that Japan has 
 forgotten Russia's unjust action toward herself; and if 
 a good opportunity occurs in future international com- 
 plications, the Northern Bear will be made to suffer for 
 his intermeddling. 
 
 Though Japan was cut to the heart by Russia's unjust 
 action, nevertheless her signal and quickly won victory 
 over ancient China had come as a surprise to most peo- 
 ple in the Western heniisjxhere. They had thought of 
 the "little Japs" as either a part of the empire of 
 China, or at least as only a slightly different people; 
 and as China had a vast empire of territory and four 
 
(387) 
 
388 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 hundred million people, it was considered a strange 
 thing that she should be brought to her knees and suing 
 for peace within a twelvemonth by Japan, with only 
 about forty millions. 
 
 Well, to those living in Japan, and acquainted with 
 the actual conditions in the two countries, the result of 
 the war was no surprise. (1) Japan's armies and navies 
 were trained and equipped according to the latest and 
 best methods of war, whereas China's forces had not 
 had proper training. On account of their unconscion- 
 able conceit, the Chinese were not willing to take suffi- 
 cient instruction from foreign military officers. The 
 result was, their generals were incompetent, their sol- 
 diers undisciplined. How could such an army fight? 
 (2) In the hour of national peril there was no national 
 spirit in China back of the war. The Viceroy of Can- 
 ton said: "It is Li Hung Chang's war; I'll not send my 
 shij)s." (3) In fighting, the Japanese were at their best; 
 the Chinese, at their worst. The former are a nation of 
 good fighters; the latter have been several times con- 
 quered by a people inferior in numbers and resources to 
 themselves. But (4) in that war it was the ideas and 
 methods of the Western nations in conflict with the 
 worn-(fut civilization of the Orient. 
 
 The conduct of the war on the part of the Japanese 
 was highly creditable. It was the first instance of war 
 carried on by an Asiatic nation in accordance with the 
 high ideals of the Red Cross Society. Chinese pris- 
 oners, the wounded and dying, were treated by the 
 Japanese in a humane manner. Only in one instance 
 (at Port Arthur, and that under the most trying provo- 
 cation) is it charged against Japanese' soldiers that 
 they acted with barbarous cruelty toward the Chinese. 
 These severe criticisms have been challenged as unjust, 
 
THE RESULTS OP THE WAR. 389 
 
 and it remains for the impartial historian to decide 
 whether or not noncombatants were put to the sword 
 on that occasion. Upon the whole, high praise is due 
 alike to the generals in the field and the high officials of 
 the War Department at Tokyo for the very humane and 
 enlightened conduct of the war. 
 
 The Results of the War. — As to the eclat won in the 
 eyes of civilized nations there can be no question, for 
 Japan has arisen to an international position, if not to 
 the rank of the first class along with England and the 
 United States, yet certainly to that of a second-class 
 power. Neither Russia nor England can afford to ig- 
 nore Japan hereafter in international politics. 
 
 As for Japan herself, the war was a momentous event. 
 It gave a new impetus to almost every branch of secular 
 life. It caused the national ambition to run high. By 
 using the large indemnity received from China, it was 
 believed that their armies and navies should be further 
 increased, so as to make Japan the dominant power in 
 Asia. Many of the younger men, whose ambition and 
 national bigotry were beyond their sound judgment, 
 imagined that Japan would soon be in a position to dic- 
 tate terms to England in India, taking, of course, the 
 hegemony in the international politics of Korea and 
 China. 
 
 This new national consciousness put extreme empha- 
 sis upon armies, fleets, and the like as the enduring 
 foundation of a nation's greatness, and thereby wrought 
 considerable harm by forgetting the religious and moral 
 side of the nation's life. Victory is often more hurtful 
 than defeat. The Japanese hurt themselves in thus at- 
 taching undue importance to war, to commerce, and to 
 manufactures. 
 
 Material prosperity was more noticeable than ever be- 
 
390 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 fore in the history of the nation. As the government 
 was increasing her armies and navies, simultaneously a 
 general spirit of enterprise sprang up all over the coun- 
 try. Money was flush, prices fan high, scores of new 
 manufacturing and commercial enterprises appeared; 
 Japan had entered upon a period of unparalleled pros- 
 perity. 
 
 And forsooth murmurs were heard in far-off America 
 and England, respecting Japan as the manufacturing 
 rival of Manchester and Falls River. Something was 
 said about cheap labor in Japan and twelve-dollar bicy- 
 cles! But many of the new enterprises were, like bub- 
 bles, soon to burst; many others, however, continued to 
 thrive, as the following figures for 1895-96 show the ex- 
 istence of 68 cotton mills, running 1,250,000 spindles, 
 consuming 200,000,000 pounds of raw cotton. In 1895 
 there were 2,758 factories of all kinds; horse and water 
 power, 54,576. From 1880 to 1895 the area of rice cul- 
 ture increased from 5,000,000 to 6,000,000 acres; silk- 
 Worm raising has more than trebled, and tea culture 
 more than doubled. 
 
 Expansion- of Foreign Trade. — As a further result of 
 the enterprise of the times, the Japanese government 
 granted^ subsidies to new steamship lines, so that, be- 
 sides a great increase in the coastwise trade, and besides 
 the foreign lines already running to China, Siberian 
 Russia, India, and Australia, new lines were put on, 
 making regular trips to French and English ports, and 
 to the American ports on the Pacific coast. In 1872 
 there were only 96 foreign-built vessels; in 1895 the 
 number had increased to 827, with a total tonnage of 
 213,000; the total export and import trade in 1875 was 
 only $47,000,000, but in 1897 it was equal to 
 000,000. 
 
ANTI-FOEEIGN SENTIMENT. 391 
 
 Internal Improvements, too, took on new life. The 
 harbor of Yokohama was improved at heavy expense, 
 and a gigantic scheme has been projected for the en- 
 larging and deepening of Osaka harbor, so as to admit 
 ocean steamers. In many of the larger cities water- 
 works were put in, iron pipes for the same being brought 
 from Nashville and Birmingham; and consequently the 
 rate of disease and death is being diminished. For To- 
 kyo a grand scheme of improvements has been adopted, 
 including waterworks and the widening of principal 
 streets, the purpose being to make it one of the great 
 capital cities of the modern world. In 1898 Japan had 
 about three thousand miles of railway, and bought from 
 the United States sixty-six locomotive engines — note 
 well. 
 
 Feeling against Foreigners and Christianity. — The 
 rapid progress of Christian missions and the sentiment 
 in favor of everything foreign reached their climax about 
 the year 1890. From that time the pendulum of na- 
 tional feeling began to swing back in the opposite direc- 
 tion. Gradually the old anti-foreign spirit rose higher 
 and higher. There were several causes for this. 
 
 In the first place, there was disappointment because 
 the old treaties with foreign powers had not been 
 changed. They had earnestly wished for the old trea- 
 ties, with their extraterritorial jurisdiction in favor of 
 foreigners, to be repealed, but the foreign powers had 
 refused. This embittered and angered the nation. 
 The government adopted a more rigorous policy in re- 
 gard to passports and the privileges granted to foreign 
 residents and visitors. All along the lines of official 
 authority the policy Avas: "No more favors to foreign- 
 ers." 
 
 The Buddhists quickly caught the idea, and stirred 
 
392 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 up the old prejudices of the people against the Chris- 
 tians. Public meetings of Christians, hitherto so pop- 
 ular in the theaters and even on the streets, were now 
 to he systematically broken up by rowdies sent for the 
 purpose by the priests. On several occasions violence 
 was threatened, and the Christian lecture meetings in 
 the theaters had to be given up. The chapels and 
 churches were in many places invaded, and windows 
 and lamps smashed. At Nogoya, a strong Buddhist 
 seat, the house of one of the missionaries had to be 
 guarded by the police for about three months, and the 
 assembling of the native Christians for worship was 
 much interfered with. Even coolies became intoleiably 
 insolent in their manner toward foreigners, and alterca- 
 tions between foreign traders and travelers and Japa- 
 nese employees became fearfully frequent. Missionaries 
 and officials of foreign legations were hooted at or treat- 
 ed to stones from boys in the streets of Tokyo. To the 
 ladies of the foreign settlements it was particularly disa- 
 greeable, liable, as they were, to insult at any time when 
 out on the streets. Everywhere, and in everything, the 
 tension of feeling was high. In the mission schools, and 
 even in the native churches, the strong nationalistic feel- 
 ing showed itself in unseemly ways toward the missiona- 
 ries. N ewspapers, magazines, and lecture platforms all 
 reechoed the notion that Japan was being unjustly treated 
 by the foreign nations — in fact, was being oppressed by 
 them. Everything the foreigners did was looked at 
 with the green eyes of envy; even the trade they had 
 built up in the treaty ports with foreign countries was 
 looked upon as a robbery of their own citizens, because 
 they could not themselves control it. It shows how 
 national prejudice distorts the vision. 
 
 Two events, both of them very discreditable, took 
 
VISIT OF THE RUSSIAN PRINCE. 393 
 
 place, that illustrate the folly and passion into which 
 the nation was now drifting. The one was the attempt 
 of a Japanese policeman to murder the crown prince of 
 Russia. He who is now the Czar of all Russia was mak- 
 ing a visit to Japan, and was out with his suite, in jin- 
 rikushas, doing the sights of Kioto and its environs. As 
 they proceeded along the way, at a neighboring village, 
 in broad daylight, a policeman, who had been nursing 
 his anti-foreign feelings till he had become a fanatic, see- 
 ing the distinguished foreign prince, suddenly fell upon 
 him with his sword and tried to kill him. He inflicted 
 wounds upon the prince's head. This came near plun- 
 ging Japan into war. The Russian prince was a guest 
 of the nation, and the very officer whose duty it was to 
 protect him had turned upon him with murderous rage. 
 The Emperor and all the high ministers in Tokyo were 
 both alarmed and humiliated. The Emperor himself 
 went in great haste, by special train, to Kioto to apolo- 
 gize for the shameful deed. 
 
 The officers and marines of the Russian squadron, 
 then lying in Kobe harbor, and who had escorted their 
 prince to Japan, could scarcely be restrained from 
 marching instantly to Kioto, where he lay wounded. 
 The event spread alarm throughout the land, and hu- 
 miliation too. The people, as well as the rulers, knew 
 they could not cope with Russia in war, and they had 
 made a miserable exhibition of their anti-foreign feeling 
 before the whole world. It was felt that the fanatical 
 and anti-foreign feeling of that policeman was the nat- 
 ural outcome of the anti-foreign agitation indulged in 
 by the press, the priests, and political agitators. It 
 showed plainly that if such violent feeling be not 
 checked it would surely bring on war with some pow- 
 erful foreign nation. And besides, to a few clear-head- 
 
394: japan: country, court, people. 
 
 ed statesmen it was seen that such anti-foreign feeling 
 was defeating the very object for which the government 
 had been for years earnestly laboring — namely, the re- 
 vision of the old treaties. Foreign governments would 
 never agree to treaties placing their nationals under Jap- 
 anese law and officers as long as such national prejudice 
 against foreigners was rife. 
 
 Russia acted magnanimously, accepted the apologies 
 and demanded nothing. The Japanese governor of the 
 district where the attempted assassination occurred was 
 deposed and the murderous policeman was put to death. 
 The crown prince was ordered from St. Petersburg not 
 to go to Tokyo, but to return to his fleet in haste. 
 This incident had the effect of opening the eyes of the 
 nation, and the journals of the day began to condemn 
 the absurd and dangerous lengths to which the Japa- 
 nese had been carried by their anti- foreign feeling. 
 
 Another event alike discreditable was the expulsion 
 of Rev. Mr. Tamura from the Presbyterian ministry 
 by his Japanese brethren. Mr. Tamura, pastor of a 
 leading church in Tokyo, had been educated in Amer- 
 ica, at Rutgers College and at Princeton. Being 
 thoroughly acquainted with our social usages, marriage 
 customs, and home life, and seeing the contrast to 
 those of his own nation, he wrote a little book, entitled 
 "Japanese Bride," published by the Harpers. In the 
 book he hit off a number of things in American society, 
 courtship, and marriage, and exposed several things in 
 the marriage and home life of the Japanese in a bad 
 light. At this time the whole nation was so extreme- 
 ly sensitive to criticism that even the Christians were 
 not free from the baleful influence, and consequently 
 charges were preferred against the author of the bright- 
 ly written little book, and he was expelled from the 
 
UNITARIANISM FAVORABLY RECEIVED. 395 
 
 ministry by his presbytery in the city of Tokyo. That, 
 too, was a saddening exhibition of what national preju- 
 dice and pride will do for a people. Of course the in- 
 tense nationalistic reaction and anti-foreign feeling were 
 felt in the work of the missions in Japan, in their 
 Christian schools, and in the marked decline of attend- 
 ance upon the Christian meetings. The churches no 
 longer made the rapid annual increase in converts as in 
 former years. Causes other than political and nation- 
 al were working to put a temporary check upon the 
 growth of the native Christian Church. 
 
 It was about the beginning of this period that Uni- 
 tarian propagandists were sent over from Boston. 
 Their unfriendly attitude toward the evangelical and 
 orthodox missions, their wise use of the Japanese press 
 in disseminating far and wide their principles, and 
 their disposition to recognize Buddhism and make a 
 sort of compromise platform between it and liberal 
 Christianity, produced a noticeable effect in educated 
 circles, an impression favorable to liberal ideas in reli- 
 gion, and against the orthodox interpretation. The 
 impression became somewhat prevalent that the Unita- 
 rian system was the only system of Christianity that 
 could stand the test of modern science and progressive 
 thought. Many of the head professors in the higher in- 
 stitutions of learning had imbibed a materialistic skepti- 
 cism or agnosticism, justified, as they claimed, by the 
 recent advances in the field of natural sciences. Scien- 
 tific skepticism became the fashion of the day in edu- 
 cated circles of the younger men. Many of them 
 had studied in Europe and America, and had brought 
 back these skeptical views concerning Christianity 
 from the foreign universities where they had studied. 
 
 It came to pass that the government schools, whose 
 
396 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 foundations the evangelical Christian missionaries had 
 laid, were now become the citadels of enmity to Chris- 
 tianity and nurseries of skepticism respecting all reli- 
 gion. A student under suspicion of attending the 
 meetings of the Christians was made to feel the dis- 
 approbation of his teachers and fellow-students alike, 
 and various means were resorted to in order to break 
 him down. We therefore see that the causes of this 
 anti- Christian reaction were of three sources: na- 
 tional questions, religion (Buddhist and Shinto), and a 
 perverted form of modern science. Some of the lead- 
 ers in education and politics said: "We do not need 
 religion of any kind. What we want to insure a glo- 
 rious future for our beloved country are armies and na- 
 vies, commerce, manufactures, and modern education, 
 with plenty of natural science in it." They argued 
 somewhat after this fashion: "Our war with China 
 has proven what we can do in arms, and natural science 
 has disproven Christianity. Why then trouble our- 
 selves about religion?" 
 
 The opposition to Christianity took still another 
 turn about the middle of this period. The Emperor's 
 counselors had also observed that the anti-religious 
 spirit which had taken possession of the government 
 schools was already bringing forth bad fruit in the 
 loose morals of the students. Examples of insubordi- 
 nation to authority were painfully frequent in young 
 Japan. To check this bad tendency, the Emperor is- 
 sued a famous "Rescript on Morals in Education," 
 which was ordered to be read at stated times in all the 
 schools of the empire for a period of five years. This 
 document has been used against Christianity by many 
 who claim that the Emperor's instructions are not in 
 harmony with Christian morals as taught by the mis- 
 
CHRISTIANITY CHALLENGED. 397 
 
 sionaries and Japanese preachers. It is claimed that 
 loyalty to Jesus Christ as Lord over men's hearts and 
 lives is disloyalty to the Emperor and to the state. 
 And even after the China war, in which the Christian 
 soldiers proved their bravery and their loyalty, this was 
 still a favorite accusation made against the Christians. 
 
 And so, in 1897, a new movement against Christian- 
 ity was started, called "Nippon Skugi," the object of 
 which was to revive Shintoism in a modified form, with 
 the Emperor as the head of the religion of Japan. It 
 was an effort to use the universal reverence of the na- 
 tion for its Emperor as a barrier against the acceptance 
 of the faith of Christ. Strange to say, among its pro- 
 moters were professors in the Imperial University, 
 some of whom have studied in our American universi- 
 ties. A challenge was sent forth to the Christians in 
 the following: 1. "Can the worship of his sacred 
 majesty, the Emperor, which every loyal Japanese 
 performs, be reconciled with the worship of God and 
 Christ by the Christians? 2. Can the existence of au- 
 thorities that are quite independent of the Japanese 
 state — such as God, Christ, the Bible, the pope, the 
 head of the Greek Church (Tsar) — be regarded as 
 harmless? 3. Can the Japanese who is a faithful 
 servant of Christ be regarded at the same time as the 
 faithful servant of the Emperor and a true friend of his 
 majesty's faithful subjects? or, to put it in another 
 way, is our Emperor to follow in the wake of West- 
 ern Emperors, and to pray: 'Son of God, have mercy 
 on me?'" 
 
 And yet it is not to be supposed that during this re- 
 actionary time Christianity was making no progress. 
 A needed sifting of the Christians 'took place, and 
 while some fell back again into paganism, or into no 
 
398 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 religion, the faith, of others was strengthened. The 
 growth of the Church, though slower, was more sub- 
 stantial, and while there was some doctrinal defection 
 even among pastors, others, full of zeal, were the more 
 determined to maintain the faith of the gospel. The 
 leaven still worked, and in many ways the power of 
 Christian truth in the minds of the people was cropping 
 out. Deep down in the heart of the Japanese nation, 
 which is really inclined to religion, there was a con- 
 science that could not deny the superior light that was 
 shining among them, the Light of Christ. Even the 
 movements of the Buddhists and the latest Shinto 
 movement only too clearly prove that the pressure of 
 Christianity upon public thought was being felt by its 
 enemies. 
 
 The JVeio Treaties, 17th of July, 1899.— -That day 
 marks a new and glorious era in the political history of 
 the nation. The old treaties of Perry and of Harris be- 
 came on that day null and void — that is, foreigners re- 
 siding or visiting upon Japanese soil passed from the 
 jurisdiction of their consuls under the laws and juris- 
 diction of the Japanese. Thenceforth, for any crime 
 committed, or dispute at law by foreigners, the arrest, 
 summons, trial, and judgment of the case are to be 
 made by Japanese officers or before Japanese judges. 
 In other words, Japan entered on that day into the fam- 
 ily of Western nations upon terms of international 
 equality. And it was a day longed for by every Japa- 
 nese. For forty years they have keenly felt that their 
 national autonomy and the sovereign authority of their 
 Emperor in his own country were being set at naught 
 by the existing treaties with foreign nations. They 
 were embittered over this, as the foregoing pages 
 plainly show. But when these old treaties were made, 
 
NEW TREATIES TAKE EFFECT. 399 
 
 it was clearly out of the question for foreign govern, 
 nients to place their nationals under the barbarous and 
 cruel procedures of judges and magistrates such as ob- 
 tained in Japan at that time. And as often as Ja- 
 pan's leaders approached foreign powers upon the ques- 
 tion of changing the treaties and abolishing foreign 
 jurisdiction upon their soil, their invariable answer 
 was: "Go and qualify; and when you have qualified, 
 we shall be willing." And at last England, then the 
 United States, followed by other powers, were con- 
 vinced that the rulers had made sufficient progress in 
 law, order, and enlightenment to entitle them to more 
 liberal treaties; and accordingly new treaties were en- 
 tered into, to become operative on the 17th day of July. 
 Nevertheless, many foreigners living there, both among 
 the missionaries and the commercial communities in 
 treaty ports, are quite skeptical in regard to Japan's 
 being ready to take charge of foreigners. As the day 
 approached many were the fears expressed as to the ca- 
 pacity of Japanese officials to administer law impar- 
 tially and justly where the interests or rights of for- 
 eigners are involved as against a Japanese subject. 
 And indeed, this is the first time in all history that an 
 Asiatic nation has been recognized on term of interna- 
 tional equality with Christian nations. 
 
 But the distinguished leaders of the government, 
 like Counts Ito, Inouye, and Okuma, are confident that 
 Japan will be equal to her new responsibility and prove 
 herself worthy of a place in the great sisterhood of 
 Western nations. And even the doubters must confess 
 that the leaders and counselors of the Japanese sover- 
 eign have long foreseen what the era of constitutional 
 government and of international comity signified, and 
 have been wisely preparing for it. The old system of 
 
400 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 trials, tortures, and judgments was abolished, and a 
 system of laws, the fruit of the most patient study of 
 all the codes of Western nations, was framed, and a 
 new system of courts organized, with a supreme court 
 of justice in Tokyo. That system of laws consists of 
 complete civil, criminal, and commercial codes. The 
 judges of the supreme court are appointed by the crown 
 for life, or good behavior; the barristers at law, as well as 
 the judges, many of them have had the benefit of thor- 
 ough training in the best law schools and under the ablest 
 jurists in Europe or America. And as Japan's leaders 
 have hitherto measured up to new responsibilities and 
 emergencies, and as the whole nation is jealous of their 
 standing before the eyes of foreign nations, realizing 
 that they are now being watched by friends and foes 
 alike, the writer believes the forebodings and doubts of 
 those who have opposed a revision of the treaties will 
 prove groundless.* 
 
 Turning Again to the Truth. — Within the past three 
 years there has been a decided change in public senti- 
 ment. The sudden elation of mind following the 
 great victory over China has given place to soberer 
 views of national glory. That exaggerated confidence 
 in the power of fleets, armies, and commerce to heal 
 the hurri of a nation's sins has yielded to a more ration- 
 al view of what the real needs and dangers of the nation 
 are, and what the remedy is. There has been a healthy 
 seeing of the evils in the land, the corruption and fond- 
 ness for luxury in higher social circles, and the lack of 
 commercial honesty in commercial transactions. One 
 of the healthiest symptoms of the nation is that many of 
 
 * The writer of these pages favored treaty revision several 
 years ago, for which he was treated to sarcastic review by 
 one of the English papers in Yokohama. 
 
HIGHEE STANDARDS. 401 
 
 the enlightened leaders, and particularly the Christian 
 pastors and teachers, are boldly speaking out concern- 
 ing the national sins, the moral evils that threaten so- 
 ciety in modern Japan. There is a call to repentance 
 not by the missionaries only, but by the Japanese 
 preachers as well. Higher standards of life and morals 
 are now demanded of public leaders. Criticism of 
 public affairs and of social questions or reforms is freer 
 and bolder on the part of Christian leaders. The ne- 
 cessity of religion as a basis of national morality — the 
 doctrine insisted upon by George Washington after 
 the American Revolution— is being recognized by many 
 open-eyed teachers and leaders of the present day. 
 The consequence is, the turning again of many to the 
 messengers of Christ. All the reports of Christian 
 workers tell of meetings more largely attended, and of 
 renewed interest on the part of the people. All the 
 tokens are encouraging. And now that the long- 
 standing restrictions respecting the residence and travel 
 of missionaries have been removed, their work in the 
 future and their more direct presence and participation 
 in the administration of Church affairs, made legal by 
 the new treaties, will be more effective than ever. 
 - 26 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 INTERCOURSE AND FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN THE 
 UNITED STATES AND JAPAN IN THE PAST. 
 
 Ik his interesting book entitled " Intercourse between 
 the United States and Japan," by my whilom fellow- 
 student, Dr. Inazo Nitobe, a Japanese gentleman and 
 Doctor of Philosophy, of Johns Hopkins University, he 
 sets forth very fully, first, the relations between Japan 
 and Europe, and then America. 
 
 Diplomatic Relations. — Should some one wish to 
 write for one of our American reviews a chapter on 
 the early intercourse between the United States and 
 Japan, let him entitle it "An Honorable Chapter in 
 American Diplomacy." Perry, Harris, Bryan, De Long, 
 Bingham, and Hubbard, our representatives from 1854 
 to 1888, stand out, all of them, as conspicuous examples 
 of honorable dealings on the part of a strong with a 
 weak nation. Judge Bingham, who was the American 
 Minister to Japan for thirteen years, by his unsullied 
 Christian character and his willing helpfulness, became 
 preeminently the trusted counselor and confidential 
 friend of the leaders of the New Japan in these critical 
 times. His ability and experience as a lawyer, bis gen- 
 uine sympathy for them in their untried measures for 
 reform and progress, were highly serviceable to Japan. 
 
 More than once he stood forth the champion of their 
 national rights against the unreasonable demands of 
 other great powers made upon a weaker nation. As in- 
 stances of America's friendly diplomacy, as represented 
 by Judge Bingham, is the fact that he was the first to 
 (402) 
 
japan's only pkiend. 403 
 
 break loose from the diplomatic cooperation which, 
 though at first probably a necessity, was extremely lia- 
 ble to become a sort of machinery by which the great 
 powers could make blustering and unjust demands upon 
 Japan in the hour of her weakness. When in 1874 the 
 Japanese government issued customs regulations with- 
 out consulting the foreign consuls, Judge Bingham 
 alone defended Japan's right to do so; and when in 
 1878 the cholera was raging, and the government at- 
 tempted the very reasonable measure of medical inspec- 
 tion, and, if need be, quarantining merchant ships, and 
 the foreign consuls objected, it was he who declared: 
 ' ' The action of the consuls is a substantial denial of the 
 right of the Japanese government, to prevent the im- 
 portation of pestilence by foreign vessels." The next 
 summer, when the German consul, by means of a war 
 ship, took a vessel out of quarantine in defiance of the 
 regulations, Gen. Grant, who was there, remarked on 
 the occasion that "the vessel ought to have been sunk;" 
 and Mr. Bingham resented the German consul's audacity 
 both upon the ground that Japan, a weak nation, still 
 had the right to do right, and because the unreasonable de- 
 fiance of wholesome regulations in time of epidemic im- 
 periled alike American residents and Japanese subjects 
 in the treaty ports. And again, when Japan's regula- 
 tions for the sale of opium were objected to by the 
 British and French Ministers as derogatory to extrater- 
 ritorial rights, he took a different view, recognizing the 
 right of a weak as well as a strong nation to protect 
 itself against such a curse as the opium traffic is. In 
 the words of Mr. Nitobe, "All honor to the veteran 
 judge from Ohio!" 
 
 For further examples of a friendly attitude toward 
 Japan in her struggles, we mention the fact that when 
 
404 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 she proposed to enter the postal and telegraphic con- 
 ventions with foreign nations, the United States was the 
 only treaty power that did not hesitate. And the return 
 of the Shimonoseki indemnity is another example of fair 
 and honorable dealings on the part of a strong power 
 with a weak one, and had the effect of cementing the 
 friendship between the two countries. Gen. Grant, 
 speaking of American policy in Japan, once said: 
 ' ' Whatever may be her influence, I am proud to think 
 it has always been exerted in behalf of j ustice and kind- 
 ness." As early as 1878 did the United States take 
 steps toward the revision of certain portions of the 
 commercial treaties. 
 
 Respecting the revision of the old treaties, with their 
 restrictions upon Japan's right to regulate her own tar- 
 ifs on imports, and the extraterritorial jurisdiction of 
 foreign consuls upon Japanese soil, so odious, to every 
 Japanese, the United States and her worthy representa- 
 tives, when they saw that Japan had qualified for better 
 government, were foremost to agree to consider new and 
 juster treaties. This was proved when (1888) the pro- 
 posals for treaty revision were communicated to the 
 Ministers of the great powers in Tokyo, and the Amer- 
 ican Minister, Hon. ex-Gov. Hubbard, obtained by ca- 
 blegram, within twenty-four hours, permission from his 
 government at Washington to accept them. Well does 
 the writer remember how sanguine Mr. Hubbard was 
 over the prospect of the speedy conclusion of the new 
 treaties, feeling, as he did, that it was just and right. 
 And the reason why they were not ratified was not the 
 fault of President Cleveland, President Harrison, or of 
 the United States Senate; but it was due to opposition 
 among the Japanese themselves, on account of the pro- 
 vision for mixed judges in Japanese courts. The proud 
 
EARLY EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES. 405 
 
 Japanese were not willing to see foreign j udges sitting 
 on the bench; and if Count Okuma had gone on with 
 such a treaty, there would probably have been a revo- 
 lution. 
 
 While in his carriage on the streets of Tokyo he re- 
 ceived a wound from a dynamite bomb thrown by a fa- 
 natical youth. The wound came nigh being mortal, and 
 he was forced to resign the office of Foreign Minister, 
 whereupon soon afterwards the question of treaty revi- 
 sion was for a while dropped. 
 
 It is just to say that when the new treaties were con- 
 cluded it was Great Britain that was the first to sign 
 them, followed quickly, however, by the United States. 
 
 Nor has Japan been slow to appreciate the friendly 
 and helpful policy of the United States. When Gen. 
 Grant made his tour around the world, nowhere was he 
 more enthusiastically received than in Japan. As the 
 distinguished representative of the great American 
 Union again restored, he was made the guest of the na- 
 tion, and had repeated and confidential interviews with 
 the Emperor, in which the future relations of the two 
 countries were discussed; and in one of them the Em- 
 peror is reported to have said: "America and Japan, 
 being near neighbors separated by ocean only, will be- 
 come more and more closely connected with each other 
 as time goes on." 
 
 The Early Educational Influences of New Japan 
 Were Almost Exclusively American. — Rev. Guido F. 
 Verbeck, the honored and now lamented missionary, 
 was the first President of the Kai Sei Gakko (1869- 
 74), which is now the Imperial University, and this 
 notwithstanding the government's dislike of Christian- 
 ity. One of the earliest professors was another mis- 
 sionary, the venerable Dr. JMcCartee. Besides these, 
 
406 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Profs. Morse, Whitman, Paul, Mendenhall, Chaplin, 
 Waddell, Veeder, Terry, Jewett, Fenollosa, and others 
 ■ — all Americans — were at one time or another connect- 
 ed with some department of the university in Tokyo, in 
 its earlier years. 
 
 Daniel Murray, LL.D., prominent in educational cir- 
 cles in New York, became adviser (1873) to the Depart- 
 ment of Education, and rendered valuable service in 
 the organization of the public school system, and in 
 completing the fine educational museum in Tokyo. 
 He was decorated by the Emperor with the Order of 
 the Rising Sun. Reference has been made in a pre- 
 vious page to the early school books, that were almost 
 exclusively American. 
 
 Prof. M. M. Scott, of Kentucky, organized and 
 opened the first normal college in Japan (1872), and 
 this became the basis of the normal school system. 
 
 The Japanese had in their schools no knowledge of 
 modern music until an American — Mr. Luther Mason, 
 of Boston — went to Japan (1879), and spent three 
 years in the service of the government, introducing 
 musical instruction into the schools. 
 
 The training of nurses was introduced by an Ameri- 
 can lady, Miss Richards, and this suggests the remark 
 that the foundation laying of modern female education 
 in that country is chiefly the work of American mis- 
 sionary women. Beginning with Mrs. Hepburn and 
 Miss Kidder, the American ladies have done a work 
 for which Japanese women will ever be grateful. In 
 1887, out of a total number of seventy-four missionary 
 women in Japan, sixty-nine were Americans. Nor was 
 their work confined to the mission schools for girls, for 
 Mrs. Chappel was for a number of years before her 
 marriage one of the foreign lady teachers in the school 
 
ADVANCE IN SCIENCE AND IN BUSINESS. 407 
 
 for the daughters of the nobles in Tokyo, an institu- 
 tion under the patronage of the Empress. 
 
 In scientific services, Gen. Capron, with his staff 
 of American assistants, stands preeminent for what he 
 did in introducing scientific agriculture. His staff of 
 specialists did important work besides, in geological, 
 mining, hydrographic, and trigonometrical surveys. 
 New industries and crops were introduced, including 
 American breeds of horses and of sheep; fruits, as ap- 
 ples, plums, berries, and grasses. In Hokkaido, Profs. 
 Pumpelly and Lyman (the former in mining, the latter 
 in geological work) rendered most important service. 
 
 The agricultural college at Sapporo, in the North, 
 begun by Gen. Capron, was developed into a splendid 
 institution by Col. William S. Clark, Ph.D., LL.D., 
 President of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, 
 assisted by several Americans. 
 
 Americans introduced likewise the art of fish can- 
 ning, destined to become so important an industry in 
 the Northern waters; dairying also, so much needed in 
 Japanese living; and gymnastics in their schools. And 
 it was an American, Mr. Goble, who invented the ve- 
 hicle named "jinrikusha," now so indispensable as a 
 means of travel. 
 
 Mention has already been made of the first medical 
 classes, organized and instructed by Drs. Berry and 
 Faulds, both Americans. 
 
 Their postal system was modeled after ours in Amer- 
 ica, and Mr. Paul Bryan, of Washington, D. C, went out 
 to assist the government in improving and expanding it. 
 He was sent abroad as commissioner for Japan to per- 
 suade the treaty powers to admit that country into the 
 International Postal Union, the United States, as 
 usual, setting the example to the others. 
 
408 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Likewise the coinage and banking system, as well as 
 the patent regulations, were all modeled after those of 
 America. Messrs. George W. Williams and Matthew 
 Scott were engaged for a number of years in the finance 
 department, and rendered valuable service. The mint 
 at Osaka was, however, set up by an Englishman. 
 
 In naval affairs, we mention the name of Gen. 
 Legendre, Lieuts. Cassell and Wasson, to whom 
 were tendered the appointment and rank of Commo- 
 dore in the Japanese navy. Gen. Legendre was ex- 
 pected to proceed with the expedition against Formosa, 
 but was prevented by the American Minister; neverthe- 
 less they all rendered good service to the navy. In 
 this connection a number of young men were sent by 
 the government at Tokyo to our naval school at Annap- 
 olis for training, and they now occupy important posts 
 in Japan's navy. The names of Drs. Griffis, Cutter, 
 and Murray, Profs. Eastlake and Antisell, Drs. Simons 
 and Whitney, Capt. James, Mr. A. Jones, Mr. E. 
 Peshine Smith (adviser to the government in interna- 
 tional law), Col. Joseph W. Crawford, Prof. Frank 
 Hullot, and others whose names are not accessible de- 
 serve honorable mention for work in developing some 
 line of rnpdern civilization in Japan. 
 
 Dr. Fenollosa, professor in the university, saw the 
 radical mistake the young artists of New Japan were 
 making in discarding their ancient pictorial art styles 
 and too eagerly imitating everything Western. The 
 government appreciated his warning, and appointed 
 him Commissioner of Arts, to visit Europe and Amer- 
 ica to inspect and report upon the management of art 
 schools and museums, and to purchase books and art 
 productions for the imperial government. 
 
 In works upon the Japanese language the Americans 
 
WRITERS AND STUDENTS. 409 
 
 have made no mean contribution. Dr. J. C. Hepburn's 
 English-Japanese Dictionary stands preeminent, being 
 the first of the kind ever published. Then Drs. Brown, 
 Griffis, Eastlake, Imbrie, White, Lloyd, Muller, Brad- 
 bury, and others have issued language text-books upon 
 Japanese, or Japanese and English. The manuals for 
 Japanese students studying English, issued by the 
 Americans, have been valuable. 
 
 As for American -writers on Japan, they are num- 
 bered by the score. Since Mr. King, a merchant of 
 Macao, who went in the ship Morrison in 1837 on a 
 mission of mercy, published in the next year the narra- 
 tive of his voyage; and since the monumental works 
 published by our government, giving the narrative of 
 Commodore Perry's expedition to Japan in 1854, mis- 
 sionaries, tourists, scientists, and artists have been mak- 
 ing their various contributions upon that picturesque 
 country and interesting people. 
 
 Japanese Students in America. — America has indeed 
 been an El Dorado to Japanese young men bright and 
 eager, some of whom have been chosen by the govern- 
 ment and expenses provided for, while others, sons of 
 wealth or rank, came at their own charges; but most 
 of them were indigent and ambitious, having spent all 
 they could scrape and rake together in paying their fare 
 from Japan to this country. These last, ofttimes intel- 
 lectual and studious, were dependent partly upon their 
 own toil — all manner of work which their hands could 
 find — partly upon the kindly aid of sympathizing Chris- 
 tians, and upon special consideration and reduction of 
 fees granted by the school that received them. It would 
 be hard to estimate the amount in clean cash freely con- 
 tributed by the American Christians to Japanese students 
 direct, or by the institutions receiving them by granting 
 
410 • japan: country, court, people. 
 
 special favors, assistance being given in either case ab 
 most invariably because they were Japanese young men 
 and prof essii ig Chris tians . 
 
 Two pioneer students came to New York in 1866, 
 having a letter from one of the missionaries in Japan. 
 Their expressed intention in coming to America was ' ' to 
 learn how to build 'big ships,' and to make 'big guns,' 
 to prevent the European powers from taking possession 
 of their country. " And this ambitious scheme, worthy 
 of a Peter the Great, they proposed to accomplish with- 
 out knowing the language of the Americans, and, what 
 was worse, with only about one hundred dollars in their 
 pockets. ^ 
 
 The Board of Foreign Missions of the Reformed 
 Church, in New York, kindly came to their relief, and 
 later the money was refunded by the Japanese govern- 
 ment. In illustration ' of the statement made above, 
 from the year 1866 to 1896 about live thousand Japanese 
 students sought advice or some kind of assistance at the 
 office of this Board of Missions, in New York City; and 
 Rutgers College alone has received more than three 
 hundred of them, first and last. In every prominent 
 Church institution in the Union, North and South, Jap- 
 anese students have studied, and almost invariably been 
 beneficiaries to a greater or less extent. 
 
 In the several State universities likewise, Japanese 
 young men have studied. The agricultural, technolog- 
 ical, and professional schools scattered throughout the 
 country have also had Japanese students among their 
 matriculates and graduates. 
 
 Be it said to their credit, the majority of them have 
 been diligent in study, have taken high rank in their 
 classes, and been exemplary in their conduct. It was 
 to be expected that out of so many a few would prove 
 
IMBIBING AGNOSTICISM. 411 
 
 to be religious impostors, pretending to be earnest Chris- 
 tians simply as a cloak to gain favor and assistance 
 while in this country, the cloak being promptly thrown 
 off upon their return to their own country. 
 
 Dr. Nitobe, who has studied both in the American 
 and German universities, draws a contrast between the 
 higher education of the two countries, and while he 
 thinks the Germans are rather more thorough than the 
 Americans, "at the same time the moral influences, and 
 much more the religious, of German academic life are 
 wanting when weighed in the balance," etc. He there- 
 fore would recommend young men not matured, or pre- 
 pared to take a special course in Germany, to come to 
 America. But, after all, he doubts whether it be ad- 
 visable for so many young men to go abroad to study, 
 even to America. Many of those who have graduated 
 from American colleges and universities now occupy 
 high positions not only in the Imperial University and 
 various technical institutions of the government, but 
 also in the several mission schools, as editors of news- 
 papers and magazines; and many hold lucrative posi- 
 tions in the departments of the government, at the bar, 
 in engineering, and as bank officials; many, too, are en- 
 gaged in religious work as preachers. And it must be 
 that these men, who have been so kindly treated by the 
 American people, and have received the best training in 
 American institutions, will be a powerful bond of good 
 will between the two countries in the future. Alas! 
 some of them have carried back to their native country- 
 men a broken faith and the spirit of materialistic ag- 
 nosticism, the result of teachings imbibed, or perchance 
 of the inconsistent lives of professing Christians with 
 whom they have come in contact. A few female stu- 
 dents were likewise sent over, by the government's ap- 
 
■412 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 proval, at an early day — daughters of high rank and so- 
 cial position. Some of them are now enthusiastically 
 devoted to the larger culture and sphere of woman in 
 Japan. The foregoing facts, touching the large meas- 
 ure of kindness and substantial aid bestowed upon hun- 
 dreds and even thousands of Japanese young men, have 
 not been set out merely for the purpose of eulogizing 
 the American people. Heaven knows, we Americans 
 have our faults and national sins, but it is meet and 
 right that the facts be recognized as illustrating the his- 
 tory of the intercourse between the United States and 
 Japan, all so clearly set forth by Dr. Nitobe, himself 
 once a university student in our country. We only add 
 here that such substantial aid bestowed upon so many 
 students from a foreign land is not surpassed elsewhere 
 outside of America. These men, educated in the United 
 States and now in places of leadership, and intrusted 
 with the molding of the thought and sentiment of the 
 future of their nation in future, cannot but be a bond of 
 friendship and of commerce between the two lands. 
 
 Another powerful bond between the two countries has 
 been formed by the large number of missionaries from 
 our shores that labor and live in Japan. The number 
 of American missionaries exceeds by far that from any 
 other country. They have been severely criticised from 
 time to time; but, after all, it is likely that their influ- 
 ence in promoting good will toward Japan is not suffi- 
 ciently recognized either here or there. The Japanese 
 themselves are probably not aware to what extent the 
 religious motive and the Christian principles of foreign 
 missions have awakened and still keep alive the strong 
 interest of the American people in their welfare and 
 progress. Commercial interests are strong, literary and 
 artistic motives may lead a few to think and care for 
 
NATIONAL RIGHTS DEFENDED. 413 
 
 the Japanese people, but by far the strongest and widest 
 interest in those people has its springs in Christian mo- 
 tives and feelings; nor is it the less intelligent, for, as a 
 matter of fact, the best- read students of Japanese civili- 
 zation, history, and religion, as well as modern progress, 
 are to be found among the cultured Christian gentlemen 
 and ladies connected with the several missionary socie- 
 ties. Suppose we cut out and cast into the sea of ob- 
 livion all the missionary work done in Japan by preach- 
 ers, teachers, writers; destroy all the friendship and as- 
 sociations which they and their wives have cultivated 
 there, and all that they have written in private letters, 
 periodicals, and books in behalf of the Japanese nation, 
 and where would Japan stand to-day? Every mission- 
 ary is a strong cable binding the hearts of the two na- 
 tions together. One thing frequently occurring, but 
 which is strangely overlooked, is that the missionaries 
 in China, Japan, and other countries have been the 
 stanchest champions of their national rights. They are 
 not slow to speak in behalf of the countries where they 
 live and work. A notable example of this was the al- 
 most unanimous sentiment of the American missionaries 
 working in China against the Chinese Exclusion bill 
 passed by Congress. Nor has Japan lacked for cham- 
 pions among the missionaries respecting the justice of 
 her demand for a revision of the old treaties. They are 
 about the first of all the foreign residents to frankly 
 recognize the political advancement and general prog- 
 ress of the nation among whom they dwell and for whom 
 thev work. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE FUTURE. 
 
 J apak has done what no other Asiatic nation has ever 
 done: adopted a constitutional form of government and 
 secured entrance into the family of Western nations 
 upon terms of equality. This much is history, and with 
 this much gained she launches upon the twentieth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Her future peace, progress, and power can, however, 
 be secured permanently only upon the acceptance oi 
 Christianity as the religion of her people. It cannot 
 yet be said either of the rulers or of the people that they 
 are Christian. It cannot be a Christian empire when 
 the Emperor still has eleven or twelve concubines in 
 the palace; it cannot be a Christian nation when so 
 many of the people are still idolaters, worshiping gods 
 and goddesses, and even the sun and moon, or the fox. 
 Nor is it just, on the other hand, to call them indiscrim- 
 inately pagans and uncivilized. The truth is that Ja- 
 pan is now neither Christian nor pagan, neither Orien- 
 tal nor Occidental, but is in a state of mixture and tran- 
 sition. The whole question of Japan's future depends 
 upon her acceptance or rejection of the Christian reli- 
 gion. There are many conflicting forces all fighting for 
 supremacy over the Japanese mind. 
 
 Buddhism is still struggling for its ancient footing; 
 Shintoism has made a new rally, attempting to enforce 
 itself upon the Japanese heart by setting up the Em- 
 peror and loyalty to him as against tlie allegiance and 
 worship of Jesus Christ. But both of these are doomed 
 (414) 
 
CONFLICTING RELIGIONS. 415 
 
 religions in Japan. A religion that has to compromise 
 itself and perpetuate itself by borrowing and imita- 
 ting Christianity can never stand in competition with 
 it; and as for the vain and bombastic talk about the 
 worship of "his sacred majesty, the Emperor, which 
 every faithful Japanese performs," it will not save 
 Shintoism. 
 
 But there is modern infidelity, imported from Eu- 
 rope and America, a rationalistic and scientific agnos- 
 ticism, that bids for the educated classes. Much has 
 been done to make the youth believe that Christianity 
 is a worn-out system, to be ever hereafter discredited in 
 the name of modern science. New Japan affects to be 
 strictly scientific — scientific or nothing. Again, there 
 is a class of practical secularists who believe that Ja- 
 pan can get all the benefits of Christian civilization 
 without Christianity itself; or, another school says, 
 accept a quasi Christianity without a personal Christ, 
 or even the historical Christ without believing in his 
 uniquely divine nature and claims. 
 
 A kind of rationalistic eclectic system dubbed Chris- 
 tianity (partly Japanese, partly paganism, and partly 
 European) will probably be attempted by a few rare 
 souls who imagine they could devise a religion up to 
 date, by convention and resolution (on paper) — a reli- 
 gion vastly superior to anything yet heard of either in 
 the West or the East. 
 
 Of course, while all these movements make common 
 cause against evangelical Christianity, like the Phari- 
 sees and Sadducees in the days of our Lord, they are 
 naturally against one another. Out of this many-sided 
 and intensely intellectual conflict the gospel of Christ 
 will finally come forth victorious. Apostolic, historical 
 Christianity will be the accepted religion of the Japa- 
 
416 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 nese nation. It will not be the Christian faith bur- 
 dened and weakened by all the discordant tenets of the 
 many sectarian creeds of the Western hemisphere, but 
 will represent the essentials common to the several 
 branches of Protestant Christianity. To Calvinists, 
 Lutherans, and High-Church Ritualists this may come 
 as a disappointment, but the reader may depend upon 
 it, the Japanese are not going back just far enough in 
 Church history to begin with all the controversies that 
 have raged, and, trying to bear them upon their shoul- 
 ders, wade through the fight up to the twentieth cen- 
 tury, but will take apostolic and historic Christianity, 
 in its common essentials, as their creed. And Japan 
 will be the frst great Oriental nation of modern times to 
 embrace the religion of Jesus. This we take to be a fore- 
 gone conclusion, notwithstanding there may be tempo- 
 rary reactions. There may indeed be many unfriendly 
 isms and movements to contend with, and yet Christ's 
 Name and Gospel will move steadily on and finally win 
 a great victory, and secure to this wide-awake, pro- 
 gressive country an honorable career among the Chris- 
 tian nations of the earth. Already Christianity has 
 struck its roots deep into the heart and respect of the 
 nation, and exerts its influence far beyond what its 
 numerical strength would indicate. For example, the 
 first President of the Lower House of the new Parlia- 
 ment, as well as the President of the last one, were 
 professing Christians, and one of the judges of the 
 Supreme Court in Tokyo is to-day a Christian known 
 and recognized as such, and there are others in high 
 position appointed by imperial authority. As the 
 years go on, the Christians will make themselves felt 
 more and more in questions of public morality and re- 
 form. The next Emperor (now heir apparent, and about 
 
CHRISTIANITY WILL WIN. 417 
 
 twenty years old) will never ascend the throne a po- 
 lygamist, but as the husband of one wife. 
 
 That the Japanese will accept Christianity as the re- 
 ligion of their country and of their homes needs hardly 
 to be argued. The missionaries will continue their 
 work of preaching and teaching; the native ministry, 
 with its constituency of disciplined and gradually 
 self-propagating and self-supporting churches, will in- 
 crease in both numbers and efficiency; and then there 
 is that indefinable and invisible spread of Christian 
 sentiment under the Spirit of all truth, so that in due 
 time a great harvest of thousands upon thousands will 
 be gathered yearly into the Christian Church. Al- 
 ready there is an increasing number of educated men who 
 now recognize that modern civilization without religion 
 means the corruption of society, the unloosing of all 
 the bonds, and the undermining of all the foundations 
 upon which a nation's peace and safety rest. One 
 thing characteristic of the leaders of the New Japan, 
 in spite of occasional national reactions against foreign 
 ideas, is the open eye that marks the lessons of history, 
 as observed in the nations and countries beyond them- 
 selves, and along with this open eye is the determina- 
 tion to have the best. Converted to Christ, and tak- 
 ing its place among the sisterhood of enlightened na- 
 tions, Japan's future career needs to be considered from 
 two different points of view. 
 
 Reform in the Orient. — Japan's conversion to Chris- 
 tianity will in many ways have a tremendous influence 
 upon China and Korea. The Japanese are a people of 
 action, aggressive in temperament, being in this respect 
 more like the Teutonic than the Oriental races, and will, 
 when Christianized, become powerful and successful 
 missionaries of the Truth among other Oriental peoples. 
 27 
 
418 . japan: country, court, people. 
 
 They are at the same time Oriental enough in language, 
 literature, and race, • and their ancient political in- 
 stitutions were so closely modeled after the Chinese, to 
 give them an easier access to the heart of that vast em- 
 pire. They themselves will be the living proofs, show- 
 ing how superior the Christian religion and Christian 
 civilization are. 
 
 Not only as evangelizers, but also as political reform- 
 ers, the Japanese will have a powerful influence upon 
 Korea and China. Being Orientals, they have the genius 
 of the Oriental mind, and can understand what polit- 
 ical institutions and forms of government are adapted 
 to the Oriental race better than the Europeans can pos- 
 sibly do. They will make a more powerful appeal to 
 those hitherto absolute despotisms to enter the path of 
 political reform and liberty. They will be the cham- 
 pions of constitutional government, and will play a 
 leading part in alliances to maintain the independence 
 of the far East against the scheming aggressions of Eu- 
 ropean powers. At this writing such a journal as the 
 London Spectator is seriously discussing the possibility 
 of Japan's entering into offensive and defensive alliance 
 with China, so as to frustrate what are supposed to be 
 Russian schemes, which alliance would put Japan in 
 the lead of China's political reformation. At all events, 
 Japan has secured for the future a recognized position 
 in the international politics of the far East, which En- 
 gland, Russia, and the United States must reckon with. 
 
 As to the large and influential place the Japanese 
 have won in the Orient, there can be no question what- 
 ever. It is a fact not generally known among Western 
 writers that at one period in their history the Japanese 
 came nigh being the great maritime and colonizing power 
 of all the Orient. They still have the same bold, 
 
CHINA SHOULD EEMAIN INTACT. 419 
 
 seafaring spirit which was then checked, but never de- 
 stroyed. And now that they are becoming a manufac- 
 turing people, they will export in their own ships their 
 fabrics and products. The markets of all the seaports, 
 as well as the great cities of the inland rivers, will be 
 flush with goods handled by their own merchants. Their 
 agents will penetrate into distant regions, introducing 
 their wares; their banks of exchange and consular of- 
 fices will be established in all the marts of trade from 
 Bombay to Pekin, and beyond Bombay in Australia 
 and Polynesia; and their merchant ships, flying the flag 
 of the Kising Sun, will be sailing the seas and anchor- 
 ing in all the great ports, in active competition with 
 American and English vessels. Having entered the 
 markets of the East, they can never be driven out, but 
 must be treated as friendly rivals. 
 
 Japarts Future Intercourse with the United States. — 
 "The last shall be first" is true here also; for though 
 America was the very last to be discovered to the Jap- 
 anese, she will be the most powei'ful in her influence 
 upon that nation. That the United States and Japan 
 will be drawn close together in international policy in 
 the far East may be illustrated by considering their re- 
 spective attitudes at the present time upon the question 
 of the dismemberment of China. As a recent writer in 
 the North American Review has shown, the United States 
 should continue to demand the "open door" in China, 
 and do all in her power, short of declaring war, in order 
 to perpetuate the integrity of the Chinese Empire. Our 
 commercial interests, now guaranteed by treaty with 
 China, demand our support in maintaining the national 
 independence of China. Japan strongly feels the same 
 way. The Japanese are bitterly opposed to China's be- 
 ing divided out among the European powers, and will 
 
420 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 welcome any understanding with the United States to 
 prevent it. 
 
 Again, Japan will furnish an increasing market for 
 our products; our wheat and flour, iron and steel, ma- 
 chinery of all kinds, cotton, wool, hides, and coal oil. 
 Let the reader pause to consider that last year the for- 
 eign trade of Japan amounted to $444,000,000, and that 
 America already buys more from Japan than any other 
 foreign nation, and he will see how easy and natural 
 ought to be the increasing exchange of our wheat, cot- 
 ton, iron, and steel, for the immense quantities of Japa- 
 nese products which we buy. We shall have enormous 
 quantities of raw material, which the Japanese must pur- 
 chase to supply their manufactories and mills. Japan 
 is destined to be a manufacturing country on a large 
 scale; and the Pacific Ocean, which was once a barrier 
 and separated far apart, now unites and makes neigh- 
 bors of Japan and America. Three things will in due 
 time be done to still further promote intercourse of trade 
 and travel: 
 
 1. The Nicaraguan canal will be cut through. 
 
 2. Ocean cables will be laid from the Pacific coast to 
 the Hawaiian Islands, and thence one line to Japan and 
 another »to Manila. 
 
 3. The reduction of the time of a ship's voyage across 
 the Pacific to ten or twelve days. 
 
 Inasmuch as our American republic opened Japan in 
 1854, and has since that day pursued uniformly a friend- 
 ly and helpful policy toward her; and since our geo- 
 graphical position gives decided advantage over that of 
 the European nations, let us conclude that as a reason- 
 able and natural reward America's white sails of peace 
 on the Pacific will be increased tenfold, probably a hun- 
 dredfold, within the next quarter of a century, and that 
 
A BRILLIANT FUTURE. 421 
 
 likewise great ships from Japan, flying the red banner 
 of the Rising Sun, will be a familiar sight in the chief 
 ports on our Gulf and Atlantic coasts. 
 
 And if the giant Republic of America will always set 
 the example, and the first Constitutional Monarchy of 
 Asia will always follow that example, of standing for 
 human freedom and progress, the eternal principles of 
 justice and philanthropy, recognizing the rights of the 
 weak as well as of the strong, according to the teachings 
 of Christ, then the combined influence of these two 
 countries upon the future history of the far East will 
 be full of blessing and glory. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Aboriginal, tribes, 41, 55. 
 
 Adams, William, story of in Japan, 144 ff. 
 
 Ainus (Emishi), 41, 56. 
 
 Amaterasu (sun goddess) : Chief god, 40, 54; mother of imperial ancestors, 
 her shrine at Is6, 40, 50; ordained food for mankind, 40. 
 
 Americans and Japan: Interest in Nicaraguan Canal, 143; in position to 
 open Japan, 283; legation attacks in Yedo, 309; ships with allied fleet 
 in bombarding Shimonoseki Heights, 312; Government's (at Washing- 
 ton) position concerning official outlawry of Christianity, 402; exam- 
 ples of helpful policy, 404; contribute to language, literature, 409; 
 future intercourse and trade, 20, 419; the "open door" for both in 
 China, 419; future policy of the two countries, 421. 
 
 Anjiro, a Japanese, accompanied St. Xavier from Goa to Japan, 108. 
 
 Architecture: Buddhist temples, models of, 93; Eastern Asia and 
 Europe contrasted, 248. 
 
 Arts in Japan: Flower art, 279; patronized by court nobles, and some 
 of the Shoguns, 125, 217; exhibits of at International Expositions, 241, 
 344; union of liberal and industrial, 247; growth of in Eastern Asia and 
 Europe, 248; the human form in Greek and Japanese contrasted, 248; 
 Japan's debt to China, 248; golden age of, 248; conditions of develop- 
 ment, 248 ff.; materials and forms of, 251 ff.; defects of, 254, 264; decora- 
 tion, 260, 274. 
 
 Bamboo: Groves, 21; uses of, 22. 
 
 Bank of Japan, 350. 
 
 Berry, Dr., pioneer medical missionary and services to Japan, 361. 
 
 Bingham: Judge of Ohio, American minister, 402; champion of Japan's 
 national rights, 402, 403. 
 
 Black, John, Englishman, founder of first newspaper, 355 (footnote). 
 
 Brinkley, Capt., Editor Japan Mail, high authority on Japanese arts, 
 274, 277. 
 
 Bronze Work and Sculpture, discussed, 258, 263. 
 
 Bryan, Paul, Washington, D. C, organized postal system, 407. 
 
 Buddhism (see Shaka Muni) : Brought from Korea into Japan (A.D. 555), 
 58; opposition to, 58, 60; adopted by Empress Suiko, 60; doctrines of, 
 62,66; moral teachings, 64; modified form of in Japan, 64; eating of 
 flesh forbidden, 19,64; became the established religion during Nara 
 period (see Nara), 66; priests at court, 66, 93; compromised with Shin- 
 toism, 66, 67 ; popularized by itinerant preaching, 67; finally triumphant, 
 67 ff.; influence of upon civilization and arts, 92, 93; priests become rich 
 and immoral, 93; priestly class in Tokugawa era, 175; resemblance to 
 Romanism and differences, 237; temples, 238 ff.; the priest's duties, etc., 
 241 ff.; festivals, 243 ff.; under Tokugawas, the established religion, 245; 
 disestablished after the Restoration, 327; priests adopt methods of 
 
 (422) 
 
INDEX. 428 
 
 Christian missionaries, 374; stir up persecutions, 392, 414; a doomed re- 
 ligion, 415; college at Kioto, 374 
 
 Capron's, Gen., scientific staff and their services to government, 407. 
 
 Centennial Exposition: Japanese art exhibit at, 344. 
 
 Castles and castle walls, 125. 
 
 Cha No Yu, high tea ceremonial, 125. 
 
 Chamberlain, Basil: Professor of the Imperial University, 45; transla- 
 tor of the Ko-ji-ki, 38; was exorcised by priests, 242. 
 
 Chang, Li Hung, Chinese Ambassador at treaty Avith Japan (1895), 386. 
 
 Children, birth and training, 179-181. 
 
 China: Mother of earlier Japanese civilization, 46, 58, 69; assisted Korea 
 vs. Hideyoslii (1592), 119; claimed Formosa, 343; affected contempt of 
 Japan's reforms, 344; claimed suzerainty over Korea, 385; to be in- 
 fluenced by Japan, 418. 
 
 Choshu, Lord of (Daimyo) : Attempted coup d'etat at Kioto, and is dis- 
 graced, 310; marches again upon the capital, 310; fires upon foreign 
 vessels from Shimonoseki heights, and allied foreign fleet chastises him, 
 312. 
 
 Christianity (Protestant): Enters Japan (1859), 322; outlawed by gov- 
 ernment of the Restoration (1869), 320, 326; edicts against taken down 
 (1872), 329; first Christian Church, 330; anti-Christian feeling bitter in 
 1873, 340; second church, 359; opposition still, 360; examples of stead- 
 fastness, 359; native churches quickened by Osaka Conference, 364; 
 favoring circumstances, 369; organized enemies, 371; reaction vs. 
 foreign ideas and Christianity, 391; expulsion of Kev. Tamura by 
 native Presbyterians, 394; scientific skepticism rife, 396; Nippon Shugi 
 movement vs. Christianity, 397; Christianity will triumph, 416; native 
 Christians in high official positions, 416; not yet a Christian empire, 
 414 (see Roman Catholics). 
 
 Chrysanthemum: National flower, 19; Prof. Chamberlain's description 
 of, 119. 
 
 Clark, Col. Wm. S, president agricultural college at Sapporo, 407. 
 
 Climate: "Wide extremes of, 15; -delightful autumns, 16; rainy season, 17. 
 
 Cloisonne Work, 261. 
 
 Coal, bituminous, abundant, 35. 
 
 Columbus, studied Marco Polo's maps containing Zipangu (Japan) r 35, 
 142. 
 
 Copper, largely exported by the Dutcli to Europe, 35. 
 
 Correll, Rev. Irving H., made first evangelistic tour in interior, 359. 
 
 Cows: Used for plowing and carts, 25; no butter, little milk, 25: beef cat- 
 tle scarce, 25, 26. 
 
 Cryptomerias, 21. 
 
 Daimyo (Great Name) : Provincial landlord, 85; vassal to the Shogun, 98; 
 in later Middle Ages almost independent, 105, 107; in Tokugawa era, 
 171; his retinue described, 225 ff.; southern Daimyos refuse allegiance 
 to Shogun, 313; voluntary surrender of holdings to Emperor, 335; re- 
 ceived indemnity, 336; Daimyo of Echizen's farewell to his retainers, 
 337 ff . 
 
424 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Damascening, three forms of, 260. 
 
 Divorce, frequent, and causes of, 190. 
 
 Dragon (see under Art), 253. 
 
 Dutch: Sm-geons and botanists with trading post at Nagasaki, 17; King 
 of Holland's letter to Japanese rulers, 144; trading settlement inDe- 
 shima island, at Nagasaki, 144; other Europeans expelled, 150; merce- 
 nary spirit of, 280; submit to indignities, 281; influence of Dutch learn- 
 ing in Japan, 314. 
 
 Earthquakes and Volcanoes: Described, 8-13; writer's experiences of , 
 13. 
 
 Education: First schools were for nobles at court by Wani and his sons, 
 70; Chinese classics introduced, 70; Chinese styles affected, 71, 93; 
 commons ignorant, 96; University (so-called) at Kioto, 93; little prog- 
 ress in from 1192 to 1603, 126; schooling, Tokugawa era, 182; modern 
 system of, 347; English taught in, 347; Imperial University, 347; mis- 
 sion schools, 366; imperial rescript on, 386; early educational influ- 
 ences were American, 405; Americans professors in Imperial Univer- 
 sity, 406; services of other Americans in education, 406 ff.; school for 
 peeresses under patronage of Empress, 347. 
 
 Efumi (cross trampling), 139. 
 
 Embassy: Sent by Shogun to Washington, 307; another to Europe and 
 return, 311 ; later another to America and Europe, mission a failure, 
 329, 330. 
 
 English (British): Captain Saris seeks trade in Japan (1613 A.D.), 146; his 
 journey overland to Shogun's seat, 146 ff.; audience with Shogun, and 
 offers King James I.'s letter and presents, 148; unable to compete with 
 Dutch, abandon Japanese trade, 149, 280; seek to open trade again in 
 nineteenth century, 280; demand indemnity of Shogun for murder of 
 Richardson, 309; fleet bombard Kagoshima, 311; English Minister, Sir 
 Harry Parks, attacked in streets of Kioto, 307. 
 
 Eta, an outcast race, admitted to citizenship, 391. 
 
 Exorcists and impostors, 242. 
 
 Exposition ln Paris, Japan's exhibits at, 344. 
 
 . Extraterrioriality: Repugnant to Japanese, 329; abolished (1899) by 
 new treaties with Western powers, 398. 
 
 Farming: Formation of country, 205; system of described, 206 ff.; irriga- 
 tion and terracing, 206. 
 
 Faulds, Dr., medical missionary, 361. 
 
 Fauna: Poor, 25; domestic animals, 25, 28; wild, 26, 27; birds, 28; rep- 
 tiles, 29; insects numerous, 30. 
 
 Fenollosa, Prop., services to Japan as Art Commissioner, 408. 
 
 Festivals, Shinto, 233. 
 
 Feudalism: Foundations laid, 82 ff.; Yoritomo's system of, 98 ff.; Iyeya- 
 su's account of, 135; abolished (1869), 334, 336. 
 
 Fillmore, President, letter of, to Japan's ruler, 284, 289. 
 
 Fish, abundant, 33, 34. 
 
 Flora: Wealth of, 17; prevalent types of, 18; domesticated plants im- 
 ported from Continent, 18; the fine cereals, 18; fruit trees few, 18; 
 
INDEX. 425 
 
 Wild flowers and flowering shrubs, 19; Japanese flora related to Ap- 
 palachian kingdom (see Prof. Asa Gray on), 21. 
 Flower art, 279. 
 
 Flower: Festival, 199 ff.; dolls and flags, 202, 
 Formosa: Imbroglio concerning with China settled, 343; ceded to 
 
 Japan, 2. 
 Foster, Hon. John W., Chinese Counselor, in making treaty with 
 
 Japan, 386. 
 Fox gods: Divine, 26; shrines and images of, 23L 
 France joined Russia in demands upon Japan for retrocession of Liau- 
 
 Tung Peninsula, 386. 
 Fukuzawa, Mr. : Famous schoolmaster and editor, 369; favors adoption 
 
 of Christianity by government, 369. 
 Fujiyama, the sacred mountain, described, 9 ff. 
 Fujuwara House: Claimed divine descent with the imperial family, 81; 
 
 powerful at court as regent and prime ministers, 80 ff.; held office of 
 
 Kwanbaku, 82. 
 
 Germany joined Russia in demands upon Japan, 386. 
 
 Gold mines in earlier times, 35. 
 
 Gotoba, ex-Emperor, famous sword smith, 123. 
 
 Grant, Gen. IT. S.: On German Consul's conduct in Japan, 403; on 
 
 American policy in Japan, 404; received as nation's guest, 405. 
 Gregorian calendar adopted, 357. 
 
 Hara kiri explained, 144 ff. 
 
 Harris, Townsend: Training, 293; Christian character, 298 ; first consul 
 general to Japan (1885), 293; difficulties with Japanese officials, 294; 
 isolation, 295 ; after year's delay bore President's letter to Shogun in 
 Yedo, 295 ; journey thither and audience with Shogun, 296 ff. ; treaty with 
 Shogun made, 301; opposition to aroused, 298; Mr. Harris and Com- 
 modore Percy compared, 303; his secretary and interpreter, Mr. Heus- 
 ken, assassinated by the Japanese, 306; appointed American minister 
 to Japan, 306. 
 
 Heimin (common people) admitted into body politic, 337. 
 
 Heizan (mountain), seat of famous Buddhist monastery, etc., 67. 
 
 Hepburn, Dr, author of English-Japanese Dictionary, 362; chairman 
 of Osaka Conference, 363. 
 
 Hideyoshi (TaikoSama): Began as Nobunaga's horseboy, 116; succeed- 
 ed Nobunaga, 114; opposed by southern Daimyos, 115; attacks Kago- 
 shima, brings Lord Shimadzu to terms, 115; his administrative reforms, 
 116; rebuilds Osaka castle and improves city, 115, 116; his gourd ban- 
 ner, 116; seeks Iyeyasu's support and brings Hojos, in the Kwanto, to 
 terms, 117; transfers eight Kwanto provinces to Iyeyasu, 117; pacifies 
 the country (1590 A.D.), 118; invades Korea, 118 ff.; recalls troops just 
 before dying, 120; at first friendly to the Christians, afterwards a per- 
 secutor, 121; motives assigned by the Jesuits, 122. 
 
 Hongwanji, noted temple in Kioto, 240. 
 
 Honshiu, main island, 3. 
 
426 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Hot Springs, numerous, 14; superstitious concerning, 14. 
 
 House of Commons: Liberal party of, opposes cabinet's policy, 383; the 
 real issue touching question of responsible ministry, 384. 
 
 Houses : Structure and plan, 156; interior arrangements for eating, work- 
 ing, and sleeping, 158, 223. 
 
 Hubbard, ex-governor, American minister to Japan, favored revision 
 of treaties, 404. 
 
 Ihai, ancestral tablets, 334. 
 
 Ii Kamon, Lord of Hakone: Regent, 304; his bold policy vs. anti-foreign 
 party, 305; assassinated March, 1860,305; confusion followed, 306. 
 
 Image, great, of Buddha, 69, 262. 
 
 Imperial insignia, 40, 231; party, made a coup d'etat, 315. 
 
 Incarnation (see Doctrines of Buddhism), 66. 
 
 Infidelity, imported from Christian lands, 415. 
 
 Inland Sea, its beauty, etc., 3. 
 
 Inundations, destructive, 13, 14. 
 
 Inlaying, in cast iron, art of, 260. 
 
 Inn, at a Japanese in the olden times, 222 ff. 
 
 Ito, Count: Prime minister, 356; influence as Privy Councilor, 367; 
 champion of Western civilization, 369; represented in treaty with 
 China, 386; commissioner to prepare modern code of laws, 356. 
 
 Iwakura, Prince: head of embassy to foreign countries (1878), 327; con- 
 fronted at Washington, I). C, with question of government outlawry 
 of Christians, 329; assassinated, 340. 
 
 Iyeyasu: Founder of Tokugawa dynasty of Shoguns, 128; tomb at Nikko, 
 22,133,248; built castle and capital at village of Yedo, 117, 132; after 
 succession to Hideyoshi's power, opposed by league of Southern Confed- 
 erates, 129; moderation toward conquered enemies, 131; ability as 
 general, as administrator of government, 132; Tokugawa era described, 
 138 ff. ; his legacy or code, 137; policy of excluding Europeans, 150 ff.; 
 made Japan a hermit nation, 152. 
 
 Izanagi and Izanari, parents of the race, 39, 
 
 Izanari's descent to Hades, 39; Izanagi's search for her and his purifica- 
 tion, 39, 
 
 Jackson, Andrew: Strong foreign policy of, 281; commissioned Mr. 
 Roberts to bear a letter to Japan's rulers. 
 
 Japan: An archipelago, 2; boundaries of, and geological position, 1; area, 
 2; new American possessions in N. E. and S. W., 2; section of an ocean 
 ladder, 2; the four chief islands, 3; physiography of, 6 ff.; scenery of 
 picturesque, 17; poetical names of, 45. 
 
 Japan (nation): Origin of, 41; a mixed race, 42; Yamato Japanese the 
 ruling tribe, 42, 49, 55, 82; will lead political reform in Orient, 417; a 
 maritime people, 418; commands recognition in international affairs 
 of Far East, 418; characteristics of, 45, 153; modes of living and work- 
 ing, 154: strange ways, 167, 169; politeness, 177; lively and gay, 245. 
 
 Jesuitism: In Japan, 92; Jesuits and Franciscans quarrel, 121, 136; sus- 
 pected of intrigue vs. government, 131, 138, 151; celebrate canoniza- 
 tion of Loyola with great pomp at Nagasaki, 139. 
 
INDEX. 427 
 
 JimmuTenno: First Emperior, 41; his tribal wars, 43; limited sway of, 65, 
 
 56; campaign from Kiushiu to Yamato, 55. 
 Jingo Kogo: Queen (200 A.D.), 56; invaded Korea, 57. 
 Junshi, 44. 
 
 Kago (sedan chair), traveling by, 159. 
 
 Kamakuba: Founded by Yoritomo, 89; new military capital, 91; rival of 
 Kioto in wealth and splendor, 125, 265. 
 
 Khakma, law of (see under Doctrines of Buddhism), 62. 
 
 Kido : Leader in Restoration, 321; memorialized throne touching abolition 
 of feudalism, 335. 
 
 Kioto: Second fixed capital, 66, 117; center of Buddhism, 69; a rich Orien- 
 tal capital, 83; afterwards eclipsed by Kamakura, 92,97; in ruins, 105. 
 
 Kikin, the, 262 (see under Art). 
 
 Kites, and kite flying, 204. 
 
 Kiushiu: One of the four islands, 3; first settlement of Jimniu Tenno in, 
 55; coal mines abundant in, 35; first section of Japan seen by Europe- 
 ans, 107. 
 
 Kiyomori: Head of Taira Clan, 84; in supreme power, 87; dying words, 
 89. 
 
 Kobo Daishi, priest and inventor of Japanese syllabary, 93. 
 
 Ko-ji-ki: The oldest extant book, 37; source of Japanese traditions, etc., 
 • 37,38,40. 
 
 Konishi, a Christian general, 119, 129, 139. 
 
 Korea: Civilizing influences of, 46; tributary to Japan, .57 ff. ; invaded by 
 Hideyoshi, 118. 
 
 Kublai Khan, conqueror of China, sent powerful fleet against Japan, 
 104. 
 
 Kusunoki, model of patriotism and loyalty to the Emperor, 103. 
 
 Kwansei Gakuin, mission college of Southern Methodists, 29. 
 
 Kwanto, Eastern Japan in earlier times, 117, 128. 
 
 Lacquer work, discussed, 255 ff. 
 
 Lake Biwa, 5. 
 
 Lambuth, Rev. James W., D.D., a veteran missionary to China, then Ja- 
 pan, 370. 
 
 Lambuth, Rev. Walter R., D.D., M.D.: First a medical missionary in 
 China, 371; zeal and quick success in Japan, 371. 
 
 Landscape gardening, 278, 279. 
 
 Lanius, Dr., one of the pioneer medical missionaries, 361. 
 
 Laws: Shotoku's Code the first, 72; the "Taikwa Reforms," 72; Taiho 
 Statutes, 75; new Western codes adopted and proclaimed, 400. 
 
 Legendre, Gen., and others rendered service in organizing Japanese 
 navy, 408. 
 
 Literature and Language: Ko-ji-ki (Record of Ancient Things), oldest 
 book, 34, 54; Kihongi (Chronicles), next oldest, 37; use of letters began 
 circ. 400 A.D., 10; national annals compiled (620 A.D.), 46, 57; Chinese 
 learning followed Buddhism, 69; Chinese characters, 72, 93. 
 
 Manufacturing, cotton mills, 353. 
 
428 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Marco Polo: In China, 34; stories of gold in Japan, 34; his maps showed 
 Zipangu (Japan), 35. 
 
 Marriage ceremonies, 182 ff. 
 
 Masamune, famous swordsmith, and Myochin family ditto, 123. 
 
 Massacre of Christians at Shimabara, 141. 
 
 McCartee, Dr., -venerable missionary and a pioneer teacher in Universi- 
 ty of Tokyo, 405. 
 
 Mexico, trade from to Japan in seventeenth century, 143. 
 
 Michizane Sugawara: Emperor's counselor and teacher, 80; banished, 
 died, then was canonized, 80. 
 
 Mikado (Emperor): Son of Heaven, 49, 170; head of Shinto cult and wor- 
 shiped as divine, 49, 236; he performed in primitive times lustration 
 rites for the people, 50, 236; a few versed in Chinese Classics, 71; be- 
 came effeminate, 84; power wrested by the Shoguns, 97; his court no- 
 bles, 170; his court opposed to foreign treaties and opening of country, 
 209, 302, 305; conflict between two courts of Kioto and Yedo, 307, 313; 
 ordered Barbarians to be "brushed away," 309; finally ratified treaty 
 made with Perry, 313; Mikado dies, and the youth Mutsuhito ascends 
 the throne as Emperor of the Restoration, 314, 317; his oath, 318; new 
 government organized, 319; edict vs. Christianity renewed, 320, 326; 
 capital removed to Yedo (Tokyo), 320; ordered Roman Catholics de- 
 ported, 320; opened Japan's first parliament, 383. 
 
 Mikoshi, 234. 
 
 Milnes, Prof., on earthquakes, 14. 
 
 Mimizuka (monument of ears), 120. 
 
 Minamoto Clan: Descent, 84 (see Yoritomo). 
 
 Minerals, 34 ff. 
 
 Mirrors of steel, 262. 
 
 Missions, Foreign, in Japan: First entrance (1859), 322; missionaries 
 persecuted, 322, 326 ; of native Christians ditto, 325; lay foundation of 
 modern education, 348; first preaching in the interior, 359; policy of 
 touching mission schools broad, 360; medical missions, 361, 366 ; literary 
 work of, 362; New Testament published, 360; theological schools found- 
 ed, 366; missions a bond between Japan and "Western countries, 412. 
 
 Mississippi Perry's flagship, 284. 
 
 Mori, Viscount, and Western education, 346. 
 
 Mulberry plantations, 217. 
 
 Murray, LL.D., Daniel, services to educational department, 406. 
 
 Murray, historian, on policy of excluding foreigners in the seventeenth 
 century, 280. 
 
 Mythologies: Our knowledge of, 37; Kami (gods), 38; origin of world, 
 39; meaning of word Kami, 47, 48; progenitors of race, 38; myths and 
 art, 41; relation of Japanese race to sun goddess (Amaterasu), 41; " di- 
 vine age," 54; names of gods and goddesses, 48; truth in their myth- 
 ology, 54 
 
 NARA,first fixed capital, 65; temple of Zodaiji and great image of Buddha, 
 
 66, 261; pilgrims' and tourists' visit, 65. 
 Nebshima, Joseph Hardy, 375 ff. 
 
INDEX. 429 
 
 Newspaper first published, 355. 
 
 NlCARAGUAN CANAL, 3, 420. 
 
 NiCOLAl, Bishop, 381. 
 
 Ninigi, grandson of sun goddess, and great-grandfather of Jimmu Tenno, 
 
 40, 55. 
 Nirvana (see under Buddhism), 63. 
 Nitobe, Ph.D., Inazo, author of "Intercourse between United States 
 
 and Japan," 402; his opinion of German and American education, 411. 
 Nitta Yoshisada, espoused.imperial cause vs. Shogun, 103. 
 
 Oil (kerosene) wells, 35; American and Russian import of, 35, 36. 
 
 Okubo, leader in restoration, assassinated, 319; characteristics and predi- 
 lections for foreign ideas, 342. 
 
 Okuma, Count, State councilor, advocated national assembly, 356; 
 wounded by dynamite shell in Tokyo, 404, 405. . 
 
 Orange, ,the, 18. 
 
 Osaka Missionary Conference, 363. 
 
 Osaka (Naniha), city of, 41, 55. 
 
 Ota Nobunaga: First of the three great men in power, 109; attempts to 
 pacify country in name of Emperor, 110; hates Buddhist priests, 110, 
 favors Roman Catholics, 111; perishes by treachery of one of his gen- 
 erals, 111; opinons of, by Buddhists and Jesuits, 111, 112. 
 
 Pacific Ocean and Oriental trade: Currents of,282; junks drifted, bear- 
 ing Japanese alive, to American shores, 282, 283; a great highway of 
 future commerce, 420; cables from American shores to Hawaii, Manila, 
 and Japan, 420. 
 
 Painting, art and schools of, 264 ff. 
 
 Papenburg Rock, 141. 
 
 Paper Making, 219 ff. 
 
 Paradise ( see Buddhism), 64. 
 
 Parks, Sir Harry, and suite attacked, 317. 
 
 Perry, Commodore Matthew C: Character, 281; training, 284; his fleet, 
 284, 290; arrived in Yedo Bay, 286; accurate knowledge of Japanese 
 character and manners, 287; brought cargo of useful machinery, etc., 
 as presents, 291; refused to be treated like the Dutch at Nagasaki, 287; 
 no business with Japanese on Sunday, 287; second visit to Japan, 290; 
 made a treaty, 291; what he accomplished and how, 292; death in New 
 York and grave at Newport, 292. 
 
 Persimmons, 18, 
 
 Philippines, 2, 126. 
 
 Physicians and medicines, 161 ff . 
 
 Pierce, President, 293. 
 
 Pinto Mendez (Portuguese) went to Japan (1545), 107. 
 
 Piracy by Japanese upon foreign coasts, 126. 
 
 Political rule and ideas (primitive), 54; gradual conquest of Japan, 
 56; Chinese models of rank, ceremony, and administration adopted, 
 72; codes of laws based upon Chinese system, 72 ff.; " Child emperors," 
 81; court nobles at Kioto supplemented by military lords (see Sho- 
 GUN); duarchy explained, 97; northern and southern dynasties, 104; 
 
430 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Emperors sunk low and civil disorder prevailed, 104; government of 
 the Restoration, 343; reforms after foreign models adopted, 345 ff.; con- 
 stitution proclaimed, 356; first parliament, 383; suffrage limited, 383. 
 
 Polo, Marco, 107. 
 
 Porcelain (kaolin) stone abundant, 36. 
 
 Portuguese: Monopoly of Japan's trade for a century, 142; first Euro- 
 peans to visit that cduntry, 107; effect of intercourse upon Japanese, 
 126; bad morals of, 150. 
 
 Post runners and post houses, 222. 
 
 Pottery and pottery wares, 270 ff. 
 
 Primitive life. Habits, etc., 42 ff.; family life and morals, 46. 
 
 Primitive religion: Shinto the native religion, 47, 49 (see Kami under 
 Mythologies); names of gods, 48; nature and ancestor worship, 49; 
 Emperor head of Shinto cult, 49; no dogmas, 50; palace and temple 
 one, 50; Emperor performs rites of purification, 50; offerings and sac- 
 rifices, 51, 52; human sacrifices, 53; fox god, 26; sacred trees and an- 
 imals, 53, 232; national shrine, 229; temples described, 259 ff.; priests, 
 231 ff.; household gods, 235; a doomed religion, 415. 
 
 Red Cross Society in Japan, 386. 
 
 Rein's, view, 112. 
 
 Rice growing, 207 ff. 
 
 Richardson, an Englishman, cut down by the Lord of Satsuma's guards, 
 308. 
 
 Riu, Yano, first Christian baptized, 329. 
 
 Riukiu (Loochoos), conquest of, 127. 
 
 Rivers, short and rapid, 8. 
 
 Roman Catholics (see Jesuitism) : St. Xavier entered (1549) followed by 
 Portuguese and Spanish priests, 109; success during Nobunaga's power, 
 112; built churches, monasteries, and schools, 113,135; sent an embassy 
 of Christian princes from Japan to the pope of Rome, 113, 114; at first 
 favored, then bitterly persecuted by Hideyoshi, 121; persecutions con- 
 tinued under Iyeyasu, 136 ff. ; fortitude of native Christians in spite of 
 cruel tortm-es, 140; massacre of the Christians at Shimabara, 141; 
 propagandist reentered Japan after country opened by Commodore 
 Perry, 38*1: remnant of Catholic community discovered near Nagasaki 
 (1868), 320, 321; statistics of, 381. 
 
 Ronin, the forty-seven, story of, 195 ff. 
 
 Russia: Siberian Russia, 1; Russians seek trade with Japan in nine- 
 teenth century, 280; attempted murder of crown prince by Japanese 
 policeman, 392; Czar accepts apology for same from Emperor of Japan, 
 394; interferes with China-Japan treaty, 386; Russo-Greek Church in 
 Japan, 381. 
 
 Saigo, leader of Satsumara rebellion (1877) and death in battle, 341. 
 
 Salutation, etiquette of, 177. 
 
 Samurai (military gentry), 84, 123; despised manual labor and trade, 123; 
 in Tokugawa era, 172; stirred against opening the country to foreign- 
 ers, 309; after the Restoration still hostile to foreigners, 324; under the 
 new regime, 345; as policemen, 349. 
 
INDEX. 431 
 
 Satow, Hon. Ernest, British Minister and translator of ancient rituals, 
 43. 
 
 " Savage Deities " and "earth spiders," meaning of, 54, 41, 43. 
 
 Sekigahara, decisive battle of, 129 ff. 
 
 Seward, Hon. William H., in influence of United Sates in Japan, 346. 
 
 Shaka Muni (Dai Butsu), founder of Indian Buddhism, 62. 
 
 Shikokb, one of the four chief islands, 3. 
 
 Shimadzu, lord of Satsuma, and head of the clan, 115, 308, 360. 
 
 Shogun: Meaning of word, 92; relations to the Mikado or Emperor, 97; 
 their vassels and military nobles, 170; Yoritomo, head of Minamoto 
 clan, founded military capital and was first of Shogun line, 92; end of 
 the Minamoto line, 100; Hojo Shogun succeeds, 100; repel Tartar inva- 
 sion, 100-102; end of Hojos, 103; Ashikaga line succeeds, 104; patrons 
 of art, 271; a Shogun's retinae, 228. 
 
 Shotoku: Prince and Regent under Empress Suiko, 60; champion of Bud- 
 dhism, 61; adopts Chinese models of government, 72. 
 
 Silkworm: Natural history of, 31; silk culture, 216 ff. 
 
 Social Classes and Noble Families: classed according to descent, 76; 
 origin of tribal and family names explained, 77 ff. ; rise of ruling fam- 
 ilies, 80; rise of military nobles, 83; ranks and classes in Tokugawa 
 era, 170 ff. ; the commons 174 ff. ; peasantry, condition of, 206. 
 
 Soroban (abacus), use of, 165. 
 
 Spaniards: Exported silver from Japan, 35; expelled in 17th century, 280. 
 
 Store, dry goods, 165, 167. 
 
 Students: Japanese, sent by Shogun to Holland before the Revolution, 
 > 354; eagerness for English language, 348; great number of in America, 
 409-411 ; female students, 411. 
 
 Suinin, Emperor abolished Junshi (B.C. 44), 29. 
 
 Tachibuna, house of (see House op Orange), 79, 83, 
 
 Taira Clan, head of, claimed descent from an Emperor (see Kitomori), 
 87. 
 
 Taxes, in kind upon soil, 205. 
 
 Taylor, Dr., pioneer medical missionary, 361. 
 
 Tea: Raising, 210 ff.; curing, 212 ff.; high tea ceremonial, 271; always 
 served to guests, 178. 
 
 Temple bells, 262. 
 
 Temples: Shinto (see under Primitive religion) Buddhist, (see under 
 Buddhism). 
 
 Tobacco and pipes, 215. 
 
 Tokyo (Yedo), 5. 
 
 Toleration, religious, 137. 
 
 Tortoise, 30; see under Art, 252. 
 
 Trade: Opened by Portuguese in 16th century, 107; Japanese trading set- 
 tlements on China and other foreign coasts in Asia, 126; made voyages 
 to Mexico, India, and Borneo, 127; time of voyage on Pacific shortened 
 and flag of the Rising Sun to be seen in our ports, 420; Japan's 
 trade already greatly increased in the East, 419. 
 
 Transmigration, doctrine of in Buddhism, 62. 
 
432 japan: country, court, people. 
 
 Treaties: With foreign powers, 303; storm followed, 306; foreigners at- 
 tacked in many places, 307 ff. ; treaty revision agitated, 391; new trea- 
 ties with Western nations (July 17th, 1899), 398. 
 
 Unitarianism: Entered (1889) and made vigorous propaganda, 395; in- 
 fluence of among educated classes, 395; policy of compromise toward 
 Buddhist teachings, 395. 
 
 Verbbck, D.D., Rev.Guido P.: Pioneer missionary, 322, 325 ; testifies con- . 
 cerning gross immorality of people, 328; taught in Daimyo's school at 
 Nagasaki, 328 ; he and others founded the Tokyo University, and was 
 first president of same, 348, 405. 
 
 Wanikishi, Korean wise man, came to Japan (circ. 300 A.D.) and taught 
 the crown prince, 46, 5*7, 69. 
 
 Wars: Period of civil strife* begun (939 A.D.), 86; of Red and White Ban- 
 ners (Tairas and Minamoto clans), 91; battle near Shimonoseki Straits, 
 91,92; period of intrigue and anarchy, 99; Tartar fleet destroyed, 102; 
 Hideyoshi's wars in Japan, 115, 117; vs. Korea, 118 ff.; war of Southern 
 Leaguers vs. Iyeyasu and battle of Sekigahara, 129; battle in city of 
 Kioto between Regent's troops and Choshu, 311; war of revolution and 
 restoration, 315; outbreak upon foreigners in Hyogo (Kobe), 316; with 
 China, and cause thereof, 385; conduct of by Japanese, 385, 388; treaty 
 of peace made, 386; results of victory over China, 389 ff. 
 
 Webster, Daniel, favored approaching Japan for treaty, 284. 
 
 Whalers: American in Japanese waters, 282; cruel treatment by na- 
 tives, 283. 
 
 Wilson, Bishop Alpheus W., D.D., LL.D.: Had episcopal charge at 
 planting of Southern Methodist Mission, 371; his views of present 
 problems in Japan, Introduction, pp. vii., viii. 
 
 Winds: Relation to climate, 16; hot and cold, 16; typhoon (taifun) is a cy- 
 clone on the sea, 16. 
 
 Wistaria, 25. 
 
 Xavier, Saint: Meets in Goa Anjiro, a Japanese, 108; his labors in Ja- 
 pan, 108, 135; death in Canton River, 109. 
 
 Yamato JDake, 56. 
 
 Yamato district, 56. 
 
 Yedo (Tokyo), founded by Iyeyasu, 117. 
 
 Yezo, large northern island (Hokkaido), 3. 
 
 Yoritomo: Famous leader of Minamoto clan, 84, 85; founder of Kamaku- 
 
 ra capital and first of the Shoguns, 92; his cruelty, 99. 
 Yoshitsune : Japanese hero and brother of Yoritomo, 88 ; put to death by 
 
 Yoritomo, 91. 
 
 Zodiac, 251.