yy-H Comparative Effectiveness of Some Visual Aids in Seventh Grade Instruction Weber Class 17^)6^^ Book ■ V'V ^ Gopyiight '}^^.. CilPlfRIGHT DEPOSIT. COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF SOME VISUAL AIDS IN SEVENTH GRADE INSTRUCTION By Joseph J. Weber Submitted to the Department of Educational Re- search and the Faculty of the Graduate School of Columbia University in partial fulfillment of the re- quirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. December, 1921. Copyright by Joseph J. Weber, July, 1922 Published by THE EDUCATIONAL SCREEN, INC. 5200 Harper Ave. Chicago, Illinois, U. S. A. CONTENTS \X^ ^k \k|A' Page SECTION I. THE PROBLEM STATED •. 1 7 SECTION II. ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM 8 Verbal transfer 8 Possibilities of photography 9 Secondary problems stated 10 SECTION III. PRIMARY SENSE EXPERIENCES 11 Introductory 11 Form for judgment study 11 Random sampling of thousand commonest words 12 Discussion of objections 14 Summary of findings and illustrative diagram 15 Formulas and conclusion 15 SECTION IV. EXPERIMENT A— MOVING PICTURES IN COMBI- NATION WITH VERBAL INSTRUCTION 17 Introductory 17 Lesson on the Country of the Mahrattas 18 How the experiment was conducted 20 Questionnaire on the first lesson 21 Working plan for the entire experiment 28 Lesson on Chinese Scenes 24 Questionnaire on the second lesson 28 Lesson on Japan, The Industrious 30 Questionnaire on the third lesson 33 Summary of choices showing varjdng influences 35 Figure 1, illustrating method of converting original steps into T-Scale units 37 Table showing S. D. distances for given percents 38 Summary of gross averages and their differences 39 Figure 2, illustrating method of equating groups 40 Formula for obtaining the reliability of the averaged mean 42 How experimental coefficients are computed 42 Summary of refined averages, their differences and reliabilities, in the 60-question tests 43 Summary of the same in the 40-question tests 44 Reasons for giving a delayed test 45 Summary of means, etc., in the delayed tests 46 Scores by pupils not in the experiment 46 Summary of probable improvement and Figure 3 to illustrate the comparison 47 Summary of preferences 48 Conclusions from Experiment A, and discussion 49 ©CI.AH77909 CONTENTS 3 Page SECTION V. EXPERIMENT B— VALUE OF A SIMPLE DRAWING IN CREATING A COMPOSITE VISUAL IMAGE 50 Introductory 50 Figure 4, showing composite animal 50 Description of the animal 51 How the drawing responses were scored 52 Figure 5, showing typical response from having seen the illustra- tion 51 Figure 6, showing range of misinterpretations 55 Summary of refined averages, differences, reliabilities 56 Figure 7, illustrating varying achievement 57 Conclusions, and Criticism 57 SECTION VI. EXPERIMENT C— VALUE OF A DIAGRAM IN DE- VELOPING A RELATIVELY ABSTRACT CONCEPT 53 Introductory 58 Description of artesian well 58 Form of matching test 60 Summary- of refined averages, differences, reliabilities 62 Summary of probable improvement with each method 63 Conclusions from Experiment C 63 Summarj' of preferences 63 SECTION VII. EXPERIMENT D— COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVE- NESS OF FOUR DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRESENTA- TION 64 Introductory 64 Lesson on the Mountain Glacier 65 How the first drawing test was scored 68 Questionnaire on the first lesson 68 "Working plan for the entire experiment 71 Lesson on the Earth and Worlds Beyond 72 Questionnaire on the second lesson 75 Lesson on the Southern States 78 Questionnaire on the third lesson 80 Summary of votes showing various preferences 83 Lesson on the Growth of Cities and Their Problems 83 Questionnaire on the fourth lesson 86 Summary of gross averages and their differences 80 How the gross averages were combined 90 Summary of averaged averages 90 Summary of refined averages, differences, reliabilities 96 Summary of averaged refined averages and differences 97 Summary of gross delayed test averages, etc 98 Summary of refined delayed test averages, etc 100 4 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Page Summary of probable improvement as measured by the immediate completion tests. Fig. 8 to illustrate 101 Summarj^ of probable improvement as measured by the delayed com- pletion tests. Fig. 9 to illustrate 102 Summary of probable improvement as measured by the abbreviated drawing tests. Fig 10 to illustrate 102 Summary of choices showing varying influences 105 Conclusions from Experiment D 106 SECTION VIII. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS, HISTORY AND OUT- LOOK 107 Bibliography 110 TABLES I. Scores by 499 7A-grade pupils in a 60-question test, showing con- version of steps into T-Scale units 3G II, Scores by 300 selected 7A-grade pupils in the 60-question tests, together with means, deviations, reliabilities 41 III. Scores by 300 selected 7A-grade pupils in the 40-question tests, with means, etc 44 lY. Scores by 300 selected 7A-grade pupils in the delayed 40-question tests, with means, etc 45 Y. Scores by 171 7A-grade pupils who had not been taught 47 YL Scores by 334 7A-grade pupils in the ''animal" test 53 YII. Scores by 244 selected 7A-grade pupils in the "animal" test, with means, etc 53 YIII. Scores by 313 7A-grade pupils in the "artesian well" test 61 IX. Scores by 235 selected 7A-grade pupils in the "artesian well" test, with means, etc 62 X. Scores by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the different tests of the "Mountain Glacier" questionnaire, means, etc 92 XI. Scores by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the tests of the "Earth and \Vorlds Beyond" questionnaire, means, etc 93 XII. Scores by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the tests of the "South- ern States" questionnaire, with means, etc ". 94 XITI. Scores by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the tests of the "Growth of Cities" questionnaire, with means, etc 95 XIY. Scores by 196 selected 7B-grade pupils in the delayed completion tests, with means, etc 99 XV. Scores by 247 7B-grade pupils who had not participated 100 X\''I. Distribution of 6365 choices showing varying influences 104 Appendix A. Tables 1 to 5, inclusive. (Relevant to Experiment A) . . .111 Appendix B. Tables 1 to 16, inclusive. (Relevant to Experiment D) . . .116 WARNING WARNING In view of the fact that the question of visual aids is arousing consid- erable interest among the educators of the world, and the further fact that the findings embodied in this treatise are likely to be misconstrued by certain commercial interests to their own advantage, the following reserva- tions are specifically made : 1. The conclusions after the various experiments hold only for these same experiments as performed under the conditions described. 2. In venturing to state the general value of visual aids, we can go only by inference now. 3. The results of this stud}'' indicate a distinct value for pictures only as aids, not as substitutes. 4. The problem of economj^ yet remains to be solved, for the cost of some visual aids still outweighs their educative value. JOSEPH J. WEBER, Associate Professor of Education. University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, March 22, 1922. COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I acknowledge with gratitude the assistance received in connection with this study. Professor Thorndike encouraged and guided me in the beginning. Professor McCall advised me in planning experiments, formu- lating tests, and working up the statistical results. Professors Hillegas and Fret well assisted him in the supervision of my work. Many of my fellow students in Teachers College co-operated in the study of Primary Sources. Miss Hochheimer, assistant director of visual instruction for the public schools of New York City, made arrangements for my experi- mental work in P. S. 62, Manhattan, Principal B. S. Brodie granted me the freedom of the classrooms. The pupils and teachers co-operated whole- heartedly. Miss Myrtle Spaulding, assistant principal and supervisor of history and geography, taught the lessons in Experiment A and helped in many other ways to make this investigation a success. J. J. W. COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OP SOME VISUAL AIDS IN SEVENTH GRADE INSTRUCTION By Joseph J. Weber SECTION I. THE TROBLEM STATED In recent years the educational world has heard much of visual educa- tion, which seems to be a new movement. Visual education, however, is not really new. It is as old as education through the eye itself ; and many of the so-called visual aids — models, globes, maps, charts, graphs, diagrams — are of long standing. AVhat has given visual education the appearance of a new movement is no doubt the perfection of photography. Practical photography has created various means of probable instructional value. They are the photograph, the stereograph, the lantern slide, and the mov- ing picture. NoAv the big question for the true educator is : Are visual aids merely a fad; or have they distinct value? If they are a fad, he wants to guard against the costly mistake of trying to incorporate them in his instruc- tional technique. Visual aids are expensive, and unless their use decidedly increases the effectiveness of instruction, he must know it, so as to be able to resist the aggressions of commercial interests. On the other hand, if visual aids do increase decidedly the effectiveness of instruction, the sooner he gets scientific proof of the fact, the better. For him to ignore persist- oitly a valuable aid to instruction is plain professional inefficiency. To answer the question in a scientific manner is the aim of the follow- ing investigation. The problem may be stated specifically — Will the use of pictures along with verbal instruction effect economy in the learning process? And, if so, how much? 8 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS SECTION 11. ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM Is it safe to assert that we sometimes take ten minutes to describe verbally a relationship which could be portrayed more accurately in half the time by means of a visual presentation? If this is so, our present method of verbal instruction is not really economical. Pupils are forced to learn under difficulties. There is too much waste in the apperceptive process. In the beginning learning grew only out of actual experience. The primitive boy learned to hunt and fish under these conditions. Aromatic concepts came to him through his nose., so to speak; interest arose largely from organic sensations ; concepts of power arose from his muscular efforts ; and a large variety of other concepts grew out of auditory and visual experiences. With the growth of language, however, learning came to be trans- ferred increasingly through the medium of a symbol — the word. The hunter would kill the beast, then translate his experience into words and transfer it in this manner ; while the listener, in his turn, would retranslate the words back into the imagery of his OAvn experience — and understand. The perfection of the printing press has greatly facilitated verbal transfer. The result is that nearly all learning is constantly being recorded and preserved in words and utilized in that form. The press has devel- oped; libraries have multiplied; the textbook has become a valuable aid to the educator. Verbal transfer is a marvellous economy, but only when the parties to the exchange have a common experience. It would be folly for the specialist to communicate with his colleague in terms of original experi- ences. Language alone usually suffices. But when he tries to convey his ideas to the lay mind, he must illustrate or demonstrate in terms of simple experiences. In our schools, unfortunately, the use of verbal transfer has been car- ried too far. Verbal transfer is at best an indirect method of presentation. A great deal of loss is bound to occur on the way. If there is no empirical mass in the hearer or reader, he fails to understand; and, as is often the case with school children, if some kind of comprehension is insisted upon, irrelevant imagery is drafted into service, and the result is not uncommonly a deplorable misconception. In teaching, the line of least resistance is to lecture and assign lessons in a textbook. This means verbal transfer, with its attendant vagueness and misconceptions. While words are economical in the exchange of com- mon ideas — in discussion and review — they will not always do in present- ing new facts or developing new concepts. The most economical method of presentation here is to provide sense experiences. These insure direct, unentangled, quickly and securely made bonds. ANALYSIS OF PROBLEM 9 For the presentation of a brand new idea, therefore, the actual experi- ence is the method par excellence. It conveys clearcut images and rela- tionships ; and it does this in a way which is not only quicker but also more satisfying to the learner. And in the elementary school especially, where new facts and thought relations are constantly being introduced, actual experiences should have gone before or should accompany verbal dis- cussion. The latter, in a certain sense, should be merely the hum and whirr of the brain factory as it transforms the raw materials from the senses into the finished product — learning. However, it is not to be inferred from the foregoing that the sense experience alone effects learning. The primarj^ stimulus must not be con- fused with the finished response. The sense experience is but a fraction of the educative process. Learning grows out of thinking and achieving. These make the man or the woman. Nor should the place of verbal discussion be disputed. It plays a big part in the life of the learner. It serves to arouse curiosity ; it provokes thinking ; and, not infrequently, it engenders the grandest ideals. It is absolutely necessary for the growth of verbal concepts. The higher thought processes involve almost exclusively verbal imagery. Verbal discussion seems to furnish the power for utilizing the natural resources of sense expe- rience. Verbal transfer is wasteful only when other methods are demon- strably' more economical. Quite recently the touch experiences have come again into their own in the so-called manual training movement. And with the advent of the Dewey "Interest" conception of education, the organic feelings are begin- ning to receive their due. But visual experiences are still not utilized to the full extent of their potential value, although they provide probably the largest fraction of the primary stimuli to learning. One obvious reason why this is so is that the actual visual experience is seldom feasible and often quite impossible. We can not afford to take the geography class to Egypt. But the invention of photography has placed in the hands of the educator a means of manifestly great possibilities. The photograph is a cross-section of a visual experience that can be transported from one part of the earth to another, from one linguistic group to another, from one his- toric period to another, with very little loss in accuracy and form. The sensitive film has made vicarious experience practicable. The American school boy can now see the hippopotamus wade in the muddy waters of the Nile ; and he acquires thus a fund of realistic imagery, which can be made the basis of more effective instruction. The foregoing considerations suggest a subdivision of the main prob- lem into its various aspects. There is first of all the question of sense expe- rience. How big a part does each type of sense experience play in learning? 10 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Then there is the question of verbal transfer. Under what conditions must verba] transfer be aided by sense experience? Next there is the question of method. What kind of visual aid should be used, M^hen and how? Finally there is the question of comparative effectiveness. Which of the various methods effects the greatest economy in learning? The secondary problems definitely selected for investigation are : The Distribution of Primary Sense Experiences ; The Effectiveness of Informational Moving Pictures in Combi- nation with Verbal Instruction ; The Value of a Simple Drawing in Creating a Composite Visual Image ; The Value of a Diagram in Developing a Relatively Abstract Concept ; The Comparative Effectiveness of Four Different Methods of Presentation. PRFMARV SENSE EXPERIENCES 11 SECTION lir. PRIMARY SENSE EXPERIENCES Presuming that the senses are the primary stimuli to human learning, the question arises : What proportion is provided by each type of sense experience? In detail — What per cent is provided by visual experiences? What per cent by auditory experiences? What per cent by touch and muscle feelings? What per cent by other organic sensations? What per cent by taste and smell? For this investigation only one ty])e of learning was selected — knowl- edge. A list of fifty words was prepared in the form of a ''judgment" study and submitted to nearly a hundred graduate students at Teachers College, Columbia University. The judges were all experienced educators. Some were registered in educational psj'chology, others in administration, and still others in teacher training. The list of words was selected in the following manner: The 11th, 31st, 51st, 71st, . . . and 991st words were chosen from A^'res's Thousand Commonest Words.* The order of difficulty was not disturbed except in a few cases. Transpositions were made only when words had more than one meaning. The word ''can," foi instance, was placed after the word "belong" so as to suggest the verb rather than the noun. In making the random sampling, it was assumed that every worth-while idea would at one time or another be clothed in language; and thus the thousand commonest words were considered iden- tical, in a way, with the thousand commonest ideas. Following is the form used in the study : PRIMARY SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE Purpose of this Study: To determine quantitatively the contributions of the various sense experiences to a person's mental content or makeup, especially to what he knows. Discussion : Each word in the column below has a certain accepted meaning. This meaning originated from some primary sense experience, such as seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, feeling, and the like. Moreover, this meaning has been modified and augmented by a large number of sub- sequent experiences. It is highly probable that more than one sense avenue has contributed to the meaning of each \A'ord, ♦Ayres's Spelling Scale. 12 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Directions: (1) Look at each word and think of the sense or senses through which its meaning has come originally. Then (2) distribute 10 points among these sources, as you judge best. Note how one subject has done so with the word "pencil" — Pencil: Visual, 4 points; auditory, 1; touch (skin and muscle), 4; taste and smell, 1 ,- miscellaneous organic sensations, 0. Total number of points, 10. Caution: Please guard carefully against any pre-conceived notions about what per cent should be visual, what per cent auditory, what per cent tactual, miscellaneous, etc. Study the following headings thoroughly, then go ahead fearlessly. At the end of every five words you might look back at the headings to make sure that you have not gone astray. Miscellane- Visual V ous experience: Auditory Touch organic Seeing experience: experience: experiences: realities, Hearing Pressure Emotions, Taste demonstra- spoken temperature. moods, and tions, pictures. words, kinesthetic illness. Smell printed sounds, (muscle) hunger, experiences Word words, etc. noises, etc. sensations (doing) thirst, sex, etc. green loud work sick pepper i , Don't fail to review the headings; neither be over-conscientious. Word Visual Auditory Tactile Misc. Org. Taste Smell ffold place spring love i i inside today not live belong can soon dear 1 for ■ • • PRIMARY SENSE EXPERIENCES 13 glass wind try Friday these began enter turn world nothing beside off write retire offer April office board doctor personal getting fortune enclose desire clerk crowd running neighbor illustrate piece effect arrive concern earliest material session preliminary Totals : 14 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Objections may be raised agrainst the validity of this study. Many of the judges felt that their decisions were far from reliable. This is probably true. However, the study, as made, is better than just nothing. Let us remember that each judge was forced to render fifty sepa- rate specific judgments instead of one general verdict. A second objection is: Did the study really measure sensory origins? Was it not instead an indirect study of imagery? In answer to that, it may be said that even if this was so, it does not make any difference. Imagery very likely is a reliable index of sensory origins. No doubt it is logical to assume that the nature of images is determined by original sensory expe- rience. Blue is a visual image for which visual experiences are primarily responsible; loud is an auditory image for which auditory experiences are responsible; ill is an organic image for Avhich organic sensations are respon- sible; and so on. An improvement over the method used in determining origins may be to secure judgments on a random sampling of words, pronouncing them pre- ponderatingly visual or auditory or otherwise, and then computing the relative percoits of each class. A third objection is that a knowledge of sensor}' origins has no prac- tical value for the educator because experiences — auditory, tactile, or organic — are frequently translated into visual imagery by the learner with- out any loss whatever. The premise is false. There is loss. Translation is probably only a form of compensation to which the organism resorts in a desperate attempt to give meaning to the stimulus. So many more visual bonds have been acquired in the life of the learner that the conscious re- sponse is greath' facilitated via visual neurones; hence the functioning of visual imager}^ Another objection is this : In the study submitted, the visual column has first place, Avhich in itself tends to favor it. Should not the forms have been varied so that the visual could have come second in some, third in others, fourth and fifth in still others? The criticism is just. No doubt in future studies of this character the objection Avill be met. However, it is unlikely that the percentage attributed to visual origins will be affected to any large extent. Other objections may be raised. One of them was anticipated by the statement that this study concerns itself with only one type of learning — knowledge. It does not attempt to invade the realm of skills, Avhere touch and kinesthetic sensations may play the leading role. The problem of sense origins can not be solved in a lump. PRIMARY SENSE EXPERIENCES 15 SUMMARY OF RESULTS Summary of results obtained from 4,050 separate judgments by 81 psychologists and experienced educators in tracing back to their empirical origins fifty words selected at random from "The Thousand Commonest Words" by Ayres. Results in percents. Visual Auditory Touch Miscellaneous Taste experience experience and muscle organic and smell Means; 39.75 25.39 16.55 15.20 3.13 S. D.: 11.14 10.99 7.14 9.41 2.48 S.D.M. 1.238 1.221 .792 1.046 .276 SUMMARY OF DIFFERENCES AND THEIR RELIABILITIES Visual Auditory Tactile Misc. Org. Taste Smell Difference S. D. Diff 39.7 25.4 .... 14.C ! 1.739* 39.7 .... 16.5 .... 23.2 1.470 39.7 15.2 24.E 1.627 39.7 3.2 36.£ 1.268 25.4 16.5 8.£ 1.455 25.4 .... 15.2 10.5 1.608 25.4 3.2 22.5 1.250 16.5 15.2 U 1.312 16.5 .... 3.2 13.C 0.839 15.2 3.2 12.( 1.082 T. Visual Auditory Tactile Misc. org. & 40% 25% 17% 157o S. 3% In the foregoing summary of the differences and their reliabilities, the 1.739 represents the standard deviation of the difference 14.3 between the visual and auditory means. It has been obtained by summing the squares of the reliabilities of the two means and extracting the square root, accord- ing to the formula : S.D. rrr V(S.D.)^+ (S.D.)^ Diff M, M, Explanation : In the summary of the means, deviations, and reliabil- ities, the reliability of the visual mean is 1.238, and that of the auditory mean is 1.221. Squaring each one of these two numbers, summing the prod- ucts, and extracting the square root, we get 1.739, as shown below : S.D. rr V(1.238)2-h (1.221)2 = 1.739 Diff •1.730= V (1.238)'+ (1.221)* 16 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS It has been statistically determined that if we multiply the reliability of the difference by 2.78, we obtain a figure below which the difference will not contract. Multiplying 1.739 by this number, we get 4.8. Thus we may state with practical certainty that the difference, ]4.3, would never shrink to less than 9.5, were the same list of words submitted in the same form to many other similarly trained judges.f Conclusion : From the Study of Primary Sources we learn that in trac- ing back to their perceptual origins the countless elements of each of fifty common verbal concepts, two himdred out of the possible five hundred credits fall into the visual column. Summarily stated, the results of the study attribute forty per cent of our conceptual learning to visual experi- ence. The remaining sixty per cent is distributed as follows : auditory experience, twenty-five per cent; tactile experience, seventeen; miscel- laneous organic, fifteen ; taste and smell, three. This distribution, of course, is reliable only in so far as the words judged represent a random sampling of conceptual learning. tin the fall of 1921 a list, made up by selecting twenty-five out of the fifty words, was submitted to various groups of undergraduate students in the School of Education of the ITniversity of Kansas. The judges had had little teaching experience and probably no training in introspective judgment. The obtained mean for visual origins was nearer 30 than 40, and that for the auditory nearer 30 than 25. SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 17 SECTION IV. EXPERIMENT A.— MOVING PICTURES IN COMBINATION WITH VERBAL INSTRUCTION Is the textfilm worth a place in the curriculum? Should part of the class period be given over to it? And, if so, when will it be more effective, before the lesson or after it? In other words, should the film introduce a topic, or should it be used as a summary? These are questions that the practical educator will ask, and I have tried to answer them in the first experiment. The predominant aim in Experiment A has been to measure the effect of the film when employed as an aid along with verbal instruction. In order to conduct the experiment it was necessary to select first of all a film. The one chosen was a travelogue. It dealt with life in India, and the exact title was "The Country of the Mahrattas, and Other Scenes." From this film a lesson was prepared in the following manner: The subtitles were copied on paper. Then the film was put on the re-wind and examined frame by frame. Detailed notes were jotted down between the subtitles. And from this working outline the lesson was constructed. Thus the subject-matter of the lesson was common with that of the film. Altogether nearly five hundred 7A-grade pupils participated, six classes of boys and six of girls. They were divided into three groups, approxi- mately equal in size and ability. The first unit of the experiment was planned to be conducted as follows; Group A was to be taught the lesson for twenty-five minutes. After the lesson would come a 12-minute review-quiz. This would make the total duration of the period thirty-seven minutes. Group B was to be shown the film for twelve minutes. After the film would come the 25-minute lesson, taught by the same teacher in the same manner as in the case above — 37 minutes. Group C was to be taught the 25-minute lesson, with the film following, just the reverse of Group B — 37 minutes. The review-quiz Avas a substitute for the film. It was the teacher's opportunity to compete with the effectiveness of the pictorial presentation. Following is a copy of the lesson: 18 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS THE COUNTRY OF THE MAHRATTAS AND OTHER SCENES IN INDIA The Grain Market. — As one travels through this country one of the common sights he meets is the grain market. Here can be seen natives walking about and carrying bales (bundles) of grain on their backs. Some of the men lead donkeys. Arrival of a Caravan. — Another common sight is the arrival of a cara- van. A long file of camels can be seen lumbering along the street, each camel being led by a man. As you watch the caravan pass by, you can not fail to notice the row of cottages across the street. All the cottages have thatched straw roofs. (3 minutes up.) Cutting the Sugar Cane. — The sugar cane is cut by machinery. A team of oxen, or buffaloes, furnish the power. They walk around in a small circle and are hitched to the outer end of a long stout pole. The inner end is attached to a large gear wheel which turns as the oxen walk around it. This wheel drives a small cog wheel which, by means of long steel rods, drives the cutting- machine. This stands oi¥ to one side. The cutting ma- chine is fed by hand. The space in which this macliine is found is separated from the oxen by a high hedge wall and it is covered with a scanty roof held up by four strong corner poles. The roof provides shade. (6 minutes up.) Oudhipur, the Maharadjah's Summer Palace. — Oudhipur is noted for the beauty of its scenery-. The palace is a splendid piece of architecture. It looks somewhat like our library buildings in this country. Directly in front of the palace is a beautiful garden, and the concrete steps from the palace lead directly into a peaceful pond in the center of the garden. The pond is square in shape. When you stand so that the pond is between you and the palace you can see a remarkably clear reflection of the palace in the pond. In the garden you can see many palm trees with thick, straight, high trunks, and a wealth of palms waving above. There is some very fine statu- ary in the park. Before an elaborate entrance to the palace stand the statues of two elephants facing each other. (8 minutes up.) Through the Tow^n of Oudhipur. — Here you see many working men, wearing striped shirts. You also see many Asiatic buffaloes carrying loads and drawing carts. The buffalo is the Mahrattan beast of burden. Some of the women j^ou see around Avear shawls. A Mahratta Potter. — The Mahratta jiottery maker sits on the ground in the shade of his thatched straw roof. Before him rests a heavy stone wheel on a pivot. The wheel can be made to spin like a top. On the outer edge of the Avheel is a hole just big enough for the potter to insert one end of a stick. With this stick he turns the wheel and whirls it faster and faster. After a while he takes out the stick and the stone keeps on spinning. On the center of the stone lies a batch of soft clay. The potter had put that on before he started the wheel. And now he proceeds to make a pot out of the clay. He SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 19 pushes one hand down the center of the mass and as the stone spins around a hollow is formed. This is to be the inside of the jar. His other hand held against the outside of the mass forms the outside of the jar. In the same manner with his thumb and forefinger he forms the rim of the vessel. Finally he cuts off the newly formed jar with a piece of wire. The man wears a turban in spite of the fact that he sits in the shade. Wild Boars in the Maharadjah's Hunting Preserves. — The scenery re- minds you of a desert. The ground is strewn with rocks. The wild boars seem to feed on something in the ground. They have large heads and powerful snouts. They can be seen in large droves. (13 minutes up.) The Town of Lucknow. — The Market. — The market place is the great outdoors. Here you see men in turbans carr\-ing about baskets of fruits and vegetables. You see also many women sitting about watching their wares. Some of the women have children with them. Hindu Cafe. — Outside of the cafe, or rather in front of it, stand tables and benches. You can see men eating there. On the wall you can see a bill of fare, but j'ou probably cannot read it. Grinding Corn. — Mostly women seem to do this work. They sit in pairs on the ground in front of their huts. Each pair works with two mill stones, one on top of the other. The bottom stone is stationary. The top one is being turned by means of a wooden handle. The corn is ground in between the stones. On the ground lie piles of shredded corn, and off on the side stand a few sacks. Away from the huts, where the breeze is stronger, a man holds a scoop full of corn, which is mixed with chaff and other im- purities, to the height of his shoulders and then lets the corn roll off the edge of the scoop in a small stream. The grains fall to the ground, while the chaff is blown away to one side. The corn is then ready for grinding. Lapidaries at Work. — These are men who cut and grind rough stones into precious gems. They sit in front of grindstone wheels. They can be seen shoving long poles back and forth through the frames on which the grindstones turn. The poles by friction furnish the power which makes the wheels spin. Chasing on Copper. — Men are at work putting ornaments and cutting designs on copper vessels. As they work they sit in front of their huts with their vases between their knees. Hairdresser. — Outdoors before the hut. One man sits on a high chair. The barber cuts his hair with a clipper. The effect is hardly artistic. Carding Wool. — Before the man hangs a bow-and-string-like thing. The man holds a stick with Avhich he pounds the string seemingl3% The string picks and tears the wool. 20 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Wool Market. — Here the wool is placed loose on a scale. The scale is quite old-fashioned, with two suspended platters. It is held up by hand. On one platter is a weight. On the other is a pile of loose wool. (20 minutes up.) Palace and Gardens of Nossinehabad. — The architecture of these gar- dens differs greatly from that of the Maharadjah's summer palace. In order to enter the gardens you have to pass through a very imposing gateway. In the gardens you see many cedar-like trees. The buildings are sur- mounted with many spires. These are little turrets or towers set upon dome-like roofs which rest upon the building like inverted bowls. One of the interesting sights is the statue of a buffalo cow with her calf. Watering the Palace Garden. — In the midst of the garden is a shallow well lined with a concrete curb. The water is dipped out of the well by hand. Many men and women come to the well with jars. When filled, they are placed on the head and carried away in that manner. The water is used to water the plants in the garden. Sacred Boat of the Maharadjah. — On a canal in the garden floats a square boat, very ornamental in design, with carved figures of a man and a horse. A man with a long pole stands on the broad bow of the boat. He moves the boat along by poking the pole down into the water until it touches bottom. (25 minutes over.) (Instructions to Teacher: Go over this material in discussion fashion in 25 minutes. Then review it in twelve minutes with the group which does not see the film. The other groups do not get the review; they see the film instead. The review might be a rapid-fire quiz.) On February 16, 1921, the four classes of the "Lesson-Review" group were called into the auditorium. Miss Myrtle Spaulding, supervisor of history and geography, was the teacher. She lectured through the outline once. But as she happened to finish before the time was up, she repeated the lesson from the "ToAvn of LucknoAv." At the end of twenty-five min- utes, she gave the group a rapid-fire quiz. Later on the same day, the four classes of the "Film-Lesson" group came into the auditorium. They were shoAvn the film. Then the four classes of the "Lesson-Film" group were brought in. And the 25-minute lesson was presented to both groups at once. Care was taken to repeat the lesson from the "Town of Lucknow." Unfortunately the classes of the last group were at a disadvantage. When they came in, the center section was already occupied; hence they SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 21 were seated in the back of the room, rather far from the teacher to insure the proper amount of attention. After the lesson the "Film-Lesson" group was dismissed, and the remaining group saw the film. Using the 25-minute lesson as a basis, a 60-question test was prepared in the following manner: First, forty specific questions were made up from the context. Then twenty inference questions were formulated. The former tested facts that had either been seen or heard, or both ; the latter tested facts that had to be inferred from having seen the film or heard the lesson. Twenty-four hours later, the test was given in the various classrooms. This time interval Avas not exact, some classes being tested a period or two earlier, others later. But in the course of the entire experiment, this irregu- larity was taken care of by proper rotation. Copy of the Test P. S. 62. Date 1921 Last Name First Grade Age years months. Instructions. — Look at each question below. If the answer is Yes, draw a circle around the word "Yes"; if it is No, draw it around "No." Look at these examples before you begin : Example : Is the Country of Mahratta in India? ^vej No Example : Does Mahratta belong to China? .'. .Yes Qio\ At the grain market, do the natives carry bundles of grain on their backs? Yes No Do they ride on the donkeys ? Yes No Are the camels in the caravan trotting thru the streets? Yes No Do the cottages of the village have shingle roofs? Yes No Is the machiaery for cutting sugar cane driven by man power?. . . .Yes No Is the sugar cane fed into the machine by hand? Yes No Does the Maharadjah's summer palace at Oudhipur look like our capitol building at Washington? Yes No Can the reflection of the palace be seen in the pond? Yes No Do the trees in the garden have straight trunks? Yes No Does one find in the garden the statues of two reindeer facing each other? Yes No Is the buffalo a useful animal among the natives? Yes No Does the potter make his jar by kneading the clay? Yes No Does the heav}' stone wheel spin like a top? Yes No Does the potter turn the stone with a stick? Yes No 22 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Does he lift the new jar off M'ith a broad knife ? Yes No Do the wild boars in the Maharadjah's limiting preserves feed on field mice ? Yes No Do the wild boars have powerful tusks ? Yes No In the town of Lueknow, is the market held indoors? Yes No Do the native men wear turbans? .Yes No Is the garden truck moved about the market on carts ? Yes No Are there any children in the market place ? Yes No At the Hindu cafe, are the tables outdoors? Yes No Is the bill of fare printed in English ? Yes No Do the women of Mahratta grind the corn? Yes No Is the corn cleaned with a fanning mill ? Yes No Is the grindstone which is used for cutting and polishing rough stones into precious gems round in shape ? Yes No Does the lapidary use the long stick for holdhig the gem? Yes No Do any men in Mahratta engrave figures on copper vases ? Yes No Does the Mahratta barber cut hair with a clipper? Yes No In carding wool, do the children help their elders? Yes No Is the wool hauled to market in large cubic bales? Yes No Is the wool weighed on a scale held up by the hands? Yes No Is the arch of the gateway to the Palace and Gardens of Nossineha- bad very ornamental ? Yes No Are the trees in the gardens tall? Yes No Are the roofs on the buildings straight and pointed? Yes No Is there in the garden a statue of a buffalo cow with a calf? Yes No For watering the palace garden, is the water taken out of the well with a rope ? Yes No Do the women carry the water jars on their shoulders ? Yes No Is the sacred boat of the Maharadjah in the canal? Yes No Is the boat propelled (moved) by two paddles? ; .Yes No Are donkeys used to carry bundles of grain to market ? Yes No Does the caravan come from a country outside of Mahratta? Yes No Do the natives eat all the sugar which they make from the sugar cane ? Yes No Is the Maharadjah the ruler of Mahratta? Yes No Are there Siberian pear trees in the palace garden? Yes No In the town of Lueknow, is most of the garden truck brought to market with Ford cars ? Yes No Could the Mahratta potter work better if he turned the stone wheel with a fixed handle set in the outer edge? Yes No Do the wild boars lie around all day ? Yes No Does the produce in the market place of Lueknow come from the surrounding country? Yes No Is the Hindu cafe bill of fare written in native dialect ? , .Yes No SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 23 Can the corn be cleaned for grinding when the air is still ? Yes No Are the precious gems made to be sold? Yes No Do designs on vases make the vases cheaper in price ? Yes No Can a man's hair be cut quickly with a clipper? Yes No Do the natives card wool by machinery ? Yes No Is the man who weighs the wool the buyer? Yes No Are little towers placed on buildings so as to lend beauty to the buildings ? Yes No Is the Mahratta buffalo less useful than our cow ? Yes No Do the women carrj'- jars on their heads without holding them by the hand ? Yes No Is the sacred boat ever taken out of the palace gardens? Yes No Suppose a rich family offered you an opportunity to travel with them to Palestine to see Jerusalem. And suppose that another rich family gave you a chance to go with them to India to see Mahratta. — "Would you choose to go to India? Yes No "Would you choose to go to Palestine ? Yes No Presenting the lesson, showing the film, and submitting the test on India constituted only the first unit in Experiment A, which was conducted in accordance with the following outline : Experiment A. Measuring- the Value of a Film When Used as an Aid in Teaching Unit I. Scenes in India. Feb. 16, 1921 Lesson (lecture) 25 minutes Review Quiz 12 minutes Group A Film 12 minutes Lesson 25 minutes Group B Lesson 25 minutes Film 12 minutes Group C Unit II. Chinese Scenes. Feb. 23, 1921 Lesson 25 minutes Review Quiz 12 minutes Group C 24 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Film 12 minutes Ll'ssou 25 minutes Group A Lesson 25 minutes Film 12 minutes Group B Unit IJI. Japan, llie Industrious. March 2, 1921 Lesson (see Note) 22 minutes Review Quiz 10 minutes Group B Film 10 minutes Lesson 22 minutes Group C Lesson 22 minutes Film 10 minutes Group A Note: This wars a short film, heiiee Die time was reduced for all groups. The order of the three different methods of presentation was rotated with every unit. Beginning with Unit II, the lesson was not a straight lecture. Enough questions were interpolated to keep up maximum attention on the part of the pupils. This weakened somewhat the value of the review-quiz and thus seemed to favor the film. The lesson for the second unit is given herewith. It is entitled "Chinese Scenes." CHINESE SCENES Chinese Eating with Chopsticks. — If you traveled through China, one of the commonest sights you would meet would be to see three or four Chinese seated around the table. Each person would have a bowl of rice before him. But he would not be seen eating with a spoon or fork. Quite different from us, he eats with chopsticks. These chopsticks are made of ivory, bone, or wood, and they are about fifteen inches long. A pair of them is held in the hand, and they are manipulated (handled) with the thumb and fingers. The Chinese picks up the food with the chopsticks and carries it to his mouth. If meat is eaten, it has to be finely chopped up, so that it can be handled. The Feet of the Women Are Small. — Another strange custom you will notice, as you travel through China, is that of the bandaged foot. The Chinese women must have small feet. So, when they are still children, their feet are bound, to keep them from growing. If you w^ere in a Chinese SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 2b home, you might possibly see a woman bandaging her foot or taking the bandage off. A close-up view would show you that the foot is badly out of shape, distorted. To relieve the misery, the feet are commonly placed in a basin of water. (3 minutes up.) Opium, the Chinese Vice. — Many a Chinese can be seen, lying on his couch or bed, with a small table before him, on which he rests the heavy end of his opium pipe as he puffs the deadly smoke. A Chinese smoker does not sit up or walk about or even work as our tobacco smoker does. He lies do-v\ai and takes it easy. The opium which he smokes comes from the poppy plant. Opium is a milky sap or secretion. After it has come in contact with the air it turns dark in color, and it hardens with age. China grows twice as much opium as all the rest of the world. Playing Cards. — One of the amusements you will find in China is card playing. Usually four men are seated around a table. They hold cards in their hands with strange pictures and figures on them. In shape the cards look a little like our American cards, but the characters on them are real Chinese puzzles to us. (6 minutes up.) The Barber — A Massage Afterwards. — If you were to visit a Chinese barber shop, this is what you would be likely to see : A high stool, the barber, a man to be shaved, and the whole business outdoors. First the barber ties up the man's queue in a knot high up on top of the head. The man does not lie back in a chair as with us, but sits up straight on a stool. Then the barber goes ahead to shave him. His razor looks like a cross between a potato parer and a putty knife. The barber shaves the face, then the neck, then the scalp nearlj^ as high up as the queue, and finally he scoops out the ears. When he is thru, he does something else which is hard for us to understand. He gives the man a massage, and this is how he does It: He pounds the man's back for quite a while with his fists. In Northern China They Still Wear Queues. — The people living in Northern China are known as Manchus. They still Avear queues or pigtails. This means that the Manchu's hair is long and is made up into a braid which hangs down his back. Sometimes a Manchu is captured by soldiers from farther south. The first thing these soldiers do to him is to cut off his pig- tail. (9 minutes up.) The Family Conveyance. — The ordinary Chinese family hasn't an auto- mobile or even a wagon drawn by mules. All it has is a cart which is reall}^ a large wheelbarrow. The wheelbarrow has one large wooden wheel in front, a platform, and two handles behind. The handles run under the platform to the front of the wheel. There they come almost together. They rest on the axle of the wheel ; and farther back they spread out, so that a man can walk between them, hold them up, and thus push the cart. The platform lies on these handles, behind the wheel and around the sides of it. In the center, and over the wheel, is a housing. This cart will carry 26 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS bag-gage or people or both. Often 3^011 can see one man pushing the cart, another sits on one side of the wheel, and a pig with its feet tied to the hous- ing lies on the other side of the wheel. They may be son and father and on their way to market with the pig. One of the Waterways. — You will enjoy seeing a canal in China. The banks of the canal are held up by wooden palisades or walls made by posts driven side by side into the ground. Of course, there are boats in the canal and men in them. But the men do not row^ the boats. Instead, they move them along with poles wliich they either poke into the water or push against the timber banks of the waterwaj^ Some of the boats are being loaded; others unloaded. (12 minutes up.) Irrigation of the Rice Fields. — Irrigation means watering the land where there isn't enough rainfall. Rice fields under irrigation present a beautiful view\ The landscape is very pleasing. You can see the fields, the ditches, and here and there a pumping station. Oxen Turning Pumps to Force Water Into Ditches. — As you approach a pumping station 3'ou will see first of all a shade roof over the ox-power. This roof rests upon a few poles. It is round and tapers to a point in the center just as a cone does ; but the slope is not very steep. Under the roof can be seen an ox Avalking around in a circle. The ox is hitched to one end of a stout pole. The inner end of the pole turns the machinery, which is very primitive. Off to one side from the power house 3^ou can see a large water chain or elevator, which looks somewhat like the chain wheels on our caterpillar tractors. This primitive water chain raises the water at the bottom of the bank to the top of the bank and over into a ditch at a much higher level. A man drives the ox. (15 minutes up.) Carabao Cow and Calf, — The animal is held and led by a halter just as our cows are. As you travel through China, be sure not to miss the sight of a carabao cow with her calf. The calf is very cunning. (16 minutes.) Plowing with Carabao. — The carabao is the Chinese draft animal. Quite often you see it hitched to a primitive plow and plodding over a small field wnth a coolie tagging along behind. The carabao has long spreading horns. It is known also as the water buffalo, and it has to have its daily mud bath or it refuses to work. Grinding Millet — Donkey Power. — A very interesting industry you will learn about in your journey through China is millet-grinding by donkey power. The donkey is rather small and is therefore handy in a good many kinds of work. And this is the way the donkey grinds the millet : A thick heavy millstone lies on its side, with a strong steel bar sticking up from its center. The upper millstone is much smaller. But it does not lie on its side ; instead, it rolls on its broad edge like a Avide truck Avheel. One end of its axis is fastened to the upright bar; the other end extends far out, away from the stone, and the donkey is hitched to it. As the donkey SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 27 walks around the mill, the upper stone rolls in a much smaller circle over the lower stone and thus crushes the millet on it. (19 minutes up.) Foochow Road (Street in the City). — As you stand on one corner of this street you will see many people walking about. There is much heavy traffic on the street. Naturally the pavements have to be repaired once in a while; and this is done by dragging a heavy roller by hand over the patches. Man}- banners are strung across the street, and some are held in the breeze bj^ poles fixed to the buildings. There are many shops on both sides of the street; and every one has one, two, or more signs up. You can't read them, of course; but you know what they are there for — to get cus- tomers. Wedding- Procession — The Chinese make a great deal of their weddings. The people in a wedding procession wear their best clothes. The men wear cone-shaped hats, which look much like small parasols. They beat drums as they march along. Behind them come Avagons drawn by single horses and then carts which are known as — Jinrickshas. — This vehicle is a cart with tAvo wheels, a seat, and some- times a top. One or two people can sit on it. The jinricksha is drawn by a coolie. It has two shafts, between which the man steps and which he grips with his hands. lie trots along with it just as a single horse trots along with a larger cart. (22 minutes up.) Manchu Women of the Middle Class. — Woman's Headdress — Woman and Little Girl. — The headdress is high and flaring. It looks almost like a kite on top of the head. It holds its shape by means of a board frame. It is pleasing to look upon. In addition to this kite-like hat, the woman wears a broad band over her hair; this is really the base of the hat. A woman, thus dressed, lives in Northern China and belongs neither to the rich nor to the very poor people. Funeral Procession. — This is a very somber sight. The casket or coffin is elaborately draped in black. In outline it looks like the roof of a Chinese temple, but very much smaller, of course. This casket is borne on the shoul- ders of several men. These men, just like the drum beaters in the wedding procession, wear cone-shaped hats over their heads. Behind the casket come the carts, or jinrickshas, and the Avagons following them. (25 min- utes up.) As already indicated, the lesson on China was presented in a slightly different manner. We had learned from the first presentation that it was difficult to maintain alertness on the part of all pupils through a 25-minute lecture ; hence the teacher resorted to a few marginal questions after each paragraph. These served the double purpose of providing pupil participa- 28 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS tion and maintaining maximum attention, and thus the change gave the lesson its full value. However, it seemed that the review-quiz was rendered less effective thereby. There was no noticeable hitch in this unit. Everything went off with satisfactory regularity. It will be seen from the general plan that in rela- tion to the three different methods of presentation Group A was now in place of Group B, Group B in that of Group C, and Group C in that of Group A, Not only that, but the methods themselves came in a different order so as to offset the possible effect of improvement in the teaching. The next day an appropriate 60-question test was given. Copy of the Test P. S. 62 Date Last Name First Grade Age Years months. Instructions: Look at each question below. If the answer is Yes, draw a circle around the word "Yes"; if it is No, draw the circle around the word "No." Answer every question. If you are not sure, guess. Look at these examples before you begin. Example : Is China in Asia ? (ym) No Example : Does China belong to Japan? Yes (noJ Does the Chinese inhabitant eat rice with a spoon? Yes No Are the chopsticks handled with thumb and fingers? Yes No Do the Chinese sit at the table when they eat? Yes No Do the Chinese bind the feet of the little boys? Yes No To relieve the pain, do Chinese people place their feet on cakes of ice ? Yes No Does the Chinese opium smoker work while he smokes? Yes No Does he smoke a pipe with a long stem ? Yes No In playing cards, do the Chinese hold the cards in their hands?, , , ,Yes No Are the pictures on their cards different from ours ? Yes No Does the Chinese barber's razor look like our razors? Yes No Does the man to be shaved lie back in a chair? Yes No Does the barber massage the man by pounding his back? Yes No Is a man living in Southern China called a Manchu? Yes No Does a Manchu wear a pigtail ? Yes No Does the Chinese wheelbarrow have a wooden platform? Yes No Has it more than one wheel ? Yes No Does a Chinese ever wheel his wife to toM'n? Yes No Are the canals in China banked up with bricks ? Yes No SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A ^9 Are the boats in the canal rowed along? Yes No Does irrigation in China mean watering the rice fields? Yes No Is the water pumped into the ditches by oxen-power? Yes No Is the water raised by means of a large round wheel? Yes No Es all the machinery used very primitive ? Yes No Do the Chinese usually keep the carabao calf from its mother?. , . .Yes No Do the Chinese plow with the carabao ? Yes No Has the carabao short horns? Yes No Do the Chinese turn their millet-grinding millstones by hand?. . . .Yes No Are the two millstones alike in size? Yes No Does the upper millstone roll on its edge? Yes No Do the Chinese pack their street pavements with hand rollers?. . , .Yes No Are the signs over the shops printed in Japanese? Yes No Have the streets banners strung across them ? Yes No Do the men in the Chinese wedding procession wear hats like ours?. Yes No Are the wagons drawn by single horses ? Yes No Has the jinrikisha two wheels ? Yes No Is it pushed along by a man ? Yes No Does the Manchu woman's headdress hold its kite-like shape by means of a wire frame ? Yes No Does the hat fit like a broad band over her hair? Yes No In the funeral procession, is the casket draped in black? Yes No Is the casket transported on a wagon? Yes No Is a chopstick longer than a pencil? Yes No Do Chinese women go out for long walks ? Yes No Is opium more harmful than tobacco ? . . < Yes No Do the Chinese play cards on the floor? Yes No Does the Chinese barber give his customer a facial massage? Yes No Do the men in Southern China wear pigtails? Yes No Has the Chinese wheelbarrow two legs? Yes No Is the housing over the wheel there to keep the wheel free? Yes No Are the boats on the canals used for pleasure parties? Yes No Are the irrigation ditches made by man? Yes No Does the rice growing require much rain? Yes No Is the carabao a wild animal ? Yes No Is a j^oung carabao calf usually fed from a milk pail? Yes No Do the Chinese grind grain Avith animal power? Yes No Do both millstones lie flat on their sides? Yes No Has a Chinese city stores along its streets? Yes No Is there much noise at a Chinese wedding procession? Yes No Are the jinrikishas like our wagons? Yes No Do the middle-class women of Northern China wear beautiful hats ? Yes No Is the casket in a funeral procession covered with flowers? Yes No 30 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Suppose a rich family offered you an opportunity to travel Avitli them to Palestine to see the country. And suppose that another rich famil^y gave you a chance to go with them to C'liina to see that country — Would you choose to go to China ? Yes No Or would you choose to go to Palestine? Yes No The lesson for the third week foUoAvs: JAPAN, THE INDUSTRIOUS Japanese at Work. — An American with a camera went to Japan to study the Japanese at work. And these are some of the activities which he saAv and took pictures of : A basket maker, a rope maker, workers at a saw- mill, the manufacture of umbrellas, a moving restaurant, a pipe cleaner, a street cobbler, and men at work making Cloisanne Avare. Let us now take these industries one at a time and try to see with our imagination just what the American visitor saw. The first kind of work we see is that of The Basket Maker. — A man, dressed as Jai)anese men are, is sitting on the floor. He works on the body of a baby carriage. He has just finished the bottom, and now he is weaving or building the sides. The materials he uses look like twigs or splints or reeds. You know what our wicker chairs are made of? Well, the bodies of these baby carriages, or buggies, are made of the same things — twigs, you may call them. The man's little daughter, just a child, is near him. She evidently' likes to watch her father work. Behind the man and a little to one side Ave see tAvo or three carriages already done, wheels on them and all. The next kind of Avork Ave see is that of The Rope Maker. The man is sitting on a Ioav box. He has a thick heavy rope in his hands. It lies over his knee as he Avorks on it. A pile of hemp or fiber can be seen next to his feet. Every so often he picks up a handful of this hemp, tAvists it into a strand, and works it into the rope. Then he Avorks in another one farther on, until the rope is done. One end of a mat covers the box on which the man sits, which no doubt makes the hard boards more comfortable. The other end of the mat lies on the floor under the man's feet, and the bunches of hemp or fiber lie on this. Rope-making, as you see, is not yet done by machinery in the typical Japanese communitj^ The village rope maker still does the work by hand. We next go Avith the visitor to Avatch the Avorkers At the Sawmill. The first thing Ave see is a log, about six feet long. It lies on the bank of the river. Evidently it has just been hauled out of the stream. Four men are SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 31 at work rolling it up the bank. These men use long poles with sharp hooks on the ends. They hack them into the log and then pull it over. The log seems to be very heavy, and the work is rather slow. When we look around now we see many houses along the bank on the other side of the river. These buildings may be the dwellings of the workers at the sawmill. Farther along the river we see a boat and aiu)ther log on the bank Avith three men at work on it. At the sawmill we don't see a large building with a still larger roof on it, as we do in this countr3^ We don't see a power house driving heavy machinery. We don't see the well-known buzz saw, or the circular rip saw. Nor do we see the ferocious band saw. All we see is a log, a man, and a hand saw. One end of the log lies on the ground. The other rests on a saw buck which holds it up. The man stands on the log right over the saw buck. He stoops over, and in his hands he holds a queer-looking saAv. The heavy blade is very short and wide. The teeth are coarse. The handle is just a short straight wooden stick which the man grips with both hands. The man begins to rip the log on the end that sticks up into the air. When he has sawed down a certain distance, he stops and drives a stick, or peg, into the rift above, to give the saw more play. If he doesn't do this, the log will pinch the saw. A Japanese sawmill, you see, is very primitive, or old-fash- ioned. Another industry, but not carried on in quite so primitive a manner, is The Manufacture of Umbrellas. This is what we see : A man is sitting on the floor, with an unfinished umbrella before him. You notice that the top. or canopy part, of the umbrella has what is called a radiating frame. This looks somewhat like a bicycle wheel with its many spokes running out from the hub to the rim. On this radiating frame, which is made of wood, the umbreUa maker pastes strips or sheets of colored paper. What sticks out over the edge he trims off with his scissors. Behind him next to the wall stand tAvo finished umbrellas, all ready for the market. Japanese umbrellas, such as these, do not have wire or metal frames like ours. In Japan, as Avell as in America, the men Avho Avork must eat. For those in a hurry, or too far from home, there is The Moving Restaurant, This consists of a cart on tAvo Avheels and tAvo legs. It is covered like one of our peanut Avagons. But the man or chef doesn't stand inside. The thing is a kitchen on wheels. And the street is the dining room for the restaurant. As Ave look on, Ave do not see the stove, but Ave see steam rising from sunken pots. On a side shelf Ave see a fcAV boAvls. and a fcAV spoons and other necessary cooking utensils hanging up. The cook stands beside his kitchen. He is also cashier and head Avaiter of the place. 32 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS We see three customers bu3ung food that looks like macaroni, or rice noodles. These noodles are served in bowls. The men eat with chopsticks. They wear hats which look like inverted wash basins over their heads. A close-up view shows us one of the three men very busy with his boMd and chopsticks feeding himself as fast as he can. A grin of satisfaction spreads over his face as he downs the last mouthful. As we move along we see another Japanese industry on cart wheels — that of The Pipe Cleaner. The cart is also covered. The pipe cleaner stands beside it. On the cart can be seen a small cabinet with several drawers. No doubt the man keeps his tools in them, also pipes which he has to clean or which haven't j^et been called for. A small upright metal tube is fastened to the side of the cart body in such a way that both ends are free. Steam is hissing out of each. And this is hoAv the pipe cleaner cleans a pipe: He holds the stem of the pipe to the steam tube. The steam then blows through the pipe and cleans it out. The man evidently gives satisfaction, for off to one side we see a customer .puffing happily away on his newly cleaned tobacco stove. Later on we see A Street Cobbler. The middle of the street is his shop. He has two boj^s with him. Dry goods boxes partly filled with tools and materials and rubbish make up part of his workshop. We see the man stooping over. His left bare foot rests on an odd-looking wooden shoe. And he is evidently whittling awa^^ on the side of the shoe sole. Maybe it isn't small enough yet to fit Ihc foot of the customer. This is what the shoe looks like: A thin board trimmed down to the size of a man's shoe makes up the sole. Underneath this wooden sole are two wooden blocks. You might say that each shoe or sandal has two heels to Avalk on but no sole. Such a shoe is fastened to the foot with straps. Finally we see an industry about which we know very little. This is the making of Cloisanne Ware. Here we see a very large vase, five or six feet high, lying on its side. Two men are at work putting ornaments on it — painting it, as it seems. Actually this is what they are doing: They are laying out a ]iatter]i on the body of the vase with strips of flat wire. Next they fill in the spaces -with enamel paste. Then they fuse this in place. As we come closer, we see a man at work with a stylus, or metal rod, with which he transfers the enamel paste from a round wooden container held in the hand to the surface of the vase. As was the case in many other scenes, here too we see a child watching intently the work of its elders. Off to one side are two other men iiolisliing much smaller vases. They sit on the ground and hold the vases betAveen their legs. This ware is prepared for the market. SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 33 As already stated, the lesson on "Japan, the Industrious" was slightly shorter than the previous two. The film took only ten minutes and the lesson twenty-two. The time was constant for all groups. One irregularity occurred. The "Lesson Review" group was kept twenty minutes over the noon hour. However, their consent was first solicited and secured; then they were promised the privilege of coming twenty minutes late to afternoon classes. This irregularity in the third unit probably compensates for the one in the first unit to the "Lesson-Film" group, and enhances somewhat the constant superiority of the "Film-Lesson" method. The next day an appropriate 60-question test was given. Copy of the Test P. S. 62. Date 1921 Last name First Grade Age years months. Instructions: Look at each question below. If the answer is yes, draw a circle around the word "Yes"; if the answer is no, draw the circle around the word "No." Answer every question. If you are not sure, guess. Leave no blanks. Study these examples first : Example : Is Japan east of China? QvesJ No Example : Has Japan a President ? Yes Qo^ Was the visitor, whom we accompanied in our imagination on a trip through Japan, an American ? Yes No Did he go there to study the Japanese people at play? Yes No Did he take a picture of a religious feast ? Yes No As you watched the basket maker at his work, did you see him sit- ting on a stool ? Yes No Was he Aveaving the body of a baby carriage? Yes No Were the materials he used twigs? Yes No Was the little girl with him crying? Yes No Did the rope maker sit on a box ? Yes No Did the rope lie over his shoulder? Yes No Did the man twist a handful of hemp into a strand or cord before he worked it into the rope? Yes No Did you see a mat under the rope maker's feet ? Yes No At the sawmill, was th« log on the bank sixteen feet long? Yes No Did four men roll it up the shore? Yes No Was the log rolled along by means of a rope ? .'Yes No 34 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Did the Japanese saw look like one of our saws ? Yes No Did one man only hold the saw ? Yes No Did the log which was being sawed in two lie on the ground? Yes No Was the peg driven into the split or rift in order to give the saw greater play or freedom ? Yes No Was this Japanese sawmill primitive or old-fashioned? Yes No Did the Japanese umbrella maker sit on a table? Yes No Has the top of a Japanese umbrella a radiating frame, that is, a frame with many ribs that spread out from the center like the spokes of a wheel ? Yes No Was the man at work covering the umbrella with paper? Yes No Were there a dozen finished umbrellas near the man? Yes No Was the moving restaurant a cart on three wheels? Yes No Did the cook stand inside of his kitchen? Yes No Did he serve the food in bowls to his customers? Yes No Was his wife the cashier of the place? Yes No Did the hungry customers eat with chopsticks? Yes No Did the pipe cleaner have a small cabinet or drawers on his cart?. .Yes No Were there two separate metal tubes out of which steam came?. . . .Yes No Did the man clean the pipes with broom straws? Yes No Did he give satisfaction, that is, were his customers pleased with the work he did? Yes No Was the street cobbler's shop in a corridor? Yes No Did he have two boys with him ? Yes No Did the cobbler wear shoes ? Yes No Did the shoe he was making have a wooden sole? Yes No Was the large vase more than three feet high? Yes No Did the men dip it into a big tank of enamel paste? Yes No Did the men who polished the small vases sit on the ground? Yes No Did they hold the vases in their arms? Yes No Did the American visitor see a Japanese pottery maker? Yes No Could most of the industries described be done in a quicker and better way ? Yes No In weaving a basket, does the man weave the bottom of the basket first? Yes No Is a Japanese child allowed to watch its father at work? Yes No Are ropes in Japan ordinarily made by machinery? .Yes No Is a Japanese rope neater-looking than an American-made rope?. .Yes No Do the workers who saw up the logs live near by? Yes No Have these logs been floated down the river? Yes No Is one log ordinarily carried by two men ? Yes No Does the. sawyer have to work harder when the log pinches? Yes No Does a Japanese umbrella open up like one of our umbrellas?. . , . .Yes No SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 35 Are Japanese umbrellas usually black in color? Yes No Does the moving restaurant stove cook with electricity? Yes No Have the men who eat from a moving restaurant good manners?. . .Yes No Has the pipe cleaner a small stove in his cart? Yes No Are these opium pipes that he cleans? Yes No Does the street cobbler's boy help his father in the work? Yes No Does the cobbler mend mostly leather shoes? Yes No Are the designs on the Japanese vases put on with brush and paint ? Yes No Are these vases made to be sold ? Yes No Suppose a rich family offered you an opportunity to travel with them through Palestine. And suppose that another rich family gave you a chance to accompany them on a trip to Japan, (Vote for one only.) Would you choose to go to Japan ? Yes Or, would you choose to go to Palestine? Yes In each of the three weekly questionnaires, there was incorporated a concealed test, designed to measure possible influence, if any, upon choice. "Would the lesson illustrated by a film influence choice more than the lesson supplemented by a review-quiz? It was assumed that a certain number would choose to go to the country dealt with by the lesson and the re- mainder would choose to go to an}- other place suggested. Palestine was chosen as the counter-attraction to India, China, and Japan, respectively, because nearly all the pupils in the experiment were of Hebrew descent. Following are the results : SUMMARY OF CHOICES Without Mean Film Proportional For Lesson Subject 172^ 178.4 For Counter-Attraction 278 '272.6 Reduced to simple ratios. ... 9-1 100 100 Too" Seeing the film along with lesson influenced three per cent of about 45Q pupils to change their votes for the trip suggested by the lesson. AVith Gain Effected by Film Use of the Film 185 267 3% 106 Approximately 100 36 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS This effect was considered important enough to be measured again and with greater thoroughness. Accordingly, in Experiment D many concealed tests were incorporated. Should the above summary not be readily under- stood, the reader is referred to a more detailed treatment of choices in Ex- periment D. The three successive questionnaires contained each sixty questions. The correct answer to thirty of them was "Yes" and to the remainder "No," The questions Avere scored according to the formula "Rights Minus AVrongs." The results of the first questionnaire are embodied in Table I. TABLE I Distribution of scores made by 499 7A-Grade pupils in a 60-questior. test which followed a lesson on India, February 16, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of Avhich represents one-tenth of a stand- ard deviation from the mean of the group. Per cent exceed- Group A B C ing plus half Score L-R F-L L-F Total those reaching T-Score - 2 2 1 5 99.50 24 1- 2 1 1 2 98.80 27 3- 4 1 1 2 4 98.20 29 6- 6 1 4 1 6 97.19 31 7- 8 4 6 5 15 95.09 33 9-10 3 5 4 12 92.38 36 11-12 8 2 11 21 89.08 38 13-14 5 3 9 17 85.27 40 15-16 7 9 10 26 80.96 41 17-18 14 8 12 34 74.95 43 19-20 17 9 13 39 67.64 45 21-22 5 11 14 30 60.72 47 23-24 13 9 20 42 53.51 49 25-26 11 19 6 36 45.69 51 27-28 17 13 13 43 37.78 53 29-30 8 14 14 36 29.86 55 31-32 16 15 10 41 22.14 58 33-34 12 8 7 27 15.33 60 35-36 9 9 5 23 10.32 63 37-38 4 1 3 8 7.21 65 39-40 2 8 2 12 5.21 67 41-42 2 4 2 8 3.21 69 43-44 1 4 2 7 1.70 71 45-46 , , 1 1 2 .80 74 47-48 , , 1 1 2 .40 77 49-50 1 1 .10 81 163 167 169 499 The T-Scale units referred to in the heading will be explained later on. The column of frequencies under L-K embodies the results of the 60-question test following the first method of presentation. "L-R" stands for "Lesson- Review." This was the method in which the time that might have been taken up by showing the film, was spent in a review-quiz. The column under SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 37 F-L embodies the results following the "Film-Lesson" presentation, and the column L-F embodies the results of the "Lesson-Film" presentation. The latter varies from the former in that the film followed the lesson instead of preceding it. The results of the second and third weeks ' questionnaires are embodied in Tables 1 and 2, Appendix A. In order to make the three tests comparable, the original steps were converted into T-scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a stand- ard deviation from the mean of the group. The procedure for arriving at the T-scale has been explained very briefly in the Teachers College Record, January, 1921, pages 31 to 51, and more at length in "How to Measure in Education," by Wm. A, McCall, The Macmillan Compan3% New York, 1922. The method may be explained in summary fashion here. Look at Table T. One pupil in Group B. reached the score of 49-50. Half of this number represents one-tenth of one per cent of the entire experimental group. Two pupils reached the score of 47-48. One of these two, plus the higher pupil, constitute four-tenths of one per cent of the entire group. Two pupils reached the score of 45-46. One of these, plus the three higher ones, con- stitute eight-tenths of one per cent of the entire group. And so on. These per cents were then translated into their S. D. values. Five S. D. below the mean was taken as zero for the T-Score, three S. D. below as 20, the mean as 50, three S. D. above the mean as 80, etc. Figure 1 will illu- minate the translation. Converting the original scores into T-Scores made the three successive weekly tests comparable. The "Lesson-Review" scores of the first week could be added to the "Lesson-Review" scores of the second week, and these then to the "Lesson-Review" scores of the third. The same was true of the "Film-Lesson" scores for the three weeks, and the "Lesson-Film" scores. The average of the three weekly means would be the significant mean of each factor. The table of S. D. values follows on page 38. 38 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE SHOWING THE S. D. DISTANCE OF A GIVEN PER CENT ABOVE ZERO.* S.D. S.D. S.D. S.D. Value Per Cent Value Per Cent Value Per Cent Value Per Cent 99.999971 25 99.38 50 50.00 75 0.62 0.5 99.999963 25.5 99.29 50.5 48.01 75.5 0.54 1 99.999952 26 99.18 51 46.02 76 0.47 1.5 99.999938 26.5 99.06 51.5 44.04 76.5 0.40 2 99.99992 27 98.93 52 42.07 77 0.35 2.5 99.99990 27.5 98.78 52.5 40.13 77.5 0.30 3 99.99987 28 98.61 53 38.21 78 0.26 3.5 99.99983 28.5 98.42 53.5 36.32 78.5 0.22 4 99.99979 29 98.21 54 34.46 79 0.19 4.5 99.99973 29.5 97.98 54.5 32.64 79.5 0.16 5 99.99966 30 97.72 55 30.85 80 0.13 5.5 99.99957 30.5 97.44 55.5 29.12 80.5 0.11 6 99.99946 31 97.13 56 27.43 81 0.097 6.5 99.99932 31.5 96.78 56.5 25.78 81.5 0.082 7 99.99915 32 96.41 57 24.20 82 0.069 7.5 99,9989 32.5 95.99 57.2 22.66 82.55 0.058 8 99.9987 33 95.54 58 21.19 83 0.048 8.5 99.9983 33.5 95.05 58.5 19.77 83.5 0.040 9 99.9979 34 94.52 69 18.41 84 0.034 9.5 99.9974 34.5 93.94 59.5 17.11 84.5 0.028 10 99.9968 35 93.32 60 15.87 85 0.023 10.5 99.9961 35.5 92.65 60.5 14.69 85.5 0.019 11 99.9952 36 91.92 61 13.57 86 0.016 11.5 99.9941 36.5 91.15 61.5 12.51 86.5 0.013 12 99.9928 37 90.32 62 11.51 87 0.011 12.5 99.9912 37.5 89.44 62.5 10.56 87.5 0.009 13 99.989 38 88.49 63 9.68 88 0.007 13.5 99.987 38.5 87.49 63.5 8.85 88.5 0.0059 14 99.984 39 86.43 64 8.08 89 0.0048 14.5 99.981 39.5 85.31 64.5 7.35 89.5 0.0039 15 99.977 40 84.13 65 6.68 90 0.0032 15.5 99.972 40.5 82.89 65.5 6.06 96.5 0.0026 16 99.966 41 81.59 66 5.48 91 0.0021 16.5 99.960 41.5 80.23 66.5 4.95 91.5 0.0017 17 99.952 42 78.81 67 4.46 92 0.0013 17.5 99.942 42.5 77.34 67.5 4.01 92.5 0.0011 18 99.931 43 75.80 68 3.59 93 0.0009 18.5 99.918 43.5 74.22 68.5 3.22 93.5 0.0007 19 99.903 44 72.57 69 2.87 94 0.0005 19.5 99.886 44.5 70.88 69.5 2.56 94.5 0.00043 20 99.865 45 69.15 70 2.28 95 0.00034 20.5 99.84 45.5 67.36 70.5 2.02 95.5 0.00027 21 99.81 46 65.54 71 1.79 96 0.00021 21.5 99.78 46.5 63.68 71.5 1.58 96.5 0.00017 22 99.74 47 61.79 72 1.39 97 0.00013 22.5 99.70 47.5 59.87 72.5 1.22 97.5 0.00010 23 99.65 48 57.93 73 1.07 98 0.00008 23.5 99.60 48.5 55.96 73.5 0.94 98.5 0.000062 24 99.63 49 53.98 74 0.82 99 0.000048 24.5 99.46 49.5 51.99 74.5 0.71 99.5 100 0.000037 0.000029 ♦Teachers College Record, January, 1921, Page 34. SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 39 Since the original steps have been converted into T-scores, which makes the results of the three successive weeks comparable in terms of the ability of the entire experimental group, we may sum the "L-R"- results of the three weeks; and by doing so, we get an average of 46.93. Similarly for the "Film-Lesson" group, we get an average of 52.43, and for the "Lesson-Film" group an average of 50.63. The three averages to- gether average 50.00, of course. From this standpoint then we see that the "Lesson-Review" method falls short in its effectiveness, while the other two methods do better than the composite average. The differences are em- bodied in the following summary : SUMMARY TABLE Film-Lesson Lesson- Film Lesson-Review Difference 52.43 50.63 1.80 50.63 46.93 3.70 52.43 .... 46.93 5.50 This summary suggests two hypotheses : First, combining a film with a lesson seems to be more effective than the lesson alone. Second, showing the film before the lesson seems to be more effective than having it follow . In dividing the original five hundred pupils into three groups, an attempt was made to make the groups of approximately equal mental ability. In one of the groups there were four normal classes, two of boys and two of girls. The second group had two normal classes, boys and girls, one rapid-advancement class of boys and one prevocational class of girls. The last group had two normal classes, one rapid-advancement class of girls and one prevocational class of boys. Altogether there were six classes of boys and six of girls. On March 16 and 17 all twelve classes were given the National Intel- ligence Test, Scale A. The scores for each group were arranged in the order of rank. It hap- pened that the pupils overlapped as follows: Median 105, Lower Quartile 93, Upper Quartile 117, lower limit 72, and upper limit 130. One hundred 40 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS were picked from each group. This gave a total experimental group of three hundred selected 7A-grade pupils. 72 93 105 Figure 2. ii; 130 Figure 2 will illuminate the selection. The shaded area represents intelligence scores that are common to all three groups. This illustration is diagrammatic. Table II gives a distribution of the scores by these three hundred selected pupils in the three 60-question tests, together with the standard deviations and the reliabilities of the various means. SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 41 TABLE II Distribution of scores made by 300 selected 7x\-grade pupils in each of the three 60-question tests which followed lessons on India, China, and Japan, respectively. Original steps converted into T-Scale units. India ,, February 16 Score L-R F-L L-F 24 2 29 1 2 31 1 3 1 33 4 1 3 36 3 3 3 38 7 1 6 40 4 1 7 41 5 3 7 43 10 5 6 45 10 3 8 47 4 8 9 49 7 6 17 51 8 13 1 53 11 10 10 55 5 11 6 58 6 7 6 60 6 6 2 63 4 6 2 65 3 1 67 4 69 1 2 1 71 3 2 77 1 81 1 China, February 23 Score L-R F-L L-F 19 25 28 30 32 1 34 3 1 1 36 6 4 4 38 9 5 40 1 2 4 41 6 4 7 43 9 6 5 45 10 5 5 47 5 11 6 49 6 10 8 51 11 14 7 53 4 7 6 55 4 6 11 57 6 8 6 59 4 6 3 61 3 2 63 2 8 7 65 4 4 68 2 6 71 2 74 1 79 1 Japan, March 2, 1921 Score ] L-R F-L L-F 19 1 25 2 29 3 31 2 1 32 1 1 1 33 4 35 4 1 36 5 2 1 37 5 2 39 4 1 2 40 3 1 4 41 8 2 2 42 4 3 4 44 9 4 7 45 9 1 9 47 2 11 12 49 6 11 5 51 4 16 10 53 7 11 7 55 8 11 9 58 3 9 10 61 2 5 8 64 7 2 67 1 2 70 1 1 3 73 1 1 76 1 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Means: 48.32 52.10 47.58 45.18 51.59 51.64 44.45 51.82 50.42 S.D.'s: 8.68 10.29 8.93 9.19 7.80 10.20 10.12 7.43 8.21 S.Dm'S= .868 1.029 .893 .919 .780 1.020 1.012 .743 .821 The results of the three hundred selected pupils differ very little from the unsolected results. The differences are slightly accentuated, however. A possible explanation of this is that the scores of the brightest pupils had been eliminated in the selection. Superior pupils seem to be less dependent upon concrete or vicarious realities for comprehension. Thej' do excep- tionally well even under an inferior method, and their results thus appear to give the method a value which it does not really possess. 42 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS The reliabilities for the averaged means were computed in accordance with the formula ■D._l 1(S.D.)2+(S.D.)2+(S.D.)^ M~3\ Ml M2 Ms To illustrate : Take the three weekly means under L-R, Table II. Averaging them, we get 45.98. This averaged mean has a reliability which is equal to ^J(.868)2+(.919)2+(1.012)2 or .549 Reliabilities for the various differences were computed in accordance with the formula S.D. _ /(S.D.)2+(S.D.)2 Diff~\ Ml M2 Experimental coefficients were computed in accordance with the formula. Difference S.D. X 2.78 Diff In the summary which follows the "Chances to One" have been com- puted from the following table :* Exp. Coef. Chances to One .1 1.6 .2 2.5 .3 3.9 .4 6.5 .5 11.0 .6 20 .7 38 .8 75 .9 160 1.0 367 1.1 890 1.2 2300 1.3 6500 ♦Wm. A. McCall, How to Measure In Education, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1922. SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A SUMMARY TABLE 43 Summary of results by 300 selected 7A-grade pupils in the three 60- question tests -which followed lessons on India, China, and Japan, respec- tively. Averaged means are given. Lesson-Review Mean: 45.98; S.D.: 9.50 Film-Lesson Mean: 51.84; S.D.: 8.60 Lesson-Film Mean : 49.88 ; S.D. : 9..30 Film- Lesson 51.84 51.84 Lesson- Film 49.88 49.88 Lesson- Review 45.98 45.98 S.D.M.: .549 S.D.M.: .497 S.D.M.: .537 Difference 1.96 3.90 5.86 S.D. Dlff. .732 .767 .739 Exp. Coef. .96 1.83 2.78 Chances to One 250 Certainty Certainty The following points may be noted : 1. The differences among the means from the selected scores vary little from those of the original scores. 2. There is good reason to believe that if the film comes before the lesson it is more effective than if it follows the lesson. 3. We may state with practical certainty that replacing part of the geography lesson time in the seventh grade with a closely correlated film will result in greater learning. As has been explained, each questionnaire contained sixty questions, twenty of them general and forty specific. The latter block was more valu- able because less influenced by previous training on the part of the pupils. This beijig so, the forty questions were scored separately for each week and the original steps converted into T-Scale units. Table III embodies these results, together with the various means, standard deviations, and reliabilities. 44 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE III Distribution of scores made bj^ 300 selected 7A-grade pupils in each of the three 40-question tests which followed lessons on India, China, and Japan, respectively. Original steps converted into T-Scale units. India I, February 16 Score L-R F-L L-F 32 3 2 3 33 4 2 35 4 2 6 38 9 5 6 41 10 4 6 43 6 1 11 45 13 8 16 48 12 10 8 51 9 11 13 53 12 11 11 56 3 12 8 58 4 7 3 61 5 8 4 64 5 9 1 67 1 2 69 1 1 72 4 2 76 1 81 100 100 100 Means: 47.26 52.90 48.27 S. D.'s: 8.61 9.75 8.89 S.Dm's: .861 .975 .889 China, February 23 Score L-R F-L L-F 24 3 28 1 30 3 1 2 33 7 1 3 36 4 1 2 38 7 5 1 41 11 2 10 44 9 8 15 46 12 6 12 49 11 18 3 52 14 16 9 55 7 13 12 57 6 5 8 60 2 10 10 63 3 7 4 67 1 5 5 71 1 4 100 100 100 45.72 51.88 50.93 9.03 8.37 9.63 .903 .837 .963 Japan , March 2, 1921 Score L-R F-L L-F 23 2 26 1 1 28 3 31 4 33 4 1 1 34 2 2 37 - 9 1 2 39 - 7 1 2 40 3 1 3 41 11 2 5 43 13 2 8 45 6 3 7 46 6 7 6 49 5 12 15 51 8 17 13 54 5 15 12 57 6 14 10 62 3 15 8 67 2 8 3 71 3 100 100 100 43.47 53.29 50.39 9.04 7.78 8.24 .904 .778 .824 SUMMARY TABLE Summar}^ of results by 300 selected TA-grade pupils in the three 40- question tests which followed lessons on India, China, and Japan, re- spectively. Averaged means are given. Lesson-Review Mean : Film-Lesson Mean : Lesson-Film Mean : 45.48; 52.69; 49.86; S.D.: S.D.: S.D.: Film- Lesson 52.69 52.69 Lesson- Film 49.86 49.86 Lesson- Review 45.48 45.48 Difference 2.83 4.38 7.21 S.D. Dif!. .726 .685 .681 9.03; S.D.M. 8.69; S.D.M. : 9.01; S.D.M. Exp. Co3f. 1.41 2.31 3.84 .521 .502 .520 Chances to One Certainty Certainty Certainty 1. The differences among the means from the 40-question tests vary more than those of the 60-question tests. All are wider, thus raising the experimental coefficients. 2. The other points, previously stated, may be reiterated: (a) the film coming before the verbal presentation is more effective; (b) replacing a part of the geography lesson time with a correlated film results in in- creased learning. SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 45 Approximately fourteen weeks later, the same 40-questiou tests were re- submitted at one time to all the left-over pupils who had participated in the experiment. See Table IV. TABLE IV Distribution of scores made by 300 selected 7A-grade pupils in each of the three 40-question tests which were re-submitted at one time approxi- mately fourteen Aveeks after the lessons on India, China, and Japan. T-Scale unit steps. India, June 7 Score L-R F-L L-F 32 15 6 17 33 12 2 5 35 7 9 6 38 12 10 8 41 20 8 13 43 8 11 9 45 7 11 13 48 6 8 11 51 5 10 6 53 5 8 5 56 1 8 4 58 1 3 1 61 1 3 2 64 2 67 1 100 100 100 Means: 40.39 45.67 42.31 S.D.'s: 6.98 8.49 7.68 S.Dm'^= -698 .849 .768 China, June 7 Score L-R F-L L-F 19 9 1 4 24 7 2 2 28 9 5 3 30 5 3 7 33 16 12 7 36 11 10 12 38 10 16 13 41 10 10 18 44 8 13' 6 46 7 13 10 49 2 2 10 52 2 7 3 55 3 3 57 1 1 2 60 2 63 1 1 71 1 100 100 100 35.53 40.59 39.80 9.14 8.40 8.73 .914 .840 .873 Japan, June 1 7, 1921 Score L-R F-L L-F 23 5 1 26 6 4 28 2 4 7 31 11 1 2 33 8 6 7 34 15 4 13 37 14 8 8 39 13 11 9 40 5 9 12 41 8 14 12 43 1 14 6 45 4 11 6 46 3 6 6 49 2 7 51 2 1 1 54 2 5 57 1 1 62 1 67 1 100 100 100 36.13 41.35 38.64 6.55 6.03 7.05 .655 .603 .705 The purpose in giving a delayed test Avas twofold: 1. To discover how many of the specific facts learned had been re- tained over three months. 2. To see whether the results from the various methods still main- tained the same relations to one another with respect to inferiority or superiority. The delaj'ed test results, together with the immediate results, are embodied in Tables 3, 4, and 5, Appendix A. 46 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS SUiMMARY TABLE Summary of results by 300 selected 7A-grade pupils iu the three 40- question tests re-submitted approximately 14 Aveeks later. Averaged means are given. Lesson-Review Mean: 37.35; S.D.: 7.94; S.D.M.: .459 Film-Lesson Mean: 42.54; S.D.: 8.04; S.D.M.: .464 Lesson-Film Mean: 40.25; S.D.: 7.99; S.D.M.: .462 Film- Lesson- Lesson- Chances Losson P'ilm Review Difference S.D. Diff. Exp. Coef. to One 42.54 40.25 2.29 .636 1.29 6000 40.25 37.35 2.90 .632 1.65 Certainty 42.54 37.35 5.19 .627 3.00 Certainty 1. The results from the "Film-Le.sson" method have fallen 10.15 T-Scale units; those from the "Lesson-Film" method, 9.61 units; and those from the "Lesson-Review" method, 8.13. 2. The results from the various methods still show the same relations to one another with respect to inferiority or superiority. 3. All three differences are still above practical certainty as in the case of the immediate results. During the experiment the questionnaire on China was submitted to a normal 7A-grade class of boys which had been left out of the experiment because it could not be matched with a normal class of girls ; and in giving the delayed tests, those pupils who by absence had missed one experimental unit or the other and all newcomers in the classes involved were required to take the tests along with the original participants. The purpose of submitting the tests to children not in the experiment was to gain an idea of how much significant knowledge the 7A-grade pupils of P. S. 62 probably had at the time of the testing. Altogether there were 171 scores by pupils Avho had not learned the specific lessons nor seen tlie films. These uesults in terms of T-Scale units gave a mean of 31.75 with an S. D. of 13.65 and an S. D. M. of 1.044. See Table V. SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 47 TABLE V Distribution of scores made by 171 7A-grade pupils Avho were not in the experiment but Avho were given the 40-question tests. Original steps converted into T-Scale units each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the experimental group. T-Score India China Japan Total 19 19 19 23 14 14 24 8 8 26 6 6 28 10 3 13 30 9 9 31 3 3 32 15 15 33 3 7 4 14 34 3 3 35 6 6 36 16 16 37 6 6 38 6 5 11 39 3 3 40 1 1 41 4 2 2 8 43 3 1 4 44 5 6 46 1 1 48 2 2 49 1 1 53 2 2 54 1 1 41 83 47 171 Mean: 31.75 S.D.: 13.65 s .Dm.: 1.044 The following summary involves the arbitrary assumption that 31.75 represents the average knowledge which all our 7A-grade pupils possessed at the time of the experiment. SUMMARY TABLE Summary of the probable improvement from the assumed initial knowl- edge of the experimental group under each of the three different methods of presentation. Lesson-Film Lesson-Review Achievement Achievement Film-Lesson Achievement 52.69 49.86 45.48 Initial Probable Knowledge Improvement 31.75 20.94 units 31.75 18.11 units 31.75 13.73 units 48 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF \1SI'AL AIDS In the aluno suiniuary of tho ]n-obal)lo iniprovomont from the estimated initial knoAvlodii-o of the oxporimental liTonp. \vo ii'et an improviMUont of 20.94 nnits from tho "Film-Lesson" method, of 18.11 units from the "Lesson-Film" method, and lo.To luiits from the "Lesson-Keview" method. Figrure o illustrates this irraphieally. Figure 3. Showing Probable Improvement in T-Scale units with each method of pre- sentation. Zero on the scale does not necessarily represent the zero of knowledge, which is not known. After the exi)eriment each class Avas asked to vote on t^vo pairs of preferences. The first pair was (1) learning a lesson without the help of the film, and (2) learning: the lesson with the help of the film. When tliis preference Avas decided, the })upils were asked to vote for either (1) the lesson Avith the film preceding- it, or (2) the lesson Avith the film folloAvinsr. In the folloAvinp: summary the choice hetAveen film first and film last is unreliable; but betAveen the lesson Avith the film and the lesson Avithout the film, the vote is hiji-hly significant. Summary of votes of 476 7A-grade pupils. Boys Prefer Lesson without Film 22 Prefer Lesson with Film 196 Prefer Lesson with Film first 107 Prefer Lesson with Fihn last Ill 218 258 476 Girls Total Per cent 11 33 7 247 443 93 110 217 46 148 259 54 SECTION IV— EXPERIMENT A 49 The results of Experiment A may bo siimmod up briefly: 1. When a correlated film is used as an aid in a seventh-grade geography class, it will increase the effectiveness of the lesson, 2. This increase in effectiveness is the result of (a) greater ease of comprehension and (]>) a higher degree of satisfyingness as a consequence. 3. Since pictures provide vicarious experience, they should precede the lesson when the subject-matter is relatively foreign to the learners. 4. The preference for moving pictures as a visual aid stands about 15 to 1 among the pupils in the experimental group. Discussion : The differences in favor of the film as a visual aid, as shown by this experiment, are probably too high for generalization. The subject-matter of the lessons was essentially' foreign, far removed from the experiences of the pupils, and thus hard to understand and still harder to follow. Had the film been used to aid in the presentation of subject-matter more familiar to the pupils, the effectiveness would very likely have been much less. Then the lessons were long and tiresome and poorly organized, which made them proportionately less attractive than the film. Finally, the teacher was handicapped with many experimental restrictions which prevented her from being normally effective. Under normal classroom conditions the effectiveness of a correlated film would probablj^ be closer to half of what the foregoing results indicate. Subsequent experimtnts by the author seem to substantiate this assertion. 50 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS SECTION V. EXPERIMENT B— VALUE OP A SIMPLE DRAWING IN CREATING A COMPOSITE VISUAL IMAGE The results of Experiment A suggest certain questions. How much learning does a picture alone effect in presenting a certain new idea or complex of ideas? How much learning does a verbal presentation alone effect? To what extent does a picture help a verbal presentation? If so, at what place should the picture be shown? How does this effect varj^ with the type of idea presented? In order to throw some light upon these questions, two experiments were devised. Experiment B, very concrete in nature, and Experiment C, quite abstract. (See Section VI.) Experiment B involved a strange composite animal. This consisted of fifteen familiar parts which were put together in an entirely novel manner. A two-minute description was prepared, and from this an animal was drawn on large cardboard, 24 by 36 inches. Figure 1 is a miniature copy of the animal. Figure 4. The experiment was administered as follows : First these introductory remarks were made : "We'll play a game of make-believe. Let us suppose that a new island has just been discovered among the South Sea Islands, and that the men SECTION V— EXPERIMENT B 51 who discovered the island found on it a strange animal, one that has never before been seen. "Now I'm going to describe this animal to you carefully and in great detail. You are to listen as attentively as you possibly know how. You are to use no pencils to keep track of what I am saying. Just keep it in your heads as well as you can." (In the "exposure alone," "exposure with description," and "exposure with tracing," presentations, the wording of these remarks was changed to suit the variations.) "When I'm through, I'm going to ask you to draw this animal. Do you think you can draw it? Well, you'll try, won't you? Now place your hands on your desks and watch me closely. Don't let a word escape you. Ready?" Here is the description proper : "The animal I am thinking of is six feet long and about half as high. . . . Its body is covered with long shaggy black hair, somewhat like the body of an ape. . . . There is a large hump on the animal's back and it resembles that of a camel. . . . The tail is bushy, somewhat like the tail of a fox but not so long. . . . The animal has four legs. . . . Each of the four paws has strong, sharp claws which enable the animal to climb trees. . . . The rear legs are short, heavy-set, and powerful. . . . The front legs are slender and somewhat longer. . . . The neck of the animal is heavy, like that of a tiger. . . . The head is rather large. The ears are set high on the head and resemble the ears of a giant mouse. . . . The eyes are large and round and staring. . . . They stick out of the head and are surrounded by bristling ej^elashes. . . . The animal has a short broad snout, like the snout of the pig. ... It has large nostrils and whiskers above them on the ridge of the snout. . . ," On Feb. 9, 1921, two classes, first a class of boys, then a class of girls, were taught in the following manner : The introductory remarks were made. Then the foregoing description was spoken from memory as ex- pressively as could be done by the experimenter. The time required was 125 seconds. After the presentation, blanks were distributed among the pupils and they Avere asked to write thereon their name and age. Then they were asked to draAV the animal. They were encouraged to speed up and hand in their papers as soon as they were satisfied with their creations. This was done to minimize copying. The time required ranged from 5 to 10 minutes, 8 being about the average. Another two classes were shown the picture alone, following the intro- ductory remarks. Time 125 seconds. A third pair of classes got a combination of the previous two methods. They saw the pictures while they heard the description. Time 125 seconds. 52 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS About a month later another two classes were shown the picture, with this feature added : The experimenter pointed to each of the parts and traced its outline during- the exposure, thus calling attention to the length-height relation, the shaggy hair, the hump, the bushy tail, and so forth. The aim was to introduce a factor of movement. The test papers were scored at one sitting. At first fifteen points were decided upon a.s the key. They were: Length-height ratio 1 point Body covered with hair 1 A hump on the back (one) 1 A bushy tail (not too long or thin ) 1 Quadruped — four legs 1 Claws on each foot 1 Eear legs short and heavy 1 Front legs slender 1 Short ears 1 Round eyes 1 Bristling eye-lashes 1 Broad snout 1 Prominent nostrils 1 Whiskers 1 Large neck and head 1 Total 15 points The papers were scored in rotation, five from each group at a time. Part of the original scoring was repeated in scoring the last set. The re- sults are embodied in Table YI, in which D-P stands for "Description Presentation," E-P for "Exposure Presentation," ED-P for "Exposure with Description Presentation," and ET-P "Exposure with Tracing Presenta- tion." SECTION V— EXPERIMENT B 53 TABLE VI Distribution of scores made by 334 7A-grade pupils in a free-recall drawing test which followed different methods of presenting a "Composite iimai. Per cent exceed- ing plus half Score D-P E-P ED-P ET-P Total those reaching: T-Score 4 4 99.6 23 1 99.0 26 2 4 2 6 98.1 29 3 9 9 95.85 33 4 3 1 4 93.9 35 5 12 2 1 1 16 90.9 37 6 15 1 1 2 19 85.65 39 7 15 2 1 3 21 79.65 4& 8 7 9 5 8 29 72.15 44 9 7 7 8 18 40 61.8 47 10 3 17 13 13 46 48.9 50 11 5 18 14 13 50 34.5 54 12 14 11 7 32 22.2 58 13 1 9 19 5 34 12.3 62 14 1 3 10 2 16 4.8 67 15 2 4 2 8 1.2 73 86 84 89 75 334 Table VII embodies the results by 244 selected pupils whose intelligence scores ranged in each group from 72 to 130 with the median at 105. It also shows the means and standard deviations and reliabilities for each of the varied presentations. TABLE VII Distribution of 7A-grade pupils in a free-recall drawing test which followed each of four varied presentations of a "Composite Animal." Re- sults by 244 selected pupils whose intelligence scores ranged in each group from 72 to 130, with the median at 105. Description Exposure Exposure-Description Exposure- ■Traced Score Pupils T-Score Pupils T- -Score Pupils T-Score Pupils 23 2 37 2 29 1 35 1 29 4 39 1 37 1 37 1 33 8 42 2 39 1 39 2 35 2 44 6 42 1 42 3 37 7 47 7 44 4 44 6 39 12 50 9 47 5 47 11 42 11 54 13 50 8 50 13 44 5 58 10 54 11 54 10 47 6 62 6 58 8 58 5 60 3 67 3 62 11 62 4 54 4 73 2 67 5 67 1 62 1 73 3 73 2 65 Means: 40.11 S. D.: 7.53 S. D]vi: .934 61 53.13 8.01 1.025 59 55.12 8.97 1.167 69 50.81 7.71 1.004 64 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Not only did the pupils who saw the picture along with the description (1) remember more parts, (2) show better organization in their response, but (3) their degree of misunderstanding had a much smaller range. A typical response is reproduced in Figure 5. It scored 11. Figure 5. Those pupils, however, who just heard the description alone, drew an array of animals ranging from a duck to an elephant. After the scoring, an attempt was made to identify the drawings. Here are some of the perceptions : Nondescript, 38 figures Donkey or horse, 6 Llama, alpaca, 3 Camel, 3 Dog, 3 Cat, 3 Mouse, mole, gopher, rat Bird, owl, hawk, duck Animals with scales Porcupine Dragon Pig Hare Dinosaur Elephant Rhinoesros Lizard Turtle Giraffe Gerrymander Figure 6 gives some idea of the range of misconceptions from the verbal description. SECTION V— EXPERIMENT B 55 Score 7. Score 0. Score 0. Score 5. Score 8. Score 8. Figure 6. Showing range of perceptions effected by a verbal description. 56 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS lu the summary that follows, all the experimental coefficients but two are of more than practical certainty. "Exposure with Tracing," how- ever, should be looked upon with suspicion, for it was given approximately a month later, Avlien the animal had already become somewhat famous among the pupils. Why it came out lower than "Exposure Alone" is puzzling, unless the draAving ability of the pupils in this group varied widely from that of the other three groups. This is not unlikely since in equating the groups drawing ability was not a consideration. Possibly the tracing acted as a distraction ; or the difference may be entirely the effect of chance. In Experiment B the initial knowledge of the ''animal" as put together can be assumed zero. No pupil could have reproduced it without either having seen the picture or heard the description. But this was not true of the component parts. Nearly all these were well known, except the snout. So we can not estimate the amount of improvement. The shading in Fig. 7, therefore, is only suggestive. The results of Experiment B throw light upon the development of what may be called a "substantive" concept. They give us an idea of not only how much better a visual percept is formed from a pictorial presenta- tion, but they also indicate the range of misconceptions and fantastic creations that are avoided. This knowledge is not new, of course, but the derived mathematical ratios are probably new. No doubt a careful study of the figures will have much more weight with the progressive educator than a statement of mere opinion. Following is a summary of the results : SUMMARY TABLE Summary of results by 244 selected 7A-grade pupils in a free-recall drawing test which followed immediately each of the four varied presenta- tions of a "Composite Animal." (Table VII.) Exposure with Exposure- Differ- Chances Description Exposure Traced Description ence S. D. DiS. Exp. Coef. to one 55.12 53.13 1.99 1.553 .46 9 55.12 50.81 4.31 1.539 1.01 375 55.12 40.11 15.01 1.495 3.63 Infinity 53.13 50.81 2.32 1.435 .60 20 53.13 40.11 13.02 1.387 3.39 Infinity 50.81 40.11 10.70 1.371 2.91 Infinity SECTION V— EXPERIMENT B 57 Figure 7. Showing Probable Improvement in T-Scale units witli each method of pre- sentation. Zero on the scale is not necessarily the zero of knowledge, which is not known. The results of Experiment B may be summed up briefly : 1. In developing a composite visual image pictorial presentation is more effective than verbal presentation. 2. This increase in learning is characterized by a. More memories. b. Clearer ideas. c. Better organization. d. Less misinterpretation. 3. Verbal description, when aided by pictorial presentation, is the most effective method of the three. Criticism : In conducting Experiment B, an opportunity was over- looked. The experiment could have been made more fruitful if along with the drawing response a free-recall written description had been called for. This could have been scored in a manner similar to that of the drawing response. The two scores, combined in some way, would have given a much better measure of the effectiveness of the different methods of presentation. 58 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS SECTION VI. EXPERIMENT C— VALUE OF A DIAGRAM IN DEVELOPING A RELATIVELY ABSTRACT CONCEPT Experiment C involved the presentation of a relatively complex idea. It was conducted with a lantern slide. The aim was to develop the con- cept — artesian well. Five variations were made in the presentation. Variation I. Description Alone. — "I'm going to tell you what an artesian well is, how it works, and why. "The so-called artesian well is a very deep well with water flowing out of the top. The depth ranges from a few hundred feet to several thou- sand. How it happens that the water spurts out of the well may be ex- plained as follows: "The surface of the land where the artesian well is commonly drilled has the shape of a basin, low at the center and high all around. Far under- neath the surface there are three layers of rock, two hard ones and a soft one in between. This middle layer consists of porous earth or sand- stone, through which water oozes and trickles and cuts channels. The other two layers are so hard, however, that water can not pass through them. The lower or bottom layer therefore keeps water from escaping downward, while the upper one prevents it from rising through the soft ground above. "But how does the Avater get into the middle layer in the first place? The answer is simply that somewhere at the edge of the basin the sandstone layer crops out at the surface, where it collects water from rains and melt- ing snows. The level of this collecting area is necessarily much higher than that of the top of the well. Now as soon as a hole is drilled through the upper rock layer, the enormous weight of the earth* above the sand- stone forces the water below up the bore of the well and out of the top as out of a fountain." (Two minutes up.) "Summary: An artesian well has great depth, and water flows out of the top. The surface from which it is drilled has the shape of a basin. There are three layers of rock, top and bottom ones hard and the middle one soft. This one consists of sandstone and contains water. The other two are hard and keep the water from escaping. "Somewhere this porous sandstone layer crops out upon the surface, where it collects water from rains and snows. This collecting area is much ♦Column of water. SECTION VI— EXPERIMENT C 69 higher than the level of the top of the well. Therefore when the well is drilled through the upper laj^er the weight of the earthf above the under- ground water forces it up the well and out of the top." (Three minutes up.) Variation II. Exposure Alone. — "I'm going to show you a slide from which you are to figure out what an artesian well is, how it works, and why." (Three minutes.) Variation III, Exposure, then Description. — "I'm going to explain an artesian well. First I'll show you a slide. Then I'll tell you in words what an artesian Avell is, how it works, and why." (One minute, then two minutes.) Variation IV, Description, then Exposure. — "I'm going to explain an artesian well. First I'll tell you what it is, how it works, and why. Then I'll show you a slide." (Two minutes, then one.) Variation V. Exposure with Description. — "I'm going to tell you what an artesian well is, how it works, and why." (Description tAvo min- utes, summary one minute; slide three minutes.) After each presentation, test blanks were distributed. Because the test form was ncAv to the pupils, a little training was given, A mannikin was drawn upon the blackboard and lettered as follows : Match each part in the picture with its name, B goes on the blank line before the word "trunk," A goes on the next, D on the next, and C on the lowest. Instructions for Test: "There are ten different letters on the diagram. Below it are ten spaces. Use each letter only once, and be sure to use up every letter." Care was taken that each pupil understood. ["Column. 60 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Copy of the Test Last Name First Grade , Born When? 19. . . . Age years months, (month) (day) Date 1921 Match each detail in tliis diasfram with its correct name below Instructions: Look at each phrase below. If you think it describes a certain thing- in the diagram above, place the correct capital letter on the blank line before it. Use up all the letters in this manner. .Weight of earth* causing Geologically formed bashi. pressure. Outcropping porous layer. .Hard bottom layer. Flowing artesian well. .Level of wall below water Hard upper layer. collecting area. D^^^p well bore. .Underground flow of Avater. Sandstone laver. Question 1. Do you like slides better than moving pictures? Yes Or — do you like moving pictures better than slides? Yes Question 2. Can you learn better when you see a thing shown by a slide? Yes Or — can you learn better when you see a thing shown by a film? Yes ♦Column of water. SECTION VI— EXPERIMENT C 61 The foregoing matching test was somewhat of a failure. In one sense it was too difficult, and in another sense it was too easy. The mean score, which should have been somcAvhere near 5, was only about 2.5. On the other hand, the diagram was almost self-explanatory independent of any presenta- tion, thus obscuring the effectiveness of the various methods. For example, the test Avas given to two classes which had not participated in the experi- ment, and the obtained mean was 48.25. This was almost as high as the average of the entire experimental group. ITov/ever, one of these outside classes was a rapid-advancement class Avhose members had keen powers of interpretation. A regrettable error in physical law, as indicated by foot-notes, be- came embodied in both the presentation and the test diagram. In place of the "earth" there should have been a "column of water"; and the arrows indicating the fact should have appeared in different positions, so as to make the weight relationship easier to comprehend. The results of Experiment C are embodied in Table VIII, in which D-P stands for "Description Alone" presentation; p]-D-P for "Exposure, Then Description" presentation; D-E-P for "Description, Then Exposure" presentation; and ED-P for "Exposure with Description" presentation. TABLE VIII Distribution of scores made by 313 7A-grade pupils in a matching test which followed different methods of presenting an "Artesian Well." Per cent exceed- ing plus half Score D-P E-D-P D-E-P ED-P Total those reaching : T-Sc( 6 11 2 7 26 95.85 33 1 16 11 15 10 52 83.39 40 2 22 17 23 12 74 63.26 47 3 18 15 23 16 72 39.94 53 4 10 20 11 17 58 19.17 59 5 1 3 4 8 16 7.35 64 6 1 3 1 4 9 2.88 69 7 1 2 3 1.44 72 8 1 1 2 .64 75 9 .32 77 10 1 .16 80 75 81 82 75 313 Table IX embodies the results by 235 selected pupils whose intelli- gence scores ranged in each group from 72 to 130, with the median at 105. It also shows the means and standard deviations and reliabilities for each of the varied presentations. Table IX further embodies the results by an outside group of many superior pupils. The mean with normal pupils would probably have been considerably lower than 48.25. 62 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE IX Distribution of 7A-grade pupils in a matching test which followed each of four varied presentations of an "Artesian Well." 235 selected scores. 1 Test following Description Exposure ; Description; Description No Alone Description Exposure & Exposure Presentation T-Score Pupils T-Score Pupils T-Score Pupils T-Score ; Pupils T-Score Pupils 33 3 33 8 33 2 33 6 33 7 40 15 40 10 40 10 40 9 40 13 47 18 47 12 47 19 47 9 47 15 53 16 53 11 53 15 53 13 53 10 59 9 59 12 59 8 59 12 59 8 69 1 64 1 64 4 64 5 64 5 72 1 69 3 69 80 2 1 69 1 63 57 58 57 59 Means 48.65 48.95 49.69 51.16 48.25 3.D.: 8.10 10.06 7.56 10.54 9.53 S.D.M 1.020 1.332 1.001 1.396 1.241 SUMMARY TABLE Summary of results by 235 selected 7A-grade pupils in a matching test which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of an "Artesian Well." Data taken from Table IX. Exposure-J- Description ; Exposure ; Description Exposure Description Description Difference 51.16 51.16 51.16 49.69 49.69 49.69 48.65 48.95 48.95 48.65 48.95 48.65 1.47 2.21 2.51 .74 1.04 .30 S. D. Diff. 1.746 1.955 1.757 1.666 1.429 1.677 Chances Exp. Coef . to one .304 .409 .517 .168 .263 .065 4 7 12 2 3 1 In the above summary, the differences, though hardly reliable,* tend to substantiate some of the results of Experiments A and B, except that exposure following the description seems to be more effective than the ex- posure preceding. This may possibly be explained by the fact that the diagram was highl}^ abstract, and therefore more susceptible to interpreta- tion after the description than before it. By way of inference we may say then, if the pictorial presentation is simpler than the verbal description, it should come first, but if it is more abstract it should follow. The experi- menter noticed that some of the pupils did not keep their attention upon the screen for the full minute allotted to them, Avhen the slide was shown first. On the other hand, when the description had been given, the pupils spent the full minute gazing intently at the projected diagram. The summary of probable improvement follows : *A lantern slide experiment conducted by the author in February, 1922, substantiates the results of Experiment C to the point of statistical reliability. The findings will be published in the near future. SECTION VI— EXPERIMENT C 63 SUMMARY TABLE Summary of the probable improvement from achievement on the test alone by the experimental ^ four different methods of presentation. the assumed potential roup under each of the Probable Exposure Description, Exposure, Improvement With Then Then Description Without Any from Description Exposure Description Alone Presentation Independent Achievement Achievement Achievement Achievement Achievement Achievement 51.16 48.25 2.91 49.69 > > • • • • ■ ■ 48.25 1.44 48.95 48.25 .70 48.65 48.25 .40 The results of Experiment C may be summed up briefly : 1. In developing a series of abstract concepts, verbal description, aided by a diagrammatic representation, is probably more effective than verbal description alone. 2. It seems that if the diagram is more abstract than the verbal de- scription, it should lag in the presentation. 3. On the other hand, if the diagram is simpler than the verbal de- scription, it may well appear in the beginning of the presentation. The reader will have noticed that the test blank asked for two prefer- ences. The first vote had to do with the liking the pupils had for either moving pictures or lantern slides. The second vote registered their opinion as to which of the two aids was more effective. The preference of movies over slides was approximately 4 to 1, The opinion about learning more from movies than from slides stood approximately 3 to 1. Following is a summary of the votes: Summary of votes bj'' 415 7A-grade pupils. Prefer movies 329 Prefer slides 86 415 Summary of votes by 410 7A-grade pupils. Can learn more from movies 306 Can learn more from slides 104 79% 21% 74.6% 25.4% 410 64 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS SECTION VII. EXPERIMENT D— COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVE- NESS OF FOUR DIFFERENT METHODS OF PRESENTATION The purpose of Experiment D has been to measure some of the factors purely against one another rather than in combinations, as in Experiment A. Four factors were selected for comparison. They were (1) the study of a printed lesson, (2) the same lesson presented orally by the teacher, (3) the lesson depicted by a film, and (4) the film presentation accompanied by explanatory comments. Approximately six hundred 7B-grade pupils participated. They were divided arbitrarily into four groups, A, B, C, and D. Four classes made up each group, two classes of boj's and two of girls*. These groups were in- tended to be equal in mental ability. Four films were chosen.* They were "The Study of a Mountain Glacier," "The Earth and Worlds Beyond," "The Southern States," and "The Growth of Cities and Their Problems." The subject-matter in each of these was paraphrased into a two-page typewritten lesson-. The subtitles were made paragraph headings, and, to emphasize their importance still more, these headings were underlined. The lessons were made of such a length that they could be perused slowly and carefully in ten minutes by normal seventh grade pupils. Before each of the four methods of presentation the pupils were warned that they would have only ten minutes to get the lesson and that a test would follow. This was done to create a uniform mental set for every method and every unit of the experiment. Briefly stated, the experiment was conducted as follows : The "Study" and "Teacher" groups were taken care of, one class at a time, in their re- spective rooms. The passing of the time was announced twice, at the end of five minutes and again at the end of eight. Immediately after the presen- tation the test blanks were distributed, and at the end of twenty-five min- utes all the papers were collected. The two film groups were called to the auditorium, one group after the other. There the "Film Alone" group watched the moving pictures silently. Then they were given the test blanks, all four classes together; and, again, the time limit was twenty-five minutes. The "Film-Lecture" group, in their turn, watched the pictures while the experimenter com- mented in brief and pointed phrases on the essential ideas of the various scenes. The following irregularities occurred the first week: The "Study" and "Teacher" groups had twelve minutes instead of ten; and, to make ♦Courtesy of the Society for Visual Education, Chicago. SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 65 matters worse, the experimenter forgot to warn each of the film groups that a test would follow the ''show." The lesson of the first week follows : THE STUDY OF A MOUNTAIN GLACIER Instructions to pupils: You will have twelve minutes in which to study this lesson. After that you will get a test. Be sure to divide your time so that you do learn all the paragraphs equally well. Study as hard as you can. The purpose of this lesson is to depict fully the process of glacial for- mation, i, e., how a glacier comes to be and what happens to it. Most of us have seen pictures of glaciers as they appear among the mountain peaks. A glacier so observed is said to be seen in perspective. This means that the glacier appears dim and narrow among the distant mountain tops and large and clear in the valley near by. Cross-seciion of a Glacier and its Valley.— If some enormous mountain giant were to cut the glacier in two along its length, the new surface we should see would be called a longitudinal cross-section. We must really see such a cross-section in order to understand fully what a glacier looks like on the inside. Hig-h Among the Mountains Snow Accumulates. — Upon mountains of sufficient height snow falls at all seasons of the year. Since the temperature is very cold, some of this snow remains unmelted from season to season. It may accumulate to a depth of 200 to 300 feet, and more. If you think of the height of the Palisades on the Hudson, you will get an idea of how deep this really is. The Weight of the Snow Causes Ice to Form. — Tremendous pressure is exerted upon the lower laj^ers of snow by the great weight of the layers above. Again, some melting occurs at times, during the heat of the day and the warm season of the year. These two — melting and pressure — cause the snoAv at the bottom to become transferred into snow-ice. You know hov.- the snow in the street melts and hardens. Just so the snow among the mountains turns into ice. This granular mass becomes very heavy in time, as there is continually fresh snow falling on top of it. The Heavy Glacier Moves Very Slowly Down Between Its Mountan Walls. — The glacier, because of its enormous weight and the pull of grav- ity, begins to move down the mountain side, usually along natural depres- sions, which you may call gorges or valleys. The movement is very slow, ranging from 1 or 2 inches to 7 feet per day. A glacier moves most rapidly on a steep slope, when the volume of ice is very great, and when the tem- perature is high. 66 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Deep Cracks, or Crevasses, are Caused by a Glacier's Bending Over Steep Slopes. — An ice-stream meets a great deal of resistance. The rocks underneath slow up the movement of the lower laj^ers very much. The upper layers thus slide past the lower ones. In the same way the mountain walls slow up the side portions of the ice-stream. And so the middle section moves faster. Such irregular movement causes breaking within the ice mass, and cracks are formed. When the glacier bends over a steep slope, large cracks, or crevasses, appear. These are sometimes hundreds of feet deep. Stones Rattle Down From the Mountain Side and Form Moraines on the Ice. — What is a moraine? How many kinds of moraines are there? A moraine is an accumulation (pile) of rocks, ranging in size from huge boul- ders to gravel, sand, and clay. When this pile of debris is found along the side of a glacier, it is called a lateral moraine. It often happens that two ice-streams come together, each bringing two lateral moraines. Two of these are now in the middle of the combined glacier and make up what is called a medial moraine. Some of these moraines, when the ice has disappeared, are several hundred feet high. At the lower end of a glacier, Avhere melting occurs, there is likely to be what is called a terminal moraine. What is a glacier table? When a large boulder rolls on the ice, and stays there for some time, the ice around it is melted by the heat of the sun; and this leaves the boulder high up on a thick column of unmelted ice. Then it looks very much like a table from the distance. When the Glacier Reaches the Sea, Icebergs Break Off. — How is an ice- berg formed ? When the lower end of a glacier moves into deep water, the ice mass is buoyed up. Why? Because ice is lighter than water. This buoying up of the ice from underneath breaks off large icebergs. Only about Ys oi a floating iceberg is seen above water; the rest is submerged. Some iceberg's coming from the coast of Greenland are so large that the visible part towers to a height of 1,000 feet. It is therefore safe to say they are as large as mountains. These icebergs are a danger to ships. Many of us remember the sinking of the '"Titanic" with a loss of life reach- ing almost 1,600. In Time the Climate May Grow Warmer, and the Glacier Be Melted Back. — Although it must be remembered that the ice in a glacier is always moving forward, it will be readily understood that the lower end of the glacier may be retreating, that is, it may be melting back. When that hap- pens, a stream appears. For instance, the Rhone glacier in France used to extend two hundred miles farther down the Rhone Valley. Now a river has taken the place of the ice-stream. It is needless to add that human habitations often appear in the valleys that have been vacated by retreating glaciers. SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 67 The Stream from the Melting Glacier Forms a Delta at Its Outlet. — AVhat is a delta? A delta is an outlet with many channels cut through a large accumulation of sand and clay deposits. ' A stream from a melting glacier may carry down a lot of sand and dirt. This, in addition to the rocks and gravel left there by the melting ice, forms a bank of sediment through which the stream will cut several channels. When that happens, a delta appears. Summary. — Glaciers are formed from snow which falls high in the mountains and by its weight forms a slow moving mass of ice which then moves down between rocky walls, carrying away small rocks in its progress, until it reaches the sea, where pieces of ice break off to make icebergs, or until it reaches a warm valley, where it melts and forms a river. At the lowest place in the valley reached by such a glacier large quantities of boulders, sands, gravels, and clay are deposited, and they form a terminal moraine. Where the climate has become warmer, glaciers have been melted back from the old line and have left sheltered valleys, watered by glacial streams. In these valleys villages and even cities have arisen, and the glacial streams have in many cases furnished power to run great factories. In comparing a pictorial with a verbal presentation, it is evident that a verbal test, such as the Yes-No Test, tends to favor the verbal presentation. Accordingly, in making out the questionnaires for Experiment D, com- plementary and middle-ground tests were prepared. To measure distinct pictorial concepts, the pupils were asked for simple drawing responses. Care was taken to measure only such ideas as had both been shown by the film and described in detail by the verbal lesson. Fortunately there was a kind of middle ground, common to both types of presentation. The subtitles appeared both on the screen and as under- lined paragraph headings in the lessons. From the subtitles were con- structed ten completion test statements for each week's questionnaire. In each of the statements the most important word was left out. No synonyms wore credited in the scoring, so as to keep the test a strict measure of memory. The elliptic statements tested the ten most important ideas or thought kernels of the lesson. This fact, in addition to the middle-ground argu- ment, favors the conviction that the completion test should be given the highest weight in the questionnaire. However, the fact that there were only ten steps instead of a net twenty, as in the Yes-No test, reduced this superiority probably to equality. To make sure that the completion test did not favor the films too much, the subtitles, which alternated with non-verbal detail in the film, were given the afore-mentioned prominence in the printed lessons ; and the teachers in 68 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS the experiment were asked specifically to get these headings across verbatim and in a very emphatic manner. The first week's drawing test Avas a simple request to draw the moun- tain glacier as it was conceived by the pupil. The response was scored ac- cording to the following scheme : Anything resembling mountains 1 point Anything resembling a glacier 1 point Rocks, stones — a moraine 1 point Lateral and medial differentiated 1 point Detail depicting the ocean 1 point Detail depicting icebergs 1 point Detail depicting glacial stream 1 point Cross-section of snow and ice layers 1 point Cross-section of glacier table 1 point Cross-section of crevasse 1 point Total 10 points All the papers were scored twice, and the second time on a basis of twenty points, which made the results more refined and directly comparable with the scores of the next three tests. In scoring the Yes-No test, the results ran so low that it was necessary, for the purpose of converting the original steps into T-scale units, to score down to minus steps. This insured a better curve of distribution. Other tests were incorporated in the questionnaire. They were de- signed to measure the possible influence of the various methods of presenta- tion upon choice and conduct. The ''choice" tests explain themselves. The "conduct" test was a request to write a short composition. The children were led to believe that a neat and well-written composition was the object rather than their choice of the subject suggested by the presentation in preference over two powerful counter-attractions. Copy of the First Week's Test Last Name First Grade Age years months Date 1921. 1. Have you ever seen a real glacier? If so draw a circle around the word "Yes"; if not, draw it around the word "No" Yes No Does glacial formation mean, How a Glacier Comes to Be? Yes No Does seeing a glacier in perspective mean seeing a cross-section of it? Yes No SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 69 If hall" of a glacier were removed M'itli ice-jjieks and shovels, would the new surface be a cross-section? Yes No Does the temperature rise the higher one climbs? Yes No Does snow fall in summer among high mountains ? Yes No Does this snow melt away every spring? Yes No Does snow ever accumulate to a depth of 300 feet? Yes No Is a glacier higher than the mountains among which it lies? Yes No Is the pressure less at the bottom of a glacier than in the middle of it? Yes No Does the snow on the top of the ice mass ever melt? Yes No Is a bushel of snow heavier than a bushel of ice? Yes No Do warmth and pressure turn snow into ice? Yes No Does a glacier follow a valley in its movement? Yes No Does the pull of gravity cause a glacier to move ? Yes No Does the ice in a glacier move about 200 feet a day? Yes No Does a glacier move slower than usual on a steep slope? Yes No Do the rocks underneath a glacier slow up the movement? Yes No Does the side of a glacier move slower than the middle? Yes No Are cracks in the ice mass caused by the heat of the sun? Yes No Are these cracks filled with water ? Yes No Is a moraine a bank composed of rocks, gravel, sand, and dirt?. . . .Yes No Is a moraine in the middle of a glacier called a terminal moraine?. .Yes No Is one at the lower end of a glacier called a lateral moraine ? Yes No Do two or more glaciers sometimes combine into one glacier? Yes No Has a glacier table three legs ? Yes No Is the ice around a boulder melted by the warmth from it? Yes No Does a glacier table ever break down? Yes No Can water break up a large ice mass ? Yes No Is glacier ice heavier than water? Yes No May an iceberg be several thousand feet thick ? Yes No Are there any icebergs near the coast of France ? Yes No Are icebergs dangerous to ships? Yes No Does the ice in a glacier ever move backwards? Yes No May a glacier remain stationary? Yes No Does a river ever replace an ice-stream ? Yes No Do people stay out of valleys where glacial rivers flow ? Yes No Is the delta where the glacial stream begins ? Yes No Does a delta have one deep channel ? Yes No Does a glacial stream carry clay to its outlets? Yes No Does a melting glacier leave rocks at the delta? Yes No 70 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 2. Professor Atwood 's illustration with and blackboard are reproduced by motion pictures. What word is missing ? Answer : c-h-a-1-k. A cross-section of a and its valley is highly instructive. High among the mountains accumulates. Stones rattle down from the mountain sides and form on the ice. The weight of the snow causes to form. The heavy glacier moves very down the mountain walls. Deep cracks are caused by the glacier's bending over steep When the glacier reaches the sea, break off. In time the climate may grow warmer, and the glacier be melted The stream from a melting glacier forms a at its outlet. Icebergs floating in the ocean are sometimes as large as 3. Suppose a rich family offered you an opportunity to accompany them this summer on a trip to Alaska where you could climb mountains and see real glaciers. And suppose another rich family gave you the chance to spend the summer with them in a camp in some Canadian woods where you could hunt and fish and go canoe riding Would you choose to go to the camp ? Or Yes Would you go to see the glaciers instead? Yes (Vote for one only.) 4. Write a short composition (50 Avords or less) on ONE of these three subjects : How I Spent My Easter Vacation The Story of a Mountain Glacier What I Hope to Be When Grown Up 5. Suppose your parents wanted to give you a book for a birthday present. If they showed you the following list and asked you to indicate the one you liked best, which one would you select ? Check one only. The Old Testament Longfellow's Poems History of the World War Glaciers of North America Little Women — Alcott Huckleberry Finn — Mark Twain SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 71 6. Draw the picture of a mountain glacier and what happens to it. Include as many of the things as you can remember. The four varied presentations of "The Study of a Mountain Glacier " constituted only the first unit of Experiment D, which was conducted in accordance with the following plan: Experiment D. Measuring the Factors of Study, Teacher, Film Alone, and Film With Lecture Unit I. The Study of a Mountain Glacier. .March 31, 1921 Study of printed page *10 min. Group A Being taught by teacher *10 min. Group B Watching film silently 10 min. Group C Watching film with remarlis 10 min. Group D Unit IT. The Earth and Worlds Beyond. April 7 Study 10 min. Group D Teacher 10 min. Group A Film Alone 10 min. Group B Film-Lecture 10 min. Group C Unit 111. The Southern States. April 14 Study 10 min. Group C Teacher 10 min. Group D Film Alone 10 min. Group A Film-Lecture 10 min. Group B Unit IV. The GroAvth of Cities and Their Problems. April 21 Study 10 min. Group B Teacher 10 min. Group C Film Alone 10 min. Group D Film-Lecture 10 min. Group A As indicated by the foregoing plan, the lesson for the second week was "The Earth and Worlds Beyond." In preparing the new questionnaire, a 40-question test, similar to that of the first week, was made up, also a similar completion test. But the second week's drawing test was slightly (different. Instead of asking for a single response, it now called for many minor tasks. The first of these requested a diagram illustrating the revolu- tion of the earth around the sun and indicating the different positions for the four seasons. In scoring this, if the pupil showed the sun and the earth ♦Twelve minutes by mistake. 72 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS distinctly, he was credited with two points. Furthermore, if he showed the earth in four positions correctly related to the sun, he received two more. The total credit for the single task was four points. The second task called for a diagram showing the relation of the earth to the moon and the four changes of the moon. If the pupil showed a circle for the earth and another one for the moon, he received two points credit ; and, furthermore, if he indicated the four changes intelligently, he received two more — altogether four points. The remaining six tasks each called for one specific drawing. If in the ''day and night'' task the response showed tAvo circles, one of them half black and half light, the score was two points. If one of the circles (the sun) was missing, the score was only one point. It is probably unnecessary^ to explain the remaining tasks in detail. Arbitrary standards were set up in each case and the response scored two, one, or zero. The total score for the second week's drawing tasks was twenty points. Following are copies of the second lesson and the various tests of the questionnaire : THE EARTH AND WOELDS BEYOND Instructions to Pupils : You will have 10 minutes in which to study this lesson. After that you will get a test. Be sure to divide your time so that you learn all the paragraphs equally well. Go ahead now. The purpose of this lesson is to give the student (1) a clear understand- ing of the motions of the earth and of its relations to the sun and moon, and (2) a few glimpses of the worlds beyond as they are seen through the largest telescope. The Yerkes Observatory of the University of Chicago has the largest (refracting) telescope in the world. The telescope is 60 feet long, and it weighs 9 tons. It has the largest lens in existence — 40 inches in diameter and 900 pounds in weight. An observatory is a building with a round dome that revolves. A telescope is an instrument through which a person can look to watch the stars. The earth rotates. This means that the earth turns on its own axis — spins like a top. The rotation of the earth causes day and night. The earth revolves about the sun. It takes the earth a whole year to swing once aromid the sun. You know how a. button at the end of a string can be made to swing around your finger. So the earth revolves. SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 73 The revolution of the earth about the suii is one of the two causes of our seasons — spring, summer, autumn, and winter. The other cause is the fact that the earth's axis is tilted 23 degrees. If you stick a hatpin through an apple, tilt the pin a little (so that it isn't quite upright), and then walk around a lamp with it, you will get a clear idea of the change in seasons. At one place in your trip, the hatpin leans toward the lamp. The light shines over the north pole, and the upper half of the apple has sum- mer. At the other side of the lamp the hatpin leans away from the light. This means darkness for the north pole, and winter. At two other places in between and opposite to each other, the hatpin neither leans away nor toward the lamp. One of these positions corresponds to autumn and the other to spring. Spring- — March 21. Sunlight extends from pole to pole on the earth. Summer — June 21. North pole has light; south pole in darkness. Autumn — September 21. Sunlight extends from pole to pole (again). The sun, diameter 866,000 miles, the spots on it much larger than the EARTH. Twin spots having spiral structure. The diameter of the sun is more than 100 times the diameter of the earth and nearly four times as much as the distances between the earth and the moon. Eclipsed sun and solar corona. A total eclipse occurs when the moon shuts off the sun entirely so that we can see only a shining circle, or a corona, as it is called. During such an eclipse we can photograph what is happening on the surface of the sun. Eruptions from sun at time of total eclipse. Explosions on sun throwing up hot gasses to a height of 80,000 miles. Eruptive arch over 100,000 miles high. This arch consists of liquid and vaporous iron, calcium, and other elements. The sun is twice as hot as our largest electrical furnaces. Moon and earth drawn to scale. Note how large each is, how far apart. Diameter of moon, 2,000 miles ; diameter of earth, 8,000 miles. The dis- tance between the earth and moon is 240,000 miles. Moon revolves about the earth. "When the moon is high up in the sky at the time the sun sets, it is said to be at First Quarter. Full Moon — you all know what that is. When the moon is high up in the sky at the time the sun rises, it is said to be a Last Quarter. 'And again, you all knoAV what New Moon is. A long exposure of the New Moon to the photographic plate shows you (1) the crescent (that's the thin curved slice you ordinarily see) lighted by the sun, and (2) the remainder of the moon by light reflected from the earth. . . . When the earth comes between the sun and the moon we have a lunar eclipse (or eclipse of the moon). This happens because the Full Moon is in the earth's shadow, which shuts off the sunlight. 74 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Photograph of the moon show us high mountains and large deep craters. Lunar crater Copernicus and the lofty Apennine mountains below and to the left. The crater Theophilus, magnified thousands of times — diameter 64 miles, depth 17,000 feet. The diameter is about as great as the distance between here and West Point and the depth is about 25 times the height of the Woolworth tower. Smoothest place on moon highly magnified. The smooth areas on the moon look like baked mud. The solar system consists of the sun and eight planets. The sun is in the center and the planets revolve about it. The earth is one of these planets. Others are Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Polar cap of Mars large in its winter. Mars has a longer year than tlie earth. Therefore its winter does not come at the same time ours does. The cap is said to be a heavy covering of frost. Polar cap small in summer. Now the frost seems to be gone. Some people think the planet Mars is in- habited. Do you? Jupiter and its largest moons. Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system. Instead of having only one moon like our earth, it has many moons, three of which are rather large. Saturn and its rings. This is the most wonderful and beautiful planet because of the ring system around it. These rings consist of countless small masses, which swing around the planet like tiny moons. Rings of Saturn seen edgewise. When seen thus, these rings appear as thin as the brim of a straw hat. Saturn looks like a beautiful toy. In addition to planets, there are other bodies swinging about the sun. These are called comets. The Comet Morehouse is one of them; Halley's Comet is another. A comet has a long fiery tail. Comets come near the sun for a short time, then they disappear for many,, many years. Milky Way with meteor trail. The Milky Way can be seen every night on a clear sky. A meteor is a small body of matter that rushes through space at a tremendous speed. The nearer it comes to a planet the stronger is it attracted. Sometimes Avhen a meteor comes too near the earth, its flight is brought to an end — it falls. The American Museum of Natural History has several meteors on exhibition, A nebula is a cluster of stars which appear as thick as a fog. Hence the name. Examples of nebulas are: Nebula near Rho Ophiuchi; Great Nebula in Orion; and "North American" Nebula. The science of the sun, planets, and the stars is called astronomy. SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 75 Copy of Second Week's Test Last Name First Grade Age years months. 1. Look at each question below. If the answer is Yes, draw a circle around the word ' ' Yes "; if it is No, draw it around the word "No." Example : Is the earth round ? ^eS No Example : Is the sun cold ? Yes C^ Has the Yerkes Observatory the largest telescope in the world?. . .Yes No Does the telescope weigh 90 pounds ? Yes No Is the lens on the telescope 40 inches in diameter? Yes No Has the observatory a stationary (fixed) roof? Yes No Does rotation of the earth mean the earth swings around the sun ? . . Yes No Does the rotation of the earth cause day and night? Yes No Does it take the earth three months to swing once around the sun ? . Yes No Does the path which the earth describes as it swings around the sun look like a circle ? Yes No Are there two causes for the change in our seasons? Yes No Is the earth 's axis tilted 23 degrees ? Yes No Does the moon cause the change in seasons? Yes No Does the sunlight extend beyond the North Pole on March 21 ? Yes No Does it extend from pole to pole on September 21? Yes No Are the sun spots larger than the earth? Yes No Is the diameter of the sun twice that of the earth? Yes No Is it a solar eclipse (an eclipse of the sun) when the earth is be- tween the moon and the sun? Yes No Do the words "solar corona" refer to the shining circle around the sun during an eclipse ? Yes No Do explosions occur on the surface of the sun? Yes No Is the diameter of the moon 8,000 miles? Yes No Is the diameter of the moon four times that of the earth? Yes No Does the moon revolve about the earth 1 Yes No Does the light on the crescent of the New Moon come from the sun ? Yes No Does the moon give off any light of its own? Yes No Is it a lunar eclipse (an eclipse of the moon) when the moon is be- tween the earth and the sun ? Yes No Are there any high mountains on the moon? Yes No. Is the crater Theophilus one mile in diameter? Yes No Does a smooth area on the moon look like baked mud? Yes No Does the solar system consist of the sun and four planets? Yes No 76 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Is the earth a planet ? Yes No Has Mars a shorter year than the earth ? Yes No Does Mars seem to have hot and cold seasons ? Yes No Is Jupiter smaller than the earth ? Yes No Has Jupiter more than one moon? Yes No Do the rings around one of the planets consist of countless small masses which swing around it like tiny moons ? Yes No Are these rings wide when seen edgewise? Yes No Are there other bodies than the planets which swing around the sun ? Yes No Can the Milky Way be seen with the naked eye? Yes No Is a meteor as large as a planet ? Yes No Is there a "North African" nebula? Yes No Is the earth as warm as the sun ? Yes No 2. Look at each sentence below and fill in the missing word. Example: The earth is What word is missing? Ans. "Round." The telescope of the Yerkes Observatory is feet long. The earth about the sun. The sun has a of 866,000 miles. The distance between the earth and the moon is miles. The crater Theophilus on the moon is feet deep. The polar cap of is large in its winter. The largest planet in the solar system is called The planet with the rings around it is called A comet differs from a planet in that it has a A nebula is a cluster of 3. Draw a diagram showing the revolution of the earth around the sun and indicate the four positions for the different seasons. 4. Suppose you were in Chicago for a visit. And suppose that one evening you had the chance to go to one of tAvo places: (1) a moonlight boat ride on Lake Michigan, and (2) a trip to the Yerkes Observatory, where you could peep at the stars through the largest telescope. Would you choose Lake Michigan ? .Yes Or would you go to the Observatory ? Yes (Vote for one only.) SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 77 5. Draw a diagram of the earth and moon and indicate the four changes — First Quarter, Full Moon, Last Quarter, and New Moon. Don't forget to show where the sun is at each change. 6. Suppose you went to the library to get a book to read. And suppose on the librarian's desk you saw these six books — Dere Mabel, Over the Top, ; History of the World War, The Earth and Worlds Beyond, Main Street, Keeping Up With Lizzie, Which one would you take out? Check one of the above — ONE ONLY. 7. Write a short composition on one of the following subjects: Remem- ber, choose one onlj^ Leave the other two alone. (50 words) : (1) How Best to Spend One's Vacation, (2) The Earth and World Beyond, (3) What a Child's Ambition Should Be. 8. Show by diagram how day and 10. Draw the eclipsed sun with the night occur. solar corona. 11. Draw the New Moon. 9. Draw the planet with the sys- tem of rings around it. 12. Draw a comet, 13. Draw a nebula. For the third week the lesson was "The Southern States." The questionnaire in all its details was similar to that of the second week. Following are copies of the lesson and the questionnaire : 78 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS THE SOUTHERN STATES Instructions to Pupils : You will have 10 minutes in which to study this lesson. After that you will get a test. Be sure to divide your time so that you learn all the paragraphs equally well. Go ahead now. The Southern States comprise the southeastern corner of the United States. This section extends from Texas in the west to the Carolinas on the eastern seacoast. Our lesson begins with the Coastal Plain. An old sea bottom was uplifted, forming the Coastal Plain, within which lies most of the southern region. The land tells its own story. A low, level belt borders the sea, with loose, sandy soil, and tropical plants. If you were there, this is what you might see : a sandy beach, lined with palm trees. You Avould see the sea in the distance, here or there a hut, and rows of palm trees on either side of it and along the walks. The land would be level and the soil loose and sandy. The Florida Keys — these remarkable coral reefs are found in the warm shallow water near the southern tip of Florida. They can best be seen from the water as you look toward the land. Coral reefs are built up with the chalky dead bodies of countless tiny sea animals. Where the low Coastal Plain meets the foot hills of the Appalachians. As you go from the low level plain near the sea coast toward the southern Appalachian Mountains, you come to a hilly country. The view is beau- tiful. The hills are covered with woods, and the valleys are spotted with plantations here and there. The new South is developing its manufactures and mines, as well as its plantations. It is still the world's greatest cotton-growing region. This is about how a young cotton field appears : A farm can be seen not far away, with barn on the right and house on the left. The field consists of rows of low plants with fairly large leaves. The cotton "boll," or pod, cracks open when the seeds are ripe. Then the fiber and seeds are picked by hand. The cotton plants stand in rows far enough apart for people to walk between conveniently. The workers — men, women, and children — are usually negroes. They carry bags. The bolls are picked and thrust into the bags. A cracked boll is not unlike a grain of popped corn ; only, of course, it is soft and fluffy. The plants do not all ripen at the same time, so each field must be picked several times. With hand labor, this makes cotton-picking very expensive. This is not like harvesting wheat or corn where you cut the whole crop at once and with machinery. In the case of cotton, every boll has to be picked singly and by hand. The interior of a cotton factory with ginning machinery in operation would show vou a man standing before a short but wide wooden chute which SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 79 shakes the cotton lint into a large bag on the floor. At another place you would see a large bin full of cotton seeds Avhich had just been separated from the lint. The clean lint is pressed into bales weighing 500 pounds. For every pound of lint there are two pounds of seeds, with many valuable uses. The cotton is pressed into bales by heavy machinery. The bale lies on a burlap mat; another mat is spread over the top. Then the two are strapped to- gether with four straps on each side of the bale. The great rice crops of Texas and Arkansas are possible through labor- saving machinery. Rice, being a crop like wheat, is harvested like it. At harvest time the irrigated fields are drained, and reapers cut the stalks. It is a pleasure to watch reapers cut SAvaths along a ripe rice field and drop bundles by the thousands along their paths. These bundles are put up in tiny stacks here and there all over the field. Threshing is also done by machinery. The thresher is a large machine on wheels and stands in the middle of the field. It is driven with a belt by a steam engine. The machine looks much like a wheat thresher and somewhat like a corn shredder. Teams haul the bundles to the thresher. There they are fed into the machine. The straw is driven away by means of a blower. The rice is threshed into large bags. Sewing up the bags before they are sent to the mill. The work is done by men who stand over them with needle and thread. The bags are then sent to the mill. Here experts grade the rice according to the size and quality of the grains. This is done on a long table next to the windows. Large sheets of paper lie side by side on the table. On each sheet is a sample of rice. A man examines these samples. Most of our sugar cane comes from Louisiana. In the fertile Mississippi flood plain this giant grass grows 10 or 15 feet tall. A man can get lost in a field of sugar cane, because the grass is twice as tall as he. In planting, sections of the stalk are laid end to end in long furrows. The scene is something like this. A furrow has been plowed. A wagon loaded with cane stalks is being hauled along. Negroes — men and women — lay pieces of stalk into the furroAv. These are then covered up. Cultivating a sugar-cane field. The work is done by machine cultiva- tors, each of which is drawn by a team of mules. The mules walk between the rows ; the cultivator passes over a row and destroys the weeds on either side of it. The drivers stand on the cultivators. Usually there is more than one team on the field, and a foreman among them. The foreman rides on a horse. 80 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Stripping and cutting- the sugar cane. The work is done in this manner : The leaves are stripped from the upright stalks. Then the stalks are cut near the ground and thrown into a bundle to be carried away. Fruit-raising is an important industry throughout the South. This is one of Florida's thriving orange groves. The trees in an orange grove are rather large and spreading. In order to pick oranges, a man must put a ladder against the branches or the trunk. An orange picker carries a bag hanging from his shoulder. As he picks the oranges, he drops them into the tag. ^ -•'^^'^^^111 Here is a fruit that grows pointing upv/ard. It is no other than the familiar banana cluster. But here it still hangs on the tree. The sweet potato is cultivated near the coast. Like its Irish cousin, the sweet potato is planted in rows, so that it can be cultivated easily. Peanut fanning began to increase when the World War cut off the foreign supply. At harvest time the vines are pulled up, dried in the sun, and then stacked. Each stack has a pole in the center. Threshing peanuts. A thresher separates the peanuts from the vines. The peanuts tumble down a shaking chute into a sack which a man holds. Copy of Third Week's Test Last Name First Grade , Age years months. Date 1921 Do Each Test as You Come to It 1. (Look at each question below. If the answer is Yes, draw a circle around the word "Yes," and if it is No, draw it around "No.") Have the Southern States a high rocky coast? Yes No Does most of the southern region lie within the Coastal Plain?. . . .Yes No Is the soil on this belt loose and sandy ? Yes No Are the Florida Keys extinct volcanoes ? Yes No Are they in the sea ? Yes No Are the foot hills at the southern tip of Florida ? Yes No Are southern plantations grouped in villages? Yes No Is the new South developing its mines? Yes No Is the South still the world 's greatest cotton-growing region ? . . . . Yes No Does the cotton boll break open when the seeds are ripe? Yes No Is cotton picked with machinery ? Yes No Do all the cotton plants ripen at the same time? Yes No Is the work of picking cotton expensive ? Yes No Is ' ' gin ' ' the negro 's word for ginger ? Yes No Are the cotton seeds in the factory thrown into a large bin? Yes No Is the cotton lint baled with machinery? Yes No Do the cotton bales each weigh 200 pounds? Yes No SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 81 Are there two pounds of lint to every pound of seeds? Yes No Is rice cut b}^ hand ? Yes No Are rice fields Avatered by irrigation? Yes No Does the rice thresher stand on wheels? Yes No Is it driven by horse power ? Yes No Is the straw removed by a blower ? Yes No Is the rice sent to the mill in bags? Yes No Is the rice at the mill graded by experts ? Yes No Are the samples to be graded poured into pans? Yes No Is the land along the lower Mississippi called the flood plain? Yes No Is sugar cane a root plant like the sweet potato? Yes No In planting, are the sugar cane pieces laid in long furrows? Yes No Are the stalks hauled to the field on the wheelbarrows? Yes No Is a sugar cane cultivator drawn by mules? Yes No Does the driver sit on the cultivator? Yes No Does the foreman of the field ride on a mule ? Yes No Is the sugar cane stripped by machinery ? Yes No Are the stalks cut by hand ? Yes No Is Florida famous for its orange groves? Yes No Is an orange tree several hundred feet high? Yes No Do bananas grow pointing downward? Yes No Are sweet potatoes planted in rows? Yes No Are peanut vines harvested with a reaper? Yes No 2. (Look at each sentence below and fill in the missing Avord) : An old sea bottom was thus forming the Coastal Plain. The Florida Keys — these remarkable are found in the warm shallow water near the southern tip of Florida. The new South is developing its manufactures, as well as its The cotton separates the seeds from the fluffy fiber. The great crops of Texas and Arkansas are possible through labor- saving machinery. Most of our sugar cane comes from Fruit-raising is an important in the South. At the mill experts grade the rice according to the size and quality of the The sweet potato is cultivated near the Peanut farming began to increase when the cut off the foreign supply. 82 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 3. Suppose you went to the library this "week-end to take out a book to read. And suppose on the librarian's desk you saw these six books: Dere Mabel, Over the Top, History of the War, Story of the Coastal Plain, The Future of Bolshevism, Main Street, Which one would j^ou take out? Check one, and one only. 4. Suppose a rich family offered you an opportunity next fall to spend the Avinter with them in California. And suppose another rich family offered you the chance to go to Florida with them. Would you choose to go to Florida? Yes Or would 3^ou choose California? Yes (Vote for one only.) 5. (Below draw just what it says you should draw, nothing else. Be brief) : Draw a sandy beach lined with palm Draw the head of one rice stalk, trees right here. Draw fulI-groAvn sugar cane plants Draw wooded hills and a valley with ^^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^^i^^ them. plantations right here. Draw three or four rows of young cotton plants here. Draw the position of an orange picker at work. Draw a banana cluster on a tree. Draw a cotton boll here. Draw a bale of cotton strapped. Draw peanuts on the vine. 6. Write a short composition (50 words or less) on ONE of the follow- ing subjects. Choose one only. Leave the other two alone. (1) What I Shall Do This Summer, (2) How the Coastal Plain Was Formed, (3) Am I Going to Be Rich? SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 83 For the fourth week the lesson was "The Growth of Cities and Their Problems." The lesson and tests were similar to those of the previous weeks. There was, however, an addition to the questionnaire. Three pairs of votes were called for to throw light upon the question of the comparative effectiveness of (1) studying and being taught, (2) watching a film silently and listening to a running comment along with it, and (3) a lesson in words and a lesson in pictures. A parallel preference vote M^as also called for. Following is a summary of the votes : Pupils who think they learn more from studying 23 percent Pupils who think they learn more from being taught 77 percent Pupils Avho prefer to study 25 percent Pupils who prefer being taught 75 percent Pupils who think thej^ learn more from silent film 27 percent Pupils who think they learn more from film-lecture 73 percent Pupils who prefer silent film 28 percent Pupils who prefer film-lecture 72 percent Pupils who think they learn more from words 51 percent Pupils who think they learn more from pictures 49 percent Pupils who prefer verbal presentation .47 percent Pupils who prefer picturization 53 percent B.y way of interpretation, we may sslj that the preference for being taught over studying is decisive, being one-half the way between pure chance and absolutely certainty. The preference for the film-lecture over the film alone is equally decisive. But the preference for words over pic- tures is pure chance. Following are copies of the fourth week's lesson and the various tests of the questionnaire : GROWTH OF CITIES AND THEIR PROBLEMS Instruction to pupils : You will have 10 minutes in which to study this lesson. After that you will get a test. Be sure to divide your time so that you learn all the paragraphs equally well. Go ahead now. A rapidly groAving city decided to learn from the experiences of others. So a city official was sent on a trip to various cities, large and small, to study their problems. On his return he made the following report: Unpaved streets cause wear and breakdowns. A muddy street, streaked with deep ruts, puts a groat strain upon all kinds of vehicles — wagons, automobiles, trucks — and quite often causes breakdowns. Autos and trucks 84 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS get stuck and have to be heaved out of their plight with logs and old boards, while wagons are hauled along -with considerable difficulty. Goods roads bring trade. A good road makes riding a pleasure. It is a wise toAvn that builds and maintains roads leading from all directions into its business district. Farmers follow the good roads. Well-paved streets improve town and business. A town with well-paved streets looks neat and attractive. Not onlj^ do such streets mean more people and more trade, but they mean also more business places, such as garages, which meet the needs of the motorists. Cobble-stones g-ive way to better pavements. When the cobble-stones become too rough on the traffic, a gang of laborers is brought around. The cobbles are torn up, and a new smooth pavement takes their place. Cities built along streams have to maintain bridges. A city built on one bank of a river can not draw much trade from the other side unless it builds bridges to allow street cars, wagons, trucks, and automobiles to cross the river. Maintaining bridges means more business. Ditch drains are unsanitary. The open ditch drain, which becomes un- healthy with the steady increase of waste, must be covered and finally gives way to the immense sewer system of a large city. Dirty streets cause disease. Old tins, rubbish, and garbage, instead of being thrown into the alley, must be dumped into regular receptacles which are emptied by the garbage collectors of the city. Flies hatch here. The place referred to is a back yard, probably in the rear of a crowded tenement house, where there is a pile of rubbish. This breeds mosquitoes. And here is meant the city dumping ground, where manure, rubbish, and other waste is dumped into a stagnant pool of water. Good public sentiment is for a clean city. A clean city is the result of a sufficiently large street cleaning force — enough men, enough waste cans, and enough carts and wagons to haul all the ashes and rubbish away. Organized street cleaning. This means a regular force of street sweep- ers ; brooms, shovels, boxes and cans ; carts and wagons ; and self -driven machine street sweepers, which move along like a steam roller or a truck. Wooden tenements are "fire traps." If a fire breaks out in one of these many-story apartment houses, the people living in the upper stories are frequently barred from escape by a burning stairway and burned to death. Proper building laws require safety from fire. Not only must the stair- ways be built fireproof or nearly so, but fire escapes must be put up so that the tenants on each floor can get to them easilj^ in the case of fire. SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 85 Growth of modern fire departments. The modern fire department be- gan with tlie bucket brigade. Next came the steam fire engine drawn by a team of swift and fiery steeds. Now we have the automobile engine, which rushes to the burning building and fastens the hose to the hydrant. Traffic rules become necessary. We all know how a street is blocked by carts, wagons, trucks, and people at a market place. We also know the congestion at a busy street crossing, say. Fifth Avenue and Forty-second Street. In such cases traffic rules become necessary. Elevated and subw^ays are needed in large cities. In time one street level is not enough to accommodate all the crowds and traffic. Then an elevated is built over the street. This gives two levels for traffic and transportation. Subways underneath give a third level. Cities need strong police force. Policemen are needed for what are called ' ' beats, ' ' for regulating traffic ; for coast patrol ; for detective work. Some policemen are mounted, some in automobile squads, and some are at headquarters. The police guard the people and maintain order. Small water systems are soon outgrown. The modest sociable town pump, where people go with pails for water, must in time give way to a large pumping station and pipe lines laid all over the city. Large cities use much water. The street sprinklers need a great deal of water, which they take from the hydrants. Water is needed of course for all the homes and factories and business establishments. Public foun- tains and swimming pools also use up a considerable amount. A city pumping station. The station pumps the water from a reservoir up into the high buildings. Water, in order that it can flow freely on the top stories, must have a great deal of pressure. Also, when there is a fire, there must be a high Avater pressur(?. Cities often outgrow their schools. There are two main reasons Avhy our cities outgrow their schools. One is that the school population grows larger as the citj' grows larger. The other reason is that we send our children into school for longer and longer periods. Instead of three or four years, as of old, many now spend twelve and more years in school. Portable barracks are erected to accommodate the overflow. These are small frame buildings put up temporarily on the school grounds when the regular building does not hold all the pupils. They are easily removed. Well-equipped schools make better citizens. Where there are manual training and domestic science departments, shops and well-equipped class- rooms the pupils learn better and thus become better citizens. Crowded blocks are poor playgrounds. There are too many people, stands, carts, and vehicles in the way for children to play undisturbed. 86 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Public parks and playgrounds are better. There is little danger here of being run over by vehicles. There are lawns to play upon and perhaps pools to wade in. Playground apparatus, such as swings, slides, and merry- go-rounds add much to the happiness of the children. Copy of Fourth Week's Test Last Name First Grade Age years months. Date 1921 Do Each Test as You Come to It 1. (Look at each question below. If the answer is Yes, draw a circle around the word "Yes"; if it is No, draw it around "No.") Is it true that unpaved streets cause wear on vehicles ? Yes No Is it true that poor roads bring trade ? Yes No That well-paved streets improve the looks of a town? Yes No That well-paved streets spoil business ? Yes No That dirty streets are harmless ? Yes No That flies hatch in filthy backyards ? Yes No That mosquitoes breed in trees ? Yes No That organized street cleaning is a good thing? Yes No That wooden tenements are safe to live in? Yes No That cities have always had fire engines? Yes No That traffic rules are necessary for crowded street corners? Yes No That elevated railwaj^s are needed in a large cit.y ? Yes No That subways are not necessary ? Yes No That town pumps are better than a water system? Yes No That cities maintain pumping stations ? Yes No Is it true that portable schools are put up near crowded school buildings ? Yes No That they are put up only temporarily ? Yes No That crowded blocks make good playgrounds? Yes No That public parks are better than crowded blocks? Yes No That public playgrounds are too expensive ? Yes No Is it easier to pull a wagon over an unpaved street than over a paved street ? Yes No Do good roads mean better business? Yes No Do poor roads mean more garages ? Yes No Are cobble-stones rough on traffic? Yes No Is a ferry better than a bridge ? Yes No Is a sewer system better than a ditch drain? Yes No Should garbage be thrown on vacant lots ? Yes No Do flies hatch in the snow ? Yes No Do mosquitoes breed in manure piles? Yes No SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 87 Does it pay to keep a city clean ? Yes No Should stairways in tenements be fireproof If Yes No Should there be a fire-escape in factories? Yes No Is a fire hose called a hydrant ? Yes No Are traffic regulations a solution to a city problem 'i Yes No Are street ears better than the elevated? Yes No Are subways better for transportation than elevated roads? Yes No Does a large city need mounted police ? Yes No Is all the city water used up by the buildings ? Yes No Is great water pressure needed for putting out fires? Yes No Do the people believe more in schools now than ten years ago?. . . .Yes No 2. (Look at each sentence below and fill in the missing word) : Unpaved streets cause wear and give way to better pavements. Cities built along streams have to maintain drains are unsanitary. Good public sentiment is for a city. Proper building laws require safety from need a strong police force. Large cities use much C!ities often their schools. Well-equipped schools make better 3, (BeloAv draw just what it says you should draw, nothing else) : Draw a muddy street with ruts right Draw a modern fire engine, here. Draw a bridge over a river here. Draw a town pump. Draw a hydrant. Draw a pile of rubbish here. Draw a wooden tenement here, ^^^^^^ ^ portable school. Draw a fire escape here. Draw playground apparatus. 88 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS Suppose a rich family offered you an opportunity this summer to travel with them from city to city to study municipal problems. And suppose another rich family gave you the chance to accompany them on a trip to war-torn Europe — Would you choose the trip to Europe ? Yes Or would you help study city problems ? Yes Suppose you went to the library this week-end to take out a book to read. And suppose that on the librarian's desk you saw these books: Little Women, Huckleberry Finn, History of the War, City Problems, Bolshevism, Main Street. Which one of these books would you take out? Check one only. 4. You will now be asked to vote on several important questions. Be sure you understand exactly what is meant before you cast your vote. From which method do you think you learned more, (1) studying the printed page, or (2) being taught by the teacher? No. 1 or No. 2? (Write either the figure 1 or the figure 2 in this space) Which method did you like better, No. 1 or No, 2 ? From which method do you think you learned more, (1) watching the moving picture silently or (2) having somebody talk while the picture is being shown ? No. 1 or No. 2 ? Which method did you like better, No. 1 or No. 2? From which method do you think you learned more, (1) a lesson in words (that means both stud.ying and being taught) or (2) a lesson in pictures (that means watching moving pictures). Remember, it means words against pictures. No. 1 or No. 2? Which method did you like better, No. 1 or No. 2? Write a short composition (50 words or less) on ONE of the following subjects. Choose one only. Leave tlie other two alone. Going to the Adirondacks for Two Weeks, Growth of Cities and Their Problems, What Is Mv Goal : Riches or Service ? SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 89 The result of the entire experiment, with the original steps converted into T-Scale units, are embodied in Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, Appen- dix B. The composite averages from the various methods of presentation, to- gether with the differences, are given in the following summary : SUMMARY TABLE Summary of composite averages by all 7B-grade pupils in the four weekly sets of tests M'hich followed immediatelj" the varied presentations of the four successive lessons, respectively : Film 49.05 49.05 49.05 50.81 50.81 50.81 51.59 51.59 51.59 We see from the foregoing summary that in the Yes-No averages the "Film Alone" is the lowest. Comparing this with the "Study" and "Teacher" averages, we discover a rank relationship which agrees with that found by Lacy in his experiment.* The completion test averages are significant. The}^ are by far the best measure of comparative effectiveness, especially between "Study" and "Film Alone." The pupils had the opportunity to read the statements on both the printed page and the screen. If they did not remember the omis- sions so well in the case of "Study," the verbal detail after each paragraph heading was manifestly less effective than the pictorial detail following each subtitle. Objections may be raispd. The first is that the statements as subtitles profited unduly by the law of contrast in that they alternated with pictorial detail. In answer it may be said that the test was designed for just this Study Teacher Yes -No Test 50.06 50.36 Averages : 50.06 50.06 50.36 50.36 Completion Test Ave: 49.43 49.43 49.43 47.87 47.87 47.87 46.90 47.27 Drawing Test 46.90 Averages : 46.90 47.27 47.27 'ilm-Lecture Difference .30 —1.01 50.72 .66 —1.31 50.72 .36 50.72 1.67 —1.56 1.38 51.71 2.28 2.94 51.71 3.84 51.71 .90 .37 4.69 54.07 7.17 4.32 54.07 6.80 54.07 2.48 ♦Teachers College Record, November, 1919. 90 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS purpose, namely, whether a statement, illustrated pictorially, is more im- pressive than if illustrated with words. Another objection is that the verbal detail was not as rich as the pictorial, and so failed to make the statement as impressive in "Study" as in the "Film." But, with the time constant, why wasn't the verbal detail as rich ? Again, this is just what we want to measure. The drawing test averages are as expected. The drawing test mani- festly measured visual impressions, Avhich only the pictorial presentations could produce. Conservative educators are prone to question this test on the ground that it distinctly favors the pictorial presentation. But why question it and at the same time approve the Yes-No test which distinctly favors the verbal presentation? If the pictorial presentation, over and above effecting verbal learning, produces extra visual impressions, while the verbal pres- entation does not, and if, on the other hand, the verbal presentation can only suggest impressions, provided the learner is fortunate enough to have already a stock of closely related imagery available — then the pictorial presentation effects an increment in learning (or prevents many miscon- ceptions) which Ave want to measure. Theoretically a drawing test is as fair as a verbal form in comparing the effectiveness of pictorial with verbal methods of presentation. For the purpose of gaining a general idea, it was thought wise to com- bine the composite averages of the three separate tests into a single average ; and since the averages were uniformly expressed in terms of T-Scale units, they were combined on equal terms. SUMMARY TABLE Summary of averaged averages made by all 7B-grade pupils after each of the four different methods of presentation. Study Teacher Film 48.80 48.50 48.80 .... 50.48 48.80 48.50 50.48 48.50 50.48 In the foregoing summary we see that the "Teacher" is lowest, "Study" next, "Film Alone" a little higher, and "Film-Lecture" the high- est of the four. The fact that the "Teacher" is lower than "Study" can probably be accounted for. The teachers in the experiment sometimes digressed from Film-Lecture Difference -.30 1.68 52.17 3.37 1.98 52.17 3.67 52.17 1.69 SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 81 tlie subject-matter of the lesson. However worthy the digressions might have been, they were not measured by the tests ; and they took up valuable time which should have been devoted to the relevant information. It is difficult to believe that the "Teacher" is really less effective than either ''Study" or the "Film Alone." The truth is that the "Teacher" presentation was too elusive for the best experimental control. However, it may be safe to assert that the "Teacher" is decidedly less effective than the "Film-Lecture" presentation. The 7B-grade pupils who participated in Experiment D had been given the National Intelligence Test, Scale A, the previous fall; and, partly on the basis of the scores they made then, they had been organized into classes for the new school year. This fact was unfortunately overlooked when the six hundred pupils were divided into the four experimental groups. Thus it happened that the intelligence test scores did not overlap so well as did those in Experiment A. Only sixtj'-four scores could be selected from each group, thus yielding a total of 256. The selected results, in terms of T-Scale units, for each of the tests following each of the four varied presentations of "The Study of a Moun- tain Glacier" are embodied in Table X, which contains also the means, standard deviations and their reliabilities. See Table X. 92 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE X Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the three tests which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of ' ' The Study of a Mountain Glacier" on March 31, 1921. Original scores con- verted into T-Scores : Completion Study (A) Teacher (B) Film (C) Film-Lecture (D) T-Score Pupils Pupils Pupils Pupils 26 3 , , . . 1 33 3 9 1 4 41 14 13 12 10 48 16 20 19 12 53 12 10 10 14 58 9 10 6 8 62 7 2 10 6 68 ^ , , , 4 7 73 , , , , 2 1 79 64 64 64 1 64 Means : 48.61 47.25 50.83 52.34 S.D. 9.15 8.17 9.15 10.77 S.D.M. 1.144 1.021 1.144 1.346 Yes-No S (A) T(B) F(C) FL(D) Drawing S (A) T(B) F(C) FL (D) T- Score Pupils Pupils Pupils Pupils T-Score Pupils Pupils Pupils Pupils 21 1 32 8 1 8 3 27 , , 4 40 19 21 5 1 31 1 2 2 46 19 21 7 3 34- 2 ] 3 "i 50 7 6 8 4 36 2 1 5 2 53 7 5 8 6 39 4 3 2 2 55 2 2 4 10 42 6 6 6 10 58 2 5 14 13 45 8 3 7 6 . 61 1 3 3 48 7 5 9 6 64 1 5 11 50 8 5 7 10 67 2 53 6 7 4 5 69 i i 6 55 6 6 6 6 74 1 1 58 4 7 1 5 79 1 60 2 4 1 7 — — — — 62 4 3 1 2 64 64 64 64 65 1 4 3 1 68 2 3 1 71 1 3 1 74 77 64 i 64 64 1 64 Means : 49.92 53.36 45.97 50.52 44.33 46.83 51.25 57.56 S. D. 8.76 10.18 10.62 8.05 6.81 7.09 10.05 9.08 S. D. M. 1.095 1.273 1.328 1.006 .851 .866 1.256 1.135 The selected scores, in terms of T-Scale units, resulting from remain- ing three questionnaires, and their corresponding means, standard deviations and reliabilities, are embodied in Tables XI, XTI, and XIII. SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 93 TABLE XI Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the three tests which followed immediately each of the four varied presenta- tions of ''The Earth and Worlds Beyond," on April 7, 1921. Original scores converted into T-Scores : Completion Study (D) Teacher (A) Film (B) Film-Lecture (C) T-Score Pupils Pupils Pupils Pupils 32 4 6 5 4 41 11 23 11 8 48 11 14 27 12 53 12 9 5 13 58 14 8 10 15 63 10 2 3 6 67 2 2 1 71 2 , , 1 3 77 64 64 64 2 64 Means : 51.98 47.00 49.16 53.17 S.D. 9.32 8.64 8.65 10.08 S.D.M. 1.165 1.08 1.081 1.26 Yes-No. S(D) T(A) F(B) FL(C) Drawing S(D) T(A) F(B) FL(C) T-Score Pupils Pupils Pupils Pupils T-Score Pupils Pupils Pupils Pupils 21 1 35 21 11 3 1 28 1 1 1 2 41 10 14 3 2 31 1 1 1 45 13 14 7 2 34 3 4 3 49 , 6 4 7 9 38 4 3 6 4 51 5 9 9 7 41 5 7 5 4 54 1 6 7 7 45 11 11 7 12 56 5 2 6 3 48 9 9 5 5 58 1 6 5 52 8 11 9 9 59 1 3 6 55 6 3 6 7 61 1 1 3 3 58 5 6 10 7 62 2 5 61 5 2 6 5 64 , , 4 64 4 4 2 65 1 67 2 1 2 1 66 1 69 2 1 1 67 3 72 3 69 3 77 1 •• 1 72 75 79 1 2 1 1 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 Means : 51.39 48.58 49.83 50.73 S.D. 9.63 9.53 9.56 9.47 S. D. M. 1.204 1.191 1.195 1.184 43.72 45.83 53.66 56.83 7.86 7.82 8.28 8.06 .983 .978 1.035 1.008 94 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE XII Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the three tests which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of "The Southern States" on April 14, 1921. Original scores converted into T-Scores : Completion T-Score Study (C) Pupils Teacher (D) Pupils Film (A) Pupils Film-Lecture (B) Pupils 27 4 1 1 33 3 4 4 1 39 13 6 5 6 45 19 15 19 11 51 7 18 15 12 56 11 8 8 13 61 6 7 6 16 68 4 1 6 3 75 1 64 1 64 64 1 64 Means : S.D. S. D-M. 49.17 9.62 1.203 48.20 9.90 1.238 49.94 9.47 1.184 52.88 9.10 1.138 Yes-No. T-Score S(C) Pupils T(D) Pupils F(A) Pupils FL (B) Pupils Drawing T-Score S(C) Pupils T(D) Pupils F(A) Pupils FL (B) ; Pupils 25 2 1 23 1 1 28 1 29 1 2 1 2 31 2 3 1 33 3 3 1 33 3 1 36 3 5 1 3 36 4 5 2 1 39 8 2 2 3 39 7 5 2 2 42 5 6 5 4 41 4 6 3 2 45 5 9 10 6 44 6 7 8 3 47 8 4 7 2 47 7 5 6 7 50 5 9 7 49 7 6 9 6 52 7 10 4 12 52 4 6 8 7 55 7 5 8 6 55 4 8 9 9 58 7 6 3 6 58 7 5 7 5 62 5 2 8 3 61 3 2 5 7 65 1 4 3 7 64 3 4 6 70 1 1 1 2 67 1 1 2 74 2 . . . , 69 3 79 . , 1 . , 71 1 2 — — — — 75 1 64 1 64 1 64 64 64 64 64 64 Means: S.D. S. D. M. 47.58 9.82 1.228 48.67 9.48 1.185 50.14 8.56 1.07 53.91 8.74 1.092 48.91 10.59 1.324 48.55 9.37 1.171 51.05 9.39 1.174 51.36 9.55 1.194 SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 95 TABLE XIII Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the three tests Avhicli followed immediately each of four varied presentations of "Growth of Cities and Their Problems" on April 21, 1921. Original scores converted into T-Scores : Completion Study (B) Teacher (C) Film (D) Film-Lecture (A) T-Score Pupils Pupils Pupils Pupils 25 1 1 1 33 7 3 2 4 39 10 11 5 9 45 16 14 8 10 50 13 10 7 17 54 2 13 15 11 58 9 2 8 7 63 4 5 15 5 70 2 3 4 75 , , 1 . , 79 64 1 64 64 64 Means : 47.47 49.69 54.22 48.80 S.D. 9.63 10.45 8.95 8.38 S. D-M. 1.204 1.306 1.119 1.048 Yes-No S(B) T(C) F(D) FL(A) Drawing S(C) T(C) F(D) FL(A) T-Score Pupils Pupils Pupils Pupils T-Score Pupils Pupils Pupils Pupils 23 1 1 27 3 1 1 1 27 1 30 1 28 i , , 32 2 i 30 i "i 2 34 5 2 34 2 1 2 5 36 1 1 2 3 37 4 4 6 4 39 5 6 3 4 41 3 4 6 3 42 1 10 6 3 44 11 4 12 7 45 8 12 5 2 48 7 11 8 8 47 6 8 6 2 51 11 9 10 10 50 10 7 5 10 55 7 9 10 13 52 6 2 7 5 59 5 9 3 3 55 3 8 10 62 7 5 3 2 57 2 2 4 7 66 3 4 1 6 59 2 6 7 5 71 2 1 1 62 3 3 4 2 77 1 1 65 68 5 1 3 4 2 3 64 64 64 64 71 73 77 1 64 i 1 64 64 3 i 64 Means : 51.27 51.72 47.27 49.63 48.27 48.72 50.72 52.86 S.D. 9.54 9.90 8.36 10.14 10.55 9.39 8.65 10.09 S.D.M. 1.193 1.238 1.045 1.268 1.319 1.174 1.081 1.261 The means of the various methods of presentation for the four weeks, averaged, are embodied iu the following summary, which also gives the differences between the means and the reliabilities of these differences. 96 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS The differences, divided by the product of the reliabilities with 2.78, yield the experimental coefficients, -which, according to the table on page 42, indicate the probability of occurrence in terms of so many chances to one. SUMMARY TABLE Summary of composite averages by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the four weekly sets of tests which followed immediately the varied presenta- tions of the four successive lessons respectively. Completion Test Averages — Film- Differ- S.D. Exp. Chances Study Teacher Film Lecture ence Diff. Coef. to One 49.31 48.04 —1.27 .858 —.52 13 49.31 51.04 1.73 .875 .72 45 49.31 51.80 2.49 .871 1.04 550 48.04 51.04 3.00 .843 1.28 6000 48.04 51.86 3.76 .8.38 1.64 Certainty 51.04 51.80 .76 .855 .32 4 Yes-No Test Averages- — 50.04 50.33 .29 .843 .12 2 50.04 48.30 —1.74 .830 —.76 55 50.04 51.26 1.16 .821 .48 10 50.33 48.36 —2.03 .837 —.88 140 50.33 51.26 .87 .829 .36 5 48.36 51.20 2.90 .816 1.28 6000 Drawing Test Averages ;— 48.31 47.48 —.83 .778 —.40 6 48.31 51.67 3.36 .806 1.48 Certainty 48.31 54.65 6.34 .810 2.84 Certainty 47.48 51.67 4.19 .779 1.96 Certainty 47.48 54.65 7.17 .784 3.28 Certainty 51.67 54.65 2.98 .811 1.32 7500 Among the foregoing completion test averages there are three differ- ences above practical certainty and one of considerable significance. The film presentations are evidently more effective than the verbal presenta- tions. In the Yes-No test averages the "Film Alone"' is decidedly below the verbal presentations. There are at least two reasons for the difference : in the first place, the film is probably less effective than the personality of the teacher, and in the second place, the test favors the verbal presentation. The most significant difference here is the one between the "Film-Lecture" and the "Film Alone." In the drawing test averages the differences are generally wide, which one would naturally expect. The really significant difference here is the one between the two film presentations. It indicates the value of intelligent direction of the pupil's attention by the teacher. SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 97 As before, the averages of the three kinds of tests have been combined into single averages. These are given in the following summary, which also contains the averages of the experimental coefficients algebraically com- bined.* SUMMARY TABLE Summary of averaged averages made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils after each of the four different methods of presentation. Film- Differ- Exp. Chances Study Teacher Film Lecture ence Coef. to One 49.22 48.62 .... —.60 —.27 3 49.22 • . . . 50.34 1.12 .48 9 49.22 52.55 3.33 1.45 Certainty 48.62 50.34 1.72 .79 70 48.62 52.55 3.93 1.76 Certainty 50.34 52.55 2.21 .97 300 The signiticant differences in the foregoing summary indicate a mani- fest superiority of the "Film-Lecture" over the other methods of pres- entation. Approximately tAvo months later a delayed test was given to the left- over participants of the experiment. This test embodied the four com- pletion tests from the questionnaires, the first week's drawing test, and half the number of tasks from each of the remaining three drawing tests. The reader will remember that the first week's drawing test called for a sketch of the mountain glacier. This was incorporated without any change in the abbreviated drawing test. From the second week's drawing test the following tasks were selected : Revolution of the earth around the sun and positions for seasons, 4 points ; earth and moon and the four changes, 4 points ; and day and night, 2 points — total 10. From the third week's drawing test the following tasks were picked: Sandy beach, 2 points; sugar cane plant, 2; cotton boll, 2; rice head, 2; banana cluster, 2— total 10. And from the fourth week's drawing test the following tasks were chosen : Muddy street with ruts, 2 points ; wooden tenement, 2 ; town pump, 2 ; portable school, 2 ; and playground apparatus, 2 —total 10. ♦The experimental coefficients thus obtained may be too high because in combining the scores of the three different tests of the same questiomiaire the reliabilities were computed according to a formula which neglected their interrelationships. But a few sample computa- tions revealed a distinct correlation of nearly .50. Hence the following formula should prob- ably have been used: S.D. _ ^ /(S.D.)^-f-(S.D.)2-H(S.D.)2-|-2r(S.D.)(S.D.)-h2r(S.D.)(S.D.)4-2r(S.D.)(S.D.) M ~ \ Ml M2 Ms 12 Ml M2 13 Mi Ms 23 M2 Ms Since the various sigmas are practically equal, a special formula may be derived for cor- recting the experimental coefficients by assuming a uniform correlation of .50: '■ M = J ^^^-^-^ ^^'^ yi ^^^-^-^ Dividing the above experimental coefficients by 1/2 manifestly makes this correction. We thus get —.19, .34, 1.03, .56, 1.24, and .69 in place of —.27, .48, etc. 98 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS A new set of T-Scores had to be worked out for the abbreviated draw- ing test, since it contained only half the number of tests found in the imme- diate drawing tests. The results from both the abbreviated drawing tests and the delayed completion tests, in terms of T-Scale units, are embodied in Tables, 13, 14, 15, and 16, Appendix B. Following is a summary of the unselected results: SUMMARY TABLE Summary of composite averages by all 7B-grade pupils in the Com- pletion Test which was re-submitted approximately two months after the experiment. Study Teacher Film Film-Lecture Difference 43.06 42.28 — .78 43.06 41.62 .... —1.44 43.06 44.64 1.58 42.28 4"l'.62 — .66 42.28 44.64 2.36 Study Teacher 48.68 48.66 48.68 48.68 48.66 48.66 Film-Lecture Difference — .02 2.72 51.0.3 2.35 2.74 51.03 2.37 51.03 — .37 41.62 44.64 3.02 Summary of composite averages by all 7B-grade pupils in the Abbre- viated Drawing Test which was submitted approximately two months after the experiment. Film 51.40 51.40 51.40 From the foregoing summary we see that in the completion test results the "Film Alone" average is loAver now than either "Study" or the "Teacher," which was not the case in the results from the first submission two months before. The "Film-Lecture" average, however, is still higher than any one of the other three. The abbreviated drawing test results have practically the same inter- relationships as the full dra^dng test results of two months before, except that the "Film Alone" average is slightly higher than the "Film-Lecture," which, however, has no significance. It seemed unnecessary to refine these results by selection for obvious reasons. In making the selection for the delayed completion test results, only forty-nine scores were available from each group. This gave a total of ]96. These results, together with their means, standard deviations and reliabilities, are embodied in Table XIV. SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 99 TABLE XIV Distribution of scores made by 196 selected 7B-grade pupils in the Completion Test re-submitted approximately two months later. March 31— T- Score Study (A) Teacher (B) Film (C) Filra-L (D) 26 1 1 3 33 14 14 9 6 41 12 14 18 13 48 12 10 11 17 53 8 7 5 9 58 1 2 2 2 62 1 1 1 2 • 49 49 49 49 Means 42.86 42.67 42.53 46.20 S.D. 8.36 8.45 8.35 7.35 S.D.M. 1.194 1.208 1.193 1.050 April 7— T-Score Study (D) Teacher (A) Film (B) Film-L (C) 32 5 6 7 5 41 18 23 24 16 48 16 13 15 17 53 1 5 3 6 58 8 2 1 63 1 3 71 1 49 49 49 49 Means : 45.84 43.67 42.59 46.29 S.D. 7.80 6.50 5.73 8.30 S. D.M. 1.115 .929 .819 1.185 April 14— T-Score Study (C) Teacher (D) Film (A) Film-L (B) 27 2 1 1 33 8 6 7 4 39 13 17 7 15 45 16 12 14 13 51 7 10 16 13 56 3 3 4 2 61 , , 1 68 1 •• 49 49 49 49 Means : 42.25 42.98 45.75 44.18 S.D. 7.16 6.89 7.59 6.96 S. D.M. 1.023 .984 1.084 .994 April 21— T-Score Study (B) Teacher (C) Film (D) Film-L (A) 25 6 4 2 7 33 12 12 6 9 39 17 8 5 11 45 6 18 15 9 50 6 5 16 8. 54 1 1 5 5 58 1 1 49 49 49 49 Means: 38.59 40.41 44.65 40.33 S.D. 7.93 7.77 7.34 9.07 S. D.M. 1.132 1.110 1.050 1.294 100 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS In the summary which follows, the "Film-Lecture" is highest. In no way, however, is the superiority practically certain. The best probability is 120 chances to one. SUMMARY TABLE Summary of results by 196 selected IB-grade pupils in the Completion Test re-submitted approximately two months later. Film- Differ- S. D. Exp. Chances Study Teacher Film Lecture ence Difl. Coef. to One 42.38 42.43 .05 .773 .00 1 42.38 43.88 1.50 .765 .72 45 42.38 .... 44.25 1.87 .798 .84 120 42.43 43.88 1.45 .745 .72 45 42.43 44.25 1.82 .778 .84 120 43.88 44.25 .37 .773 .12 2 In giving the delayed tests, it happened that scores were obtained from 247 7B-grade pupils who had missed one experimental unit or another or who had not at all participated. These scores, in terms of T-Scale units, are embodied in Table XV. TABLE XV Distribution of scores made by 247 7B-grade pupils who were not in the experiment but Avho were given the completion and drawing tests. Original steps converted into T-Scale units each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the experimental group. Completion — March 31 April 7 Aprill4 April 21 T-Score Pupils T-Score Pupils T-Score Pupils T-Score Pupils 27 7 32 12 27 9 33 39 44 49 54 59 34 41 46 51 55 59 14 16 13 7 32 40 46 51 55 59 63 12 21 3 5 3 1 17 10 18 6 1 1 26 33 39 44 48 52 56 19 24 19 11 5 3 2 n 57 n 45 n 62 n 83 Total 247 Means : 39.93 41.00 38.60 36.37 Av. 38.98 Drawing — T-Score Pupils T-Score Pupils T-Score Pupils T-Score Pupils 32 16 35 15 23 3 21 3 38 7 44 13 28 3 32 7 45 10 49 6 35 13 41 16 50 10 52 4 41 7 47 18 54 11 55 4 46 14 52 18 58 58 2 52 9 56 11 62 1 61 57 5 61 5 65 1 65 63 4 65 3 68 1 68 68 3 69 2 74 72 1 72 77 1 Means: n 57 44.16 n 45 44.60 n 62 45.56 n 83 Total 247 47.94 Av. 45.86 SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 101 Combining the four weekly means under the completion test results in Table XV, the average is 38,98, Doing the same for the abbreviated draw- ing test, the average is 45,86. These two averages may be taken as the estimated initial knowledge and ability which the 7B-grade pupils very likely brought into the experiment. In the following summary we have the probable improvement from the estimated initial knowledge as measured by the immediate completion tests. This improvement is illustrated by Figure 8. It is unnecessary to explain the diagram, except to say that the curve represents the generalized dis- tribution of all the scores and the figures below indicate T-Scale units. SUMMARY TABLE Summary of the probable improvement from the assumed initial knowl- edge of the experimental group in the completion test which followed each of the four different methods of presentation. study 49.43 Teacher 47.87 Film 50.81 Initial Probable Film-Lecture Knowledge Improvement 38.98 10.55 • • • • 38.98 8.89 • • • • 38.98 11.83 51.71 38.98 12.73 Figure 8 illustrates this graphicallj'- !_nj.iI^rKKa^i|d^e '_ '.!". _■_'_".'.'.' "' {M#M^ Initial Knowledge 8.89 10.55 11.83 12.13 inrturKnawTedi^- ---- Mmm^m^M Figure 8. Showing Probable Improvement in T-Scale units with each method of pre- sentation. Zero of knowledge not known. Following is a summary of the probable improvement as measured bj the completion tests when resubmitted approximately two months after the first submission. The various amounts of improvement are illustrated by Figure 9. 102 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS SUMMARY TABLE Summary of the probable improvement from the assumed initial knowl- edge of the experimental group in the completion test which was resub- mitted approximately two months later. Study 4306 Teacher 42.28 Film 41.62 Film-Lecture 44.64 Initial Knowledge 38.98 38.98 38.98 38.98 Probable Improvement"' 4.08 3.30 2.64 5.66 Figure 9 illustrates this graphically. LnitJ-aJ Knowledg'e .. m^'- „ .l^^^l^J^^^'^^^'^'^ 2'® W/////\'- Initial Knowled-g-e WM' hiitlal iCn.owLed'g'e 'imM: 4.08 5.66 Figure 9. Showing Probable Improvement in T-Scale units with each method of pre- sentation. Zero of knowledge not known. Following is a summary of the probable improvement as measured by the abbreviated drawing test. The various amomits of improvement are illustrated by Figure 10. SUMMARY TABLE Summary of the probable improvement from the assumed initial knowl- edge of the experimental group in the abbreviated drawing test which was submitted approximately two months after the experiment. Study 48.68 Teacher 48.66 Film 51.40 Initial Probable Film-Lecture Knowledge Improvement 45.86 2.82 45.86 2.80 • • . • 45.86 5.54 51.03 45.86 5.17 •Really left-over improvement. SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 103 Figure 10 illustrates this graphically. Initial Knov/led^e . _ . ..{ Initial Knowledge Initial K-nowiedge Initial Knowledge ■ -oo ;; 2.60 2.52 C5.17 ^.54 Figure 10. Showing Probable Improvement in T-Scale units with each method of pre- sentation. Zero of knowledge not known. In Experiment A, a concealed test, calling for the choice to go on a trip to a certain countrj^ suggested by the presentation or to another country known as a strong counter-attraction, credited the illustrated lesson with a greater influence upon choice by three percent. Accordingly, to prove or disprove this alleged influence, similar tests were used in Experiment D. One of the tests was almost identical with the one previously used. Another one registered the choice of a library book. And a third recorded the choice of a composition topic. This last one was in reality a conduct test. The three tests appeared in each of the four questionnaires, making a total of twelve measures altogether. Eight of them were preferences and the remaining four actual decisions. The choices are embodied in Table XVI. 104 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE XVI Distribution of 6,365 choices betAveen the lesson subject and various counter-attractions, made by the entire group of pupils after each of the four different presentations. Study Teacher ] Pilm Film- -Lecture Les- Les- Les- Les- son Counter son Counter son Counter son Counter Sub- Attrac- Sub- Attrac- Sub- Attrac- Sub- Attrac- ject tion ject tion ject tion ject tion Choice March 31 102 35 96 39 100 48 107 39 of April 7 140 8 133 5 132 5 144 9 Trip April 14 100 51 107 36 105 28 93 39 April 21 72 23 71 32 88 24 90 13 414 117 407 112 425 105 434 100 Library March 31 62 66 58 75 44 102 58 80 Booli April 7 114 38 102 37 91 44 102 53 April 14 82 73 98 44 100 34 99 38 April 21 74 41 75 65 85 53 84 39 332 218 333 221 320 233 343 210 Compo- March 31 21 115 25 114 17 132 27 124 sition April 7 32 118 36 82 22 80 38 108 April 14 48 107 37 90 26 74 29 77 April 21 64 35 77 52 97 31 82 24 165 375 175 338 162 317 176 333 Total 911 710 915 671 907 655 953 643 Study & Teacher Combined Film & Film- Lecture Combined Lesson Counter Lesson Counter Subject Attraction Subject Attraction All three choices . . . 1826 1381 1860 1298 Composition Alone. . . 340 713 338 650 In the following summary we have under "Study" 911 choices for going to the country or taking out the book or writing on the topic sug- gested by the lesson, and 710 choices for the various counter-attractions. Under "Film" we have 907 choices in favor of the subject suggested by the film and 655 for the counter-attractions. The mean proportional between these two ratios is 909/682. Compar- ing Hie "Film" influence with that of "Study," we see that the numerator is practically the same, but that the denominator has dropped over forty points. This favors the film by 2 percent. Under "Teacher" we have 915/571, while under "Film-Lecture" the numerator has risen to 933 and the denominator fallen to 643. This again credits the pictorial presentation with 2 percent more influence. SECTION VII— EXPERIMENT D 105 Combining now the two verbal presentations, "Study" with the "Teacher," and also the two film presentations, we get the following: Without film, 1826/1381 ; with film, 1860/1298, the numerator having risen 34 points and denominator fallen 83. This is, of course, again a change of 2 percent from the mean proportional. In the composition choices separately, we have 340/713 for the verbal presentations. With the pictorial presentations the numerator remains practically the same while the denominator has fallen 63 points. This is similarly an increase of 2 percent. Reducing the figures to simple ratios and taking the mean proportional as 100/100, with the use of the film, four pupils in two hundred will be influenced to make a choice which they would not have made with only the stimulus of a verbal appeal. Following is a summary of the choices : SUMMARY OF CHOICES Study Subject Choice Teacher Subject Choice Film Film-Lecture Mean Subject Subject Propor- Choice Choice tional Gain Eflfected by Use of Film All three Choices 911 710 915 907 655 953 909 682 934 2% 671 643 657 2% Without Film With FiUn Mean Proportional Gain All three Choices 1826 1381 1860 1298 1843 1340 2% Composition Alone 340 713 338 650 339 682 2% Reduced to Simple Ratios 96 100 104 100 100 100 2% A word about the reliability of this increased influence. Considering the test in Experiment A as three chances and the tests in Experiment D as twelve more, we have in fifteen chances out of fifteen found an increased influence of two percent or higher. This probability may be absolute cer- tainty, no one knows. It sounds reliable. Another consideration. These concealed tests were absolutely free from any possible personal favoritism on the part of the experimenter, and for this reason they should be considered with the utmost open-mindedness. The results seem to throw light on a great question : Do our films influence perceptibly the conduct of the youth of the land ; and, if so, how much ? The reader may continue the thought. 106 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS The results of Experiment D may be summed up briefly : 1. The averages of the "Film-Lecture" presentation are almost in- variably higher than any of the other three methods. This agrees with the findings in Experiments A, B, and C. It may be safe to assert now that, since we have statistical reliability in both A and B and fair probability in C and D, the value of the picture as an aid in teaching stands proved. 2. When measuring the effectiveness of a pictorial presentation against a verbal presentation, the latter is obviously favored by a verbal test and the former by a pictorial. The proper thing to do is to use both types of tests and establish a correct balance between them. 3. The subtitles of pictures can be made the basis for a middle-ground test in comparing the effectiveness of pictorial with verbal methods of presentation. 4. Since in a verbal test the pictorial impressions must be translated into verbal imagery by the examinees, it is remarkable to find that the "Film Alone" is almost as effective as either "Study" or the "Teacher." 5. A pictorial presentation, compared with a verbal presentation, has a manifestly greater influence upon choice by at least two percent. SECTION VIII— GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 107 SECTION VIII. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS, HISTORY AND OUTLOOK Educators are agreed that visual experience of a vicarious nature has been made practical for the school room through the perfection of photog- raphy. This fact was accepted without proof preliminary to undertaking the foregoing investigation. The various phases of our investigation have yielded the following con- clusions : 1. From the Study of Primary Sources we learn that in tracing back to their perceptual origins the countless elements of each of fifty common verbal concepts, two hundred out of five hundred credits fall into the visual column. Summarily stated, the results of the study attribute forty percent of our conceptual learning to visual experience, 2. From Experiment A we learn: (a) when a correlated film is used as an aid, it increases the effectiveness of the lesson; (b) this increase is the result of greater ease of comprehension and a higher degree of satisfy- ingness; (c) since pictures provide vicarious experience, they should intro- duce a lesson when the subject matter is relatively foreign to the learners ; and (d) the preference for the film as a visual aid stands about 15 to 1 among the pupils in the experimental group. Summarily stated, Experiment A proves the effectiveness of pictures as aids in the learning process. 3. From Experiment B we learn: (a) in developing a composite visual image, pictorial presentation is more eft'ective than verbal; (b) this increase in learning is characterized by more memories, clearer ideas, better organ- ization, and less misinterpretation; and (c) verbal description, when aided by pictorial presentation, is the most effective method of the three. Sum- marily stated. Experiment B substantiates the effectiveness of a visual aid in the case of concrete learning. 4. From Experiment C we learn: (a) in developing a relatively abstract concept, verbal description, aided by a diagrammatic representa- tion, is probably more effective than verbal description alone; (b) it seems that if the diagram is more abstract than the verbal description, it should lag in the presentation ; and (c) on the other hand, if the diagram is simpler than the verbal description, it may well appear in the beginning of the presenta- tion. Summarily stated, Experiment C tends to substantiate the effective- ness of a visual aid in the case of more abstract learning. 108 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS 5. From Experiment D we learu: (a) the averages of the "Film- Lecture" presentation are almost invariably higher than any of the other three methods; (b) when measuring the effectiveness of a pictorial presenta- tion against a verbal presentation, both verbal and pictorial tests should be used; (c) the subtitles of pictures can be made the basis for a middle-ground test in comparing the effectiveness of verbal pictorial methods; (d) since in a verbal test the pictorial impressions must be translated into verbal imagery by the examinees, it is remarkable to find that the "Film Alone" is almost as effective as either "Study" or the "Teacher"; and (e) a pic- torial presentation, compared with a verbal presentation, has a manifestly greater influence upon choice by at least two percent. Summarily stated, Experiment D tends to establish the validity of combining words with pic- tures in teaching. In the following historical sketch no attempt will be made to mention anything except experimental studies of the problems of visual aids, and these only very briefly : Children's Perceptions, by W. H. Winch, an English investigator, may arbitrarily be chosen as the connecting link between sporadic experimental efforts and the more serious attempts to measure the effectiveness of visual aids. His investigation was made with the well-known "Breakfast" picture, previously used by German psychologists. The study falls short in that no comparisons were sought between different methods of presentation. However, as a pioneer study, the book is rich in suggestions. Roy L. Davis, in his doctor's thesis at New York University, applied Winch's method to a moving picture film. I am unable to discuss the results here because the study is not yet in print, to my knowledge, and hence not generally available. Dr. D. R. Sumstine, of Pittsburgh, reported an experimental study in School and Society, for February, 1918. It was entitled. Comparative Study of Visual Instruction in the High School. Three methods of presentation were compared : film, film-lecture, and lecture. The results were : Period Film Film-Lecture Lecture 24 hours 73.9 70.8 67.8 10 days 60.2 56.5 51.5 3 months 72.8 60.2 61.1 These results differ from mine in that the film-lecture method ranks lower in effectiveness than visual alone. I can not explain this lack of agreement since I neither know the number of pupil cases nor the possible interference of the lecturer with the showing of the subtitles. SECTION VIII— GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 109 Probably the most reliable attempt at measuring the effectiveness of different methods was reported by John V. Lacy in the November, 1919, number of Teachers College Record. It is entitled, The Relative Value of Motion Pictures as an Educational Agency — An Experimental Study. The purpose of the study was to determine the pedagogical and moral value of motion pictures. The film chosen was "The Hoosier Schoolmaster." Three mutually exclusive methods were employed : oral presentation, silent reading by the pupils, and presentation with moving pictures. The effec- tiveness was measured with yes-no questions of fact, inference, and moral discrimination. And the results were : Immediate test Delayed test Oral presentation over movie 9 points 4.5 points Silent perusal over movie 7 points 1.0 points Oral over silent perusal 2 points 3.5 points Choice of learning rest of story: oral presentation, .5; silent reading by pupils, 5.0; moving pictures, 91. (Most of these figures are only approxi- mate.) The reader will note that the relative positions of the three methods agree with my yes-no results in E.xperiment D, And now the outlook. Nearly eighteen months of intensive research in visual instruction have left their influence upon me in the form of a con- glomerate of intuitions with respect to the future of visual aids in the schoolroom, and some of these intutitions are herewith given forth in a prophecy that may be entertaining, if not actually instructive. The most promising soil for the growth of visual instruction is un- doubtedly the elementary school ; and the most important function of visual aids is that of being a passive source of information, satisfaction, and in- spiration in the solution of problems and the execution of pupil projects. Since visual aids provide vicarious experience, their value increases with lack of experience on the part of the learners. Consequently, the more limited a child's training is, the greater may be the potential effectiveness of the picture or other aid. But one caution must be reiterated. Viewing a picture does not neces- sarily effect learning. Seeing is merely a fraction of the learning process. Learning is the effect of thinking, feeling, doing — in brief, cerebration. So, unless the visual impression is seized upon vigorously by discussion, ques- tioning, and pupil expression, it has much less value than is commonly be- lieved. Therefore, the biggest task in the field of visual instruction now is the actual elaboration of a specific methodology. Every subject in the elemen- no COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS tary curriculum, and every fundamental element that can be elucidated with either a visual scene or a visualized scheme, will have to be correlated with one or more visual aids. And every teacher will have to know how to se- cure, systematize, and utilize most economically the various aids and be an expert in guiding the pupils in their most effective use. BIBLIOGRAPHY Betts, G. H. The Distribution and Functions of Mental Imagery. Teachers College, Columbia University, Contributions to Education, No. 26. (Relevant to the Study of the Primary Sources of Knowledge). Lacy, J. V. The Relative Value of Motion Pictures as an Educational ■ Agency — An Experimental Study. Teachers College Record, Novem- ber, 1919. (Relevant to Experiment D). McCall, Wm. A. How to Measure in Education. Macmillan, 1922. (Rele- vant to experimental coefficients and chances to one). McCall, Wm. A. A Uniform Method of Scale Construction. Teachers Col- lege Record, January, 1921. (Relevant to T-Scale units). Sumstine, D. R. Comparative Study of Visual Instruction in the High- School. School and Society, 7 :235-38, February, 1918. Thorndike, E. L. An Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurements (Revised). New York, 1913. (Relevant to the statis- tical manipulation of experimental results). Yule, G. Udny. An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics. London, 1919. (Relevant to reliability formulae). APPENDIX A 111 APPENDIX A TABLE 1 Distribution of scores made by 482 7A-grade pupils in a 60-question test, called Test B, which followed a lesson on China, February 23, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one- tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group. Group : C Score L-F - 1 1- 2 3- 4 2 5- 6 2 7- 8 4 9-10 7 11-12 5 13-14 6 15-16 10 17-18 4 19-20 9 21-22 10 23-24 16 25-26 9 27-28 12 29-30 19 31-32 10 33-34 5 35-36 10 37-38 9 39-40 6 41-42 3 43-44 1 45-46 1 47-48 49-50 51-52 53-54 55-56 57-58 59-60 F-L 1 1 5 4 6 10 9 15 12 16 10 11 12 12 7 13 •4 5 2 2 1 L-F 2 1 3 1 6 7 7 9 8 9 10 15 10 12 15 11 5 3 9 4 9 3 3 1 'otal Per cent exceeding plus half those reaching : T-Sco 1 99.90 19 4 3 99.38 98.65 25 28 4 11 97.93 96.37 30 32 7 17 94.50 92.01 34 36 17 15 88.49 85.17 38 40 24 28 81.12 75.73 41 43 34 34 69.29 62.24 45 47 39 45 54.67 45.95 49 51 32 31 37.97 31.43 53 55 33 26 24.79 18.67 57 59 16 25 14.32 10.06 61 63 9 15 6.54 4.05 65 68 5 5 1.97 .93 71 74 2 .21 79 Means: 161 46.51 158 52.77 163 51.06 482 112 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE 2 Distribution of scores made by 486 7A-grade pupils in a 60-question test, called Test C, which followed a lesson on Japan, March 2, 1921, Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one- tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group. Score Group : B L-R C F-L A L-F Total Per cent exceeding plus half those reaching : T-Sco - 1- 2 1 1 1 1 99.90 99.69 19 23 3- 4 5- 6 2 1 2 1 99,38 99.07 25 27 7- 8 9-10 5 4 1 5 6 98.46 97.43 29 31 11-12 13-14 4 5 1 1 6 5 96.30 95.16 32 33 15-16 17-18 6 6 1 3 1 1 8 10 93.83 91.98 35 36 19-20 21-22 9 8 3 3 4 12 15 89.71 86.93 37 39 23-24 25-26 7 12 1 3 4 6 12 21 84.16 80.76 40 41 27-28 29-30 5 13 3 8 4 9 12 30 77.37 73.05 42 44 31-32 33-34 14 6 2 16 9 13 25 35 67.39 61.21 45 47 35-36 37-38 8 8 17 17 6 19 31 44 54.42 46.71 49 51 39-40 41-42 10 12 17 15 16 12 43 39 37.76 29.32 53 55 43-44 45-46 4 3 17 13 18 13 39 29 21.30 14.30 58 61 47-48 49-50 2 18 4 9 5 27 11 8.54 4.63 64 67 51-52 53-54 2 1 4 4 3 10 4 2.47 1.03 70 73 55-56 57-58 1 1 1 2 1 .41 .10 76 81 59-60 160 166 160 486 Means : 44.38 53.10 52.34 APPENDIX A 113 TABLE 3 Distribution of scores made by 499 7A-grade pupils in a 40-question test, Test X, which followed a lesson on India, February 16, 1921. Also scores by 417 of these 7A-grade pupils in the same 40-question test resub- mitted approximately fifteen weeks later. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the means of the group. 24-Hour Result- Group : A Score L-R B F-L C L-F Total Per cent ex- ceeding plus half those reaching : Delayed Group : T-Score A L-R B F-L C L-F Total - 1- 2 5 5 4 4 5 3 14 12 96.60 95.99 32 33 18 14 8 4 18 7 44 25 3- 4 5- 6 4 11 6 10 5 7 15 28 93.29 88.98 35 38 7 16 12 14 8 14 27 44 7- 8 9-10 14 8 6 5 13 15 33 28 82.87 76.75 41 43 26 15 14 15 17 12 57 42 11-12 13-14 16 19 12 16 30 11 58 46 68.14 57.72 45 48 12 13 15 12 16 15 43 40 15-16 17-18 16 21 17 15 22 16 55 52 47.60 36.87 51 53 8 7 13 10 12 6 33 23 19-20 21-22 12 13 19 13 11 6 42 32 27.45 20.04 56 58 2 1 10 4 6 1 18 6 23-24 25-26 8 8 12 13 8 8 28 29 14.03 8.32 61 64 1 5 2 4 1 10 3 27-28 29-30 2 1 4 4 3 3 9 8 4.51 2.81 67 69 2 2 31-32 33-34 5 . 1 2 7 1 1.30 .50 72 76 35-36 37-38 1 1 1 1 .30 .10 78 81 39-40 163 167 169 499 140 140 137 417 Means: 49.02 52.22 49.25 41.26 45.44 43.10 114 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE 4 Distribution of scores made by 482 7A-grade pupils in a 40-question test, Test Y, which followed a lesson on China, February 23, 1921. Also scores by 406 of these 7A-grade pupils in the same 40-question test resub- mitted approximately fourteen weeks later. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group. 24-Hour Result- Per cent ex- Delayed Group : C A B ceeding plus Group : C A B half those Score L-R F-L L-F Total reaching : T -Score L-R F-L L-F Tota 1 1 99.90 19 11 2 7 20 1- ■ 2 3 3 99.48 24 7 2 4 13 3- ' 4 2 2 1 5 98.65 28 9 5 7 21 5- 6 3 1 2 6 97.51 30 7 4 9 20 7- ■ 8 8 1 6 15 95.33 33 20 12 12 44 9- ■10 6 2 3 11 92.63 36 16 14 17 47 11- ■12 14 6 8 28 89.59 38 14 19 17 50 13- ■14 12 5 13 30 82.59 41 14 16 21 51 15- ■16 15 13 23 51 74.17 44 12 16 8 36 17- ■18 20 11 14 45 64.21 46 11 15 14 40 19-20 16 22 10 48 54.56 49 4 9 12 25 21- •22 23 22 19 64 42.95 52 3 13 5 21 23- •24 11 15 18 44 31.74 55 4 4 1 9 25- -26 13 15 12 40 23.03 57 1 1 2 4 27-28 4 16 12 32 15.56 60 2 2 29- •30 8 10 9 27 9.44 63 1 1 2 31- •32 3 10 6 19 4.67 67 33- -34 4 5 9 1.76 71 1 35- ■36 3 1 4 .41 76 37- -38 39- -40 161 158 163 482 133 134 139 406 Means: 47.04 53.01 50.17 36.42 41.39 38.89 APrENDIX A 115 TABLE 5 Distribution of scores made by 486 7A-grade pupils in a 40-question test, Test Z, -vvhieh followed a lesson on Japan, March 2, 1921. Also scores by 410 of these 7A-grade pupils in the same 40-question test resubmitted approximately thirteen Aveeks later. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group. 24-Hour Result- Per cent ex- Delayed Group : B C A ceeding plus Group : B C A half those Score L-R F-L L-F Total reaching : T-Score L-R F-L L-F Tota - 3 3 99.69 23 6 1 1 8 1- - 2 1 2 99.18 26 7 5 12 3- - 4 4 5 98.46 28 6 4 8 18 5- - 6 7 7 97.22 31 15 2 3 20 7- - 8 4 1 6 95.88 33 12 7 8 27 9- -10 8 2 11 94.14 34 21 5 13 39 Il- -12 13 5 20 90.95 37 18 10 13 41 ls- ■14 11 4 16 87.24 39 15 14 10 39 15- -16 8 3 15 84.05 40 7 13 15 35 17- -18 13 2 5 20 80.45 41 9 20 15 44 19- -20 18 3 9 30 75.31 43 7 17 15 39 21- -22 11 4 10 25 69.65 45 5 11 10 26 23- ■24 10 10 12 32 63.79 46 3 11 8 22 25- -26 11 19 20 50 55.35 49 2 10 12 27- -28 14 23 17 54 44.65 51 2 5 3 10 29- -30 6 23 19 48 34.16 54 3 6 9 31- •32 8 28 20 56 23.46 57 1 3 4 33- -34 6 28 18 52 12.35 62 2 1 3 35- ■36 3 12 9 24 4.53 67 1 1 2 37- •38 1 3 4 1.65 71 39- •40 3 3 6 160 166 160 486 136 139 135 410 Means : 43.73 53.93 52.04 35.91 42.12 39.49 116 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS APPENDIX B TABLE 1 Distribution of scores made by 585 7B-grade pupils in a 40-question test, which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of "The Study of a Mountain Glacier" on March 31, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard devia- tion from the mean of the group. Per cent ex- Group: A B C D ceeding plus half those Score S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total reaching : T- Score -17-16 1 1 99.92 19 ■15- -14 -13- -12 1 2 3 99.57 24 -11- -10 1 4 5 98.89 27 - 9- - 8 4 3 5 1 13 97.35 31 - 7- • 6 7 1 4 1 13 95.13 33 - 5- ■ 4 4 4 10 3 21 92.22 36 ■ 3- • 2 9 4 8 2 23 88.46 38- ■ 1- - 0.0 14 9 13 14 50 82.22 41 1- - 2 17 10 /12 11 50 73.68 44 3- - 4 13 12 15 16 56 64.62 46 5- ■ 6 19 10 13 24 66 54.19 49 7- ■ 8 13 15 14 16 58 43.59 52 9- •10 11 13 12 12 48 34.53 54 11- •12 9 12 9 15 45 26.58 56 13- ■14 6 13 10 16 45 18.89 59 15- ■16 6 6 9 7 28 12.65 61 17- •18 3 8 4 4 19 8.63 64 19- •20 3 5 2 3 13 5.90 66 21- •22 1 5 4 4 14 3.59 68 23- 24 2 1 1 4 2.05 70 25- •26 3 3 1.45 72 27-28 1 2 3 .94 74 29- ■30 3 3 .43 76 31- •32 33- •34 1 1 .09 81 35- •36 37-38 39- 40 585 APPENDIX B 117 TABLE 2 Distribution of scores made by 589 7B-grade pupils in a 40-question test which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of ' ' The Earth and Worlds Beyond"' on April 7, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group. •Group: Score D S-P A T-P B F-P C FL-P Total Per cent ex- ceeding plus half those reachiDg : T-Score -13-12 -11-10 1 1 2 1 3 99.92 99.58 19 24 - 9- 8 ■ 7- 6 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 3 8 99.07 98.13 26 29 - 5- 4 ■ 3- 2 2 2 4 10 3 7 1 5 10 24 99.60 93.72 32 35 - 1- 0.0 - 1- 2 4 9 12 10 7 11 7 11 30 40 89.13 83.19 38 40 3- 4 5- 6 15 17 19 22 19 10 20 15 73 64 73.60 61.97 44 47 7- 8 9-10 18 15 21 11 18 12 25 19 82 57 49.58 37.78 50 53 11-12 13-14 19 11 9 7 18 19 13 15 59 53 27.93 18.42 56 59 15-16 17-18 10 7 5 3 3 5 1 3 19 18 12.31 9.17 62 63 19-20 21-22 6 4 3 2 1 7 6 18 11 6.11 3.65 65 68 23-24 25-26 3 2 1 2 1 6 3 2.21 1.44 70 72 27-28 29-30 2 2 2 4 2 .85 .34 74 77 31-32 33-34 1 1 .09 81 35-36 37-38 39-40 598 118 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE 3 Distribution of scores made by 576 7B-grade pupils in a 40-question test which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of "The Southern States" on April 14, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group. Per cent ex- Group : C D A B ceeding plus half those Score S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total reaching : T-Score -3- - 2 2 1 1 4 99.65 23 -1- - 0.0 1 1 99.22 26 1- ■ 2 2 3 5 1 11 98.18 29 3- ■ 4 5 3 4 12 96.18 32 5- ■ 6 8 8 4 1 21 93.32 35 7- ■ 8 9 7 7 4 27 89.15 38 9- ■10 14 10 8 6 38 83.51 40 11- ■12 14 14 14 8 50 75.87 43 IS- -14 13 11 13 14 51 67.10 46 IS- •16 14 14 22 13 63 57.21 48 17- ■18 12 14 19 15 60 46.53 51 19- ■20 9 16 17 14 56 36.46 53 21- ■22 19 14 7 15 55 26.82 56 23- ■24 8 13 10 18 49 17.80 59 25- ■26 14 9 3 10 36 10.42 63 27- ■28 3 3 2 8 16 5.90 66 29- ■30 5 1 1 5 12 3.47 68 31- -32 2 1 1 2 6 1.91 71 33- ■34 2 2 1 1 6 .87 74 35- ■36 1 1 2 .17 79 37- ■38 39- ■40 576 APPENDIX B 119 TABLE 4 Distribution of scores made by 541 7B-grade pupils in a 40-question test which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of "The Growth of Cities and Their Problems" on April 21, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a stan- dard deviation from the mean of the group. Group : Score B S-P C T-P D F-P A FL-P Total Per cent ex- ceeding plus half those reaching : T -Score - 1- 2 1 1 99.91 19 3- 4 5- 6 1 1 1 1 3 1 99.54 99.17 24 26 • 7- 8 9-10 1 2 1 3 1 98.80 98.43 27 28 11-12 13-14 3 2 1 1 1 2 2 5 7 97.87 96.77 30 32 15-16 17-18 5 5 3 9 4 8 7 13 19 35 94.36 89.37 34 38 19-20 21-22 8 19 7 6 6 17 8 21 29 63 83.46 74.95 40 43 23-24 25-26 13 19 21 17 18 20 16 20 68 76 62.85 49.54 47 50 27-28 29-30 14 9 15 22 17 19 21 7 67 57 36.32 24.86 53 57 31-32 33-34 12 8 19 13 10 8 3 7 44 36 15.53 8.13 60 64 35-36 37-38 7 3 7 2 6 1 21 5 2.87 .46 69 76 39-40 541 120 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE 5 Distribution of scores made by 588 7B-grade pupils in a 10-point com- pletion test and a 20-point recall drawing test which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of "The Study of a Mountain Glacier" on March 31, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group. Group : Completion Score A S-P B T-P c F-P D FL-P Total Per cent ex- ceeding plus half those reaching : T-Score 1 10 14 1 16 4 1 5 12 39 98.98 94.64 27 34 2 3 34 32 27 32 26 27 16 20 103 111 82.57 64.37 41 46 4 5 23 15 30 21 29 19 27 23 109 78 45.66 29.76 51 55 6 7 10 2 10 1 21 13 26 18 67 34 17.43 8.84 59 64 8 9 1 2 8 5 12 3 23 8 4.00 1.36 68 72 10 2 2 4 588 .34 77 Drawing Score S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total Per cent T- Score 1 18 49 21 42 12 10 6 1 57 102 95.15 81.63 33 41 2 3 40 12 25 11 14 17 4 9 83 49 65.90 54.68 46 49 4 6 15 2 9 7 29 8 17 18 70 35 44.56 35.63 51 54 6 7 5 15 3 29 7 30 5 79 15 25.94 17.94 56 59 8 9 4 16 3 34 7 54 10 12.07 6.63 62 65 10 11 2 6 1 13 3 21 4 4.00 1.87 68 71 12 13 1 1 3 1 5 1 1.11 .60 73 75 14 15 1 1 .43 76 16 17 1 1 .26 78 18 19 20 1 1 .09 81 688 APPEND.IX B 121 TABLE 6 Distribution of scores made by 589 7B-grade pupils in a 10-point com- pletion test and a 20-point free recall drawing test which followed imme- diately each of four varied presentations of "'The Earth and Worlds Beyond" on April 7, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group.. Per cent ex- Group : D A B C ceeding plus Completion half those Score S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total reaching : T-Sc( 5 16 10 11 42 96.43 32 1 17 48 23 18 106 83.87 40 2 16 39 42 20 117 64.94 46 3 29 19 24 30 102 46.35 51 4 29 11 25 24 89 30.14 55 5 25 6 7 14 52 18.17 59 6 20 2 5 14 41 10.27 63 7 6 2 15 23 4.84 67 8 5 J. 10 16 1.53 72 9 1 1 .08 82 10 589 ►rawing Score S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total Per cent T-Score 35 26 7 2 70 94.06 34 1 18 41 12 5 76 81.66 41 2 24 26 15 4 69 69.35 45 3 11 11 11 10 43 59.85 48 4 15 14 22 12 63 50.85 50 5 11 7 15 19 52 41.09 52 6 12 7 9 12 40 33.28 54 7 9 4 12 12 37 26.74 56 8 5 2 9 11 27 21.31 58 9 2 2 5 11 20 17.32 59 10 3 5 12 20 13.92 61 11 1 8 9 18 10.70 62 12 2 2 8 12 8.15 64 13 2 4 6 6.62 65 14 2 2 5 9 5.35 66 15 1 6 7 3.99 68 16 2 4 6 2.89 69 17 2 1 5 8 1.70 71 18 3 3 .76 74 19 1 1 .42 76 20 2 2 .17 7S 689 122 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE 7 Distribution of scores made by 573 7B-gTade pupils in a 10-point com- pletion test and a 20-point free recall drawing test which followed imme- diately each of four varied presentations of "The Southern States" on April 14, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which rep- resents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group. Group : Completion Score C S-P D T-P A F-P B FL-P Total Per cent ex- ceeding plus half those reaching : T -Score 1 1 10 6 5 6 10 1 2 14 27 98.78 95.20 27 33 2 3 22 31 12 24 17 32 12 19 63 106 87.35 72.60 39 44 4 5 25 22 34 26 34 19 32 30 125 97 52.44 33.07 49 54 6 7 16 16 23 9 8 9 26 11 73 45 18.24 7.94 59 64 8 9 10 2 4 5 19 2 2.36 .52 70 76 10 1 1 2 573 .17 79 Drawing Score S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total Per cent T-Score 1 2 3 2 1 4 4 99.65 98.95 23 27 2 3 4 4 2 3 3 7 3 4 12 18 97.56 94.94 30 34 4 5 3 13 10 6 3 9 6 8 22 36 91.45 86.39 36 39 6 7 11 15 6 14 8 17 8 16 33 62 80.37 72.08 41 44 8 9 14 5 7 9 14 14 7 15 42 43 63.00 55.58 47 49 10 11 13 15 25 19 11 10 19 9 68 ■ 53 45.90 35.34 51 54 12 13 18 14 16 9 7 13 11 8 52 44 26.18 17.80 56 59 14 15 8 6 9 5 6 7 12 7 35 25 10.91 5.67 62 66 16 17 5 1 1 2 1 1 5 1 12 5 2.44 .96 70 73 18 19 1 1 2 .35 77 20 1 1 .09 81 APPENDIX B 123 TABLE 8 Distribution of scores made by 541 7B-grade pupils in a 10-point com- pletion test and a 20-point free recall drawing test which followed imme- diately each of four varied presentations of "The Growth of Cities and Their Problems" on April 21, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group. Group : Completion Score B S-P C T-P D F-P A FL-P Total Per cent ex- ceeding plus half those reaching : T-Score 1 1 12 5 4 1 4 4 10 11 30 99.17 95.37 26 33 2 3 23 25 16 28 6 10 18 23 63 86 86.76 72.96 39 44 4 5 21 9 25 27 14 24 26 23 86 83 57.04 41.39 48 52 6 7 17 9 16 12 24 30 17 9 74 60 26.85 14.44 56 61 8 9 8 2 8 3 16 8 32 13 5.93 1.76 66 71 10 2 1 3 541 .28 78 Drawing Score S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total Per cent T- Score 1 3 2 1 1 3 2 9 3 99.35 98.24 25 29 2 3 3 6 2 4 2 2 3 7 15 97.31 95.28 31 33 4 5 5 8 5 8 3 3 5 7 18 26 92.22 88.15 36 38 6 7 7 14 18 21 11 10 6 10 42 55 81.85 72.87 41 44 8 9 16 16 14 18 9 8 6 16 44 58 63.70 54.26 46 49 10 11 11 10 7 4 12 14 13 15 43 43 44.91 36.94 51 53 12 13 3 7 9 10 9 16 11 13 32 46 30.00 22.78 55 57 14 15 6 8 9 6 13 12 5 4 32 29 15.56 9.91 60 63 16 17 4 1 2 1 5 6 4 3 15 11 5.83 3.43 66 68 18 19 4 2 3 2 1 9 3 1.57 .46 72 76 20 1 1 .09 81 511 124 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE 9 Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the three tests which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of "The Study of a Mountain Glacier" on March 31, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group. Per cent ex- Group: A B C D ceeding plus half those Yes-No S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total reaching : T-Score -13-12 1 1 99.8 21 -11-10 4 4 98.8 27 - 9- 8 1 2 2 5 97.1 31 - 7- 6 2 1 3 1 7 94.7 34 - 5- 4 2 1 5 2 10 91.4 30 - 3- 2 4 3 2 2 11 87.3 39 -1.99- 0.00 6 6 6 10 28 79.7 42 0.01- 2.00 8 3 7 6 24 69.5 45 3- 4 7 5 9 6 27 59.6 48 5- 6 8 5 7 10 30 48.4 50 7- 8 6 7 4 5 22 38.3 53 9-10 6 6 6 6 24 29.3 55 11-12 4 7 1 5 17 21.3 58 13-14 2 4 1 7 14 15.2 60 15-16 4 3 1 2 10 10.5 62 17-18 1 4 3 1 9 6.8 65 19-20 2 3 1 6 3.9 68 21-22 1 3 1 5 1.8 71 27-28 1 1 2 256 .4 77 Completion S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total Per cent T-Score 3 1 4 99.2 26 1 3 9 1 4 17 95.1 33 2 14 13 12 10 49 82.2 41 3 16 20 19 12 67 59.6 48 4 12 10 10 14 46 37.5 53 5 9 10 6 8 33 22.1 58 6 7 2 10 6 25 10.7 62 7 4 7 11 3.7 68 8 2 1 3 1.0 73 9 1 1 256 .2 79 Drawing S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total Per cent T-Score 8 1 8 3 20 96.1 32 1 19 21 5 1 46 83.2 40 2 19 21 7 3 50 64.5 46 3 7 6 8 4 25 49.8 50 4 7 5 8 6 26 39.8 53 5 2 2 4 10 18 31.3 55 6 2 5 14 13 34 21.1 58 7 1 3 3 7 13.1 61 8 1 5 11 17 8.4 64 9 2 2 4.7 67 10 1 1 6 8 2.7 69 11 1 1 2 .8 74 12 1 1 .2 79 256 APPENDIX B 125 TABLE 10 Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B- three tests which followed immediately each of the four of "The Earth and Worlds Beyond," on April 7, 1921. verted into T-Scale irnits, each of which represent one deviation from the mean of the group : Group: D A B C Yes-No -11-10 - 9- 8 - 7- 6 - 5- 4 -3-2 -1.99-0.00 0.01-2.00 3- 4 5- 6 7- 8 9-10 11-12 13-14 15-16 17-18 19-20 21-22 23-24 Completion Score 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 Drawing Score 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16 16 17 18 S-P 1 1 4 5 11 9 8 6 5 5 4 2 2 1 S-P 4 11 11 12 14 10 2 S-P 21 10 13 6 5 1 5 1 2 T-P 1 1 1 3 3 7 11 9 11 3 6 2 4 1 1 T-P 6 23 14 9 T-P 11 14 14 4 9 6 2 1 1 1 1 F-P 1 1 4 6 5 7 5 9 6 10 6 2 2 F-P 5 11 27 5 10 3 2 1 F-P 3 3 7 7 9 7 6 6 3 3 FL-P 2 3 4 4 12 5 9 7 7 5 1 1 3 1 FL-P 4 8 12 13 15 6 1 3 2 FL-P 1 2 2 9 7 7 3 5 6 3 5 4 1 1 3 3 1 Total 1 5 3 10 17 21 41 28 37 22 28 18 10 6 4 3 2 256 Total 19 53 64 39 47 21 5 6 2 256 Total 36 29 36 26 30 21 16 12 10 2 2 4 4 3 1 1 256 grade pupils in the varied presentations Original steps eon- tenth of a standard Per cent ex- ceeding plus half those reaching : 99.8 99.6 98.6 97.1 94.5 89.3 81.8 69.7 56.3 43.6 32.0 22.3 13.3 7.8 4.7 2.7 1.4 .4 Per cent 96.3 82.2 59.4 39.3 22.5 9.2 4.1 2.0 .4 Per cent 93.0 80.3 67.6 55.5 44.5 34.6 27.3 21.9 17.6 14.1 11.1 8.2 6.3 5.5 4.3 2.7 1.4 .6 .2 '-Score 21 24 28 31 34 38 41 45 48 52 55 58 61 64 67 69 . 72 77 -Score 32 41 48 53 58 63 67 71 77 T-Score 35 41 45 49 51 54 56 58 59 61 62 64 65 66 67 69 72 75 78 126 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE 11 Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the three tests which followed immediately each of the four varied presentations of "The Southern States," on April 14, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a standard deviation from the mean of the group: Per cent ex- Group: C D A B ceeding plus half those Yes-No S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total reaching : T-Score - 3- 2 2 1 3 99.4 25 -1.99-0.00 1 1 98.6 28 0.01-2.00 2 3 1 6 97.3 31 3- 4 3 1 4 95.3 33 5- 6 4 5 2 1 12 92.2 36 7- 8 7 5 2 2 16 86.7 39 9-10 4 6 3 2 15 80.7 41 11-12 6 7 8 3 24 73.0 44 13-14 7 5 6 7 25 63.5 47 15-16 7 6 9 6 28 53.1 49 17-18 4 6 8 7 25 42.8 52 19-20 4 8 9 9 30 32.0 55 21-22 7 5 7 5 24 21.5 58 23-24 3 2 5 7 17 13.5 61 25-26 3 4 6 13 7.6 64 27-28 1 1 2 4 4.3 67 29-30 3 3 2.9 69 31-32 1 2 3 1.8 71 33-34 1 1 1 3 256 .6 75 Completion S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total Per cent T-Score 4 1 1 6 98.8 27 1 3 4 4 1 12 95.3 33 2 13 6 5 6 30 87.1 39 3 19 15 19 11 64 68.8 45 4 7 18 16 12 52 46.1 51 5 11 8 8 13 40 28.1 56 6 6 7 6 16 35 13.5 61 7 4 1 6 3 14 3.9 68 8 1 1 1 3 256 .6 75 Drawing S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total Per cent T-Score 1 1 2 99.6 23 1 99.2 26 2 1 2 1 2 6 98.0 29 3 3 3 1 7 95.5 33 4 3 5 1 3 12 91.8 36 5 8 2 2 3 15 86.5 39 6 5 6 5 4 20 79.7 42 7 5 9 10 6 30 69.9 45 8 8 4 7 2 21 60.0 47 9 5 9 7 21 51.8 50 10 7 10 4 12 33 41.2 52 11 7 5 8 6 26 29.7 55 12 7 6 3 6 22 20.3 58 13 5 2 8 3 18 12.5 62 14 1 4 3 7 15 6.1 65 15 1 1 1 2 5 2.1 70 16 2 2 .8 74 17 1 1 .2 79 256 APPENDIX B 127 TABLE 12 Distribution of scores made by 256 selected 7B-grade pupils in the three tests which followed immediately each of four varied presentations of "The Growth of Cities and Their Problems, " on April 21, 1921. Original steps converted into T-Scale units, each of which represents one-tenth of a naara aevi aiion ir om me n lean oi i ne group Per cent ex- ceeding plus half those Yes-No S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total reaching : T-Score 3- 4 1 1 2 99.6 23 5- 6 7- 8 1 1 99.0 27 9-10 11-12 1 1 98.6 28 13-14 1 1 2 4 97.7 30 15-16 2 1 2 5 10 94.9 34 17-18 4 4 6 4 18 89.5 37 19-20 3 4 6 3 16 82.8 41 21-22 11 4 12 7 34 73.0 44 23-24 7 11 8 8 34 59.8 48 25-26 11 9 10 10 40 45.3 51 27-28 7 9 10 13 39 29.9 55 29-30 5 9 3 3 20 18.4 59 31-32 7 5 3 2 17 11.1 62 33-34 3 4 1 6 14 5.1 66 35-36 2 1 1 4 1.6 71 37-38 1 1 2 256 .4 77 Completion S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total Per cent T-Score 1 1 1 3 99.4 25 1 7 3 2 4 16 95.7 33 2 10 11 5 9 35 85.7 39 3 16 14 8 10 48 69.5 45 4 13 10 7 17 47 51.0 50 5 2 13 15 11 41 33.8 54 6 9 2 8 7 26 20.7 58 7 4 5 15 5 29 10.0 63 8 2 3 4 9 2.5 70 9 1 1 .6 75 10 1 1 256 .2 79 Drawing S-P T-P F-P FL-P Total Per cent T-Score 3 1 1 1 6 98.8 27 1 1 1 97.5 30 2 2 1 3 96.7 32 3 5 2 7 94.7 34 4 1 1 2 3 7 92.0 36 5 5 6 3 4 18 87.1 39 6 1 10 6 3 20 79.7 42 7 8 12 5 2 27 70.5 45 8 6 8 6 2 22 60.9 47 9 10 7 5 10 32 50.5 50 10 6 2 7 5 20 40.2 52 11 3 8 10 21 32.2 55 12 2 2 4 7 15 25.2 57 13 2 6 7 5 20 18.4 59 14 3 3 4 2 12 12.1 62 15 5 3 4 2 14 7.0 65 16 1 3 4 3.5 68 17 1 3 4 2.0 71 18 1 1 1.0 73 19 1 1 2 .4 77 256 128 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE 13 Distribution of scores made by 513 7B-grade pupils in two tests which were submitted ten weeks after the presentation of "The Study of a Moun- tain Glacier," on March 31, 1921: Completion T-Score Study (A) Pupils Teacher (B) Pupils Film (C) Pupils Film-Lecture (D) Pupils 27 34 6 28 7 27 10 18 1 8 41 46 35 28 36 22 40 31 25 38 51 55 15 3 15 7 18 10 28 16 59 64 3 2 12 6 10 6 68 1 1 Means : 41.90 41.92 44.91 48.46 Abbreviated Drawing Test T-Score Study (A) Pupils Teacher (B) Pupils Fihn (C) Pupils Film-Lecture (D) Pupils 32 38 11 17 3 16 11 11 11 6 45 50 40 20 43 20 37 23 11 18 54 58 21 5 22 5 25 14 25 17 62 65 3 5 1 12 3 19 8 68 74 1 1 8 15 2 78 1 2 Means : 46.41 47.93 49.86 54.72 APPENDIX B 129 TABLE 14 Distribution of scores made by 525 7B-grade pupils in two tests which were submitted nine weeks after the presentation of ' ' The Earth and Worlds Beyond," on April 7, 1921 : Completion T-Score Study (D) Pupils Teacher (A) Pupils Film (B) Pupils Film-Lecture (C) Pupils 32 40 8 33 26 46 18 53 17 36 46 51 35 19 36 10 36 7 42 20 55 59 21 14 3 6 1 8 10 63 67 3 1 1 5 8 72 82 1 1 Means : 47.56 41.56 42.30 47.10 Abbreviated Drawing Test T-Score Study (D) Pupils Teacher (A) Pupils Film (B) Pupils Film-Lecture (C) Pupils 35 44 27 29 21 46 10 20 15 45 49 52 13 16 18 16 24 16 13 13 55 68 17 9 8 4 15 15 12 12 61 65 13 3 3 3 12 6 17 8 68 72 4 2 2 2 2 6 6 79 1 1 Means : 49.25 47.03 51.93 51.69 130 COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF VISUAL AIDS TABLE 15 Distribution of scores made by 508 7B-grade pupils in two tests which were submitted eight weeks after the presentation of "The Southern States, ' ' on April 14, 1921 : Completion T-Score Study (C) Pupils Teacher (D) Pupils Film (A) Pupils Film-Lecture (B) Pupils 27 33 6 22 3 7 5 21 4 14 39 44 32 37 30 38 24 26 26 36 49 54 23 12 28 14 28 7 24 5 59 64 11 2 4 a 4 1 5 2 70 2 2 Means: 43.92 44.96 42.74 43.87 Abbreviated Drawing Test T-Score Study (C) Pupils Teacher (D) Pupils Film (A) Pupils Fihn-Lecture (B) Pupils 23 28 1 1 2 3 1 1 35 41 14 19 12 15 10 18 15 14 46 52 36 32 33 22 21 25 26 23 57 63 26 12 24 12 19 9 25 8 68 72 6 1 4 4 7 3 1 77 1 2 1 Means : 50.00 50.46 49.69 49.36 APPENDIX B 131 TABLE 16 Distribution of scores made by 487 7B-grade pupils in two tests which were submitted seven weeks after the presentation of "Growth of Cities and Their Problems." on April 21, 1921: iompletion T-Score Study (B) Pupils Teacher (C) Pupils Film (D) Pupils Film-Lecture (A) Pupils 26 33 14 20 10 27 3 9 14 26 39 44 36 18 33 41 16 27 27 23 48 62 15 5 18 4 31 22 16 6 56 61 2 6 1 8 5 1 66 1 3 Means: 38.85 40.68 46.53 39.14 Abbreviated Drawing Test T-Score Study (B) Pupils Teacher (C) Pupils 21 32 7 1 12 41 47 30 22 32 28 52 66 18 19 25 19 61 65 7 6 10 4 69 73 3 6 1 79 2 Fihn (D) Pupils Fihn-Lecture (A) Pupils 3 1 13 12 16 19 29 32 21 22 17 25 10 4 5 3 2 3 Means: 49.07 49.23 54.10 48.35