■ H ^M : FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE PRESENT TIME For Schools and Colleges JOHN MacCARTHY. SECOND EDITION, New York: THE CATHOLIC PUBLICATION SOCIETY CO. 9 BARCLAY STREET. 1882. iTHE LIBRARY I iOF CONGRESS * WASHINGTON (• Copyrighted by THE CATHOLIC PUBLICATION SOCIETY CO. 1882, H. J. HEWITT, PRINTER, 27 ROSE STREET, NEW TORE. PREFACE HIS text-book is prepared with a view of grouping and presenting in a clear and comprehensive form the chief events in the history of all the peoples who have played or are playing an important part in the world. It takes in the ancient races from the creation of man down : Egypt; the Assyrian and Babylonian Empires ; the Jews ; Media and Persia ; Phoenicia and Carthage ; Greece and the empire of Alexander ; the Eoman Kepub- lic and Empire ; the disruption of that empire and the slow formation of the Christian states ; the great mediae- val period with its wonderful movements ; and the mod- ern period, dating from the Protestant Eeformation down to the present day. This covers the whole map of hu- man history ; and students are thus enabled to gain in a single volume a general and, it is to be hoped, a sound and intelligent view of the history of the world into which they are born. The book has been prepared espe- cially to meet the wants of those who, from whatever cause, are prevented from devoting sufficient time to the study of special epochs, or special races and peoples, in 7 8 Preface. history. In a work of this kind two difficulties present themselves : one is to fasten on the chief events and personages in the history of each people and give them due prominence ; the other to construct an interesting and continuous narrative out of what is necessarily but the skeleton of history. These difficulties it has been the writer's aim to overcome. The questions at the foot of the page will be found of equal benefit to both teach- er and pupil. John MacCakthy. New York, July, 1883. CONTENTS. ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAPTER I. PAGE Egypt, 21 Section 1. Ancient Empire. Sec. 2. New Empire ; Kings of the Eight- eenth and Nineteenth Dynasties ; Thontmosis III. and Eamses II. Sec. 3. Decline of the New Empire: Ethiopian Kings (725-665 B.C.), and Saite Kings (665-525 B.C.) ; Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses (525 B.C.) Sec. 4. Religion, Government, Laws, Science, etc., of the Egyp- tians. CHAPTER II. Assyria and Babylon, 31 Section 1. Babylon and Ninive : First Assyrian Empire (1314-789 B.C.); Second Assyrian Empire (744-625 B.C.) Sec. 2. Babylonian or Chaldean Empire (625-538 B.C.) Sec. 3. Religion, Government, etc. CHAPTER III. The Hebrews, 39 CHAPTER IT. Media and Persia, 44 • Section 1. Origin of the Medes and Persians: Early Government; Con- quest and Empire of Cyrus (559-529 B.C.) Sec. 2. Cambyses (529-522 B.C.) ; Smerdis (522-521 B.C.) ; Darius I. (521-500 B.C.) ; Institutions and Customs of the Medes and Persians. CHAPTER Y. Phoenicia and Carthage, 50 Section 1. Sidon and Tyre. Sec. 2. Carthage. CHAPTER YI. Greece, 55 Section 1. Primitive Greece. Sec. 2. Median Wars (500-449 B.C.) Sec. 3. Pericles; Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) 10 Contents. chapter VII. PAGE Macedonia : Empire of Alexander the Great, 73 Section 1. Philip (360-337 B.C.) Sec. 2. Alexander the Great (326-323 B.C.) Sec. 3. Dismemberment of Alexander's Empire. CHAPTER VIII. States formed out of Alexander's Empire, 79 Section!. Egypt tinder the Lagi (323-30 B.C.) Sec. 2. Syria under the Seleucidee (301-64 B.C.) Sec. 3. Kingdom of Macedonia (319-148 B.C.) and Greece (301-146 b.c.) ROMAN HISTORY. THE MONARCHY. CHAPTER I. Foundation of Rome, 91 Section 1. Romulus and his first Three Successors (753-616 B.C.) Sec. 2. The last Three Kings (616-509 B.C.) TEE BE PUBLIC. CHAPTER I. Feuds and Conquests in Italy (509-264 B.C.), 97 Section 1. The Consulate (509 B.C.) ; the Dictatorship (498 B.C.) ; the Tri- bunes of the People (493 B.C.) Sec. 2. The Decemviri (450-449 B.C.) ; the Censorship (444 b.c) ; Military Tribunes ; Wars with the Veientes and the Gauls. Sec. 3. Political Equality of Patricians and Plebeians ; Local and Foreign Wars. CHAPTER II. War against Carthage and her Allies, 105 Section 1. First Punic War (264-241 B.C.) Sec. 2. Second Punic War; Hannibal. Sec. 3. Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.) CHAPTER III. Civil Wars and Last Conquests (133-29 B.C.), 115 Section 1. The Gracchi ; Jugurtha ; Maritts. Sec. 2. Wars against Mithri- dates (88-63 B.C.); Sulla; Spartacus; Catiline. Sec. 3. The First Tri- umvirate (60 B.C.) ; Ceesar and Pompey (48 B.C.) ; Antony and Octavius. CHAPTER IV. Institutions, Manners, and Customs of the Romans, 128 Contents. ' 11 the empire. chapter i. PAGE The Principate (29 b.c-284 a.d.), 132 Section 1. The Family of Augustus (29 b.c-68 a.d.) ; Birth of Christian- ity ; First Persecution, under Nero. Sec. 2. The three Military Usur- pers (68-69 a.d.) ; the three Princes of the Flavian Family (69-96 a.d.) ; the Catacombs. Sec. 3. The Antonines (96-192 a.d.) ; the Preetorian Emperors (192-193 a.d.) Sec. 4. The Syrian Princes (193-235 a.d.) . Military' Anarchy (235-268 a.d.) ; the lllyrian Princes (268-284 a.d.) CHAPTER II. The Monarchical (284-312 a.d,) and Christian Empire (313-395 a.d.), . . 151 Section 1. Diocletian (284-305 a.d.) ; Constantine the Great (306-337 a.d.) ; Edict of Milan (a.d. 313). Sec. 2. The three Sons of Constantine : Con- stantius (337-361 a.d.), Constans (337-350 a.d.), and Constantine II. (337-340 a.d.) HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. FIRST EPOCH. CHAPTER I. The Barbaric Invasions and Fall of the "Western Empire (395-476), . . 161 Section 1. Honorius (395-423) ; Alaric and Radagasius. Sec. 2. Yalentin- ianTIL (424-455); Genserie and Attila; the Yandals in Africa (429). Sec. 3. The last Emperors and the Confederates. CHAPTER II. Gaul — The Merovingian Franks, 169 Section 1. Clovis L- and his Conquests (481-511). Sec. 2. Wars and Con- quests of Clovis' Successors till the Death of Dagobert I. (511-638). CHAPTER 111. Great Britain — The. Anglo-Saxons, . . . _ . ,' . . . 174 CHAPTER IT. Spain — The Yisigoths, 176 12 Contents. chapter Y. PAGE Italy and the Eastern Empire, 177 Section 1. Italy under the Heruli. Sec. 2. The Ostrogoths ; Theodoric the Great and his Successors. Sec. 3. The Eastern Empire after Theo- dosius ; Reign of Justinian (527-565). Sec. 4. The Lombards in Italy (568-774). CHAPTER YI. The Church and the Barbarians, 185 Section 1. The Church and the Early Heresies. Sec. 2. Conversion of the Barbarians. SECOND EPOCH. CHAPTER I. The Carlovingians, 190 Section 1. The " Sluggard " Kings and the Mayors of the Palace (638-752). Sec. 2. Pepin the Short (752-768) ; Charlemagne (768-814). CHAPTER II. Mohammedanism — The Arab Empire, 197 Section 1. Mohammed (570-635). Sec. 2. The Elective Caliphate (632-661). Sec. 3. The Ommiades at Damascus (661-750). Sec. 4. The Abbassides. Sec. 5. Arabian Civilization. CHAPTER III. The Eastern Empire in the Seventh and Eighth Centuries, . . . .208 Section 1. The Heraclian Djmasty and Monothelism. Sec. 2. The Iconoclastic Isaurian Emperors. CHAPTER IT. The Church and Christian Civilization 212 Section 1 . Influence of the Pope and the Bishops. Sec. 2. The Monks of the West. TRIED EPOCH. CHAPTER I. The Carlovingian Empire and the Feudal System 216 Section 1. The two Dismemberments of the Carlovingian Empire (843 and 888). Sec. 2. Feudalism in Europe. Sec. 3. The last Carlovingians (888-987) and the first three Capetian Kings (987-1060). Contents, 13 chaptee ii. PAGE The Invasions of the Ninth and Tenth Centuries, . . . . . 224 Section 1. Invasions of the Saracens and Hungarians. Sec. 2. The Nor- man Invasions. CHAPTER III. Germany and Italy, 234 Section 1. The Germanic Kingdom and the Northern Paces (888-962). Sec. 2. Italy and the "Western Empire (888-962). Sec. 3. The German Emperors of the West (962). Sec. 4. Cis-Juran and Trans-Juran Bur- gundy. CHAPTEE IV. Spain, the Arabs, and the Greeks, ....,,... 243 Section 1. Struggle between the Arabs and Spanish Christians. Sec. 2. The Greek Empire. CHAPTEE Y. The Church and Feudalism, 248 Section 1. The Catholic Hierarchy in and about the Tenth Century. Sec. 2. Conversion of the Scandinavians ; St. Anscarius. Sec. 3. Con- version of the Slavs. FOUBTH EPOCH. CHAPTEE I. The Popes and the Empire (1073-1250), . 254 Section 1. Investitures. Sec. 2. The Popes and the Hohenstaufens (1137-1272). CHAPTEE II. The Crusades in the East, 272 Section 1. First Crusade (1095-1099). Sec. 2. The Children's Crusade (1212) ; Fifth Crusade (1217-1221). Sec. 3. The Two Crusades of St. Louis. CHAPTEE III. The Crusades in Europe, 283 Section 1. Crusades against the Moors in Spain. Sec. 2. Crusade against the Albigenses (1208-1229). Sec. 3. Crusades against the Pagans of the Baltic (1204-1237). 14 Contents. chapter IV. PAGE France, England, and Ireland, 290 Section 1. Progress of Royalty in France ; Philip I. (1060-1108). Sec. 2. England. Sec. 3. Ireland. Sec. 4. Struggles in England; Magna Charta. CHAPTER Y. The Scandinavians, Slavs, and Mongols, 304 Section 1. Scandinavian Kingdoms. Sec. 2. The Slavonian Tribes. Sec. 3. The Mongols and the Empire of Jenghis Khan. CHAPTER TI. The Two great Centuries of the Middle Ages, 312 Section 1. Zenith of the Papacy and the Church. Sec. 2. Theological Sciences, National Languages, Christian Art. FIFTH EPOCH. CHAPTER I. The Great Schism of the West, . 318 Section 1, Boniface Till, and Philip the Fair. Sec. 2. The Great Schism (1378-1417). CHAPTER II. France and England — The Hundred Tears' War, 327 Section 1. The Last Capets. Sec. 2. Anarchy in England and France. CHAPTER III. Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, 337 Section 1. Germany. Sec. 2. Switzerland and Italy. Sec. 3. Italy: Struggle of the Guelphs and Ghibelines. CHAPTER IT. Spain — The Five Kingdoms, 347 CHAPTER T. Scandinavia and the Slavic Countries, ..... • 351 Section 1. The Three Scandinavian Kingdoms. Sec. 2. The Enslaved Slavs. Contexts. 15 chapter yi. PAGE The Greek Empire and the Ottoman Turks, 356 Section 1. Turkish Conquests to the Battle of Angora (1299-1402). Sec. 2. The Mongol Empire. Sec. 3. The Ottoman Turks to the Taking of Constantinople. MODERN HISTORY. FIRST EPOCH. CHAPTER I. Struggle with the Turks, . . 363 Section 1. Mohammed II. (1451-1481). Sec. 2. The Renaissance in Italy. CHAPTER II. The Decline of Feudalism, 366 Section 1. France: Louis XI. (1461-1483); Charles Vni. (1483-1498). Sec. 2. England: Wars of the Roses (1455-1485). Sec. 3. Spain: Fer- dinand the Catholic (1479-1516) and Isabella (1474-1504). Sec. 4. Mari- time Discoveries and Conquests of the Spaniards. Sec. 5. Portugal : Maritime Discoveries and Conquests. Sec. 6. Germany: Frederick HI. (1440-1493) and Maximilian I. (1493-1519). CHAPTER III. The Italian "Wars of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, .... 386 Section 1. Charles VIII. in Italy (1494-1495). Sec. 2. Francis I. (1513- 1547). SECOND EPOCH. CHAPTER I. The Protestant Reformation, 390 Section!. Germany: Luther (1483-1546). Sec. 2. Scandinavian Nations. Sec. 3. Switzerland and France. Sec. 4. Protestantism in England. Sec. 5. True Reform ; the Council of Trent (1545-1563). 1 6 Contents. chapter ii. PAGE Rivalry of France and Austria, 404 Section 1. Francis I. and Charles Y. (1519-1547). Sec. 2. Henry II. (1547-1559). Sec. 3. The Ottoman Turks ; Soliman II. (1520-1566). CHAPTER III. Religious Wars in France, 411 Section 1. Francis II. (1559-1560). Sec. 2. Regency of Catherine de' Medici. Sec. 3. Henry III. (1574-1589). Sec. 4. Henry IY. (1589-1610). CHAPTER IY. Philip II. and Elizabeth, 418 Section 1. Philip II. (1556-1598). Sec. 2. Elizabeth (1558-1603). Sec. 3. Mary Stuart. CHAPTER Y. Louis XIII. (1610-1643)— Thirty Years' War, 428 Section 1. Concini, De Luynes, and Richelieu. Sec. 2. Ministry of Riche- lieu (1624-1642). Sec. 3. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). Sec. 4. The Swedish Period (1630-1635). Sec. 5. The French Period under Louis XIII. (1635-1643). THIRD EPOCH. CHAPTER I. Louis XIY. and Mazarin (1643-1661), 437 Section 1. Regency of Anne of Austria (1643-1651). Sec. 2. The Fronde (1 648-1652) ; Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). Sec. 3. England: James I. (1603-1625) ; Charles I. (1625-1649) ; the Commonwealth (1649-1660); the Protectorate (1653-1658). CHAPTER II. First Wars and Conquests of Louis XIY. (1661-1668), 446 Section 1. Personal Government of Louis XIY. Sec. 2. War of Spolia- tion (1667). Sec. 3. Second War of Spoliation (1672-1678). Sec. 4. Declaration of 1682 ; Jansenism ; Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685). Sec. 5. Revolution of 1688 in England ; Charles II. (1660-1685) ; James II. (1685-1688); William III. (1689-1702). CHAPTER III. Ireland, 453 Section 1. English Invasion of Ireland. Sec. 2. Ireland and the Tudors- (1509-1603). Sec. 3. Ireland and the Stuarts (1603-1649). Sec. 4. Crom- well in Ireland. Sec. 5. William and Mary (1689-1702). Contents. 17 chapter it. PAGE Louis XIY. after the League of Augsburg (1688-1715), . . . .459 Section 1. War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697). Sec. 2. "War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). CHAPTER V. Europe in the Time of Louis XIY., 462 Section 1. Sweden and the North; Charles XII. (1697-1718). Sec. 2. Russia: Peter the Great (1682-1725). Sec. 3. Humiliation of Turkey. FOURTH EPOCH. CHAPTER I. Louis XY. (1715-1774), 469 Section 1. The Regency (1715-1723) and Ministry of the Duke de Bour- bon (1723-1726). Sec. 2. Ministry of Cardinal Fleury (1726-1743). Sec. 3. The American Colonies. Sec. 4. England : Queen Anne (1702- 1714) ; the House of Hanover. Sec. 5. The Seven Years' War (1756- 1763) CHAPTER II. The Two Revolutions, • 484 Section 1. The -American Revolution (1775-1783). Sec. 2. Louis XYI. and the French Revolution (1774-1789). Sec. 3. Louis XYI. and the Legislative Assembly (1791-1792) CHAPTER III. Europe in the Eighteenth Century, 493 Section 1. Joseph II. of Austria (1780-1790). Sec. 2. Rise of Prussia under Frederick II. Sec. 3. Russia under Catherine II. (1762-1796). Sec. 4. Events in Portugal, Spain, and Italy. FIFTH EPOCH CHAPTER I. The first French Republic, 500 Section 1. The Convention after the Execution ot Louis XYI. (1793- 1795). Sec. 2. The Reign of Terror. Sec. 3. The Directory (1795- 1799). Sec. 4. The Consulate (1799-1804). 18 Contexts. chapter ii. PAGE The Empire (1804-1815), 518 Section 1. The Empire to the Treaty of Tilsit (1804-1807). Sec. 2. The Empire in its Zenith (1807-1812). Sec. 3. Decadence and Fall of the Empire (1812-1814). Sec. 4. Great Britain and Ireland. Sec. 5. The | American Union. SIXTH EPOCH. CHAPTER I. The State of France, . . . • 543 Section 1. France after the Fall of Napoleon. Sec. 2. The Revolution of 1830. CHAPTER II. Catholic Emancipation and Reform in Great Britain and Ireland, . . . 546 Section. 1. George IT. (1820-1830). Sec. 2. The Political Struggle in Great Britain. CHAPTER m. Reform on the Continent of Europe, 548 Section 1. Popular Discontent. Sec. 2. Growing Rivalry between Aus- tria and Prussia. CHAPTER IV. The Eastern Question 551 CHAPTER V. Progress of Events in the United States (1816-1848), 552 Section 1. The Question of Slavery. Sec. 2. War with Mexico. SEVEXTH EPOCH. CHAPTER I. The Revolution of 1848, 556 Sec. 1. The Revolution in France (1848). Sec. 2. Revolt in Prussia and Central Germany. Sec. 3. Revolt in Austria. Sec. 4. The Revolution in Italy. Sec. 5. Reforms in Great Britain and Ireland. CHAPTER II. Russia and the Eastern Question, 560 Section 1. The Crimean War (1854-1856). Sec. 2. Russian Advance in Asia. Contents. 19 chapter iii. PAGE Concentration of the Great Powers, 562 Section 1. Downfall of the French Republic. Sec. 2. Movements in Italy. Sec. 3. Prussian Development. Sec. 4. "War between France and Ger- many (1870-1871). CHAPTER IT. Russia after the Crimean War, 570 Section 1. Reforms of Alexander II. Sec. 2. Russian Schemes of Aggran- dizement. Sec. 3. War between Russia and Turkey (1876-1877). Sec. 4. The new German Empire. Sec. 5. Austro-Hungary (1867-1881). CHAPTER Y. Recent Events in Italy, France, Spain, and the minor States of Europe, . 577 Section 1. Italian Unification. Sec. 2. The new French Republic. Sec. 3. Spain (1868-1881). Sec. 4. Minor States of Europe. CHAPTER YI. The British Empire (1848-1881), 584 Section 1. The Indian Mutiny. Sec. 2. Irish Disturbances (1854-1880). CHAPTER YII. The United States since the Mexican "War 590 CHAPTER Till. The American Continent, 596 Section 1. Canada. Sec. 2. Mexico. Sec. 3. Brazil. Sec. 4. Other States of Central and South America. History of the World. ANCIENT HISTOET. CHAPTER I. E&YPT. The history of Egypt, frora the formation of the empire to its subjugation by the Persians, divides itself into three periods: 1. The Ancient Empire, which was marked by the building of the Pyramids ; and the Middle Empire, which was destroyed by the invasion of the Hyksos, or Shepherd-kings. 2. The New Empire, founded by the kings of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties. 3. The decline of the New Empire, from the end of the fourteenth century b.c. to the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, King of the Persians, B.C. 525. There were twenty-six dynasties in all. SECTION I. Ancient Empire. 1. Memphis. — After the dispersion of mankind Misraim, son of Cham, peopled Egypt, which was called the land of Misraim and stretched along the fertile banks of the river Nile. But the founder of the Egyptian monarchy was Menes, a descendant of Misraim. Menes was the first to check the waters of the Nile, on whose annual overflow the land depends for its fruitfulness, there being little rain in Egypt. He dug a new bed for the river, whose waters wasted themselves on the Libyan sands. On the left bank, near the delta of the Nile, he built a city which he named Memphis, or "the good residence." This was Egypt's first capital. State divisions of history of Egypt. How many dynasties were there ? 1 . Where does Egypt lie 1 Who founded the Egyptian monarchy 1 For what is he famous 1 What was Egypt's first capital ? 21 22 History of the World. [ b .c. 3064 2. The Pyramids. — The people grew in numbers and in wealth, and Egypt in time extended from the Libyan deserts to Mount Sinai and became a great power. Evidences of this power and of the wealth and resources of the country, as well as of the genius of her rulers, remain to this day. The construction of the Pyramids, which have withstood all the tests of time, proclaims a wouderf ul people. These were vast symmetrical monuments, unequalled for size and completeness of structure, which were intended to be the last resting-place of the kings. The largest of them is attributed to Cheops, a king of the fourth dynasty. J3. Lake Moeris. — Egypt depended for its crops and har- vests on the overflow of the Nile. But to render the country fertile the overflow had only to reach a certain height. Above or below this was equally disastrous. To secure this level King Moeris had a deep lake dug about ten leagues in circumference. This served as a reservoir which received the Avaters of the river when they rose too high, and replenished them when they fell too low. The lake fisheries became a source of revenue, and on the shores were built palaces and pleasure-houses. 4. End of the Ancient Empire. — King Moeris was a great monarch, and the records that remain testify to the splendor of his reign. He was equally successful in commerce and in war. The power of his arms extended to Ethiopia, while he established trade with Asia by the Eed Sea. Eecords attest a high degree of civilization and luxury among the Egyptians at this time. But luxury and riches brought their curse. So rich a prize as Egypt became an object of ambition. Eival competitors for the throne sprang up in the sixth dynasty. 5. The last of the kings of this dynasty was slain by an 2. Wliat were the Pyramids ? 3. On what did Egypt depend for its harvests ? Why was Lake Mosris constructed ? 4. How far did King Mceris' power extend ? Why did ancient Egypt decline 1 b.c. 3064-2214] Egypt. 23 assassin. His sister, Nitocris, famed for her wisdom and her beauty, assumed the government and held it for twelve years, during which time she completed the third great Pyramid. Her reign was beneficent, but ended disastrously. She treacherously put to death the men implicated in the death of her brother. Their partisans revolted, and Nito- cris perished in the revolt. 6. Thebes. — Anarchy ensued, and in the midst of it one of the contending princes founded Thebes and made it the capital of Upper Egypt, or the Thebaic!. In the eleventh dynasty the king of Thebes established his sway over all the country, and Tiiebes then became the capital of Egypt. It was made one of the most magnificent cities that the world has known, and its hundred gates have been celebrated by Homer. At Thebes, it is believed, the true God was wor- shipped under the name of Amnion, or " the Invisible." He was adored as the " Lord of eternity," the "great God dwelling in truth," and Thebes was "the holy city of Amnion." But the holy city soon gave itself up to cor- ruption and the pagan worship of the stars and of ani- mals, and so became the centre of idolatry, 7. Egypt under the Middle Empire. — With the twelfth dynasty Egypt recovered all the territory and power it had lost during the civil wars. New conquests were added in Ethiopia, and the masterpieces of Egyptian art were pro- duced during the prosperous reigns of these princes. The most famous is known as the Labyrinth, founded by King Amenehme III. This structure was a series of twelve mag- nificent palaces, each distinct in itself yet communicating with the others. 8. The Hyksos. — Wealth and luxury begot corruption, and corruption begOt dissension. Egypt was again given up to 5. Who was Nitoeris ? What was her end? 6. Give origin of foundation of Thebes. What was the worship at Thebes'? 7. For what is the twelfth dynasty famed ? What was the Labyrinth '? 24 History of the World. [b.c. 2214-1700 civil strife and the state dismembered. Under the thir- teenth dynasty it was invaded by the Hyksos, hardy shep- herd chieftains from Syria and the neighboring states. These nomads poured into the country, defeated the reigning princes, destroyed cities, overthrew temples and gods, and wrought all the evil accompanying a barbaric invasion. They then seized the country for themselves, and remained masters of it for about three centuries. They inhabited the lower valley of the Nile and levied tribute from the rest of the country. Their last king, Apophis, raised Joseph to the position of his chief minister of state. SECTION II. New Empire: Kings of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties ; Thoutmosis III. and Ramses II. 9. Expulsion of the Hyksos. — About the year 1700 B.C. Amosis, King of Thebes, expelled the Hyksos and became the head of the eighteenth dynasty and founder of a new empire. The Hyksos migrated to Arabia, Phoenicia, and the country afterwards known as Palestine. King Thout- mosis I. laid Syria under tribute, subjugated Ethiopia, and extended his conquests to Mesopotamia. 10. Thoutmosis III. — His second son, Thoutmosis III., became the greatest of Egyptian conquerors. A minor on ascending the throne, the country was wisely governed by his eldest sister, Hatason. At her death the Syrians and Chanaanites revolted, but were defeated by Thoutmosis at Mageddo, in Palestine. Thence the young conqueror marched into the interior of Asia and laid tribute on the kings of Mnive and Babylon. Armenia and Arabia fell under the yoke ; and his vessels, manned by Phoenicians, conquered the coasts of Asia Minor and Greece, the isles of Cyprus and Crete, and opened the way for the acquisition 8. Who were the Hyksos and what did they accomplish 1 How long did they remain masters of Egypt ? What of their last king ? 9. By whom were the Hyksos expelled 1 10. Give history of Thoutmosis in. b.c. 1700-1288] Egypt. 25 of the African coast to Algeria. Thus Egypt became mis- tress of the world as then known. 11. Amenophis III, Hamses II. — This vast empire lasted till the reign of Amenophis III., the third successor of the great Thoutmosis. Amenophis was more celebrated for the number and magnificence of the monuments he had erected than for military exploits. After him the power of Egypt waned, but was revived under Eamses, the head of the nine- teenth dynasty. Sethos, his son, regained all the conquests of Thoutmosis III. But the glory of the father was eclipsed by that of the son, Ramses II., celebrated in history as Sesostris. 12. Sesostris. — Sesostris secured the conquests of his pre- decessors. His title to fame rests chiefly on the number and magnificence of the monuments he caused to be erect- ed in the valley of the Nile. In this he surpassed all the Pharaos. The city of Thebes was especially enriched by him. 13. According to the Greek writers he was a great law- giver as well as a great conqueror. But the best laws of Egypt came before his time. Notwithstanding his magni- ficence, he seems to have been a harsh ruler and full of vain- glory. He is set down as that Pharao of the Bible who was so cruel to the Jews in their captivity. He reigned for sixty-five years. 14. End of the Nineteenth Dynasty. — At his death Sesos- tris left Egypt exhausted by his tyrannical exactions. The country was invaded on all sides. The Italians and Greeks entered Lower Egypt and ascended the Nile. Merenphtah, the son of Sesostris, fled before them ; but the invasion was finally repulsed. Merenphtah collected at Pelusium "all the lepers and impure" of his kingdom to the number of 11. For what was Amenophis III. famed ? For what Ramses I. and Sethos ? 12-13. On what does the fame of Sesostris rest? 14. What occurred after the death of Sesostris ? 26 History of the World. [ b .c. 1288-725 80,000. They took up arms and were reinforced by hordes from Asia. War raged in Egypt for thirteen years, during which Merenphtah disappeared. His son came back from Ethiopia, where he had been a fugitive, and, assuming the title of Sethos II., claimed his inheritance. In the struggle for the throne the nineteenth dynasty ended miserably. It was the first chief persecutor of the Jewish people. SECTION III. Decline of the New Empire: Ethiopian Kings (725-665 B.C). and Saite Kings (665-525 B.C.) ; Conquest of Egypt by Cainbyses (525 B.C.) 15. As the twentieth dynasty neared its close the valor of Eamses III. restored much of its glory and power to Egypt. He conquered the Libyans and Syrians, but his successors were not equal to their inheritance. The high-priest of Amnion usurped the chief military and civil authority, and about 1150 B.C. assumed the title of king. There was a rival dynasty at Tan is, in Lower Egypt. The high-priest sought the alliance of the Assyrian kings and to secure that renounced the right of sovereignty that for five centuries Egypt had exercised in Asia. 16. This weakening of Egypt allowed King David to en- large his kingdom by conquest over the adjacent smaller states. Solomon became Pharao's son-in-law. The schism of the ten tribes divided the kingdom of Israel. The Pha- raos of Lower Egypt drove the descendants of the high- priest into Ethiopia. Jeroboam invited Sesac, master of all Egypt, to invade Juda (971). He entered Jerusalem and despoiled the Temple and the palace of Eoboam. 17. The Ethiopian Kings and the Assyrian Invasion (725- 665). — The high -priest's descendants established an inde- pendent kingdom in Ethiopia. One of them, Zara, invaded Egypt and Juda, but was defeated. Anarchy still prevailed 15. What did Ramses III. achieve 1 State what occurred after his death. 16. What connection was there between Egypt and Israel 1 17. How did the early invasions of Egypt come about ? b.c. 725-600] Egypt. 27 in Egypt, and Sabacon, another Ethiopian, again invaded the country and subdued almost the whole of it. The Jews, threatened by the Assyrians, in spite of the warnings of the prophet Isaias, sought the alliance of the Egyptians. It was given, but did not prevent the ruin of the kingdom of Israel, /iior the invasion of Egypt itself. 18. The Twelve Kings (665-650).— After a long period of anarchy twelve of the Egyptian chieftains agreed to reign in common. Their union lasted fifteen years. One of them, Psammeticus, was deposed. He fled, but, gaining the as- sistance of the Greeks, returned and deposed the others. He drove the Ethiopians from the Thebaic!, became master of Egypt, and named his dynasty Sai's after his father. He was a powerful warrior, but a preference for his Greek allies gave such dissatisfaction to his own subjects that a large number of them emigrated to Ethiopia. His reign is rendered memorable by the siege of Azoth, a city of the Phil- istines, which it took him twenty-eight years to capture. 19. Hechao (616-600).— Nechao followed the warlike pol- icy of his father. Josias, King of Jucla, objected to the Egyptians passing his frontiers, and, rejecting the offer of friendship, gave battle at Mageddo, but was defeated and slain (610). Nechao took Jerusalem and laid tribute on Jucla. He conquered Syria and advanced to the Euphrates, where he was met by ISTabuchoclonosor at Circesium, and in a single day lost all his conquests (604). He had striven unsuccessfully to increase Egyptian commerce by reopening the canal made by his father between the Nile and the Eed Sea. The work cost the lives of one hundred and twenty thousand workmen, and was finally abandoned. 20. Psammis (600-594) and Apries (594-569) ; Usurpa- tion of Amasis (569-526). — ISTechao was succeeded by his 18. Give history of the twelve kings and of Psammeticus. What famous siege occurred during the reign of Psammeticus 1 19. Give history of ISTechao. What famous project did he attempt ? 28 History of the World. [ b .c. 600-525 son Psammis, who, after an unsuccessful expedition into Ethiopia, left the crown to Apries, called Ophra in the Bible. Apries seized the city of Sidon, and foolishly defied Heaven to shake his throne. To avenge his grandfather's defeat at Circesinm he offered the Jews his protection against JSTabuchodonosor. Sedecias, the last king of Juda, accepted the offer. They were defeated, and the Babylo- nian enemy spent their fury on Sedecias and the city of Jerusalem (587). 21. Pharao, whose death had been predicted by the pro- phet Jeremias, fell a victim to a revolt of his own troops. Amasis, an officer of low birth, was chosen king by the rebels. He was a man of power and capacity, and became a wise ruler of the people. The favor he showed to the Greeks awoke the jealousy of the Egyptians, and an alliance he made with the enemies of Cyrus proved disastrous to his son. 22. Psammenitus (526-525) ; Conquest of Egypt by Cam- byses (525). — Oambyses, son of Cyrus, invaded Egypt un- der pretence of this alliance with the enemies of the Per- sians. He defeated Psammenitus under the walls of Pelu- sium. The king fled to Memphis, but was made prisoner and put to death. Thus ended the most ancient and flour- ishing empire in the world. SECTION IV. Religion, Government, Laws, Science, etc., of the Egyptians. 23. Keligion of the Egyptians. — The Egyptians, being so near the cradle of the human race, shared in the primitive revelation and had a knowledge of the true God. With the gradual corruption of morals this knowledge became more and more confused and corrupt, and finally degenerated into idolatry. The sun was adored as the supreme being, and 20. What happened on the death of Nechao 1 21. Who was Amasis 1 22. Who was Cambyses ? How did the Egyptian Empire end 1 23. What was the religion of the Egyptians ? Egypt, 29 the animals peculiar to the country were also worshipped as gods. The crocodile was sacred, and the bull Apis was especially honored and had magnificent temples erected to him. The Egyptians believed in the immortality of the soul ; but this belief changed afterwards into the doctrine of metempsychosis, or the transmigration of the soul from one body into some other body after death. They reve- renced the dead and embalmed their bodies. The bodies thus embalmed are called mummies. 24. The Government of Egypt. — The chief ruler was a king, who called himself the son of the sun, and who was worshipped as a god by his subjects, but who himself was compelled to observe rigorously the religious laws of the country. At his death the crown passed to the eldest of his sons, or, failing them, of his daughters, or, children failing, to his brothers and sisters. He was surrounded by a royal court- . The country was divided into districts presided over by governors appointed by the king. The use of money was unknown ; taxes were paid in kind, and commerce was carried on by exchange, or by ingots according to their weight. 25. The People. — In Egypt were two privileged classes, the priests and the warriors, each possessing a third of the soil. The third class consisted of the people, agriculturists or shepherds for the most part. There were also many skilled artisans — builders, weavers, and workers in the fine metals. The classes or castes were hereditary and could not be interchanged. What the father was the son was, soldier, priest, or shepherd. The priests were also the literary class, the men of science and of medicine. The priests, as was seen, grew to be so powerful as to overthrow the twentieth dynasty. The warriors lost their hold when two hundred What did the Egyptians believe regarding the soul? 24. How was Egypt governed 1 25. Describe the various castes. What were the special offices of the priesthood 1 What led to the decline of the warrior caste ? 30 History of the World, thousand of them revolted from Psammeticus and retired into Ethiopia. 26. Laws, Science, and Arts. — The laws of Egypt were de- vised with great wisdom, being founded chiefly on natural right and justice. The judges were chosen from the sacer- dotal families. Truth was held in the highest veneration by all classes, and the punishment of perjury was death. The affairs of justice were transacted in writing, lest elo- quence should sway the judgment. The Eg}^ptians were eminent in natural science. They were great astronomers and geometricians ; yet the machinery used in the con- struction of their vast monuments and buildings was of the simplest kind — the lever, the inclined plane, and the human arm. 27. Even from the earliest times their paintings and carv- ings showed wonderful delicacy and truth to nature. But the chief character of their art was the gigantic and ma- jestic proportions of their statues and monuments. Their religion being symbolic, they cared little for mere form. Their writing was in hieroglyphic or sacred characters, with which their monuments are covered. The key to these in- scriptions Avas lost, and through the ages they remained a mystery, until in 1822 J. F. Champollion, a French sava7it, hit upon it and revealed their secret to the world. There was also a cursive writing in use, called hieratic, which was an abbreviation of the hieroglyphic. It was written on the inner bark of the papyrus plant, whence the name of paper. 26. Describe the laws of Egypt. From what class were the judges chosen? For what were the Egyptians famous ? 27. What was their manner of writing ? Who discovered the secret of the hieroglyphs ? b.c. 1314] Assyria and Babylon. 31 OHAPTEE II. ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. The history of Assyria and Babylon comprises two periods : the first from the foundation of Babylon and Ninive to the ruin of Ninive and the second As- syrian Empire (625 b.c.) ; the second from the Babylonian or Chaldean Empire to the taking of Babylon by Cyrus (625-538 B.C.) SECTION I. Babylon and Ninive: First Assyrian Empire (1314-789 B.C.); Second Assyrian Empire (744-625 B.C.) 1. Babylon and Ninive. — Babylon was founded by Nimrod, grandson of Cham, at the foot of the Tower of Babel, on the left bank of the river Euphrates. Nimrod was a mighty hunter and warrior. He had a rival in Assur, son of Sem, who built Ninive on the left bank of the Tigris. These cities were at first the capitals of two small, independent kingdoms, occupying the fertile basin between the two riv- ers. The country round about was probably divided up among a number of rival states constantly at war. Ninive became the ruler of Babylon, and Babylon in turn the ruler of Ninive, until finally the Chaldeans assumed sway over both, as well as over other cities bordering the Tigris and Euphrates. The Chaldean Empire lasted until the seventeenth century B.C., when it fell under the power of the Pharaos. 2. First Assyrian Empire (1314). — Under the successors of Sesostris the Egyptian sway waned, and the kings of Ninive extended their conquests towards the Euphrates. One of their number, Tiglath-samdan, founded the first Assyrian or Ninivite Empire (1314). He allowed the kings of Babylon to rule, provided they paid tribute. The Assy- rian monarchs soon became independent of Egypt. Tig- How is the history of Assyria and Babylon divided ? 1. Where and by whom was Babylon founded? And Ninive? 2. Give history of Tiglath samdan and Tiglath-pileser. * 02 History of the World. [ b .c. 930-789 lath-pileser conquered the countries bordering on the Cas- pian and Euxine Seas, crossed the Euphrates, seized Circe- sium, and defeated the Hethians, who were of old enemies of Egypt. He aspired to the conquest of Western Asia, and succeeded in great measure ; but a revolt in Babylon stopped his victorious career and resulted in the loss of all his conquests. At this time David founded his king- dom of Israel. 3. Sardanapalus III (930-905) ; Salmanasar IV. (905- 870). — After a century and a half of internal discord power was restored to the Assyrian Empire. Sardana- palus III. recovered all the conquests of Tiglath-pileser. To them he added Media. He was a cruel tyrant, who glo- ried in his cruelty. His son, Salmanasar IV., attacked Is- rael. He made thirty-one campaigns, which rendered him master of a great part of Asia. His empire extended from Persia to the Euxine Sea, from Oxus to the country of the Philistines. He died besieged in his own capital by a revolt led by one of his sons. He was succeeded by his elder son, and then by his grandson, Belochus III., who married the famous Semiramis. She enriched Babylon and constructed the dikes which preserved the lower plains of Mesopotamia from the inundations of the Euphrates. 4. Fall of the Assyrian Empire (789). — The accession of Sardanapalus V., a voluptuary, was the signal for renewed outbreaks in an empire that could only be kept in subjec- tion by a strong hand. Arbaces, governor of the Medes, joined by Phul, prince of Babylon, and other chiefs, rose in revolt. Worsted at first, they finally succeeded in shut- ting Sardanapalus up in JSTinive, a city deemed impregnable. The siege lasted two years, when an overflow of the Tigris overthrew a league of the walls and opened the way into the 3. Who restored the Assyrian Empire 1 Describe Sardanapalus III. What of his son, Salmanasar IV. ? Whom did Semiramis many ? 4. What was the character of Sardanapalus Y. 1 How did Ninive fall 1 BC. 744-718] Asstbia and Babylon. 33 city. The end had been foretold in prophecy, and Sarda- napalus, recognizing the truth at last, had a vast funeral pyre erected in his palace, where, amid his wives and his treasures, he was consumed. The city was pillaged and given over to fire and sword. 5. Second Assyrian Empire (744-727). — Phul, surnamed Belesis, or " The Terrible," made Assyria a dependency of Babylon. He made the king of Israel pay him tri- bute. The Assyrians revolted, and, after a long struggle, regained their independence. Then Tiglath-pileser II. , father of Sardanapalus V., fouuded the second Assyrian Empire (744). He reconquered most of the inheritance of his ancestors. Achaz, the impious King of Jucla, became his vassal, and gave over to him all the treasures of the Temple. Then the prophecies of Isaias and Amos were fulfilled : the kingdom of Damascus, or Syria, was de- stroyed ; half the kingdom of Israel was occupied by the conqueror, and the other half compelled to pay a heavy tribute. He transferred the ten tribes of Israel to the in- terior of his own empire and supplanted them by his own subjects. 6. Salmanasar VI. (727-722); Sargon (721-704); Tak- ing of Samaria (718). — Osee, King of Israel, despite the warnings of Isaias the prophet, formed an alliance with Egypt against the Assyrians. Salmanasar besieged Sama- ria, but died during the siege. Sargon, his general, usurp- ed the crown, took Samaria, and sent the ten tribes captive to Assyria. Tobias, one of the exiles, gained the friend- ship of the king and used it to better their lot. A large number of strangers, transported from the shores of the Tigris to Samaria, mixed their pagan rites with the law of Moses and founded a new people, known as Samaritans. 5. What did Phul accomplish 1 Who founded the second Assyrian Empire ? Describe. the relations of Tiglath-pileser with the Jews. What became of the ten tribes of Israel 1 6. For what is Sargon famous 1 Who were the Samaritans ? 34 History of the World. [ b .c. 718-625 7. Sargon extended his rule from the Mediterranean shore to Cyprus. He conquered Babylon (709) and revenged on that city the sack of Ninive. He subjugated Asia from Cilicia to the frontiers of India, and boasted that he had forced three hundred and fifty kings to aclore his god, Bel. He died by the hand of an assassin. 8. Sennacherib (704-681). — What Sargon had done for Is- rael, his son, Sennacherib, undertook to do for Juda. King Ezechias, with the aid of the Philistines and Egyptians, op- posed him ; but the allies were defeated and Juda was de- vastated. Terms were offered, but, Sennacherib proving implacable, God himself, according to the testimony of Isaias, took up the cause of Juda, and in a night one hun- dred and eighty thousand of the Assyrians perished. Sen- nacherib fled, and was afterwards slain by two of his sons. 9. Assar-Haddon (681-687) and Sardanapalus VI. (667- 647). — The parricides fled to Armenia, and Assar-Haddon, the fourth son, ascended the throne. He took Sidon and Phoenicia and invaded Jnda, then ruled by the wicked and idolatrous Manasses. Man asses was taken prisoner in Jeru- salem and carried a captive to Babylon, but was afterwards restored on condition of his paying tribute. Assar-Haddon proved a successful but cruel conqueror, and added to his titles that of king of Egypt and Ethiopia. His son, Sar- danapalus VI., was equally cruel and terrible in war. But the empire had grown too vast for one man to hold. He extended his conquests to the southern coast of Asia Minor, but his reign was one struggle to maintain authority in his own empire. 10. Assourdan ; Ruin of Kmive (625).— -Phraortes, pro- claimed king of Media, drove out the Assyrians and added Persia to his new kingdom. He was defeated and slain by 7. How far did Sargohs sway extend 1 8. Give the stray of Sennacherib. 9. Describe the growth of the kingdom of Ninive under Assar-Haddon and Sarda- napalus Yl, 10. Who was Phraortes and what did he do ? b.c. 625-587] Assyria and Babylon. 35 Assourdan at Kagan (635). His son, Cyaxeres, took up the cause, and, repelling a Scythian invasion of Media, joined with JSTabopolassar, governor of Babylon, in besieging Ni- nive. The city was fifty miles in circuit, and had a 'popu- lation of about two millions. It was a great, a beautiful, and a strong city, with massive walls and fortifications. It fell, however, and Assourdan slew himself in despair. Ni- nive was reduced to ruins. SECTION II. Babylonian or Chaldean Empire (625-538 B.C.) 11. Nabopolassar (625-604); Mabuchodonosor the Great (604-561). — After destroying JSTinive Nabopolassar founded the Babylonian or Chaldean Empire, which stretched from the Tigris to the Mediterranean. Nechao, King of Egypt, desiring to share in the spoils of the ruined empire, occu- pied the country of the Philistines and Syria (610). The king, now old, sent his son, JSTabuchodonosor, against the Egyptians. He defeated Nechao at Circesium, and was pursuing him into Egypt when the news of his father's death made him hasten back to Babylon. 12. Ruin of the Kingdom of Juda (587). — The kingdom of Juda, set between the rival powers of Egypt and Baby- lon, was the prey of each in turn. It had paid tribute to Nechao. It had now to pay tribute to Nabuchodonosor. He threatened to besiege Jerusalem, and King Joachim was compelled to send him hostages from the noblest families. One of these was the prophet Daniel, at this time (602) quite a young man. Thus began the Babylonian captivity often foretold by Jeremias. 13. A revolt of the people of Juda brought JSTabuchodono- sor to Jerusalem. He seized the treasures of the Temple and the palace, dethroned Jechonias, and carried him cap- How did Ninive fall? 11. Who founded the Chaldean Empire? 12. How- did the Babylonian captivity begin 1 13. Who carried it out and how ? What was the fate of Jerusalem 1 36 History of the World. [ b .c. 587-561 tive to Babylon, together with the prophet Ezechiel and a multitude of warriors and artisans (599). Sedecias, who succeeded Jechonias, made an alliance with the kings of Egypt, Tyre, Moab, and Idumea against Babylon. Nabu- chodonosor marched on Jerusalem, which he took after a siege of two years. Sedecias, the last king of Juda, had his eyes plucked out and was sent chained to Babylon, as were all who had escaped the fury of the conqueror. The Temple was burnt to ashes, and the walls of Jerusalem razed to the ground (587). 14. Tyre was the next to fall under Nabnchodonosor's vengeance. The Tynans resisted for thirteen years, but at length their city, with the king and its inhabitants, fell into his hands (574). After ravaging the countries that had revolted against him he returned, loaded with the riches of his conquests, to Babylon. 15. Babylon. — Babylon he made the most magnificent city of the world in those days. It was surrounded by two mas- sive walls, one enclosing one hundred and twenty-eight square leagues, the other seventy-two. The outer wall was more than two hundred feet high, with enormous towers and gates, and defended by a large moat. Within the en- closures was the beautiful city, occupying both banks of the Euphrates. On the left bank was the royal city which dNTimrod had founded, and here rTabuchodonosor built his wondrous palace. He also rebuilt the Tower of Babel, set- ting on it the inscription that men had built it after the Deluge, but had abandoned it because of the confusion of tongues. On the left bank of the river was the profane city, peopled chiefly with captives, where the Hebrews were allowed their judges and ancient customs. 16. Kabuchodonosor's Chastisement. — Nabuchodonosor, for 14. What became of Tyre ? 15. Describe the city of Babylon. What re- markable inscription was set on the Tower of Babel? 16. Why •was Nabu- chodonosor punished 1 What was his punishment ? b.c. 561-538] Assyria and Babylon. 37 his pride and wickedness, fell under the chastisement of Heaven. For seven years he lost his reason and herded with the beasts of the field. His reason restored to him, he ac- knowledged God's greatness and humbled himself before his Creator. He then resumed his place and his power, and published an edict proclaiming the wonders that God had wrought on him. In the following year (561) he died. 17. Fall of Babylon (538).— After the death of the great monarch his empire soon showed signs of dissolution. His successors were unequal to the task of keeping together their inheritance, and Cyrus, at the head of the Medes and Per- sians, advanced against the city. The inhabitants from their -lofty walls mocked at the besiegers. Cyrus by a canal turned off the Euphrates, which was Babylon's chief defence, and, entering by- the dry bed of the river, surprised the city at dead of night, when, stupefied by a debauch, Balthassar, the king, was slain, and the prediction of Isaias regarding the fate of the city was fulfilled to the letter. Babylon was finally deserted and became a heap of ruins. SECTION III. Religion, Government, etc. 18. Religion. — The Assyrians and Babylonians, like the Egyptians, had some knowledge of the Supreme Being. Like the Egyptians, also, they soon fell into idolatry. They confounded the Supreme Being with Assur, founder of Mnive ; others with Bel, or Baal (JSTimrod), the founder of Babylon. The sun, the moon, and other planets were worshipped by the Chaldeans, who attributed to them great influence over human affairs. 19. Government. — The kings of Ninive and Babylon call- ed themselves the " vicegerents of the gods over the earth." They did not claim to be gods. Their power was as abso- On the restoration of his reason what did he do 1 17. Who conquered Babylon ? Describe its fall. 18. What was the religion of the Assyrians and Babylonians ? 19. Describe their government. 38 History of the World, lute as in Egypt. Save the Chaldeans, there were no privi- leged classes or castes. The monarchs were liberal in the sense of choosing the best men to assist in the government, wherever they found them. Many of the Jews were thus exalted to high places — Daniel, for instance. 20. Sciences. — The chief sciences cultivated were mathe- matics and astronomy. The Babylonians were the first to divide the day into twenty-four hours, the hour into sixty minutes, and the minutes into sixty seconds. Pythagoras is supjDosed to owe to them his multiplication-table. They discerned the lunar and the solar year, and predicted the moon's eclipses, but not those of the sun. By astrology the Chaldeans claimed to forecast the future, and professed to heal by magic. The science of medicine was unknown. 21. Arts. — The architecture of the Assyrians is rich and ornate, as well as massive. All their buildings were of brick, baked or dried in the sun. They had the art of enamelling, and were wonderfully skilled in jewelled work, furniture, arms, wool tissues, linen robes, and car- pets richly dyed and embroidered. Their highest intellec- tual art, however, is their cuneiform writing, so called from the wedge-like form of the characters. These were cut with a triangular stiletto on tablets of soft clay, which Avere baked when it was desired to preserve them. It is only within modern times that the secret of the characters has been dis- covered, and the discovery has resulted in confirming and" explaining many passages in the Scriptures. 20. What were the chief sciences taught 1 What do we owe to the Baby- lonians ? 21. What was the style of Assyrian architecture ? Describe the occupations of the people. What of their writing ? b.c. 1921-1822] The Hebrews. 39 CHAPTER III. THE HEBREWS. The history of the Hebrews, or Jewish people, begins with the call of Abra- ham (1921 B.C.), and divides itself into clearly defined periods : 1. From the call of Abraham to the Exodus from Egypt under Moses and Josue (1921-1451). 2. From the Exodus to the establishment of royalty (1451-1095). 3. From the establishment of royalty to the separation of the kingdoms of Israel and Juda (1095 975). 4. From the separation to the Babylonian captivity (721-536). 5. From the Babylonian captivity to the Roman conquest of Judea (536-63). 1. Origin of the Hebrews. — To preserve the knowledge of the 'truth as first delivered to man, and to save the world from the complete darkness of idolatry and corruption, God raised up a special people. The father and founder of this people was Abraham, a descendant of Sern, who dwelt in Ur, a city of the Chaldees. The inhabitants of Ur were idolaters, and God, revealing Himself to Abraham in a vision, bade him leave the country (Mesopotamia) and go to a land which his descendants should possess (Chanaan). 2. Abraham in Chanaan. — Abraham obeyed the voice of God and passed over into Chanaan, or Palestine. There he lived a pastoral life, and became rich in flocks and herds. He worshipped the one G-od, creator of heaven and earth, and bound himself and his descendants to God by a solemn covenant, promising to walk before G-od in innocence. And God promised that in Abraham and his seed should all the nations of the earth be blessed. Abraham grew in power and in wealth, and made alliance with the neighboring princes. On his death, near Hebron, he left the leader- ship and patriarchate to Isaac, his son by his wife Sara. Another son, Ismael, whose mother was Agar, an Egyp- How is the history of the Hebrew people divided 1 1. What was their mission ? Who was the founder of the race ? What was God's command to Abraham? 2. Describe Abraham's life in Chanaan. What covenant did he make with God ? 40 Uiatoky of the World. [ b .c. 1822-1491 tian, settled in Arabia, and from him the Arabs claim de- scent. To Isaac succeeded Jacob (afterwards called. Israel, hence the name Israelites). Jacob had twelve sons, who became the chiefs and founders of the twelve tribes of Israel. 3. The Israelites in Egypt. — Of these sons Jacob most loved Joseph. This favoritism excited the envy of the others, and they sold Joseph to an Egyptian as a slave. The boy was carried into Egypt, and there rose in time to be chief minister of the realm under one of the Pharaos. Joseph brought over the whole family of bis father into Egypt, and they were allowed to settle in the land of Go- shen, where they pursued (heir pastoral life. When Joseph died the Hebrews, who had greatly multiplied, were reduced to slavery, and continued in that degraded condition, main- taining their traditions and the' knowledge and worship of the true God, until the rise of Moses, a descendant of Levi, the third son of Jacob. 4. The Exodus. — Moses, by a cruel decree of Pharao, was, with all the other new-born males of the Israelites, con- demned to perish in the Nile. Saved by his mother and sister, Miriam, he was adopted by a daughter of the Pha- rao, and educated as a prince. But he retained the feel- ings and religion of his race. Compelled to fly from Egypt for slaying an Egyptian who struck a Hebrew, he took re- fuge in Madian, where he married the daughter of Jethro, the prince of the land. Returning later to Egypt with his brother, Aaron, he prevailed upon the Pharao to allow the Israelites to depart, but not before the country had been scourged by a series of awful visitations. This departure is known as the Exodus. 5. The Ten Commandments. — Moses led them across the What patriarch succeeded Abraham ? Who was Ismael 1 Who founded tho twelve tribes of Israel 1 3. How came the Israelites in Egypt % What was their lot there ? 4. Who was Moses \ Describe the Exodus. b.c. 1491-1055] The Hebrews. 41 Ked Sea, and the Pharao, pursuing ihem, perished in the passage Avith his army. Crossing the desert, they arrived at Mount Sinai aud encamped at the foot. On Mount Sinai Moses received the commandments of God to his people and delivered them to the children of Israel. They were ten in number, and form the most sublime law ever given to man. They cover every moral and legal obligation, and lay down the law of monotheism. 6. The Israelites in Chanaan. — The Israelites often fell away from this great moral code, but never without entail- ing upon themselves punishment and disaster. On the death of Moses, Josue succeeded to the leadership and con- ducted the tribes across the Jordan into Chanaan, which he concpiered. There they settled down under the rule of Judges, the government being a sort of republican federa- tion. They had constant quarrels with their neighbors, but sometimes gave way to the idolatry and corruption that sur- rounded them. 7. Establishment of the Monarchy.— There was an almost constant succession of anarchy and civil strife under the Judges, and the people, desiring a centralized power and strong ruler over all, asked for a king like the nations around them. Saul was chosen first king of Israel. He gained many victories over the neighboring peoples, but, growing jealous of the prowess of David, his son-in-law, spent the later years of his reign in pursuing him. De- feated in battle by the Philistines, and three of his sons falling, he slew himself. 8. David and Solomon. — On the death of Saul, David was proclaimed king by his own tribe of Juda, but a son of Saul was accepted by all the other tribes. A bloody civil strife was the result, David finally concpiering and making 5. How were the Ten Commandments given to the people ? What was their essence? 6. Who succeeded Moses in command? Describe the government of the Judges. 7. How was monarchy establisned in Israel ? Give the story of Saul. 42 History of the World. [ b .c. 1055-721 Jerusalem his capital. He became a strong ruler and con- queror, and greatly extended his domain. He was succeed- ed by his son, Solomon, during whose long and illustrious reign the kingdom of Israel reached the height of its glory and power. He built a magnificent temple and palace in Jerusalem, and the fame of his wisdom spread to all lands. Eiches and luxury entered in and wrought corruption among the people, Solomon himself giving the example. 9. Separation of the Tribes. — On his death the people demanded reform. It was refused by Eehoboam, son and successor of Solomon. The result was a secession of ten tribes, who chose Jeroboam for king, leaving only Juda and Benjamin to Eehoboam. And thus the kingdom of Israel became divided into the two kingdoms of Israel and Juda, the latter remaining loyal to the house of David. 10. Fall of Israel. — The kingdom of Israel speedily fell into corruption and idolatry. It lasted through two hun- dred and fifty years of constant struggle and disturbance. It finally became a tributary of Assyria under Phul. Tig- lath-pileser transported many of the inhabitants to Assyria, and its power was finally broken by Salmanasar, who de- stroyed the capital, Samaria (721), and scattered the Israelites among the provinces of his empire, where they were gradu- ally absorbed and lost in the population. 11. The Babylonian Captivity. — Juda, preserving the re- ligion of its fathers, lasted longer. But it also fell a prey to corruption, civil strife, and at times to idolatry. To save his kingdom Achaz called in Tiglath-pileser, and made himself a tributary of the Assyrian monarch. Idolatry was introduced. There were various attempts at reform, but the state gradually grew weaker and corruption stronger. It lay between the rival powers of Egypt and Babylon, and 8. Who succeeded Saul ? Describe David's reign. For what was Solomon famed ? 9. What occasioned the division in Israel ? 10. What was the fate of the kingdom of Israel 1 11. What was the fate of the kingdom of Juda ? b.c. 583-a d. 69] The Hebrews. 43 finally fell to Nabuchodonosor, who took Jerusalem and carried away thousands of the chief inhabitants captive to Babylon. 12. A revolt in Juda brought Nabuchodonosor back (588), and Jerusalem was again taken. The king, Sede- cias, had his eyes put out and was sent a prisoner to Babylon. The temple was plundered and burned, and the walls and palaces of the city were destroyed. All the chief citizens were now carried off into captivity, and the Jewish people was soon after dispersed. 13. Judea under foreign Domination. — The Jews remained in captivity in Babylon until the destruction of that city and empire by Cyrus (538). Suffering restored many of their virtues, and Cyrus allowed them to return to their own land. A new temple was built (515) and Jerusalem was gradually restored. Judea remained a tributary of Persia until the empire fell under Alexander the Great, who himself visited the holy city of the Jews. After Alexander's death Judea became a province of his successors in Egypt and Syria. Greek letters, science, philosophy, and refinement came in, and with these scepticism among the wealthier and more learned classes of the Jews. With the ascend- ency of Rome they passed under the power of the Romans, and Judea became a Roman province. Such it remained down to the birth of Christ. A final revolt against Rome led to the utter destruction of Jerusalem by Titus (a.d. 70) and the dispersion of the Jewish people. 12. What was Nabuchodonosor's treatment of trie Jews 1 13. Who freed the Jews from captivity ? What was the subsequent fate of Judea ? What led to the destruction of Jerusalem ? 44 History of the World. [b.c. 710-635 CHAPTER IV. MEDIA AND PERSIA. The history of Media and Persia is divided into two periods : 1. From the remotest times to the death of Cyrus (529 b.c.) 2. From the death of Cyrus to the heginning of the Median wars (529-500 B.C.) SECTION I. Origin of the Medes and Persians : Early Government ; Con- quest and Empire of Cyrus (559-529 B.C.) 1. Bejoces (710-657).— The Medes sprang from Madai, the son of Japheth. Japhetk's descendants called themselves Aryans — meaning " noble . " or " excellent." They occupied Bactriana and the vicinity. The Medes were divided into two classes : the Magi, or " great ones," and the warriors. The earlier inhabitants of the country subjugated by the, Medes are supposed to have formed the inferior classes. In the tenth century Media became a tributary of Assyria. Arbaces restored its independence (789). It was not till 710 that the tribes combined under one head, Dejoces, whom they chose for king. He built Ecbatana, the capital, and his rule was wise and firm. 2. Conquest of Persia (650); Phraortes (657-635); Cy- axares I. (635-595). — The Persians, a neighboring people, were also descended from Japheth. They comprised ten tribes, divided into three classes : the warriors, agricultu- rists, and nomads. The tribes were leagued under a head chief. Achemenes, the chief, was attached and reduced to vassalage by Phraortes, son and successor of Dejoces. Phraortes also conquered Parthia, Bactriana, and all Cen- tral Asia. His son, Cyaxares, avenged his father's death in battle with the ISTinivites by destroying the second Assy- How is the history of Media and Persia divided ? 1. Who were the Medes 1 Describe their divisions. Who was their first king ? 2. Describe the Persians and their relations with the Medes. By whom were they conquered 1 bc. 635-544] Media and Persia. 45 rian Empire (625). His empire stretched from the left bank of the Tigris to the interior of Armenia, held by the Lydians. 3. These were the descendants of Lud, son of Sem, and were a brave and warlike people. Phrygia and Oappadocia were in their hands, as also Troy and other cities of Ionia. Alvattes, their king, made a stubborn fight against Cyax- ares, and the war ended at the battle of the " Eclipse." An eclipse of the sun so terrified both sides that they ceased fighting and concluded peace (595). Alyattes ceded part of Cappadocia and gave his daughter in marriage to Astyages, son of Oyaxares. 4. Astyages (595-559). — Astyages was a peaceful mon- arch. He married his daughter to Cambyses, grandson of Achemenes. From this wedding was born Cyrus, after- wards the Great. The education of the young Cyrus was of the most careful kind, and his natural capabilities were of the best. He became while still young a great general and had all the, qualities of a wise ruler. He marched against the Assyrians, the foes of the Medes, and beat them with great slaughter, killing their king. After further conquests he returned to Media and married the daughter of Oyax- ares II. , whose dowry was Media. 5. Croesus; Battle of Thymbra (544). — About the mid- dle of the fourth century B.C. there were four great powers in the East — Media, the Babylonian Empire, Lydia, and Egypt. Cyrus had the ambition to conquer all and con- vert them into one power. Croesus, King of Lyclia, formed a league with the kings of Egypt and Babylon. He was a very able and wealthy monarch, with nearly all Asia Minor under his control. Determined to stay the advance of Cyrus towards the Caucasus, he crossed the Halys and gave 2. For what is Cyaxares famous ? 3. Who were the Lydians ? How was peace effected with Astyages ? 4. Who was Cyrus? 5. What were the four great Eas- tern powers at this time 1 What was Cyrus's ambition ? 4G History of the World. [ b .c. 544-522 battle. The campaign was indecisive, and lie retreated to- wards Thymbra. 6. Here Cyrus, at the head of two hundred thousand men and three hundred chariots armed with scythes, gave battle. Croesus had twice as many soldiers, but the skill and im- petuosity of the youthful general achieved an easy victory. Cyrus marched at once on Sardis, the capital of Lydia. Defeating Croesus a second time, the capital and person of the king fell into his hands. He proved as wise a con- queror as he was brave a general. He kept Croesus by him and always consulted him. With the fall of Sardis the whole of Asia Minor fell into his hands. The Phocians, rather than yield, set sail with their families and took refuge in Marseilles, which their ancestors had founded. 7. Capture of Babylon (538). — The king of Babylon, hav- ing lost his allies, was now besieged in his capital. The result of the siege was the destruction of the Babylonian Empire. Entering Babylon, Cyrus put an end to the Jewish captivity, and published an edict inviting the Jews back to their own country, and announcing his intention to erect a temple to the true Cod in Jerusalem. The end of this great man's reign was peaceful. SECTION II. Cambyses (529-522 B.C.); Smerdis (522-521 B.C.); Darius I. (521-500 B.C.) ; Institutions and Customs of the Medes and Persians. 8. Cambyses. — Cambyses, eldest son of Cyrus, ascended the throne on the death of his father. He had his father's ambition, but not his virtues or capacity. He set out to conquer Ethiopia. The expedition cost him half his army. He was cruel and capricious in his government. In a fit of fury he slew his brother Smerdis, and then his sister for bewailing the loss. A magian named Smerdis, closely re- 6. Describe the battle of Thymbra. How did Cyrus treat Crcesus ? 7. What was the edict of Cyrus 1 8. Who succeeded Cyrus ? Describe the reign of Cam- byses. What of his death and of Smerdis ? b.c. 522-506] Media and Persia. 47 sembling the prince, assumed the title and had himself proclaimed king as the son and successor of Cyrus. Oam- byses met with an accidental death while marching against the usurper (522). 9. Darius. — Smerdis secured the crown, but was de- throned and slain by a conspiracy of the nobles under Darius, son of Hystaspes. Darius was then proclaimed king. He belonged to an illustrious family. He had from the outset to contend against many revolts. The most formidable was that of Babylon, which it took him over twenty months to subdue, and 'the city was only taken by treachery on the part of Zopyrus, one of Darius' nobles. Zopyrus was made governor of Babylon. Darius about this time confirmed the edict of Cyrus in favor of the Jews, and the Temple of Jerusalem was solemnly dedicated by Zorobabel (515). 10. Darius and the Scythians (508-508). — Darius thought to conquer Europe. He first marched against the Scyth- ians, a hardy nomad race, who inhabited the country be- tween the Danube and the Tanai's. He left Susa with an army of six hundred thousand men, and crossed the Thra- cian Bosporus and the Danube on a bridge of boats. The Scythians retreated before him, filling up the wells and destroying the forage. The army of Darius began to suffer from famine, while they followed an ever-flying enemy into a land of desolation. At length they were compelled to retreat, pursued in turn by the Scythians, and it was only with the greatest difficulty that Darius succeeded in plac- ing the Danube between the remnants of his army and their relentless pursuers. To wipe out his disgrace he left Megabyzus, his lieutenant, with eighty thousand men, in Europe. Megabyzus imposed tribute on Macedonia, 9. What became of Smerdis? What of the revolt of Babylon? How did Darius treat the Jews 1 10. Describe the campaign of Darius against the Scythians. What did Megabyzus accomplish 1 48 History of the World. b.c. 508-436] Media and Persia. 49 subjugated Thrace, and occupied Byzantium, on the Bos- porus. 11. The Persian Empire under Darius. — "When Darius declared war against the Greeks .his empire extended to Europe, and comprised : in Africa, Egypt, with Libya and Cyrenaica ; in Asia, all the countries beyond the Indus and Jaxartes. There had never before been so vast an empire. Susa, the central city, was his capital. Susa and Perse- polis (the latter intended as the royal burial-place) were adorned with magnificent marble palaces. The empire was divided into twenty satrapies, which were taxed in propor- tion. The tax, though fixed with great moderation, made Darius odious to his subjects. They called him Merchant where they called Cambyses Master. 12. Religion, Government, etc. — The founder of the Per- sian religion was Zoroaster, a legislator and conqueror, who lived about 2000 B.C. His religion had a likeness to the truth, but was greatly mixed with error. The conflict be- tween good and evil in the world he attributed to the conflict between Aliriman, the god of evil, and Ormuzd, the god of good. Ormuzd was represented by light, fire, and, above all, by the rising sun. The conflict was to end at the end of the world, when a greater god than either would intervene. Then Ahriman, with his associate evil spirits, Avould be cast into an eternal prison ; and Ormuzd, with his disciples, rewarded by eternal happiness. The bodies of the dead were buried. Their priests were termed magi, and they had also a learned and philosophic class. 13. The monarch had supreme power. He was " the great king," "the king of kings." His palace was called the "Gate," as it is to day among the Turks. He had a council of ministers to assist him in governing. Each sa- il. What was the empire of Darius 1 Name the capital. How was the empire divided ? 12. Who founded the Persian religion 1 Describe that religion. 13. How was Persia governed ? 50 History of the World. [ b .c. 1700-574 trapy, or province, was in the care of a satrap, whose pow- ers were unlimited. Cyrus brought the military science of this naturally warlike race to a high degree of perfection. CHAPTER V. PHffiNICIA AND CARTHAGE. SECTION I. Sidon and Tyre. 1. Sidon. — The Phoenicians were descended from Cha- naan, the son of Cham. They occupied from early times the coast between the Mediterranean and the southern line of Lebanon. They became a seafaring and commercial peo- ple. Sidon was called "the city of fishermen," and even in the time of Abraham enjoyed a nourishing commerce. For safety's sake the Phoenicians became tributaries of their powerful neighbor, Egypt, in the seventeenth century B.C. In 1209 b.o. a Philistine fleet suddenly entered the port of Sidon and utterly destroyed the city. 2. Tyre. — Tyre then became the chief city of Phoenicia. The kings of Tyre were always the allies of the Jewish people. Hiram, one of their number, furnished Solomon with the workmen and materials needed for the construc- tion of the Temple. Later on Jezabel, a Tyrian princess, married to Achab, King of Israel, induced him to renounce the worship of the true Cod. The destruction of Tyre by ISTabuchodonosor (574 B.C.) induced her colonies to recog- nize the Babylonian supremacy. 3. Commerce and Colonies. — The Phoenicians discovered the art of navigation, and were the first to engage in maritime commerce. They established marts of trade and exchange, 1. What was the character of the Phoenicians 1 What became of Sidon ? 2. What relations existed between Tyre and the Jews? Who was Jezabel? What was the fate of Tyre 1 b.c. 872] Prcenicia and Carthage. 51 which soon developed into flourishing colonies. They had stations at Cyprus, Rhodes, and other islands of the iEgean Sea, and on the shores of the Euxine. The Mediterranean was the great highway of this husy people, and they ven- tured north as far as the isles of Britain, carrying intelli- gence and knowledge of the useful arts with them. They also carried on a land commerce extending all over Asia. 4. Arts and Religion. — The Phoenicians invented the art of making glass, and were skilled in the working of metals, carving ivory, painting vases, and making jewels. They are also credited with the invention of the alphabet and of writ- ing, which they carried abroad into Greece and the other colonies. Their chief source of wealth was the beautiful pur- ple dye, extracted from a shell-fish, which they applied to stuffs and adopted as their royal color. Their divinity was the Baal of the Assyrians, called also Baal- Moloch, or ' e sove- reign destroyer," because to him were immolated children of the noblest parentage by casting them into a burning brazier or shutting them up in a heated statue of the god. It was the duty of the mothers to look on at this terrible sacrifice with tearless eyes and unmoved countenance. The victim was supposed to be united with the being of the god. SECTION II. Carthage. 5. Eise of Carthage. — Carthage, near the site of the mod- ern Tunis, is supposed to have been founded (872 B.C.) by Elissa, better known as Dido (fugitive), the daughter of the King of Tyre, who was compelled to fly by her brother, Pj^gmalion. The "new city" speedily increased in popu- lation, wealth, power, and enterprise, until its marts were known all along the African shore of the Mediterranean. After the destruction of Tyre Carthage assumed the leader- 3. For what are the Phoenicians chiefly famed 1 Mention some of their colo- nies. 4. In -what arts were they skilled? What inventions are attributed to them 1 5. What city succeeded Tyre in supremacy ? 52 History of the Would. [ b .c. 872-368 ship of the Phoenician colonies. She increased the number of her soldiers and vessels of war, and gave birth to men of military genius. This made her a great power. 6. War in Sicily (480). — Hamilcar, one of her generals, landed in Sicily Avith an army of three hundred thousand men, and laid siege to Himera. He was defeated by the strategy of Gelou, the ruler of Syracuse, whom the Sicil- ians called in to their aid. Hamilcar was slain and his fleet fired. The battle took place on the same day as the battle of Thermopylae. The Carthaginians sued for peace, which they obtained at the costs- of the war and the promise to sac- rifice no more human victims to their divinities. 7. Destruction of Himera (410) and Agrigentum (406). — Sicily continued to suffer internally, and now one, now an- other foreign aid was called in. The Carthaginians again found pretext to enter under the command of Hannibal, grandson of Hamilcar. Hannibal laid siege to the city be- fore which his grandfather was killed, took it, and razed it to the foundations. He then besieged Agrigentum, a rich and powerful city, which fell after a siege of eight months, and yielded a great booty to the captors. 8. Dionysius the Elder (405-368) ; Himilco. — Dionysius the Elder, "tyrant" or ruler of Syracuse, waged an unsuc- cessful contest against the Carthaginians, and was com- pelled to sign a disadvantageous peace. He made immense preparations for another struggle, and fell treacherously on the Carthaginians in Sicily. Himilco, who had taken Agri- gentum, again entered the island at the head of a formi- dable army, and recaptured all the cities that Dionysius had taken, shutting the latter up in his own capital. Himilco took a cruel revenge ; but his army was attacked with pes- tilence while besieging Syracuse. Dionysius took courage 6. Describe the expedition of Hamilcar. The result? 7. Give an account of Hannibal's exploits in Sicily. 8. Describe the war with Dionysius the Elder. What befell Himilco? B.C. 368-307] Phcenicia and Carthage. 53 from this, and Himilco stole back to Carthage with a bare remnant of his forces. In his despair he killed himself. 9. Timoleon's Successes (345-343). — The death of Diony- sius the Elder was the signal for civil strife in Syracuse. Dionysius, his son, driven from the city, re-entered it by force and committed great barbarities. The Carthaginians again landed under Mago. The people of Syracuse appealed to Corinth, who sent them Timoleon with only a thousand men. But he was a skilled general and his troops were veterans. Mago was beaten off and condemned to death for his failure. A larger fleet was sent out. Timoleon, at the head of six thousand men, marched to meet seventy thou- sand Carthaginians, and his boldness and skill were re- warded by a complete victory. The Carthaginian camp and all its treasures fell into his hands. Concluding an honora- ble peace, ho then retired into private life. 10. Agathocles (317-289) ; His African Campaigns (311- 307). — Agathocles, a Sicilian of low birth, aided by the Carthaginians, seized the sovereignty of Syracuse soon after the death of Timoleon. Seeing Carthage weakened, he turned against it. An army landed and laid siege to Syra- cuse. To divert the attack he boldly carried the war into Africa. On landing in Africa, to inspire his troops with courage he burned the fleet that conveyed them thither, marched on Tunis, which he took by assault, and secured an immense booty. The Carthaginians, believing him to be shut up in his own capital, were filled with consterna- tion. The hasty levies that they sent against him were cut in pieces. The Syracusans, hearing of his success, fell on the besieging force, surprised and destroyed them. 11. Agathocles returned to Sicily. Going back to Africa, he found the tide of success changed, and, deserting his 9. What followed the death of Dionysius the Elder 1 Who was Timoleon 1 What did he achieve? 10. Describe the campaign of Agathocles in Africa. 11. What became of Affathocles ? 54 History of the World. [ b .c. 289 army, returned again to Syracuse. The soldiers revenged themselves by strangling his sons, and Agathocles himself perished miserably (289). The Carthaginian struggle in Sicily was afterwards continued with Pyrrhus, of Epirus, and the Romans. The Punic wars began in 264 B.C., and ended in 146 by the ruin of Carthage. 12. Carthaginian Life and Government.— The Cartha- ginians, notwithstanding their wealth, were austere even to cruelty in their mode of life. They were famed for in- genuity, enterprise, and treachery, on the testimony of Roman historians, who were their foes. Punic faith has thus passed into a byword. The military forces of Car- thage were chiefly composed of mercenaries paid to fight her battles. Her government was republican in form, with two suffetes, or presiding magistrates, elected annually. Then came the people, or body of the state, who left the care of public affairs to the senate. The senate was the body that debated and decided on all important affairs of state. When the senate was divided in opinion appeal was made to the people for final decision ; but when the senate was unani- mous its decision was accepted. The people were happy under this rule, and rarely was there an instance of revolt in the five hundred years of their history. With what great powers had the Carthaginians to contend? What wars ruined Carthage ? 12. What was tho character of the Carthaginians } How did they carry on wars ? Describe their government. b.c. 2000-1 1S4] Greece. 55 CHAPTEK VI. GREECE. The history of Greece is divided into three periods : 1. The time anterior to the Median wars (2000-500 B.C.) 2. During the Median wars (500-449 B.C.) 3. The Peloponnesian war (449-360 B.C.) SECTION I. Primitive Greece. 1. Origin of the Greeks. — The Greeks claimed to have been begotten of the soil on which they dwelt. They came, however,, from the East and were descendants of Japheth. The Pelasgi first came, crossing over from Asia Minor (about 2000). They are said to have founded Sicyon and Mycenae, the two most ancient cities of Greece. About 1600 B.C. came the Hellenes, whence the name Hellas. The early history is for the most part mythical. Cecrops, an Egyptian, is credited with giving the inhabitants of Attica a set form of govern- ment. Cadmus, a Phoenician, bnilt the city of his name, and also the citadel of Thebes. He taught the people the alphabet and the art of writing. Danaus, an Egyptian, settled in Argos and introduced farming. Pelops, a Phry- gian, conquered the southern part of the country, whence its name, Peloponnesus. 2. Heroic Age; Trojan War (1194-1184); Homer. — What is called the heroic age in Grecian history extends from the fourteenth to the twelfth century. It is mythical, rilled. with the exploits of demi-gods and heroes. Within this time, however, occurred the expedition of the Argo- nauts in the thirteenth century. They went to Colchis in search of the "golden fleece" — that is to say, in search of wealth. There was also the War of the Seven Chiefs under How is the histoiy of Greece divided? 1. Describe the origin and early history of the Greeks, 2. What is meant by the Grecian heroic age ? What was the expedition of the Argonauts ? 56 History of tee World. [b.c. 1184-898 Adrastus, King of Argos, who strove to drive King Eteocles from Thebes and set his brother Polynices in his place. The War of the Epigoni was the result of this. The Epi- goni were the sons of the chiefs slain before Thebes. They leagued together ten years later and took the city from the descendants of Cadmus. Finally came the Trojan war, celebrated in Homer, where the Greeks under Agamemnon, after a ten years' siege, took and destroyed that city. This siege first brought the Greeks together in concert. 3. The Dorians in the Peloponnesus. — "The return of the Heraclidae," or descendants of Hercules, occurred twenty-four years after the siege of Troy. These were Peloponnesian exiles in Doris, who resolved on returning to their native soil. Under the lead of Aristodemus, and with the aid of the Dorians, they constructed a fleet, and, crossing the Gulf of Corinth, made a sudden descent on the Peloponnesian coast. The invasion was successful. Tisa- menes, King of Sparta and Argos, withdrew with his people to Achaia. The iEolians emigrated to Asia Minor. The Ionians withdrew to Attica. 4. Sparta. — The Dorians established a double dynasty, called the Agidse and the Proclidse, descendants of the twin sons of Aristodemus, who himself perished in the invasion. Lycurgus, the fifth descendant of Procles, in- herited the power by the death of his elder brother (898). He was a wise legislator and travelled abroad to gain know- ledge from the enlightened men of the East. Returning to Sparta, he gave the people a constitution, assisted by the young king, Charilaus, his nephew, whom he had educated. Making the people swear to be faithful to the constitution till his return, he for ever disappeared. 5. Constitution of Lycurgus. — The dual royalty was Tell of the wars of the Seven Chiefs, of the Epigoni, and of the Trojan war. 3. Describe the return of the Heraclidse. 4. Sketch the early history of Sparta. Who was Lycurgus, and what did he do 1 Greece. 57 maintained. The kings were chief magistrates. They had command of the armies, were chief priests, and presided over the senate. The chief authority rested with the senate, composed of twenty-eight members elected for life by the assembly of the people, and no member less than sixty years of age. The assembly met every month at time of full moon, and had power to adopt or reject the proposi- tions of the kings and senate. Five Epliori, or inspectors, were charged with the execution of the laws. The Spar- tans, who numbered about nine thousand, alone enjoyed all political rights. The other inhabitants of the kingdom were Helots, or slaves. 6. Civil Laws and Customs. — The land was divided up equally among the citizens, each portion being inalienable. The circulation of gold and silver was prohibited. An iron coin of very low value alone was used. This was to prevent the accumulation of riches. Meals were in common and of the frugal kind specified by law, consisting chiefly of a little black broth. The kings fared in common with the rest. 7. The children were devoted to the state rather than to their parents. A male infant was exposed before the elders. If deformed or weakly he was condemned to death and cast into a cavern near Mount Tagetus. If strong he was given back to the parents till he reached the age of seven. He then became the property of the state. His head was shaved ; he went barefoot ; and to make him hardy and bold he was compelled to train in bloody com- bats with his comrades. On the feast of Diana he was whipped till the blood came. 8. In an education of this kind letters had no part. The youth, however, were orally instructed in a knowledge 5. Describe the constitution of Lycurgus. 6. Describe the land laws and civil customs in Sparta. 7. What was the training of the Spartan children 1 8. What is meant by laconic ? Who were the Helots ? 58 History of the World. [ b .c. 744-454 of jfche laws, and modesty of deportment and brevity of speech were inculcated, whence the expression laconic. The Helots were the most miserable of slaves, and their lot was inhumanly hard. In fact, humanity did not enter into Spartan law. The gentleness of family life was lost in sacrifice to the needs of a brutal and barbarous state. 9. The First Messenian War. — Taught to love nothing but their country, the Spartans hated all other nations. On a slight excuse they invaded Messenia, a fertile strip which they wished to add to Sparta. The Messenians, at first defeated, were rallied by Aristodemus, Avho, in a fit of madness, immolated his own daughter to save his country. Reverses came ; Aristodemus slew himself on his daugh- ter's tomb ; and after a struggle of twenty years the Mes- senians succumbed, consenting to give half their annual harvest to Sparta (744-724). 10. Second War (684-688); Aristomenes.— The Messe- nians were disaffected, and, after forty years, revolted un- der Aristomenes, who destroyed the Lacedaemonian army. Sparta sought aid from Athens, who, in derision, sent her a lame schoolmaster named Tyrteus. He was a poet, and roused the country by his songs. The Messenians were overcome by the new enthusiasm and retreated to Ira, north of Messene. After a siege of eleven years Ira was carried by assault. Aristomenes, disheartened, retired to Ehodes. Some of his countrymen went to found a colony in Sicily ; the majority were reduced to slavery. These afterwards fomented a rebellion of the Helots, known as the third Messenian war (464-454) ; but Sparta triumphed over all. 11. Athens. — The Athenians, neighbors of the Spartans, early (1045) abolished royalty, under the pretence that no 9. Sketch the first Messenian war. What of Aristodemus 1 10. How did the second Messenian war originate ? Who was Tyrteus ? What was the third Mes- senian war and its result? b.c. 1045-514] Greece. 59 man was worthy of being King Oodrns' successor. They appointed instead an archon, or governor, for life, whose term of authority later on was limited to ten years, and finally (684) to one, when it was shared by nine archons. There was always trouble in the government. Draco, a wise and upright man, was at last asked to draw up a code for the people (622). 12. Draco's code was found to be too severe. It pun- ished all offences alike with death. So the people had recourse to Solon, a wise and wealthy citizen, whom they made archon. He abolished Draco's laws and drew up a system improving on that of Lycurgus. It was inspired by a just spirit of moderation to all and a true regard for the public weal. By it the citizens were divided into four classes, three of which possessed the public offices and magistracies. The fourth class, the poor, had the right of voting in public assemblies where the great affairs of state were determined on, after having previously received the sanction of the senate. 13. Pisistratus (561-527).— The citizens swore to observe Solon's laws for ten years. He spent those years in for- eign travel, and on his return found Athens divided by factions and feuds. Pisistratus, a relative of Solon, at last succeeded in attaining supreme power (561). He used his power well and for the benefit of Athens. He culti- vated the taste for letters and arts among his country- men. On his death his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, succeeded to the power, and for thirteen years (527-514) followed faithfully in the footsteps of their father. Hip- parchus was assassinated by Harmodius and Aristogiton for a personal injury done to Harmodius. The assassins were slain, but were afterwards honored as victims to the 11. Describe the government at Athens. 12. What was Draco's code? Who changed it? Describe the system of Solon. 13. Give the history of Pisistratus. Of his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. 60 History of the World. cause of liberty. Hippias grew suspicious and cruel, and was finally driven from the city. With him perished Athenian royalty in the year (510) before the expulsion of the Tarquins from Eome. 14. The Republic. — Government by the people was re- established. The archon Olisthenes made various changes in the constitution, needed by the growing power of the state. Athens was now the most powerful rival of Sparta, which possessed two-thirds of the Peloponnesus. The Spar- tans were averse to the reforms which made their rival more favored by the people and altogether a pleasanter power to live under. 15. Religion, Customs, etc. — The Greeks cultivated an extraordinary number of extraordinary divinities. There was a deity for every human passion, and a festival in its honor. The worship of Bacchus, the god of wine, was especially favored at Athens, and his festival was a de- bauch. The same is true of the festival of Ceres, cele- brated at Eleusis every fifth year. The festival lasted nine days, and it was made a capital offence to reveal any of its secrets. 16. The Greeks made much of their oracles, the most famous of which was that of Apollo at Delphi. The oracle spoke through the mouth of a priestess while in a real or pretended frenzy. The sayings were guarded and obscure, so that they could be conveniently read in op- posite senses, being destined to foreshadow events. Peo- ple came from all parts, even foreign lands, to consult this famous oracle. 17. Amphictyonic Council. — The Amphictyonic Council, attributed to Amphictyon, King of Thessaly, was an asso- ciation, at once religious and political, of twelve Greek 14. What caused the rivalry between Athens and Sparta? 15. Describe the religion of the Greeks. 16. Describe the oracle at Delphi. 17. What was the Amphictyonic Council ? b.c. 500] Greece. 61 cities to judge upon all important cases, especially at- tempts against the rights of men or the sanctuary at Del- phi. Decisions were by majority of votes, each city hav- ing two. 18. The Games. — All athletic exercises and public com- bats formed part of the religion of the Greeks. There were four great public games : the Isthmian, near Corinth, held in honor of Neptune ; the Nemean, in Argos, in honor of Hercules ; the Pythian, at Delphi, in honor of Apollo ; and the most famous of all, the Olympian, at Olympia, celebrated every four years. The games were great public festivals that brought the people together. They were open to all comers to contend ; the conditions being that the contestants were of Hellenic blood, freemen, and of good character. In 776 Corcebus, a runner, carried off the prize at Olympia. From that year the Greeks reck- oned their Olympiads, or periods of four years. 19. The games were horse and foot races, leaping, throw- ing the discus or quoit, wrestling, and boxing. The diet of the athletes was of the severest kind, the use of wine be- ing prohibited. In the races even kings contended for the prize. The victor was crowned before the assembled Greeks, was borne in triumph to his city, and a breach made in the walls for his entry. He was ever after main- tained, at public expense. The poets sang his praises, and statues were erected in his honor. SECTION II. Median Wars (500-449 B.C.) 20. The Median wars originated in the ambition of Da- rius I. of Persia. Having conquered Macedonia, he threat- ened the independence of Greece. The Ionians, originally an Attic colony, owned one of the richest provinces in 18. Name the four great public games. What was their object ? What is au Olympiad? 19. What was prohibited to athletes? How was a victor at the games honored ? 20. What was the origin of the Median wars ? 62 History of the World. [ b .c. 500-490 Asia Minor. They chafed under the yoke which Cyrus had imposed on them, and, at the instigation of Arista- goras, tyrant of Miletus, renounced their allegiance to Per- sia. Athens sent them aid. The allies marched on Sardis and burnt it (500). This was the signal for a war of fifty years between the Persians and the Greeks. 21. First Median War. — Darius quelled the revolt in Ionia, and sent Mardonius, his son-in-law, with a power- ful fleet and army against the Greeks. A tempest dis- persed the fleet, and the Brygi defeated the army. Da- rius sent a more powerful army, preceded by heralds de- manding of all the chief cities land and water in the name of the Persian king. Such was their mode of exacting sub- mission. Most cities submitted. At Athens and Sparta the heralds were thrown into a ditch and bade take all the land and water they desired. 22. Battle of Marathon. — Thereupon six hundred vessels set sail from the shore of Asia for Attica. They landed an army of one hundred and ten thousand men near Marathon, a small town within ten miles of Athens. The Athenians had only ten thousand soldiers. Aristides the Just, with Miltiades and eight other chiefs, was at the head of this force. The chief command was ceded to Miltiades. The wisdom of the choice showed itself in a complete victory for the Athenians after a fierce and bloody conflict. The remnants of the Persians fled in their ships. 23. Miltiades, to whose skill the victory was chiefly due, was soon after accused of treason and condemned to pay a fine of fifty talents (nearly fifty-three thousand dollars). Being unable to pay, he was thrown into prison and per- ished there. Aristides also was ostracized by the intrigues of Themistocles and banished for ten years. 21. How were the heralds of Darius treated ? 22. Who commanded the Athe- nians at Marathon ? What was the result of the battle ? 23. How were Miltiades and Aristides treated 1 b.c. 485-480] Greece. 63 24. Xerxes and the Greeks (485-472). — After the death of Darius the war against the Greeks was carried on by Xerxes, his son. Xerxes did not inherit the great quali- ties of his father. He fitted out an enormous expedi- tion, and constructed a bridge of boats for the passage of his forces across the Hellespont into Greece. A storm broke up the bridge. Two other bridges were constructed, over which the Persian forces, computed at two millions, -passed. 25. Thermopylae (480). — Before this overwhelming force the Greek states at once submitted, with the exception of Sparta, Athens, and Platsea. The allies had only a fleet of three hundred sail. Leonidas, the Spartan king, with a bare four thousand men, held the pass of Thermopylae, by which alone the Persians could enter Greece. But all were animated with the supremest patriotism and resolved to die rather than yield. Xerxes with his vast army was surprised to find the pass disputed. He tried every means to win over Leonidas, but to the final command to lay down his arms the Spartan leader sent the bold reply : " Come and take them." 26. The Persian went to take them ; but it cost him three days' desperate fighting and loss to effect nothing. He began to despair, when a secret path over the moun- tain commanding the Spartan position was treacherously revealed to him. The Persians gained the eminence, and Leonidas, seeing it was no longer possible to hold the pass, heroically dismissed the allies, and with his three hundred Spartans resolved to die there in face of the host opposed to them. And so they died, with the exception of one who escaped to tell the tale and was ever regarded as a traitor. The battle of Thermopylae thenceforward be- 24. Give an account of the invasion of Greece by Xerxes. 25. What states held out against the Persians ? Give the story of Thermopylae. 26. What was the fate of Leonidas and his three hundred? 64 History of the World. [ b .c. 480-479 longed to all history as a supreme example of self-sacri- ficing patriotism. 27. Salamis (480). — Xerxes then marched in, and, ravag- ing Phocia, advanced to Athens. He found there only a heap of ashes. The Athenians had burnt their city rather than let it fall into the hands of the enemy. The battle was now transferred to the sea, where the Persian fleet pre- pared to overwhelm the Greeks. From a height near Sa- lamis Xerxes looked down upon the combat. Theraisto- cles led the Greeks. The Persians, under the eyes of their monarch, made a fierce onslaught, but were driven back. The attack was soon changed into a retreat. Xerxes, dis- mayed, fled to the Hellespont, only to find his bridge bro- ken, and the Persian monarch himself escaped to Asia in a small fishing-smack. 28. Plataea and Mycale (479). — Nevertheless he left an enormous force behind him under the command of Mar- donius, his brother-in-law ; but the shadow of defeat clung to them. The opposing forces met near Platsea, in Bceo- tia. The Athenians and Lacedaemonian allies were under the joint commands of Aristides and Pausanias. The bat- tle was prolonged and desperate, but the death of the Persian general decided the day in favor of the Greeks. Of the three hundred thousand Persians engaged not more than fifty thousand are reported to have escaped. On the same day a great naval victory was won at Mycale over the still formidable remnant of the Persian fleet, result- ing in a loss of all the Persian vessels. Thenceforth no Persian army ever crossed the Hellespont (479). 29. Themistocles. — Themistocles now set himself to the work of rebuilding Athens. The Spartans, jealous of their rival, argued that it was for the common interest there should 27. Describe events subsequent to the battle of Thermopylae. Who command- ed at Salamis? What -was the result of the battle ? 28. Describe the battles of Plataea and Mycale. The result ? 29. Who rebuilt Athens 1 b c. 479-466] Greece. 65 be no fortified city out of the Peloponnesus. Tliemistocles set out alone to argue the case in Sparta, secretly urging his countrymen while the negotiations pended to push on the work night and day. At Sparta he waited for the arrival of his colleagues, and by his skill so delayed the negotiations that by the time he made the open declara- tion that the Athenians needed a fortified city the work was too far advanced, and the Athenians too powerful, to be undone (478). Themistocles, returning to Athens, constructed and fortified the Piraeus to further protect the city. 30. Themistocles' Reward. — Though a true Athenian, The- mistocles was full of ambition. His ambition and love of power cost him his place and popularity, and he suffered the fate of Miltiades. He was banished (473). Meanwhile Xerxes was assassinated and succeeded by his son, Artaxerxes Longimanus (473). At the court of this prince Themis- tocles sought and found refuge. Cimon, the son of Milti- ades, was appointed commander-in-chief in his stead (471). 31. Cimon. — Cimon, while he was the equal both of his father and Themistocles in war, was their superior in peace, patriotism, and administrative capacity. He drove the Persians from the Grecian territory and pursued them into their own. At the mouth of the Euiymedon he defeated their fleet, and the same day, landing his army, he cut theirs in pieces (470). He threatened Artaxerxes himself, who as a last resource asked Themistocles to oppose him. Bather than do so Themistocles put an end to his life (466). Ar- taxerxes was finally compelled to conclude a peace with Cimon, by which Persia lost all the Greek cities in Asia Minor and promised to withdraw its fleets and armies far from the Grecian coast. Describe the mission of Themistocles at Sparta. 30. How was Themisto- cles rewarded? Where did he seek refuge? Who succeeded him at Athens? 31. Describe the achievements of Cimon. What was the end of Themistocles ? 66 History of the World. [ b .c. 431 SECTION III. Pericles; the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) 32. Pericles. — With their victory over the Persians the alliance of the Greeks dissolved and the old internal jea- lousies were resumed. The results of the war with Persia gave Athens the pre-eminence. The rest of the Greeks agreed to pay Athens an annual sum to defray the expenses of the war and to build ships. The truth was, Athens was the mind and right arm of Greece. Pericles, who succeed- ed Cimon, was his equal in military genius, and a man of great eloquence and winning grace of manner. His govern- ment was the crown of Athens' glory. 33. He beautified the city by erecting magnificent temples and public buildings that are still the wonder of the world. Phidias, the sculptor, was his chief assistant in this. He encouraged the growth of letters, and his time was the time of the great Greek dramatists, iEschylus, Sophocles, Eu- ripides, and Aristophanes, whose works are the wonder of all time. History flourished in Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon. Isocrates and Lysias were great in oratory. Besides Phidias sculpture and painting counted Callicrates, Apollodorus, Zeuxis, and Parrhasius. Philosophy shone, in Anaxagoras, Socrates, and Plato. Hippocrates gave a new character to the science of medicine ; and Pericles himself crowned them all as statesman, general, admiral, orator, and citizen. 34. The Pelopomiesian War. — This supremacy of intellect and power provoked the jealousy of the rest of the Greeks. They complained that their money was wasted in embellish- ing Athens. A league, under the leadership of Archida- mus, King of Sparta, and comprising nearly all the Pelo- ponnesus, was made against Athens. Archidamus, at the 32. What state now took the lead in Greece 1 Who succeeded Cimon 1 33. Describe the time of Pericles and the great men of that epoch. 34. What led to the Peloponnesian war ? Who took the lead against Athens ? - b.c. 431-420] Greece. 67 head of sixty thousand men, invade^. Attica, and before so overwhelming a force the Athenians retired within their city. But their fleet, under Pericles, was abroad, and ra- vaged all the coast of Peloponnesus, compelling the allies to return and defend their own (431). 35. Plague at Athens; Death of Pericles (428). — Mean- while a plague had broken out in Athens among the multi- tude confined there. Pericles himself on his return fell a victim to it, while the Lacedasinonians again entered and ravaged the country. Platasa, with a force of five hundred men, held out against them for three years (430-427). Famine having reduced the garrison to the last extrem- ity, they resolved to cut their way through the army of the enemy. Favored by darkness, those of them who were courageous enough to dare the attempt effected their es- cape. The others surrendered and were basely slain. 38. Aleibiades. — The war had now lasted ten years, and both sides were weakened by their losses. A suspension of hostilities was agreed upon. After a year this was broken (420) by the action of Aleibiades, a young Athenian noble of extraordinary gifts but extraordinary rashness and contempt for conventionalities. Full of youthful ambition and natu- rally restless, he persuaded the Athenians to break the peace. Under his guidance they engaged at once in a double war with Sparta and with Syracuse. 37. Syracuse was one of the most powerful cities of the time. Aleibiades found an easy pretext for fitting out an expedition .against it under the joint command of himself, Nicias, and Lamachus. His brilliant audacity just suited the ambitious and versatile temper of the Athenians. Land- ing on the Sicilian coast, he took the city of Catana by sur- prise. He was at once recalled to Athens to answer a charge 35. What became of Pericles ? Describe the siege of Platsea. 36. Who broke the peace ? What was the character of Aleibiades ? 37. What place did the Athenians choose for attack ? How was Aleibiades treated? The result? 68 HlSTOR Y OF THE WORLD, [b.c. 430-406 of having mutilated the statues of Mercury. Instead of re- turning he escaped and joined the Lacedaemonians, to the injury of his own people. 38. Siege of Syracuse. — Nicias, succeeding to the com- mand, blockaded Syracuse and almost surrounded it on the land side. The city was on the point of surrendering when G-ylippus, a Spartan general, arrived and gave new courage to the besieged. He offered INfiicias five days to depart. The offer was met by scornful silence. Gylippus stormed a fort near the city, which gave him an oppor- tunity of fortifying it beyond the lines of the besieging force. 39. Demosthenes was sent out from Athens with an army to aid Mcias. He signalized his arrival by an am- bitious night-attack, which resulted in a panic of his own troops, and the whole Athenian army with their generals was finally compelled to surrender. The generals were condemned to death and the troops to barbarous suffer- ings. 40. Eecall of Alcibiades. — The Athenians now saw their mistake, and in their extremity recalled Alcibiades. Be- fore returning he joined the Athenian fleet near the Asiatic coast and inflicted two severe blows on the Lace- daemonians, slaying their admiral and destroying their army (408). His return became a triumph (407). Dur- ing his absence Antiochus, one of his lieutenants, at- tacked the Lacedaemonian fleet and suffered a severe defeat (406). The Athenians, ever fickle, blamed Alci- biades for this reverse. He was deprived of the com- mand and ten generals were appointed in his place. 41. Athens exhausted herself in fitting out anew one hundred and fifty vessels. Callicratidas, a man of fine 38. Who relieved Syracuse ? 39. Who went to the aid of Nicias ? How did the siege end 1 40. Why was Alcibiades recalled 1 Describe his return. Why was ho again disgraced ? b.c. 406-404] Greece. 69 honor and great valor, was the Spartan commander. He gave battle in face of overwhelming odds, was defeated, slain, and his fleet destroyed (406). Owing to stress of weather the sacred duty of burying the Athenian dead was not complied with. This gave great offence at Athens, and the victorious generals were, unheard, con- demned to death and executed by decree of the assembly of the people. 42. Lysander. — Lysander, a brave and competent gene- ral, was given command of the Lacedaemonian fleet (405). He surprised the Athenians at the mouth of the iEgos Potamos, in the Hellespont, took their fleet, dispersed their army, and captured three thousand prisoners with their generals. In an hour he had destroyed the power of Athens and put an end to the Peloponnesian war, which had lasted twenty-seven years. 43. Taking of Athens (404). — There was nothing left to the Athenians but surrender. The Lacedaemonians re- fused to destroy a city which had rendered such services to Greece. The fortifications of the Piraeus were demol- ished ; the Athenians delivered up all their ships save twelve, engaged to confine themselves to the limits of Attica and follow the Lacedaemonians wherever the latter wished to lead them. 44. Artaxerxes II. (404-362). — After a series of dis- turbances in Persia the throne was filled towards the close of the Peloponnesian war by Artaxerxes II., sur- narned Mnemon because of his wonderful memory. To his brother, Cyrus the Younger, was given the govern- ment of Asia Minor. Cyrus aimed at supreme jwwer. With an army of one hundred thousand men and thir- teen thousand Greeks he marched from Sardis to Susa 41. What befell Callicratidas 1 Why were the Athenian generals condemned ? 42. Who put an end to the Peloponnesian war 1 In what way ? 43. What be- came of Athens 1 44. Who reigned in Persia at this time ? Who in Asia Minor 1 70 History of the World. [ b .c. 404-400 against his elder brother. The opposing forces met at Cunaxa, in Babylonia, and Cyrus was slain, after fighting his way to Artaxerxes and wounding him. The Greeks, however, sustained the fight and defeated the host opposed to them ; but, learning of the death of Cyrus, they re- treated. Tissaphernes, the general of Artaxerxes, fearing to attack them, ensnared their chief officers by perfidy and put them to death. 45. The Ten Thousand (401-400).— The Greeks were in a country unknown to them and fifteen hundred miles from Greece. Xenophon, afterwards the historian, who was an officer in the expedition, revived their courage and prevailed on them to appoint new leaders. Himself and four others were chosen. They resolved to fight and march their way back to their own country. 46. Then ensued one of the most memorable retreats in history. Harassed by the pursuing Persians, by the in- habitants of the territory through which they passed, by the natural difficulties of an unknown country, they made their way steadily through all obstacles and after a march of seven months they reached the sea — the Hellespont. 47. Socrates; the Thirty Tyrants (404). — Socrates, the instructor of Plato and the friend of Alcibiades, had long moved Athens by the novelty and power of his teachings. His life was in contrast to his surroundings. He was not, in the Athenian sense, a polished man. He had fought in the wars, lived a laborious life, and con- temned worldly riches and ambition. But his intellect was of an extraordinarily keen, powerful, and truth-seek- ing kind. Nothing could shake his tranquil soul, not even the temper of a shrewish wife — Xantippe. 48. After the surrender of Athens Lysander established Describe the battle of Cunaxa. What befell the Greeks ? 45. Who assumed' command of the Greeks ? 46. Describe the march of the ten thousand. 47. Describe the character and work of Socrates. b.c. 400-394] Greece. 71 there a council of thirty tyrants. This was opposed to the government of. the people, and the tyrants became odious oppressors. Socrates alone stood up and denounced them. After eight months of this Thrasybulus, an Athe- nian of capacity and merit, overthrew the tyrants and delivered the country from their yoke. 49. Socrates especially loved to be among and teach the Athenian youth, and the youths loved to follow and lis- ten to him. So truth-loving a nature and bold a speaker necessarily begot enemies. They charged him with cor- rupting the youth and introducing new gods. His de- fence of himself was very noble, calm, and complete. But he was condemned to drink the hemlock poison, and obeyed the sentence of his unjust judges (400). He be- lieved in an immortal soul and in the providence of one supreme and beneficent being ; yet he outwardly followed the customary worship of his country, which was idol- atry. 50. Sparta leads. — After the fall of Athens Sparta was the first power in Greece. She sent Agesilaus, a general deformed in stature and of mean appearance but of great ability, to assist the Greek colonies in Asia Minor against the Persians. He conquered Asia Minor. To arrest his progress Artaxerxes bribed the Greeks to revolt. Athens, Thebes, and Corinth leagued against Sparta. Agesilaus returned from Asia and defeated the allies at Coronea, in Boeotia (394). But Conon, the Athenian, defeated the Lacedaemonian fleet near Cnidus. 51. Aided by Persian gold and the Persian fleet, Conon soon rebuilt the walls of Athens, and the Lacedaemo- nians in alarm signed a humiliating treaty, by which all the Greek cities in Asia Minor were ceded to the Per- 48. How was Athens governed at this time ? Who overthrew the tyrants 'I 49. Why was Socrates condemned? 50. Who was Agesilans? Describe his achievements. 51. Who rebuilt Athens ? What treaty was signed with Persia ? 72 History of the World. [ b .c. 394-363 sian king and liberty was given to all the cities of Greece. Thus Sparta remained in the ascendant. 52. Pelopidas and Epaminondas. — Sparta sought to in-, crease her power by possessing the strong citadel of Thebes, which she effected by fraud (382). Thebes had at the time two great men — Pelopidas and Epaminondas. Pelopidas, a young man, spent much of his wealth in as- sisting the poor and lightening their hard lot. Epami- nondas was poor from choice, and was a singular exam- ple of every virtue in those clays. 53. Pelopidas rallied the Theban fugitives, and, entering the city at night, surprised the Spartan magistrates and slew them. Next day they compelled the garrison of the citadel to capitulate just as succor arrived at the gates. 54. Battle of Leuctra (371). — War ensued, and the The- bans proved victorious. At last the Lacedgemonians sent an army of twenty-four thousand men, under the com- mand of one of the kings, Cleombrotus, to ravage Bceo- tia. Epaminondas with six thousand men marched to meet them and gave them battle near Leuctra (371). After a most obstinate conflict, in which Cleombrotus was slain, Epaminondas gained the victory. Following up - the foe, he re-established the Messenians in their country and invaded Laconia. Agesilaus was besieged in his capi- tal, and for the first time the Spartan women saw "the smoke of an enemy's camp." 55. Trial of the Theban Generals; Battle of Mantinea (363). — On their victorious return the Theban generals were arraigned on the charge of having kept the command longer than allowed by law. Pelopidas barely escaped ; but the noble eloquence of Epaminondas not only cleared him but brought him additional glory. War with Sparta soon broke 52. Who were the Theban leaders ? Describe their character. 53. How was Sparta taken'? 54. Describe the battle of Leuctra and its results. 55. How were the Theban generals rewarded? Describe the progress of the war. -B.C. 363-360] Ma CUD ONI a . 73 out again. Epaminondas, preparing to besiege Mantinea, learned tliat Agesilaus was coming to its relief . He let him come, and, turning aside, made for Sparta, which Agesilaus, warned in time, hardly succeeded in reaching before him. Epaminondas returned to Mantinea and the Spartans fol- lowed. 56. In the battle that ensued the Theban general was again victorious, but fell in the hour of victory (363). Pe- lopidas had fallen in like manner a year before ; and with these two men, who had created the power of Thebes, it fell. But Sparta was broken for ever. CHAPTER VII. MACEDONIA : EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. From the time that Macedonia enters into Grecian life its history comprises three periods : 1. The foundation of Macedonian power by Philip; 2. The con- quests and empire of Alexander the Great; 3. The dismemberment of that empire. SECTION I. Philip (380-337 B.C.) 1. Rise of Macedonia. — While the Grecian states were for ever engaged in internecine strife the kingdom of Mace- donia, in the north of Greece, had been slowly solidifying into a strong power. It was an hereditary kingdom found- ed by the Corinthians about eight hundred years before Christ. It was unnoticed in history until the reign of Philip, a disciple of Epaminondas. He was a man of deep schemes and firm resolve, and allowed no scruples of conscience to stand between him and his purpose. He soon lifted his obscure little kingdom into one of the powers of the world. 56. What great battle ended it? Who fell there? What was the result? 1. Describe the growth of Macedonia. Who first brought it into prominence ? What was Philip's character ? 74 History of the World. [b.c. 360-333 2. Birth of Alexander (356). — Philip had a- son, to whom he gave the name of Alexander. The young prince was given Aristotle, the philosopher, as tutor. Philip, who highly esteemed learning, begged the philosopher to rear his boy to be a successor worthy of himself and a king worthy of Macedonia. 3. Sacred "War (355-345). — A case against the Phocians, who inhabited the territories adjacent to Delphi, was brought before the Amphictyonic council. The Phocians were pronounced sacrilegious and compelled to pay a heavy fine. They refused, and all Greece was drawn into the quar- rel that ensued. 4. Philip alone remained neutral,, and, while the others were engaged in strife, quietly widened his own frontiers and subjected Thrace. When he thought the Greeks sufficient- ly weakened he declared against the Phocians, secured the passes of Thermopylae, and entered their country. Easily overcoming them, he returned with all the honor and profit of closing a war in which he had taken no risks. 5. Second Sacred War (338) ; Demosthenes (385-322).— Philip held Thermopylae, the key of Greece. Under pre- tence of avenging ail insult to Apollo he took Elatea, the chief city of Phocis (338). Athens and Thebes were now exposed to the powerful monarch, and were only saved by the eloquence of Demosthenes. Demosthenes was the most celebrated orator of antiquity, and probably of all time. He saw the designs of Philip, and assailed them unceas- ingly with all his power in his famous Philippics and Olyntliiacs. These orations did more injury to Philip than all the fleets and armies brought against him. 6. Battle of Cheeronea. — Demosthenes prevailed on the Athenians and Thebans to unite against the common foe. 2. What was the name of Philip's son ? What famous tutor had ho 1 3. Give the origin of the Sacred war. 4. What part did Philip take ? 5. What great orator opposed him ? What were his orations called ? b.*:. 338-334] Empire of Alexander. 75 Philip entered Boeotia and met the allies near Chseronea (338). Philip commanded the right, and gave the left to Alexander, then a youth of seventeen. The battle was most stubborn, but Alexander at length broke the " sacred band," Avhich was the flower of the Theban army. Philip at first was nearly defeated, but in the end his superior gene- ralship prevailed and the allies were totally routed. He used his victory wisely, and was made commander-in-chief of the republics' armies. While contemplating the conquest of Asia he was stabbed by one of his own subjects. SECTION II. Alexander the Great (336-323 B.C.) 7. Defeat of the Greeks. — Alexander was twenty on as- cending the throne. He was faced by conspiracies among all those whom his father had subjected. The Greeks, urged by Demosthenes, formed a new league against the youth. Alexander gave them little time. He hurried to Thebes, defeated the Thebans with great slaughter, and levelled their city to the ground. 8. Conquest of Asia. — This example terrified the rest. Alexander was proclaimed commander-in-chief of all the Greek forces. He hastened to set out. for Asia and fulfil his father's dream of conquest. At the Granicus, in Phry- gia, he was opposed by an army of one hundred thousand men. He crossed the stream and defeated the enemy, kill- ing their general. This left him master of the country (334). In a very short time he overran Asia- Minor, cap- turing all the chief cities, until he reached Tarsus, in Cili- cia, on the banks of the Cydnus. 9. Battle of Issus. — Here he was seized with fever and came near death. Darius Codomannus, King of Persia, was approaching with a vast force of six hundred thousand 6. Describe the battle of Cheeronea. What was Philip's fate ? 7. How did Alexander begin his reign ? 8. What great expedition did Alexander under- take ? Describe the battle of the Granicus, and its results. 76 History of the World. [ b .c. 334-331 men. The Macedonians were only forty thousand. Alex- ander recovered in time for battle, and, having taken up a most advantageous position at Issus, awaited the Per- sians. It was a battle between a compact army of veterans and an unwieldy mob badly led. Alexander's victory was complete. Among the captives taken were Sisygambis, mother of Darius, with his wife, two daughters, and his little son. They were treated by the conqueror with the greatest courtesy and respect. 10. The Fall of Tyre. — Alexander now advanced into Syria and Phoenicia. Every city save Tyre opened its gates to the young monarch. Tyre held out against him for seven months, but was at length taken and all the brave inhabitants either slain or sold into slavery. Alexander was forgetting his magnanimity, and his conquests became too many to sustain with his early moderation. He march- ed against Jerusalem to avenge the attachment of the Jews to the Persian king ; but on entering the Holy City his heart was changed. He reverenced Jaddus, the venerable high- priest, and became a benefactor to the Jewish people. 11. The March of Conquest. — He then turned to Egypt, where he was welcomed by the people. Here his pride overcame him. He wished to pass for a god, and with this view crossed the Libyan deserts to the temple of Jupiter- Ammon. There the priest declared him to be a son of Jupiter, and he built a great city on the northern coast of Egypt, to which he gave the name of Alexandria. 12. Arbela (331). — Leaving Egypt, he crossed the Euphra- tes and Tigris, and again found himself opposed by Darius with an immense army. The Persians at first were suc- cessful; but Alexander's strategy turned the day, and Darius with difficulty escaped. This battle of Arbela gave Alex- 9. Describe the battle of Issus. 10. What was the fate of Tyre ? Tell of Alexander's visit to Jerusalem. 11. What did he do in Egypt? 12. Describe the battle of Arbela. b.c. 331-827] Empire of Alexander. 77 ander the empire of Asia and cost the Persians three hundred thousand men. 13. Eall of Babylon and Persepolis. — Babylon and Susa now opened their gates to the conqueror. Defeating Ario- barzanes, he entered Persepolis, the capital, where he found immense treasures, which he distributed among his soldiers. Here in a drunken fit he set fire to the palace of Xerxes — a shameful act which he tried to undo when too late. 14. Death of Darius. — Darius fled to Ecbatana, the capi- tal of Media. Alexander followed him up. Bessus, one of Darius's generals, took possession of the king's person. Darius refused to fly further, and Bessus, piercing him with arrows, left him dying on the field. Alexander ar- rived just as the unfortunate prince expired. He wept oyer his body and ordered a magnificent funeral. 15. End of the Persian Empire. — With Darius ended the Persian Empire, which had lasted two hundred and eight years, from the taking of Babylon by Cyrus. Bes- sus, falling into Alexander's hands, was condemned to be quartered. Encamping on the Jaxartes, Alexander built the city of Alexandreschata to mark the limits of his Scy- thian expedition. 16. Death of Clitus. — Having overcome all, Alexander now fell a victim to himself and yielded to foolish pride and debauchery. In a drunken brawl he slew Clitus, who saved his life at the Granicus, and to whom he was greatly attached. The treacherous act preyed upon him. The Macedonians began to murmur at the changed life of their king. To occupy them he turned to India to subjugate it. 17. Alexander in India. — After a march of sixteen days he . arrived at the Indus. All the kings of the country save Porus came to offer their submission. Porus had an. 13. What shameful act did Alexander commit at Persepolis ? 14. What befell Darius ? 15. What great empire ended with Darius 1 16. Describe the change in Alexander's character. 78 History of the World. [ b .c. 327-823 immense army, and was further protected by the Hydas- pes, a broad, deep, and rapid stream. Under cover of a storm Alexander succeeded in crossing and surprising Po- rus. The conqueror asked him how he would be treated. "Like a king," was the answer ; and his noble bearing so impressed Alexander that he gave him back his kingdom and added other provinces to it (327). 18. Return to Babylon (325). — Alexander wished to cross the Granges, the largest river of India, and extend his con- quests, but his soldiers murmured and compelled him to return towards Babylon. The march back was one of dreadful hardshijjs. Once back in the fertile country of Babylon, he gave himself up to a seven days' debauch and his troops followed his example. 19. Death of Alexander (323). — In Babylon Alexander found ambassadors awaiting him from all parts of the world to do him homage. His mind was filled with new schemes of conquest : of Arabia, the circumnavigation of Africa, and the subjugation of Europe. His health, how- ever, gave way under his repeated debauchery, and, full of his schemes, he passed away by fever, lingering a few days, long enough to feel and recognize the littleness of man before a superior power (323). SECTION III. Dismemberment of Alexander's Empire. 20. Alexander's Successor. — Alexander left behind him the vastest empire ever known. He refused to name a successor. His brother, Philip Arickeus, a man of weak mind, was chosen king, and had as associate Alexander iEgus, the son of Eoxana, wife of Alexander. Perdiccas was appointed regent. The thirty generals divided up among themselves the provinces of the empire as satra- 17. Who opposed Alexander in India? What befell Porus? 18. Why did Alexander return to Babylon 1 19. Who avraited him in Babylon ? What caused his death ? 20. What became of Alexander's empire ? b.c. 323-285] Egypt. 79 pies. To Ptolemy fell Egypt ; to Antipater, Macedonia and Greece ; to Antigonus, Lydia, etc. 21. Anarchy. — The death of Alexander was the signal for a series of revolt's, which were sternly quelled by the generals, especially one of the Greeks inspired by Demos- thenes, which resulted in their defeat and Demosthenes' death. The generals then fought among themselves, and for twenty- two years there was nothing but anarchy in the empire, which finally dissolved into four kingdoms : the kingdom of Thrace, which lasted only a short time ; the kingdom of Macedonia, of Egypt, and of Syria, the last being the largest and most powerful of the four. CHAPTEK VIII. STATES FORMED OUT OF ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. The principal states formed from tlie breaking up of Alexander's empire were the kingdoms of Egj~pt, Syria, and Macedonia. The kingdom of Thrace disappeared with Lysimachus. SECTION I. Egypt under the Lagi (323-30 B.C.) 1. Ptolemy I., Sotor (323-285).— Ptolemy I., surnamed Sotor, or Saviour, by the Khodians, founded the dynasty of the Lagi, so-called from Lagus, his father. Egypt fell to him, and he added to it Cyrenaica, the isle of Cyprus, and Phoenicia. He was an able, wise, and prudent prince, a lover of science and learning. He began the famous Alexandrian library. 2. Ptolemy II. (285-247).— Ptolemy II. inherited his father's fine tastes, and completed in the first year of his reign the great light-house of Pharos, one of the wonders 21. What ensued on the death of Alexander? How was his empire finally divided? 1. What dynasty did Ptolemy found? For what was he famous? 2. What was the character of Ptolemy II. ? 80 History of the World. [b.c. 285-205 of the world. He added to the Alexandrian library, among other valuable works, a translation of the Old Testament from the Hebrew into Greek. The high-priest of the Jews sent the books and translators to assist him. They completed the version of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint. 3. Ptolemy also, by means of a canal and the Nile, opened up communications between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, making his kingdom the highway for the commerce of the East, and his capital, Alexandria, the general emporium of the world. The city became the cen- tre of learning, art, science, and luxury, and was adorned with splendid edifices. Its inhabitants were of three classes, the Egyptians, the mercenaries in the king's service, and the Alexandrians — a name given to strangers who settled there, and who were for the most part Greeks -or Jews. 4. Ptolemy III. (247-222). — Ptolemy III. began his reign by a war to avenge the death of his sister, Berenice, Queen of Syria, who was murdered at the instigation of her rival, Laodice. He overran Syria, put Laoclice to death, and returned with an immense booty. Passing through Jerusalem, he offered rich sacrifices to the true God for his victory. He was the last of his dynasty who showed any virtue. 5. Ptolemy IV. (222-205).— There was war between An- tiochus the Great of Syria and Ptolemy IV. for the re- covery of the provinces wrested from Syria in the last reign. The final conflict came at Raphia, which was won by Ptolemy after a desperate battle. Palestine and part of Syria thus fell to Egypt. Ptolemy then gave himself up to a life of debauchery and crime that ended in his thirty-seventh year. "What famous literary work is connected with Ptolemy II. "? 3. What does commerce owe to Ptolemy ? Describe Alexandria. 4. Sketch the reign of Pto- lemy III. 5. Sketch the reign of Ptolemy IV. b.c. 205-48] ' Egypt. 81 6. Ptolemy V. (205-181) ; Ptolemy VI. (181-146).— Ptole- my V., who succeeded, is chiefly known for his perfidy and cruelty. He was poisoned. His son and successor made war on Antiochus Epiphanes. Antiochus conquered Egypt and took Ptolemy prisoner. The Egyptians then set his brother on the throne. Under the pretence of re- establishing Ptolemy VI. Antiochus again invaded Egypt, and would haye taken Alexandria had not an embassy from Eome defeated his plans and caused him to return to Syria. 7. Ptolemy VII. (146-117).— Both Ptolemies now agreed to make an equal division of their country. The one held Egypt and the isle of Cyprus, the other (Ptolemy VII.) Libya and Cyrenaica. They soon quarrelled' and conquer- ed each other in turn, but at length became reconciled by the generosity of the elder Ptolemy. "When he died his brother remained sole master of Egypt. Like the others, he gave himself up to frightful excesses until his death (11?). 8. Ptolemy XL (80-52); Ptolemy XII. and Cleopatra (52-48). — Two others followed in turn, remarkable only for their vices. In the year 80 Ptolemy XL, called Au- letes, or "the piper," ascended the throne. Eome had now risen in the "Western world, and Ptolemy purchased the protection of Caesar and Pompey at a price that bur- dened his people. He had to fly to Home, and then a Roman army came to re-establish him. At his death he left the crown conjointly to his son and daughter, Ptole- my and Cleopatra, whom he recommended to the care of the Roman people, especially of Pompey, then first citi- zen of the republic. 9. The two quarrelled, and Cleopatra was driven away. 6. What befell Ptolemy Y. ? What Ptolemy VI. ? Who conquered Egypt ? 7. Describe the quarrels between the Ptolemies. 8. Sketch the reign of Pto- lemy Auletes. To whom did he leave his crown ? 82 History of the World. [ b .c. 48-30 Pompey espoused her cause, but, defeated by Caesar at Pharsalia, he fled to Egypt and was slain by Ptolemy. Caesar next fell under the influence of Cleopatra, placed her on the throne, and slew Ptolemy in battle (48). 10. Ptolemy XIII. (48-44) and Cleopatra (48-30).— Caesar compelled Cleopatra to reign conjointly with her younger brother, Ptolemy, a mere child. She had her brother poisoned and reigned alone, until Mark Antony, the Eoman general, came. Him she married. To marry her Antony repudiated his wife, the sister of Octavius Cae- sar. The Komans returned. Antony, deserted by Cleo- patra at the battle of Actium (31), was wounded to death. She then strove to win over Octavius, but, finding- it impossible and disdaining to enter Borne a captive, she ended her life by the poisonous bite of an asp. 11. With Cleopatra ended the dynasty (30 B.C.), which had lasted two hundred and ninety-three years after the death of Alexander the Great. Egypt became a province of the Eoman Empire until the middle of the seventh cen- tury a.d., when it was conquered by the Saracens. SECTION II. Syria under the Seleucidsa (301-64 B.C.) 12. Seleucus I. (312-280).— To Seleucus fell the govern- ment of Babylon. He extended his kingdom to the Indus and took the title of king (306). The victory of Ipsus (301), gained by Seleucus and Ly si madras over Demetrius and Antigonus, gave to Seleucus all Asia as far as Mount Taurus. Master of Syria, he then built the city of Antioch on the Orontes, and made it his capital. It was named after his father, Antiochus. 13. Thus far he had been the ally of Lysimachus, King of Thrace. But when both were over eighty years old 9. Who befriended Cleopatra? 10-11. Describe relations between Antony and Cleopatra. How did Cleopatra die? What became of Egypt? 12. Over what kingdom did Seleucus reign? What city did he build? b.c. 312-222] Syria. S3 they quarrelled. Lysimachus marched an army as far as Cyropedion, in Phrygia, where he was defeated and slain. Seleucus then added to his kingdom all Asia Minor, Thrace, and Macedonia. His empire now, omitting Egypt, was as vast as that of Alexander. The sole survivor of Alexan- der's generals, he was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus, whom he had befriended, while in the act of offering a solemn sacrifice of thanksgiving to the gods. Ptolemy thereupon caused himself to be proclaimed King of Thrace and Macedonia. 14. Antiochus I. (280-260) ; Antiochus II (260-247).— The son of Seleucus succeeded him on the throne of Syria under the title of Antiochus I. He lost a part of Asia Minor, and was succeeded by Antiochus II., surnamed "Theos," or god. The "god's" reign was a very unfortu- nate one. "While at war with Egypt the Parthians shook off the Syrian yoke and chose as leader Arsaces, a man of obscure birth but of ability and valor. Thus originated the kingdom of Parthia. One after another the provinces re- volted, and soon all beyond the Tigris were lost to Syria. 15. Antiochus was obliged to sue for peace with Egypt. The peace involved the repudiation of Laodice, his wife, in favor of Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy. On the death of Ptolemy Antiochus took back his wife. She poisoned him and murdered Berenice. This led to the war with Ptolemy III. , the death of Laodice, and the conquest of a great part of Syria from her son, Seleucus II. (247-225). His son, Seleucus III., reigned only three years when he was poi- soned (222). 16. Antioelras the Great (222-186). — Antiochus, the sec- ond son of Seleucus II., ascended the throne when very young. He inherited the qualities of the founder of his 13. With whom did Seleucus quarrel? How did he extend his empire? What befell him ? 14. What happened under his successors ? 15 What led to the war with Egypt, and how did the war result ? 84 History of the World. [ b .c. 222-187 dynasty. At first he met with reverses and was beaten at Eaphia by the Egyptians (217). Shaking off his surround- ings, he acted for himself, and the result soon justified his confidence. He checked revolt at home with a resolute hand, and then led his armies eastward to win back the lost provinces. 17. He failed to subdue Parthia, but he stripped it of its acquisitions and confined it to its own narrow bounds. Thence he advanced to the Indus and established his au- thority everywhere. After seven years spent in these expe- ditions the young prince returned to Antioch a conqueror (205). He next turned his arms against the Jews. But they, glad to part from Egypt, easily yielded him their allegiance. 18. War with the Romans. — He now undertook the con- quest of Asia Minor. The free Greek cities that composed it sought the protection of the Eomans. Antiochus had been encouraged in his ambition by a visit from Hanni- bal, the great Carthaginian, who represented to him that the Eomans could only be conquered in Italy. Hannibal was at this time a fugitive and offered to conduct the ex- pedition. 19. Entering Greece, Antiochus was met and defeated at Thermopylae. He fled into Asia (191), closely pursued by Lucius Scipio. Another battle was fought near Magnesia, in Lydia, which was won by the Eomans notwithstanding the valor of Antiochus. To obtain peace he was compelled to cede to Eome all the provinces of Asia on that side of Mount Taurus, and defray all the expenses of the war. 20. When the time came to pay he had no money, and to obtain it attempted to plunder the rich temple of Perse- polis, but was caught in the act and killed by the people 16. How did Antiochus the Great begin his reign? 17. Sketch his conquests. 18. What led him to war with the Romans ? 19. Describe the war and its re- sults. 20. What befell Antiochus ? What occurred in the reign of Seleucus II. I b.c. 187-65] Macedonia. 85 (187). His son Seleucus succeeded, but his reign is only- famed for the disastrous attempt to plunder the Temple of Jerusalem by Heliodorus, one of his generals (176). 21. Antioclms IV. (174-164). — Seleucus was succeeded by Antioclms, an ambitious and daring but otherwise con- temptible man. He would have achieved the conquest of Egypt had not the Eomans prevented him (168). He then turned his fury on the Jews and began a- persecution that was stopped by the heroic defence of the Machabees. His generals defeated in Judea, and himself in Persia, he was stricken by a frightful malady that made death a relief (164). 22. Antioclms VIII (123-97) and Cleopatra.— After many revolutions the crown finally fell to Antioclms Grypus, so- called from the- size of his nose. Cleopatra, his mother, at- tempted to govern in his name. Her hands were already stained with murder, and when her son resisted she tried to murder him also. Presenting him a poisoned cup, he compelled her to drink it herself. Her death rid Syria of a monster (120). 23. After the death of Grypus Syria was torn with con- tentions, until as a relief she declared allegiance to Ti- granes, King of Armenia. He abandoned her to preserve his own states, and finally Pompey reduced Syria to a Eo- man province (65 b.c ) two hundred and thirty-seven years after the foundation of the kingdom. SECTION III. Kingdom of Macedonia (319-148 B.C.) and Greece (301 146 B.C.) 24. Cassander (319-298) ; End of the Family of Alex- ander (294). — Cassander occupied Macedonia at the death of his father, Antipator, and assumed the title of king in 21. Sketch the reign of Antioclms IV. 22. What ensued on his death ? Tell of Antiochus Grypus and his mother. 23. To whom did Syria transfer her al- legiance 1 What did she finally become 1 86 History of the World. [ b .c. 319-242 306. The battle of Ipsus secured to him his kingdom. His two children, born of Thessalonica, sister to Alexander the Great, disputed for the crown, and both perished in the struggle. Thus ended the line of Philip and Alex- ander. 25. Demetrius I. (294-286). — One of Cassander's sons called to his aid Demetrius, son of Antigonus, who, after his father's defeat at Ipsus, held several cities in Greece. Demetrius murdered the prince, deposed his brother, and caused himself to be proclaimed king of Macedonia (294). He now thought of reconquering all that his fa- ther had lost in Asia ; but his army, won over by Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, revolted. He set out for Asia with a handful of desperate followers. After many wanderings and privations he finally surrendered to Seleucus I., King of Syria. He was well treated, but after three years of inaction and free-living the ambitious and once brilliant "taker of cities" died (283). 26. Antigonus (286-242). — Antigonus, son of Demetri- us, tried to move all hearts for the liberation of his father. He offered all that he had and himself as hostage to Se- leucus for his father's release. Meanwhile Pyrrhus, master of Macedonia, was dethroned by Lysimachus (286) ; Ly- simachus in turn by Seleucus I. (282) ; and finally Seleu- cus was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus (280). 27. In the same year Ceraunus fell in battle against the Gauls, who had pillaged the temple of Delphi. Antigonus seized his opportunity and reconcpiered Macedonia (278). The death of Pyrrhus (272) relieved him of all competi- tors, and thenceforward he reigned peacefully in Macedo- nia. He occupied a part of Greece and became one of the most powerful monarchs of the time. He left Macedonia 24. Who became Mng of Macedonia ? How did the line of Alexander end ? 25. Sketch the career of Demetrius I. 26. Tell the story of Antigonus. What happened in Macedonia ? 27. How did Antigonus come to the throne ? b.c. 242-221] Greece. 87 to his family, which, under them, formed an independent kingdom. 28. Situation of Greece. — From the time of Alexander Greece was attached to Macedonia. Two leagues were formed in it : the JEtolian, comprising the cities of iEtolia, and the Adman, comprising several cities of Achaia. The first was a vain effort to debar Demetrius II. (242-232), son of Antigonus, who had seized Boeotia, from Central Greece. 29. The second called the Macedonians in Peloponnesus against the city of Sparta. Sparta was now shorn of her ancient power. The laws of Lycurgus had been forgotten ; riches had crept in, and with them luxury and enervation. The race had grown degenerate. Agis, one of the Spar- tan kings, strove to introduce reform and restore the Ly- curgan code. But he perished at the hands of his fellow- citizens (240). 30. Cleomenes, his brother-in-law, succeeded. He set the example of himself giving up all his goods for the public welfare. His example was contagious and the old order was restored. But a war against the Achasans ruined all (228). 31. Antigonus (232-221). — To his nephew Antigonus (Doson) Demetrius II. had left the care of his son Philip, still a child. Antigonus seized the throne, which he oc- cupied for five years. The Achaeans called him to their as- sistance against Cleomenes. He defeated Cleomenes at Sel- lasia. Cleomenes, returning to Sparta, advised the people to receive Antigonus, and himself in despair sailed for Egypt, where he was imprisoned by the king until his death. Antigonus gave the Spartans their liberty. 32. Philip (221-178).— At the death of Antigonus Doson 28. What were the iEtolian and Acheean leagues ? 29. Describe the condition of Sparta at this time. 30. Who restored order % 31. Describe the struggle be- tween Cleomenes and Antigonus. 88 History of the World. [b.c. 321-148 the crown fell to Philip, son of Demetrius II. Philip's early life was full of the best promise, but prosperity ruined him. He entered into a league with Hannibal and the Cartha- ginians against the Romans (216). The Romans first dis- posed of Carthage and then turned to Philip. They sent Quintus Flaminius with a large army to invade Macedonia. Defeated at Cynocephalse, the king was obliged to sue for peace at the cost of all his vessels, his son as hostage, and the evacuation of all the cities of Greece which he had captured (197). 33. The Greeks freed. — At the Isthmian games Quintus proclaimed to the assembled Greeks that the Roman Senate and people restored to them their liberty and their own laws. The announcement was received with universal joy. The Romans thus placed a barrier between themselves and Macedonia, and sowed new seeds of dissension among the Greeks themselves. 34. Philip could not forgive the Romans. His son De- metrius so won upon them that they sent him back free to his father. This only rendered him odious in his fa- ther's sight, who preferred his other son, Perseus. At the instance of the latter his elder brother was poisoned by his father. 35. Perseus (178-168). — Perseus succeeded to his father's throne and hatred of the Romans. After many prepara- tions he declared war. But his avarice lost him his best auxiliaries, the Gauls, and he met with a disastrous defeat from the Romans near Pydna. He was afterwards captur- ed and carried to Rome to grace the conqueror's triumph. There he died (167). Macedonia was first declared free, but later on reduced to a Roman province (148) one hun- dred and seventy-five years after the death of Alexander. 32. Who succeeded Antigonus 1 What alliance did ho make ? What was the result ? 33. What was the Roman policy with the Greeks ? 34. What of Philip and his sons ? 35. What heeame of Perseus and Macedonia ? b.c. 280-206] Greece. 89 36. The Achaean League (280). — The Achaean league drew allies to it by its reputation for honesty and jus- tice. Aratus, who had induced Sicyon (251) to join the league, was soon after chosen general. He wrested the Corinthian citadel, which was the key of the Peloponnesus, from the Macedonians by an extraordinary act of daring and skill. This brought Corinth into the league (244). The year following he restored freedom to several cities of the Peloponnesus which were under the sway of tyrants. 37. Aratus. — He made the mistake, however, of warring upon the Lacedaemonians, who were willing to enter the league provided Cleomenes, their king, was chosen chief. This Aratus refused, and war ensued. Suffering repeated defeats, he made the further mistake of calling in Antigo- nus Doson to his aid. Antigonus defeated Cleomenes, but in reward for his services took back the citadel of Cor- inth and had himself appointed general of the league, which was equivalent to making them subject to Macedo- nia. 38. Philopcemen. — Philopcemen, a native of Megalopolis* had distinguished himself greatly at the battle of Sellasia, though only twenty at the time. He was appointed com- mander-in-chief of the Achaeans. They were suffering from an invasion by Machanidas, King of Sparta, who wished to subject the Peloponnesus,, and had advanced to Mantinea. There Philopcemen gave battle, and his skill and cool- ness turned threatened disaster into a great victory. He slew the king with his oavii hand (206). 39. STabis. — Nabis succeeded Machanidas, and the Spar- tans groaned under his tyranny. He was defeated in bat- tle by the Achaeans, and, returning to Sparta, was slain by his own people. Philopcemen, hastening to Sparta, in- 36-37. Why did the Achsean league draw allies to it ? Outline the history of Aratus. What of his war with the Lacedemonians ? 38. What occurred at Mantinea ? 39. What of Nabis ? 90 History of the World. [bc. 191-146 duced tlie citizens to enter the league (191). At the age of seventy he was made prisoner by the Messenians and basely put to death. He was mourned as "the last of the Greeks" (183). 40. Some time after his death the Achaean league con- tinued the leading power in Greece. Athens and Thebes had sunk into unimportance. Dissensions arose, however ; the Eomans came in, and, under Mummius, crushed tbem at Leucopetra. Diaeus, the Achaean general, perished by his own hand after slaying his wife and children. Corinth was given up to fire and pillage (146) ; every man found in it was put to the sword, and the women and children were sold into slavery. The Achaean league was dissolved ; the walls of the confederate cities were destroyed, and Greece became the Eoman province of Achaia. 41. Grecian Art and Literature. — The world owes more to the literature of Greece than to that of any other people. In poetry, philosophy, history, rhetoric, and mathematical science the Greeks are unsurpassed ; while the works of their sculptors are, even in their fragments, the wonder and the envy of all time. There is no greater epic than Homer's Iliad; no higher drama than the drama of .ZEschylus and Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes. Socrates in- spired the philosophy to which Plato gave expression, and Aristotle gave everlasting fame to logic. Thucydides, Herodotus, and Xenophon are models for historians. The orations of Demosthenes were never equalled. To Euclid we owe the science of geometry. There is no branch in literature where the Greeks do not stand unrivalled. Grecian refinement in manners, art, and literature attain- ed its zenith in the brilliant age of' Pericles, at which time Athens became the intellectual centre of the states. What was the end of PhilopcBmen ? 40. What occurred at Leucopetra ? What was the fate of Corinth ? What did Greece heeome ? 41. In what did the Greeks excel ? Mention some of the most eminent names. EOMAN HISTOEY. THE MONARCHY. CHAPTER I. SECTION I. Romulus and his first Three Successors (753-616 B.C.) 1. Foundation of Home ; its earliest Inhabitants. — The city of Eome on the Tiber was called after its founder, Konmlus (b.c. 753), reputed to be a descendant of iEneas. He divided the Roman territory into three portions : one he consecrated to the support of religion and its ministers, another to the wants of the state, and a third he divided among his companions. These with their children formed the true Roman people, and were called patricians. The other inhabitants of the city were those who chose it as their residence. They were called plebeians and had only the right of freedom, the patricians having control over all the affairs of state. 2. Romulus divided the people into three tribes, each comprising ten curim of one hundred and ten men. These assembled in the forum, or public place, to select their magistrates, make laws, declare war or peace, and deliver judgment, against which there was no appeal. Many of the plebeians chose them for patrons, becoming their clients. These relations involved mutual obligations, clientage being really a sort of vassalage. 3. The first Government. — Romulus chose a hundred of 1. Who founded Eome? How was Rome divided? Describe the social divi- sions of the Eomans. 2. What was a curia ? Where did the curice assemble, and for what purpose ? Describe the difference between patrons and clients. 91 92 History of the World. [ b .c. 753-714 the more distinguished heads of families to deliberate on public affairs and assist him in the government. This was called the senate, or council of the ancients. From it were chosen the principal civil and military officers. As mem- bers died out new names were added to the list, whence the title "conscript fathers." As the state grew Eomulus increased the number of senators to two hundred. Later on, under Tarquin the Elder, they were increased to three hundred, and to a thousand in the last days of the re- public. Eomulus established a body-guard of three hun- dred horsemen. This was the origin of a third order, the equestrian, or knights, coming between the patricians and plebeians. 4. War with the Sabines. — Under the able rule of Eomu- lus the city rapidly grew in power. It consisted for the most part of a band of resolute men. These needed wives. Eomulus sent to the neighboring city of the Sabines to contract matrimonial alliances. The proposal was received with scorn. So Eomulus captured the Sabine maidens by stratagem. War ensued, and was finally put an end to by the Sabine women rushing between their husbands and their relatives and reconciling both. The Romans and Sabines then became one people, with Rome for capital. After many other successes Eomulus was finally slain by the senators, either through jealousy of his power or be- cause of his despotism. 5. BTuma Pompilius (714-672) and his Laws. — For a year the senate governed, and then chose Numa Pompi- lius, of Sabine origin, for king. He was renowned for his wisdom and humanity. He cultivated the finer quali- ties of his people, inculcated morality, helped industry, and punished idleness. He was the real founder of the Roman 3. Describe the senate and its office. How did the senate vary'? Who were the knights? 4. How did the Romans win their brides? 5. Who succeeded Romulus? For what was Numa famed ? bc. 714-816] Rome — The Monarchy. 93 religion, and erected an altar to Faith. He cultivated the taste for farming, and established feasts in honor of the god Terminus, who presided over the boundaries of the fields. He also built a temple to the two-faced Janus, who was supposed to see the past and the future. This temple, which was to be closed during peace, was only closed three times before Christ : during Numa's reign ; in 235, after the first Punic war ; and in the year 30, after the battle of Actium. 6. Tullus Hostilius (672-640); the Horatii and Curi- atii. — Tullus Hostilius succeeded ISTuma. He was a war- like monarch, and difficulties soon arose between the Ro- mans and their neighbors, the Albans. As the armies drew up in line of battle it was agreed to decide the day by a combat between three champions chosen from each side. For the Komans the three brothers Horatii fought ; for the Albans the three Curiatii. 7. At the onset two of the Horatii were slain and the three Curiatii wounded. Horatins, unwounded, retreated, and, dividing the brothers, attacked and slew them singly. Returning to Rome at the head of the army, he was met by his sister, who cursed him for slaying her betrothed, one of the Curiatii. In a fit of fury he slew her and was condemned to death;, but at the moment of execution the eloquent appeal of his father prevailed over the people and he was spared. The Albans, who at first submitted, again revolted, and Tullus razed their city to the ground, annex- ing the people to Rome. 8. Ancus Marcins (640-616). — Ancus Marcius, grandson of Numa, succeeded Hostilius. He was as pious as be was brave. While repelling all outside attacks he revived in Rome respect for religion, laws, and institutions. He How often was the temple of Janus closed? 6. Who succeeded Numa? With whom did the Romans quarrel ? 7. Describe the combat of the Horatii and Curiatii. 8. Who succeeded T. Hostilius ? For what is Ancus Marcius famed % 94 History of the World. [b.c. 616-578 built the city and harbor of Ostia, near the mouth of the Tiber, thus laying the first foundation of Eome's subse- quent maritime commerce. SECTION II. The Last Three Kings (616-509 B.C.) 9. Tarquin the Elder (616-578).— Tarquin, the tutor of the royal children, and a man of wealth, capacity, and power, supplanted them and ascended the throne. He was an Etruscan by birth, and Etruria was at that time the most civilized state in Italy. Tarquin introduced the magnificence of their ceremonials and habits into Rome. He erected many temples and laid the foundation of the Capitol. He built aqueducts to supply the city with wa- ter, and sewers to drain it. In the midst of his triumphs he was assassinated at the instigation of the sons of Ancus. The people rushed to the palace ; Tanaquil, the widow, told them the king was not dead, but bade them obey Ser- "vius Tullius, his son-in-law, until he could reappear. A few days after Servius, seeing his authority well established, announced the death of the king and proceeded to reign. 10. Servius Tullius (578-534) ; his Reforms. — Servius vanquished the Etruscans, and, making an alliance with the Latins, enlarged the city of Rome by including with- in its limits two hills in addition to the five it already contained. He divided it into four quarters, or tribes, called urban tribes. The territory around Eome was divid- ed into twenty-six tribes, called rural tribes. The Romans were also divided into six classes and one hundred and ninety-five centuries, according to their possessions. 11. Up to this time the comitia, or political meetings of the Romans, were held by curias in the forum. The pa- tricians alone had the right of casting votes, which were 9. How did Tarquin ascend the throne 1 What did he do in Rome 1 What befell him ? 10. What did Servius Tullius add to Eome ? How did he divide the territory and people 1 b.c. 578-534] Rome— The Monarchy. 95 counted by polls. With the expansion of the people and growth of the state it became necessary to alter this. Ser- vius decreed that in future the comitia should be held by centuries in the Field of Mars, each century counting for one yote. The plebeians also were permitted to vote, and were given all the rights of citizenship. Political power was thus distributed more widely and wisely than it ever had been before ; but as the centuries were ranged ac- cording to their possessions, the preponderance of power lay with the wealthy class. The patricians constituted the first class; but this class alone counted ninety-eight cen- turies, the other five classes having only ninety-five. 12. The Eomans from the earliest times were possessed with the genius of government and rule, which accounts in great measure for this little people so speedily expand- ing into masters of the world. Servius, to provide against accidents, ordered a census, or registering, to be renewed every five years. This maintained an equilibrium. Those who had suffered from loss of fortune went into a lower century ; those who had advanced, into a higher. The taking of the census was preceded by a religious purifica- tory ceremony called lustration; hence every period of five years was termed a lustration, much as the Greeks named their periods Olympiads. The first census, taken in B.C. 576, showed that the Eomans had eighty-seven thousand freemen able to bear arms. 13. Servius was beloved by the Eomans ; but envy and ambition were at work. Tarquin, his son-in-law, and grand- son of the elder Tarquin, aspired to power, and was urged on to it by his wife, Tullia. He gained over a portion of the senate and was proclaimed king. Servius, now an old man, hastened to the senate without his guards. Tarquin 11. Describe some of Servius' reforms. How did the patricians predominate? 12. Describe the process of the census. What was a lustration ? What did the first census show % 13. Describe the overthrow of Servius. 96 History of the World. [b.c. 534-509 seized him, hurled him from the steps, and bade his fol- lowers slay him. Tullia, riding to greet her husband, bade her charioteer drive over the bleeding corpse of her father, whence the street was named Via Scelerata, from the crime. 14. Tarquin the Proud (534-509) ; his Overthrow. — Tarquin's reign was a series of cruelties and exactions. He was nevertheless a man of vigor and capacity. He completed the Capitol, gained many victories over the neighboring peoples, and enlarged his dominion. Many prodigies are recorded to have occurred in his reign, among others the purchase by him of the Sibylline books, which were placed in the Capitol and consulted in Rome as the oracle of Delphi was in Greece. They were said to have contained predictions of the future of the Soman people, and even of the coming of Chris t. 15. Lucretia, the wife of Tarquin Collatinus, nephew of the king, was a woman of great worth and virtue. Tar- quin's son, Sextus, was moved with passion for her, and, failing to win her love, committed an outrage on her per- son. Next day Lucretia summoned her father, husband, and kinsmen, told them the story of her wrong, and, pray- ing them to avenge her, stabbed herself in their presence. Among the kinsmen was Brutus, nephew of Tarquin, long deemed a simpleton, but concealing great qualities and purpose under this guise. His nearest of kin had been slain by Tarquin in order to gain their wealth. He had all along resolved on avenging the wrong, and now, rais- ing aloft the bloody dagger, he swore to avenge Lucretia and pursue to death the race of Tarquin. All took the oath and hastened to the city. They roused the people with their awful tale. Rome revolted ; the king and all his family were banished and retired to Etruria. 14. For -what was Tarquin's reign remarkable? What building was com- pleted by him ? What were the Sibylline boohs ? 15. Tell the story of Lucretia. What of Brutus ? What befell the Tarquins ? b.c. 509] Rome — The Republic. 97 THE REPUBLIC. This epoch, covering four hundred and eighty years, is divided into three periods. The first (b.c. 509-264) embraces the feuds between the patricians and the plebeians, and the conquest of central and northern Italy ; the second (b.c. 264-133) is marked by the wars of Rome with Carthage and her allies ; the third (b.c. 133-29) by the last conquests and civil wars of the Eomans. CHAPTER I. FEUDS AND CONQUESTS IN ITALY (509-264 B.C.) SECTION I. The Consulate (509 B.C.) ; the Dictatorship (498 B.C.) ; the Tribunes of the People (493 B.C.) 1. The Consulate. — The patricians, weary of kingly rule, changed the monarchy to a republic ; but they resolved on keeping the governing power in their own hands. Two of their number were elected consuls and endowed with power almost equal to that of the kings ; but they only held office for one year. Each consul governed alternate- ly every month. To appease the plebeians the lands which had formed the patrimony of the banished king were dis- tributed among them. Brutus and Collatinus, the hus- band of Lucretia, were the first consuls chosen. 2. Collatinus, proposing to restore all their possessions to the Tarquins, was compelled to abdicate. Brutus was true to the republic, and himself condemned his two sons to death for conspiring to re-establish royalty. He pre- sided at their execution. Marching against the Etruscans, who were under the command of one of Tarquin's sons, Brutus and the latter met, and both received mortal wounds. The consul's body was taken in pomp to Rome, 1. What caused the overthrow of the Roman monarchy 1 ? What was the office of consul ? Name the first consuls. 2. What of Collatinus 1 How did Brutus act 1 What was his end 1 98 History of the World. [ b .c. 509-495 and for a year the Koman mothers remained in mourning to lament the avenger of chastity. 3. Lars Porsenna and Horatius Codes. — Tarquin roused all the Etruscan cities against Rome. Lars Porsenna, King of Clusium, suddenly appeared before the city at the head of a powerful army. Borne was saved by the heroism of Horatius Codes, who defended a bridge over which the enemy had to pass until his comrades had time to break it down. Then, throwing himself armed into the Tiber, he swam across in safety. 4. Mutius Scsevola. — Porsenna besieged the city and barely escaped from the dagger of Mutius Sesevola, a young Roman, who had penetrated the camjD to slay him. Porsenna threatened to have him tortured, when the young man smilingly held his right hand over a brazier until it was consumed, and then told the general that three hundred of his fellows had sworn to slay the enemy of their country. Porsenna hastened to sign a peace and departed. 5. The plebeians soon found that they suffered more from patrician than from royal rule. Instead of one mas- ter they had thousands. They became impoverished from constant wars and taxations, while they were ground down by tyranny. The laws against debtors were extremely harsh and were enforced to the letter. Revolt ensued, whence the office of dictator was established. 6. The Dictatorship (498); Battle of Lake Regillus (495). — The dictator, named by the consuls and ap- proved by the people, was endowed with absolute power ; but he only remained in office six months, nor was he cre- ated save on the most extraordinary emergencies. Lartius, the first dictator, appeased the people and restored union 3. What course did Tarquin pursue ? Tell of Horatius Cocles. 4. What of Mutius Scsevola ? 5. How did the office of dictator originate ? 6. Describe the power and limits of the dictator. b.c. 495-489] Eome — The Republic. 99 in the republic. He defeated the Sabines and Latins near Lake Eegillns. The remaining son of Tarquin was slain there ; and the old king, wounded, sought shelter with the tyrant of Cumae, where he died. 7. The cause of Tarquin being finally ruined, the patri- cians redoubled their exactions at home. The people re- volted, declaring that they would no longer bear arms for such proud and avaricious masters. They withdrew in a body from the city to a mountain three miles distant, after- wards called the Sacred Mount. This alarmed the senate, who sent deputies to them, and on a promise of amendment in the laws they agreed to return. 8. Tribunes of the People. — The plebeians demanded the appointment of magistrates chosen by themselves to repre- sent their interests. These were called the "tribunes of the people." First two, afterwards ten, were chosen for one year. They had authority only within the city's limits. Their person Was inviolable, their power of the highest. By a single veto they could suspend the judgment of all the magistrates and the decrees of the senate. This re- sulted in handing over the majority in the comitia to the people. 9. Coriolanus. — Coriolanus, so named from the capture of Corioli, a Volscian city, was a young patrician of high cou- rage and rare military qualities. In the disputes with the people he was a strong upholder of the authority of the senate. The tribunes of the people finally decreed his ex- ile. He had rendered great services to the state, and his banishment filled him with resentment. He went over to the Volsci, and soon returned to Rome at the head of a powerful army (489). 10. The city was in consternation, and deputies were Who fought at Lake Regillus ? The result ? 7. Describe the dissensions in Rome. 8. Describe the office and limits of the tribunes of the people. 9. Tell the story of Coriolanus. 100 History of the World. [ b .c. 489-450 sent out recalling him from banishment and suing for peace. Nothing could move him, until at last came Ver turia, his mother, accompanied by Volumnia, his wife, lead- ing by the hand her two children and followed by a crowd of noble matrons. The conqueror was conquered by them ; but, refusing to re-enter Kome, be passed the rest of his life in sad retirement among the Volsci. 11. Quintius Cincinnatus (458). — The period between the exile of Ooriolanus and the dictatorship of Cincinnatus was consumed in wars with the neighboring peoples or internal disputes. In one of these wars the consul Mi- nn ti as was surrounded by the iEqui. Rome was alarmed, and Quintius Cincinnatus was appointed dictator for the emergency. At the time of his appointment he was living and working on his farm. 12. Leaving his plough, he returned to Rome, revived the courage of the people, gathered an army, and, march- ing against the enemy with the utmost speed, defeated them, and re-entered Rome laden with booty. Having liberated the army, beaten the enemy, and saved the state, he resign- ed his dictatorship and went back to his farm. It was such examples and such qualities as these that gave vi- tality to the Roman republic. SECTION II. The Decemviri (450^149 B.C.); the Censorship (444 B.C.); Military Tribunes ; Wars with the Veientes and the Gauls. 13. Tyranny of the Decemviri. — Up to this time juris- prudence was in a very poor condition in Rome, the ma- gistrates on their own responsibility deciding the most important cases at law. So three deputies were sent to Greece to collect a system of law beneficial to the republic. On their return ten commissioners — decemviri — were ap- 10. How was Coriolanus overcome'? 11. Why was Cincinnatus called to Rome 1 12. How did Cincinnatus act? 13. For what were deputies sent to Greece 1 Who were the decemviri ? •>' b.c. 450-444] Rome — The Republic. lot pointed for one year to draw up a code. For the first term of office they behaved well, but, once confirmed in power, they became tyrants, against whose action there was no appeal, for all the other magisterial offices had been abolished. 14. Downfall of the Decemviri. — Their power was at length broken through an act of criminal outrage on the part of Appius Claudius, one of their number. Wishing to possess himself of the person of Virginia, a young Ko- man maiden, her father, a soldier, slew her rather than surrender her to dishonor. The soldiers took up their comrade's cause, revolted, and the people again retired to the Sacred Mount. The senate promised to restore their tribunes, proclaimed a general amnesty, banished the de- cemviri, and confiscated their property. Appius died in prison. 15. Laws of the Twelve Tables. — The laws of the decem- viri are known as the Laws of the Twelve Tables, because they were engraved on twelve brazen tablets. They were a completion and collection of the old Eoman usages regard- ing religion, the family, and property. The father had absolute control, even to life and death, over his house- hold. The new laws recognized the principle of the equa- lity of all citizens irrespective of persons. They forbade, however, intermarriage between patricians and plebeians, and excluded the latter from the high offices of state. The clause preventing intermarriage was afterwards withdrawn. 16. The Censorship. — The power of the consuls was di- vided up. Two censors were appointed, who relieved the consuls of many of their functions, and whose duty it was to take the census every five years. They were guardians of morals, and the office became one of the most impor- 14. What caused the overthrow of the decemviri ? How was it accomplished? 15. Describe the Laws of the Twelve Tables. 16. Who were the censors, and what was their office 1 102 History of the World. [b.c. 444-391 tant in the state. For a long period it was well filled, being conferred on only the most illustrious citizens. 17. Military Tribunes. — The disputes between senate and people continued. The tribunes maintained that one of the two consuls should be chosen from among the people, and after a prolonged resistance they gained their point. New magistrates, to the number of from three to six, were appointed to supersede the consuls. They were called military tribunes, were invested with consular power, and were chosen indifferently from both orders. The plebeians, having gained the concession, as a rule chose only patricians. 18. Under the military tribunes the Koman army first began to receive pay from the state. Formerly the people had to serve at their own expense, which was a great grievance and source of suffering. The pay at first was about five cents a day. The number of qumstors, charged with levying taxes and guarding the public treasury, was increased. A quaestor was sent to each province to attend to the finances. He was thus an important personage, and was elected in the comitia by tribes. 19. Camillus; Invasion of the Gauls.— The pay of the soldiers fixed, military expeditions on an extensive scale were planned. Veii, the capital of the Veientes, one of the strongest places in Italy and a rival of Koine, fell, after a long siege, to the genius of Camillus, the dictator (405- 395). Falerii was the next to fall (391). The brilliancy of his exploits aroused such envy that he was compelled to flee the city. He had scarcely departed when the in- habitants of Clusium, besieged by the Gauls, appealed to the Romans for help. A rash act on the part of one of the Roman ambassadors brought the Gauls down on Rome itself. The Roman army was defeated at the Allia, and 17. Why were military tribunes created ? How were they chosen ? 18. How was the army organized ? Who were the quaestors ? 19. Who took Yoii ? Who jnvaded Rome ? b.c. 391-340] Rome — The Republic. 103 the Gauls stayed three days to collect the booty. The Ro- man youth shut themselves up in the Capitol, resolved to defend it to the last. The city was deserted save by old men, whom the G-auls massacred. They set fire to the city and almost surprised the Capitol, which was saved by the cackling of some geese, who gave warning of the ene- my's approach. 20. Meanwhile Camillus, forgetting his resentment, gath- ered together the wreck of the Roman army, defeated a marauding detachment of the Gauls, and hastened to raise the siege. While negotiations for the surrender were go- ing on between the Gauls and Romans Camillus came upon them and utterly routed them. The conqueror was honored as the saviour of his country and the second founder of Rome. SECTION III. Political Equality of Patricians and Pleteians ; Local and Foreign Wars. 21. End of Political Disputes. — Rome rebuilt and freed from the Gauls, the old disputes between patrician and plebeian broke out anew. The disputes resolved them- selves into various changes of offices, the plebeians always gaining their point in the end, until finally all offices, even the priesthood, became common to the two orders, and the internal dissensions were healed. 22. The Latins conquered. — United Rome now set about the conquest of all Italy. The Latins, who had long been the allies or vassals of Rome, revolted and claimed an equal share in honor and authority with the Romans. The Ro- man answer was a declaration of war. The armies were well matched in discipline and valor. The battle was fought near Mon.it Vesuvius. After a stubborn struggle 19. Tell of the Gauls in Rome. 20. How and by whom was Rome saved? 21. How was the civil strife in Rome healed? 22. What occasioned the war with the Latins ? How did it end ? 104 History of the World. [ b .c. 340-290 the left wing of the Romans, commanded by the consul Decius, began to give way, when their flight was arrested by the devotion of Decius, who, invoking the aid of the gods in behalf of Rome, rushed into the thickest of the fight and fell covered with wounds. The Romans, in- spired by such an example, returned to the charge. The Latins were defeated with a loss of three-fourths of their army, and, after other reverses, finally submitted. They were treated with wise clemency, admitted as Roman citi- zens, and thus incorporated with the republic. 23. War between the Romans and the Samnites. — An- other war followed immediately with the Samnites, allies of the Romans. The Campanians, attacked by the Sam- nites, made themselves subject to Rome, and thus brought on the struggle. The Romans conquered, but at last the imprudence of the consuls, Veturius and Posthumius, brought on them the most signal disgrace Roman arms had ever known. Pontius, the Samnite general, lured the legions into a narrow defile, where they were at the mercy of the enemy. They were compelled to lay down their arms and pass under the yoke — the sign of greatest dis- grace — in presence of the Samnite army. This is known as the battle of the Caudine Forks. The army marched silently back to Rome, which it entered at dead of night. 24. The Romans refused to be bound by the disgraceful conditions agreed on. They appointed Papirius Cursor and Publius, two of their best generals, consuls ; raised new armies, and in a short time totally defeated the Samnites, making Pontius himself and his troops pass under the yoke. The war, however, struggled on for forty-nine years, and was only put an end to by the consul Ciirius. The Samnites submitted, as did also the Etruscans ; and now Describe the devotion of Decius. 23. What led to the war with the Sam- nites ? What occurred at the Caudine Forks 1 24. How did the Romans take their defeat 1 What was the end of the war 1 b.c. 290-262] Rome — The Republic. 105 Eome was mistress of all southern Italy just as she was compelled to face a dangerous foreign foe (290). 25. Pyrrhus (280). — This was Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, whose exploits have already been given (see p. 87). A dispute arose between the Romans and the peoj)le of Ta- rentum, who invoked the aid of Pyrrhus. The Romans refused to accept his arbitration and offered him battle at Heraclea. They were defeated, but the battle cost Pyrrhus so dear that he said: u Another such victory and we are undone." The Eomans sent out another army, and Pyr- rhus, seeing the men he had to deal with, himself made overtures of peace. They were rejected, and Pyrrhus was defeated by Curius at Beneventum. Thus, after nearly five hundred years of struggle, Rome was pre-eminent in Italy and had carried her arms into Sicily. CHAPTER II. WAR AGAINST CARTHAGE AND HER ALLIES. SECTION I. First Punic War (264-241 B.C.) 1. Roman Victories. — Interference in Sicily brought the Romans into collision with the Carthaginians. An excuse for hostilities was easily found, and the famous Punic wars began (264) — called Punic from an old name of the Cartha- ginians. The Romans met with success, defeated and won over Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse, who became their fast ally, and besieged and captured Agrigentum, the Carthaginian arsenal (262). 2. The first Roman Navy. — But Carthage was a naval power, and Rome had no fleet. In two months she built 25. What new foe had Eome to face ? Describe the campaigns with Pyrrhus. How did Rome now stand? 1. What led to the Punic wars? 2. What was the Qjjgin of the first Roman nayy ? 106 History of the World. [ b .c. 262-241 one of one hundred and twenty vessels, using a stranded Carthaginian galley as model. The consul Duilius took command and went in search of the Carthaginians. As soon as he came up with them he grappled their vessels by an invention designed for that purpose, and compelled them to fight at close quarters. The victory was complete and Duilius received a triumph. 3. The Romans invade Africa. — In the ninth year of the war the Romans, who always did things thoroughly, re- solved on attacking the Carthaginians in their own coun- try. Regulus began by winning a victory which cost the Carthaginians one hundred vessels. He landed in Africa and seized the port and city of Clypea (256). He went on from victory to victory until the Carthaginians were com- pelled to sue for peace. This he only agreed to grant on the harshest terms, and the people, driven to desperation, resolved to defend themselves to the last. Xantippus, a famous Lacedaemonian, was put in command. Regu- lus was defeated, his army destroyed, and himself made prisoner. 4. Heroism of Regulus. — He was sent to Rome to treat for an exchange of prisoners, on the understanding that he would return if the Carthaginian proposals were rejected. When urged to give his opinion in the senate he advised no exchange, on the ground that the Carthaginian prisoners were in the flower of their youth, while he was too old to be of any further service to his country. The senate re- luctantly accepted the sacrifice of Regains, who, true to his word, returned to Carthage to endure torture and death. 5. Final Defeat of Carthage. — His death was a new incen- tive to the war. The Romans suffered many reverses and inflicted others on their enemy. After twenty-three years Who was the first Roman admiral, and what was his exploit? 3. Describe the campaigns of Regulus. By whom was he defeated ? 4. What was Regulus' advice to the senate ? What befell him 1 b.c. 241-232] Rome— The Republic. 107 of varying fortune the consul Lutatius Catullus ended the war by the capture of Lilybseum, the strongest city in Sicily, and by the destruction of the Carthaginian navy off the .ZEgates islands (241). Carthage sued for peace, and Rome, which had suffered severely, gladly consented. The Car- thaginians had to evacuate Sicily and all the islands be- tween Italy and Africa, to pay tribute to the Romans, and never make war against Hiero- of Syracuse or any ally of Rome. Sicily thus became the first province of Rome. 6. Hamilcar. — Carthage, being essentially a naval and mer- cantile power, hired mercenaries to fight its battles. The mercenaries, not having been paid, marched against Car- thage. The city at the same time was rent by two rival factions, the one wishing peace and the other war. The peace party was led by the mercantile family of the Han- nos, the war party by the Barca family. As the mercena- ries were marching on the city the war party gained the ascendant, and Hamilcar Barca was ordered to defend Car- thage. He was an able general, and, after a three years' war, so defeated the rebels that not one escaped. 7. Hamilcar's power was so pre-eminent that his country- men, always deceitful, sent him to conquer Numidia and Mauritania, in the hope that he would be lost in the at- tempt. He succeeded, returned in triumph, and set out for the conquest of Spain. After more successes he was defeat- ed and slain by the warlike tribe of the Celtileri (232). His son-in-law, Hasdrubal, pushed his conquests, and his son, Hannibal, was destined for still greater achievements. 8. Second Invasion of the Gauls. — While the Carthaginians were engaged with the mercenaries the Romans seized Cor- sica and Sardinia. Rome being now without an enemy in the field, the temple of Janus was closed (235) for the first 5. How did the first Punic war end? What did Sicily become? 6. What followed at Carthage ? Who defeated the mercenaries ? 7. Describe the further exploits of Hamilcar and his death. 108 History of the World. [ b .c. 232-221 time since the reign of Numa Ponipilius. It was soon open- ed. The Gauls came down from beyond the Po. The So- man prophecies always spoke with dread of these barbarians. Near Cape Telamon, within three days' march of Rome, the Romans met the invading host, and their disciplined valor prevailed over the ferocious courage of the barbarians (225). 9. The Romans followed up their victory, crossed the Po for the first time, and seized Milan, the capital of the In- subres (223). The Alpine Gauls, called Gesates from their skill with the javelin, poured down to assist their country- men ; but they were cut to pieces, and their king, Virido- mar, was slain by Marcellus, the consul (222). This gave the Romans command over the north of Italy. 10. Wealth and power began to tell disastrously on the character of the Romans. Public morals were on the de- cline. About the time of the Punic wars theatrical exhi- bitions of a degrading character and the combats of gla- diators in the arena were introduced. The decay of public virtue had set in. SECTION II. Second Punic War; Hannibal. 11. Hannibal in Command. — The second Punic war began twenty-two years after the first. It was one of the most fa- mous in antiquity. The taking of Sardinia and Corsica was the occasion. Saguntum, an Italian city and colony, threa- tened by Hasclrubal, put itself under the protection of Rome. The Romans compelled Hasclrubal to respect Saguntum and limit his conquests to the banks of the Ebro. With his death soon after the command of the Carthaginians fell to Hannibal. He was only twenty-five at the time. He saw that it was a question between Rome and Carthage, and at 8. What came of the second Gallic invasion ? 9. How did the Romans acquire northern Italy 1 10. What was the state of public morals at this time ? 11 . What led to the second Punic war? Who commanded the Carthaginians'? b.c. 226-216] Rome — The Republic. 109 once laid siege to Saguntum with, an army of one hundred and fifty thousand men. In a short time it fell, and, the Carthaginians disregarding the remonstrances of Rome, war ensued. 12. Hannibal in Italy. — Hannibal burnt Saguntum to the ground and passed over into Italy. In all history there is not a march more conspicuous in military annals. Through a hostile country he carried his army, composed in the main of mercenaries, over the Pyrenees, the Rhone, the Alps. The hostile tribes that met him he overcame in battle or won over by promises. He burst upon Italy and swept be- fore him the Roman forces, who, under Scipio, the consul, opposed him near the Ticinus. Sempronius came to Sci- pio's aid, and another battle was fought near the Trebia, with a result still more disastrous to Rome (218). 13. Hannibal advanced into the heart of Italy. Flami- nius met him near Lake Trasimenus in a disadvantageous position into which the Carthaginian had decoyed him. The Romans fought with great courage, but with the death of Flaminius they fled (217). 14. FaMus; Battle of Cannae (216). — Thus were three Roman armies beaten in succession, and consternation set in at Rome. Fabius, a wary man, was chosen dictator. He risked no engagement, but watched Hannibal and har- assed him on his march. 15. Paulus ^Emilius and Varro were appointed consuls. Varro was impatient at the Fabian tactics of delay. Em- boldened by some small successes, he ventured battle at Cannae. The result was the most disastrous defeat that the Romans had ever sustained, the consul iEmilius being among the slain. 16. Siege of Capua (211). — Hannibal for some reason de- 12. How did Hannibal invade Italy? Whom did he defeat? 13. What oc- curred at Lake Trasimenus? 14. What was the policy of Fabius \ 15. What occurred at Cannae? 110 History of the World. [ b .c. 216-212 layed his march on Eome, and this j)robably saved the city, if not the empire. He went into winter quarters at Capua, where his warriors became enervated by a luxurious life after their hard battles and marches. Capua was a rich ally of Eome that had gone over to the conqueror. 17. Hannibal's delay gave the Eomans time to recruit, and the defection of Capua deeply exasperated them. They as- sembled an army and besieged the city, the proconsuls Fulvius and Appius being in command. Hannibal vainly strove to break the lines, and the Capuans, notwithstanding a brave defence, were soon reduced to the last extremity. Hannibal then made a diversion on Eome, but it failed to draw off the besieging force. Thence he withdrew to Ta- rentum, and Capua was compelled to yield. The inhabi- tants were punished with great severity. The city was to all intents and purposes destroyed. 18. Capture of Syracuse. — During the siege of Capua Syra- cuse also fell to the Eomans. After the death of Hiero it had submitted to the Carthaginians. Marcellus, the consul, crossed over and attacked it. It was defended by the engi- neering skill of Archimedes, the greatest mathematician of antiquity, who invented extraordinary machines to protect the city and destroy the Eomans. The siege was turned to a blockade. For three years it was prolonged, and was only finally taken by surprise. Archimedes was slain while solving a mathematical problem, to the great sorrow of Mar- cellus (212). The whole island of Sicily then passed under the sway of the Eomans. 19. "War in Spain; the Scipios. — The war raged in Spain also. There Publius Scipio and his brother, Cneus, won great victories over the Carthaginians. Emboldened by suc- cess, they divided their armies, the more easily to achieve the ] 6. Where did Hannibal winter ? 17. What was the fate of Capua ? 18. What occurred at Syracuse? What famous man was killed there? 19. Who com- manded the Romans in Spain ? b.c. 212-203] Rome — The Republic. Ill conquest of the country. The Carthaginian generals united their forces, and, attacking the brothers separately, defeated them, both the Scipios being slain (212). 20. Scipio Africanus. — Spain seemed lost, and no candi- date presented himself for the proconsulship. Thereupon a young man of twenty-four, Publius Cornelius Scipio, son of Publius, came forward and said he would undertake to avenge the death of his father and uncle and the defeat of the armies. He was appointed. The appointment was a fortunate one. He soon took the great city of New Car- thage and won over the tribes of the country. He con- quered the Carthaginian generals and drove them out of Spain (211-207). 21. Defeat and Death of Hasdrubal. — Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, eluded Scipio, and with a large army crossed the Alps and entered Italy with a view to joining Hannibal. He was met near the Metaurus by the two consuls, and, after an obstinate combat, defeated in the bloodiest battle of the war (207). Hasdrubal, seeing the day lost, rushed into the midst of the enemy and perished. 22. The consul Nero, returning to his command in front of Hannibal, threw the head of Hasdrubal into the enemy's camp. This was the first news that Hannibal received of the defeat, and he gave up the cause of Carthage as lost. He retired to the province of Brutium, where for a long- time he maintained his army unaided by the government. 23. Scipio in Africa (203). — Scipio, after driving the Car- thaginians from Spain, returned to Eome in triumph. He was made consul and sent to Sicily (205). He was allowed to pass over into Africa, his conviction being that the surest way of destroying the power of Carthage was by destroying Carthage itself. Two Carthaginian armies were sent against 20. Who was Scipio Africanus ? What did he do in Spain ? 21. Describe the battle of Metaurus. 22. Whither did Hannibal retire 1 23. What was Scipio's plan? 112 History of the World. [ b .c. 203-202 him : one commanded by Hasdrubal, the other by Syphax, a Numidian prince. 24. The Carthaginian camps were carelessly guarded. Sci- pio, learning this, sent Lselius, his lieutenant, and Masinissa, an ally, against Syphax, while he himself made for the camp of Hasdrubal. The camp of Syphax was set on fire and most of the Numidians slain by the soldiers of Masi- nissa. Hasdrubal's troops, seeing the conflagration and at- tributing it to accident, rushed to the succor of their allies and were destroyed by Scipio. Hasdrubal's camp was then attacked and set fire to. Of the Carthaginian host only two thousand were left. 25. Hannibal recalled ; Battle of Zama (202). — Hannibal was recalled to Carthage. He left Italy, lamenting his su- pineness after Cannae. Eeturning to Africa and seeing the spent strength of his own country opposed to the Roman power, he asked for peace. The famous generals met, but Scipio refused to accept Hannibal's conditions. A battle ensued, in which Hannibal was completely defeated and fled with a few horsemen to Carthage. He advised his coun- trymen to make peace at any price. 26. They took his advice. Scipio's conditions were that the Carthaginians should restrict themselves to Africa ; de- liver up their vessels, save ten ; pay to Eome ten thousand talents of silver within fifty years, and wage no war without Eome's permission. The kingdom of Syphax was given to Masinissa. Scipio, having completed his triumphs, returned to Rome and was given the surname of Africanus in me- mory of his conquest. Hannibal, exiled from Carthage by demand of Rome, continued to intrigue against that power. He found refuge at the court of Antiochus the Great, and persuaded that monarch to declare war against Rome. On 24. Describe Scipio's victory. 25, What occasioned Hannibal's recall ? What occurred at Zama ? 26. Wbat were Scipio's conditions of peace ? Why was he called Africanus ? b.c. 202-163] Rome — The Republic, 113 the defeat of Antiochus Hannibal's surrender was demanded. He then fled to Prusias, King of Bithynia, and intrigued there. His surrender was insisted on by Rome, and rather than fall into the hands of his implacable enemies he took poison (183). SECTION in. Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.) 27. Rome and the Allies of Carthage.— Hannibal being gone, the Romans turned their arms against his allies — Philip of Macedon, Antiochus the Great of Syria, and Perseus, Philip's successor. Macedonia was conquered and became a Roman province (see p. 88). The Gauls, who had fought under Hannibal, still held out, but were finally subdued, and their country also became a Roman province (163) under the name of Cisalpine Gaul. 28. Destruction of Carthage (146). — Rome was now mis- tress not only of Italy but of the neighboring countries. She saw with anxiety Carthage emerging from her disas- ters and again growing rich and powerful. She resolved on destroying it. She was urged to this step by Cato the Elder, who was sent as an envoy to Carthage, and, seeing its opulence after such great reverses, came back to Rome with the one phrase on his lips : " Carthage must be de- stroyed. " 29. In pursuing this policy the Romans were extremely harsh. They rejected all overtures of peace, and the Car- thaginians, driven to desperation, resolved on defending their city to the last. They made most extraordinary ef- forts of defence and extraordinary sacrifices, men and wo- men toiling together night and day. The consuls, not dreaming of stout resistance from the broken power, ad- vanced confidently to Carthage. . They were deceived. What was the fate of Hannibal 1 ? 27. Whom did the Romans next attack? 28. What occasioned the third Punic war % 29. What action did the Cartha- ginians take ? 114 History of the World. [ b .c. 163-141 The siege was maintained for two years, and Eome be- gan to doubt the issue of the war which it had wantonly provoked. 30. Scipio iEmilianus was finally appointed consul. He was a young man, distinguished both for his virtues and his family connections, being a son of the conqueror of Per- seus, and, by adoption, the grandson of Scipio Africanus. He first restored discipline among the demoralized Roman troops and then invested the city. A dreadful famine broke out among the inhabitants. Scipio stormed the ramparts and advanced into the heart of the city. He met with a most obstinate resistance, which was prolonged for six days and nights. The carnage was frightful, and on the seventh day seventy thousand Carthaginians accepted quarter. 31. Carthage was ended ; its dependencies submitted to the Eomans ; and Scipio, on his return to Rome, received with his triumph the surname of Africanus (146). In the same year Corinth fell to the Roman arms, the league of the Achaeans was dissolved, and Greece was reduced to a Roman province. 32. Siege and Fall of Mumantia (141-133). — Spain was still turbulent and refused to submit to the Roman yoke. The men sent to govern it were not of the best. Under the lead of Viriathus the people rose and inflicted severe losses on the Romans. The latter, unable to conquer him, treach- erously caused him to be assassinated. JSTumantia alone de- feated a Roman army vastly its superior in numbers, and forced it to conclude a dishonorable peace. 33. Scipio iEmilianus was appointed consul and sent out to Spain. He found the army totally disorganized. He speedily restored discipline, and then set out for the siege 30. Describe the siege of Carthage. 31. What important events occurred simultaneously with the fall of Carthage ? 32. Who held out in Spain ? 33. Tell of the siege and fall of Numantia. b.c. 133] Rome — The Republic. 115 of Numantia. He invested it and caused a famine in the city, so that the inhabitants at last fed on human flesh. The city was taken. The people in great part chose self-destruction rather than renounce their freedom. Scipio, reserving fifty for his triumph, sold the rest into slavery, levelled the city to the ground, and distributed its lands among the neighboring tribes. CHAPTER III. CIVIL WARS AND LAST CONaUESTS (133-29 B.C.) SECTION I. The Gracchi; Jugurtha; Marius. 1. The Gracchi. — While Scipio was fighting in Spain there were grave and bloody dissensions in Rome. These arose from the ambition of the two Gracchi, sons of Cornelia, the daughter of the first Scipio Africanus. They were en- dowed with great gifts but greater ambition. The strug- gle originated about a land law called Agrarian. This law, proposed by the plebeian tribunes, deprived the wealthy of certain lands that had come down to them, and distributed these among the indigent. There was probably some rea- son on both sides. It was a delicate matter to touch, and the senate had always opposed its passage as calculated to create confusion and strife. Tiberius Gracchus undertook to enforce it at any cost. The senate resolved to resist it at any cost. Tiberius, with three hundred of his partisans, was slain (133). 2. Caius Gracchus, who was nine years younger than his brother, had so far nothing to do with these disturbances. He remained quiet for years, nursing his revenge. Seeing What became of the people 1 1. Who were the Gracchi ? What was the Agrarian law ? Why did the senate oppose this law ? What part did Tiberius Gracchus take 1 What became of him ? 116 History of the World. [ b .c. 133-108 his opportunity, he rose up as the advocate of the people's rights. The senate resolved to kill him, and the consul Opimius marched against him and routed his attendants. Caius, seeing himself abandoned, ordered his slave to kill him. The slave obeyed and then slew himself (121). With the Gracchi perished for the time being the civil strife. 3. Jugurtha (113-112). — While Rome was rent by these dissensions trouble arose in ISTumidia. Masinissa had di- vided his kingdom among his two sons and Jugurtha, his nephew. Micipsa governed in chief ; but Jugurtha wished to reign alone. He caused the assassination of his cousins, and was summoned to Eome to give an account of his con- duct. Knowing the corruption there, he set out for the city. Bribing a tribune of the people, the tribune for- bade him to speak when asked to answer the charges brought against him. Notwithstanding the anger of the people, the tribune's word was law, and the assembly dis- solved without coming to a decision. While in Eome Ju- gurtha procured the assassination of Masinissa's grandson. He was thereupon expelled from Italy and war was de- clared against him. 4. Some of the Roman generals sent against him Jugur- tha bribed ; others he beat. At last Metellus, a trained general and an incorruptible man, was sent to Africa. Me- tellus was on the point of completing his conquest when Marius, one of his lieutenants, stepped in (108). Marius, appointed consul, superseded Metellus in the command. 5. Jugurtha had fought bravely and with skill, but he could not prevail against Rome. He was deserted by Boc- chus, King of Mauritania, his ally. Bocchus was urged to deliver Jugurtha, and, after long hesitation, did so, and 2. What was the fate of Caius Gracchus 1 3. Who was Jugurtha ? Describe his course of action. 4. What generals were sent against Jugurtha ? 5. By whom was Jugurtha betrayed ? b.c. 103-101] Rome— The Republic. 117 sent him loaded with chains to Sulla, the quaestor of Ma- rius. Sulla claimed the triumph, which led to a rivalry between him and Marius disastrous in its after-effects. Jugurtha with his two sons was taken to Rome to grace the conqueror's triumph, and cast into a dungeon, where he perished. 6. Teutones and Cimbri. — Rome was always a tempting prize to the fierce barbaric tribes bordering on its northern domains. Two powerful northern peoples, the Teutones and Cimbri, united their forces and marched towards the Alps while Rome was rejoicing over the fall of Jugurtha. She sent a powerful force to meet them under the com- mand of incompetent generals. A battle was fought near the Rhone, in which eighty thousand Romans were left on the field, while the conquerors, instead of marching on Rome, proceeded to ravage the south of Gaul. 7. Marius Consul. — Marius, being regarded as the only general who could save his country, was, for the first time in the history of the republic, appointed consul for several years in succession. In his fourth consulate the Teutones appeared on the Italian frontier. Notwithstanding their vast numbers, he beat them near Aix (102). The Cimbri had crossed the Alps, beaten the Romans opposed to them, and advanced to Vercellae, on the banks of the Po. Marius hastened to meet them, and the Cimbri were almost de- stroyed (101). For these exploits Marius was honored with the title of third founder of Rome. 8. His authority was now supreme. He was an able general, but no statesman. He governed badly. The Italians desired the name and rights of Roman citizens. They were denied it, and in the "social war" that en- sued they compelled Rome to grant them their demand. How did the rivalry between Sulla and Marius originate ? 6. By whom was Italy now invaded ? 7. Describe the campaigns of Marius against the invaders. 8. What occasioned the " social war " ? 118 History of the World. [ b .c. 101-82 The Samnites were now the only enemies of Rome left in Italy. SECTION II. Wars against Mithridates (88-63 B.C.) ; Sulla; Spartacus; Catiline. 9. Mithridates in Asia Minor. — While Eome was torn by its internal troubles it was threatened without by Mithridates, King of Pontus, who overran Asia Minor. He massacred one hundred thousand Eomans and Ital- ians settled there. Sulla, then consul, was sent against him, but Marius had Sulla deprived of his command. Sulla returned to Rome at the head of an army and expelled Marius and his partisans. Marius escaped to Africa, but on the departure of Sulla for Greece he re- turned to Rome. 10. Victories of Sulla. — Greece was invaded by Arche- laus, the chief general of Mithridates. Sulla took Athens by storm, and at Chaeronea cut the army of Archelaus in pieces. Soon after his- own bravery turned what threat- ened to be a great disaster into a great victory at Or-, chomenus (86). Mithridates, terrified, ordered Archelaus to make peace. By the terms of the peace Mithridates surrendered his conquests, his navy, a great part of his treasures, and was confined to the limits of his former kingdom of Pontus. This is known as the treaty of Dardanum (84). 11. While Sulla was winning these victories Rome was at the cruel mercy of Marius. Sulla's friends were massacred, as were many other citizens. Marius caused himself to be elected consul a seventh time. Sulla's successes so tormented him that he took to drinking and soon died of fever. 12. Sulla Master of Rome (82). — On his return to Italy 9. Who was Mithridates ? What troubles arose in Eome at this time 1 10. How and by whom was Mithridates overcome 1 What was the treaty of Dardanum ? 11. What passed in Rome meanwhile 1 b.c. 82] Rome — The Republic. 119 Sulla found opposed to him fifteen generals and an army of over two hundred thousand men. His own veteran force numbered only forty thousand ; hut men flocked to his standard, and Pompey and Crassus, then rising in pub- lic life, were on his side. The party of Marius was beaten everywhere, but a battle with the Samnites nearly proved fatal to Sulla and to Home. Under their experienced general, Telesinus, they evaded Sulla and Pompey, and by night reached the defenceless capital. Sulla followed after and at once attacked. The combat was most ob- stinate, and at first declared for the Samnites. But the tide was turned when Telesinus fell mortally wounded. Sulla's orders were that no quarter be given, and few Samnites escaped. 13. Sulla entered Rome, and his first act was to put to death six thousand soldiers of the Marian party, who had surrendered under promise of life. Made dictator, he dealt out death on all sides ; his word being law, ninety senators, over two thousand knights, and a vast number of citizens fell under his vengeance in Rome and through- out Italy. Then he softened and revived the laws. He weakened the power of the tribunes, which had often been abused, restored the cbief authority to the senate and pa- trician order, and distributed the lands of his enemies among his own officers and soldiers. He had thus more than one hundred and twenty thousand warriors who owed their fortunes to him. 14. For nearly three years he maintained this power, and then voluntarily resigned it. Retiring into private life, he gave himself up to debauchery and licentiousness. He died, at the age of sixty, in the year following his ab- dication (78). 12. Describe Sulla's return to Eome. What of the Samnites ? 13. How did Sulla use his power? 14. How long did Sulla remain in power? Describe his closing years. 120 History of the World. [ b .c. 78-70 15. Mithridates again invades Asia Minor. — Some being occupied with a war in Spain against Sertorius, the last of the Marian generals, and in Italy with a revolt of the gladiators under Spartacus, Mithridates again invaded the Roman provinces of Asia Minor and laid siege to Cyzicus, a city of importance. 16. Spartacus. — Spartacus was a Thracian of great strength, courage, and military capacity. Himself a gladiator, he formed a conspiracy among his brethren of the arena. "If Ave must fight why not fight our oppres- sors ? " he asked. The revolt succeeded, and numbers of slaves, to whom he promised liberty and riches, flocked to his standard. He defeated several Eoman armies, when dissensions broke out in his camp and compelled him to give battle in a bad position on the Silarus. There he was defeated and slain (71). 17. Sertorius. — Sertorius, a partisan of Marius, having fled to Spain, was aided by the Lusitanians. He defeat- ed the generals sent against him, and set up a govern- ment on the model of the Roman Republic. Unable to conquer him, the Roman generals set a price on his head, and he was assassinated by Perpenna, one of his lieuten- ants (73). 18. Lucullus and Mithridates. — Lucullus was sent against Mithridates, whose army he destroyed in passing the Gra- nicus (74). Mithridates, closely pursued, escaped to Pon- tus. Stripped of his states, he sought refuge with Tigra- nes, his son-in-law, King of Armenia (70). Lucullus en- tered Armenia with an army of fifteen thousand men. He was met at Tigranocerta by Tigranes at the head of three hundred thousand Armenians. The unwieldy force gave way at the first onset of the Romans, leaving fifty thou- 15. What opportunity did Mithridates seize ? 16. Describe the revolt under Spartacus. 17. Who was Sertorius, and what befell him? 18. Describe Lucul- lus' campaign in the East. b.c. 70-63] Rome— The Republic. 121 sand dead on the field, the Roman loss being trifling. Tigrauocerta with its immense treasures fell into the hands of the conquerors, and the neighboring countries submitted (69). 19. Tigranes called Mithridates to the command. The latter shunned general engagements and harassed the Eomans on the march. Lucullus marched on Artaxata, where Tigranes' treasures lay. To defend these the two monarch s agreed to risk an engagement. The result was their complete defeat, followed by the conquest of all Ar- menia (68). Too much good fortune wrought insubordi- nation in the Roman ranks. They refused to obey Lucul- lus. He returned to Rome, leaving the command to less experienced generals. Mithridates and Tigranes, rallying, soon drove the Romans from their states (67). 20. Pompey. — Pompey had been rising into prominence. He brought the war in Spain against Sertorius to a suc- cessful close. He defeated Spartacus. He was now given "the proconsulship of the seas," in order to rid Rome of a dangerous nest of pirates — refugees from the army of Mithridates— who- had seized on the city of Ostia and were committing great depredations. In three months he had destroyed them and brought to a close the "war of the pirates" (67). 21. He was next sent against Mithridates, and in a single brief campaign brought the war to a close (65). Deserted by all, and a price being set on his head by Tigranes, Mithridates resolved on carrying the war into Italy. But his soldiers refused to follow, set up his son, Pharnaces, in his place, and the old king in despair caused one of his Gallic mercenaries to put an end to his life (63). 19. How was Armenia conquered? What was the result of Lucullus' de- parture? 20. Mention the exploits of Pompey. 21. What was the end of Mithridates ? 122 History of the World. [b.c. 63-62 22. Pompey meanwhile had subjugated the kingdoms of Syria, Phoenicia, and Judea, and reduced all the country beyond the Euphrates to a Roman province. Pharnaces and Tigranes became tributaries of the republic. He re- turned to Rome in triumph, and was crowned with the title of "Great." 23. Catiline's Conspiracy (63). — Daring Pompey's East- ern campaign conspiracy had been rife in Rome. It was set on foot by Sergius Catiline, a senator, whose ambi- tion Avas as great as his profligacy and daring. His plan was to massacre the senate, fire the city, and overthrow the republic. He gathered around him all the evil ele- ments of the Roman nobility and populace. To carry out his plan he aspired to the chief magistracy. But news of the conspiracy got abroad and the suffrages of the alarmed citizens fell to Cicero, the great orator, au- thor, and advocate, a man of universal renown. An at- tempt on the part of Catiline to assassinate Cicero failed. Rome was put in a state of siege. 24. Cicero Consul (63). — When the senate met Catiline appeared with calm front in his usual place. Then Ci- cero rose and, in a speech of unsurpassed vehemence and power, unmasked the traitor and exposed his schemes. Catiline fled the city on the following night and joined the troops he had collected in Etruria. The conspirators he left behind him to execute his plaiis were arrested and the ringleaders put to death. Instead of marching on Rome, as he had intended, Catiline made for the Alps. The Roman legions pursued him and compelled him to fight. He and all his men fell together. To Cicero was accorded the title of "Father of his Country" (b.c. 62). 22. Describe Pompey's conquests. What title was bestowed on Mm 1 23. What was Catiline's conspiracy 1 In whom did the Romans confide ? 24. What was Cicero's action ? What Catiline's ? b.c. 60-51] Rome — The Republic. 123 SECTION III. The First Triumvirate (60 B.C.) ; Caesar and Pompey (48 B.C.) ; Antony and Octavius. 25. Tlie first Triumvirate. — This dangerous conspiracy ended, a new and more dangerous one arose in the per- son of Caius Julius Caesar, a Roman noble, possessed of every natural and acquired gift that fits a man to lead. He was as illustrious in letters as in war, and as graceful in society as he was at home in the camp. With Pompey and Crassus, the chief commanders in Konie, he formed a league called the "First Triumvirate," and got himself appointed consul. He won over the people by passing an agrarian law (59). 26. Conquest of Gaul. — He was next nominated procon- sul of Gaul, where fighting was to be clone. In his own Commentaries he admirably describes the conquest of Gaul and his other conquests over the Germans, Helvetians, and Britons. The result of an eight years' struggle against the most warlike tribes in Europe was to convert Aquitania and Celtic and Belgic Gaul into provinces of Eome. To it was given the name of Transalpine Gaul, or Gaul beyond the Alps, to distinguish it from Cisalpine Gaul (60-51). 27. Crassus and the Parthians. — Crassus, desiring, like Pompey and Caesar, to shine also as a great comman- der, assumed the government of Syria. His design was to subdue the Parthians and extend his conquests to the Indus. He pillaged the Temple at Jerusalem, and from that day evil fortune seemed to follow him. He kept along the line of the Euphrates, followed by a fleet laden with provisions. He was lured into Mesopotamia, and in a few days found himself in a desert without wa- ter or provisions. Near Carrae he was met by clouds of 25. Who formed the first Triumvirate, and who was its leading member ? What were the characteristics of Caesar'? 26. Describe Ceesar's campaigns. 27. Describe the campaign of Crassus. 124 History of the World. [ b .c. 51-48 Parthians, defeated, and compelled to retreat. He was lured again into a marshy country, where the enemy overtook him. Surena, the Parthian general, under pre- tence of a conference, seized his person. His escort at- tempting to defend him, both they and their general were slain (53). 28. Rivalry of Caesar and Pompey. — The death of Cras- sus left Caesar and Pompey rivals. There was great cor- ruption in the administration at Eome, and licentiousness prevailed. Pompey encouraged this with a view to hav- ing himself appointed dictator. He was named sole con- sul — a distinction without precedent. 29. Caesar, then in Gaul, demanded the privilege of be- ing a candidate for the following year. It was granted, but Pompey nullified the grant. Caesar resolved on re- turning. He crossed the Alps at the head of his legions. At the banks of the Rubicon, which formed the limit of his province, he hesitated, foreseeing the result of the step he was about to take. But he pushed on, seized Eimini, traversed Italy with extraordinary speed, and before Pom- pey was prepared to meet him he found himself besieged in Brundisium. Pompey escaped by sea to Dyrrachium. Caesar, having no ships to pursue him, returned to Eome, which he entered as a conqueror. His moderation and gentleness at once won for him a multitude of parti- sans (49). 30. Battle of Fharsalia (48). — Pompey assembled a power- ful army in Greece. Caesar, having subjugated Spain and Italy, went to meet his rival and gave him battle in the plains of Pharsalia, in Thessaly. Caesar's superior general- ship carried the day. Pompey fled and escaped to Egypt, whose king, Ptolemy, he had befriended ; but as soon as 28. Who now became rivals ? What was Pompey's policy ? 29. Why did Ceesar return to Eome? How did Pompey act? 30, Describe the battle of Pharsalia. What befell Pompey ? b.c. 48-45] Rome— The Republic. 125 lie reached the shore he was treacherously murdered by Ptolemy's order (48). 31. Caesar in the East (48-46). — Caesar set out in pur- suit of Pompey. At Alexandria he learned with horror of his murder. He was called in to settle the differences between Ptolemy and Cleopatra. To the latter he award- ed the crown. Ptolemy, enraged, attacked him in the pa- lace at Alexandria, where he lay intrenched with only a few thousand men. He sustained the defence until the arrival of reinforcements, when he attacked the Egyp- tians, routed the army, and Ptolemy was drowned in the Nile. 32. Caesar then passed over into Asia to attack Phar- naces, the son of Mithridates. His march was so rapid that he described it in the celebrated words, "Veni, vidi, vici" — I came, I saw, I conquered (46). Restoring peace, he returned to Eome in triumph, and was appointed dic- tator for ten years. 33. Caesar in Africa and Spain. — He was soon called over into Africa, whither Labienus, his former lieutenant, and others of Pompey's partisans had fled. Among them was Cato of Utica, the great-grandson of the elder Cato, a man of stern integrity of life. Caesar defeated them at Thapsus. Utica alone held out, but succumbed at last, and, rather than fall into the hands of the conqueror, Cato died by his own hand (46). 34. Pompey's two sons had raised an army in Spain. Caesar hastened thither, and after a bloody struggle gain- ed a decisive victory near Munda (45), which Caesar's own bravery and skill alone prevented from becoming a total defeat to his legions. Labienus and one of Pompey's sons were slain. 31. Between whom did Caesar arbitrate in Egypt ? What did Ptolemy do ? The result? 32. What did Csesar do in Asia? 33. Whom next did Cassar sub- due? 34. What took place at Munda? 126 History of the World. [ b .c. 45-43 35. Triumph and Death of Csesar (44).— The battle of Munda brought peace at last, and Csesar returned to Eome. He was made perpetual dictator, and the titles of "Imperator" and "Father of his Country" were bestowed on him. The adulation of him grew so great that reli- gious ceremonies and sacrifices were decreed him and his statues were placed in the temples. 36. Meanwhile conspiracy was at work. His desire to be proclaimed king added fuel to the flame. Caius Cas- sius was the ostensible leader in the conspiracy, but the soul of it was Brutus, an enthusiast, whom Csesar had much befriended. Caesar, rejecting all warnings, even on the day fixed for his assassination, entered the senate as usual. At the given signal the conspirators flung them- selves upon him, and, pierced by twenty-three wounds, he fell at the foot of Pompey's statue (44). 37. Second Triumvirate (43). — Octavius, Caesar's grand- nephew and adopted son, was in Greece at the time. He was still a youth, but an able politician and cool leader. He returned to Eome and presented himself as Caesar's heir. Caesar's immense fortune fell to him, and he used his money with effect. Mark Antony, Caesar's lieutenant and master of the cavalry, was made consul. He associ- ated himself with Octavius and Lepidus, the latter a man of great wealth but without ability. This constituted the second triumvirate. 38. The Proscriptions. — The new triumvirs distributed among themselves all the provinces of the republic. They then drew up lists of proscriptions wherein were named their friends, benefactors, kinsmen, and brethren. Cicero, who had opposed Antony, was sacrificed. He calmly gave himself up to his murderers (43). 35. How was Cresar honored 1 36, What conspiracy was formed against Cfflsar 1 The result ? 37. Who formed the second triumvirate ? 38. What was the action of the triumTirate 1 b.c. 43-81] Rome — The Republic. 127 39. Battle of Philippi. — Terrorism reigned in Eome. The triumvirs then passed into Macedonia in. pursuit of Brutus and Cassius, who had twenty legions under their command. Brutus attacked Octavius with such impetu- osity that he drove him back and took his camp. Mean- while Antony attacked Cassius and beat him as Brutus had Octavius. Cassius, thinking all was lost, slew him- self in despair. Brutus was soon after beaten at Philippi, and ended his life by suicide (42). 40. Partition of the Roman World. — Octavius and An- tony now divided the Roman provinces between them, leaving nothing to Lepidus. Octavius held the West and the East was given to Antony. Here he fell a victim to the wiles of Cleopatra, and dallied with her while Oc- tavius was strengthening his power in Italy. 41. War between Octavius and Antony (32). — Octavius employed Antony's army in Sicily to defeat Sextus, son of the great Pompey, who after Csesar's death menaced the coast of Italy with a large fleet. Part of Antony's forces had previously been wasted on a disastrous expedi- tion against the Parthians. Ventidius, his lieutenant, re- paired Antony's losses here and gained greater advantages over this enemy than had ever yet been gained by a Ro- man general (39). Antony being now weakened by his losses in war and degraded by his voluptuous life, Oc- tavius caused the senate to strip him of his titles, and set sail at the head of an immense fleet to carry out the sen- tence. This roused Antony for the moment, and, collect- ing all his forces, he went to meet his rival. 42. Battle of Actium (31) ; Death of Antony.— The fleets met near the promontory of Actium. The victory was a long time in suspense, when Cleopatra withdrew from the 39. Describe the battle of Philippi. 40. How was the Eoraan world divided 1 ? Under whose influence did Antony fall ? 41. Describe the rivalry between An- tony and Octavius and its consequences. 128 History of the World. [ B .c. 31-29 action with all her vessels. Antony abandoned everything to follow her. His fleet surrendered. Octavius ajjpeared before Pelusium, the key of Egypt. Cleopatra, fearing Antony's anger, sent word that she had killed herself. Thereupon he threw himself on his sword and inflicted a mortal wound. He was carried to her presence and there expired. Cleopatra strove to practise the same arts on Octavius that she had on Antony. Failing in this, and discovering that she was to be sent to Eome to grace the conqueror's triumph, she put an end to her life (see p. 82). 43. Octavius Emperor; End of the Republic (29). — Egypt was reduced to a Soman province. Octavius, confirming Herod as king of Judea, returned to Eome and made a triumphal entry. He closed the temple of Janus, giving peace to the world. He was endowed with the titles of "Father of his Country," "Prince of Peace," "Pacifier of the World," and finally "Emperor," or commander-in- chief of all the Eoman armies. This title, set before his name, and not after it, as had been ' the custom, served thenceforth to designate the sole master of the Eoman world, and the Eepublic, though not officially abolished, yielded to the Empire. CHAPTEE IV. INSTITUTIONS, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS OF THE ROMANS. 1. Orders of State. — Under the Eoman Eepublic the sovereignty belonged to "the three orders of state, the patricians, knights, and plebeians. The comitia, or na- 42. Describe the battle of Actinm. How did Antony die ? 43. To what was Egypt reduced ? What of Judea 1 ? How was Octavius honored ? By what was the Republic now followed ? Rome — The Republic. 129 tional assemblies, were held at first in the Forum, but as the republic expanded they were moved to the Field of Mars, near the Tiber. The nation reserved to itself in the comitia the right of making laws, of declaring war or peace, of judging the most important cases, and of ap- pointing the magistrates of the republic. 2. Government. — The government was confided to the senate and to a large number of magistracies. Of the magistracies the priesthood- alone was perpetual. The magistracies were invested with power of life and death, but the magistrates were themselves responsible at the ex- piration of their office. 3. The Roman Army. — In time of war every citizen was a soldier. No man, save in the last days of the republic, could attain office unless he had served ten years in the army. Service began at seventeen and ended at forty- seven. The army was divided into legions, whose num- bers varied in time from twelve hundred to six thousand infantry and three hundred cavalry. Each legion had a number and a distinguishing name. Six military tribunes in turn commanded a legion, and under the tribunes were the centurions. Each Eoman camp was converted into a practical fortress. Hence many of these camps formed the foundations of cities. In time of peace the soldiers were occupied in clearing untilled lands, erecting fortresses, digging canals, building cities, and constructing the fa- mous highways that ' stretched from Eome to the extre- mities of the empire. 4. Eoman Colonization. — To conquered countries the Ro- mans sent plebeians and veteran soldiers to plant a colony. To these was given in fee-simple a certain portion of the territory. They formed a garrison of great use to the 1. With whom did the sovereignty rest under the republic ? 2. Who governed 1 What was the power of the magistracy? 3. Describe the Roman army. What of the camps ? 130 History of the World. home government. Under the empire quite a number of military colonies were founded at various advantageous stations. To certain cities outside the Soman limits was granted the right of municipality. This made the in- habitants Roman citizens, though not with all the privi- leges of Eomans. Their persons were inviolable, nor could they be reduced to slavery nor beaten with rods. In this way St. Paul used his privilege against his ene- mies. 5. The Roman Family. — The Roman father had absolute control over the members of his family. If a deformed child were born to him he could kill it. He could pun- ish his children as he pleased, or sell them three times. After that they were emancipated, or free of his autho- rity. For certain acts he could condemn his wife to death. He had the sole right of property. 6. Slaves were few at the beginning, but with riches, conquests, and power multiplied enormously. In the lat- ter days of the republic they formed more than half of the population of Rome. Some rich families had from ten to twenty thousand slaves. They had no rights out- side of their master's will. They were simply chattels. 7. Roman Law and Religion. — In the beginning the Ro- mans, being few, had few and simple laws. These were in some cases severe and capricious. As time went on and the republic developed they were altered and multi- plied. The Roman law was only drawn up in the reign of the Emperor Theodosins the Younger and Justinian. 8. The Roman religion, simple at the beginning, caught much of its corruption from the Greeks. A multitude of divinities was introduced, the principal being Jupiter. Animals and sometimes human beings were offered in 4. How did the Romans plant their colonies ? 5. Describe the Roman family. 6. What of the slaves? 7. What of Roman law ? 8. What of religion ? Who was tho chief Roman divinity ? Rome — The Republic. 131 sacrifice. The augurs were always consulted, even in families, on occasions of importance. They were simply fortune-tellers endowed with a priestly rank. Vestal vir- gins, or priestesses of Vesta, were employed to keep alive the fire, called sacred, that burned on the altar of that goddess. The feast-days became days of general debauch- ery, the result of a corrupt religion. 9. Public Games and Shows. — The Eomans, like the Greeks, had a passion for public games. These began to assume their enormous dimensions after the second Punic war. They consisted of wrestling, horse and foot and chariot racing, boxing of various kinds, naval com- bats, and combats of wild beasts. They were very cruel and brutal for the most part. To them were added the gladiatorial combats of man with man, which, at first re- stricted to malefactors or men condemned to death, later on became a hideous profession. 10. Perhaps nothing more tended to destroy the native Eoman virtue than demoralizing shows of this kind ; and the dangerous revolt of the gladiators under Spartacus shows to what an extent it was carried. They were po- pular up to the reign of Honorius, when Telemachus, a Christian hermit, threw himself between two gladiators and was struck dead by one of them. This heroic sacri- fice led to the abolition of the brutal spectacles. The theatrical performances of the Romans were in the main obscene and never reached the height of the Greek drama. What was the office of the augurs ? What of the vestal virgins ? What of the Roman feast days ? 9. Describe the public games. 10. How and under whom were the gladiatorial shows abolished ? What of the Eoman theatre ? 132 HlSTOBY OF THE WORLD. [b.C. 29— A.D. 9 THE EMPIRE, PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN (29 B.C-476 A.D.) The history of the Roman Empire is divided into three great periods : in the first (29 b.c-284 a.d.), called the Principate, the emperor governed with the support of the army and the senate ; in the second (284-395 a.d.) the Empire became monarchical and Christian ; in the third (395-476 a.d.) the Empire was divided into the "Western or Roman Empire and the Eastern or Empire of Con- stantinople. CHAPTEE I. THE PBINCIPATE (29 B.C-284 A.D.) SECTION I. The Family of Augustus (29 B.C.-68 A.D.) ; Birth of Chris- tianity ; First Persecution, under Nero. 1. Assumption of Power by Octavius. — Octayius was named Augustus by the senate — a title hitherto only given to the gods. He soon acquired sovereign power by unit- ing in his own person all the ancient magisterial offices of the republic. He was named "Prince of the Senate" and was able to direct this assembly at his own will. He kept up the semblance of republican institutions, but was in reality an autocrat. 2. Augustus Cse.sar. — Once actually master of Borne, he made a peaceful and wise ruler, and strove to heal the wounds which he and others had inflicted on his country. The people soon became reconciled to his rule and forgot in their prosperity the loss of the liberty which had cost them so dear. Augustus lived simply and with few or none of the marks of personal sovereignty. Give the periods of the Roman Empire. How was the Empire finally divided? 1. What title was bestowed upon Octavius ? How did he acquire supreme power? 2. What was the character of Augustus' rule ? What were his habits of life ? a.d. 9-14] Rome— The Empire. 133 3. Conspiracies. — His reign was not wholly tranquil. It was embittered by the bad conduct of his children and dis- turbed by conspiracies. The most formidable of these was that under Cinna, the grandson of Pompey. Augustus had heaped favors upon Cinna, but nevertheless the latter sought his benefactor's life. Apprised of the plot, the em- peror called Oinna aside, recounted all he had done for him, and then laid bare to him the full details of the conspiracy. His clemency won Cinna over, and from that day out no conspiracy was formed against the person of Augustus. 4. Defeat of Varus (A.D. 9). — Augustus, by means of his generals, vastly extended the Roman Empire. But his arms met with a great reverse in Germany, where Varus was in command. Advancing too far into a newly conquered country, Varus and his legions became entangled in the forest of Teutberg. Here the Germans fell upon and de- stroyed the Roman army. This disaster darkened the last years of Augustus' reign. 5. The Roman Empire under Augustus. — To the Roman provinces were added Egypt and all the country between the Alps and the Danube. The Asturians and Cantab- rians were subdued in Spain ; the Germans were driven over the Rhine ; and the Parthians were compelled to give up the eagles taken from Crassus. The boundaries of the empire of Augustus were, on the west, the ocean from Mauritania to the mouth of the Rhine ; on the north, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euxine Sea ; on the east, Armenia, the Euphrates, and the deserts of Arabia ; on the south, the cataracts of Syene, the Libyan deserts, and the chain of the Atlas. 6. This vast territory was split up into thirty provinces 3. Was the reign of Augustus peaceful ? Describe the conspiracy of Cinna. 4. What befell Varus and his legions ? 5. Describe the conquests of Augustus in the East; in Spain; in Germany. Give the boundaries of the empire. 134 History of the World. [a.d. 14 outside of Italy, nineteen of them being imperial and eleven senatorial. The senate named annual proconsuls to govern, the senatorial provinces. The emperor appointed the gov- ernors of the imperial provinces, who were called "lieu- tenants of Caesar," "procurators," "presidents," or "pre- fects." Sixteen thousand men watched over the safety of Eome and the emperor ; while a standing army of four hundred thousand guarded the frontiers of the empire. Six fleets stationed at various points swept the seas. Eome itself contained more than four millions of in- habitants, and the empire one hundred and twenty mil- lions. 7. The Augustan Age. — Augustus was a great patron of letters, and his name has been given to the most brilliant Latin literary era. Cicero had just gone, as had also the historians Sallust and Cornelius Nepos. But Livy came, and with him the poets Virgil, Horace, Ovid, all favored by the friendship of the emperor. The geographer Stra- bo belonged to his reign, the architect Vitruvius, and the learned Varro. Indeed, in literary excellence, -save in the drama and in oratory, the age of Augustus fell little be- hind the palmiest days of Greece. 8. Birth of Jesus Christ. — At a time when the power of the world was thus unified in the empire of Eome and in the person of its emperor, the long-promised Eedeemer of man was born. Augustus ordered a general census of his empire. All the inhabitants of the provinces were com- manded to inscribe their names in the place where their family had its origin. Thus Mary and Joseph, both of whom were descendants of David, had to go to Bethle- hem to be enrolled. ( And there, as foretold by the pro- phets, our Lord Jesus Christ was born into the world in 6. How was the empire divided ? Who governed the provinces ? What army and fleet had Rome ? Give the population of the city and empire. 7. Describe the Augustan age. 8. What great event occurred in the reign of Augustus ? a.d. 14-16] Rome— The Empire. 135 the year of Borne 750 and fifteen years before the death of Augustus./ 9. Tiberius' (A.D. 14-37). — To Augustus succeeded his stepson, Tiberius. He was little known to the people. He had won the favor of Augustus by a display of virtue and moderation. Once on the throne, he threw off the mask he had worn so long and showed his nature to be bloody, suspicious, and cruel. 10. Germanicus. — Naturally his government came to be hated, and popular affection centred on Germanicus, his nephew, a young man endowed with every noble quality. Tiberius feared him and sent him against the Germans, who had formed a new league against the empire (a.d. 16). Germanicus acted with such wisdom and modera- tion that he appeased the mutiny of the German legions, who wished to make him emperor. Crossing the Ehine at their head, he ravaged the country until he reached the spot where the legions of Varus had been destroyed. Their bleached bones and relics of the battle were all that was left. 11. The army, moved with indignation and sorrow, marched on in search of the enemy. Arminius, the Ger- man leader, used every stratagem to defeat the Eomans, but at each encounter he was beaten, and would have been wholly conquered had not Tiberius' jealousy re- called Germanicus. His return was a triumph, which only caused the emperor to hate him the more. He sent him next to the East, and there had him poisoned. All the empire mourned Germanicus. It was now the prey of the cruel . Tiberius. 12. Tiberius at Capreae. — To escape public indignation he retired for several years to the island of Capreae, where 9. Who succeeded Augustus ? What was his character ? 10. Who was Ger- manicus? On what expedition was he sent? 11. Who led the Germans? Why was Germanicus recalled? What befell him ? 136 History of the World. [a.d. 16-37 lie gave himself up to debauchery and cruelty. . He paid an army of spies, and on their testimony a multitude of in- nocent persons were condemned and executed. The senate, seeing its most illustrious members fall, was terrified into submission to anything the tyrant decreed. 13. The government was confided to Sejanus, a man as crafty and cruel as the emperor himself. He aspired to the throne, and was making his way to it when a letter from the emperor to the senate exposed him, and he was massacred by the Eoman populace. The cruelty of Tibe- rius increased with his suspicions, and his debaucheries kept pace with both. His health failed and he fell into swoons. In one of these he seemed dead, but, showing signs of re- covering consciousness, his attendants smothered him with pillows (a.d. 37). 14. Death of Jesus Christ (A.D. 33). — Meanwhile our Lord had lived His life on earth, preached His doctrine, called His apostles, worked His miracles, and crowned His work by the sacrifice of His life on Calvary. He rose from the dead and ascended visibly from the earth. From Him and from these events was born the Christian Church, which was to change the world and renew the face of the earth. 15. Caligula (A.D. 37-41). — Tiberius was bad, but his successor, Caligula, was even worse. He was the son of Germanicus, and grandson by adoption of Tiberius, and as unworthy of his father as he was natural successor of his grandfather. This wholly vicious creature commanded that divine honors be paid him ; and Rome had sunk so low in virtue and honor that he was obeyed. Within two years his frightful extravagance exhausted the treasury of the empire. To fill it he proscribed right and left, and seized upon the property of the wealthiest citizens. In fact, 12. Tell of Tiberius at Caprece. How did he rule Rome ? 13. What part did Sejanus play? What befell Sejanus ? How did Tiberius die? 14. What great event occurred in a.d. 33 ? 15. Who succeeded Tiberius 1 Describe Caligula, a.d. 37-54] Rome— The Empire. 137 lie used Eome as a vicious child uses its toys. He had a palace built for his horse and appointed the animal con- sul. He was slain by conspirators in the fourth year of a reign of horrible excess. He was probably partially insane. 16. Claudius (A.D. 41-54). — The praetorian guards, who slew Caligula, searching the palace, found Claudius, bro- ther of Germanicus and uncle of Caligula, hiding away for fear. He was about fifty years of age, and had lived in retirement hitherto. Him they chose as successor to Cali- gula. He became a mere instrument in the hands of his wife and her favorites. His wife, Messalina, an infamous woman, was put to death. He chose another wife in Agrip- pina, daughter of Germanicus. Influenced by her, he adopt- ed as heir Nero, her son by a former marriage. When Claudius seemed disposed to restore his own son, Britan- nicus, to the succession, Agrippina caused him to be poi- soned. 17. Nero (A.D. 54-68). — Nero was only seventeen when he succeeded Claudius. His accession was well liked by the people. Burrhus, commander of the guards, and Seneca the philosopher had been his tutors. He soon cut loose from their guidance and gave himself up wholly to cruelty and every kind of vice. He began by poisoning at his own table Britannicus, his adopted brother. He caused his mother to be stabbed. He murdered, his first wife and his second. Even his tutor, Seneca, was not spared. He and the poet Lucan were condemned as conspirators, and Eome began to reek with the blood of its most illustrious citizens. 18. He caused the city to be set on fire (a.d. 64), and two-thirds of it was destroyed. He laid the blame on the Christians, then a new and mysterious sect in Eome. An 16. Who succeeded Caligula % Whom did Claudius many and adopt ? What befell Claudius % 17. How did Nero begin his reign ? What illustrious persons did he condemn ? 18. Whom did Nero accuse of burning Rome ? 138 History of the World. [a.d. 54-68 edict of general persecution was issued against them. SS. Peter and Paul, who had planted the Church in Eome, as in other cities, were among the first victims of this perse- cution. Other Christian martyrs were tortured with fiend- ish cruelty and in sight of the emperor and populace. 19. Corbulo and the Parthians. — The Parthians invading Armenia, Corbulo, the ablest general of the time, was sent against them. On arriving in Syria he found an undisci- plined and disorganized force. He restored order and soon became master of Armenia. Artaxata, the capital, was ta- ken and burned. Tigranocerta, another important city, sur- rendered. The Parthians sued for peace, which was grant- ed, and Armenia was restored to a Parthian prince on con- dition of his paying homage to the emperor. 20. Death of Nero (A.D. 68). — Meanwhile Nero was seek- ing new depths of degradation. He became a mere buffoon, while retaining all his ferocity. Home grew weary of him. Galba, the governor of Spain, raised the standard of revolt. Nero concocted new plans of vengeance and blood, but all the empire rose against him. He hid himself in terror, and when the soldiers approached to capture him fell on his own sword. With him ended the Augustan family. SECTION II. The three Military Usurpers (68-69 A.D.) ; the three Princes of the Flavian Family (69-96 A.D.) ; the Catacombs. 21. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius. — The Eoman Empire was beginning to break up f*om its very vastness as well as from its corruption at home. It was now a prey for mili- tary adventurers. The Spanish legions, jealous of the Eo- man praetorian guards, themselves named an emperor in the person of their governor, Galba. He was seventy years of age, but still a man of strong character. Arriving in Who fell under Nero's persecution ? 19. Describe the expedition of Cor- bulo. The result of the expedition ? 20. Describe the close of Nero's reign. 21. How did the disruption of the Koman Empire begin ? Who was Galba ? a.d. 68-791 Rome— The Empire. 139 Borne, he refused the guards there the customary gratuity which they demanded. But he soon gave way to avarice and favoritism. He was slain in a revolt of the praeto- rian guards instigated by Otho, a former lieutenant of his. Otho was proclaimed emperor. His title was disputed by Vitellius, whom the German legions proclaimed. Otho, beaten at Bedriacum, took his own life, and Vitellius suc- ceeded, only to give the Romans an example of shameful gluttony. The legions of the East proclaimed a new empe- ror — Vespasian. 22. Vespasian (A.D. 69). — Nero had sent Vespasian to quell the Jewish revolt. He subdued the whole of Pales- tine, with the exception of Jerusalem. Proclaimed empe- ror by his legions, he resolved on starving Eome into sub- mission, and stopped the supply of corn from Egypt, on which the great city largely depended. Antonius Primus, one of his generals, crossed the Alps at the head of the Illyrian legions, defeated the army sent against him by Vitellius, took the camp in front of Cremona, captured the city, and reduced it to ashes. This he did in a day and a night, and, marching on Eome, entered it. Vitel- lius was slain by the populace. 23. Vespasian's Reforms. — Titus Elavius Vespasian was head of the great Flavian family. His reign was peace- ful. He set to work to reform abuses on all sides, in the senate as in the city. He set the much-needed example of a life of extreme simplicity and moderation. His chief vice was avarice. With this exception his ten years of reign were most beneficial to Eome and to the empire. 24. Titus. — His son Titus succeeded him. Titus had taken Jerusalem after a terrible siege, and destroyed the Temple. His character may be judged by the title be- What befell Galba 1 Tell of Otho and Vitellius. Whom did the Eastern legions proclaim? 22. What of Vespasian and the Jews ? How did Vespasian over- come Vitellius % 23. Describe Vespasian's reforms. 24. Who succeeded him ? 140 History of the World. [a.d. 79-96 stowed on him of the "Delight of Mankind." His reign lasted only two years and two months, when he died, it was supposed, of poison at the hands of his brother Domi- tian. 25. Eruption of Vesuvius (A.D. 78).— The reign of Ti- tus is memorable for a great eruption of Mount Vesuvi- us, in which Pliny, the famous naturalist, perished, while his celebrated nephew, Pliny the Younger, barely escaped. The city of Herculaneum was completely buried under the burning lava, and was only discovered in 1710 at a depth of sixty feet beneath the village of Portici, near Naples. Houses, streets; furniture, everything, were found much as they had been left at the time of the eruption. 26. Domitian (A.D. 81-96). — Domitian succeeded Titus. He was a cruel and avaricious man. He was afraid to attack the hordes that were hovering and raiding on the frontiers of the empire ; but he gave himself lofty titles such as were bestowed on the great Roman conquerors of old. Julius Agricola, one of his lieutenants, conquered Britain (a.d. 86), but was recalled through the jealousy of the emperor and condemned to live the rest of his days in obscurity. His campaign and character, however, # survived in the brilliant pages of his son-in-law; Tacitus, the great historian, as did also the character of Domitian. 27. Second Persecution of the Christians (A.D. 93-96). — Domitian's native cruelty found vent on the Christians, who were constantly multiplying. He published an edict against them and set on foot a bloody persecution. St. John the Evangelist was one of the victims. Escaping death miraculously, he was banished to the island of Pat- mos, where he wrote the Apocalypse. Domitian, after a reign of fifteen years, fell a victim to a conspiracy on the For what was Titus famous ? 25. What disaster occurred in the reign of Titus ? 26. Who succeeded Titus ? What was Domitian's character ? What conquest was made by Agricola ? 27. Describe Domitian's persecution. What of St. John ? a.d. 96-102] Rome — The Empire. 141 part of his wife and chief officers just as he was planning their massacre. 28. The Catacombs. — The Christians, being the objects of persecution, took refuge in caves beneath the city of Home, which were called the Catacombs. These, with their wind- ings and chambers, literally constituted a city beneath a city. There ihey buried the martyrs ; there they met in conference and to worship. Nothing more solemn or beau- tiful is known in history. It was not till the reign of Constantine that the Christian Church merged from this darkness into the light of day, although the work of con- version and of Christian life was constantly carried on in secret, and in spite of all danger, up and down through the great pagan city, even into the palace of the Caesars. SECTION HI. The Antoaines (96-192 A.D.); the Prsetorian Emperors (192-193 A.D.) 29. fferva (A.D. 96-98) ; Trajan (A.D. 98-117).— To Do- mitian succeeded ISTerva. He was placed on the throne by his colleagues of the senate. He was the first emperor of foreign extraction, his family coming from Crete. He reigned but a few months, but his reign gave great pro- mise of good things. He opened the prisons, where so many lay unjustly condemned, recalled the exiles, and prohibited the persecution of the Christians. He adopt- ed and named Trajan as his successor. Trajan was a man of as great civic virtue as warlike capacity. On his mo- dest entry into Rome and accession he was at once named "Optimus" (the best); and he deserved his title. 30. Trajan's Conquests. — The Dacians had forced a shame- ful peace from Domitian. Trajan marched against them, bridged the Danube, conquered them, and reduced their 28. What were the Catacombs 1 For what purposes were they used ? 29. De- scrihothe reign of Eerva. Who succeeded Nerva 1 What was Trajan's charac- ter ? What title was given him ? 30. What of Trajan and the Dacians ? 142 History of the World. [ A .d. 102-135 country to a province of Rome (a.d. 102). Thence he passed to Armenia, which the restless Parthians had again seized. Armenia soon was his. Mesopotamia and Assyria followed, and a part of Arabia (a.d. 106). Trajan de- scended the Persian Gulf to the ocean and visited the ruins of Babylon. When on the point of destroying the Parthian empire he suddenly died (a.d. 117). His vir- tues, though great, were pagan ; nor was he without pagan vices. 31. Third Christian Persecution (A.D. 102-116).— Trajan set in force the third persecution against the Christians. Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithynia, asked how he should deal with the Christians. Pliny testified to their numbers and virtues, but complained that because of them the temples of the gods were deserted. Trajan replied that the Christians were not to be hunted, but if accused the laws should be enforced against them. The laws meant punishment Avith death for refusing to sacrifice to the pa- gan gods. St. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, was the most illustrious victim of this persecution. By Trajan's own order the martyr was exposed to wild beasts in the Ro- man amphitheatre, and so perished. 32. Hadrian (A.D. 117-138).— Hadrian, nephew and successor of Trajan, was a man of peace. He let Trajan's conquests go and confined the empire within its former limits. He was a man of extraordinary and cultivated men- tal qualities. He was jealous, however, of literary supe- riority, was inconstant in friendship, and his debaucheries were a scandal. 33. Jewish Eevolt and Dispersion (A.D. 135).— The Jews had revolted against Trajan, but were subdued. Again they rose against his successor, under Barcochebas, a bri- Describo Trajan's conquests in the East. 31. How did Trajan treat the Chris- tians 1 What was Pliny's testimony ahout the Christians ? How did St. Ignatius of Antioch die ? 32. What was Hadrian's policy and character ? a. d. 135-174] Rome — The Empire. 1-13 gancl, who called himself the Messias. Six hundred thou- sand of them perished, and the disaster was supreme. The race was dispersed, and Hadrian built a new Jerusa- lem, called iElia Capitohna, which included Calvary with- in its limits. But the Jews were forbidden to enter it. 34. Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138-161). — Antoninus, Ha- drian's adopted son, succeeded. He was called "Pius," or filial, because of his love for his parents. He was a good prince, laboring quietly for the welfare of his empire. 35. Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161-180); Lucius Verus (A.D. 161-169). — Marcus Aurelius, son-in-law of Antoninus, suc- ceeded, and took as colleague Lucius Verus, his adopted brother. Verus gave himself up to vice and soon died. Marcus Aurelius was a man of singular virtue. Doubtless the influence of Christianity was telling secretly on the well-disposed pagans. 36. War with the Parthians (A.D. 162); Fourth Perse- cution (A.D. 166). — The Parthians had again invaded Ar- menia under their king, Vologeses. Marcus Aurelius sent Avidius Cassius against him. Vologeses was beaten. Cassius passed the Euphrates, advanced to and burned the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon. But the army on their return brought a pestilence into Europe. Multi- tudes fell victims to it, and the blame was laid on the Christians. The emperor renewed the edicts of perse- cution, and the martyrdoms recommenced. St. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, was burned alive, and numbers of confessors of the faith suffered death. 37. War with the Germans (A.D. 174).— The German tribes formed a formidable league against their conquerors. In great numbers they forced the passages of the Danube and the Alps, and seized upon Aquileia, in Venetia. Mar- 33. How did Hadrian- treat the revolted Jews? 34. Who succeeded Hadrian? 35. Who succeeded Antoninus ? What was the character of Aurelius ? 36. What of the Parthians ? What caused the new persecution? 37. Tell of the Germans. 144 History of the World. [a.d. 174-193 cus Aurelius drove them back over the Danube. In the pursuit he found himself and his army surrounded in the mountains of Bohemia by the hostile Quadi and perish- ing with thirst. Here, as recorded by pagan writers, the prayers and valor of a Christian legion, called the "Thun- dering," turned defeat into a great victory and had the effect of checking for a time the persecution of the Chris- tians. The war continued to the end of the emperor's reign. He died at Vienna. 38. Commodus (A.D. 180-192). — Commodus succeeded to the throne but not to the virtues of his father. His great strength, in which he gloried, led him to contend in the arena with the gladiators in sight of the Roman people. He was a brutal and cruel creature, devoured by ignoble passions. He died of poison. 39. Pertinax and Didius (A.D. 193). — Pertinax, an able man of common birth, was chosen emperor. His reforms were too trying to the praetorian guards, who, after three months, revolted and slew him. The empire was then put up by them for sale at public auction, and was purchased by Didius Julianus, a wealthy senator. Such an act out- raged even degenerate Eome. The armies on the frontier proclaimed three several emperors. One of these, Septi- mius Severus, commander in Illyria, was first on the march to Rome. Didius was abandoned and condemned to death by the senate. 40. The Christian Apologists. — The second century of the Christian era was now far advanced, and numbers of Chris- tians were found in every province of the Roman Empire. To persecution and death the pagans added all sorts of vile calumnies and lies regarding Christian faith and practice. To these Christians of great knowledge and ability replied Tell of the " Thundering Legion." 33. Describe the reign of Commodus. 39. What followed on the death of Commodus 1 How did Didius obtain the throne ? What became of Didius ? 40. Were the Christians numerous at this time 'i a'.d. 193-208] Rome— The Empire. 145 in writings that are still guides to the Church. St. Justin Martyr was one of the most illustrious of these apologists. His second epistle, addressed to Marcus Aurelius, won for the holy author the crown of martyrdom. Later on Ter- tullian wrote his famous apology for Christianity. This in itself was a death-blow to paganism. Origen was an- other great writer in the same cause. 41. Latin Writers after Augustus. — With Augustus de- clined the great era of Latin writers. Elegant and forci- ble writers came after him, but the old grace, beauty, and strength were gone. Phasdrus wrote his Fables, and Mar- tial his stinging Epigrams, and Juvenal his fierce and for- cible Satires ; but still it was the period of decline. There was no Cicero or Livy, no Virgil or Horace. There were a multitude of writers, but they were not great. Tacitus, the historian, alone was worthy to rank among his prede- cessors. SECTION IV. The Syrian Princes (193-235 A.D.); Military Anarchy (235-268 A.D.) ; the Illyrian Princes (268-284 A.D.) 42. Septimius Severus (A.D. 193-211) ; Fifth Persecution (A.D. 203). — Septimius Severus was of African extraction and the first of the princes called Syrian, because he mar- ried a Syrian woman whose accession to the throne had been predicted. After defeating Didius he had to encoun- ter his rivals, Niger in the East and Albinus in the West. Niger he crushed in the defiles of Mount Taurus, and Al- binus near Lyons, in Caul. His treatment of the van- quished was very cruel. He was treacherous and avari- cious, and the author of a new persecution of the Chris- tians, in which thousands perished at Lyons alone, among them St. Irenseus, the disciple of St. Polycarp. In other What of the Apologists % 41. Describe the condition of Latin literature after the Augustan era. Name some of the writers. 42. How did Septimius Severus gain the throne % How did he treat the Christians % 146 History of the World. [a.d. 208-222 respects the emperor was a man of strong character, frugal, vigilant, braye, and a master of military science. He wrested Mesopotamia from the Parthians. His last expe- dition was against the Caledonians, in the north of Bri- tain (a.d. 208). To prevent their inroads on the south he raised a wall extending from sea to sea, which was called after his name. 43. Caracalla (A.D. 211-217). — Oaracalla, son and suc- cessor of Severus, had already attempted to murder his father. One of his first acts on the throne was to stran- gle Geta, his brother and colleague, in the arms of their mother. He was a monster in human form. Having condemned Macrinus, commander of the guards, to death, Macrinus forestalled his sentence by killing Caracalla and mounting the throne in his stead. 44. Macrinus (A.D. 217-218); Heliogabalus (A.D. 218- 222). — Macrinus' brief reign was put an end to by his own soldiers, who slew him and set Heliogabalus on the throne. Heliogabalus was cousin-german to Caracalla and high-priest of the sun in Syria. He was a mixture of ef- feminacy and ferocity, and the lowest depths of depravity seemed reached in his person. He perished miserably, and was succeeded by Alexander Severus. 45. Alexander Severus (A.D. 222-235). — Again was de- caying Eome granted the favor of a good prince. Alex- ander Severus, though remaining in the old Eoman ways, was Christian in his life and love of virtue. In his palace he had a chapel, where he kept the images of Christ, of Abraham, of Orpheus, and of other benefactors of the hu- man race. He had to contend against the Persians in the east and the Germans in the north- The Parthian em- pire, which had resisted all the efforts of the Eomans, fell Describe the character and conquests of Septimius. 43. Describe the reign of Caracalla. 44. Describe the reigns of Macrinus and Heliogabalus. 45. Who succeeded Heliogabalus ? What was the character of Alexander Severus ? a.d. 222-241] Rome — The Empire. 147 under Artaxerxes, a disgraced general, who in revenge de- throned his sovereign and set up the kingdom of Persia (a.d. 226). Thus fell the Parthian empire after lasting- five centuries (b.o. 225-a.d. 226). The kingdom founded by Artaxerxes lasted 426 years (a.d. 226-652). 46. Alexander took Mesopotamia from Artaxerxes, but lack of discipline among his troops prevented him pursu- ing his conquest. On the other hand, he had to repel the Germans, who had invaded Gaul, and while driving them over the Ehine he was assassinated by Maximin, who took the title of emperor. 47. Military Usurpers (A.D. 235-288).— With the mur- der of Alexander began a long series of usurpations and counter-usurpations which drenched Some and the empire in blood. In an interval of fifty years there were fifty Caesars. The soldiers made and unmade emperors at their will, and universal anarchy reigned, while the barbarians encroached upon tlie borders and gradually menaced Eome. 48. Maximin I. (A.D. 235-238) ; Sixth Persecution.— Maximin, originally a herdsman, became a soldier, and by his prodigious strength and valor rose rapidly until he seized the throne. He was as brutal as he was strong, set on foot a fierce persecution of the Christians, and finally fell a victim to the same kind of conspiracy that brought him to the throne. 49. Decius (A.D. 249-251); Seventh Persecution.— Among Maximin's immediate successors, who all suffered violent deaths, the two principal were Gordian III. (a.d. 238-244) and Philip the Arab (a.d. 244-249). Gordian III. routed the Persians, while the tribune Aurelian van- quished the Franks near Mayence (a.d. 241). The Franks, whose name now begins to appear in history, What became of the Parthian Empire ? 46. Did Alexander succeed in his wars? Howdidhodie? 47. Whatfollowed on his death ? 48. Describe Maximin and his reign. 49. What followed on Haxirnm's death ? What of the Pranks % 148 History of the World. [a.d. 241-260 were a combination of German tribes who lived between the Ehine and the Weser. Philip the Arab restored Me- sopotamia to the Persians and celebrated the thousandth anniversary of Eome by great public games, which were the last of their kind. Then came Decius, who is chiefly memorable for his relentless persecution of the Christians and for his miserable end. Setting out in pursuit of the Goths, he was treacherously entangled in a marsh, where he perished with his army. 50. Gallus (AD. 251-253); -ffimilian (AD. 253).— Gal- lus, lieutenant of Decius, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor, and at once concluded a disgraceful treaty with the Goths. He was slain by his soldiers, and his successor, iEmilian, soon suffered the same fate. 51. Valerian I. (AD. 253-260) ; Eighth Persecution (AD. 258). — When Valerian, the third successor of Decius, as- cended the throne, Sapor L, King of Persia, invaded the Asian provinces of the empire and took ISTisibis and Edessa. Valerian hastened to Edessa, and Sapor, inviting him to a conference, treacherously took him prisoner. He was sub- jected to every kind of indignity, and, after three years of horrible captivity, was put to death, then flayed, and his skin, dyed red, was hung up in a temple as a sign of dis- grace to the Eomans. 52. Gallienus (A.D. 260-268) and the Thirty Tyrants — Gallienus, son of Valerian, gave himself up to a life of indulgence. He made no attempt either to free his fa- ther or repel the Persians. A dreadful pestilence, called the "Fifteen Years' Plague" (a.d. 250-265), desolated Eome and the provinces. Civil war added to the cup of Eoman misery. There were so many claimants for the throne that the epoch has been called the "Eeign of the How was the thousandth anniversary of Eome celebrated 1 For what is Decius remembered 1 ? 50. What of Gallus and JEmilian? 51. Who opposed Valerian? What was Valerian's end 1 52. Describe the reign of Gallienus. a.d. 260-276] Rome — The Empire. 149 Thirty Tyrants." In combating one of these Gallienus perished at the hands of his own soldiers, and Claudius was proclaimed emperor. 53. Claudius II (A.D. 268-270).— Claudius, called the Illyrian from his place of birth, was a man of firmness and worth. He repelled the barbarians, destroyed an army of three hundred thousand Goths and a fleet of two thou- sand sail that had invaded Macedonia. Just after this great achievement he died of the. plague and left the throne to Aurelian. 54. Aurelian (AD. 270-275) and Zenobia ; Xinth Perse- cution (AD. 274). — Aurelian, renowned for his victory over the Franks, began his reign by driving the Vandals, Ger- mans, and other invaders out of Italy. He then turned to the East, where Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, a woman of great qualities, had seized a part of Asia. Aurelian defeated the warrior-queen in two battles, and she shut herself up in Palmyra. Aurelian invested the city, and, provisions beginning to fail, Zenobia herself left the city to seek help from the Persians (a.d. 273). Aurelian sent a detachment of cavalry in pursuit. They came up with and captured her when about to cross the Euphrates. The captive queen was taken to Rome and granted a beau- tiful villa at Tibur, where she lived as a Eoman lady. Au- relian died soon after. He issued an edict against the Christians. 55. Tacitus (A.D. 275-276).— After Aurelian's death the senate and army yielded to each other the choice of his successor. For six months the friendly and unusual con- test was waged, no disturbance occurring in the interval. Finally the senate named Tacitus, a senator of great wis- dom. He was an old man, a relative of Tacitus the his- 53. Describe the reign of Claudius the Illyrian. 54. How did Aurelian begin his reign? What befell Zenobia? How did Aurelian treat the Christians? 55. What followed on the death of Aurelian ? Who was chosen emperor ? 150 History of the World. [a.d. 276-284 torian. He accepted the dangerous honor with reluctance, and after a few months was slain. 56. Probus (A.D. 276-282).— The army chose Probus, a man of obscure birth but high moral character, bravery, and ability. The barbarians were pressing on the empire on all sides. Probus successfully routed them all, He then set out for the East to check the Persians. The king of Persia, astonished at the suddenness of his ap- pearance on the mountains of Armenia, sent ambassadors to negotiate peace. They found the emperor seated on the grass eating his dinner of pea-soup and salt pork. He gave a brief message of command to the king and invited them to share his meal, if hungry; if not, to go their way at once. Such summary speech convinced the king. He went in person to the camp and concluded peace on the conditions of Probus. The emperor who had restored Eome's glory was soon after slain in a revolt of the sol- diers. 57. Carus (A.D. 282-283), Numerian (A.D. 283-284), and Carinas. — Carus, commander of the praetorian guard, who was chosen to succeed, showed himself worthy of his predecessor. Having concpiered Mesopotamia, he was ad- vancing on Persia when he was suddenly found dead in his tent on the banks of the Tigris. Aper, his minister, spread the report that the emperor was struck by light- ning, and, to prove his fidelity, proclaimed Carinus and Numerian, the sons of Carus. 58. Numerian was soon after assassinated, and the wrath- ful generals proclaimed one of themselves, Diocletian. Dio- cletian summoned Aper before the army, and, denouncing him as the assassin of the emperor, plunged his sword into his heart. Carinns was murdered soon after, and Diocle- 56. How did Probus act? Describe his Persian campaign and bis death. 57. Who was chosen to succeed ? What befell Carus ? Who proclaimed his suc- cessors ? 58. What of Diocletian ? What became of Aper and Carus' sons ? a.d. 284-292] Rome— The Empire. 151 tian was possessed of sole power. From the reign of Commodus twenty-two of the twenty-five occupants of the throne had perished by assassination. CHAPTEE II. THE MONARCHICAL (284-312 A.D.) AND CHRISTIAN EMPIRE (313-395 A.D.) The Empire became an absolute monarchy under Diocletian and Constan- tino. Constantine secured the triumph of Christianity. SECTION I. Diocletian (284-305 A.D.) ; Constantine the Great (306- 337 A.D.) ; Edict of Milan (A.D. 313). 1. Diocletian consolidates his Power. — Diocletian, born at Salona, in Dalmatia, was a man of bravery and skill. He had risen from the ranks. On entering Rome he de- stroyed what was left of the power of the senate, and replaced the turbulent praetorian guards by the Illyrian legions, who were devoted to him. To defend the fron- tiers he associated with himself Maximian, a soldier of for- tune but an able general (a.d. 286). 2. Constantius Chlorus and Galerius. — The two emperors secured the dominion of the empire. They overcame all obstacles, Diocletian being the brain of all the movements. He created two Caesars, who were lieutenants with right of succession to the emperors (a.d. 292). The first was Constantius Chlorus, a man of great worth and valor, who was father of the great Constantine. The second was Ga- lerius, a peasant's son, and a man whose only law was his sword. Galerius resided at Sirmium, Constantius at Treves, 1. How did Diocletian treat the senate and the prtetorian guards % Whom did he choose as associate and why ? 2. What further steps did Diocletian take to guard the empire ? What is meant by the Tetrarchy ? Name the tetrarchs. 152 History of the World. [a.d. 293-306 Maximian at Milan, and Diocletian at Mconiedia. The government was known as that of the " Tetrarchy." 3. Diocletian was really the supreme head, and proyed his title by his brilliant expedition against the Persians. Galerius being worsted at Carrhse, Diocletian took the field himself and gained a speedy yictory. Galerius after- wards wiped out his disgrace by several brilliant successes, when, weary of playing an inferior part, he aspired to sup- plant Diocletian. 4. Tenth. Persecution (A.D. 303). — Galerius hated Chris- tians, and constantly urged Diocletian to publish an edict against them. The emperor, who was on the whole a moderate man, refused. Galerius then twice set fire to the palace at ISTicomedia, charging the Christians with the deed, and flying, as he said, to avoid being burned by them. Diocletian at last yielded and signed the decree ordering the most bloody persecution that the Church had yet endured (a.d. 303). It was called the "Era of Martyrs." 5. Diocletian abdicates (A.D. 305). — The old emperor began to decline in mind and body. Galerius persuaded him to name as new Caesars Maximin and Severus, crea- tures of Galerius. He next compelled both Diocletian and Maximian to make a solemn abdication of the throne. The remaining nine years of his life Diocletian passed in retirement at Padua, happy in having resigned the care of the empire for the care of his garden. 6. Constantine (A.D. 306-337). — Galerius proved a cruel and avaricious ruler. Jealous of Constantine, son of his colleague, Constantius Chlorus, he tried all he could to keep him near his person in order to destroy him. But the young man escaped to his father, who, dying soon 3. Who was head of the Tetrarchy ? What of Diocletian and Galerius ? 4. Describe the tenth persecution of the Christians. 5. How did Galerius influ- ence Diocletian ? Who abdicated ? 6. What of Constantino 1 a.d. 306-313] Rome — The Empire. 153- after, left liis portion of the empire to his son. To Con- stantine thus fell Britain, Gaul, and Spain. 7. The rest of the empire was divided between G-alerius and his two Caesars. These oppressed the people by their exactions. Maxentius, son of Maximian, made himself master of Italy. Killing Severus, he chose his own father as his colleague ; and Galerius, feeling the strength of his new rival, named his friend Licinius to succeed Severus. 8. Anarchy; Triumph of Constantine. — There were thus six hostile emperors in the field. Maximian tried to mur- der his son, Maxentius, and his son-in-law, Constantine. He at last committed suicide (a.d. 310). Constantine alone endeared himself to the hearts of the people. Gale- rius was attacked with a frightful disease and perished miserably at Sardica (a.d. 311). Constantine was called to Borne by the voice of the people. He marched into Italy. 9. At this time he was hesitating whether or not to embrace Christianity. Moved by grace and by miracu- lous signs, he adopted the standard of Christ's cross as the standard of the Roman armies. Meeting Maxentius near the gates of Some, he beat him back to the Melvian bridge on the Tiber. The bridge gave way under the number of fugitives, and Maxentius, with many of his troops, was drowned. Constantine entered Eome in tri- umph and amid universal acclamation (a.d. 312). 10. Maximin attempted to murder Licinius, but he was defeated and besieged in Tarsus. Fearful of falling into the hands of the enemy, he took poison and died in hor- rible agony (a.d. 313). Licinius alone remained to oppose Constantine. Like the others, he had been a bitter per- secutor of the Christians. He marched against Constan- tine with an army composed entirely of pagans. They met 7. How and among whom was the empire now divided 1 8. Describe the an- archy that ensued. 9. What moved Constantine to Christianity ? How did he enter Rome 1 10. What befell Maximin ? Describe Constantine's final victory. 154 History of the World. [a.d. 313-337 near Adrianople ; Licinius offering victims to the gods be- fore the battle, and Constantine preparing for it by prayer. Constantine's victory was complete. Licinius surrendered his provinces on condition of his life being spared ; but being detected in an after-intrigue for the renewal of the war, he was put to death (a.d. 324). 11. Triumph of Christianity. — Constantine, now sole mas- ter of the empire, strove to heal its wounds. In the year a.d. 313 he published the famous Edict of Milan, which put an end to persecution and granted the free exercise of the Christian religion. Idolatry rapidly disappeared before the light of truth. In the reign of Constantine was held the first oecumenical council of the Church, at Nice (a.d. 325), to condemn the heresy of Arius, who de- nied the divinity of Christ, and who had led great num- bers into error, Constantine himself favoring him. 12. Founding of Constantinople (A.D. 330). — Constantine, urged by the false representations of his wife, put to death two of his children, whose innocence was afterwards made plain. Stricken with remorse, he left Eome, which had become hateful to him, and resolved on founding a new city and capital for the empire. He selected the site of the ancient Byzantium, on the strait that separates Asia from Europe. There he built a magnificent city called, after himself, Constantinople. 13. Death of Constantine. — Though now over sixty, Con- stantine marched against Sapor II., King of Persia, who menaced Mesopotamia. The terror of the emperor's name alone sufficed to drive Sapor back. Shortly after Constan- tine received baptism and died. According to the consti- tution begun by Diocletian and completed by Constantine, the emperor was invested with absolute and undivided 11. What was the Edict of Milan 1 Its results 1 What famous council was held and for what purpose 1 12. What city did Constantine found and why ? 13. What of Sapor II. % How did Constantine complete the imperial constitution ? a.d. 337-355] Rome — The Empire. 155 power. His person was sacred and his will was law. Seven ministers, chosen by him, were charged with the administration of affairs. He created a new order of no- bility to supersede all others. The system was extended throughout the provinces, and the last vestige of republi- can institutions disappeared. SECTION II. The three Sons of Constantine: Constantius (337-361 A.D.), Constans (337-350 A.D.), and Constantine II. (337-340 A.D.) 14. Division of the Empire. — Constantine divided the empire among two of his nephews and his three sons, Constantius, Constans, and Constantine. The people, dis- contented with the division, massacred all Constantino's nephews, save Julian and Gallus. This division of the empire weakened and exposed it to the old dissensions. 15. Death of Constantine II. and Constans. — Constantine II., not content with his portion of Spain, G-aul, and Bri- tain, warred on his brother, Constans, and fell in an am- buscade near Aquileia (a.d. 340). Constans seized his pro- vinces. Constantius, in the East, was more occupied in sustaining the Arian heresy than in thoughts of conquest. But a revolt under Magnentius, which resulted in the death of Constans, called his brother to the West. Mag- nentius was defeated in the bloody battle of Mursa, in Pannonia, and fled to Lyons, where, being deserted by his followers, he first slew his family and then himself (a.d. 353). 16. Julian the Apostate (A.D. 361-363).— The whole em- pire thus fell to Constantius. He gave the title of Csesar to Julian and sent him to defend Gaul (a.d. 355). Ju- lian was a man of great ability and versatility. He estab- lished order in the provinces, discipline in the armies, and 14. How did Constantine divide the Empire % What was the result 1 15. What of Constantine II. ? Who succeeded to his possessions ? Describe the struggle between Constantius and Magnentius. 16. How did Constantius treat Julian ? 156 History of the World. [a.d. 355-364 drove the Franks and Germans out of Gaul. He lessened the taxes, established justice, and built himself a palace in the city of Lutetia (Paris), where he resided. Constantius, jealous of Julian's successes and attacked by the Persians, demanded some of the young Caesar's best troops. When these arrived at Lutetia they revolted and proclaimed Ju- lian emperor (a.d. 360). Julian accepted the title and ad- vanced to Sirmium to attack Constantius, when the death of the emperor saved Rome from another civil war (a.d. 361). 17. Julian marched to Constantinople, where, as through all the empire, his authority was recognized. Thus far he had pretended to be a Christian. He now made an open profession of idolatry, and the chief bent of his policy seemed to be the suppression of Christianity. He was cunning and crafty in his assault, and not so openly vio- lent as his predecessors ; for which reason, doubtless, his efforts met with more success than theirs. But death overtook him in a war against Sapor, King of Persia (a.d. 363), and his army, lured into a desert, almost perished of famine. 18. Jovian (A.D. 363-364). — Jovian was chosen emperor by the army, to save which he was compelled to sign a treaty surrendering Armenia and a part of Mesopotamia. He gave every promise of a good and great reign, when he was suddenly found dead in his bed. 19. Valentinian I. (A.D. 364-375) and Valens (A.D. 364- 378). — Valentinian was the next choice of the army. He was a man of noble presence and noble character. He was a faithful Christian, and avowed himself such in the reign of Julian. But he was violent of temper and so led into cruelty. He chose his brother, Valens, as his colleague in What of Julian in Gaul ? Describe the rupture between Julian and Cpnstan- tius. 17. What course did Julian pursue on attaining to supreme power ? What befell him? 18. Who succeeded Julian 1 ? 19. Who succeeded Jovian ? a.d. 384-383] Rome— The Empire. 157 governing the empire. Valens, though good enough mor- ally, was indolent and careless, and the East, to which he was allotted, did not tend to rouse him. He favored the Arians. 20. Valentinian continued to govern wisely and well. Sometimes he resided in Milan, at others in Treves. He watched his frontiers and repelled the barbarians. His evil temper, however, proved fatal to himself, and he died from the rupture of a blood-vessel in a fit of pas- sion (a.d. 375). 21. Beginning of the Invasions. — The Huns, a barbarous people, swarming in from the northeast, drove the Goths, the old foes of Rome, towards the shores of the Danube. The Goths begged permission to cross the Danube and set- tle in Mcesia as subjects of the empire. Valens first grant- ed their request and then withdrew his permission. The angered Goths revolted and overran the country. Valens took the field against them and was routed and slain near Adrianople (a.d. 378). 22. Gratian (A.D. 375-383) ; Theodosius the Great (A.B. 378-395). — Gratian had succeeded his father, Valentinian. The death of Valens left him master of the empire. As col- league he chose a very able man, Theodosius. The Goths were utterly routed, great numbers of them becoming sub- jects of the empire ; the rest were pursued beyond the Ehine. 23. In face of such vigorous leadership the other bar- barians ceased their irruptions and the Persians sued for peace. All this was the work of the Christian Theodo- sius, whose mild firmness was more effective than arms. He abolished the worship of idols throughout the empire. 24. Maximus (A.D. 383-388) ; Valentinian II. (A.D. 375- 392). — Gratian, Emperor of the West, was a worthy com- 20. Describe the rule of Valentinian. 21. Who were the Huns ? What occa- sioned the Gothic invasion ? Was it successful ? 22. What of Gratian and the Goths ? Who was Gratian's colleague % 23. Describe the work of Theodosius. 158 History of the World. [ a .d. 383-392 peer of Theodosius, though, his passion for hunting led him often to neglect affairs of state. Maximus, one of his generals, taking advantage of his negligence, raised a revolt which resulted in the death of G-ratian (a.d. 383). 25. Valentinian II., G-ratian's brother, saved himself from the same fate by flying to Thessalonica. Tlieodo- sius received the young prince kindly, led him to abjure Arianism, and in the following year accompanied him west to displant Maximus. Maximus was defeated at the Save, and himself taken prisoner at Aquileia. He was slain by the soldiers. 26. Sedition broke out at Antioch (a.d. 388). Theo- dosius sent two commissaries with severe orders. The terrified inhabitants begged for mercy, and Flavian, Bish- op of Antioch, went to Constantinople to intercede for his people. The appeal of -the bishop moved the justly- angered emperor to mercy, and the city was saved. A similar revolt occurred at Thessalonica. Theodosius caus- ed seven thousand of the citizens to be slain. But the rebuke of St. Ambrose led him to do public penance for this indiscriminate slaughter (a.d. 390). 27. Assassination of Valentinian II. (A.D. 392). — A new revolution led Theodosius again westward. Valentin- ian II., young as he was, governed with such prudence as to give promise of great good, when he was assassinat- ed by Arbogastes, the general of his armies (a.d. 392). Arbogastes called Eugenius, one of his associates, to the throne. Theodosius forced the passage of the Alps from the Hlyrian side, and, descending the mountains, found an army much more numerous than his own opposed to him under the combined pagan and Christian banners. 24. What befell Gratian ? 25. What of Yalentinian II. and Maximus ? 26. What city revolted ? By whom was Antioch saved 1 Tell of the revolt at Thessalonica. 27. What befell Yalentinian II. ? Who was set on the throne ? a.d. 392-395] Rome— The Empire. 159 28. They fought near Aquileia, and victory declared for the rebels. They spent the night in debauchery, Theo- dosius in prayer. At dawn next morning he renewed the fight, and, favored by the elements, threw the victors into confusion. Arbogastes slew himself in despair. Eugenius, brought by his own soldiers to Theodosius, was executed. The vanquished army rejoiced in their defeat and frater- nized with the conquerors. Theodosius died at Milan in the arms of St. Ambrose (a.d. 395). He well deserved his title of " Great." 29. The Church in the Fourth Century. — Although the Christian Church was declared free by Constantine the Great, she had still to encounter much persecution and to overcome paganism and heresy. Great men rose up in her bosom to defend and illustrate the faith and to expose at once the errors both of paganism and heresy. St. Athanasius, who assisted at the first Council of Nice, was one of the most celebrated of these Christian doctors. Appointed to the see of Alexandria, he was the object of hatred to the Arians, who, favored by temporal authority, were very powerful. Often wandering or in exile, he fin- ally died peacefully at Alexandria after an episcopate of forty-seven years (a.d. 326-373). St. Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers, a contemporary of St. Athanasius, did like ser- vice in the Latin Church. SO. The Greek Church at this period has many illus- trious names — St. Basil, Bishop of Csesarea ; St. Gregory, Bishop of Nazianzen ; St. John Chrysostom, and others. The great St. Ambrose has identified his name with Mi- lan. He converted St. Augustine, who with St. Jerome became pillars of faith in the West. 31. The chief agent of the Church in winning the 28. Describe the battle of Aquileia. How did Theodosius die 1 29. How did Christianity progress 1 What of St. Athanasius ? Of St. Hilary ? 30. Name some of the Greek Fathers. What of St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, St. Jerome ? 160 History of the World. [a.d. 395 world from paganism was the pure example of a Chris- tian life in the great body of its members. This was something to be seen and noted every day ; and the world could not close its eyes to the contrast between the pa- gan and Christian doctrines as exemplified in the lives of those who practised the one and the other. In addi- tion came the martyrs who suffered death for the faith in the various persecutions. Then, too, monasticism, leading to lives of extraordinary mortification, retirement, medita- tion, and prayer, showed itself in the East to rebuke a world sunk in sensuality and self-indulgence. Monasti- cism spread to the West and took fast hold there. St. Paul the Hermit and St. Antony were great promoters of monasticism in the East. In the West "St. Martin founded the first monastery at Liguge, near Poitiers (a.d. 370). 32. 1 The new doctrines that the Church taught to all were the sanctity and inviolability of marriage, which constitutes the keystone of family life ; the virtue of chastity ; charity towards all ; love for the poor and suf- fering ; limitation of the excessive authority of the fa- ther ; mutual obligations betAveen superior and inferior ; and the equality of all men in the sight of God, which in time led to the abolition of slavery. 31. What was the chief agent in the overthrow of paganism ? What was the work of the martyrs ? What part did monasticism play ? Who were the chief promoters of monasticism East and West 1 State the Christian doctrines. HISTOKY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. The history of the Middle Ages begins with the death of Theodosius the Great (a.d. 395) and ends with the taking of Constantinople by the Turks (a.d. 1453). This period embraces the transition from the old pagan to Christian civ- ilization, the disruption of the Roman Empire, and the laying the foundations of modern European states on its ruins. It is divided into fivo epochs: 1. The barbaric invasions and conversion of the barbarians : from the death of Theodosius the Great to the death of St. Gregory the Great (a.d. 395-604). 2, The formation of Christian Europe : from the death of St. Gregory the Great to the death of Char- lemagne (a.d. 604-814). 3. Feudal Europe : from the death of Charlemagne to the accession of Gregory VII. (a.d. 814-1073). 4. The Papacy and Catholic Europe : from the accession of Gregory VII. to the death of St. Louis (a.d. 1073-1270). 5, Religious and Political Anarchy : from the death of St. Louis to the taking of Constantinople by the Turks (a.d. 1270-1453). FIRST EPOCH {A.D. 395-604). FROM THE DEATH OP THEODOSIUS THE GREAT TO THE DEATH OP ST. GREGORY THE GREAT— 209 YEARS. The first epoch of the Middle Ages comprises the invasions of the bar- barians and their conversion. The German tribes occupied the Western Em- pire and founded several kingdoms. At the death of St. Gregory all the tribes in the empire had embraced Christianity. CHAPTER I. THE BARBARIC INVASIONS AND FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE (395-476). SECTION I. Honorius (395-423) ; Alaric and Radagasius. 1. Division of the Roman Empire (395)^ — Theodosius the Great divided the empire between his two sons, Arcadius Where does the history of the Middle Ages begin and end? Give the various divisions. What does the first epoch of the Middle Ages embrace ? How far had Christianity spread at the death of St. Gregory 1 161 162 History of the World. [a.d. 395-403 and Honorius ; Honorius receiving the Western and Arca- dius the Eastern Empire. The young princes were placed under the tutelage of two ministers, each ambitious and jealous of the other. Stilicho, a Vandal, ruled in the name of Honorius, and Eufinus, a Gaul, in that of Arcadius. Stilicho resolved on governing both empires. To defeat his schemes Eufinus connived at a Visigothic invasion. 2. Invasion of Alaric (395-396). — These Visigoths, or Western Goths, had been allies of Theodosius the Great, and as such were allowed to settle in Mcesia (now Bulgaria). Alaric, their chief, eagerly took up Eufinus' invitation and ravaged the weakened empire up to the walls of Constan- tinople. It was the first appearance of the barbarians before the city. Eufinus, boasting that he would save the state, bought them off, giving them at the same time permission to pillage the rest of Greece. 3. Athens was only saved by a ransom ; Corinth was des- troyed and the Peloponnesus laid waste. Stilicho hastened with all his forces to meet the invader ; but the Eastern legions were called away to Constantinople. On their arri- val Eufinus was slain by one of Stilicho's emissaries. Alaric, having escaped with his forces from Stilicho, was named by Arcadius commander of the militia in the Illyrian prefec- ture (396), and was thus won over to the Eastern Empire. 4. Alaric in Italy (401-403). — Alaric assumed the title of King of the Visigoths. Entering the Western Empire through the plains of Lombardy, he marched against Milan, which Honorius had made his capital. Stilicho, hastening up, conveyed the emperor to Eavenna, which he made the imperial residence because it was thought impregnable both by land and sea. On Easter day (403) he gave battle to the barbarians under the walls of Pollentia. The Christians 1. How did Theodosius divide the empire 1 Who were appointed ministers ? What carne of their rivalry ? 2. Describe Alaric's invasion. 3. How was Alaric pacified 1 4. Tell of Alaric's campaign in Italy. a. d. 403-406] The Middle Ages. 163 were conspicuous by their bravery, and Alaric lost the flower of his army, his wife, children, and treasures. 5. Alaric, beaten again near Verona, returned to Illyria, while Honorius and Stilicho entered Eome in triumph. At the games held in their honor Telemachus, a monk, entered the arena, and, kneeling amid the gladiators, be- sought the people to abolish so inhuman an amusement. He was struck dead by a gladiator, but the martyr's blood put the seal on the gladiatorial combats, which were thence- forth for eyer abolished. (See p. 131.) 6. The Great Invasion of 406 ; Radagasius in Italy. — As the Visigoths withdrew the German tribes, pushed on by the Huns, poured down from the north and east towards the Danube and the foot of the Alps. Two hundred thou- sand of them, under the command of Radagasius, descend- ed the valley of the Adige. All Italy was stricken with terror, and the pagans clamored for the restoration of the ancient sacrifices to appease the gods. But the Christians had confidence in the cross. Florence made a prolonged resistance and stayed the advance of the invaders while Stilicho came up with thirty legions, freed the city, drove the barbarians back on the rocks of Fiesole, and there com- pelled them to lay down their arms. Eadagasius was be- headed and his comrades sold as slaves. 7. The great Invasion in Gaul (406-409).— The defeat of Radagasius terrified the tribes who lined the Danube. Turning from Italy, about four hundred thousand of them, composed of Vandals, Alans, Suevi, and Burgundians, en- tered Gaul, sacked Mayence, Strassburg, Metz, Rheims, and others of the principal cities. Honorius, fearing for Italy, left the provinces to themselves. The Roman legions, whom he had recalled from Britain, revolted and proclaimed Oon- 5. What happened after the defeat of Alaric ? 6. Who new invaded the em- pire 1 ? Who was their leader 1 ? How -were they beaten hack? 7. What occurred in Gaul ? What action did Honorius take ? 164 History of the World. [a.d.' 406-411 stantine, one of their captains, emperor (407). He was ac- knowledged in Gaul, and afterwards by Honorius. Pro- mising to liberate Gaul, lie was spared the task by the departure of the barbarians for Spain (409) in quest of fresh conquests. 8. Alaric again in Italy (408-410). — Alaric, encamped at the passes into Italy, negotiated with the other barbarians with a view to striking a final blow at the empire. Stilicho undertook to win him over, when Honorius, fearful for his throne and of the designs of his ambitious minister, signed the latter's death-warrant. Stilicho was beheaded, and those of his friends who failed to find refuge with Alaric shared his fate. 9. Alaric crossed the Alps and marched on Eome. He was bought off by a very large ransom (409) ; but Hono- rius, in Eavenna, refusing to ratify the treaty, Alaric again appeared before Eome. While still negotiating Honorius suddenly attacked him, but was beaten off. Alaric, enrag- ed, besieged the city, entered it under cover of night, and gave it up for six days to the fury of his followers (410). Everything was destroyed, and only those who sought re- fuge in the churches of SS. Peter and Paul were spared. The conqueror, laden with spoils, marched southwards to complete his conquest, but died on the way at Cosenza (410). 10. The Visigoths in Gaul and Spain (412-419).— Ataulf, Alaric's successor, entered the service of Honorius, who commissioned him to bring back Gaul and Spain into sub- jection. Constantine was besieged in Aries and taken pri- soner (411). Ataulf overcame all opposition and finally es- poused Placidia, the sister of Honorius, at ISTarbonne. She had become his captive at the sacking of Eome. After What of Constantino ? 8. What became of Stilicho ? 9. Describe Alaric's new- invasion. What befell Rome ? 10. Tell of Ataulf and his exploits. Whom did he marry 1 a.d. 411-429] The Middle Ages. 165 pacifying Gaul lie entered. Spain, but was assassinated at Barcelona. 11. Wallia, Ataulf's successor, carried on the work of subjugation with such success that he was given by Hono- rius the south of Gaul as far as the Garonne, which he joined to his conquests in Spain and formed into the kingdom of the Visigoths, with Toulouse for a capital. The kingdom of the Suevi, in Galicia, was founded and recognized at the same time. The kingdom of the Bur- gundians, between the Saone and the Rhone, had already been ceded to Gundicarius (413). Britain was formally abandoned in 409, and the independence of the Armori- can cities between the Seine and the Loire acknowledged. Thus at Honorius' death (423) the Western Empire was already dismembered and consisted of only a part of Gaul with Africa and Italy. SECTION II. Valentinian III. (424-455) ; Genseric and Attila ; the Van- dals in Africa (429). 12. Invasion of the Vandals. — Valentinian III., a nephew of Honorius, and a minor, succeeded him. He was the son of Placidia by her marriage with Constantius. His mother, a woman of great virtue and capacity, ruled in his name, aided by the generals Aetius, master of the horse, and Boniface, governor of Africa. Rivalry be- tween the generals led to a new invasion. Boniface re- volted and summoned the Vandals to his aid. Genseric, King of the Vandals (428-477), crossed the strait of Gades (Gibraltar) and ravaged Mauritania (429). 13. Boniface strove too late to undo the mischief he had wrought. He was defeated and shut up in Hippo, which 11. Who succeeded Ataulf ? What kingdom did Wallia found ? Tell of other kingdoms formed out of the empire. What was left of the empire ? 12. Who succeeded Honorius? What invasion occurred? 16'6 History of the World. [a.d. 429-447 capitulated after a siege of fourteen months. During the siege died the great St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo. Genseric, siding with the Arians against the Catholics, had the support of the heretics. He devastated Eoman Africa, which was called the granary of Eome. It is said that five millions of people perished in this invasion, and the fertile regions over which the Vandals passed were turned into a desert. Genseric seized Carthage and made it his capital (439) ; and his maritime power soon became as formidable as that of the ancient Carthaginians. 14. Attila's Invasion (450-451). — Boniface had been par- doned by Placidia ; but Aetius, resolved on his destruction, in turn invited the Huns against him. The allies were defeated, but Boniface perished. Aetius, to redeem his cha- racter by military exploits, defeated the Burgundians and Visigoths, drove the Franks towards the Scheldt (447), and restored the imperial authority throughout most of Gaul. Genseric, trembling for his safety, incited the Huns to a new invasion. 15. The Huns, a combination of the nomadic tribes of Western Asia, had pushed their conquests into Europe, where they had settled for half a century (433-453). Then Attila became their sole king. This most renown- ed of barbaric warriors, to whom the name was justly given of "the Scourge of God," seemed born to be an agent of destruction. At Genseric's invitation he gather- ed his men together and poured them upon the Eastern Empire. They passed like a tornado, and more than six- ty important cities were destroyed. The weak Theodosius II. paid him tribute, but Marcian, the successor of Theo- dosius, refused to pay it. 16. Attila then turned his arms westward and set out 13. Tell of the siege of Hippo and of Genseric's African campaign. 14. What followed between Boniface and Aetius 1 15. Who was Attila ? What empire did he invade ? How was he stayed ? a.d. 447-453] The Middle A ges. 167 for G-aul at the head of a horde of half a million barba- rians. Crossing the Rhine, he sacked Metz, Rheims, and the other cities that fell in his way. Troyes was spared at the intercession of St. Lupus, its bishop, and Paris owed its safety to the prayers of St. Genevieve. He was about to give up Orleans to pillage when St. Aignan, its bishop, announced the arrival of the Romans. The legions of Aetius, reinforced by the Franks, Visigoths, and a mul- titude of other allies under Theodoric, compelled Attila to withdraw. He halted on the vast plain of Chalons- sur-Marne, and there one of the bloodiest battles in his- tory ensued between the two largest armies that Europe had seen. Theodoric, the brave king of the Visigoths, fell, but the .Huns were beaten. Aetius, though vic- torious, allowed the enemy to recross the Rhine unmo- lested (451). 17. Attila in Italy (452). — Attila, to avenge his defeat, entered Italy and ravaged it from Aquileia, which he burnt, to Milan, which he set up for ransom. The in- habitants of Venetia, stricken with terror at his approach, fled for refuge to the islands of the Adriatic, where they founded the city of Venice. The emperor, Valentinian III., fled from Ravenna to Rome. Doubting the fidelity of Aetius, he sent an embassy, headed by the Pope, St. Leo the Great, to Attila. The barbarian, struck with veneration for the pontiff, consented, on payment of a vast sum, to leave Italy ; threatening, however, to return the following year unless half the empire was ceded to him with the hand of Honoria, the emperor's sister. Death overtook him on the banks of the Theiss (453). 18. Attila's empire disappeared with him ; the Huns dispersed ; the peoples that they had conquered recovered 16. What brought Attila westward 1 Describe bis course. Wbat occurred at Chalons ? 17. What of Attila in Italy 1 How was he stayed 1 18. What became of Attila's empire ? . 168 History of the World. [a.d. 453-472 their independence and formed distinct states, the most powerful of which were the Gepidae, on the left bank of the Theiss, and the Ostrogoths, in Pannonia. With the de- feat of the Huns Valentinian III. felt secure, and to rid himself of Aetius, whom he feared, slew him (454). A few months later he was himself assassinated at the insti- gation of the senator Petronius Maximus, and with him ended the family of Theodosius the Great. SECTION III. The Last Emperors and the Confederates. 19. Sacking of Some by Genseric (455). — Maximus com- pelled Eudoxia, the widow of his victim, to marry him, and usurped the throne. Eudoxia called ivpon Genseric to help her break the bonds she loathed. The Vandal monarch hastened to obey the call. Maximus, fleeing from Eome, was stoned by the populace. The city was given up to pillage for fourteen days and nights. No- thing was spared. Eudoxia and her children, with sixty thousand captives, were carried off to Carthage. 20. Eicimer and Odoacer. — Eome now became the prey of the barbarians, who appointed emperors at their plea- sure. Eicimer, of the Suevi, held the privilege of ap- pointing for sixteen years. He could have seized the power himself, but preferred to instal his creatures. In twenty years eight emperors either perished or were de- posed. 21. At the death of Eicimer (472) Orestes, who had formerly been in the councils of Attila, undertook to dis- pose of the purple. He bestowed it on his own son, then a child, named Eomulus Augustulus. He was the last and weakest of the Western emperors. The confederates, now masters of Italy, established themselves there as the bar- What befell Aetius? And Valentinian? 19. What brought Genseric to Rome ? The result ? 20. Who next ruled in Eome 1 21. Who was the last emperor of Rome ? a.d. 472-476] The Middle A ges. 169 barians had done in the other provinces o*f the empire. Most conspicuous among their chiefs was Odoacer, of the Heruli. In the name of the confederates he demanded a third of the lands of Italy. Being refused, Orestes was taken and slain in Payia (476), and Eomulus Augustulus was compelled to abdicate. He retired into private life and ended his days in peace. 22. Odoacer was proclaimed king. He sent an embassy to Zeno, Emperor of the East, acknowledging his su- premacy. Zeno thought it politic to allow Odoacer to retain his title with the government of Italy. Thus ended the Empire of the West (476). It had lasted five hundred and seven years from the battle of Actium and one thousand two hundred and twenty-nine years from the foundation of Borne. It had grown so feeble that its final extinction had no effect upon the world. CHAPTER II. GAUL— THE MEROVINGIAN FRANKS. SECTION I. Clovis I. and his Conquests (481-511). 1. The Franks. — The name of Pranks first appears in the middle of the third century. It was applied to a confederation of German tribes between the Rhine and the Weser. It meant free men. The Franks were for- midable to the Romans, and were among the first of the barbarians allowed to settle in the empire. After the great invasion of 406 they renounced allegiance to the empire and took possession of the northern part of Gaul. What -was Odoacer's demand and the result of it? 22. What title was given Odoacer ? Who acknowledged it ? How long had the Empire of the West last- ed? 1. Who -were the Franks ? Where did they settle ? :;;A 170 History of the Would. [ a .d. 481-496 2. In 448 Clodion, their king, seized Tournai and pene- trated as far as Sens, where he was defeated by Aetius. His successor, Merovseus, aided the Romans in their strug- gle with Attila (451). Childeric succeeded him, but what- ever fame he had is lost in that of his great son, Olovis, who ascended the throne in 481, though only sixteen years old at the time. 3. Conquests of Clovis. — Clovis resolved on conquering Gaul, which was split up into a number of hostile tribes. The north of the country, from the Somme to the Rhine, was occupied by the Franks ; to the east, between the Rhine and the Yosges, were the Germans, or Alemanni ; the Burgundians held the territory between the Saone, the Rhone, and the Alps ; the Visigoths had conquered the south of Gaul as far as the Loire ; to the west were the Bretons, refugees from Britain, the confederation of the Armorican cities, and a Saxon colony at Bayeux ; while in the lands between the Loire and the Somme Syagrius ruled over the Gallo-Romans who survived the fall of the Roman Empire. 4. Clovis marched from Tournai against Syagrius, whom he defeated near Soissons (486). He then possessed him- self of nearly all the country as far as the Loire. His marriage (493) with Clotilda, a Catholic princess, brought him several important cities. He next defeated the Ale- manni at Tolbiac (496). This was followed by his con- version to the Catholic faith. He was baptized by St. Remi, Bishop of Rheims (496), and was followed by many of his warriors. At this time he was the sole Catholic prince in the world, and the Franks were the first of the barbarians to renounce their idols and embrace the true faith. 2. What of Clodion? HerovEeus? Childeric? 3. How was Gaul divided at this time ? What was the plan of Clovis ? 4. Describe Clovis' march. Whom did he marry ? What did he become ? a.d. 496-524] The Middle Ages. 171 5. The Bretons and Armoricans submitted to his rule, but the Burgimdians and the Visigoths, who were Arians, held out under their king, Gundobald, who had murdered his brothers, one of whom was the father of Clotilda. Gundo- bald was defeated at Dijon and had to submit to an annual tribute (500). The Visigoths suffered a more disastrous de- feat at Voglode, or Vouille, where they lost their king, Ala- ric, the flower of their army, and Aquitania (507), there only remaining to them in Gaul the sea-coast between the Ehone and the Pyrenees, thenceforth called Gothland, or Septimanca. Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, obtained from them the title of king, and drove the Franks from Provence, which he added to his realm. 6. After returning from his conquests Clovis received from Anastasius, Emperor of the East, the title of patri- cian and consul, which legalized all his possessions in the eyes of his subjects. He was zealous for the faith, a friend to the pope, and died at Paris (511), which he made his capital. SECTION II. Wars and Conquests of Clovis' Successors till the Death of Dagofoert I. (511-638). 7. The four Sons of Clovis. — The kingdom of Clovis was divided among his four sons : Thierry dwelt at Metz, Clo- domir at Orleans, Childebert at Paris, and Clotaire I. at Soissons. Clotilda induced all except Thierry to unite against Sigismund, King of the Burgundians, and eldest son and successor of Gundobald. Sigismund was taken prisoner and droAvned by order of Clodomir. The latter, after gaining a victory near Veseronce (524), fell into the hands of the Burgundians, by whom he was put to death. He left three children, two of whom were murdered by their 5. Who opposed Clovis 1 ? What occurred at Vouille ? Who rescued the Visi- goths ? 6. What title was bestowed on Clovis ? What was his character ? 7. How was the kingdom of Clovis divided ? The result ? 172 History of the Would. [a.d. 524-575 uncles Ohildebert and Clotaire. The youngest escaped and became celebrated for bis virtues under the name of St. Cloud. 8. Gondemar, Sigismund's brother and successor, main- tained the struggle against the Franks for ten years, but at last yielded, and the kingdom of the Burgundians lost its independence (534). Thierry, King of Austrasia, had already conquered Thuringia (530). Theodebert (534-548), his son and successor, was the most renowned of the Mero- vingians after Olovis. He obtained Provence in return for services rendered the G-reeks and Ostrogoths, whom he afterwards defeated in Italy and ravaged the country (539). He was about to undertake an expedition against the Em- peror Justinian when he died. The Austrasian Franks made a second expedition into Italy under his son Theo- debald, but nearly all perished either by the plague or the sword of the Greeks. Ohildebert and Clotaire were more successful in an expedition into Spain. Thus within a short time the Franks were not only masters of Gaul, but extended their conquests beyond the Ehine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees. Clotaire I. became sole king in 558, but only enjoyed his power for three years. 9. Rivalry of Eeustria and Austrasia (568-613). — When Clotaire died the monarchy was again divided among his four sons — Caribert, King of Paris ; Gontran, of Orleans and Burgundy ; Chilperic, of Soissons ; and Sigebert, of Metz. The brothers quarrelled and civil war broke out on all sides. Chilperic invaded Austrasia, but was beaten back. Sigebert in turn invaded Neustria and captured Paris, when he fell at the hand of an assassin (575). His son, a minor, ascended the throne under the title of Childebert II., his uncle Gontran being his guardian. Gontran, by the treaty 8. What became of Burgundy and of Thuringia? Tell of Theodebert. What happened under Theodebald ? Under whom were the Franks united ? 9. What occurred after the death of Clotaire ? How did Gontran win over the nobles 1 a. d. 575-638] The Middle Ages, 173 of Andelot (587), secured to the nobles the life possession of their estates, thus securing their allegiance at the same time. 10. The internal troubles of the kingdom Avere added to and intensified by the rivalries of the respective princesses, especially Fredegunda and Brunehaut. Fredegunda pro- claimed her son king of JSTeustria under the name of Clo- taire II. (584). At the death of Gontran (593) war broke out between the women. Fredegunda defeated Childebert near Droissy, and his two sons, Theodebert and Thierry, at Latofao, when she died in the midst of her triumphs (597). Brunehaut then again entered Neustria, and was on the point of overwhelming Clotaire II. when the death of one of her grandsons and the defection of the other left her without a leader. She was taken by Clotaire and dragged to .death at the tail of a wild horse (613). 11. Clotaire II. and Dagobert I. (613-638).— Clotaire II., already King of Neustria, became sole master of the empire of the Franks (613). By his famous con- stitution, published at Paris (615), he left to the Aus- trasian lords the election of the mayors of the palace and to the clergy the choice of the prelates. 12. Dagobert I. (628-638), the eldest son and succes- sor of Clotaire, was a wise and powerful prince. He established a splendid court at Paris. His throne, of massive gold, was made by St Eloi, the most skilful goldsmith of his age. Dagobert's friendship was sought by all the monarchs of the time, even by the emperor of the East. He ruled from the Pyrenees to the Weser, and from the ocean to the frontiers of Bohemia. When Caribert, his brother, died, Aquitania fell to him. The Bavarians, Alemanni, Frisians, Thuringians, and Saxons 10. Tell of Fredegunda and Brunehaut. What befell them both ? 11. Who now became king of the Franks 1 What of Clotaire's constitution ? 12. De- scribe the reign of Dagobert. What was the extent of his kingdom ? 174 History of the World. [ A .d. 407-449 paid him tribute. He held sway over the Lombards in Italy, and gave a king to the Visigoths in Spain. Be- fore his death he was obliged to name his eldest son king of Austrasia, and lived to see the beginning of the decline of the Merovingian monarchy CHAPTER III. GREAT BRITAIK— THE AHGLO-SAXQXS. 1. The Romans in Britain. — Julius Csesar passed over from Gaul into the island of Britain and made some con- quests there. In the following century the whole island, save the northern part, inhabited by the Picts and Scots, was conquered by the Romans. To save the Britons from the incursions of these fierce tribes walls were built right across the narrowest northern part of the island. So de- pendent did the Britons become on the Roman arms that when deserted by Honorius in 407 they addressed a piti- ful appeal to Rome, known as "the groans of the Bri- tons." Being unable to repel their assailants, Vortigern, their chief, called to their aid the sea-rovers inhabiting the coasts of Scandinavia (449). 2. Invasion of the Saxons and Angles (449-584). — A band of these pirates, under the brothers Hengist and Horsa, landed on the isle of Thanet. This island was promised them if they repelled the Picts and Scots. Being rein- forced by others of their countrymen, they beat off the Cale- donians, and then set to work to possess themselves of the lands of their allies. Joining with the Picts, they held the country between the lower Thames and the English 1. How came the Romans into Britain ? What followed the Eoman conquest? What was the action of Vortigern 1 2. What of Hengist and Horsa ? What kingdom did Hengist found? a.u. 449-597] The Middle Ages. 175 Channel. Hengist founded the kingdom of Kent, of which Canterbury became the capital (455). 3. Hengisfc's success and the richness of the soil led to other Saxon invasions. The Britons were easily overcome. The kingdoms of Sussex, Wessex, and Essex, or South, West, and East Saxony, were founded, East Saxony having London for a capital (526). To the Saxon invaders suc- ceeded the Angles under their chief, Idda, called the Fire- brand-. These landed on the east coast, and, after subdu- ing the Britons, there founded the kingdoms of North- umbria, East Anglia, and Mercia. 4. The Heptarchy. — These seven kingdoms, called the Anglo-Saozon Heptarchy, were at first independent of each other. They afterwards formed a confederation under one chief (Bretwalda), who presided over a general assembly {Witenag emote, or council of the wise). Still, they were for ever fighting among themselves and with the Britons, who, taking refuge in the mountain fastnesses of Wales, made constant incursions on the invaders, and succeeded in maintaining their independence up to the reign of Edward I. (1.283). Others of them retreated to Cumberland, Corn- wall, and Armorica in France, called after them Bretagne. But Cumberland and Cornwall soon lost their independence. 5. Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons (597). — Britain re- ceived the Catholic faith in the second century. St. Al- ban was martyred there during the persecution of Diocle- tian (303). Eeligion Avas beginning to flourish in the island when it disappeared with the Roman civilization; the bar- barians came, and the work had all to be done over again. Gregory the Deacon, seeing some beautiful youths for sale as slaves in Rome, inquired who they were, and, finding they were from Britain, was moved with the desire of con- 3. What followed Hengist's success ? Name the kingdoms founded. What of the Angles? 4. What was the Heptarchy? What became of the Britons? 5. How and when did Britain receive the faith ? 176 History of tee World. [a.d. 419-507 verting the race. Afterwards becoming pope, he sent for- ty missionaries under Augustine to the land of the An- gles, thenceforward called England (Angle-land). 6. Augustine and his brother-monks landed on the isle of Thanet. They were received with favor by Ethelbert, King of Kent and chief of the Heptarchy, whose wife, Ber- tha, a daughter of Oaribert, King of Paris, was a Catho- lic. The king and a number of his people were converted. Augustine was made Archbishop of Canterbury, and com- missioned by the pope to establish a Catholic hierarchy and evangelize the country. CHAPTEE IV. SPAIN— THE VISIGOTHS. 1. The Visigoths in Gaul and Spain (419-507).— The kingdom of the Visigoths, founded by Wallia (419), com- prised Spain and the south of Gaul as far as the Garonne. In the fifth century it was the most powerful of the states formed out of the ruins of the Koman Empire. Theo- doric I., Wallia's successor, fell gloriously against Attila on the bloody field of Chalons-sur-Marne. His three sons, Thorismond, Theodoric II., and Euric, who in turn suc- ceeded him, completed the subjugation of Spain and ex- tended their possessions in Gaul to the Loire and the Alps. Their court was the centre of great refinement and luxury. But their power fell before Clovis (507), who only left to them in Gaul that portion of the sea- coast called after them Gothland, or Septimanca. 2. Conversion of the Visigoths (587). — The Visigoths ad- Who was the apostle to the English ? 6. How was St. Augustine received 1 Of what see did he become the head? 1. Sketch the early history of Spain. Who overthrew the Visigoths ? a.d. 507-587] The Middle Ages. 177 hered to Arianism. Amalric married Clotilda, daughter of Clovis, but treated her so brutally that her brothers, Clotaire and Childebert, crossed the Pyrenees and de- feated and slew him. With him perished the illustrious family of Alaric (531). In the dispute for the succes- sion Athanagild called the Greeks into Spain and be- stowed the hands of his daughters, Brunehaut and Gal- suinde, on the kings of Austrasia and Neustria. But the crown soon passed to a king of another family. 3. Leovigild (569-586) drove out the Greeks and sub- dued the Suevi (585), who, one hundred and sixty-six years previously, had founded an independent kingdom in Galicia. They were converted to Christianity in 562. Hermenegild, son of Leovigild, abjured Arianism and took refuge with the Suevi. The father, a fierce Arian, seized his son, and, on his refusal to receive communion at the hands of an Arian bishop, had him beheaded. His bro- ther, Eecared, ascended the throne, abjured Arianism, and was followed by the greater number of his people (587). By his wisdom, aided by St. Leander, Archbishop of Se- ville, heresy soon disappeared ; but the morals of the peo- ple long continued very corrupt. CHAPTER V. ITALY AND THE EASTERN EMPIRE. "When the Western Empire fell Italy, in less than a century (476-568), passed successively under the sway of the Heruli, Ostrogoths, Greeks, and Lombards. SECTION I. Italy under the Heruli. 1. Odoacer (476-493).— Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, after deposing Romulus Augustulus, abolished the title of 2. How did the family of Alaric disappear ? What followed on its disappear- ance 1 3. What of Leovigild ? How and under whom did the Visigoths become Christian ? Who helped to establish Christianity ? 178 History of the World. [ a .d. 476-493 emperor and made himself king of Italy. He distributed among his tribe and the rest of the confederate barbarians a third of the lands of Italy, thus securing their alle- giance. From Eavenna to the Danube his arms were vic- torious, and Eome grew proud of her warrior-king, who had the wisdom to leave her her senate and ancient con- stitutions. Though an Arian and a ruler of pagans, he was kind to the Church and alive to the worth of the true religion in guiding his people. SECTION II. The Ostrogoths ; Theodoric the Great and his Successors. 2. The Ostrogoths overrun Italy. — The Ostrogoths, es- tablished in Pannonia since the dispersion of the Huns, were governed by Theodoric, a chief of the family of the Amales. Bred at the Byzantine court, he had all the gifts and graces of civilization covering a barbaric nature. His victories made him so dangerous that the Emperor Zeno ceded to him all his rights over Italy. Theodoric called his Goths together, and, at the head of two hundred thou- sand warriors, poured into Italy through the northern passes. He beat Odoacer at Isonzo and Verona, but was stayed in Liguria until the Visigoths under Alaric II. came up to his aid. 3. Odoacer sustained a total defeat on the Adige and shut himself up in Kaveima, where he was blockaded for three years, Eome and the rest of Italy submitting to Theodoric. To secure Eavenna, which he wished for a capital, Theodoric promised to share the government of Italy with Odoacer if the latter surrendered. Odoacer consented, and at a banquet given to celebrate the event he and his followers were treacherously murdered by Theo- doric (March 5, 493). 1. Where did Odoacer rule 1 ? Describe his reign. 2. Who was Theodoric? What was his character ? Tell of his invasion. 3. Where did Odoacer take re- fuge ? How was Eavenna won ? a.d. 493-526] The Middle Ages. 179 4. Reign of Theodoric. — Tlieodoric had now no rival, and assumed the title of King of the Goths and Eomans. His empire soon reached from Italy to the Theiss, the Upper Danube, and the Rhone, and included Sicily, ceded by the king of the Vandals. As guardian of his grandson, Amalric, he governed southern Gaul, and by family ties, treaties, and victories became the most powerful monarch of his time. 5. A third of the conquered lands and slaves was as- signed to the Goths, with the obligation of paying taxes. The revenues thus acquired were employed in building palaces, restoring ancient monuments, in games and shows, and in fitting out a fleet to protect the coasts. The king loved the arts, favored letters, the study of law, reformed the legislative and judicial procedure, and made wise pro- visions for the government of the various peoples under his rule. The study of jurisprudence and of letters he left to the Eomans ; to the Goths the art of war. 6. To the Catholics Theodoric had been kind and im- partial. He strove to reconcile the see of Constantinople with that of Rome. He abolished the law of Odoacer which made the election of the popes subject to the ap- proval of princes, and favored worthy Catholic bishops and priests. These good dispositions did not last, however. As years came he became drawn into the religious quarrels of the time and lent his ear to intrigues. These turned him from his steady, impartial attitude into a bitter persecu- tor of the Church. The illustrious Boethius was one of his victims. Pope John I. was imprisoned by his order at Ravenna, where he died, and Tlieodoric survived him only three months (526). 7. Successors of Theodoric. — To Theodoric succeeded his 4. What title did Theodoric assume ? What was his empire 1 5. How did Theodoric reward the Goths ? What measures did he introduce 1 6. How did Theodoric treat the Church ? Was he always a protector of the Church ? 180 History of the World. [a.d. 395-457 grandson, Athalaric, whose mother, Amalasonthe, ruled in harmony with the emperors of the East. The Goths de- siring to educate the prince after their own fashion, his mother raised her cousin Theodotus to the throne in con- cert with herself. Theodotus rewarded his benefactress by strangling her (535). SECTION HI. Tlie Eastern Empire after Theodosius ; Reign of Jus- tinian (527-565). 8. Arcadius and his Successors. — With Arcadius, eldest son of Theodosius the Great, begins the history of the emperors of Constantinople. It is a miserable history for the most part, and is fitly designated as that of the Lower Empire. The weakness of Arcadius has been shown in the manner in which he attempted to repel the barbaric invasions. He kept himself aloof from the public gaze, and the energy of his wife, Eudoxia, was chiefly devoted to her persecution of St. John Chrysostom. 9. Theodosius II., the son and successor of Arcadius, was a worthy son of such a sire. His reign is celebrated for the promulgation of a code and the holding of the great councils of Ephesus. His sister, St. Pulcheria, suc- ceeded to the throne in conjunction with Marcian. Both were models of virtue and rendered great service to both Church and state. With them ended the dynasty of Theodosius the Great (457). 10. Thracian Dynasty. — Leo I., a tribune of Thracian birth, was chosen to succeed Marcian. He was the first prince to receive the crown from the hands of a pontiff — ■ the patriarch Anatolius. He protected his frontiers, but failed against the Vandals in Africa. Attributing his de- feat to tlie patrician Aspar, who was chiefly instrumental 7. What happened after the death of Theodoric ? 8. Who was Arcadius 1 What point in history does he mark ? 9. For what is the reign of Theodosius II. remarkable 1 Who succeeded him 1 10. How did the Thracian dynasty begin ? a. d. 457-536] The Middle Ages. 181 in raising him to the throne, he had him put to death. At the death of Leo his father-in-law, Zeno, assumed the regency, and on the death of his own son, whom he had named Leo II., he became emperor. His reign was a pro- longed turmoil in Church and state. The Empire of the "West was left to dissolve as best it might. Anastasius, an old man of sixty, who knew nothing of war, succeeded Zeno, and had to defend the empire against the Scenitic Arabs, the Bulgarians, and Cabad, the King of Persia. Cabad was bought off. Anastasius was only strong in up- holding the heresy of Eutyches during the twenty-seven years of his reign (491-518). 11. The Justinian Dynasty. — Justin I., an unlettered old man of seventy, was called by his soldiers to succeed Anastasius. His vigor restored Catholicity in the East and repelled the Persians. He adopted as heir his nephew, Justinian, who succeeded him. 12. Reign of Justinian (527-565). — Justinian became a prominent figure in history. He had two famous gene- rals, Belisarius and Parses. Belisarius was sent against G-elimer (534), who had dethroned Hilderic, fifth king of the Vandals, and renewed the persecution of the Catholics. Carthage fell, and G-elimer was defeated and taken pri- soner at Tricameron. After restoring all Africa to alle- giance Belisarius returned in triumph, laden with the spoils of the Vandals. 13. War against the Ostrogoths. — In the same year (534) Justinian declared war against the Ostrogoths of Italy. Belisarius entered Sicily and passed thence into Italy, where he took Bhegium and Naples (536). Theodatus, King of the Goths, was deposed and put to death by Vitiges, who assumed command. Despite the vigor of the new mon- What followed on the death of Leo ? 11. For what was the reign of Justin I. remarkable ? 12. Who were Belisarius and Narses ? Tell of Belisarius in Afri- ca. 13. What further exploits did Belisarius perform ? 182 History of the World. [ a .d. 536-554 arch Belisarius advanced and entered Rome. Here Viti- ges, at the head of an army of one hundred and fifty thousand Goths, besieged him. The siege lasted a year and was memorable for the heroic defence, against great odds, made by Belisarius. A plague compelled Vitiges to raise the siege and thinned the ranks of the Austrasian Franks, who were pouring into Italy from the North. Belisarius left Eome and marched on Ravenna, where Vi- tiges lay. The latter surrendered and was led captive to Constantinople (540). 14. Belisarius next turned against the Persians, who, under Khosroes I., were ravaging Syria. Meanwhile the Ostrogoths of Italy had again risen under the valiant To- tila. Belisarius was recalled to Italy, but his success was small. Again recalled, Narses, at the head of a barbarian army, was sent to replace him, and in July, 552, he gain- ed the bloody battle of Tagina, which was followed by the death of- Totila. Teias, who resumed the struggle, was de- feated and slain near Vesuvius. The remnants of the Goths were allowed to pass the AIjds. An army of Aus- trasian Franks that arrived too late to assist Teias rav- aged the country, but was decimated by disease and crush- ed by Narses near Casilin. Italy was restored to the em- pire and JSTarses was made its first exarch (554). 15. Policy of Justinian. — These conquests were complet- ed by the submission of Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearic Isles, and southern Spain. But the northern frontiers of the empire were still weak against the Lombards of Pan- nonia, the Avari, and the Bulgarians of the lower Danube, while the eastern frontier was only saved from Khosroes by Justinian's agreeing to pay the Persian an annual tri- bute of thirty thousand pieces of gold. What great siege occurred at this time 1 14. Tell of events in Syria and Italy. What happened at Tagina? How did the Gothic invasion end? 15. What territories were restored to the empire ? What foes surrounded it ? a. d. 554-610] The Middle Ages. 183 16. Justinian erected many magnificent public build- ings and churclies. The Church of St. Sophia at Con- stantinople, now a mosque, still stands, But his chief fame lies in the reforms he effected in legislation. He caused to be prepared the famous Digest, or " Pandects," which was a condensation of the Roman law of the first three centuries of the empire ; the " Institutes," an ele- mentary work on law ; and the " New Code," containing the unrepealed constitutions of the emperors who preced- ed him. He continued to promulgate other laws, which were compiled in a fourth book under the title of " No- velise." These volumes constitute the Body of the Eoman Law as taught from the sixth century to our own day. The emperor died in 565 after a reign of thirty-eight years. Belisarius died eight months before. 17. Justinian's Successors. — Justinian was succeeded by his nephew, Justin II. His reign was a disastrous one. He alienated his generals, especially Narses, and exaspe- rated the enemies who threatened his borders. He lost his reason. The Empress Sophia persuaded him to adopt Tiberius (574), the captain of his guards. Maurice, Ti- berius' son-in-law and successor, first defeated and then won over the Persians ; but his armies, beaten by the Avari, revolted and proclaimed Phocas, the centurion, emperor (602). Maurice and his sons were put to death, as also the Empress Constantina and her three sons. Eight years later Phocas met the same fate at the hands of Heraclius, and with him closed the third dynasty of the Lower Empire. SECTION IV. The Lombards in Italy (568-774). 18. Alboin. — The Lombards, a Germanic people of Suevic 16. For what is Justinian famed 1 Give an account of his reforms in legisla- tion. 17. Who succeeded Justinian ? Describe Justin's reign. What followed on the death of Justin ? With whom did the third dynasty close ? 184 HlSTOBY OF THE Worlb. [a.D. 568-575 stock established in Pannonia by Justinian, always yearn- ed for the rich lands of Italy, especially after the expul- sion of the Ostrogoths. But Alboin, their king, was afraid of Narses. He allied with the Avari, recently over from Asia, to crush the Gepidse. Both the Lombards and their leader cultivated ferocity in manners as well as in appearance. Alboin's favorite drinking- cup was the skull of his vanquished son-in-law, Cunimond, King of the Gepidae. An opportunity was afforded them by the nnwise recall of Parses, whom Sophia, wife of Justin II., hated. The Lombards at once entered Italy (568). 19. Crossing the Julian Alps, Alboin founded the duchy of Friuii. At Milan he had himself proclaimed king of Italy. Marching southwards, he established the duchies of Spoleto and Beneventum. Other duchies were founded by his chieftains, while the king sat down before Pavia, the siege of which lasted three years. When taken he made it the capital of the Lombard kingdom, which lasted two hundred years (573-774). 20. To the emperors of the East were left Eome, Ea- venna, several maritime cities of the north, and some pro- vinces of the south. The exarch of Eavenna was the repre- sentative of the emperors in Italy. Alboin was assassinated soon after his triumph at the instance of his queen, the daughter of Cunimond, who herself perished at the hands of the Lombards. 21. The Lombard Kingdom. — Cleph was chosen to suc- ceed Alboin. After two years of battle and ravage he was slain (575). Ten years of interregnum followed under the rule of thirty-six leaders or dukes. Then Antharis, Cleph's son, was chosen king. He defeated the Greeks, but died of the plague during an attack on Ehegium. His widow, 18. "Who were the Lombards 1 Describe their characteristics. 19. Tell of Alboin's invasion of Italy and its results. 20. What was left of the ancient Koman empire ? 21. What followed on the death of Alboin ? The Middle Ages. 185 Theodolinda, daughter of a Bavarian prince, married (590) Agilulph, Duke of Turin, who was thereupon elected king by the Lombards. Influenced by the queen and the pope, St. Gregory the Great, Agilulph renounced Arianism and was followed in this by many of his subjects. CHAPTER VI. THE CHURCH AND THE BARBARIANS. SECTION I. The Church and the Early Heresies. 1. The barbarian inroads that overwhelmed the old Ro- man Empire seemed to destroy every vestige of civilization, and even the Christian Church at first threatened to disap- pear and go down with the wreck. But it soon showed itself the one thing stable and firm amid the tumbling ruins and general devastation. 2. Arms and Macedonius. — Nevertheless, as had been pre- dicted, the Church itself was troubled with heresies. In the fourth century rose up Arius, a deacon of Alexandria, to deny the divinity of our Lord. A large portion of Chris- tendom followed him and Macedonius, Bishop of Constanti- nople, who assailed the doctrine of the Trinity. Multitudes of Christians were led astray by these false teachers, and much evil was wrought in the Church and in civil society in consequence. The heresies were condemned in the oecu- menical councils of Nice and Constantinople. 3. Pelagius. — In the fifth century came Pelagius, a British monk, residing in the East. He attacked the doctrine of grace, and his teachings spread rapidly through the West. St. Augustine of Hippo was especially powerful in con- 1. What was the effect of the barbarian invasions 1 2. What was the heresy of Arius ? Of Macedonius '? The effect of the heresies ? By what councils were they condemned ? 3. What of Pelagius and his great opponent ? 186 History of the World. fufcing him, and, condemned by popes and abandoned by princes, Pelagianism soon disappeared. 4. Kestorius and Eutych.es. — Nestorianism and Eutychian- ism, called after the patriarch Nestorius and the abbot Eu- tyches, next sprang up in Constantinople. Nestorius taught that there are two distinct persons in Jesus Christ, the di- Tine Son of G-od and the mortal son of Mary ; and that, consequently, the Blessed Virgin is not and should not be called Mother of G-od. Eutyches, on the other hand, con- fused the divine and human natures of our Lord, which are absolutely distinct. The (Ecumenical Council of Ephesus (431) -deposed Nestorius, defined the two natures and one person in Jesus Christ, and declared Mary to be the Mother of God. Eutyches' error, condemned by Pope St. Leo, was again anathematized in the Council of Chalcedon in the presence of Marcian and St. Pulcheria (451). 5. Acacius; Pifth (Ecumenical Council. — The bishops of Constantinople were jealous of Rome, and this jealousy was fostered by the emperors of the East. The patriarch Aca- cius, under the pretext of restoring unity, urged the Empe- ror Zeno to publish an edict in favor of the Eutychians. A schism resulted which for thirty-five years separated Con- stantinople from Rome. The Emperor Anastasius went be- yond this. He tore up the original acts of the Council of Chalcedon and imprisoned or massacred the orthodox priests. Justin I. restored peace, but it was endangered by Justinian. A new oecumenical council was summoned (553) at Constantinople, in which, despite threats and persecu- tion, Pope Vigilius upheld and confirmed the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon. 6. The Church in the West. — Notwithstanding their fe- rocity, the barbarians soon showed themselves amenable to 4. What was the heresy of Nestorius 1 Of Eutyches ? Where were the here- sies condemned 1 5. What schism occurred at this time ? What was the deci- sion of Pope Yigilius ? ■ ... ...... The Middle Ages. 187 Christian influence. They had noble qualities which only- needed the influence of Christ's Gospel and Church to lift them up into the great peoples and nations they became. But this was only brought about by sore trials, sufferings, and martyrdom in the Christian body. 7. Monastieism. — The love of retirement from the world had early drawn away many Christians into the solitudes and deserts of the East, where they lived lives of prayer and extraordinary mortification. Some of them gathered together to live in community, and monasteries were built and rules of life drawn up. The monasteries spread to the large cities, and in those days of continuous violence and change became asylums for the repentant and unfortunate as well as for those who chose to live a retired life. From the East they spread to the West. SS. Eusebius, Hilarion, Ambrose, and Jerome were instrumental in introducing them. St. Martin of Tours left the army to live in soli- tude and prayer afc Liguge, near Poitiers. After being made bishop he founded the celebrated abbey of Marmoutier, near Tours. Monasteries found early favor in Ireland, and St. Patrick greatly encouraged them. 8. But St. Benedict (480-543) is the great patron of the monks of the West, and his order had a marked influence on the formation of Christendom in the growing European states. His famous house at Subiaco, near Rome, and Monte Cassino, near Naples, were centres of spiritual life and light in the middle ages. The monks taught men how to labor as well as to read and to pray. They at once made material deserts bloom and refreshed multitudes of weary souls with the sweet teaching of Christ. This great order has given to the Church about six thousand bishops, two hundred cardinals, and thirty-five popes. 6. How did the barbarians receive Christianity 1 7. Describe the origin and spread of monastieism. 8. Who is the patron of the monks of the West 1 De- scribe their work and its results. 188 History of the World. 9. Letters and Arts. — The East, being more tranquil than the West during this period, had more time and opportu- nity to indulge in literature and the arts. In the West the single name of Theodoric alone calls up any memory of these refining influences. Boethius, Cassiodorus, and En- nodius nourished in this day ; and the palaces of Ravenna, Verona, and Pavia were built. The abbeys, however, were already beginning to send out their light, and the Church was made illustrious by many great saints. In the East were SS. Cyril of Alexandria, Flavian of Constantinople, John Climacus, and the Empress St. Pulcheria. SS. Gene- vieve, Severinus, Giles, and many other holy monks and nuns were famous in the West. 10. Even the thrones of the barbarians knew SS. Clotil- da and Radegonda, SS. Sigismond and Hermenegild, SS. Cloud, Gontran, and Ethelbert. In the episcopate were SS. Augustine and Epiphanius, in Italy ; St. Fulgentius, in Af- rica ; St. Leander, in Spain ; St. Austin of Canterbury, in England ; St. Patrick, in Ireland ; and in France St. Avi- tus of Vienne, St. Sidonius of Clermont, St. Eemi of Rheims, St. Gregory of Tours, the first historian of the Franks, and many more. Twenty-five pontiffs succeeded to the chair of Peter from the death of St. Siricius, in 398, to the election of St. Gregory the Great in 590. SECTION II. Conversion of the Barbarians. 11. Arianism. — Most of the barbarians who came in close contact with the empire were infected with Arianism. They denied the divinity of the Christ in whose name they had been baptized. Many clung obstinately to their error, and these soon disappeared. The Alans and Heruli, once so powerful, were unheard of after the sixth century ; the 9. What was the state of literature at this time 1 Name some of the illustri- ous -writers. 10. Name some of the saints of the period. 11-12. Among whom did Arianism spread 1 The Middle Ages. 189 Vandals lasted but a century ; the reign of the Ostrogoths was over in sixty years ; and the Gepidse were crushed on the threshold of the empire. 12. Others, like the Burgundians, though slow to yield, yielded at last (517) and were saved. The Suevi were con- verted in 562 and blended with the Visigoths, who abjured heresy in 587. The Lombards embraced the true faith during the pontificate of St. Gregory the Great. 13. The Franks and Anglo-Saxons. — The Franks and Anglo-Saxons, worshippers of the grim Northern deity, Odin, knew nothing of Christianity when they came in con- tact with Kome. Clovis brought the Franks over to Christ (496), while in England the faith slowly spread over the land from the lauding of St. Augustin in Kent. 14. St. Gregory the Great (590-604).— Pope St. Gregory ascended the papal chair September 3, 590, and his illus- trious reign saw the triumph of the Church over the bar- barians and over all the empire. In the East his will was respected by the Emperor Maurice and the usurper Pho- cas ; while Armenia, Persia, Arabia, Ethiopia, and China even, had numbers of Christians. In the West the Lom- bards alone, though converted, gave trouble; owing to their barbarous instincts. Spain, France, and the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy were strongly Christian. Ireland had already become a nucleus of celebrated schools and a nursery of great missionaries. The pope was thus enabled to give much-needed attention to organizing the internal as 'well as external workings of the Church. He encouraged learning, set in order the liturgy, and adopted the ecclesiastical chant which bears his name. 13. Who made the Franks Christian'? What of England and the faith? 14. Describe the state of Christianity during the pontificate of Gregory the Great. How stood Ireland at this time ? Tell of Pope Gregory's reforms. SECOND EPOCH (60*-8U). FROM THE DEATH OP GREGORY THE GREAT TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE— 210 YEARS. Dtjeing this epoch the formation of Christendom set in and the Carlovingians and Arabians arose. CHAPTER I. THE CAKLOVDTGXANS. The Carlovingians, attaining to the chief power among the Franks, checked at once the Mohammedan and the German barbarian invasion, destroyed the Lombard kingdom, established a new Western Empire, and confirmed the tem- poral sovereignty of the Holy See. SECTION I. The "Sluggard" Kings and the Mayors of the Palace (638-752). 1. The Merovingians. — On the death of Dagobert I. (638) his states were divided between his two sons, Sigebert II., to whom fell Austrasia, and Clovis II., whose portion was JSTeustria and Burgundy. With these princes, who were minors, begins the dynasty of the Merovingians, who were rightly called faineants, or " sluggards." The " mayors of the palace " obtained control, and reigned in fact if not in name. These mayors were originally the chief officers of the palace, appointed or removed at the king's will. When Sigebert died (575) the Austrasian nobles claimed the right of choosing a mayor for his son, then a mere child. This claim continued despite the opposition of Queen Brune- What was the work of the Carlovingians ? 1. With whom did the Merovin- gian dynasty begin ? How were the Merovingians styled? What of the mayors of the palace? What occurred on the death of Sigebert ? 190 a.d. 613-714. The Middle Ages. 191 haut, and, chiefly owing to the influence of Pepin the El- der of Landen, it finally became an office for life (613). 2. The Carlovingians. — Pepin laid the foundation of the dynasty called Carlovingian from his descendant, Charles the Great. The family possessed great wealth and power, and from the opening of the seventh century exercised a predominating influence in Austrasia. Pepin was a man as pious as he was powerful. Grimoald, his son, succeed- ed him as mayor of the palace. On the death of Sigebert II. (656) he tried to put his own son on the throne, but the attempt cost him his life. 3. The Usurper Ebroin. — Bathilda, widow of Clovis II., a Avoman of wisdom and much beloved by her subjects, was regent during the minority of her eldest son, Clotaire III. She was displaced by the ambitious Ebroin, mayor of the palace, whose accession to power brought great evils on the country. This treacherous and tyrannical usurper made himself master of Neustria and Burgundy, and was aiming at Austrasia also when he fell by the hand of an assassin (681). The Austrasians had already chosen as leader Pepin of Heristal, the grandson of Pepin the Elder (679). He was an able warrior and politician. He defeated and slew Bertaire, the son and successor of Ebroin, and thus secured the triumph of Austrasia. He ruled in the name of King Thierry III. over all the Prankish Empire, restored order, and enforced his autho- rity. He subdued the Germans, Bavarians, Frisians, and Saxons, partly by force of arms, partly by zealous Chris- tian missionaries. He ruled for twenty-seven years (687- 714). 4. Charles Martel (714-741).— Pepin left to his wife, Gertrude, the care of his grandson, a child of five, who 2. Who founded the Carlovingian dynasty? What was the result of Grim- oald's ambition ? 3. What of Bathilda and Ebroin 1 What of Pepin of Her- istal ? Describe his achievements. 192 History of the World. [a.d. 714-747 was named mayor of the palace. But the Austrasians set his natural son, Charles, at their head, for they needed a warrior. Their choice was wise. He delivered Austrasia from JSTeustrian control and entered into a league with the powerful Duke Eudes of Aquitaine (719). This done, he compelled the German tributaries to return to their alle- giance. He soon became actual master of both ISTeustria and Austrasia, although allowing the nominal reign of Dagobert III., Chilperic II., Clotaire IV., and Thierry IV. On the death of Thierry (737) he retained supreme power, though never claiming a higher title than Duke of the Franks. 5. Meanwhile the Mussulmans had begun to appear. Af- ter ravaging a great part of Asia and Africa they crossed over into Spain, where they destroyed the power of the Visigoths and made themselves masters of the country. Crossing the Pyrenees, they poured into France, defeated Eudes of Aquitaine near Bordeaux, and prepared for the subjugation of the country. Charles and Eudes met them near Poitiers (Oct. 31, 732), and, after a desperate battle, completely routed them. This blow saved Western Europe from the Mussulmans, and to Charles was given the name of Mattel, or "the hammer." He ruled the state with wisdom and power, favored the Church and missionaries. His reign was made memorable by the labors of St. Boni- face in Germany. 6. On his death the kingdom was divided among his sons, Carloman and Pepin. The elder soon retired to the monastery of Monte Cassino (747), leaving Pepin sole ruler of the empire. Pepin resolved on being ruler in name as well as in fact. He had the hearts and the voice of the people. The weak Childeric III. was deposed in an as- 4. Who succeeded Pepin of Heristal % Describe his advance to power. 5. What foe to Christianity now appeared? Describe the Mussulman invasion. What occurred at Poitiers ? 6. What followed on the death of Charles Martel ? a.d. 752-768] The Middle Ages. 193 sembly of the bishops and nobles of the realm acting un- der the sanction of Pope Zachary. Childeric was shut up in a monastery, and with him ended the Merovingian dy- nasty after lasting two hundred and sixty-nine years (752). SECTION II. Pepin the Short (752-768) ; Charlemagne (768-814). 7. Temporal Sovereignty of the Holy See founded. — Pepin was consecrated by St. Boniface at Soissons in 752, and in the same year received the submission of Septi- manca. In the following year he compelled the Saxons to bow to his supremacy. Pope Stephen II. came to seek his aid in behalf of the Holy See, then threatened by As- tulph, King of the Lombards. Pepin, again crowned by Pope Stephen, marched against Astulph and defeated him ; but no sooner was the conqueror out of Italy than Astulph broke his promises and again threatened Rome. Once more Pepin crossed the Alps (755) and threatened to deprive the Lombard of all his states unless he fulfilled his promises and paid tribute to the Holy See. Pepin himself paid homage to the successor of St. Peter, and se- cured him in possession of Eome and the exarchate of Eavenna. Thus was established the temporal power of the popes — a power that in Eome had already existed in fact, though subject to the changes of the troublous times. 8. Pepin's Wars against the Saracens and Barbarians. — After his return to France Pepin crossed the Pyrenees and drove the Saracens out of Septimanca (759). He invaded Aquitaine (760), and after an obstinate struggle he van- quished Waifar, grandson of Eucles of Aquitaine. This victory secured to him the whole territory of ancient Gaul (768). He died the same year, leaving his kingdom to his two sons, Carloman and Karl, or Charles. 7. Tell of the*relations of Pepin with the Pope. How was the temporal power of the Papacy established ? 8. What of Pepin and the Saracens 1 How did Pepin acquire Gaul ? To whom did he leave his kingdom ? 194 History of the World. [a.d. 768-785 9. Charlemagne (768-814).— To Charles, afterwards Charle- magne, or the Great, fell the inheritance of Caiioman, his brother, on the latter's death (771). He had been bred in the camp almost, and was a born warrior. Driving the old Duke Hunald out of Aquitaine, he turned against the Lombards, who, under Desiderius, successor to Astulph and father-in-law to Charlemagne, were besieging Eome. Charles crossed the Alps (773), and in a single campaign subdued all northern Italy. Desiderius, besieged in Pavia, was compelled to surrender "his title of king of the Lom- bards to the conqueror (774), and thus ended the Lom- bard power. Charlemagne renewed alliance with the Holy See. 10. Charles spent his long reign in constant wars. On his return to France from Italy the Saxons revolted. These were pagans, settled on both banks of the "Weser, who hated the Franks for their manners and their faith. They pil- laged churches, massacred missionaries, and put all that came in their way to fire and sword. Charlemagne de- feated them again and again, but never wholly subdued them. To strike terror into them he one day put to death four thousand five hundred of their chief men (782). He only roused them to greater fury, and a despe- rate war was waged until Witikind, their chief, consent- ed to receive baptism (785). 11. The Saxons were not the only foes of Charlemagne. He entered Spain and conquered that country from the Saracens as far as the Ebro. On his return his rear-guard was assailed by the Gascons in the pass of Eoncevaux, where fell Eoland, the famous captain, and a large num- ber of Charlemagne's bravest warriors. 12. After the defeat of Witikind a conspiracy was formed 9. How did Charlemagne attain sole power 1 Describe Ms e'arly campaigns. 10. What of Charlemagne and the Saxons ? What of Witikind ? 11. What oc- curred at Eoncevaux ? a.d. 785-800] The Middle Ages. 195 of the Greeks, Slavs, and Avari, under the lead of Tassillo, Duke of Bavaria. Charlemagne overcame it, beat each in turn, and deprived Tassillo of 'his duchy (787). The Greeks were defeated in Italy ; the Lombard duchy of Beneven- tum was compelled to pay tribute ; the Slavs were forced to swear fealty ; while the Avari, on the Theiss, were al- most wholly destroyed (796), and their vast entrenched camp, where the spoils of centuries were heaped up, was taken. 13. Charlemagne Emperor (800). — Charlemagne was now master of all the countries that had formed the Empire of the West. At Eome he was greeted with the title of Em- peror, and on Christmas day, 800, was solemnly crowned in the basilica of St. Peter by Pope Leo III. amid the ac- clamations of the people. He was then in his fifty-eighth year. He continued his conquests from the Ebro to the Oder and from Brittany to southern Italy. He subdued the Slavs and won over or coerced the German tribes to Christianity. 14. He built a fleet to protect his northern coasts against the Northmen, or Normans, whose depredations began to be formidable. He chased the Saracens from Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Isles. He thus became the pro- tector of Christendom from the barbarian tribes of the North and the Mussulman fanatics of the South. His fame spread to all lands, and the renowned caliph, Harun- ar-Bashid, then master of Jerusalem, sent him an em- bassy laden with rich presents, while the emperors of Con- stantinople sought his alliance. 15. Government of Charlemagne. — The emperor was as great in peace as he was in war. He fixed upon Aix-la- Chapelle as his residence, that being the centre of his 12. What league was formed against Charlemagne ? Tell of Charlemagne's conquests. 13. What empire did Charlemagne rule 1 By whom was he crowned? 14. What does Christendom owe to Charlemagne ? 196 History of the World. [ a .d. 800-814 vast empire. His personal authority was absolute, but he used wise ministers to assist him with their counsel. He was careful about the right government of his people, and sought by many safeguards to protect them from the ra- pacity of the nobles. He set off the bishops as a check against these latter, and kept himself well informed about the condition of the people, for whose material, religious, and intellectual advancement he was as anxious as a fa- ther for that of his family. The laws of Charlemagne, called capitulars, were promulgated in general assemblies of the bishops and nobles convened every spring and au- tumn. Here were discussed all the affairs of Church and state. 16. He called to his court many learned men, chief among whom were Peter of Pisa and the Anglo-Saxon monk Alcuin. He sent out educational missionaries among the people. Numerous schools were established throughout the empire, education being under the care of the clergy. In the minor schools were taught gram- mar, arithmetic, psalmody, and the elements of Christian doctrine ; in the major schools sacred and profane sci- ence — i.e., theology, Holy Scripture, canon law, and the Fathers of the Church, as well as grammar, rhetoric, and the higher branches of education. 17. Charlemagne died at Aix-la-Chapelle in 814, in the seventy-second year of his age. He was unquestionably one of the greatest as well as one of the best and wisest monarchs of the world. 15. Where was Charlemagne's capital ? How did he govern 1 16. Name some of the scholars at Charlemagne's court. What did Charlemagne do for educa- tion ? What was taught in the schools ? 17. Where did Charlemagne die ? a.d. 570] The Middle Ages. 197 CHAPTER II. MOHAMMEDANISM— THE ARAB EMPIRE. Mohammed, the founder of a new religion in the East, inspired his fol- lowers with a spirit of proselytisin and conquest. After overrunning a great part of Asia and Northern Africa they threatened Europe and Christendom until checked by the Pranks. SECTION I. Mohammed (570-632). 1. Rise of Mohammedanism. — While Christianity was push- ing its way in the West and through the confines of the ancient Eoman Empire, the East remained in comparative darkness, many of the tribes and peoples mingling truthful traditions with local superstitions and false teachings. In 570 was born Mohammed, of the Arabian tribe of Ko- reish. His family claimed to be descendants of Ismael and held the guardianship of the Kaaba, or sacred tem- ple, where all the tribes of Arabia worshipped. The Kaaba was situated in Hedjaz (Mecca), the chief city of the coun- try and the commercial centre between Syria and Yemen (Arabia Eelix). 2. Mohammed's youth was spent in poverty and hard- ship, tending herds. He married the rich widow of a kins- man, thus gaining wealth and position. He was a man of restless ambition, and, to obtain control over his fellows, claimed a call from heaven as a prophet and leader of his people. To prove his call he lived the life of a recluse in a cave near Mecca, where he professed to have visions and visitations from the Archangel Gabriel. In his retreat he drew up a system which was to become a new law. It imposed on its follower (Mussulman) the blindest submis- sion to the commands of God speaking by the mouth of 1. What was the religious condition of the East? Who was Mohammed? 2. Tell of Mohammed's early life. What claim did he make ? What rule did he draw up ? 198 History of the World. [ a .d. 570-622 his prophet Mohammed. This was made the primary ar- ticle of the new faith. 3. Mohammed's recruits were few at the beginning. Af- ter three years (614) he assembled all the members of his family and announced his mission. He appointed his cousin AIL a lad of fourteen, his vizier, or lieutenant. The majority of the guests believed him mad ; others accepted his divine call. For eight years he waged war against his enemies and was often on the verge of destruction. At last he had to fly from Mecca, being saved by the self-sac- rifice of AM. He fled to Yatreb, thenceforth called Me- dina-al-nabi, or the City of the Prophet. This flight (Jie- gira) marks the beginning of the hegira or era of the Mus- sulmans (622). 4. Mohammed at Medina (622-632); the Holy "War.— Mohammed, aided by the inhabitants of Medina, sought to propagate his new system by force of arms. He became a marauder, attacking wherever he saw an opportunity and inspiring courage into his followers by daring and success- ful exploits which brought him at once booty, recruits, and fame. After various vicissitudes he finally entered Mecca at the head of ten thousand men. He destroyed the idols at the Kaaba, and the inhabitants of the sacred city accepted him as ruler and prophet. 5. He fanned their spirits with dreams of conquest and filled them with enthusiasm for their chief. With Mecca as a centre he soon imposed Islamism on the rest of the Arabians. Hitherto they had followed a spurious version of the true faith. He asked Khosroes, the King of Persia, to join with him, and, on that powerful monarch's scornful refusal, Mohammed condemned his kingdom to be rent. Heraclius, Emperor of the East, and other princes re- 3. How did Mohammed begin Ms mission? What is meant by hegira? 4. What was Mohammed's plan of action? What did he do in Mecca? 5. How were the Arabs attracted to Mohammed ? a.d. 632] The Middle Ages. 199 ceived the prophet's overtures with more show of respect. But the Greeks slew his envoy, and Mohammed declared a holy war against them, which proved a conspicuous failure. He died within two years after (632), leaving only one child, *Fatima, wife of Ali. He was acquainted with both Jewish and Christian doctrines, a mixture of which is found in his famous Koran. 6. The Koran. — Mohammed's Koran, or booh, comprises the religious and civil code of the Mussulmans. It was composed at various times and after long intervals, under the inspiration of Heaven, as he claimed. It was given out during real or pretended frenzies by Mohammed, his dis- ciples taking down the words as they fell from his lips. With some wise rulings and teachings it has. much that is vicious, contradictory, and abominable. Among other evil things it sanctified lewdness, and its promises of heavenly reward were but a gratification of animal appetites in man. Men were thus led away by it and embraced it with a sort of religious enthusiasm. [ 7. Its religion was fatalism. The unity of God was pro- claimed, the trinity denied. Adam, Noe, Abraham, Mo- ses, and Jesus Christ were acknowledged as true prophets ; but the divinity of the Saviour was denied, and Moham- med was set up as the last and greatest of the prophets. The existence of angels, the immortality of the soul, and the rewards and punishments of a future life were pro- claimed. A number of precepts were enjoined upon the faithful regulating their daily life and religious practices, among others an everlasting and holy war against unbe- lievers, summed up in the exhortation on sending his peo- ple forth to the conquest of the world : " Before you is paradise, behind you the flames of hell." Where did Mohammed find his doctrine ? 6. What is the Koran ? How •was it composed 1 ? What is evil in it 1 7. What was the leading doctrine of the Mussulmans ? How did they regard the Saviour ? 200 History of the World. [ad. 632-638 SECTION II. The Elective Caliphate (632-661). 8. Mohammed's Successors. — Mohammed appointed no successor. He charged his father-in-law, Abu-Bekir, to recite the public prayers. Abu-Bekir was accordingly made caliph, or vicar (632-634). He named as Kis suc- cessor Omar (634-644), who added to the title of caliph that of Emir-al-Mumenin (commander of the faithful). Omar was as fanatical as he was brave, and became a great conqueror. He was assassinated by a slave, and Oth- man, Mohammed's secretary, was chosen to succeed him (644-655). He was an old man of seventy. Revolts broke out. Othman perished and was succeeded by Ali (655- 661), whose election was again the signal for anarchy. 9. Mussulman Conquests (632-638). — Abu-Bekir under- took the conquest of Syria. Bosra, the key of the coun- try, was betrayed into the hands of the Arabs, who then advanced on Damascus. An army of seventy thousand men, sent to its defence by Heraclius, was cut in pieces by Kaled, called the Sword of God. He .entered Damas- cus on the day that Omar became caliph and announced his intention of attacking the Greeks and Persians. Sixty thousand Christian Arabs, sent by Heraclius to deliver Sy- ria, were defeated after a terrible conflict, and the Moslems hastened to invest Jerusalem. After a four months' siege the sacred city succumbed and Omar entered in triumph. He compelled the Christians to pay annual tribute, im- posed restrictions on the exercise of their religion, and or- dered a mosque to be built on the site of Solomon's temple (638). Palestine, Syria, and Mesopotamia were soon in the conqueror's power. 10. Conquest of Egypt (639-640) ; Persia (632-642).— Amru, the Moslem general, invaded Egypt, whose native 8. Who succeeded Mohammed 1 Tell of Omar. What followed on the death of Omar 1 9. Describe the Mussulman conquest in Syria. How did Jerusalem fall 1 What conditions were imposed on the Christians ? a.d. 639-661] The Middle Ages. 201 people had embraced the Eutychian heresy. With their aid the conquest was an easy one. Alexandria fell after a siege of four months, and its famous library was destroyed. The Persian Empire, already rent by civil dissension, fell an easy prey. The victory of Kadesiah (636) opened up the navigation of the Euphrates to the invaders, while that of Nehavend secured to them the conquest of the country. They built the city of Kufa as a stronghold on the Euphrates. Jezdegerd, the Persian king, seeking aid from the Chinese, was slain on the banks of the Oxus (652), and with him ended the famous dynasty of the Sassanides, which had reigned over Persia for four hun- dred and twenty-six years. 11. End of the Elective Caliphate (661).— Ali, the fourth caliph, was cousin and son-in-law to Mohammed. He was brave and popular, and would have been elected as suc- cessor to Mohammed were it not for the enmity of the prophet's widow, Ayesha. She stirred up against him Amru, who had been deprived of the government of Egypt, and Moaviah, the governor of Syria. The latter had conquered Rhodes, Cyprus, the Cyclades, and the coast as far as Cilicia. He assumed the title of Com- mander of the Faithful, marched against Ali, and in one hundred days fought ninety battles with him. 12. Wearied of the combat, the leaders met to decide their quarrel by arbitration, when three fanatics, armed with poisoned daggers, swore to slay the authors of the civil war. Ali fell mortally wounded (661), Moaviah re- ceived a slight wound, and Amru escaped unhurt. Ali's followers, regarding him as the only legitimate caliph, ac- cept the simple letter of the Koran, and are called Shee- ites, or schismatics, by the orthodox. The orthodox, or 10. By whom was Egypt invaded? What famous library was destroyed? What befell Persia ? 11. What occurred during the fourth caliphate ? 12. How did the quarrels of the rivals end ? Who are the Sheeites ? 202 History of the World. [a.d. 661-685 Sunnites (sanna, tradition), maintain the legitimacy of the first three caliphs and of oral tradition. Their de- scendants are the Turks, while the Sheeites are chiefly found in Persia and other countries of Central Asia. SECTION III. The Ommiades at Damascus (661-750). 13. Hereditary Caliphate. — Moaviah was proclaimed ca- liph. He was the son of Abu-Sofian, Mohammed's perse- cutor. He supplanted the prophet's own children, thus creating enmity against him. He then transferred the ca- liphate to Syria, selecting Damascus as his capital. The Ommiades, so-called after an ancestor of Moaviah, made the caliphate hereditary in their family. In less than ninety years Damascus knew fourteen caliphs of the line. 14. Notwithstanding all civil commotions, war was main- tained in the East and in the West. In 670 a fleet un- der Yesid, the caliph's son, appeared before Cyzicus, and soon after before Constantinople. For eight years the struggle for Constantinople was waged, but Moaviah was finally compelled to sign a truce of thirty years with Con- stantine Pogonatus and a pledge to pay annual tribute (678). Meanwhile Akba had entered Africa at the head of ten thousand Arabs, founded the city of Kairwan near Carthage, and advanced as far as the Atlantic Ocean. But the victory of Wamba, King of the Visigoths, the resist- ance of the Berbers, and the arrival of a Creek army forced Akba to return to Egypt. Zabeir, his successor, met with a like ill-fortune. Moaviah died soon after, and civil contentions put an end to Moslem conquests for twelve years. Persia, Egypt, and Arabia set up caliphs of their own. 15. Conquests in Northern Africa. — Abdul-Melek (685- Who are the Sunnites and their descendants'? 13. Who now was proclaim- ed caliph 1 What changes were wrought by Moaviah 1 14. What wars were maintained all this time 1 Their result ? What followed Moaviah's death ? a.d. 685-711] The Middle Ages. 203 705), the fifth Ommiade caliph, resumed the holy war. One of his generals took Armenia and the regions of the Caucasus. Turning southward by the Caspian Sea, he seized Samarcand from the Turks, while another army penetrated as far as Hindostan. Hassan, governor of Egypt, was sent into Africa at the head of forty thousand men. There the Greeks had fortified Carthage " and destroyed Kairwan. Kairwan was rebuilt ; Carthage, taken, retaken, and taken again, was finally destroyed (698). The Greeks were driv- en from Africa. 16. Constantinople was in a state of revolution. Hassan was only checked by the hardy natives, the Berbers, ISTumi- dians, and Mauritanians, led by Queen Cahina. Hassan retreated to Egypt; but his successor, Musa, crushed the natives, who had slain their brave queen. He sold three hundred thousand into slavery, incorporated thirty thou- sand in his army, and the rest were compelled to embrace Islamism or fly to the deserts and mountains, where their descendants are now known as the Tuaregs and Kabyles. These conform to Mohammedanism. 17. Conquest of Spain (711). — The city of Ceuta, in Africa, remained to Spain, under Count Julian. The Visi- goths of Spain had for king Witiza, who did nothing to stay the advance of Musa, the conqueror of Africa, Sar- dinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Isles. Witiza was de- throned, his eyes were plucked out, and Eoderick was chosen in his place. The fallen monarch's sons, aided by their uncle, the Archbishop of Toledo, and Count Julian, rose against Eoderick. Julian delivered Ceuta to Musa and induced him to cross over into Spain. After weigh- ing his chances he returned, and at the head of twenty- five thousand men under Tarik, his lieutenant, who gave 15. By whom was the holy war resumed, and -with what results ? What hefell Carthago 1 ? 16. What of Queen Cahina 1 TellofMusa's campaign and its result. 17. What happened in Spain ? Tell of Count Julian and his action. 204 History of the World. [ a .d. 711 his name (Gribel al Tarik) to Gibraltar, lie recrossed the straits and disembarked near Algesiras (April 28, 711). Theodemir, governor of Andalusia, was defeated. King Eoderick was unprepared, but hastened to collect an army of fifty thousand men, with which he marched against the invader. 18. They met at Xeres.* Eoderick, as a mark of confi- dence, had given command of the right and left wings to Eba and Sisebut, the sons of Witiza. Julian was with the enemy. The battle began on the morning of July 24 and raged for three days, the victory lying in the balance. On the eve of the fourth day Julian secretly entered the Chris- tian camp and so won on tlie feelings of Eba and Sisebut that they with their troops passed over to the enemy. Weakened and betrayed as he was, Eoderick still held ont to the Sunday, when he was slain, fighting, by Tarik. The fall of the king decided the day. The conquerors set out for Toledo, the capital, which they seized with all its treasures. 19. Spain, having no longer either army, king, or money, lay at the mercy of the Moslem. Julian paid the penalty of his treachery by being cast into a dungeon, where he died. Tarik was rewarded by the enmity of Musa, who was jealous of his fame and victory. Musa, sending his son Abdul-Aziz in one direction and Tarik in another, himself advanced on Narbonne. He was seized by order of the caliph, brought back to Damascus, publicly scourg- ed, fined, and exiled. Three years later his son's head was sent him— he had been massacred by his subjects as a reward for his mild rule— and the father died of a broken heart. 20. Pelayo. — The Moslem governors of Spain pushed 18. Describe the battle of Xeres. What caused Roderick's defeat ? 19. Was all Spain subdued? What was Julian's reward? What befell the Moslem leaders in tho campaign? a.d. 711-717] The Middle Ages. 205 on their conquests to the Pyrenees. Hence ensued the struggles with Eucles of Aquitaine, Charles Martel, Pepin, and Charlemagne. A band of the Goths held out invin- cible in the mountain passes of the Asturias under Pelayo. These harassed the Moslems continually, and to put an end to them the emir Alahor sent one hundred and eighty thousand Saracens to storm their stronghold. More than sixty thousand of them found a grave in the waters of the Deva, whither they were cast from the mountain heights by the Christian warriors under their intrepid leader. Pelayo secured his hold on all the northern coast and extended his power as far as Leon. Little by little his successors enlarged the kingdom of the Asturias. 21. Defeat of the Saracens. — The emir Abd-er-Eah- man cruelly punished Munusa, one of his subjects, for leaguing with the Duke of Aquitaine. He then invaded southern Gaul with a large army. Eudes, who had suf- fered several defeats, entrenched himself behind the Dor- dogne, where he awaited the arrival of Charles Martel. The emir advanced, pillaging, sacking, and massacring. Aries, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Poitiers were taken and burn- ed. Issuing from Poitiers, Abd-er-Eahman found Charles' host drawn up before him, and the battle ensued which saved Western Europe (October, 732). 22. Siege of Constantinople.— The caliph Soliman had previously sent a still more formidable expedition against Constantinople. For thirteen months he invested the city of the Caesars by sea and land. Notwithstanding all their efforts, they were finally compelled to abandon the siege with a terrible loss in ships, men, and money (717). Thus were the Moslems signally defeated both in the East and in the West. 20. Who held out in tho North 1 How did Pelayo extend his domain? 21. What occurred in Aquitaine? In what famous battle were the Saracens de- feated ? 22. Relate what occurred at Constantinople. 206 History of tee World. [a.d. 717-756 23. Fall of the Ommiades. — Internal revolution was also at work against the Ommiade caliphs. The descendants of Mohammed continually plotted and strove to regain their inheritance. A new set of claimants, rigorous de- votees, now came up in the family of Abbas, uncle of Mohammed. Under the three brothers Ibrahim, Abul- Abbas-Abdallah, and Al-Mansur, the Abbassides raised a revolt which ended in the assumption by Abul-Abbas of the caliphate, the killing of Merwan, the Ommiade caliph, and the slaughter of the Ommiades, one of whom, Abd- er-Eahman, alone escaped (750). SECTION IV. The Abbassides. 24. Caliphate of Bagdad. — The reign of the new caliph was bloody, and his death was the signal for civil war, in which his brother, Abu-Jaafar, was successful over his uncle. Abu-Jaafar, surnamed "the Victorious," restored peace in the provinces, built Bagdad, and made that beau- tiful city the seat of the caliphate. His grandson was the famous Harun-al-Eashid, who sent an embassy to Charlemagne and was renowned for the splendor of his reign both in war and in the arts of peace. To Harun succeeded his three sons, Al-Amin, Al-Mamun, and Ma- tassem, each in turn. With the two < last expired the glory of the Abbassides (842). For four centuries the family continued at Bagdad, but only to witness the gra- dual decay of its power and dismemberment of the empire. 25. Caliphate of Cordova (756). — Abd er-Eahman, the young Ommiade who had escaped the sword of Abul-Ab- bas, took refuge in Spain, where he was hailed as sove- reign by the friends of his family. He repulsed Yusef, the Abbasside general, and established a caliphate at Cor- 23. Who were the Abhassides, and how did they attain to power ? 24. What followed on the death' of Abul-Abbas 1 By whom was peace restored ? What of Harun-al-Rashid 1 How long did the Abbasside family retain its power ? a.d. 758-820] The Middle A ges. 207 dova, where he built a magnificent mosque. His rule was wise and able, and conciliatory to the Christians. He con- tended against the kings of the Asturias and the Franks, who had seized Narbonne and all Septimauca. Hesham- Abul-Walid, his son and successor, strove hard to recap- ture ISTarbonne, but was repulsed by a son of Charlemagne. The Franks took Barcelona also, and all Spain north of the Ebro. This caliphate lasted nearly three centuries. 26. Dismemberment of the Eastern Caliphate. — In 787 Edris, great-grandson of Ali, fled from Arabia to Barbary, or Mauritania, which he conqnered. Here the Alide dy- nasty ruled for two centuries. The son of Edris built Fez, the capital of the Edrisides. Three years after Edris' flight came Ibrahim-Abu-Abdallah, son of Aglab. He settled at Kairwan and extended his dominion over Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. He also seized upon Sardinia, and treason de- livered Sicily to his successors. His descendants, the Agla- bades, were dispossessed after a century by the Fatimite caliphs, who were rivals of the Abbassides. They claimed descent from Fatima, daughter of Mohammed. Subduing all northern Africa, they seized Egypt and built Cairo, which they made their capital. Their caliphate soon ex- tended to Arabia, Palestine, and Syria, and to the gates of Bag'dad. 27. In the East Taher, Al-Mamun's general, declared him- self master of Khorassan and Turkistan (820). But his de- scendants soon gave way to the Sofarides, who in turn yield- ed to the Samanides. In Persia the Bui'des ruled and op- pressed the caliphs of Bagdad until the Seljuk Turks came. The Tartar sovereigns, called sultans, settled at Gazna, in the valley of the Indus, whence they subjugated the Mos- lems of Imaus and the rajahs of Hindostan. 25. Who established the Cordova caliphate ? What wars did it wage, and how long did it last ? 26. Where did the Alide dynasty rule ? What of the Fatimite caliphs ? 27. What of the Sofarides and Samanides ? What of the Tartars ? 208 History of the World. SECTION V. Arabian Civilization. 28. The beginning of Arabian power was full of turmoil and strife. The desire of the Arabs was to projoagate the Koran, whose doctrine of fatalism was opposed to the free impulses of the mind and the development of letters and the arts. The nation was an agglomeration of warrior tribes, who, as their power increased, left to Christians or Jews the administration of civil affairs and the transac- tions of commerce. 29. As their conquests increased and they came more in contact with other peoples they acquired some of the know- ledge and civilization belonging to those peoples. From China came paper, from India the numerals known as Ara- bic, from India and Persia costly textile fabrics, from the Greeks art, from the ancient authors science. Architects from Constantinople built their splendid mosques and houses. The Arabs themselves became skilled as deco- rators, hence Arabesque work. Astronomy and medicine were their favorite sciences. The fatalism of their creed, however, destroyed the life of every pursuit save war, and only a certain eminence was ever reached by them in a few departments of human knowledge and skill. CHAPTEE III. THE EASTERN EMPIRE IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH CENTURIES. SECTION I. The Heraclian Dynasty and Monothelism. 1. Disastrous Beginnings. — Phocas, the murderer of the Emperor Maurice and his family, made himself hateful by his cruelties. Heraclius, son of the exarch of Africa, was 28. What was the chief object of the Arabian power? To whom did the Arabs leave the care of trade and commerce 1 29. What came of Arab contact with other peoples 1 Name their favorite sciences. What of their creed ? a. d. 610-626] The Middle Ages. 209 invited by Phocas' son-in-law to rid the empire of the tyrant. As his fleet entered the Bosporus Phocas was brought to him in chains. " Govern better ! " was his reply to all his conqueror's reproaches. The empire was menaced at the north by the Avari and southern Slavs. Khosroes II., King of Persia, ravaged Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, sacking Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem. For eight years Constantinople suffered the severest dis- tress from the Avari. Heraclius was powerless against the enemy, and fear of a popular outbreak alone prevented his transferring the court to Africa. 2. Triumph of Heraclius (620-630). — Roused at last from his lethargy, he permitted the Croatians, Slavonians, Ser- vians, and other Slavic tribes to settle in the country they still occupy, and so serve as a protection to his north- western frontier. Raising a powerful army from their ranks, he entered Persia. Success crowned his efforts, and after seven years of victories he completely overcame the Persians, destroying their sacred cities and reaching even their capital, Ctesiphon. Here he learned of the violent death of Khosroes at the hands of his son, Siroes. He made an advantageous treaty of peace with Siroes, and re- stored the true cross, which had been stolen from Jerusa- lem at the sacking of the city. 3. Meanwhile Constantinople had narrowly escaped fall- ing into the hands of Baian, chief of the Avari, who had come to the aid of a Persian army. Bonosius, the patri- cian, so stimulated the citizens that they repulsed the Avari with great loss (626). The Avari lost their ascen- dency and were compelled to retire to Pannonia, where they were afterwards exterminated by Charlemagne. 4. Decline of Heraclius. — Heraclius did not maintain his 1. Describe the reign of Phocas and its end, By what foes was the empire threatened 1 ? 2. What means did Heraclius adopt to guard the empire? How did he succeed in Persia ? 3. What occurred at Constantinople meanwhile ? 210 History of the World. [a.d. G26-680 prestige and fell again into a torpor. He failed to make liead against the Mussulmans ; his armies were defeated by them, his chief cities captured, and his Eastern pro- vinces lost to Christendom. To add to the evils of the doomed empire heresy again crept in through some Euty- chians who, fearing to deny openly the two natures in Christ, denied his two wills, thus overthrowing the doc- trine of the Redemption. The sees of Alexandria, Anti- och, and Constantinople were filled by members of their sect. Even Pope Honorius was deceived by tliem, though warned when too late by St. Sophronius, the patriarch of Jerusalem. Heraclins fell into the snare and pub- lished an edict in favor of the heresy, which Pope John IV. afterwards compelled him to disavow. 5. Family of Heraclius. — Heraclius died in March, 641. In the following June his tomb was profaned by his eldest son, Constantine III. In August Heracleonas, his youngest son, had his nose cut off and was deposed to make room for Constans II., his nephew. Constans, unable to withstand the Mussulmans, upheld the Monothelites and published an edict forbidding all religious discussion. He banished the pope, St. Martin, from Rome, and murdered his own bro- ther. He set sail for Italy under a pretence of reconstruct- ing the empire, and, after seven years of evil government there, was assassinated at Syracuse (G68). 6. His son, Constantine IV. (Pogonatus, or " the Beard- ed "), put down a revolt, quelled a mutiny of his soldiers, and for six years successfully defended his capital against the Arabs. He caused the Monothelite heresy to be condemn- ed by the Sixth (Ecumenical Council of Constantinople (680). His son, Justinian II., did not follow the good example of his father. After a ten years' reign his nose 4. Did Heraclius follow up his victories ? What heresy crept iu ? The result ? 5. What ensued oil the death of Heraclius 1 Describe the reign of Constans II. 6. Who succeeded Constans ? Describe the reign of Constantine IT. a.d. 680-726] The Middle Ages. 211 was cut off and he was banished. Aided by Tarbelis, King of the Bulgarians, he returned to Constantinople, mutilated and slew his two competitors, and at last was himself beheaded (711). He is responsible for the aboli- tion of celibacy in the East by a council convoked by him. SECTION II. The Iconoclastic Isaurian Emperors. 7. Three princes succeeded in rapid turn to the throne. One of them, Anastasius II., was a zealous Christian and an able ruler. He raised an expedition against the Arabs (715), but the sailors mutinied and proclaimed Theodosins emperor. Anastasius was defeated and retired to a mon- astery. Theoclosius ascended the throne, but was driven from it by Leo, the general of Anastasius, who seized it for himself. Leo III., surnamed the Isaurian, proved an able prince so far as guarding his empire went, but at home he was the cause of grave disorders. 8. Iconoclastic Edict (726). — Leo issued an edict against the images of Chrisfc, the Blessed Virgin, and the saints, forbidding any honor to be paid to them and commanding their removal from churches and private houses ; hence the title "iconoclast," or image-breaker. St. Germanus, patriarch of Constantinople, protested against* the edict, and was forced to abdicate. There was a general resist- ance to the law, and the result was maltreatment, burn- ing, and exile on all sides. St. John Damascen, a subject and secretary of an Ommiade caliph, wrote a defence of the images. Leo cut off the hand with which it was writ- ten. Pope St. Gregory II. wrote a letter of expostulation. He was stripped of his possessions, and only the resistance offered by the Romans and other Italians saved him from banishment. What of Justinian II. ? What did he abolish 1 7. What occurred on the death of Justinian ? What of Leo the Isaurian 1 8. What edict did he issue? What does iconoclast mean ? How did Leo treat opposition to the decree ? 212 History of the World. [a.d. 726-818 9. Leo was succeeded by his son, Constantine V., whose reign was one series of wars abroad and disturbances at home. He continued to make war on the images. He even caused painting to be condemned and St. John Da- mascen and all faithful Christians to be anathematized. He died consumed by ulcers ; his bones were exhumed and burned in the place of public execution. His successor, Leo IV., also favored the heresy, but less violently. Con- stantine VI. was only ten years old on being called to the throne. His mother, Irene, restored peace to the Church and organized several successful expeditions against the Arabs. An oecumenical council, assembled at Nice, re- established the veneration of sacred images (787). 10. As soon as Constantine came of age he imprisoned his mother and mutilated his four uncles, who conspired against him. Irene, escaping, regained her power, had her son's eyes put out, and then proceeded to reign alone. She was in turn dethroned by Nlcephorus, who revived all the heresies. He was defeated by the Bulgarians and his skull converted into a drinking-cup by Crum, their king. Peace was restored by Michael, son-in-law of Mcephorus. But he was betrayed to the Bulgarians by Leo the Arme- nian, who succeeded him (813), and the iconoclastic perse- cution was furiously renewed. CHAPTEE IV. THE CHUBCH AND CHRISTIAN CIVILIZATION. SECTION I. Influence of the Pope and the Bishops. 1. Through all this turmoil East and West the Church, especially in the person of her supreme head, the pope, was 9. How did Constantine Y. behave 1 What befell him ? By whom was peace restored? What council occurred during this reign? 10. What course did Constantine pursue on attaining his majority ? Outline what followed. The Middle Ages. 213 winning its way to authority and love among the people. Its temporal independence freed it from the fatal attach- ment of Greek politics. It became strong enough to treat with kings, while it gained the respect of the new and vig- orous races. The Romans were gradually estranged from Constantinople and the falling empire, and looked to their own soil and people, where the pope was now the chief figure, for protection. 2. The princes of the West naturally regarded the popes as the chiefs of Christendom. Hence they came in time to be consecrated, advised, and warned by them, and often helped them and the missionaries in turn. Both religion and national independence, as Aveil as general culture and civilization, derived great benefits from this alliance be- tAveen the growing Christian powers and the heads of the Church. 3. With the popes grew the bishops, many of whom became important officers in the state as well as in the Church, and wise councillors in public affairs. This also led to some abuse, but in the beginning it was high- ly beneficial, both to Church and state. Charles Martel, for instance, bestowed benefices and ecclesiastical titles on some of his warriors in reward for their services, but this was put a stop to by Charlemagne. SECTION II. Tlie Monks of the West. 4. While Mohammedanism pushed back Christianity in the south of Europe, it only drove it north and west. Scot- land was converted by Irish monks, chief among whom was St. Columba, who established a famous monastery at Ion a, in the Hebrides, which soon became a renowned seat of learning. Luxeuil was founded by St. Colmnbanus near 1. Describe the progress of the Church at this period. Who became the chief figure iu Korae ? 2, What came of the alliance between the princes and the popes ? 3. What of the bishops ? 4. Tell of St. Columba and his work. 214 History of tee World. Besancon, in France. He then passed into Germany to preach the Gospel to the tribes in the vicinity, and visited Italy, where he labored many years. St. Gall, a disciple of his, penetrated to the Swiss mountains and founded a monastery, which to this day gives its name to a nourish- ing canton. These were Irish monks all. Another, St. Kilian, preached in Bavaria and Franconia, and suffered martyrdom for the faith. St. Albert, or Adalbert, left his see of Cash el, and, with St. Erhard, labored in Eatisbon. Anglo-Saxon monks followed in their wake, and Frankish nobles left camp and court to join the noble army of mis- sionaries. 5. The Franks, SS. Emmeran and Corbinian, complet- ed the conversion of Bavaria and Franconia. SS. Eloi, Amand, and Vulfran converted Belgium and preached in Friesland. Friesland was long stubborn, but at last yield- ed to the zeal of the Anglo-Saxon monks "Wilfrid, Willi- brord,. and Winfrid. Willibrord, who afterwards baptized Pepin the Short, founded the bishopric of Utrecht, and by purchasing thirty young Danish slaves, of whom he made missionaries, prepared the way for the conversion of Denmark. Winfrid, better known as St. Boniface, spent forty years in founding schools, churches, and bishoprics in Friesland, Hesse, Thuringia, and Saxony. He conse- crated Pepin the Short, and was afterwards martyred by the Saxons. The Abbey of Fulda was one of his founda- tions. By subduing the Saxons Charlemagne opened the road for the conversion of all Germany as well as of Scan- dinavia and the Slavonic races. 6. Monasteries began to abound. They were the great schools of the people, where labor as well as literature was honored and taught, where the learned found a retreat, Tell of the work of other Irish missionaries. 5. Who converted Bavaria and Franconia ? Describe the missionary work in the North. Tell of the work of St. Winfrid, and of Charlemagne. The Middle Ages. 215 the poor a home, and the unfortunate a refuge in days of constant war and turmoil. 7. In the East the seventh century produced little more than the writings of St. Sophronius, of Jerusalem, and of the Abbot St. Maximus, of Constantinople, against the Mono- thelites. The violence of the iconoclasts led to a reaction, and Christian apologists multiplied. In the West, in the same century, Spain and France produced SS. Isidore, Ildefonsus, Eloi, and Onen, all famous for their writings. Then there was a lapse of nearly a century in those coun- tries : in Spain owing to the Mohammedan invasion, and in France to the decline of the Merovingian kings, as well as to the possession of nearly all the episcopal sees by Charles Martel's unlettered warriors. From the death of Leo II. to Gregory II. (683-715) Italy and Eome suffered from the common darkness. On the other hand, England was rich in learned men and schools ; and the names of the Creek monk Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, Ab- bot Adrian, his friend, Benedict Biscop, Egbert of York, and Alcnin illustrate the time and the annals of the Church. 8. There are many other illustrious ecclesiastics called up by the mention of Charlemagne and Alcuin whose lives were devoted to learning and virtue, and who found- ed thousands of schools throughout the vast empire of the Franks. Thus the havoc wrought in the decaying and vicious Eastern Empire was more than counterbal- anced by the rise and spread of truth and virtue among the sturdier races of the north and of the west. 6. What of the monasteries and their influence on the people ? 7. Mention some great writers of the seventh century. What occasioned the decline in Spain and France ? What of England ? 8. How was the Eastern decline offset? THIRD EPOCH (814-1073), FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE TO THE ACCESSION OP ST. GREGORY VII.— 259 YEARS. The third epoch embraces the formation of feudal Europe, before which Charlemagne's empire disappears. A new invasion of barbarians comes down from the north. The German kings, as heirs of Charlemagne, obtain prepon- derance in Europe. The Mussulmans recede before the Spanish Christians, but overwhelm the Greeks, who separate from the Catholic centre. The Slavs and Scandinavians are converted to Christianity. CHAPTER I. THE CAELOVmGIABT EMPIEE AEB THE EEITDAL SYSTEM. The Carlovingian empire is broken up first into three, after into seven kingdoms, which, under the feudal system, undergo a further dismemberment. SECTION I. Tne two Dismemberments of the Carlovingian Empire (843 and 888). 1. Louis le Bebonnaire (814-840).— With Charlemagne disappeared the mighty empire he created. It fell to pieces under his weak successors, who could not make a' stand against the inroads of the barbarians or the rival- ries of their own nobles. Moreover, the elements of the empire were diverse as to race, language, laws, customs, and interests. Revolts at once broke out under Louis le Debonnaire, Charlemagne's son and successor. To main- tain the empire Louis divided it among his three sons in the assembly of Aix-la-Chapelle (817). To Lothaire, What does the third epoch embrace ? What monarchs obtained preponderance in Europe 1 What of the Mussulmans, the Slavs and Scandinavians f 1. What became of Charlemagne's empire ? By whom and how was the empire divided ? 316 a. d. 814-843] The Middle Ages. 217 the eldest, fell Italy with the expectation of the impe- rial crown ; to Pepin and Louis, Aquitaine and Bavaria. Bernard, grandson of Charlemagne and already king of Italy, protested against this division ; but his eyes were put out by Louis, and he died of his sufferings. In re- morse the emperor imposed a public penance on him- self. 2. Later on, yielding to the ambition of his second wife, Judith of Bavaria, Louis favored her son, Charles the Bald, to the injury of his brothers. They flew to arms and shut their father in a monastery (830). Quarrel- ling among themselves, the emperor again ascended the throne ; but by bestowing Aquitaine on Charles he provoked another rebellion. His army fell from him, and he was deposed and publicly degraded (833). The disagreement of the brothers and their shameful treat- ment of the emperor aroused public indignation. Louis was restored to the throne, but his favoritism caused another revolt, during which he died. He it was who confirmed the little republic of Andorra in the Pyrenees, founded by Charlemagne (790), and existing to this day. 3. First Dismemberment.— The rivalries of the three sons of Louis led to the first dismemberment of the empire of Charlemagne. Lothaire assumed the title of emperor. Aided by his nephew, Pepin of Aquitaine, he aimed at the mastery of the Avhole empire. Charles and Louis united their forces against him. They de- feated Lothaire at Fontanet, near Auxerre (841). Peace was restored at Verdun, v/here the three brothers met and agreed to divide their patrimony (843). Lothaire was acknowledged as emperor, and received, with Italy, all the territory bounded on the east by the Alps and What befell Bernard, King of Italy. 2. How did his sons treat Louis 1 De- •scribe the succession of events up to Louis' death. What republic did Louis con- firm ? 3. What of the rivalries of Louis' sons ? To what did they agree ? Si 8 History of the World. [ a .d. 840-879 the Ehine, and on the west by the Ehone, Saone, Meuse, and Scheldt. Charles received western Gaul, and Louis, Germany. This was the beginning of the Italian, French, and German nations. 4. Charles the Bald (840-877) and his Successors. — Charles never possessed all western Gaul. JSTomenoe assumed the title of king of Brittany and maintain- ed it against Charles, and transmitted it to his sons with all the country as far as the Mayenne. Pepin II., King of Aquitaine, was abandoned by his subjects for having made an alliance with the Saracens and Normans. His patrimony rested in the hands of the Count of Toulouse and other powerful and independent nobles. The Normans ravaged the coast and advanced to Paris. Charles bought them off, only to induce others to follow. Moreover, he was constantly quarrelling with his neighbors. In 869 he seized Lotharingia, or Lorraine — that portion of Lothaire II. 's kingdom which lay between the Saone and the Scheldt, the Jura and the Ehine. When Louis II. , brother of Lothaire II., died (875), Charles obtained the title of emperor, but failed to dispossess the three sons of his brother, Louis the German (876). Called into Italy to meet the Saracens, he issued the edict of Kiersy-sur-Oise (877), by which the tenure of countries was declared hereditary. This was the foundation of the feudal system in France. Charles was finally betrayed, and perished in a hut at the foot of Mont Cenis. 5. He was succeeded by his son, Louis II., the Stammer- er. Weaker even than his father, he soon abandoned the throne to his two sons, Louis III. and Carloman. They were able princes, but failed to oust Boson, who had been proclaimed king of Provence (879). At their death there 4. Who ruled in Brittany ? What happened in Aquitaine ? What of the Nor- mans ? What other quarrels had Charles ? What was the edict of Kiersy sur- Oise ? 5. What happened on the death of Charles ? The Middle Ages. 219 remained Charles the Simple, their brother, a minor, and Charles^of Suabia, a son of Louis the German, as the le- gitimate representatives of the dynasty. The Suabian was chosen emperor (884), but he Avas not able enough to hold his inheritance. The Normans besieged Paris (886). After a gallant defence of eleven months Charles appeared at the head of a formidable army, only to buy the Normans off with permission to them to ravage Bur- gundy. 6. Dismemberment into Seven Kingdoms (888). — The in- competent emperor was deposed at the diet of Tribur (887), and died in the following year. The dissolving empire was finally divided into seven kingdoms : 1, the kingdom of Germany, under Arnulf of Carinthia, a natural son of Car- loman of Bavaria, and nephew of Charles of Suabia ; 2, the kingdom of France, under Eudes, Duke of France and Count of Paris ; 3, the kingdom of Italy, under Gny, Duke of Spoleto, who had for rival Berenger, Duke of Friuli ; 4, the kingdom of Provence, or Cis-Juran Bur- gundy, under Louis the Blind, son of Boson ; 5, the king- dom of Trans-Juran Burgundy, under Kudolph Welf ; 6, Lorraine, under Zwentibald, a natural son of Arnulf ; 7, Navarre, under Fortunus the Monk. These were in turn divided into a number of semi-independent fiefs under nobles powerful enough to maintain them. SECTION II. Feudalism ia Europe. 7. The barbarian chiefs who settled in the Soman Em- pire rewarded their chief warriors by dividing among them portions of the conquered territory as freeholds exempt from dues. These lands were first called benefices, after- wards fiefs, or fees. The grants were revocable at will. How did Charles of Suabia come to the crown? What famous siege occurred and how did it end ? 6. What befell Charles ? How was the empire divided? 7. What were freeholds, benefices, and fiefs, and what did they entail? 220 History of the World. They imposed military service on the holder, and certain dues in money or in kind. 8. In the loose state of society prevailing the more pow- erful of the holders naturally strove to free themselves from all obligations and become independent. The troubles of the times and the weakness of Charlemagne's descend- ants favored their pretensions. Charles the Bald yielded to them partially in the edict of Mersen (847), and wholly by the edict of Kiersy-sur-Oise (877). By the first edict freeholders, who up to then had been subject directly to the crown, were allowed to choose protectors to defend them from the dangers that threatened. So they put themselves under the protection of the most powerful lords by offering these their services in return. 9. Thus most of the freeholds became actual fiefs held underobligations of military service. By the second edict Charles, to gain the aid of the nobles, granted them here- ditary ownership not only of the fiefs, but also of the gov- ernment of them and public functions, which up to that time were only temporary commissions. The great nobles thus became independent sovereigns on their own estates, with liberty to make war, administer justice, coin money, levy taxes, etc. Even the domains of the Church were for the most part transformed into fiefs. 10. In the tenth century France had seven leading fiefs, whose holders were known as grand feudatories, peers, or immediate vassals of the king. These were the duchies of France, Normandy, Burgundy, and Aquitaine, and the counties of Toulouse, Flanders, and Vermandois. They each comprised a great number of secondary fiefs, whose holders were known as rear vassals, or vavassors. When Eudes, the Duke of France, became king in 888, there only 8. How did feudalism originate ? 9. What concessions did Charles the Bald make to the nobles, and with what result 1 10. Name the fiefs in France during the tenth century. What were vavassors ? a.d. 888-923] The Middle Ages. 221 remained six lay peers. To these were later added six ecclesiastical peers. 11. After the ninth and tenth centuries feudalism was carried by the victorious Normans into southern Italy and England, and by the Crusaders into the East. Germany became feudal with France. Her chief peers were the dukes of Saxony, Franconia, Suabia, Bavaria, Lorraine, the county palatine, and the margraves of Brandenburg, Mis- nia, and Carinthia. In Italy were the duchies of Friuli and Spoleto, the marquisates of Ivrea, Tuscany, and Ca- merino, and the county of Tusculum. In Spain, Portugal, and the northern states of Europe feudalism was never wholly developed. SECTION III. The last Carlovingians (888-987) and the first three Cape- tian Kings (987-1060). 12. Last of the Carlovingians. — Eudes, the gallant de- fender of Paris against the Normans, was chosen king af- ter the deposition of Charles. Strong and brave as he was, the party of Charles the Simple, son of Louis the Stam- merer, was too powerful to subdue ; so Eudes ceded to him half the kingdom (896). By the death of Eudes Charles became sole king, and, unable to combat the Normans, he ceded to Eollo, their chief (911), the part of Neustria called, after them, Normandy. The weak- minded Charles became the victim of his ministers, and Robert, Duke of France, the brother of Eudes, assumed the title of king, but was slain - in battle at Soissons. His son, Hugh the Great, assumed command and totally rout- ed the royal forces (923). Hugh threw the crown to his brother-in-law, Raoul, Duke of Burgundy, whose reign 11. By whom, was feudalism spread abroad, aiid in what nations? 12. Who succeeded Charles'? What action did Eudes take? What followed on Eudes' death ? What of Normandy ? Who defeated Charles ? 222 History of the World. [ a .d. 923-99G was divided between warring against the Hungarians or the rebels at home (923-936). 13. Charles the Simple was made prisoner by the Count of Vermandois, and died in the castle of Peronne (929). His son, a fugitive to England, was recalled and proclaim- ed king under the title of Louis IV. (936-954). Hugh the Great had brought him to the throne. Louis never- theless attempted the conquest of Vermandois and Nor- mandy, but was defeated and taken prisoner by Hugh, who deprived him of the county of Laon. A solemn sentence of excommunication alone induced Hugh to restore to the monarch what was left him of his domain. 14. Louis was succeeded by his son Lothaire (954-986), whom Hugh supported. Hugh, dying, left his inheritance to his son, Hugh Capet. King Lothaire gained the alle- giance of the lords and marched against Lorraine, long a disputed territory between France and Germany. He near- ly surprised the emperor, Otho II., at Aix-la-Chapelle. Then Otho, eluding him, advanced to the heights of Montmartre, commanding Paris, and struck terror into the city (980). Peace was made, and Lothaire set to work to restore the royal authority at home, when he died. His only son, Louis V., succeeded him (986-987), but died after a few months' reign, being the last of the Carlovingian dynasty, which lasted two hundred and thir- ty-five years. 15. The Capetians; Hugh Capet (987-996).— In the as- sembly at Senlis Hugh Capet, Duke of France, was chosen to succeed Louis V. Louis' uncle, Charles of Lorraine, claimed the right of succession, but was imprisoned and ended his days in the castle of Orleans. The great nobles were harder to subdue. Hugh was only allowed full au- 13. What became of Charles the Simple and his son ? 14. To whom did Hugh the Great leave his inheritance 1 Describe the struggle between Lothaire and Otho. In whom did the Carlovingian dynasty end ? 15. Who succeeded 1 a.d. 996-1041] The Middle A ges. 223 tliority in his own domain, the dukedom of France. By renouncing his authority over ecclesiastical benefices he gained the support of the clergy. He had his son Robert crowned during his lifetime, and, his successors following this example, the hereditary transmission of the crown to the eldest son of the monarch became sanctioned by cus- tom and finally a fundamental law of the state. 16. Robert (996-1031) and Henry I. (1031-1060).— Ro- bert's reign was disturbed by turmoils in his own family, which he quelled. At the death of his uncle Henry he took possession of the duchy of Burgundy. Henry I., Ro- bert's son, began his reign by quelling a revolt of his bro- ther Robert, which was instigated by the ambitious queen- mother, Constance. He pardoned his brother and gave him Burgundy as an inheritance. France was desolated by a famine during the first three years of his reign. The no- bles were ever up in arms against each other, and the peo- ple suffered terribly from the , double scourge. To abate this civil strife the Truce of God was, at the Church's in- stigation, established throughout Europe (1041). It was a solemn compact in the name of Cod to observe peace dur- ing Advent, Lent, the octave of the principal feasts, and from every Wednesday evening to the following Monday morning. Clerks and laymen everywhere formed confra- ternities, binding themselves by oath to fight to death for the observance of the Truce of God. Much bloodshed and strife was thus prevented. Henry, the year before his death, had Philip I., his eldest son, solemnly crowned at Rheims. What of Hugh Capet and the clergy ? What important custom did he insti- tute'? 16. What great acquisition did Rohert make? What followed on the death of Robert ? What was the Truce of God 224 History of the World. [a.d. 800-916 CHAPTER II. THE INVASIONS OF THE NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES. At the fall of the Carlovingian Empire there were new invasions : on the south the Arabs, on the east the Hungarians, and on the north and west the Normans. SECTION I. Invasions of the Saracens and Hungarians. 1. The Saracens, holding Spain and the African coasts, easily conquered Corsica, Sardinia, and the other Medi- terranean islands, which served them as so many centres whence to carry on their depredations. From Sicily they invaded southern Italy, which, weakened by the dissensions of the Creeks and Lombards, fell almost entirely into their hands. Pope Leo IV. set chains across the Tiber to inter- rupt its navigation, and walled in the Vatican quarter, thence called the Leonine City (855). His heroism found a strong ally in the Emperor Lords II., son of Lothaire. All Italians were summoned to the defence of their coun- try, and the infidels, after a series of reverses, were driven to their entrenched camp on the G-arigliano (916), losing all their conquests on the Peninsula. 2. In France they had gained possession of the mouths of the Ehone (841). After sacking Aries and Marseilles they took up a strong position at Fraxinet, which they made their base of operations against Provence, Dauphiny, and the neighboring territories. 3. With the passes of the Alps in their hands they cut off communication between France and Italy. They seized the abbot of Cluny, and claimed as a ransom all the trea- What invasions occurred during the ninth and tenth centuries 1 1. Describe the Saracen conquests in Europe. How came the Leonine City ? What ally had the pope ? 2. Describe the Saracen conquests in France. a.d. 972-1033] The Middle Ages. 225 sures of his great monastery. Thereupon the nobles of the country, uniting under William, Viscount of Marseilles, suc- ceeded in clearing Fraxinet and the Provencal coasts of Saracens (972). 4. The Hungarians. — Towards the close of the ninth cen- tury the Hungarians, or Magyars, came down from the Ural and settled, under Arpacl, their chief, in the valley between the Theiss and the Danube. They blended with the few Avari, people of the same race, residing there. Arnulf of Germany asked their aid against the Moravians, whom they destroyed in a single campaign. Flushed with success, they crossed the Alps into Italy, which, owing to local rivalries, fell an easy prey to them. Ascending the Danube soon after, they turned into France r committing horrible excesses wherever they passed. While making for Cordova to pil- lage the city of the caliphs they were met and beaten in Aquitaine by Eaymond, the gallant Count of Toulon se (925). Germany suffered still more terribly than France from them, and their irruptions were only stopped by their overwhelming defeat near Augsburg (955) by Otho I. 5. Christianity alone succeeded in taming them and changing their ferocious natures. Vai'c, their chief, being baptized, helped to convert his people. In baptism he took the name of Stephen. As a testimony to his great services Pope Sylvester II. sent him a crown (1000) with the title of "apostolic king," which the emperors of Austria still retain. Stephen (997-1033) not only spread Christianity among his people but organized the government. He established schools, churches, bishoprics. He formed a legislative body and introduced some of the feudal customs. He conquered Transylvania and subdued the Bulgarians and Slavs. 3. What of the abbot of Cluny? 4. Tell of the Hungarians. Describe their invasions. 5. How were the Hungarians converted ? Tell of the work of King Stephen. 226 History of the World. [a.u. 862-983 SECTION II. The Norman Invasions. 6. The Normans. — The Normans were pirates inhabiting the coasts of Scandinavia — that is, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway ; a ferocious and enterprising people, who made war and freebooting the chief business of life. They set out in their barks to seek booty or settle in new homes among richer and more civilized peoples. Rurik, one of their chiefs, called in to aid the inhabitants of Novgorod, made himself master of the place (862). He is regarded as the real founder of the Russian monarchy. His son Igor ex- tended his dominion from the Baltic to the North Sea. 7. Vladimir the Great. — The Russians, under Vladimir the Great, Igor's grandson, threatened Constantinople. To save -the city Anna, sister of the emperors Basil and Con- stantine, was given him in marriage, on condition that he would become a Christian. He destroyed his idols and with a great number of his followers received baptism (988). Vladimir became a great and humane sovereign. His son, Jaroslav (or Yaroslaf) I., drew up a code of wise laws called "Russian Truths." The Russians were thence- forth divided into three classes : the boyards or nobles, the commoners, and the serfs. Jaroslav's reign was a happy and prosperous one, and he placed, by marriage, three daughters on the thrones of France, Hungary, and Norway. 8. Pushing northwards, the Normans seized the Faroe Isles and Iceland, and discovered Greenland, Newfoundland, and, according to some, North America. They invaded Ireland and made various settlements there, and landed in England about 830, just after Egbert, King of Wessex, had extended his sway over the whole Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy (827).. Egbert, having been reared in the court and camp of 6. Who were the Normans ? What of Eurik and his son ? 7. What of Vla- dimir the Great 1 What were the "Eussian Truths"? 8. Tell of the Norman discoveries. Did they reach England and Ireland ? a.d. 878-940] The Middle A ges. 227 Charlemagne, kept the invaders back, but after his death they made constant inroads, and finally effected a settle- ment in the north in the three kingdoms of the Angles. 9. The Northmen in England. — Alfred the Great, Egbert's grandson, ascended the throne at the age of twenty-two. His kingdom was ransacked by the Northmen, then called Danes, as well as torn by dissensions. He succeeded, however, in gradually bringing his forces together, expel- ling the Danes, and restoring order (878). He erected fortresses and built the first English fleet to protect the coasts. He framed a wise system of laws, encouraged learning and piety, and maintained justice. He is credited with founding the University of Oxford. 10. Alfred was succeeded by his son, Edward I., sur- named the Elder — an able prince, who drove the Danes still further back (900-924). His son Athelstan (924- 940) completed the conquest of the Danish territory by defeating Anlaf at Brunanburgh. The "Welsh and Scots, allies of Anlaf, submitted to Athelstan, who succeeded in uniting all the kingdoms of the Heptarchy under his sway. The three daughters of this powerful monarch wedded Otho I., Charles the Simple, and Hugh the Great, Duke of France. The reign of his nephew Edgar was equally glorious, and guided by the zeal and wisdom of St. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, who effected great reforms among the clergy. Their discipline and habits had become relaxed under the constant distur- bances of the times. 11. Edgar's son, Ethelred II., had none of the vigor of his brothers. Instead of beating he attempted to buy off the Danes. For this purpose a tax called danegelt was levied on the English and became a great burden. Ethel- 9. Who expelled the Danes from England 1 What other work did Alfred do ? 10. What followed on Alfred's death? What of Athelstan's daughters 1 Describe the reign of Edgar. 11. What was Ethelred's policy ? 228 History of the World. [a.d. 1003-1042 red was treacherous as well as cowardly, and on St. Brice's day (November 13, 1002) ordered a massacre of the Danes through all the kingdom. Not even the sister of Sweyn, King of Denmark, was spared, Christian though she was. 12. Conquest of England by Sweyn and Canute. — Sweyn, at the head of a large army, landed in England and ravaged the country. Ethelred was compelled to fly to Normandy (1013). After Sweyn's departure Ethelred was recalled, and at his death (1016) was succeeded by his eldest son, Edmund Ironside. Sweyn had achieved the conquest of the country, and left it as part of his inheritance to Canute, his son and successor. Edmund compelled Canute to cede half the Hep- tarchy ; but his death left the whole to Canute (1017). 13. Canute the Great, King of England (1017-1035).— Canute, after ascending the English throne, was convert- ed to the Christian faith, and became one of the greatest and wisest rulers that England had yet known. To end discord he married Emma, the widow of Edmund. He restored the ancient laws and suppressed the privileges of the Danes. He favored learning and religion, and was beloved by the people. At one time he united in his own person the crowns of England, Denmark, Sweden, and Nor- way. He made a pilgrimage to Eome, and addressed a fa- mous letter to his people from the shrine of the apostles. He established the payment of Peter's pence in his domin- ions — a tax of a farthing on every hearth for the benefit of the Holy See. His two sons, Harold (1035-1040) and Har- dicanute (1038-1042), succeeded, but were unfit to reign. The Danes returned, and Edward, son of Ethelred, was recalled from his exile in Normandy. 14. The Hormans in the Carlovingian Empire. — In the beginning of the ninth century the Normans began to 12. Who now invaded England 1 What followed on Sweyn's departure ? 13. What of Canute 1 Whom did he many ? What was his policy ? What memor- able pilgrimage did he make ? What followed on his death ? a. d. 891-911] The Middle Ages. 229 descend on the Carlovingian coasts. Their favorite posts were islands in the mouths of rivers, whence they could sail inwards for booty or escape to sea if necessary. The weakness of Louis le Debonnaire and his sons exposed France to their depredations. They suffered a great de- feat from King Arnulf at Louvain (891). In the west of France their stay was more prolonged and calamitous. They sacked some of the principal cities, and Eagnar Lodbrog, one of their chiefs, ascended the Seine to Paris (845), He sacked the city before the eyes of Charles the Bald, who bought the barbarian off. 15. Eavage succeeded to ravage, until all France groaned under the Normans. They finally settled in the country. Hasting, the most redoubtable of their chiefs, was bap- tized, and was given the county of Chartres by Charles the Bald. He then closed the Loire against his country- men. After Eudes' brave defence of Paris (886) the pi- rates no longer dared ascend the Seine so far. Eollo, however, one of their chiefs, seized Rouen and held it. Charles won him over at St. Clair-sur-Epte (911) by giv- ing him his daughter, Gisela, in marriage, with part of Neustria for dower, on condition that he would pay ho- mage and be baptized with his followers. Eollo consented, and was baptized under the name of Eobert. The Nor- mans soon changed their ways, and, under wise laws, be- came as strong Christians as they had been fierce pagans. Normandy soon grew to be the best-ordered and most pros- perous province in France. 16. Conquests of the French Normans.— Forty Norman pilgrims, returning from the Holy Land, happened to be in Salerno when the Saracens came to levy the annual tax on its inhabitants. Indignant at such a thing, they 14. Tell of the Norman invasion of France. 15. What course did they adopt ? What of Hasting 1 What of Eollo '( How were the French Normans changed into Christians 1 230 History of the World. [a.d. 1016-1059 fell on the Saracens and slew them (1016). This incident and the richness of the place drew many Normans to the south of Italy. The Duke of Salerno bestowed the coun- ty of Aversa on one of their chiefs (1030). This was a fur- ther inducement to the Normans to enter in and take possession, as was their custom. 17. Tancred of Hauteville, reduced in fortunes and hav- ing twelve sons, sent three of them to southern Italy. One, called William the Iron Arm, entered the Greek ser- vice and conquered the Saracens in Sicily. As pay was not forthcoming, William, at the head of twelve hundred Normans, attacked an army of sixty thousand men and defeated them, near Canne (1042). He then conquered Apulia, and, dying soon after, left his conquests to his hardy brothers, among them the famous Eobert Guiscard. 18. Pope Leo IX., having entered into alliance with the emperors of Germany and the East, advanced to Civitella (1053) against the Normans. Hi» troops were defeated and he fell into the enemy's hands. They fell at his feet, begged his blessing, and did him homage for all the fiefs conquered or to be conquered in southern Italy. The pope acquiesced, and from captive was changed into suze- rain of the Normans. Eobert Guiscard, one of the most famous captains of his time, expelled the Greeks from Calabria, and was given the title of Duke of Apulia and Calabria (1059) by Pope Nicholas II., as also Duke of Sicily, though the island was still held by the Saracens. Thither he sent his younger brother, Eoger, while he con- tinued his conquests in southern Italy. He pursued the flying Greeks to the Ionian Islands and Albania. 19. Eobert Guiscard had thrice defeated the Emperor Alexis Comnenus when the pope, St. Gregory VII., ap- 16. What took the Normans to Italy ? 17. Tell of Tancred's sons. 18. What of Pope Leo and the Normans ? Who was Eobert Guiscard ? Tell of his eon- quests. a.d. 108^1189] The Middle A ges. 231 pealed to him for aid against Henry IV. of Germany, who was besieging the Sovereign Pontiff in Eome (1084). Ro- bert flew to the assistance of his suzerain and of the Holy See, relieved the pope, and, conducting him to Salerno, returned to pursue the Greeks, but died in Cephalonia (1085). To his youngest son, Robert Bursa, fell most of the inheritance. The eldest, Bohemond, prince of Taren- tum, had little but his sword, with which he carved a glo- rious fortune for himself in the East. The direct line of Robert Guiscard ended with William, son and successor of Roger (1127). 20. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1139).— With only three hundred knights Roger, the twelfth son of Tancred, took Messina, an important city in Sicily. After an heroic struggle of thirty years he drove out the Saracens and made himself master of the whole island (1060-1091), tak- ing the title of "grand count." His son, Roger II., suc- ceeded, and on the death of his cousin William inherited the latter's estates in southern Italy. Pope Innocent II. confirmed him in possession, granting him the title of " King of the Two Sicilies," on condition of his acknow- ledging the suzerainty of the Holy See (1139). To his new kingdom he added Malta, Tunis, Tripoli, and several cities of Greece. He ruled the Mediterranean and menaced Constantinople. His son and grandson succeeded him, but their reigns were less . glorious ; and after the death of the latter the Emperor Henry VI. of Germany, by virtue of his marriage with Constance, the daughter of Roger, transferred the kingdom of the Two Sicilies to the German crown (1189). Thus by the close of the twelfth century the French Normans had defended the independence of the Holy See against the Germans, had rid southern Italy 19. What of Robert Guiscard and Henry IV. ? To whom did Robert leave his inheritance ? 20. Who achieved the conquest of Sicily ? What title was be- stowed on Roger II. ? Tell of Roger's conquests. What followed on his death ? 232 History of the World. [ A .d. 1042-1066 of the Greeks, and had driven back the Mussulmans to Africa. 21. Edward the Confessor (1042-1066); Harold; and William, Duke of Kormandy. — Edward, son of Ethelred II., called from Normandy to ascend the English throne, had learned to love Norman ways and civilization. This led him to invite the Normans to his court and favor them, which gave umbrage to his own nobles and people. He was a good and just king, nevertheless, full of piety and zeal for his people's good. He lessened their taxes and abolished the danegelt. He renewed good laws which had become extinct. The only war in which he engaged was against MacBeth, the murderer of King Duncan of Scotland and usurper of his throne. MacBeth was slain, and Malcolm, Duncan's son, placed on the throne. 22. Jealousy of Norman influence and the ambition of powerful nobles, at whose head was Godwin, Earl of Kent, father-in-law of Edward, led to a revolt, which was quelled and Godwin banished. Returning soon, the earl drove out all foreigners. On the death of Godwin his son Harold, a young man of great military skill and capacity, assumed the lead of the family and of the native party. On the death of Edward he, with the consent of the people, seized on the throne in spite of an understanding between Ed- ward and William, Duke of Normandy, the illegitimate son of Robert the Devil, that William was to succeed (January, 1066). 23. Horman Conquest of England (1066). — William, an able and ambitious prince, resolved on winning by force of arms the throne which he claimed. While holding Harold a prisoner at his court he had exacted a promise from him to aid him in ascending the English throne. Proclaiming 2L Whom did Edward the Confessor favor? What was Edward's character and policy? 22. Tell of Godwin. What course did Harold take 1 23. Who op- posed Harold's claim ? On what grounds ? a.d. 1068-1087] The Middle Ages. 233 the perjury of Harold, and by his representations winning the approval of Pope Alexander II. for his claims, he as- sembled an immense army and set sail for England. 24. Harold meanwhile was in the north fighting against his brother Tostig, who with Harold Hardrada, King of Norway, had invaded the country. Defeating and slaying both, he heard on the victorious battle-field of William's arrival on the Sussex coast. Hastening southwards by forced marches, he came in sight of the new invader near Hastings, where he took up a strong position on a hill at Senlac, his men fighting on foot around him. All day the battle raged for the possession of England, the Saxons op- posing an invincible front to the Norman horsemen and bowmen. William at last drew them from their position by a feigned flight, and the Saxon cause was lost. As evening- fell an arrow pierced Harold's eye and the day was over. His two brothers and most of his army fell with him. William occupied Dover and pushed on at once to Lon- don, where he was crowned at Westminster, December 25, 1066. 25. William the Conqueror (1066-1087).— To awe the citizens of London, the capital, William built a strong fort- ress known as the Tower. There were various revolts and conspiracies during the reign, but all were put down with a stern hand. Apart from the blood shed in acquiring and maintaining the throne William proved a wise and able sovereign. He was harsh, however, to the natives. He parcelled out the kingdom in estates among his fol- lowers, retaining for himself the chief proprietorship of six hundred baronies, comprising sixty-two thousand five hundred knights' fees of one hundred and twenty acres each. He had drawn np a registry of all the estates in 24. How was Harold employed ? Describe the battle of Hastings. The result of the battle 1 When and where was William crowned ? 25. How did William act ? How did he divide the kingdom 1 234 History of the World. [a.d. 888 England, called the Land Boole, but by the Saxon natives the Book of Doom, or Doomsday. 26. The feudal system gave him almost absolute autho- rity. He revived the ancient taxes, even the danegelt, to fill the royal coffers. To stay conspiracy he ordered the curfew (cover-fire) bell to be rung throughout the kingdom at eight in the evening, when all lights had to be extin- guished. The Norman tongue, a bastard mingling of Trench and Latin, was made the language of the courts. To the clergy William was liberal. Lanfranc was made Archbishop of Canterbury, and proved a wise reformer. CHAPTEK III. GERMANY AND ITALY. From the dismemberment of tlie Carlovingian Empire till the Investitures (888-1073) Germany and Italy are distinct. Later on Germany subjects Italy. SECTION I. Tlie Germanic Kingdom and the Northern Races (888-962). 1. Arnulf and Louis IV. — Arnulf, nephew of Charles the Suabian, was welcomed as king of the Eastern Franks by all the Germans. Eudes of France, Eudolph and Louis of the two Burgundies, and Berenger of north- ern Italy did him homage. In return he defeated near Louvain a force of eighty thousand Northmen headed by Sigefried. In the east he contended against the Wends and the Bohemians and Moravians. He formed a league with the Magyars against Zwentibald, Duke of Moravia. Zwentibald was vanquished, but the alliance proved unfortunate for Arnulf 's successors. Arnulf had himself crowned in Italy as Emperor of the West ; but What was the Doomsday Book ? 26. What effect had the Norman invasion on England? How did William treat the clergy ? 1. What of Arnulf ? Tell of his wars. As what was he crowned ? a.d. 888-918] The Middle Ages. 235 as soon as lie recrossed the Alps his authority was dis- owned by the Italians. He died soon after (899). His son, Louis IV., then seven years old, was acknowledged king by the German nobles and by the two Lorraines. During his minority the great lords strengthened their power in the provinces. At the same period Arpad, Khan of the Hungarians, after hanging the last of Lhe Moravian princes, invaded Germany, slew the dukes of Bavaria and Thuringia, and then proceeded to overrun western Eu- rope. Louis IV. died during his minority (911). 2. Elective Kings; Conrad I. (911-918).— With Louis perished the Germanic branch of the Carlovingians. The Lorraines fell to the king of France, Charles the Simple. The Germans proceeded to elect their king, and chose Conrad, Duke of Franconia. At once ensued a struggle between the king and the great vassals, one of whom, Henry of Saxony, defeated the royal army, while the other, Arnulf of Bavaria, called in the Hungarians. Conrad fell mortally wounded fighting against the Bavarians. Call- ing his brother Eberhard, he bade him convey the royal insignia to Henry of Saxony, his worst enemy. Henry, on receiving the commission, was at the chase, whence his name of the "Fowler." Proclaimed and solemnly conse- crated king at Fritzlar, he became the founder of the Saxon line (918). 3. The Saxon Line ; Henry the Fowler (918-S86). — Henry at once showed that he was resolved to be master. Suabia and Bavaria and the two Lorraines soon submitted to his sway. He routed the Danes and strengthened his frontiers on every side. He compelled Wenceslaus, Duke of the Czechs of Bohemia, to pay him tribute. Germany had been under tribute to the Hungarians for seven years. What followed on the death of Arnulf? What of ArpacL? 2. Whom did tho Germans choose as king ? What followed the choice ? 3. What course did Henry pursue 1 Whom did he subdue ? 236 History of tee World. [ a .d. 918-962 Henry refused to pay tribute longer. Two Hungarian ar- mies invaded the kingdom, bat they were beaten at Merse- burg with a loss of thirty-six thousand men (933). Strength- ening his kingdom in all its parts, Henry left it to his son Otlio by securing the latter's election. 4. Otho I. (936). — Otho, like his father, was determined to rule in all his kingdom and to have his rule respected by his neighbors. He was eminently successful. He reduced Boleslaus the Cruel of Bohemia, the murderer of St. Wen- ceslaus, to fealty, and exacted the same of Harold) King of Denmark. He gave his daughters in marriage to King Louis of France and the Duke of France, thus making himself arbiter of the kingdom. His reign was a series of exhausting wars, in all of which he was triumphant. He made the Slavic tribes tributary up to the Oder. For arranging the dispute between Hugh the Great and King Louis he received all of Lorraine that remained in French hands. He married Adelaide, widow of Lothaire of Italy, whose throne had been usurped by Berenger II. Defeat- ing Berenger, he was himself crowned King of Italy by the Archbishop of Mentz, and Emperor of the West by Pope John XII. (February 2, 962). Quarrelling with the pope later on, Otho had Leo VIII. set up in John's place. This led to great scandal and trouble. Otho also invaded Lower Italy, defeated the Greeks, and took Apulia and Calabria. SECTION II. Italy and the Western Empire (888-962). 5. After Charles of Suabia was deposed Guy of Spo- leto and Berenger of Friuli, descendants of Charlemagne, claimed the title of emperor and king of Italy. Berenger was defeated and his rival crowned emperor by Pope Ste- What happened at Merseburg ? 4. Tell of Otho's achievements. How did French Lorraine come to him 1 ? What titles did he win 1 ? What resulted from his quarrel with the pope ? a.d. 888-924] The Middle Ages. 237 plien VI. (891). He associated with him his son Lam- bert, whom, before his death, he had crowned by Pope Eormosus (894). Three years later, the throne being va- cant, Berenger again claimed it, and received at Pavia the crown of Italy. His title was disputed by Louis, King of Cis-Juran Burgundy, a grandson on the mother's side of the Emperor Louis II. The nobles hailed Louis as king, and he was crowned Emperor of the West by Pope Benedict IV. in 900. But he was taken prisoner by Berenger and his eyes were put out (905). He survived twenty years. Berenger was engaged in constant strug- gles with the Hungarians, Saracens, and the Italian nobles. He was crowned emperor by Pope John X. (915), and, advancing at the head of the Italians to the Garigliano, lie routed the Saracens, who had held that post for thirty years. His conquests and reign were cut short by a conspiracy of his nobles, who assassinated him on Christmas night (924). 6. Italian Dissensions. — From the time of the fall of the Eoman Empire Italy was made the prey of every new in- vader. The powerful nobles who had fastened on the soil cared for no rule but their own. This led to constant conflict. Previous to the tenth century the country was split up among a few great dukedoms and marquisates. The Greeks claimed Bari, Tarentum, and the southern coasts ; the Saracens had conquered some parts of the western coast and all Sicily. Pavia, Milan, Pisa, and a few other cities acknowledged the king of Italy. Borne and the cities belonging to the patrimony of St. Peter paid their first allegiance to the pope, after to the em- peror crowned by him ; but the pope's possessions were often invaded, now by one, now by another. 5. What happened on the deposition of Charles of Suabia ? Describe the struggle for the crown. Describe the reign of Berenger. 6. Describe the dis- sensions and divisions in Italy. 238 History of the World. [a.d. 945-955 7. The nobles had appealed to Eudolph II., King of Trans-Juran Burgundy, to rid them of the Emperor Beren- ger. After electing him king they repented, and two years later chose Hugh, his administrator. Changing again, they recalled Rudolph, but for twenty years Hugh main- tained an iron rule over them. Then Berenger, Marquis of Ivrea, son of the Emperor Berenger's daughter, gained such a following that Hugh consented to abdicate on con- dition of their placing his young son, Lothaire, on the throne. Berenger was appointed tutor, and Lothaire re- ceived the iron crown (945), with Adelaide, daughter of Rudolph II., as consort. Five years later Lothaire died, as was suspected, of poison. Berenger grasped the throne, cruelly imprisoned the queen, whose virtues and misfor- tunes roused such sympathy among the Italians that Otho the Great was called in to take up her cause (954). SECTION III. The German Emperors of the West (962). 8. Otho the Great. — Otho aimed at playing the role of Charlemagne. Entering Rome, he espoused Adelaide, and the royal pair were crowned at Pavia. Dissensions broke out in Otho's family. Leaving the title of king of Italy to Berenger II. and his son Adalbert, Otho hastened back to Germany to quell the revolt of his son Ludolph, Con- rad, his son-in-law, and Henry, his brother. This he effected in two years. He diminished the power of the great vassals, increased the number of the lesser ones, and organized a powerful army. Marching against the Hunga- rians, who had aided the revolt, he broke their power at Lech, near Augsburg (August 10, 955). He then estab- lished the eastern marquisate, now Austria, driving the Hungarians beyond its borders. His northern frontier he 7. To whom did the Italian nobles appeal ? What was the result? Why was Otho called in ? 8. What was Otho's ambition ? How did he act ? Tell of his campaigns. a.d. 955-962] The Middle A ges. 239 secured by a victory over the Slavs of the Elbe. He sent an embassy to the Caliph Abd-er-Rahman III. to soften the lot of the Spanish Christians under the Ommiades of Cordova. 9. Otho crowned Emperor of the Romans. — On the death of Pope Agape tus II., Octavian, son and successor of Count Alberic of Tusculum, Roman patrician and master of the city, had himself elected pope under the title of John XII. He was the first pope to change his name on ac- cession, and all his successors have followed this example. His administration proved a wise and firm one. He wish- ed to extend its benefits beyond the city limits, but was met by the opposition of Berenger II., who threatened Rome itself. The pope invited Otho to receive the impe- rial crown and deliver the city. Again Otho crossed the Alps and compelled the submission and deposition of Ber- enger and his son Adalbert at Milan. Entering Rome, he received the homage of the people, and renounced in his own name and in that of his successors all interfer- ence with the jurisdiction of the Holy Roman Church. He was then crowned emperor (February 2, 962), and the Roman Empire, after a vacancy of thirty-eight years, was thus again renewed in the West. There it remained, titu- larly at least, until the opening of the nineteenth century (1806). 10. Otho had hardly left Rome when the pope broke his promise to enter into no alliance with the enemies of the emperor. He joined with Berenger. Otho returned and the pope fled. The Romans were compelled to take an oath to acknowledge no pope save such as should hold the see at the will of Otho. A council was held at Rome and John summoned to appear. On his refusal he was accused of various crimes, condemned, and deposed. The 9. How did John XII. become Pope ? For what is he remarkable ? Tell of his relations with Otho. The result? 10. What followed the pope's rupture with Otho? 240 History of the World. [a.d. 962-988 proceeding was neither in accordance with, the canon law nor valid in any sense. Otho had Leo VIII. elected pope and left Borne. 11. On his departure Pope John returned to his see and revenged himself on his opponents. He died soon after, as was alleged, in the very commission of a criminal act ; but this is generally rejected by impartial historians as an invention of his enemies. A new pope, Benedict V., was elected in his stead and the emperor's pope rejected. Otho returned to Rome, exiled Benedict to Germany, and reinstated Leo, who soon after died. Otho made John XIII. his successor, but the Romans expelled him, Otho having returned to Germany after imprisoning Berenger and defeating Adalbert, but his army nearly perished of an epidemic on the march. He re-entered Italy at the head of a new army to avenge John XIII. and crown his son Emperor of the West. On his return to Germany he died (973). 12. Ofiio's Son and Grandson (973-1002).— The reign of Otho II. was one of prosperity to Germany, notwithstand- ing the troubles caused by Henry of Bavaria and Lothaire, King of France. Otho convoked an assembly of the dis- contented Italian nobles at Pavia, and caused them all to be massacred at a banquet. This treacherous deed roused all Italy against him. Urged by Theophania, his wife, a Greek princess, who wished all the Greek provinces of Italy for her dower, he raised a small army, composed mainly of Italians, to seize the Greek principalities and cities of the south. After meeting with some success his troops were surprised and dispersed by a body of Saracens in the service of the Byzantine catapan. The Italians turned him into ridicule, and he died in Italy of chagrin or poi- 11. Who succeeded John XII. ? What action did Otho take ? What followed? 12. What of Otho II. and the Italian nobles ? What foolish enterprise did he undertake ? The result ? a.d. 988-1024] The Middle A ges. 241 son, after securing the election of his soil Otho, not yet four years of age (983). 13. Troubles arose in consequence of the minority, but were settled by the empresses Theophania and Adelaide and the Archbishop of Mayence. When fifteen Otho was crowned at Rome by his kinsman, Gregory V., the first German pope. For years there had been a strong opposi- tion to the popes in Pome. The emperor came back, took the castle of San Angelo, and put Crescentius, the leader of the faction which was hostile to all foreigners, to death. When Gregory V. died Otho secured the election of the learned monk Gerbert, one of his preceptors, who took the title of Sylvester II. and was the first French pope. The emperor received great aid from the wise advice of the pontiff. He conferred the title of king on Boleslaus the Brave, Duke of Poland, and on St. Stephen of Hun- gary. The emperor's promising career came to an end at the early age of twenty-two (1002). 14. St. Henry Emperor (1002-1024).— At the death of Otho III. without heirs, the house of Saxony was repre- sented by Henry, Duke of Bavaria, who was elected em- peror under the title of Henry II. Hardoin, Marquis of Ivrea, laid claim to the crown of Italy. He was defeated and his rival crowned by Benedict VIII. (1014), Hardoin dying in the following year. Henry then proceeded to bring the King of Poland to allegiance, and helped the King of Hungary in evangelizing his people, and the pope and Normans to rid southern Italy of Saracen pirates. He ruled peacefully in his own dominions, favored religion and learning, and aided materially in spreading the faith among the Slavs, Scandinavians, and Hungarians. 15. If the tenth century had been dark the eleventh 13. By whom was Otho III. crowned 1 What was the state of Rome at this time ? What action did Otho take ? Who was the first French pope ? 14. Who succeeded Otho III. ? Describe Henry's reign. 242 History of the World. [a.d. 1024-1044 opened with brighter' promise. On the papal throne sat Sylvester II., on the German St. Henry; in Hungary reigned St. Stephen, in Poland Boleslaus the Brave ; in England and Denmark Canute ruled, in Spain' Sancho the Great, in Russia St. Vladimir, and in Prance the pious King Robert. Henry died childless in 1024. 16. The Franconian Family. — The Saxon family ended with Henry II. The eight German dukes agreed to elect the least powerful of their number as king. This was Conrad, Duke of Franconia, a descendant of Otho the Great and nephew of Gregory V. He speedily evinced his power, reducing his vassals to allegiance. He received the imperial crown at Rome from Pope John XIX. He checked the great vassals by conferring new privileges on their inferiors. On the death of his uncle, Rudolph III., he inherited the kingdom of the two Burgundies (1032). - 17. To Conrad II. succeeded his son, Henry III., sur- named the Black (1029-1056). After quelling disturbances in Burgundy, Lorraine, and Hungary he entered Italy to restore order in Rome, where Benedict IX., a mere boy, had been thrust into the chair of St. Peter by his rela- tives, the Counts of Tuscnlum. In 1044 Benedict abdi- cated and three claimants arose. Two of these were de- clared usurpers and intruders, while the third, Gregory VI., for the sake of peace in the Church, resigned his office. Henry had the Bishop of Bamberg, Clement II., elected, and with his wife, Agnes of Poitiers, was crowned by him. After Clement II. the emperor designated Da- masus II., St. Leo, and Victor II. The choice in each case was good, but the principle of imperial appointment to the Papacy was essentially a bad one. 15. How did the eleventh century open ? 16. Who was the last of the Saxon family 1 Who was elected king ? What of his reign ? 17. Who succeeded Conrad II. ? What did he do at Eome ? a. d. 933-993] Tue Middle Ages. 243 SECTION IV. Cis-Juran and Trans-Juran Burgundy. 18. Cis-Juran Burgundy. — The two Burgundies, formed out of the wreck of Charlemagne's empire, were separate states up to 933, then united for a century and incorpo- rated with the German Empire. Cis-Juran Burgundy, comprising the valley of the Ehone, had Aries for its cap- ital. It had three kings : Boson, a son-in-law of the Emperor Louis II. ; his son, the Emperor Louis III., whose eyes were put out by Berenger ; and Hugh of Pro- vence, a usurper who, to secure Italy, abandoned the Medi- terranean coast and the Alps to the Saracens, while he ceded the rest of the kingdom to his rival, Eudolph II., King of Trans-Juran Burgundy (933). 19. Trans-Juran Burgundy. — Trans-Juran Burgundy, founded in 888 by Rudolph Welf, comprised at first a part of Switzerland and of Franche-Comte. After the cession of the Cis-Juran the united kingdoms became the kingdom of Aries, but never attained to great power. Its chief monarch was Conrad the Peaceful (937-993). He set the Saracens and Hungarians against each other, and with his small army came in to reap the benefits of their struggle. The kingdom soon disappeared, and from it rose the sovereign counties of Savoy, Provence, Dauphiny, ISTeufchatel, together with several ecclesiastical provinces. CHAPTER IV. SPAIN, THE ABABS, AND THE G&EEKS. SECTION I. Struggle between the Arabs and Spanish Christians. 1. The Saracens in Spain. — Though the Christians main- tained an heroic struggle in Spain, the Saracens long held 18. What of the two Burgundies? What was the capital of Cis-Juran Bur- gundy? Name the kings. 19. Who founded Trans-Juran Burgundy? What became of the two kingdoms 1 What of the kingdom of Aries ? 244 History of the Would. [a.d. 861-976 the supremacy. The latter had many powerful princes, who always appeared just when the Christians were weakest. On the death of Alfonso II. Abd-er-Eahnian II. retook the lost provinces and wrested Barcelona from the King of France. Then came Alfonso III., the Great (861-911), who crossed the Douro and retook much of what had been lost. He was a powerful monarch, as great in peace as in war, and erected the famous basilica of St. James at Compostella. 2. Two Great Caliphs. — In 911 the caliphate fell to Abd- er-Eahman III. (911-961), the very year that Alfonso re- signed the throne to his sons. Abd-er-Eahman defeated them in the vale of Jonqnera, crossed the Pyrenees, pil- laged Gascony, and besieged the stronghold of Zamora. He was stoutly opposed in the new kingdoms of Navarre and Leon, the latter founded by the successors of Pelayo. 3. Conquests in Africa. — Abd-er-Eahman was more suc- cessful against his co-religionists in Africa. He conquered Morocco and Algeria, and spent the last twenty years of his life in peace and in great splendor ; yet he tells that, after fifty years of reign, in all his life he could count but fourteen days of true happiness. His son, Hakem II. (961-976), was a patron of learning and of the arts of peace. Seeing his people disregarding the Koran's prohi- bition of the use of wine, he had two-thirds of the vines of Spain torn up by the roots. 4. Mohammed Al-Mansur. — With Hakem fell the personal power of the caliphs. His successor, Hesham II., or Issam (976-1008), an effeminate prince, was sustained by the arm of Mohammed, snrnamed Al-Mansur (the Victorious), a general who won fifty-six battles in twenty-two years. He met his first defeat at Calatanazor against the united 1. Describe the conflict in Spain. Tell of Alfonso III. 2. Tell of Abd-er- Eahman. 3. Describe the reign and conquests of Abd-er Rahman. What of his son ? 4. Who was Mohammed Al-Mansur ? a.d. 998-1065] The Middle A ges. 245 armies of the Count of Castile and the kings of Leon and Navarre. Al-Mansur starved himself to death rather than survive what he thought his dishonor (998). His fall -led to the final downfall of the Western caliphate (1031). Hesham III., after a series of revolts and dis- asters, was deposed. 5. Sancho the Great. — About this time came great leaders to the Christians of Spain in the persons of Sancho the Great, King of Navarre (1000-1035) ; Ferdinand the Great, first King of Castile (1035-1065), his son ; and the great captain known as the Cid. By conquest and alliance San- cho united under his family all the Christians of Spain. At his death he divided his kingdom among his four sons, thus again breaking the unity. Ferdinand, at his death, imitated his father in this ; but during his life he had greatly increased his kingdom at the expense of the petty Mohammedan princes on his borders. His great general was Euy Diaz de Bivar, surnamed the Cid, also El Campeador, the Champion. For sixty years this model hero and Christian defeated all the foes against whom he contended, and ended his career by the conquest, from the Moors, of Valencia, which was granted him as an ap- panage. 6. Moorish Anarchy. — The caliphate of Cordova, which fell with Hesham III., was succeeded by a crowd of jar- ring and petty kingdoms. The anarchy extended to Af- rica and Asia, and various secret societies rose up, spread- ing destruction on every side. SECTION II. The Greek Empire. 7. Greek Anarchy. — Had the Greeks any native stability they might now have recovered their Eastern empire ; but What followed the defeat of Al Mansur ? 5. What Spanish leaders now arose ? Tell of the work of Sancho. Of Ferdinand. Who was the Cid, and what did he do ? 6. What followed the fall of the Cordovan Caliphate ? 246 History of the World. [ a .d. 813-867 they, like the Moslems, were given up to internal dis- sensions. After the deposition of Michael I. (813) the heresy of the Iconoclasts was revived under Leo the Ar- menian, Michael the Stammerer, and. Theophilus. - The latter was defeated and slain by the Mohammedans. His widow, Theodora, aided by Ignatius, the patriarch, son of Michael I., restored peace to the Church. But the woes of the empire broke out anew under her son, Mi- chael III., the Drunkard (842-867). He was abetted in his wickedness by his uncle Bardas. Theodora was exiled, Ignatius deposed and his place filled by Photius, the eu- nuch, a learned, and crafty man. He had. himself conse- crated by the Bishop of Syracuse, and took possession of the patriarchal see of Constantinople on Christmas day (857). 8. The Schism of Photius. — Pope Nicholas I. protested, against the intrusion, whereupon Photius attacked, the Eo- man Church, charging it with inserting the word filioque in the Creed, and various so-called irregularities. A series of disturbances ended in the assassination of Bardas and Michael by Basil the Macedonian, who restored St. Igna- tius, imprisoned Photius, and, by the authority of Pope Adrian II., convoked an oecumenical council (869-870) at Constantinople. The cunning Photius succeeded in win- ning over Basil, and on the death of Ignatius Photius was replaced in the see, whence he was again driven by Basil's successor, Leo the Philosopher. 9. The Macedonian Dynasty (887-1057).— Basil I., the son of a Macedonian farmer, was the founder of a dynasty that filled the throne for two hundred years. He was him- self an able prince ; but his son and successor, Leo, was a learned man rather than a wise ruler, as was also his grand- 7. Who revived the Iconoclast heresy ? Who restored peace ? What of Michael III. ? Of Photius *? 8. Describe the quarrel of Photius with Rome. 9. Who founded the Macedonian dynasty? a.d. 867-1054] The Middle A ges. 247 son, Constantine. Their successor, Romanus the Younger, a parricide and debauchee, had two celebrated generals, the Phocases. iSTicephorus Phocas recaptured the island of Crete from the Saracens, and during the minority of Basil and Constantine, sons and successors of Eomanus II., he defeated the Bulgarians and vanquished the Saracens in Asia. He was proclaimed emperor (963) in conjunction with the two young princes. He then conquered Cyprus, Cilicia, and a part of Syria as far as the Euphrates. His general, John Zimisces, took Antiocb, revolted and slew M- cephorus, and usurped the throne in his place. He in turn governed firmly, beat the Russians in Bulgaria, and in a series of Syrian campaigns routed the Arabs. He was poisoned by a eunuch (976), and Basil II. reigned alone. 10. Conquests of Basil II. — Basil put down revolt and sent the rebellious generals against the Saracens in Italy, the islands of the Mediterranean, and Asia. After a long struggle he himself defeated and annihilated the Bulga- rians. He possessed himself of the Crimea to check the Russian advance, and incorporated all his conquests into his empire, which at his death (1025) was greatly enlarged. 11. Decline; Michael Cerularius. — From the death of Basil II. to the accession of the family of Comnenus there passed fifty-six years of varied disaster and disgrace. After the second deposition of Photius union between the church of Rome and of Constantinople was restored. In 1043 Mi- chael Cerularius, being raised to the patriarchate of Constan- tinople, took up and added to the schism of Photius, and ex- communicated the pope, the bishops and churches of the West. The pope, St. Leo IX., sent legates to Constantino- ple, who were well received by the Emperor Constantine Mo- nomachus. Ceruliirius, remaining obstinate, was at last Who were the Phoeases ? What of Nicephorus Phocas ? What of Zimisces ? 10. Describe the reign of Basil II. 11. What followed on the death of Basil? Tell of Michael Cerularius and his work. 248 History of the World. excommunicated (July 16, 1054), and the legates departed. From that day forth the patriarchal church of Constan- tinople remained separate from that of Rome. CHAPTER V. THE CHTJECH AND FEUDALISM. SECTION I. The Catholic Hierarchy in and about the Tenth Century. 1. Dangers to the Pontificate. — Up to the end of the tenth century the popes remained in the position created for them by the establishment of the temporal power. They were independent princes at Rome, where they crowned the emperors, who in turn professed to protect them. Nevertheless they suffered from the turbulence of the times, and often from the violence of Catholic prin- ces and nobles. After the pontificate of Formosus (896) a long series of troubles set in. The powerful families in and about Rome were desirous of placing their sons on the apostolic throne. Feudalism encroached on the free election to the Papacy, and later on the intervention of the German emperors threatened to convert the See of Peter into an appanage of the German crown. Notwith- standing all these difficulties and dangers there were dur- ing this period many saintly popes. 2. Clerical Abuses. — Troubles and scandals arose among the higher clergy in the various nations, who united to their ecclesiastical character that of lay nobles owning temporalities, for which they owed homage to the princes or great fiefs. Hence the high ecclesiastical appointments became very desirous positions for the younger sons of 1. What dangers threatened the Roman pontificate? How did feudalism affect the Papacy? What was the ambition of Germany? 2. How did the danger spread to the clergy ? a. d. 999-1003] The Middle Ages. 249 noble' houses, many of whom, were priests in little more than name. The inferior clergy, as a consequence, dete- riorated when those set over them gave such ill example. Nevertheless Europe through all could boast of many learned and pious clerics, bishops, and saints, who Avere models of zeal and holy living and strove to stem the tide of corruption and abuse that had set in on the Church. 3. Pope Sylvester II. — So evil were the times that the year 1000 was looked to with dread by multitudes as the year of final judgment. General consternation prevailed, which even the calmness and wisdom of Pope Sylvester II. (999-1003) could not wholly stay. He it was who in- troduced the use of Arabic figures, which he had learned from the Moors in Spain ; and he was the first fired to the idea of the Crusades at the cruel treatment of Chris- tian pilgrims by the Fatimite caliph, Hakem. A fleet of Genoese and Pisans was raised at his summons, but they perished miserably on the Syrian coast. SECTION II. Conversion of the Scandinavians ; St. Anscarius. 4. Conversion of the Danes. — While wars and troubles were going on all over Christendom the peaceful and heroic work of Christian missionaries never ceased. They did not wait for the barbarians to come in contact with the converted people, but went amongst them to preach the Gospel, which in many instances they watered with their blood. Willibrord had, as has been seen, purchased thirty Danish captive children, whom he trained as missionaries to their pagan countrymen. A hundred years later Harold the Dane, with his retinue, was baptized at Mayence in presence of Louis le Debonnaire. Departing, he took with him the monk Anscarius of Corbie (825-865), who spent 3. What superstition arose about the year 1000 1 Who originated the Cru- sades 1 What became of the expedition 1 4. Tell of the missionaiy labors at this time. Who converted the Danes 1 250 History of the World. [ A .d. 825-1001 forty years among the Danes and crowned his labors with the sacrifice of his life. Harold was driven out and the country closed to the Gospel. 5. St. Anscarius. — Anscarius joined a French embassy to the Swedes, converted many, and built several churches. He was appointed to the newly erected archiepiscopal see of Hamburg and endowed with legatine powers over Den- mark, Sweden, and Norway. Eric of Jutland, who came to destroy his see, granted instead leave to build churches and preach in his own dominion. Anscarius continued to send priests in all directions till his death in 865. 6. Sweyn and Canute. — His successors in the see of Ham- burg were equally zealous ; but the princes remained pagan and at times persecuted the missionaries. The victories of the emperors over G-orm and Harold Blaatand first secured general liberty to preach. Harold was baptized (972) and favored Christianity, but was dethroned by Sweyn, his pagan son, who became king of Denmark, Norway^ and conqueror of England. But his son and heir, Canute (1014-1035), became a great Christian prince, and his suc- cessors, especially Sweyn II., defended Christianity against the votaries of Odin. Under St. Canute IV. (1080-1086) Christianity flourished in nearly all Denmark. 7. Conversion of Sweden. — In Sweden St. Anscarius first obtained leave to preach in the temple of Upsal, the sanc- tuary of the worship of Odin ; but progress was slow. Olaf, baptized in 1001, was the first Christian king of Sweden. Under and after him churches multiplied, espe- cially under Sverker and St. Eric IX. Scara was the first episcopal see, and Upsal finally became the metropolitan. 8. Conversion of Norway. — Norway, from the roving character of its daring pirates, early learned something of 5. Describe the work of St. Anscarius. 6. How did Christianity progress in Denmark? What of Harold, Sweyn, and Canute? 7. How and under whom was Sweden converted ? a.d. 994-1003] The Middle Ages. 251 Christianity. The conversion of their great leader, Kollo, in France, served as an example to the other chieftains. National opposition softened under Olaf I. (994), and ceased wholly under St. Olaf II. (1033), who, aided by Anglo- Saxon and German missionaries, founded the primatial basilica of Drontheim and the cathedrals of Bergen, Ham- mer, and Stavanger. In the year 1000 Iceland received the faith by vote in popular assembly, and the Icelanders proceeded to convert Greenland, which they had discov- ered. Thus all the Scandinavians received the true faith. SECTION III. Conversion of tlie Slavs. 9. The Slavs. — The Slavs believed in spirits, good and bad, with a vague notion of a supreme being and hope in a future life. They materialized their spirits, and had a powerful priesthood under a supreme pontiff at Novgorod, who offered human sacrifices and gained a great ascendency over the people. The Slavs established by Heraclius, or Constantine Pogonatus, in the two Illyrias, while conform- ing outwardly to the Christian faith, secretly adhered to their own. The same practice was observed by those scat- tered along the borders of the Carlovingian Empire, who, on the decline of the Frankish power, returned to their native gods. 10. Apostolate of Methodius and Constantine. — The first great missionaries of the Slavs were the brothers Metho- dius and Constantine, born in Thessalonica in the ninth century. Constantine was sent by the patriarch Ignatius to Kherson, where he converted many. Methodius was called by King Bogoris to preach to the Bulgarians of the lower Danube. He converted the king, who was bap- tized in the name of Michael. The nation followed, and 8. By and under -whom -was Norway converted? Iceland? Greenland? 9. What was the religion of the Slavs? 10. Who were the chief missionaries to the Slavs ? Descrihe the work of Methodius and Constantine. 252 History of the World. [ A .d. 863-999 Constantine was called to his brother's aid. Constantine, a learned linguist, invented the Slavonian alphabet and a cur- rent hand, to which he arranged a liturgy. He translat- ed most of the Bible into this tongue, and by this means gained over to Christianity not only the southern Bulga- rians but all the Slavonic nations. King Michael enter- ed a monastery, but continued to watch over his people. But the Bulgarians, being incorporated with the Eastern empire in 1019, followed it into schism. 11. Conversion of the Moravians. — At the close of the ninth century the Moravians were the most powerful of the Slavs. They asked missionaries from Constantinople, and the brothers Cyril and Methodius were sent to them by Pope Nicholas I. (863). After six years' labor all the Moravians were converted. Cyril died soon after (868), and Methodius was consecrated Archbishop of Pannonia. For twenty years he labored among them, using the Slavonian liturgy, sanctioned by the Holy See, and completing his brother's translation of the Scriptures into that tongue. "While holding the central Slavs he confirmed their south- ern brethren in the faith. He labored with the Czechs of Bohemia, whose duke, Borziwoi, he baptized (890). Borziwoi and his wife, St. Ludmilla, strove zealously for the conversion of their subjects ; but after the duke's death Ludmilla and her grandson, St. "Wenceslaus, were slain under a pagan reaction, which was only overcome by the triumph of the faith under Boleslaus the Good (967-999). 12. Conversion of the Poles.— The Poles, a branch of the Slavs, received Christianity under Duke Micislaus, who, at the entreaty of his wife, Dombrowska of Bohe- mia, became a Christian (966). Thereupon the Poles de- What was Constantino's special work? Whom did the Bulgarians follow? 11. Who converted the Moravians ? Describe the work of Methodius. Under whom did the faith triumph ? 12. What of the Poles 1 a.d. 992-1038] The Middle Ages. 253 stroyed their idols and cast them into the Vistula. St. Adalbert, of Prague, moved them greatly, and his barba- rous death at the hands of the Prussians moved them still more. They went in crowds to visit his tomb and crave baptism. Boleslaus the Brave (992-1025), son of Micislaus, helped to complete the conversion of his coun- trymen. 13. Otho the Great had founded six bishoprics among the Slavs of the Elbe, but still they were slow to accept Christianity, even though urged by their pious prince, Gottschalk. The latter being killed in a fanatic revolt, the pagan priests seized the bishop, John of Mecklen- burg, and immolated him in their temple. The conver- sion of the Eussians- under Vladimir has been seen. 14. Conversion of the Hungarians. — When the Hunga- rians saw their khan, Geysa, led to baptism by his wife, Saralta (996), all asked to be baptized. Nevertheless they continued to sacrifice to their gods until Vaic, baptized Stephen, succeeded his father (997-1038). This brave and just prince labored zealously for the faith, and, by mar- rying the sister of St. Henry, entered into close alliance with Catholic Germany, whose civilization he introduced into his kingdom. He founded the archbishopric of Gran (Strigonium), ten bishoprics, and four abbeys in Hun- gary, besides hospices for his subjects at Eavenna, Eome, Constantinople, and Jerusalem. 15. Thus the three Scandinavian kingdoms, the four great Slavonian peoples, and the two principal Scythian nations were gathered to the Church and gave great fruits of holiness, while the blessing brought civilization to their peoples. In the north of Europe were still left some pa- gans, and in the south the Mohammedans. What event chiefly moved the Poles to Christianity 1 ? 13. What of the Slavs of the Elbe 1 14. How came the Hungarians to be converted ? Tell of the work of King Stephen. 15. What pagans were now left ? FOURTH EPOCH {1073-1270), FROM THE ACCESSION OF ST. GREGOEY VII. TO THE DEATH OF ST. LOUIS— 197 YEARS. Dxjeing this period the Sovereign Pontiffs are freed from the encroach- ments of feudalism and imperial power, the Crusades are undertaken, and Catholic civilization shows itself in masterpieces of Christian art. CHAPTER I. THE POPES AND THE EMPIRE (1073-1250). SECTION I. Investitures. 1. The Church during the Tenth Century. — As has been seen, the state of the clergy during the tenth century was at a very low grade. Church benefices were for sale, and corruption of every kind found its way into the whole ecclesiastical body. A grave source of disorder was the power of investiture acquired by the monarchs. They in- vested archbishops, bishops, and abbots with the insignia of their office, as in the case of purely civic dignitaries. The marks of spiritual office conferring the charge over souls were bestowed by monarchs in great measure on their creatures, for the benefices attached were often sources of vast wealth and revenue. The natural cor- ruption that ensued spread among all ranks, ecclesiastical and lay. 2. The Papacy itself was, owing to its position, sub- ject to the caprices now of Italian princes, now of German What does the fourth epoch embrace 1 1. Describe the state of the clergy during the tenth century. What were the chief sources of disorder ? 2. To what was the Papacy exposed 1 How came the power of veto ? 254 a.d. 1049-1059] The Middle A ges. 255 emperors. At all events it was never wholly free, bnt had to find a protector somewhere. Hence was introduced the power of confirming or vetoing a pontifical election. The pope thus was in danger of becoming a mere vassal of a temporal prince. 3. Hildebrand (1049-1073).— At the abdication of Gre- gory VI. in the Council of Sutri (1046) the ex-pontiff, now John Gratian, following the emperor, took with him his pupil Hildebrand, the son of a Tuscan carpenter. The pair stopped at Cluny, where Hildebrand received the religious habit at the hands of St. Odilon. His learning and virtues soon marked him out for dignity. He was sent to the emperor's court, where for some time he acted as tutor to his godson, who afterward became Henry IV. Bruno, Bishop of Toul and uncle of Henry III., had been designated by the latter to succeed Pope Damasus II. Hildebrand urged him to go barefoot to Eome in pil- grim's garb, and so present himself to the electors. He did so and was unanimously elected, taking for title Leo IX. This was the first break from the emperor's power. Hildebrand was called to Eome and made cardinal (1049). He immediately set about reforming the clergy and secur- ing the independence of the Church. 4. Reforms of Hildebrand. — After the death of St. Leo IX. Hildebrand first secured the regular election of the pontiff at Rome and then prevailed on the emperor to accept it. This he did in the case of the three successors of Leo IX. Finally, under Nicholas II. (1059), rules for pontifical elections were drawn up which left to the king a mere formal sanction when all was over. The king was Henry IV., still under tutelage of his pious mother, Ag- nes of Poitou. Hildebrand met with great opposition in 3. Who was Hildebrand ? Describe bis early life. What advice did be give to Bruno ? 4. What important reforms did Hildebrand institute ? Were bis re- forms accepted ? 256 History of the World. [ a .d. 1059-1073 his strenuous attempts to reform the clergy. The young Henry was forcibly taken by the great German nobles from the care of his mother. Encouraged in his free- dom, he became an evil-liver, and to raise money sold ecclesiastical benefices to the highest bidder. He raised an anti-pope against Alexander II. (1061-1073), and both the Church and the German Empire were full of trouble. 5. Hildebrand Pope (April, 1073).— On the death of Alexander there was a great concourse of cardinals, bish- ops, clerics, and laity assembled in the basilica of St. Peter to celebrate his obsequies. Suddenly, and as with one voice, the cry arose, " Peter chooses the Archdeacon Hildebrand as successor." He was there and then unani- mously elected under the title of Gregory. Henry ap- proved of the whole proceeding. 6. St. Gregory VII. — Gregory's vast experience, unrelax- ing zeal, and unalterable firmness came to his aid in a position and time that his keen eye saw full of trouble and of menace. He never faltered, but took up his great work of reform. He was a wise man, however, and his letters to the princes and great nobles announcing his accession were full of dignity and tempered counsel to aid in putting down the evils that afflicted the Church. Prince after prince, noble after noble, he won to his side, among the first the dauntless Eobert Guiscard. He con- voked an annual council at Rome, wherein were discussed all ecclesiastical questions of law and of fact. Disciplinary canons were here renewed ; cases of ecclesiastics were de- cided on ; the guilty suffered the penalty of their crimes, the weak were strengthened, the good encouraged. All be- gan well. 7. Gregory and Henry. — But the storm was coming. What of Henry IT.? 5. Describe the election of Hildebrand. 6. For what was Gregory VII. remarkable ? How did he begin his reign 1 What council did he institute ? a.d. 1073-1076] The Middle Ages. 257 Henry at first professed the most filial submission and sorrow for the sins of his youth. He needed the pope's aid. Saxony and Thuringia had revolted against his ty- ranny, and the great vassals of the empire contemplated dethroning him. Petitions to the pope poured in to ex- communicate him and release his vassals from their alle- giance. 8. Interdiction of Investitures. — The pope upheld the king as best he could. In a council held at Rome (1075) he struck at the vice of investiture, forbidding any lay prince to confer and any ecclesiastic to receive any inves- titure whatever. The decree was published throughout Christendom, and none opposed it. Henry was now em- peror elect and feared for his crown both in Germany and Italy. At Hohenburg (July 13, 1075) he triumphed over the Saxons. At once his courage rose and he bade the pope depose the prelates who had sided with the van- quished. Gregory refused. Henry thereupon, defying the pontifical decree, solemnly invested three German prelates. He further incited certain simoniacal prelates of Italy, headed by Guibert of Ravenna, to rise against the pope. 9. Henry excommunicated. — Guibert, in concert with Cencius, a factious Roman noble, conspired against the pontiff's life. Cencius seized him at midnight while cele- brating Mass, but a rising of the populace delivered him. A cabal met at Worms under an excommunicated cardi- nal, and, heaping maledictions on Gregory, declared him deposed. Henry sent an insulting despatch to the pope announcing the fact (March, 1076). The pope responded by fulminating in full council against Henry and his abetr tors the sentence of excommunication, to be followed by deposition if within a year every one of the excommuni- 7. Tell of Henry IV. 's troubles. 8. How did Gregory deal with investiture ? Did Henry accept the decree ? 9. What passed at Rome ? What passed at Worms ? How did the pope act ? ^58 History of the World, [a.d. 1076-1077 cated did not seek absolution from the Sovereign Pontiff in person. 10. Canossa. — The solemn sentence was published throughout Germany, and Henry's power at once fell from him. The great vassals withdrew, while Saxony, aided by Snabia, Bavaria, and Carinthia, took up arms. Henry's troops were defeated, and a diet held at Tribur (October 15, 1076) notified the king that if within the year the censure was not removed a king would be cho- sen in his place. The nobles informed the pope of their resolution and begged him to proceed to Augsburg to preside at a new diet. Gregory besought them not to be hasty, and, to save Henry, set out for Germany, but the rigor of winter forced him to stay at Canossa. Thither Henry set out to meet him, accompanied by his wife, his young son, and a small retinue. 11. To punish him for his crimes the pope, in accord- ance with the practice of the times, required him to per- form a three days' rigorous penance in the enclosure of the castle before admitting him to an audience. Henry submitted without reserve, and the pope withdrew the ban of excommunication. This is a scene of which much is made in non-Catholic history, but it is plain that the pope acted throughout in favor of a king whom a signal from him could at the time have destroyed (January 26, 1077). 12. Revolt in Germany. — Henry had not left Canossa before he forgot his vows and set to work intriguing with factious Italians and simoniacal prelates against the pope. He tried to close Germany against the pontiff, at which news the German nobles assembled at Forch- heim broke with the perjured prince without waiting 10. What followed the excommunication 1 11. What happened at Canossa? 12. Was Henry true to his promises ? What action did the German nobles take? a.d. 1080-1085] The Middle Ages. 259 for the pope, and chose as king Rudolph of Suabia. Henry hastened back to Germany. Rudolph fell a vic- tor on the bloody field of Elster (1080). The struggle was renewed under Hermann of Luxemburg, a brave war- rior, but less to be feared than his predecessor. 13. An Anti-Pope proclaimed. — Henry left him and re- turned to Italy to pursue the pope. He named Guiberfc of Ravenna anti-pope Avith the title of Clement III. He strove to obtain possession of the person of the pontiff. The heroic Countess Matilda roused the north of Italy to resistance. The Roman princes gathered around the walls of Rome and Robert Guiscard came to assist the Sovereign Pontiff. Henry with his anti-pope laid siege to the city in the spring of 1081, but for three years the besieged, aided by the diversions of Matilda, withstood all assaults. 14. Eobert Guiscard in Rome. — Bribery won what arms could not achieve, and the people, weary of the long siege, opened the city to the Germans. Guibert was en- throned at St. Peter's and placed the imperial crown on Henry's head. Gregory had retired to the castle of San Angelo, and Robert Guiscard was hastening to his aid. Henry fled before Robert, leaving Rome to the mercy of the Norman. Robert entered, took vengeance on the treacherous inhabitants, and reinstated the pope. Sen- tence of excommunication was pronounced against the anti-pope and all his adherents, and the supremacy of the spiritual over the temporal was proclaimed. 15. Death of St. Gregory VII— Gregory's mission was now completed. The Romans attributed to him their recent misfortunes, so he withdrew with Robert Guiscard to Monte Cassino, thence to Salerno. There, summoning Tell of the struggle in Germany. 13. What course did Henry pursue 1 Who were the pope's allies ? 14. What occurred in Rome 1 Who came to the pope's rescue ? 260 History of the World. [a.d. 1085-1106 the cardinals, bishops, and clerics about him, he com- manded them in the name of God to acknowledge as lawful po}3e none not elected and consecrated according to the canonical laws of the Church. Then, after a pause, he added: "I have loved justice and hated iniquity, therefore I die in exile." These were the last words of this great pontiff, reformer, and saint (May 25, 1085). 16. Gregory's Heirs. — Gregory's work did not perish with him. After a year of hesitation Desiderius, abbot of Monte Cassino, whom Gregory had designated, accepted the election under the title of Victor III. After him came Otho, Bishop of Ostia, who held out for six months, but finally ascend- ed the papal throne as Urban II. Clement, the anti-pope, ruled in Rome. Italy and Germany were convulsed with strife. The kings Avere wavering in their allegiance, but Urban stood firm. In the councils of Piacenza and Cler- mont he declared his adhesion to the principles of Gregory VII., condemned the investitures, excommunicated Philip of Prance and Henry, and preached the first Crusade. The anti-pope was driven from Rome, and Urban entered in triumph. At his death, in 1099, he was succeeded by Pascal II., a choice of Gregory VII. Despite the efforts of the anti-popes, Pascal was soon acknowledged by all the faithful. 17. End of Henry IV. — At the death of Gregory, Henry seemed to triumph. For twelve years Rome was closed against the lawful popes and his enemies one by one dis- appeared. But misfortunes soon arose in his own family. His eldest son, Conrad, had himself proclaimed king, and for six months occupied the fairest provinces of the empire. Henry's wife denounced him before the Council of Pia- cenza. His noblest kinsmen deserted him to join the 15. Describe the death of Gregory Til. 16. What followed on Gregory's death ? What course did Urban II. pursue ? Who succeeded Urban 1 17. Tell of the after-scenes in Henry's life. a.d. 1106-1118] The Middle Ages. 2G1 Crusades. Finally a revolt of his youngest son, Henry, drove him from the kingdom. He died in exile at Liege (1106) without becoming reconciled to the Church. 18. Henry V. (1106-1125).— Henry V. had ostensibly ta- . ken up arms in defence of the Church. Pope Pascal, who showed himself yielding to Philip I. of France and Henry I. of England, thought to be firmer with the German mon- arch. He required him absolutely to renounce £he investi- tures. Henry refused and prepared to march on Eome. The pope advanced to Sutri to meet him, and there said he Avas ready to restore him all the ecclesiastical briefs of Germany and Italy, provided he would for ever renounce the investitures. These proposals Henry accepted. 19. The agreement was so distasteful to the clergy that the pope retracted Thereupon the king, despite the resist- ance of the Romans, seized the pope, cast him into prison, and by dint of cruelty compelled him to sign a new compro- mise which partially conceded the king's demands. The pope was then restored to liberty and crowned Henry empe- ror (1111). Pascal had promised not to excommunicate the prince ; not so the French and German bishops, who de- nounced him in the councils of Vienne and Cologne. 20. Concordat of Worms (1122).— The pope's decree of 1111 created much discussion among the theologians. Henry rejected all other arrangements and entered Italy to secure the possessions of the Countess Matilda, recently de- ceased. Pascal fled from Rome, but was brought back by the Normans and died soon after (1118). His successor, Gelasius II., was also compelled to flee, and died at Cluny after a few months' pontificate. Guy of Burgundy, Arch- bishop of Vienne, was next elected under title of Calixtus II. Calixtus made moderate proposals to the emperor at 18. How did Henry Y. act towards the pope ? What agreement was made ? 19. By whom and why was the agreement withdrawn ? 20, What action did Henry take ? 262 History of the World. [a.d. 1118-1125 Bheims, which were rejected, Henry having just created an anti-pope. But threatened with excommunication, and seeing Germany in commotion, he consented to meet the diet at Worms (1122). There he renounced the investiture, granted full liberty of elections, and promised to restore to the Church all her possessions, the pope granting some minor concessions. 21. Ninth (Ecumenical Council (1123). — In the following year was convoked an oecumenical council in the Lateran basilica, where the Concordat of Worms was approved of, the restoration of discipline arranged, and the state of the Christians in Spain and the East considered. This was the Ninth (Ecumenical Council, and the first held in the West (1123). Two years later- Henry died childless, and Lothaire II. (1125-1137), a pious prince, was elected in his place. He made no use of the privileges which the Concordat had granted him. SECTION II. The Popes and the Hohenstaufens (1137-1272). 22. Origin of Italian Republics. — It had been conceded by the Concordat of Worms that the ecclesiastical elections should take place in presence of the emperor or his repre- sentative, with power of deciding in case of doubt. Lo- thaire refused to exercise this privilege. Disputed elec- tions, however, sometimes occurred, which in Germany were settled by the emperor's known desire ; but in Bur- gundy and Italy this decision did not avail. The citi- zens in Italy especially revolted against the temporal do- minion of the bishops and the harsh power of the nobles. In accordance with public demand consuls, elected by the citizens, were appointed to govern the city ; and the car- roccio, or car surmounted by altar, cross, and standards, What was done at Worms? 21. What was considered at the Ninth CEcumeni- cal Council? How did Lothaire use his privileges 1 22. What troubles arose in Italy? What was the carroccio ? ad. 1125-1189] The Middle A ges. 263 around which the people rallied to prepare for war, began to come into use. Thus arose the Italian republics. 23. Troubles in Rome. — The movement spread to Eome itself, and the constant assaults upon the popes gave it color and substance. At the death of Calixtus II. (1124) there occurred a double election ; but one of the elect re- nounced his claim, and thus schism was averted. At the death of Honorius II. (1130) a disputed election wrought a schism lasting eight years. The anti-Pope Anacletus conferred the title of king on Roger of Sicily, and so won his support. The pope, Innocent II., was forced to fly to France, where St. Bernard pleaded and won his cause. But not till the death of Anacletus was he able to maintain himself at Rome, though brought back in tri- umph. He then (1139) convoked the Tenth (Ecumenical Council (the second Lateran) to complete ecclesiastical re- form, condemn the schism of Anacletus, and anathematize certain heretics, among them Arnold of Brescia. 24. Arnold of Brescia. — Arnold, a monk and disciple of the famous Abelard, taught that no cleric, from the pope down, should possess either revenue or temporal power, but attend solely to spiritual works. The doctrine found favor with the Romans in the disturbed state of the period. The return of Pope Innocent, who made peace with Roger by ac- knowledging him king, and the decrees of the council, com- pelled Arnold to fly. He took refuge in Zurich, but left a powerful political party behind him in Rome. They elected a senate, patrician, and tribunes, under whose favor Arnold returned to afflict Innocent's successors, particularly Eugene III., who was brought back to Rome by Roger. Arnold's party appealed to Conrad of Eranconia to come to Rome and rule the world, the pope included. 23. Describe the difficulties attending elections. What of Innocent II. *? For what was the Tenth (Ecumenical Council convoked 1 24. Who was Arnold of Brescia ? What -was his teaching and work ? 264; History of tee World. [a.d. 1137-1152 25. Conrad III. (1137-1152).— The reign of Lothaire II. had been disturbed only by the claims of the family of Hohenstaufen, represented by the dukes Frederick of Sua- bia and Conrad of Francouia. The latter had assumed the title of king, which he relinquished at the voice of St. Bernard. In return he was elected to succeed Lothaire. The family of the Guelphs, represented by Heury the Proud, son-in-law and heir of Lothaire, held Bavaria, Saxony, and ffnscany. Conrad, on plea of the too great power of the family, took from them Saxony and Bava- ria, which he gave to other vassals. 26. The Guelphs and OOiibelines. — Henry reconquered Saxony and died. His brother, Guelph of Altorf, was in command in Bavaria. Conrad approached to attack him in his headquarters at Winsberg Castle. To the royalist cry of "Waiblingen ! Waiblingen ! " the Winsbergers respond- ed with "Welfl Welf !" (Guelph). Thus originated the titles Guelph and Ghibeline, which were destined to be- come so famous in history and acquire a new meaning on Italian soil. The castle was forced to surrender, and to end the war Conrad gave Saxony to Henry the Lion, son of Henry the Proud ; but Bavaria remained in the con- queror's hands. 27. Troubles in Italy. — This struggle and its effect on the empire, together with the departure of Conrad for the second Crusade, left Italy without German interference. On his re- turn from the Crusade Conrad stood aloof from Italian af- fairs and refused to be crowned emperor. Eoger of Sicily was master of southern Italy ; the rest of the country was given up to anarchy. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa rose into promi- nence and began to make sea ventures ; while Pavia headed the Ghibeline cities which still looked to Germany. 25. What troubled the reign of Lothaire II. ? What of Conrad ? 26. What was the origin of the Guelphs and Ghibelines ? 27. How stood Italy at this time ? Who ruled in southern Italy ? What of northern Italy ? a.d. 1152-1158] The Middle Ages. 265 28. Frederick Barbarossa (1152-1190). — Conrad desig- nated his nephew, Frederick, Duke of Suabia, as successor in place of his son, a minor. Frederick was at this time thirty and endowed with every gift worthy of a ruler. Immediately after his coronation he settled the disputed claim to the throne of Denmark. He resolved on sub- duing Hungary and strove to win over the Guelphs by restoring Bavaria to Henry the Lion. He next set out for Italy (1154) to resume the German suzerainty. The cities that revolted he took and sacked. Receiving the iron crown at Pavia, he went to Rome, where Adrian IY. (Nicholas Breakspere, the only Englishman that has sat in the chair of Peter) was pope. 29. Revolt in Italy. — The Romans set the pope's tem- poral authority at naught. Arnold, their inspirer, was ex- communicated, and, escaping from Rome, fell into Frede- rick's hands. Frederick had him strangled and his body burnt in presence of the people. The Romans then sought to win large concessions from Frederick. He laughed at their pretensions, and, paying homage to the pope, was crowned by him emperor in St. Peter's (June 18, 1155). A revolt arose that only resulted in a massacre of the populace. As he passed northwards from Rome Frederick severely punished all revolt, and, returning to Germany, bent all to his will. 30. Fall of Milan. — Frederick could brook no opposi- tion. Irritated at some expressions of the pope, he again entered Italy (1158) to chastise Milan, which had revolted, and William I., heir of Roger of Sicily, who had repelled the Greeks, allies of Frederick. After a brave resistance Milan was compelled to surrender. Its fortifications were destroyed and people exiled. A diet was held at Roncag- 28. Who succeeded Conrad ? How did Frederick begin his reign ? 29. What befell Arnold of Brescia? How did Frederick treat the Komans ? 30. Describe the siege of Milan. 266 History of the World. [ a .d. 1158-1176 lia and a new constitution drawn up, which placed the entire government of northern Italy in the hands of Fred- erick. Even Church property was taxed by him, and Tus- cany, which had been left by Matilda to the Holy See, was bestowed on G-uelph. The emperor was about to be ex- communicated when Adrian died (September 1, 1159). 31. Alexander III. (1159-1181) and the Lombard League. — Frederick's exactions roused the Lombard cities, and the emperor cruelly retaliated. The struggle was waged on both sides with extreme fury. Cardinal Eoland was elect- ed, under the name of Alexander III., to succeed Adrian. The emperor favored Octavian (Victor IV.), who had a minority of votes, and acknowledged him as pope. Alex- ander III. fled to France for refuge ; and henceforth Fred- erick's glory began to wane. 32. Frederick's Decline. — He was soon called back to Italy, which had revolted against his tyrannical commissa- ries. The anti-pope died and Alexander entered Eome. Frederick marched on Rome and took it, but Alexander escaped to Benevento. The emperor's troops were deci- mated by a pestilence, while in his rear rose up fifteen Lombard cities pledged to defend their liberties, rebuild Milan, and uphold Alexander. Frederick in despair fled northward with a handful of men and narrowly escaped capture (1168). The Lombard League grew and built the city of Alessandria in honor of the pope. The emperor raised a new army and returned to wreak vengeance on the League. The campaign ended in a total defeat of his troops at the battle of Legnano (May 29, 1176), on the very day that his galleys were captured by the Venetians. 33. Treaty of Venice (1177) ; Eleventh (Ecumenical Coun- cil (1179) and Peace of Constance (1183). — Frederick had What took place at Roncaglia? 31. What of the Lombard cities? Tell of the rupture between Frederick and the pope. 32. How fared Frederick in Italy ? Describe his struggle with the Lombard League. a. d. 1176-1190] The Middle Ages. 267 to sue for peace, which was concluded at Venice. The pope and emperor became reconciled, and the anti-pope received an abbey ; William I. was received into the treaty, and the Lombard cities were granted peace. The Eomans besought the pope to return, and Alexander made a tri- umphal entry into the city. In the Lateran basilica he convoked (March, 1179) the Eleventh (Ecumenical Coun- cil, which enjoined that a two-thirds vote constituted a lawful election of the pope. 34. The Diet of Constance. — Henry the Lion had with- drawn with his vassals from Italy during Frederick's dis- astrous campaign. Frederick now declared him a felon and deprived him of Saxony and Bavaria. The inherit- ance of the house of Guelph was divided up into twenty petty principalities holding immediately from the crown. At the diet of Constance (June 25, 1183) Frederick ac- knowledged the independence of the Lombard cities, maintaining a show of allegiance. Thenceforth the Ita- lian republics chose their own government, the few cities that still adhered to the emperor constituting the Ghibe- line party in Italy. The others were called the Guelph party from their opposition to the imperial power. 35. Death of Frederick Barbarossa. — Henry, Frederick's eldest son by his marriage with Constance, daughter of Roger II. and heiress to all the Norman possessions in southern Italy, became master of these. Thus the Pa- pacy was threatened by the Hohenstaufens north and south. At this time Saladin was menacing Jerusalem, and, at the call of the pope, Frederick assumed the cross, though then sixty-eight. After penetrating Asia Minor and gaining many victories he was drowned in the Cyd- nus (June 10, 1190). 33. Tell of the treaty of Yenice. What was enacted at the Eleventh (Ecu- menical Council? 34, What was arranged at the diet of Constance ? What fol- lowed the diet 1 35. How and where did Frederick die ? 268 History of the World. [a.d. 1190-1212 36. Claimants to the Empire (1190-1216).— Frederick left Germany to his son, Henry VI. (1190-1197), who treacherously imprisoned Eichard Coeur de Lion, and with ' his ransom fitted out an expedition against Sicily. His cruelty rendered him odious to every one, and he died suddenly (1197), leaving Sicily to his son, then three years old, who had been named King of the Eomans. The edu- cation of the boy was entrusted to the pope, Innocent III. 37. The popes were averse to the union of the crowns of Germany and Sicily. Henry VI. at his coronation consented to their separation. At his death the German electors agreed to choose a prince of their own. The votes were divided between the Guelph Otho of Brunswick, son of Henry the Lion, and the Ghibeline Philip of Hohenstau- fen, Duke of Suabia and brother of Henry VI. Innocent favored Otho, and Philip was assassinated (1208). The votes of all then fell to Otho, who was crowned emperor by the pope (1209). 38. Otho IV. — The emperor hastened to break all his promises. He fomented disturbances at Eome and strove to win Sicily from Frederick. He was excommunicated (1211). His nobles fell away from him and turned to the young Frederick. The only ally of the emperor was John of England. After vainly striving to stem the current he retired into private life and died reconciled to the Church (1218). 39. Frederick was solemnly crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, after confirming in the diet of Egra the Church's preroga- tives. He was guided in all things by Pope Innocent up to the death of the latter (1216). 40. Frederick II. (1212-1250) and Honorius III. (1216- 1227). — With the death of the pope came a change in 36. To whom did Frederick leave the empire, and with what results ? 37. What followed the death of Henry YI. 1 38. Describe the reign of Otho IT 39. How did Frederick II. begin his reign % a. d. 1212-1241] The Middle Ages. 269 Frederick. He gave way wholly to personal ambition. He "abandoned his promises and engagements, and the loss of Damietta (1219) to the Christians was chiefly owing to his broken pledges. He was ambitious less for the cross than for the extension of his own dominion over Italy and Ger- many. He deceived the pope, Honorius III., while he se- cretly incited his subjects to rebel. He caused his son Henry to be elected king of the Eomans, in violation of the agreement entered into with Frederick Barbarossa. The pope, believing his solemn promises of loyalty to the Holy See and to former treaties, crowned him emperor (1220). 41. Notwithstanding his oft-repeated promise and solemn vow to join the Crusades, Frederick found reasons to re- main at home and secure his grasp on Sicily by joining hands with the Saracens who still infested the island. The pope died (1227) while Frederick, instead of going to the Crusades, was contemplating the restoration of the German power over the Lombard cities. The cities rose up and Frederick's troops were driven out. 42. Gregory IX. — Gregory IX. succeeded Innocent. Though a very old man, he saw through the ambitious* schemes of Frederick and exposed them. The pope, how- ever, stood by the king and did Lis best to maintain peace in Germany. Frederick, true to himself, respond- ed by getting Pietro delle Vigne to collect the laws of Sicily so as to justify Csesarism: 43. Frederick II. in Italy. — In Germany Prince Henry had revolted and the emperor set Conrad IV. up in his place. Entering Italy, he made war on the Lombard cities, destroying Vicenza and Mantua, beating the Mi- lanese, and invading all the liberties of the League. The pope, aided by the Genoese and Venetians, declared against 40. How did Frederick change? What was his character? 41. What was Frederick's policy ? How did he fare in Italy ? 42. What of Gregory IX. and Frederick ? 43. Tell of Frederick and the Lombard League. 270 History of the World. [a.d. 1241-1250 him, and, on the emperor's appointing his natural son Enzio king of Sardinia, excommunicated him and released his subjects from their allegiance. There was now open war between the pope and the emperor. Frederick, aided by the Saracens, laid waste the Campagna and besieged Kome. The pope preached a crusade against him and convoked a council. Frederick was driven back by the crusaders, but imprisoned the bishops on their way to the council. The pope, worn, out by his years and infirmities, died at the age of ninety-eight (1241). 44. Frederick and Innocent IV. (1243-1254).— The em- peror held fast to the imprisoned bishops and cardinals. His permission was needed to elect a new pope, Celes- tine IV., who died eighteen days after his election and had no successor for seventeen months. Finally Sinibaldo de' Fieschi, a close friend of Frederick's, was elected, and chose the name of Innocent IV. "Fieschi was my friend," said Frederick,, "but Innocent will be my enemy." He was right. The pope cited Frederick before a council. Frederick marched on Eome, destroying everything in his way. The pope escaped by the Genoese fleet and went to Lyons, where he assembled the Thirteenth General Council (1245). Innocent laid the condition of Europe and of the East before the council, where Pietro delle Vigne and Thaddeus of Suessa had been sent to plead Frederick's cause. Frederick was excommunicated and degraded. 45. Death of Frederick II. — On hearing the news he put on his crown, exclaiming : " Torrents of blood shall flow ere it falls from my head." Aided always by his faithful Saracens, he began by committing great atrocities among the Guelphs of Eomagna and Tuscany. Eccelino and Enzio stood for him in Lombardy, and Conrad in What action did the pope take? How did Frederick retaliate? 44. Tell what happened on the death of Gregory IX. What took place at the Council of Lyons ? 45. Describe Frederick's last campaign. a.d. 1250-1288] The Middle A ges. 271 Germany. The Germans proclaimed Henry Raspon, Land- grave of Thuringia, and, on his death, William, Count of Holland. Enzio was taken by the Bolognese ; and Frede- rick, beaten at Parma, sued for peace. He died soon after in retirement (1250). 46. End of the Hohenstaufens (1250-1272).— Conrad, forced to quit Germany by William of Holland, claimed his hereditary kingdom of Sicily, which was contested by Man- fred, natural son of Frederick II. He won his throne, but died at the age of twenty- six, leaving an infant son, Con- radin. Manfred seized upon the government, crushed the Guelphs at Florence, and defied the pope, Alexander IV. The cruel Eccelino, at the head of the Ghibelines, still raged in the north. A crusade was preached against him, and he died of wounds received in battle. 47. Charles of Anjou. — The Lombard cities freed them- selves, but the Two Sicilies remained under the yoke. Pope Urban IV. called to his aid Charles of Anjou, Count of Provence and brother of St. Louis of France. He entered Rome despite Manfred's opposition, and was crowned by the pope. He defeated and slew Manfred at Benevento (12G6), thus securing his new kingdom. Con- radin remained in Bavaria under the care of his mother and in the midst of a brilliant circle of warriors and men of letters. Charles proved a harsh ruler, and the people turned to the young prince, who was then only fifteen. He entered Italy, but his army was easily defeated by Charles, and the prince himself perished on the scaffold, thus ending the house of Hohenstaufen (1268). 48. Interregnum in Germany. — With the death of Frede- rick II. followed the interregnum of the empire (1250- 1272). For twenty-two years there was really no gene- 46. What befell Conrad and his kingdom ? Describe events in the north of Italy. 47. Whom did the pope call in? With what result? How did the Hohenstaufens end 1 48. What followed the death of Frederick II. ? 272 History of the World. [ a .d. 996-1021 rally acknowledged emperor. The great vassals exercised all royal rights in their domains. The petty vassals claimed to pay homage only to the nominal suzerainty of the crown. Many cities secured their freedom and made leagues among themselves, as in the Hanseatic League and free cities of the Rhine, for commerce and mutual protection. The struggle between the empire and the Church thus ended in the dissolution of the empire. CHAPTER II. THE CRUSADES IN THE EAST. Feom 1095 to 1270 eiglit military expeditions were undertaken against the Mussulmans at the appeal of the popes. Their object was to recover the holy places and rescue the Christians in the East. SECTION I. First Crusade (1095-1099). 1. Objects of the Crusades. — The scenes of our Lord's life and suffering on earth were natural objects of vene- ration and pilgrimage to Christians. The cross on which Christ died and the Holy Sepulchre were discovered «by St. Helena, mother of Constantine the Great (326). In 638 Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Mussulmans. This was a great shock to Christendom. The persecution of the Christians by the caliph Hakem (996-1021) roused Pope Sylvester II. to preach the first Crusade. 2. The Seljukian Turks. — In the latter half of the elev- enth century the Mussulmans, holding the African coast, menaced Christendom on the south, and were especially for- midable in the East. The Gaznevides were crushed by the Tartars from Turkistan. Their chief was Togrul-Beg, a Describe the interregnum in Germany and its results. How many Cru- sades were there, and what was their object? 1. Who and what originated the Crusades 1 2. By whom was Christendom threatened in the eleventh century ? a.d. 1021-1094] The Middle A ges. 273 grandson of Seljuk. At the call of the Abbasside caliphs he entered Bagdad and overthrew the Buides. For this he was awarded by the caliph the temporal sovereignty of all the Mussulman states (1058). The Abbasside caliphs thenceforth exercised, as successors of Mohammed, only spiritual authority. 3. Seljukian Conquests — The Seljukian sultans became great conquerors. Armenia and Georgia were taken from the Greeks by Alp-Arslan (Strong Lion), Togrul-Beg's nephew and successor. The Emperor Eomanus IV. was defeated and captured by him (1071), and only released on payment of a great ransom and promise of an annual tribute. Malek-Shah (1072-1092), eldest son of Alp, ex- tended the boundaries of his empire to China and the Indus. All Asia Minor, save Trebizond, was wrested from the Greeks, and Cairo, Syria, and Palestine from the Fatimites. At Malek's death his empire was divided up into the sultanates of Damascus, Aleppo, Persia, and Ico- nium. The sultan of Iconium possessed all Asia Minor and encamped within sight of Constantinople. The others were less powerful, and in 1094 the Fatimites of Cairo recaptured Jerusalem, which they held to the com- ing of the Crusaders. 4. The Old Man of the Mountain and his Assassins. — Hassan, chamberlain to Malek-Shah, having fallen into disgrace, fled to Egypt. There, adopting the Fatimite maxim that "nothing is true and everything lawful," he started a secret society and chose as his headquarters the fortress of Alamout, in the Persian mountains (1090). He was known as the Sheikh -al-Jabal, or Old Man of the Mountain. His rule was absolute with his followers, who were styled Assassins. Whatever he bade them do they Tell of Togrul-Bog and his exploits. 3. Tell of Alp-Arslan and Malek-Shah. What followed on the death of Malek ? 4. Who was the Old Man of the Moun* tain, and what did he establish ? 274 History of the World. [ a . d . 1094-1098 did, even at tire sacrifice of life. He became so powerful that Malek himself fell a victim to his orders ; and a. son who thought to avenge the sultan was glad to com- promise with Hassan. The sect was exterminated in the thirteenth century by the Mongols in Persia and by the Mamelukes in Syria. 5. The Comnenus Dynasty. — The soldiers of the Eastern Empire set the family of Comnenus on the throne after the schism of Michael Cerularius (1057). The Seljukian Turks advanced against the weakening empire as far as the shores of the Bosporus. The Greeks were at the same time driven out of southern Italy by Robert Guiscard, who also threat- ened Constantinople. The Hungarians and Tartars ravaged along the right bank of the Danube, and the Greeks were squabbling at home. 6. Alexis Comnenus was an able commander, but found himself penniless and defenceless when the Turks threat- ened his capital (1095). He appealed for aid to the Chris- tians of the West, and his appeal decided the first Cru- sade. But, with Greek duplicity, he played with both par- ties, Christians and Turks. In this he was followed by his successors, and the end was fatal to the empire. 7. Peter the Hermit ; Urban II. ; Council of Clermont. — A French priest named Peter, a pilgrim to the holy places, fired at the indignities he witnessed in Jerusalem, went to Pope Urban II., described the scenes to him, .and obtained permission to preach through Europe the sad condition of the Holy Land. Barefoot, girt with a rope, and crucifix in hand, the holy hermit travelled through the greater part of Europe, moving all hearts by his eloquence. A prepa- ratory council was called by the pope at Piacenza, and a more solemn one at Clermont, two hundred and thirty- 5. What of the Comnenus family 1 By -what foes was the Eastern Empire threatened ? 6. What was the appeal and character of Alexis Comnenus ? 7. Who was commissioned to preach the first Crusade 1 a.d. 1096-1098] The Middle Ages. 275 nine prelates attending. Thousands of nobles and multi- tudes of people encamped around the city. On the sev- enth day the pope addressed the multitude, and at once went up the cry, " G-od wills it ! " They pledged them- selves to go to the rescue of the Holy Land, and, as a mark of their vow, wore a cross of red fastened to the right shoulder. Hence the name Crusader and the Cru- sades. 8. First Crusade. — From all Christian lands came the Crusaders. Peter and Walter the Penniless, a Burgundian knight, followed by a hundred thousand men, set out for the Holy Land. It was a rabble rather than an army, and melted away on the route (1096). A regular army followed under various leaders, chief of whom was the gallant Duke Godfrey of Bouillon, Lower Lorraine. Alexis Comnenus was alarmed at the multitude of war- riors. He induced the Crusaders to swear fealty to him- self and promise to give over to him the cities that had once belonged to the empire. 9. Capture of Antioch.— Six hundred thousand men, one-sixth of whom were knights, encamped on the plains of ISTicgea, the capital of Iconium. The sultan abandoned his city, which was taken by the Greeks. At Dorylseuni, in Phrygia, he fell upon a division of the Christian army and would have destroyed it had not Godfrey arrived to the rescue. But the Turks harassed the Crusaders on their weary march across the plains of Asia Minor. Ei- valries broke out among the Christian leaders, and Bald- win of Flanders, brother of Godfrey, withdrew with his division to conquer Edessa, in Mesopotamia (1097). The others entered Syria and besieged Antioch. After eight months Bohemond of Tarentum succeeded in entering Describe the scene at the Council of Clermont. 8. What befell the first ex- pedition"? Who was chief in command? 9. Describe the opening campaign. Who captured Antioch ? 276 History of the World. [ a . d . 1098-1147 and capturing the fortress deemed impregnable, for which exploit he was made Prince of Antioch (1098). 10. Kerboga, Sultan of Mosul, came to the rescue at the head of three hundred thousand men, and the conquerors found themselves besieged. Famine and disease set in, and the Christians were on the verge of despair when the enthusiasm of Peter Bartholomew, a priest of Marseilles, so roused them that they fell upon the infidels, destroyed them, and opened Palestine to the cross. 11. Capture of Jerusalem. — There were now left only fifty thousand Crusaders capable of bearing arms. These advanced on the holy city of Jerusalem. They were re- pulsed, but after a five weeks' siege G-odfrey took the city by storm (July 15, 1099). Godfrey was made King of Jerusalem, and his kingdom was divided into five great fiefs, which again were subdivided, Jerusalem holding the seigniory. The caliph of Cairo came to the rescue of the Seljukians, but was defeated near Ascalon (1100). God- frey died soon after, and was succeeded by his brother Baldwin (1100-1118). New conquests were added, and Baldwin II. (1118-1131) extended the kingdom from As- calon to Mount Taurus. 12. Knights Hospitalers and Templars. — To secure the country a permanent militia was organized of men who took religious vows as well as the soldier's oath. They were a sort of lay monks. The Knights Hospitalers got their title from the Hospital of St. John the Baptist founded in Jerusalem for sick prisoners (1100). A variety of these orders soon sprang up, some of whom became very famous in history. All pledged themselves to accom- plish some special work in defence of the holy places or of people journeying thither. 10. How was Antioch saved? 11. How was Jerusalem taken? Who was made king? Describe subsequent events. 12. Who were the Knights Hospitalers ? Had they imitators ? a.d. 1147-1173] The Middle Ages. 277 13. Second Crusade (1147-1149). — Divisions arose among the Christians, and the kingdom of Jerusalem soon threat- ened to fall to pieces. Edessa had twice fallen, to Zenghi, the Emir of Mosul, and his son, ISTureddin (1144-1146). St. Bernard was commissioned by Pope Eugenius III. to preach a new Crusade. He fired Erance with his elo- quence, and the king, Louis, himself assumed the cross, while in Germany Conrad III. and his knights pledged themselves at the diet of Speyer. 14. Greek Treachery. — Conrad's expedition failed through lack of discipline and the treachery of the Greeks, who in all the Crusades were never moved by a higher motive than their own profit and advantage. The wreck of his forces met the advancing army of the Erench. These followed the coast line as far as Ephesus, when Louis, abandoning the coast, turned inward up the valley of the Meander. His bravery only saved his army from complete destruction. 15. Failure of the Second Crusade. — Louis and Conrad, joining their forces with those of Baldwin III., King of Jerusalem, laid siege to Damascus, but, owing to treachery and bribery in their own body, failed to take it. King Louis, after the loss of his army, on his way back to Erance fell into the hands of Greek pirates and was only restored to liberty at the intervention of King Boger of Sicily. St. Bernard, being held responsible for these dis- asters, replied that the Crusaders and Eastern Christians had drawn God's wrath on them by their own disorders. 16. Saladin. — Saladin, one of Nureddin's generals, suc- ceeded him in 1173. He reunited Egypt to Syria. He proved a very able sultan, and became founder of the new dynasty of the Ayubites, so called after his father. At 13. Were the Crusaders united ? Who preached the second Crusade 1 14. How did the Greeks act ? 15. How fared the expedition? What befell Louis ? 16. Tell of Saladin and his work. 278 History of the World. [a.d. 1173-1191 the bloody contested battle of Tiberias (1187) lie defeat- ed the Crusaders, slew Eeginald, Prince of Antioch, cap- tured Guy, King of Jerusalem, and the relic of the true cross, and ordered the massacre of all the Templars and Hospitalers taken. Jerusalem was again lost to the Chris- tians. Pope Urban III. died of grief. His successor, Cle- ment III., ordered William, Archbishop of Tyre, to preach a new Crusade. Only soldiers were this time enlisted. Those who remained behind assisted by contributing a tithe, called Saladin's, to defray the cost of the war. Frederick Earbarossa, Philip of France, and Eichard I. of England took the cross (1189). 17. Third Crusade. — The monarchs were to have united their forces. Frederick descended the Danube and foiled the treachery of the Greeks. He defeated the Sultan of Iconium in two engagements, took his capital, and tra- versed Asia Minor. His death in the Calycadnus was a great blow to the cause. His son Frederick led the broken forces back to Palestine, where he joined Guy, the libe- rated King of Jerusalem, and laid siege to Acre. 18. Eichard I. in the Holy Land. — Philip of France and Eichard of England, who should have joined them, were delayed all winter off Sicily. In addition they quar- relled. Eichard, who was affianced to Philip's sister, broke off the engagement and married Berengaria of Navarre at Cyprus (1191). Philip, angered, set sail without him. Eichard, storm-driven on Cyprus, took it from the Greeks and sold it to Guy, who, with the loss of Jerusalem, had relinquished his title of king. Eichard then hastened to Acre, and his prowess and courage gave a new heart to the Christians. Saladin called on all the Saracens to join in the holy war. Acre fell by assault, but in the hour of What happened at Tiberias? Who now took the cross? 17. How did the third Crusade open 1 18. What differences arose between Philip and Richard 1 Tell of Richard's exploits in the East. a.d. 1191-1203] The Middle Ages. 279 victory the Christian leaders quarrelled, and an open rup- ture was with difficulty prevented between Richard and the Duke of Austria. 19. Return of Richard. — Richard remained in Palestine two years and performed prodigies of Yalor. His name became a terror to the Saracens. He wrested from them all the cities of the coast, and compelled Saladin to sign a treaty by which the Christians were secured in posses- sion of the coast between Tyre and Jaffa (Joppa), with liberty to visit the holy places free of tribute. Jerusalem, however, remained in Moslem hands. Disturbances in England recalled him before he could capture it. On his way back he fell into the hands of his enemy, Leopold of Austria, who surrendered him to Henry VI., and it was only at the solicitation of the pope and the Emperor of Germany that he was at last released and his ransom reduced (1194). During his imprisonment occurred the death of Saladin. 20. Fourth Crusade (1202-1204).— Saladin's empire was divided among his sons. Dissensions rent it until his brother, Malek-el-Adel, secured whole mastery and pro- claimed his intention of driving out the Christians. Pope Innocent III. commissioned Fulk of Neuilly to preach a new Crusade. A number of experienced commanders as- sumed the cross, and the Crusaders soon numbered four thousand knights and twenty thousand men-at-arms. They made for Egypt, which was the key of Palestine, but were stayed by the greed of the Venetians, who were to furnish the galleys. They received Zara, which the Crusaders took, by way of compensation. 21. Constantinople taken by the Crusaders. — The Cru- saders, in spite of the protests of Innocent III., turned 19. What treaty did Eichard force on Saladin ? What befell Richard on his return % 20. What happened on the death of Saladin ? How did the fourth Cru- sade open? 21. What hefell Constantinople? 280 History of the World. [a.d. 1203-1212 their arms against Constantinople, which, almost defence- less, was easily taken (1203). Alexis, son of Isaac Ange- lus, the aged Emperor of the East, was placed upon, the throne, whence his father had been driven by a usurper. Alexis was soon deposed and strangled, and succeeded by Ducas Murzuphlus, one of his officers, who assumed the title of Alexis V. The Crusaders, who had not been paid the sum stipulated for their services, again besieged Constantinople and pillaged it. Murzuphlus was slain (1204). 22. Destruction of the Greek Empire. — The Greek Em- pire was then divided among the Crusaders. Baldwin of Elanders was chosen emperor and allotted a fourth of the empire. The rest was divided between the Yenetians and the Crusaders. The new empire lasted fifty-seven years. The Bulgarians first assailed it and took Baldwin prisoner at Adrianople (1205). He died in captivity. The Creeks, out of what was left to them, founded the principality of Epirus, or Albania, and the empires of Meaea and Trebi- zond. Baldwin's successors were soon confined to their capital. The Greeks were constantly undermining the structure raised by the Crusaders, and Baldwin II. was finally driven from Constantinople by Michael Palaaologus, Emperor of Mcsea, who founded a new Greek Empire that lasted one hundred and ninety-two years (1261-1453). SECTION II. The Children's Crusade (1212) ; Fifth Crusade (1217-1221). 23. Disastrous Expeditions. — The failure of the Cru- sades was attributed to the wickedness of the Crusaders, and an idea got abroad that the Holy Sepulchre could only be regained by innocent hands. With this origi- nated a Crusade of children to the number of fifty thou- What followed the capture of Constantinople? 22. What became of the Greek Empire 1 What became of the new empire ? Tell of Michael Palteologus and his work. 23. Tell of the Children's Crusade. a.d. 1212-1228] The Middle A ges. 281 sand, who set out for Palestine (1212), only to perish on the route or fall into the hands of the Saracens on their arrival in the country. Innocent III., in the Lateran Council, appealed for a new Crusade (1215). Frederick II., Emperor of Germany, promised to lead it, but broke his promise. Andrew II., King of Hungary, then took command, but was foiled in his first attack on Mount Tha- bor. He withdrew disheartened and returned to Europe. 24. John of Brienne. — John of Brienne, titular King of Jerusalem, took his place, entered Egypt, and after a two years' siege took Damietta (1218-1219). The Sultan of Egypt then agreed to surrender Jerusalem and pay tri- bute. The offer was refused and the Crusaders advanced on Cairo, but were checked and the army threatened with destruction by the overflow of the Nile. Then John went alone to the sultan's tent and appealed to him to save them. The appeal was generously responded to, peace was concluded, and the Crusaders were allowed to depart on condition of surrendering Damietta and main- taining peace for eight years. 25. Sixth Crusade (1228). — John pledged himself never again to bear arms against the infidels, and ceded to Fred- erick II., his son-in-law, the title of King of Jerusalem. The emperor dallied at home, however, and it was only after his excommunication by Gregory IX. that he pre- pared to depart. On landing at Acre he began to negoti- ate. The Sultan of Egypt agreed to cede to him Beth- lehem, Nazareth, Tyre, and Sidon on condition that the Mussulmans should have liberty of worship there. On entering Jerusalem no bishop would crown an excommu- nicated prince, so he crowned himself and hastened back to Europe. How did the fifth Crusade open'? 24. What of John of Brienne? How was peace concluded ? 25. Tell of the sixth Crusade and the part played by Frederick II. 282 History of the World. [a.d. 1248-1254 SECTION III. Tke Two Crusades of St. Louis. 26. Seventh. Crusade. — The hordes driven out of Turkis- tan by the Mongols fell upon Palestine and captured Jeru- salem. Pope Innocent IV., then presiding at the Council of Lyons, himself preached a new Crusade (1248-1254). Louis IX. of France was the only king who responded. After four years of preparation he set out at the head of an army of forty-five thousand men. He took Damietta (1249), and remained there five months. The delay pro- duced a lack of discipline and an epidemic attacked the troops. He marched on Cairo, but the Saracens fought the ground inch by inch. The rashness of the Count of Artois, brother of the king, converted a victory into a disastrous defeat at Mansurah, where the flower of the Christian knights were destroyed (1250). Eetreat was de- termined on, but the way back was now closed, and the king and his two brothers were taken prisoners. Louis was finally released at a ransom of four hundred thousand livres for his fellow-captives and the city of Damietta for himself. 27. Death of St. Louis.— He then sailed for Palestine and renewed his efforts on behalf of the Christians. He left the country in 1254 on learning of the death of his pious and great mother, Blanche of Castile, who had carried on the regency during his absence. He still con- templated a new Crusade. Acre was the only city in Pal- estine left to the Christians. His brother, Charles of Anjou, had become master of the Two Sicilies, and rep- resented that the Bey of Tunis was willing to receive baptism if a Christian army landed in his dominions. Louis again set sail, only to find he had been deceived. 26. Who preached and who led the seventh Crusade ? What success attended the Crusade ? How did it end % 27. Why did St. Louis return to France ? What new enterprise did he undertake 1 What hefell St. Louis in Tunis ? a.d. 1254-1291] The Middle Ages. 283 Tunis was bravely defended against him and his camp was invaded by pestilence, to which Louis himself fell a victim and ended a holy life by a holy death (1270). His successor, Philip III., concluded an honorable truce. The Bey of Tunis agreed to defray the costs of the war, to set his Christian captives free and grant free Christian worship through all his dominions. Thus ended the last Crusade, and twenty years later (1291) Acre was lost to the Christians. 28. Results of the Crusades. — The Crusades, though they resulted in disaster to the Christian arms, opened up com- merce between Europe and the East. Hitherto the Arabs had controlled the Eastern trade. It now passed into the hands of the seaboard cities of Italy and France. Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Marseilles were enriched by the traffic in gold, silk, ivory, perfumes, etc., and trade spread from them to other cities. Erom the Tyrians Venice learnt how to make glass ; and the Crusaders brought back with them the windmill. The Crusades also served to bring the Eu- ropean nations into closer connection with one another ; and it was no small thing to see them all knit together in a great Christian cause. Art and literature felt the new movement and were benefited by it. CHAPTER III. TEE CRUSADES IN EUROPE. SECTION I.. Crusades against the Moors in Spain. 1. Alfonso VI. — The war of the Spaniards against the Moors lasted nearly eight centuries (711-1492). It would have ended much earlier were it not for the divisions of How and by whom was the Crusade ended ? 28. What effect had the Crusades on Europe 1 What commercial changes did they introduce ? 1. How long did the struggle last between the Spaniards and the Moors ? 284 History of the World. [a.d. 1085-1147 the Christians among themselves. Alfonso VI., son of Fer- dinand the Great of Castile, won Toledo by the aid of the Cid after a five years' siege (1085), and made it his capital. The Moors begged aid from the African Mussulmans, who made three separate invasions under the name of Almora- vides, Almohades, and Merinides. 2. The Almoravides. — Yusuf, chief of the Almoravides and founder of Morocco (1070), responded to the call of the Spanish Moors and routed Alfonso YI. at Zelaca (1086). He sent the heads of forty thousand Christians to the cities of his empire as trophies. He made himself master of Moorish Spain. In 1094 Henry of Burgundy conquered the country of Portugal, which he took from the Moors. The Cid in the same year took Valencia, which he held till his death (1099). But a great disaster befell the Chris- tian arms in 1108, when Sancho, a boy of eleven, son of Alfonso' VI., headed the Castilians. His defeat and death hastened the death of his father. 3. The Kingdom of Portugal (1094-1139). — French knights had responded to the call of Alfonso VI. To two princes of the house of Burgundy, Raymond and Henry, he gave two of his daughters in marriage. As his wife's dower Henry received part of the land now known as Portugal, which was made a county under the suzerainty of Castile (1094). Henry won seventeen battles over the Mussulmans. Affonso I. (1112-1185), his son and successor, pushed the limits of his domain beyond the Ta- gus. After a great victory over five Moorish kings (1139) his soldiers greeted him with the title of king. The Cortes, or assembly, confirmed the title and made it hereditary. He made Lisbon, which he won from the Moors, his capital (1147). What of Alfonso VI. 1 Whom did the Moors call in ? 2. What of Yusuf and his achievements ? What ahout Portugal ? How did Alfonso's reign end ? 3. How came Portugal to he made a kingdom 1 a.d. 1109-1146] The Middle Ages. 285 4. Alfonso I. — Alfonso VI. of Castile left the crown to his eldest daughter, Urraca, widow of Kaymond, and wife, hy a second marriage, of Alfonso I., King of Navarre and Aragon. Thus to Alfonso fell all Christian Spain (1109). Urraca, separating from him (1114), governed Castile alone in the name of her son by her first marriage. Alfonso de- voted himself to battling with the Moors. In 1118 he took Saragossa, which he made his capital. By the capture of Tarragona all the valley of the Ebro fell into his hands. After vanquishing the Moors in twenty-nine battles he was killed in the thirtieth and Navarre lost to Aragon. 5. Alfonso VIII,— At the death of Urraca (1126) Alfonso VIII. succeeded to the throne of Castile. He had already been proclaimed king of Leon (1112). His victories over the Moors gained for him from the Cortes the title of Em- peror of Spain (1135). He pushed his dominions south- ward and took Calatrava and Almeria. These conquests, added to that of Lisbon, led to the invasion of the Almo- hades. 6. The Almohades (1146-1248).— The Almohades, or Uni- tarians, were a half-religious, half -military sect founded about the beginning of the twelfth century. Their avow- ed object was to restore the worship of one God and exter- minate the Christians. One of their leaders, Abd-el-Mu- men, destroyed the Almoravides and captured their city of Morocco (1146). He won Tunis and Tripoli from the Normans and extended his empire over all northern Africa as far as Egypt. He conquered Andalusia and took Gra- nada, defeating Alfonso VIII. 7. Spanish. Knights. — Alfonso had divided Castile and Leon among his two sons. The kingdoms remained in- dependent for seventy-three years (1157-1230). These di- 4. Tell of Alfonso VI. and Urraca. What befell Alfonso ? 5. What of Alfonso VIII..? Tell of his conquests. 6. Who were the Almohades and what was their policy ? Tell of Ahd-el-Mumen. 286 History of the World. [a.d. 1158-1248 visions would have lost the Christian cause in Spain were it not for the founding of military orders whose chief ob- ject was to battle with the Moors. One of the most fa- mous was that of Calatrava, founded in 1158. Each king- dom or province had its own order devoted to the same purpose. The struggle was of similar character through- out, and fortune favored now the Christians and again the Moors. At the battle of Alarcos (1195) thirty thousand Christians perished. 8. Battle of Tolosa. — Sanclio VII. of Navarre joined with the Moors in order to extend his kingdom over all Christian Spain. He lost Biscay, Alava, and Guipuzcoa to Alfonso IX. of Castile. He afterwards abandoned the Moors and joined the Christians in their resistance to the great invasion under Mohammed, son of Yacub. Chris- tendom, alarmed, sent aid to the Spaniards from all sides at the appeal of Pope Innocent III. Sancho, with Alfonso of Castile and Pedro of Aragon, beat the invaders in a great battle at Tolosa (1212). 9. Ferdinand III, the Saint. — This battle broke the Mussulman power in Spain. All the Christian kingdoms of the peninsula profited by it. Castile, the centre, be- came the most powerful of the kingdoms under Ferdi- nand III. (1217-1252), son of Alfonso of Leon. By the death of his father (1230) Ferdinand acquired Leon and united it to Castile. He took Cordova from the Moors (1235), and, after, various other conquests, captured the great city of Seville (1248). Xeres, Cadiz, and other im- portant cities followed, until the kingdom of Castile ex- tended from the Bay of Biscay to the Straits of Gibraltar. Ferdinand was as wise a legislator as he was skilful a general. He declared the kingdom indivisible, with right 7. Tell of the military orders in Spain. 8. What of Sancho VII. ? What oc- curred at Tolosa ? 9. What resulted from the battle of Tolosa ? What of Ferdi- nand III. ? Describe Ferdinand's character. a.d. 1252-1284] The Middle Ages. 287 of succession by primogeniture. He protected letters and arts, and founded the great university of Salamanca. 10. Alfonso X., the Learned. — His successor, Alfonso X. (1252-1284), was constantly at war, either quelling revolts or fighting against the Moors. At the instigation of the King of Granada the Moors rose in Andalusia and massa- cred the Christians (1261). But Alfonso afterwards com- pelled them to acknowledge his suzerainty, while James I., the Conqueror, King of Catalonia, conquered Murcia. Alfonso's ambition and intrigue led to a third invasion by the Moors and a revolt under his youngest son, San- cho, in which the father was defeated. He was a learned prince and left behind him many writings. SECTION II. Crusade against the Allrigenses (1208-1229). 11. The Albigensian Heresy. — From the East through the Crusades came the heresy of the Albigenses, so-called from the diocese of Albi, where it most prevailed. It was a mixture of Arianism and ManichaBisin, admitted the existence of good and evil, denied the divinity of Christ, rejected the ecclesiastical hierarchy, marriage and the other sacraments, and was mixed up with disorders that threatened the existence of Christian society. Favored by the Languedoc nobles, especially by Eaymond VI., Count of Toulouse, the heresy spread rapidly in that region ; the churches were deserted and the clergy exposed to outrage and contempt. St. Dominic preached against it with- out effect. Count Eaymond was excommunicated by the legate of the Holy See, Peter of Castelnau, and the legate was assassinated by one of the count's followers. Pope Innocent III. thereupon excommunicated Eaymond and 10. Tell of Alfonso X. and the chief events of his reign. 11. What was the heresy of the Albigenses and how did it originate ? Who protected the heresy ? Who preached against it 1 What action did the pope take 1 288 History of tee World. [ a .d. 1208-1223 ordered a crusade to be preached against the heretics. Within a few weeks fifty thousand Christian warriors re- sponded to the call (1208). 12. Simon de Montfort. — Simon de Montfort, a hero of the fourth Crusade, took command. Eaymond asked and obtained reconciliation with the Church, thereby saying his dominions. The chief cities of the Albigenses easily fell to the Crusaders Eaymond's treachery renewed a contest which would otherwise have ended. Simon gained a brilliant victory at Castelnandary (1212). Eaymond sought the aid of Pedro II. of Aragon. But another victory at Mnret (1213), in which Pedro fell, decided Eaymond's fate. 13. The (Ecumenical Council of Lateran conferred the county of Toulouse on Simon (1215). Eaymond and his son held out. In besieging Toulouse Simon was slain, and the army of the Crusaders retreated (1218). His son, Am amy, ceded his title to Louis VIII. of France. Louis captured the strong city of Avignon and soon conquered all the country up to Toulouse. Eaymond was succeeded by his son, Eaymond VII. The death of Louis (1226) gave him a respite, but his cause was lost. He became reconciled to the Church, and, by the treaty of Meaux, < ceded Lower Languedoc to St. Louis and the county of Venaissin to the Holy See,, retaining the county of Tou- louse. The heresy died out soon after. SECTION III. Crusades against tne Pagans of tne Baltic (1204-1237). 14. Livonia and Esthonia converted. — The north of Eu- rope, from the Vistula to the Gulf of Finland, had re- mained pagan and resisted all the Christian advances. Pope Celestine III. preached a crusade against the pagan 12. Who led the Crusade % Where was Raymond defeated 1 13. What befell Simon de Montfort ? What followed on his death ? What came of the heresy ? 14. What part of Europe remained pagan ? a. d. 1201-1214] The Middle Ages. 289 tribes, and the cause was taken up by the Germans. Al- bert of Alperden, a canon of Bremen, founded Kiga, of which he was made bishop (1201). He divided Livonia into fiefs and gave them to such German nobles as were strong enough to keep them. By originating the " Knights of Livonia " he organized a standing army for the defence of the country. They received a third of Livonia, and in a few years paganism was driven out. The country became a fief and principality of the German Empire. The Esthonians, who dwelt farther north, soon succumbed, and idolatry disappeared. 15. Conversion of the Prussians. — The country between the Vistula and the Niemen was occupied by the Prussians. They were a warlike and barbarous people, very stubborn to yield to the faith. They martyred their first apostle, St. Adalbert, Bishop of Prague (907). They remained pa- gans up to the beginning of the thirteenth century. In 1214 Christian was made first bishop of Prussia under the protection of a Polish prince of Culm. A crusade was then organized against the pagan people. The country of Culm was given to the Knights of the Teutonic Order. The struggle lasted fifty years. The Prussians were aided by the Eussians and Lithuanians, who remained idolaters till the end of the fourteenth century. All Prussia be- came Christian in 1283. What measures were taken to convert the north ? Who were the Knights of Livonia? 15. What was the character -of the Prussians? How long were they pagan 'I Who was their first bishop ? When was Prussia converted 290 History of the World. [ a .d. 1060-1108 CHAPTEK IV. FHANCE, ENGLAND, AND IKELAND. SECTION I. Progress of Royalty in France ; Philip I. (1060-1108). 1. Rivalry of Erance and England. — Philip I., son of Henry I., ascended the French throne at the age of seven and reigned forty-eight years. He was indolent and in- triguing, and only waged one war in person to secure Flanders to the grandson of his uncle and guardian, Bald- win, Count of Flanders ; and in this he was beaten at Cassel (1071). Under him began the rivalry with England which led to the wars between that country and France. He was jealous of his powerful vassal, William, Duke of Normandy, who had gained the English throne. He was a party to all the plots and revolts against William's power in his Norman domains. A coarse jest of his led to Wil- liam's last invasion, when he burnt Mantes and met his death there (1087). Eid of him, Philip embroiled himself in ecclesiastical troubles, but finally died reconciled to the Church. 2. Louis VI. (1108-1137).— His successor, Louis le Gros, was a man of very different calibre. Resolved on making his authority felt, he began by putting a stop to the rava- ges of the nobles, many of whom were little better than brigands. He made himself respected by the turbulent barons and the powerful Duke of Aquitaine in the south, and in the north secured the suzerainty of the county of Flanders. He conferred the investiture of it on William Cliton, son of Robert Curthose, eldest son of William the Conqueror. Henry I. of England, who had dispos- 1. What was the character of Philip 1. 1 With whom did he war ? Who was Ms great rival ? 2. What was the character of Louis Yl. ? Whom did he subdue ? a.d. 1108-1124] The Middle A ges. 291 sessed his eldest brother, declared war against the King of France for thus aiding the prince, and defeated him at Brenneville. Pope Calixtus II., then a refugee in France, reconciled the rivals. The Emperor Henry V., however, warred on Louis for protecting the pope. Louis called to his aid all the vassals and soldiers of his kingdom (1124), and the emperor withdrew in alarm. Louis did much to- wards establishing the stability of his kingdom, and he found great assistance in the wise counsels of his friend Suger, the abbot of St. Denis. 3. Emancipation of the Towns; Municipal Cities, etc. — During all the turmoils of the eleventh and twelfth cen- turies the peoples of the great cities, beginning to feel their power, were gradually forcing themselves into free- dom and communal liberties. These cities and towns were the centres of industrial and commercial enterprise, which it was necessary to protect from the lawless inroads of the nobles. In Italy and southern France some cities still retained much of the old characteristics of the Eo- man municipality or form of civic self-government. These cities were governed by magistrates elected by the citizens and appointed to the various offices. Out of these in Italy was formed the Lombard League, which broke the power of Frederick Barbarossa ; and in France, Flanders, and Germany there were several such. 4. The Communes. — In addition to these rose up the communes— associations of the inhabitants of a district, who, when occasion called, met in the church or on the public square for the defence of their franchises and lib- erties as guaranteed by charter. The charter was the written record of their liberties granted by the lord and the conditions under which it was granted. Each com- How did Louis become embroiled with England? What other foes had he ? 3. Describe the advance of the people during this period. Tell how the cities grew. 4. What were the communes ? How were the communes protected ? 292 History of the World. [ad. 1137-1180 mime had a city-hall, a special seal, and a belfry with clock-tower. In the belfry was a signal-man, who rang the hours of the assembly, and when danger threatened called the commune to arms. 5. Growth of the Middle Classes. — There were also cities without charter or independent administration, but to which, for certain motives, important franchises and pri- vileges were granted by the king or suzerain. These were the privileged cities, or commonalities, which, under royal or other high favor, rapidly grew in wealth, numbers, and power. The communes, when not oppressed by the nobles, were often the centres of internal discord. So from the thirteenth century out they gradually surrendered their charters to place themselves under the royal protection. Out of these citizens grew up the middle class, or burgh- ers, who were destined in the future to secure the liber- ties of all the people. 6. Louis VII. (1137-1180); Henry II. of England.— Louis VII. began by intermeddling in ecclesiastical affairs. Refusing to acknowledge the Archbishop of Bourges ap- pointed by the pope, he was led into a war notorious for the burning of Vitry. Remorse led him to undertake the second Crusade, wherein he lost his army. The kingdom was still more distressed by Louis' quarrels with his queen, Eleanor of Gnienne, from whom he obtained a divorce. She then married Henry Plantagenet (1152), who two years later was proclaimed king of England. By marriage and inheritance all western France, save Brittany, fell to Henry, and he married his son Geoffrey to Constance, the heiress of that duchy. Louis favored the revolts of Henry's chil- dren and gave protection to St. Thomas a Becket, the ex- iled Archbishop of Canterbury. 5. What were the privileged cities, and what class grew out of them ? 6. De- scribe the reign of Louis Y1I. Whom did his wife many ? What came of the marriage ? What occurred between Louis and Henry II. ? a.d. 1180-1223] The Middle Ages. 293 7. Philip II. (1180-1223).— Philip II., surnamed Augus- tus, was a boy of fifteen when he ascended the throne, but was endowed with great gifts. He followed up the quarrels with the kings of England. A copartner of Eichard Oceur de Lion in the Crusade, he suddenly left the East. On his return to France he took advantage of Eichard's absence to attempt the conquest of Normandy. But when Eichard came back he easily reconquered it all and obtained a truce of five years by the mediation of Innocent III. At his death (1199) his brother John, to secure the crown from his nephew, Arthur of Brittany, had Arthur murdered. The deed created general horror, and Philip summoned John, his vassal of Normandy, to appear before the court of peers (1203). John, refusing, was condemned to forfeit all his French possessions. Philip conquered Normandy and added it to the crown of France three hundred years after its conquest by the Normans. Touraine, Maine, An- jou, and Poitou fell in quick succession, and soon but a third of his French possessions remained to the English king. 8. Triumph and Reforms of Philip II. — To save his crown, which was offered to the King of France, John declared himself a vassal of the Holy See. With the Emperor Otho IV., the Count of Flanders, and others he formed a league against Philip. But he himself was beaten near Angers by Prince Louis, and his allies routed by Philip at Bouvines (1214). Philip was equally successful in regu- lating the internal affairs of his kingdom. He gave the sanction of law to the decision of the court of peers ; he established an efficient police for the maintenance of order ; he created seventy-eight provosts to control the affairs of the army, finances, and justice, under the supervision 7. What was the character of Philip II. 1 With whom did he quarrel and what canio of the quarrel ? Why was Prince Arthur murdered and what resulted from the murder ? 8. Describe the reforms instituted by Philip II. 294 History of the World. [ a .d. 1223-1270 of bailiffs. Thus did lie strengthen the royal authority against the great nobles. 9. Louis VIII. (1223-1226). — Louis maintained against the English the conquests of bis father and carried on a successful crusade against the Albigenses, when he suddenly died in Auvergne. 10. St. Louis (1226-1270).— Louis IX., a boy of eleven, was protected in his minority by his mother, Blanche of Castile, as regent. She compelled the great nobles who had revolted to return to their allegiance. The treaty of Paris terminated the Albigensian war (1229), which for twenty years had desolated the southern provinces. Louis, once he assumed the reins of government, completed his mother's work. He subdued the revolted nobles and com- pelled England, who aided them, to sign peace. Louis' ex- ploits against the infidels have been told elsewhere. At the news of his captivity all France was filled with mourn- ing. The peasants took up arms to rescue bim, but com- mitted so many excesses at Paris and Orleans that Blanche had forcibly to suppress them. 11. At her death Louis hastened back to his kingdom. He enacted many wise laws. He put a stop to the pri- vate wars of the nobles and abolished the proof of inno- cence by duel. He made it easy for petitions to reach the throne, and reserved to himself the right of coining money. To superintend the provosts and bailiffs he sent "royal in- quisitors " into the provinces. He was in person open to the appeal of the meanest of his subjects, and was chosen arbiter in many foreign disputes. SECTION II. England. 12. William the Conqueror (1066-1087).— The fall of 9. Tell of Louis Till. 10. What of Blanche of Castile ? What did the treaty of Paris decide 1 How did St. Louis govern 1 11. What happened on the death of Blanche ? What were the characteristics of Louis' home government ? a.d. 1066-1100] The Middle Ages. 295 Harold at Hastings (1066) gave England over to William, Duke of Normandy. After his coronation lie secured his power by dividing England up among his followers. He made Scotland bow to his suzerainty (1073). He was in a constant state of quarrel with Philip I. of France over his Norman possessions, and met his death while besieging Mantes. To his eldest son, Robert, he left the duchy of Normandy ; to the second, William, the crown of England ; and to the third, Henry, little more than the prediction that he would one day inherit both his brothers' fortunes. 13. William Rufus. — William II., called Eufus from his red hair, had to defend his crown against Robert. To secure the Anglo-Saxons' favor he gave them back their ancient liberties. Robert was defeated in Normandy, and pawned his duchy to William in order to raise funds to join in the first Crusade. After the death of his adviser, Archbishop Lanfranc, he gave himself up to cruelty, exactions, and in- dulgence in his passions. He took back the liberties he gave and loaded the people with taxes. The Church, too, was oppressed ; bishoprics were sold to the highest bidders or held vacant, and their revenues turned into the royal treasury. St. Anselm, the venerable Archbishop of Canter- bury, was exiled for daring to admonish the king. The country was at last relieved of him by death. He was shot while hunting, by Walter Tyrrel, one of his knights (1100). 14. Henry I. (1100-1135).— Robert was away at the Cru- sade when William died, so his brother Henry, called the Scholar, had himself crowned king. To secure his popu- larity he, on the day of his coronation, published a charter restoring the ancient liberties of the people and making the Church free. St. Anselm was recalled from exile, and 12. How did William the Conqueror secure his power ? How did he divide his domains? 13. Describe the reign of William Eufus. What was his end? 14. How did Henry I. come to the throne ? What was Henry's charter % 296 History of the World. [a.d. 1106-1154 Henry married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland. When Eobert returned to claim his inheritance he found Henry in secure possession. He was taken prisoner at Tinchebrai (1106) and shut up in Cardiff Castle, where he lingered for twenty-eight years. His son, William Cliton, sought the protection of France, but Henry was victorious oyer all. His declining years were clouded by the drown- ing of his son. His daughter Matilda married the Em- peror Henry V., and, after his death, Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, surnamed Plantagenet from the sprig of broom which was the family device. Henry made all the princi- pal barons swear fealty to Matilda. The latter portion of his reign was oppressive and tyrannical. 15. Stephen of Blois (1135-1154) and Matilda; Civil War. — On the death of Henry, Stephen of Blois, his neph- ew and grandson of William the Conqueror, seized the throne. The barons in turn swore fealty to him. They were won over by the gifts he lavished on them, but fell from him when the gifts ceased. David, King of Scot- land, took up the cause of Matilda, crossed the border, and ravaged the northern shires (1137). He was defeated by an uprising of the people, under the leadership of the Archbishop of York, at the famous battle of the " Stan- dard." Matilda landed in England and found such a fol- lowing that Stephen was beaten and taken prisoner at Lin- coln (1141). Matilda's pride and violence so angered the citizens of London that they rose and drove her out. Ste- phen regained his liberty, and all England was devastated by a prolonged civil war. On the death of his eldest son Stephen acknowledged the young Prince Henry Plantage- net as heir, and the war ended (1153). 16. Henry II. (1154-1189) ; St. Thomas a Becket— When How was Robert treated 1 Describe Henry's reign. Wbat of Matilda ? 15. Who succeeded Henry ? What followed Stephen's accession ? Describe the struggle. How did it end ? a.d. 1154-1170] The Middle Ages. 297 Henry ascended the English throne he was one of the most powerful monarchs in Europe, owning not only England but nearly all western France. He was a man of great ability, great duplicity, and strong passions. He raised his chancellor, friend, and favorite, Thomas a Becket, to the see of Canterbury. Thomas demurred, but Henry in- sisted, regarding him as a creature of his own. Once archbishop Thomas threw off all courtliness and became a sincere churchman and defender of the dignity of his office and the liberties of the Church and of the people. The king's friendship changed to hate. His wish was to get complete power over the Church and bring all juris- diction into the lay courts. 17. Martyrdom of St. Thomas a Becket. — A long strug- gle ensued between the king and the archbishop, which for the most part Thomas had to sustain unaided by the courtier-prelates who filled the sees of England. He was compelled to fly the kingdom, but the hearts of the peo- ple followed him in his exile. On his return, after a pretended reconciliation on Henry's part, the pojmlace rushed to meet him wherever he passed. He excommuni- cated some of the bishops who had violated the ecclesias- tical laws. Some passionate words let fall from Henry were caught up by a few of his knights. Eour of them immediately set out, and, arriving at Canterbury, found the archbishop assisting at Vespers. There they murdered him at the foot of the altar (December 29, 1170). SECTION III. Ireland. 18. Ancient Ireland. — It was during the reign of Henry that the first Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland took place. Ireland was governed by the clan or family system, each clan 16. What was the domain of Hemy II. ? Whom did he make chancellor, and with what result ? 17. Describe the struggle between the king and the arch- bishop. How did it end ? 298 History of the World. [ad. 432-1014 holding its territory in common. The laws were just and wise, had they only been observed, but the clans were in a constant state of quarrel with one another. There were five great divisions, Ulster, Munster, Leinster, Connaught, and Meath, each of which was governed by a king, or righ (pronounced ree), the King of Meath enjoying a nominal supremacy. The laws were administered by the brehons, or judges, who with the bards and druids constituted the privileged classes. 19. Conversion of Ireland. — St. Patrick (432-465) was the great missionary and apostle of the Irish people. He preached the faith to them with marvellous success. They embraced it with fervor, and before his death (March 17, 465) he saw the whole island Christian. Churches and monasteries multiplied rapidly, and Ireland became a great seat of Christian piety and learning, and famed as such through all Europe. 20. Danish Invasions. — This happy state of things was broken in upon by the Danish invaders, who for more than two centuries ravaged the land and built themselves strongholds at the mouths of the principal rivers. They were defeated by Malachi, King of Meath, at Tara. Brian Boru, King of Munster, made an alliance with the Danes, and, defeating Malachi, took part of his territory (1002). Attaining the supremacy, he had to contend against his late friends, the Danes, who made a united effort for the conquest of the island, but were wholly routed at Clon- tarf (1014), where Brian also perished. 21. Anglo-Norman Invasion. — Freed from the Danish invader, Ireland soon became an object of interest to the Anglo-Normans. The dissensions of the Irish chieftains afforded an easy excuse for the interference of Henry. A 18. How was ancient Ireland governed ? 19. By whom was Ireland converted ? How did the Irish receive the faith 1 20. Tell of the Danish invasions. What happened at Clontarf ? 21. Who next invaded Ireland 1 a. d. 1014-1171] The Middle Ages. 299 band of knights was sent over to defend the cause of MacMurrough, King of Leinster, who had done homage to Henry. They seized on the strong places, and their warlike science and defensive armor enabled them to repel with ease the attacks of the natives. Richard, Earl of Pembroke (Strongbow), was their leader. He married MacMurrough's daughter, and on the death of the king became King of Leinster. 22. Statute of Kilkenny. — Henry himself, at the head of an army, landed in Waterford (1171) and remained in the country five months. The subsequent history for a long period is one series of revolts of the Irish, accompanied by varying success. More Anglo-Normans were drawn in. The people suffered terribly. The chieftains fought against each other as much as against the invader. So wretched was the state of affairs that in the reign of Ed- ward II. the people petitioned for the enjoyment of English laws. The resident Anglo-Norman families gradually, in their descendants, adopted the language, customs, dress, and clan system of the Irish ; so much so that the Statute of Kilkenny was enacted (1367), which forbade the people of English race to use the Brehon law, to intermarry with the Irish, to speak the Gaelic language or use the Irish dress — in short, to have anything to do with the Irish save as a subject people. SECTION IV. Struggles in England; Magna Charta. 23. Henry II. and his Sons. — Henry's sons rebelled against him. Fearful of losing his crown, and of the anger of the people at the murder of St. Thomas a Becket, he underwent public penance, restored the lib- erties of the Church, and declared himself a vassal of What success attended the invasion 1 22. Describe the condition of the coun- try. What was the Statute of Kilkenny and why was it enacted ? 23. How did Henry act after the death of St. Thomas ? 300 History of the World. [ a .d. 1174-1199 the Holy See. His sons, aided by Louis VII., warred against him in France. The Scots invaded England. The King of Scotland was defeated and taken prisoner, and only set free on acknowledging the suzerainty of England. Henry was also successful in France (1174), but his wife, ■ Eleanor, fanned the flame of revolt among the sons. Two came to sudden deaths. Eichard Coeur de Lion, aided by Philip, raised the last revolt, and Henry was compelled to submit to most humiliating terms. Seeing the name of his youngest and favorite son, John, among the rebels, the old man's heart broke, and he died cursing the day of his birth and the sons he left behind him. 24. Richard I. (1189-1199); John (1199-1216).— Rich- ard inherited all his father's dominions. To John was given Ireland. Eichard set out for the Crusades, taxing his subjects and selling his suzerainty over Scotland in order to raise money for the purpose. His history in the East and subsequent adventures have been given elsewhere. On his return to England, whence he ousted his brother John, he easily reconquered his French domains. He perished in a miserable quarrel about a treasure discovered on an estate belonging to his domain, and to which he claimed sole right. 25. John's troubled Reign! — John hastened to secure the throne claimed by his nephew Arthur, supported by the King of France. Capturing Arthur, he had him put to death, as before shown, and lost his French possessions to Philip. He next embroiled himself with the Church, hold- ing the see of Canterbury for a favorite against the law- fully elected archbishop, Stephen Langton (1207). He de- spoiled Canterbury and exiled its clergy. Pope Innocent What of Henry's sons? What of the Scotch invasion? How did the reign end ? 24. Who succeeded Henry ? Describe Richard's reign. 25. How did John open his reign ? a.d. 1199-1216] The Middle Ages. 301 III. laid the kingdom under an interdict, suspending all the offices of religion save the baptism of infants and administration of the Viaticum to the dying (1208). John, moved to still greater fury, became a scourge to his king- dom. He was excommunicated (1209), and in revenge sought alliance with the Albigenses and the King of Mo- rocco. He was put under the ban of Christendom and declared deposed by the pope, his subjects being released from their fealty (1212). Philip undertook to execute the sentence and invade England. John at last yielded, ac- cepted Langton as archbishop, and became reconciled with the Holy See and with his subjects (1213). Immediately after he formed a league against Philip, but it was defeat- ed, his allies at Bouvines and himself at Angers (1214). 26. Magna Charta (1215). — John returned to England a beaten man, only to find the country up in arms against him. Prelates and barons, weary of tyranny and exac- tions, had united to force from the king a restoration of the country's liberties. He promised to restore the char- ter of Henry L, but soon after broke his word. The ba- rons marched against him, and John was compelled to sign at Runnymede Magna Charta, or the Great Charter (June 15, 1215). This is regarded as the basis of the English Constitution. It ensures freedom and liberty of election to the Church. It cut down the most dangerous of the monarch's feudal rights. No tax was to be levied without the consent of the great national council. Freed- men were to be tried by their peers. 27. Death of John. — Again John proved false to his oath, and, deceiving Innocent III., got permission to retract his signature to the Charter. He ravaged the country with bands of foreign mercenaries. The barons offered the What sentence did John call down on himself? How fared matters in England 1 26. What action did the barons take 1 What was Magna Charta, and what did it secure ? 27. How did John a,ct? 302 History of the World. [ A .d. 1216-1234 crown to Louis, the Dauphin, who entered London. John, hastening to meet him, lost his baggage and treasures in the Wash and died three days after (October 19, 1216). 28. Henry III. (1216-1272).— John's eldest son, Henry, a boy of ten years, succeeded. The aversion to foreigners lost the cause for Prince Louis, who was deserted by the ba- rons, especially when they learned of the defeat of his army at Lincoln and destruction of his fleet off Dover. He has- tened back to France, and Earl Pembroke was made re- gent and guardian of the young king. In this office he was succeeded by Hubert de Burgo, the gallant defender of Do- ver Castle and winner of the first naval engagement be- tween the English and French fleets. Henry, when he assumed the reins of government (1234), favored the Frenchmen who had accompanied his queen, Eleanor, to England. Losses in battle against the French, the im- position of arbitrary taxes, and frequent violation of the Great Charter soon lost to the king the confidence of his people. 29. Revolt of the Barons. — A famine occurred to cap the discontent, which found a leader in Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, son of the conqueror of the Albigenses and husband of the king's sister. He was an able politi- cian and general. Setting himself at the head of the barons, he compelled Henry to convoke a national council at Ox- ford, where the king swore to observe Magna Charta. A committee was formed to draw up the Statutes of Oxford, which so curtailed the power of the king as to merge it in the national council, or Parliament. The Parliament was to assemble at least once every three years. To the committee was delegated the chief executive power. Its orders were binding under pain of death, whence its title 28. Who succeeded John ? What came of the Trench invasion ? Why were the English restive under Henry ? 29. Who led the revolt ? What were the Statutes of Oxford ? What is meant by the Mad Parliament ? a.d. 1234-1265] The Middle Ages. 303 of the Mad Parliament. A reaction set in in Henry's favor. He appealed to the King of France as umpire. St. Louis decided that the royal prerogatives should be restored, and that the king, on his side, should grant a general amnesty and maintain Magna Charta. 30. Simon de Montfort and Prince Edward. — Simon de Montfort Avas not satisfied with this decision. He stood by the Statutes of Oxford and stirred up a new revolt.. Henry III. and his young son Edward met the barons at Lewes (1264). The impetuosity of Edward lost the day to the royalists, and Henry, his brother Eichard, and the prince were taken prisoners. Simon now ruled England over the weak king. In 1265 he originated the English Parliament as it now stands by summoning to the council representatives from each shire, borough, and city of the land. Thus the lower house, or Commons, came into being. 31. Battle of Evesham (1265). — Disaffection soon arose. Prince Edward escaped and gathered a new army. Simon met him near Evesham and placed the king in the front rank of his army. The king was wounded, and only saved from death by his son Edward, who gained a com- plete victory. Simon fell with two of his sons, and but ten of the revolting barons escaped with their lives. Hen- ry was reinstated in authority, and Edward departed for the Crusade of St. Louis, where he gained glory for his exploits. Tell of the decision of St. Louis. 30. What course did Simou take ? What happened at Lewes 1 What did Simon originate ? 31. Describe the battle of Evesham and its result. 304 History of the World. [a.d. 1093-1250 OHAPTEE V. THE SCANBIN AVIANS, SLAVS, AND MONGOLS. SECTION I. Scandinavian Kingdoms. 1. Norway. — The Scandinavian kingdoms that received Christianity in the preceding epoch advanced in civiliza- tion and soon became part of the great Christian family. The Norwegians, though the last of the race to embrace the faith, became the first in zeal and fervor. Their kings were, for the most part, warriors. One of them, Magnus III. (1093-1103), undertaking the conquest of Ireland, was overcome and slain at Downpatrick. His son, Sigurd I., married a daughter of Murroch O'Brian, King of Minister. 2. With a fleet of sixty vessels, carrying an army of ten thousand men, he set out for the Crusades and gave pow- erful aid to Baldwin. Leaving his army in the East, he returned home. After him came fifty years of anarchy to Norway. King Sverrer (1178-1202) finally restored order, and died literally on his throne, as became a king. His grandson, Haco V. (1217-1263), completed the work of his grandsire, subdued all factions, favored commerce, and built a powerful fleet. He died while ravaging Scotland, and the royal dynasty became extinct in 1319. 3. Sweden. — Sweden, rent by domestic strife, stood long aloof from the rest of Europe. Christianity made its way slowly in the north (Sweden proper), but more easily in the south (Grothia). Each division elected kings in turn '(1133-1250). Sverker, the first king elected by the Goths, organized the Christian Church in his dominions 1. Tell of the Norwegians. How did they fare in Ireland ? 2. What expedi- tion did Sigurd undertake ? What followed on his death 1 In whom did the dynasty become extinct 1 3. How did Christianity spread in Sweden ? a.d. 1250-1290] The Middle Ages. 305 with the aid of Nicholas Breakspere, cardinal legate, after- wards Adrian IV. St. Eric was the second king, and the author of the "Laws of God and of St. Eric." He sub- dued the pagan Finns and founded among them the city of Abo. 4. Charles, his successor and son of Sverker, founded the archbishopric of Upsal and left the throne to Canute, son of St. Eric. "With the fourth king both families became extinct, and the crown passed to the Folkung family in the person of the young Waldemar, a relative of St. Eric on his mother's side. Birger, his father, and regent of the kingdom, completed the conquest of Finland, founded Stockholm, constructed roads, and reformed the judiciary. He died in 1266, and Waldemar, unequal to his charge, was dethroned by his brother Magnus (1275-1290). 5. Denmark. — Sweyn, nephew of Canute the Great, after a troubled reign (1047-1074), thought to end disturbance by arranging that his sons should succeed one another on the throne. Five did so succeed, but were very different in character and in their government. Troubles of all kinds distracted the kingdom until the accession of Wal- demar I. (1157-1181). 6. Waldemar the Great— Waldemar, surnamed the Great, restored order, aided by Eskil, Archbishop of Lund, and Absalon, or Axel, Bishop of Eoskilde and chancellor of the kingdom. With Henry the Lion of Saxony he defeated the Slavs of Vandalia, who always threatened the kingdom, slew their king, ISTiclot, and concluded an honorable treaty with his successor, Prebislas. He subdued the whole coast and made the Vandals Christians. He founded Copenha- gen and drew up the wise Christian laws that form the code of Scania and Zealand. He was a great patron of For what was King Eric famous ? 4. Into whose hands did the crown pass ? Tell of Birger and his work. 5. Describe events in Denmark. 6. Tell of Wal- demar the Great and his achievements. 30G History of the World. [a.d. 1181-1286 learning, which lie helped to spread throughout his king- dom. 7. Successors of Waldemar the Great. — His sons, Canute VI. and Waldemar II., the Victorious, consolidated his conquests. The second Waldemar compelled the dukes of Mecklenburg and the two Pomeranias to pay homage, made peace between Sweden and Norway, and led a suc- cessful expedition against the pagans of Esthonia. He founded the cities of Eevel and Narva.' In 1223 he was seized by a vassal and confined for three years. On being ransomed he lost several of his conquests and was defeated in two pitched battles. His son, Eric VI., who succeeded him, was murdered at the instigation of his brother Abel, and Abel himself was treacherously slain after a reign of two years (1252). Christopher I. (1252-1259), also a son of Waldemar II., was humbled by the King of Norway and regent of Sweden, and fell at last by poison. His son, Eric VII., after a troubled reign, was also slain (1286). SECTION II. The Slavonian Tribes. 8. Condition of the Slavs.— The Slavonian tribes spread along the coasts of the Baltic from the Danish frontier to the great lakes of Finland. They were bloodthirsty idolaters. They formed no state, properly speaking. The central Slavs had become Christian. The Czechs of Bohe- mia blend with the history of Germany. Of the south- ern Slavs, who were also Christians, the Wallachians formed the kingdom of Bulgaria, the Servians gave their princes the title of king, and emperor even, and the Croa- tians formed the kingdom of Dalmatia. All freed them- selves from the Byzantine G-oths only to become subjects of Hungary, or still later of the Turks. 7. How did Walderaar's successors act? What befell the sons of Waldemar II.? 8. Who were the Slavs? How were the7 divided? To whom did they become subject ? a.d. 1058-1081] The Middle A ges. 307 9. Three Slavonic states demand special attention : Hun- gary, which is Slavonic save for the one hundred and eight Magyar families constituting the nobility ; Poland, wholly Slavonic and Catholic like Hungary ; and Eussia, Slavonic with a mingling of Scandinavians. The political head of the Eussians was a grand duke ; their spiritual head the patriarch of Constantinople, who with his flock was drift- ing from Eome. 10. Hungary. — The descendants of Arpad were alone pri- vileged to wear the crown of St. Stephen, which was often a source of bloody contention. Towards the close of the eleventh century St. Ladislaus and Coloman vanquished the Greeks of theJDanube and secured a southern frontier by subjugating the Croatians and adding Dalmatia to their crown. They settled various tribes who consented to con- version on the frontiers, and these always bore the first shock of invasion. There were many contentions for the throne, and much violence wrought to the kingdom in consequence. The folly of Andrew II. (1205-1235) in signing the Golden Bull, which virtually set all the power in the hands of the nobles, gave form to anarchy. 11. Poland.— Boleslaus the Bold (1058-1081) assumed the title of king without the permission of the Emperor Henry IV., his suzerain. He was a passionate and cruel man. Stanislaus, Bishop of Cracow, having ventured to remon- strate with him, he stabbed him while saying Mass. For this he was excommunicated by Pope Gregory VII. His subjects rose up and drove him out, and he ended his days in a cloister. His successors contented themselves with the title of duke, and aided greatly in converting the Prussians, Pomeranians, and other Baltic tribes consid- ered as subjects of Poland. 9. Describe the three chief Slayonic states. How was Eussia ruled? 10. De- scribe the progress of events in Hungary. 11. Describe the reign of Boleslaus the Bold. How did his successors behave ? 308 History of the World. [a.d. 1102-1202 12. Polish. Dissensions. — Boleslaus III. (1102-1138), aided by the Prince of Pomerania, himself became the catechist of his pagan subjects. His reign was fortunate. At his death he divided his vast realms among his five sons, re- serving for the ablest the city of Cracow, with a certain supremacy over the others. This division was the cause of dissensions that distracted Poland for sixty-five years (1138-1202). 13. Schism in Russia. — The Grand Duke Jaroslav (1019- 1054), son of St. Vladimir, was absolute master of. Russia. In his will he divided it up among his five sons, the holder of Kief alone retaining the title of grand duke and the position of commander-in-chief of the RiTssian armies. The result of the division was three centuries of civil strife. Just at this time came a devastating wave from the East in the shape of the Polovtsi, or Comans, who drank blood and fed on raw meat. They came from the steppes of Turkistan and took up their quarters on the Don. The Uzbeks and other tribes roamed at their will on the plains of the Dnieper and the Dniester. On the Volga the Eastern Bulgarians, who were zealous Moham- medans, maintained their independence. The Pinns, Li- vonians, Lithuanians, Prussians, all obstinate pagans, men- aced Russia on the west. The Russian Church was feeble and had clone little in the way of converting those on its borders. Their priesthood married and had as little learn- ing as zeal. They had followed the schism of Constanti- nople and were extremely bigoted in their views. Thus Russia was severed in spirit from Catholic Europe just when she most needed its aid. 14. The supremacy of the grand dukes of Kief was main- tained, nominally at least, for about a century amid inces- 12. What caused dissensions in Poland 1 13. How did Javoslay partition Rus- sia ? What followed from the partition ? By whom was Russia invaded 1 What ..vas the character of the Russian Church 1 a.d. 1157-1163] The Middle Ages. 309 sant civil strife and struggles with the barbarians. From 1157 the city of Kief had the city of Vladimir for a rival. The masters of each assumed the title of grand duke. During the incessant contentions several cities took govern- ment into their own hands and set up as republics, Nov- gorod being one. In 1212 the monarchy had disappeared. SECTION III. The Mongols and the Empire of Jenghis Khan. 15. Jenghis Khan. — The nomad tribes of the Mongol or yellow race had wandered for centuries on the high, cold table-lands of Central Asia. A pastoral people, they built no cities and kept remote from the influence of civiliza- tion. About 11G3 Temuchin, son of the Khan (chief) Ba- hadur, was born of one of these tribes. At thirteen the death of his father left him master of forty thousand families. A revolt forced him to fly. Gathering a band and gaining allies, he took summary vengeance on his re- volted subjects. They then submitted and most of the Mongols hailed him as chief. Those who refused were beaten into submission. Swearing to share with his fol- lowers the bitterness as well as the sweets of life, they proclaimed him their great chief, Jenghis Khan. 16. Gathering his tribes together, he prepared for conquest. Central Asia was then held by four great empires : Kin, on the northeast, founded by the Tartars ; to the southeast China proper ; to the northwest Kara-Kitai ; and Tangut, near the Himalayas, occupied by Turkish tribes. Kin had supremacy over China, Tangut, and the Mongols. 17. Mongolian Conquests. — Jenghis Khan first marched against Kin, to whose monarch he owed allegiance. For five years he ravaged it with fire and slaughter, destroying cities, among others Pekin. He was a cruel and merciless 14. What action was taken by certain Russian cities? 15. Who were the Mongols? Who led them to conquest? 16. What powers held Central Asia? 17. Describe Jenghis Khan's march and methods. 310 History of tee World. [a.d. 1163-1227 conqueror. Leaving a general behind him to complete the havoc, he passed over to Tangut, thence to Kara-Kitai, pur- suing everywhere his policy of destruction. In Kara-Kitai he found Christians, whom he treated with some conside- ration. From them he learned the art of writing, and adopted their characters for the Mongolian tongue. 18. Conquest of Khorasmia. — Reaching the great moun- tain chain of Bolor-Tagh, the eyes of the barbaric horde were feasted on the riches of a new Asiatic empire spread out beneath them. This was Khorasmia, stretching from the Sea of Aral to the. Indian Ocean, and from the Cas- pian Sea to the great Bolor chain. It was the greatest of the Mohammedan kingdoms, and Jenghis Khan proposed a treaty of alliance with it. His offer was scornfully re- jected by the sultan, Mohammed Koteb-ed-Deen. Where- upon Jenghis Khan entered and took Bokhara, Samar- cand, and all the other great cities in turn, sacking and destroying on all sides. The country was ruined. The people emigrated towards Syria, and Mohammed retired to die on an island in the Caspian Sea (1222). 19. Conquest of Russia. — Nothing could withstand the onset of this fierce conqueror. The hardy people of the Caucasus were compelled to submit ; the Polovtsi were crushed. The Mongols neared the Russian borders and sent deputies to seek alliance. The deputies were slain. The Russian princes and Polovtsi assembled on the Kalka near its confluence with the Dnieper. They were utterly defeated and the princes slain (1224). Turning back, Jen- ghis Khan marched against the empire of Tangut, which he destroyed. He then returned home to die (1227). 20. Partition of the Mongol Empire. — The vast empire of Jenghis Khan was divided among his four sons, one bear- How did Jenghis Khan treat the Christians? What did he learn from them? 18. Describe the conquest of Khorasmia. 19. How did Russia fare ? What was his last conquest ? a. d. 1288-1258] The Middle Ages. 311 ing the title of grand khan and being chief over the others. Batu, son of Tushi, khan of the Caucasus region, pushed on the conquests in this direction. He overwhelmed the Bulgarians of the Volga. The Kussian princes were again at strife. Batu fell upon them, destroying the chief cities, Eesan, Moscow, Vladimir, and Kief. At Sarai', on the Volga, he rested and fixed his residence (1238). 21. Gaiuk. — The grand khan, Octal', sent another army under his son, Gaiuk, to push the conquests further. They marched into Poland, beat the Poles, and burned Cracow. The Poles rallied, but were crushed at Lieznitz, in Silesia (1241). The Mongols passed into Hungary, routed Bela IV. and committed their customary outrages on the un- fortunate people. For two years they had the country at their mercy. The king fled. 22. Gaiuk, recalled to succeed his father, quitted Hun- gary, which then saw the last of the Mongols. Poland saw them three times again. Lesko, successor of Boles- laus V., struggled bravely but hopelessly against them (1280). Eussia suffered most of all, and finally submit- ted to the oppressor. The grand duke was invested with his dignity by the khan of the Golden Horde, to whom he paid homage and tribute. Eussia remained subject to the yoke for two hundred and thirty-five years. 23. Destruction of the Assassins. — Many of the successive khans proved themselves men of great warlike capacity. One of them, Hulagu, by invitation of the Caliph Mo- tassem, prepared to storm the heights of the " Old Man of the Mountain," at this time Eoken-ed-Deen, the seventh successor of Hassan. The fortresses were surrendered, Eoken-ed-Deen was put to death, and the sect of the Assassins was soon after exterminated (1256). 20. What became of Jenghis Khan's empire ? Tell of Batu and his exploits. 21. What befell the Poles and Hungarians? 22. How was Hungary saved? What of Poland ? Of Russia ? 23. Who destroyed the Assassins ? 312 History of the World. [a. v. 1256-1279 24. Other Mongolian Conquests. — Two years later Hu- lagu, after a bloody struggle, put an end to the Moham- medan caliphate. Motassem was beaten to death with clubs (1258). He was the last of the Abbassides. Fifty years later a successor of Hulagu put an end to the Turk- ish sultanate of Iconium. Thus the Seljuks scarcely sur- vived the crusading expeditions. In the far East the Khan Kubla'i encouraged agriculture, commerce, and lite- rature among his people. He took Nankin in 1279 and became master of southern China. The Sung dynasty, which had lasted three centuries, was destroyed, and Ku- blai founded over it the twenty- first dynasty of China. He rebuilt Pekin, which he called Cambalu. Here he re- ceived and entertained at his court for seventeen years the famous Venetian traveller Marco Polo, as also the Fran- ciscans, who founded an archbishopric and flourishing mis- sion at Cambalu. Kublai's empire stretched from the Japan Sea to the Mediterranean and the great lakes of Finland, but was too unwieldy to last. CHAPTEE VI. THE TWO GREAT CENTURIES OF THE MIDDLE AGES. The popes gave an impetus to many salutary institutions. New religious orders sprang up to attack error and vice, convert unbelievers, and teach theological science. Modern nationalities and languages began to shape themselves, Christian art produced its masterpieces, and the people raised im- perishable monuments of faith. SECTION I. Zenith of the Papacy and the Church. 1. « Ages of Faith,"— The title of " Ages of Faith " is applied by some to the period included within the ponti- 24. Whom next did the Mongols suhdue ? What hefell the sultanate of Iconium? What of Khan Kubla'i? What dynasty did he found? Mention memorable facts of his reign. a.d. 1073-1274] The Middle Ages. 313 ficate of Gregory VII. (1073) arid the convocation of the Fourteenth General Council under Gregory X. (1274). Others call this the new birth of art and literature. The Papacy was at this time most powerful in Europe, and the influence of the Church was paramount. The great fea- ture of this influence was the gradual triumph of Chris- tian feeling over the brute force- and passions of men. 2. Influence of the Popes. — During the three centuries of persecution the head of the Church was seen but lit- tle. After Constantine the popes came forth and shone in councils, where errors were pointed out and heresies condemned. After Charlemagne the splendor and great- ness of the Roman pontificate were made still more appa- rent. The pope influenced the monarchs and princes of the time, was their arbiter in doubtful cases, and for ever stood between their tyranny and the oppressed peoples. They maintained, above all, the liberties of the Church — that is to say, the liberty of the Christian, which is the foundation of all liberty — free election of bishops, free appointment to sees, and the maintenance of ecclesiastical privileges, which were the refuge of multitudes in those times against the power of the monarch or the lawless- ness of the nobles. The Papacy thus became the very centre of Christendom. 3. The Popes Patrons of Art, Letters, and Civilization. — Side by side with this attitude of Christian indepen- dence stood their constant solicitude for the advancement of peoples in all that was good and great. They sent forth troops of missionaries to convert the heathen. They were the chief patrons of learning at a period when learn- ing was threatened with destruction. They watched over the arts, blessed and sanctioned all good institutions— such 1. What is meant by the "Ages of Faith" and how far did they extend? 2. Describe the growing influence of the Papacy. What did the popes main- tain ? 3. In what else did the popes take the lead ? 314 History of the World. [ a .d. 1076-1256 as the Truce of God, chivalry, associations for building churches, roads, bridges, protecting pilgrims — the univer- sities, and the religious orders. 4. Eeligious Orders. — The religious orders in the mid- dle ages were the great pioneers of industry, learning, and Christian living among the people. The great abbey of Cluny, the mother-house of so many, was the model up- on which all other congregations were fashioned. They sprang up in great numbers and variety. In 1076 the or- der of Grand mont was founded by St. Stephen of Thiers ; in 1084 St. Bruno of Cologne and St. Hugh, Bishop of Grenoble, founded the Carthusians ; in 1098 St. Eobert founded the Cistercians, which soon attracted to them the great St. Bernard. These and many such were all grafted on the Benedictine stock. A number of others, such as the Canons Regular, the Premonstratensians, were added in the twelfth century. This century also witnessed the rise of the military orders which did such great service to Christendom in combating the infidel. 5. Mendicant and Charitable Orders. — The thirteenth century, which began during the illustrious pontificate of Innocent III. (1198-1216), saw a new series of orders arise. These were the mendicant or begging friars, who went about begging their way and teaching and preach- ing the while. There were various divisions of them : the Preaching Friars, or Dominicans, founded at Toulouse by St. Dominic, and the Friars Minor, founded by St. Francis of Assisi. There were many branches of the lat- ter order, but all had the same aim and manner of life. In 1256 Alexander IV. united all the religious orders of the West into one mendicant order under the name of Hermits of St. Augustine, or Augustinians. These had 4. Describe the office and work of the religions orders. Mention some of the orders and their fonnders. 5. What orders arose in the thirteenth century? What was their special office ? Mention two great divisions. The Middle Ages. 315 branch orders also for -women, as well as a Third Order for persons living in the world. 6. There followed various other orders who devoted themselves to the body as well as the soul : the care of the sick, the indigent, the unfortunate, the redemption of captives. Several purely monastic orders were also found- ed- in this century. 7/ Eanatical Sects. — With the rise of religious orders and spread of the faith came contrary sects and confraterni- ties, having for their object the overthrow of the faith, or of this or that portion of it. One of these, whose leader called himself the Son of God, attacked the sac- raments and payment of tithes. Another railed at the Mass, singing, and the use of images. The Waldenses objected to Catholic festivals, the sacred rites, and, most of all, confession. They confined themselves to the read- ing of the Scriptures. All these sectaries indulged in great excesses and had to be put down by force of arms as a danger to society, preaching and example having no effect on them. 4 The Inquisition. — Forced to submit outwardly, they for the most part continued their practices in secret. To guard against them and preserve the purity of Christian faith the Council of Toulouse (1229) set up tribunals en- dowed with extraordinary powers. These constituted the Inquisition, or Holy Office, where heretics were denounced to the ordinary of the diocese and submitted to the cen- sures of the Church. If the sentence was one of condem- nation the accused was handed over to the civil power to inflict the punishment awarded ; the monarchs of those days regarding heresy, blasphemy, and sacrilege as crimes against civil society and to be punished accordingly. 6. Tell of other orders. 7. What sects arose? Who were the Waldenses? Why were the sects put down ? 8. How came the Inquisition? What was the office of the Inquisition ? 316 History of the World. [a.u. 1000-1234 SECTION XL Theological Sciences, National Languages, Christian Art. 9. Scholastic Theology. — The heresies of the eleventh century were the occasion of great theological lights ap- pearing on the other side. The constant discussions sharp- ened intellects and stimulated effort. Even the Christian champions themselves, as St. Anselm and Eoscelin of Compiegne, agreeing in doctrine, sometimes differed in method of interpretation. Peter Abelard drew crowds to listen to his lectures. He fell from his intellectual height, and his errors were laid bare by St. Bernard. 10. Great Theologians. — Peter Lombard, a friend of St. Bernard and disciple of Abelard, first arranged the sub- stance of theology on a simple and clear plan in his Four Boohs of Sentences. New heresies sprang up, to be met by new men. The mendicant orders devoted themselves to teaching as much as to begging. Paris was the home of theological studies. There Alexander of Hales and Alber- tus Magnus taught the divine science. But even they were outshone by their disciples, St. Bonaventure and St. Thomas Aquinas, who to this day stand the masters of the science they drank in with their hearts as well as with their minds. Vincent of Beauvais, Eoger Bacon, and Duns Scotus are names that also shed lustre on this glo- rious period. 11. Civil and Canon Law. — "While Paris was the great centre of theology and philosophy, Bologna was learned in the law. It was a Bolognese, Irnerius, who in the twelfth century exhumed and edited the Pandects of Justinian. The sacred canons were also taught there. By direction of Gregory IX., in 1234, St. Raymond of Penafort made a complete collection of the papal decisions down to that date, which is known as the Decretals of Gregory IX. 9. What was the effect of the heresies of the eleventh century 1 Mention some great theologians. 10. What of Peter Lombard ? For what was Paris famous? Mention other illustrious doctors. 11. For what was Bologna famous ? The Middle Ages. 317 12. Universities. — The universities grew out of the gene- ral eagerness for knowledge. The episcopal and abbatial schools were too small to accommodate the numbers that flocked to them. The course of instruction comprised lit- erature, law, medicine, and theology. There were univer- sities at Bologna, Padua, and Toulouse, all famed for law; at Salerno and Montpellier for medicine ; while Paris was the queen in theological science. Others sprang up in Ger- many, at Heidelberg, Vienna, Ingolstadt (now transferred to Munich), which soon vied with the best. England had its Oxford, and later on its Cambridge ; Spain, its Salamanca ; and Portugal, Coimbra. Every one of these and others in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were founded under the direct patronage of the Holy See. 13. Languages. — At the universities the common lan- guage spoken was Latin. The purely national literatures sprang up outside of them in the chronicles, laws, songs, and stories of the people. Through these the native idioms gradually formed themselves into the living languages of to-day. The drama was revived, of a sacred character chief- ly, and was played in the churches or at public festivals. 14. Christian Art. — Later on Dante arose with his Divine Comedy, a monument of his time to all ages. Art revived and took a Christian form. Magnificent basilicas and Go- thic cathedrals and churches rose up in all lands out of the faith and devotion of the people. Oftentimes all the peo- ple labored together through long years in their erection. Out of this sprang the various -stjdes of mediaeval archi- tecture. Out of the same came the rich embellishments, the ornaments, the casting in bronze, the beautiful stain- ed-glass painting. In the thirteenth century painting and sculpture became distinct arts. 12. What was taught at the universities ? Name some of the universities. 13. What was the language of the universities 1 How did the national literatures arise ? 14. What of Dante ? How fared art 1 How came medigeval architecture ? FIFTH EPOCH (1270-1453), FROM THE DEATH OF ST. LOUIS TO THE TAKING OF CONSTANTI- NOPLE BY THE TURKS— 183 YEARS. The closing epoch of the Middle Ages was disturbed by religious and politi- cal anarchy. The pontifical authority was weakened and many disorders arose in consequence. There was war for a century between France and England; the German Empire declined; Italy was rent by internal struggles; the Span- ish kingdoms were at war with each other ; while, in the general confusion, the Turks overcame the Slavs and Greeks and seized Constantinople. CHAPTER I. THE GREAT SCHISM OF THE WEST. The great schism of the West, brought about by the violence of Philip, the Fair and the transfer of the Holy See to Avignon, covers a period of seventy-one years (1378-1449). This includes the schism of ten years (1439-1449). SECTION I. Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair. 1. Conflict between Boniface and Philip. — The Second Council of Lyons — fourteenth oecumenical — saw the reun- ion of the Creek and Latin churches (1274). The triumph of the Papacy, under the great Pope Gregory X., seemed complete. Then ensued a series of short pontificates, eight in eighteen years, which weakened the authority of the Holy See. The Creeks relapsed into schism, and the Christians lost their last foothold in the Holy Land before the accession of Pope Boniface VIII. (1294). The rival- ries of princes set Europe ajar. The ambition of Philip the Pair of France led him not only to rout the English How far does the fifth epoch extend ? What great events are comprised in it ? 1. What was effected at the Council of Lyons t What followed on the death of Gregory X. 'I How was Europe disturbed ? 318 a.d. 1296-1300] The Middle Ages. 319 from French soil, but to seize on Flanders, whose count, Guy of Dampierre, lie enticed to Paris and there held pris- oner. His subjects were loaded with taxes to support his projects. He invaded church properties. Boniface VIII. advised him to make peace with England and release the Count of Flanders, while at the same time he issued a bull forbidding, under pain of excommunication, the clergy to pay, and the laity to require them to pay, any subsidy without permission of the Holy See (129G). 2. Friendly Relations resumed. — The King of England was equally guilty in this respect with the King of France. Philip declared that God alone was the judge of his acts, and forbade any money to be taken out of France without his permission, thereby stopping the offerings to the Holy See. He suspended relations with the papal court. Ger- many and Italy were convulsed by internal troubles, so the pope could look for no aid against a monarch who not only held France and Navarre but the sovereigns of Spain and the princes of Naples and Hungary in his dependency. Owing to a revolt of the Colonna family the Ghibelines, declared enemies of the Holy See, held Rome. Boniface was compelled to modify his bull, and allowed Philip to levy subsidies on the French clergy. He reconciled Philip with the King of England, dropped the subject of the Count of Flanders, and solemnly canonized King Louis IX., Philip's grandfather. Thereupon the French mon- arch resumed relations with the Holy See. The Colon- nas were defeated. The pope published the first secular jubilee for the year 1300, and so great was the throng of pilgrims to Rome that a breach had to be opened in the city's walls to let them through. 3. Renewal of the Quarrel (1301-1303).— The Colonnas, Describe the reign of Philip the Fair. What action did Boniface Till, take 1 2. How did Philip retaliate ? What was Philip's power ? How stood Eome ? On what conditions was reconciliation with the pope effected ? 320 JZlSTOBY OF THE WORLD. [ a .d. 1301-1303 banished from Eome, found, refuge 'with Philip, who soon broke his engagements with the Holy Father. His de- mands, like his actions, were most arbitrary and com- pletely incompatible either with the dignity of the Holy See or the freedom of the Church in his dominions. In a forged bull he professed to discover aggressions on the part of the pope against the liberties of the French na- tion and crown. The States-General were asked to main- tain "the ancient liberties of the nation" (1302). The nobility and commons promised whatever was asked, and the clergy also yielded. The pope made clear the relations of the Papacy with temporal princes in the celebrated bull Unam sanctum, and in the Council of Eome repudiated the construction put upon his words by Philip IV. (1302). 4. Outrage on Boniface. — Despite the king's prohibition thirty-nine French bishops attended the council. A second assembly of the States-General, convoked at the Louvre (1303), declared Boniface VIII. a usurper and a heretic. The king was entreated to call a general council for the election of a legitimate pope. Philip consented to his own suggestion, and his summons was responded to by many in his own dominions. He sent William of Nogaret to notify the pope. Nogaret seized the person of the Holy Father, then eighty-six, at Anagni, his native place, wdiere he had taken refuge. He received the invaders seated on his throne, attended only by two cardinals. He w T as loaded with insult until the citizens, rising up, drove out the troops of ISToga- ret and trampled the banner of France in the mud. Ta- ken back to Eome in triumph, the Eoman nobles held him in bondage under pretext of protection, till at last the venerable old man was relieved by death (1303). 5. The Holy See transferred to Avignon. — Benedict XL 3. What caused the renewal of the struggle between the pope and Philip ? "What was the bull Unam sanctam ? 4. What action did the French States- General take ? What of William of Nogaret 1 How did the Pope die ? a.d. 1803-1342] The Middle Ages. 321 succeeded. To secure his independence lie left Borne, and to appease Philip revoked the censures pronounced against him. After excommunicating Nbgaret he suddenly expired, by poison, as some say, at Perugia (1304). Ten months later Bertrand de Got, Archbishop of Bordeaux, was elect- ed by the conclave and crowned at Lyons under the name of Clement V. As Borne was in revolt he fixed his residence at Avignon, whereby the Papacy lost much of its prestige under the idea that it was little more than an appanage of France. 6. Suppression of the Templars. — France restricted as far as it could the pope's actions. Clement convoked the Fifteenth (Ecumenical Council at Vienne (1311). Boni- face VIII. , in contradiction to the expressed wish of Philip, was declared to be a legitimate and orthodox pope. Philip himself was once more absolved. He had arrest- ed all the Knights Templars he could find in his king- dom in 1307. He now urged their trial. Examination showed that the order had become enormously wealthy, and with wealth enormously corrupt. It was therefore sup- pressed in the council (1312). Philip had the grand master, Jacques Molay, burned (1314). The possessions of the Tem- plars were transferred to the Knights Hospitalers by papal bull, but the king kept most of what he had confiscated. 7. Troubles in Some. — The popes at Avignon were anx- ious for a new crusade against the Mohammedans and for a reconciliation with the Creek Church. But they strove vainly to bring about peace in the West, particularly in Italy. The emperors of Germany kept alive the dis- turbances of the G-hibelines in the peninsula. The strug- gle between the German princes and the popes was closed by Clement VI. (1342-1352). 5. What of Benedict XI. 1 How came the popes to Avignon ? The result ? 6. What of the Council of Tienne ? Describe the suppression of the Knights Templars. 7. What hindered a new crusade ? Who ended the struggle ? 322 History of the World. [ a .d. 1347-1377 8. Rienzi (1347). — Meanwhile Borne, deserted by the popes, liad passed into the hands of the factious nobles, who harassed the people on every side. Fired with indig- nation, Nicholas Eienzi, a young Eoman, son of a tavern- keeper, but a man of good education, resolved on lifting up his country to its ancient splendor. His fiery elo- quence and noble bearing caught the hearts of the peo- ple, who at his summons followed him to the Capitol and there proclaimed the republic of the " Good State." Eienzi was declared " Tribune and Liberator of Eome." His rule was at first of the best. He restored peace in the city, kept the nobles in their castles, and invited the other cities of Italy to join in establishing the republic. „Then he lost his head, became vain-glorious, weak, volup- tuous, and tyrannical, and after a reign of seven months was abandoned by the people, leaving Eome in a worse condition than ever. 9. The Holy See restored to Eome. — The nobles resumed their tyranny, and the terrible black plague devastated the city. Pope Innocent VI. (1352-1362) opened negotiations for the re-establishment of the papal authority in Eome. But Eienzi, who had been pardoned by the pope, once more led the people after him and resumed his sway, only to lose both it and his life at the hands of the populace, incensed at his tyranny (1354). Finally, owing to the skill of Cardinal Albornoz, Pope Urban V. quitted France and entered Eome in triumph (1367). But returning again to France, the renewed glory of the Papacy waned, especially when at his death another Frenchman (the third in thirty years) was elected to succeed him with the title of Greg- ory XL Gregory set out for Eome, Avhere he was receiv- ed with tumultuous acclaim by the people (1377). The 8. Who was Rienzi, and what was his ambition 1 What position did he attain *? Describe his rule. 9. What followed the fall of Rienzi ? What finally befell Rienzi ? How came the popes back to Rome ? a.d. 1378-1379] The Middle Ages. 323 country, however, continued disturbed and in a state of revolt. The Eoman nobles were averse to surrendering their power, and Gregory sank under the weight of his woes (1378). SECTION II. The Great ScMsm (1378-1417). 10. Urban VI. — In electing a successor to Gregory XL the cardinals were divided into three parties. The people clamored for a Eoman pope. Finally most of the votes were cast for Bartholomew Prignano, Archbishop of Bari, a Neapolitan, who took the name of Urban VI. The choice was favorably received by the people and by all Christendom. 11. Clement VII. — Urban's method of reform displeased the cardinals, who fled to Anagni, taking with them the pontifical tiara. There they declared his election null and the Holy See vacant. Urban proposed to submit his claims to the decision of a general council. They would not hear him, but nominated Eobert of Geneva, who took the name of Clement VII. (1378), though he had previously written to several princes notifying them of the lawful election of Urban VI. Urban excommunicated the anti-pope and all his adherents. Clement retired to Avignon (1379), where he was acknowledged as legitimate successor of the popes who had previously dwelt there. 12. Anarchy in Christendom. — France, Scotland, Spain, Savoy, Naples, and the kingdom of Cyprus declared for Clement ; England, Portugal, the Netherlands, nearly all Italy, Germany, Hungary, Poland, and the Scandinavian states for Urban. This was the signal for a long series of disorders and scandals never known before in Christendom. The popes anathematized one another and levied troops 10. Describe the election of Urban VI. 11. What course did the cardinals take ? Who was Clement VII. and whither did he retire ? 12. How was Europe divided on the question of the Papacy ? Describe the general result of the schism, 324 History of the World. [a.d. 1889-1414 against each other, granting them the same indulgences as in the Crusades. The strife of the Urbanists and Clemen- tines was carried oyer the world. The University of Paris strove hard to heal the schism. To Urban succeeded Boni- face IX. in 1389. In the interests of the Church and of Christendom he made fair advances towards a settlement, in negotiating which Clement VII. died (1394). 13. The Council of Pisa. — The Clementine cardinals elect- ed a successor under the name of Benedict XIII. He re- fused all compromise, and Innocent VII., who succeeded Boniface, was equally obstinate. His successor, Gregory XII. (1406), was desirous of restoring peace, but Benedict was unyielding. Then a council was agreed upon by the cardinals of both sides. About a hundred bishops assem- bled at Pisa, and two hundred by proxy, Gregory and Benedict refusing to appear. The council declared itself oecumenical, pronounced the deposition of both popes and the vacancy of the Holy See (1409). The cardinals elected Alexander V. as pope, which, instead of mending matters, simply placed a third pope in the field. 14. End of the Great Schism ; Election of Martin V. (1417). — At the solicitation of the Emperor Sigismund, John XXIII, who had succeeded Alexander V. in 1410, convoked a general council at Constance (1414). The em- peror, with a vast number of the faithful of all ranks and more than one hundred and fifty prelates, attended. Eive nations were represented : Italy, Germany, France, England, and Spain. The right to vote was extended to simple ecclesiastics, doctors, princes, and their represen- tatives, which brought the number up to eighteen thou- sand. Voting went by nation. It was agreed to demand the absolute abdication of all three popes. John XXIII. How did Boniface IX. act 1 ? 13. To what agreement did the cardinals finally come ? What was done at the Council of Pisa 1 14. Describe the Council ox Constance. What was the demand of the council 1 a.d. 1414-1481] The Middle Ages. 325 refused and fled. Brought back and deposed, he renounced a title which he declared had never left him a happy day. Gregory XII., after annulling the acts of the popes of Avig- non and Bologna, confirmed all his own and his predeces- sors' acts, convoked the council, and then laid aside the pontifical dignity for ever. The obstinate Benedict XIII. was deposed and Cardinal Otto Colonna elected with the title of Martin V. (1417). 15. Wickliffe and Huss. — Benedict XIII. continued to call himself pope, but his successor finally acknowledged Mar- tin Y. The council also condemned the heresy started by John Wickliffe in England, and which had begun to spread through Bohemia and the adjacent countries. Its leader in Bohemia was John Huss, rector of the Univer- sity of Prague. He denied the lawfulness of indulgences, the primacy of the popes, the infallibility of the Church, the right of the clergy to possess temporalities, the power of forgiving sins, and the honor due saints and holy images, admitting no other authority than Holy Scripture as interpreted by reason alone. / 16. Death of Huss. — These doctrines produced great dis- turbance in Bohemia. John Huss, cited by the council, appeared and pleaded his cause. He was convicted of error and imprisoned. His writings, with those of Wick- liffe, were publicly burnt. Refusing to retract, he was degraded from holy orders and given up to the magistrates of Constance, who, in accordance with the laws of the empire, condemned him to be burnt. His disciple, Jerome of Prague, shared his fate. His followers, the Hussites, took up arms and ravaged Bohemia and the neighboring countries. 17. Eugenius IV. (1431-1447) and the Council of Basle. Give the decisions of the Council of Constance. 15. What heresy was con- demned by the council? What did Huss teach? 16. How was Huss dealt with ? Who shared his fate ? What of Huss' followers ? 326 History of the World. [a.d. 1431-1447 — A new council, conyoked at Basle by Martin V., was he then fled for refuge to Elizabeth. 20. Mary and Elizabeth. — Mary's refuge proved a prison. Elizabeth and her ministers affected to believe the charges made against Mary by the conspirators. She asked to be allowed to leave the kingdom, but her request was refused. A mock examination, most unfair in its conduct to the The result? IS. Why was the English court alarmed? What of Bothwell, Darnley, and Mary ? 19. What occurred at Carberry Hill, Loch Leven, and Lang- side ? What course did Mary take ? 20.' How was Mary received in England 1 426 History of the World. [ A .d. 1568-1587 injured queen, took place, but nothing could be proved against her. A non-committal sentence was pronounced on both sides. Mary, however, was not released, but her chief accuser, Murray, was sent back to Scotland loaded with marks of Elizabeth's favor. 21. The Babbington Conspiracy. — The destruction of the Scotch queen was determined on by Elizabeth's ministers with Elizabeth's connivance. The chief purpose, doubtless, was to secure the Protestant succession in England. Va- rious plots for Mary's release were set on foot in England. The treatment of her jailers became extremely harsh and cruel. The imprisoned queen had a perfect right to at- tempt her escape. In 1585 Parliament passed a law in- volving in high treason not only those who might "com- pass matters tending to the death " of the Queen of Eng- land, but those for whose benefit such matters might be in- tended. Next year arose the Babbington conspiracy, which Cecil used to serve his purpose. The conspiracy, concoct- ed by a foolish lad, had for object the assassination of Elizabeth and liberation of Mary. 22. Execution of the Queen of Scots (1587). — Mary was tried on this charge. She acknowledged attempting to es- cape, but denied strenuously attempting or compassing in any way the death of the Queen of England. JSTor could the charge be proved against her. For two months Eliza- beth hesitated signing the death-warrant, hoping that her victim might meet her death in some other way. She even urged Sir Amias Poulet to rid her of her prisoner. Poulet, harsh as he was, refused ; the sentence was at last signed, and Mary Stuart was executed at Fotheringay (February 8, 1587), after a captivity of nearly nineteen years. 21. Describe the plot against Mary's fife. What law was passed to condemn her ? Tell of the Babbington conspiracy. 22. Describe Mary Stuart's last trial. Where and when was she executed ? a.d. 1587-1603] Modern History. 427 23. This murder shocked all Europe, which might, had it the will, have prevented it. Mary's son James talked much of avenging his mother, but a rich present and the promise of the English crown easily appeased him. Philip of Spain used the death as an additional pretext for fit- ting out the Armada, whose fate we have seen. 24. Renewed Persecution; Death of Elizabeth. — The ex- pedition of the Armada gave Elizabeth and her ministers a new excuse for persecuting the Catholics, although the Catholics, in the hour of the nation's peril, had gathered gallantly to the national defence. Several executions took place, and many fines, imprisonments, and confiscations. These continued down to Elizabeth's death. Nor was the rising Protestant sect of Puritans wholly spared. The queen mixed herself up with all the troubles in Europe. Philip of Spain and she were steadfast foes to the last. Her fleets beat his at sea and reaped a rich booty, while she attained a partial success on land. Cadiz was taken by the English in 1596. All through her reign she was much under the influence of favorites, but had the sagacity to retain her able though unscrupulous ministers, whose policy lifted England into the position of one of the lead- ing powers of Europe. Her court was brilliant though dissolute, and great names in literature illustrate her age. ' She died miserably, March 24, 1603, having designated James of Scotland as her successor. 23. How was the news of Mary Stuart's execution received in Europe ? 24. What resulted from the Armada expedition ? What of England and Spain ? What of Elizabeth and her statesmen ? Eor what is her reign illustrious ? 428 History of the World. [a„d. 1610-1624 CHAPTER V. LOUIS XIII (1610-1643)— THIRTY YEARS' WAR. SECTION I. Concini, De Luyues, and Richelieu. 1. Concini. — Louis XIII. succeeded his father at the age of nine. His mother, Maria de' Medici, became regent, and called Concini, an Italian of her suite, into favor. He was made prime minister, to the great dissatisfaction of the French. The administration of Concini was very distaste- ful to the nobles about the court. Conde rose in arms and compelled Concini to yield to all his demands. Conde's arrogance led to his imprisonment in the Bastile. But the king himself was weary of Concini, who was assassi- nated with Louis' connivance (1617). 2. Richelieu. — De Luynes, who was the chief instru- ment in this murder, was called by the king to the chief power. Maria de' Medici was exiled to Blois. Her almo- ner, Eichelieu, Bishop of Lu9on, who had left the career of arms for that of the Church, accompanied her. He succeeded in effecting a reconciliation between the mother and son (1620), was himself recalled to court, and married his niece to the nephew of De Luynes. He was made car- dinal and a member of the council of state. De Luynes dying in 1621, Richelieu soon succeeded him as premier. SECTION II. Ministry of Richelieu (1624-1642). 8. Policy of Richelieu. — Richelieu had a triple policy : 1. The complete extinction of feudalism and subjection of the nobles to the royal authority ; 2. The subjection of the French Calvinists ; 3. The elevation of France at the ex- pense of the honse of Austria. In carrying out this 1. Whom did Maria de' Medici appoint prime minister 1 What was the result ? What hefell Concini ? 2. Who was now called to power ? What of Richelieu 1 Who succeeded De Luynes ? 3. Describe Richelieu's policy. a.d. 1624-1632] Modern History. 429 policy and governing the realm he had to contend not only against foreign foes bnt also against domestic in- trigue. 4. Richelieu and the Huguenots. — To make France a unit he began with the Huguenots. These were aided by the English. In a short time Richelieu had confined them to La Rochelle, their great stronghold, which he besieged. The English fleet, under Buckingham, was de- feated. The defence of the city was most obstinate, but it finally had to succumb (October 28, 1628). The cap- ture of La Rochelle was a death-blow to French Protestant- ism as a political power. Richelieu treated the rebels mild- ly and granted them freedom of worship (1629). 5. Intrigues against Richelieu. — Over the Austrian policy Richelieu and Maria de' Medici quarrelled, and their for- mer friendship became a rooted hatred. She joined the intrigues against the minister and nearly overwhelmed him, when Richelieu's own courage and address won the day with the king (1630). Some of Richelieu's enemies were executed, others imprisoned. Gaston of Orleans fled to Brussels, where he kept up his intrigues. Maria de' Me- dici was exiled from France (1631). Orleans, with Spanish aid, entered France and joined his forces with those of Mar- shal Montmorency. They were defeated at Castelnaudary, and Montmorency was taken and executed (1632). Or- leans again escaped ; but his ally, the Duke of Lorraine, lost his duchy. Other intrigues were crushed in like manner. 6. Richelieu's Foreign Policy. — To humble Austria Riche- lieu leagued with the English, Danes, and Lutheran princes of Germany. He furnished money to Gustavus Adolphus. After the capture of La Rochelle he sent an army into 4. What of Eiehelieu and the Huguenots ? Describe the siege of La Rochelle. 5. Who intrigued against Richelieu ? What happened at Castelnaudary ? 6, With whom and against whom did Richelieu ally 1 430 History of the World. [a.d. 1552-1608 Italy to protect the Duke de JSTevers in possession of the duchy of Mantua and marquisate of Montferrat againgt the Duke of Savoy. Savoy was soon lost and part of Pied- mont, and the French, were . only got rid of by ceding to them the defiles of the Alps and the city of Pinerolo (1630). Austria was compelled to acknowledge Nevers as Duke of Mantua. SECTION III. The Thirty Years* War (1618-1648). 7. Origin of the War. — The Thirty Years' War in Ger- many grew out of the troubles of the Reformation. By the treaty of Augsburg each state was allowed the privi- lege of prescribing its own form of worship, the inhabi- tants, Protestant or Catholic, being at liberty to emigrate to where their religion was protected. The Protestants re- tained the ecclesiastical possessions they had seized on pre- vious to the peace of Passau (1552). To guard against further appropriations the Catholics introduced an " Ec- clesiastical Reservation" clause, which provided that all prelates who in the future should leave the Church should surrender their benefices. Notwithstanding all agreements and treaties there were constant religious contentions. In fact, religion at this time entered so largely into politics that the one became indistinguishable from the other. The Lutherans and Calvinists fought against each other, while both united against the Catholics. 8. The "Evangelical Union " and "Catholic League" in Germany. — Rudolph II. (1576-1612), who succeeded his father, the Emperor Maximilian, was not the man for the hour, and the ecclesiastical quarrels broke out with new bitterness. The Protestants formed an "Evangelical Union" for mutual assistance and protection (1608). This Describe the French campaign in Italy. 7. What grew out of the Pro- testant Reformation in Germany ? What was the "Ecclesiastical Reservation" clause 1 8. What were the " Evangelical Union " and the " Catholic League " 1 a.d. 1609-1619] Modern History. 431 was followed by the "Catholic League," headed by Maxi- milian, Duke of Bavaria (1609). 9. Troubles in the Empire. — Meanwhile Eudolph was drawn into disputes with his brother Matthias, whom he had set over Austria. Matthias quelled a revolt among the Hungarians, who had invited Bocskay of Transylva- nia and the Turks to aid them against the house of Haps- burg (1606). Matthias, afterwards uniting with these, forced Rudolph to cede Hungary, Moravia, and Austria to him, and promise him the succession in Bohemia (1608). A further dispute led to the cession of Bohemia, Silesia, and Lusatia, with guarantee of religious freedom to the Bohe- mian Protestants. Rudolph dying without issue, Matthias was chosen to succeed him (June, 1612) on the throne of an empire rent by dissensions. 10. Revolt of Bohemia. — Matthias could only stop the ad- vance of the Turks on Vienna by suing for peace (1615). The example of revolt which he himself had given was not lost. He issued a proclamation against both the Catholic and Protestant leagues. His proclamation was disregarded (1617). He ceded the crown of Bohemia to his cousin Ferdinand, grandson of Ferdinand I., and had him elected King of the Romans, with right of succession in Hungary (1617). The Bohemians revolted under Count Thurn, and the revolt was joined by the whole Evangelical Union. 11. Ferdinand II. (1619-1637).— The greater part of Bohemia was soon in the hands of the Protestants, and Ferdinand was besieged in Vienna, when Matthias died (March, 1619). Ferdinand held out until relieved, and then, repairing to Frankfort, claimed the imperial crown. The Catholic electors voting for him, he was crowned emperor. The states of Bohemia offered the crown to 9. What troubles arose in Germany ? What cessions were wrung from Eu- dolph ? Who succeeded Rudolph 1 10. How did Matthias' reign open 1 What happened in Bohemia ? 11. How did Ferdinand come to the throne ? 432 History of the World. [ a .d. 1619-1625 Frederick V., elector palatine and head of the Evangeli- cal Union. Hungary, Bohemia, and Transylvania joined against Ferdinand. 12. Ferdinand's Triumph; Tilly. — Against them Ferdi- nand sent the forces of the Catholic League under Maximi- lian and Count Tilly. Upper Austria was subdued. John George, the Protestant Elector of Saxony, declared against Frederick and overran Lusatia, while the Spaniards, under Spinola, entered the Lower Palatinate. Tilly advanced to Prague and cut to pieces the army of the "Winter King," as Frederick was called for his brief reign (1620). The Catholic worship was re-established. Frederick was declared to have forfeited the electoral dignity and the Upper Palatinate, which were conferred on Maximilian. The Protestant Union was dissolved. 13. Ernest, Count of Mansfeld, still held out, aicted by George Frederick, Margrave of Baden-Durlach, and Christian of Brunswick. These men were rather mili- tary adventurers than upholders of a great cause. Tilly marched against them, beat them, and drove them from the Palatinate. Bethlen Gabor of Transylvania concluded peace in 1624, and the Catholic party was triumphant. 14. Wallenstein; Peace of Ltibeck (1629).— The enmity of France and the subsidies of England soon rekindled the flames of revolt. Eichelieu supplied Ernest of Mans- feld with funds and played upon the ambition of Chris- tian IV., King of Denmark, a kinsman of the defeated Frederick, whose father-in-law was James I. of England. In 1625 the states of Lower Saxony were up in arms, and Christian of Denmark, Christian of Brunswick, and Mans- feld were in the field. The imperial treasury was exhaust- ed, but Count Wallenstein offered of his own means to By what states was the succession disputed ? 12. Who was Ferdinand's com- mander? Describe the progress of events. 13. Whom did Tilly nest subdue ? 14. What caused the new outbreak ? a.d. 1628-1630] Modern History. 433 raise and equip an army of twenty thousand men. His offer was accepted and lie was made generalissimo. He met Mansfeld at Dessau (April, 1626), destroyed Lis army, and pursued him into Hungary. In August Tilly crushed Christian of Denmark at Lutter. Tilly being wounded, "Wall ens tein followed them up, and, driving the Danes into Jutland and onwards, occupied Mecklenburg and Pomera- nia, and was only stopped at the walls of Stralsund (1628). Christian IV. hastened to sign the peace of Llibeck, by which he recovered his provinces on condition of desert- ing his allies and ceasing to meddle with German affairs (1629). 15. Wallenstein dismissed. — The Protestants were again subdued, and Ferdinand decreed that they should restore all the endowments they had seized contrary to the "Ec- clesiastical Reservation" of 1555. Wallenstein was entrust- ed with the execution of the edict. He allowed his sol- diers to commit the most revolting excesses, and both Ca- tholics and Protestants felt the grievance of his exactions. His enemies were numerous and powerful, and Richelieu was for ever intriguing. Ferdinand, anxious to have his son declared King of the Romans, assembled the diet at Ratisbon (1630). One of the conditions of acceding to his wishes was the dismissal of Wallenstein. This was done, whereupon the electors proceeded to break their word to the emperor. SECTION IV. The Swedish Period (1630-1635). 16. Ghistavus Adolphus. — Richelieu now brought Gusta- vus Adolphus, King of Sweden, into the field. G-ustavus was son of Charles IX., successor of Gustavus Vasa, to the How came Wallenstein on the scene 1 Describe the ensuing campaign. How did it close ? 15. What trust was given to Wallenstein? How did he use it'? Why was he dismissed ? 434 History of the World. [ a .d. 1630-1632 exclusion of the Catholic Sigismund, King of Poland, who was the lawful heir. He was a man of extraordinary ac- tivity and military genius, and had mastered Denmark, Poland, and the Czar of Russia, when called to take part in the German conflict. 17. Gustavus in Germany. — Leaving his kingdom in the charge of the Chancellor Oxenstiern, Gustavus landed at the mouth of the Oder with twenty thousand men (June 24, 1630). Within a month he occupied Pomerania, which he followed up by the occupation of Mecklenburg. Within eight months he captured eighty fortified places. 18. Gustavus defeats Tilly. — Tilly commanded the impe- rial forces and was investing Magdeburg, which Gustavus hastened to relieve. Before he could reach it the city was stormed and sacked. The Elector of Saxony joined Gus- tavus (September, 1631), and the two advanced against Tilly. Novel tactics and youthful impetuosity proved too much for the veteran general. He was defeated for the first time at Breitenfeld, near Leipsic (September 7, 1631). This great victory roused the courage of the Protestants, who at once rose to their new leader. 19. Victories of Gustavus. — The Elector of Saxony en- tered Bohemia. Gustavus, marching into Franconia and the Palatinate, again defeated Tilly at Wiirzburg. He win- tered at Mentz. Ferdinand recalled Wallenstein ; but Gus- tavus opened the spring campaign (April, 1632) by striking the Austrians at Lech, near Augsburg, where Tilly received his last defeat and death-wound. Munich fell, Bavaria was in their hands, and the elector fled for refuge to Ratisbon. The Protestant peasants of Upper Austria rose, and the Swedes were victorious as far as Lake Constance and the Tyrolese mountains. 16. Who was Gustavus Adolphus 1 17. Describe Gustavus' early exploits. 18. Tell of the meeting between Tilly and Gustavus. 19. What further victories did Gustavus win ? What befell Tilly ? a.d. 1632-1635] Modern History. 435 20. Death of Gustavus Adolphus (1632) ; Wallenstein re- called. — And now came Wallenstein on the scene at the head of forty thousand men. He drove the Saxons from Bohemia, entered Prague, effected a junction with the Elec- tor of Bavaria, and advanced against Gustavus, who was entrenched near Nuremberg. Gustavus was compelled to retire. Wallenstein was ravaging Upper Saxony, and on November 5, 1632, the two armies faced each other at Lutzen. A desperate battle ensued the next day. Gus- tavus fell mortally wounded, but the Swedes avenged his death by a signal victory. 21. Death of Wallenstein. — The death of Gustavus was regarded as a calamity by the Protestants. Wallenstein did not pursue his advantage, but wasted time in negotiations and political intrigue. Oxenstiern carried on the war on the part of the Protestants (1633). Wallenstein' s inactiv- ity led to suspicions of his loyalty, and he was secretly de- prived of his command in favor of the emperor's son, Fer- dinand ; but, fearful of his power, he was assassinated by Captain Devereux, an officer of Butler's Irish Dragoons in the service of Austria (February 25, 1634). 22. Treaty of Prague (1635). — The emperor's son, Fer- dinand, assisted by Gallas and Piccolomini, assumed com- mand of the imperial forces. A Spanish army under Charles of Lorraine joined them, and on September 6 they inflicted an overwhelming defeat on the Protestant forces under Bernhard of Weimar and Horn at JSTordlin- gen. The Elector of Saxony next deserted the Protestant cause for that of the emperor (1635) at the treaty of Prague, which renewed the Restitution Edict. The other Protes- tant states folloAved, and Sweden found herself abandoned, when Richelieu again came to her assistance. 20. Who succeeded Tilly ? Describe the battle of Lutzen. 21. How did Wal- lenstein now act 1 ? What befell Wallenstein ? 22. What happened at Nordlin- gen ? Tell of the treaty of Prague. 436 History of the World. [a.d. 1635-1643 SECTION V. The French Period under Louis XIII. (1635-1643). 23. War between Spain and France. — Renewing Lis alli- ance with Sweden, Richelieu declared war against Spain. The French gained a brilliant victory at Wittstock over John George and Hatzfeldt (September 24, 1636), and ad- vanced into the Austrian territory. But the Spaniards in- vaded Picardy, and the allied forces carried victory almost to the gates of Paris, capturing Corbie. Richelieu alone stood firm and restored the courage of the French. Cor- bie was retaken and the enemy compelled to retreat. 24. Victories of the French. — The emperor died in 1637 and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand III. The war continued, and in February, 1638, Bernhard of Saxe- Wei- mar, who had entered the French service, gained a great victory over the imperialists at Rheinfelden. In Decem- ber he took the strong fortress of Breisach and became master of Alsace. He died suddenly in 1639, and the French took command of his army. 25. Death of Richelieu. — Arras fell next, which led to the conquest of the province of Artois (1640). Other -vic- tories followed in quick succession, and Perpignan opened its gates to the French as Richelieu lay on his death-bed (1642). He left the direction of affairs to Mazarin, his confidant. He was a statesman rather than a churchman, and was willing to sacrifice religion to what he consid- ered the glory of France. He was soon followed to the grave by Louis, who left the crown to his son, a boy of five (1643). 23. What new war did Richelieu undertake 1 How did the war progress 1 24. What ally did the French gain ? Tell of Bernhardt successes. 25. Describe the death of Richelieu. What was his character 1 THIRD EPOCH. FROM THE ACCESSION OF LOUIS XIT. TO HIS DEATH (1643-1715). This epoch, called the age of Louis XIV., is divided into three periods : the ministry of Mazarin ; the first wars and conquests of Louis up to 1688 ; the final surrender of many of these conquests. Sweden loses its preponderance in northern Europe, and Austria triumphs over Turkey. A revolution occurs in England, where a commonwealth supplants royalty for a time. CHAPTER I, LOTTIS XIV. AND MAZARIN (1643-1661). Mazarin brings the Thirty Tears' "War to an end, triumphs over the Fronde, and imposes on Spain the treaty of the Pyrenees. SECTION I. Regency of Anne of Austria (1643-1651). 1. Mazarin. — Louis' mother, Anne of Austria, was made regent, and chose Cardinal Mazarin for her prime minis- ter. The nobles resented this appointment and formed a strong party against Mazarin, headed by the Duke de Beaufort, grandson of Henry IV. Failing to oust Maza- rin, they attempted to assassinate him. Their plot being discovered, Beaufort and the leading members of his cabal were banished from court. 2. Conde and Turenne; Close of the Thirty Years' War (1648). — Meanwhile the war with Spain and Germany was WTiat does the age of Louis XIV. embrace'? 1. Who was regent for Louis? Who was prime minister ? How was Mazarin's appointment received 1 What plot was formed against brm ? 437 438 History of the World. [a.d. 1643-1G50 continued. The Spaniards invaded Champagne, but "were beaten by the young Duke d'Eughien, afterwards Conde, at Kocroy (1643). He followed up his victory by taking Thionville, and, marching into Germany, defeated Mercy, the imperialist general, in a three days' battle near Frei- burg (1644). Later on he was joined by Turenne, and together they gained another great victory over Mercy at ISTordlingen, where Mercy fell (1645). A final victory of Conde's at Lens led to the peace of Westphalia and the close of the Thirty Years' War (1648). By this treaty Holland and Switzerland were declared independent of the empire. France gained Alsace, Toul, Metz, and Verdun. Sweden was given Pomerania west of the Oder. There were various other provisions, but the crowning work of the treaty was the establishment of religious equality among the various creeds. SECTION II. The Fronde (1643-1652); Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). 3. Civil War. — Mazarin's enemies were still active. He had exhausted the treasury in prosecuting the war, and to raise money levied new imposts on Paris. This was the signal for an outbreak that developed into the "War of the Fronde" (1648). The Parliament of Paris sided with the people against the court. The regent and Mazarin were compelled to fly to St. Germain. Mazarin was pro- scribed, troops were levied, and Paris put in a state of de- fence. Conde came to the rescue of the court, peace was concluded, and a general amnesty proclaimed (1649). 4. Defeat of the Fronde. — Conde now assumed so arro- gant a tone that the cardinal threw him into prison with some of his abettors (1650). This caused another outbreak in Paris. Conde and his companions were released and 2. Describe Conde's exploits. What led to the peace of Westphalia 1 What were the terms of the treaty ? 3. What was the war of the Fronde ? By whom was peace restored? 4. What caused the new outbreak ?' a.d. 1651-1661] Modern History. 439 Mazarin fled to Germany (1651). Condi's triumph was short. He set himself at the head of the Frondeurs ; but Marshal Turenne, who had abandoned their cause for that of his sovereign, was opposed to him. He beat him near Bleneau (April, 1652), and, following him up to Paris, beat him again at the Faubourg Saint- Antoine. 5. Triumph, of the King. — Meanwhile the king, still only thirteen, had declared himself of age (1651) and assumed royal authority. He established his court at Poitiers, and thither went Mazarin at the head of six thousand men. His arrival caused new commotion in Paris, which had opened its gates to Conde. But all were weary of the struggle, and in spite of Conde peace was made with the queen, Mazarin, to appease the Parisians, tendering his resignation and withdrawing from the court. The king entered Paris in triumph, and Conde fled for refuge to his old foes in the Spanish Netherlands (1652). 6. Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). — Louis proscribed Conde, who at the head of a Spanish force had invaded the north of France. He was beaten by Turenne at Arras (1654), and decisively at Dunkirk (June 14, 1658). This victory led to the treaty of the Pyrenees, which brought to a close the war with Spain and the troubles of the Fronde (1.659). Mazarin negotiated the treaty, which proved his crowning triumph. By its terms France ac- quired the county of Eoussillon, the province of Artois, with several cities and territories in Flanders, Hainault, and Luxembourg. Conde was pardoned, and Louis mar- ried Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of Philip IV. Maza- rin continued to rule the kingdom till his death in 1661. Thenceforth Louis carried on the government in person, without the assistance of a prime minister. Who came to the rescue of the court and with what result ? 5. What action did the king now take? Hove was peace restored? 6. What of Turenne and Coud6 ? What were the terms of the treaty of the Pyrenees ? 440 History of the World. [a.d. 1603-1605 SECTION III. England : James I. (1603-1625) : Charles I. (1625-1649) ; the Commonwealth (1649-1660) ; the Protectorate (1653-1658). 7. James Stuart. — The proclamation by Cecil of the ac- cession of James, son of Mary, Queen of Scots, to the English throne was hailed with acclamation in London. Eemoved from his mother's care, James had been brought up a Presbyterian. On arriving in England he became an Anglican, maintaining his supremacy in the Church and making the most of his royal authority and prerogatives. A croAvd of Scotchmen accompanied him, and to many of these he gave office and preferment. His favoritism in this respect and his meanness in many others disgusted the English. 8. Increase of Royal Authority. — After the Wars of the Eoses, which had proved . so destructive to the nobles, the power of the crown had greatly increased. Under the Tu- dors it became a tyranny. But with the destruction of the nobles the people were gradually rising into power. The great cities, with their guilds, became the centres of wealth, and to them monarchs looked for support in their wars and to fill their exchequers. 9. Rise of the Puritans. — The religious disturbances of the preceding reigns had created a restive spirit among the English people. The Protestants split up into sects, and many of these were quite indisposed to accept the newly-established Anglican Church in place of the old. Some of them pressed for a purer church and purer doc- trine. These were called Puritans and were Calvinistic in their tenets. James maintained that a hierarchy was the strongest support of the throne ; consequently he perse- cuted the Puritans, as he also did the Catholics. 10. The Gunpowder Plot. — The Catholics had expected 7. How was the accession of James Stuart received in England ? Was the king popular ? 8. In what relations stood the crown to the people ? 9. Describe the gpread of religious dissensions in England. Who were the Puritans ? a.d. 1605-1628] Modern History. 441 much from the son of Mary, Queen of Scots. They were treated more harshly than under Elizabeth. Driven to desperation, some of their number, under the lead of Ro- bert Catesby, conceived the mad and wicked project of blowing up king, lords, and Commons at the opening of Parliament. The execution was entrusted to Guy Fawkes, a soldier of fortune. The government receiving informa- tion, the plot was discovered and the chief consjrirators were taken and executed (1605). 11. King James' Bible. — Religious questions, foreign ne- gotiations, and inglorious wars, together with the troubles and follies of the king's favorites, form the chief features of this reign. By royal authority the English version of the Bible known as the King James' was prepared. 12. Charles I. and the Revolution (1625-1649).— Charles, who succeeded his father on the throne, had been brought up with extraordinary ideas of the sacred- ness and prerogatives of royalty. He was narrow-minded and obstinate, though possessed of some good qualities. His education and disposition led him into conflict with an already provoked Parliament and people. 13. Charles and the Parliament. — To satisfy the Puri- tans, who were now strong in Parliament, he revived the laws against Catholics. The Puritans were greatly averse to his marriage with a Catholic princess, Henri- etta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France. Charles met Parliament with a demand for money. To this the Commons replied by drawing up a list of sixteen abuses and demanding the redress of these before making their grants. 14. The Petition of Right (1628).— At every meeting of Parliament the conflict deepened. The king would 10. What occasioned the Gunpowder Plot ? Give details of the plot. 11. For what is James' reign remarkable ? 12. Describe the character of Charles I. 13. How did Charles' reign open 1 442 History of the World. [a.b. 1628-1642 concede nothing ; the Commons retaliated by refusing money. The grievances of the people were embodied in the "Petition of Eight" (1628), which set forth the acts of tyranny that had long been practised, and begged that they should cease. The king resolved on ruling without Parliament. Taxes were levied without its consent, on the mere strength of the royal prerogative. John Hampden, a Buckinghamshire gentleman, brought matters to a test by refusing to pay. He was summoned to trial, and, though judgment was given against him, the heart of the people went with him. 15. Wentworth. — Charles was also troubled with reli- gious difficulties. Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury and the chief spiritual adviser of the king, made himself ob- noxious both in England and Scotland to all who disbe- lieved in the Anglican Church. Buckingham fell by the hand of an assassin. "Wentworth, Lord Strafford, suc- ceeded him in the king's favor. An able and resolute man, he deserted the popular cause for that of the king, whom he urged to be "thorough" in all he undertook. Wentworth was impeached and executed. 16. The Scottish League and Covenant. — Through Laud Charles attempted to force the English liturgy on the Scotch people. All Scotland rose against this, and a solemn League and Covenant was formed to maintain the faith and discipline of the Scottish Kirk. Charles re- solved on suppressing the Covenant. The Covenanters retorted by abolishing episcopacy and preparing for war. The English Puritans, sided with the Scotch. The Par- liament, refusing to grant supplies, was dissolved. The Scotch made a successful invasion of England. 17. Charles, finding it impossible to proceed without 14. What was the Petition of Eight ? What of John Hampden ? 15. What of Laud, Buckingham, and Wentworth 1 16, Why did the Scotch rise ? What was the League and Covenant ? a.d. 1642-1644] Modern History. 443 supplies, again summoned Parliament, which again refused grants without redress of grievances. The king impeached the leaders of the opposition on the charge of high trea- son, and at the head of his guards entered the House of Commons to arrest the offending members. It was a fatal act and led to the outbreak of the civil war which had long been impending. 18. Civil War in England.— On July 12, 1642, Parlia- ment voted to raise an army. On August 22 the royal standard was unfurled at Nottingham Castle. The no- bles and gentry for the most part sided with the king, the middle classes and yeomanry with the Parliament. The Koyalists were known as " Cavaliers," the Parlia- mentarians as " Soundheads " because of their fashion of close-cropped hair. The first important engagement was at the village of Keynton, near Edgehill (October 23). It was indecisive. The early successes of the war were on the side of the Eoyalists. The Parliamentarians had no general capable of coping with Prince Eupert, the king's nephew, who was a brilliant cavalry commander, till Fairfax and Cromwell came into prominence. 19. Oliver Cromwell. — Cromwell had been a resolute member of the opposition in Parliament. He was just as resolute in- the field. A zealous Puritan, he infused a re- ligious glow into the followers he raised. This imparted a new aspect and bitterness to the contest. Cromwell's " Ironsides," his own regiment, raised, drilled, and preached to by himself, came to be regarded as invinci- ble, like their leader. His military capacity soon showed itself to be superior to that of any of the Parliamentary generals. 20. Battle of Marston Moor. — The Parliamentarians 17. How did Charles treat the Parliament 1 18. How did Parliament retaliate ? How was the country divided 1 Sketch the early phases of the struggle. 19. What of Oliver Cromwell and his Ironsides ? 444 History qf the World. [a.d. 1644-1649 joined with the Scotch Covenanters against the king. At the battle of Marston Moor (July 2, 1644) they inflicted a severe defeat on the Koyalists, the success being chief- ly owing to Cromwell's coolness and stubborn courage. Cromwell now came rapidly to the front and took the lead of the party called "Independents" in matters of religion. Their policy was dead against the king. 21. Battle of Naseby; Surrender of the King. — The chief command was given to Fairfax, but the real com- mander was Cromwell. He and his Ironsides again turned the day at Kaseby (June 14, 1645), which virtually ended the war. Charles was hopelessly beaten. Cromwell fol- lowed up his victory by a series of rapid blows at every Eoyalist stronghold. Charles was left without an army in the field. He surrendered himself to the Scots (May 5, 1646), who, after haggling over the price, sold him to the English (January 30, 1647). 22. Execution of Charles I. (1649).— Charles might have retained his throne had he only been open and honest, and conceded the just demands of his people. But no reli- ance could be placed on his word, and he would concede nothing. Cromwell's army was now the real power in England. He decided that it was an issue of life or death between himself and the king. Charles was arraigned at Westminster (January 20, 1649) before a high court of justice specially organized. The charge against him was that of high treason for levying war against the Parlia- ment and kingdom of England. Sentence of death was passed upon him and he was beheaded (January 30, 1649). 23. The Commonwealth (1649-1660).— Cromwell was now the most powerful man in England. After the execution of the king a Council of State was formed for the trans- 20. Describe the battle of Marston Moor. 21. Who commanded the Parlia- mentarians f What happened at Naseby 1 What befell Charles ? 22. Describe the trial of Charles I. His sentence 1 a.d. 1649-1658] Modern History. 445 action of public affairs, Cromwell being one of the mem- bers. He was also made lord-lieutenant of Ireland, where the people had risen in defence of Charles. He returned to England after a campaign that was a series of butch- eries, and marched against the Scotch, who had set up Charles' son as king. His Scotch campaign was at first unsuccessful, but ended successfully at Worcester (Septem- ber 3, 1651). There the Scotch, who with the young king had invaded England, were wholly defeated and the royal cause lost for the time being. 24. Cromwell made Protector. — Cromwell's ambition grew with his fortunes. He resolved to rule England at his own pleasure, and aspired to royalty. He dissolved the trouble- some Parliament (April 20, 1653). The Council of State was dissolved at the same time. He summoned a sort of parliament in his own interest, famous as the "Bare- bones" Parliament. At his instigation they had a new constitution published, and himself made Lord Protector, the supreme authority resting in him and the Parliament (December 16, 1653). 25. England under Cromwell. — Henceforth Cromwell ruled, and when Parliament opposed him he dissolved it. Eng- land was under a military tyranny. The Protector's foreign policy was strong and successful, and he made England's power felt and respected abroad. By another Parliament summoned for September 17, 1656, it was voted that Crom- well take the title of king. But the opposition of the army and its chief generals was so great that he reluc- tantly refused. He soon after dissolved this Parliament. The rest of his life was spent in a tangle of plots that wore him out, and he died on September 3, 1658. He was succeeded in the Protectorate by his son Eichard, a man 23. Who now became the leader of affairs ? Describe Cromwell's campaigns against the Irish and the Scotch. 24. What did the " Barebones " Parliament do 1 25. Outline Cromwell's policy. The result ? Describe Cromwell's last days. 446 HlSTOBY OF THE WORLD. [a.d. 1660-1662 of very ordinary capacity. The country, weary of tyranny, longed for the return of royalty. This was brought about by General Monk, commander of the army in Scotland. Prince Charles was recalled from exile, and entered Lon- don (May, 1660), amid the acclamations of the populace. CHAPTER II. FIRST WARS AND COMaUESTS OF LOUIS XIV. (1661-1068). Louis XIV., assisted by able ministers, reforms the administration of France and enters upon great wars of conquest, which begin with success but end in disaster. SECTION I. Personal Government of Louis XIV. 1. Colbert. — Louis, on assuming personal authority after the death of Mazarin, called able ministers to his assistance. He dismissed Fouquet, who had managed the finances un- der Mazarin and had been guilty of gross peculation. In his place he set Colbert, a financier of great ability and integrity. Under his administration the internal depart- ments of state were speedily reorganized, and France was soon restored to a condition of general prosperity. Louis took an active interest in European affairs. He began by exacting a formal apology from the King of Spain and an- other from the pope on questions of etiquette. His suc- cess in both astonished Europe. 2. Louis' Home and Foreign Policy. — While reorganizing his army and navy the king encouraged letters and the arts. Great public buildings, harbors, and fortifications were established in his reign, as also monuments of learn- Who succeeded Cromwell ? What led to the recall of Prince Charles ? What did Louis XIV. do after the death of Mazarin? Who was selected in place of Fouquet ? State the result. "What were Louis' first acts in European affairs ? a.d. 1662-1668] Modern History. 44? ing and of charity. Eeforms were effected in the law and an efficient police established. Charles II. of England was made a pensioner of Louis, and the other European states, distracted by dissensions, offered an inviting field to his ambition. France itself, healed of its divisions, and sud- denly become rich and prosperous under the vigorous ad- ministration, yielded easily to the absolutism of the king, who was truly enabled to assert, "I am the state." SECTION II. War of Spoliation (1667). 3. French Successes. — Louis resolved on securing to France the political preponderance acquired by the treaties of West- phalia and the Pyrenees. He purchased Dunkirk from the English (1662) and converted it into a fortress of great strength. He sent troops against the Turks and chased the Algerine and Barbary pirates from the Mediterranean. On the death of Philip IV. of Spain (1665) Louis laid claim to the Spanish Netherlands in behalf of his wife, who was Philip's daughter. He invaded Flanders and speedily made himself master of the country. 4. Tlie Triple Alliance. — Europe was aroused and alarm- ed. A triple alliance was formed between England, Hol- land, and Sweden (1668) to compel France and Spain to make peace. Louis responded by invading and taking the province of Franche-Comte. The commissioners of the va- rious powers met at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a treaty was signed (May 2, 1668) which left to France the important territory known thenceforth as French Flanders, Franche-Comte be- ing restored to Spain. SECTION III. Second War of Spoliation (1672-1678). 5. Invasion of Holland. — Louis attempted by bribery and 2. Give an account of his home policy. Of his foreign policy. What enahled him to assert his absolutism 1 3. Describe the successes which led to the Triple Alliance. 4. What was the Triple Alliance ! What did it accomplish ? 448 History of the World. [a.d. 1670-1679 corruption to break up the coalition against him. He suc- ceeded in great measure. Sweden was bought off and some of the German electors. The alliance between England and Holland was broken (1670). Louis then entered Lorraine and occupied it. Charles II. attacked the Dutch fleet and Louis invaded Holland at the head of one hundred thou- sand men (1672). With such generals as Turenne, Conde, Vauban, and Louvois, the Dutch were easily overcome and sued for peace. The conditions demanded by Louis were so outrageous that the Dutch rose in revolt and slew the Grand Pensionary, De Witt. William, Prince of Orange, was elected Stadtholder. He broke off the negotiations, and, rather than submit, the Dutch opened their dikes and submerged the country from the sea. 6. The Grand Alliance. — Another coalition was formed against the French king under the name of the " Grand Alliance of the Hague" (1673). Germany and Spain join- ed it, England standing neutral and Sweden joining France. Louis was forced to evacuate Holland, but 'took Franche- Comte (1674) and left Vauban to guard it. The French armies successfully maintained a struggle against the great coalition. Turenne found a rival in Montecuculi, the Aus- trian general. After a campaign that left the issue doubt- ful Turenne forced his adversary into a disadvantageous position near Sasbach, but was killed by a stray ball on the eve of battle (July 27, 1675). His army was compelled to retreat. Montecuculi invaded Alsace, but was stayed by Conde and driven across the Ehine. The Dutch now sued for peace, which was signed by all the allies at Nymwegen (1678-1679). The terms were pretty much as Louis dic- tated. 7. More French Conquests. — Louis' ambition would not 5. How did Louis seek to break the coalition against him ? Give the chief events of the second war of spoliation. On what did the Dutch resolve? 6. Give an account of the Grand Alliance. "What was the result? a. d. 1681-1684] Modern History. 449 let him rest. He laid preposterous claims to certain Ger- man territories, and in 1681 seized the important city and fortress of Strassburg, till then a free city. This led to another war with Germany and Spain, in which Louis gained Luxembourg, which was ceded to him at the treaty of Ratisbon (1684). SECTION IV. Declaration of 1682 ; Jansenism; Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685). 8. Louis and the Church. — Louis assumed to control Church affairs as well as lay. This led him into very grave disputes with the Holy See and wrought trouble to the Church in France. He claimed for the crown the right to enjoy the revenues of vacant sees and to dispose of benefices all over France. The property of the bishops who refused to submit was confiscated, and an assembly of French clergy called to limit the exercise of pontifical au- thority in France. 9. Gallicanism. — Less than a third of the bishops of France obeyed the royal mandate, the illustrious Bossuet among them. He it was who drew up in four articles the so-called "Declaration of the Clergy of France on Ecclesi- astical Power" (1682). The declaration struck at the su- premacy and infallible decision in matters of faith and doc- trine of the head of the Church. This was the origin of "Gallicanism," which was at once condemned by the pope and by many of the French episcopate. Louis attempted to awe the pope, but failed. It was only when all Europe was leagued against him in his declining years that he re- tracted, and wrote to the pope that the declaration would no longer be taught or enforced (1693). 10. Jansenism. — Another dispute with the Holy See 7. What led to a new war 1 What did Louis gain by it 1 8. In what way did Louis interfere with the affairs of the Church 1 9. What was the origin of Gal- licanism ? When did Louis retract ? 450 History of the World. [a.d. 1684-1685 arose about the doctrines of Jan senilis, Bishop of Ypres, whose work on grace contained the principles of Calvin- ism, denied the free-will of man and that Christ had died for all men. The doctrines were taken up by Arnauld, the Abbot of St. Cyran, who gained over his sister Ange- lique, the Abbess of Port Eoyal. These got about them a number of followers, who, under the name of solitaires, lived a retired and ostentatiously mortified life. Their number increased and they had partisans at court. Jan- senius' doctrines had also penetrated into the Netherlands, of which he was a native. 11. Failure of Jansenism. — In 1642 the doctrines were condemned by Pope Urban VIII. The solitaires of Port Eoyal were ordered to disperse. A clear form of faith was drawn up with the pope's sanction and proposed to all the priests and nuns of France. Louis XIV. supported the pope. The dispute was renewed at various times and with much bitterness of controversy. The Jansenists gra- dually lost credit, especially by appeals to pretended mira- cles, but the sect, down to the Eevolution, still remained a disturbing element in the French Church. In Holland a small number of Jansenists steadfastly retained their error down to the present time. 12. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685).— The actions of the Calvinists, who were suspected of leaguing with the enemies of France, induced Louis to revoke the Edict of Nantes (1685). Similar treatment was now met- ed out to the Protestants in France as to the Catholics in England, Ireland, and other places. The Calvinists re- sisted, but were put down by force. A large number left the kingdom. 10. What is meant by Jansenism ? 11. What action was taken by the pope ? State what is said of the failure of Jansenism. 12. What induced Louis to re- voke the Edict of Nantes ? How were Catholics treated elsewhere ? a.d. 1666-1673] Modern History. . 451 SECTION V. Revolution of 1688 in England ; Charles n. (1660-1685) ; James II. (1685-1688); William in. (1689-1702). 13. Charles II — The restoration of royalty was received with rapture by the majority of the English people ; but the House of Stuart seemed incapable of learning a lesson from the past. Charles II. degenerated into an easy-going libertine, who cared more for his pleasures than his peo- ple, and sold the honor of his country to France by becom- ing a pensioner of the French king. 14. Struggle for Naval Supremacy. — A struggle for naval supremacy between the English and Dutch took place dur- ing this reign, in which Kuyter, the Dutch admiral, and James, Duke of York, were the rivals. Ruyter at one time sailed up the Thames and threatened London. But in the end the advantage lay with the English. 15. Fire and Plague in London. — A dreadful plague deci- mated London, and was followed by a fire that nearly de- stroyed the city (1666). During these afflictions the king showed the nobler side of his character and was seconded by his brother. The war which England was carrying on with France and Holland was concluded by the treaty of Breda (1667), by which New Amsterdam (New York) was ceded to the English, Acadia to the French, and the Isle of Palawan, in the East Indies, to the Dutch. 16. The Test Act.— In 1668 the Duke of York became a Catholic. This created alarm in England. The king avowed his belief in Catholicity. A Catholic succession was feared, to prevent which the Test Act was passed (1673). This act required all persons holding office to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, receive the English sacrament, and declare against transubstantiation. James refused to take it and resigned all his offices. In 13. How did the restoration affect the policy of the Stuarts ? What of Charles 1 14. Describe the struggle for naval supremacy. 15. What disasters befell Lon- don'? What was settled by the Treaty of Breda? 16. What of the Test Act? 452 History of the World. [a.d. 1674-1685 1674 William of Orange married Mary, daughter of James, and the leaders in England began to look in that direction for the succession. 17. The Titus Gates Plot. — The public mind was much disturbed, and an impostor named Titus Oates seized the occasion to create an outcry against the Catholics. He pre- tended to have discovered a terrible conspiracy to kill the king and place James on the throne. The story was be- lieved and Oates thanked and pensioned by Parliament, although he was convicted of falsehood in open court. Bedloe, another villain, improved upon Oates' story, and the public mind was inflamed to such a degree that per- secutions of the Catholics broke out and many suffered death. A new test was passed by which Catholicity was declared to be idolatry. Later on the House of Commons passed a bill excluding the Duke of York from the suc- cession. He was banished for life, but shortly returned. 18. The Eye-House Plot. — A conspiracy known as the Eye-House Plot was set on foot to secure the succession either to the Prince of Orange or to the Duke of Mon- mouth. It was discovered and the leaders executed (1683). Charles died two years later. On his death-bed he received the ministrations of a priest and died in the communion of the Catholic Church with sincere sentiments of piety and sorrow for his sins (February 6, 1685). The Habeas Corpus Act, a great safeguard to the civil liberty of the subject, was passed during this reign. 19. James II. (1685-1688). — James succeeded his brother without any opposition. The Duke of Monmouth landed and claimed the throne. The Earl of Argyle rose in his favor in Scotland. Both were defeated and executed. A commission under the presidency of Judge Jeffreys was What marriage influenced events ? 17. Give an account of the Titus Oates Plot. 18. Of the Eye-House Plot. What is said of Charles' death-bed ? What act was passed during his reign ? 19. Who succeeded Charles ? a.d. 1685-1688] Modern History. 453 formed to try those who had aided Monmouth. The commission, under its harsh chief, was guilty of extreme and unwarranted severity. 20. James and Liberty of Conscience. — The king wished to establish liberty of conscience for all his subjects, Catholic and Protestant. This sealed his fate. Seven of the bishops refused either to accept or maintain such liberty. They were imprisoned, sent to trial, and acquitted. For this they were regarded by the people as martyrs. 21. The Revolution (1688). — A conspiracy had been hatching among the nobles, and on the day of the bish- ops' acquittal Admiral Herbert set sail for Holland with a petition to William, Prince of Orange, inviting him to England. The petition was signed by the leaders of the English aristocracy. Louis XIV. warned James of his danger, but James refused to accept the warning. A son and heir was born to him in 1688. This quickened the movement against him. William landed in England at the head of an army of fifteen thousand men (November 3, 1688). James suddenly found himself wholly deserted and was allowed to escape to France, where he was hos- pitably received by Louis. CHAPTER III. IRELAND. SECTION I. English Invasion of Ireland. 1. Internal Dissensions. — Under Henry II. Ireland was, in the words of Sir John Davies, Attorney-General for Ire- land under James I., "cantonized among ten of the Eng- lish nation ; and though they did not gain possession of Give an account of Monmouth's rebellion. 20. What struggle arose between James and the bishops ? 21. By -whom was William of Orange invited to Eng- land 1 State the rise and progress of the rebellion of 1688. 454 History of the World. [ A .d. 1509-1536 one-third of the kingdom, yet in title they were owners and lords of all." As the Irish did not admit of this title, the resnlt was an unending struggle on the part of the Irish people for existence, on that of the invaders and their descendants for possession. The Irish, hroken up by internal dissensions, weakened their own cause against a united, disciplined, and merciless foe with a great power to back them. 2. Statutes of Kilkenny. — The descendants of the Anglo- Norman invaders soon came to acquire Irish customs and habits. To prevent this the Statutes of Kilkenny were enacted (1367). These, in brief, forbade the English to take up any Irish custom whatever, or have any inter- course of friendship or alliance with the natives. SECTION II. Ireland and the Tudors (1509-1603). 3. Henry VIII. — Henry VIII. resolved on establishing his spiritual supremacy in Ireland as well as in England. At this time only five of the Irish counties were subject to English rule. These were confined within what was called the Pale. Outside this the Irish chieftains lived in a state of actual independence and varied their wars on the English by wars upon one another. 4. Henry's Policy in Ireland. — To effect his supremacy Henry adopted within the Pale the same methods as in England. The monasteries were suppressed and their pro- perty was given to the nobles who were willing to aposta- tize. The Irish people remained steadfast in the faith. 5. A parliament was summoned in Dublin to pass the Act of Supremacy (1536). The ecclesiastical representatives refused to pass it and were excluded. Henry was then declared supreme head of the Church in Ireland. 1. How were the Irish treated under Henry II. 1 Descrihe the state of affairs in Ireland. 2. Why were the Statutes of Kilkenny passed ? 3. On what did Henry Till, resolve ? 4. Describe Henry's policy. a.d. 1541-1603] Modern History. 455 6. Henry declared King of Ireland (1541). — St. Leger was appointed lord deputy. He bestowed the titles and estates of the suppressed monasteries on the Irish chief- tains. He induced them to accept English titles, which was a practical acknowledgment of allegiance to Henry. They consented to sit in the parliament held in Dublin (June 12, 1541), which conferred on Henry and his suc- cessors the title of Icing in place of lord of Ireland. 7. Thenceforth began the gradual breaking up of the Irish clans. The clansmen repudiated the chieftains who had given in their allegiance, and chose others in their places. This was the signal for new strife and internal dissensions. 8. Ireland under Elizabeth. — During the reign of Eliza- beth a systematic attempt was made to extirpate the Irish people and no barbarity was spared that might effect that end. Several of the more powerful chieftains defied the English government. The most formidable were Shane O'Neill, who was assassinated at English instigation ; the Earl of Desmond, who, after a long struggle, was defeated and beheaded ; and Hugh O'Neill, who first sided with the English, but afterwards, in conjunction with his neph- ew, Hugh O'Donnell, organized the strongest movement that had yet been made in favor of Irish independence. They received some assistance from the pope and from Spain, but in the end were overcome, O'Neill gaining full pardon for himself and his followers. SECTION III. Ireland and the Stuarts (1603-1649). 9. Ireland "planted." — James I., whose accession was hailed with joy by the Irish people, continued the system of Elizabeth. O'Neill was compelled to fly and the country 5. Give an account of the Act of Supremacy. 6. By what means was Henry declared king of Ireland ? 7. To what did this lead ? 8. Describe the condition of Ireland under EJizabeth. What is said of Hugh O'Neill ? 456 History of the World. [a.d. 1632-1C4G was defenceless. James set about "planting" it — that is, placing English and Scotch settlers on Irish soil to the ex- clusion of the natives. The Irish Catholics raised large sums of money for Charles I. in return for certain promises or "graces," which he forgot to keep. Wentworth, ap- pointed lord-deputy (1632), ruled the land with a rod of iron. 10. Confederation of Kilkenny (1642).— The troubles of Charles' reign gave the Irish people another chance. Many of the exiled chieftains who had gained experience and distinction in foreign wars returned. The Catholics rose for the liberty of worship which Charles had promised them. The nobles of the Pale and the prelates joined in, and a national Confederation was formed at Kilkenny. Dissensions soon arose in the Confederation, which had tendered its services to the king. Owen Eoe O'Neill gained . an important victory over the English at Benburb (June 5, 1646), but dissensions among the chieftains pre- vented his following it up. SECTION IV. Cromwell In Ireland. 11. Massacres at Drogheda and Wexford. — Cromwell went over to subdue the Irish, who still remained faithful to the royal cause. His campaign was brief and bloody. The massacres, under his orders, at Drogheda and Wexford, as well as in other places, are among the most cold-blooded in history. Most of the Irish soldiers entered foreign service. The people were again left defenceless. The system of " plantation " was pursued. Many thousands were shipped to the West Indies and there sold as slaves. 12. Confiscation of all Ireland. — Cromwell was determined to extirpate the Irish. All the property of the Irish people 9. What policy did the Stuarts pursue in Ireland ? 10. Give an account of the Confederation of Kilkenny. 11. Describe Cromwell's campaign in Ireland. 12. On what did he determine ? » a.d. 1653-1689] Modern History. 457 was declared confiscate to England (September 26, 1653). For the Irish nation Connaught, the bleakest portion, was set apart, and any Irish person found outside of that pro- vince after May 1, 1654, was to suffer death. Most of the land was then divided up among Cromwell's followers, and the exercise of the Catholic religion was proscribed under the severest penalties. 13. Charles II. and James II. — Matters continued much the same under Charles .II. During his reign Oliver Plunket, the venerable Archbishop of Armagh, was con- veyed to London and there arraigned and executed for high treason, his only crime being his faith and high office. Under James II. freedom of conscience was re- stored, but his reign was too short to admit of any bene- fit from it. SECTION V. William and Mary (1689-1702). 14. " Declaration of Right." — On the. accession of William and Mary the Parliament obtained royal sanction for the "Declaration of Eight," which put a stop to the power of the crown to dispense with or suspend laws without the consent of Parliament. The Presbyterian form of worship was established by law in Scotland. Freedom of worship and dispensation from taking the oath of supremacy were granted the Dissenters in England. But there was no con- cession to the Catholics. 15. Siege of Derry ; the Boyne. — James, assisted by Louis XIV., landed in Ireland (March 22, 1689). Tyrconnell, the lord-deputy, met him with an army of forty thousand men. Derry and Enniskillen alone held out against him. Derry sustained a memorable siege. James frittered away his time and opportunities. In August William sent over a How was the land divided ? 13. What was the condition of affairs under Charles II. and James II. ? 14. What did the English and the Scotch gain by the Decla- ration of Eight ? 15. What led to the siege of Deny 1 458 History of the World. [a.d. 1GD1-1697 thoroughly equipped force of sixteen thousand men under Schoinberg. Next year he followed with thirty-six thou- sand men and assumed command. After a stubbornly contested battle at the Boyne near Drogheda, in which Schomberg was killed, the Irish were defeated. James fled before the battle was over, and hastily embarked for France, never to return. 16. Siege and Treaty of Limerick (1691).— The Irish still held out. Admiral Tourville gained a great victory over the combined English and Dutch fleets off the Isle of Wight. Athlone fell (June, 1691), and at Aughrim the Irish sus- tained a severe ' defeat, St. Euth, the gallant French com- mander, being killed. Limerick alone remained to James, and was so stubbornly defended by Sarsfield, Earl of Lucan, that an honorable capitulation was allowed the garrison. A treaty was drawn up at .Limerick allowing the free exercise of their religion and the peaceful enjoyment of their estates to the Irish Catholics. Two months after both king and Parliament basely violated the treaty. Those who chose were allowed to leave the country. About fourteen thou- sand left and took service in foreign lands. 17. Treaty of Eyswiek. — A rising in favor of James in Scotland under Viscount Dundee ended in the defeat and death of that commander at Killiecrankie (1689). James was preparing for another descent on England, but the de- feat of the French fleet by the English off Cape La Hogue (1692) crushed his hopes, and at the treaty of Eyswiek (1697) Louis acknowledged William as King of England. Give an account of the battle of the Boyne. What became of James ? 16. De- scribe the siege of Limerick. What of the treaty of Limerick ? 17. What took place in Scotland in 1689 ? What followed ? a.d. 1686-1700] Modern HrsTORr. 459 CHAPTER IV. LOUIS XIV. AFTER THE LEAGUE OF AUGSBURG (1688-1715). The -war of the League of Augsburg compelled Louis to relinquish part of his conquests. A new war secured to him the Spanish succession. SECTION I. War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697). 1. French Victories. — William of Orange was untiring in his efforts to thwart Louis XIV. After the treaty of Katisbon he succeeded in uniting Austria, Spain, Bavaria, Holland, and Savoy against France. The coalition was known as the League of Augsburg (1686). Louis open- ed the war by invading the Palatinate (1688), which his armies overran. But the great French generals were now dead and the French arms felt their loss. Meanwhile William of Orange had ascended the throne of England and threw that power into the scale of the allies. Not- withstanding some severe reverses the military superiority of the French was again established by Marshal Luxem- bourg, who defeated the allies at Fleurns (1690), Steen- kerke (1692), Neerwinden (1693), and in other places. The Duke of Savoy was completely defeated by Marshal Catinat at Marsiglia. The war lingered till 1697. Both sides were exhausted. The wars and immense standing armies had drained the treasury of France. Peace was signed at Eyswick. By its terms Louis resigned nearly all his late conquests. SECTION II. War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). 2. Causes of the War. — Charles II. of Spain, dying with- out issue (1700), willed his throne to Louis' grandson, 1. How did William of Orange thwart Louis ? What did Louis invade 1 What new poWer was added to the allies 1 What successes wore gained by the French ? What was the effect of the war on France ? 460 History of the World. [a.d. 1701-1708 Philip, Duke of Anjou. As this meant the union of the Spanish and French crowns, Europe again took alarm, and Leopold I., Emperor of Germany, claimed the Spanish throne for his second son, the Archduke Charles. Philip was crowned at Madrid, and Louis promised him the right of succession to the French throne. 3. Coalition against France. — A coalition was again formed against Louis. It was known as the Triple Al- liance of England, Holland, and Austria (September 7, 1701). The Elector of Brandenburg was drawn in by promise of the title of King of Prussia. Portugal joined later on, and France had no ally save the Elector of Ba- varia. Charles was proclaimed king at Vienna (1703). 4. French Reverses. — The war opened in Italy with re- verses for the French, where they were opposed by Prince Eugene of Savoy, who had entered the Austrian service. Later on the Duke of Vendome retrieved these losses. But the Elector of Bavaria suffered a disastrous defeat at Hoch- stadt, losing all Bavaria (1704). Two years later all the Italian possessions were lost by Prince Eugene's victory at Turin. The Netherlands went next, as far as Lille, by Marlborough's victory over Villeroi at Eamillies ; and finally the dukes of Burgundy and Vend6me were routed at Oudenarde (1708). 5. Battle of Malplaquet. — France was now invaded and menaced at all points. The rigorous winter of 1709 de- stroyed vegetation, and famine and despair seized upon the French. Louis sued for peace. The conditions of the allies were so harsh that he spurned them. The struggle in Spain, which the Archduke Charles, aided by the Eng- lish, had invaded, varied, considerably- in its character. The country was divided between Philip and Charles, who 2. What led to the war of the Spanish succession ? 3. Describe the coalition made against France 4. Give an account of the progress of the war. 5. What led to the battle of Malplaquet ? a.d. 1709-1714] Modern History. . 4G1 was also proclaimed king. Philip, aided by the skill of Marshal Berwick, when in desperate straits succeeded in winning a much-needed victory at Almanza (1707). Fur- ther victories were followed by reverses ; and the defeat of Marshal Villars at Malplaquet (1709) crowned the French disasters. Louis was again compelled to sue for peace ; and again the conditions were so harsh that he rejected them. 6. Peace of Utrecht (1713). — France rose with its mon- arch for a final effort. Vendome was sent into Spain and secured the crown to Philip by the decisive victory of Villaviciosa (1710). By the death of Leopold the Arch- duke Charles had now (1711) become Emperor of Ger- many, and consequently lost the assistance of the allies, who dreaded the preponderance of the house of Austria as much as that of France. Marlborough had fallen into disgrace. England had suffered severely from the wars, and was anxious to make peace. Prince Eugene was de- feated by Villars at Denain (1712). This was followed by other victories, and peace was finally signed at Utrecht (April 11, 1713) between Holland, England, and France. The crown of Spain and the West Indies was secured to Philip, the English retaining Gibraltar and the Isle of Minorca, which they had captured. Sicily was ceded to the Duke of Savoy with the title of king. The Nether- lands, Milan, Naples, and Sardinia fell to the house of Austria. Acadia, or Nova Scotia, Hudson's Bay, and New- foundland were ceded by Louis to England. 7. Treaty of Eadstadt. — The Emperor Charles VI. alone rejected the treaty. But Villars continuing his victories against Eugene, Charles thought it prudent to come to terms, and in the treaty of Eadstadt confirmed the treaty Why did Louis again reject the terms of peace '? 6. What took place in 1710 ? In 1711 ? Where was Prmco Eugene defeated ? What were the terms of the peace of Utrecht ? 462 * History of the World. [a.d. 1633-1648 of Utrecht (1714). Louis died in the following year, leav- ing only a great-grandson to succeed him. In his declin- ing years he attempted to atone for the scandals of his early life. CHAPTER V. EUROPE IS THE TIME OF LOUIS XIV. Europe witnessed three mighty struggles during the reign of Louis XIV. : in the west and south between Prance and her neighbors ; in the north between Sweden and the other Baltic states ; in the east between Turkey and Austria allied with Poland. SECTION I. Sweden and the North; Charles XII. (1697-1718). 1. Q,ueen Christina ; Oxenstiern. — Gustavus Adolphus left his crown to his daughter Christina, then only six years of age (1632). She was educated by her aunt, the Prin- cess Catharine, sister of Gustavus and wife of John Casi- mir, the Count Palatine. Catharine's son Charles was be- trothed to Christina. She took the reins of government in her own hands in 1644, with the able Oxenstiern as chief minister. The Swedes were all this time engaged in the Thirty Years' War, and, under Oxenstiern's guidance and Torstenson's generalship, winning great victories over the imperialists. 2. Abdication of Q,ueen Christina. — Christina did not fa- vor the suit of her cousin, who had been betrothed to her in her childhood. After the treaty of Westphalia (1648) there was time to look into the internal affairs of the kingdom. These were found to be in a deplorable con- dition resulting from the exhaustive war. Christina, 7. Who rejected the treaty? By what treaty was that of Utrecht confirmed ? What three mighty struggles took place during Louis' reign ? 1. Give an account of Queen Christina. Of Oxenstiern. 2. Why did Christina abdicate ? a.d. 1654-1700] Modern History. 463 weary of her position, abdicated in favor of her cousin Charles in 1654. 3. Growing Ascendency of Sweden. — John Casimir, King of Poland and son of Sigismund, aspired to the throne of Sweden. Charles invaded Poland and overran it in a three months' campaign. He compelled the Elector of Brandenburg to acknowledge himself a Swedish vassal. Casimir renewing the struggle, Charles, with the Elector of Brandenburg, again marched into Poland, and, after meet- ing with some reverses, gained a final victory after a three days' battle near Warsaw (1656). All Europe now grew jealous of the growing power of Sweden. Eussia, Austria, Denmark, as well as Poland and Brandenburg, declared against Charles. But his courage rose above all trials and was crowned with success. He died suddenly (February 13, 1660), and was succeeded by his infant son, Charles XI. (1660-1697), whose reign was devoted to arranging the internal affairs of the kingdom. 4. Early Campaigns of Charles XII. — Charles, eldest son of Charles XL, succeeded at the age of fifteen. The hos- tile powers thought to have an easy victory over this boy and formed a league against him. Charles resolved on be- ing beforehand with them. By the treaty of the Hague he won the assistance of England and Holland, and then fell suddenly upon Denmark (1700) and besieged Copen- hagen. His impetuosity carried everything before it ; the city surrendered almost without a fight, and Frederick IV. of Denmark hastened to sign a peace at Travendal by which he abandoned the coalition. 5. Campaigns in Poland and Eussia. — Meanwhile the Poles had entered Livonia and the Eussians Ingria. Charles turned first against the czar, who was besieging Narva. 3. Who aspired to the throne ? What action did Charles take ? Describe his progress. Who declared against him 1 What occupied the reign of Charles XL ? 4. Describe the early campaigns of Charles XII. 4G4 History of the World. [a.d. 1700-1718 With a force of eight thousand men he fell upon the fifty thousand Eussians and totally routed them (November 30, 1700). He then turned against the Poles and Saxons en- trenched on the Duna, and scattered them. He gained another great victory at Kliszow (1702), and might have made peace on his own terms had he so chosen. But, possessed by the passion of war, he went on from cam- paign to campaign. He drove Augustus II., the Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, from Warsaw, and set up Stanislas Leczinski, a young Polish noble, in his place (1704). 6. Battle of Pultowa (1709). — Meanwhile Eussia had had time to recruit. Charles invaded that country at the head of forty-five thousand men, and was making for Mos- cow when he was turned aside by Mazeppa, a Cossack chief, with a promise of a rising of his people. Charles plunged deeper and deeper into a devastated country, los- ing his troops on the way, and wintered at Gadatch, on the Dnieper. He purposed attacking Pultowa, a strong fortress with abundance of provisions, in the spring (1709). But Peter came up with an army of seventy thousand men and wholly routed the decimated force of Swedes. 7. Charles XII. in Turkey. — Charles fled for refuge to the sultan. He brought on war between Turkey and Eus- sia. The grand vizier, at the head of two hundred thou- sand men, surrounded the Eussians on the Pruth, and Peter's cause seemed lost, when his wife bribed the vizier to let him escape. Charles delayed among the Turks till 1713, hoping to have himself set at the head of their armies. 8. Decline of the Swedes; Death of Charles. — Meanwhile 5. Give an account of his campaigns in Poland and Eussia. 6. What led to the battle of Pultowa ? Give the result. 7. Describe Charles' movements while in Turkey. a.d. 1462-1689] Modern History. 465 the Russians and Saxons had things their own way in the north and reconquered most of their possessions from the Swedes. Stanislas had to fly and joined Charles at Bender. Compelled at last to leave Bender, Charles traversed Eu- rope in disguise and arrived by night at Stralsund (1714). The city was immediately besieged by the allies and obsti- nately defended by Charles. Finding it untenable, he re- tired to Lund (1715). He was killed while besieging the fortress of Frederickshald, in Norway (December 11, 1718) . The war was ended by large cessions to the Elector of Han- over, the King of Prussia, and the czar. The power of Sweden was broken and all danger of her preponderance in the north ended. SECTION II. Russia: Peter the Great (1682-1725). 9. Growth of Russian Power. — Eussia was delivered from the' Mongols by Ivan III., the Great (1462-1505). He was the first to assume the title of Autocrat of all the Russias. His son, Ivan IV., the Terrible (1533-1584), completed the work of his father, consolidated the power of the throne, and added greatly to the Russian dominions. Siberia was acquired during his reign. After the death of his son, Feodor I. (1584-1598), the throne became an object of contention to several aspirants and the country was devas- tated by civil war. With Feodor ended the race of Rurik. At last, in 1613, the Russians raised Michael Romanoff to the throne, and he became the founder of the Romanoff dynasty. 10. Accession of Peter the Great (1689). — His grandson Peter, displacing his sister Sophia from the regeney, as- cended the throne in 1689. Russia was already one of the most powerful nations of northern Europe. But the 8. What was Sweden suffering in the north 1 H