A ■> - i x ^. ,^ -o. N - ri J ^ * s & "^ ^ 0o - 'Willis 'in' ^ , , ^ v iV "^ V*\s A #' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ' * "> ^ c' tf X ^ y oO ,\ ^ V Po, V lV ■\ A 9 *. x * ° t G> - ^ ■£% %^~ & ^ *oq, Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/educationinuniteOObutl EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES A SERIES OF MONOGRAPHS EDITED BY NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER President of Columbia University in the City of New York NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 1910 Copyright, 1900, by J. B. Lyon Company. Copyright, 1910, by American Book Company. ©CI.A27I447 CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION v Nicholas Murray Butler, President of Columbia University in the City of New York i. EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION . i Andrew Sloan Draper, Commissioner of Education for the State of New York 2. KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION . . . . ' . . .33 Susan E. Blow, Cazenovia, New York 3. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 77 William T. Harris, Sometime United States Commissioner of Educa- tion 4. SECONDARY EDUCATION 141 Elmer Ellsworth Brown, United States Commissioner of Education 5. THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 207 Andrew Fleming West, Professor of Latin in Princeton University 6. THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 249 Edward Delavan Perry, Jay Professor of the Greek Language and Literature in Columbia University 7. EDUCATION OF WOMEN 319 M. Carey Thomas, President of Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania 8. TRAINING OF TEACHERS 359 B. A. Hinsdale, Sometime Professor of the Science and Art of Teach- ing in the University of Michigan 9. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE . . . 409 Gilbert B. Morrison, Principal of the William McKinley High School, St. Louis, Missouri 10. PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 465 James Russell Parsons, Jr., Sometime Director of the College and High School Departments, University of the State of New York, Albany, New York iii IV CONTENTS PAGE ii. SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND ENGINEERING EDUCATION 551 T. C. Mendenhall, Sometime President of the Technological Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts 12. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 593 Charles W. Dabney, President of the University of Cincinnati 13. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 653 Edmund J. James, President of the University of Illinois 14. ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION . . . . *» . - 705 Isaac Edwards Clarke, Washington, B.C. 15. EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 769 Edward Ellis Allen, Principal of the Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind, Overbrook, Pennsylvania 16. SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION . .821 George E. Vincent, Associate Professor of Sociology in the University of Chicago ; Principal of Chautauqua 17. SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS . . . .865 James McKeen Cattell, Professor of Psychology in Columbia Uni- versity 18. EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO . . . . . . .893 Booker T. Washington, Principal of the Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee, Alabama 19. EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN . . . . . . .937 William N. Halimann, Head of the Department of History and Phi- losophy of Education, Cleveland Normal Training School, Cleveland, Ohio 20. EDUCATION THROUGH THE AGENCY OF THE SEVERAL RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS 973 William H. Larrabee, Plainfield, New Jersey INDEX 1023 EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES INTRODUCTION Spontaneity is the keynote of education in the United States. Its varied form, its uneven progress, its lack of symmetry, its practical effectiveness, are all due to the fact that it has sprung, unbidden and unforced, from the needs and aspirations of the people. Local preference and individual initiative have been ruling forces. What men have wished for that they have done. They have not waited for State assistance or for State control. As a result, there is, in the European sense, no American system of education. There is no national educational administrative machinery and no national legislative authority over education in the several States. The bureau of education at Washington was not established until 1867, and save in one or two minor re- spects, its functions are wholly advisory. It is absolutely depend- ent upon the good will of the educational officials of the States, counties, and municipalities, and upon that of the administrative officers of non-tax-supported institutions, for the admirable and authoritative statistics which it collects and publishes year by year. That these statistics are so complete and so accurate is evidence that the moral influence and authority of the bureau of education are very great, and that it commands a cooperation as cordial as it is universal. National government and education — But the national gov- ernment has, from the very beginning, made enormous grants of land and money in aid of education in the several States. The portion of the public domain hitherto set apart by Congress for the endowment of public education amounts to 86,138,473 acres, of 134,591 English square miles. This is an area larger than that of the six New England States, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware added together. It is a portion of the earth's sur- face as great as the kingdom of Prussia, about seven-tenths as VI INTRODUCTION great as France, and considerably greater than the combined areas of Great Britain, including the Channel Islands, and the kingdom of Holland. The aggregate value of lands and money given for education by the national government, as Commissioner Harris shows in detail, 1 is nearly $300,000,000. Education a State function — The uniform tendency of recent development, as marked by judicial decisions and by legislative enactments, is to treat all publicly controlled education as part of a slowly forming system which has its basis in the authority of the State government, as distinguished from that of the nation on the one hand and from that of the locality on the other. This system may be highly centralized, as in New York, or the contrary, as in Massachusetts,' but the theory underlying it is the same. The two fundamental principles which are emerging as the result of a century's growth are, first, that education is a matter of State concern, and not merely one of local preference; and, second, that State inspection and supervision shall be applied so as to stimulate and encourage local interest in education and to avoid the deadening routine of a mechanical uniformity. The State acts to provide adequate opportunity for elementary education for all children, and abundant opportunity for secondary and higher education. But the State claims no monopoly in educa- tion. It protects private initiative, whether stimulated by reli- gious zeal, philanthropy, or desire for gain, in doing the same thing. It is not customary, in the United States, for State officials to inspect or to interfere with the educational work of non-tax- supported institutions. When these are chartered bodies, they are subject simply to the general provisions of law governing cor- porations of their class. When they are not chartered bodies, the State treats them as it does any private business undertaking: it lets them alone. Standards of efficiency and of professional attain- ment are regulated in these institutions by those in neighboring public institutions, by local public opinion, and by competition. Sometimes these forces operate to raise standards, sometimes to lower them. New York has gone farther than any other State in attempting to define and to classify all educational institu- 1 P . 96. INTRODUCTION Vll tions, private as well as public. Pennsylvania has recently entered upon a similar policy; and it is being urged in other States as well. The public elementary schools are more or less carefully regulated by law, both as to length of school term, as to subjects taught, and as to the necessary qualifications of the teachers. The public secondary schools, familiarly known as high schools, and the State universities are usually without any such regulation. Statistics of public education — The term "common schools" is often used in the United States of the public elementary schools alone; but the more correct use is to include under it all public elementary schools, — the first eight years of the course of study, — and all public secondary schools, maintaining a four-year course, as a rule, in advance of the elementary school. In 1897-98 the total estimated population of the United States was 72,737,100. Of this number 21,458,294 — a number nearly equal to the popula- tion of Austria — were of school age, as it is called; that is, they were from 5 to 18 years of age. This is not the age covered by the compulsory education laws, but the school age as the term is used by the United States census. By school age is meant the period during which a pupil may attend a public school and during which a share of the public money may be used for his education. It is obvious, then, that persons who have satisfactorily completed both an elementary and a secondary course of study may still be re- turned as of "school age" and as "not attending any school." This fact has always to be taken into account in the interpretation of American educational statistics. In 1897-98 the number of pupils entered upon the registers of the common schools — that is, the public elementary and the public secondary schools — was 15,038,636, or 20.68 per cent of the total population and 70.08 per cent of the persons of " school age." The total population of Scotland and Ireland is only about half so many as this. For these pupils 409,193 teachers were employed, of which number 131,750, or 32.2 per cent, were men. The women teachers in the common schools numbered 277,443. The teachers, if brought together, would outnumber the popula- tion of Munich. The women alone far more than equal the popu- lation of Bordeaux. No fewer than 242,390 buildings were in Vlll INTRODUCTION use for common school purposes. Their aggregate value was nearly $500,000,000 ($492,703,781). The average length of the annual school session was 143. 1 days, an increase since 1870 of 11 days. In some States the length of the annual school session is very much above this aver- age. It rises, for example, to 191 days in Rhode Island, 186 in Massachusetts, 185 in New Jersey, 176 in New York, 172 in Cali- fornia, 162 in Iowa, and 160 in Michigan and Wisconsin. The shortest average annual session is in North Carolina (68.8 days) and in Arkansas (69 days). Taking the entire educational re- sources of the United States into consideration, each individual of the population would receive school instruction for 5 years of 200 days each. Since 1870 this has increased from 3.36 years, and since 1880 from 3.96 years, of 200 days each. The average monthly salary of men teachers in the common schools was $45.16 in 1897-98; that of the women teachers w r as $38.74. In the last forty years the average salary of common school teachers has increased 86.3 per cent in cities and 74.9 per cent in the rural districts. The total receipts for common school purposes in 1897-98 were almost $200,000,000 ($199,317,597), of which vast sum 4.6 per cent was income from permanent funds, 17.9 per cent was raised by State school tax, 67.3 per cent by local (county, municipal, or school district) tax, and 10.2 came from other sources. The common school expenditure per capita of population was $2.67; for each pupil, it averaged $18.86. Teachers' salaries absorb 63.8 per cent ($123,809,412) of the expenditure for common schools. The commissioner of education believes the normal standard of enrollment in private educational institutions to be about 15 per cent of the total enrollment. At the present time it is only a little more than 9 per cent, having been reduced apparently by the long period of commercial and financial depression which has but lately ended. Illiteracy — Illiteracy in the United States can hardly be com- pared fairly with that in European countries because of the fact that an overwhelming proportion of the illiterates are found among the negroes and among the immigrants who continue to INTRODUCTION IX pour into the country in large numbers. The eleventh census of the United States, taken in 1890, showed that the percentage of illiterates to the whole population was 13.3, a decrease of 3.7 per cent since the census of 1880. But the percentage of illiterates among the native white population (being 73.2 per cent of the whole) was only 6.2 of those ten years of age or older. Among the foreign-born white population (14.6 per cent of the whole) the percentage of illiteracy was 13. 1, and among the colored popu- lation (12.2 of .the whole) it was 56.8. That is, nearly one half of the whole number of illiterates in the United States were colored. Only in Florida, Mississippi, West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, Georgia, Arkansas, Tennessee, South Carolina, Alabama, Louisi- ana, North Carolina, and New Mexico, was the percentage of illiteracy among the native white population greater than 10. This percentage fell below 2 in New Hampshire (1.5), Massa- chusetts (0.8), Connecticut (1), New York (1.8), District of Co- lumbia (1.7), Minnesota (1.4), Iowa (1.8), North Dakota (1.8), South Dakota, (1.2), Nebraska (1.3), Montana (1.6), Wyoming (1.3), Nevada (0.8), Idaho (1.9), Washington (1.3), Oregon (1.8), and California (1.7). In Kansas it was exactly 2. Education and crime — It is not infrequently charged by those who have but a superficial knowledge of the facts, or who are dis- posed to weaken the force of the argument for State education, that one effect of the system of public education in the United States has been to increase the proportion of criminals, particu- larly those whose crime is against property. The facts in refuta- tion of this charge are so simple and so indisputable that they should always be kept in mind. In the first place, it must be remembered that communities which maintain schools have higher standards as to what is lawful than communities which are without the civilization which the presence of a school system indicates, and that, therefore, more acts are held to be criminal and more crimes are detected and punished in a community of the former sort than in one of the latter. A greater number of arrests may signify better police administration rather than an increase in crime. Again, where records have been carefully kept, it appears that X INTRODUCTION the illiterate portion of the population furnishes from six to eight times its proper proportion of criminals. This was established for a large area by an extensive investigation carried on by the bureau of education in 1870. The history of the past fifty years in the State of Massachusetts is alone a conclusive answer to the contention that education begets crime. In 1850 the jails and prisons of that State held 8761 per- sons, while in 1855 the number had increased to three times as many (26,651). On the surface, therefore, crime had greatly increased. But analysis of the crimes shows that serious offenses had fallen off 40 per cent during this period, while the vigilance with which minor misdemeanors were followed up had produced the great apparent increase in crime. While drunkenness had greatly fallen off in proportion to the population, yet commitments for drunkenness alone multiplied from 3341 in 1850 to 18,701 in 1885. The commitments for crimes other than drunkenness were 1 to every 183 of the population in 1850 and 1 to every 244 of the population in 1885. In other words, as has been pointed out, persons and property had become safer, while drunkenness had become more dangerous — to the drunkard. The American people are convinced that their public school system has justified the argument of Daniel Webster, made in 182 1 : " For the purpose of public instruction," he said, "we hold every man subject to taxation in proportion to his property, and we look not to the question whether he himself have or have not children to be benefited by the education for which he pays; we regard it as a wise and liberal system of police, by which property, and life, and the peace of society are secured. We seek to prevent, in some measure, the extension of the penal code by inspiring a salutary and conservative principle of virtue and of knowledge in an early age. We hope to excite a feeling of respectability and a sense of character by enlarging the capacities and increasing the sphere of intellectual enjoyment. . . . Knowing that our govern- ment rests directly upon the public will, that we may preserve it we endeavor to give a safe and proper direction to the public will. We do not, indeed, expect all men to be philosophers or statesmen ; but we confidently trust . . . that by the diffusion of general INTRODUCTION XI knowledge, and good and virtuous sentiments, the political fabric may be secure as well against open violence and overthrow as against the slow but sure undermining of licentiousness." Education and industry — Where the public school term in the United States is longest, there the average productive capacity of the citizen is greatest. This can hardly be a coincidence. When the man of science finds such a coincidence as this in his test tube or balance, he proclaims it a scientific discovery proved by induct- ive evidence. The average school period per inhabitant, taking the United States as a whole, was, in 1897, 4.3 years. The average school period for Massachusetts is 7 years. The proportion, therefore, between the school period in that State and the schocl period in the whole United States is as 70 to 43. It is very inter- esting to note that the proportion between the productive capacity of each individual in Massachusetts and that of each individual in the whole United States is as 66 to 37. Education, 70 to 43; productivity, 66 to 37. On the basis of 306 working days in Massachusetts, and on the basis of a population something over 2,000,000, this means that every citizen of Massachusetts — man, woman, infant in arms — is to be credited with a productive capac- ity every year of $88.75 more than the average for the United States as a whole. Or to put it in- the most striking fashion, it means that the excess of productive capacity for the State of Massa- chusetts in one year is $200,000,000, or about 20 times the cost of maintaining the public schools. If the State of North Carolina, for example, could bring it about through education that every in- dividual's productive capacity was increased 10 cents a day — that is, just one-third the Massachusetts excess — for 306 working days, estimating the population roughly at 1,750,000, the State would be better off in the next calendar year to the amount of $54,000,000. If the increase could equal the Massachusetts ex- cess of 29 cents, North Carolina would be better off to the extent of $160,000,000. North Carolina now spends less than $1,000,000 a year for public education. Public secondary education — The number of public secondary schools, high schools, in the United States in 1897-98 was 5315, employing 17,941 teachers and enrolling 449,600 pupils. Nearly Xll INTRODUCTION 3000 of these schools (2832) were in the North Central States. The rapid increase of these schools, the flexibility of their programme of studies, and the growing value of the training which they offer are among the most significant educational facts of the last two decades. The present rate of increase of secondary school pupils is nearly five times as great as the rate of increase of the population. It is noteworthy, too, that nearly 50 per cent (49.44) of the whole number of secondary school pupils are studying Latin. The rate of increase in the number of the pupils who study Latin is fully twice as great as the rate of increase in the number of secondary school students. Between 1890 and 1896, while the number of students in private secondary schools increased 12 per cent, the number of students in public secondary schools increased 87 per cent. Further, since 1893-94 the number of pupils in private secondary schools has steadily declined. Local influence of the college — The number of colleges in the United States — 472, excluding those for women only — is very large. Many of these institutions, small and weak, ill-equipped and ill-endowed, are frequently criticised severely for endeavoring to continue the struggle for existence. This criticism is, in part, justifiable ; but it ought not to be forgotten that almost every col- lege exerts a helpful influence upon the life of its locality. The fact is frequently overlooked that all American colleges depend for their students in large measure upon their own neighborhood. Few draw from the nation at large, and these few draw only a small proportion of their students from beyond the confines of their own State or the limits of their own section of the country. For example, of the 28,000 (27,956) students attending colleges in the North Atlantic division, 26,393, or 94-4 1 P er cent, are residents of the States included in that division. Of the 8529 students in colleges of Massachusetts, 55.62 per cent are residents of that State, and 83.37 P er cent, are residents of the North Atlantic division, of which Massachusetts is a part. In Oregon the per- centages rise to 96.09 and 99.87, respectively. American universities - - The development of universities in the United States has taken place during the present generation. INTRODUCTION Xlll The name "university" is, in America, no proper index to the character and work of the institution which bears it. Professor Perry has set out illustrations of this fact with great clearness. 1 Nevertheless, the distinctions between secondary school, college, and university are more widely recognized each year, and it is not too much to hope that, in course of time, the various institutions will adopt the names which properly belong to each. The definition of a university which I have suggested else- where 2 is this: "An institution where students, adequately trained by previous study of the liberal arts and sciences, are led into special fields of learning and research by teachers of high excellence and originality; and where, by the agency of museums, laboratories, and publications, knowledge is conserved, advanced, and disseminated." In this sense there are at least half a dozen American universities now in existence, and as many more in the process of making. These universities are markedly different from those of France, Germany, and Great Britain, but they re- spond in a most complete way to the educational needs of the American people, and they are playing an increasingly important part in the advancement of knowledge and the development of its applications to problems of government, of industry, and of commerce. The administrators of American universities have studied carefully the experience of European nations, and they have applied the result of that experience, wherever possible, in the solution of their own problems. Literature of education — The variety and value of American contributions to the literature of education are worthy of notice. Nearly 300 periodical publications of one type or another are devoted mainly to education. A few of these rank with the lead- ing educational journals of the world. Perhaps the publications of the National Education Association, a voluntary organization of teachers of every grade, are the most characteristic American contributions. They include not only the invaluable series of annual Proceedings, containing papers and discussions by the leaders of American education for a generation, but reports upon subjects the particular investigation of which has been undertaken 1 p. 254. 2 The Meaning of Education (New York, 1898), p. 130. XIV INTRODUCTION from time to time by special committees. Among the subjects so reported upon are these: Secondary school studies, Organization of elementary education, Rural schools, College entrance require- ments, Relation of public libraries to public schools, and Normal schools. The most valuable official publications are these: the annual reports, issued since 1868, by the United States commissioner of education, those since 1889 being particularly noteworthy; the reports issued by Horace Mann as secretary of the State board of education of Massachusetts, 1838-49; the twelve volumes of reports issued by William T. Harris, as superintendent of the public schools of St. Louis, Mo., 1867-79; the- annual reports of Frederick A. P. Barnard as president of Columbia College, 1865- 88; and the annual reports of Charles W. Eliot as president of Harvard University, 1871-99. The annual reports of State and city superintendents of schools are a storehouse of information and often contain elaborate discussions of educational theory and practice. Private aid to education — One fact in American education is certainly unique. That is the vast sum given in aid or endow- ment of education by individuals. It recalls the best traditions of the princes and churchmen of the Middle Ages, but is on a vastly larger scale. For some time past the income of Harvard Uni- versity from this source has been nearly or quite a million dollars annually. In 1898-99 the total amount of gifts to Harvard Uni- versity for purposes of general or special endowment was $1,383,460.77, and for immediate use $161,368.90. Columbia Uni- versity has received in the last decade $6,736,482 in money and in land. An unofficial estimate of the amount given by individuals during the year 1899 for universities, colleges, schools, and libraries is over $70,000,000. The tendency which these colossal figures indicate is one of the most fortunate and most hopeful in American life. The makers and holders of great fortunes are pouring out from their excess for the development of the higher life and greater productive capacity of the people. The religious bodies, in par- ticular the Roman Catholic Church, are doing the same thing upon a very large scale. The conviction that education is funda- INTRODUCTION XV mental to democratic civilization is perhaps the most widespread among the American people. Public funds and private wealth are alike given unstintingly in support of it. Fundamental principles of American education — The con- trolling principles that, consciously or unconsciously, underlie American education are three in number: i. American education is far wider than the system of tax- supported schools and universities, numerous and excellent as those schools and universities are. All schools, colleges, and uni- versities, tax-supported or not, are public in the important sense that they all reflect and represent some part or phase of the national life and character. 2. There is no restriction upon the amount, kind, or variety of education which a district, town, or city may furnish, save that which is found in the willingness or unwillingness of citizens to vote the necessary taxes. 3. The tax-supported schools are public schools in the fullest possible sense, and are not maintained for the benefit of persons of any special class or condition, or from any motive which may properly be described as charitable or philanthropic. As to each of these principles a brief explanation may be necessary. The State and the government — While all forms of education may be under government control, yet government control of education is not exclusive, and the national system of education in the United States includes schools and institutions carried on without direct governmental oversight and support, as well as those that are maintained by public tax and administered by govern- mental agencies. Some very important consequences follow from the accept- ance of this principle. A nation's life is much more than an in- ventory of its governmental activities. For example, the sum total of the educational activity of the United States is not to be ascertained by making an inventory of what the government - national, State, and local — is doing, but only by taking account of all that the people of the United States are doing, partly through governmental forms and processes and partly in non-governmen- XVI INTRODUCTION tal ways and by non-governmental systems. In other words, the so-called public education of the United States, that which is tax- supported and under the direct control of a governmental agency, is not the entire national educational system. To get at what the people of the United States are doing for education and to measure the full length and breadth of the nation's educational system., we must add to public or tax-supported education, all activities of similar kind that are carried on by private corporations, by vol- untary associations, and by individuals. The nation is represented partly by each of these undertakings, wholly by no one of them. The terms "national" and "governmental" are happily not con- vertible in the United States, whether it be of universities, of morals, or of efficiency that we are speaking. This point is of far-reaching importance, for it has become one of the familiar political assumptions of our time that any undertaking to be representative of the nation must be one which is under governmental control. Should this view ever command the deliberate assent of a majority of the American people, our institutions would undergo radical change, and our liberties and right of initiative would be only such as the government of the moment might vouchsafe to us. But we are still clear-sighted enough to realize that our national ideals and our national spirit find expression in and through the churches, the newspaper press, the benefactions to letters, science, and art, the spontaneous uprisings in behalf of stricken humanity and oppressed peoples, and a hundred other similar forms, quite as truly as they find ex- pression in and through legislative acts and appropriations, judi- cial opinions, and administrative orders. The latter are govern- mental in form and in effect; the former are not. Both are national in the sense that both represent characteristics of the national life and character. The confusion between a nation's life and a nation's govern- ment is common enough, but so pernicious that a few words con- cerning it are permissible. When Hegel asserted that morality is the ultimate end for which the State — that is, politically organized mankind — exists, he stated one of the profoundest moral and political truths. But it A INTRODUCTION XV11 is pointed out to us by political science that before any such ulti- mate end can be gained, the proximate end of the development of national States must be aimed at. The State operates to develop the principle of nationality which exists among persons knit together by common origin, common speech, and common habitat, through creating and perfecting two things — government and liberty. The first step out of barbarism is the establishment of a govern- ment strong enough to preserve peace and order at home and to resist successfully attack from without. This accomplished, the State must turn to the setting up of a system of individual liberty. It does this by marking out the limits within which individual initiative and autonomy are permitted, and by directing the gov- ernment to refrain from crossing these limits itself and to prevent any one else from crossing them. After government and liberty have both been established, then all subsequent history is the story of a continually changing line of demarcation between them, ac- cording as circumstances suggest or dictate. In the United States, for example, the post office is in the domain of government; the express business and the sending of telegrams are in the domain of liberty. In different countries, and in the same country at different times, the line between the Sphere of government and the sphere of liberty is differently drawn. In Germany the conduct of railways is largely an affair of government ; in the United States it is largely an affair of liberty. Schools, for example, are to-day much more an affair of government than ever before, but they are still an affair which falls in the domain of liberty as well. In short, government plus liberty, each being the name for a field of activity, gives the complete life of the State; government alone does so just as little as the sphere of liberty alone would do so. These principles are all set forth with great lucidity and skill by Professor Burgess, in his work entitled Political Science and Com- parative Constitutional Law. In discussing this distinction, he writes : — It is often said that the State does nothing for certain causes, as, for in- stance, religion or the higher education, when the government does not exercise its powers in their behalf. This does not at all follow. If the State guarantees the liberty of conscience and of thought and expression, XVill INTRODUCTION and permits the association of individuals for the purposes of religion and education, and protects such associations in the exercise of their rights, it does a vast deal for religion and education; vastly more, under certain social conditions, than if it should authorize the government to interfere in these domains. The confusion of thought upon this subject arises from the erro- neous assumptions that the State does nothing except what it does through the government ; that the State is not the creator of liberty ; that liberty is natural right, and that the State only imposes a certain necessary restraint upon the same. . . There never was, and there never can be, any liberty on this earth and among human beings outside of State organization. . . . Mankind does not begin with liberty. Mankind acquires liberty through civilization. Liberty is as truly a creation of the State as is government. 1 A written constitution, it may be added, is a formal act of crea- tion of a government and a careful delimitation of its powers. It also defines the sphere of individual liberty, directly or indirectly, and so the individual is protected by the State against the govern- ment. Through the government he is also protected against en- croachment from elsewhere. In the Constitution cf the United States, for example, the individual is guaranteed by the State the rights peaceably to assemble and to petition the government for a redress of grievances, and the government must both refrain from invading those rights and prevent others from invading them. If the government should fail to do this, the State which created the government would surely remodel or destroy it. The distinction between state and government is of crucial importance for right thinking upon the larger problems of American educational polity. When once the distinction between state and government is grasped, and also the farther distinction between the sphere of government and the sphere of liberty, then it is seen to be a matter of expediency, to be determined by a study of the facts and by argument, whether a given matter — such as support of schools or the control of railways and telegraphs — should be assigned to the sphere of government or to the sphere of liberty. In the United States there are three different types of educa- tional institution, all resting upon the power of the State. One of the three depends wholly and one partly upon the government. 1 Burgess, Political Science and Comparative Constitutional Law, 1 : 87-S9. (N. Y., 1890.) A INTRODUCTION XIX The third type is without any governmental relationship whatever. The three types are these: i. Those institutions which the government establishes and maintains, such as the public schools, the public libraries, and the State universities. 2. Those institutions which the government authorizes, such as school, college, and university corporations, private or semi- public in character, which gain their powers and privileges by a charter granted by the proper governmental authority, and which are often given aid by the government in the form of partial or entire exemption from taxation. 3. Those institutions which the State permits, because it has conferred on the government no power to forbid or to restrict them, such as private-venture (unincorporated) educational un- dertakings of various kinds. The American educational system is made up of all these, and whether a given school, college, or university is national or not does not in the least depend upon the fact that it is or is not gov- ernmental. France and Germany have great national universi- ties which are governmental; England and the United States have great national universities which are non-governmental. Oxford and Cambridge are no less truly English, and Harvard and Columbia are no less truly American, because their funds are not derived from public tax and because the appointments to their professorships are not made or confirmed by government officers. Whether a given institution is truly national or not depends, in the United States, upon whether it is democratic in spirit, catholic in temper, and without political, theological, or local limitations and trammels. It may be religious in tone and in purpose and yet be national, provided only that its doors be not closed to any qualified student because of his creed. It is worth noting that while in the United States the govern- ment bears nearly the entire brunt of elementary education, it finds a powerful ally in non-governmental institutions in the field of secondary and higher education. The statistics gathered by the commissioner of education show that for the year ending June 30, 1900, of all elementary-school pupils 92.27 per cent were enrolled XX INTRODUCTION in governmental institutions, while for secondary and higher education the percentages were 73.75 and 38.17, respectively. In other words, non-governmental institutions — those which are loosely described as private schools and colleges — are instructing about one-thirteenth of the pupils of elementary grade, about one-fourth of the pupils of secondary grade, and about two- thirds of the pupils of higher grade. Almost exactly one-tenth of the whole number of pupils of all grades are enrolled in non- governmental, so-called private, institutions. It is just this word "private" which increases the confusion against which my argu- ment is directed. It is my contention that none of these institu- tions is properly described as "private "; they are all public, but not all governmental. If this point is clear, then we shall have escaped the fallacies and dangers that follow from confusing tax-supported, governmental undertakings with public tenden- cies and movements. In education and in our political life generally, the public tendencies and movements are a genus of which governmental activities are a species. The unlimited power of the people to provide tax-supported edu- cation — The duly constituted authorities of any school district or other political unit may establish and maintain schools of any kind or grade for which the voters consent in regular form to bear the expense. There is a widespread belief that elementary education under government control is a matter of right, but that secondary and higher education under government control are improper invasions of the domain of liberty. There is no ground in American public policy for this belief. The government has the same right to do for secondary and for higher education that it has to do for ele- mentary education. What and how much it shall do, if anything, in a particular case, is a question of expediency; the right to do as much as it chooses is unquestionable. Upon this point there is an important decision, 1 made by unani- mous vote of the Supreme Court of Michigan in 1874, which may fairly be taken to represent our established policy. The opinion was written by Justice Thomas M. Cooley, one of the most 1 Michigan Reports, 30 : 69-S5. A INTRODUCTION XXI learned and authoritative of American constitutional lawyers. The decision was rendered in a suit known as "the Kalamazoo case," to restrain the collection of such portion of the school taxes assessed against the complainants for the year 1872, as was voted for the support of the high school and for the payment of the salary of the superintendent of schools in school district No. 1 of Kalamazoo. The position of the complainants, as stated by the court, was as follows: While there may be no constitutional provision expressly prohibiting such taxation, the general course of legislation in the State and the general understanding of the people have been such as to require instruction in the classics and in living modern languages in the public schools to be regarded as in the nature, not of practical and therefore necessary instruction for the benefit of the people at large, but rather as accomplishments for the few, to be sought after in the main by those best able to pay for them, and to be paid for by those who seek them, and not by general tax. And further, that the higher learning, when supplied by the State, is so far a matter of private concern to those who receive it that the courts ought to declare the State incompetent to supply it wholly at the public expense. In answer to this contention the court expresses surprise that the legislation and policy of the State were appealed to against the right of the State to furnish a liberal education to the youth of the State in schools brought within the reach of all classes. We supposed [adds the court] it had always been understood in this State that education, not merely in the rudiments, but in an enlarged sense, was regarded as an important practical advantage to be supplied at their option to rich and poor alike, and not as something pertaining merely to culture and accomplishment, to be brought as such within the reach of those whose accumulated wealth enabled them to pay for it. The court then passes in review, in most instructive fashion, the development of the educational policy of the State from the beginning, and concludes, as follows: We content ourselves with the statement that neither in our State policy, in our constitution, nor in our laws, do we find the primary school districts restricted in the branches of knowledge which their officers may cause to be taught, or the grade of instruction that may be given, if their voters consent in regular form to bear the expense and raise the taxes for the purpose. XX11 INTRODUCTION In consonance with this opinion is one delivered by the Supreme Court of Missouri in 1883, 1 in which it is held that the term " com- mon," when applied to schools, is used to denote the fact that they are open and public to all rather than to indicate the grade of the school, or what may or may not be taught therein. The court also holds that the term "school" of itself does not imply a restriction to the rudiments of an education. It is interesting to contrast these decisions in Michigan and in Missouri with the conclusion reached by the Court of Queen's Bench in England in 1901 in the now famous case of the Queen versus Cockerton, 2 in which it is expressly held that it is not within the power of a school board to expend money raised by local taxes upon any education other than elementary. The terms of the Education Act of 1870 and of the many acts supplementary thereto no doubt justified the court's decision ; but the fact that such a con- clusion is bad public policy has been brought to the attention of a large number of thoughtful persons, and had no small part in the educational debate which for some time was, perhaps, the most im- portant matter before Parliament and the English people. Tax-supported schools not charity schools — The schools which are maintained by governmental authority are established in the interest of the whole people, and because of the controlling conviction that an instructed and enlightened population is es- sential to the perpetuity of democratic institutions and to their effective operation. The schools are therefore a proper charge upon all taxpaying persons and property, and not merely upon those whose children receive instruction therein. Nor are they in any sense schools which are provided for the poor or the un- fortunate. When stated, this principle seems axiomatic. Nevertheless, it is openly or impliedly denied with surprising frequency. It is safe to say that in all of our large cities there is a class of persons, by no means inconsiderable in number, who look upon the tax- supported schools as they look upon almshouses and asylums. Such persons regard the schools as a part of the community's 1 See Missouri Reports, 1S82-83, 77 : 4 s 5-48o. 2 See Law Reports, King's Bench, 1901, 1:322-360, 726-740. A INTRODUCTION XX111 charitable or philanthropic equipment. In my view, on the other hand, the schools are a part of the community's life. They are not merely to give relief or shelter to individuals, they are to min- ister to the democratic ideal. The very children who sit on the benches are regarded not merely as children, interesting, lovable, precious, but as future citizens of a democracy, with all the privi- leges and responsibilities which that implies. Any one who wishes, for personal, social, or religious reasons, to have his child receive a training other than that which the tax- supported schools give, is at liberty to make such provision for his child as he chooses ; but he is not thereby released from the obli- gation resting upon him as a citizen to contribute to the support of the tax-supported schools. It follows, too, that the parents of those who are pupils in the tax-supported schools have no peculiar rights in connection with the policy of those schools that are not shared by all other citizens. The schools are for the people as a whole, not for those of a district or ward, or of a political party or religious communion, or for those who are either poor or rich. We poison our democracy at its source if we permit any qualifi- cation of this fundamental principle. It is sometimes gravely argued that positions as school officers or teachers should be given only to those who live, at the moment, in the civil community or subdivision in which the school in ques- tion is situated. This is the theory that the schools exist, not for the people or for the children, but in order that places may be provided for the friends, relatives, and neighbors of those who are charged for the time being with the power of appointment. It is an undemocratic theory, because it substitutes a privileged class for open competition among the best qualified. Pushed to its logical extreme, it would look first in the ranks of the descendants of the aborigines for persons to appoint to posts in the educational system. Very few Americans live where their grandparents lived, and it is usually those who have come most recently to a city, town, or village who are loudest in insisting that no "outsider," as the saying is, be given a place as teacher or superintendent. The democratic theory, on the contrary, asks only for the best ; and if the community cannot provide the best it holds that such com- XXIV INTRODUCTION munity should enrich itself by bringing in the best, from wherever it is to be had. As teaching becomes a profession, the teacher and school officer will acquire a professional reputation and status which will make short work of town, county, and even State boundaries. Study of education — Education, conceived as a social insti- tution, is now being studied in the United States more widely and more energetically than ever before. The chairs of education in the great universities are the natural leaders in this movement. It is carried on also in normal schools, in teacher's training classes, and in countless voluntary associations and clubs in every part of the country. Problems of organization and administration, of educational theory, of practical procedure in teaching, of child nature, of hygiene and sanitation, are engaging attention every- where. Herein lies the promise of great advances in the future. Enthusiasm, earnestness, and scientific method are all applied to the study of education in a way which makes it certain that the results will be fruitful. The future of democracy is bound up with the future of education. The present work passes in review these and many other tend- encies in American education. It describes the organization and influence of each type of formal school; it takes note of the more informal and popular organizations for popular education and instruction; it discusses the educational problems raised by the existence of special classes and of special needs, and sets forth how the United States has set about solving these problems. It may truly be said to be a cross-section view of education in the United States. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER. Columbia University. 1 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION BY ANDREW SLOAN DRAPER Commissioner of Education for the State of New York EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION INTRODUCTORY Any treatment of the legal organization and the authori- tative methods of administration by which the great public educational system of the United States is carried on must almost necessarily be opened by a statement of the salient points in the evolution of that system, for the form of organi- zation and the laws governing the operations of the schools have not preceded, but followed and been determined by the educational movements of the people and the necessities of the case. The first white settlers who came to America in the early part of the seventeenth century were from the European peoples, who were more advanced in civilization than any others in the world. Each of the nations first represented had already made some progress in the direction of popular education. Such educational ideals as these different peo- ples possessed had resulted from historic causes, and were very unlike. The influences more potent than any others in determining the character of American civic institutions were English and Dutch. The English government was a constitutional monarchy, but still a monarchy, and the con- stitutional limitations were neither so many nor so strong as later popular revolutions have made them. English thought accepted class distinctions among the people. The advantages of education were for the favored class, the nobility. The common people expected little. Colleges and fitting schools were maintained for the training of young men of noble birth for places under the government and in the government church, but there were no common schools for all. The nobility were opposed to general education lest 4 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [4 the masses would come to recognize God-given rights and demand them, and the masses were yet too illiterate to understand and enforce the inalienable rights of human nature. The Dutch had gone farther than the English ; they had just waged a long and dreadful and successful war for liberty, and with all its horrors war has uniformly sharp- ened the intelligence of a people. This war for civil and religious liberty had enlarged their freedom and quickened their activities ; they had become the greatest sailors and the foremost manufacturers in the world ; and they had estab- lished the government policy of maintaining not only col- leges, but common schools for all. The first permanent white settlers in the United States were English and Dutch. In the beginning they had no thought of ceasing to be Englishmen and loyal subjects of the English monarchy, or Dutchmen with permanent fellowship in the Dutch Republic. They each brought their national educational ideas with them. Each people was strongly influenced by religious feelings, and life in a new land inten- sified those feelings. The English in Massachusetts were at the beginning very like the English in England. The larger and wealthier and more truly English colony recog- nized class distinctions and followed the English educational policy. They first set up a college to train their aristocracy for places in the state and the church, and for a considerable time their ministers, either at the church or in the homes, taught the children enough to read the Bible and acquire the catechism. The Dutch, more democratic, with smaller num- bers and less means, and more dependent upon their govern- ment over the sea, at once set up elementary schools at public cost and common to all. In a few years the English over- threw the little Dutch government and almost obliterated the elementary schools. For a century the English royal governors and the Dutch colonial legislatures struggled over the matter of common schools. The o-overnment was too strong for the humble people ; little educational progress was made. Near the close of that century the government f c] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 5 established King's college to educate sons of noble birth and prevent the spread of republican ideas. The Revolu- tion of 1776 changed all. In fighting together for national independence the different peoples assimilated and became Americans in the new sense. They not only combined their forces in war, but in peace they combined the enlarged intel- ligence which the war had brought to them. They realized that education in all its phases and grades must be encour- aged, and, so far as practicable, made universal under a democ- racy in which the rights of opportunity were to be equal. But while they began to be interested in education it was because they saw that schools would help the individual and so promote virtue and extend religion. It did not occur to them at the first that the safety of the new form of govern- ment was associated with the diffusion of learning among- all the people. This is not strange, for the suffrage was not universal at the beginning of independent government in America. Therefore, while the desirability of education was recognized, it was understood to be the function of parents to provide it for their children, or of guardians and masters to extend it to their wards and apprentices. When schools were first established they were partnership affairs between people who had children in their care, and for their con- venience. They apportioned the expense among themselves ; such as had no children were without much concern about the matter. It was soon seen that many who had children to educate would neglect them in order to avoid the expense of con- tributing to the support of the school. Aside from this the schools were very indifferent affairs. If they were to be of any account they must have recognition and encouragement from government. It was easily conceived to be a function of government to encourage schools. Encouragement was given by official and legislative declarations in their behalf and then by authorizing townships to use funds derived from excise fees and other sources for the benefit of the schools when not otherwise needed. It was a greater step to attempt 6 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [6 to say that townships should require people, who had chil- dren to educate, to maintain schools, and a still greater one to adopt the principle that every child was entitled to at least an elementary education as of right, that this was as much for the safety of the state as for the good of the child, that therefore the state was bound to see that schools were pro- vided for all, and that all the property of all the people should contribute alike to their support. Perhaps it was even a greater step to provide secondary and collegiate, and in many cases professional and technical, training at the public cost. But these great positions were in time firmly taken. There was nothing like an educational system in the United States at the beginning of the nineteenth century. At that time there were four or five colleges, here and there a private academy or fitting school, and elementary schools of indifferent character in the cities and the thinly settled towns. In the course of the century a great system of schools has come to cover the land. It is free and flexible, adaptable to local conditions, and yet it possesses most of the elements of a complete and symmetrical system. The parts or grades of this system may perhaps be designated as follows : a) Free public elementary schools in reach of every home in the land. b) Free public high schools, or secondary schools, in every considerable town. c) Free land grant colleges, with special reference to the agricultural and mechanical arts, in all the states. d) Free state universities in practically all of the southern states and all the states west of Pennsylvania. e) Free normal schools, or training schools for teachers, in practically every state. f) Free schools for defectives, in substantially all of the states. g) National academies for training officers for the army and navy. yl EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION J h) A vast number of private kindergartens, music and art schools, commercial schools, industrial schools, profes- sional schools, denominational colleges, with a half dozen leading and privately endowed universities. This mighty educational system has developed with the growth of towns and cities and states. It has been shaped by the advancing sagacity of the people. Above all other of American civic institutions, it has been the one most expressive of the popular will and the common purposes. Everywhere it is held in the control of the people, and so far as practicable in the control of local assemblages. While the tendencies of later years have, from necessities, been towards centralization of management, the conspicuous char- acteristic of the systems has always been the extent to which the elementary and secondary schools are controlled and directed by each community. The inherent and universal disposition in this direction has favored general school laws and yielded to centralized administration only so far as has come to be necessary to life, efficiency and growth. But circumstances have made this necessary to a very consider- able extent. Bearing in mind the historic facts touching the develop- ment of the school system, we may proceed to consider the legal organization and authoritative scheme of administra- tion which have arisen therefrom. We will begin with the most elementary and decentralized form of organization and proceed to the more general and concentrated ones, following the steps which have marked the growth of the system in a general way, but with no thought of tracing the particular lines of educational advancement in the several states. THE SCHOOL DISTRICT The " school district " is the oldest and the most primary form of school organization. Indeed, it is the smallest civil division of our political system. It resulted from the natural disposition of neighboring families to associate together for the maintenance of a school. Later it was recognized by 8 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [8 law and given some legal functions and responsibilities. Its territorial extent is no larger than will permit of all the children attending a single school, although it sometimes happens that in sparsely settled country the children have to go several miles to school. It ordinarily accommodates but a few families : districts have had legal existence with but one family in each : many with not more than a half dozen families. It is better adapted to the circumstances of the country than to those of the town or city. A different form has been provided for the considerable towns, and still another for the cities as they have developed. The " district system " is in operation in most of the states, and in such the number of districts extends into the thousands. In New York, for example, there are over eleven thousand and in Illinois over twelve thousand school districts. The government of the school district is the most simple and democratic that can be imagined. It is controlled by school meetings composed of the resident legal voters. In many of the states women have been constituted legal voters at school meetings. These meetings are held at least annually and as much oftener as may be desired. They may vote needed repairs to the primitive schoolhouse and desirable appliances for the school. They may decide to erect a new schoolhouse. They may elect officers, one or more, commonly called trustees or directors, who must carry out their directions and who are required by law to employ the teacher and have general oversight of the school. Although the law ordinarily gives the trustees free discre- tion in the appointment of teachers, provided only that a person duly certificated must be appointed, yet it not infre- quently happens that the district controls the selection of the teacher through the election of trustees with known preferences. Much has been said against the district system, and doubt- less much that has been said has been justified. At the same time it cannot be denied that the system has had much to commend it. It has suited the conditions of country life : g] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 9 it has resulted in schools adapted to the thought and wants of farming people : it has done something to educate the people themselves, parents as well as children, in civic spirit and patriotism : and it has afforded a meeting place for the people within comfortable reach of every home. The school has not always been the best, but it has been ordinarily as good as a free and primitive people would sustain or could profit by. It is true that the teachers have generally been young and inexperienced, but they have not yet been trained into mechanical automatons, and as a rule they have been the most promising young people in the world, the ones who, a few years later, have been the makers of opinion and the leaders of action upon a considerable field. Cer- tainly the work has lacked system, continuity and progres- siveness, the pupils have commenced at the same place in the book many times and never advanced a great distance, but, on the other hand, the children in the country schools have had the home training and the free, natural life which has developed strong qualities in character and individual initia- tive in large measure, and so have not suffered seriously, in comparison with the children living in the towns. The dis- trict system has sufficed well for them and it has otherwise been of much advantage to the people ; and with all its shortcomings, or the abuses that are common where it pre- vails, they are hardly worse than are found under more pre- tentious systems. Surely the " American District School System " is to be spoken of with respect, for it has exerted a marked influence upon our citizenship, and has given strong and wholesome impulses in all the affairs of the nation. THE TOWNSHIP SYSTEM While in the first half of the century the general educa- tional purpose seems to have been to make the district sys- tem more perfect, the tendency in the latter half has unmis- takably been to merge it into a more pretentious organization, covering a larger area, and capable of larger undertakings. The cause of this has been the desire for larger schools, IO EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [10 taught by teachers better prepared, and capable of broader and better work, as well as the purpose to distribute educa- tional advantages more evenly to all the people. Accord- ingly, in most of the states there has been a serious discus- sion of the relative advantages of the township as against the district system, and in quite a number of the states the former has already supplanted the latter. The township system makes the township the unit of school government. It is administered by officers chosen at annual town meetings, or sometimes by central boards, the members of which are chosen by the electors of different sub-districts. In any event, the board has charge of all the elementary schools of the township, and if there is one, as is frequently the case, of the township high school. The board, following the different statutes governing them and the authorized directions of the township school electors, provides the buildings and cares for them, supplies the needed furnishings and appliances, employs the teachers, and regulates the general operations of the school. It is at once seen that the township system is much less formally democratic and much more centralized than the dis- trict system. It has doubtless produced better schools and schools of more uniform excellence. One of its most benefi- cent influences has been the multiplication of township high schools, in which all the children of the township have had equality of rights. These high schools have given an uplift- ing stimulus to all the elementary schools of the township, and have led all the children to see that the work of the local school is not all there is of education, and given many of them ambitions to master the course of the secondary school. Very much has been said upon the subject, but it is not necessary to go into it at length here. The township sys- tem has many advantages over the district system for a people who are ready for it. It is adapted to the development and to the administration of a higher grade of schools and very likely to better schools of all grades. It is a step, and an 1 1] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION I I important step, towards that general centralization in man- agement and greater uniformity of improved methods of supervision and instruction now so manifest throughout the school system of the United States. THE COUNTY SYSTEM The southern states, most if not all of them, have a county system of school administration. This has not resulted from the development of the school system, but from the general system of county rather than township government prevalent in all the affairs of the southern states from the beginning, and easily traceable to historic causes. The county is the unit of school government in the southern states, because it has been the unit of all government. The county system is not constituted identically in all of the southern states of the union. In Georgia, for example, the grand jury of each county selects from the freeholders five persons to comprise the county board of education ; in North Carolina the justices of the peace and county com- missioners of each county appoint such a county board of education, while in Florida such a board is elected by the people biennially, and in some states a county commissioner or superintendent of schools is the responsible authority for managing the schools of the county. In Georgia "each county shall constitute one school district," but in. several of the states the county board or superintendent divides the territory into sub-districts and appoints trustees or directors in each. In the latter case the local trustees seem to be ministerial officers carrying out the policy of the county board. In any case the unit of territory for the administra- tion of the schools is the county, and county officials locate sites, provide buildings, select text-books, prescribe the course of work, examine and appoint teachers, and do all the things which are within the functions of district or township trustees or city boards of education in the northern states. 12 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [12 THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS As communities have increased in population they have outgrown any primary or elementary system of organization for school purposes. Laws of general application or com- mon usage in a county sparsely settled would not suffice for a city of many thousands of people. In such cities the peo- ple could not meet to fix the policies and manage the busi- ness of the schools : they could not meet even to choose officers to manage the schools. So the state legislatures have made special laws to meet the circumstances of the larger places. In some states these laws are uniform for all cities of a certain class, that is, cities having populations of about the same number, but more often each city has gone to the legislature and procured the enactment of such stat- utes as seemed suited to the immediate circumstances. Because of this there is no uniform or general system of public school administration in the American cities. Of course there are some points of similarity. In nearly every case there is a board of education charged with the manage- ment of the schools, but these boards are constituted in almost as many different ways as there are different cities, and their legal functions are as diverse as there is diversity in cities. In the city of Buffalo, New York state, the school affairs are managed by a committee appointed by the city council, but happily this case stands by itself, and the evil consequences possible under such a scheme have been much ameliorated in this particular case for the last half dozen years by a most excellent superintendent of schools, elected by the people of that city. In the greater number of cities the boards of education are elected by the people, in some cases on a general city ticket, and again by wards or sub-districts ; in some places at a general or municipal election, and in others at elections held for the particular purpose. But in many cities, and particularly the larger ones, the boards are appointed by the mayor alone, or by the mayor and city council acting 13] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 1 3 jointly. In the city of Philadelphia the board is appointed by the city judges, in Pittsburgh by local directors, and in New Orleans by the state board of education. In a few instances the board is appointed by the city councils. In the city of Cleveland, Ohio, the board of education consists of two branches : a school director elected by the people for the term of two years, and a school council of seven members, likewise elected by the people in three groups with terms of three years each. This scheme was devised in 1892 by prominent business men of the city, and, having been enacted by the legislature, has been in very satisfac- tory operation since. It must be said that there has been much dissatisfaction with the way school affairs have been managed in the larger cities. In the smaller places, even in cities of a hundred thousand or more inhabitants, matters have gone well enough as a general rule, but in the greater cities there have been many and serious complaints of the misuse of funds, of neglect of property, of the appointment of unfit teachers, and of general incapacity, or worse, on the part of the boards. Of course it is notorious that the public business of American cities has very commonly been badly managed. It would not be true to say that the business of the schools has suffered as seriously as municipal business, but it cer- tainly has been managed badly enough. All this has come from the amounts of money that are involved and the number of appointments that are con- stantly to be made. More than a hundred millions of dollars are paid annually for teachers' wages alone in the United States. People who are needy have sought positions as teachers without much reference to preparation, and the kindly disposed have aided them without any apparent appre- ciation of the injury they were doing to the highest interests of their neighbors. Men engaged in managing the organi- zations of the different political parties have undertaken to control appointments in the interests of their party machines. And the downright scoundrels have infested the school organization in some places for the sake of plunder. 14 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [14 As cities have grown in size and multiplied in numbers, the more scandal there has been. And American cities have grown marvelously. In 1790 there was but one having between eight and twelve thousand inhabitants: in 1890 there were one hundred and forty-seven such. By the census of the latter year there were fourteen cities having between seventy-five thousand and one hundred and twenty-five thou- sand inhabitants. Now there are certainly a dozen with more than a half million of people each. The aggregate population of a dozen cities exceeds the aggregate popula- tion of twenty states. But if the troubles have multiplied and intensified as the cities have grown, so has the determi- nation of the people strengthened to remedy the difficulties. There has been no more decided and no more healthy educational movement in the United States in recent years, and none with greater or more strongly intrenched obstacles in its way, than that for better school organization and administration in the larger cities. Its particular features or objective points are pointed out by the committee of fif- teen of the National educational association in the following declarations : * " In concluding this portion of the report, the committee indicates briefly the principles which must necessarily be observed in framing a plan of organization and government in a large city school system. First. The affairs of the school should not be mixed up with partisan contests or municipal business. Second. There should be a sharp distinction between leg- islative functions and executive duties. Third. Legislative functions should be clearly fixed by statute and be exercised by a comparatively small board, each member of which is representative of the whole city. This board, within statutory limitations, should determine the policy of the system, levy taxes, and control the expendi- tures. It should make no appointments. Every act should be by a recorded resolution. It seems preferable that this board be created by appointment rather than election, and jcj EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 1 5 that it be constituted of two branches acting against each other. Fourth. Administration should be separated into two great independent departments, one of which manages the business interests and the other of which supervises the instruction. Each of these should be wholly directed by a single official who is vested with ample authority and charged with full responsibility for sound administration. Fifth. The chief executive officer on the business side should be charged with the care of all property and with the duty of keeping it in suitable condition : he should provide all necessary furnishings and appliances : he should make all agreements and see that they are properly performed : he should appoint all assistants, janitors, and workmen. In a word, he should do all that the law contemplates and all that the board authorizes, concerning the business affairs of the school system, and when anything goes wrong he should answer for it. He may be appointed by the board, but we think it preferable that he be chosen in the same way the members of the board are chosen, and be given a veto upon the acts of the board. Sixth. The chief executive officer of the department of instruction should be given a long term and may be appointed by the board. If the board is constituted of two branches, he should be nominated by the business executive and con- firmed by the legislative branch. Once appointed he should be independent. He should appoint all authorized assist- ants and teachers from an eligible list to be constituted as provided by law. He should assign to duties and discon- tinue services for cause, at his discretion. He should deter- mine all matters relating to instruction. He should be charged with the responsibility of developing a professional and enthusiastic teaching force, and of making all the teach- ing scientific and forceful. He must perfect the organization of his department and make and carry out plans to accom- plish this. If he cannot do this in a reasonable time he should be superseded by one who can." l6 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [16 It ought to be said before passing from this phase of the subject that these principles have made much headway, and that the promise is excellent. There is not a city of any importance in the country in which they are not under dis- cussion, and there are few in which some of them have not been adopted and put in operation. The powers of the city boards of education are very broad, almost without limits as to the management of the schools. They commonly do everything but decide the amount of money which shall be raised for the schools, and in some cases even that high prerogative is left to them. They purchase new sites, determine the plans and erect new buildings, provide for maintenance, appoint officers and teachers, fix salaries, make promotions, and, acting within very few and slight constitutional or statutory limitations, enact all of the regulations for the control of the vast system. The high powers, cheerfully given by the people to school boards, have arisen from the earnest desire that the schools shall be independent and the teaching of the best. Of course these independent and large prerogatives are exceed- ingly advantageous to educational progress when exercised by good men : when they fall into the hands of weak or bad men they are equally capable of being put to the worst uses. And it is not to be disguised that in some of the foremost cities they have fallen into some hands which are corrupt, but more often into the hands of men of excellent personal character, but who do not see the importance of applying pedagogical principles to instruction, and who are, in one way or another, used by designing persons for partizan, self- ish or corrupt purposes. Of course it is not to be implied that there are not to be found in every school board men or women with clear heads and stout hearts who understand the essential principles of sound school administration and are courageously contending for them. Nor must the serious difficulty of holding together pupils from such widely differ- ent homes in common schools be lost sight of. And again, the obstacles in the way of choosing and training a teaching 17] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 1 7 force of thousands of persons, and of continually energizing the entire body with new pedagogical life, must be remem- bered. And yet again, the dangers of corruption where millions of dollars are being annually disbursed by boards which are practically independent, are apparent. But, not- withstanding all of the hindrances, the issue is being joined and the battle will be fought out to a successful result. There can be but one outcome. The forces of decency and progress always prevail in the end. The demands of the intelligent and sincere friends of popular education in our great cities are for a more scientific plan of organization which shall separate legislative and executive functions, which shall put the interests of teachers upon the merit basis and leave them free to apply pedagogi- cal principles to the instruction, which shall give authority to do what is needed and protect officers and teachers, while it locates responsibility and provides the way for ousting the incompetent or the corrupt. The trouble has been that the boards were independent and the machine so ponderous and the prerogatives and responsibilities of officials so confused that people who were aggrieved could not get a hearing or could not secure redress, perhaps for the reason that no one official had the power to afford redress. What is demanded and what is apparently coming is a more perfect system, which will give one credit for good work in the schools and enable a parent to point his finger at and procure the dis- missal of one who inflicts upon his child a school room which is not wholesome and healthful, or a teacher who is physically, pedagogically or morally unfit to train his child. THE STATES AND THE SCHOOLS Since the American school system has come to be sup- ported wholly by taxation, it has come to depend upon the exercise of a sovereign power. In the United States the sovereign powers are not all lodged in one place. Such as have not been ceded to the general government are retained by the states. The provision and supervision of schools is 1 8 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [18 one of these. Hence the school system, while marked by many characteristics which are common throughout the country, has a legal organization peculiar to each state. The dependence upon state authority which has thus arisen has gone farther than anything else towards the development of a system and towards the equalization of school privileges to the people of the same state. Naturally indisposed to relinquish the management of their own school affairs in their own way, they have been obliged to bow to the authority of their states, in so far as the state saw fit to assert its authority, because they could not act without it, as counties, cities, townships and districts have no power what- ever to levy taxes for school purposes except as authorized by the state. They have become reconciled to the interven- tion of state authority, moreover, as they have seen that such authority improved the schools. Of such improvement by such intervention there can be no doubt. In many cases state school funds have been created, or large sums are raised by general levy each year, which are distributed so as to give the most aid to the sec- tions which are poorest and most need it. In the state of New York, for example, the cities pay more than half a mil- lion of dollars every year to the support of the schools in the country districts. In practically all of the states excel- lent normal schools are maintained to prepare teachers for the elementary and secondary schools. In all of the south- ern and western states great state universities are sustained as parts of the state school systems. In ten universities of the North-Central division of states there are twenty thou- sand students in college and professional courses, and the work is of as high grade and of as broad range as in the oldest universities of the country. These things are exert- ing strong influences upon the sentiment of the people of the different states and increasing their respect for the authority of their states over their schools. And the application of state authority to all of the schools supported by public moneys of course makes them more 19] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 1 9 alike and better. The whims of local settlements disappear. The schoolhouses are better. More is done for the prepara- tion of teachers, and more uniform exactions are put upon candidates for the teaching service. The courses of study are more quickly and symmetrically improved. There is criticism and stimulus from a common center for all of the educational work of the state. The different states have gone to very different lengths in exercising their authority. The length to which each has gone has depended upon the necessity of state intervention by the exercise of the taxing power, or of delegating that power to subdivisions of the territory, and upon the senti- ment of the people. In most cases it has been determined by the location of the point of equipoise between necessity and free consent. The state government has, of course, not been disposed to go farther than the people were willing, for all government is by the people. The thought of the people in the different states has been somewhat influenced by considerations which arise out of their early history, but doubtless in most cases it is predicated upon their later experiences. All of the state constitutions now contain provisions relating to popular education. This was not true of the original constitutions of all of the older states, for when they were adopted the maintenance of schools was looked upon as a personal or local rather than a state concern. But later amendments have since introduced such provisions into all of the older state constitutions. And all of the newer ones have contained strong and elaborate sections, making it a fundamental duty of the government they estab- lished to encourage education and provide schools for all. Of course, all of the states have legislated much in refer- ence to the schools, and there is scarcely a session of one of the state legislatures in which they do not receive consider- able attention. In all of the states there is some sort of a state school organization established by law. In practically all there is an officer known as the state superintendent of 20 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [20 public instruction, or the state school commissioner. In some there is a state board of education. In New York there is a state board of regents in charge of the private academies, in some measure of the public secondary schools, and of all of the higher institutions ; and also a state super- intendent of public instruction, with very high authority over the elementary schools and in a large measure over the public high schools. The officer last referred to doubtless is vested with larger authority than any other one educational official in the country. Reapportions the state schools funds; he deter- mines the conditions of admission, the courses of work and the employment of teachers, and audits all the accounts of the twelve normal schools of the state; he has unlimited authority over the examination and certification of teachers ; he regulates the official action of the school commissioners in all of the assembly districts of the state ; he appoints the teachers' institutes, arranges the work, names the instructors, and pays the bills. He determines the boundaries of school districts. He provides schools for the defective classes and for the seven Indian reservations yet remaining in the state. He may condemn schoolhouses and require new ones to be built. He may direct new furnishings to be provided. He is a member of the state board of regents and of the board of trustees of Cornell university. He may entertain appeals by any person conceiving himself aggrieved from any order or proceeding of local school officials, determine the practice therein, and make final disposition of the matter in dispute, and his decision cannot be " called in question in any court or in any other place." All this, with the splendid organization of the state board of regents, unquestionably provides New York with a more complete and elaborate educational organization than any other American state. There are some who think that it is more elaborate and authoritative than necessary ; that it unduly overrides local freedom and discourages individual initiative. One who has 21] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 21 been a part of that system, and who has also been associated with educational work where there is but very slight state supervision, will hardly be disposed to think so. But it is certainly exceptional among the states. Most of them undertake to regulate school affairs but very little. In the larger number of cases the state board of education only controls the purely state educational institutions, and the principal functions of the leading educational official of the state are to inspire action through his addresses and gather statistics and disseminate information deducible therefrom. However, there can be no doubt about the general ten- dency being strongly towards greater centralization. Not only are its advantages quite apparent, but the overwhelming current of legislation and of the decisions of the courts is making it imperative. These are practically in accord, and are to the effect that in each state the school system is not local, but general ; not individual schools controlled by sepa- rate communities, but a closely related system of schools which has become a state system and is entirely under state authority. Local school officials are now uniformly held to be agents of the state for the administration of a state sys- tem of education. The granting of aid by the state, the necessity of the exercise of powers without which the schools cannot live, and which powers reside exclusively in the state, implies the right of the state to name the conditions upon which the aid shall be received, and the duty to see that the exercise of such powers shall result in equal advantages to all. Widely dissimilar conditions lead different states to a greater or lesser appreciation of their educational responsi- bilities and make them more or less able or disposed to exer- cise their leo-al functions to the full measure of their good. Yet all are appreciating the fact that a constitutional, self- governing state exists for the moral and intellectual advan- tage of every citizen and for the common progress of the whole mass. All are moving as best they are able, and according to the light they have, in fulfillment of wise public 22 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION ["22 policy and constitutional obligation. They have employed and will continue to employ different methods. Some will act directly through state officials : some will delegate a large measure of authority to local boards and officials so long as it seems well : but all have the highest authority, the supreme responsibility in the matter, and under the influence of the later knowledge will undo whatever may be necessary, and take whatever new steps may be necessary, to carry the best educational opportunities to every child. And it is the purpose of the people and the law of most of the states that such educational opportunities shall not only be provided for every American child, but that every one shall be required to take advantage of them. Compul- sory attendance laws have been enacted in most of the states. These are not as carefully framed as a good knowledge of educational administration might very easily lead them to be, and they are not as completely enforced as the true inter- ests of many unfortunate children require, yet it may be said safely that the right and the duty of the state to educate them is recognized, and that the tendency towards greater thoroughness in the way of making education universal as a safeguard to our free citizenship is general. It was not so in the beginning, but American public schools are rapidly coming to be related together in a sys- tem of schools, that system a state system, and at once the most flexible and adaptable to our manner of living, our social ideals and our national ambitions. THE GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION As already pointed out, the authoritative management of the schools has never been conferred upon the general gov- ernment, but is reserved to and exercised by the several states. What might have been done at the time of the framing of the federal constitution, if it had been supposed that in a few years the support and management of schools would develop into a government function, can only be speculated upon. It is well known that the members of the 23] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 23 first constitutional convention were not indifferent to edu- cation. But their view of the subject was the view of all men of their time, i. e., that it was highly desirable that all social organizations should encourage, perhaps even by that time that it was proper for government to see that schools were maintained, but that the real responsibility, and of course the expense, should fall upon people legally charge- able with the custody of children. The functions of gov- ernment touching education were not then under considera- tion at all, and when they forced themselves upon public attention the towns, and, when the exercise of the power of taxation became imperative, the states assumed them as they were bound to do. Accordingly, the federal government has never exercised any control over the public educational work of the country. But it may be said with emphasis that that government has never been indifferent thereto. It has shown its interest at different times by generous gifts to education, and by the organization of a bureau of education for the purpose of gathering the fullest information from all of the states, and from foreign nations as well, and for disseminating the same to all who would be interested therein. The gifts of the United States to the several states to encourage schools have been in the form of land rights from the public domain. In the sale of public lands the practice of reserving one lot in every township " for the maintenance of public schools within the township " has uniformly been followed. In 1786 officers of the revolutionary army peti- tioned congress for the right to settle territory north and west of the Ohio river. A committee reported a bill in favor of granting the request, which provided that one sec- tion in each township should be reserved for common schools, one section for the support of religion, and four townships for the support of a university. This was modified so as to give one section for the support of religion, one for common schools, and two townships for the support of a " literary institution to be applied to the intended object by the leg- 24 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [24 islature of the state." This provision, coupled with the splendid declaration that " religion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged," foreshadowed the general disposition and policy of the central government and made the " Ordi- nance of 1787 for the government of the Northwest terri- tory" famous. The precedent here established became national policy, and after the year 1800 each state admitted to the Union, with the exception of Maine, Texas and West Virginia, received two or more townships of land for the founding of a university. In 1836 congress passed an act distributing to the several states the surplus funds in the treasury. In all $28,101,645 was so distributed, and in a number of the states this was devoted to educational uses. But the most noble, timely, and carefully guarded gift of the federal government was embodied in the land grant act of 1862 for colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. This act gave to each state thirty thousand acres of land for each senator and representative in congress to which the state was entitled under the census of i860, for the purpose of founding " at least one college where the leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the legislatures of the states shall respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal education of the industrial classes in the several pur- suits and professions of life." This act has been added to by other congressional enactments and the proceeds of the sales of lands have been generously supplemented by the state legislatures until great peoples' colleges and universi- ties have arisen in all of the States. The work of the United States bureau of education is a most exact, stimulating and beneficent one. Without exer- cising any authority, it is untiring and scientific in gathering data, in the philosophic treatment of educational subjects, 25] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 25 and in furnishing the fullest information upon every con- ceivable phase of educational activity to whomsoever would accept it. Its operations have by no means been confined to the United States. It has become the great educational clearing house of the world. The commissioners who have been at the head of this bureau have been eminent men and great educational leaders. The present commissioner, Dr. William T. Harris, stands without a peer as the most philo- sophical thinker and the readiest writer upon educational subjects in the world. Under such fortunate direction the bureau of education has collected the facts and made most painstaking research into every movement in America and elsewhere which gave promise of advantage to the good cause of popular education. So, while the government of the United States is not chargeable under the constitution with providing or super- vising schools, and while it does not exercise authority in the matter, it will be quickly seen that it has been steadily and intelligently and generously true to the national instinct to advance morality and promote culture by its influence and its resources. PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS Up to this time we have been treating of the American public school system, using the term in its strictest sense. We have been referring to the schools supported by public moneys and supervised by public officers. Yet there is an infinite number of other schools which comprise an import- ant part of the educational system of the country and are of course subject to its laws. Any statement concerning American school organization and administration, even of the most general character, would be incomplete which did not cover these, but obviously it is not desirable in this con- nection to do more than touch upon the relation in which they stand, by common usage and under the laws, to Ameri- can education. In the first half of the century just closing many private " academies " or " seminaries " sprang up in all directions 26 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [26 where the country had become at all settled. This was in response to a demand from people who began to reach out, but could not get what they wanted in the common schools. Any teacher with a little more than ordinary gifts could open one of these schools upon a little higher plane than usual and very soon have an abundance of pupils and a profitable income. Many of these institutions did most excellent work. Not a few of the leading citizens of the country owe their first inspiration and much help to them. The larger part of these schools served their purpose and finally gave way to new public high schools. Some yet remain and continue to meet the desires of well-to-do and select families who prefer their somewhat exclusive ways. A considerable number have been adopted by their states and developed into state nor- mal schools, and not a few have by their own natural force grown into literary colleges. The earlier American colleges were, in the beginning, in a large sense the children of the state. Yale, Harvard, Princeton, Columbia were all chartered by and in some meas- ure supported by their states at the start, and are yet sub- ject to the law, though they have become independent of such support. A vast number of colleges has been estab- lished by the religious denominations for the training of their ministry, and, so far as possible, for giving all their youth a higher education while keeping them under their denomina- tional influence. In recent years innumerable schools have arisen out of private enterprise. Every conceivable interest has produced a school to promote its own ends and accordingly adjusted to its own thought. So professional, technical, industrial and commercial schools of every kind have sprung up on every hand. All such schools operate by the tacit leave of the states in which they exist. The states are not disposed to inter- fere with them, as they ask no public support. Some of them hold charters granted by the legislature, and more secure recognized standing by organizing under general cor- 27] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 2J poration laws enacted to cover all such enterprises. In some cases the states distribute public moneys to some of these institutions by way of encouragement, and perhaps impose certain conditions upon which they shall be eligible to share in such distributions. But ordinarily a state does no more than protect its own good name against occasional impostors who wear the livery of heaven to serve the devil more effectu- ally, and it is feared that some states have not yet come to do this as completely as they ought. The tendency to regulate private schools by legislation, to the extent at least of seeing that they are not discreditable to the state, is unmistakable. New York, for example, has prohibited the use of the name " college " or " university " except when the requirements of the state board of regents are met. All of the reputable institutions, — and they con- stitute nearly the whole number, — desire reasonable super- vision, for it certifies their respectability and constitutes them a part of the public educational system of the state. EXPERT SUPERVISION It has not been convenient in tracing the preceding pages to treat of an exceedingly important phase of the American school system which distinguishes that system from any other national system of education, and which has come to be well established in our laws ; that is, supervision by professional experts, both generally and locally. From the beginning the laws have provided methods for certificating persons deemed to be qualified to teach in the schools. This has ordinarily been among the functions of state, city, and county superintendents or commissioners. Sometimes boards of examiners have been created whose only duty should be to examine and certificate teachers. The functions of certificating and of employing teachers have, for obvious reasons, not commonly been lodged in the same officials. Superintendents began to be provided for by law in the early part of the century. The first state superin- 28 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION [28 tendency was established by New York in 1812. Other states took similar action in the next thirty years. Town, city and county superintendencies came along rapidly, and by or soon after the middle of the century had been set in operation in most parts of the then settled country. The main duty of these officials in the earlier days was to examine candidates for teaching, report statistics, and make addresses on educational occasions. In later years, however, they are held in considerable measure responsible for the quality of the teaching. In the country districts the super- intendents hold institutes, visit the schools, commend and criticise the teaching, and exert every effort to promote the efficiency of the schools, until a discreet and active county superintendent comes to exert almost a controlling influence over the school affairs of his county. In the cities, and particularly the larger ones, the problem is much more difficult. The teachers are much greater in number and the task of securing persons of uniform excel- lence is much enlarged. The schools are less homogeneous and instruction less easy. Frequently the superintendent cannot know the personal qualities of each teacher, or even visit all of the schools. Yet a system must be organized by which, through the aid of assistants, the superintendent's office will be advised fully of the work of every teacher in the system. And if the system is to have anything like uni- form excellence, if the rights of children are to be met, and the instruction is to have life in it, all teachers must be upon the merit basis, the most deserving must be advanced in rank and pay as rapidly as practicable, and the weak must be helped and trained into efficiency or removed from their positions. The laws are coming to recognize the responsibilities and difficulties of the superintendent's position, and are continu- ally throwing about that officer additional safeguards and giving him larger powers and greater freedom of action. The great issue that is now on in American school affairs is 2q] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 29 between education and politics. The school men are insist- ing upon absolute immunity from political influence in their work. It would doubtless seem strange to people of other nations not familiar with our political conditions, that such insistence may be necessary. Pure democracy has its troubles. The machinations of men who are seeking politi- cal influence constitute the most serious of them. However, the good cause of education against political manipulation is making substantial progress. The law books of all of the states show provisions recognizing the professional school superintendent : in many of the states they contain provis- ions directing and protecting his work : and in some of them they are beginning to confer upon him entire authority over the appointment, assignment and removal of teachers, while they impose upon him entire responsibility for the quality of the teaching. It is this professional supervision, by states and counties as well as by towns and cities, taken up almost spontane- ously at the beginning and early established and compen- sated by law, which has given the American schools their peculiar spirit. As intelligence has advanced and the people have come to know the worth of good teaching and have been unwilling that their children should be associated with teachers who have not the kindly spirit of a true teacher, or be kept marking time by incompetents, they have favored larger exactions and closer supervision over the teaching, to the end that it might be in accord with the best educational opinion. All this is yearly becoming more and more appar- ent in the laws, and it is advancing the great body of American teachers along philosophical lines more steadily and rapidly than any other great body of teachers in the world is advancing. American teachers have always had freedom. Now they are learning to exercise it, and they are being permitted to exercise it, in accord with educational principles. 30 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION ["30 CONCLUSION In conclusion a few facts touching the great school sys- tem, the legal organization of which we have briefly tried to sketch, and which has produced that organization and in turn has in part been produced by it, will be of interest. The enrollment of pupils in the state common schools alone was, in 1895-6, 14,379,078. These schools were kept open an average of 140.5 days in the year. The number of teach- ers employed was 130,366 males and 269,959 females, a total of 400,325. The total value of the public school prop- erty was $455,948,164, and the running expenses for the year were $184,453,780. There was raised by taxation $163,023,294. Of institutions above the grade of elemen- tary schools there were 677 colleges and universities, with 97, 134 collegiate students and 69,014 preparatory students. Some of these are too ambitious in calling themselves " colleges," it is true, yet all are doing work that counts, and educational nomenclature is straightening itself out slowly but steadily. There were 5,108 public high schools with 409,433 secondary pupils, and there were 2,100 private high schools and academies with 107,633 secondary pupils. There were yy law schools with 10,449 students, 148 medi- cal schools with 24,265 pupils, 157 theological schools with 8,173 students, and 362 normal schools with 67,380 students. In cities of over 8,000 inhabitants there were 601 schools with 3,590,875 pupils. In the whole country there were 7,184 public libraries with 34,596,258 volumes. In the year 1896 there was paid for teachers' and superin- tendents' wages in the common schools $116,377,778, or 63. 1 per cent of the total expenditure for school purposes. Laws making attendance at school compulsory have been enacted in 32 states and territories. One of the most gratifying facts in connection with the educational work of the United States is the large increase in the number of graduate students in the colleges. The following table exhibits the number of resident graduate 3i] EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 31 students in universities and colleges of the United States for 25 years and down to as late a time as the figures are available : 1871-72 198 i872-'73 219 1873-74 283 1874-75 369 1875-76 399 1876-77 389 1877-78 4H 1878-79 465 1879-80 411 i88o-'8i . . . . 460 1882-83.. 522 1883-84. . ... 778 1884-85.. . .. . 869 1885-86.. ••• 935 i886-'87.. ... 1,237 1887-88.. . . . 1,290 1888-89.. • •• i,343 1889-90 1,717 i890-'9i 2,131 1891-92 2,499 1892-93 2,851 1893-94 3,493 1894-95 3,999 1895-96 4,363 1896-97 .. 4,919 The United States bureau of education, to which I am indebted for the foregoing figures and much other informa- tion, is aided by a corps of 15,000 voluntary correspondents who furnish printed reports and catalogs and cheerfully answer the bureau's inquiries upon every phase of educa- tional work. It is of course difficult for one not familiar with American institutions and American ways to understand or appreciate the American school system. To him it seems anything but a system. It is a product of conditions in a new land, and it is adapted to those conditions. It is at once expressive of the American spirit and it is energizing, culturing and ennob- ling that spirit. It is settling down to an orderly and sym- metrical institution, it is becoming scientific, and it is doing its work efficiently. It exerts a telling influence upon every person in the land, and is proving that it is supplying an education broad enough and of a kind to support free institutions. KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION BY SUSAN E. BLOW Cazenovia, New York KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION The history of the kindergarten in America is the record of four sharply defined movements ; the pioneer movement, whose point of departure was the city of Boston ; the philan- thropic movement, whose initial effort was made in the vil- lage of Florence, Mass., and whose greatest triumphs have been achieved in San Francisco ; the national movement, which emanated from St. Louis ; and the great maternal movement which, radiating from Chicago, is now spreading throughout the United States. The first of these move- ments called public attention to the several most important aspects of the Froebelian ideal ; the second demonstrated the efficiency of the new education as a redemptive force ; the third is making the kindergarten an integral part of the national school system ; the fourth is evolving a more enlightened and consecrated motherhood and thereby strengthening the foundations and elevating the ideals of American family life. In 1840 the first kindergarten was established by Friedrich Froebel at Blankenburg, Germany. Nineteen years later Miss Elizabeth Peabody of Boston became interested in Froebel's writings. In 1867 she went to Germany to study the kindergarten system. Returning to America in 1868 she devoted the remainder of her life to the propagation of Froebel's educational principles. Through her apostolic labors parents were inspired to seek the help of the kinder- garten in the education of their children ; philanthropists were incited to establish charity kindergartens ; the Boston school board was persuaded to open an experimental kinder- garten in one of its public schools and a periodical devoted to the elucidation and dissemination of Froebelian ideals was founded and sustained for four years. The pioneer move- ment, therefore, broke paths in the four directions of private, 4 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [36 public, philanthropic and literary work. Above all through the contagious power of devout enthusiasm it created the consecrated endeavor without which the kindergarten as Froebel conceived it can have no actual embodiment. In 1872 an independent pioneer movement was begun in New York by Miss Henrietta Haines who invited Miss Boelte to conduct a kindergarten in her school for young ladies. Miss Boelte had studied three years with Froebel's widow, had won a high reputation in Germany, and later had done efficient work in England. About a year after her arrival in America she married Prof. John Kraus and estab- lished an independent kindergarten and normal class. Her normal work still continues and she is to-day the leading rep- resentative in America of the Froebel tradition. The power of her work results from her resolute adherence to all the details of the original Froebelian method. By this unswerv- ing conformity she has kept alive, through their practical application, ideas which are of the highest importance to the theoretic development of the kindergarten system. In 1874 Mr. S. H. Hill, of Florence, Mass., contributed funds to open the first charity kindergarten in the United States and later put in trust a sum sufficient to sustain and extend the work. Four years later a philanthropic move- ment was initiated in Boston by Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw, who for the ensuing fourteen years supported free kindergartens for poor children, these beneficent institutions reaching at one time to thirty in number. The influence of her noble example has doubtless conspired with other causes to create the one hundred and fifteen local associations which are now rendering efficient service to the Froebelian cause in differ- ent sections of the United States. Of such philanthropic associations the wealthiest and best organized is the Golden Gate association of San Francisco. At the time of its greatest prosperity this organization supported forty-one kindergartens ; had given training to more than thirty thou- sand children ; had received in endowments and other forms of contribution five hundred thousand dollars ; and had pub- 37] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 5 lished and distributed over eighty thousand annual reports. Unfortunately the financial depression of 1893 reduced its subscription list and at present it supports only twenty-three kindergartens. A training school for kindergartners is con- ducted under its auspices. Other associations deserving of special mention are the New York kindergarten associa- tion, which supports seventeen kindergartens, and whose aim is to provide for the children against whom the over- crowded public schools still close their doors ; the Brooklyn association, which provides for sixteen kindergartens, and under whose auspices there were conducted during the past year one hundred and eighty-three mothers' meetings ; the Pittsburgh and Allegheny free kindergarten association, which in six years has established twenty-eight kindergar- tens, with an enrollment of fourteen hundred children ; the Cincinnati association, which supports twenty-four kinder- gartens ; the Free kindergarten association of Chicago, which supports eighteen kindergartens and has a flourishing normal school ; the Chicago Froebel association, whose presi- dent organized the first charity kindergarten in that city, and to the veteran leader of whose normal department is due in large measure the introduction of the kindergarten into the Chicago public schools ; the Louisville association, which supports nine kindergartens, and has parents, nurses, Sun- day school, boarding and normal departments. Valuable as is the work accomplished by private kinder- gartens and kindergarten associations, it is necessarily a restricted work ; and had the Froebel ian movement devel- oped only upon these lines the kindergarten must have remained forever the privilege of the wealthy few, and the occasional gift of charity to the abject poor. The public kindergarten opened in Boston, though carried on for sev- eral years, was finally given up upon the plea that the city could not afford to appropriate funds to extend the system, and a second public kindergarten, which was opened in Brigh- ton, Mass., in January, 1873, was abolished when Brighton was annexed to Boston in 1874. Meantime, however, Hon. 6 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [38 William T. Harris, the present United States commis- sioner of education, who was then superintendent of schools in St. Louis, had called attention to the kindergarten and suggested that experiments be made with a view to intro- ducing into the public school such features of the system as might prove helpful in the education of children between the ages of four and six. The outcome of this suggestion was the opening of an experimental kindergarten in the fall of 1873. The work was approved by the school board; new kindergartens were opened as rapidly as competent directors could be prepared to take charge of them, and when Dr. Harris resigned his position as superintendent in 1880 the St. Louis kindergartens had an enrollment of 7,828 chil- dren and the system was so firmly established that it has since that time proved itself impregnable to all attack. The experiment in St. Louis was a crucial one and had it failed it would have been difficult to prevail upon other cities to introduce the kindergarten into their public schools. There were many ready arguments against such an innova- tion : the argument from expense ; the argument based on the tender age of kindergarten children ; the argument that kindergartens would spoil the children and fill the primary grade with intractable pupils ; the argument that only rarely endowed and, therefore, rarely to be found persons could suc- cessfully conduct a kindergarten. These arguments would have acquired irresistible force when confirmed by an abor- tive experiment. Dr. Harris steered the kindergarten cause through stormy waters to a safe harbor. He proved that the kindergarten could be made an integral part of the public school system. He reduced the annual expense to less than five dollars for each child. He called attention to the fact that the years between four and six were critical ones and that the needs of the child at this period were not provided for either by the family or the school. He convinced him- self that children who had attended kindergartens conducted by competent directors did better on entering school than those who had received no such training, and the weight of 39] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 7 his authoritative statement gave other educators faith in the • possibilities of the system. Finally, he proved that with wise training young women of average ability made satisfac- tory kindergartners. It was impossible to go on repeating that a thing could not be done in face of the fact that it had been done, and with the success of the experiment in St. Louis recognition of the kindergarten as the first stage of all public education became simply a matter of time. The reasons which convinced Dr. Harris of the value of the kindergarten are stated in the following extract from his monograph entitled Early History of the Kindergarten in St. Louis, Mo. : " If the school is to prepare especially for the arts and trades it is the kindergarten which is to accomplish the object, for the training of the muscles, if it is to be a train- ing for special skill in manipulation, must be begun in early youth. As age advances it becomes more difficult to acquire new phases of manual dexterity. Two weeks' practice of holding objects in his right hand will make the infant in his first year right handed for life. The muscles yet in a pulpy consistency are very easily set in any fixed direction. The child trained for one year in Froebel's gifts and occupations will acquire a skillful use of his hand and the habit of accu- rate measurement of the eye, which will be his possession for life. " In the common school, drawing, which has obtained only a recent and precarious foothold in our course of study, is the only branch which is intended to cultivate skill in the hand and accuracy in the eye. The kindergarten, on the other hand, develops this by all its groups of gifts. " Not only is this training of great importance by reason of the fact that most children must depend largely upon manual skill for their future livelihood, but from a broader point of view, we must value skill as the great potence which is emancipating the human race from drudgery by the aid of machinery. Inventions will free man from thral- dom to time and space. " By reason of the fact already adverted to, that a short training of certain muscles of the infant will be followed by 8 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [40 the continued growth of the same muscles through his after life, it is clear how it is that the two years of the child's life (his fifth and sixth), or even one year, or a half year in the kindergarten will start into development activities of muscle and brain which will secure deftness and delicacy of indus- trial power in all after life. The rationale of this is found in the fact that it is a pleasure to use muscles already inured to use ; in fact a much-used muscle demands a daily exercise as much as the stomach demands food. But an unused muscle or the mere rudiment of a muscle that has never been used, gives pain on its first exercise. Its contraction is accompanied with laceration of tissue, and followed by lameness, or by distress on using it again. Hence it hap- pens that the body shrinks from employing an unused muscle, but, on the contrary, demands the frequent exercise of muscles already trained to use. Hence in a thousand ways unconscious to ourselves, we manage to exercise daily what- ever muscles we have already trained, and thus keep in prac- tice physical aptitudes for skill in any direction. H«n5-H**=H * * * * * " The kindergarten should be a sort of sub-primary edu- cation, and receive the pupil at the age of four or four and a half years and hold him until he completes his sixth year. By this means we gain the child for one or two years when he is good for nothing else but education, and not of much value even for the education of the school as it is and has been. The disciplines of reading and writing, geography and arithmetic, as taught in the ordinary primary school, are beyond the powers of the average child not yet entered upon his seventh year. And beyond the seventh year the time of the child is too valuable to use it for other than general disciplines, — reading, writing, arithmetic, etc., and drawing. He must not take up his school time with learning a handicraft. " The kindergarten utilizes a period of the child's life for preparation for the arts and trades without robbing the school of a portion of its needed time. " Besides the industrial phase of the subject which is per- tinent here, we may take note of another one that bears indirectly on the side of productive activity, but has a much wider bearing. At the age of three years the child begins to emerge from the circumscribed life of the family, and to acquire an interest in the life of society and a proclivity to 41] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 9 form relationship with it. This increases until the school period begins, at his seventh year. The fourth, fifth and sixth years are years of transition not well provided for either by family life or by social life in the United States. In families of great poverty the child forms evil associations in the street, and is initiated into crime. By the time he is ready to enter the school he is hardened in vicious habits, beyond the power of the school to eradicate. In families of wealth, the custom is to entrust the care of the child in this period of his life to some servant without pedagogical skill and generally without strength of will power. The child of wealthy parents usually inherits the superior directive power of the parents, who have by their energy acquired and pre- served " the wealth. Its manifestation in the child is not reasonable, considerate will power, but arbitrariness and self- will — with such a degree of stubbornness that it quite over- comes the much feebler native will of the servant who has charge of the children. It is difficult to tell which class (poor or rich,) the kindergarten benefits most. Society is benefited by the substitution of a rational training of the child's will during his transition period. If he is a child of poverty, he is saved by the good associations and the indus- trial and intellectual training that he gets. If he is a child of wealth, he is saved by the kindergarten from ruin through self-indulgence and the corruption ensuing on weak manage- ment in the family. The worst elements in the community are the corrupted and ruined men who were once youth of unusual directive power, — children of parents of strong will." By reducing his argument in favor of the kindergarten to a brief statement which no one could dispute and whose force every one could appreciate, Dr. Harris greatly increased its weight, and immediately upon the publication of his report the movement in favor of public kindergartens showed an increased momentum. In the twenty-nine years which have elapsed since the successful experiment in St. Louis the kindergarten has been made part of the public school system in one hundred and eighty-nine cities. In 1897-98 the total number of public kindergartens was 1,365 ; the total number of teachers 2,532 ; the total number of pupils 95,867. IO KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [42 The cities which have the most fully developed systems of public kindergartens are Boston, Chicago, St. Louis, Phila- delphia, New York, Brooklyn, Milwaukee, Indianapolis, Rochester, Des Moines, Grand Rapids, Brookline, Newark, Jamestown and Los Angeles. Philadelphia, which reports 201 kindergartens, leads in numbers all the cities of the United States. St. Louis follows with 115 kindergartens, New York with 100, Boston with 67, and Chicago with 63. An estimate, based on the sale of kindergarten material, fixes the total number of kindergartens in New York at 600, so that, including private work and association work, this city has presumably a more extensive provision of kin- dergartens than any other in the United States. Sixteen cities have a special supervisor of kindergartens. The following states have the most extensive provision of kindergartens, public and private. The order of the names indicates the relative extent of the provision : 1 New York 8 Wisconsin 2 Massachusetts 9 Pennsylvania 3 Michigan 10 Ohio 4 Illinois 11 Indiana 5 California 12 Iowa 6 Connecticut 13 Colorado 7 New Jersey 14 Minnesota 15 Washington In the year 1873 the National bureau of education began collecting statistics with regard to the total number of kin- dergartens in the United States. The results are necessa- rily imperfect, but they enable us to form an approximate idea of the growth of the system. Taking public and pri- vate work together, the advance of the kindergarten is shown in the following tables : 1873 1S82 1892 Kindergartens, Teachers Pupils 42 73 1 252 348 814 16916 1 311 2 535 65 296 4 363 8 937 1 89 604 43] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION II Since the aim of the kindergarten is not instruction, but development, its results cannot be tested by examinations or expressed in statistical tables, but must be gathered from the testimony of experts who have had time and opportunity to study its influence. In other words, kindergarten children must be judged by elementary teachers and principals of schools, and unless, upon entering the primary grade, they show superiority to children coming direct from the home, the kindergarten cannot be said to have justified its adoption into our national system of education. Conversely, if the mental and moral superiority of kindergarten children prove to have converted primary teachers and school principals from enemies into warm friends of the Froebelian method, this fact should be accepted as convincing evidence of the merit of the work. Before presenting the testimony which I have collected, it is necessary to call attention to the fact that, in the kinder- garten, talking is not forbidden, but, on the contrary, chil- dren are encouraged to share with the kindergartner and with each other all their happy experience of effort and suc- cess. It is, therefore, natural that pupils promoted from the kindergarten should not at first understand the law of silence imposed by the character of the work in the elementary grades, and hence that, without any bad motive on their own part, they should prove troublesome pupils during the first weeks of school life. The failure to understand this fact has caused some unjust criticism of kindergarten children. It will, however, be apparent to all who read carefully the testimony now to be submitted that the adjustment of the kindergarten child to the school environment is a problem which is rapidly progressing towards a happy solution. The more complete the testimony offered, the more cer- tainly should we expect to find some differences of opinion as to the characteristics of kindergarten children. In any large city there will probably be a few incompetent kinder- gartners and some unintelligent or reactionary primary teachers. That the kindergarten fails to commend itself to X 12 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [44 teachers who are themselves mere martinets should be accounted a merit rather than a defect. The condemnation of incompetent kindergartners by wise primary teachers is a cause of rejoicing to all true friends of the Froebelian method. The influence of the kindergarten should be determined by the majority report. Variations of opinion should be explained by the occasional defect of the kinder- gartens and the occasional incapacity or prejudice of the judge. The most extensive and carefully collected information which I have received with regard to the characteristics of kindergarten children came from Miss Laura Fisher, director of the sixty-nine public kindergartens of Boston, and con- sisted of 163 letters from teachers of the first grade sent in reply to the following circular communication from Mr. Edwin P. Seaver, superintendent of the Boston schools: " To the principals of districts : " For the Paris Exposition of 1900 Miss Susan E. Blow has been appointed to prepare a monograph of the kinder- garten in the United States. She desires to use the infor- mation which you can gather by asking teachers of your first grade primary to answer carefully the questions hereto appended. Please give a copy of these questions to each first grade teacher, asking her to prepare her answers and give them to you as soon as possible. Ask her to be per- fectly frank in her expression of opinion even if she must make some unfavorable criticisms. "In returning the answers to me after you have collected them, you will confer a great favor if you yourself will write your impressions of the kindergarten system of instruction. " QUESTIONS " i. How many years have you taught children in the first grade ? " 2. About what proportion (per cent) of your children have come to you from the kindergarten ? " 3. What, if anything, have you observed as to the char- acteristics of kindergarten children as compared with other children ? 45] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 1 3 " 4. How do you think the kindergarten training has affected the progress of the children in the primary grade, particu- larly in your own grade? Has their progress been quicker in point of time ? Has the character of the work done been improved ? " From the 163 letters received in reply to this circular I eliminated those reporting that less than ten per cent of the children attending the given primary room had received kindergarten training. I also omitted several letters based upon experience with children who had been only a few weeks or months in the kindergarten. The total number of letters omitted was 36. Of the remaining 127 letters 102 are favorable and 2 5 unfavorable to the kindergarten. Among the letters which I have classed as unfavorable one only is unqualified in its disapprobation. All the others admit some distinctive merits in kindergarten children, those most frequently specified being increased power of observation and linguistic expression, greater manual skill, and more general information. The most frequent criticisms are that kindergarten children are talkative and not easily amenable to school discipline. I quote two letters which represent the general trend of unfavorable criticism : I " I have taught the lowest grade one year, two months. " About fifty per cent of my children came from the kindergarten. " I find the kindergarten children are less inclined to obey quickly. They have acquired the habit of whispering over their work which has seriously hurt my other children. I find they understand in some cases more quickly than the other children and are more deft with their fingers. " My kindergarten children are evenly scattered over my class. Owing to limited experience I think I am hardly competent to make a trustworthy estimate of the work of kindergarten children as compared with others. The chil- dren who came from home were nearly seven years of age, and as the children who came from the kindergarten were in most cases younger, there has been but little difference in the results of their work." 14 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [46 II " I have taught children in the first grade something over two years in all. About one-fifth of this present class has attended a kindergarten, but has not come direct to me from there. " I have noticed that they observe much more closely than ordinary children, that they are skillful with their hands in any kind of work that calls for skill, as drawing, clay work, science, etc. That in the arrangement of material, such as busy work, they are more orderly and careful in arrangement. I have found by looking the matter up that the children who have passed through kindergarten now pres- ent in my room are among the worst behaved and trouble- some in the whole room. I also notice a habit to watch each other's work too much. " I cannot say that I have found them any more able to take the work than ordinary children. I do not know that their minds are any more fitted for the retention of new ideas. I think, in some cases, the work is better done by these children than it would be without such training. But I do not know that some of the others would have done any bet- ter work with the kindergarten training. For some children I think it a great help, for others I might say unnecessary." Contrasting the 102 favorable with the 25 unfavorable letters, the first fact which thrusts itself upon the notice of the reader is that the majority of their writers seem to have had little difficulty in solving the problem of discipline. A large proportion of these letters make no direct reference to this question, while the account given of the moral charac- teristics of kindergarten children precludes the thought that they have been found difficult to control. Most of the varying shades of opinion expressed by the remaining writ- ers are indicated in the following extracts, and in the letters quoted in full at the conclusion of my summary of the Bos- ton testimony in behalf of the kindergarten : DISCIPLINE " During the first weeks of the school term the children from the kindergarten are very lively, in fact more so than 47] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 1 5 is best for the good order of the school room. This is due to the great amount of freedom which the children are allowed in the kindergarten. This fault, if it may be con- sidered as such, must be corrected. When the child realizes that he is in a new atmosphere and that he must attend to one person he very soon adapts himself to the change." " The kindergarten has done so much that is of great value to the children, that I am willing to overlook the only little difficulty that I have found. During the first few weeks of school the children like to go about and show their little friends what they have succeeded in doing or finding out and whisper or talk about it. But they soon learn that we can all work better when each one takes care of his own work and the inclination to move and talk gradually diminishes." 3 "The children I received from the -kindergarten were more restless at first. They were easier to discipline after a short time." 4 " Kindergarten children are alert and active, with eager questioning minds and eyes that see and note everything. They know how to use their hands and how to talk and are lovable and sympathetic. They come to the primary room happy, self-confident and talkative. On the other hand, the discipline of such children is very hard and it requires the greatest effort on the teacher's part to accustom them to the quiet, independent work of the primary room." 5 " Entering school from the kindergarten the children have already learned their social relations and their obligations to their companions. Hence from the first there is an absence of shyness and fear, and a school made up of kindergarten children is a delightfully social community. This trait, if firmly and tactfully dealt with, leads not to disorder but to right school spirit. I have not found it more difficult to tone down this trait than to arouse it as it lies dormant in other children." 1 6 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [48 " Each year the kindergarten children come to school better prepared than the year before. I have noted this particularly in regard to discipline. They are each year more ready to settle down to quiet work. They seem each year to be more evenly developed." 7 " The discipline in my class during the time I had kinder- garten children was as good, if not better, than it was when I had children come to me from their homes. In point of fact, I much prefer the kindergarten children." "The moral side of the child's nature receives special care in the kindergarten. The careful, firm discipline of the kin- dergarten has a great effect upon the receptive minds and hearts of the children. Many of the mothers are glad to testify to this influence. The rough child grows more gentle, the thoughtless child more careful." 9 " The most important characteristic of my kindergarten children was their high moral tone. There was among them more than the usual spirit of kindness, good will and help- fulness. They were more easily controlled than other chil- dren by an appeal to reason or honor. For little children, they had a very quick perception of right and wrong." 10 " Kindergarten children give so much better attention, follow directions so much more readily and apply themselves so much more diligently that they progress much more rap- idly than other children. Their work is always well done and they do all the work given them, particularly what is known as busy work. A great deal of time is saved in this way and the discipline of the school is made much easier." Replying to the questions with regard to the relative progress of kindergarten children and the character of 49] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION I J their work thirty-eight teachers report both a progress quicker in point of time and improvement in the quality of work. Thirteen teachers report increased rapidity without change in the character of work, and twenty-eight improve- ment in the character of work without increased rapidity of progress. Thus fifty-one report greater rapidity, sixty-six improvement in quality of work, and seventy-nine a decided gain either in speed or quality or in both. The remaining twenty-three teachers seem to consider that kindergarten training increases the child's general intelligence but does not noticeably affect the ordinary routine of school work. In the Kindergarten Magazine for March of the current year Miss Sarah Louise Arnold, superintendent of primary schools, Boston, pronounces a judgment which confirms the majority report of the teachers whose testimony I have summarized. Her statement is as follows : " As a matter of fact the children who have had the full kindergarten training advance much more rapidly than do the children who come to the primary room without such training. In certain schools the kindergarten children have been separated from the other children entering the first grade, and have been taught by teachers who understood the work of the kinder- garten. In almost every instance these classes have com- pleted the primary course in two years instead of three." To the disciple of Froebel the most interesting para- graphs of the Boston letters are those which answer the question, " What, if anything, have you observed as to the characteristics of kindergarten children as compared with other children?" In condensing these replies I have grouped them under three heads, first, specific gain in knowledge and skill, second, intellectual, and, third, moral characteristics. The specific gains mentioned are clearer ideas of number, form and color ; greater knowledge of and interest in nature, improved singing, better expression in reading, improved articulation, more orderly and careful arrangement of material in busy work, and greater manual skill shown especially in writing and drawing. The intel- 1 8 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [50 lectual characteristics of kindergarten children as compared with others are said to be greater general activity of mind, quicker comprehension, a more receptive mental attitude, greater logical power, greater concentration, more imagina- tion, greatly increased powers of observation and expression, quicker recognition of likenesses, differences and relations, greater love for the beautiful and visibly increased origi- nality and creative power. Of their moral characteristics it is said that as compared with others kindergarten children are neater, cleaner, more orderly, more industrious and more persevering. They are also more self-reliant, more pains- taking and more self-helpful. They are less self-conscious and more polite. They obey more quickly and are more gentle towards each other. They have a more developed spirit of helpfulness. They are more eager, alert, enthusi- astic and responsive. They are interested in a wider range of subjects. They have finer sensibilities, manifest love for and confidence in their teachers and show special interest in everything pertaining to home and family life. In thus condensing the evidence of many different writers I necessarily rob it of force and color. It seems well, there- fore, to present a limited number of replies in full in order that readers may judge for themselves of the impression created by kindergarten children upon teachers of different character, age and experience. I " I have taught children in the first grade about six years. About 35 per cent have come to me from the kindergarten. " These children show certain characteristics which are not so fully developed in the other children. Their intel- lectual qualities are, as a rule, more fully developed, espe- cially perception, imagination, memory and power of thought. Their sensibilities, too, as a general thing, are much quicker to act. For example, if a flower is given to each member of the class, it is the little boy or girl who has attended the kindergarten who is the first to feel its beauty. Power of expression is well developed in these children. What stands 51] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION ig out more than anything else in these small kindergarten people is the cheerful, sunny atmosphere they bring to the primary room and the spirit of kindness and helpfulness. In other words, they have begun to come into that stage where love for all humanity is developed in a simple child- like way. It seems to me that this is the most important characteristic of the child from the kindergarten. " I think the progress of these children in the primary school is greatly facilitated by their previous training. Their progress has been quicker as to time. The character of the work done has been improved." II " I have taught children in the first grade two years. " The first year 72 per cent had attended kindergarten ; the second year 74 per cent. " The kindergarten child observes more quickly and with greater accuracy. He is methodical in thought, and, conse- quently, in all expression, oral, written and manual. From an ethical standpoint he is superior to the non-kindergarten child. In all ways he is more intelligent, more nearly the being his Creator meant him to be. " The kindergarten training has been a powerful agent in stimulating the ambition of the child and in making pro- gress a continual joy. " In the majority of cases the progress of the kinder- garten children has been quicker in point of time. In all cases the character of the work has been improved." Ill " I have taught a little over two years in the first grade. " Last year all my children had attended the kindergarten ; this year only 5 per cent. " I have found that where the children have had a kinder- garten training they are much more industrious, interested, observant, enthusiastic, imaginative, responsive and courte- ous. They have more general information. The training they have received is a great help in number, language, expression in reading, drawing and all manual work. " The progress has been quicker in point of time, and the work on an average much neater." 20 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [52 IV " I have taught children in the first grade for five years. " Until November of the present school year about 80 per cent of my children have come to me from the kinder- garten. Very few children have come directly to me from their homes. Those who have not come from the kinder- garten have usually spent more or less time in the first grade before they have come to me. " The majority of the kindergarten children have been more anxious to work. They have had more confidence in their ability to do what is required of them, and have shown more perseverance in conquering difficulties. Their work has been cleaner, neater and arranged in a more orderly manner. Their power of concentration is much stronger. Their creative power is also much more highly developed. Through their games and talks, they have acquired more knowledge of the world about them, which knowledge has been of much help to them in their new work, especially in reading, language and drawing. They have learned to write more readily, and they have clearer ideas of number. Their love of the beautiful and their power of appreciating beauti- ful thoughts have been much greater. " As a rule, the child who has had a full kindergarten training has done much better, stronger work in the first grade than one who has been in the kindergarten but a short time, or than one whose attendance has been very irregular. " Progress has been quicker in point of time, for the chil- dren who have had the benefit of the full kindergarten training have accomplished more in a given time than those of the same age who have not received the same training. The character of the work has been improved." V " I have taught children in the first grade thirty-two years. "Since the kindergarten was established in our district, about four years ago, about fifty per cent of my pupils have come to me from that grade. Before that time, I received only a few children from the kindergarten. " The characteristics of kindergarten children consist of trained powers of observation, skill in using the hands, a 53] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 21 knowledge of number, form, color and music. A great deal has been done for some children in teaching them self-control. " I think the effect of the kindergarten training; has been decidedly favorable to the progress of the children in my own grade. " Their progress in point of time has not been much quicker, as I have had very few who have had more than one year of kindergarten training, and several of the bright ones have been delicate children who could only attend half a day or quite irregularly. " I have a class of children whose parents are not anxious to have them pushed. " The character of the work done has been much improved." VI " I have taught four years, one in the Hancock district and three in the W. Allston. " The first year fifty per cent of my children were from the kindergarten ; the second, third and fourth years about fifteen per cent. " Kindergarten children are creative, self-active and inde- pendent. They are accustomed to school life and used to being one of many instead of one alone. " They have been waked up and are used to thinking. They are ready to begin to learn, whereas other children, with the exception of those who have brilliant minds, have to become accustomed to school work. Kindergarten chil- dren have learned how to work, how to use their hands, how to care for property. " They have a good foundation for any kind of work. " For the above reasons they are able to do the work of my grade in half the prescribed time. They always get more out of their work than other children and are always at the head of the class." VII " I have taught six years in the first grade. About 30 per cent of my children have come to me from the kindergarten. " I have observed that kindergarten children are interested and ready at once for the work. The other children do not know how to act. Much time is taken up in teaching them minor details. They are not so quick with their ringers. 22 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [54 " The kindergarten children know how to handle their pencils and learn to write in a very short time. " In every case the kindergarten children have shown marked progress in the primary grades. " Toward the latter part of the school year they have done second grade work. I have been interested in follow- ing their course through the grammar school, and have found that they received double promotion." VIII " I have taught children in the first grade fifteen years. " Last year about fifty per cent, this year about sixty per cent, and in preceding years perhaps thirty or forty per cent, of my children came to me from the kindergarten. " I find the children who have had two years of kinder- garten training ready to do the work of the first grade, whereas other children need a great deal of preliminary work. The muscles of the hands of these children have been so trained that they are ready to use pen or pencil for writing and drawing, ready to cut and fold paper, ready to handle material for seat work. This training of the hands has had its corresponding development in the brain, and their minds are ready to intelligently guide the hands and to grasp new ideas. Their eyes have been so trained that they are ready for the color, form and observation work. This training of the eye affects also the work in reading very noticeably, as the children distinguish the forms of words and letters more easily. Their ears have been so trained that they are ready to listen and follow directions. Their number experiences have been many and varied, and it is in arithmetic especially that I notice their advantage over other children. " In fact the normal child who has had a thorough kinder- garten training does rapidly, and with ease, understanding, joy and appreciation what the normal child without this training does slowly and with difficulty. " The kindergarten training has helped many of my chil- dren to do the work of the primary grade in less time than other children, but I think the great gain has been in the character of the work. It has been in quality rather than in quantity ; in enrichment and expansion rather than in extent." 55] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 23 IX " I have taught children in the first grade eight years. " I have always had some kindergarten children in my class with the exception of this year. Last year my class was made up wholly of the kindergarten children. The kindergarten children are wide-awake. I never had such an enthusiastic spirit in my class as I did the year it was made up wholly of kindergarten children. The children who come directly from home are, as a rule, diffident, and not responsive. It usually takes two weeks to get acquainted, to find some common bonds of interest. The kindergarten children I had watched in the kindergarten. I knew the stories and pictures they loved ; the work they had done in form and color, and the games they had played. We were friends at once, and the work began earlier and with less friction. The children from home stand in awe of the teacher ; the others have grown to love school and its work. The spirit of helpfulness is very strong. The first two weeks of school I was troubled with the discipline. The children talked aloud and hummed, but they worked. The humming did mean a happy spirit, but of course it did hinder the work. The talking without permission I found was almost always prompted by good motives. At the end of three weeks these children succeeded very well in these directions. They are good workers and they must have enough to do. Folding hands and sitting up straight does not appeal to them. " The training given the children in the kindergarten enables them to take up work more intelligently. They are wide-awake in observation lessons. They are quick in rec- ognition of form and color, and in seeing resemblances. They are intensely interested in stories and poems. I never had a class who read with so much expression. I think the work done in the kindergarten sonars sweetened their voices. • 1 Of course I do not think the kindergarten training makes a dull boy bright, but I do think that a dull child is brighter and more responsive than if he had not had this training. " In point of time, if by that is meant double promotions, the children have not gone on any faster. But I do think the children were better developed and more ready to take up the second grade work than the children entering the first grade from home. 24 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [56 " I think the kindergarten children do better and neater work. They are more self-reliant. They have more cre- ative power and are always ready with new combinations in design work." X " I have taught the lowest grade in the primary school for four years. My first class contained no kindergarten chil- dren ; my second, third and fourth contained 33 1-3, 100 and 70 per cent respectively, making an average of 51 per cent. " I have found the kindergarten children to have broader, more original and better trained minds than most of the other children. They are better able to concentrate their attention ; they grasp an idea more readily and go ahead by themselves. They distinguish form more quickly, and so learn to write and read in a shorter time than the others. They have already formed habits of cleanliness and punctu- ality which, with other children of the lower classes, we have to struggle some months to establish. " I think the kindergarten training has advanced the pro- gress of the children in the primary school both in point of time and in the character of the work. If a child has had two years' training in a kindergarten and then enters my room at the age of five and a half or six he can generally finish the first grade work by March first and enter the third grade in September, and, as I have stated in the previous paragraph, the work is better and more intelligently done and shows much originality." XI " It is a great pleasure to me to have the opportunity offered by the questions sent us relative to kindergarten work in preparation for the Paris Exposition to say that I think the kindergarten training is of vital importance to the children of foreign and ignorant parentage such as we have in our district. From general judgment I say that all chil- dren need the kindergarten, but I know that it is of the first importance to those who come from oppressed, lawless and unlovely homes. I hope the fact that I have taught only two years in this grade will not render my testimony worthless. " Last year about 5 per cent of my children had had some, but not a complete kindergarten training. This year, for one month, about 95 per cent of my children were, from the 57] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 25 kindergarten. At the end of that time the best 45 per cent moved on, the rest remaining with me. None of those left with me had completed the kindergarten course before enter- ing the primary grade. That one month's experience with nearly a whole class of kindergarten children was delightful. " To my mind the comparative characteristics of the kin- dergarten child and the street child are these : " The kindergarten child observes and discriminates ; is intelligent in his attitude towards things ; is able to remem- ber things taught ; is ingenious, spontaneous, interested and imaginative ; has a sense of honor and respects the property and rights of others ; is gentle, kind, helpful and thought- ful ; possesses a sense of the beautiful, and a sense of indi- vidual moral responsibility ; is cognizant of the Supreme Being and reverential. " The street child is unobservant, dull in attitude, weak in imagination, indifferent to things. He is rough, shame- less, thoughtless, teasing, disregards the rights and property of others, is little moved by the beautiful, is ignorant in gen- eral, and, therefore, lacking in love and reverence. He has no sense of individual responsibility and is morally chaotic. " The kindergarten child has further learned to direct him- self along a specific line of action whether it be work or control, in obedience to a spoken or unspoken law. He is, in short, intelligent, sensitive, responsive and self-directing in a far greater degree than the other child. With regard to rapidity of progress, I can answer only in regard to the work in my own grade. The kindergarten child, as I have observed him, moves much more rapidly over the ground of work than another child of equal ability. " The character of the work done by kindergarten chil- dren shows a great improvement over that done by other children. Their manual training helps them to learn writing and seat work more quickly. The information they have acquired in the kindergarten and the dexterity they have gained enable them to progress rapidly, while at the same time their work is better done. They bring to their work a respect for it which increases their sense both of its dignity and of their own dignity. " Of great importance in such a district as ours is the training in understanding good English which the kinder- garten gives the child. Our children who come directly from the homes are a long time learning to understand us 26 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [58 when we speak plain but good English. They are also a long time learning to express themselves. In the expression of what has been impressed upon them, kindergarten chil- dren are greatly in advance. " The whole mental and moral character of the children who have attended the kindergarten is much superior to that of the children who come to us directly from the home. " I have one suggestion, not a criticism, to make. A very few children, who have strong imagination and who prefer to use their imagination rather than their perception, are likely to have that tendency increased by the training in imagination given in the kindergarten, so that they have difficulty in seeing things as they really are. For example, such children repeatedly read one word of a sentence and then recite a sentence totally unlike what is before them. I think that kindergarten teachers do not realize this as we do, and that in the care of such children they ought, perhaps, to lay more stress upon truth-telling. This is the only possible fault I have seen in a child as a kindergarten child, and this only in a very few children. " I wish that all children under six years of age in our district were compelled to go to the kindergarten before entering the primary room." XII " It is my pleasure, as it is also my duty, to submit the following answers to the questions issued in the recent cir- cular with regard to the effects of kindergarten training upon the pupils of my own grade, the first primary. " Five years has been the length of my service in the first grade. " About forty per cent of my pupils have received instruc- tion in the kindergarten. The children who have had kin- dergarten training seem to possess greater enthusiasm for and interest in their school work, and, therefore, concentrate their attention sooner and for a longer period than those from home. " My pupils from the kindergarten have greater and more accurate powers of observation and discrimination. This fact is noticeable in their quick recognition of written forms and their associated sounds. " The vocabulary of the kindergarten child is larger, and his power of expression, therefore, greater. He is less shy 59] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 2j and timid and so expresses himself readily and freely. He is able from this fact to take up the regular language work in reading sooner, and so time is saved. The willingness to narrate his experiences is so marked that I have to be care- ful that the others have equal opportunities to express them- selves. This is true particularly at the beginning of the school year. " The experience gained in the kindergarten helps the child to understand the literature presented to him more readily and thoroughly. " Generally the kindergarten child recognizes numbers and performs operations with them more quickly than other chil- dren, helped by his former work in weaving and other kin- dergarten occupations. These latter also help him to be more skillful with his hands. He can be left at his busy work with less oversight and with better results to be seen on inspection. This is a saving of time. The manual training which he has received also results in a greater power of expression in the drawing and writing lessons. The terms used in drawing are also more familiar, being recalled instead of newly learnt. Consequently less drill is needed. " The kindergarten child is more familiar with school routine, and, therefore, requires fewer directions. Having attended school before, the primary teacher is not obliged to spend time and energy in comforting him on his separa- tion from home friends. " Finally, the kindergarten child seems to me more cour- teous, more helpful and more ready to recognize the rights of his fellow-pupils. " The kindergarten pupils now in my own grade have been able to accomplish more in the required studies than those of the same age who came directly from home. The few exceptions occur in the cases of children who are not to be regarded as normal. " Several children who have received the full kindergarten course have been able to omit the second year course in the primary, and have, therefore, completed that course in two years instead of the usual three years. This does not occur with other children unless they are unusually old when they enter or have special home training. One child, who proved too immature for the work of my grade, after a short train- ing in the kindergarten, was able to do the work better and more quickly than he could possibly have done without it. 28 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [60 " That the character of the work has been improved, I have no doubt. Since I have always been so fortunate as to have some pupils from the kindergarten, I cannot compare the work accomplished with that of pupils, all of whom came direct from home. The comparison I have made between the latter and kindergarten children seems to be just, and I feel sure the kindergarten has helped to produce better results throughout my class, even when a very small propor- tion of the children in the class had had the benefit of its training." The following letter, also received from Boston, and writ- ten by a teacher of third grade, shows that the influence of kindergarten training extends beyond the primary room : " In speaking of the value of kindergarten training I judge from observation and inference rather than from a close grade connection with it. " I have more than once met with such contrasts in the moral attitude and mental atmosphere of younger children who had been under kindergarten training, and older ones from the same family who began school life before kinder- gartens were established, that I can attribute the source of the happy and healthful influence to but one cause. Indeed, it was unmistakably evident in several instances that the leaven had worked where it would happily do so much good in the future in raising the minds of the parents to a finer conception of the duties and possibilities in training their children. This has come to me more than once from a per- sonal confession and acknowledgment. An influence that makes thus early for the formation of character surely can- not have too high an estimate, especially from those whose efforts must succeed it in the work. " I feel that to the kindergarten training is due much of the possibility of developing in the children the power to observe, to generalize, to execute and to express themselves as intelligently and thoughtfully as they were able to do a year or two later in school life, before kindergartens were with us. In my present class the kindergarten children are all to be promoted with one exception, and they are ten months younger than the other children. Their average age is eight years and ten months, while that of the non- kindergarten children is nine years and eight months, or practically a year of school life. I find the difference is 6l] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 2Q. about the same in favor of kindergarten children for several years back, as far as I examined. There seems to be but one influence as to the cause for this, the quickening and brightening influence of the first training, coming at a time when the children are awakening fast to the multitude of influences and interests which surround them, and which is of a character to lead the little hearts and hands to the best they can think and do." The limits prescribed for this monograph prevent me from doing full justice to the valuable material sent me from Boston. So far as I am aware, no equal number of competent witnesses reporting upon children received from so large a number of kindergartens have ever been publicly cited in behalf of the Froebelian method. Their testimony proves beyond peradventure that the kindergartens of Bos- ton have actually achieved nearly all the results claimed for the system by its most enthusiastic friends. The following letter from Mr. Edwin P. Seaver, superintendent of the Boston public schools, describes the obstacles with which the kindergarten has still to contend and suggests a plan by which its influence may be increased : " My acquaintance with kindergartens began in the year 1 88 1, when, in making my first official visits in the Boston schools, I found the kindergartens then privately supported by Mrs. Shaw in certain school rooms granted rent free for that purpose by the school committee. At first I was amused by the novel exercises, and then pleased by the evi- dent hold these exercises, or the teachers, or both, had upon the children. Longer and closer study of the kindergarten exercises convinced me that here was a real educational agency of singular efficiency. " Looking at it from the practical side I observed that there were some thousands of children in Boston whose education both morally and intellectually would be greatly advanced by their being placed at an early age in good kindergartens. I thought too that for all children the kindergarten was the best means of passage from the home to the primary school. A knowledge of the spirit and methods of the kindergarten spread among the primary teachers seemed likely to exercise a beneficial influence on 30 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [62 the primary schools. There was no doubt that this same benign influence had made itself felt in many homes. Among the strongest early friends of the kindergarten were many parents whose children had been kindergarten pupils. There were many primary teachers whose experience with kindergarten children enabled them to analyze and describe the effects of the kindergarten system of instruction in favor- able terms. " These were some of the considerations which moved me in the year 1888 to recommend that the kindergarten be made an integral part of the system of public instruction in the city of Boston. Since this was done, the public kinder- gartens have steadily grown in number and in popularity, in so much that nearly all school districts in the city are sup- plied with them, and about one-third of the children now pass through them before entering the primary schools. Our primary teachers have become more and more appre- ciative of the excellent foundation the kindergarten gives for the child's subsequent instruction. Altogether, it may truly be said that the public kindergartens of Boston have fulfilled, and more than fulfilled, the expectations formed of them at the time of their adoption. Imperfections they have shown, as what schools or what things human do not ? But every year there have been improvements, every year a better understanding of the essential principles of kinder- garten instruction, and every year a more widespread knowl- edge of the practical benefit of these principles when prop- erly applied. " As to the subsequent progress of kindergarten children in the school grades, it has been impossible for me to arrange and properly carry out a thorough statistical inquiry. I can only say in general that my impressions, gathered from con- versations with teachers these many years, lead me to the conclusion that the progress of kindergarten children com- pares very favorably with that of other children of the same age and similar environment. This progress is not so much manifested by quicker passage from grade to grade in the schools — for there is much that is arbitrary and artificial in the rules governing the promotion of pupils through the grades — as it is in the broader and stronger work done by children whose education has been started aright in the kindergarten. " Another influence which obscures the result in statistical 63] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 3 1 inquiry arises from the fact that the tests applied to deter- mine progress are often quite out of harmony with that theory of education of which the kindergarten is an exem- plification. The principles worked out by Froebel in the kindergarten were also by him applied to the later education of children and youth. Therefore, the subsequent progress of kindergarten children ought to be tested by methods which are consistent with those principles. "Still another obstacle in the way of satisfactory statistical work is the fact that in very many of the classes of the first primary grade only a minority of the children are from kin- dergartens. The teacher is apt to adapt her methods to the wants of the majority. So it happens that the kindergarten children suffer from a change in the method of their instruc- tion. What was so well begun in the kindergarten is broken off, and, consequently, the results that might other- wise have been expected never appear. Notwithstanding all these difficulties it has been possible in Boston to organ- ize a few primary classes, composed wholly, or almost wholly, of kindergarten children. The progress made by such classes has been eminently satisfactory. This result seems to warrant the belief that if all children could be taken through the kindergarten before entering the primary schools the instruction in the latter would be advanced and enlarged to a degree not now possible." Much of the information received from other cities I omit because it does not relate to experiences with a sufficiently large number of children. I have, however, condensed the following results from letters sent me by Miss Mary C. McCulloch, supervisor of the St. Louis kindergartens. These letters, thirteen in number, were written by teachers of the first grade, and reported the progress of kindergarten chil- dren in each of the several districts of the city. Two of the letters I eliminated because, while kindly in feeling, they were not precise in statement. Of the remaining eleven let- ters nine reported that kindergarten children were proficient in arithmetic, and affirmed the conviction that the training of the kindergarten facilitated progress in learning to write, and was of marked value in learning to read. The other two recognized no difference in these respects between kin- 32 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [64 dergarten children and children who came to school direct from the home. The unanimous verdict was that kinder- garten children were superior to others in drawing. All the letters concurred likewise in the statement that kindergarten culture developed the aesthetic sense. The intellectual characteristics specified were accurate observations ; correct expression ; power to make numerical combinations ; famili- arity with geometric forms ; quick recognition of magnitude and relation ; a generally increased perceptive power, and signal ability in illustrating poems and stories. With regard to manners and morals nine teachers recognized the good influence of the kindergarten. Of the remaining two one found " few causes for complaint," and the other referred merely to a possible good effect upon order and punctuality. The moral characteristics which were said to distinguish kindergarten children were order, cleanliness, courtesy, con- sideration, kindness, a perceptible development of the ideal of social dependence and " a love for the beautiful in char- acter awakened by fairy tales and developed along the lines of self-abnegation through song, stories, games and daily practice." From Mrs. Alice H. Putnam, to whose labors is largely due the adoption of the kindergarten by the school board of Chicago, I have received the following valuable testi- mony of superintendents and principals of schools : From Dr. E. Benj. Andrews, superintendent of schools : " Our best first grade pupils are from the kindergarten, and the influence of kindergarten teaching- is more and more felt in all the grades. Its ethical and social value is equal to its intellectual value. In fact the kindergarten is now recognized by all thoughtful persons as one of society's main hopes for the future." From Albert G. Lane, Esq., district superintendent : " It has been noticeable that children well trained in the kindergarten have keen sense-perception, possess construct- ive and expressive power and are alert, active and open- minded." 65] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 33 From James Hannan, Esq., assistant superintendent : " The most positive friends of the kindergarten are those who know it best. No principal who has had one in his school is willing to do without it. We have had several cases where the principal of an old school has been trans- ferred to a new one and in every such case there has been urgent demand for the establishment of a kindergarten in the new school." From Mr. Lincoln P. Goodhue of the D. S. Wentworth school : " The kindergarten-trained child is more responsive in early primary work, has greater freedom of thought and expression, better and more definite control of motor activi- ties and many well-established useful habits not usually found in the ordinary beginner. " During the first year many of the kindergarten children take first rank in their rooms, although some fall into the lower classes, even into the C class. It is seldom, however, that a kindergarten child is found overtime in grade. In the second year and above opportunity for the observation of the kindergarten child in this school has been quite lim- ited, and I am unable to submit any definite statement. " That the average child is helped very materially by the kindergarten course must be admitted. That the children of the poor are led into habits of thought and conduct which their home environment could never develop is also true. " The dull child, while he may still be dull, must be quick- ened more or less by kindergarten training well done. The whole question as to the value of the kindergarten can be answered only when the other question as to the training and qualifications of the kindergarten teachers has been positively settled. It is more true in the kindergarten per- haps than in the grades that the teacher makes the school." From Miss Minnie R. Cowan, principal of the McAllister school : " In the following respects we find the pupils who have had kindergarten training very superior to children who come directly from the home, — power of observing closely and accurately and ability to express their thoughts readily and clearly. 34 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [66 " They have also a considerable degree of manual skill, and in the first year of school life especially this is a great aid to their progress. " I have not found that they ordinarily gain any time in the grades, but they do the work of the grades more easily and perfectly." From Mrs. Elizabeth Huntington Sutherland, principal of the Alice E. Barnard school : " Having been seventeen years in this school, I have had many large families begin and complete their work with me. " The older three or four children of said families were in school before our kindergarten was established ; the younger three or four since. Invariably there is a marked contrast in the ability of the two groups. The younger ones are brighter in every way, and often seem hardly to belong to the same stock. Much of this difference I believe to be due to the early wholesome awakening brought about by the training in the kindergarten." From Mr. Fulton B. Ormsby, principal of the Perkins Bass school : " My observations thus far convince me that the kinder- garten is a distinct and positive help to the future progress of the child. " The motor activities are so developed that the various occupations of the school room are taken up with skill and readiness, and the powers of observation so aroused that the more formal instruction, if desired, may be undertaken at once with success. " In our school, the children who have had the kinder- garten training are advancing more satisfactorily than those who lack such training." From Mr. Samuel A. Harrison, principal of the Burroughs school : " The observations of myself and teachers are that pupils coming from the kindergarten : " i. Know better how to handle themselves. They have been trained to control their attention, and can begin school work at once. " 2. They have gained some little learning in singing and numbers. 67] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 35 " 3. They are cleaner, neater and better mannered, and their training shows to advantage in all school proprieties." From Mr. Frank A. Houghton, principal of the Kershaw school : " The kindergarten has a most excellent influence on the primary grades. I feel its influence on the work of the first grade especially." Miss Ida De La Mater, extra teacher, who supervises the primary work of the Kershaw school, adds : " I have found that the kindergarten children lack concen- tration, self-control, and are hard to discipline. "In the games, story work, language and general informa- tion, they are better than other children. I am in hearty sympathy with the work." From Mr. Charles F. Babcock, principal of the Holden school : " The children who have been in the kindergarten classes are noted for their powers of observation and expression, fluency in language, etc. They are vastly superior to those who have not had this training. The only objection to them is that they develop into regular chatterboxes, and it takes some time to tone them down. We have the kinder- garten and non-kindergarten classes together and can speak of them better for so doing." From Mr. Daniel Appleton White, principal of the Everett school : " I have carefully revised the records of this school in regard to the progress of kindergarten children. By com- paring the progress of several hundreds of children who are at present members of this school, I obtain the following statistics : " Of one hundred promotions from first to second grade, I find that the children who have had the kindergarten work required an average time of thirty-seven and one-half weeks for the completion of the grade work, while the others required forty-four and one-third weeks for the same. For the second grade the respective results are forty-five and one-tenth weeks and forty-four and eight-tenths weeks. For the third grade forty-three and seven-tenths weeks and forty- 36 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [68 six weeks, while for the fourth grade the average time required was thirty-three weeks and forty-four and four- tenths weeks. " In addition to these facts I cheerfully submit my opinion of the advantages of the kindergarten training so far as I have observed them. In my judgment * * * the chil- dren gain exceedingly in regard to the following points : " The formation of good habits, the development of free- dom and activity, the power to understand directions, the social element, and last, but not the least, the attention paid to cleanliness." Since the kindergarten system has been more highly developed in Boston, Chicago and St. Louis than in other places, testimony from these cities has seemed to me of the highest importance. Similar results are, however, showing themselves in many smaller cities and towns, in witness whereof I permit myself to quote the following published statements : I " Having often been asked if there is any difference in the ages of those children in the several grades who have had kindergarten training and those who have not been so fortunate, I have this year taken some pains to see if there is really any difference. I find that the age of the kinder- garten trained children in every grade is actually less than that of the remainder of the class by a few months until the eighth grade is reached, where the difference is ten months, or one whole school year. At first this does not seem very much, but a year at school is a great factor in the life of any student." (Olive Mctienry, principal of Hawthorne school, Des Moines, Iowa. Published in report of city superintend- ent of schools for 1893-94.) II " Referring to our kindergartens and schools as we see them in New England, what is the opinion of the most intel- ligent primary teachers to-day concerning what the kinder- garten does ? Being very familiar with this matter in a town where eleven kindergartens, having some nineteen teachers, are feeding the primary schools, it is a pleasure to say that there is unanimous agreement on the part of all the 69] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 37 primary teachers that the children receive incalculable benefit through their kindergarten training, and are far bet- ter prepared to take up the activities of the school because of that training. " Many of these teachers are well advanced in life, and had long experience before the kindergarten was adopted in the town. They have not been hasty in making up their minds ; on the other hand, they have no doubt been slow in doing so. They find the kindergarten children coming to them full of anticipation of what they are to enjoy, and they are slow to adopt any measure that tends to dampen this enthusiasm. They find them active and needing activ- ity. They are quick to see, curious to ask questions, and anxious to co-operate in everything pertaining to the school. And it is delightful to note that the same methods which make the kindergarten a highly socialized community where there is much mutual sympathy, and co-operation operate also in the school so that it becomes something quite different from the school of other days when children were treated as little men and women and when the aim of the teacher was to have as little stir and activity as possible, doing violence to the nature of the child and often crippling him for life. " The time has come when we may safely claim that the kindergarten with all that it has brought to the school of spirit and method gives enlarged capacity to do work of all kinds and its beneficent influence is felt not only in all grades of schools but in college and in after life." (Samuel T. Dutton, Superintendent of Schools, Brookline, Mass., in Kindergarten Magazine for April, 1899.) In view of the attacks so freely and insistently made upon what is called the " sentimentalism " of the kindergarten, it may be well to call attention to the fact that none of the expert witnesses whose testimony I have quoted seem to have detected its existence. That among kindergartners there are some sentimentalists I have no doubt. That sentimen- talism is inherent in the Froebelian ideal or tolerated in the best training schools for kindergartners I unhesitatingly deny. There is greater danger of its appearance in private than in public work because any person calling herself a kindergartner may be accepted as such by ignorant or 38 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [70 thoughtless parents. In public kindergartens under compe- tent supervision its persistence is impossible. It is greatly to be desired that all cities establishing kin- dergartens in connection with their public schools, should insist'upon having a specially qualified supervisor. With- out watchful and intelligent guidance the kindergarten tends either to relapse into a mere play school or to become too closely conformed to the primary school. The ideal super- visor stands to the individual kindergartner in a relation similar to that which the latter occupies towards her children. She quickens their intellectual and moral aspiration, deepens in them the complementary impulses of self-culture and child- nurture, points out practical errors and suggests the ways and means of overcoming them. She must thoroughly under- stand the method of the kindergarten, its psycologic implica- tions and its relationship to education as a whole. She must unite intellectual insight with moral earnestness and practi- cal sagacity. Hence only the most gifted and illuminated kindergartners are adequate to the work of supervision. Two great dangers assail the kindergarten and threaten to impede its progress towards the realization of Froebel's ideal. The first of these dangers is reversion to instinctive games and traditional toys. In some kindergartens, children are taught to play street games, while it has recently been urged that " peg boards, tops, bean bags, kites, dolls, jack- straws, hoops, spool, chalk and wire games and the whole toy world " should be added to the Froebelian instrumentali- ties. Tendencies such as these indicate a complete failure to comprehend what Froebel has done. He recognized in traditional games the deposit of unconscious reason ; pre- served what was good and omitted what was crude and coarse in these products of instinct ; supplied missing links and presented a series of games wherein each is related to all the others and which, by means of dramatic and graphic representation, poetry and music, win for the ideals they embody a controlling power over the imagination. In like manner, from among traditional toys he selected those which Jl~] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 39 possessed most educative value, ordered them into a related series and suggested a method by which they might be con- sciously used to interpret the child's experiences and develop his creative power. If this transfiguration of traditional games and toys is valueless, then the kindergarten has no raison d'etre. But if Froebel has translated the hieroglyphic of instinctive play and found means which, without detriment to the child's spontaneity, influence the growth of character and the trend of thought, then the clamor for street games and promiscuous toys is educational atavism. The second danger which threatens the integrity of the kindergarten is the substitution of exercises which attempt to wind thought around some arbitrarily chosen center for those Froebelian exercises whose confessed aim is to assist thought to unwind itself. Too many kindergartners have allowed themselves to be betrayed into selecting some object such as a pine tree or a potato, and making all songs, games, stories and gift exercises revolve around it. Between these so-called cores of interest and the exercises clustered around them there is no valid connection. The clustering like the subject depends wholly upon the caprice of the teacher. Could such exercises succeed in their object, the pupils of different teachers would have their thoughts set to revolving around different centers and more than this around arbitrary and contingent centers. That such a procedure directly contradicts Froebel's ideal will be apparent to all who have understood his writings. That it likewise contradicts every true ideal of education will be evident to all who understand that the function of education is to substitute objective and universal for subjective and contingent associations. The discovery of related qualities in nature, the disclosure of their causes and the reduction of these causes to a system is the great work of science. The discovery of the related activities of mind and their genetic evolution is the work of psychology. The portrayal of the universal and divine man latent in each individual is the supreme achievement of literature and art. To lead pupils away from what is capri- 40 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION \_J2 cious, arbitrary and accidental, and thus capacitate them to receive and augment their scientific, aesthetic, literary and psychologic inheritance is the great duty of education. The substitution of arbitrary for necessary cores of thought wherever attempted is, therefore, the parody of education. The future of the kindergarten in the United States is largely dependent upon the work of the normal schools for kindergartners. The friends of the system must, therefore, view with disapprobation and even with dismay the rapid mul- tiplication of schools with low standards of admission and a low conception of the training they should give. Inexperi- enced students are attracted to such schools, and the result is that the whole country is flooded with so-called kindergartners who are ignorant of the first principles of all true education. In the early days of the Froebelian movement it was believed that in a single year young girls could be prepared to conduct a kindergarten. In most reputable training schools the course has now been extended to cover two years. The requirements for admission into these schools are, gen- erally, graduation from a high school, or an education equiva- lent thereto. The courses of study include theory of the kindergarten gifts and occupations, study of the Mother Play, practice in songs and games, physical culture, lessons in sing- ing, drawing, modeling and color, lectures on the art of story telling, and more or less observation of the practical work of the kindergarten. Finally, some trainers insist that their normal pupils shall not only observe but assist in actual work with the children. In addition to this specific training, the best normal schools offer courses in science, literature, psychology, and the his- tory of education. Prominent among private training schools are those of Miss Garland, Miss Symonds, Miss Wheelock and Miss Page in Boston ; that of Mme. Kraus-Boelte in New York ; that conducted by Miss H. A. Niel in Washington, in con- nection with the work established and sustained by Mrs. Phoebe A. Hearst, and that of the Kindergarten institute of 73] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 4 1 Chicago, which is co-operative with the social settlement work in that city. Conspicuous among normal departments conducted under the auspices of kindergarten associations, is the training school of Miss C. M. C. Hart in Baltimore, which, in addition to a two years' course for kindergartners, offers a fine post-graduate course, and a course preparatory for normal work. Other training schools connected with kindergarten associations are the normal departments of the Froebel association, and the Free kindergarten association of Chicago, and the training schools conducted under the auspices of the Louisville and Golden Gate associations. Kindergarten departments have been established in sev- eral great guasz-puhlic institutions. Among the most nota- ble of these are the kindergarten department of Pratt insti- tute, Brooklyn, and of Teachers college, Columbia univer- sity, and of Workingman's institute, New York. Of the 164 public normal schools in the United States 36 provide some kind of kindergarten training, the courses varying in length from about two years to six months. These kindergarten departments are distributed as follows in the normal schools of the different states : New York, 7 Illinois, 1 Michigan, 5 Colorado, I Pennsylvania, 4 Kansas, 1 California, 4 Rhode Island, I Massachusetts, 3 Georgia, 1 New Jersey, 2 Nebraska, 1 Connecticut, 2 Ohio, 1 Wisconsin, 2 Minnesota, 1 The public normal schools whose kindergartens are most worthy of mention are those of Boston, Milwaukee and Philadelphia. In general, however, the kindergarten work in public normal schools is inferior to that of private train- ing schools, kindergarten associations and the great institu- tions to which reference has been made above. Kindergartners are admitted to surpass all other teachers as students of educational literature. They are also distin- 42 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [74 guishing themselves by zealous and persistent attendance upon post-graduate courses in pedagogics, science, literature, history and psychology. Between the years 1880 and 1888 large numbers of St. Louis kindergartners participated in classes organized during successive winters for the study of Herodotus, Thucydides, Sophocles, Homer, Dante and Goethe. They also followed lecture courses in psychology and philosophy, and constantly attended classes devoted to the deeper study of Froebel's educational principles and the illustration of his method. Through the efforts of the Chi- cago kindergarten college post-graduate work of a high order has become a feature of Froebelian activity in that city, and for many years there has been conducted each winter a liter- ary school whose lecturers are recognized as the greatest interpreters in America of the supreme works of literature. During successive winters Miss Laura Fisher, director of the public school kindergartens of Boston, has organized post- graduate classes in the study of the Mother Play and the Pedagogics of the Kindergarten and has also conducted valu- able courses in literature and psychology. Through the efforts of Miss C. P. Dozier, supervisor of the New York kindergarten association, and Miss Mary D. Runyan, head of the kindergarten department of Teachers college, Columbia university, post-graduate work has been organized in New York city. Classes in psychology, literature and the phil- osophy of history are conducted by Miss Hart in Baltimore, and courses in literature and psychology are already given in connection with the young but flourishing work of Miss Niel in Washington. In Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Buffalo and other cities post-graduate work is less developed, but good beginnings have been made. The power of the kindergarten over the minds of its stu- dents arises from the fact that it connects the ideal of self- culture with the ideal of child-nurture. The true woman does not wish to " deck herself with knowledge as with a gar- ment, or to wear it loose from the nerves and blood that feed her action." Therefore, she responds with whole heart 75] KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION 43 to the appeal to learn all she can, be all she can, and devote all she is and all she knows to the service of childhood. Rooted in maternal impulses it would be strange indeed if the kindergarten did not appeal to mothers. That classes for mothers should come into existence was a predestined phase of the Froebelian movement. Whoever has studied the writings of Froebel knows that the education of mothers was one of the most important features of his endeavor. Practically, however, the work in this direction amounted to very little until a mothers' department was established in that unique institution, the Chicago kindergarten college. I call this institution unique because it has consciously attempted the transformation of the girls' college into a school for motherhood. The colleges for men offer many different courses. Why should not the colleges for women offer at least elective courses in subjects fitting their students for the vocation of mother and home maker? Why should not the study of Froebel's Mother Play, the use of kindergarten gifts and the practice of kindergarten games be made one of these elective courses? Why should not all institutions which ignore the mission of woman as nurturer be supplanted by institutions like the Chicago kindergarten college, which, while giving general culture, make it their supreme aim to fit women for the work, which, if there be any meaning in the process of natural evolution, is theirs by divine appoint- ment ? And, finally, why should not such institutions give instruction not only to young girls but to mothers themselves ? During the single year 1891-92 the mothers' department of the Chicago college gave instruction to 725 mothers. In the eight years since its foundation it has given whole or partial courses to nearly five thousand mothers. The effects of such instruction in enhancing the sanctity and uplifting the ideals of family life can hardly be exaggerated. Recently the work of this department has been extended by holding convoca- tions for the discussion of all phases of child-nurture. Four of such convocations have already been held, each of which had nine sessions of from two to two and one-half hours in 44 KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION [76 length. The attendance was from three to five thousand persons. While the maternal ideal is dominant in the Chicago col- lege it is not exclusive. This organization supports a number of kindergartens wherein students learn to apply Froebelian principles. It has departments for kindergartners, kinder- garten trainers and primary teachers. It has also depart- ments of literature and publication and a philanthropic department, these several departments being all in the hands of competent specialists. Finally, it has developed and extended the literary and historic courses begun in St. Louis and by adding courses in science and art has connected the kindergarten with the total round of man's spiritual activity. Radiating from the kindergarten college as its center the maternal movement is spreading throughout the United States. It is the highest reach of the Froebelian ideal and means nothing more nor less than the attempted regenera- tion of all human life through the regeneration of the family. Froebel's supreme claim to our grateful remembrance rests upon the fact that consciously repeating the unconscious process of social evolution he set the little child in front of the great army of advancing humanity. Science affirms that the feebleness of infancy created the family and that from the family have been evolved the higher institutions. ■ ' Without the circumstances of infancy," writes one of our lead- ing scientists, 1 "we might have become formidable through sheer force of sharpwittedness. But except for these cir- cumstances we should never have comprehended the mean- ing of such phrases as self-sacrifice or devotion. The phe- nomena of social life would have been omitted from the his- tory of the world and with them the phenomena of ethics and religion." In his cry, " Come, let us live for the chil- dren," Froebel utters in articulate speech the ideal whose unconscious impulsion set in motion the drama of human history. The little child was pioneer of the process which created human institutions. We must make him the pioneer of their perfection. 1 Cosmic Philosophy, John Fiske, II: 363. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION BY WILLIAM T. HARRIS Sometime United States Commissioner of Education ELEMENTARY EDUCATION PART I GENERAL SURVEY OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES In all the schools of the United States, public and private, elementary, secondary and higher, there were enrolled in the year 1898 about sixteen and one-half millions (16,687,643) pupils. (See appendix I.) This number includes all who attended at any time in the year for any period, however short. But the actual average attendance for each pupil in the public schools (supported by taxes) did not exceed 98 days, although the average length of the school session was 143. 1 days. There were enrolled in the aggregate of public and private schools out of each 100 of the popu- lation between the ages of 5 and 18 years, 71 pupils. Out of the entire number of sixteen and a half millions of pupils deduct the pupils of private and parochial schools of all kinds, elementary, secondary, higher, and schools for art, industry and business, for defective classes and Indians, there remain over 15,000,000 for the public school enroll- ment, or nearly 91 per cent of the whole. (See appendix I.) In the 28 years since 1870 the attendance on the public schools has increased from less than 7,000,000 to 15,000,000. (Appendix II.) The expenditures have increased some- what more, namely, from 63,000,000 to 199,000,000 of dol- lars per annum, an increase from $1.64 per capita of popu- lation to $2.67. To account for this pro rata increase of 61 per cent in the cost of the common schools one must allow for a slight increase in the average length of the school term, and for the increase of enrollment from less than 1 7 per cent to more than 20 per cent of the population. But the chief items of increase are to be found in teachers' wages for professionally educated teachers, and the cost of A ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [80 expert supervision. These account for more than two-thirds of the 50 per cent, while the remaining one-sixth (of the whole) is due to better apparatus and more commodious school buildings. The increase of cities and large villages, owing to the influence of the railroad, has brought nearly one-half the school population within reach of the graded school holding a long session of from 180 to 200 days per year, and taught by professional teachers. (See appendix III.) In 1870 there were for each 10,000 inhabitants 12.75 miles of railway, but in 1890 the number of miles of railway for the same number of inhabitants had risen to 26.12 miles, or more than double the former amount. The effect of this increase of railway is to extend the suburbs of cities and vastly increase the urban population. The rural schools in sparsely settled districts still continue their old practice of holding a winter school with a session of 60 to 80 days only, and taught by the makeshift teacher who works at some other employment for two-thirds of the year. The school year of ideal length should be about 200 days, or 5 days per week for 40 weeks, i. e., nine and one-half months. In the early days of city schools the attempt was made to hold a session of over 46 weeks in length, allowing only six weeks or less for three short vacations. But experi- ence of their advantage to the pupil has led to the increase of the holidays to nearly double the former amount. Reducing the total average attendance in all the schools, public and private, to years of 200 school days each, it is found that the average total amount of schooling each individual of the population would receive at the rates of attendance and length of session for 1898, is five years, counting both private and public schools. The average schooling, it appears from the above show- ing, amounts to enough to secure for each person a little more than one-half of an elementary school course of eight years, — enough to enable the future citizen to read the newspaper, to write fairly well, to count, add, subtract, mul- 8l] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 5 tiply and divide, and use the simplest fractions. In addition he acquires a little geographical knowledge, so important to enable him to understand the references or allusions in his daily newspaper to places of interest in other parts of the world. But the multiplicity of cheap books and periodicals makes the life of the average citizen a continuation of school to some extent. His knowledge of reading is called into use constantly, and he is obliged to extend gradually his knowl- edge of the rudiments of geography and history. Even his daily gossip in his family, in the shop, or in the field is to some extent made up of comments on the affairs of the state, the nation, or distant peoples, — China, Japan, Nicaragua, or the Sandwich islands, as the case may be, — and world interests, to a degree, take the place of local scandals in his thoughts. Thus, too, he picks up scraps of science and literature from the newspaper, and everything that he learns becomes at once an instrument for the acquirement of further knowledge. In a nation governed chiefly by public opinion digested and promulgated by the daily newspaper, this knowledge of the rudiments of reading, writing, arith- metic and geography is of vital importance. An illiterate population is impenetrable by newspaper influence, and for it public opinion in any wide sense is impossible ; its local prejudices are not purified or eliminated by thought and feeling in reference to objects common to the whole civilized world. The transformation of an illiterate population into a population that reads the daily newspaper, and perforce thinks on national and international interests, is thus far the greatest good accomplished by the free public school system of the United States. It must be borne in mind that the enrollment in school of one person in every five of the entire population of the country means the same result for the southern states as for the northern, since the states on the Gulf of Mexico enroll nearly 22 per cent of their total popu- lation, colored and white, and the south Atlantic 20.70 per cent, while the north Atlantic and the western, mountain and 6 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [82 Pacific divisions enroll only 18 per cent, having a much smaller ratio of children of school age. In a reading population one section understands the motives of the other, and this prevents political differences from becoming too wide for solution by partisan politics. When one section cannot any longer accredit the other with honest and patriotic motives, war is only a question of time. That this general prevalence of elementary education is accompanied by a comparative neglect of the secondary and higher courses of study is evident from the fact that out of the number of pupils enrolled more than ninety-five in every hundred are pursuing elementary studies ; less than four in a hundred are in secondary studies in high schools, acade- mies and other institutions ; only one in a hundred (13 in one thousand) is in a college or a school for higher studies. In considering the reasons for the increase of the length of the term of the elementary school and its adoption of a graded course of study, one comes upon the most important item of improvement that belongs to the recent history of education, namely, the introduction of professionally trained teachers. The first normal school established in the United States recently celebrated its fiftieth anniversary. It was founded at Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1839. The num- ber of public normal schools supported by the state or municipal governments has increased since that year to 167, enrolling 46,245 students, and graduating nearly 8,000 per annum. To this number are to be added 1 78 private normal schools, with an aggregate of 21,293 students and 2,000 graduates. In 1880 there were 240 normal school students in each million of inhabitants; in 1897 there were 936, or nearly four times as many in each million. The professionally educated teacher finds his place in the graded schools, above mentioned as established in cities and large villages, and kept in session for the entire scholastic year of 200 days. It is the experience of school superin- tendents that graduates of normal schools continue to improve in skill and efficiency for many years. The advan- S3] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION J tage of the professionally educated teacher above others is to be found in the fact that he has been trained to observe methods and devices of instruction. On entering a school taught by another teacher he at once sees, without special effort, the methods of teaching and management, and notes the defects as well as the strong points if there are any. He is constantly increasing his number of successful devices to secure good behavior without harsh measures, and to secure industry and critical attention in study. Every normal school has a thorough course of study in the ele- mentary branches, taking them up in view of the higher branches from which they are derived, and explaining their difficult topics. This kind of work prepares the teacher in advance for the mishaps of the pupil, and arms him with the skill to assist self-activity by teaching the pupil to analyze his problem into its elements. He can divide each step that is too long for the pupil to take, into its component steps, down to any required degree of simplicity. The normal school graduate, too, other things being equal, has a better idea than other teachers of the educational value of a branch of study. He knows what points are essential, and what are accidental and subsidiary. He therefore makes his pupils thoroughly acquainted with those strategical positions, and shows him how to conquer all the rest through these. As it would appear from the statistics given, the rural dis- tricts are precluded by their short school terms from securing professional teachers. The corps of teachers in a highly- favored city will be able to claim a large percentage of its rank and file as graduates of its municipal training schools — perhaps 50 to 60 per cent. But the cities and villages as a whole in their graded schools cannot as yet show an aver- age of more than one teacher in four who has received the diploma of a normal school. Another important advantage has been named as belong- ing to the schools of the village or city. They are graded schools, and have a regular course of study, uniformity of text-books, and a proper classification of pupils. In the 8 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [84 small rural schools some 20 to 50 pupils are brought together under one teacher. Their ages vary from 4 years to 20, and their degree of advancement ranges from new beginners in the alphabet up to those who have attended school for 10 or 12 winters, and are now attempting Latin and algebra. It often happens that there is no uniformity of text-books, except perhaps in the spelling-book and reader, each pupil bringing such arithmetic, geography or grammar as his family at home happens to possess. Twenty pupils are classified in three classes in reading, three in spelling, and perhaps as many classes in arithmetic, grammar, geography, and other studies as there are pupils pursuing those branches. The result is from 20 to 40 separate lessons to look after, and perhaps five or 10 minutes to devote to each class exercise. The teacher finds himself limited to examining the pupil on the work done in memorizing the words of the book, or to comparing the answers he has found to the arithmetic problems with those in the printed key, occasionally giving assistance in some difficult problem that has baffled the efforts of the pupil — no probing of the lesson by analytical questions, no restatement of the ideas in the pupil's own words, and no criticism on the data and methods of the text-book. This was the case in the old-time district school — such as existed in 1790, when 29 out of 30 of the population lived in rural districts; also as late as 1840, when only one in twelve lived in a city. As the railroad has caused vil- lages to grow into cities, so it has virtually moved into the city a vast population living near railway stations in the country by giving them the morning newspaper and rapid transportation. In 1890 one-third of the population were living in cities of not less than 8,000 inhabitants. But the suburban populations made urban by the railroad — as indi- cated above — would swell the city population to one-half of the whole nation. Hence the great change now taking place in methods of building school houses and in organ- izing schools. In the ungraded schools the naturally bright pupils accom- 85]' ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 9 plished a fair amount of work if they happened to have good text-books. They were able to teach themselves from the books. But the rank and file of the school learned a little reading, writing and arithmetic, and probably studied the same book for several winters, beginning at the first page on the first day of school each year. Those who needed no help from the teacher learned to help themselves and enjoyed a delightful freedom. Those who were slow and dull did not get much aid. Their industry may have been stimulated by fear of the rod, which was often used in cases of real or supposed indolence. Harsh measures may succeed in forc- ing pupils to do mechanical work, but they cannot secure much development of the power of thought. Hence the resources of the so-called "strict" teacher were to compel the memorizing of the words of the book. With the growth from the rural to the urban condition of population the method of " individual instruction," as it is called, giving it a fine name, has been supplanted by class instruction, which prevails in village and city schools. The individual did not get much instruction under the old plan, for the simple reason that his teacher had only five or ten minutes to examine him on his daily work. In the properly graded school each teacher has two classes, and hears one recite while the other learns a new lesson. Each class is composed of twenty to thirty pupils of nearly the same qualifications as regards the degree of progress made in their studies. The teacher has thirty minutes for a recita- tion (or " lesson " as called in England), and can go into the merits of the subject and discuss the real thoughts that it involves. The meaning of the words in the book is probed, and the pupil made to explain it in his own language. But besides this all pupils learn more by a class recitation than by an individual recitation. For in the class each can see the lesson reflected in the minds of his fellow-pupils, and understand his teacher's views much better when drawn out in the form of a running commentary on the mistakes of the duller or more indolent pupils. The dull ones are encour- IO ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [86 aged and awakened to effort by finding themselves able to see the errors and absurdities of fellow-pupils. For no two minds take precisely the same view of a text-book exposition of a topic. One child is impressed by one phase of it, and another by a different phase. In the class recitation each one has his crude and one-sided views corrected more or less by his fellows, some of whom have a better comprehen- sion of this point, and some of that point, in the lesson. He, himself, has some glimpses of the subject that are more ade- quate than those of his fellows. The possibilities of a class recitation are, therefore, very great for efficient instruction in the hands of a teacher who understands his business. For he can marshal the crude notions of the members of the class one after another, and turn on them the light of all the critical acumen of the class as a whole, supplemented by his own knowledge and experi- ence. From beginning to end, for thirty minutes, the class recitation is a vigorous training in critical alertness. The pupil afterwards commences the preparation of his next les- son from the book with what are called new " apperceptive " powers, for he finds himself noticing and comprehending many statements and a still greater number of implications of meaning in his lesson that before had not been seen or even suspected. He is armed with a better power of analy- sis, and can "apperceive," or recognize and identify, more of the items of information, and especially more of the thoughts and reflections, than he was able to see before the discus- sions that took place in the recitation. He has in a sense gained the points of view of fellow-pupils and teacher, in addition to his own. It is presupposed that the chief work of the pupil in school is the mastery of text-books containing systematic treatises giv- ing the elements of branches of learning taught in the schools. For in the United States more than in any other country text-book instruction has predominated over oral instruction, its method in this respect being nearly the opposite of the method in vogue in the elementary schools of Germany. Sy] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION II The evil of memorizing words without understanding their meaning or verifying the statements made in the text-book is incident to this method and is perhaps the most widely prevalent defect in teaching to be found in the schools of the United States. It is condemned universally, but, neverthe- less, practiced. The oral method of Germany escapes this evil almost entirely, but it encounters another evil. The pupil taught by the oral method exclusively is apt to lack power to master the printed page and get out of it the full meaning ; he needs the teacher's aid to explain the techni- cal phrases and careful definitions. The American method of text-book instruction throws the child upon the printed page and holds him responsible for its mastery. Hence even in the worst forms of verbal memorizing there is per- force acquired a familiarity with language as it appears to the eye in printed form which gradually becomes more use- ful for scholarly purposes than the knowledge of speech addressed to the ear. This is the case in all technical, or scientific language, and in all poetry and literary prose ; the new words or new shades of meaning require the mind to pause and reflect. This can be done in reading but not in listening to an oral delivery. In the United States the citizen must learn to help him- self in this matter of gaining information, and for this reason he must use his school time to acquire the art of digging knowledge out of books. Hence we may say that a deep instinct or an unconscious need has forced American schools into an excessive use of the text-book method. In the hands of a trained teacher the good of the method is obtained and the evil avoided. The pupil is taught to assume a critical attitude towards the statements of the book and to test and verify them, or else disprove them by appeal to other authorities, or to actual experiments. This ideal hovers before all teachers, even the poorest, but it is realized only by the best class of teachers found in the schools of the United States, — a class that is already large and is constantly increasing, thanks to the analytic 12 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [88 methods taught in the normal schools. Text-book memoriz- ing is giving place to the method of critical investigation. This review of methods suggests a good definition of school instruction. It is the process of re-enforcing the sense-perception of the individual pupil by adding the expe- rience of the race as preserved in books, and it is more espe- cially the strengthening of his powers of thought and insight by adding to his own reflections the points of view and the critical observations of books interpreted by his teachers and fellow-pupils. In the graded school the pupil is held responsible for his work in a way that is impossible in the rural school of sparsely-settled districts. Hence the method of investiga- tion, as above described, is found in the city schools rather than in the rural schools. Where each pupil forms a class by himself, there is too little time for the teacher to ascertain the character of the pupil's understanding of his book. Even if he sees that there has been a step missed somewhere by the child in learning his lesson, he cannot take time to determine precisely what it is. Where the ungraded school makes some attempt at classification of pupils it is obliged to unite into one class say of arithmetic, grammar, or geog- raphy, pupils of very different degrees of progress. The consequence is that the most advanced pupils have not enough work assigned them, being held back to the standard of the average. They must " mark time " (or go through the motions of walking without advancing a step) while the rest are coming up. The least advanced find the average lesson rather too much for them, and become discouraged after trying in vain to keep step with their better prepared fellow-pupils. This condition of affairs is to be found in many rural districts even of those states where the advantages of classification are seen and appreciated in city schools, and an effort is in progress to extend those advantages to the rural schools. But the remedy has been, in many cases, worse than the disease. For it has resulted that classifica- tion gets in the way of self-help which the bright pupil is 89] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 3 capable of, and the best scholars "mark time" listlessly, while the poorest get discouraged, and only the average pupils gain something. It must be admitted, too, that in many village schools just adopting the system of grading, this evil of holding back the bright pupils and of over-pressure on the dull ones exists, and furnishes just occasion for the criticism which is made against the so-called " machine " character of the American public school. The school that permits such poor classifica- tion, or that does not keep up a continual process of read- justing the classification by promoting pupils from lower classes to those above them, certainly has no claim to be ranked with schools organized on a modern ideal. I have dwelt on this somewhat technical matter because of its importance in understanding the most noteworthy improvements in progress in the schools of the United States. Briefly, the population is rapidly becoming urban, the schools are becoming "graded," the pupils of the lowest year's work placed under one teacher, and those of the next degree of advancement under a second teacher ; perhaps from eight to twenty teachers in the same building, thus form- ing a "union school," as it is called in some sections. Here there is division of labor on the part of teachers, one taking only classes just beginning to learn to read and write, another taking the pupils in a higher grade. The inevitable conse- quence of such division of labor is increase of skill. The teacher comes to know just what to do in a given case of obstructed progress — just what minute steps of work to introduce — just what thin wedges to lift the pupil over the threshold that holds back the feeble intellect from entering- a new and higher degree of human learning. It will be asked : What proportion of the teachers of cities and villages habitually use this higher method in con- ducting recitations. According to a careful estimate, at least one-half of them may reasonably claim to have some skill in its use ; of the one-half in the elementary schools who use it perhaps two-fifths conduct all their recitations so 14 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [90 as to make the work of their pupils help each individual in correcting defects of observation and critical alertness. Per- haps the other three-fifths use the method in teaching some branches, but cling to the old memoriter system for the rest. It may be claimed for graduates of normal schools that a large majority follow the better method. The complaint urged against the machine character of the modern school has been mentioned. I suppose that this complaint is made quite as often against good schools as against poor ones. But the critical-probing method of con- ducting a recitation is certainly not machine-like in its effects. It arouses in the most powerful manner the activity of the pupil to think and observe for himself. Machine-like schools do not follow this critical method, but are content with the memoriter system, that prescribes so many pages of the book to be learned verbally, but does not inquire into the pupil's understanding, or " apperception," as the Herbartians call it. It is admitted that about 50 per cent of the teachers actually teaching in the schools of villages and cities use this poor method. But it is certain that their proportion in the corps of teachers is diminishing, thanks to the two causes already alluded to : first, the multiplication of professional schools for the training of teachers ; and second, the employment of educational experts as supervisors of schools. The rural schools, which in the United States enroll one- half of the entire number of school children, certainly lack good class teaching, even when they are so fortunate as to obtain professionally educated teachers, and not five per cent of such schools in the land succeed in procuring better serv- ices than the " makeshift" teacher can give. The worst that can be said of these poorly taught schools is that the pupils are either left to help themselves to knowledge by reading their books under the plan of individual instruction, or, in the attempt at classification and grading, the average pupils learn something, while the bright pupils become listless and indolent for want of tasks commensurate with their strength and the backward pupils lose their courage for their want of 91] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 5 ability to keep step. Even under these circumstances the great good is accomplished that all the pupils learn the rudiments of reading, writing and arithmetic, and all are made able to become readers of the newspapers, the maga- zines, and finally of books. Another phase of the modern school that more than any- thing else gives it the appearance of a machine, and the American city schools are often condemned for their mechan- ism, is its discipline, or method of organization and govern- ment. In the rural school with twenty-five pupils, more or less, it makes little difference whether pupils come into the school room and go out in military order, so far as the work of the school is concerned. But in the graded school with three hundred to eight hundred pupils order and discipline are necessary down to the last particular, for the safety of the pupils as well as for the accomplishment of the ends for which the school exists. There must be regularity and punctuality, silence and conformity to order, in coming and going. The whole school seems to move like a machine. In the ungraded school a delightful individuality prevails, the pupil helping himself to knowledge by the use of the book, and coming and going pretty much as he pleases, with no subordination to rigid discipline, except perhaps when standing in class for recitation. Regularity, punctuality, silence, and conformity to order, — military drill, — seem at first to be so much waste of energy, — necessary, it is true, for the large school, but to be subtracted from the amount of force available for study and thought. But the moment the question of moral training comes to be investigated, the superiority of the education given in the large school is manifest. The pupil is taught to be regular and punctual in his attendance on school and in all his movements, not for the sake of the school alone, but for all his relations to his fellow-men. Social combina- tion is made possible by these semi-mechanical virtues. The pupil learns to hold back his animal impulse to chatter or whisper to his fellows and to interrupt their serious 1 6 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [92 absorption in recitation or study, and by so much self- restraint he begins to form a good habit for life. He learns to respect the serious business of others. By whispering he can waste his own time and also that of others. In moving to and fro by a sort of military concert and precision he acquires the impulse to behave in an orderly manner, to stay in his own place and not get in the way of others. Hence he prepares for concerted action, — another important lesson in citizenship, leaving entirely out of account its military significance. With the increase of cities and the growth of great indus- trial combinations this discipline in the virtues that lie at the basis of concerted action is not merely important, but essential. In the railroad system a lack of those semi- mechanical virtues would entirely unfit one for a place as laborer or employee ; so, too, in a great mill or a great busi- ness house. Precision, accuracy, implicit obedience to the head or directive power, are necessary for the safety of others and for the production of any positive results. The rural school does not fit its pupils for an age of productive industry and emancipation from drudgery by means of machinery. But the city school performs this so well that it reminds some people unpleasantly of a machine. The ungraded school has been famous for its harsh methods of discipline ever since the time of the flogging schoolmaster Orbilius whom Horace mentions. The rural schoolmaster to this day often prides himself on his ability to " govern " his unruly boys by corporal punishment. They must be respectful to his authority, obedient and studi- ous, or else they are made to suffer bodily pain from the hand of the teacher. But harsh discipline leaves indura- tions on the soul itself, and is not compatible with a refined type of civilization. The schoolmaster who bullies his pupils into obedience does what he can to nurture them into the same type as himself. In the matter of school discipline the graded school has an advantage over the school of the rural district. A corps 93] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 7 of teachers can secure good behavior more efficiently than a single teacher. The system, and what is disparaged as its " mechanism," help this result. In many cities of the largest size in the United States, corporal punishment is seldom resorted to, or is even entirely dispensed with. (See appen- dix V.) The discipline of the school seems to improve after the discontinuance of harsh punishments. The adop- tion of a plan of building better suited for the purpose of graded schools has had much to do with the disuse of the rod. As long as the children to the number of one or two hundred studied in a large room under the eye of the prin- cipal of the school, and were sent out to small rooms to recite to assistant teachers, the order of the school was preserved by corporal punishment. When Boston introduced the new style of school building with the erection of the Quincy school in 1847, giving each class-teacher a room to herself, in which pupils to the number of fifty or so prepared their lessons under the eye of the same teacher that conducted their recitations (/. e., "heard their lessons"), anew era in school discipline began. It is possible to manage a school in such a building with little or no corporal punishment. The ideal of discipline is to train the pupil into habits of self-government. This is accomplished partly by perfecting the habit of moving in concert with others, and by self- restraint in all actions that interfere with the work of other pupils. That the public schools of cities have worked great and favorable changes to the advantage of civil order cannot be doubted. They have generally broken up the feuds that used to prevail between the people of different precincts. Learning to live without quarreling with school-fellows is an efficient preparation for an orderly and peaceful life with one's neighbors. The rural school, with all its shortcomings, was, and is to-day, a great moral force for the sparsely settled regions, bringing together the youth of the scattered families, and forming friendships, cultivating polite behavior, affording to 1 8 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [94 each an insight into the motives and springs of action of his neighbors, and teaching him how to co-operate with them in securing a common good. The city school is a stronger moral force than the rural school because of its superior training in the social habits named — regularity, punctuality, orderly concerted action and self-restraint. Take any country with a school system, and compare the number of illiterate criminals with the total number of illit- erate inhabitants, and also the number of criminals able to read and write with the entire reading population, and it will be found that the representation from the illiterate popula- tion is many times larger than from an equal number of people who can read and write. I n the U nited States the pre- vailing ratio is about eight to one — that is to say, the illit- erate population sends eight times its quota to jails. In the prisons or penitentiaries it is found that the illiterate stratum of the population is represented by two and a half times its quota. (See part IV of this monograph.) School educa- tion is perhaps in this case not a cause so much as an index of orderly tendencies in the family. A wayward tendency will show itself in a dislike of the restraints of school. If, however, the wayward can be brought under the humanizing influences of school, trained in good behavior, which means self-restraint and orderly concerted action, interested in school studies and the pursuit of truth, what can do more to insure a moral life, unless it is religion ? PART II EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES The European student of education inquiring about schools always asks concerning the laws and regulations issued by the central government at Washington, taking for granted that things of such interest as education are regu- lated by the nation, as in Europe. The central government of the United States, however, has never attempted any control over education within the several states. It is further than ever from any such action 95] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1 9 at the present time. The idea of local self-government is that each individual shall manage for himself such matters as concern him alone ; that where two or more persons are concerned the smallest political subdivision shall have juris- diction and legislative powers ; where the well-being of sev- eral towns is concerned the county or the state may determine the action taken. But where the interests of more than one state are concerned, the nation has ultimate control. While the general government has not interfered to estab- lish schools in the states, it has often aided them by dona- tions of land, and in some cases by money, as in the acts of 1887 and 1890, which appropriate annual sums in aid of agricultural experiment stations and increase the endowment of agricultural colleges, which were formerly established in 1862 by generous grants of land. The total amount of land donated to the several states for educational purposes since 1785 to the present have been as follows : 1. For public or common schools : Acres Every 16th section of public land in states admitted prior to 1848 and the 16th and 36th sections since (Utah, however, having four sections). 67,893,919 2. For seminaries or universities : Two townships in each state or territory contain- ing public land 1,165,520 3. For agricultural and mechanical colleges : 30,000 acres for each member of congress to which the state is entitled 9,600,000 Total number of acres 78,659,439 At the rate of one dollar and a quarter an acre (the tra- ditional price asked by the government for its lands) this amounts to about one hundred millions of dollars. Besides this a perpetual endowment by act of 1887 is made of $15,000 per annum for each agricultural experiment station connected with the state agricultural college, and $25,000 perpetual additional endowment by act of 1890 for 20 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [96 each of the colleges themselves — this is equivalent to a capitalized fund of one million dollars at four per cent for each state and territory, or in the aggregate about fifty- millions more. The general government supports the military school at West Point, established in 1802, to which each congressional district, territory (and the District of Columbia) is entitled to send one cadet, the president appointing ten additional cadets at large. Each cadet receives $540 a year t.o pay his expenses. (The course of study is four years. The num- ber of graduates between 1802 and 1876 was 2,640, about fifty per cent of all admitted.) The United States naval academy at Annapolis was estab- lished in 1845. I ts course of study in 1873 was extended to six years. Cadets are appointed in the same manner as at West Point. The general government provides for the education of the children of uncivilized Indians and for all the children in Alaska. There have been, besides the general grants referred to, special grants of land for educational purposes such as the "swamp lands" (Acts of 1849, 1850, i860), by which 62,428,419 acres were given to 14 states (Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Lou- isiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio and Wisconsin) and by some of these appropriated to education. By the act of 1841 a half million of acres was given to each of sixteen states (including all above named except Indiana and Ohio, and besides these Kansas, Nebraska, Nevada and Oregon). This gives an aggregate of 8,000,000 of acres, the proceeds of most of which was devoted to education. The surplus funds of the United States treasury were in 1837 loaned to the older states for educational purposes to the amount of $15,000,000 and this fund con- stitutes a portion of the school fund in many of the states. The aggregate value of lands and money given for educa- tion in the several states is therefore nearly three hundred millions of dollars. 97] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 2 1 In 1867 congress established a national bureau of educa- tion " for the purpose of collecting such statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of education in the several states and territories, and of diffusing such informa- tion respecting the organization and management of school systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States in the establishment and maintenance of efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of education throughout the country." This bureau up to 1898 has published 350 separate volumes and pamphlets including 30 annual reports ranging from 800 to 2,300 pages each. The policy of the national government is to aid education but not in anywise to assume its control. The several states repeat in the general form of their state constitutions the national constitution and delegate to the subdivisions — counties or townships — the manage- ment of education. (See appendix VIII, The local unit of school organization.) But each state possesses centralized power and can exercise it when the public opinion of its population demands such exercise. Compulsory attendance — Even in colonial times as far back as 1642 a compulsory law was enacted in Massachusetts inflicting penalties on parents for the neglect of education. In the revival of educational interest led by Horace Mann in the years after 1837, it was felt that there must be a state law, with specific provisions and penalties and this feeling took definite shape and produced legislative action. A truant law was passed in 1850 and a compulsory law in 1852, requiring a minimum of 12 weeks attendance on school each year for children between the ages of eight and four- teen under penalty of twenty dollars. In the Connecticut colony in 1650 the Massachusetts law of 1642 was adopted. Amendments were adopted in 1805 and 1 82 1. By a law of 181 3 manufacturing establishments were compelled to see that " the children in their employ were taught to read, write and cipher [arithmetical calcu- lation], and that attention was paid to their morals." In 22 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [98 1842 a penalty was attached to a similar law which forbade " the employment of children under the age of 1 5 years unless they had been instructed at school at least three months of the 12 preceding." The efficiency of these early laws has been denied because cases of prosecution have not been recorded. But a law- abiding people does not wait until prosecuted before obey- ing the law. The existence of a reasonable law is sufficient to secure its general obedience in most parts of the United States. But in the absence of any law on the subject the parents yield to their cupidity and do not send their children to school. The efficiency of a law is to be found in its results and if twenty parents in a district send their children to school in obedience to the law and would not otherwise have sent them, it follows that the law is very useful though the twenty-first parent is obdurate and refuses to send his chil- dren and yet is not prosecuted for it. This explanation of the working of one compulsory law will throw light on the working of compulsory laws in the twenty-seven states and territories that have passed them. There are exceptional localities in each state where an obnoxious law is openly and frequently violated, but the law is obeyed in all but a few places. In each locality, too, there are individuals who are disposed to violate the law and succeed in doing so, while all the citizens except these few obey the law because they have a law-abiding disposition. Abolish the law and the number who neglect the education of their children will increase by a large per cent. More and more attention has been given in later years to drafting compulsory laws with provisions that are sure to be effi- cient. The advocates of these new laws are apt in their pleas for more stringent laws to do injustice to the old laws. The following paragraphs show what states have adopted compulsory laws and the dates of adoption (the earlier dates in Connecticut and Massachusetts being unnoticed) : Statistics of compulsory attendance — Thirty states, one gg] elementary education 23 territory and the District of Columbia have laws making education compulsory, generally at a public or approved private school. Sixteen states and one territory do not make education compulsory, although all of these have fully organized systems of schools free to every child of school age of whatever condition. The most general period of required attendance at school is from eight to fourteen years of age, as is the case in Ver- mont, District of Columbia, West Virginia, Indiana, Michi- gan, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Mon- tana, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Idaho, Oregon and California. It begins likewise at eight, but is extended to 15 in Maine and Washington, and is from eight to 16 in New Hampshire, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Minnesota and New Mexico. The child is required to begin attendance at the earlier age of seven, and continue to 12 in New Jersey, to 13 in Wiscon- sin, to 14 in Massachusetts, Kentucky and Illinois; to 15 in Rhode Island, and to 16 in Wyoming. This is a general statement of age limits ; the required time period is in some states shortened in the case of chil- dren employed to labor, or extended in the case of those not so employed, or growing up in idleness, or illiterate. In Massachusetts and Connecticut the child is required to attend the full time that the schools are in session ; in New York and Rhode Island, also, the full term, with certain exceptions in favor of children employed to work. In Penn- sylvania the attendance is required for 70 per cent of the full term ; in California for 66 2-3 per cent ; for 20 weeks annually in Vermont, New Jersey, Ohio and Utah ; 16 weeks annually in Maine, West Virginia, Illinois, Michigan and Nevada; 12 weeks annually in New Hampshire, District of Columbia, Indiana, Wisconsin, Kansas, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, New Mexico, Idaho, Washington, Ore- gon ; and eight weeks annually in Kentucky. In the following states habitual truants are sent to some special institution (truant or industrial school, reformatory, 24 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lOO parental home, etc.) : Maine, New Hampshire, Massachu- setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Minnesota and Michigan. Massachusetts requires counties, and New York requires cities to maintain truant schools, or provide for their truants in the truant schools of neighboring localities. Illinois requires cities of over 100,000 inhabitants to maintain truant schools. In Rhode Island towns and cities must provide suitable places for the confinement and instruction of habitual truants. Clothing is furnished in case of poverty to enable children to attend school in Vermont, Indiana and Colorado. Laws absolutely prohibiting the employment of children under a specified minimum age in mercantile or manufactur- ing establishments are in force in New Hampshire (under 10 years), Rhode Island (under 12), and Massachusetts and Connecticut (under 14). These states, together with Ver- mont, New York, New Jersey, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, North and South Dakota, have laws permitting the employ- ment of children of a certain age only while the schools are not in session, or provided they have already attended school a given number of weeks within the year. Statistics of supervision — There are county superintend- ents of schools in all those states where the county is a political unit for the administration of civil affairs other than courts of law. About thirty-five states have this form of organization. But in the six New England states and in Michigan the only supervision is that of the township, and the counties in those states are units almost solely for the administration of justice through county courts. In Arkan- sas, Texas and North Carolina supervision is only that of the subdivisions of townships described as districts. Louis- iana, Mississippi and West Virginia have a modified town- ship supervision. The county superintendents are elected by the people in only 13 states. In the rest they are appointed by some state or county officers, or chosen by the combined vote of the school boards. (See appendix VIII for an expla- nation of the local unit of school organization.) IOl] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 25 Each state has a superintendent of public instruction. He has this title in 29 states ; in the remaining states other designations, as " superintendent of common schools," " of free schools," or " of public schools," " of education " or " commissioner of public schools," are used ; he is called " secretary of state board of education " in Massachusetts and Connecticut. Eight hundred and thirty-six (836) cities have superin- tendents of their public schools. School boards — In cities the local boards which have the management of the schools are generally termed "boards of education ; " in towns and districts the designations most generally used are "school directors" and "school trustees." They are termed "school directors" in Arkansas, Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana, Pennsylvania, Tennessee and Washington ; "school trustees" in Indiana, Kentucky, New Jersey, New York, Mississippi, Nevada, South Carolina and Texas ; " school boards " in Michigan, Wisconsin, Nebraska and New Hampshire ; " school committees " in Massachusetts and Rhode Island ; "school visitors" in Connecticut; "superin- tending school committees " in Maine ; " boards of educa- tion" in Ohio; and "prudential committees" in Vermont. These boards are similar in their constitution, powers and duties, and are generally chosen by the voters at elections. They are corporate bodies and can make contracts, acquire, hold and dispose of property. They employ teachers (and superintendents when such are deemed necessary) and fix their salaries. They make the rules and regulations for the government of the schools and fix the course of study and the list of text-books to be used. They hold meetings monthly or oftener. Women in school administration — There are at present (1899) two women holding the position of state superin- tendent of schools, 18 that of city superintendent, and 256 that of county superintendent. The last named are divided between California, Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kan- sas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, 26 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l02 Nebraska, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsyl- vania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Washing- ton, Wisconsin and Wyoming. In all these states, women hold minor school offices also. Ohio, Maine, New Hamp- shire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut have no officers corresponding to county superintendents, but in all those states there are women who are members of county examining boards, township superintendents and the like. They may be district trustees or members of local school boards in still other states, as in New Jersey. Women may hold any school office in Colorado, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Vermont, Wyo- ming, and any office of school management in Minnesota." One of the members of the Iowa educational board of exam- iners must be a woman. Women have like suffrage, in all particulars, with men in Colorado, Idaho, Utah and Wyoming. With certain lim- itations specified, in some of the states they may vote at school elections in Arizona, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Dakota, Vermont, Washing- ton and Wisconsin. The limitations, when there are any, usually restrict the suffrage of women to widows with chil- dren to educate, guardians and taxpayers, or to certain kinds of elections. Salaries of teachers — The expenditure for salaries in the public schools, teachers and superintendents both included, was $123,809,412, in 1897-98, or 63.8 per cent of the total expenditure for school purposes. The highest average sal- aries are found in the western division, among the Pacific states and territories, the average per month for men being $58.59, and for women $50.92, in that section of the union. The lowest average salaries and the least variance between the averages for men and women are found in the South Atlantic section. The averages are, for men $31.21, and for women $31.45. IO3] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 2 J The length of the school year must be considered in determining the annual salary. This period averages for the whole country 143. 1 days, or about seven months of 20 days each, and ranges from 98.6 days in the south central division to 174.5 days in the North Atlantic. (See appendix VI, Teachers' pensions, etc.) Co-education of the sexes — In both the central and the western divisions the education of boys and girls in the same schools is common and exceptions rare in the public schools. In the North and South Atlantic divisions many of the older cities continue to educate the girls in separate schools. In newly-added suburban schools, however, co-education is the rule (as in Boston, for example). In the rural districts of the Atlantic divisions north and south, co-education has always been the custom. Considering the whole country, it may be said that co-education, or the education of boys and girls in the same classes, is the general practice in the ele- mentary schools of the United States. The cities that pre- sent exceptions to this rule are fewer, apparently, than 6 per cent of the total number. In the majority of these cities the separation of boys and girls has arisen from the position or original arrangement of buildings, and is likely to be discontinued under more favorable conditions. Of the 50 principal cities enumerated by the census of 1890, 4, namely, Philadelphia (Pennsylvania) ; Newark (New Jersey); Providence (Rhode Island) ; and Atlanta (Geor- gia) — report separation of the sexes in the high schools only ; 2 cities of this class, San Francisco (California), and Wilmington (Delaware), reported in 1892, separation in all grades above the primary. In 6 cities, New York and Brooklyn (New York) ; Boston (Massachusetts) ; Balti- more (Maryland) ; Washington (District of Columbia), and Louisville (Kentucky) — both separate and mixed classes are found in all grades. Five cities of the second class, hav- ing a population of 8,000 or more, report separation of the sexes in the high schools, and 10 cities of the same group separate classes in other grades. Of cities whose population 28 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [104 is less than 8,000, nine report separate classes for boys and girls in some grades. Co-education is the policy in about two-thirds of the total number of private schools reporting to this bureau, and in 65 per cent of the colleges and universities. Sectarian division of school funds — In connection with this matter of state compulsory laws against neglect of schools it is well to mention the provisions made in the several states prohibiting appropriations of money to aid denominational schools. There are forty states with constitutional provisions for- bidding all, or at least sectarian diversion of the money raised for the support of education. /. Constitutions which prohibit sectarian appropriations — California, 1 Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, 2 Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, 3 Mis- souri, Montana, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Oregon, 2 South Dakota, Texas, Washington, Wisconsin, 2 Wyoming, — 21 states. 2. Constitutions which do not prohibit sectarian appropri- ations — Alabama, 4 Arkansas, 4 Connecticut, Delaware, Iowa, 4 Kansas, Kentucky, 5 Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Nebraska, 6 Nevada, 6 New Jersey, 7 New York, North Caro- lina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, 4 Rhode Island, South Carolina, 6 Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, — 23 states. j. Constitutions which prohibit any diversion of the school fund — Alabama, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Flor- ida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Ken- tucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Min- nesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New 1 Can make per capita grants to institutions. 2 Covers only religious and theological institutions. 3 Prohibits any devise, legacy, or gift by last will and testament to religious or ecclesiastical corporations or societies. 4 Sectarian appropriations can be made by two-thirds vote of all the members of both houses of the legislature. 5 Has a revised constitution pending popular adoption. 6 Prohibits sectarian instruction in public schools. 1 Prohibits appropriations to societies^ associations or corporations. IO5] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 29 Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, West Virginia, Vir- ginia, Wisconsin, — 36 states. The local unit of school organization — The state exercises remote authority over all public schools in its borders. The county in most states has a closer supervision of all schools in its limits, but has very little to do with schools in New England. In certain states it becomes the unit for the entire local administration of public schools. The town or township takes more or less of the local functions in other states, and the district becomes a local unit for variable functions in yet others. In 35 counties of Texas there is a community system. Counties generally receive, hold and disburse moneys for townships and districts formed by sub- division of counties. Towns or townships generally hold the same relation to districts formed by division of towns or townships. In a few states districts have their own tax collectors and treasurers. The summarized statement below shows the principal agency through which local support and control of schools is exercised, special laws excepted, under which cities, towns and independent districts exist. County — Alabama, with either town or township ; Florida, with provision for districts of limited power ; Georgia ; Lou- isiana, recognizing congressional townships in accounts of sixteenth section land funds ; Maryland ; Mississippi, with provision for separate districts ; North Carolina, with dis- tricts capable of holding real estate ; Tennessee, with some local functions in districts and only supervisory powers in sub-districts ; Utah, with provision for division. Town or township — Alabama, the congressional township r for administrative convenience, its officers appointed and its accounts kept by county officers ; Connecticut, the town may abolish districts ; Illinois, township based on congressional township or district, optional ; Indiana, New Jersey, Ohio 1 The expression " congressional township " refers to the division established in new territories by the government survey. Lines of latitude and longitude cross one another six statute miles apart, making townships exactly six miles square. 3Q ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lo6 and Pennsylvania, each township, incorporated town or city (or borough in Pennsylvania), a district corporation for school purposes ; Iowa, township based on congressional township, with sub-districts for supervisory convenience and independent districts, both in use ; Maine, Massachusetts ; Minnesota, township may be a district as a part of a county ; New Hampshire ; New York, recognized for certain land funds, but districts generally ; North Dakota, based on con- gressional township ; Rhode Island, may create or abolish districts ; South Dakota, based on congressional township ; Vermont, Wisconsin, optional in formation of districts. District — Arkansas, Arizona, California, Colorado ; Con- necticut, where not abolished by the town ; Delaware, Florida, Idaho ; Illinois, optional with townships ; Iowa, independent districts as well as townships ; Kansas, Minne- sota, Missouri, districts may be less than townships ; Ken- tucky, Michigan, Mississippi, optional ; Montana, Nebraska ; Nevada, each village, town or city is a district ; New Mexico ; New York, commissioner's district, a county or part of a county, has supervisory authority, school districts are parts of commissioners' districts, towns recognized for certain land funds ; North Carolina, with limited powers as stated under county ; Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina ; Ten- nessee, with limited powers as stated under county ; Texas, but cities may acquire exclusive control of their schools, towns and villages may be incorporated for school purposes only, in 35 community counties families associate from year to year to support schools and draw their share, of public money ; Utah, permissible as stated under county ; Virginia, West Virginia, corresponding geographically to magisterial districts ; Washington, each city or town (incorporated) ; Wisconsin, optional, see town or township ; Wyoming. PART III THE ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY A committee appointed by the National Educational Asso- ciation in 1894 prepared a course of study for the eight years of the elementary schools recommending two innovations, IO7] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 3 1 namely, the introduction of Latin, French or German in the eighth year and algebra in the seventh and eighth years. The following presents the course as given in the report of the committee together with a conspectus in the nature of a yearly program. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COURSE Reading. Eight years, with daily lessons. Penmanship. Six years, ten lessons per week for first two years, five for third and fourth, and three for fifth and sixth. Spelling Lists. Fourth, fifth and sixth years, four lessons per week. Grammar. Oral, with composition or dictation, first year to mid- dle of fifth year, text-book from middle of fifth year to close of seventh year, five lessons per week. (Composition writing should be included under this head. But the written exami- nations on the several branches should be counted under the head of composition work.) Latin or French v or German. Eighth year, five lessons per week. Arithmetic. Oral first and second year, text-book third to sixth year, five lessons per week. Algebra. Seventh and eighth years, five lessons per week. Geography. Oral lessons second year to middle of third year, text-book from middle of third year, five lessons weekly to seventh year, and three lessons to close of eighth. Natural Science and Hygiene. Oral lessons, 60 minutes per week, eight years. History of United States. Five hours per week seventh year and first half of eighth year. Constitution of United States. Last half of the eighth year. General History and Biography. Oral lessons, 60 minutes a week, eight years. Physical Culture. 60 minutes a week, eight years. Vocal Music. 60 minutes a week, eight years. Drawing. 60 minutes a week, eight years. Manual Training or Sewing and Cooking. One-half day each week in seventh and eighth years. 32 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [108 GENERAL PROGRAM BRANCHES ISt year 2d year 3 d year 4th year 5th year 6th year 7th year 8th year 10 lessons a week 5 lessons a week 10 lessons a week 5 lessons a week 3 lessons a week 4 lessons a week Oral, with composition lessons 5 lessons a week with text-book Latin, French, or German. j 5 les- sons Oral, 60 min- utes a week 5 lessons a week with text-book 5 lessons a week Oral, 60 , , ' e. lessons a week minutes J •.-, . , ■, -, , with text-book a week 3 lessons a week Natural Science-|-Hygiene Sixty minutes a week United States History .... 5 lessons a week United States Constitution 5 Is Oral, sixty minutes a week Sixty minutes a week Sixty minutes a week divided into 4 lessons Sixty minutes a week Manual Training or Sew- One-half day each week 20+7 daily exer. 20+7 daily exer. 20+5 daily exer. 24+5 daily exer. 27+5 daily exer. 27+5 daily exer. 23+6 daily exer. 23+6 daily exer. Total Hours of Recitations 12 12 11 2-3 13 16 1-4 16 1-4 17 1-2 17 1-2 Length of Recitations.... 15 min I5min 2omin 20 min 25 min 25 min 30mm 30 min IO9] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 33 The subjects actually taught in the elementary schools — In the report of the National bureau of education for 1888-89 (pp. 373-410), from a selected list of 82 of the most important cities of the nation, statistics are given showing the amount of time consumed in the entire eight years of the elementary course on each of the branches constituting the curriculum. The returns included 26 branches, one of which was spelling. The total number of hours of instruction in the entire eight years varied in the different cities from 3,000 to 9,000, with a general average of about 7,000 hours, which would mean that each pupil used about four and a half hours per day for 200 days in actual study and in recitation or class exercises. The amount of time reported as used by pupils in studying and reciting spelling during the eight years varied from about 300 to 1,200 hours, with an average of 516. This means that from 37 to 150 hours a year, with average of 77 hours a year for eight years, was devoted to spelling. The English speaking child who learns to read has to use an inordinate amount of time in memorizing the difficult combinations of letters used to rep- resent English words. This report of the bureau of education gives the time devoted to reading in 82 cities as ranging from about 600 to about 2,000 hours, and the average as 1,188 hours. Thus from 75 to 250 hours a year, with an average of 150, are spent in learning to read. Geography is reported as using from 200 to 1,000 hours, with an average of about 500, or 25 to 125 hours per year, the average being rather more than 60 hours a year. This, we see, is less than the time devoted to spelling. Arithmetic, as shown by the report, still receives more attention than any other branch. The amount of time used varies from 600 to 2,240 hours, with an average of about 1,190 hours — that is to say, from 75 to 280 hours per year — an average of 150 hours a year. No other nation gives so much time to arithmetic. The question naturally arises whether corresponding results are obtained in the mastery 34 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [i IO of this difficult branch, and whether so much arithmetic strengthens or weakens the national character on the whole. Turning from arithmetic to grammar, we find a great falling off in the amount of attention it receives compared with the time assigned to it a few years ago. The 82 cities report a very large substitution of " language lessons " for technical grammar. Grammar proper gets from 65 to 680 hours of the course, with an average of about 300 hours. This would allow from 8 to 80 hours, with an average of 38 hours per year, if distributed over the entire course. But it is evident that grammar proper is, as a study, not profitable to take up until the seventh year of the course of study. But the language lessons, which are practiced in all the grades above the lowest two, more than compensate for any curtailment in technical grammar and " parsing." Mathematics gives an insight into the nature of matter and motion, for their form is quantitative. But the form of mind on the other hand is shown in consciousness — a sub- ject and object. The mind is always engaged in predicating something of something, always modifying something by something, and the categories of this mental operation are the categories of grammar, and appear as parts of speech. The child by the study of grammar gets some practice in the use of these categories and acquires unconsciously a power of analysis of thoughts, motives and feelings, which is of the most practical character. History, which gives an insight into human nature as it is manifested in social wholes — tribes, nations and peoples — is a study of the elementary school, usually placed in the last year or two of the course, with a text-book on the his- tory of the United States. The returns from the 82 cities show that this study everywhere holds its place, and that it receives more than one-half as much time as grammar. Con- sidering the fact that grammar is begun a year earlier, this is better than we should expect. With history there is usually joined the study of the constitution of the United States for one-quarter of the year. Besides this, some schools have Ill] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 35 taken up a special text-book devoted to civics, or the duties of citizens. History ranges from 78 to 460 hours, with an average of about 150. General history has not been introduced into elementary schools, except in a few cases by oral lessons. Oral lessons on physiology, morals and manners, and natural science have been very generally introduced. The amount of time assigned in 66 cities to physiology averages 169 hours ; to a course of lessons in morals and manners in 27 cities 167 hours ; to natural science on an average in the 39 cities that give a systematic course of lessons, 1 76 hours. Singing is quite general in all the schools, and instruction in vocal music is provided for in many cities. Lessons in cookery are reported in New Haven (80 hours) ; and Wash- ington, D. C. (114 hours). It is also taught in Boston, and many other cities not reporting it in the list of 82. Physical culture is very generally taught. Of the 82 cities, 63 report it as receiving on an average 249 hours a year. Manual training — Manual training is by no means a nov- elty in American schools. Thomas Jefferson recommended it for the students of the University of Virginia, and Ben- jamin Franklin included it in his plan for an academy in Philadelphia. An active propaganda was carried on in behalf of manual labor in educational institutions for many years, beginning about 1830, and some of our foremost institutions had their origin under its influence. But what is now known as " manual training " is traced to an exhibit of a Russian institution at the centennial exposition in 1876. The value of the system of hand training there sug- gested was recognized by such men as John D. Runkle and C. M. Woodward, who became advocates of the new idea and introduced it into the institutions under their charge. Strong opposition was met among schoolmen for a time, but manual training has steadily grown in popularity, and with its growth it has constantly improved in matter and method, and consequently in usefulness. In 1898 manual training was an essential feature in the public school course of 149 36 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [lI2 cities. In 359 institutions other than city schools there is training which partakes more or less of the nature of man- ual training, and which belongs in a general way to the same movement. These institutions embrace almost every class known to American education, and the manual features vary from the purely educational manual training of the Teach- ers college in New York city to the specific trade instruction of the apprentice schools. In many cases the legislatures have taken cognizance of the movement. Massachusetts requires every city of 20,000 inhabitants to maintain manual training courses in both ele- mentary and high schools. Maine authorizes any city or town to provide instruction in industrial or mechanical draw- ing to pupils over 15 years of age; industrial training is authorized by general laws in Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana (in cities of over 100,000 population), Maryland, New Jer- sey, New York, Pennsylvania, Utah, Wisconsin and Wyo- ming. Congressional appropriations are regularly made for manual training in the District of Columbia ; Georgia author- izes county manual labor schools, and in Washington manual training must be taught in each school under the control of the State normal school. Kindergartens — Kindergartens are authorized by general law in Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsyl- vania, Vermont and Wisconsin. Cities also establish kindergartens through powers inherent in their charters. In 1897-98 there were public kinder- gartens in 189 of the 626 cities of 8,000 population and over. In these 189 cities there were 1,365 separate kindergartens supported by public funds. The number of kindergarten teachers employed was 2,532, and under their care were 95,867 children, 46,577 boys and 49,290 girls. Information was obtained concerning 2,998 private kinder- gartens in 1897-98 and it is probable that at least 500 others were in existence. The 2,998 private kindergartens had 6,405 teachers and 93,737 pupils. It will be seen that the II3] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 37 total number of kindergartens, public and private, was 4,363, with 8,937 teachers and 189,604 pupils. The actual number of pupils enrolled in kindergartens in the United States in 1897-98 must have exceeded 200,000. PART IV THE PLACE OF POPULAR EDUCATION IN THE IDEALS OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE Education in the United States is regarded as something organic — something belonging essentially to our political and social structure. Daniel Webster announced, in his clear and incisive manner, this necessity that appertains to the American form of government. He said: "On the diffusion of education among the people rests the preserva- tion and perpetuation of our free institutions. I apprehend no danger to our country from a foreign foe. * * * Our destruction, should it come at all, will be from another quarter. From the inattention of the people to the con- cerns of the government, from their carelessness and negli- gence, I confess I do apprehend some danger. I fear that they may place too implicit confidence in their public serv- ants, and fail properly to scrutinize their conduct ; that in this way they may be the dupes of designing men and become the instruments of their undoing. Make them intel- ligent and they will be vigilant ; give them the means of detecting the wrong and they will apply the remedy." We are making the experiment of self-government — a government of the people by the people — and it has seemed a logical conclusion to all nations of all times that the rulers of the people should have the best education attainable. Then, of course, it follows that the entire people of a democ- racy should be educated for they are the rulers. Quoting again from Webster's Plymouth oration in 1822 : " By general instruction we seek as far as possible to purify the whole atmosphere, to keep good sentiments uppermost, and to turn the strong current of feeling and opinion, as well as the censures of the law and the denunciations of religion, against immorality and crime." 38 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [114 This necessity for education has been felt in all parts of the nation, and the whole subject is reasoned out in many a school report published by city or state. By education we add to the child's experience the experience of the human race. His own experience is necessarily one-sided and shallow ; that of the race is thousands of years deep, and it is rounded to fullness. Such deep and rounded experience is what we call wisdom. To prevent the child from making costly mistakes we give him the benefit of seeing the lives of others. The successes and failures of one's fellow-men instruct each of us far more than our own experiments. The school attempts to give this wisdom in a systematic manner. It uses the essential means for its work in the shape of text-books, in which the experience of the race is digested and stated in a clear and summary manner, in its several departments, so that a child may understand it. He has a teacher to direct his studies and instruct him in the proper methods of getting out of books the wisdom recorded in them. He is taught first in the primary school how to spell out the words and how to write them himself. Above all, he is taught to understand the meaning of the words. All first use of words reaches only a few of their many sig- nifications ; each word has many meanings and uses, but the child gets at only one meaning, and that the simplest and vaguest, when he begins. His school work is to train him into accuracy and precision in the interpretation of language. He learns gradually to fill each word of the printed page with its proper meaning. He learns to criticise the state- ments he reads, and to test them in his own experience and by comparison with other records of experience. In other words, the child at school is set to work to enlarge his own puny life by the addition of the best results of other lives. There is no other process so well adapted to insure a growth in self-respect as the mastery of the thought of the thinkers who have stored and systematized the expe- rience of mankind. This is the clue to the hopes founded on education. The I I 5 J" ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 59 patriotic citizen sees that a government managed by illiterate people is a government of one-sided and shallow experi- ence, and that a government by the educated classes insures the benefits of a much wider knowledge of the wise ways of doing things. The work of the school produces self-respect, because the pupil makes himself the measure of his fellows and grows to be equal to them spiritually by the mastery of their wisdom. Self-respect is the root of the virtues and the active cause of a career of growth in power to know and power to do. Webster called the free public school " a wise and liberal system of police, by which property and the peace of society are secured." He explained the effect of the school as excit- ing " a feeling of responsibility and a sense of character." This, he saw, is the legitimate effect ; for, as the school causes its pupils to put on the forms of thought given them by the teacher and by the books they use — causes them to control their personal impulses, and to act according to rules and regulations — causes them to behave so as to combine with others and get help from all while they in turn give help ; as the school causes the pupil to put off his selfish promptings, and to prefer the forms of action based on a consideration of the interests of others — it is seen that the entire discipline of the school is ethical. Each youth edu- cated in the school has been submitted to a training in the habit of self-control and of obedience to social order. He has become to some extent conscious of two selves ; the one his immediate animal impulse, and the second his moral sense of conformity to the order necessary for the harmoni- ous action of all. The statistics of crime confirm the anticipations of the public in regard to the good effects of education. The jails of the country show pretty generally the ratio of eight to one as the quotas of delinquents furnished from a given number of illiterates as compared with an equal number of those who can read and write. Out of 10,000 illiterates there will be eight times as many criminals as out of 10,000 40 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [ll6 who can read and write. In a state like Michigan, for exam- ple, where less than five per cent of the people are illiterate, there are 30 per cent of the criminals in jail who are illiter- ate. The 95 per cent who are educated to read and write furnish the remaining 70 per cent. In comparing fractions, it is necessary to consider the denominators as well as the numerators. Comparing only the numerators, we should say education produces more crime than illiteracy ; for here are only 30 per cent of those criminals from the illiterate class, but 70 per cent are from those who can read and write. On the other hand, taking the denominators also into consideration, we say : But there are less than five per cent illiterates and more than 95 of educated persons in the entire adult population. Hence the true ratio is found, by combining the two fractions, to be one-eighth, or one to eight for the respective quotas fur- nished, (f : g : : 8 : 1). The penitentiaries, or state prisons, contain the selected criminals who have made more serious attacks on person and property and on the majesty of the law than those left in the jails. These, therefore, come to a larger extent from the 70 per cent of arrests which are from the educated class ; and it is found, by comparing the returns of the 20 odd states that keep records of illiteracy, that the illiterates furnish from two to four times their quota for the prisons, while they furnish eight times their quota for the jails and houses of correction. But it is found on investigation that the criminals who can read and write are mostly from the ranks bordering on illit- eracy. They may be described as barely able to read and write, but without training in the use of those arts for acquainting themselves with the experience and wisdom of their fellow-men. 1 1 A point is made that those states which have the completest systems of educa- tion have the most criminals in their jails and prisons. This is true, but its sig- nificance is not read aright until one sees by an analysis of the causes of arrest that it is not a real increase of crime, but an increase of zeal on the part of the community to abolish the seeds of crimes, to repress the vices that lead to crime. 117] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 41 It is against all reason and all experience that the school whose two functions are to secure good behavior and an intelligent acquaintance with the lessons of human experi- ence, should not do what Webster said, namely, " Prevent in some measure the extension of the penal code, by inspir- ing a salutary and conservative principle of virtue and of knowledge in an early age." Thus the political problem, which proposes to secure the general welfare by intrusting the management of the gov- ernment to representatives chosen by all the people, finds its solution in the establishment of schools for the people. PART V HISTORICAL BEGINNINGS OF SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES All who become interested in the system of education pre- vailing in the United States and see the direct bearing it has on the realization of the ideal of self-government, feel an interest in the question of its origin. Anything is best understood when seen in the perspective of its history. We see not only what is present before us but its long trend hitherward. The school is the auxiliary institution founded for the purpose of reinforcing the education of the four funda- mental institutions of civilization. These are the family, civil society (devoted to providing for the wants of food, clothing, and shelter), the state, the church. The character- istic of the school is that it deals with the means necessary for the acquirement, preservation, and communication of intelligence. The mastery of letters and of mathematical symbols ; of the technical terms used in geography and gram- mar and the sciences ; the conventional meaning of the lines used on maps to indicate water or mountains or towns or latitude and longitude, and the like. The school devotes In Massachusetts, for example, there were in 1850, 3,351 arrests for drunkenness, while in 1885, the number had increased to 18,701. But meanwhile the crimes against person and property had decreased from i860 to 1885 forty-four per cent, making allowance for increase of population. Life and property had become more safe, but drunkenness had become less safe. 42 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [ll8 itself to instructing the pupil on these dry details of arts that are used to record systematic knowledge. These con- ventionalities once learned, the youth has acquired the art of self-help ; he can of his own effort open the door and enter the treasure-house of literature and science. What- ever his fellow-men have done and recorded he can now learn by sufficient diligence of his own. The difference between the part of education acquired in the family and that acquired in the school is immense and incalculable. The family arts and trades, manners and customs, habits and beliefs, form a sort of close-fitting spiritual vesture : a garment of the soul always worn, and expressive of the native character not so much of the indi- vidual as of his tribe or family or community. The indi- vidual has from his birth been shaped into these things as by a mould ; all his thinking and willing and feeling have been moulded into the form or type of humanity looked upon as the ideal by his parents and acquaintances. This close-fitting garment of habit gives him direction but not self-direction or freedom. He does what he does blindly, from the habit of following custom and doing as others do. But the school gives a different sort of training, — its discipline is for the freedom of the individual. The educa- tion of the family is in use and wont and it trains rather than instructs. The result is unconscious habit and ungrounded prejudice or inclination. Its likes and dislikes are not grounded in reason, being unconscious results of early train- ing. But the school lays all its stress on producing a con- sciousness of the grounds and reasons of things. I should not say all its stress ; for the school does in fact lay much stress on what is called discipline, — on habits of alert and critical attention, on regularity and punctuality, and self- control and politeness. But the mere mention of these elements of discipline shows that they, too, are of a higher order than the habits of the family, inasmuch as they all require the exertion of both will and intellect consciously in order to attain them. The discipline of the school forms II9] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 43 a sort of conscious superstructure to the unconscious basis of habits which have been acquired in the family. School instruction, on the other hand, is given to the acquirement of techniques ; the technique of reading and writing, of mathematics, of grammar, of geography, history, literature, and science in general. One is astonished when he reflects upon it at first, to see how much is meant by this word technique. All products of human reflection are defined and preserved by words used in a technical sense. The words are taken out of their collo- quial sense, which is a loose one except when employed as slang. For slang is a spontaneous effort in popular speech to form technical terms. The technical or conventional use of signs and symbols enables us to write words and record mathematical calcula- tions ; the technical use of words enables us to express clearly and definitely the ideas and relations of all science. Outside of technique all is vague hearsay. The fancy pours into the words it hears such meanings as its feelings prompt. Instead of science there is superstition. The school deals with technique in this broad sense of the word. The mastery of the technique of reading, writ- ing, geography and history lifts the pupil into a plane of freedom hitherto not known to him. He can now by his own effort master for himself the wisdom of the race. By the aid of such instruments as the family education has given him he cannot master the wisdom of the race, but only pick up a few of its results, such as the custom of his com- munity preserves. By the process of hearsay and oral inquiry it would take the individual a lifetime to acquire what he can get in six months by the aid of the instruments which the school places in his hands. For the school gives the youth the tools of thought. Immigrants to America in the colonial period laid stress on the establishment of schools. The ideas of Luther were echoed by reformers in Holland, Sweden, Switzer- land and elsewhere. Education is called " the foundation 44 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l20 of the commonwealth," in 1583, in a school law of Holland. At that time there was a stringent school law passed. In Sweden education was common before 1650, and every peas- ant's child was taught to read. Boston, in 1635, voted a school and funds to support a master. Roxbury was quite active in the founding of free schools. Plymouth, Weymouth, Dorchester, Salem, Cam- bridge, and other towns had schools before 1650. A law of the general court of Massachusetts decreed that in every town the selectmen should prosecute those who refused to "train their children in learning and labor," and to impose a fine of 20 shillings on those who neglected to teach their children " so much learning as may enable them perfectly to read the English tongue." Schools were established in the Connecticut colonies immediately after their settlement. The Rhode Island col- onies had schools by 1650. In 1636 occurred the important vote of the general court of Massachusetts, setting apart four hundred pounds for the establishment of a college which was endowed two years afterward by John Harvard, receiv- ing 1700 pounds and named from its benefactor. The public Latin school of Boston dates from 1635. Meanwhile in New York the Dutch had brought over their zeal for education. The Dutch West India company, in 162 1, charged its colonists to maintain a clergyman and a school- master. It seems that in 1625 the colonial estimate included a clergyman at 1440 florins, and a schoolmaster at 360 florins. In 1633 the first schoolmaster arrived — Adam Roelandson. His name is revered like that of Ezekiel Cheever and Philomon Purmont, schoolmasters of early Boston. As regards common schools in Virginia, the opinion of the royal governor, Berkeley, is often quoted : " I thank God there be no free schools nor printing-presses, and I hope we shall not have them these hundred years ; for learning has brought disobedience and heresy and sects into the world, and printing has divulged them and libels against the best I2l] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 45 of governments : God keep us from both." The governor of the Connecticut colony answered to a question (appar- ently of the commissioners of foreign plantations) : " One- fourth of the annual revenue of this colony is laid out in maintaining free schools for the education of our children." Apropos to this utterance of Berkeley, against whom the more progressive spirit of Virginia arose in rebellion in 1676, there should be quoted a more noteworthy sentence from the Virginian, Thomas Jefferson, who wrote (to J. C. Cabell) in 181 8: "A system of general instruction which shall reach every description of our citizens from the richest to the poorest, as it was my earliest, so shall it be the latest of all the public concerns in which I shall permit myself to take an interest." In 1647 the Massachusetts general court passed what has become the most celebrated of the early school laws of the colonies. In it occurs the often-quoted passage : " To the end that learning may not be buried in the graves of our forefathers, * * * it is ordered that every township within this jurisdiction * * * of the number of fifty households shall appoint one within their town to teach all such children as shall resort to him to write and read, whose wages shall be paid either by the parents or masters of such children, or by the inhabitants in general * * * further ordered that any town * * * of one hundred * * * householders * * * shall set up a grammar school, the master thereof being able to instruct youths so far as they may be fitted for the university." This law attached a pen- alty to its violation. " Grammar " meant Latin grammar at that period. New Jersey established schools as early as 1683, and an example of a permanent school fund is found in an appro- priation made that year. In 1693 a law compelled citizens to pay their shares for the maintenance of a school. In 1726 a clergyman from Pennsylvania established in New Jersey a classical school that grew in after times into Prince- ton college. 46 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [l22 The original charter given William Penn required that the government of his colony should erect and aid public schools. Within 20 years after its settlement, schools were founded in Philadelphia, and others in towns of that colony. The management of the district (elementary) schools began in most cases with the church and gradually came into the hands of the smallest political subdivision, known as "districts." Each township was divided into districts for school purposes, and for minor political purposes such as repair of the public highways. Each district contained an average of four square miles, with a schoolhouse near the cen- ter of population, usually a little distance from some village, and holding a maximum of forty or fifty pupils. The school committee employed teachers. The schools held a three months' session in the winter, and sometimes this was made four months. The winter school was nearly always " kept " by a man. There might be a summer school for a brief session kept by a woman. Wages for the winter school, even as late as 1840, in the rural districts of New England, were six to ten dollars a month. The schoolmaster might be a young college student trying to earn money during his vacation to continue his course in college. More commonly he was a surveyor, or clerk, or a farmer who had a slender store of learning but who could " keep order." He pos- sessed the faculty to keep down the boisterous or rebellious pupils and could hear the pupils recite their lessons memor- ized by them from the book. There were in some places school societies, semi-public corporations, that founded and managed the schools, receiv- ing more or less aid from the public funds. Such associa- tions provided much of the education in New York, Phila- delphia, and in many parts of New England before the advent of the public school. When the villages began to catch the urban spirit and establish graded schools with a full annual session, there came a demand for a higher order of teacher, the profes- sional teacher, in short. This caused a comparison of ideals ; I23] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 47 the best enlightened in the community began an agita- tion of the school question, and supervision was demanded. In Massachusetts, where the urban civilization had made most progress, this agitation resulted in the formation of a state board of education in 1837, and the employment of Horace Mann as its secretary (June, 1837). Boston had been connected with Providence, Worcester and Lowell by railroads before 1835, and in 1842 the first great trunk rail- road had been completed through Springfield to Albany, opening to Boston a communication with the great west by the Erie canal and the newly completed railroad from Albany to Buffalo. This was the beginning of the great urban epoch in America that has gone on increasing the power of the city to this day. The number of cities containing 8,000 inhabitants and upwards, was, in 1790, only six; between 1800 and 18 10 it had increased to 1 1 ; in 1820 to 13 ; in 1830, 26; in 1840, 44; in the fifty years between 1840 and 1890 it increased from 44 to 443, or 10 times the former number. The urban population of the country in 1790 was, according to the superintendent of the census (see Bulletin No. 52, April 17, 1791), only one in 30 of the population; in 1840 it had increased to one in 12 ; in 1890, to one in three. In fact, if we count the towns on the railroads that are made urban by their close connection with the large cities, and the subur- ban districts, it is safe to say that now one-half of the popu- lation is urban. Horace Mann came to the head of education in Massachu- setts just at the beginning of the epoch of railroads and the growth of cities. He attacked with unsparing severity the evils of the schools as they had been. The school district system, introduced into Connecticut in 1701, into Rhode Island about 1750, and into Massachusetts in 1789, was pro- nounced by him to be the most disastrous feature in the whole history of educational legislation in Massachusetts. Horace Mann extended his criticisms and suggestions to the examination of teachers and their instruction in teachers' 48 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [ I2 4 institutes ; to the improvement of school buildings ; the raising of school funds by taxation ; the creating of a cor- rect public opinion on school questions ; the care for vicious youth in appropriate schools. He discarded the hide-bound text-book method of teaching and substituted the oral dis- cussion of the topic in place of the memorizing of the words of the book. He encouraged school libraries and school apparatus. Horace Mann's influence founded the first normal school in the United States at Lexington (afterwards moved to Framingham), and a second one founded at Bridgewater in the fall of the same year (1839). Inspired by the example in Massachusetts, Connecticut was aroused by Henry Barnard, who carried through the legislature the act organizing a state board of commissioners, and became himself the first secretary of it (1839). I R ^49, Connecticut established a normal school. In 1843, Mr. Barnard went to Rhode Island and assisted in drawing up the state school law under which he became the first com- missioner, and labored there six years. These were the chief fermenting influences in education that worked a wide change in the management of schools in the middle and western states within the past fifty years. Superintendents of city school systems began in 1837 with Buffalo. Providence followed in 1839; New Orleans in 1841 ; Cleveland in 1844; Baltimore in 1849; Cincinnati in 1850; Boston in 1851 ; New York, San Francisco and Jersey City in 1852 ; Newark and Brooklyn in 1853 ; Chi- cago and St. Louis in 1854 ; and finally Philadelphia in 1883. State superintendents began with New York, 1813 ; New York was followed by 16 of the states before 1850. From 1 85 1 to the civil war, eight states established the office of state superintendent ; since then, nineteen other states, including 10 in the south, that had no state systems of education previously. Normal schools in the United States increased from one, beginning in 1839 m Massachusetts, to 138 public and 46 I25] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 49 private normal schools in 1889, with an attendance of upwards of 28,000 students preparing for the work of teach- ing. This would give a total of some twelve thousand a year of new teachers to meet the demand. It may be assumed, therefore, that less than one-sixth of the supply of new teachers comes from the training schools specially designed to educate teachers. The history of education since the time of Horace Mann is very largely an account of the successive modifications introduced into elementary schools through the direct or indirect influence of the normal school. 5° ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [126 •* ,lj £ n M 8 •3 .0 3 3 C c c % 13 rt > 'A rt IS £ s St s & <* 5J c %» £ ^ (J 3 jjS q £ .a .& ft s < 5 8 8 ^ =0 5 £ X! 1— 1 P W Ph Ph < — _tj (j ™ .2 a ■3 » G Z .a u c « « z O • ef 2 iv, B O fa .2 "3 T3 T3 M C C w rt h •533 'So ^ S S° £ 3 -a 3 o "3 a *_> r* s» G .'5 a >$ 2 m £ -a bo rt £ -a - rt c) < -0 rt 3 'Si rt 3 4 J > H rt 3 •rf rt h J3 B rt Q c u > 3 -C rt u U 3 O rt U rn ft a ef -0 c B ■jj " S rt X 2 n Q z 1-4 - O U rt ?i T3 rt > E rt J3 3 O I 5 3 3 -3 nl 8 . "3 00 t**NO o^vo 00 a* rt <* H mco Ny3 -* 6x t^. h in t**oo ■* J2 H '** 1 jZ i-CMomo -« O- C: ■'■■...■ ■-:■ :-: in M M "rt £ rt H « M h ^rn e !► 3 c m n a- 3 ■* t ^3 IN **o»mN 3 VO CTi ■* « in ro 3 O Ph ^ H M O 1/) r^. m "*• 3 rt 0 c H H *•*- t>.vO m ^ w u 'i° 0) ^o nnoo m in J2 6 2 a O H z \o m vc o> *— JZ > t^.'O ■^■'O H IS " 'u ■* H IH be m-a Ph 3 rt s MD ^-N OMN t? 'u O u")VO O C^CO 12 OS N l>. O -co m m ■o m e->. ro rf VO H l>. t^ O 1» > r» ■o « 'u t^. N M H « .z* Oh C = ^3 QC « 00 m ■*• r-^oo hcovo 3 t^. O^OOO h HH 3 CO & ii"i m m -«f co 3 fin c .2 A 3 O w.JJ.S C 1 \o n-tiocj b "-a QJ rt"o i S^ 0, « n m '0 •r ? rt rt 55 ° u c w IQ > ^ u "3 tn be ^3g c — ii 0— u S. rt « en &•■« ■<. 1 t^ 000 00 « ft-rj 3 C-C i>. w m m oc cr t^.\o ro Ph O M 3 ^ c 1 tN mn N V J3 ■« 1- H « M — CU i § O ^Jv \£ 1 \0 M J*4 U \c N t-^CO O-CO' ng c ruct: nd des) « c ft CO ro t^co r m 00 ^^c ro m h ^«f ■ r* *j rt rt Ph— ; *^ > in t. •5 g ;* bo <->'" s <~. pils re entary (prim; ramma \c ■O Cl CO '^■yD -> M Tf M>0 c NfOtO>m 3 « c ^ « O N ro O 3 h bo 04 c 9 Ph J ro « m m c c 4 c c *ui"u! ° ° z (/ '£>-H w H X QQ-r-- E > c '3 "3 "rt "« T S t rt rtl c -| E- ■<- I27J ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 51 C G O U <3 <3 8 ST is l~ o c g u"rt " *0 O ■£■ s." -° 3 r- rt ■0 5 M o V, s 5 S — 1 "O a ^ E I 3 C " V o > ° rt c/3 -3 >, 73 JS « «. 2 - m 2 6 6 ■3 ■ ■ E _ 'O t E e S 2 * <« u a. o « . H .a » a A c O rt M — id 3 a u c "3 a ho C -3 ho c J3 3 c ho C 73 3 u C c ■a a § C ~ "C |25 Ph -c H ^ u •* o -« •« 5 2 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [128 ^ ■^ ►8 ■k-l I X I— I Q W Ph Pm < I- U 2 p 0) O ,0 o s-g rovo -+ N t^ fr* rovo H O OD NN t-^\0 tv t-*.VO VO 00 00 ■ <0 t^ u-)\0 t>» I 0.<0 t^ t">VO VO * VO O- r^. O t-^ t^ 1 MOfJH t--.ro ^. H O^VO h- **■ "■*■ ) t>. m t-* t^vo r-*. in 10 t^vo in ^r t->\0 tI-VO ' d vo' ->*• H t- -d-vc ^- 3ro -*• -*■ roco m ro « 00 a- in ro 00 N O* 6 N rovd r^. moo co\o n \0 CfVO NH m ro t^VO "*■ in t-^ N H -4- ro o o « o ro ^-00 ro 0-00 00 tMN ioh coco H \o ■^- -+■ mvo in r*- ro >*■ ro rovo \0 mvo -^-0 0^- t^.vo O00 00 t'o ass M CO o ► H M( ro h « 1 vo rooo n ^i^O f) ■o 00 vo *MnM o ' m d i mvo r-« « (- mvo o o m *$• fr\C t^ O ■*■ h ro ro H cr-vo N « N ro ro ro m m t^. 00 ■*■ *<*■ t^.OO vo * a- o o o 8N-*m Q00 O O ^f inoo vo 6 00 h ro hi vo o> r0"0 10 M -*}-vo « m in ro ■* roco O •**- in t^vo NrnH « vo ro H . « rt M HCO vo m o O^ ( iichvo mvo o • m ro f- w vo •«- » w " 2 B u £ o ? g o « : s-3.a-a ST.? 3 "xm -^ o £-£_ KCjS^^ •o V,-* 00 ■J2 C O w>v, vK 2 k *J ufH c a. G "^ c >. ;► P « u S.5^ o u u u a s e 129] ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 53 N OO -i- r*. ro oo O VO NO o ■* H 8 •* (N, rn o m O vo "-> cr « n inm moo o o> U1CO oo i>-co vo t>.vo noo Nh. n r>oo ( \0 N M Q> ► 1 vo ooo c-* s rovo ^- u-)\o . t-s C"-. t><0 NCO t-> NOO £>0 i t"^vo t~- t-. N t>.co t^. t>. ^ r^o o vo o vo oo- Tt-cd m o>roin . 00 NOO !>■ t» f-00 -^-VO Q> OO "*■ cn mvo o^ t^ t > O OM N O M -^ O « m ■«*■ moo oo nvo o cr c*» ■* moo h n Th roM mm O O t*> -*vo co rot-.CN *«t S N CO to o o o> 5 CO o> r- :>:■ VO t^ m t*» r-- t^ tMON'frO! oroH^o t**oo t^vo oo coo ^- io in ■**■ moo m "^-M0iOM-N0O> N c<-<-ovo« m M M O VO O>00 N CO H i>. m r>» co « m •<*-*■*■ i m « ^ moo rovo ■ ^- -^- a- io -**- noo TOO VO CO CO « n r^vo N moo vo m o f» -*- 0> O « N irj m m h u-j t-* 0>V0 m -*- t>. ■<*•*© n « m m moo O » m o _ O 0> O vo t*s vo vo N !« 6 Sjh u-j t^ tJ-0O H NINCOCO an in m in •*- m m t^\o co m -*■ m tnuiMcoco in ■*- \o o o*-^ t^ o m C^'O m o- m r^\o m t-*oo oo t>- m « •* m a> m-o n t^ « co o ovo ^^q m\o "O \o CO m os m (N moO -^ mm pim «como> M M M « « Mm m "2* •*. '£ a <-> ° HwgmM-WMOm OWOOmiNMTfQ *"t* m o "**■ m o moo m ■>*- o t-» a*- o> « m ts. h ti-oo m nm t VO O !■*• f» in-O "-J- M Q NONO-NC1 ^r o t^-o •o in o oo ^goOHOmi^in CMONO t O-CO O^ t-». % <*s V> a> o-\o o o-> i 0*- Ti-»o t** < a>r^O'O0 m-n w i>- o o^n m r-^. « -^-m "* in m o vo mo-^-t-N O H O t^ H M in m a*> m m I 9J3AY sjootps am sAep jo asqinnu sSBJSAy I f^vo "^-00 »*-VO hoo\0 m a-co o o A/ep tp-es jooips Suipuaue s[idnd jo jaquinu aifeasAy 00 M I--. O* M m moo o*- in ! o 'O I**- 1^.00 Ch (-*» i ■ "■ *+ ■* <_ co m oo o> ■*■ ■«*• *+ -t- o pajjojua sjidnj mvo \o in\o ** o r-. ■*t moo t-^co in m « in t^ a- m co tv.co m in m o *o oo m m h oo ■* mvo ^ r-vo o^oo co croo o^ t^ ■ ST3 c > £ <5"5 e > > c rt u v «j= o«i»S : 6? S « ggt3-2> u U.2rt ^3 bS EitiitJa S' a u rt.U ^ u o § « o c c «:£>-• 56 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [132 _ 2 Moo S-.3.5 ? O O i mco **- 1 0*0 *rio>o*o o ■* ) vo c^ VO rOMD w r-* N ro Ti- « C^ 1 p-j\o 00 w « rn h 00 o VO tJ-MD CO fO O u-> " o^ . M tv M « i rfco co r>- ) vo -^- « vo « vo mvo r- mvo VO M M H O O 1 00 O^co 1 OCO N I O IO M ts. H r ^ H lOCO VO <«- Suunp 3ds5[ 3J3a\ sjootps 3q:j sA^p jo jaquinu oSrj^Ay ^00 O O VO N m ■ mvo vo mvo X^p IIOBO |OOl[3S SuipuajjB sjidnd jo agquinu oJfejaAy ) O w "*■ f^vo QOrnOwQOMO O O t^ m m moo 1 ■^- t-*. C 1 O vo Oh l r*">00 Ovo O O -*■ l ^ « vo vo 00 ^ h-t X I— I Q P-i < psfiojus sjidnj « w m OOCOiorOO l vo OVO in ->J-00 CO NCM m vo norooo ■^oovoco 1 co ma-ttfo iovo 1 « m ^ noo 00 r-vo o (■>. <*■ rooo h n ^ n m m in t"» ^J-VO CO MNOCi <*■ m fO >fVO -^- NOS^O £ EH jS.Sg rt rt >i rt B-ss'-a .3*22 8 • rt rt rt ■ S c > £ £ ti- 13 c rt C ° U „,' rt p aS C O j; 45 : c c E > rt 2 01 — rt p rt <5 c tj rt'rt ~ q ^ T3 ^'^" H «— *"H o ^ oj ni o ?^n a) C *-> in rA ej U IA IA OS O 1— 1 ia IA cj u It will be seen that this system provides for inspection of the schools only at long and irregular intervals. In practice, this defect is partially overcome by the close oversight which the universities exercise over those members of their fresh- man classes who enter on certificates from the schools. Such students are understood to be admitted to the uni- versity for a probationary period, in which they may show whether or not they have been properly prepared for the work they have undertaken. The interest in secondary education which has grown up under this system has extended to all sections of the state. There are now 151 high schools on the "commissioned" list, including those of the more populous centers. There is growing up, also, a large number of "township high schools " in the more sparsely settled portions of the state. In 1891, there were 125 such schools with an enrollment of 920 pupils. In 1898, the number had grown to 389, with an enrollment of 8,459 pupils. Seven of these schools have been placed on the " commissioned " list. The Wisconsin state system of free high schools was established in 1875. ^ provides for the maintenance of high schools by towns, incorporated villages, cities, or school districts or sub-districts containing incorporated villages or two-department graded schools within their limits. Two or more adjoining towns, or one or more towns and an incorpo- rated village, may unite in establishing and maintaining a high school. These schools are managed by local high school boards, which are commonly, but not always, identical with the boards for elementary schools. They are supported primarily by local taxation ; but a district is entitled to receive from the general fund of the state a sum not exceed- ing one-half the amount actually expended for instruction in the high school of such district, and not exceeding five hundred dollars in any one year ; provided the school has been kept in accordance with certain requirements prescribed by law, and provided further that the total amount paid from the state treasury for this purpose in any one year shall not I97] SECONDARY EDUCATION 57 exceed fifty thousand dollars. Such a school is under the direct inspection and oversight of the state superintendent. To receive state aid, a school must establish and maintain a course of study prescribed, or at least approved, by that official ; and must be taught by teachers whose certificates he has approved. The state superintendent issues a manual for the guidance of these schools, containing general sug- gestions, courses of study, an outline of subjects and methods of instruction, and the text of the high school law. He is assisted in the visitation and supervision which the law prescribes by an inspector of free high schools, whom he appoints. An effort has been made in Wisconsin to encourage the building up of high schools in the less thickly settled por- tions of the state. This undertaking has met with only a moderate degree of success. Here as elsewhere it has been found difficult to promote the general establishment of such schools by other units of civil administration than those which establish and maintain elementary schools. In Wis- consin the elementary schools are governed and supported by district school authorities, and not by township boards. In the cities and towns of Wisconsin, the high schools are making marked progress, under the system of state super- vision. Within the past few years, many of them have been housed in fine, new buildings, provided with excellent labora- tories for instruction in the natural sciences. Important beginnings have been made also in the equipment of some of the schools for courses in manual training. State aid, to the amount of $250 a year for any one school, is extended to such courses by special provisions of the high school law. In the spring of 1899 SIX schools were receiving such special aid. At the same time there were in all 211 state-aided hieh schools in Wisconsin. Of these 56 had a three-year course and 155 a course four years in length. Of the four-year schools, no were accredited to the University of Wisconsin. The accrediting system was introduced by the university in 1878, and is carried on independently of the state system of 58 SECONDARY EDUCATION [198 inspection. About a dozen of the largest and strongest high schools in the state are not included among those receiving state aid. The courses of study are commonly designated as the English, the general science, the modern classical, and the ancient classical course. A given school will ordinarily establish the English course first, and will from time to time add the others in the order named. There were in 1899 ten schools in the state which carried the full classical course. Minnesota has maintained a state system of high schools since 1881. At the head of this system stands the state high school board, consisting of the governor, the superintendent of public instruction, and the president of the University of Minnesota, ex officio. This board appoints a high school inspector and a graded school inspector. Any public high school in the state may become a state high school, and is then entitled to receive from the state the sum of eight hun- dred dollars annually. To be a state high school, it must admit students of either sex from any part of the state with- out charge for tuition, must provide a course of study cover- ing the requirements for admission to the University of Minnesota, and must be subject to the rules and open to the inspection of the state high school board. This board deter- mines, on the basis of the reports of its inspector, what schools are entitled to the bounty of the state ; but not more than five schools may receive such aid in any one county in any one year. Provision is also made for state graded schools, of lower rank than the state high schools ; and for the promotion of such schools to the rank of state high schools when they have attained such a degree of advancement as to entitle them to that designation. The state high school board conducts a written examina- tion of classes in the schools twice a year. Students who successfully pass such examinations, in any of the high school subjects, receive certificates for the subjects so covered ; and these certificates are accepted by the university and the normal schools of the state in lieu of entrance exam- 199] SECONDARY EDUCATION 59 inations in the subjects specified. The taking of this state examination is ordinarily optional with the school ; and no grants of money are based on examination results. The state board may, however, require a school to take an exam- ination as a part of the annual inspection. " The main pur- pose of state examinations", as stated by the inspector of high schools in his report for 1898, "is not to test the stu- dents, but to promote the general efficiency of the schools." Perhaps the most significant thing about the Minnesota system is the encouragement it gives to high schools in the smaller towns. Communities all over the state tax them- selves freely to supplement the bounty distributed by the state board. Laboratory apparatus for the high schools is made at the state prison and sold to the schools at cost. For the year 1898-99, there were 1 10 graded schools and 97 high schools, under the supervision of the state high school board. Several other states have made marked advance within the past few years in the direction of improved systems of sec- ondary schools. These improvements have been gained through the untiring efforts of devoted friends of education, and should receive notice in such a place as this. But lack of space forbids. There is reason to regret, along with this omission, the unavoidable passing over of influential move- ments and important institutions which are in every way deserving of mention along with those which have been noticed ; but the time has been wanting to consider fully the proportionate importance of these things, as well as the space for a full exposition of them all. 6o SECONDARY EDUCATION [200 STATISTICS Through the courtesy of the United States commissioner of education, the following statistics for the whole country for the year 1897-98 are presented in advance of their pub- lication by the bureau of education : TABLE I STATISTICS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR 1 897-98 Public high schools Private high schools Public and private high schools Number of schools reporting. . . Teachers of secondary students. Male 5315 17 941 8 542 9 399 449 600 189 187 260413 51 066 27 935 13 575 14360 23 131 12 056 11 075 53 022 19247 33 775 14552 6 699 7 853 1 99O 9357 4075 5 282 105 225 52 172 53 053 26 693 16 361 11 128 5233 10332 7 429 2 903 12 148 6 302 5846 5 388 3628 1 760 7 305 27 298 12 617 14 68l 554 825 241 359 313466 77 759 44 296 24703 19 593 33 463 19485 13 978 65 170 25 549 39621 19940 10 327 9613 Female Male Female Secondary students preparing for college Classical course Male Female Scientific courses Male Female Graduates in the class of 1898. . Male.. Female College preparatory students in the graduating class Male Female 20l] SECONDARY EDUCATION 61 TABLE II STUDENTS IN CERTAIN COURSES AND STUDIES IN PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS IN 1897-98 COURSES, STUDIES, ETC. Number students Per cent to total number secondary students Male students Per cent to total number male students Female students Per cent to total number female students Students preparing for college : Scientific courses... 27 935 23 131 6.21 5-i5 13 575 12 056 7.18 6.37 13-55 14 360 II 075 5-52 4-25 Total preparing for 51 066 11.36 25 631 25 435 9-77 Graduating in 1898. . . . College preparatory students in graduat- 53 022 14 552 223 307 14 021 33 9*7 59 577 252 358 121 813 10 200 17 170 93 038 37 329 112 133 19 646 134 785 12 325 161 724 180 156 169 478 102 242 11.79 27-45 49.67 3.12 7-54 13-25 56.13 27.09 2.27 3-82 20.69 8.30 24.94 4-37 29. 9S 2.74 35-97 40.07 37-7° 22.74 19247 6 6gg 87 52g 7656 12 006 23 336 106 676 49 787 4 966 6 351 39 493 16 450 47074 7 725 57 392 4 355 66 949 74014 69 636 43 997 10.17 34.81 46.27 4-05 6-35 12.34 56.39 26.32 2.63 3-36 20.88 8.70 24.88 4.08 30.34 2.30 35-39 39.12 36.81 23.26 33 775 7 853 135 778 6365 21 gn 36 241 145 682 72 026 5 234 10 819 53 545 20 879 65 059 11 921 77 393 7 97o 94 775 106 142 99 842 58245 12.97 23-25 52.14 Students in 2.44 8.41 13.92 55-94 27.66 Geometry 2.01 4.15 20.56 Physical geography . 8.02 24.98 4.58 29.72 3.06 36.39 40.76 38.34 22.37 English literature. . . History (other than United States). . . . 1 Per cent to number of graduates. 62 SECONDARY EDUCATION [202 TABLE III STUDENTS IN CERTAIN COURSES AND STUDIES IN PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES IN 1 897-98 COURSES, STUDIES, ETC. Number students Per cent to total number secondary students Male students Per cent to total number male students Female students Per cent to total number female students Students preparing for college: Classical course Scientific courses.. . . 16 361 IO 332 15.54 9.82 II 128 7 429 21.33 I4.23 5 233 2 903 9.86 5-47 Total preparing for college 26 693 25-36 18 557 35-56 8 136 15-33 Graduating in 1898. . . . College preparatory students in graduat- Students in 12 I48 5 388 50 986 10973 24 248 19 417 54 397 25 702 5 519 7 263 20 612 10 119 22 849 6 205 28 205 7 873 34 124 35 654 39 556 16 565 H-54 44-35 48.45 10.43 23.04 18.45 5I.7& 24-43 5-25 6.91 19-59 9.62 21.79 5-9° 26.80 7.48 32.43 33-88 37-59 15-74 6 302 3628 27 908 8983 8 682 9 719 29 47o 14 791 3 447 2 188 10 230 4991 10 555 2 506 12 561 2 814 15 164 15 709 18 346 7 975 I2.o8 57-57 53-49 17.21 16.64 18.63 56.49 28-35 6.61 4.19 19.61 9-57 20.23 4.80 24.08 5-39 29.07 30.11 35-i6 15.29 5 846 1 760 23 078 1 990 15 566 9 698 24 927 10 911 2 072 5075 10 382 5 128 12 294 3 699 15 644 5059 18 960 19 945 21 210 8 590 11.02 30.11 43-50 3-75 29-34 18.28 French Algebra 46.99 20.57 3-9 1 9-57. 19-57 9.67 23.17 6.97 29.49 9-54 35-74 37-59 39-98 16.19 Geometry Physical geography. Psychology TSnglish literature... 1 Per cent to number of graduates. 203] SECONDARY EDUCATION 63 TABLE IV 1 STUDENTS IN CERTAIN COURSES AND STUDIES IN PUBLIC AND PRI- VATE HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES IN 1 897-98 COURSES, STUDIES, ETC. Number students Per cent to total number secondary students Male students Per cent to total number male students Female students Per cent to total number female students Students preparing for college: Scientific courses . . . 44 296 33 463 77 759 7-99 6.03 14.02 24 703 19 485 44 188 IO.24 8.07 18.31 19 593 13 978 33 571 6.25 4.46 Total preparing for IO.7I Graduating in 1898. . . . College preparatory students in graduat- 65 170 19 940 274 293 24 994 58 165 78 994 306 755 147 515 15 719 24 433 113 650 47 448 134 982 25 851 162 990 20 198 195 848 215 810 209 034 118 807 n-75 30.60 49-44 4- 50 10.48 14.24 55.29 26.59 2.83 4.40 20.48 8-55 24-33 4.66 29.38 3-64 35-30 38.90 37.68 21.41 25 549" 10 327 115 437 16 639 20 688 33 055 136 146 64 578 8 413 8 539 49 723 21 441 57 629 10 231 69 953 7 169 82 113 89 723 87 982 5i 972 IO.59 40.42 47.83 6.89 8-57 13.70 56.41 26.76 3-49 3-54 20.60 8.88 23.88 4.24 28.98 2.97 34.02 37.18 36.45 21-53 39 621 9613 158 856 8 355 37 477 45 939 170 609 82 937 7 306 15 894 63 927 26 007 77 353 15 620 93 037 13 029 "3 735 126 087 121 052 66835 I2.64 24.26 Students in 50.68 2.67 French II.96 I4.66 54-43 26.46 2-33 5.07 20. 39 8.30 Physical geography.. Geology 24.68 4.98 29.68 4.16 Rhetoric 36.28 English literature. . . History (other than United States). . . . 40.22 38.62 21.32 1 Result of combining tables II and III. 2 Per cent to number of graduates. 6 4 SECONDARY EDUCATIOxM [204 TABLE V NUMBER AND PER CENT OF STUDENTS PURSUING CERTAIN STUDIES IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 189O TO 1 898, IN FOUR-YEAR PERIODS. 1889-90 1893-94 1897-98 Number of students Per cent to total Number of students Per cent to total Number of students Per cent to total Total number of sec- ondary students. . . Number studying 297 894 IOO I44 12 869 28 032 34 208 127 397 59 789 63 644 28 665 33-62 4-32 9.41 11.48 42.77 20.07 21.36 9.62 407 919 177 898 20 353 42 072 52 152 215 023 103 054 15 500 97 974 42 060 43-59 4-99 10.31 12.78 52.71 25-25 3-8o 24.02 10.31 554 814 274 293 24 994 58 165 78 994 306 755 147 515 15 719 113 650 47 448 49-44 4-5o 10.45 14.24 55-29 26.59 2.83 20.48 8-55 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Reports of the commissioner of education. Washington, annual publication. These reports include a great deal of statistical information relating to sec- ondary education. Since 1871 they have presented statistics of private high schools, academies, etc.; since 1876, of city high schools; since 1886-87, of students pursuing each of the more common secondary school studies; since 1889-90, of public high schools not included in city school systems. Adams, Herbert B. (Editor). Contributions to American educa- tional history. Washington, 1887-. Published as circulars of information of the United States bureau of educa- tion. Nineteen monographs have already appeared in this series, the most of which contain matter relating to the history of secondary schools. Boone, Richard G. Education in the United States, its history from the earliest settlements. New York, D. Appleton and Company, 1893. Contains several chapters on the history of secondary education. 205] SECONDARY EDUCATION 65 Report of the committee on secondary school studies appointed at the meeting- of the National educational association, July 9, 1892, with the reports of the conferences arranged by this committee and held December 28-30, 1892. Washington, 1893. Better known as the report of the committee of ten. It has been repub- lished by the American Book Company (New York) for the National educa- tional association. Report of committee on college entrance requirements, July, 1899. Published by the National educational association, 1899. The American journal of education. [Barnard's] Vols. 1-3 1. Hartford, Conn., 1856-1881. These volumes contain a great amount of matter relating to the history of American secondary schools. The Academy, a journal of secondary education. Issued monthly under the auspices of the associated academic principals of the state of New York. Vols. 1-8. Syracuse and Boston, 1886-1892. School and college, devoted to secondary and higher education. One volume only, Boston, 1892. The school review, a journal of secondary education. Vols. 1- (current publication). Chicago, 1893-. The educational review. Vols. i-(current publication). New York, 1891-. To these should be added the annual reports of the sev- eral school systems mentioned in this monograph, the vol- umes of proceedings of the various associations of teachers to which reference has been made, and the annual catalogs and occasional anniversary publications of the more impor- tant schools. THE AMERICAN COLLEGE BY ANDREW FLEMING WEST Professor of Latin in Princeton University THE AMERICAN COLLEGE I ITS PLACE AND IMPORTANCE The American college has no exact counterpart in the educational system of any other country. The elements which compose it are derived, it is true, from European sys- tems, and in particular from Great Britain. But the form under which these elements have been finally compounded is a form suggested and almost compelled by the needs of our national life. Of course it is far from true to say that Ameri- can colleges have been uninfluenced in their organization by European tradition. On the contrary, the primary form of organization found in our earliest colleges, such as Har- vard, Yale and Princeton, is inherited from the collegiate life of the University of Cambridge. But it was subjected to modification at the very beginning, in order to adapt the infant college to its community, and progressively modified from time to time in order to keep in close sympathy with the civil, ecclesiastical and social character of the growing American nation. The outcome of all this has been an institution which, while deriving by inheritance the elements of its composition, and in some sense its form, has managed to develop for itself a form of organization which notably differs from the old-world schools. Moreover the college, as might be expected from the fore- going considerations, occupies the place of central importance in the historic outworking of American higher education, and remains to-day the one repository and shelter of liberal education as distinguished from technical or commercial training, the only available foundation for the erection of universities containing faculties devoted to the maintenance of pure learning, and the only institution which can furnish the preparation which is always desired, even though it is not 4 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [2IO yet generally exacted, by the better professional schools. Singularly enough, but not unnaturally, the relation of direc- tive influence sustained to-day by our colleges to the univer- sity problem is not unlike the relation held in the middle ages by the inferior faculty of arts at the University of Paris to the affairs of the university as a whole. 1 The points of resemblance are marked and are of a generic character. In both cases the college, or faculty of arts, appears as the preliminary instructor in the essentials of liberal education. In both cases this earlier education is recognized as the proper prerequisite for later study in the professional facul- ties. In both cases the inferior faculty, even if still undevel- oped or but partially developed, contains the germ of the higher university faculty of pure learning, the faculty of arts, sciences and philosophy. In this there is much that is remarkable, but nothing novel. For the American college in this respect merely perpetuates and develops a funda- mental tradition of liberal learning, which found its way from Paris through Oxford to Cambridge, and then from Cambridge to our shores. The parallel of our college his- tory with the old-world history holds good in other impor- tant respects, and would be most interesting to trace. Still, in order to understand the precise nature and unique influ- ence of the college in American education, it is not neces- sary here to trace step by step the story of its development, for in its various forms of present organization it reveals not only the normal type which has been evolved, but also sur- vivals of past stages of development, instances of variation and even of degeneration from the type, and interesting present experiments which may to some extent foreshadow the future. II THE OLD FASHIONED COLLEGE The three commonly accepted divisions of education into the primary, secondary and higher stages, while fully recog- nized in America, are not followed rigorously in our organi- 1 Rashdall : Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages. Chap. I, p. 318. 2Il] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 5 nation. The primary education is more clearly separable from the secondary than is the secondary from the higher or university stage. The chief cause for this partial blend- ing, or perhaps confusion, of the secondary and higher stages is the college. However illogical and even practi- cally indefensible such a mixture may appear in the eyes of some very able critics, it is still true that the historical out- working of this partial blending of two different things, commonly and wisely separated in other systems, has been compelled by the exigencies of our history and has at the same time been fruitful in good results. Let us then take as the starting point of our inquiry the fact that the American college, as contrasted with European schools, is a composite thing — partly secondary and partly higher in its organization. It consists regularly of a four- year course of study leading to the bachelor's degree. Up to the close of the civil war (i 861-1865) it was mainly an institution of secondary education, with some anticipations of university studies toward the end of the course. But even these embryonic university studies were usually taught as rounding out the course of disciplinary education, rather than as subjects of free investigation. Boys entered college when they were fifteen or sixteen years of age. The average age of graduation did not exceed twenty years. The usual course of preparation in the best secondary schools occupied four years, but many students took only three or even two years. In the better schools they studied Latin and Greek grammar, four books of Caesar, six books of Virgil's y£neid, six orations of Cicero, three books of Xenophon's Anabasis and two of Homer's Iliad, together with arithmetic, plane geometry (not always complete) and algebra to, or at most through, quadratic equations. There were variations from this standard, but in general it may be safely asserted that the Latin, Greek and mathematics specified above consti- tuted as much as the stronger colleges required for entrance ; while many weaker ones with younger students and lower standards were compelled to teach some of these prepara- 6 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [2 12 tory studies in the first year or the first two years of the college course. With but few and unimportant exceptions the four-year course consisted of prescribed studies. They were English literature and rhetoric, Latin, Greek, mathe- matics, natural philosophy, chemistry, the elements of deduc- tive logic, moral philosopy, and political economy, and often a little psychology and metaphysics. Perhaps some ancient or general history was added. French and German were sometimes taught, but not to an important degree. At grad- uation the student received the degree of bachelor of arts, and then entered on the study of law, medicine or theology at some professional school, or went into business or into teach- ing in the primary or secondary schools. Such was, in barest outline, the scheme of college education a generation ago. Ill THE COLLEGE OF TO-DAY; PROPOSALS TO SHORTEN THE COURSE At the present time things are very different. With the vast growth of the country in wealth and population since the civil war there has come a manifold development. The old four-year course, consisting entirely of a single set of prescribed studies leading to the one degree of bachelor of arts, has grown and branched in many ways. It has been modified from below, from above and from within. The better preparation now given in thousands of schools has enabled colleges to ask for somewhat higher entrance requirements and, what is more important, to exact them with greater firmness. The age of entrance has increased, until at the older and stronger colleges the average is now about eighteen and a half years. A four-year course leading to a bachelor's degree remains, although in some quarters the increasing age of the students is creating a tendency to shorten the course to three years, in order that young men may not be kept back too long from entering upon their professional studies. It was an easy thing a generation ago for young men to graduate at twenty, and a bright man could do it earlier without difficulty. After two or 213] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 7 three years spent in studying law or medicine he was ready to practice his profession, and then began to earn his living at the age of twenty-two or twenty-three. This was within his reach. But to-day a college student is twenty-two years old at graduation — as old as his father or grand- father were when they had finished their professional studies. If he follows in their steps, he must wait until he is twenty- five to begin earning his living. Accordingly boys are now passing in considerable numbers directly from secondary schools, which do not really complete their secondary educa- tion, to the professional schools, thus omitting college alto- gether. If this continues the effect both on colleges and pro- fessional schools will be discouraging. The problem is an eco- nomic one, and it is affecting college courses of study. One solution, as suggested above, is to shorten the course to three years. This has been advocated by President Eliot of Har- vard. Three years is the length of the course in the under- graduate college established in connection with the Johns Hopkins university. Another proposal is to keep the four- year course and allow professional in place of liberal studies in the last year, thus enabling the student to save one year in the professional school. This experiment is being tried at Columbia. A third proposal is to keep the college course absolutely free from professional studies, but to give abun- dant opportunities in the last year or even the last two years to pursue the liberal courses which most clearly underlie professional training, thus saving a year of professional study. That is, teach jurisprudence and history, but not technical law, or teach chemistry and biology, but not techni- cal medicine, or teach Greek, oriental languages, history and philosophy, but not technical theology. This seems to be the trend of recent experiments in Yale and Princeton. The one common consideration in favor of all these pro- posals is that a year is saved. Against the three-year course, however, it is argued that there is no need to abolish the four-year course in order to save a year. Against the admission of professional studies it is argued that work done 8 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [ 2I 4 in a professional school ought not to count at the same time toward two degrees representing two radically different things. Against the proposal to allow the liberal studies which most closely underlie the professions, it is argued that this is a half-way measure, after all. Nevertheless for the present, and probably for a long time in most colleges, the four-year course is assured. IV ALTERATIONS IN THE CONTENT OF THE COURSE AND IN THE MEANING OF THE BACHELOR'S DEGREE The four-year course, however, no longer leads solely to the degree of bachelor of arts, nor has this old degree itself remained unmodified. With the founding of schools of science, aiming to give a modern form of liberal education based mainly on the physical and natural sciences, and yet only too often giving under this name a technological course, or a somewhat incongruous mixture of technical and liberal studies, the degree of bachelor of science came into use as a college degree. Then intermediate courses were consti- tuted, resting on Latin, the modern languages, history, philosophy, mathematics and science, and thus the degree of bachelor of letters or bachelor of philosophy came into use. Sometimes the various courses in civil, mechanical, mining or electrical engineering were made four-year undergradu- ate courses with their corresponding engineering degrees virtually rated as bachelor's degrees. Still other degrees of lesser importance came into vogue and obtained a foot- ing here and there as proper degrees to mark the comple- tion of a four-year college course. The dispersing pressure of the newer studies and the imperious practical demands of American life proved too strong either to be held in form or to be kept out by the barriers of the old course of purely liberal studies with its single and definite bachelor of arts degree. New degrees were accordingly added to represent the attempted organization of the newer tendencies in courses of study according to their various types. The organiza- tion of such courses was naturally embarrassed by grave 215] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 9 difficulties which are as yet only partially overcome. Com- pared with the old course they lacked and still lack defi- niteness of structure. They aimed to realize new and imperfectly understood conceptions of education, and were composed of studies whose inner content was changing rap- idly, as in the case of the sciences, or else were " half-and- half " forms of education, difficult to arrange in a system that promised stability, as in the case of studies leading to the bachelor of letters or bachelor of philosophy. A graver source of trouble, in view of the too fierce practicality of American life, was the admission of various engineering and other technical studies as parallel undergraduate courses, thus tending to confuse in the minds of young students the radical distinction between liberal and utilitarian ideals in education, and tending furthermore, by reason of the attrac- tiveness of the " bread-and-butter " courses, to diminish the strength of the liberal studies. When in addition it is remembered that the newer courses, whether liberal, semi- liberal or technical, which found a footing of presumed equality alongside of the old bachelor of arts course, exacted less from preparatory schools in actual quantity of school work necessary for entrance into college, it will be seen that the level of preparation for college was really lowered. The present drift of opinion and action in colleges which offer more than one bachelor's degree is more reassuring than it was some twenty years ago. There is a noticeable tendency, growing stronger each year, to draw a sharp line between liberal and technical education and to retain under- graduate college education in liberal studies as the best foundation for technical studies, thus elevating the latter to a professsional dignity comparable with law, medicine and divinity. The more this conception prevails, the more will college courses in engineering be converted into graduate, or at least partially graduate courses. No doubt most inde- pendent schools will continue to offer their courses to young students of college age, but where such schools have been associated as parts of colleges or universities the tendency IO THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [2 1 6 to a clearer separation of technical from liberal studies in the manner indicated above seems likely to prevail. If this happy result can be considered assured, then the under- graduate college course, the sole guarantee of American liberal culture, will have a good chance to organize itself in accordance with its own high ideals, however imperfectly it may have realized these ideals in the past. Another hopeful tendency which is gradually gathering strength is to give the various bachelor's degrees more defi- nite significance by making them stand for distinct types of liberal or semi-liberal education. Three such types or forms are now slowly evolving out of the mass of studies with increasing logical consistency. First comes the historical academic course, attempting to realize the idea of a general liberal education, and consisting of the classical and modern literatures, mathematics and science, with historical, polit- ical and philosophical studies added, and leading to the bachelor of arts degree. The second is the course which aims to represent a strictly modern culture predominantly scientific in character, and culminating in the degree of bachelor of science. As this course originated in the demand for knowledge of the applied sciences in the arts and industries of modern life, the ideal of a purely modern lib- eral culture, predominantly scientific in spirit, was not easy to maintain. On the contrary, the technical aspects of the sciences taught tended more and more to create a demand for strictly technological instruction to the exclusion of the theoretical and non-technical aspects. It is this cause more than any other which has tended to restrict the energies of schools of science to the production of experts in the various mechanical and chemical arts and industries and has caused them to do so little for the advancement of pure science. Conscious of this difficulty, many schools of science have been giving larger place in the curriculum to some of the more available humanistic studies. Fuller courses in French and German have been provided for and the study of Eng- lish has been insisted upon with sharper emphasis. Eco- 2 17] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE II nomics, modern history and even the elements of philosophy have found place. Some improvement has also been effected by increasing the entrance requirements in quantity of school work. But in spite of all these efforts the course still suffers from an inner antagonism between technical and liberal impulses, and until the bachelor of science course finally set- tles into a strictly technical form, or else comes to represent a strictly modern liberal culture, its stability cannot be regarded as assured. In the independent scientific schools, unassociated with colleges, it seems probable the course will keep or assume a highly technical form, but wherever it exists side by side with other bachelor's courses as a proposed rep- resentative of some form of liberal education, it does seem inevitable that the bachelor of science course will tend to conform to the ideal of a modern culture mainly scientific in character. But even if this result be achieved, the pro- cess of achievement promises to be slow and difficult. Few American colleges are strong enough financially to make the experiment, which it must be admitted involves considerable financial risk, and even where the risk may be safely assumed there still remains a serious theoretical difficulty in realizing this form of liberal education. The antagonism between the technical and liberal impulses in the course seems very difficult to eliminate completely. For if the question be asked, Why should an American college student seek as his liberal education the studies which represent a purely mod- ern culture rather than pursue the bachelor of arts course, which professes to stand for a more general culture ? the preference of most students will be found to rest upon their instinct for something useful and immediately available, rather than on a desire for things intellectual. This con- stantly militates against devotion to the intellectual value of their modern studies and tends more and more to drag them toward technical standards. The third aspirant to be considered a type of liberal col- lege education is the course intermediate in character between the two already discussed. It is labeled with the 12 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [2 1 8 degree of bachelor of letters or bachelor of philosophy. It differs from the other two courses mainly in its treatment of the classical languages. In its desire to placate the practical spirit it drops Greek, but retains Latin both as an aid to general culture and as a strong practical help in learning the modern languages. Notwithstanding its indeterminate and intermediate character, it is serving a valuable end by pro- viding thousands of students, who do not care for the clas- sical languages in their entirety, with a sufficiently liberal form of education to be of great service to them'. It is by no means technical in spirit. Judged from the standpoint of the historical bachelor of arts course, it is a less gen- eral but still valuable culture. Judged from the standpoint of the bachelor of science course, it appears to escape the unhappy conflict between the technical and liberal impulses and anchors the student somewhat more firmly to funda- mental conceptions of general culture. These three are the principal forms of undergraduate col- lege education which in any degree profess to stand as types of liberal culture in this country at the present time, and they are usually labeled with three different degrees, as already indicated. But some colleges, following the example of Harvard, have dealt with the bachelor's degree very differently. The degree has been retained as the sole symbol of liberal col- lege education, but the meaning of the degree has been radically altered in order to make it sufficiently elastic to represent the free selections and combinations made by the students themselves out of the whole range of liberal studies. In these colleges it therefore no longer stands for the completion of a definite curriculum composed of a few clearly-related central studies constituting a positive type. What it does stand for is not quite so easy to define, because of the variation of practice in different col- leges and the wide diversity in the choice of studies exer- cised by individual students in any one college. But, gen- erally speaking, it means that the student is free to choose 219] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 1 3 his own studies. In the undergraduate college connected with the Johns Hopkins university at Baltimore choice is regulated by prescribing moderately elastic groups of cog- nate studies, the student being required to say which group he will choose. In Harvard college the range of choice is restricted in no such way. The student is allowed to choose what he prefers, subject to such limitations as the priority of elementary to advanced courses in any subject, and the necessary exclusions compelled by the physical necessity of placing many exercises at the same time, in order to accom- modate the hundreds of courses offered within the limits of the weekly schedule. In Columbia college the degree is still different in respect to the mode of the student's freedom of choice, and especially in the admission of professional studies in the last year of the course. A Columbia student in his senior year may be pursuing his first year's course in law or medicine, and at the same time receiving double credit for this work, both toward the degree of bachelor of arts and toward the professional degree of doctor of medi- cine or bachelor of laws. These examples are sufficient to indicate the variety of meaning found in colleges which have changed the historical significance of the bachelor of arts degree. V OTHER PHASES OF CHANGE Up to this point we have looked at the American college mainly from the outside. We observed in the college of a generation ago an institution of liberal education providing a single four-year course, consisting entirely of prescribed studies for young men from sixteen to twenty years of age, and culminating in one bachelor's degree of fairly uniform intentional meaning. We observe in the college of to-day the developed successor of the earlier college, providing a four-year course consisting generally of a mixture of pre- scribed and elective studies in widely varying proportions. The average age of the students has increased at least two years, and at the end of the course there is a multiform instead of a uniform bachelor's degree, or in some instances 14 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [220 a single bachelor's degree of multiform meaning. To some extent the undergraduate collegian has become a university student. To what extent ? is the real question around which a controversy of vital importance is raging. The profound change indicated by these external symp- toms, a change so full of peril in the directions of disintegra- tion and confusion, and yet so full of promise if rationally organized, has been in progress since the civil war, and is still steadily and somewhat blindly working along towards its consummation. An exact estimate of such a state of affairs, a diagnosis which shall at the same time have the value of a prognosis for all colleges, is manifestly impossible at the present time. The difficult thing in any such attempt is not merely to understand the change from a uniform to a multiform mode of life and organization, but to understand what it really is that is changing. This something that is changing is the old-fashioned American college. It seems simple enough to understand what this was, but at the same time it needs to be remembered that the old-fashioned col- leges, while aiming to follow out a single course of study ending in a single degree of single meaning, nevertheless did not succeed in exhibiting such close individual resem- blance to each other as is to be found, let us say, among the lycees of France, the public schools of England or the gym- nasia of Germany. Many so-called colleges really served as preparatory schools for larger and stronger colleges, and many so-called .universities did not attain and in fact do not yet attain to the real, though less pretentious dignity of the better colleges. In fact "university," as President Oilman observes, is only too often a "majestic synonym" for "col- lege." To aid in giving as much simplicity and consequent clearness to our view as is necessary to disclose the leading- features of the situation, neglecting all the others, we may therefore at once discard from our consideration all except the better colleges which, when taken together, exhibit the dominant tendency. How, then, have these better colleges changed? Speak- 22 i] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE I 5 ing generally, they have changed in a way which reflects the diversified progress of the country, and yet in some sense they have had an important influence in leading and organ- izing the national progress itself. Then, too, the change is not merely a change of form, but of spirit. In the older days scarcely any college had as many as four or five hundred students, and the range of studies, even if important, was limited. The faculty of the college exercised a strong paternal anxiety and oversight on behalf of the morals and religion, as well as over the studies of the students. The authority of the president was almost patriarchal in charac- ter. Not highly developed insight into the problems of edu- cation, but plain common sense in governing students was the condition of a successful presidency. The life of the students was mildly democratic, being tempered by the gen- erally beneficent absolutism of the president and the faculty, which in turn was itself tempered by occasional student outbreaks. According to the last report of the United States commissioner of education (1896-97) there are now 472 colleges, 1 excluding those for women only. Seventy- seven of these enroll more than 200 undergraduate stu- dents, and of these seventy-seven colleges twenty-four enroll over 500, and eight over 1,000. The range of studies, as already mentioned, has increased. With the strengthening of preparatory courses, the school preparation of students has improved, and at the same time their average age at entrance has risen. The number of professors has multiplied. The old-fashioned college professor, the man of moderate general scholarship and of austere yet kindly interest in the personal welfare of those he taught, still remains ; but at his side has appeared more and more fre- quently the newer type of American college professor, the man of high special learning in some one subject or branch of that subject, who considers it his primary duty to investi- gate, his next duty to teach, and his least duty to exercise a 1 That is, 472 " colleges and universities." As almost every university, real or nominal, contains a college, the total of 472 colleges is approximately correct. 16 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [222 personal care for the individual students. Perhaps the old type will be replaced by the new. Such a result, however, would not be an unmixed gain, and it is indeed fortunate that our finest college professors to-day endeavor to combine high special attainments as scholars with deep interest in the personal well-being of their students. The authority of the faculty is still sufficient, but is exercised differently. Stu- dent self-government is the order of the day, and the more this prevails the less is exercise of faculty authority found to be necessary. With student self-government there has naturally come an increase of intensity in the democratic character of student life. The presidents of our larger col- leges, and even of many of the smaller, are becoming more and more administrative officers and less and less teachers. It is no doubt something of a loss that the students should not have the intimate personal acquaintance with the presi- dent enjoyed by students a generation ago, but this can- not be avoided in places where a thousand undergrade ates are enrolled. Out-door sports have also entered to modify and improve the spirit of our academic life. They have developed their own evils, but at the same time have done wonders for the physical health of the students, the diminution of student disorders and the fostering of an intense esprit de corps. In the reaction from the asceticism of our early college life there is little doubt our athletics have gone too far ; so far as to divert in a noticeable degree the student's attention from his studies. But it is gratifying to notice that the abuses of college athletics can be corrected, and that they are to some extent self-correcting. It must not be forgotten that unlike his father or grandfather, whose college life was so largely spent indoors, the American stu- dent of to-day lives outdoors as much as possible. The moral and religious spirit of the college of to-day is inher- ited from the old college. Nearly all our colleges are avowedly or impliedly Chris- tian. A respectable minority of them are Roman Catholic. The large majority are under Protestant influences, some- 223] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 1 7 times denominational, but generally of an unsectarian char- acter even in the church colleges. In most of them the stu- dent is expected to attend certain religious exercises, such as morning prayers ; in many, however, all such attendance is voluntary. The voluntary religious life of the under- graduates finds its expression in various societies, which endeavor to promote the Christian fellowship and life of their members. While moral and religious convictions are freer and sometimes laxer than of old the Christian life in our colleges is real and pervasive. As a rule the student is so absorbed by the scholastic, athletic and miscellaneous activities of his college that he sees little outside social life. This is particularly true in colleges which enjoy truly academic seclusion amid rural surroundings, for here more than anywhere else is to be seen the natural unperturbed outworking of the undergraduate spirit. It is the old spirit enlarged and liberalized, — the spirit which finds its delight in a free, democratic, self-respect- ing enjoyment of the four years which are so often looked back upon as the happiest four years of life. VI INCREASED FREEDOM IN STUDIES. DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTIVE COURSES Such are some of the non-scholastic aspects of our present college life. They are important in that they give tone to the whole picture, but they do not account for what, after all, is the great transformation which has been wrought, for that transformation is distinctly scholastic. It is caused by the increase of students, their better preparation and their greater age. The studies which by common consent made up the curriculum leading to the old bachelor of arts degree are now being completed before the end, sometimes by the middle of the college course. There is to-day no reason why a young man of twenty should not know as much as his father knew at twenty. But at twenty his father had gradu- ated with the bachelor of arts degree, whereas at twenty the son is only half way through his college course. In other l8 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [ 22 4 words, he has passed the time of prescription and entered upon the time of his freedom. As this fact forced itself more and more upon the older and stronger colleges, experi- ments were made in granting a limited amount of elective freedom to students in the latter part of their course ; first in the senior year and then in the junior year, until in some instances the whole four-year course is now elective. The solid block of four years' prescribed study has been cleft downward, part of the way at least, by the " elective " wedge, thin at its entering edge, but widening above the more it enters and descends. To-day the problem of the relation of prescribed to elective studies is a question of con- stant interest and perpetual readjustment. On the whole, the area of elective opportunity is extending downward, but whether this downward extension is being accomplished by injuring the foundations of liberal education, is to-day as grave a question as any we have to meet. In some colleges a student may obtain the bachelor of arts degree without studying any science, or he may omit his classics, or he may know nothing of philosophy. The solutions offered for this perplexing problem are many. The first proposal, which has now scarcely an advocate, except possibly some laudatores temporis acti, is plainly an impossible one. It is to insist on the old-fashioned four-year prescribed course. But the old-fashioned course is gone. It cannot be restored, because it no longer suits our age. Young men will not go to college and remain there until the age of twenty-two years without some opportunity to exercise freedom of choice in their studies. The second proposal is to constitute the undergraduate course entirely, or almost entirely, of elective studies. It is argued that when a young man is eighteen or nineteen years of age, he is old enough to choose his liberal studies, and that his own choice will be better for him individually than any prescription the wisest college faculty may make. The advocates of this view admit its dangers. They see the perils of incoherency and discontinuity in the choice of 225] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 19 studies. They see that many students are influenced, not by the intrinsic value of the studies, but by their liking for this or that instructor, or the companionship of certain stu- dents, or for the easiness of those crowded courses which in college slang are called " softs " or " snaps " or " cinches." Yet they argue that the college student must be free at some time, that his sense of responsibility will be developed the sooner he is compelled to choose for himself, and that he will have the stimulating and sobering consciousness that what he does is his own act and not the prescription of others for him. Those who oppose this view argue that the academic free- dom here proposed belongs to university rather than to col- lege students ; that the American freshman is not a university student in the sense in which that term has been commonly understood in the educated world. He has not spent eight, nine or ten years in secondary studies, as is the case in France, England or Germany. On the contrary, he has usually spent not more than four years in such secondary studies — occasionally a year or so more. At eighteen or nineteen years of age, he, therefore, comes to college with less training and mental maturity than the French, English or German youth possesses on entering his university. If, therefore, he is to be as well educated as they are, some of his time in college, the first two years at least, should be spent in perfecting his properly secondary edu- cation before entering upon that elective freedom which, as is generally conceded, has a place and a large place in our present undergraduate courses. The arguing on this ques- tion has been interminable, and almost every intellectual interest of our colleges is bound up in its proper solution. A third proposal is a conservative modification of the one just mentioned. It is to prescribe groups of cognate studies with the object of concentrating attention on related subjects in that field which the student may prefer, as, for example, physical science or ancient literature or philosophy. Of course the advantage claimed for this mode is that it allows the student to choose the field of study he likes, and then 20 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [226 safeguards him against incoherency by requiring him to pur- sue a group of well-related courses in that field. Or he may elect the "old-fashioned college course," if he likes. The advocates of wider freedom object to this as fettering spon- taneity of choice, as not recognizing the fact that there are many students for whom it is advantageous to choose a study here and there at will, as a piece of side work outside the chosen field of their activity. The objectors to this plan of restricted groups and also to the plan of practically unre- stricted freedom, assert that the fundamental difficulty in basing any college course on a single group of cognate studies within some one field is that it offers temptations to premature specialization at the expense of liberal education. Still another proposal remains to be considered. It is the proposal of those who believe that the best type of liberal education is to be found in the historic bachelor of arts course, which has been the center and strength of Ameri- can college life. They concede, however, that the other bachelor's courses which have been established will give a valuable education to many, provided these courses are consistently organized according to their own ideals. They hold that it is possible to ascertain with sufficient exactness just what studies ought to be prescribed as integral parts of these courses, and that it is the preliminary training given in these prescribed studies which develops maturity in the young student and enables him to choose intelligently his later elective studies. At the present time, in their view, it is not wise to introduce elective studies until about the middle of the college course. These studies, once intro- duced, should themselves be organized and related in a sys- tem, and connected with the underlying system of prescribed studies. The principle of freedom should be introduced gradually, not suddenly. A form of this view which finds a good deal of support is that elective studies should be introduced first of all in the form of extensions of subjects already studied by the student, in order that he may make his first experiment of choice in an area where he is most 22 7] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 21 familiar. According to this view the second stage of elec- tive studies should be the introduction of large general courses in leading subjects, accompanied or flanked by special courses for students of exceptional ability in special direc- tions, and finally leading to as high a degree of specializa- tion as the resources of the college will allow. But in this region the American college merges itself into the university, and it may be fairly asserted that in the last year and in some colleges in the last two years the student is really a university student. In these various ways we are to-day experimenting in order to find a form under which to organize the rapidly-increasing mass of elective studies. VII MODES OF INSTRUCTION. ACADEMIC HONORS Instruction is still mainly conducted by recitation and lec- ture, the recitation finding its chief place in the earlier and the lecture in the later part of the course. For purposes of recitation the classes are divided into sections of twenty-five or thirty students, and the exercise is usually based on a definitely allotted portion of some standard text-book. Much has been done to improve the character of this exer- cise. The attempt is made to make it something more vital than the mere listening to students as they recite what they have learned. The correction of mistakes, the attempt to lead the student along so as to discover for himself the cause of his mistakes, the endeavor to teach the entire class through the performance of each individual, to carry the whole group along as one man and thus conduct them through a stimulating and pleasant hour, is the aim of the more skilful instructors. Variety and consequent freshen- ing of attention and effort are added by setting collateral topics of special interest to this or that student, for him to look up somewhat independently. And it must be confessed that the professors most skilled in the art of conducting recitations, rather than those who depend wholly on lectures, leave the most abiding impression. The old-fashioned reci- tation too often put the student into a laborious treadmill, 22 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [228 and monotony was the result. But the best recitations in our colleges to-day are fine examples of dialectic play between instructor and student, and the best moments of such exercises are remembered with enthusiasm. While instruction by recitation continues with effectiveness in the latter part of the course, especially with smaller groups of students, yet instruction by lecture is the rule. The lec- turer may have to face a class which enrolls as many students as the whole college contained a generation ago. Two or three hundred may assemble to hear him. He delivers his lecture, while those before him take notes or sometimes, as they listen, read the outline of his discourse in a printed syllabus prepared for the use of the class, and add such jottings as may seem desirable. In many lecture courses the recitation is employed as an effective auxiliary. But other forms of instruction find place. In all except the elementary courses in science the laboratory plays a most important part, and even in the lectures in the introductory courses in physics, chemistry or biology full experimental illustration is the rule. Then, too, the library serves as a sort of laboratory for the humanistic studies. Students are encouraged to learn the use of the college library as auxiliary to the regular exercises of the curriculum. Certain books are appointed as collateral reading, and the written exami- nation at the end of the term often takes account of this outside reading. But American students read too little. That prolonged reading, which gives such wide and assur- ing acquaintance with the important literature of any sub- ject, is as yet unattempted in a really adequate degree. The academic year is divided into two, and sometimes into three terms. At the end of each term the student is required to pass a fairly rigorous set of written examina- tions. Oral examinations have largely disappeared. Some- times a high record of attainment in recitations during the term entitles a student to exemption from examination, but this is not common. In awarding honors for scholarly pro- ficiency the old academic college confined itself almost 229] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 23 entirely to general honors for eminence in the whole round of studies. The " first honor-man " in older days was the hero and pride of his class. At graduation he usually deliv- ered the valedictory or else the Latin salutatory. Honors for general eminence still remain in most colleges. The rank list of the class at graduation either arranges the stu- dents in ordinal position (in which case the first honor-man still appears) or else divides the class into a series of groups arranged in order of general scholarly merit. In such cases the old first honor-man is one of the select few who consti- tute the highest group in the class. But special honors in particular studies, while not unknown in the past, are really a development of our time. Undoubtedly they have tended to increase the interest of abler students in their favorite studies. A student trying for special honors is, of course, specializing in some sense, though he is not ordinarily pur- suing original research. He is rather enlarging and deepen- ing his acquaintance with some one important subject, such as history or mathematics. But sometimes he is beginning independent investigation, and thus passes beyond the col- legiate sphere of study. VIII STUDENT LIFE Let us try to picture the career of a young American of the usual type at one of our older eastern colleges to-day. At eighteen years of age he has completed a four-year course in some secondary school, let us say at a private academy in the middle states, or some flourishing western high school. He does not need to make the long journey to his future college in order to be examined for entrance, but finds in the distant town where he lives, or at least in some neighbor- ing city, a local entrance examination conducted by a repre- sentative of his intended college. The days and exact hours of examination and the examination papers are the same as for the examination held at the college. His answers are sent on to be marked and estimated. In a week or two he receives notice of his admission to the freshman class. 24 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [ 2 30 When the long summer vacation is over he sets out for his college. Having passed his entrance examinations, he is now entitled to secure rooms in one of the dormitories, or else to find quarters outside the college campus in town. His name is duly enrolled in the matriculation book and his student career begins. He usually comes with an earnest purpose to study, or at least to be regular in all his attendance.. His newness and strangeness naturally pick him out for a good deal of notice on the part of the older students, especi- ally those of the sophomore class. He is subjected to some good-natured chaffing and guying, and perhaps to little indignities. If he takes it good-naturedly, the annoyance soon ceases. If, however, he shows himself bumptious or opinionated or vain or " very fresh," his troubles are apt to continue. Unfortunately it is not impossible they will cul- minate in some act of mean bullying, known in college par- lance as " hazing." The entering freshman is too often like the newly-arrived slave mentioned in Tacitus, — conservis ludibrio est ; and it would be little comfort for him to know that in this respect he is also a lineal successor of the bejaunus, the freshman " fledgeling " among the students of medieval Paris. But the daily round of college exercises demands his attention, and in the class room he begins to pass through a process of attrition more beneficent in its spirit. Under the steady measuring gaze of the instructor, and the unuttered but very real judgment of his classmates who sit about him, he begins to measure himself and to be measured by college standards. Probably for the first time in his life he is compelled to recognize that he must stand solely on his merits. The helps and consolations of home and of the limited circle in which his boyhood was fostered and sheltered are far away. He is learning something not down in the books ! and what he is thus discovering is well pictured in the words of Professor Hibben : "There is a fair field to all and no favor. Wealth does not make for a man nor the lack of it against him. The students live their lives upon one social level. There is a deep-seated intoler- 231] THE AMERICAN COLLEGE 25 ance of all snobbishness and pretension. The dictum of the 'varsity field, ' No grand-stand playing ! ' obtains in all quarters of the undergraduate life. It signifies no cant in religion ; no pedantry in scholarship ; no affectation in manners ; no pretence in friendship. This is the first and enduring lesson which the freshman must learn. He learns and he forgets many other lessons, but this must be held in lively remembrance until it has become a second nature." But he has many encouragements. He is passing out of callow youth toward manhood, and his classmates are in the same situation with him. Here is the impulse which sud- denly sweeps the whole entering class together in intimate comradeship. And so he starts out with his companions on the ups and downs of his four-year journey. No wonder so many college graduates say freshman year was the most valuable of all; — it was surely the hardest. His college comradeship continues and constitutes his social world. Day after day, term after term, they are thrown together in all the relationships of student life. In the classroom, at the " eating clubs," at the athletic games, in the musical, literary and religious societies, in scenes of exuberant jollification and careless disorder, and in endless criticism of the faculty or of the various courses of study, how their frank and unconventional ways constantly surprise and bewilder the common-place American philistine ! You may pass across the lawns of many a campus at any hour of the day and almost any hour of the night in term-time, and rarely is there a time when some student life is not astir. Some are thronging toward the lecture hall to the punctual ringing of the college bell, meeting returning throngs whose exercises are just finished. They are walking by twos or threes, smoking or chatting or mildly " playing horse " in some very pleasant way, unmindful and probably unaware of Lord Chesterfield's horrified injunction to his son : " No horse- play, I beseech of you." Or they are thronging to fill the " bleachers " at a baseball or football rame that is about to be played on the college grounds. The different varieties 26 THE AMERICAN COLLEGE [232 of the college cheer startle the air, and afford some color of excuse to the ingenious hypothesis that our student cheers are derived from Indian war whoops. Or else when they are assembled in Sunday chapel, a decorous but not always solemn audience, their capacity for " simultaneous emotion " appears in their spirited singing of a favorite hymn, or per- haps shows itself in the sudden sensation that sweeps across the chapel like a lightly rustling breeze in response to an inopportune remark of some inexperienced visiting clergy- man. Or in the moonlit evenings of October, the time when the trees are turning red and yellow, their long processions pass to and fro, singing college songs. Truly the American collegian is brimful of the "gregarious instinct." In addition to this ever-present gregarious comradeship which environs and inspires him, our entering freshman finds the deeper intimacies of close individual friendship. As a matter of course he has some one most intimate friend, generally his room-mate or "chum." Side by side they mingle with their fellows. They stand together and, it may be, they fall together, and then rise together. And thus the class is paired off, and yet not to the lessening of the deep class fellowship. Here indeed is a form of communism, temporary and local, but most intense. They freely use things in common, not excepting the property of the college. The distinction between nieiim and tuum does not hold rigorously. To. r 22 elementary and secondary schools were established through- out New England and the middle states and such western states as existed in those days. It was a fortunate circum- stance for girls that the country was at that time sparsely settled ; in most neighborhoods it was so difficult to estab- lish and secure pupils for even one grammar school and one higfh school that girls were admitted from the first to both. 1 In the reorganization of lower and higher education that took place between 1865 and 1870 this same system, bringing with it the complete coeducation of the sexes, was introduced throughout the south both for whites and negroes, and was extended to every part of the west. In no part of the country, except in a few large eastern cities, was any dis- tinction made in elementary or secondary education between boys and girls. 2 The second fortunate and in like manner almost accidental factor in the education of American 1 That their admission was due in large part to the stress of circumstances is shown by the fact that in the very states in which these coeducational schools had been established there was manifested on other occasions a most illib- eral attitude toward girls' education. In the few cities of the Atlantic sea- board, where European conservatism was too strong to allow girls to be taught with boys in the new high schools, and where there were boys enough to fill the schools, girls had to wait much longer before their needs were provided for at all, and then most inadequately. In Boston, where the boys' and girls' high schools were separated, it was impossible until 1878 for a Boston girl to be prepared for college in a city high school, whereas, in the country towns of Massa- chusetts, where boys and girls were taught together in the high schools, the girl had had the same opportunities as the boy for twenty-five or thirty years. Indeed, it was not until 1852 that Boston girls obtained, and then only in connection with the normal school, a public high-school education of any kind whatsoever. In Philadelphia, where boys and girls are taught separately in the high schools, no girl could be prepared for college before 1893, neither Latin, French, nor German being taught in the girls' high school, whereas, for many years the boys' high school had prepared boys for college. In Baltimore the two girls' high schools are still, in 1900, unable to prepare girls for college, whereas the boys' high school has for years prepared boys to enter the Johns Hopkins university. The impossibility of preparing girls for college is only another way of stating that the instruction given is very imperfect. 9 The magnitude of this fact will be apparent if we reflect that here for the first time the girls of a great nation, especially of the poorer classes, have from their earliest infancy to the age of eighteen or nineteen received the same education as the boys, and that the ladder leading, in Huxley's words, from the gutter to the university may be climbed as easily by a girl as by a boy. Although college edu- cation has affected as yet only a very few out of the great number of adult women in the United States, the free opportunities for secondary education have influenced 323] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 5 women was the occurrence of the civil war at the forma- tive period of the public schools, with the result of placing the elementary and secondary education of both boys and girls overwhelmingly in the hands of women teachers. In no other country of the world has this ever been the case, and its influence upon women's education has been very great. The five years of the civil war, which drained all the northern and western states of men, caused women teachers to be employed in the public and private schools in large numbers, and in the first reports of the national bureau of education, organized after the war, we see that there were already fewer men than women teaching in the public schools of the United States. This result proved not to be temporary, but per- manent, and from 1865 until the present time not only the elementary teaching of boys and girls but the secondary education of both has been increasingly in the hands of women. 1 When most of the state universities of the west were founded they were in reality scarcely more than second- ary schools supplemented, in most cases, by large prepara- tory departments. Girls were already being educated with boys in all the high schools of the west, and not to admit them to the state universities would have been to break with the whole American people for nearly two-thirds of a century. The men of the poorer classes have had, as a rule, mothers as well educated as their fathers, indeed, better educated ; to this, more than to any other single cause, I think, may be attributed what by other nations is regarded as the phenomenal indus- trial progress of the United States. Our commercial rivals could probably take no one step that would so tend to place them on a level with American competi- tion as to open to girls without distinction all their elementary and secondary schools for boys. In 1892, girls formed 55.9 per cent, and in 1898, 56.5 per cent of all pupils in the public and private secondary schoools of the United States. 1 In 1870 women formed 59.0 per cent ; in 1880, 57.2 per cent ; in 1890, 65.5 per cent ; and in 1898, 67.8 per cent (in the North Atlantic Division 80.8 per cent) of all teachers in the public elementary and secondary schools of the United States (U. S. ed. rep. for 1897-98, pp. xiii, lxxv). It has been frequently remarked that the feminine pronouns "she" and "her" are instinctively used in America in common speech with reference to a teacher. Moreover more women than men are teaching in the public and private secondary schools of the United -States (in 1898, women formed 53.8 per cent of the total number of secondary teachers, see U. S. ed. rep. for 1897-98, pp. 2053, 2069); whereas in all other countries the sec- ondary teaching of boys is wholly in the hands of men. 6 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [3 2 4 tradition. Women were also firmly established as teachers in the secondary schools and it was patent to all thoughtful men that they must be. given opportunities for higher edu- cation, if only for the sake of the secondary education of the boys of the country. 1 The development of women's education in the east has followed a different course because there were in the east no state universities, and the private colleges for men had been founded before women were suf- fered to become either pupils or teachers in schools. The admission of women to the existing eastern colleges was, therefore, as much an innovation as it would have been in Europe. The coeducation of men and women in colleges, and at the same time the college education of women, began in Ohio, the earliest settled of the western states. In 1833 Oberlin collegiate institute (not chartered as a college until 1850) was opened, admitting from the first both men and women. Oberlin was at that time, and is now, hampered by maintaining a secondary school as large as its college department, but it was the first institution for collegiate instruction in the United States where large numbers of men and women were educated together, and the uniformly favorable testimony of its faculty had great influence on the side of coeducation. In 1853 Antioch college, also in Ohio, was opened, and admitted from the beginning men and women on equal terms. Its first president, Horace Mann, was one of the most brilliant and energetic educa- tional leaders in the United States, and his ardent advocacy of coeducation, based on his own practical experience, had great weight with the public. 2 From this time on it became a custom, as state universities were opened in the far west, to admit women. Utah, opened in 1850, Iowa, opened in. 1856, Washington, opened in 1862, Kansas, opened in 1866, 1 In many cases in the west women made their way into the universities through the normal department of the university, being admitted to that first of all. The summer schools of western colleges, chiefly attended by teachers, among whom, women were in the majority, served also as an entering wedge. (See Woman's work in America, Holt & Co., 1891, pp. 71-75.) 2 Antioch college opened, however, with only 8 students in its college depart- ment, all the rest, 142, belonging to its secondary school. 325] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 7 Minnesota, opened in 1868, and Nebraska, opened in 1871, were coeducational from the outset. Indiana, opened as early as 1820, admitted women in 1868. The state Univer- sity of Michigan was, at this time, the most important west- ern university, and the only western university well known in the east before the war. When, in 1870, it opened its doors to women, they were for the first time in America admitted to instruction of true college grade. The step was taken in response to public sentiment, as shown by two requests of the state legislature, against the will of the faculty as a whole. The example of the University of Michigan was quickly followed by all the other state uni- versities of the west. In the same year women were allowed to enter the state universities of Illinois and California; in 1873 the only remaining state university closed to women, that of Ohio, admitted them. Wisconsin which, since i860, had given some instruction to women, became in 1874 unre- servedly coeducational. All the state universities of the west, organized since 1871, have admitted women from the first. In the twenty states which, for convenience, I shall classify as western, there are now twenty state universities open to women, and, in four territories, Arizona, Oklahoma, Indian and New Mexico, the one university of each territory is open to women. Of the eleven state universities of the southern states the two most western admitted women first, as was to be expected. Missouri became coeducational as early as 1870, and the University of Texas was opened in 1883 as a coeducational institution. Mississippi admitted women in 1882, Kentucky in 1889, Alabama in 1893, South Carolina in 1894, North Carolina in 1897, but only to women prepared to enter the junior and senior years, West Virginia in 1897. 1 The state universities of Virginia, Georgia and Louisiana are still closed. The one state university existing outside the west and south, that of Maine, admitted women in 1872. 1 In every case I give the date when full coeducation was introduced ; West Vir- ginia, for example, admitted women to limited privileges in 1889. 8 EDUCATION OF WOMEN \_2> 2 & The greater part of the college education of the United States, however, is carried on in private, not in state univer- sities. In 1897 over 70 per cent of all the college students in the United States were studying in private colleges, so that for women's higher education their admission to private colleges is really a matter of much greater importance. The part taken by Cornell university in New York state in opening private colleges to women was as significant as the part taken by Michigan in opening state universities. Cornell is in a restricted sense a state university, inas- much as part of its endowment, like that of the state universities, is derived from state and national funds. Nev- ertheless, there is little reason to suppose that Cornell would have admitted women had it not been for the generosity of Henry W. Sage, who offered to build and endow a large hall of residence for women at Cornell university. After carefully investigating coeducation in all the institutions where it then existed, and especi- ally in Michigan, the trustees of the university admitted women in 1872. The example set by Cornell was fol- lowed very slowly by the other private colleges of the New England and middle states. For the next twenty years the colleges in this section of the United States admitting women might be counted on the fingers of one hand. In Massachusetts Boston university opened its department of arts in 1873, and admitted women to it from the first ~ but no college for men followed the example of Boston until 1883, when the Massachusetts institute of technology, the most important technical and scientific school in the state, and one of the most important in the United States, admit- ted women. This school, like Cornell, is supported in part, from state and national funds. Very recently, in 1892, Tufts college was opened to women. In the west and south the case is different, and the list of private colleges that one after another have become coeducational is too long to be inserted here. Among new coeducational foundations the most important are, on the Pacific coast, the Leland Stan- 32 7] I 20 western states and j territories STATES Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa North Dakota . . South Dakota... Nebraska Kansas Montana Wyoming Colorado Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon California Indian Territory Oklahoma Total no. cols Men only 3 R. C, i Luth., i P. E., Western reserve. 2 R. C, i Luth., i Cong., Wabash college. 5 R. C, i Ger. Ev., Illinois college. i R. C. i R. C, i Luth., i Dutch Reformed i R. C, i Luth. 2 Luth. i R. C. (professional dept. open) 2 R. C. i R. C. 2R. C. 3 R. C. 22 R. C, 6 Luth., i Ger. Ev., i Dutch. Ref., i P. E., i Cong. II 1 4. soutJiem and 2 southern middle states STATES Total no. cols Coed. Men only 2 11 6 10 3 15 9 11 6 13 24 9 4 9 16 8 26 1 4 3 4 3 10 7 6 5 9 20 7 2 3 12 8 21 Delaware college. (The one coeducational college is for negroes.) 4 R. C, St. John's, Maryland agric. college, Johns Hopkins. 3R.C. 2 M. E. So., Univ. of Virginia, Hampden-Sidney, Washing- ton and Lee, William and Mary. 1 R. C, 2 Presb., i Luth., i Bapt. 1 A. M. E., College of Charleston. 2 Bapt., 1 A. M. E., 1 M. E. So., Univ. of Georgia. 1 R. C. District of Columbia. Florida 1 R. C, 1 Bapt., 1 Presb., Ogden college. 1 R. C, 2 Presb., i P. E.(Univ. of South.) 2 R C. 1 Bapt., 1 M. E. So. 2 R. C, 1 M. E. So., 1 Cong., Louisiana State univ,, Tulane. 3 R. C, 1 Presb. 3 R. C, 1 Bapt., 1 Presb. 182 125 21 R. C, 5 M. E. So., 6 Bapt., 7 Presb., 1 Luth., 2 A. M. E., 1 P. E., 1 Cong. Ill 6 New England and j northern middle states STATES Total no. cols Coed. Men only 4 2 3 9 1 3 2.3 4 32 2 2 2 1 S 17 1 Bapt. (Colby, limited coed.), Bowdoin 1 R. C, 1 Cong. (Dartmouth) Norwich university 2 R. C, 2 Cong. (Amherst), Harvard, Williams, Clark Brown 1 P. E. (Trinity), Yale 8 R. C, 2 P. E. (Hobart), 1 Bapt. (Colgate), Polytechnic institute of Brooklyn, Hamilton, College of City of New York (boys' high school), Columbia, Union, Rochester, New York uni- versity 2 R. C, 1 Dutch Ref. (Rutgers), Princeton 4 R. C, 1 Luth., 1 Moravian, 1 Friends (Haverford), 1 Dutch Ref. (Franklin & Marshall), Pennsylvania military college, Philadelphia central high school (boys' high school), Lehigh university, University of Pennsylvania, 3 Presb. (Lafayette, Washington & Jefferson, Lincoln) New Hampshire. .. 81 29 17 R. C, 1 Luth., 3 P. E.. 3Cong., 3 Presb., 2 Bapt., 1 Friends, 2 Dutch Ref., 1 Moravian (The Univ. of Penna. admits women to many departments, but not to full undergraduate work leading to the bachelor's degree) IO EDUCATION OF WOMEN [328 ford junior university, opened in 1891, and, in the middle west, Chicago university, opened in 1892. To show the differing attitude toward coeducation of the different sec- tions of the United States, I have arranged the 480 coedu- cational colleges and separate colleges for men given in the U. S. education report for 1897-98 in a table on page 9. In matters like women's education, which are power- fully affected by prejudice and conservative opinion, we find not only a sharp cleavage in opinion and practice between the west and the east of the United States, but also dis- tinct phases of differing opinion, corresponding in the main to the old geographical division of the states into New England, middle, southern and western. 1 In the western states it will be observed there are, excluding Roman Catholic colleges and seminaries, out of 195 colleges 182 coeducational and only 13 colleges for men only. All of these except 3 are denomina- tional ; 6 belong to the Lutheran, 1 to the Dutch Reformed, 1 to the Ger- man Evangelical, 1 to the Episcopalian, and 1 to the Congregationalist. The other 3 are, as we might expect, in the most eastern and the earliest settled of the western states; one in Ohio, Western reserve, which teaches women in a separate women's college; one in Indiana, Wabash college, one of the three most important colleges in Indiana; and one in Illinois, Illinois college. Roman Catholic institutions apart, in 14 states and all 3 territories every college for men is open to women (the one university of the territory of New Mexico, not included in the U. S. education report, is open to women). In the southern states and southern middle states there are, excluding Roman Catholic colleges and seminaries, out of 161, 125 coeducational and only 36 colleges for men only. Among these 36, however, are the most important educational institution in Maryland, the Johns Hopkins university; the most important in Georgia, the Uni- 1 In discussing coeducation I shall, therefore, disregard the divisions into north Atlantic, south Atlantic, north central, south central and western, employed by the U. S. census and the U. S. bureau of education. The New England, middle and southern states are all, of course, eastern, and, with the exception of Ver- mont, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Missouri, are all seaboard states, Pennsylvania being counted as a seaboard state on account of its close river con- nection with the sea. It will be noted that the inland southern states are rather western than eastern in their characteristics. The northern middle states belong on the whole by their sympathies to New England, the southern middle to the southern states. Missouri, having been a slave state and settled largely by southerners, is still southern in feeling. The District of Columbia also may con- veniently be counted with the southern states. r~" tuo a 2 ft .5 _c O rt 4) * 5 S O f J 0" < o I Q t' \ ^J^ 1 1 — 1 r a: * <0 r ' o z e ', X 1 n _ ' < ■ — , c c c • a u 0) V y, 4> bO OJ OJ >-i ^ M 4) U 3 94S M" 3 -a S 3 2-3 c Ph S 6 3 .81 s 3 ■M O c u u V Ph S3 s 3 Ph S3 hi B 3 5^ Ph N 97 68 41.2 No women 198 reported reported 2.4 No women reported 22 64 74-4 No women reported 147 1-3 Medicine (regular and irregular) 4. . 67 46 40.7 69 80 53-7 854 5-5 1397 6.0 14 13 13 16 48.1 55- 2 44 48 78.6 92-3 53 60 162 2.4 4 4-7 Schools of technology and agricul- ture endowed with national land 14 12 46.2 16 48 75- 774 12.5 2 281 16. i 1 The numbers of coeducational and other professional schools are estimated from the U. S. ed. rep. for 1889-90. 2 Through the kindness of Mr. James Russell Parsons, Jr., author of the mono- graph on professional education in the United States, published as one of this series, I am able to insert the figures for 1899, see p. 21. By personal inquiry I have been able to add four to his list of coeducational schools of theology. 8 The number of professional students for the year 1898 is taken from the U. S. ed. rep. for 1897-98. 4 For the sake of clearness I have omitted from the above table the 7 separate medical schools for women, although I have counted their students in the total number of women medical students, both in 1890 and 1898. In 1890 there were studying in the 6 regular medical women's colleges 425 women, as against 648 women in coeducational regular medical colleges; in 1898 there were studying in them 411 women, as against 1045 in coeducational colleges, a decrease of 3.3 per cent, whereas women students in coeducational medical colleges have increased 16.3 per cent. I limit the comparison to regular medical schools because women have increased relatively more rapidly in irregular medical schools and there is only one separate irregular medical school for women. It is sometimes said that women prefer medical sects because the proportion of women studying in irregular schools is relatively greater than the proportion studying in regular schools; but in 1898, 85.7 per cent of the irregular schools were coeduca- tional and only 46.6 per cent of regular schools, a fact which undoubtedly increases the proportion of students studying in irregular schools. 6 The statistics for the schools of technology and agriculture are taken from the U. S. education report for 1889-90, pp. 1053-1054, and from the report for 1897-98, pp. 1985-1988. I have excluded schools of technology not endowed with the national land grant. In 1890 there were 27 of such schools (5 of them coeduca- tional); in 1898 their number had fallen to 17 (3 of them coeducational). Very few women are studying in these schools; in 1898 women formed only 0.2 per cent of all students studying in them. 36 EDUCATION OF WOMEN [354 Theology, law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, veterinary science, schools of technology and agriculture — Ten years ago there were very few women studying in any of these schools. The wonderful increase both in facilities for professional study and in the number of women students during the last eight years may be seen by referring to the comparative table on page 35. It is evident to the impartial observer that coeducation is to be the method in professional schools. Except in medicine, where women were at first excluded from coeducational study by the strongest prejudice that has ever been conquered in any movement, no important separate professional schools, indeed none whatever, except one unimportant school of pharmacy have been founded for women only. 1 It is evident also that the number of women entering upon professional study is increasing rapidly. If we compare the relative increase of men and of women from 1890 to 1898 we obtain the follow- ing percentages : increase of students in medicine, men, 5 1. 1 per cent, women, 64.2 per cent ; in dentistry, men, 150.2 per cent, women, 205.7 per cent ; in pharmacy, men, 25.9 per cent, women, 190 per cent; in technology and agriculture, men, 119.3 per cent, women, 194.7 per cent. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS There are many questions connected with the college edu- cation of American women which possess great interest for the student of social science. Number of college women— In the year 1897-98 2 there were studying in the undergraduate and graduate depart- ments of coeducational colleges and universities 17,338 women, and in the undergraduate and graduate depart- ments of independent and affiliated women's colleges, divis- ion A, 4,959 women, women forming thus 27.4 per cent of 1 A private law school for women existed for some years in the city of New York, founded by Madame Kempin, a graduate of the University of Zurich. At the request of the Women's legal education society it was incorporated with the New York University law school. 2 See U. S. ed. rep. 1897-98, p. 1825, corrected according to note 1, page 15 of this monograph. 355] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 37 the total number of graduate and undergraduate students. The 22 colleges belonging to the Association of collegiate alumnae, which are, on the whole, the most important colleges in the United States admitting women, have conferred the bachelor's degree on 12,804 women. If we add to these the graduates of the Women's college of Brown univer- sity, 102 in number, and the graduates of the 14 additional coeducational colleges included in my list of the 58 most important colleges in the United States, we obtain, including those graduating in June, 1899, a total of 14,824 women holding the bachelor's degree. 1 There is thus formed, even leaving out of account the graduates of the minor colleges, a larger body of educated women than is to be found in any other country in the world. These graduates have received the most strenuous college training obtainable by women in the United States, which does not differ materially from the best college training obtainable by American men (indeed, women graduates of coeducational colleges have received precisely the same training as men), and may fairly be compared with the women who have received college and university training abroad. In other countries women uni- versity graduates, or even women who have studied at universities, are very few ; 2 in America, on the other hand, 1 The number of women graduates has been obtained in every case through the courtesy of the presidents of the colleges concerned. In some cases the women graduates have had to be selected from the total number of graduates and counted separately for the purpose. As the figures have never been printed before, I give them below: 22 colleges belonging to the Association of collegiate alumna : — -coeducational colleges: Boston, 522 graduates; California, 440; Chicago, 267; Cor- nell, 517; Kansas, 259; Leland Stanford, Jr., 289, Massachusetts institute tech- nology, 45; Michigan, 940; Minnesota, 458; Nebraska, 263 ; Northwestern, 317; Oberlin, 1,486; Syracuse, 508; Wesleyan, 118; Wisconsin, 620. Independent col- leges: Vassar, 1,509; Wellesley, 1,727; Smith, 1,679; Bryn Mawr, 321. Affiliated colleges: Radcliffe, 278; Barnard, 106; College for women of Western reserve, 135. Additional colleges, 15 in number: Women's college of Brown, 102; Cincinnati, 99; Columbian, 60; Colorado, about 70; Illinois, 131; Indiana, 282; Iowa, 340; Maine, 28; Missouri, no record; Ohio State university, 150; Ohio Wesleyan, 615; Texas, 60 Vanderbilt, 11; Washington (St. Louis), 55; West Virginia, 17. Total, 14,824 women graduates. 2 The number of women studying in universities in Germany in 1898-99 was approximately 471, probably mainly foreigners (statistics given in the Hochschul Nachrichten, Minerva, etc.); in France in 1896-97, approximately 410, of whom 83 3§ EDUCATION OF WOMEN [356 the higher education of women has assumed the proportions, of a national movement still in progress. We may perhaps be able to guide in some degree its future development, but it has passed the experimental stage and can no longer be opposed with any hope of success. Its results are to be reckoned with as facts. Health of college women * — Those who have come into con- tact with some of the many thousands of healthy normal were foreigners (Les University's francaises, by M. Louis Liard; vol. 2 of Special Reports on Educational Subjects, Education department, London, 1898) ; in England and Wales in 1897-98, approximately 2,348. (See catalogues of different colleges.) The total number of women graduates in England and Wales who have, received degrees, or their equivalent, from English and Welsh universities is about 2,180. 1 Two statistical investigations of the health of college women have been under- taken; one in America in 1882, which tabulated various data connected with the- health, occupation, marriage, birth rate, etc., of 705 graduates of the 12 American colleges belonging at that time to the Association of collegiate alumnse (Health statistics of women college graduates; report of a special committee of the Associ- ation of collegiate alumnse, Annie G. Howes, chairman; together with statistical tables collated by the Massachusetts bureau of statistics of labor. Boston: Wright and Potter Printing Co., 18 Post Office Square. 1885), and one in England in 1887 (Health statistics of women students of Cambridge and Oxford and of their sisters, by Mrs. Henry Sidgwick, Cambridge university press, 1890). The English statistics dealt with 566 women students (honor students who had taken tripos examinations and final honors, and women who had been in residence three, two and one year) of Newnham and Girton colleges, Cambridge, and of Lady Margaret and Somerville halls at Oxford. It was found that in England 75 per cent of the honor students were at the time of the investigation in excellent or good health. It was found that in America 78 per cent of the graduates were at the time of the investigation in good health and 5 per cent in fair health. In estimating the result of this investigation it is difficult to find a standard of comparison. There- is no way of knowing what percentage of good health is to be expected in the case of the average woman who has not been to college. It is stated in the Ameri- can health investigation, page 10, that Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi, while obtaining data for her monograph on the question of rest for women, found that of 246 women only 56 -f- per cent were in good health. The American statistics were compared with the results obtained in an investigation of the condition of 1,032 working women of Boston, made by the Massachusetts bureau of statistics of labor; the comparison showed that the health of college women was more satis- factory than the health of working women. The English statistics were com- pared with the health statistics of 450 sisters or first cousins who had not received a college education, and it was found that, at all periods, about 5 per cent less of honor graduates were in bad health than of sisters and cousins. The compara- tive tables showed that the married graduates were healthier than their married sisters, that there were fewer childless marriages among them, that they had a larger proportion of children per year of married life, and that their children, were healthier. 357] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 39 women studying in college at the present time, or who have had an opportunity to know something of the after-lives of even a small number of college women, believe that experi- ence has proved them to be, both in college, and after leav- ing college, on the whole, in better physical condition than other women of the same age and social condition. Since, however, people who have not the opportunity of knowledge at first hand continue to regard the health of college women as a subject open for discussion, a new health investigation, based on questions sent to the 12,804 graduates of the 22 colleges belonging to the Association of collegiate alumnae, is now in progress. The statistical tables will be collated a second time by the Massachusetts bureau of statistics of labor and sent to the Paris exposition as part of the educa- tional exhibit of the Association of collegiate alumnae. 1 Marriage rate of college women — Here again no positive conclusions can be reached until we know what is the usual marriage rate of women belonging to the social class of women graduates. Everything indicates that the time of marriage is becoming later in the professional classes and that the marriage rate as a whole is decreasing. An inves- tigation undertaken simultaneously with the new health investigation by the Association of collegiate alumnae will enable us to speak with certainty in regard to the marriage rate of a laree number of college women and their sisters. 2, 1 The health, marriage rate, birth rate, etc., of woman graduates will be com- pared in every case with the corresponding statistics for the women relatives nearest in age who have not received a college education; an attempt will also be made to obtain corresponding statistics for the nearest men relatives who are college graduates. 5 The health investigation of English women students showed that the average age of marriage for students was 26.70 as against 25.53 f° r sisters, and that 10.25 per cent of the students were married and 19.33 per cent of the sisters, or, omit- ting the students who had just left college when the returns were sent in, about 12 per cent of students. The rate of marriage of students after their college course was completed and of their sisters seemed to be the same, the difference in the total number of marriages being apparently accounted for by causes existing before the termination of the college course, " possibly the desire to go to college, or to remain in college may be among them, but having been in college is not one of them." (See summary of results by Mrs. Sidgwick, page 59.) Mrs. Sidgwick concludes as a result of the investigation that not more than one-half of English 4Q EDUCATION OF WOMEN L358 Marriage rate of college women Opened in Percentage of graduates married Vassar Kansas Minnesota Cornell Syracuse Wesleyan Nebraska . . Boston Wellesley Smith Radcliffe Bryn Mawr , Barnard Leland Stanford Junior Chicago 1865 1866 1868 1870 1871 1873 1875 1879 1885 1889 1891 1892 35 3i 24 31-0 24 3 22 2 18 4 16 5 15 2 IO 4 9 7 9 4 It will be seen that independent, affiliated and coeducational colleges fall into their proper place in the series, thus showing conclusively that the method of obtaining a college education exercises scarcely any appreciable influence on the marriage rate. The marriage rate of Bryn Mawr college, calculated in January, 1900, will also serve as an illustration of the importance of time in every consideration of the marriage rate : graduates of the class of 1889, married, 40.7 per cent; graduates of the first two classes, 1889-1890, married, 40.0 per cent; graduates of the first three classes, 1889-1891, married, 33.3 per cent; graduates of the first four classes, 1889- 1892, married, 32.9 per cent; graduates of the first five classes, 1889-1893, married, 31.0 per cent; graduates of the first six classes, 1889-1894, married, 30.0 per cent; graduates of the first seven classes, 1889-1895, married, 25.2 per cent; graduates of the first eight classes, 1889-1896, married, 22.8 per cent; graduates of the first nine classes, 1889-1897, married, 20.9 per cent; graduates of the first ten classes, 1889-1898, married, 17.2 per cent; graduates of the first eleven classes, 1889-1899, married, 15.2 per cent. 358 a] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 40 a It must be borne in mind that the element of time is very important, and in the case of women the later and therefore younger classes are all larger than the earlier ones. (See table, page 40.) Occupations of college women — It is probable that about 50 per cent of women graduates teach for at least a cer- tain number of years. Of the 705 women graduates whose occupations were reported in the Association of collegiate alumnae investigation of 1883 50.2 percent were then teach- ing. In 1895 of 1,082 graduates of Vassar 37.7 per cent were teaching ; 2.0 per cent were engaged in graduate study and 3.0 per cent were physicians or studying medicine. In 1898 of 171 graduates (all living) of Radcliffe college, includ- ing the class of 1898, 49.7 per cent were teaching ; 8.7 per cent were engaged in graduate study ; .6 per cent were studying medicine ; 17.5 per cent were unmarried and with- out professional occupation. In 1899 of 316 living gradu- ates of Bryn Mawr college, including the class of 1899, 39.0 percent were teaching; 11.4 were engaged in graduate study ; 6 per cent were engaged in executive work (includ- ing 4 deans of colleges, 3 mistresses of college halls of residence) ; 1.6 per cent were studying or practising medi- cine, and 26.6 per cent were unmarried and without profes- sional occupation. 1 Coeducation vs. separate education — It is clear that coedu- cation is the prevailing method in the United States; it is the most economical method ; indeed it is the only possible women of the social class of women students or their sisters marry. The Ameri- can investigation of 1883 showed that 27.8 per cent of the American college gradu- ates, their average age being 28 1-2 years, were at that time married, and that, judging by the indications of the marriage percentages among older graduates, about 50 per cent were likely sooner or later to be married. In an investigation of the marriage of Vassar graduates made in 1895, and not including the graduates of that year, it was found that rather under 38 per cent of the whole number of students, and about 63 per cent of the first four classes, were married, see Frances M. Abbott: A Generation of college women, The Forum, vol. XX, p. 378. Out of the total number of 8,956 graduates, including those graduating in June, 1899, of the 16 colleges belonging to the Association of collegiate alumnae that have kept accurate marriage statistics, 2,059 are married, or 23.0 per cent. 1 Mrs. Sidgwick's investigation showed that 77 per cent of all English students reporting, and 83 per cent of honor students, had engaged in educational work. 4-Ob EDUCATION OF WOMEN [358 b method in most parts of the country. Now that it has been determined in America to send girls as well as boys to college, it becomes impossible to duplicate colleges for women in every part of this vast country. If, as is shown by the statistics given in the successive reports of the commissioner of edu- cation, men students in college are increasing faster far than the ratio of the population, and women college students are increasing faster still than men, 1 it will tax all our resources to make adequate provision for men and women in common. Only in thickly-settled parts of the country, where public sentiment is conservative enough to justify the initial outlay, have separate colleges for women been estab- lished, and these colleges, without exception, have been private foundations. Public opinion in the United States almost universally demands that universities supported by public taxation should provide for the college education of the women of the state in which they are situated. The separate colleges for women speaking generally are to be found almost exclusively in the narrow strip of colonial states lying along the Atlantic seaboard. The question is often asked, whether women prefer coeducation or separate educa- tion. It seems that in the east they as yet prefer separate education, and this preference is natural. 2 College life as 1 Between 1890 and 1898 women undergraduate students have increased 111.8 per cent, and men undergraduate students have increased 51.2 per cent. 2 In the college departments of coeducational colleges the average number of women studying is 48.4, whereas in the college departments of independent women's colleges the average number of women studying is 331. 91, and in affiliated col- leges 192.8. In 1897-98 II. 4 per cent of all the women studying in coeducational colleges obtained the bachelor's degree, whereas 13.4 per cent of all the women studying in independent women's colleges obtained the bachelor's degree, which indicates probably that women prefer women's colleges for four years of resi- dence. In the same year 13.3 per cent of all men undergraduate students obtained the bachelor's degree. The average number of graduates of the 4 women's col- leges belonging to the Association of collegiate alumnae is 1,309 per college, the average age of the colleges being 23 years; the average number of graduates of the 15 coeducational colleges belonging to the Association of college alumnae is only 469.9, although the average age of the colleges is 27.7 years. During the S- years from 1890 to 1898, women undergraduate students have increased in coedu- cational colleges 105.4 per cent, whereas they have increased in women's colleges,; .division A, 138.4 per cent. Precisely the reverse is true of men students (see pp. 14 and 15, including foot notes). 358 c] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 40 C it is organized in a woman's college seems to conservative parents less exposed, more in accordance with inherited tradi- tions. Consequently, girls who in their own homes lead guarded lives, are to be found rather in women's colleges than in coeducational colleges. From the point of view of conservative parents, there is undoubtedly serious objection to intimate association at the most impressionable period of a girl's life with many young men from all parts of the country and of every possible social class. From every point of view it is undesirable to have the problems of love and marriage presented for decision to a young girl during the four years when she ought to devote her energies to profiting by the only systematic intellectual training she is likely to receive during her life. Then, too, for the present, much of the cul- ture and many of the priceless associations of college life are to be obtained, whether for men or women, only by residence in college halls, and no coeducational, or even affiliated, col- leges have as yet organized for their students such a com- plete college life as the independent woman's college. So long as this preference, and the grounds for it, exist, we must see to it that separate colleges for women are no less good than colleges for men. In professional schools, including the graduate school of the faculty of philosophy, coeducation is even at present almost the only method. There are in the United States only 4 true graduate schools for men closed to women, and only 1 independent graduate school main- tained for women offering three years' consecutive work leading to the degree of Ph. D. There is every reason to believe that as soon as large numbers of women wish to enter upon the study of theology, law and medicine, all the professional schools now existing will become coeducational. A modified vs. an unmodified curriculum — The progress of women's education, as we have traced it briefly from its beginning in the coeducational college of Oberlin in 1833, and the independent woman's college of Vassar in 1865, has been a progress in accordance with the best academic tradi- tions of men's education. In 1870 we could not have pre- 40d EDUCATION OF WOMEN [358 d dieted the course to be taken by the higher education of women ; the separate colleges for women might have devel- oped into something wholly different from what we had been familiar with so long in the separate colleges for men. A female course in coeducational colleges in which music and art were substituted for mathematics and Greek might have met the needs of the women students. After thirty years of experience, however, we are prepared to say that what- ever changes may be made in future in the college curriculum will be made for men and women alike. After all, women themselves must be permitted to be the judges of what kind of intellectual discipline they find most truly serviceable. They seem to have made up their minds, and hereafter may be trusted to see to it that an inferior education shall not be offered to them in women's colleges, or elsewhere, under the name of a modified curriculum. 8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS BY B. A. HINSDALE Sometime Professor of the Science and Art of Teaching in the University of Michigan THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS The agencies of an institutional character for training teachers in the United States are the following: Normal schools and colleges, teachers' training classes, teachers' institutes, summer schools, university extension lectures, teachers' reading circles, chairs of education in colleges and universities, and teachers' colleges. None of these agencies go far back in our history ; all of them, on the contrary, sprang directly or indirectly out of the educational revival that began to show marked power in the most progressive countries early in the present century. We shall under- stand the origin and development of these agencies the better if we first glance at the preparation of teachers in the period preceding this revival. The first thing to be considered is the fact that the train- ing of teachers, as the phrase is now understood, had pre- viously been wholly neglected throughout the country. Teachers had no other preparation for their work than their natural aptitude for the art, their knowledge of the subjects which they taught, and such practical lessons as they learned in their school rooms. As respects their academic prepa- ration, they presented, as a class, a very motley appearance, as a cursory view of the schools of the country will abun- dantly show. New England was much better supplied with schools of all kinds than any other section of the country. Here were found four of the nine colleges that existed at the time of the revolutionary war ; here permanent grammar schools and academies existed in larger numbers than elsewhere ; and here were the only systems of public schools that had been founded. The teacher was always highly respected by the Puritans ; but some of the accounts of teachers and 4 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [362 schools that have come down to us bear a striking resem- blance to the descriptions of the state of education existing in Switzerland and France in the youth of Pestalozzi. In the early time we read of one town, for example, that required its schoolmaster to perform the following duties in addition to taking charge of the school : to act as court messenger, to serve summonses, to conduct certain ceremo- nial services of the church, to lead the Sunday choir, to ring the bell for public worship, to dig graves, and to perform other occasional duties. 1 Matters improved as time went on, but Horace Mann wrote of Massachusetts as late as 1837 : " Engaged in the common schools of the state there are now, out of the city of Boston, but a few more than a hundred male teachers who devote themselves to teaching as a regular profession. The number of females is a little, though not materially, larger. Very few even of these have ever had any special training for their vocation. The rest are generally young persons, taken from agricultural or mechanical employment, which have no tendency to qualify them for the difficult station ; or they are undergraduates of our colleges, some of whom, there is reason to suspect, think more of what they are to receive at the end of the stipulated term, than what they are to impart during its continuance." 2 The winter schools were taught by men, the summer schools by women, the men being much the better fitted for the office of instruction. In the middle states education had never taken on a strong institutional form. The four colleges of that section — Philadelphia, New Jersey, Queen's and King's — were much younger and weaker than Harvard and Yale ; acade- mies and grammar schools were less firmly established than east of the Hudson river, while common schools were wholly of a voluntary or parochial character. Private schools and domestic instruction were mainly relied on. The old Dutch schoolmasters of the Hudson and the Delaware performed 'Boone, R. G. Education in the United States, p. 12. 8 Life and Works of Horace Mann, vol. II, p. 425. 363] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 5 quite as many offices as ever the New England schoolmas- ters performed. They were forereaders and foresingers in the churches, comforters of the sick, and church clerks, not to mention other services, as well as pedagogues. 1 Presi- dent Dwight, of Yale college, visiting the city of New York early in this century, gives this account of the majority of the schools that he found there : " An individual, some- times a liberally educated student, having obtained the proper recommendations, offers himself to some of the inhabitants as a schoolmaster. If he is approved and pro- cures a competent number of subscribers, he hires a room and commences the business of instruction. Sometimes he meets with little, and sometimes with much encourage- ment." 2 And so it was, for the most part, throughout the middle states. At the south schools were still less firmly rooted. Here was found, before the revolutionary war, but a single col- lege, William and Mary, and academies of a permanent character were infrequent. In the later colonial days, and perhaps afterwards, it was common for southern gentlemen to send abroad for university educated men, who were duly installed as teachers in their families. Thus George Mason, the distinguished Virginia statesman of the revolutionary era, sent to Scotland for two teachers in succession for his sons. 3 At an earlier time it was still more common in the southern states for heads of families to buy teachers in the market as the Romans bought them in the days of Cicero ; such teachers being commonly redemptioners, men who had sold their services for a term of years to a merchant or ship- master in payment for their transportation to America, but sometimes, also, convicts who had been expatriated. It was common, too, at the south, and in a less degree in the mid- dle states, for leading families to send their sons abroad to 1 History of the school of the collegiate reformed Dutch church in the city of New York, etc. H. W. Dunshee, New York, 1883, passim. 2 Travels in New England and New York, 4 vols. London, 1823, vol. IV, p. 443. 8 The Life of George Mason, etc. Kate Mason Rowland, N. Y. London, 1892, vol. I, pp. 96, 97. 6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [364 be educated. Thus the father and two elder brothers of Washington were sent to Appleby school in England. Foreign trained teachers were much more common at the south than at the north. Andrew Bell, author of the Mad- ras system of education, taught in Virginia through the period of the revolutionary war. 1 The Scotch-Irish race, both in and out of the country, furnished a large number of teachers, some of whom were as vagrant in their habits as the wandering scholars of the sixteenth century. " The whole southern country," writes one who has carefully studied the subject, "was opened to the wandering teachers, all the way from an educational tramp and a drunken importation from a British university, to now and then, probably, a com- petent teacher." Such men as these were met with every- where, but more commonly at the south and west. Following the revolution, as the different sections of the union became more closely knit together, New England, which had a surplus of teachers, such as they were, began to send her overplus beyond her borders. Other states at the north followed her example. Probably the practice ante- dated the war ; but now the " Yankee " schoolmaster became better known in the south and west than ever the Scotch professor had been known in continental countries in the middle ages. It may be worth recalling that it was one of these New England schoolmasters, Eli Whitney, who invented the cotton gin, which gave such an impulse to cotton production and cotton manufacture. William Ellery Channing taught as a private instructor in Richmond, Vir- ginia, in 1 798-1 800; William H. Seward taught part of the year 1819 in Georgia; Salmon P. Chase carried on his select classical seminary in Washington in 1827-28, while studying law in the office of William Wirt ; and at a later day James G. Blaine taught for a time in the Western Military institute at the Blue Lick Springs, Kentucky. Women, as well as men, went to the south to teach. Probably most of these 1 The Life of Rev. Andrew Bell, etc. By Robert Southey, London, 1844, vol. I, chap. II. 365] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 7 teachers returned north again after a period of service ; but some remained and became identified with the country. Thus the gentleman quoted from above testifies : " In my wanderings through the older Atlantic states, I have come upon a good many old men and women who left New England as teachers and married and settled among the people." 1 It must be added that at the south, and in the middle states in less degree, men of superior education looked with little favor upon teaching as a vocation, being more interested in the professions or in public life. The general situation in the first quarter of the present century may be summed up as follows : The teachers of the best academies, grammar schools, and select schools were educated men, a large majority of them trained in the col- leges of the country, but some in the universities of the old world, particularly of England and of Scotland. Not unfre- quently these teachers were ministers of religion actually in charge of parishes or churches. In fact, it had always been common for ministers to teach, if not formal schools, then private pupils in their own studies. Next to this group the best educated teachers, as a class, were college students and young men preparing for professional life — the law, medicine, or the ministry — who had resorted to teaching for the time as a means of supplying themselves with needed funds. John Adams, after graduating from Harvard college in 1755, taught for a time in the grammar school at Worcester, Mas- sachusetts. Some of these persons, by reason of aptitude, enthusiasm, and scholarly attainments, were excellent teach- ers. The third group to be mentioned was composed of persons who had studied in the academies and grammar and select schools but had not attended institutions of a higher grade. These were found not only in the elementary schools but in the grammar schools and academies themselves. Schools of this grade, it may be explained, performed a double function ; they sent young men to the colleges, but a much larger number directly into practical life. Much of 1 Dr. A. D. Mayo, in private letter. 8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [366 the instruction that they furnished, especially the inferior schools, was of a strictly elementary character. The fourth group, found in the common schools, were fitted, so far as they were fitted at all, some in the grammar school and academies, but many more in just such schools as they taught themselves. Sometimes, however, a college student, or even graduate, was found in one of the common schools. In America, as in Europe, the education of women had been greatly neglected. In the first half of the eighteenth century fewer than forty per cent of the women of New England who signed legal papers wrote their names ; the others made their mark. 1 Mrs. John Adams, writing of the middle of the century, said female education in the best families went no further than writing and arithmetic ; in some few and rare instances music and dancing. It was fashionable, she said also, to ridicule female learning. 2 Girls were not admitted to the public schools of Boston until 1769. When the first quarter of this century was well turned some change for the better was apparent ; but even then, there were slight manifestations of that splendid out- burst of interest in women's education which was carried in the bosom of the great democratic movement. All this was the more unfortunate because a large proportion of the teach- ers, at least in the northern states, were women, who were, generally speaking, grossly incompetent and miserably paid. Still it must not be supposed that, down to the educational revival, no attention was given to the qualification and preparation of teachers. That were a great mistake ; the maintenance of colleges and academies was often advocated on the ground that they would furnish teachers for the com- mon schools. Dr. Franklin, for example, in urging the claims of the Academy of Philadelphia, now the University of Pennsylvania, remarked upon the great need of school- 1 The Evolution of the Massachusetts public school system, G. H. Martin, New- York, 1894, p. 75. s The Familiar letters of John Adams and his wife Abigail Adams during the revolution, with a memoir of Mrs. Adams by Charles Francis Adams. New- York, 1876, pp. xxi, 339. 367] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 9 masters, and said the academy would be able to furnish teachers of good morals well prepared to teach children reading, writing, arithmetic, and the grammar of their mother tongue. 1 But nothing was said or done, so far as known, relative to instructing prospective teachers in the science and the art of teaching. It is clear, therefore, that, at the opening of this century, there was urgent need of a general educational revival throughout the country, and particularly of a revival, or cre- ation, of interest in the training of teachers. Both of these needs were the more pressing because population was largely increasing, owing partly to its growing density in the old states, but more to its rapid extension into the new regions of the west. There was, in fact, no other part of the union where the schoolmaster so much needed to be abroad as on the western frontiers. In fact, the two elements that have just been mentioned could not be separated. In America, as in Europe, the demand for better teachers was a marked feature of the great democratic movement towards popular education ; per- haps it may be called the feature of this movement. Early in this century calls began to be heard in various parts of the United States, at first in slow and then in rapid suc- cession. These calls were not made according to a pro- gram ; there was no central propaganda ; in fact, there was little direct connection between the early discussions and efforts to do something in different parts of the country. On the other hand, these discussions and efforts sprang from the forces or causes that produced the great educa- tional uprising in this country and in other countries. Men will differ as to the relative power of these forces, or perhaps even as to the number ; but the best judges, it is believed, will hardly dispute the assertion that, in America at least, the democratic spirit was the most far reaching and effica- cious of such causes. " Schools must be provided for the 1 History of education in Pennsylvania, etc. J. P. Wickersham, Lancaster, Pa., 1886, p. 606. IO THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [368 people ", " the property of the state must educate the youth of the state ", " the schools must have better teachers ", became national watchwords. 1 I NORMAL SCHOOLS The highly mechanical method of teaching that bears the names of Bell and Lancaster, called also mutual and moni- torial instruction, demanded much skill in its conductors. Among other places, this method took root in the city of Philadelphia, and there, in 1818, it called into existence the model school, which was, no doubt, the first school estab- lished in the country for the training of teachers ; it did not, however, outlive the movement of which it was a part. The first permanent normal schools were the three founded at Lexington, Barrie, and Bridgewater, Massachusetts, in 1839-40. They were an outgrowth of the interest in popu- lar education and especially of interest in schools for pre- paring common school teachers, which had been increasing for years, and particularly after German influence began to be felt upon American education, that is, about 1820. These primitive schools were in all respects on a small scale — studies, teachers and pupils. Candidates to be admitted were required to be, if males, seventeen years old, if females, sixteen years. They were required to declare an intention to become school teachers ; they also took an entrance examination, and submitted evidence of intellectual capacity and moral character. The minimum term of study was fixed at one year, and at its expiration the pupil, if deserv- ing, was promised a certificate of qualification. The official course of study, prepared by the state board of education, said the studies first to be attended to should be those which the law required to be taught in the district schools, viz.: 1 The writer has given a much fuller account of the state of schools in the United States previous to 1837 i n nis work entitled " Horace Mann and the com- mon school revival in the United States." New York, 1898, chaps. I, II. See also chapters on various aspects of our educational history by Dr. A. D. Mayo, in the reports of the commissioner of education, 1895, 1896, 1897. Also chap. XXIX of the last named report. 369] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS II orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, geography and arithmetic. When these were thoroughly mastered, those of a higher order might be progressively taken. Per- sons wishing to remain at the school more than one year, in order to increase their qualifications for teaching a public school, might do so, having first obtained the consent of the principal ; and to meet their needs, a further course of study was marked out. The whole course, properly arranged, was as follows : (1) Orthography, reading, grammar, composition and rhetoric, logic ; (2) writing, drawing ; (3) arithmetic, men- tal and written, algebra, geometry, bookkeeping, navigation, surveying ; (4) geography, ancient and modern, with chro- nology, statistics, and general history ; (5) physiology ; (6) mental philosophy ; (7) music ; (8) constitution and history of Massachusetts and of the United States ; (9) natural philosophy and astronomy ; (10) natural history; (11) the principles of piety and morality common to all sects of Christians; (12) the science and art of teaching, with refer- ence to all the above named studies. A portion of the Scriptures should be read daily in every normal school. A selection from the above studies should be made by those who were to remain at the school but one year, accord- ing to the particular kind of school it might be their inten- tion to teach. To each normal school an experimental or model school was attached, where the pupils could reduce to practice the knowledge that they acquired of the science and art of teaching. Every school was put in the immediate charge of a principal aided by needed assistants. 1 Such was the program. Perhaps it is to-day most interest- ing when viewed as a gauge of the time, or as a base line from which to measure progress. These primitive schools were the joint product of private and public liberality ; both citizens and the legislature shared in founding them ; moreover, they were an experi- 1 The Common school journal, edited by Horace Mann, secretary of the Massa- chusetts board of education, vol. I, pp. 32-38. 12 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [370 ment, the legislature refusing at first to commit itself to their maintenance beyond the period of three years ; but they so commended themselves to the public that they were soon regularly incorporated into the state system of public instruction. Furthermore, not only have these schools greatly grown, in number of pupils and teachers, in appli- ances and breadth of studies, and in influence, but others have been added to the list until Massachusetts has now nine state normal schools. The northern and western states have generally adopted the normal school idea. In the west they spring out of the soil and grow up side by side with the other institutions of civil society. Nor is this all. At the close of the civil war there was not a single normal school in the southern states ; since that time, however, they have been generally intro- duced as an indispensable feature of the common school system. The places and times at which some of the leading schools were established will illustrate the progress of the movement. Albany, N. Y., 1844. Framington, Maine, 1864. New Britain, Connecticut, 1850. Winona, Minnesota, 1864. Ypsilanti, Michigan, 1852. Chicago (Cook county), 111., Boston, Massachusetts, 1852. 1867. Normal, Illinois, 1857. Plattville, Wisconsin, 1866. Millersville, Pennsylvania, 1859. Nashville, Tennessee, 1875. Oswego, New York, i860. Cedar Falls, Iowa, 1876. Emporia, Kansas, 1864. Terre Haute, Indiana, 1870. New York now has twelve public normal schools, Penn- sylvania thirteen, Massachusetts nine, West Virginia, North Carolina, Missouri, and Wisconsin seven each. No other state has more than six, and a few have none. Ohio, how- ever, is the only great state that has no state normal school. Perhaps no school in this list has exerted a greater influ- ence than the Oswego school. This influence has been largely due to the practical application that was here made of Pestalozzian ideas and methods, and to the great ability and elevation of character of its founder, Dr. E. A. Sheldon. 37l] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 1 3 This development has been due partly to the quickening example of Massachusetts, but far more to the general preva- lence of the same causes that acted in that state. A high educational authority has said that " all normal school work in the country follows substantially one tradition, and this * * * traces back to the course laid down at Lexington in 1839." 1 There is truth in this view, but the operation of the same general causes was, no doubt, a more powerful factor than direct imitation. We come now to the question, What and how much are the students in the normal schools doing ? Only a general answer can be given. Candidates for admission to the Massachusetts schools must be graduates of approved high schools, or must have received an equivalent education. The general two years' course designed for intending teachers below the high school comprises, (i) psychology, history of education, principles of education, methods of instruction and discipline, school organization, and the laws of Massachusetts ; (2) methods of teaching English, mathematics, science, vocal music, physical culture, and manual training ; (3) observation in the model school and in other public schools. The Bridge- water school has a regular four years' course embracing, in addition to the foregoing studies, work of a more academic character, as instruction in Latin and French, Greek and German, English literature, history, etc. This course looks to the preparation of grammar school principals and a grade of high school teachers. Bridgewater also offers a three years' course, a cross between the other two, while provision is also made for advanced instruction for college graduates and other approved candidates in all the schools. Diplomas are given to graduates from all courses. 2 1 Dr. W. T. Harris, oration delivered at Framingham, Mass., 1888. See Pro- ceedings of the semi-centennial celebration of the founding of state normal schools in this country. 'See Sixty-second annual report of the board of education, Massachusetts, 1897-98, passim/ also reports of the various normal schools, particularly that of the school at Bridgewater for 1898-99. 14 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [372 The other state normal schools, while conforming in the main to the Massachusetts type, present numerous variations. The common standard for admission is not as high by at least two years of high school study. Often, however, there will be found a greater variety of instruction than the Mass- achusetts schools furnish, and partly for the very reason that the standard is not as high. On the whole, for some years past there has been a marked tendency to raise the standard of admission and to strengthen and diversify courses of study. Advanced courses for normal school graduates and other candidates having an equivalent education are well nigh universal. Furthermore, the best schools in their best courses give an amount of instruction that will carry the student nearly, if not quite, to the middle of a good college course. Naturally, therefore, many students pass from the normal schools to the colleges and universities. Special courses for college graduates are often met with, designed to give, in a single year, a professional preparation for teaching. Some schools have assumed the higher name of college, in connection with the assumption of some higher function. Thus, the Michigan state normal college gives the degree of bachelor of pedagogics to students who complete satis- factorily its four years' course of study. It also confers the corresponding master's degree upon those bachelors who comply with some further conditions, none of which, how- ever, involve the element of residence. The Normal college of the city of New York, which has as its main function the training of teachers for the schools of that city, offers two main courses of instruction, the nor- mal course of four years and the academic course of five years. A special diploma is granted to those students who complete the normal course ; moreover, such graduates may obtain the degree of bachelor of arts or bachelor of science, if they successfully pursue a two years' graduate course in literature or science. The academic course, which con- tains Greek, is crowned with the degree of bachelor of arts, 2,7 Z] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS I 5 and graduates in this course may receive the degree of mas- ter of arts provided they afterwards pursue graduate studies for at least two years. The degree of bachelor of pedagogy or doctor of pedagogy may be conferred on any graduate in either of these courses who has made a study of the science and the art of teaching for a period of at least two years after graduation. Graduation from an approved high school, or an equivalent amount of education, is the educa- tional qualification for admission. One of the prominent institutions of this class is the New York state normal college at Albany. This institution is an outgrowth of the first New York normal school, founded in 1844, the reorganization taking place in 1890. It is a pro- fessional school exclusively, not duplicating the instruction given in literary colleges. The purely professional work in both courses, the English and classical, is the same, and graduates from both receive life certificates to teach in the public schools of the state ; graduates in the higher course also receive the degree of bachelor of pedagogy. Gradu- ates from fifty colleges and universities have sought instruc- tion in the college. The two oldest public normal schools of Illinois are called normal universities. The name, however, is purely historical, and has no educational significance whatever. The cities have followed the states in founding normal schools, often called, however, training schools. The prin- cipal reason for maintaining such schools is the urgent need for trained teachers for the local system of schools, which can- not be otherwise supplied. Other reasons, as the desire on the part of local authorities to round out the system with a professional school, and the wish of parents to have their daughters prepared for teaching, also exert some influence. Many of the public normal schools fall into this class. Nearly all the large cities, and many of the small ones, have their own independent schools. Greater New York has sev- eral of them. These schools commonly make graduation from the local high school, or an equivalent education, a 1 6 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [374 qualification for admission, and they graduate their students after a one year's or a two years' course. In 1895 the legis- lature of New York passed an act which authorizes the cities of the state and villages employing superintendents of schools, to establish and maintain one or more schools or classes for the professional instruction and training of teachers in the principles of education and in the method of instruction, for not less than thirty-eight weeks in each school year. Such schools receive assistance from the state funds ; the requirements for admission and the course of study are fixed by the state superintendent of public instruction, under whose general direction such schools are carried on ; graduation from an approved high school or academy has been made the test of admission. The results have been so encouraging that the superintendent pronounces the law the most important statute relating to its subject which has been enacted in any state in the union. 1 With the single exception of the Philadelphia model school, the first schools of the country to train teachers were private schools, created and carried on by their owners and managers, as means of livelihood and instruments of doing good. Nor has the establishment of public schools driven the private ones out of the field. On the contrary, the private schools have greatly increased in number, and have assumed the name normal. Some of them are the property of corporations, some of private owners. A few rival the public schools in number of students and teachers and in equipment. They are more numerous, but have not so large an aggregate attendance, as the accompanying statistics will show. The Peabody Normal college, Nashville, Tennessee, has a unique history among American schools for the training of teachers. It takes its name from the distinguished philan- thropist George Peabody, a name well known in both worlds, and derives the larger part of its support from the education fund that Mr. Peabody created in 1867-69, committing it to 1 Report of the superintendent of public instruction. New York, 1898, vol. I, xxv. 375] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 1 7 a board of trust, with instructions to apply the income, at their discretion, for the promotion and encouragement of intellectual, moral, or industrial education among the young of the more destitute portions of the southern and south- western states of the American union. This board soon made choice of the preparation of teachers as the best means of carrying out the founder's wishes. In connection with the trustees of the university of Nashville, an old institution of learning that had fallen into decay, the board founded, in 1875, the normal school, which has since expanded into the college. The state of Tennessee has since come to the assistance of the two boards of trustees. The general agent of the Peabody fund says of it : " Giving to all the southern states the benefit of improved normal instruction widened the college from a local state institution into a college for the south." And again : " In establishing the college there there was no intent to favor Tennessee above other southern states. The training of teachers for alb the southern states was the object. As the munificence of Mr. Peabody was the stimulus and the means for establishing systems of public schools in the states, so the normal college has pointed the way and aroused the effort for the organizing of more local but indispensable normal schools." r The college is the literary department of the university of Nashville, and con- fers, in addition to the degree of licentiate of instruction, the usual degrees conferred by the literary and scientific colleges. The Peabody trustees, besides their other contributions to the support of the college, provide a liberal system of scholarships for the assistance of students who wish to pre- pare themselves for teaching. In the normal schools of the country women hold the same relative preponderance as students that they hold in the com- mon schools as teachers, as the statistics clearly show. 2 It 1 A Brief sketch of George Peabody and a history of the Peabody education fund through thirty years, by J. L. M. Curry, Cambridge, 1898. 2 In 1896-97 the numbers of male and female teachers in the common schools of the country, as reported by the bureau of education, were as follows: Males, 131,381 ; females, 271,949. 1 8 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [376 is interesting to observe, however, that they are far more numerous, relatively as well as absolutely, in the public nor- mal schools than in the private ones, which is owing, for the most part probably, to the fact that tuition is free in the one case and not in the other. Kindergarten teachers are frequently trained for their work in normal schools, and occasionally manual training teachers as well. Mention may be made in particular of the Chicago Kindergarten college, which aims to extend help to kindergartners, primary teachers, mothers, or other persons intrusted with the education of little children. The work is distributed among seven different departments, of which the teachers' department stands first, followed immediately by the mothers' department. The teachers' department pro- vides both central and branch classes. The regular teachers' course is three years, the educational qualification for admis- sion to it being a high school education or its equivalent. Numerous and well attended as normal schools have become, they still come very far short of supplying the com- mon schools with a sufficient number of professionally trained teachers. In this connection it must be considered that a great army of teachers is required to carry on the common schools of the country, and that a great majority of this army serve for short periods. In 1896-97 the total number was 403,333, and it increases by an increment of many thousand every year. Assuming that ten per cent pass out of the service every year, which is a very moderate estimate, we see that more than 40,000 recruits are needed annually to keep the ranks full, to -say nothing of meeting the growth of the country. But this number is more than three times the number of normal graduates in 1897-98, and more than one-half the total number of students in all the training schools and classes in the country. No state makes a better showing than Massachusetts ; but in 1897-98 only 38.5 per cent of her teachers in public schools had received normal instruction, and only 33.5 per cent were normal graduates. Of those who had not received such 377] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 19 instruction, the secretary of the state board of education says a few have probably been appointed without reference to their fitness for their work ; some have had a little pre- liminary training in schools for the purpose ; some began to teach before normal preparation had attracted the attention of school committees that it has done in recent years, while some are college graduates. 1 Unfortunately, we do not possess the statistics that would enable us to make a similar showing for the whole country. 2 STATISTICS OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES FOR 1897-98 3 Public normal schools Private normal schools Total Number of normal schools 167 1,863 46,245 12,578 33,667 8,188 1,543 6,645 566,684 $19,980,222 336,185 1,472,865 417,866 2,566,132 514,562 57,648 307,409 3,445,751 I 7 3 1,008 21,293 IO,597 10,696 3, 67 1,689 1,378 194,460 $5,047,507 240,203 2,3H,594 19,696 648,459 38,759 I9L995 898,909 345 2,871 67,538 23,175 44,363 11,255 3,232 8,023 761,144 $25,027,729 576,388 3,784,459 417,866 2,585,828 1,163,021 96,407 499,404 4,344,660 Teachers instructing normal students. . . . Students in teachers' training courses Male students Female students Number normal graduates Male graduates Female graduates Volumes in libraries Value of buildings, grounds, apparatus.... Value of benefactions received in 1897-98. Appropriated by states, counties and cities for buildings and improvements, 1897-98. Received from productive funds Received from other sources and unclassi- fied 1 Sixty-second annual report of the board of education, Massachusetts, 1897-98, p. 148. 2 President J. G. Schurman, of Cornell university, has calculated from data fur- nished by the report of the commissioner of education that in 1891-92 the total increase of teachers in the schools was less than two per cent, but that nearly seventeen per cent of the whole number of teachers were inexperienced beginners. Assuming that these per Cents are typical, he infers that the average length of the professional career of the American teacher is between seven and eight years. From data furnished by the same authority, he calculates that only fifteen per cent of the teachers then in the schools had passed through a normal school. — The Forum, Vol. XXI, pp. 174, 179. 3 This table is furnished by the commissioner of education in advance of its publication in his report for the year 1897-98. 20 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [2>?8 Dr. W. T. Harris has shown that in the past seventeen years the enrollment in normal schools reported by states or cities has increased from about 10,000 to something over 40,000. The attendance on normal schools formed and supported by private enterprise has increased from about 2,000 to 24,000, though the increase has been very slow in the last three years. In 1880 there were 240 normal stu- dents in each million of inhabitants; in 1897 there were 976 in each million. 1 The American normal schools answer, in general, to the normal schools of France and Italy, the training colleges of England, and the teachers' seminaries of Switzerland and Germany. They differ, however, from all these schools in important particulars. For instance, they offer at least three points of contrast to the German teachers' seminaries. First, in respect to the instruction furnished. While the German schools confine themselves exclusively to training intending teachers, including, to be sure, much academic instruction, American schools generally do a large amount of miscellaneous teaching. To a great extent they parallel the high schools and to some extent even the elementary schools. In the second place, this wide range of work accounts in part for the much greater size of the American schools. In 1888 only five of the 115 normal schools of Prussia had upwards of a hundred pupils, while one had less than fifty ; but several of our state schools count more than a thousand pupils. It must always be borne in mind that a large proportion of these American pupils are in no proper sense normal pupils. In the third place, there is nec- essarily a great disparity in the size of the respective facul- ties. An ordinary Prussian normal school requires but nine teachers, including the two in the practice school, while our normal school staffs often number fifty or more persons. It is clear, therefore, that we have not yet realized the pure normal school type as Germany, for example, has done, Nor can it be doubted that our schools as institutions for The Educational review, January, 1899, p. 8. 379] 'the training of teachers 21 training- teachers have often suffered greatly from their over- grown numbers and large classes. In Prussia, once more, the average number of pupils per teacher is not more than twelve. It is accordingly to be hoped that in the future we may realize the normal school idea in purer form than in the past. 1 11 teachers' training classes For the school year 1896-97 there reported to the Bureau of Education 1,487 institutions which enrolled 89,974 nor- mal students, or students pursuing courses designed for the professional training of teachers. Those students who were pursuing in these schools other courses of study are not included in this total. The following table will show how the students were distributed : Schools Number Students Public normal schools , , 164 43,199 Private normal schools 198 24,181 Colleges and universities 196 6,489 Public high schools .... 507 9,001 Private high schools and academies 422 7,064 Nothing need be added to what was said in the former division of this monograph concerning the normal schools. But the normal students, so called, in the colleges and universities are a less definite body of persons. The nor- mal work that many of them do does not differ in character from that done in the proper normal schools ; a smaller number are taking the strictly professional courses leading 1 On normal schools in the United States, see the following authorities: Henry Barnard, Normal schools and other institutions, agencies, and means designed for the professional instruction of teachers, Hartford, 1851. J. P. Gordy, Rise and growth of the normal school idea in the United States, Washington, 1891. G. H. Martin, The Evolution of the Massachusetts system of public instruction, New York, 1894, Lecture IV. B. A. Hinsdale, Horace Mann and the common school period in the United States, New York, 1898, chapter VI. S. S. Randall, History of the common school system of the State of New York, New York, 1871, passim. J. P. Wickersham, History of education in Pennsylvania, etc., Lancaster, Pa., 1894, passim. A. P. Hollis, The contribution of the Oswego normal school to educational progress in the United States, Boston, 1898. Proceedings of the semi-centennial celebration of the state normal school at Framingham, 1889, particularly the oration delivered by Dr. W. T. Harris. 22 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS' [38° up to the academic degrees, which will be explained in another place ; some are members of what may be called teachers' training classes. The training work done in the institutions of this class is of very different degrees of quality ; some of it, perhaps, amounting to nothing more than attendance upon one or two courses of lectures, while some of it is of strictly university grade. The statistics given under this head are the least value of all, partly on account of the facts just stated, and partly because the returns are not complete. The normal students in high schools and academies, more than 16,000 in number, are, generally speaking, in training classes. They may be divided into three groups. First, many of these students in the private schools, and no doubt some in the public ones, have had nothing more than a fair elementary education, if indeed some of them have had as much education as that. They are looking for- ward to teaching, most of them in the district schools, and have come into the high schools and academies where they are found to enlarge their knowledge of the branches that they expect to teach and to receive some professional instruc- tion in addition. Secondly, some instruction in the principles of education and its history is often made an elective study in the last year of the high school or academy course for those students who are looking forward to teaching. The elementary schools look for many of their teachers to the graduates of the high schools and academies, particularly the public high schools, and even the limited amount of training that they receive fits them in a measure for teaching. Thirdly, classes are sometimes formed in these schools consisting of graduates who wish, or are required, to fit them- selves more thoroughly for the teacher's work. Such classes do not differ from the city training schools, only they are less fully developed. They may be called rudimentary training schools. The training class is an old device for preparing elementary 38 1 J THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 23 teachers. Thus New York early sought to solve the teacher problem for the common schools by providing instruction for teachers in the academies of the state, under the man- agement of the regents of the university. This experiment did not prove to be as successful as had been hoped, and the state supplemented it by adopting the normal school policy. The earlier plan was never abandoned, however, but in 1889 the supervision of training classes was transferred to the department of public instruction. In the year 1888-89 sixty institutions were authorized to organize and to carry on such classes. In 1895 the legislature passed the law referred to under the last heading, which has put the train- ing classes on a new footing both as respects management and instruction. With a single exception the leading features of this act have already been given. The omitted feature is that no person shall be employed or licensed to teach in the ele- mentary schools of any city or village authorized by law to employ a superintendent of schools (that is, cities and vil- lages having 5,000 inhabitants or more) who has not taught successfully at least three years, or in lieu of such experience, graduated from a high school or other school of equal or higher rank, having a course of study of not less than three years approved by the state superintendent of pub- lic instruction, and subsequently received at least as much professional training as that furnished by one of these train- ing schools or classes ; local boards were left free to place their requirements as much higher as they see fit. The terms of admission to the trainings classes are the same as those for the training - schools organized under the same law. The course of instruction embraces the leading common branches, the history of education, school manage- ment and school law, and the art of questioning. Instruc- tion in the school studies includes both subject-matter and method, together with some work in the observation and practice school. In his report for 1897-98, the state super- intendent says that in no branch of the work under his direc- J24 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS . [382 tion have more gratifying results been secured than in the training classes. For that year there were organized eighty- three such classes, enrolling 1,278 students. The same year fourteen cities organized training schools under the law with an attendance of 523. T in teachers' institutes The teachers' institute, which is an original American institution for training teachers, has grown up side by side with the normal school. The commonly accepted account of its origfin is that it dates from conventions of teachers held in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1839 an< ^ 1840, under the leadership of Dr. Henry Barnard. That it met a popular need is shown by its rapid spread. The first institute in New York, and the first anywhere to bear the name, was held in 1843 ; the first in Massachusetts and Ohio, 1845 ; the first in Michigan and Illinois, in 1846 ; the first in Wis- consin, in 1848, and the first in Iowa, the year following. The institute system soon embraced the whole northwest, and it was established in the south along with common schools after the civil war. At first the institute was a purely voluntary agency. There were no funds for its support, save such as the teach- ers attending and public-spirited citizens supplied. Often citizens showed such interest in the work that they freely opened their houses to receive the teachers, not as boarders but as guests. But such an instrument of power could not long remain outside the limits of the law. Massachusetts appropriated money for institutes in 1846; New York and Ohio, in 1847; Pennsylvania, in 1855. In course of time the institution was firmly imbedded in state school laws, and at present most of the states, if not all of them, give it some legal recognition and financial support. Tuition is free, unless, indeed, as is often the case, the teachers voluntarily 1 On teachers' training classes in the state of New York, see S. S. Randall, History of the common school system of the State of New York, N. Y., 1871, passim, and reports of the state superintendent of public instruction, 1889-90, and 1897-98, passim. 383] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 25 contribute out of their own pockets fees, in order to extend the length of the session or to provide better instruction than would otherwise be possible. Institutes are of numerous types, presenting such diver- gencies that it is difficult to define the species. There are state institutes and county institutes ; district, city, and town institutes. However, the best known type takes its name from the county, which is the civil division that, as a rule, furnishes the best unit of organization and management. This type alone presents many varying features. Some county institutes continue but a day or two ; some, several weeks. Some are conducted by state authorities, as the superintendent of public instruction or his assistants ; some by local authorities, as county superintendents, or officers of teachers' institute associations. Some are carried on much like a school, with text books, set lessons, and recitations, together with lectures ; some depend upon lectures alone. Some are graded with a view to securing instruction especially adapted to the different classes of teachers ; others are wholly unclassified and the attendants all receive the same instruc- tion. Sometimes two or more counties are thrown together in one district, it may be for a year only, in order to secure, through the concentration of funds and influence, a longer term and better advantages. State institutes, which are infrequent, commonly look more to the needs and interests of the better teachers of the state. City institutes are con- ducted with special reference to local needs. Dr. Barnard called his conventions of teachers only as a temporary expedient. In his first circular announcing his purpose, he proposed to give those teachers an " opportu- nity to revise and extend their knowledge [i] of the studies usually pursued in district schools and [2] of the best methods of school arrangements, instruction and government under the recitations and lectures of experienced and well-known teachers and educators." On these two lines the institute has continued to move ; that is, it has combined, with fluctu- ating emphasis, the two ideas of general and special prepa- 26 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [384 ration for teachers. Commonly the revision and extension of studies comes through the instruction in methods, as instructors or lecturers draw freely upon subject-matter for the purpose of illustration ; but sometimes formal instruc- tion is given in the more difficult parts of the several sub- jects taught in the schools, as geography, grammar, history, and the like. The professional instruction relates to the science, the art, and the history of teaching, and school organization, management, and economy. Mention should be made, however, of what may be called the culture aspect of the institute — the lectures and other exercises that bring forward literary, historic, scientific, and other similar sub- jects. The institutes of the states taken together would furnish a wide range of instruction and culture. In those of Massachusetts for 1897-98, there were presented seventy- three distinct topics, which no doubt considerably overlapped. Putting all the facts together, we may give this definition of a teachers' institute : A school for teachers having" a short and a vaguely defined course of study, and having as its main object the instruction of teachers, and particularly non- professional teachers, in the elements of their art and their stimulation to excellence in scholarship and teaching. The institutes are held in all seasons of the vear, summer being, perhaps, the preferred time. In Pennsylvania and New York, in both of which states the work is well organ- ized, they come in the months October-December and March-May. So long as attendance was purely voluntary the results were gratifying but not satisfactory ; often, but not uni- versally, the principle of legal compulsion has therefore been invoked. In 1867 Pennsylvania passed a law requir- ing acting teachers to attend their respective institutes. A similar provision is in force in the state of New York. When attendance is compulsory, the teacher's salary goes on, the same as though she were on duty in the school room ; at least if the institute is held in the school term. In such cases the local school authorities are required to 385] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 2 J close the schools, but when attendance is optional, they fol- low their own counsel in the matter. Statistics of teachers' institutes are not found in the recent annual reports of the Bureau of Education. For the year 1886—87 the commissioner reported 2,003 institutes, with an enrolled attendance of 138,986 persons. It would not be wide of the mark, perhaps, to say that the annual attendance equals one-half the total number of teachers in the schools. Institute instruction is a more difficult art than class-room instruction. It combines the best elements of the lecture and the recitation. It is not surprising therefore that the institute has created a class of professional instructors or lecturers. The agents of the Massachusetts board of educa- tion devote much time to the institutes, while New York supports a special institute faculty. There has also appeared a class of lecturers, some with and some without other edu- cational connections, who move in much wider circles, visit- ing institutes in widely separated states. Still, taking the country together, the main reliance is upon men and women who are regularly engaged in school work, as superintend- ents, and principals of schools and professional teachers. Col- lege and normal school professors are also frequently drawn into the service. In fact, if the annals of the institute were written in full, they would contain the names of many of the most eminent scholars and teachers, men of letters and men of science, of the last sixty years. Instruction in the methods of the institute is often given in normal schools. The so-called summer institutes, extending over a period of from four to six weeks, which call together large numbers of enthusiastic teachers and very able corps of instructors, and which are becoming more common every year, do not differ materially from the summer schools soon to be men- tioned, in character. They are, however, carried on under state auspices, while those schools are local or private enterprises. At first the institute was regarded as a merely temporary expedient : it has already continued sixty years. Again, 28 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS [j86 while it was called into existence only as a means of helping persons who were already engaged in teaching, it has, unfor- tunately, sometimes been made an agent for preparing intend- ing teachers for their work. Still, representative educators have never for a moment regarded it as a substitute for the school, either general or special. Pressed into a service for which it was never intended, it has been the source of some evil ; but the balance is overwhelmingly on the other side. It has been useful in ways that the founders did not antici- pate or fully anticipate. It has given teachers higher ideals of education and teaching, enlarged their acquaintance with educational men and with one another, created professional spirit, and generated enthusiasm. It has also been an impor- tant means of developing educational intelligence and inter- est in society. Upon the whole, there is reason to think that the teachers' institute possesses lasting usefulness ; in other words, that it fills a place in our school economy that no other agent can fill, and that it will become one of our permanent educational institutions. 1 IV THE SUMMER SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS In its more popular form, the summer school for teachers is a sort of cross between the normal school and the teach- ers' institute. Three types may be recognized. The first type to be mentioned is seen in the schools that form part of the summer assemblies sometimes called " Chautauquas," which combine popular entertainment, rec- reation and diversion, and social intercourse with serious instruction and ethical and religious culture. The next type is the familiar summer school, seen at the normal schools, colleges, and universities. Such schools 'Authorities on teachers' institutes. — Henry Barnard, normal schools, etc., Hartford, 1851; The American journal of education, vol. Ill, p. 673, XIV, p. 253, XV, p. 276, 405, XXII, p. 557. J. H. Smart, Teachers' institutes, Washington, 1887. S. S. Randall, History of the common school system of the state of New- York, N. Y., 1871, passim. J. P. Wickersham, History of education in Pennsyl- vania, Lancaster, Pa., 1884, passim. James P. Milne, Teachers' institutes, Syra- cuse, N. Y., 1894. B. A. Hinsdale, Horace Mann and the common school revival in the United States, pp. 136-138. 387] THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 29 have been stimulated by the example of Chicago university in offering to students regular summer terms. At some of the normal schools the summer school has already become a regular summer session ; moreover, there are indications that some of the colleges and universities will do the same thing ; in fact, the University of Wisconsin has already taken the step. Schools of the third type are organized and carried on at chosen seats by private individuals or by associations of individuals. These schools combine both business and edu- cational features. They are generally found at places offer- ing attractive features as summer resorts, and so offer to their patrons the combined attraction of an outing and a term of school. Perhaps the best known of all these insti- tutions is that of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, founded in 1878 and chartered three years later. It is also called an institute. It has twenty academical departments, counts forty instructors on its staff, and enrolls annually five hun- dred students. In the twenty-one years of its history it has taught 9,000 or 10,000 persons. Irrespective of type these schools commonly offer to their patrons both general and special advantages ; in other words, they teach both academical and pedagogical subjects, and also introduce cultural elements of a considerably diver- sified character. While they offer attractions to other per- sons, and actually enroll some of them in their classes, the great functions of these schools is to fit teachers and intend- ing teachers for their work. Their faculties contain many instructors and lecturers of marked ability and high stand- ing in the world of letters, education, or science. All things considered, serious instruction has not perhaps anywhere been offered to teachers in a more attractive form than in the best of these summer schools. These schools, no doubt, approach nearer than any other agencies for fitting teachers in the United States to the great summer meetings held for the same purpose at Oxford, Cambridge, and Edinburgh. 1 1 Balfour Graham, The Educational systems of Great Britain and Ireland, Oxford, 1898, pp. 252, 253. 3^ X r ' Austin, Architects FIRST FLOOR PLAN PLATE XV SECOND FLOOR, PLAN THIRD FLOOR PLAN CAMBRIDGE (MASS.) ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL Chamber lin & Austin, Architects PLATE XVI is J*! ^ r b ^ Co b : H PLATE XVII jj"|— t— — 1^71— First Floor Basement PLATE XVIII Third Floor I LIBRARY S^ " "• P ^ U i - - rj s f i 8 -^ Second Floor PLATE XIX ^ N l - iC En 1^ io to ^ o k *v ^ ^ & ^•5 «o ? ^ < s h ^ fc V 9 9£ 8fr 0V 91 9 \ 3UIDip3J^[ o o o ro 8 ro O c 00 1 in 1^ \ \ \ \ i \ i \ \ o o o m O vo roi ro CO vo Tf 00 1 ro M I \ in \ 5 n O O N ml t^. \ — V) 1 \- i 8 ro' in. o o X! \ \H \ a \ O N t-» *"~-lvO Cfl \ \ L 1 *rt ■c \ N N ro vo 1 vo >i csl to oo in c o 1 \z \ '55 \ \ n ^ •* ol n cm ml oo .ft \ \ o \ V 00 in N t^l m a \ in O in O o \ I 00 00 00 On 0) 5 A \ \ m vo ■-■ .vo O N in t--. \ \ _ V i \ S v v \ N V \ V \ v \ ^ \ ■A t V ' ll k -i - \ ^ — . V '*, *< >\ % / '61 > ■\ ' -7 ■ — o o o o o 0) 00 t- 0> CO CO CD a o o * ro OJ co CO CO PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION I GENERAL Preacademic, grammar or common school work refers to the eight years of ele- mentary instruction; secondary or academic work, to the four years of secondary instruction between elementary school and college; college work, to the four years of higher instruction, following the four years of secondary. Professional institutions are uniformly called schools. Authorities — It is impossible within the limits of this monograph to give more than a brief outline of professional education in the United States. For detailed information touching laws, regulations, location of schools, and courses of study the reader is referred to Professional education in the United States, published by the University of the State of New York. Of the many authorities consulted the following have proved most helpful : U. S. education reports ; Eliot's Edu- cational reform ; U. S. census reports ; Briggs' Theological education and its needs; 1 Dyer's Theological education in America; 2 Jessup's Legal education in New York ^ Well- man's Admission to the bar ; 4 Hammond's American law schools, past and future ; 5 Reports of the American bar association; Toner's Annals of medical progress in the United States ; 6 Davis' Medical education and medical insti- tutions in the United States ; 7 Journal American medical association ; Shepard's Inaugural address at the World's Columbian dental congress; Proceedings of the American pharmaceutical association. These and other authorities have been used freely, but limited space makes it imprac- ticable to give in many cases more than this general acknowledgment. 1 Forum, January 1892. s Penii monthly, August 1880. 3 See the History of the bench and bar of New York. 4 American law review, May 1881. 5 Southern law review, August 1881. * U. S. education report, 1874. 7 U. S. education report, 1877. PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION L 4 68 Assistance rendered by specialists is acknowledged in the chapter relating to each profession. Growth — At the time of the declaration of independence there were only two professional schools in this country, the Medical college of Philadelphia (1765), now the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania, and the medi- cal department of King's college (1768). 1 The following statistics, summarized from Professional education in the United States, show unprecedented growth : 2 Schools 1899 Instructors 1899 Students 1898 Graduates 1898 Students 1899 165 86 "156 56 4 52 17 532 I 070 970 8 5 735 1 513 4 49 2 249 8 317 II 783 3 24 043 7 221 *3 525 368 I 693 3 no 3 5 725 1 921 4 i 122 123 8 093 11 883 3 24 119 7 633 4 3 563 378 Law ... Medicine Dentistry Veterinary medicine... . B Total 10 029 55 257 13 694 55 669 In 1898, 286 of the 532 schools reported total property amounting to nearly $50,000,000 (New York 33 per cent), King's college is now Columbia university. The 1898 U. S. education report gives the following: Schools Instructors Students Graduates i5S 83 151 5° 45 14 958 845 4 247 961 401 173 8 37i 11 615 23 433 6 774 3 712 326 1 673 3 ° 6 5 5 597 1 848 1 129 109 Total 49S 7 585 54 231 13 421 3 Excluding graduate schools, but including 3 medical preparatory schools. 4 Including Department of pharmacy, University of Washington, which has sus- pended temporarily. 6 In these totals training schools for nurses are not included. The Philadelphia lying-in, charity and nurse school was opened in 1828, but it is said that syste- matic training in schools for nurses was not given till 1873. The 1898 U. S. edu- cation report gives 377 of these schools with 8805 students. The course of study is usually two years in length though nearly 1-4 of the schools now require three years. Most of these schools are connected with hospitals where medical, surgi- cal and obstetric cases are treated. The course of study embraces anatomy, phys- iology and hygiene, and obstetrics. 469] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 262 reported receipts exceeding $5,000,000 (New York 31 per cent), 270 expenditures exceeding $4,500,000 (New York 28 per cent). Degrees are granted by 73 theological schools, 82 law schools, 152 medical schools, 56 dental schools, 45 schools of pharmacy and 16 veterinary medical schools. Distribution of professional schools and students in 1809 1 — 38 political divisions of the United States report profes- sional schools and students as follows : Division Sc. =school; St. =student. Illinois New York Pennsylvania Missouri Ohio Massachusetts Maryland Tennessee Michigan Kentucky District Columbia. Iowa California Indiana Minnesota Virginia Georgia Wisconsin Texas Louisiana New Jersey Connecticut Colorado Nebraska Alabama Kansas North Carolina Maine Vermont Oregon South Carolina... Arkansas New Hampshire.. West Virginia Washington Mississippi Oklahoma South Dakota. Theology 165 St. : 210 : 039 813 448 432 514 56i 226 102 401 161 277 194 98 160 16 23 459 152 33 59 61 9 8093 St. 1 308 2 202 526 366 7°5 974 277 211 918 365 323 456 446 236 75 259 176 72 o 194 93 117 Medicine Sc. 156 St. 3 o6 5 2 415 2 475 2 345 1 392 1 066 1 33i 1 876 877 1 on 460 631 576 3°5 428 618 449 109 253 179 239 172 167 171 215 182 97 108 131 Dentistry St. 1 282 5°3 1 5°3 302 497 301 346 179 135 135 395 258 no 36 253 J 35 Pharmacy 56 7 633 Veteri- nary Sc. St. 284 536 619 177 418 178 106 75 46 210 170 62 3 563 Sc. St. 82 82 52 25 378 St. 7 231 6 777 5 988 3 846 3 55° 3 °6i 2 772 2 689 2398 I 747 1 665 1 572 1 462 1 357 1 323 1 106 911 813 522 5°i 485 455 429 413 410 392 359 293 215 200 '95 *34 ! 3i "5 69 45 55669 The following report no professional schools : Alaska, Arizona, Delaware, Florida, Hawaii, Idaho, Indian territory, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Puerto Rico, Rhode Island, Utah, Wyoming. 1 Not including students at the University of Havana: law 124, medicine 98, pharmacy 98 (1899), or at the University of Santo Tomas, Manila: theology 6, law 558, medicine 404, pharmacy 51 (1897). Grand total, including also 1916 gradu- ate medical students, 58,924. 6 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [470 Illinois leads for the first time in professional students, a fact due to a lack of proper control of the power to grant degrees and licenses. Including students in graduate medi- cal schools, New York and Illinois report about the same number of professional students in 1899. Varying standards — There is no national authority in the United States that can prescribe standards for degrees or for license to practise the professions. Each state makes its own professional laws. As a result there are almost as many standards as there are political divisions. The desirability of uniform standards throughout the country for admission to professional practice is recognized generally, but varying conditions as to density of population, educational advant- ages and general development make it impracticable to hope for the attainment of this end for some time to come. 1 30 years ago the public had little protection from incom- petency in professional practice. The bar is said to have been at its lowest ebb. Medical laws were crude and largely inoperative. In several states only were there any acts designed to control the practice of pharmacy and dentistry. There was no law whatever restricting the practice of vet- erinary medicine. There has been extraordinary progress, specially in the last decade, in restrictive professional legislation, and in the admission and graduation requirements of professional schools throughout the United States. In view of these facts the growth in professional students is remarkable. From 1888 to 1899 the increase was as follows: theology 24 per cent, law 224 per cent, medicine 84 per cent, dentistry 380 per cent, pharmacy 31 per cent, veterinary medicine 17 per cent. In 1890, when the last U. S. census was taken, the ratio to population for each given profession was : clergymen 1 to 710, lawyers 1 to 699, physicians 1 to 598, dentists 1 to 3579. The corresponding ratios for 1870 were: clergymen 1 to 879, lawyers 1 to 946, physicians 1 to 617, dentists 1 to 1 See section on Influence of medical societies. Growth in professional students Medic in Theology Law Pharmacy Dentistry Veterinary 47i] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 4919. In each profession there has been a growth which is greater proportionately than the growth in population. 1 Preliminary general education for licenses — In New York state a preliminary general education equivalent to gradua- tion from a four years' high school course after a completed eight years' elementary course is prescribed by statute as the minimum standard for license to practise medicine. This standard approximates that required in continental Europe. New Hampshire has similar requirements, but they are not as rigidly enforced. The statutes of Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey and Pennsylvania prescribe a "common school education." Louisiana demands " a fair primary education." The rules in Vermont prescribe a high school course ; in Illinois and Iowa less than one year of high school work ; in Virginia, " evidence of a preliminary education." In remain- ing political divisions laws and rules are either silent in this respect or so indefinite (Arkansas and other political divis- ions) as to be of little value. In New York and Illinois (after Jan. 1, 1900) a prelim- inary general education equivalent to a three years' high school course is required for admission to the bar. Connec- ticut demands a high school education or an indefinite pre- liminary examination. The minimum requirement in Mich- igan (in case of examination) is less than two years of high 1 These returns were first given in i860 when the ratio to population (31,443, 321) was : clergymen (37,529) 1 to 837, lawyers (33,193) 1 to 947, physicians (54,543) 1 to 576, dentists (5606) 1 to 5608. Following are the figures for 1870, 1880 and 1890 : Population Clergymen Lawyers Physicians Dentists 1870 38 558 371 50 155 783 62 622 250 43 874 64 698 88 203 4° 73 6 64 137 89 630 62 448 85 671 104 805 7 839 12 314 17 498 Students at these periods were reported as follows in 1897 by the American bar association : Theology Law Medicine Dentistry Pharmacy 1870 3 254 5 242 7013 1 653 3 134 4 5l8 6 198 11 929 16 660 257 730 2 696 512 1 347 2 871 1880 8 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [472 school work, in Colorado it is one year of high school work, in Minnesota (in case of examination) it is less than one year, in Ohio it is a common school education. If anything is demanded in other political divisions the requirement is not sufficiently established (excepting a few local cases) to find a place either in statutes or court rules. The New York law exacts a full high school course as one of the requirements for license to practise dentistry. 1 New Jersey demands by statute "a preliminary education equal to that furnished by the common schools," Pennsyl- vania "a competent common school education," Virginia a " fair academic education." In other political divisions there is no such requirement. 2 Louisiana, Michigan, South Dakota, Wisconsin, and, in case of examination, California and Texas are the only political divisions which mention in their rules preliminary general education as a requirement for license to practise pharmacy. An elementary educa- tion only is prescribed. The completion of a full high school course or its equivalent is one of the statutory require- ments for license to practise veterinary medicine in New York. 8 Pennsylvania demands " a competent common school education." There is no such requirement in any other state. Preliminary general education for degrees — In New York, high standards in preliminary general education are demanded both for degrees and for licenses, 4 and in each case the ques- tion of attainments is determined by a central authority, the University of the State of New York. As a rule in other states the professional schools conduct their own entrance examinations, and the tests are often mere matters of form, even though the standards may appear satisfactory on paper. 1 For matriculates before Jan. 1, 1901, 3 years in a high school are accepted. 5 See section on Dental societies. 3 For matriculates before Jan. 1, 1901, 2 years in a high school are accepted. 4 Excepting licenses to preach and licenses to practise pharmacy. 473] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 9 Entrance requirements In 4 theological schools there are no entrance requirements ; in 24 schools they are indefinite. 19 demand a grammar school education. 1, 6 and 19 require respectively one, two and three years of high school work. 18, 3 and 71 demand respectively one, three and four years of college work. In 16 law schools there are apparently no entrance require- ments whatever ; in 8 schools they are so indefinite as to be practically worthless. 26 schools demand a grammar school education. 8, 11, 12 and 3 require respectively one, two, three and four years of high school work. Harvard demands an education equivalent to that required for admission to the senior class. The Columbia law school will be main- tained as a graduate department after 1903. In 2 medical schools the requirements are indefinite ; 29 demand a grammar school education; 97, 12, 3 and 12 require respectively one, two, three and four years of high school work. Johns Hopkins requires a college course, Harvard also after Sep. 1901. In 3 dental schools the requirements are indefinite; 18 demand a grammar school education; 18, 11 and 6 require respectively one, two and three years of high school work. In 6 schools of pharmacy there are no entrance require- ments ; in 4 schools they are indefinite. 24 demand a gram- mar school education ; 11, 6 and 1 require respectively one, two and three years of high school work. In 1 veterinary medical school the requirements are indef- inite ; 9 demand a grammar school education ; 1, 5 and 1 require respectively one, two and three years of high school work. Professional students with college degrees — The 1894 U. S. education report states that probably nearly one half of the theological students held either B.A. or B.S. degrees (46 1-2 per cent), as compared with only about 20 per cent of law students. The corresponding returns from medical schools were so imperfect that they were not tabulated. Tables in the 1897 U. S. education report indicate that of IO PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [474 schools reporting graduate students 49 per cent of the stu- dents in theology, 24 per cent of those in law and 14 per cent of those in medicine held either B.A. or B.S. degrees. The corresponding returns for 1898 were 53 per cent in theology, 29 per cent in law, and 21 per cent in medicine. Following is a classification of schools 1) that report grad- uate students, 2) that report no graduate students, 3) that do not report this item : Sch Dols Students Hold B. A. or B. S. degrees Per cent 1897 1898 1897 1898 1897 1898 1897 1898 Theology 1 93 85 5 217 5 086 2 566 2 696 49 53 2 26 28 635 850 O O 3 37 42 2 321 2 435 1 Law 1 56 41 7 997 6 289 I 932 I 825 24 29 2 2 2 29 20 O O O 3 25 40 2 423 5 306 1 1 1 1 Medicine 1 76 64 10 709 9969 I 498 2 O94 14 21 2 5 3 160 146 O O O 3 69 9i 13 508 14 339 1 1 1 1 Courses in theology, law and medicine are naturally grad- uate courses and will eventually be maintained as such by leading universities. It is believed, however, that it would not be advisable or even desirable for the state to make graduation from college the minimum requirement in gen- eral education for degrees even in these faculties. High school graduation is sufficient for the minimum state require- ment. Anything farther than this should be left to indi- vidual initiative. 2 1 Not reported. 2 There are few graduate students in dentistry, pharmacy or veterinary medicine. In library science, however, which under New York's leadership will develop rap- idly throughout the United States, a thorough college training will soon be the usual requirement of all strong schools for admission to the professional course. In 1900 for example all but two of the entering class of 31 at the New York state library school are graduates of colleges or universities registered as main- taining proper standards. In public accounting which was raised by New York to the dignity of a profession in 1896 the New York requirement of a full four years' high school course will doubtless be accepted generally as the standard in preliminary general education. Additional requirements in New York for full C. P. A. (certified public accountant) certificates are three years' satisfactory experi- ence in the practice of accounting (one of which has been in the office of an 475] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION II Length of professional courses —The following table shows as a rule great progress, specially since 1885, in the adoption of higher standards for graduation. Theological schools 1875. 1885. 1897. 1898. 1899. Law schools 1875. 1885. 1897. Medical schools 1875, 1885. 1897. 1898. i8qq. Dental schools 1875. 1885. 1897. 1898. Four years 26 26 '20 » 4 i o o 99 103 141 Three years 77 98 116 117 116 1 5 21 38 44 "3 5 49 42 10 o 5 47 49 55 Two years 30 38 47 36 37 103 One year Not stated II 22 II IO O Schools of pharmacy 1875. 1885. 1897. 1898. " i8qq. Veterinary medical schools 1897. 1898. 1899. 10 21 34 35 38 expert public accountant) and examinations in the theory of accounts, practical accounting, auditing and commercial law. Pennsylvania has a C. P. A. law, and attempts have been made to secure similar legislation in Illinois, Maryland, New Jersey and Minnesota. 1 Including 4 schools that report courses of five years. 2 Including 17 schools that report courses of more than four years. 3 Distinction between medical schools with two and three-year courses not certain. 4 Including 3 medical preparatory schools. 6 Department of pharmacy, University of Washington, which has suspended temporarily. 12 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [476 Professional schools now remain in session for a much greater part of the year than formerly : Length of courses in months, i8gg Theology Law Medicine Dentistry Pharmacy Veterinary medicine Total Unknown or less than 6 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 More than 10 O 3 37 57 54 14 I 2 6 52 21 4 IO 74 45 21 6 12 24 11 4 5 5 16 11 10 5 5 5 5 2 4 1 33 124 112 148 92 23 Total 165 86 156 56 532 Evening sessions occur less frequently Day sessions Evening sessions Both Unknown Total 49 135 47 36 7 24 5 4 9 7 9 4 3 6 7 5 3 7 86 156 56 52 *7 Total 274 42 23 28 367 University supervision — As long as the public had prac- tically no protection from incompetency in professional practice independent proprietary schools flourished. With proper restrictive legislation such institutions will either die or fall under university supervision. Many professional schools not under university super- vision show a self-sacrificing zeal for high standards and an absence of the commercial spirit that might well be emu- lated by all institutions connected with colleges or universi- ties. Nevertheless independent institutions are realizing more than ever before the disadvantages of working without university privileges and tend more and more toward uni- versity connections or university relations. 477] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 13 In 1899, 257 schools were separate institutions and 275 were departments of colleges or universities as follows : Separate institutions Departments Total 46 I6 5 70 86 74 156 36 56 38 52 11 17 275 532 Theology Law , Medicine Dentistry Pharmacy Veterinary medicine Total 119 16 20 14 6 ?57 Scholarships — Theological seminaries, when not endowed, are supported by funds from the denominations they repre- sent. Tuition is generally free, and in many cases board and lodging are furnished. Additional help is given usually when needed, and generous scholarships are the rule. In other professional schools scholarships are comparatively rare. The 1895 U. S. education report gives 40 law school scholarships and 295 x medical school scholarships. The largest, offered by College of physicians and surgeons, New York, pays $700 a year and is bestowed to promote the dis- covery of new facts in medical science. An examination of 82 law school catalogues for 1899 shows that 48 scholarships are offered definitely. Tuition is free at the law department of Howard university, the law departments of the universities of Kansas, Texas and West Virginia. The Harvard law school and the Boston univer- sity law school offer a " limited number of free scholarships." Law students may compete for the 1 50 state scholarships and the 18 university scholarships offered annually at Cor- nell and for the 50 city scholarships offered by the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania. The law department of Centre college offers free tuition to sons of ministers and to all young men of limited means and good character. 3 schools give fellowships annually as follows : New York law school, 1 "Many of these are not scholarships in a strict sense."-— U. S. education report, 1895 14 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [478 i at $500 a year, good for from one to three years ; Law department University of Pennsylvania, i at $300, good for one year ; Pittsburg law school, 1 at $250, good for one year. 32 schools offer cash prizes amounting to $3010 and law and reference books as other prizes. 151 medical school catalogues for 1899 report definitely only 152 scholarships and 11 fellowships. These are offered by 31 schools. 5 other schools refer indefinitely to scholar- ships. At Cornell and the University of Pennsylvania med- ical students may compete for state and university, or city scholarships on an equal footing with those who would enter other departments. Tuition is free at the Army medical school, the medical department of the University of Texas and the medical preparatory school of the University of Kansas. 19 schools give cash prizes amounting to $5685; 5 7 offer hospital appointments as prizes ; 47 give gold medals, surgical instruments and other prizes. 56 dental school catalogues for 1899 show that 7 schools offer 58 scholarships. 1 The dental department of the Uni- versity of Maryland deducts one half from tuition fees of one student from each state on recommendation of his state dental society. The Baltimore college of dental surgery had similar beneficiary scholarships till 1898 when they were abolished. 18 schools offer prizes but their value is not great. 52 catalogues of schools of pharmacy for 1899 show that 5 schools offer 12 scholarships and 2 fellowships. Tuition is free at the schools of pharmacy connected with the Ala- bama polytechnic institute, Washington agricultural college, Purdue university, and the universities of Kansas, Ohio, Oklahoma, Texas, Washington and Wisconsin. 15 schools offer prizes, usually medals or pharmaceutic instruments. 5 of these 15 schools give cash prizes amounting to $620. The committee on revision of the U. S. pharmacopoeia has instituted fellowships in the University of Michigan and the University of Wisconsin for the discovery of new facts in pharmacy. 'See section on Subjects discussed in dentistry. 479] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 1 5 1 6 veterinary school catalogues for 1899 show that 19 scholarships are offered by 5 schools, that 1 school gives a fellowship and that 6 schools offer prizes. Tuition is free at the veterinary departments of Cornell and Ohio univer- sities, and of Washington agricultural college. Cornell opens to competition by veterinary students, 18 scholarships and to veterinary graduates a fellowship of an annual value of $500. Veterinary matriculates are eligible for 50 city scholarships offered by the University of Pennsylvania. The veterinary department of Ohio state university offers a scholarship in each county in which the agricultural scholar- ship is not taken. Fees — Tuition is free in 132 theological schools. Only 8 have matriculation fees, 33 a course fee and 34 other fees. The average matriculation fee is $5.38, the average course fee $91.61, the average of other fees $22.06. Tuition is free in 4 law schools. 23 have matriculation fees (average $14), 83 have course fees (average $69.80), 59 have other fees (average $10.86). Tuition is free in 3 medical schools. 119 have matricula- tion fees (average $10.68), 153 have course fees (average $82.39), 129 have other fees (average $49.47). Tuition is not free in any dental school. 40 have matricu- lation fees (average $8.62), 56 have course fees (average $94.32), 5 have other fees (average $33.48). Tuition is free in 9 schools of pharmacy. 28 have matric- ulation fees (average $8.07), 43 have course fees (average $58.90), 50 have other fees (average $37.90). Tuition is free in 3 veterinary medical schools. 7 have matriculation fees (average $7.85), 14 have course fees (average $81.28), 12 have other fees (average $43.50). Libraries — In 1898 the U. S. commissioner of education reported 1,360,720 volumes in libraries of 118 theological schools, 243,054 in libraries of 47 law schools, 151,433 in libraries of 72 medical schools, 6901 in libraries of 16 dental schools, 22,156 in libraries of 17 schools of pharmacy. 3 theological schools, 9 law schools, 21 medical schools, 9 l6 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [480 dental schools and 2 schools of pharmacy reported that they had no libraries. 34 theological schools, 27 law schools, 58 medical schools, 25 dental schools and 26 schools of phar- macy made no report on this item. Libraries in veterinary medical schools were not reported. Following were the largest libraries : Theology Volumes Union theological seminary, presbyterian 71 576 Hartford theological seminary, congregational 68 029 Princeton theological seminary, presbyterian 61 648 Andover theological seminary, congregational 51 000 Seminary of the Reformed Dutch church in America. . 43 700 Law Harvard university, law department 44 000 Cornell university, law department 26 000 Columbia university, law department 25 000 University of Pennsylvania, law department 18 904 Yale university, law department * 12 000 Medicine Hahnemann medical college, Philadelphia 15 000 Hahnemann medical college, Chicago 12 000 University of Michigan, homeopathic medical dep't... 10 000 University of Pennsylvania, medical department 10 OOO Johns Hopkins medical school 7 7 12 Dentistry Marion Sims college of medicine, dental department.. . 2 2 000 Ohio medical university, dental department s 2 000 University of Michigan, dental department J 6oo Pharmacy Philadelphia college of pharmacy - 10 000 Massachusetts college of pharmacy 1 5 l 3 2 University of Illinois, department of pharmacy I 800 1 Approximate. 9 Only one library for medical and dental dep'ts. 3 Only one library for medical, dental and pharmacy dep'ts. 481] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 1 7 Endowments — The 1898 U. S. education report gives the following : 84 theological schools report endowments of $17,977,325. 54 do not report this item. 1 7 state that they are not endowed. 19 medical schools report endowments of $1,906,072. (In 1897, 14 medical schools reported endowments of $648,262.) 84 do not report this item. 48 state that they are not endowed. 8 law schools report endowments of $752,500. The law department of the University of Cincinnati reports also an endowment that yields an income of $7500. (In 1897, 4 law schools reported endowments of $431,000.) 48 do not report this item. 27 report that they are not endowed. 1 dental school, the Harvard dental school, reports an endowment of $50,000. 20 report that they are not endowed. 29 do not report this item. 2 schools of pharmacy, the Massachusetts college of phar- macy ($13,675) and the Albany college of pharmacy ($2381) report endowments of $16,056. 17 report that they are not endowed. 26 do not report this item. Following were the largest endowments : Theology Princeton theological seminary, presbyterian $1 369000 Union theological seminary, presbyterian 1 1 350 000 General theological seminary, protestant episcopal. . . 1 260 987 Chicago theological seminary, congregational 968 820 Andover theological seminary, congregational 850 000 Law Harvard university, law department 400 000 University of California, law department 135 000 Catholic university of America, law department 3 1 00 000 Medicine Columbia university, medical department 480 000 Johns Hopkins medical school 427 000 Woman's medical college of Pennsylvania 296 772 Yale university, medical department 106 000 1 1897. 5 Approximate. l8 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [4^2 Value of grounds and buildings — The 1898 U. S. education report gives the following values of grounds and buildings : 98 theological schools, $13,863,628.' 54 do not report this item. 3 report that they do not own grounds or buildings. 19 law schools, $1,431,000. 58 do not report this item. 6 report that they do not own grounds or buildings. 96 medical schools, J $i 1,264,263. 53 do not report this item. 2 report that they do not own grounds or buildings. 15 dental schools, 2 $i, 019,836. 30 do not report this item. 5 report that they do not own grounds or buildings. 15 schools of pharmacy, $656,417. 25 do not report this item. 5 report that they do not own grounds or buildings. The following report the greatest values in grounds and buildings • Theology General theological seminary, protestant episcopal . . $1 353 000 St Joseph's seminary, Roman catholic I 100 000 Western theological seminary, presbyterian 780 055 Princeton theological seminary, presbyterian 500 000 Union theological seminary, presbyterian 500 000 Law University of Cincinnati, law department 350 000 Boston university law school 225 000 Harvard university, law department 150 000 New York university, law department 120 000 Vanderbilt university, law department . . . , 100 OOO Medicine Columbia university, medical department 2 OOO OOO Jefferson medical college 600 000 Hahnemann medical college, Philadelphia 523 763 Cooper medical college | 460 000 New York homeopathic medical college 450000 1 In 1897, 93 schools reported $7,271,009. 8 In 1897, 13 schools reported $627,500. 483] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 19 Dentistry Baltimore medical college, dental department. . Philadelphia dental college New York college of dentistry Detroit college of medicine, dental department Pennsylvania college of dental surgery Pharmacy New York college of pharmacy Philadelphia college of pharmacy Northwestern university, school of pharmacy Massachusetts college of pharmacy Maryland college of pharmacy a $200 000 1 70 000 120 000 2 105 336 70 000 204 067 1 50 000 3 75 000 68 850 37 000 When grounds and buildings are used for several depart- ments, as for example the Columbia law school which is in the library building, values are not always reported. Total and average property, receipts and expenditures in 1898 — It is interesting to compare with the preceding figures those given in Professional education in the United States : Total Schools Property Schools Receipts Schools Expenditures Medicine Veterinary med. . 87 27 126 19 19 8 $27 785 997 3 053 265 15 346 030 I 150 915 981 932 426 697 76 31 III 23 13 8 $1 561 516 565 295 2 185 216 459 99 6 167 098 86 59S 83 33 in 22 13 8 $1 420 92I 540 887 2 022 503 421 689 173 994 89 604 286 $48 744 836 262 $5 025 719 270 $4 669 598 A verage Theology Law Medicine Dentistry Pharmacy Veterinary medicine. Property Receipts Expenditures 5319 379 27 113 083 88 137 666 90 60 574 47 51 680 63 53 337 12 $20 546 26 18 235 32 19 686 63 19 999 82 12 853 69 10 824 75 ?I7 119 53 16 390 52 18 220 74 19 167 68 13 384 15 11 200 50 'Cost of medical and dental buildings; dental buildings and grounds cost less than $75,000. s Includes medical and pharmacy dep'ts. s Reported in Professional education in the United States, $24,000. 20 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [484 Gifts and bequests — The following made up from Apple- ton's Annual cyclopedia shows the amount of gifts and bequests for educational purposes (including hospitals), of $5000 each and upward in value for each year from 1894 to 1898. The extraordinary total of $110,952,199 is divided as follows: theological schools $1,918,500, law schools $127,500, medical schools $2,631,000, hospitals $16,593,701, libraries $14,143,888, general education $75, 537,610/ Year Theology Law Medicine Libraries Gen. educ. Total Schools Hospitals 1894 1395 1896 1897 1898 $554 000 570 000 305 000 244 500 245 000 $12 500 $126 OOO 755 000 $1 911 OOO 2 722 367 5 096 667 3 394 167 3 469 500 $3 927 721 3 602 667 2 197 000 2 341 000 2 075 500 $11 68l 262 IO 817 255 13 894 058 21 224 l66 17 920 869 $18 212 483 18 467 289 21 492 725 27 318 833 25 460 869 115 OOO 1 750 000 $1 918 500 $127 500 $2 631 000 $16 593 701 $14 143 888 $75 537 610 $110 952 I99 Women as professional students — The 1898 U.S. educa- tion report shows that women now appear as students in professional schools of each class except those in veterinary medicine. In nursing they are of course in a large majority, 8004 as compared with 801 men. In the other professions they are reported as follows: theology 198, law 147, medi- cine 1397, dentistry 162, pharmacy 174. The proportion of women in regular medical schools is much smaller than in homeopathic, eclectic and physiomedical schools, showing that women prefer the medical sects. 1 Including the most notable gifts and bequests for all public purposes the grand total for these five years is $174,800,000. The ordinary denominational contributions for educational and benevolent purposes, all state and municipal appropriations to public and sectarian institutions and the grants of congress for the relief of suffering in Cuba are excluded. 485] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 21 The following table made up from Professional education in the United States gives the division of professional schools by sex in 1899 : SCHOOLS Theology Law Medicine Dentistry Pharmacy Veterinary medicine 69 12 4 14 64 64 80 44 165 86 156 56 52 17 Power to confer degrees — Low standards in many profes- sional schools are due to a failure to subject the degree-con- ferring power to strict state supervision. In New York and Pennsylvania the laws now prevent an abuse of the power to confer degrees. 1 In Massachusetts and Vermont bodies formed under the general corporation acts are prohibited from conferring degrees. In Ohio and Nebraska the stat- utes require only the nominal endowment of $5000 for a degree-conferring institution. In other states and territories as a rule any body of men may form an educational corpo- ration with power to confer degrees "without any guaranty whatever that the privilege will not be abused." 2 This matter has been under discussion recently in various educational bodies and there is a strong sentiment in favor of a strict supervision by the state of the degree-conferring power. 3 1 A similar bill, strongly advocated by educators, was defeated at the last ses- sion of the Illinois legislature through the efforts of politicians and others in favor of low standards. 5 Edward Avery Harriman, Educational franchise (R. Am. bar. ass., 1898). 3 In 1897 the section of legal education of the American bar association resolved that the degree-conferring power should be " subject to strict state supervision to be exercised in a manner somewhat similar to that which is exercised by the regents of the University of the State of New York." In an address before the National educational association in 1897, Pres. Henry Wade Rogers said: "There should be established in each state a council of education, which should be intrusted with powers similar to those vested in the regents of the University of the State of New York, and it should be composed of the most eminent men in the state without any reference to political considerations. No degree-confer- ring institution should be incorporated without the approval of the council of education." 22 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [ 4 86 2 THEOLOGY Schools, faculty and students — In the United States there is no connection between church and state. Each religious denomination establishes such theological schools as may be required. In 1899 the 165 schools had 1070 instructors and 8093 students. 2 schools were nonsectarian, and the rest were distributed among 23 religious denominations in the order of students for 1899 as follows: 1 DENOMINATIONS 1 Roman catholic 2 Baptist 3 Presbyterian 4 Methodist episcopal 5 Evang. Lutheran 6 Congregational 7 Protestant episcopal 8 Christian 9 Reformed church 10 Lutheran 11 United presbyterian 12 Hebrew 13 Moravian (United brethren). . . 14 Nonsectarian 15 Cumberland presbyterian 16 Universalist 17 Methodist protestant 18 Evangelical association 19 African methodist episcopal.. 20 Unitarian 21 Reformed presbyterian 22 New Jerusalem 23 Associate reform presbyterian 24 Seventh day baptist. Total 29 16 17 19 17 12 14 8 6 5 3 2 2 2 1 3 2 165 222 102 125 107 73 108 92 4i 5i 19 10 15 11 19 7 24 6 2 5 16 2 6 4 3 1 070 1 635 1 286 1 066 1 005 876 556 460 429 180 142 129 92 81 73 65 61 35 34 37 18 28 12 14 3 3 317 Grad. 330 171 283 166 234 133 87 40 59 39 45 8 23 7 11 18 o 9 5 4 9 2 1 693 1 700 1 142 1 034 981 851 492 430 424 188 143 121 104 92 72 65 54 5i 44 37 26 20 13 7 2 8 093 1 The U. S. census report for 1890 gives 119 denominations associated siastical groups (18,841,790 members), 24 which are not thus associated a independent miscellaneous congregations (1,771,016 members). The 119 nations are arranged according to number of communicants as follows: 1 R. catholic (7) [See chart] 6 257 871 8 United brethren (2) 2 Methodist (17) 4 589 284 9 Latter-day saint (2) 3 Baptist (13) 3 712 468 10 Hebrew (2) 4 Presbyterian (12) 1 278 332 11 Friend (4) 5 Lutheran (16) 1 231 072 12 Christian (2) 6 Episcopalian (2) 540 509 13 Dunkard (4) 7 Reformed (3) 309 458 14 Adventist (6) in eccle- nd some denomi- 225 281 166 125 130 49 6 107 208 103 722 73 795 60 491 Theological schools in 1899 ,6 ' K V oP a ^ J AsS° c \l dav baptiVr Seventh aa Y K 1 * wT Theological students in 1899 VVO r «P i\*° ^ef* re' Me* ho ^ w 2 ° •3 ° o f rS r, o rf3 a * % 8 :o "^ a in u-» l-H O O 487] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 23 In 1878 there were 125 schools with 4320 students. The growth in students in 21 years has been 87 per cent. The seminaries have increased their requirements steadily so that all the great divisions of theology are now repre- sented in their faculties. In 1899, 1 school had a course of 7 years, 10 a course of 6 years, 6 a course of 5 years, 24 a course of 4 years, 116 a course of 3 years, 7 a course of 2 years and 1 a course of 1 year. 73 grant degrees. Early theological training — The rise of independent semi- naries marked the second step in the development of theo- logical education in this country. A desire to educate can- didates for the ministry had influenced the founding of colleges at a much earlier period. In fact our first institu- tions for higher education owed their origin to this desire. The chief object in the founding of Harvard college (1636) for example was to provide an educated ministry. Cotton Mather in his Magnalia Christi Americana gives a list of New England churches in 1696 which shows that of 129 pulpits supplied by 116 pastors, 107 of the clergymen were graduates of Harvard college. The colleges founded at New Haven (1700) and at Princeton (1748) followed Har- vard in making education free to candidates for the ministry who could not meet their own expenses. In England candidates for the ministry usually pursued a university course which included several studies that bore on their future calling. In addition to the college degree they were examined on certain theological books which they 15 Mennonite (12) 41 541 17 Communistic societies (8) 4 049 16 Plymouth Brethren (4) 6 661 18 (River) Brethren (3) 3 427 The independent sects may be classified as follows: Disciple of Christ 641 051 Universalist 49 194 Congregationalist 512 771 Spiritualist 45 030 Evang. Lutheran 223 588 Moravian II 781 Evang. association 133 313 New Jerusalem 7 095 Unitarian 67 749 Other 79 444 [Estimates revised to April 1, 1898 give total communicants 26,054,385; Roman catholics (7) 8,410,592, methodists (17) 5,735,898, baptists (13) 4,232,962.] H. D. Sedgwick jr in the October 1899 Atlantic monthly writes that the propor- tion of Roman catholics to the whole population in 1783 was 1 in 80, in 1829, 1 in 16, in 1844, 1 i n 15. in 1890, 1 in 10. 24 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [488 had read either in private or with the assistance of a pre- ceptor. This same scheme was followed in this country in the 17th and 18th centuries. The college faculty included as a rule a professor of Hebrew and a professor of theology and their work was supplemented by the study of theologi- cal books either in private or under the oversight of an experienced clergyman. Rise of independent seminaries — At the close of the 18th century the colleges had departed so far from the special purpose of their creation that it was thought necessary to establish theological seminaries. For more than half a cen- tury private theological schools had been in existence. Dr Joseph Bellamy of Connecticut conducted the first of these institutions that attained distinction and some of his gradu- ates opened other similar schools. The theological semi- nary proper, however, had its origin in this country in the closing years of the 18th century. In England when the universities were closed to those outside of the established church, new institutions sprang up but these included aca- demic as well as theological courses. In this country the seminaries " became a supplement to the college, not a sub- stitute as in England." Undoubtedly the desire to have schools in which their special religious doctrines might be taught influenced the denominations in America that had no secular colleges to found their own theological seminaries, but the necessity for the more definite and systematic train- ing of the theological schools seems to have been felt by all. The history of the existing institutions that are specially devoted to preparation for the ministry is limited with three exceptions to the present century. The Seminary of the reformed Dutch church in America was founded in 1784. In that year Drs Livingston and Meyer were set apart to be professors of theology and the method of training men for the ministry by any individual pastor whom the student might select was formally discontinued. The succession of classes since 1784 has been continuous with the exception of two or three years. These years were not consecutive so 489] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 25 that the work of the professors has been continuous. This work was done first in New York, then at Flatbush, L. I. and since 1810 at New Brunswick, N. J. St Mary's seminary was founded at Baltimore in 1791 and is under the direction of members of the Society of St Sul- pice. Xenia theological seminary is the result of the consoli- dation in 1874 of the Seminary of the northwest with the Associate seminary at Xenia. The Theological seminary of the associate presbyterian church of North America was located originally at Service, Beaver co. Pa. in 1794, when Dr John Anderson was elected professor of theology by the Associate synod. In 1821 the seminary was transferred to Cannonsburg, Pa. and in 1855 to Xenia, Ohio. In 1782 the Associate reformed synod was formed by the union of the Associate presbyteries and the Reformed pres- byteries. Those who refused to accept this union estab- lished the Theological seminary of the associate presbyte- rian church of North America at Service, Beaver co. Pa. The Associate reformed synod opened a theological semi- nary in New York in 1805. In 1808 New England congregationalists united in open- ing the theological school at Andover. In 181 2 the Gen- eral assembly of the presbyterian church founded the Prince- ton theological seminary. In 181 5 Hartwick seminary, the oldest Lutheran theological school in this country, was opened in Otsego co. N. Y. In 181 7 the General conven- tion of the protestant episcopal church established the Gen- eral theological seminary in New York where instruction was first given in 1819. The seminary was removed to New Haven in 1820 but was reopened in New York in 1822. In 1820 the Baptist education society opened Hamilton theo- logical seminary, the first theological school established by baptists in the United States, since 1893 a department of Colgate university. The Reformed church in the United States founded the theological seminary at Carlisle, Pa. in 1825. In 1839 tne rnethodists founded their first theologi- cal seminary " in commemoration of the first centennial of 26 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [49° ecumenical methodism." The institution was opened in 1840 at Newbury, Vt, was removed to Concord, N. H. in 1847, to Boston in 1867 and became in 1871 the theological department of Boston university. Of the 165 existing theological schools 3 were established before 1800, 18 between 1801 and 1825, 25 between 1826 and 1850, 72 between 1851 and 1875, 47 between 1876 and 1900. When the necessity of systematic training for the ministry was recognized theological schools were established. The multiplication of these schools, however, is due to some extent to differences of opinion touching matters pertaining to the Christian faith. When men can not think alike even in details that seem trivial they split frequently into sects which sometimes found theological seminaries to teach their own peculiar views. In an interesting paper on the causes and remedy of the disunion of Christendom the rector of St Andrew's, Rochester, expresses the opinion that the pur- pose of the church to discipline life, to make men pure and just and kind is often lost sight of in an effort to secure intellectual agreement concerning the most abstruse and difficult subjects that the human mind can entertain. Bishop Whipple of Minnesota emphasizes the other side of this picture as follows : " Never in the world's history has there been such enthusiasm in all humanitarian work as now. Not even in the primitive church have greater victories been won in leading heathen folk to Christian civilization." Religious bodies vary greatly with regard to the training deemed essential for the ministry. The training of the Roman catholic priest for example begins normally at about the age of 12 when the candidate is secluded in many ways from contact with secular life, living and working constantly under ecclesiastical supervision. On the other hand the protestant candidate for the ministry is usually free to choose his teachers, studies and associates, and he does not begin his special training till he has finished his general education and entered the theological school. Again episcopalians, 491] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 2J presbyterians and congregationalists for example have exacted as a rule a comparatively good general and pro- fessional education. The methodists on the other hand have not laid so much stress on intellectual training. They did not open a theological school till 1840 and even in 1899 the methodist seminaries did not report so many students as the presbyterian though in the United States there were probably about four times as many methodists as presbyte- rians. Almost from the date of their organization, how- ever, the methodists have maintained a scheme of syste- matic theological examinations, and recently progress has been made toward a more thorough training. They now supervise with special care the scholastic work of their higher institutions of learning. It is commonly asserted that many theological seminaries notwithstanding their comparatively high admission require- ments do not maintain the educational standards required by other professional schools, and that students in these semina- ries are seldom dropped through failure to reach a satisfac- tory intellectual standing. As the Rev. W. F. Whitaker of Albany says, however, we should not overlook the funda- mental difference between theology and other professions. Physical disease demands everywhere the same skill but intellectual training necessary for the cure and care of souls varies with varying needs. University relations — Some theologians magnify the advan- tages that arise from the pursuit of a common purpose in independent seminaries. In their judgment these seminaries accomplish much more thorough work in theology than that done for example at Oxford and Cambridge. Other writers emphasize the fact that " the theologian needs the contact of other minds just as do other specialists," and that it is a mis- take to divorce the study of theology from that of the other sciences. In the United States the seminaries long restricted the study of theology to candidates for the ministry ; lay- men neglected this field almost entirely and theologians on the other hand were narrowed by the seclusion of the seminary. 28 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION [492 The work of independent theological schools is of course much more thorough than that which the secular colleges attempted with the aid of individual clergymen, but the iso- lation of these schools is a disadvantage when we compare them with some of the great universities abroad in which theology is the leading faculty. The recognition of this fact marked the third step in the development of theological education in this country. In 1819 Harvard 1 and in 1822 Yale 2 organized separate theo- logical faculties. In 1899, 46 colleges and universities had theological faculties, and 13 independent schools had entered into such relations with neighboring universities that their students were able to enjoy many university privileges. These friendly relations now exist, even between different denominations. The Episcopal theological school at Cam- bridge, Mass. has for example many of the advantages offered by Harvard university, the Episcopal divinity school at Philadelphia shares advantages offered by the University of Pennsylvania, the Union theological seminary in New York those afforded to the students of Columbia and New York universities. Present tendencies — Dr C. A. Briggs wrote as follows on theological education in 1892 : " The course in theology is still very defective in the great majority of the theological schools . . . but no one can deny real and great progress . . . The backbone of theological training is still Hebrew exegesis, Greek exe- gesis, church history, systematic theology, pastoral theology and homiletics . . . The scientific method is begin- ning to revolutionize theological education ; but this move- ment is only in its beginnings." In recent years there has been a tendency to extend the elective system in seminary courses. Some theologians con- tend that these courses should be entirely elective ; others, 1 The first professorship established in the university was the Hollis professor- ship of divinity, established in 1721. The differentiation of the divinity school from the college was very gradual. 2 The chair of divinity was established in 1755. 493] PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 29 that they should require a symmetric training in all funda- mental branches, and that the choice of studies should be limited to those that are demanded by special tastes or by special lines of work. In an essay on the education of protestant ministers, pub- lished in the Princeton review in 1883, and republished in 1898 in Educational reform, President Eliot gives the fol- lowing suggestions touching this matter : " The subjects which in our day should be set before a candidate for the ministry are divisible into two classes : those which every candidate should master, and those from which every candidate should make a limited selection. The preliminary subjects which every student of theology should in my judgment be required to master are as follows : 1 Languages: Greek (including New testament Greek), Latin, Hebrew and German 2 English literature, with practice in writing, and study of style 3 The elements of psychology 4 The elements of political economy 5 Constitutional history, or the history of some interest- ing period of moderate length 6 Science : botany, zoology, or geology, studied in the laboratory and the field. The requisitions in the languages other than English are the only ones in this list which are now habitually enforced in theological seminaries." " Having finished the preliminary required studies, the candidate for the ministry is ready to enter upon the advanced studies which may properly be called professional. Since preaching is to be his most important function, he will natu- rally give a good share of his time to homiletics and the practice of writing and speaking. The other subjects which are now included under the comprehensive term 'theology' or ' divinity ' may be grouped as follows : 3 " 10 M o> 0) CO i^°x a X)\oco oh ^mM\o ■<*• h tmmmM M 8 30 CO 75° 636 803 43° 147 ^t- IN rt- O t^ O -■J- ro M M M -^-co M « ajenpEjS jsoj ST • - • -tO N • ^ • N : "> : m 00 t^ vr, t^ ■ •<*■ • t^ h r-^ m m CO 3jEi3a][03 o> o\o *o sass^p saaotyo uoij -EJS JU3UlU3dx'3[ SJJB OIUBip -3UI pUB ' 3.111} -u3e jo aSai[03 uounjusui jo ]U9ui -\jSlfqEJS3 JO 35BQ \o t^oo r- 000 c COCO -COCOCOCOOOCOCO CO coooooco -coco o o rvo r^^o md o 00 ) C\ t^ • 10O1 ~<5 " a J 3 ^°^ 13 CJJKH_ S«m^ v « u «_^ ,S-c u g S s 3 w)u^2 3 g UmP o-a u g — d- 2-3 3 H'S U - 3^X °- .S"3 SJ-- C >, M_ g o. 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J^ u V U -J) *" < H o 3 a V n S T .-i a, u UO . o o i «•« v H K . ^i £ " L- ^ ^ •S-^g S 5 S-S « « SJJ Sou .2.2 oo32 2^ffi^^>x;x ^1 rt-a 3 3 ■g ess ci ; 3^2 2 2 g -^hS n . rt 3 o en M = ^t;7: iZiOOOfeSiiflW Q ig 3 3 « X rt .2 rt 2 'to' So c" '.5 to g-2-1 . £>> S| p g M bJO wHHH^^'^'^ ^^^^^ 56 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION [6 4 8 00 ^O P1H **■ I SWQIO OlOO ■> 00 co M t^ ' -4-CO i ^co ro moo Ch ■<*■ t^ H I CO 3 cr W C n C c 3 -t-> c u c rt £ Im V T3 C rt ■<-< C pq < jo anjBA — snoau -e[]30s;ui puE AjEjqiq ">*0 O 00 H jo anj-EA — Ajsuiuo -bui puE snj Eitddy ro 10 10*0 jo onjEA — sSuipjing ■»*- \o o 00 tONt^B ^^ O jo snjEA — uoij -niusui suj Aq pauAvo _punoj3 pus uiJEjj \o o wu 1 m*o t^ o t^ mvo o o ■«*■ o m m spunj juauEUUsd jaq j() ' •+■ 00 c H H 00 00 N Z0 8 I JO punj }UBj3-puE[ — anjEA paDnpoj^ ) roao ■*■ Cr, o t^ \ M -J-00 zggi jo joe jspun ajEjg 0} psjjoiJE saiOE jo jsquitiNj 262 4>— < rt rt ~^* _rt_rt G i, g gx c-- £ c C e'~ - ~-~ >' ui i-" 649] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 57 H Q "1°0 H O lO t>. 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O CO f*-\0 VO in On w on co ft* h w h mNO^o^ H w m mt>. in t>- moo M fJ-00 H Q CO NO H t>s m cono o to onoo h co m mHco o-'i-t-.H on to M CO * « vo o « « m H0>O CO O tmtO o ^-« < HOO N NM COCO i O m n oo o oo o h H in CO NO On i f-vo oo incONNO 0C0NO NM^CTiQ^O ONNO « O 0^5 Q Q O t% m mo ro to ft-co ro co ro t i t>. coco m f*- ( m co o no Q On ^-no CO mNo on n cm m C* OMO M « Jj Q "rt n " .~ Ji: u h C o .. bv^ o C ' 3—<5 Si-H?0<;ocnUtn!^uOfflWueL l iJpap5Ka l Sfr.SiJ E c fS "ooS -* b b * . „ rt rt _ •J oOUfl ■S * 6 o c > J o « ' aaS" 5.5.3 o'e'e - - -1 c c"c 2'Sd'mc „j M.b.b 5> B > -C 4-1 JJ 0) QJ . o 6 '2-iSllloOC)(SSeowwHHH|3!>J>>^^^^^' 13 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION BY EDMUND J. JAMES President of the University of Illinois COMMERCIAL EDUCATION No satisfactory exposition of the existing condition of commercial education in the United States can be written at present. Such an exposition would be based upon a full knowledge of the historical development of such instruction as well as upon full and accurate statistics of its present con- dition. Neither of these presuppositions have been thus far realized. No one has yet devoted the time and attention necessary for a proper monographic treatment of the differ- ent aspects of this development. The department of such instruction which has made the most pronounced progress is that of the so-called commercial college, i. e., the ele- mentary technical school intended to prepare pupils for clerical work. It is not known, as will be seen later, exactly when such work was begun in the United States or by whom or where, and the facts about the subsequent development are difficult to ascertain ; indeed, one may say it would be impossible for any one person to collect the facts necessary to enable one to treat the subject historically in a thoroughly satisfactory way. On the other hand, the statistics of the present condition of this department of instruction are unsatisfactory. The bureau of education at Washington has labored faith- fully for many years to collect as thorough and accurate information on this subject as possible, but limited as it is in the funds placed at its disposal for collecting and revising and checking up statistics, it is impossible for it to collect information in regard to all the schools which are actually at work from year to year. The statistical reports of the various departments of education in the different states are, if anything, still more unsatisfactory ; in fact, they are almost worthless for the purpose in hand, since none of them, with 4 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [656 the single exception of those of the University of the State of New York, are of any real value. It was felt, however, by the authorities having in charge the United States exhibit at Paris that it would be desirable to make the best presentation which under the circumstances might be feasible, trusting that the defects which will be made apparent by this exposition may be remedied at some future time by. those in a position to do so. The opportunities for formal school preparation for a business career which are now offered in the. United States may be roughly divided into four classes. First: The " com- mercial college " of the well-known type, an institution of which the merits have been frequently underrated, but which has already accomplished much good, and which seems to indicate in its constant evolution and advancement the possi- bilities of a very high grade of usefulness hereafter in the somewhat restricted field which alone it seeks to occupy. Second : The business courses of the public high school, meagre and illiberal hitherto, but growing constantly richer, more popular and more generally introduced, so that there is an early prospect of well-designed, highly attractive and deservedly favored schemes of business instruction in our secondary schools, culminating in our larger cities in dis- tinct and separate high schools of the commercial type, not only fairly comparable to the best schools of similar grade in continental countries, but surpassing them in some respect. Third : Private endowed schools, more or less technical in character, introducing commercial courses which, in their best form, seem tending to realize the desirable standard of secondary business education. Fourth : College and uni- versity courses, which promise to embody the conception of higher business instruction in colleges of commerce, the work of which, largely technical, will not be inferior to the ordi- nary undergraduate courses of our American universities, and which, under favorable circumstances, will parallel for the future business man the advantages which have been hitherto offered in graduate courses for those who are pre- 657] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 5 paring for other careers. When the inherent promise of all these kinds of business education has been realized, there will be no failure in this line of work, fairly chargeable either to the public or to the private system of American education. We shall have ample opportunities for prepara- tion in business activity open to all young men and women, looking forward to engaging in any capacity in commercial and industrial occupation. Lest this judgment of the future of business education in America seem too optimistic, it may be best to give not only an account of the present conditions, but also a resume of the historical development of each of the four classes of business training, which have been just now indicated. 1 If the average American were asked what opportunities exist in the United States for training toward a business career, his immediate and unhesitating answer would refer to the "commercial college," and probably to that alone. This institution is peculiarly American ; nothing exactly like it is known in other countries. It embodies the defects and excellencies of the American character, and typifies in itself a certain stage in our development. Its almost spon- taneous origin, its rapid and wide diffusion, its rough adap- tation of primitive material to the satisfying of immediate and pressing needs, its utter disregard of all save the direct answer to current demand, and then gradually its recog- nition of present inadequacy, and its determination toward broader, fuller usefulness, these characteristics of the com- mercial college mark it as essentially the product of a young, 1 The summaries of statistical tables show the number of students in commercial courses in each of the five classes of institutions in each state of the United States. The totals are as follows for the year 1897-98: In universities and colleges , 5 869 In normal schools 5 721 In private high schools and academies 9 740 In public high schools 31 633 In commercial and business colleges 70 950 Total for United States 123 913 — Report of United States Commissioner of Education, 1897-98, p. 2451, Advance Sheets 6 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [658 eager and gradually maturing people. In an older and more developed country the need which was the impulse toward the first commercial school, would not, perhaps, have been so quickly noted, and steps would not have been taken so immediately to satisfy it. The need once apparent , how- ever, discussion and deliberation would have followed in logical order and action would possibly have awaited the maturing of a rational and broadly comprehensive plan, even if only part of this were susceptible of instant realization. Not so under our conditions, and certainly not in the case of the American commercial college ! The man who first noted a need for business instruction waited not to formulate the problem and to discuss the solution, but bent himself straight-a-way to furnish the opportunity and to meet the demand. Who this man was it is not possible now to state. So humble was the beginning of education for business men in the United States, that any one of many men who began practically at the same time to offer instruction in two or three simple subjects of commercial importance, might fairly claim to have aided in the beginning of this work. It is claimed that Bartlett of Cincinnati was the first to assume for his undertaking the name of business " college," and he was unquestionably one of the earliest and most successful work- ers in this field. 1 He gave commercial instruction to private pupils in the forties. About the middle of the fifties there were not more than a dozen commercial schools scattered in the large cities from Boston and Philadelphia to Chicago and St. Louis. They had arisen with the idea of facilitating the entrance of young men into minor positions as clerks and book-keepers. The instruction offered was very meagre, — some so-called com- mercial arithmetic, a little practice in keeping accounts, and a certain amount of ornamental penmanship made up the total. A school of this kind did not require a large force of teachers, — in many cases the entire instruction was given by one man. Nor was the equipment elaborate ; a sin- 1 See address by L. S. Packard in the Practical Age, January, 1897, p. 5. 659] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 7 gle room fitted with chairs and tables frequently sufficed. The tuition fees were proportionate. Forty dollars was reckoned an average charge, not for one term or for one year, but for an indefinite or life scholarship, and that not limited to one school always, but valid at any of a large num- ber, embraced in single " chain." l In those early days there were no text-books for the " com- mercial colleges ; " and arithmetic and bookkeeping were taught by manuscripts prepared by actual accountants engaged in business. As with the text-book authors, or rather manu- script authors, so with the students. These came primarily from the ranks of those already employed at the time in business houses, a fact which necessitated the institution of evening classes. The average time spent in a business col- lege was not more than three months, so that equipment, instruction, fees, time and grade of work were all pretty much on a par. Poor as such education must have been, it evidently filled a need, for commercial colleges throve and multiplied and with success became still more successful. Increased popularity led to higher fees, longer courses, to the preparation of printed texts ; life and interchangeable schol- arships were abolished; the teaching force was increased; students were no longer adults wearied by daily labor; the commercial school began to draw young men and boys look- ing forward to employment ; day classes largely took the place of evening instruction ; school equipment improved and gradually these institutions grew into the apparently permanent place in public favor which they enjoy to-day. 2 Official statistics of the bureau of education report 341 of these schools with 1,764 instructors and 77,746 students, 82 per cent being in day classes. The list does not, by any means, report all the commercial schools of the country and includes principally the larger and more important. 1 The Bryant and Stratton system of schools numbered at one time more than fifty in as many different cities, and this plan of interchangeable tuition was valid throughout. J See the report of the United States commissioner of education for 1896-7, p. 2257; see Appendix. 8 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [660 One of the leaders in the Federation of business teachers' associations claims not less than two thousand schools with fifteen thousand teachers and an annual enrollment of one hundred and sixty thousand pupils. Contrast this with the record of forty years ago, when there were fewer than a dozen schools of this kind, with say thirty teachers and a thousand pupils, and the figures become sufficiently impressive. When we add to this numerical increase the considerations of the lengthened course of study, improved teaching and better average preliminary preparation, the development of the business college in the last half century must be admitted as striking. But, after all, the future of this type of institution could not be accounted promising on the basis alone of past achieve- ments. Educational standards are advancing so rapidly that even in the restricted field of the commercial school, radical improvement is the constant price of retaining even the ground already won. Fortunately there' is evidence of broadening views and sounder conceptions among the busi- ness college teachers and attention is drawn to three or four facts in particular which are pregnant with meaning for this kind of commercial instruction. In the first place the function of the commercial college has been heretofore conceived in an altogether too narrow manner, even by those who have been its most successful and most progressive managers. It was started with the definite idea of training clerks, bookkeepers, penmen, and later stenographers and typewriters, and up to the present it has remained close to the original conception. The work that has been done in penmanship, in commercial arithmetic and in bookkeeping and business practice and correspond- ence was intended not only primarily but solely for this class. Merely the absolutely necessary "facilities" of busi- ness life were furnished, which include to-day typewriting and stenography, and the possible advance of an individual from a clerkship to some more important position was vir- tually ignored. Now, even in the very limited field of pre- 66 1] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 9 paring for subordinate and almost mechanical labor, good work may be done and the business college has, in fact, accomplished excellent results. What is, however, espe- cially encouraging to-day, is the realizing sense on the part of the directors of commercial schools, first, that for clerical positions more technical instruction is necessary ; secondly, that a broader education pays, even granting that no higher position is ever won, and thirdly/that while the business col- lege cannot prepare directly for more responsible duties in commerce and industry, it can, in a degree, and should, as far as possible, equip the student through liberal and funda- mental studies for subsequent promotion. These ideas are spreading among the teachers and managers of the com- mercial colleges and are almost insensibly producing their logical outcome, namely, a course of study which is at once broader and more technical. The process is slow but evi- dences of advance are apparent in the printed announce- ments of various schools, in the discussions of business teachers' conventions and in the periodicals, weekly and monthly, issued in the interests of business education. 1 This broadening view of what the business school may do has come hand in hand with a clearer realization that in this phrase the emphasis should rest on the second word ; not that the school should not be for business, but that it should not be merely a business. Educational institutions which are run upon the proprietary basis are always susceptible to an excessive and self-destructive regard for receipts. This danger has been recognized in the field of commercial edu- cation and emphasized by the failure of hundreds of man- agers who forgot that a school cannot long " pay " unless it pays the students to attend, unless they be given what they need first of all, and then and only then the tuition fees fixed in proportion. A most hopeful sign for the future of the business college is the growing capacity of the public to judge what schools are worth attending and a growing 1 Cf. address by President J. E. King of the Business Teachers' Association in the Practical Age, January, 1898. IO COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [662 sense on the part of those in control that they must give an increasing quid pro quo. Secondly, the necessity of pedagogical training has been recently forced upon the consciousness of business school directors. In the early history of these schools the advan- tages of practical business experience for the business teach- ers were immediately apparent and much popularity was won by wide advertisement of this qualification in the teaching force. Undoubtedly this emphasis was not only shrewd but in a large degree well founded. Experience has, however, laid weight on the need of pedagogical ability and training, and the best schools of this type are now seeking instructors who have skill in teaching as well as theoretical and practical mastery of subject-matter. The change came slowly, but a glance at the list of business teachers shows to-day a large and growing per cent of men and women of collegiate or other special preparation for this work. The business col- lege has been long hampered by the lack of suitable teach- ers, but the demand is creating a supply, as it will beyond question in other grades of commercial education. A third favorable influence on the work of the business college has been the recent and marked growth of a new form of competition. Rivalry among schools of the same type has always been springing up, and has had a decidedly beneficial influence in the development of commercial col- leges, but this kind of competition has not had the deter- mining force which a new element in the problem bids fair to exert. This additional stimulus to the efficiency of the business colleges comes from the introduction of commercial subjects into the public high schools and the establishment in them as well as in normal schools and academies, of busi- ness courses and departments. Free instruction in these schools and frequently instruction of a broader and higher type is putting the commercial college where it must improve or be hopelessly outclassed. This new competition led Mr. King of Rochester in 1897 to address the Federation of Business Teachers' Association in the following pointed words : 663] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION II " The training which the American commercial college gives its pupils, while good in a way, is extremely narrow and little more than rudimentary. It cannot properly be called business training, it is merely clerical training. While this kind of training may have satisfied the requirements in the past, and while there may continue to be a certain demand for it in the future, I believe the time has arrived when the American commercial school should cease to be a purely clerk factory and educational repair shop, and should assume the duties and position of a real business training school. In order to do this it must raise the standards, broaden and deepen its course of study and lengthen its time requirement. " Its present standards both for admission and graduation are too low, its course of study too narrow and shallow, and its time requirement too short. It is useless to expect to attract and hold high-grade students with low-grade standards, or thoroughly to train young people for the duties of busi- ness life with the present course of study, and in the time now given to this work. The preparation for business life ought to be as thorough as for professional life, and I believe that the time is not far distant when it will be. " It should be said, and in the same sense, of the gradu- ates of our commercial schools as it is said of the graduates of our best technical schools, viz., ' that the business world not only finds that it can afford to employ them, but that it cannot afford not to employ them.' There is a good demand for thoroughly trained men — not merely clerks — in all departments of business, and the commercial school ought to be able to supply that demand." {Ibid?) The new rivalry of the public high school and the com- mercial college can prove only to the advantage of each. What effect it will have in detail on the private undertak- ing is difficult to foretell, but it is not too hazardous a sur- mise to predict that the commercial college may hereafter be glad to see much of its work go over to the system of public education, thus giving it better equipped students and freedom to evolve a still higher course of instruction. 12 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [664 The probability of this further evolution of the business college into a supplementary educational instrument of a somewhat better type is foreshadowed in a fourth fact favor- able to commercial training, and by no means without sig- nificance in the history of these institutions ; namely, formal recognition as a factor in public education by one of our most influential governing bodies, the University of the state of New York. This recognition is not only honor- able in itself, but is important as indicating for this work the beneficent effects which have come to other kinds of educational effort through guidance and supervision by that distinguished corporation. The advantages that have accrued to elementary, secondary and higher education, general and technical, public and private, in New York through state inspection, and in some measure, control, may now be obtained by the commercial schools. Moreover, the stand- ard thus set in one state for business schools will come gradually to be recognized in other parts of the country, and New York can point to another result of adequate supervision. The regents of the university have established a standard for business schools in confidence that this would further an esprit de corps which would create a demand for higher quali- fications and lead to a duplicate of the experience with the professional schools of medicine and law, when similar actions led to a large increase in the attendance at secondary schools. They proposed in no wise to discriminate against the smaller commercial colleges, giving on the contrary full credit for the work of these, if of a creditable kind, but rul- ing out from all recognition the schools of questionable repute. It seemed good to them to omit consideration of all business schools in so far as these gave purely elementary work in the ordinary subjects of business instruction without regard to the previous preparation or the persistency of effort on the part of the students. The conditions of recog- nition of a business school were in brief: Instruction by at least six teachers giving all their time to the work, an equip*- 665] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 1 3 ment worth not less than $5,000, exclusive of buildings and fixtures, a satisfactory one-year course, supplementary of the high school and consisting of at least 500 hours of actual instruction, in preparation for the state business diploma. Provisional registration was allowed schools not meeting the first two conditions, but filling the others satisfactorily. It speaks well for the character of the New York business colleges that while the bureau of education reports thirty schools in the state the regents have granted full recognition to eleven and provisional registration to thirteen. Besides granting registration to business schools on these conditions, an act which, fixing a high standard, will arouse efforts to meet it, and will be again reactive in raising the standard, the university decided to issue business credentials, including a state business diploma and a state stenographer's diploma and corresponding certificates. The distinction between the two is the requirement of graduation from a registered high school, which attaches to the diploma, but not to the certificate. To obtain the diploma, candidates must be cer- tified as having completed also a full one-year registered business course, and must pass regents.' examinations in advanced bookkeeping, in commercial law, in business English, arithmetic, practice and office methods, and in com- mercial geography and the history of commerce. If the high school course previously taken did not include United States history, civics and economics, the regents' examina- tion in these subjects must be passed as well. The value of these requirements may be best measured by the following outline, included in a syllabus issued for the guidance of business schools and supplemented by considerable sugges- tions in detail : "Advanced bookkeeping — The test in bookkeeping demands a higher degree of technical knowledge than is required for the academic examination. It presupposes ability to open and keep with accuracy the accounts of any ordinary business, including familiarity, both theoretic and practical, with books of account.' 14 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [666 "Business arithmetic — This test requires a high degree of accuracy and skill in business computations, such as measure- ments arising in different kinds of business (including a practical and thorough knowledge of the metric system of weights and measures), billmaking, percentage, interest, partial payments, discount, insurance, commission and brok- erage, computations arising out of partnership settlements and the operations of incorporated companies, taxes and duties, averaging accounts, ratio and proportion, accounts current, stocks and bonds, domestic and foreign exchange." "Commercial law — The test in commercial law demands a knowledge of those matters of law that have constant appli- cation in business life, including drawing up in proper form contracts, articles of incorporation and all business docu- ments. Candidates should have a fair practical knowledge of the laws relating to contracts, negotiable paper, liens, guaranty, interest and usury, sale of personal property, war- ranty, bailment, agency, partnership, joint stock companies and corporations, insurance, common carriers, attachment and stoppage in transitu, real estate, banking, taxes and duties, distribution of estates after death. They should also be familiar with the statute of frauds and the statute of limitations, and have a general knowledge of the interstate commerce law and the national bankruptcy law, and be able to draw in concise legal form any contract or agreement, check, note, bill of exchange, bond, bill of sale, power of attorney, articles of incorporation, insurance policy, charter party, bill of lading, deed, mortgage, lease, notice of protest, will or other document relating to the foregoing subjects." " Commercial geography and history of commerce — The test in geography presupposes some general knowledge of mathe- matical, physical and political geography, as preliminary to the more detailed knowledge required. Candidates should be able to give the location, physical features, approximate size and population, form of government and prevailing lan- guage of the commercial countries mentioned in the follow- ing outline, and have knowledge of the relative commercial 667] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 1 5 importance of those countries and of their principal products,, routes of travel and transportation, their chief seaports and the ocean routes by which they are connected with the great trading ports of the world. " In history of commerce the candidate should have a gen- eral knowledge regarding the origin and early development of commerce, should be able to trace its influence on the world's civilization, and should be reasonably familiar with the great discoveries, public works, inventions, legislative enactments and other important influences by which the progress of commerce has been affected." "Business practice and office methods — The test demands a practical general knowledge of the manner and methods of conducting ordinary kinds of business, and a ready famil- iarity with the methods and practice that should prevail in every well-regulated business office. This work is closely correlated with bookkeeping, arithmetic and commercial law, and gives rise in great part to the work in those branches, as well as to much valuable practice in the use of English and in penmanship. The candidate should be familiar with the usual rules and practice in buying and selling breadstuffs and other agricultural products ; meat products, cotton, wool, hides and other raw materials ; lumber, iron and other building materials ; oils and naval stores ; mineral products sold on a commercial scale, stocks and bonds, fruits and gro- ceries, dry goods and all ordinary commodities. He should have a general knowledge of the prevalent customs in the business of transportation on the high seas, the great lakes and navigable rivers, and by canal or railway ; in the busi- ness of banking, insurance, and manufacturing ; and should also know something of the important rules and customs governing transactions on the stock exchange, the produce exchange and similar centers of trade. He should be able to keep the accounts of any ordinary business and to draw up or make out all papers in the regular order of such busi- ness. A plain, easy, and above all, legible business hand- writing is an indispensable requisite." l6 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [668 "Business English— This test calls for such skill in the written expression of thought as every well-equipped busi- ness man should possess. It consists entirely of practical exercises in English composition, which are to be rated acord- ing to their character, not only in penmanship, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and general neatness, but also in the more essential matters of correct use of words, sentence structure, logical sequence of ideas, and paragraphing. The subjects will include letter writing on varied business topics ; drawing up or filling out from rough memoranda, business documents, such as contracts or articles of agreement, descriptions of property in deeds and mortgages, bills of sale or insurance policies ; making reports and abstracts condens- ing long articles ; writing advertising notices and composing short essays on business topics. No questions in technical grammar will be asked." The above outline shows how far the business college has advanced from its simple form of forty years ago, since examinations on such a course of study were deemed not too high for a large proportion of these schools in New York. The private commercial school probably cannot without endowment take rank as a higher institution, but with an increasing proportion of high school graduates among its students, it will undoubtedly win its reputation in this field, and give more and more of its energies to work of advanced grade. The example set in one state should be widely fol- lowed by commercial schools and the action of the New York regents should be far-reaching in its results. Indeed, it seems probable that the commercial school will be forced more and more to the giving of advanced and supplementary business training by the growth of the second form of com- mercial instruction, i. e., that of the public high school. Before leaving this subject of the " Commercial College," i. e., the private, elementary, unendowed, unassisted and uninspected educational undertaking, it is desired to empha- size again how important a function it has performed in our American educational system. It set out to give the girl or '669] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 1 7 boy, man or woman who desired to secure a position as clerk or bookkeeper just such assistance as was needed to prepare for such work. No matter how young or how old, how educated or how ignorant the candidate, the commercial col- lege undertakes to give him an immediate and definite training in book-keeping, commercial arithmetic, penman- ship, stenography and typewriting or such portion thereof as is desired. It made of each student a special case ; did not hold him back to work along with a class, gave him every assistance in its power, made entrance to the school as easy as possible, rarely requiring any other condition than paying the fee ; facilitated the leaving and helped the pupil in finding work. That it did this work well at least to the satisfaction of its pupils is sufficiently attested by the hundreds of thousands of people who have attended the schools in the last fifty years. Pupils were required to pay fees and in many cases high fees for such instruction. The annual tuition fee varies in the better schools from $50 to $150 and even $200 for a school year of ten months. The payment of such fees by men and women who have to earn their own living at com- paratively low salaries testifies eloquently to the value which they themselves set upon the instruction which they receive. It is perfectly safe to say that in the quality of the work which they do, and in the equipment for this particular work, the American commercial colleges have no rivals. They are as much superior to anything of the sort to be found else- where in the world as are the American schools of dentistry to their counterparts, — and for very much the same reason, viz. : that they are engaged largely, one may say chiefly, in the mechanical work in which Americans excel the rest of the world. They are not educational institutions in any broad sense of the term at all. They are trade schools pure and simple, and that in a very narrow sense. They train for facilities. Of course all training has intellec- tual results, even that of the prize fighter. But the commer- cial college aims not to train the best bookkeepers, or sten- 1 8 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [670 ographers, for, to such, a high degree of education is neces- sary, but to take the boy or man as he is, with or without education, stupid or bright, and make as good a bookkeeper or stenographer out of him as is possible, by simply super- adding a brief technical training. The limitations of such a school are perfectly evident to every educationist. It trains the clerk, the routinest, the amanuensis, not the manager or director of business enterprises. That hundreds of the stu- dents of the colleges have been successful business men of initiative and independent enterprise simply proves that they had native ability for that sort of thing ; not that this sort of training was especially helpful, though it is only fair to say that many of these men trace their start in business to the technical skill in bookkeeping, etc., which they acquired in the schools. Many just criticisms might be made on the method, plan and spirit of these schools, upon the narrow curriculum characteristic of nearly all of them ; of the low grade of efficiency ; of the tendency to decry all higher education, &c, &c. But, after all, they have done a valuable service to our educational and business interests, and the best of them have become better with every passing decade. There is another interesting and important phase of this development of commercial colleges which has not received the attention it deserves. The increasing employment of women in the positions of clerk, bookkeeper, amanuensis, &c, which is such a marked characteristic of American business life, could hardly have taken on such dimensions as at present if it had not been for the opportunities for technical training which such schools as these offer. An interesting side light may be thrown on the growth of the commercial college by noticing for a moment the career of one of the leaders of the movement, Mr. S. S. Packard,, recently deceased. Mr. Packard began his work as an instructor in penmanship in a small school in Cincinnati as early as 1850. After teaching in various places — among others in Chicago — he opened the Packard commercial col- ' 671] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 19 lege in New York city, in the spring of 1858, as a link in the Bryant and Stratton chain of business colleges. 1 It was the seventh in the order of evolution, and was intended as the cosmopolitan center. The " chain " eventu- ally embraced schools in fifty of the principal cities of the United States and Canada. Mr. S. S. Packard was from the beginning the principal and business manager, H. B. Bryant and H. D. Stratton being his associates. In 1867 Mr. Packard bought the interest of his partners, Bryant & Stratton, and changed the name from Bryant, Stratton & Packard's business col- lege to Packard's business college. The most important result of the change of proprietor- ship was in doing away with the life-scholarship plan under which the " chain " had been conducted,, and putting an end to the interchangeability of tuition. Mr. Packard's lead was followed by the other schools, and thus the foundation was laid for individual — if not competitive — work, which has done so much to advance the character of business educa- tion in this country. During the first year of the existence of the school, Mr. Packard wrote text-books on bookkeeping for the use of the Bryant & Stratton schools, which in revised form are still used. The school was first located in two small rooms in the then new Cooper Union building. It was, in fact, the first tenant of that building. In the fall of 1863 it was removed to the Mortimer block, corner of Broadway and Twenty-second street and Fifth avenue, and in the spring of 1870 to the Methodist building, corner of Broadway and Eleventh street, occupying the entire fourth story of the structure. Here it .remained for seventeen years, until it outgrew its accommodations, when its present commodi- ous and elegant quarters were secured. At present it is located in the college building, formerly occupied by the College of physicians and surgeons, at the 1 This account was prepared from material furnished by the present principal of the Packard school. 20 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [672 corner of Twenty-third street and Fourth avenue, occupying the entire building above the ground floor. It has a floor space of fifteen thousand square feet, with two large assem- bly rooms, each capable of seating three hundred pupils, and twelve smaller rooms for recitation purposes, offices, etc. In the early days of the school the students were mature young men, many of them having fought in the civil war, and coming home entered the school as a preparation for clerical positions. The course was intended to cover only about three months, and bookkeeping, penmanship, and busi- ness arithmetic only were taught. The school sessions were from nine to four, and from seven to nine in the evening, six days in the week. There were no vacations. No record was kept of attendance, as the students themselves were responsible, being in some cases partially employed during the day. The scholarship plan gave the privilege of unlimi- ted attendance at any school in the " chain." In 1865 commercial law was added to the course, and later practical English and civics. In 1872 stenography was first taught, in classes only. A very small proportion of stu- dents studied this branch, and always in connection with the commercial course. The following year the typewriter was introduced. This was the first school to teach either sten- ography or typewriting. At the present an important feature of the work, from which no student is excused, is public speaking without any attempt at elocution. Each student in his turn is required to speak in the morning assembly on some current topic, and always without notes. The object of this exercise is to fit them, as business men, "to think on their feet," to express their thoughts clearly and without embarrassment when occa- sion demands. Another feature is the character record, a brief history of the student's career from the beginning to the end of his course, showing not only progress in study, but also comments by his various teachers on any special charac- teristics or performance that is deemed worthy of comment. It has proved not only efficacious as discipline, but is useful as 673] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 21 reference after the student has passed out from the school and refers to it for recommendation in business. This rec- ord is never destroyed. A specimen of the student's work is also preserved. Faithful work for many years and a strict adherence to truth-telling in regard to the qualifications and character of candidates for business positions enable the management to secure employment for every worthy graduate. The commercial course now covers about a year and a half, or fifteen months, the students entering at any time and being graduated not in classes, but as they finish the course, in greater or less time, according to their ability. The instruction is largely individual. The school graduates yearly about 150 pupils, the number in recent years being almost equally divided between the stenographic and com- mercial departments. Though the school has the permission of the board of regents to continue the name " college," it has voluntarily changed it to the more appropriate name of "commercial school." " The history and purpose of this school is written in the hearts of twenty thousand men and women, who, during the past forty years, have been of its household. Of this num- ber, at least fifteen thousand have been residents in the city of New York. Many of them are now important business men in the city, whose sons and daughters have also been pupils in the school." Mr. Packard devoted forty years to the active manage- ment of the school and to many plans by which the good work might be made permanent. He died in October, 1898. The career of Thomas May Pierce, of Philadelphia, illus- trates in a similar way the growth of this department of our educational system. Starting out in 1865 with the meagre curriculum then offered, he increased the scope of the work, improved the equipment, introduced regularity and system 22 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [^74 into the instruction until, when he died in 1896, he had built up what might fairly be called a typical school of the better sort. He employed some twenty-five instructors, and occu- pied quarters in one of the best office buildings in Philadel- phia, where he used fifteen rooms containing 10,000 feet of actual floor space. The charge for tuition was $15 per month, or $100 for a course of seven months, showing that he had succeeded in building up an institution which its students at any rate believed in. Similar careers may be found in all older and larger cities of the United States, all testifying to the service which these schools have rendered the public. Commercial instruction in the American public school system is only beginning to attract general attention, despite the fact that a certain amount of this work has been carried on for many years. The instruction, however, that has been given was until recently of a very meagre description. A commercial course was not infrequently announced, although it differed from other courses in the same school only by the inclusion of a little typewriting, bookkeeping, and possibly stenography. Of late years a considerable change has come about, and high schools which had offered some business training have improved the course of study. Commercial instruction has been introduced for the first time into many schools, and gradually distinct and separate courses are being established in connection with city systems to give oppor- tunities for the future business man, comparable to the aid already furnished to those looking forward to higher studies of a professional or technical kind. The natural order of development in this matter can be seen in a glance at the course of high school study in some typical cities. Omaha represents one stage, presenting a commercial course in which commercial arithmetic is substituted for elementary science and botany in the ninth grade of the regular English course, bookkeeping for zoology, and mediaeval history in 675] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 23 the tenth, commercial law and book-keeping for chemistry and French history in the eleventh, and stenography and typewriting for American history and political economy in the twelfth grade. Some question might arise as to the advisability of the substitution in one case or another, yet there remains a fairly liberal plan of study, covering four years and giving an opportunity to young men and women to gain a degree of business preparation along with a general secondary education. Whether or not one be disposed to favor a duplication of business college work in the public high school, there is no doubt of the superiority of the four years' course of Omaha to the one or two years' course in many other cities. Even if the aggregate of special prepa- ration for business does not exceed the ordinary work of a year, it is preferable from an educational point of view at any rate either to place this late in the high school program or to distribute it as indicated above.. Fair objection to this may be made on the ground of the inability of many pupils to attend a full four years term, if we admit the need of add- ing to the public schools a kind of teaching already provided in private institutions. If it seems on the contrary inadvis- able to introduce into the public high school a bare imita- tion of the lower class business college with most of the dis- advantages and few of the excellencies of the latter, then the one or two years' course of business training substituted for the first year or two years of secondary instruction can be looked upon with favor only as a transition step. So Boston with a two years' commercial course and little special business train- ing, Pittsburg with one year's work in place of the second high school year, Washington with a two years' course, are all in an early stage of development in this direction. Possibly Washington with a distinct business high school even though the course of study covers only two years, is nearer the final form than Milwaukee with its new four-year commer- cial course. The evolution of a real secondary business school may come more easily through the addition of sue- 24 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [676 cessive years to the course than through the gradual special- izing of an ordinary high school curriculum. Indeed this view is borne out by the experience of the Hillhouse high school in New Haven with an admirably outlined three years' course and by the development in Paterson, N. J., of a commercial department in the city high school into prac- tically a distinct school operated in a separate building by an entirely independent faculty, with a special course of two years, requiring one year of secondary study for admission. To attempt any comparison of the relative value of com- mercial training in the cities mentioned would not be diffi- cult but is perhaps needless. > All of the courses offered should be judged not alone for what they are to-day. Rather should they be reviewed from the point of view of the ultimate standard, for they are changing from year to year and the best mode of reaching the final form depends on local conditions. What is desirable seems perfectly clear. First of all the course of study should be at least four years. We cannot successfully defend commercial instruction in the public high school unless the work is planned as broadly educative as any other of the secondary courses. Superin- tendent Pearse of Omaha struck the right note in an address before the Business teachers' association, when he insisted that the student should get as much drill, as much discipline, as much education, out of a commercial course as he would get out of other high school courses. 1 Secondly, the course should be thoroughly outlined as distinctly commercial. A mere substitution of a few business studies in the usual English course does not make for commercial training and such action is not only an inadequate provision for present needs, but it is destructive of future possibili- ties. Properly planned, a course of instruction may bear the stamp of its purpose in every part, and at the same time lose not a whit, but on the contrary, by unity and close connection, gain decidedly in general educa- 1 See the Practical Age, February, 1899, p. 36. 677] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 2$ tive value. This means necessarily, in the larger cities at any rate, a separate corps of teachers. A separate building is strongly desirable, not only on the ground of superior adaptability for the uses of a commercial school, but for the far weightier consideration of absolute independence in fact, and full differentiation in the public thought. Secondary education of the manual training type is to-day years ahead of the development which would have been possible if the separate manual training high schools had not been established. Place the commercial course in the ordinary high school largely under the charge of the present teaching force and you rob the new movement of half its possibilities. The problem of working out good secondary business education needs all the freedom that is feasible ; it can be solved only by independent faculties with every member intent on the questions of his own department, of course, but also grappling with the problem of the entire scheme of studies. Under these conditions an esprit de corps will be aroused, greatly conducive to the final success of this feature in the system of public instruction. When a few such independent schools have wrestled with and solved the problem of commercial instruction, the ordinary schools will have a better basis for " commercial courses." With these considerations in view, we can readily say that between the two-year, strictly commercial course of Wash- ington for example, and the four-year course slightly special- ized, of some other cities, the choice should be made not on the basis of what is offered now, but of approximation to the real type, namely, a well-planned, fully-specialized scheme of commercial training covering at least four years of secondary grade. This standard of secondary commercial training has been more nearly approximated in Philadelphia than in any other American city. In 1898 a department of commerce was established in connection with the Central high school, and the following study-plan was adopted : 26 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [6 7 8 SUBJECTS OF STUDY First year Second year T Composition and Ameri- can literature — 4 J History of English litera- ture — 4 II. Languages other than Latin — 4 Latin — 3 German — 4 III. Algebra — 5 Commercial arithmetic — 2 Geometry --3 IV. Greek and Roman history — 3 English history — 2 V. Physical geography, and botany and zoology — 4 Commercial geography — 2 VI. Economics and politi- cal science Philadelphia and Phila- delphia interests — 1 Bookkeeping — 2 VII. Business technique.. . Penmanship and business forms — I Stenography — 2 Drawing — 2 SUBJECTS OF STUDY Third year Fourth year I. Readings from English Reviews and thesis writ- literature — 4 ing — 3 II. Languages other than German — 3 German — 3 French (or Spanish) — 4 French (or Spanish) — 3 HI. TV Modern European history — 2 Modern, industrial and commercial history — 3 V. Physics and chemistry — 4 Industrial chemistry — 2 VI. Economics and politi- Political economy — 2 Transportation, banking and finance — 4 Statistics — I Political science — 3 VII. Business technique.. . Office practice — 2 Ethics of business and Stenography — 2 commercial law — 2 Observation of business methods — 3 For reasons of expedience and economy, the department is housed in the magnificent new high school building, and much of the instruction is given at present by the regular teaching force. Under a special director, however, the work promises to grow speedily into an entirely differentiated 1 The numeral after each course indicates the number of recitation hours per week. 679] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 2j institution, which may parallel the success of the manual training high schools of that city. The commercial department in the Pittsburg high school was organized in 1872 for the benefit of those who for any cause were not able to spend four years in the high school and yet who desired some scholastic training in addition to that given in the ward or elementary school, and especially such training as will best prepare for business positions. 1 It will be seen that the course was recognized to be a shorter one than the other four years' courses. Its com- mercial studies are essentially those of a so-called com- mercial college. At the same time it is so far an improve- ment upon them as it undertakes to give scope for general training. The curriculum is two years, instead of two months or one year. The first year is given up chiefly to general studies, the last to book-keeping, typewriting, stenography. Out of 1,918 students in the school 612, almost exactly one-third, were enrolled in the commercial course and of these 247 were girls and 365 boys. The pro- gram declares that the aim of the commercial department is to make the study of bookkeeping in its various branches a mental discipline for the commercial student similar to that produced by the study of higher mathematics in a classical course. A practical department containing various kinds of offices has been established which the students must work through in time. The commercial courses in the Boston high schools is likewise only two years in length. Commercial arithmetic, bookkeeping, and stenography are begun in the first year, occupying about one-half of the time, while the rest is devoted to general studies like English, history, drawing, music, etc. The second year is much like the first ; about one-half the time is given to the study of commercial subjects. In the Hillhouse high school, New Haven, Conn., while all the other courses are four years each, the commercial course is three years. About five hours a week, approxi- 1 See catalogue of the Pittsburg Central high school, 1897-8. 28 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [680 mately one-third of the time, is given to strictly commercial subjects, the rest are of a general nature. Students who do the regular work well are permitted to take stenography and typewriting extra. The work in the commercial courses of other high schools is along one or the other of the lines indicated above. It is at present a concession to a popular demand. It does not grow out of a conviction on the part of high school princi- pals and teachers, that it is an essential part of the high school system. It will undoubtedly continue to grow and after a few good commercial high schools have formulated and solved the purpose of this kind of instruction, the aver- age high school, profiting by their experience, will be able to organize commercial courses which will be better than those thus far elaborated. In the opinion of the writer the technical work of the commercial courses in high schools is not as well done as in the better commercial colleges. In the two classes of schools giving business training, which we have considered, are to be found nearly two hun- dred thousand students, a hundred and fifty thousand in the commercial colleges, if we accept the estimate above men- tioned, and between thirty and forty thousand in the public hig;h schools. The third division of business schools or courses embraces the work of private secondary schools and public and pri- vate normal schools. There is the usual wide variation in what is here offered, but this class of schools plays some- thing of a role in preparation for business with a total registration of nearly twenty thousand. (See Appendix.) The influence of this form of competition upon the ordinary business college has been already mentioned. How widely it may be felt can, perhaps, best be seen through an outline of what is open to business students in one of the best endowed secondary schools of the country, the Drexel insti- tute of Philadelphia. This is chosen admittedly because its 68 1 ] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 20. department of commerce and finance has been strongly- developed, yet we may fairly expect that the example set in Philadelphia will be widely followed by the schools of simi- lar type which are springing up so rapidly in all parts of the country. Special departments of such schools and new endowments by private or semi-public bodies will, we may expect, play a large part in the work of business training in the United States, if the experience of other countries be a good basis for prophecy. The Drexel institute of arts, science and industry at Phila- delphia was founded and endowed by Anthony J. Drexel of that city. It included from the beginning in the scope of its instruction courses in commerce and finance. As the school is well endowed and independent of state control, one may see from an examination of its work in this department a type, and, indeed, a very good type, of the best work which such institutions can do in the field of commercial education. The department of commerce and finance consists of three special departments. First, the course in commerce and finance ; second, the office course ; third, the evening course. The circular of the institution states that the department of commerce and finance is founded on a broad and liberal basis. In its general features it resembles the commercial schools of Europe, and is intended to place commercial edu- cation in its proper relation to other departments of educa- tional work. The object of the course is to train the young men to do business rather than simply to record business. It has been organized with a view of meeting these condi- tions. It provides a liberal, and at the same time, thoroughly practical course of study, including two years' training in the knowledge of the world's industries and markets, the law of trade and finance, and the mechanisms and customs of business. The first special department is intended to give young men and young women thorough fundamental training for the activities of business which include (i) The production, manufacture, sale, and transportation of articles of com- 30 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [682 merce ; (2) the management of stock companies and cor- porations ; (3) the buying and selling of securities ; (4) the importing and exporting of merchandise ; (5) the borrowing and lending of money and credit ; (6) the advertising of commercial concerns ; (7) the keeping of business records. The work of this course is divided into two years, as follows : FIRST YEAR First Term Language — Composition; letter writing. American classics. Commercial Arithmetic — Weights and measures; trade stand- ards and prices ; wages and pay-rolls ; commercial interest and dis- count; speed practice. Business Customs — Invoices; commercial paper ; bills of lading and manifests ; vouchers. Bookkeeping — Principles and practice of double-entry; simple transactions ; business forms. Penmanship — Typewriting. Correspondence. Commercial Geography — The earth's surface in its relation to trade and commerce. Commercial geography of the United States. Civics — Civil government of the United States. Spanish and German throughout the two years. Second Term Language — Grammatical principles ; diction. Selected classics. Industrial Arithmetic — Measurements; builders' and contract- ors' bids and estimates ; scientific measurements ; manufacturers' and mechanics' estimates. Business Customs — Securities; collections; discounts. Bookkeeping — Principles and practice of double-entry in more complicated transactions. Shipments, consignments and business forms. Commercial Calculations — Practical exercises for acquiring rapidity and accuracy of work. Commercial Geography — Natural resources of the chief countries of Europe and the United States in their relation to commercial exchanges. Civics — History, principles and organization of political parties; civil service reform; ballot systems; municipal government. Typewriting, Correspondence. Physical Training in the gymnasium, twice a week throughout the year. 683] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 3 1 SECOND YEAR First Term Language — Rhetorical principles ; essay-writing ; English classics. Advanced Bookkeeping — Introducing order-book, cash-book, sales- book, bill-book, etc.; each student is required to keep the entire accounts, for a limited time, of a dozen business concerns, repre- senting the leading industrial and commercial corporations. Banking and Finance — Outlines of the history of banking and of the national banking system, state banks, saving banks and trust companies. Commercial Calculations — Practical exercises for acquiring rapidity and accuracy of work. Commercial Geography — A comparative study of the commerce and industry of the five great commercial nations of the world. History of Commerce — Outlines of the history of ancient, medieval and modern commerce. Typewriting — Business forms. Public Speaking — One hour a week. Second Term Language — Historical outlines of English and American liter- ature. Advanced Bookkeeping — Continued. -Commercial Calculations — Continued. Banking and Finance — Bank management and practice. Mechanism of Commerce — Boards of trade; stock and produce exchanges ; transportation ; interstate commerce ; warehousing ; importing and exporting; duties; exchange; mercantile agencies. Commercial Law — Elementary principles of contracts, partner- ships, stock companies and commercial paper. Business Printing and Advertising — Type and paper; printers estimates; proof-reading; business cards, circulars and catalogues. Modern advertising, including mediums, rates, agencies. Public Speaking — One hour a week. Physical Training in the gymnasium, twice a week throughout the year. Students have also the privilege of attending the special courses of lectures in the chemistry of foods and the chemistry of dye- ing and cleansing. During the second year, visits are made to some of the leading industrial and commercial establishments of Philadelphia,, 32 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [684 Diploma — The diploma of the institute is granted to students who complete the work of the course in commerce and finance, and pass the prescribed examinations. Office courses — In addition to the general course in commerce and finance, described above, and requiring two years for its completion, three distinct office courses are offered. These are thoroughly practical in character, and are designed to prepare young men and young women for entering immediately upon the respective lines of employ- ment to which the training leads. Bookkeeping course — The object of this course is to pre- pare young men and young women for positions as book- keepers. It occupies one year and includes the following subjects : Bookkeeping, business forms and customs, type- writing, commercial arithmetic, English and penmanship. The entire course is directed to training in the most approved methods of keeping business records. All the labor-saving devices and checking and recording systems of modern mer- cantile establishments are thoroughly taught. The course occupies one year, divided into two terms. Stenography course — The aim of this course is to train young men and young women for positions as stenographers and typewriter operators. It occupies one year and includes the following subjects: Stenography, typewriting, English, business forms and office practice. There is a growing demand among business and professional men for steno- graphers who can not only take down and typewrite cor- respondence, but who have a serviceable knowledge of good English, and who are intelligently trained along general educational lines. The course occupies one year, divided into two terms. Private secretary's course — This course has been organ- ized in response to applications that have been made to the institute for clerks fitted to do work of a different character from that required in a purely business office. The subjects included in the course are as follows : Stenography, type- writing, penmanship, English, correspondence, accounts, 685] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 33 office practice arid business printing. Applicants for admis- sion must show by examination, or otherwise, that they are prepared to meet the requirements of the course. The course occupies one year, divided into two terms. Certificates — Certificates are granted to students who com- plete any one of the office courses and pass the prescribed examinations. Gymnasium — The gymnasium is a large, airy room, com- pletely equipped in accordance with the requirements of the Swedish system of physical training and with dressing- rooms, and bath-rooms supplied with hot and cold water. All the training is conducted under the immediate supervis- ion of the directors. Commercial museum — A beginning was made in 1895 towards the formation of a permanent commercial museum, and a large collection of raw and manufactured products has already been secured. This collection represents quite fully the following industrial products : Flour, wool, petroleum, teas and coffees, sugar, cotton, copper, iron and steel, glass, tobacco, leather, rubber, paper, wood, carpet, linen, spices, aluminum, building stone, brick and terra cotta. Additions are being made constantly, and the student who is looking forward to devoting his life to trade, shipping, or manufactur- ing, has opportunity, in connection with his academic work, to make a special study, from both a geographic and an economic standpoint, of the particular industry in which he is interested. Art museum — The art museum contains extensive col- lections representing the industrial arts of Egypt, India, China, Japan and Europe. Library — The library, which contains twenty-five thousand volumes, is supplied with books, periodicals and pamphlets bearing upon the work of the department, and every facility and assistance is afforded for the study of financial, economic and commercial questions. Admission — Applicants for admission to any of the courses must pass satisfactory examinations in English, geography, 34 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [686 arithmetic and United States history. For admission to the course in commerce and finance, or to any of the office courses, candidates must be at least sixteen years of age. The diploma of high schools of approved standing is accepted in place of an examination. Application for admis- sion should be made to the registrar, at the institute, between 9 a. m. and 4 p. m., or by letter. Fees and terms — Course in commerce and finance — twenty-five dollars per term. Office courses — Twenty-five dollars per term, each. Students provide their own text-books and stationery. Coat-lockers, with individual combination locks, are pro- vided for the men students, giving to each the absolute con- trol of his own property. Each student is charged fifty cents per term for a locker. There are two terms in the year, beginning in September and February respectively. Five days' attendance a week is required, from 9 a. m. until 2 p. m. Evening- classes — The department of evening classes is fully organized, and includes the following courses : 1. Beginners' course in bookkeeping and arithmetic. 2. Accountants' commercial course. 3. Office course in stenography and typewriting. Fee for each of the courses, for the entire season of six months, five dollars. It will be seen that the pupils who enter the longer course or any of the office courses must be at least sixteen years of age and must have passed examinations indicating that they have completed the ordinary work of the elementary school, such as the average boy who has been in school from his sixth year could have completed by the time he was fourteen. The desire of the management, however, is plainly that they shall have done considerably more work, including if possible the first year or two of the high school. As a mat- ter of fact the average age of the persons who enter upon this course is that of graduation from the ordinary three years' high school course of smaller towns and villages. 687] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 35 The work done in the Drexel institute is paralleled to a greater or less extent by similar work done in many private institutions, such as the Heffley school, formerly of Pratt institute of Brooklyn, the Armour institute of Chicago, and other schools founded by private initiative. Many of these schools have the advantage of ample funds so that they are not as dependent upon the whims of individual students as are the commercial schools described in previous para- graphs, and on the other hand they are independent of the injurious influences at work in many of the public schools. I think it is not too much to say that the two years' course offered in the Drexel institute forms in its way a model, and furnishes the basis for the elaboration of a curriculum which will compare favorably with the best of the European com- mercial schools of the same grade. The work done in the evening course of this institution corresponds more closely to the work of the ordinary business college as described above. When we turn our attention to the fourth class of institu- tions in which instruction is offered in the field of commercial subjects, namely, the colleges and universities, we are struck by two or three salient facts. In the first place the move- ment for instruction in these subjects in our higher institu- tions of learning is of comparatively recent origin. In the second place it has affected but very few of these institu- tions though in the list are some of the most prominent and influential universities in the country. It is also a matter of interest that the attitude of these higher institutions of learn- ing toward this subject is a radically different one from that of the other classes of institutions which we have been discussing. It has been very difficult indeed in this whole develop- ment to get the so-called commercial colleges, the high schools and other commercial courses of the various insti- tutes in their departments of commerce to give any instruc- tion, whatever, except in the so-called practical subjects, and 36 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [688 of any kind whatever except of the most immediate, techni- cal, special sort. In the colleges and universities on the other hand, even where they have been willing to accord a certain recognition to the necessity of higher education in commercial and busi- ness matters, it has been difficult to get them to give any attention, whatever, to the more practical sides of the work. While the commercial colleges have felt that political economy, commercial geography and similar subjects were too remote and impracticable to make it worth while for them to admit these subjects into their curricula, the colleges have felt that accounting, commercial arithmetic, and similar subjects were too elementary to deserve any attention, what- ever, from higher institutions of learning. The colleges and universities, moreover, have seen scores and hundreds of young men complete the old-fashioned classical courses of study, and enter the ranks of business men with ability and success. They have felt, therefore, that in a certain sense every man who desired a higher edu- cation, even if he should wish to go into business subse- quently, would find it worth his while to take the old- fashioned course. And they were very slow, indeed, to recognize that there were scores and hundreds of young men in the community who would take a higher education if an emphasis were laid upon subjects in which they were interested and which had to do at some point, at least with their future careers, who could not be persuaded to follow out an old-fashioned classical curriculum. Four institutions in the United States, the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, the University of Chicago in Chicago, the University of California in Berkeley, Cal., the Columbia university in the city of New York, deserve special mention for their connection* with this subject of higher commercial education. Some other institutions — notably, certain of the state institutions — have also attempted to do something in this department, but their efforts have been spasmodic, and in some cases futile, owing to the fact, among other things, that they were not able or willing to 689] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 37 spend the necessary money upon the establishment and maintenance of these courses. In 1881 Joseph Wharton, Esq., a manufacturer of Phila- delphia, gave to the University of Pennsylvania the sum of one hundred thousand dollars in order to establish a depart- ment in that institution for higher commercial training. A department was established known as the Wharton school of finance and economy, the object of which was the furnishing of an adequate education in the principles under- lying successful business management and in the prin- ciples of civil government. The curriculum was two years in length and was made up largely of political economy, political science, accounting, mercantile law and practice, etc. A bachelor's degree was conferred upon the graduates from this school. To enter as a regular student the candidate must have completed the first two years of the regular four years' college course. Many errors were made in the initial establishment of the school, such as assigning instruction in the technical subjects included in the course to men who were already in the university but who knew little about the subject-matter of the courses assigned to them, and cared less. After some unpleasant experience growing out of this circumstance the faculty was reconstructed and enlarged, specialists being added for the newer subjects. After some ten years' experience it was decided to enlarge the course by extending it downward into the first two years of the college course, and at present the course in finance and economy covers four years and is included together with the other courses in arts and science in the so-called school of arts. The requirements for admission are the same as for other departments and represent the ordinary requirements of first-class American colleges. The faculty is composed of some thirteen members. A special course intended to give additional facilities for those students who wish to enter journalism is constructed by omitting certain subjects from the regular course and inserting others. 38 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [69O The following is a curriculum of the courses in finance and economy, showing the assignment of subjects among the years and the number of hours per week. COURSE IN FINANCE AND ECONOMY Freshman class SUBJECTS Composition Algebra . Solid geometry Trignometry General chemistry ' German Accounting Physical and economic geography Practical economic problems Economic literature Newspaper practice 2 No of hours per week 1st 2d terra term 2 2 2 2 2 — — 2 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 For students who present solid geometry and plane trigonometry and physics for admission to college. Such students omit solid geometry and trigonometry. 2 For students in journalism, who omit accounting in second term. Sophomore class SUBJECTS Modern novelists History of English literature Scientific German Business law Money and banking Business practice American history Roman history Theory and geography of commerce Elementary sociology General politics Congress Newspaper practice 1 Current topics 1 No of hours per week 1st 2d term term 2 _ — 2 3 3 2 — — 2 1 I 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 I 1 I 1 I 1 For students in journalism, who omit business practice and history and geography of commerce in second term. 6 9 1] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION Junior class 39 No. of hours per week SUBJECTS Constitution of United States Constitutions of Germany .and Switzerland Congress Modern legislative problems Political economy Advanced sociology Sociological field work Business practice Banking American history English constitutional history Logic Ethics Art and history of newspaper making 1 . . . . Newspaper practice 1 Current topics 1 i For students in journalism, who omit either modern legislative problems, or business practice and banking. Senior class SUBJECTS Public administration Legal institutions Municipal government , Political economy Statistics Finance Transportation History of renaissance and reformation Art and history of newspaper making. 1 Newspaper practice 1 Current topics 1 No of hours per week ISt 2d term term 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 I I I I I I i For students in journalism, who omit municipal government, or transportation, or statistics. It will be seen that this curriculum includes a larofe num- ber of subjects, and that the nucleus of the course is to be found in the study of economics and politics, supplemented by practical courses in accounting, business law and business practice. 40 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [692 The following table shows the number of students which have been enrolled in the course for the years indicated : i89 2 -3 59 1893-4 71 1894-5 113 1895-6 97 1896-7 101 1897-8 87 The degree of bachelor of science in economics is con- ferred upon those who complete this course. The growing demand for higher instruction in commercial subjects, combined with the success of the experiments in the University of Pennsylvania, turned the attention of sev- eral institutions toward the subject about the same time. The University of Chicago, which opened its doors in October, 1892, had included within its plan of work from the beginning a college of practical affairs. But it was not found practicable to undertake the organization of such a department until the year 1898, and students were enrolled in this college for the first time on the first of July of that year. The new department was given the title of the col- lege of commerce and politics, and was organized as a co-or- dinate department with the other colleges of arts and litera- ture and science. The purpose of the new college, like that of those already existing in the university, is two-fold. First, it aims at the attainment of general culture ; in the second place the weight of work is put in the lines of the courses offered in certain specified departments. In the new college those departments include political economy, political science, history and sociology. In the other col- leges the distinctive work is in the classics, modern languages and literatures, and sciences respectively. The courses of study afford instruction concerning the place of America in the general development of civilization, the origin and char- acteristics of our national institutions, the physical resources, moral traditions, intellectual standards of our country, the commercial, domestic and foreign relations of our industries 693] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 41 and our politics, and the principal economic, social and politi- cal problems which confront the leading nations of the world. It is intended by the college of commerce and politics to provide an education for those whose tastes lie along the particular lines indicated, and at the same time to open a way for special training in the direction of certain forms of business, of politics and journalism, and of diplomacy. The college is by no means a technical school, but is intended to give a kind of knowledge and training which may enable those who enter commerce, politics, journalism or diplomacy to begin their work with a certain degree of equipment. Those who develop an especial aptitude for the subject pursued will in many cases continue their work in the graduate school. The course of study in the college of commerce and poli- tics covers a period of four years. The first two years, however, are essentially the same as the first two years in one or another of the other liberal courses, political economy or political science being the only subject in these two years having a specific relation to the special work of the college. The other studies of the first two years are history, French or German, English, mathematics, science, and a small pro- portion of the time (about one-sixth) is given to any other subject which the student may desire to pursue from among the courses offered in the university. The admission to the course covers about the curriculum of the typical four years' high school course, including at least four years' work in Latin, two in mathematics, and the usual time devoted to English history, physics, and German or French. It is dur- ing the last two years of the work that the special character of the college becomes apparent. The work of the last two years is divided into three groups : Commerce, politics, journalism and diplomacy. In the first group, commerce, there are four special sub- groups : (a) Railways ; (b) banking ; (c) trade and industry ; (d) insurance. 42 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [^94 The student must elect, at the beginning of the third year's work in this college, one of these groups to which he wishes to devote his time. One-third of the course for the next two years must be selected from within the group chosen. Another third may be selected by the student from a list of specified courses. The remaining third may be chosen by the student from any course offered by the departments of political economy, political science, history or sociology. Thus if the student chooses commerce as the main group and banking as the sub-group, he is required to take courses in the financial history of the United States, in money and practical economics, in bank- ing, and in the economic seminar ; he must then select an equal amount of work from the following list of courses : Finance and taxation ; federal government ; government of Great Britain; federal constitutional law of the United States ; American administrative law ; England under the parliament; contemporary society in the United States out- lined, and constructive social philosophy. And from a list of over one hundred courses in the departments of political science, history, sociology, he must choose in addition an equal number of courses. It will be seen that in this work, as in the University of Pennsylvania, the nucleus consists of courses in economics and politics, using those terms in a large sense. But the University of Chicago has not added special technical courses in accounting, business law, business practice, etc., which forms a characteristic feature of the Wharton school. During the year 1898-9 eleven students enrolled for the courses in the college of commerce and politics. Of these, ten entered upon the work of the first year and one upon the work of the third year. The degree of bachelor of philosophy is conferred upon those who complete this course. About the same time that the University of Chicago determined to adopt a scheme of higher commercial train- ing, a report was made to the board of trustees of the 695] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 43 University of California, by one of its members, urging the adoption of a similar course there. After an elaborate dis- cussion, it was decided to erect an additional college in the university, to be known as the college of commerce. The course extends over four years, similar to that of the other colleges in the university. The requirements for admission were essentially the same, and correspond to graduation from the typical high schools with the four years' course. In the first annual report of the president, after work was begun, it was stated that many details were yet to be deter- mined, among others, the question of what degree should be conferred upon students who completed the course. In the same report the following statement is contained as to the scope of the new college : " It is the intention of the authorities of the university to place the course in commerce upon a high scientific plane, otherwise it is not justified in claiming a place in the uni- versity curriculum beside those advanced scientific, philo- sophical and literary courses which have already won recognition." The sciences dealing with the various departments of the world's trade can justly claim such recognition. The mere arts of the counting room do not belong to the list of studies. The student will be encouraged to acquire a knowledge of them elsewhere possibly, before entering col- lege. Thus the college of commerce will supplement, not compete with, the work of the older business commercial schools. The following list of courses taken from a prospectus recently issued by the university will show more clearly the intended character and scope of the new college : Economic studies: General theory and analysis — Political economy: General principles and theory. Labor and wages. Theory and practice of exchange ; foreign and domestic. Theory of value. Markets : their organization and the determination of prices. Currency: in all countries. Banking: in all countries. Economic features of transportation, by land and water. (A sub- ject in which many special courses should be offered.) Industrial 44 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [696 and commercial organization. Corporations and corporation finance. Communication : postal service, telegraph and telephone, news- papers and advertising. Insurance : fire, marine, life, etc. Con- sumption, and the principles of demand and storage. Commercial usages of different countries. Public finance : Government expen- ditures, revenues — including taxation, customs, duties, etc. — pub- lic debts and fiscal administration. Statistics, mathematical and practical. History, theory and methods : the " movement of popu- lation," actuaries' statistics, theory of prices, etc. Studies in economic history — The history of commerce in all countries and at every age. (Upon this general subject as large a number of special courses as possible should be offered.) The his- tory of the institution of private property. The history of land tenures. The history of agriculture. The history of industry from the earliest times. The history of manufactures. The his- tory of labor and of labor organizations and other special courses. Legal studies — Commercial law of different nations. Public international law, and the duties of diplomatic and consular offi- cers. Private international law. Admiralty and maritime law. Roman law. Comparative jurisprudence. Judicial procedure in different countries. Law of private corporations ; and other special courses. Political studies — Constitutional law of different nations. Pub- lic law and administration. Municipal government. General political theory. Legislative control of industry and commerce. Historical studies — The general political and constitutional his- tory of the leading nations, especially during the XlXth century ; diplomatic history. (Economic history, that is, the history of industry and commerce, is of such importance as to constitute a separate group ; see above.) Geographical studies — Political geography. Geodesy. Physi- cal geography. Commercial geography. Biological geography : including botany, zoology, anthropology, etc. Meteorology and climatology. Oceanography : Coasts, harbors, etc. Navigation and nautical astronomy. Geology. Technological studies concerning transportation — Civil engi- neering and mechanical engineering; construction of roads, bridges, canals, irrigation works, etc. ; motors and motor power, etc. ; rail- road economics, etc. Technological studies concerning the materials of commerce — Botany : General plant morphology ; economic botany. For- estry, and wild-plant products ; also wild-animal products. Agri- 697] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 45 culture: cultivated plant products of all descriptions, includ- ing field, orchard, and vineyard products ; animal products, such as meats, dairy products, wool, etc., and including agricultural prac- tice, irrigation, etc. Agricultural manufactures, such as sugar, starch, textiles, oils, brewing, tanning, drying, canning, etc. Fish- eries, and all the products of the sea. Mining, and mineral pro- ducts, and building materials. Chemical technology, and chemical products, acids, alkalies, etc. Manufactured products. Decorative and industrial art. A large number of other special courses in these and other applied sciences connected with the materials and the operations of commerce should be offered. Mathematical studies — Courses covering all the mathematical principles involved in the above studies. Linguistic studies — The English language and English litera- ture. The languages and literatures of the nations with which we have commercial relations: American, European, and Oriental. Philosophical studies — Ethics and civil polity. No statement of the actual enrollment of students in this new college and of the way in which it has opened up its work has come to the attention of the writer, but the interest felt in the project by some members of the board of trustees and by some members of the faculty justifies the hope that this is the beginning- of great things in the department of higher commercial education. On November 3rd, 1898, the chamber of commerce of the city of New York adopted the report of a committee which had been previously appointed by that body on the subject of commercial education. This report, after strongly com- mending the establishment of a department of sounder com- mercial education both in secondary schools and in higher institutions of learning in this country, advised the appoint- ment of a special committee by the president of the chamber of commerce for the further consideration of the subject of commercial education. This committee was appointed and, after various sessions and conferences with authorities of Columbia university, a report was submitted to the cham- ber of commerce recommending that the chamber assist 46 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [698 Columbia university in the establishment of a collegiate course in commerce by the grant of certain funds. This report presents in a certain way the most complete scheme of higher commercial instruction which has thus far been submitted for the consideration of the public. It unites the practical elements in the course of the Wharton school with the wider range of the courses and subjects offered at California and Chicago. It was framed upon the plan of utilizing as largely as possible the existing courses of instruc- tion in Columbia university, and supplementing and adding to such courses the subjects necessary to offer a complete and well-rounded scheme of higher commercial instruction. Although the plan has not been carried into effect as yet and may be materially altered, still, coming from such a source and backed by such a body as the New York cham- ber of commerce, it seems likely to be of sufficient impor- tance to merit a somewhat fuller notice. It is intended to be a college course of commerce cover- ing four years of fifteen hours a week. It presupposes graduation from a secondary school, public or private, in which English, mathematics, history and natural science, and one modern language will have been systematically studied to the extent now required for admission to the college department of Columbia university. In form and in content it is adapted to students of college age, namely, sixteen to twenty years. In addition to the training provided in commercial sub- jects, the course includes training for two years in writing English, for two years in a modern European language, for two years in European and American history, and for three years in political economy and social science. It offers opportunities for the study of industrial chemistry, of a selection of three modern languages and literature, if any of these be desired. Of the sixty hours required (four years of 15 hours each) four hours or six and two-thirds per cent are devoted to instruction in writing English ; six hours or ten per cent to 699] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 47 European and American history ; six hours or ten per cent to the modern European languages ; ten hours or sixteen and two-thirds per cent to political economy and social sci- ences, and thirty-four hours or fifty-six and two-thirds per cent to the study of commerce itself in its various phases. It will be observed that this curriculum comprises funda- mental courses in the principles governing business com- bined with a detailed course in practice. It is intended that many of these latter courses, as well as some of the former, shall be given by men having an intimate personal acquaint- ance with actual business life. Among such courses would be those in accounting and transportation, technique of trade and commerce, commercial ethics, commercial credits, insurance and commercial business. Aside from the general subjects included in liberal courses we note a course of three hours per week for one year given to accounting and a similar course to economic geography ; a course of two hours a week following a course in chemistry on the study of commercial products ; a course of three hours a week upon the technique of trade and com- merce, such as weights and measures, currency and banking systems, customs regulations, markets, fairs, etc. There are also courses in banking, accounting, commercial geography, railroad and public accounting, history of commercial theory and merchant shipping and trade routes, commercial treaties and insurance. No degree is to be given for this course for the present, but a certificate of graduation testifying that the candidate has completed the work of the four years will be given to all students who pass the requisite examinations after attending the courses. 1 It is plain from the foregoing account that instruction in commercial subjects is to be introduced into all higher insti- tutions of learning upon a broader scale than ever before. 1 After this account was prepared information comes to hand of a department of Commerce and Economics at the University of Vermont. A trustee of the university, Mr. John H. Converse of Philadelphia, has given funds for an endow- ment, and work will be inaugurated in the autumn of 1900. 48 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [7OO It cannot be maintained, however, up to the present that our experience has been large enough to afford any accu- rate indication of what the ultimate form or purpose of such instruction shall be. We have as yet established no inde- pendent college of commerce in the United States upon an adequate foundation. We have not even established any institution which may be fairly called a commercial high school, that is, a school with an adequate equipment, with a differentiated curriculum and with an opportunity under favorable conditions to show what it can accomplish in an educational and a technical way. None of our colleges and universities have as yet been willing to give such depart- ments a fair opportunity to show what they might accom- plish in the same directions. But with every passing year the demand for better facilities on the part of young people who desire to prepare themselves for business careers will force our commercial colleges to improve their work ; will force those who have charge of public education to give a larger space in our secondary schools to this branch of work ; will lead the managers of our private secondary schools to offer better facilities, and will finally compel our colleges and universities to do something for the education of the future business man which may be compared with what they are doing for the future engineer, or lawyer, or physician, so far as the peculiarities of a business career may render such a scheme feasible. 7oi] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 49 APPENDIX STATISTICS OF COMMERCIAL AND BUSINESS SCHOOLS Bureau of education report, 1896— 97 In the 341 business schools represented in this report there were 1,764 instructors and 77,746 students. The total number of gradu- ates in the commercial course was 11,728, and in the amanuensis course 8,862. The number of students in the day course was 63,481, or 82 per cent of the whole number, and the number in the even- ing course was 14,265, or 19 per cent of the whole number. It will be seen by the above figures that the day school contains more than four times the number of students that are reported in the evening schools. The number of students in the various courses of study was as follows : Commercial course . Amanuensis course. English course In telegraphy Course of study Males 29 2l6 IO 185 9°53 897 Females 8 713 12 957 3 671 312 The total number of students in the commercial and business courses of universities and colleges, normal schools, private high schools and academies, and public high schools was 56,002, and in the commercial course of business schools was 37,929, making a total of commercial students in all the schools in the United States as reported to this bureau of 93,931. 5° COMMERCIAL EDUCATION [702 TABLE I — Summary of statistics of commercial and business colleges, i8g6-gy STATE OR TERRI- TORY INSTRUCTORS STUDENTS United States. 1 764 25 847 77 746 63 481 North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division. . North Central Division. . Western Division North Atlantic Division : Maine New Hampshire , Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island , Connecticut , New York New Jersey Pennsylvania South Atlantic Division : Maryland District of Columbia. Virginia.. West Virginia North Carolina Georgia Florida _ South Central Division : Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas North Central Division : Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa. Missouri North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska , . . Kansas Western Division : Montana Arizona Colorado Utah. Washington Oregon California "5 5 ! 7 i°5 27 139 32 9 36 3 65 72 100 44 30 35 57 74 5 197 49 30 216 53 607 121 145 733 158 17 797 3 775 4 906 20 750 4 671 9 892 1 693 10479 2 395 27 609 5468 6 294 31 229 7 066 21 444 4509 5 494 26 016 6018 7 3 99 19 46 198 32 179 9 3 27 5 13 27 3 36 12 5° 4 i°3 101 136 63 47 49 744 100 90 1 928 323 1079 6 336 684 6513 361 1 160 554 298 82 I 225 95 5 6 7 949 195 668 368 1 939 220 2 616 2 900 4289 1 961 945. 1 3iS 2 360 2 988 83 104 944 245 47 387 35° 401 465 467 46 61 1 540 230 865 3 361 401 2 921 135 768 166 169 6 402 47 552 94 1 605 2088 1 036 404 658 1 015 1 463 38 57 260 157 335 25 156 77 188 265 1 349 1 211 146 151 3468 553 1 944 9697 1085 9 434 496 1 928 720 467 88 1 627 142 860 1 165 270 728 466 3 49 1 3'4 4 314 4 505 6 377 2 997 1 349 1 973 3 375 4 451 121 161 1 204 402 1 024 72 543 427 589 730 3681 I 165 106 lit 2783 496 I 622 7 779 708 6674 355 1 680 581 3°9 81 1 401 102 75o 1 153 220 693 354 2035 3 783 3 777 S5o8 2 410 1 088 1 637 2 900 3 l6 3 no 130 1 133 377 766 59 37° 33° 539 690 3258 14265 6245 959 800 5 213 1 048 46 40 40. 685 57 322 1 918 377 2 760 141 248: 139- 158. 7 226 40 50 35 113. 456 25 531 728. 869 587 261 336 . 475 1 288 n 3 1 71 25 258 13 167 97 5° • 40 423 703] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 51 TABLE II — Students in business course in other institutions STATE OR TERRITORY United States . North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division . North Central Division.. Western Division North Atlantic Division : Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania South Atlantic Division: Delaware Maryland District of Columbia.. Virginia West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida . . South Central Division: Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas Oklahoma Indian Territory North Central Division : Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska Kansas Western Division : Montana Wyoming Colorado . New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho 1 Washington Oregon ■ California - Universi- ties and colleges S 056 365 441 870 3°75 3°5 174 170 26 3i 187 77 8 13 78 272 100 88 40 187 157 26 465 14 7 6 3 92 106 in 452 436 50 50 61 475 IN OTHER INSTITUTIONS Normal schools 6 297 1 445 627 947 3187 9i 28 ""82 1 3°! 10 25 158 99 215 120 368 133 284 34i 165 407 362 Private secondary schools « 574 3850 1645 1 914 3 260 9°5 223 257 377 198 323 103 1 513 118 738 3° 151 161 279 98 536 175 205 334 402 219 201 287 426 527 144 5°7 5 6 4 441 442 60 109 Public high schools 33075 J 5 797 1 536 1 960 12 109 1 673 512 215 150 3 600 592 615 3691 2 674 3 748 216 284 202 301 127 13 76 201 116 5i5 228 162 282 454 219 1775 634 1 486 1 613 727 160 2 507 1 417 95 82 73° 362 17 Total 56 002 21 457 4249 5691 21 631 2 974 769 472 548 3 798 943 718 5 460 2 792 5 957 246 466 389 636 570 725 474 539 204 1 062 1 150 819 491 766 1 101 263. 39 1 2«3 3 "7 2 014. 1 340 860 4 202 2350 230 192 1 307 175 13 379 55 26 352 143 12 231 226 1 362 14 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION BY ISAAC EDWARDS CLARKE Washington, D.C. ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION I. INTRODUCTION Since 1870 the rapidity of the development of art and industrial education in the United States has been so marked and so effective, the rapid increase in the num- ber of special schools and museums of the fine arts so strik- ing, as to make exceedingly difficult a satisfactory survey of this subject within the limits of a monograph. The movement for the general introduction of drawing in the public schools, and of definite endeavors to promote art education, with a purpose to develop and improve the art industries of a people, seemed alike sudden in England and in the United States. In England it was apparently the definite result of the first world's fair — the exhibition of 1 85 1. In the United States it had its origin in Boston, in 1 8 70, where it was a direct outcome of the E nglish movement. The Centennial exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876, where the work in drawing of the Massachusetts normal art school, and of the public schools in Boston, was shown, made possible the rapid and remarkable development throughout the United States of the two kindred elements in education, namely, industrial art drawing and manual training. This addition of these two new studies to the regular courses of the public schools has been, perhaps, the most notable characteristic educational feature of the past two decades. As the English were long held to be a people hopelessly inartistic and devoid of art possibilities, their wonderful development since 1851, in so many lines of artistic manu- factures, challenges investigation, especially by a people long similarly accused as being innately inartistic, and for a long period, it must be admitted, apparently deservedly so accused. The causes of this lack of art development as recited by 4 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [708 Haydon, were the same in both countries. That these causes were amply sufficient to account for this almost entire absence of any national evidence of art consciousness, — without compelling the admission of any inborn lack of men- tal capactity, — Haydon sought to demonstrate, by an appeal to the art development of England during the thirteenth century : " When England, in her knowledge of form, colour, light, shadow, and in fresco decoration, was in advance of Italy; and had her progress not been checked by the refor- mation, would have been at the head of Europe." " Show the people of England fine works," said Haydon; "give them the opportunity of study and the means of instruc- tion ; teach them the basis of beauty in art, and then give your opinion, if you like ; but you have no right to condemn your fellow countrymen when you give them none of the advantages foreigners enjoy ; when you have no schools for art instruction, no galleries open to public view, no national collections, no schools of design, and when you refuse to allow that art has a public function, and absolutely withhold from it all public support." However true is his picture of the absence of any oppor- tunities for the people to see works of art, or to enjoy any personal training in the elementary knowledge of art, in the England of his day, the lack of all such opportunities in the United States was tenfold greater. The Puritan immi- grants of New England had all the abhorrence of art which marked the followers of the reformation, and for two cen- turies the bare whitewashed walls of their plain meeting houses were eloquent in protest against the art adornments of ancient church or chapel. Nor did the long hard strug- gle to wrest sustenance from stony soil and stormy sea afford any space of leisure for those artistic occupations which to the stern puritan were worse than folly. Such was the situation, alike in England and the United States, during the first half of the nineteenth century. The exhibitions of 1851 and of 1876 seem in turn to have revealed to each people their own artistic deficiencies. 709] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 5 II. PROGRESS OF ART EDUCATION In 1749, Benjamin Franklin published his proposed " Hints for an Academy," and enumerated as the most use- ful studies, arithmetic, writing, drawing and mechanics. In this connection drawing- is seen to be reckoned with mechanics as a useful study. So, more than a hundred years before Boston had put drawing into its public schools, this Boston boy sought to have his fellow citizens of Philadelphia adopt it in their schools as a required study. In a Lancastrian school presided over by Mr. Fowle in Boston in 1821, the method prevailed of having the younger pupils taught by those of their fellow pupils a little in advance of them. This method was, in its fundamental idea, successfully adopted by Walter Smith, in his first intro- duction of drawing as a required study in the public schools of Boston, and has since been followed in many of the public schools throughout the country. This arose from the fact that, as the teachers in the elementary schools were in addition to their duties in teaching other studies unex- pectedly to be called on to teach drawing, of which they had before little or no knowledge, it was inevitable that they could then be but little in advance of their pupils in their knowledge of this new study ; the teachers could only teach the lessons they had just previously been taught in the weekly lessons given to the public school teachers by the new director of drawing and his assistants. In the case of the pupils of the normal art school, sub- sequently established under the director, Professor Walter Smith, and in those attending the various state normal schools, as well as in the fact that drawing has long been a regular study in the public schools, the teachers in the public schools of to-day may fairly be assumed to have as much practical knowledge of this study as of any of the others intrusted to their care. The arguments for the teaching of drawing in the public schools are clearly and concisely stated by Mr. Fowle in his 6 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [7IO introductory words to the third edition of his book on draw- ing, issued in 1830. Mr. Fowle also introduced in his school physical science, music, and, for the girls, needlework. In this sewing form of "manual training" Miss Dorothy Dix, later the noted philanthropist, was his first teacher. So it appears that our modern new educational movement was clearly foreshadowed in this Boston school three-quarters of a century ago ! In 1838 Henry Barnard, editor of the American jour- nal of education, delivered an address in many parts of the country on the topic of industrial education and urged that drawing should be taught in the public schools. In the Connecticut common school journal, published in Hartford, of which Dr. Barnard was editor, he reprinted the report of Professor Stow on Prussian schools, made to the legislature of Ohio in 1838. In occasional numbers during succeeding years much attention was given to the subject of drawing in its various phases. In 1838-9 Miss E. P. Peabody gave a course of free lessons in drawing in the Franklin school, Boston, and in 1 841-2 a similar course to a class of one hun- dred teachers of primary schools. Miss E. P. Peabody and her sister, Miss Mary Peabody (later Mrs. Horace Mann), each published an elementary treatise illustrating their methods of teaching drawing and reading. Such is a brief summary of a few of the early efforts by American educators to introduce the study as one of the essential elementary studies to be taught in all public schools. Similar vain efforts to promote the early training in drawing were from time to time made by leading artists. Among these perhaps the most notable and earnest attempt was made in Philadelphia by the distinguished artist Rem- brandt Peale during the years 1840 -1844. As in Boston and in Philadelphia, earnest efforts to intro- duce the study of drawing in the schools long preceding 1870, had been successfully thwarted by the opposition based chiefly on ignorance and lack of appreciation ; so it resulted in Baltimore, when in 1848-9 Mr. William Minifie, 71 1] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 7 a remarkable man, taught drawing in that city as a science, and not simply as picture making. This competent master was, however, removed through the influence of an unsympa- thetic, ignorant committeeman, and so Baltimore lost the opportunity, else within reach, of anticipating the success of Boston by a quarter of a century. Mr. Minifie published his system of teaching, drawing, and perspective and shadows, which has long held its place as a recognized authority. About 1852 this work was adopted as one of the regular text-books, used in the South Kensington art schools of London, England, and which, it may be fairly assumed, Walter Smith studied ; at least the underlying principles of the system of Professor Minifie and those of Professor Walter Smith are practically identical. As professor of drawing in the School of design of the Maryland institute in 1 852-1 854, Professor Minifie delivered and published three public addresses on drawing and design ; in these the teaching of drawing as a regular study in the public schools was eloquently urged. To one who remembered the ability and methods of Pro- fessor Minifie, and the work done by his pupils of the high school, as far back as 1848, the exhibition made of drawings by the Baltimore high school, in the Centennial exposition in Philadelphia, in 1876, was pitiful indeed. Cleveland, Ohio, seems to have been more fortunate than the cities whose experience has just been briefly recited. In 1849 drawing was put in the schools as a regular exercise, and after a few months was intrusted to the regular teach- ers of the public schools, who eventually found in the late Professor John Brainerd an enthusiastic instructor, who took such interest in their work that he followed them to the schools and aided them in teaching the pupils ; in the end the professor was put in charge of the work in all the schools, and for several years remained with gratifying results. He published a manual for use in the schools. Subsequently Professor Brainerd was for years an examiner in the U. S. patent office in Washington. 8 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [7 1 2 In this brief summary of various sporadic efforts in (lif- erent cities and communities to introduce drawing in the schools, it is clear that the desirability of general instruction of the school children in drawing was in the process of becoming a popular belief, and, in American communities, this is usually the precursor of legislative action. While these efforts, as we have seen, had been confined to no single section or state, and, indeed, in some towns and cities drawing had already secured foothold in the schools, the movement in Boston, and in a degree through the state of Massachusetts, was more pronounced than elsewhere. In this state certain studies which are required to be taught in all public schools are enumerated in the law, while certain other studies are recorded as permissible at the dis- cretion of the school committee. Thus, the trend of the upward and onward direction in the progress of elementary education is indicated by the appearance of certain studies as " permissible." In the law of i860 "algebra, vocal music, drawing, physi- ology and hygiene" are thus recorded as permissible. This is believed to be the first legal recognition of drawing in this category. In 1869 the board of education is directed to prepare a plan for free instruction of men, women and children in mechanical drawing, applicable to all towns and cities of 5,000 inhabitants or more. In the law of 1870 " drawing" appears as a required study in all public schools, and "any city or town having more than 10,000 inhabitants shall annually make provision for giving free public instruction in industrial or mechanical drawing, either in day or evening schools under direction of the school committee." The annual reports of the board of education of Massa- chusetts, about that time, show great interest in promoting the study of drawing, and later in developing technical industrial education with special reference to the manufac- turing interests of the state. In the report of 1870-71 "the Worcester county free 713] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 9 institute of industrial science " z in the city of Worcester, incorporated in 1865, is highly praised and pointed out as the only school in the state where such an education can be obtained. As already indicated, the history of the slow development of the artistic training of youth in this country closely resembled in its several stages that of its progress in England, though, happily, there is here no story of individual effort and failure quite so tragic as that of the unfortunate Hay- don, though the story of the last days of Walter Smith in America, just before his return to his native country, where he was gladly welcomed to an honorable career, all too brief, owing to his untimely decease, is not one to be dwelt on by Americans with any especial pride. He brought rare and precious gifts to America, while to his splendid abilities as a great teacher, and to his contagious enthusiasm, which inspired the eager youth who clustered about him, the final success of the new elements in popular education — indus- trial art and manual training — are more largely due than to any other single influence. Although, during a century of progress, sporadic efforts were made in various localities to introduce the teaching of drawing in schools there was no permanent or general suc- cess. It was not till the system of public schools had become general, and the experiment of teaching the same thing at the same time, to a large number of pupils, had been proved feasible, that the time was ripe for the general introduction of industrial drawing and of manual training. Before this the teaching of drawing had been a personal matter between pupil and teacher, and no conception that it was possible to teach the elements of drawing to large classes at once had dawned upon educators. The so-called " farm schools," which had a certain vogue in the earlier years of the present century, had proved fail- ures as might easily have been foreseen, since it was not 1 Name changed by act of legislature, in 1877, to " The Worcester polytechnic institute." IO ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [714 found feasible to work young men for remuneration so con- stantly, as was requisite to make them self-supporting as well as school-supporting, while taxing them with the men- tal work essential to their obtaining anything that would merit the name of an education. A tendency towards something of this impossible nature is still occasionally manifested by the over-zealous advocates of industrial training, pure and simple, but it is to be hoped that the " farm schools " experience will suffice to restrain the present movement from like disaster. Elementary train- ing in industrial art and in manual training has in these latter years been successfully introduced in many public schools of country and town. " Higher education" in each of these directions, as in all others, must be provided, either by the community or by individual benefactors. It is never, in any form, self-supporting, as the endowed literary and scientific colleges, the schools of technology and the pro- fessional schools attached to the universities witness. In the first annual report made by General John Eaton, commissioner of education, in 1870, there appeared an inter- esting record of the results attained from an effort to ascer- tain the direct worth to a workingman of the education given in the common elementary public schools. The con- currence of testimony showing that even this small portion of knowledge and mental training was of real pecuniary value to its recipient, was convincing, leaving no room for question but that the community was amply repaid for all the cost of the common schools, by the increased earning power of their pupils. If this was true of a course of study simply giving the elements of knowledge, the inference is logical, that those forms of education which gave direct capacity for higher grades of productive work must be so much the more valuable. In the progress of the concurrent educational movement of that time, looking to the develop- ment on the one hand of industrial facility, and on the other to that of artistic power, the commissioner was greatly inter- ested, especially in the Massachusetts experiment of intro- 715] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION II ducing the study of elementary drawing — essential to both phases of the movement — in all the public schools of the state. It was with the purpose of recording for the information of the educators of the country, the progress of this Boston experiment that the preparation of the " Circular of edu- cation, No. 2, 1874," T was undertaken by the present writer in 1873. This movement was begun in Boston by the well-known educator, long the city superintendent of schools, the late Hon. J. D. Philbrick, and the late Hon. Charles C. Perkins, — the latter, the leading authority in the city in all matters relating to the fine arts, — in connection with some of their associate members of the city board of education. Their purpose was to introduce the study of drawing as one of the required studies in the common schools of the city and state. They were fortunate in securing, in 1870, the services of a leading English art master, the late Walter Smith, who was made " art director," in charge of drawing in the schools of the city and the state. In this pamphlet, of some 56 pages, brief statements of the desirableness of such elementary art training in our American schools, and of the efforts made by European countries to promote such art training among their people, were given. Especial mention was also made of the Eng- lish efforts both to develop artistic industries and to extend the teaching of drawing throughout their schools by means of the South Kensington institution. In addition it was sought to give a brief account of such art institutions and collections as were open to the public in the United States; to take an inventory, as it were, of the means at hand for the development of art education in this country. No list of such public art collections existed, and the attempt to secure such a list was undertaken with all the resources of the United States bureau of education. The trivial result 1 Circular of Education. Drawing in the Public Schools. The Relation of Art to Education — Washington, 1874, pp. 56. 12 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [716 of all this effort, as shown by the four pages of scattering statistics at the end of the circular, was ludicrous, while the poverty of the United States in art treasures available for the public, as thus exposed, was appalling. The interest taken by educators and the public generally in this small pamphlet, in view of the world's fair to be held in Philadelphia in 1876, in which coming event increasing interest was shown, and its efficacy in securing information, before so difficult to procure, led to the plan of further publications in the same line, and to the preparation by the present writer, as author and editor, of the special report upon the world movements in the develop- ment of artistic and industrial education and of like move- ments throughout the United States, since issued by this bureau in four large volumes. 1 As there was little literature available concerning this comparatively new educational movement, and none at all within reach of the majority of the teachers of the country, copious appendices were added to each volume of this report. Those in Part I, given to " drawing in public schools," were made up largely of occa- sional addresses and lectures delivered to teachers by Ameri- can and foreign leaders of the movement ; of practical papers with programmes of courses in drawing ; of historical papers relating to the movement, and of abstracts showing the aid given to this form of education by foreign governments, and especially by that of Great Britain. Each volume had in its appendix similarly appropriate papers, and was thus designed to be, in a measure, an encyclopedia relating to its subject. 1 1 Titles of the volumes of the special report already issued, " U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, John Eaton, Commissioner. " Art and Industry. Education in the Industrial and Fine Arts in the United States. By Isaac Edwards Clarke, A. M. Part I. Drawing in Public Schools. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1885. Pp. CCLIX, 1-842." Part II. W. T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner. Industrial and Manual Training in Public Schools. 1892. Pp. CXLVIII, 1-1338. Part III. W. T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner. Industrial and Technical Train- ing in Voluntary Associations and Endowed Institutions. 1897. Pp. LIII, 1-1145. Part IV. W. T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner. Industrial and Technical Training in Schools of Technology and in U. S. Land Grant Colleges. 1898. Pp. LVI. 1-1020. Parts V & VI. Relating, severally, to Public Art Schools and to Public Art Museums. (In preparation.) 717] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION I 3 In view of the later development of the movement, atten- tion is called to the title of the circular " Drawing in public schools — the relation of art to education," as indicative of the purpose of those who introduced the new study into the curriculum of public school studies. In view of the marvelous progress in providing educa- tional facilities for art and art industrial development, that has gone on in the United States since the publication of this little pamphlet in 1874, I venture to quote from it a couple of pages showing the author's belief in the Ameri- can possibilities of such development a quarter of a century ago. AMERICAN FACILITIES FOR GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF ART TRAINING While, in the countries of Europe, whatever relates to the people in education, as in other matters, is in the con- trol and general direction of the central government, so that what the central power decides to do is readily and imme- diately set in motion throughout the entire country, in the United States there is wisely no such central control. This power inheres to the states and to the local communities within the states. This very circumstance though somewhat, it may be, delaying the adoption of useful measures, yet ren- ders the wise adaptation of training to the peculiar industries and needs of the various parts of the country far more probable. It is readily seen that the kind of special techni- cal training would vary, as it was applicable to a manufac- turing, a farming, or a mining community. INFLUENCE OF LOCALITIES ON ART DEVELOPMENT Indeed, this has already been exemplified in a marked degree in the different developments of the schools of sci- ence in the several states, adapting themselves in their chief courses of instruction to the industrial demands of their localities. So we may hope to have in the art future of this country, as have the different European countries, art capi- tals famous for their peculiar developments, and queening 14 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [7 I 8 it over their own states, as do Dresden and Munich and Florence, and the other famous homes of art. San Fran- cisco, Saint Louis, Cincinnati, Chicago, Cleveland, Pitts- burgh, Philadelphia, New York, Boston, New Haven, Wor- cester, and many other prosperous cities and towns may- become in time great centers of beauty as well as of com- merce, each having its own special development, varying in architecture according to the building material most conve- niently accessible, and in art production and artistic manu- factures according to their special industries and resources ; but all alike affording to their children thorough technical training, and all attractive, because, everywhere, the eye rests on noble buildings ; when the homes of industry shall also be homes of beauty, and to walk through the city streets shall be of itself an art education, as of old in Athens, as it was in many a mediaeval town, and is still, in many an ancient city of France, Germany, Italy, and far-off Spain. Now, drawing is the very alphabet of art (for art is but a language), the one essential requisite preliminary to any artistic or technical training ; and, if it is desirable that the children of the public schools shall be fitted to become, if they wish it, skilled workmen in any branch of industry, it is necessary that they shall be taught to draw correctly. To those to whom art means higher things, as they suppose, than its application to every-day utensils and mere manufac- tures ; who look for grand galleries of pictures and statues, and to all the higher refinements of cultured art, it may be a suggestive reflection that, among a people ignorant of drawing, and whose daily surroundings, as is true of most of the American people, afford few suggestions of art in any of its forms, high art must ever remain an exotic, and native artists be rarer than the fabled phoenix. A country's art, like all its other developments, must be based primarily upon the characteristics of its people. Where all are judges of art, great artists arise, just as great warriors among nations of soldiers, so that until the com- 719] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 1 5 mon people know the language of art, and can comprehend the meaning of line and color and form, the artist is as much out of place and as little to be looked for as a great author would be among a people ignorant of reading. Nor has it ever been otherwise. The history of art is the history of peoples. Nor is there anything little or common in the eyes of art. The people that produced great build- ings, fine paintings, and noble statues, had also the most exquisite household utensils. Their commonest articles, whose fragile beauty has outlasted the centuries, to-day ^ with subtle grace and perfect form, tease the eye of the artist and challenge in vain our most skilled artisans to reproduce them. The antique eastern dish of burned clay is held by the modern connoisseur as of more worth than its weight in silver ; yet it was once in as humble and universal use as the commonest crockery of our kitchens. Great collections, museums, art galleries, much as they may contribute to the self-satisfaction of cliques and cities, will be of the slightest possible value and barren of results, either upon the industries of the people or their art culture, so long as drawing is not generally understood. Whoever succeeds in having all the public school children of the country properly trained in elementary drawing will have done more to advance the manufactures of the coun- try, and more to make possible the art culture of the peo- ple, than could be accomplished by the establishment of a hundred art museums without this training. Just as libra- ries are worthless to those who cannot read, so are art col- lections to those who cannot comprehend them ; just as all literature is open to him who has learned to read, so is all art to him who has learned to draw, whose eye has been trained to see, and his fingers made facile to execute. We have begun at the wrong end ; we asked for art galleries when we needed drawing schools. But the evil is not irreme- diable. Let drawing be generally taught, and our art gal- leries and museums, poor as they are, will at once grow more and more valuable, for they will then begin to be of use. l6 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION \_7 2 MASSACHUSETTS THE FIRST STATE TO ACT The legislature of Massachusetts, moved thereto by the persistent efforts of a few cultured and public-spirited citi- zens, who realized the imperative need and demand for such training in the public schools, passed an act in 1870 making drawing one of the studies of the public schools, and also making the establishment of free drawing classes for adults obligatory upon all towns and cities containing over ten thousand inhabitants. In pursuance of this law, Mr. Walter Smith, "art master, London, late head master of the Leeds school of art and science and training school for art teach- ers," was invited, both by the city of Boston and by the state of Massachusetts, to come from England and introduce the new study into the schools of the city and of the com- monwealth. Mr. Smith was highly recommended by the Kensington school authorities. He was appointed state director of art education, and has been unremitting in his efforts to introduce drawing into the public schools, and to foster the establishment of classes for adults. Mr. Smith was also appointed general supervisor of art in the Boston schools. He published, in 1872, a large illustrated work upon art education, 1 which is indispensable to a thorough investiga- tion of the subject, and will be found full of practical sug- gestions to those wishing to introduce the study into the schools. SUMMARY OF THE CONDITION IN THE UNITED STATES OF EDU- CATION RELATING TO ART IN 1874 It is only necessary for the American people to be con- vinced that a want exists to cause them to supply it. Believ- ing the lack of provision for industrial and general art training in our present system of public education to be such a want, I have sought to show 1 "Art Education, Scholastic and Industrial, by Walter Smith, art master, Lon- don, late head master of the Leeds school of art and science, and training school for art teachers, now professor of art education, Massachusetts," with illustra- tions. James Osgood & Co., Boston, 1872, pp. 398. 72 i] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION I J First. The need of preliminary instruction in drawing, its utility, and the practicability of its introduction into all grades of the public schools. Secondly. What steps have been taken towards introduc- ing it and how it can best be done. Thirdly. The present condition of the means for indus- trial art training in technical schools, including the schools of science. Fourthly. The means possessed by our higher institutions of learning for giving general knowledge of art. Fifthly. The special schools existing for training profes- sional artists. Sixthly. The steps that have been taken for founding great art museums in connection with art-training schools. We find that in one state, Massachusetts, drawing has been by law introduced into all the public schools, and a state normal art school established.; that in many cities and towns in other states drawing has been more or less taught in the public schools ; that in all the " schools of science," where engineering is taught, mechanical drawing is of neces- sity taught. SCHOOLS OF DESIGN In schools for the practical teaching of art, as applied to industry and manufactures, the free industrial classes for adults in Massachusetts, the Lowell free school of industrial design at the Boston institute of technology, the schools of Cooper union, the Philadelphia school of design for women, and the school of design of the University of Cincinnati complete the short list. SCHOOLS OF ART For the special training of artists we have the schools of the National academy of design, New York, the Yale school of fine arts, New Haven, and the new college of fine arts in the Syracuse university, which comprise all at present exist- ing. The San Francisco school is soon to open. The school l8 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [/22 of the Pennsylvania academy of fine arts will resume active operations on the completion of the new building. ART DEPARTMENTS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES Of the colleges possessing any special collections or facili- ties for giving any instruction in art, even the most general, we find, excepting Yale and Syracuse, with their special art departments, only Harvard, University of Michigan, Cor- nell, Rochester university, the college of Notre Dame and Vassar college, out of the hundreds of colleges of the coun- try, that either give any art training or possess any art col- lections, however small or incomplete. PUBLIC ART MUSEUMS AND GALLERIES There remain, then, but the public art institutions which we have already described ; there are four of these in the whole land : at Boston, New York, Washington and San Francisco. The Metropolitan museum of New York, the Brooklyn art association, the Boston art museum, the Corcoran art gallery and the Art association of San Francisco are admira- ble instances of the methods by which communities and indi- viduals in this country voluntarily provide those institutions for which, in other lands, the government alone is looked to. An important means of art culture, and the only one which has appealed to the general public, is found in the public art exhibitions. To those of the Metropolitan museum, National academy, the Boston athenaeum, the Yale art school, the San Francisco art association, and the permanent exhi- bitions of the Corcoran art gallery, I have already referred. LOAN EXHIBITIONS It would not be difficult to obtain collections of fresh works of the artists for exhibition and sale in connection with the loan exhibitions of works of art belonging to citi- zens that have been already suggested. The popularity of exhibitions of good pictures, as attested by the throngs of visitors that attend them and the crowds 723] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION I9 that visit the saloons of the leading picture dealers in the large cities, who hold perpetual exhibitions in a small way, sufficiently shows the public interest in art. Indeed, with the multiplicity of American tourists in Europe in these days, it would be strange if the love was not awakened. There are quite a number of well-known private art collec- tions in the leading cities which, separately, would make a desirable public gallery, and from which, as the Metropoli- tan museum has shown, a loan collection of rare works can be made for public exhibition. While I have recorded the paucity of institutions capable of giving a thorough art training and the few public art collections now in this country, it is, nevertheless, apparent that there already exists in all the leading cities the material which needs only to be made available, to afford all neces- sary facilities for general and technical art training ; and if it shall be undertaken in earnest, there is possible in this country a development, both in industrial art and in what are called the higher branches of art, which, at the end of twenty-five years, will render obsolete the verdict passed upon us at the World's fair in 1851 and never yet reversed. Here there is opened a field of honorable rivalry between the sev- eral states, cities, and towns of the Union. What England has done in this direction we can do, and the more readily that we have the advantage of her experience. No time or force need be wasted. We have but to adopt and modify the methods so thoroughly tested there to the different con- ditions that may exist in our several communities. I commend this subject of the relation of art to educa- tion to the consideration not only of all educators but to all who are interested in the varied manufacturing indus- tries of our many states. Skill is the modern secret of suc- cess. Science becomes ever more certainly the measure of prosperity. Science underlies and must precede art ; it is the strong substructure upon whose fixed foundations she builds her palace walls. In the common schools the chil- dren of America must be trained to draw if her artisans 20 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [724 are to hold their own in the world's contest, and if her artists are to enshrine her history. If they but will it, the "republic of the people" shall become the home of an art as noble and as enduring as that which glorified the " republic of princes," whose palaces for so many centuries have lifted their stately walls above the waves, guarding for mankind, not the trophies of her warriors nor the wealth of her merchants, but the priceless work of her humbler artists. Tintoretto, Titian, and Veronese are still fresh in men's memories, though the names of doge and patrician have faded from recollection. In the tables of statistics of "museums of art and archaeology for 1873," given in the circular, there were but thirteen institutions in all. Of these the two since reckoned among those having the leading art collections of the coun- try, were but at the beginning of their history. The Cor- coran art gallery of Washington, D. C, founded in 1869 by the late W. W. Corcoran, Esq., and by him richly endowed, had about one hundred paintings, mostly the • private collection of the founder, and a collection of nearly two hundred casts of antique sculpture. The Metropolitan museum of art of New York, founded in 1870, by a few citizens, lovers of art, had but a small endowment contributed by citizens and had, in its first modest home down town, as the nucleus of the magnificent and varied collections which now, in 1899, crowd the stately halls and galleries of its majestic palace in Central park, the Cesnola collection of Cyprian sculptures, ceramics and glass, and a small collection of paintings, the latter mostly loaned. In the 25 pages of statistics of art institutions for 1881-82, given in Part I of the special report, are recorded 37 " insti- tutions affording art instruction, including all training in industrial art," and 30 "museums of art." Of these 37 schools, 24 were established in, or since 1869, and of the 30 museums 14 had like dates of foundation. These statistics 725] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 21 show the unusual activity then existing in the art develop- ment of the people, nor has this ceased ; new art institutions are being opened from time to time, either founded by liberal individuals, or by the community, and continual and important additions are constantly being made to the art collections of the several institutions. The development of popular interest in the new features of education, from 1870 to the opening of the centennial in 1876, was very rapid, and its progress immediately following the centennial was surprising in its universality. Up to the time of the centennial there were, in the United States, literally no books on artistic industries, and few on the fine arts, either published in this country or to be found in the ordinary public libraries. In view of the present abundance here of this class of literature, native and foreign, this statement seems almost incredible ; it is, however, strictly accurate. Save occasionally in three or four of the older cities, there was in the United States, during the first half of the 19th century, little public opportunity for seeing any works of art, so that, on the part of the people generally throughout the land, there was neither knowledge of, nor interest in, anything relating to art. The world exhibitions at the cen- tennial first revealed to the great mass of American visitors the wonderful attractiveness and power of art, in creating- and shaping the industries of the world. The wide-reaching influence of this world-view upon American educational and industrial development, thus effected by the centennial of 1 876, can hardly be exaggerated. Its beneficent results were charmingly illustrated throughout the Columbian exposition in Chicago, in 1892-93. In fact, the great eras of that triumphant progress of modern civilization which characterizes our present century, are marked by the splendid milestones of the " World's fair," beginning with the one set up in London in 185 1. A " straw," showing the wide-spreading interest in all mat- ters relating to art, now existing in this country, in marked 22 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [726 contrast with the absence of such interest before 1870, may be seen in the fact that in 1 899 a book is issued by " The Mac- Millan Company, publishers, New York and London," which gives for the United States and Canada similar information concerning art matters and artists to that which has long been given for Great Britain in their English issue, entitled "The Year's Art" — a directory of all art schools, museums, etc., etc. The American volume 1 is a handsome well-printed book, illustrated with 52 full-page reproductions of the works of livine artists. The varied contents of this work, when con- trasted with the few pages of statistics in the circular of education of 1874, give more striking evidence of the gen- eral diffusion of knowledge of and interest in matters relat- ing to art throughout the United States than could be given by many pages of mere description. As the volumes of the special report, to be given to the history and present conditions of the schools and museums of the fine arts, though finished as to the early histories, are not yet completed ; and, as there has not been opportunity to collect and compile the present statistics of these institu- tions in time to be available for this monograph, I have been glad to avail myself of the statistics gathered by Miss Levy, editor of the volume just referred to, showing, as they do, the continued growth and prosperity of the public art institu- tions. For the 30 " museums of art," as given in the art and industry report statistics for 1881-82, Miss Levy shows, as existing in 1898, 41 "art galleries," an increase of eleven, while for the 37 art schools of 1882 Miss Levy records 117. She also gives a total of 159 art societies in the United States and 9 in Canada. No such societies were recorded in the special report. Reference to the U. S. bureau statistics, as given in the preceding pages, show a notable increase in art collections and schools from 1869 to 1882. The statistics, as now given by Miss Levy for 1898, show 'American Art Annual, 1898. Florence N. Levy, editor, New York. The Mac- Millan Company, 1899, pp. 540. Price $3. 727] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 23 most emphatically that the interest in art education and in public collections of the fine arts, as contrasted with that shown by the earlier statistics, is still a growing and continu- ing interest. The good seed planted in Boston in 1870 has brought an abundant harvest ! III. THE MOVEMENT FOR MANUAL TRAINING This movement which was so suddenly developed had its immediate origin in the demonstration given by the success- ful introduction of the new study of drawing in the public schools, showing conclusively that it was feasible to teach at one time, a single subject to a large number of pupils. The following immediate paragraphs are taken from the opening pages of the introduction to " Part I of the art and industry report" published in 1885, by the present writer, in which the history of the introduction of industrial drawing in the educational systems of the country is given in detail. One of the most striking and significant results of the experiment, begun in Boston in 1870, by the teaching of industrial drawing to the public school children of that city, has been the widespread interest awakened throughout the United States in the further development of the industrial training of children. No sooner was it shown that it was possible to give to the children in the public schools, some elementary training of the hands and eyes, than a movement began in many places, to teach actual trades and handicrafts to the children while in school. Though there might be danger that overzealous promot- ers of this so-called " practical education " would in their earnestness, overstep the true province of education, over- strain childish muscles, and overtax the mental as well as bodily strength of the growing children, still the public good sense may be trusted to restrain and modify such extremes ; while the intellectual activity, which has been aroused and stimulated by this new departure in education, if wisely directed into practicable channels, can hardly fail of accomplishing desirable results. 24 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [_7 2 & KINDERGARTENS AND OBJECT TEACHING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS The substitution of a knowledge of the thing, in place of a verbal account of the thing, which is characteristic of the kindergarten methods, has begun to be introduced in the schools and mechanic's classes of England, and, also, so notably here in the schools of Ouincy, Massachusetts, that it now goes in the United States by the name of the "Ouincy method." * * * " Object teaching " so far as it tends to awaken the intel- lectual faculties of the child, and to encourage improved habits of study and observation is to be commended and fostered. RESULTS OF THE INTRODUCTION OF DRAWING AS A PART OF ELE- MENTARY EDUCATION It is referred to here only as one evidence of the rapid progress of the " evolution " of the principle embodied in the introduction of industrial drawing into the elementary pub- lic schools of the country. The practical bearing of this study upon the industries of the country, is shown in the tendency to begin the technical training of the future work- man or workwoman, at a far earlier age than had been before thought practicable. The danger, as already suggested, lies in not recognizing the limitations set by nature. While the kindergarten method avails itself of the natural curiosity and wonderful activity of very young children, and in its educational processes closely follows the leadings of nature ; the attempt to teach handicrafts to young boys may very easily go contrary to nature, by imposing tasks unfit for untrained minds and undeveloped muscles. No such objec- tion can, however, lie against the study of industrial draw- ing. Weak indeed must be the hand that cannot lift a pencil, weaker the mind that, beginning at the beginning, cannot follow the graded and orderly steps, by which Walter Smith, basing his teaching on the everlasting truths of geometry, has arranged his progressive studies. 729] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 25 RESULTS TO BE ANTICIPATED FROM GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF DRAWING IN SCHOOLS When the study of drawing is regarded in all public schools as of the same importance as the study of reading and spelling, and as much time in the week is given to teach- ing drawing, as is given to either of these studies — which has nowhere yet been done, for even in Boston this study has been admitted largely on "sufferance" — then, judging from the results already secured, it is reasonable to antici- pate an increase in the numbers, as well as superior expert- ness in the skill of American-born workmen. It is by reason of its direct bearing upon the development of skilled labor that this subject of the introduction of the study of ele- mentary drawing based on geometry, and with a direct view to its application to industries, is of the national and gen- eral importance which seems to justify the preparation and publication of the present report. Accounts of the experi- ments in introducing "manual training" in the public schools, as well as the reports of the special schools for such training and of the technical industrial schools, will be found in their appropriate connection in Part II of this report. THE LAND GRANT ACT OF 1862 THE RECOGNITION BY CONGRESS OF THE ADVENT OF SCIENCE AS A FACTOR OF EDUCATION The passage by congress of the law establishing the " colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts " as long ago as 1862, is proof that the need of some form of educational training, other than the purely literary courses which then comprised all that was given in the higher schools and col- leges, was widely recognized. * * * DRAWING A REQUISITE PREPARATORY STUDY FOR ALL SCHOOLS OF SCIENCE A knowledge of drawing is so essential to any progress in many of the studies comprised in the regular courses of the schools of science that, in view of the almost total neglect at that time of this study in the public, or private 26 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [730 elementary schools, it is little wonder that when the new colleges, created by the national land grant act, were first opened, there were frequent complaints that, for want of this indispensable preliminary training in the element of drawing, nearly a year's time was lost in teaching the pupils that which should have been taught in the primary schools. While there were doubtless other studies in which a lack of suitable training was observed, drawing was both the most important of these preliminary studies, and the one in which deficiency was most common and most disastrous. It is because this knowledge is indispensable as a prepa- ration for the courses in the schools of science, that the teaching of the study of drawing in all the public schools of the country is of importance to the colleges created by the national land grant of 1862 ; and it is in this connection that one element of the practical value and importance of this training of the public school children in elementary drawing can be readily seen. THE COMMON SCHOOLS ARE THE PREPARATORY ACADEMIES FOR THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES The public schools are the academies that fit the students for the national agricultural colleges, and, therefore, it is of importance to these colleges that the studies taught in the public schools shall be such as are preparatory to their own courses of study. ******** UND7ERSAL TEACHING OF ELEMENTARY DRAWING ESSENTIAL The fundamental idea of the present report is, that uni- versal teaching in all public schools of the elements of *' industrial drawing " — meaning by that an orderly pro- gressive course of drawing based on geometry — has become an essential part of any general system of the public educa- tion of a people, and is equally necessary, whether the after- training of the child is to be that of an artisan, an artist, or a citizen engaged in any productive pursuit, or whether the 73 i] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 2*J child is to be so situated as to be removed from the ranks of producers to those of consumers. NATURAL DIVISIONS OF SUBJECT — INFLUENCE OF THE ART KNOWLEDGE OF A PEOPLE UPON THEIR ART INDUSTRIES The subject naturally separates into two main divisions ; on the one hand, that embracing all matters relating to the technical industrial producing arts and artistic industries ; on the other, those relating mostly to the fine arts ; this last division properly includes three distinct subdivisions, relating, separately, to the theory and history, to the study and practice, and to the enjoyment and patronage of art. The first of these minor divisions includes such a knowl- edge of the historical development of art as must here- after be implied in the term " liberal education," such as, within the past few years, has been taught in some of the classical colleges and universities ; the second includes the special art schools and academies for the technical training of artists, architects, sculptors, painters and engravers, preparatory to the actual production of works of high art ; the third comprises the various means of promoting that general information and art culture of the public, which is derived largely from the opportunities of seeing choice works of art in the collections of art museums and art loan exhibitions ; the latter, having, perhaps, as important, if not as manifest, an influence upon the develop- ment of the industries and arts of a people as the former ; for the industries and arts of a people are determined by their needs, their desires, and their intelligence. So long as individuals and communities have never seen the added attractions given to buildings, furniture, clothing and household implements, by the application of art to such articles of prime necessity, so long there is no demand for the production of similar artistic articles ; but let once their eyes be opened by a sight of the wonders of a " world's fair," or a.n " art loan collection," and immediately the demand is cre- ated. There is at first no ability, owing to lack of knowl- 28 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [732 edge and skill on the part of the home workmen to produce similar articles, consequently this demand must be met by importation. An increase of imports with no corresponding increase of exports is an evident disadvantage for the import- ing country. It is, therefore, of importance to any commu- nity or country to ascertain by what methods other countries have trained skilled artists and artificers, in order to adopt similar means ; hence, an account of the experiments, expenditures and systems adopted by foreign countries, for these purposes, is directly demanded in such a report as this. The origin of the educational form of manual training, as introduced in the public schools of the United States, and as presented in the technical manual training schools, is by some definitely assigned to the year 1876 as being the direct outcome of the object lessons of the " work in metals," shown by the StrogonofI school in the Russian exhibition at the centennial. The work of this Russian school was enthusiastically set forth to educators by Professor Runkle, of the Boston institute of technology, and by Professor Woodward, since director of the manual training school of St. Louis. Several other educators, interested in industrial education, as shown in the exposition, by the work in wood in the Swedish department, and by other like experiments, heartily favored the movement. THE NEW DEPARTURE IN EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. THE INDUSTRIAL PHASE OF THE MOVEMENT This movement is, in the opinion of the writer, as stated in the opening sentences of Part I of the art and industry report, simply the logical outcome of the experiment of introducing instruction in industrial art drawing in the pub- lic schools, initiated by the calling of Walter Smith to Mas- sachusetts in 1870. It is, therefore, germane to the purpose of the report, although not solely artistic in its present development. * * * As this is a new departure in educational methods, it has seemed desirable to show the growth and changes of opin- 733] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 2g ions, for the movement is necessarily based upon the percep- tion, by the educators and the public, of the desirableness of some changes in methods, while the nature, extent, and manner of the changes are all in question and proper sub- jects of discussion. So, that it seems desirable that the vari- ous steps by which conclusions have been arrived at in such communities as have taken some decided action, should be given at length, for the information of others contemplating action in similar directions. For this reason public official reports, as well as direct communications made to this bureau, are freely quoted at length in the appendices. It is hoped that sufficient material for tracing historically the incep- tion and progress of this important educational movement in the United States will there be found, as well as an ade- quate showing of the arguments used by both parties to the discussion. Fullness and accuracy, rather than brevity, have been sought in the compilation from the various authorities there given. It has been said, by one experienced in observing the results of legislation, that the unforeseen, indirect and far- reaching influence of any law was much greater, and often far other, than the intentional results sought by its enact- ment. Perhaps the recent "interstate commerce" law may be instanced as in point. However this may be as applied to man's enactments, it is unquestionably true in relation to the results of his discoveries in the realms of nature, when he has once set his new-found servitors to work ! Who, for instance, could have foreseen that Galvani, experimenting with the legs of frogs in his laboratory in Italy ; Watt, dreamily watching the tea kettle by the cottage hearth in England ; Franklin, kite-flying in the Philadelphia fields ; Fulton, whittling out the model of the strange, sailless craft he was to launch on the Hudson ; or Morse, stringing wires around the walls of his studio in New York, were, each and all of them, more busy with that which would affect for ages all the after development of civilization ; and influence the lives of men and the destinies of nations to a far greater 30 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [734 extent than did the decisive defeat and victory of Waterloo ? Yet the discovery and utilization of the powers of steam and of electricity have not only revolutionized the world of matter, but of ideas ! ADVENT OF THE INDUSTRIAL ERA The era of industrial democracy was made possible by these modest, patient students of nature. As soon as the advance in material development due to their discoveries began to be realized, the male inhabitants, either of king- doms or republics, who had hitherto been regarded only as possible soldiers, began to be respected as producers — active factors in the production of the resources of wealth and power of the country. The new contests between coun- tries gradually became contests between the art, skill and industry of their respective peoples. Not that wars have ceased, or that arms are laid aside, but that the arts of industry, the avocations of peace, begin to be recognized as legitimate fields in which the interests of nations are to be contested. The rulers are alert to impress all discoveries in the arts into the service of war, and are prompt in utilizing all inventions in the industries for warlike preparations. Nevertheless, it grows more and more apparent that the skilled artisan is rising in the scale of importance, while the warrior is valued more and more because he may be the pro- tector of the workman, and of the precious things his art has produced. The world's fairs are recognized as the arenas in which the most brilliant triumphs of nations are to be won. The moment that it was seen that commercial supremacy was based upon industrial superiority, the new era was inaugurated. This was first clearly seen at the first great "world's fair," which was held in Hyde Park in 1851. National efforts to promote technical industrial education on a large scale date from that event. The rise of the mediaeval renaissance does not more clearly date from the discovery of the classic manuscripts than does this modern era of the European renaissance of artistic industries from this great 735] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 3 I fair. The traditions of art industries had, it is true, never been wholly lost in France, but the beginning of that gen- eral movement, which embraces all the European states, which led Russia to recreate Byzantine art, and England to discover new regions of art, and which has begun to be felt even in these United States, can be definitely traced to that 'time of the uplifting of the strange, gleaming, crystal dome above the elms of the London park. DRAWING IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS The beginning of the modern art educational movement in the United States can be as definitely assigned to the year 1870. By a melancholy coincidence which groups the termina- tion of the lives of the three remarkable men by whom this great educational reformation was begun, within a few short months of each other, the close of the first period of this movement, destined to exert immeasurable influence over the future of America, can be fixed as in 1886. In common with Dr. Philbrick and Mr. Perkins, Professor Smith regarded the introduction of industrial art drawing in the schools as but the beginning of the movement for the industrial art education of the American people, as his pub- lished addresses testify. The great movement in the United States which these three men definitely organized, and of the development of which they had a far-sighted, comprehensive view, may be said to have already fairly entered upon the second period of its development, no longer by any means confined to the public schools. THE RELATION OF DRAWING TO THE PRESENT MOVEMENT It is because all training in industrial education that can be given in the public schools as they now exist, or in any new class of schools that may be established with that direct purpose, must, of necessity, be based on the thorough grounding of the pupils in the knowledge and practice of 32 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [736 elementary industrial art drawing, of like character with that first successfully taught in the public schools of Massa- chusetts under the directorship of Professor Walter Smith, that the present widespread movement is termed a second step in the new educational advance. * * * What these three men in Massachusetts did was to demon- strate beyond cavil, that it is as possible in the same time to teach a subject, by means of drawings and objects shown and explained by a teacher to a class, to many pupils simultaneously, as it is to teach the same thing to a single pupil. The effect of this discovery was at once to multiply indefinitely the power and capacity of the public school. For not only was this true of instruction in drawing and in writing, the studies which before had been thought to need particular devotion of the teacher to the individual pupil but it was found applicable to many other studies and to afford great facilities to teachers in illustrating many topics. If industrial art drawing" had no other value than to have furnished this proof of the facility of general instruction to classes, instead of to individual pupils, it would have fully justified all the cost of its introduction in the schools in money, time and effort. Much besides this was effected by the proof that the study of industrial art drawing demanded no special faculty on the part of either pupil or teacher, but could be taught to all by the regular teachers of the schools after a little preliminary training of the teachers themselves in classes. It was long before the popular impression that drawing merely meant picture-making, and that the ability to draw was a special gift of genius, could be corrected ; but this was gradually effected by repeated public exhibitions of the work done by all the pupils of a school, or of all the schools of a town or city, where it was shown that every child whose eyes and fingers were uninjured could learn to draw. The object of the study, which was to train the eye and the hand — the one to accuracy of seeing, the other to facility of execution and exactness of statement — began slowly to be understood. 7$J~\ ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 33 The value of a thorough training in industrial art drawing has at last become so generally recognized as to call for little argument. It is taken for granted in the discussions about the further development of industrial education that the pupils have been taught the elements of drawing, just as, in discussions about new text-books, their ability to read is assumed. It was far otherwise in the beginning. All through the early years of the decade, from 1870 to 1880, there were very few individuals, and fewer school officials in cities and towns, who were in the least aware of the useful- ness of this study. The very places in which the most zealous advocacy for manual training in schools, and for the adoption of all forms of industrial education is now found, were only, after long-continued efforts, led to allow the experiment of teaching drawing in their public schools to be tried. However, the centennial exhibition in Philadel- phia, in 1876, worked wonders in the general diffusion of a knowledge of the possible value of this industrial art educa- tion ; for the American people then first saw into how large a share of the manufactures and arts of mankind this appli- cation of art to material enters ; first learned how values were enhanced by art, and began to realize how art ennobles labor. They saw, also, at Philadelphia, in the collections shown there of the industrial art drawings made by the school children of Massachusetts, by what methods, and with what results, the teaching of this new study could be effected. More than this, the pupils' work in applied mechanics, shown by the Russian schools, illustrating the results of giving definite instruction, in a systematic course, to artisans, was there first seen, and the idea of the " manual training school," since so admirably exemplified in the St. Louis and the Boston schools, modelled after the Russian plan, was familiarized to American educators. Thus, the sure founda- tion for a further advance in the development of industrial education was laid. As soon as the success of this attempt to begin the ele- mentary training of the eye and hand in the public schools 34 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [73% was satisfactorily established, it was evident that a new and valuable means of education had come into use. Educators eagerly adopted and experimented with the new methods, some looking at them only with a view to their application in the art of teaching, their pedagogic value ; others, the majority, seeing in them the means of giving a more directly practical turn to the training in the public schools. The demand for this more practical education has been rapidly growing, and in these new studies were found the first prac- tical suggestions for so modifying the old methods of school education as to adapt them to the new demands. In com- mon with all germinal ideas, they were found capable of various applications and of indefinite development. It was the recognition of this potentiality that led Dr. Philbrick and Mr. Perkins to desire and secure their introduction. When it is seen how truly the present interest in indus- trial training is the legitimate result of the introduction of industrial art drawing in the public schools of Massachusetts, and that, but for this pioneer work in thus clearing the way, and laying the sure beginnings of general technical training in this country, the great Philadelphia exhibition must have failed of any direct practical bearing upon our education, or our industries, other than to greatly stimulate the buying of foreign art manufactures ; the magnitude of the' services ren- dered to the whole country by the three men who originated the plan, and effected the introduction of the practical study of industrial art drawing- in the common schools of Massa- chusetts in 1870, begins to assume larger and grander proportions. That the practical-value to the people of the United States of the opportunities afforded by the splendid displays of their art industries by the nations of the world at Philadel- phia, was greatly enhanced owing to the direct interest in industrial art training, begun in Boston six years before and rapidly developing in Cincinnati, St. Louis, and elsewhere, may safely be assumed ; because the industrial value to a people of the sight of such varied museum collections as 739] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 35 were shown at the centennial, is not mainly derived from the pleasure given to the mere sight-seer, but is owing to the opportunities thus afforded to practical designers and arti- ficers for thorough study of the works shown ; for, as Emer- son sagely says, " No matter how much facility of idle seeing a man has, the step from knowing to doing is rarely taken." It was in this exhibition that the utility of such training in the artistic industries was first made known to large numbers of Americans ; it was here, also, that the methods of success- ful teaching in the elements of these arts were first shown to the whole country. It is of interest thus to be able, sometimes, as in this instance, to trace great results to their causes. This movement was the true dawn of the new era of the industrial art development of America, which was apparently ushered in by the centennial exhibition ; nor, if the move- ment, which has gone steadily forward from those early days, in Boston, meets with no unforeseen interruption, will the term "era" seem inappropriate. That the purpose of the early promoters of the introduc- tion of the teaching of drawing in the public schools of the country, was to develop and promote the knowledge and love of art throughout the community may be inferred from the fact that, in the same year that Walter Smith, himself a sculptor by profession, was brought to Boston, Mr. Charles C. Perkins, — at whose suggestion some two years before, the American social science association had sent to Europe for a number of casts of classical statues and busts to be placed in the new building of " The Newton street girls' high school," — superintended the placing of these works of high art in position ; the architect having provided for them in his plans. The purpose of this collection was two- fold, both to provide fitting decoration for the building, and, " as a simple but efficient means of introducing an aesthetic element into the educational system of the United States," by offering to the pupils, an opportunity to see and compre- hend, some of the works of the great masters of art. With. 36 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION \_7A° this intent Mr. Perkins, himself an acknowledged authority on all matters relating to this subject, gave to the fortunate pupils of that school, a series of lectures on classic art as exemplified by the works before them. This collection comprised casts of ten famous antique statues and eleven busts. In addition to these single examples a portion of the wonderful frieze by Phidias, from the Parthenon, was put in place on the walls. The Museum of fine arts, though incorporated in this year of 1870, was not opened for several years ; so that the casts of the girls' high school collection comprised the most of the works of classic art then accessible to the public in the city. This, then, seems to have been the first instance in this country of the definite undertaking of the artistic adorn- ment of the interior of school buildings, though for many a year, here and there, in some wayside country schoolhouse, a few wild flowers, or garden posies, brought by loving scholar to the youthful teacher, and set in honor upon her desk for all to see, had given unwonted charm and color to the dingy room, with unconscious suggestion of the beauty waiting to transform, at a touch of the magic wand of art, those too often repellant dens of ugliness, the com- mon school rooms of the country, with their desolate, naked walls, into bright attractive homes for the happy children ; such as are to be found to-day in city and town, and along country hillside, all over the land. As the origin of the present somewhat widely extended movement for beautifying the school rooms, has been attrib- uted solely to the movements begun in France and in Eng- land, a decade later (see report of Boston school commit- tee on drawing and music for 1883) — it has seemed well to refer here to the inauguration in 1870, of this earlier Boston idea of placing examples of antique art in the school. For a full account of this Boston experiment, and of other later similar efforts elsewhere, as well as for several papers of interest in this connection, see chapter I of part II, "Art 741] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 37 and industry report," pages i-n, and Appendix " K," part II, pages 709-731. Mr. Perkins, and his associates, sought to give to the young girls, many of them about to become teachers in their turn, some definite knowledge of classic art, so that not only should they see for themselves these objects of ideal beauty, but that all literature should be thus for them illumined — - since the literature both of Europe and America, springs so largely from that of Greece and Rome. Of course the cost of such a collection of casts of ancient art, would preclude any such undertaking in most schools, public or private, but, fortunately, beauty is not to be held a captive, even in golden chains, and, just as the cheaper plaster casts, as in this instance, take the place of costly marbles and bronzes, so engravings and photographs, afford admirable and inexpen- sive reproductions of plastic and pictorial art ; while in our large cities are now publishers who make a specialty of pro- viding- such artistic illustrations, for the use of students, or for the adornment of the study walls, and the halls and assembly rooms, of the schools ; adapted to all needs and to all purses. However, unless the living teacher shall bid these dry bones of art to live, shall unseal the closed eyes of the children so that they can recognize their beauty, and shall awaken their eager curiosity to learn the meaning and the message of these silent ministers of art, they will fail of their mission. The initial movement in Boston, in 1870, for artistic adornment of school rooms, as well as for the art instruction of pupils, was soon followed by similar undertakings in some of the neighboring towns and cities of Massachusetts ; and, later, when the English and French movements became gen- erally known, in many places all over the country. In New York, Brooklyn, Providence, New Haven, Phila- delphia, Chicago, Milwaukee, Denver, San Francisco, and doubtless in many other cities, the movement has made good progress. Long since, in Baltimore, in the Maryland normal school building, under Superintendent Newell, and 38 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [742 in Washington, D. C, in the Franklin school building and the high school building, under Superintendent Wilson, many artistic works had been placed in the halls and school rooms, which are constantly added to, under the supervision of their successors. In Boston, in November, 1894, there was held under the auspices of " The public school art league "" The New England conferences of educational workers" and " The Boston art students' association," a fine exhibition of works suitable for school-house decoration, and in Brooklyn, New York, in the spring of 1896, a similar exhi- bition in charge of the art education section of " The Brook- lyn institute of arts and sciences." This direct outcome of the movement for industrial art training in all public schools, and inspired by the same lead- ers, may serve to show that the art idea was ever in the plan of the founders of this important movement, which, unfor- tunately for awhile, was in great danger of being wholly divorced from any idea of art. The Boston movement for putting the study of drawing into the regular curriculum of the public schools, attracted the attention of educators all over the country, and during his first year in Boston, Professor Smith was invited to attend the convention of state school superintendents held in Washington, to explain the nature and purpose of the innovation of which he was in charge. The strong per- sonality of the man impressed all who listened to his impas- sioned pleadings and aroused a contagious enthusiasm, so that even before the showing of results at the centennial in 1876, the fundamental principles of the movement were well known throughout the educational centers of the public school systems of the several states of the union. THE CULTURE OF THE AESTHETIC FACULTIES FORMS NO FEATURE IN MOST OF THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL COURSES This failure of the art idea in the manual training schools is so evident that some of those who started enthusiastically with the industrial art drawing movement, but were led away 743] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 39 by the more sudden popularity of the industrial training movement to the hearty indorsement and support of the lat- ter, begin to realize the evil they have helped to bring upon the most hopeful educational movement ever begun in these United States, and feebly point to a single manual training school in which — thanks to the fact that the superintendent of that city was once thoroughly in touch with Walter Smith, and had mastered the underlying principles of art training which inspired the teachings of that great master — some Teachings out for aesthetic culture are indicated, as the ground for their hope that in the future, art training in manual training schools " must come as a necessity ! " So, for ages, men have pointed forward to some anticipated millenium ! Neither in the theories, wishes or methods of the people who most actively advocate the manual training movement can the present writer see promise of any valuable develop- ment or training of the aesthetic nature of the public school children of the United States. " The ' industrial training ' and ' manual training school advocates are entitled to much credit for what they have accomplished, and there is much of value in the work they seek to do ; but there is no evidence that they comprehend, or desire, any such art training as Messrs. Philbrick, Per- kins, Smith, and their wise and enthusiastic coadjutors, hoped to add to the educational forces of America." * * * " Had these three men been spared to instruct and to inspire, it seems possible that the hopes they aroused might have met fruition." * * * " The prolonged study of these schools, as well as of the arguments of manual training advocates, incident to the pre- paration of this volume, has led to the reluctant conclusion that, however desirable the development of art among the American people may be, no such development is directly, or indirectly, to be anticipated from the efforts of the advocates of industrial education ; while the methods of the manual training schools are, of necessity, mostly occupied 40 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [744 with the kind of drawing specially adapted to mechanical processes." "It is to be remembered that Professor Woodward, the foremost advocate of the manual training school, has never made any claim for it on the ground that it was an art train- ing" school. He bases the claims of this class of schools on far other grounds. It is rather to those who began as advo- cates of ' industrial art training,' and who, perhaps, finding 'industrial training' more immediately popular, and seeing that it was the outcome of the first movement, hoped to blend the two, that any artistic claim for che latter move- ment is to be attributed." "In the early chapters of the present volume it was argued that the two ideals and methods were by no means incom- patible, nor is there any insurmountable reason why they should be ; but it remains that, almost without exception, the training in these schools under the influence of the industrial education ideals, is away from art, and more and more towards mechanics ; while the advocates seem long since to have forgotten that there was ever any idea of introducing any art training in the public schools, — the drawing they would have taught is practical, mechanical. All this is good, excellent for the purpose sought, but it is not, and has nothing to do with, ' industrial ' or any other art. THE SCOPE OF THE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION MOVEMENT The industrial education movement is far more wide embracing in its scope, than would be implied by the pres- ent prominence of the manual training school feature ; it includes the girls, as well as the boys ; it considers the needs of children in the remote country schools, no less than the wants of those in the crowded cities ; it is busy with the problem of a logical system of training, beginning with the kindergarten and ending only with the high schools. It is a vital movement full of interest and of enthusiasm, and has drawn to its support wide-awake educators all over the land. It has also aroused great interest on the part of 745] ART AND INDUSTRIAL. EDUCATION 41 the public, and some outspoken advocates, inexperienced in the practical work of education, have in their enthusiasm, made many statements in regard to existing methods of education which are fairly open to criticism. As stated, the general awakening of interest in the educa- tional industrial possibilities caused by the rapid extension of the movement for the adoption of drawing as one of the required studies in all public elementary schools, had a marked tendency to eliminate the art idea. So little was the knowledge of, or interest in, art in any community, that the first advocates of drawing, though, as has here been clearly indicated, they valued the study chiefly for its relation to the arts, spoke to the public mostly of the industrial value of drawing, seeking thereby to recommend the new study. The enthusiastic efforts of the advocates of drawing, the remarkable personal influence of Professor Walter Smith, the showing made at the centennial exposition of the suc- cessful work of the students of the Boston normal art school, and of the work of the Boston school children, gave a great impetus to the development and spread of the industrial art movement throughout the country, so that it seemed to be on the point of complete success, and of being adopted in all the public schools of the states. Suddenly, however, a change came. After twelve years of devotion to his import- ant work of supervision, Mr. Smith resigned as art director of the state, as principal of the normal art school, and as in charge of the art training of the Boston public schools, and returned to England. The marked change that followed in the direction of the educational movement from industrial art training- to manual training and the teaching of trades, was doubtless due some- what to the general indifference to art felt by a large part of the public ; but, more largely, to the failure of intelligent support of the art ideal, due in part, as suggested, to the return of Walter Smith to England — driven out by antago- nisms, but in a greater degree to the almost simultaneous removal by death of the able early promoters of an art pur- 42 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [746 pose in the study. To the concurrence of these lamentable events may fairly be attributed the almost total eclipse of any art idea in the study of drawing which for a time prevailed. At this period the purpose which inspired the early pro- moters of the new study of drawing seemed hopelessly lost in the new-born zeal for mechanical drawing as relating only to "manual training" — to making things; and to the pre- posterous, though popular, idea of graduating from the pub- lic schools boys of fourteen and eighteen years of age as thoroughly-trained expert mechanics ! The simplest principles of educational and technical industrial standards are alike violated by such claims and endeavors. Since statistics show that the vast majority of children in the United States remain in the public schools only five years — the period varying somewhere between the ages of five and of twenty years — no argument seems called for to demonstrate that the skill requisite for a competent, self- supporting mechanic can hardly be acquired during those few years of youthful, immature development. The not uncommon exhibition of steam engines and other complex machines, as having been designed and built in the school, by boys of only fifteen or eighteen years of age, needs no comment. The claim that the simple mechanical processes can be taught; some knowledge of the use of tools acquired, and much given that will serve to prepare the boy for the subse- quent technical training which is essential to his success, but suitable only to one of added years and maturer physical development, is perfectly tenable ; so that manual training, as elementary preparation for the technical study of future life- work, or, as giving some desirable general knowledge of mechanics, is to be warmly commended and encouraged, but it is not to be taught as antagonistic to the elementary instruc- tion in drawing, the alphabet of art as well as of mechanics. It is an evidence of the common sense of the community that such waves of feverish interest in educational experi- 747] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 43 ments are but of short duration. Inevitably somewhat later the new study, which at first was to revolutionize all former educational theories and methods, gravitates to its proper place in the general scheme of education, according to its proved relative importance. This was strikingly illustrated a few years since, in the schedule of studies in the Massa- chusetts institute of technology. When manual training was there first introduced a large workshop in a separate building was given to it, and pages in the catalogue were devoted to the outline courses of the new study, but, in a year or two, the grand common sense of General Francis A. Walker, while retaining it in the institute, had quietly rele- gated it alike in building and catalogue, to its rightful position as a subordinate feature among the varied courses taught in that practical university. So, within the past few years, a similar reaction has come in connection with the public schools, and the art quality of drawing is again recognized. It is to be hoped that the essential difference between the educational value of a study as a method of developing and stimulating the intellect, and that simple iteration of thought and movement, essential to the production of technical facility in mechanical operations, will not again be lost sight of by the educators or the public. OFFICIAL STATISTICS SHOWING THE GROWTH AND PRESENT CON- DITION OF MANUAL TRAINING IN THE UNITED STATES In the statistical tables of the annual reports of the com- missioner of education, the facts in relation to the various public schools, and educational institutions of the country, are carefully tabulated ; and occasionally, at intervals of several years, full chapters of the report are given to the consideration of one or more of the several classes of edu- cational institutions. In the annual report for 1893-94, issued in 1896, were published full tables of statistics of manual and industrial training in city public schools, and other educational insti- tutions, in the United States. 44 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [748 These comprised full details of courses given in the pub- lic schools of ninety-five towns and cities; in forty-nine institutions of collegiate grade ; in nineteen normal schools, and in seventeen manual training schools. In addition, there were the industrial statistics of sixty-three colored schools ; fifty-five schools for the deaf ; twenty-six schools for the blind ; nineteen for the feeble minded ; fifty-three reform schools ; eighteen charity schools ; six trade schools, and twenty-seven United States Indian schools. This report also contains a most interesting chapter on " the rise and progress of manual training," by C. M. Woodward, director of the manual training school of Washington university, of St. Louis, Missouri. (Volume I, pages 877-949.) In the annual report for 1895-96, issued in 1897, were pub- lished several chapters relating to " industrial " and " indus- trial art" training. Chapter xvi, relating to "typical insti- tutions offering manual or industrial training," (see vol. II, pages 1001-1152), treats of city public schools in eighteen leading cities ; manual training schools in five cities ; trade schools, six ; normal schools, five ; schools for defective classes, eight ; schools for colored pupils, five ; miscellaneous institutions, many of them endowed, sixteen. These repre- sent all varieties of typical training schools, and of schools in which industrial training is an important feature. In the annual report for 1896-97, issued in 1898, Statistics of schools for manual and industrial training (vol. 2, pp. 2279-2294) are given for public schools in ninety-nine cities, and in 359 institutions, other than city schools. There are sixty-six manual training schools and twenty-four industrial schools for Indian children. In the annual report for 1897-98, issued in 1899, chapter xlviii, volume 2, is given to detailed statistics of manual and industrial training, References are given to similar statistics in the several annual reports from 1888-89. Statistics for 1897-98 are given for 114 manual training schools, an increase of 15 over the preceding year. Of these, 24 are industrial schools for Indian children. 749] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 45 No attempt was made to collect statistics of manual train- ing given in other schools. Such statistics were given in the report for 1893-94. The following statistics show the steady growth of this training in public schools: In 1890, reports were given of 37 cities; in 1894, of 93 cities; in 1896, of 121 cities, and in 1898 there were 146 cities in the schools of which manual training was taught. A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INTENT OF THE VOLUMES ALREADY ISSUED OF THE ART AND INDUSTRY REPORT As reference has been freely made to the " special report on art and industry," issued by congress, and the United States bureau of education, I briefly recapitulate here the main divisions of the three first volumes, before coming to the general consideration of the present condition of the country, both in its art development and in its facilities for education in art, and in the technical application both of art and of science to industry, which precedes the main body of part IV, the final volume of the report yet issued. The first two volumes of this report dealt mostly with the elementary public schools — these last two with the artistic and industrial training in other schools, and classes, for older pupils, and are given more directly to the methods of indus- trial training, though, in each volume, the art ideal, which inspired the Boston promoters of the new education, is ever kept in view, and it is to be hoped may not seem to have been neglected. This was the absolutely new element added to our American methods of public education, an element to us of priceless value. The universal Yankee Nation had shown no inferiority in the application of mechanical invention to indus- try, and there seemed no especial need of increasing educa- tional activity in that direction. "Necessity" had, early in New England, proved a prolific "mother of invention," and the increasing peoples in other parts of the land showed no falling off in mechanical ingenuity. It was far otherwise in all matters relating to the fine arts. 46 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [750 As the first volume of the art and industry report was given to an account of the introduction of drawing into the regular courses of study in the public schools, so the second volume was devoted to a similar account of the widespread movement for putting "manual training" and industrial education in its various forms in the public elementary schools. The third volume was given to an account of the volun- tary associations, by mechanics and others, in the several cities and towns, for mutual improvement by means of read- ing rooms, libraries, courses of lectures, etc., and which, also, in most instances, began with elementary common schools and, as rapidly as public free schools were established by the community, grew into special, technical trade schools, in some cases of a high technical or artistic character ; as new educational demands, not as yet met by the public schools, were recognized. These furnish a most interesting class of schools, varying with the local needs of their communities, and are admirable examples of the practical working out of educational and industrial problems by a voluntary effort of self-help by independent citizens. These were, in many places, eventually supplemented by the efforts of liberal individual citizens, who founded schools and institutions with similar purpose, namely, to give to youth, otherwise unable to secure them, educational facilities to fit them to become self-supporting citizens. This ever- growing throng of public benefactors, led by McDonough, Franklin and Girard, nigh a century ago, is one of the proudest glories of the American people. Space fails here to record the names already inscribed on this golden book of fame. Accounts of a number of these admirable institu- tions, mostly of superior technical character, are given in volume three. In the fourth volume, the last of the series as yet issued, accounts are given of the typical manual training schools ; of five leading technical mechanical schools ; of some trade schools ; of a most interesting educational experiment under- 75 i] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 47 taken by the Baltimore and Ohio railway under the auspices of President Robert Garrett, in 1885-87; and of the schools of science and engineering of the land grant colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. No attempt is made, however, to give a complete view of these latter institu- tions ; the accounts of these colleges are limited to notices of those departments which give instruction in drawing and the industrial arts. 1 These two volumes thus continue the accounts of the development of industrial art education, begun in part I, by the history of the introduction of the study of drawing in the public schools and continued in part II, by accounts of the surprisingly rapid development of manual training, as a part of public school education in the United States. A phase of educational activity and enthusiasm which, for a season, seemed to threaten the extinction of any idea of artistic development ; and to substitute for the aesthetic cul- ture of the youthful mind, simply a certain amount of manual dexterity in the manipulation of mere mechanical move- ments, with a limited training in the elements of common industries. All of these practical bits of manual training are useful in their turn, but the sum of this training fur- nishes but a pitiful substitute, as an element of education, for that aesthetic industrial art training which those far-see- ing educators, Walter Smith, John D. Philbrick, and Charles C. Perkins, so successfully began in Boston in 1870. At that era it was evident to all intelligent observers that the one element absolutely lacking in all American education was the aesthetic. Art as an essential feature of education was unknown. It is true that the literary arts, poetry and oratory, received some little attention in the higher institu- tions, and that instruction in elementary music was not wholly neglected in the public schools ; but, so far from any attempt to give even the most cursory knowledge of the graphic and plastic arts, being made generally in the higher educa- 1 For current statistics of these colleges see latest annual reports issued by the United States commissioner of education. 48 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [752 tional institutions of the country, they were simply ignored, while aesthetics were only thought of as forming a subordi- nate branch of metaphysics. This absence of any knowledge of, or training in, the fine arts, held true in all American public educational institu- tions, from the district school to the college. There were then no true universities, though several small but ambitious colleges were incumbered by the grandiose title. While this statement as to the absence of any general opportunity for seeing examples of the fine arts, and as to the lack of any attempt to give a knowledge of the arts of painting and sculpture in the public schools and other public educational institutions in the United States is not exagger- ated, it is nevertheless true that the fine arts were not wholly ignored in America, and that, as early as the latter part of the 1 8th century, the names of some few American artists were known to the world, while early in the present century efforts were made by a few people of culture to establish art centres in several of our cities. Facts relating to the early history of these sporadic efforts to form art academies and public art collections, have been most eagerly sought and collected for the present work. These interesting histories will be given in parts V and VI of this report. In view of the later developments, especially of the growing general interest in, and knowledge of, art matters since the begin- ning of the movement in Boston for teaching elementary drawing in the public schools, and the vastly greater impulse to public interest in everything pertaining to art, given in turn by the holding of the Centennial and the Columbian expositions, the story of these early efforts acquires added interest. To the self-denying efforts of a few artists and art enthusiasts, were suddenly added the enthusiasm and the active support of an awakened public. In view of the many collections of casts of antique sculp- ture, and of the private and public art galleries, rich in exam- ples of the work of the leading modern artists of Europe and America, which, as the result of this "awakening," are 753] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 49 to be found in the United States in the year 1898, and of the special art classes and art schools now in our cities, with the very general interest shown in the literature of the arts, and, further, in view of the present easy access by the public to the before-mentioned art collections, the statement con- cerning the scarcity in America, as recently as in 1870, of similar opportunities, would seem almost incredible. It is, nevertheless, the fact that, at that date, there were but four or five small collections of casts of classic sculpture in the whole country. Boston, New Haven, New York, Philadel- phia and Washington, had each a few examples of such casts ; but all the casts of sculpture then in the country, both in public and private possession, would not equal in num- bers or value, the casts now possessed by the leading art museum in any one of these cities ; while in towns, cities, and colleges, all over the land, are to be found valuable and interesting collections of casts and paintings. Two statistical tables in part I of this report, show clearly the poverty of this nation in public art collections, and in opportunities for learning art, as recently as 1873. There were then but eight colleges which gave any instruc- tion whatever in art, or that had any collections of art works, while there were but five public art museums in the whole land. (See tables on pages 502-507 ; part I of this report.) The Centennial exposition in Philadelphia, in 1876, was a revelation to the American people, not only of the glory of the graphic and plastic arts, as shown by the world's great living artists, sculptors and painters ; but, also, of the variety and beauty imparted to articles of usefulness and ornament by the wonderfully artistic weavers, potters, and metal-workers of the Orient, and by the skilled art workers of Europe. The impulse then given to public interest to art, in America, may perhaps be most readily realized by a glance at the table of statistics of institutions giving art instruc- tion, and of the public art museums, existing in the United States in 1883, given in part I of this report. (See part I, 50 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [754 pages 385-411.) Thirty-seven institutions, which give some form of art instruction, and thirty museums of art, are recorded in these tables, — certainly a remarkable increase in the opportunities for art culture provided for the public to have been effected in the short time of ten years ! The increase of such opportunities since 1883, by the opening to the public of similar facilities for art culture, both by the founding of public art galleries, the making of private collections of art, and the general dissemination of information on all matters relating to the arts, by the press, and by lectures and addresses, have been no less remarkable, stimulated as all this interest has been by the holding of the exhibition in Chicago, in 1892-93 ; for, wonderful as were the revelations of the Centennial, to the public of 1876, the marvellous showing of the Columbian exhibition, or world's fair, at Chicago, in 1892-93, com- pletely overshadowed them. In this latter exhibition of the world's industries and arts, was shown not only the striking advances made since 1876, by all the world, in every field of human activity, knowl- edge and enterprise, in art and industry ; but, also, more impressively if possible, — at any rate more significant educa- tionally, — than these myriad treasures from all the earth, was the revelation of the marvellous beauty of that white city by the inland sea ; with its classic peristyle, worthy of the Athens of Pericles and Phidias ; its lofty pillared fronts and swelling domes — its vast palaces stretching in seem- ing endless procession. The beautiful transitory treasure houses America had built for the world's richest offerings ! These stately structures — which filled every beholder with wonder and delight — proclaimed to the world that, in the intervening years following the Centennial, the young nation of the west had given birth to a race of great builders — architects, sculptors, painters and decorators, worthy to rank with the world's worthiest ! As the American architects had, as a body, early under- taken to secure thorough training in that art, for the young 755] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 5 1 men aspiring to enter their profession, this demonstration of the grand results of thorough artistic training in architecture and its kindred arts was in the nature of a triumphal verdict in favor of definite education — of special training — in art, as well as in science, or in the so-called " learned professions." Thus, while these temporary buildings by their variety, fitness and beauty of proportion, won the admiration of all beholders, they were, in fact, but a great object lesson, illus- trating on a gigantic scale what education in architecture, art and artistic decoration could effect. The noble building of the Boston public library, since erected, and the stately marble palace of the National library, so recently opened in Washington, are enduring monuments, showing what the art of American architects, builders, sculptors and painters can accomplish, in these closing years of the nineteenth century, in the construction and adornment of a great public library. The exterior walls and sculptures of the National library, the interior halls and grand stairways, and, above all, the pro- fusion, variety and general excellence of the sculptured and pictorial artworks enriching walls and ceilings within, remind us that we are, even now, in this nineteenth century, living in the years of that " renaissance " which did not pass away, as we once thought, with the passing of Angelo, Raphael, Da Vinci, and their peers, but which is still vital with inspiration, so that here, on this to them unknown continent, opportuni- ties are beginning for the future art masters of the world. When Hunt painted his two great allegorical pictures on the walls of the legislative chamber in the state capitol at Albany, that great artist " builded better than he knew," though, alas ! his own works so quickly passes ; for, by that single precedent, he opened up all wall spaces of public buildings to the future artists of America ; so that hereafter, in this land, it shall be held — just as it was in Europe cen- turies ago — that the walls and ceilings of all palaces, churches, and other public buildings are to be considered but as the durable canvas of the painters. 52 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [756 That " rebirth " of the past, which came with the dis- covery of a few of the art wonders of Greece, occurring almost simultaneously with the regaining of some of the intellectual glories of Greece and Rome, in the unearthing of a few manuscripts which gave to us moderns a glimpse of their glorious intellectual triumphs — as yet unsurpassed and seemingly unsurpassable — gave to our conception of the capacity of the human intellect a new ideal, and woke the world to life ! What the wonders of the classic age, in art and literature, must have been, we can faintly imagine, contemplating the works of the intellectual and artistic giants of Italy in the middle ages, who sprang into being at the magic call of a few scattered fragments of the words and works of the mightier ancients ; just as, in Holy Writ, we are told, the chance touch of the bones of the prophet Elisha woke the dead to life ! So, to-day, as Homer, Aeschylus, Demosthenes, Aristotle and Plato, dominate the world of letters in poetry, eloquence and philosophy, Phidias, Ictinus, Appelles, and their com- peers, lead the worshippers of art. In art, in our own day, have been repeated similar discov- eries to those which in literature, four centuries ago, aroused to new activities the mind of Europe ; for the revelations of Etruscan tombs, the patient explorations by Layard, Schlie- mann and Di Cesnola, the unearthing of the terra cotta figurines in Tanagra, the later work by English and Ameri- can enthusiastic scholars in Greece, in these very days, have brought home to us moderns a comprehension of the vitality of classic art ; which, contrary to our earlier impressions, we now find to have been busied not only with the ideal images of the Olympian divinities, but also with the every-day life of the people, all testifying to the solidarity of the human race ; for, quickened by the life-giving touch of their artists in those far-off centuries, the little figurines of the graceful maidens of Tanagra, reveal, in their unconscious attitudes, the same love of dress, the same delight in free movement 757] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 53 and flowing robes, in short, the same irrepressible joy in life, and the same marvelous beauty of youth, which meets us to-day on every hand, a-foot or a-wheel, in the blushing maidens of 16 years in this fair land, the unknown "ultima thule " of the ancients ! So past and present meet and blend, taking no thought of the thousand intervening years ! Here to-day, the thought, the art, of Athens and Rome, shape our thoughts and arts ; so that we, consciously or unconsciously, are the children of that elder civilization. The most recent illustration of this influence of classic examples upon our modern American art ideals, to which reference has been made, occurs among the buildings of the exposition held in Nashville, Tennessee, in this summer of 1897, where the crowning architectural charm is found in the strikine restoration of the Parthenon of Athens, which, is the model taken for the art building, of the exposition. This reproduction is spoken of as full of grandeur and beauty. It is also remarked that the government building erected for showing the governmental exhibits, has, fortunately, been modelled after the Chicago exhibition art building ; so that, instead of being externally, as was the one at Chi- cago, a hideous enormity, in contrast with the artistic build- ings surrounding it, this copy in little, of the beautiful con- struction designed by Richard M. Hunt for the art building of Chicago, is not out of harmony even when brought into contrast with the world renowned chef d'azttvre of Ictinus and Phidias. This is all the more to be rejoiced in, because it began to seem that, under the stress for room in our modern cities, all ideas of beauty in architecture must, perforce, be wholly subordinated to the frenzy of piling stories upon stories, till the builders seemed to have no ideal other than that of the Tower of Babel. This epidemic of many storied buildings has had a most unfortunate effect, in many instances, in degrading the architectural aspect of our older cities. Perhaps some of the 54 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [758 most striking examples of this incidental evil, are to be found in the city of New York, where the ever beautiful old familiar landmark of Trinity church steeple has been elimi- nated from the once attractive view of the city as seen from the bay. In addition to this misfortune must be reckoned the recent belittling of that charming example of palace architecture, the New York city hall, formerly so well shown standing as it did in the ample open square given to it in the heart of the town, now, seeming as if at the bottom of some mountain valley, towered over by the clustering cliff- like business buildings that crowd about the square, shutting out all views save of their own precipitous walls. In Washington, an impertinent modern apartment house, towering in apparent emulation of the Washington monu- ment, obtrudes its awkward outlines and gigantic bulk in every possible view of the capital city, once so beautiful as seen from every point of vantage and uglifies it all. In some, at least, of the cities of Europe, the observer can hardly fail to notice that, while the residences and busi- ness buildings in the streets of the city may make no pre- tence to any display of architecture — often being notice- able rather by reason of excessive plainness — care has been taken to secure for the public buildings of church or state — the cathedral and the civic palace — ample space, where no private erections could ever destroy the harmony of pro- portion, or impair the true architectural effect of the building. In this country, notably in the very instance of the New York city hall, this effect was supposedly secured by the generation who built it only to be thrown away by a later generation of ignoble or careless successors. In the situation of the capitol building of the United States in Washington, D. C, and in those of the state capi- tol buildings in Albany, New York ; in Boston, Massachu- setts ; in Hartford, Connecticut ; in Nashville, Tennessee, and in many another state capital, the sites are commanding, It is to be hoped that in the choice of the situation of the new buildings of Columbia college and the new cathedral 759] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 55 on Morningside heights, New York city, the relative position of those several buildings have been so chosen as to be architecturally isolated, so that no such misfortunes can affect them, as have recently relegated Trinity church and the city hall to comparative obscurity. If, hereafter, American towns and cities, take pains to secure ample room and effective positions for their chief architectural buildings, the lesson to be learned from the humiliating experience architecturally, of New York city, may not be without compensation. In a republic, it seems eminently fitting that the powerful effects of great architecture should be reserved for the public buildings of church and state, rather than be lavished on the comparatively humble dwellings of private citizens, however wealthy, or personally powerful, they may chance to be ; for the individual passes, but the state remains. In a country like ours, where, fortunately, there is no hereditary class, it is absolutely wasteful for any private citi- zens to build palaces for their residences, only to leave them to be enjoyed by strangers, as has been, and seemingly must continue to be, the history of many of the costly private dwellings built by ostentatious millionaires in the United States, during the past few decades. It is well that this should be so. Great art is for all the people, and can no more be limited to a few, than can the blessed sunlight ; which floods alike the hut of the hind and the palace of the noble. The present volume of this report, as well as the one immediately preceding, is mainly given rather to a consider- ation of the opportunities afforded in these United States, for acquiring technical industrial and scientific training, than to the facilities for acquiring knowledge of, and skill in, the so-called fine arts ; though, in view of the intimate connec- tion which -exists between the industrial and fine arts, and of the fact that much of the elementary training is essentially the same in both, the consideration of either is in place in each and every volume of this report ; though the given 56 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [760 volume may be mostly occupied with the other. It is with this thought that the foregoing pages have been given to the brief summary of the recent remarkable development of the fine and decorative arts, in connection with the forward movement in the architecture of public buildings, so strik- ingly illustrated in the recently erected library buildings, in Boston and Washington. The just completed building of the Chicago public library, though on a smaller scale than the others, and, in further contrast, making larger use of merely decorative marbles in wall surfaces than of the work of the artist painters, is, nevertheless, unmistakably of the renaissance period. The wonderful wealth in decorative carvings and grandi- ose stairways, in the as yet uncompleted state capitol at Albany, suggests some of the undesirable features of the later renaissance, in which in the interiors, costliness of material and work, seemed to take the place of artistic inspiration ; while the ostentatious piling up of costly stone exteriors, suffocated all efforts of living art. A heathen apotheosis of mere material wealth, against which gothic art was a religious protest ; and concerning which John Ruskin has so earnestly and eloquently warned the men of his own day. Coldly inhuman, these towering piles of quar- ried stone, frowning above our city streets, seem as menac- ing as hostile fortresses. The grand marble stairway of the capitol building in Albany, designed by Richardson, and said to be the most beautiful and costly example of elaborate carved work in the country, which has taken more than twelve years in its construction, seems to repeat, in the lavish profusion of its carving, something of the extravagance of the later renais- sance. It is due, however, to the architects of this great building, Messrs. Fuller, Eidlitz and H. H. Richardson, to state that its exterior in nowise recalls the characteristics of those ostentatious buildings referred to; while it is well to remember that, if anywhere profusion of art decoration is fitly employed, it is in enriching and dignifying the impor- 76 1] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 57 tant public buildings designed for the uses of the people. In considering this particular people's palace, all who love art must ever remember that it was in this building, as has already been here stated, that William M. Hunt, the great painter, set to the American artists and builders of our time the striking lesson of noble art decoration so for- tunately followed in the great public library buildings just completed. In the zeal of this new awakening on the part of Ameri- can architects and their employers to a practical recognition of the value of art in the decoration of the interior wall surfaces of public buildings — the most recent examples of which I have instanced — -it should not be forgotten that, decades before these later buildings were planned, those who had charge of the construction of the grand building of the nation's capitol at Washington had freely availed themselves of the works of the American painters of their day, beginning as early as 1837, to illustrate memorable and pivotal events in the history of the republic ; so that, on entering the grand rotunda, the visitors found themselves encircled by a series of large historical paintings, of a size in harmony with the colossal proportions of the encircling walls which supported the upspringing arches of the crown- ing dome ; while in the dome itself, in a blaze of allegory, dear to the heart of Italy, was given the Italian artist's con- ception of the great powers essential to the prosperity of a people, and, though diplomatically disguised in appellation, a glimpse of the crowning triumph of the nation in its latest terrible struggle for existence. From the landing of Columbus to the coming of Lincoln, — he who runs may read ; in the paintings, the bas-reliefs and the encircling frieze, " in tempera" — (though little can be said in praise of the artistic excellence of the relievos and the frieze) — the dramatic events of the centuries which have resulted in giving to the world the republic of these United States of America. Our legislators called not only on the painters, but also 58 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [762 summoned the sculptors, to the adornment of this, the chief building of their country, and gradually important works by Greenough, Powers, Crawford and Rogers were secured. In addition to these works by native artists, the services of Italian artists, as decorators, were largely availed of in the halls, galleries and committee rooms of the building ; while in the wings, occupied, respectively, by the legislative cham- bers of the House of Representatives and the Senate, later American artists have added many fine works illustrating the history, or the scenery, of the country. It has been a fashion with many writers, posing as art critics, to speak contemptuously of the historical paintings in the rotunda. However true their criticism may have been, if comparison of these paintings with the chef d'ceuvres of the world's great artists — Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese, Velasquez, Rubens, and other great art masters in historical painting, either in their conception of the subject or mastery of technique, are concerned ; it should not be forgotten, in endeavoring to estimate the value of this art work to the country, that, a half century or more ago, few American citizens who entered that building had ever before had the opportunity to look upon a fine work of art of any kind. It followed, therefore, that the sight of that grand rotunda, with its uplifting dome, its great paintings, was an event never to be forgotten ; and the grandeur and inspiration of the scene gave to many their first realization of the meaning, the power, and the possibilities of art. There have been American artists, before and since these works were painted, who justly rank as artists far in advance of Trumbull (though few have left works which can surpass in brilliancy his small, jewel-like originals of these large paint- ings, long the pride of the Yale college art gallery), Weir, Chapman, Vanderlyn, and Powell, the painters of the works in the rotunda ; but it may well be questioned whether, before 1870, any other American artists have given to so many of their fellow countrymen their first appreciation of something of the glory of art ! 763] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 59 A debt of gratitude is due to the legislators who author- ized and the artists who executed these works. Nor, taken as a whole, are the art adornments of this, the noblest legislative building in the world, inferior to those of similar modern public buildings in European countries. Art in the early part of the nineteenth century, so far as shown in statuary on the exterior of buildings, was in nowise gen- erally superior to the grandiose sculptures by Persico, which stand in the east portico of the rotunda ; while the group by Greenough is far superior to the ordinary statuary of that day. Nor, in painting, was Trumbull so greatly inferior to his master, West! In fact, the era of the reign of the fourth George of England, and his immediate successor, was, nowhere in Europe, memorable as illustrating the highest ideals of art. Early in this century America had, in Allston and Stuart, art masters equal to their contempo- raries of any other nations. In view of this long-continued example of the possibilities of the artistic use of interior wall surfaces, as shown by the pictorial illustrations in the rotunda, of the history of the country, by well-known artists ; and, also, by decorative paintings on minor wall spaces, which adorn the interiors of the nation's capitol building ; the fact of the almost entire absence throughout this period of similar wall paintings and decorations in other civic public buildings in the land, as well as in churches, and private dwellings, so that the paintings by Hunt, in the state house, at Albany, can be accurately designated as marking the definite beginning of the present era of the general artistic interior decoration of buildings, civic and religious, public and private; — fur- nishes a convincing proof of the utter lack, on the part of the American people as a whole, of any general knowledge and appreciation of the value of art in its application to the buildings, and the furnishings, of life, prior to the holding of the Centennial exposition, in Philadelphia, in 1876. It may well be urged that, up to that time, this busy peo- ple were too fully occupied in completing the physical con- 60 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [7^4 quest of a vast territory, in subduing forests, bridging streams and opening virgin prairies to cultivation ; in pro- viding for the transportation, housing, and feeding of the ever-surging incoming tides of eager emigrants ; were in short too busy in their imperative task of making history ; to find time, or thought, for its artistic record ! When, at last, they found time to pause and study the lessons of that Centennial, they proved apt students ; as the Columbian exposition has shown ! Yet notwithstanding this later surprising and artistic evolution of the American people, so widespread and rapid has been the development of technical training in its appli- cation to industrial and fine art manufactures throughout the leading countries of the continent of Europe, and also, though begun later, in Great Britain, that, although the development in elementary artistic training and its facilities for the acquisitition of advanced instruction in these arts, in the United States, has been wonderfully increased since the beginning in Boston, in 1870, of the movement for school instruction in drawing, and the holding of the Centennial exposition in Philadelphia, in 1876; still, in the opportuni- ties offered for the training of skilled youthful workers in the industries of applied art, the United States, to-day, — in view of the persistent efforts and great advances made dur- ing the past twenty years, by European countries, in pro- viding such educational facilities, — are relatively, hardly in any better position to contest successfully with the products of the trained workers of Europe, than they were in 1870. Nevertheless the efforts made in this country by leading educators, and by liberal patrons of artistic and technical education, have been notable, and most worthy of honor ; while the great advance since the Centennial, as shown in the art qualities of American manufactures, in jewelry, in glass, in art fabrics in silk, in woolen and in cotton, as well as in architecture, and in all material pertaining to the decorative arts, has been simply marvellous. So far, also, as affording requisite opportunities for acquir- 765] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 6l ing thorough training in the fine arts of painting, sculpture and architecture, the few art schools in the United States compare most favorably with those of the older countries ; so that it is no longer essential — though it may often be, for other reasons, desirable — for the ambitious young painter, sculptor or architect, to exile himself in order to obtain needed opportunities for instruction in those several arts. Nor are our leading technical schools of science infe- rior in equipment or in quality of instruction to the similar schools in Europe. These schools in the United States are, however, so few in number, in proportion to our increasing population as compared to the number and variety of those offered to the citizens of the leading art industrial European countries of Germany, Switzerland, Belgium and France — > not to mention Great Britain, Austria, Italy and Russia — that the inadequacy in numbers of our schools for training the captains of industry, not to mention those merely techni- cal trade schools designed for creating a force of trained workers, impresses itself painfully upon the investigator in these fields. With the increasing knowledge of the forces of nature acquired by the patient investigations continually carried on by scientists of every class, in chemistry, in geology, in natural philosophy, in mining, both in the methods of mechanical operations and in the reduction of ores ; in short, in the gen- eral application of the discoveries of science throughout the various realms of nature, to the needs of man, which so con- stantly revolutionize former methods and create ever new demands ; for example, in the endeavor to secure the eco- nomic production of electricity and to contrive the best methods for its application to human uses, not to speak of the similar needs in other fields, the demand on the commu- nity for the founding of institutions for giving thorough training in these latest discoveries of science is imperative. In all these ever-recurring demands for the invention and application of methods by which to make these discoveries of science available in the industries of life, a knowledge of, I 62 ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION [766 and practical facility in, the art of mechanical drawing," becomes absolutely indispensable ; consequently, this ele- mentary branch of industrial art clearly forms an essential factor in modern industrial education, and, of necessity, holds place in all the elementary and higher schools of tech- nology ; hence, though its relation to the so-called " high arts " may at times seem somewhat remote, its claim to a place in this report on art and industry is unquestionable. To close this sketch of the beginning and progressive development of this important educational movement, with- out making honorable mention by name of some, at least, of the many enthusiastic supporters and earnest co-workers with the three men who were literally the pioneers in this momentous experiment, is to leave it incomplete, indeed. To give here a complete list of the many educators and lovers of beauty who gave it warm welcome ; of the mod- est teachers who shrank from no labor in the effort to fit themselves to teach the unfamiliar lessons, were an impos- sible task. Great effort was made, however, by the writer in the volumes of the art and industry report, to secure full record of the names of all workers for this special branch of education. It may be said, greatly to the credit of our countrymen, that while there was at first, on the part of many, great and freely outspoken opposition to the move- ment, yet very many of the acknowledged leaders in educa- tional circles — state or city — school superintendents, with professors in colleges and normal schools, gave instant and hearty welcome to Walter Smith and his methods ; that the press generally gave support to the efforts to put both draw- ing and manual training in the schools, and that, as rapidly as the purpose and methods of industrial drawing were gen- erally known, that movement won for itself popular support, while the movement for manual training in the schools was at once heartily welcomed by the great majority of the people. One movement, almost cotemporary, for promoting instruction in the fine arts, both in the institutions of learn- ing and in the community at large, met with cordial response 767] ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 63 from many of the colleges and from numerous liberal citi- zens. As the result of generous gifts, public collections of casts from the antique became accessible in many institu- tions of learning and in many localities where, before 1870, they were absolutely unknown. To patronize artists, and also to make art gifts to public museums and to colleges, became a fashion, so that great numbers of examples of the best modern art masters of Europe, are now in this country, either in the hands of pri- vate owners or in public art galleries. Meantime numbers of young American painters and sculptors are winning favor in Europe and America, while the art schools in this country are thronged with eager aspirants. Enough has been cited of American art accomplishment to convince us that one would no longer be justified in saying of this "era" of 1899, as was said of another era at the opening of this chapter, that "the one element absolutely lacking in all American educa- tion was the aesthetic !" Industrial art proves its worth to a country by its results, as shown in the industrial output. To record the amazing variety and exquisite charm of the countless productions of art work in metals, ceramics, and fabrics by Americans of this "era" would demand volumes. 15 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES BY EDWARD ELLIS ALLEN Principal of the Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind, Overbrook, Pennsylvania EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES Systematic care of the defective classes began in America in 1815, when a young theological student, Thomas Hop- kins Gallaudet, started for Europe to study methods of teaching the deaf and dumb. A school for this class was opened in 181 7, one for the blind in 183 1, and one for the feeble-minded in 1845 — practically fifteen years apart. In each case the first schools were in New England, the second in New York, the third in Pennsylvania; and these schools followed one another quickly. All started in the face of more or less distrust as to their feasibility. At first all were experimental, being started through private initiative. A few pupils were taught and exhibited before the amazedi public, when in the case of the deaf and the blind private funds in abundance were contributed and the schools quickly established as private corporations. In the case of the feeble- minded the first school to be incorporated was a public organization — that is, it was supported by the state. Before 1822 the state had not been educated to the point of supporting schools for the special classes, but by 1848 it was ready to see its duty towards even the idiotic, though wealthy people were by no means prepared to contribute directly to schools for them. The three states named having led the way, the move- ment spread quickly into Ohio, Kentucky, Virginia and Illi- nois — in almost identical order for each special class. Here, however, the schools for the three classes arose as state insti- tutions. It had become an accepted part of public policy for the state to provide a means of education for all her children. The superintendents of the early schools for the deaf and dumb were generally clergymen ; those of the blind and the idiotic, generally physicians. The institutions were necessarily boarding schools ; and the early ones were 4 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [772 established as a rule in or near the state capitals, chiefly that their achievements might be kept before the members of the legislatures, on whose practical sympathy the continu- ance of the schools usually depended. The large private or semi-public institutions are confined to the eastern states, where the movement began. Their support comes chiefly from private bequests and the interest on invested endowment funds. All, however, receive what is termed state aid, and all make annual report to the state legislatures, to the commissioners of public charities or of public education, as the case may be. All these institutions are governed by honorary boards of trustees or managers, who appoint the superintendent or principal. In the semi- public organization the managers form a self-appointing, close corporation ; in the public, they are appointed usually by the state governor, by whom they may also be removed. The semi-public institutions are usually well endowed. Their expenditures are, therefore, not limited by legislative grant ; and, moreover, these institutions are free from politi- cal interference, an interference which, in the case of several of the state organizations, has seriously affected from time to time the efficiency of the institutions themselves. As a rule, the institution plants are large and well equipped. Even when within the built-up cities the buildings are sur- rounded with ample lawns and playgrounds. The appro- priations of money are generous, whether the schools are public or semi-public. The earlier institutions were built on the congregate plan ; the later and those that have been rebuilt have generally adopted the segregate or cot- tage plan. The pupils are not committed to these institutions, but are admitted or rejected by the boards of trustees on the recommendation of the superintendents. The early institutions for all three classes of defectives began purely as schools. And all those existing to-day, except those for the feeble-minded, discharge or graduate all pupils after these have completed the course of instruc- 773] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 5 tion. With the feeble-minded this plan was found to be inexpedient,' for reasons which will be stated later. A very recent movement, started by the instructors of the deaf, is the affiliation of the educators of the defective classes with those of the national educational association. It is being - more and more recognized that the line between a defective and a normal child cannot be drawn hard and fast, and that many a child who appears dull and stupid in school is in some measure defective. Hence, these special schools afford fields of most helpful suggestion to teachers of ordi- nary children. All persons intending to make teaching a vocation should become acquainted with these schools and their methods. It is interesting to note that systematic work for the deaf and dumb, the blind, and the feeble-minded began in France, and that to France America sent its early teachers to study methods and ascertain results. THE DEAF About the middle of the last century three schools for the deaf and dumb were opened in Europe, one in France, one in Germany, and one in Scotland. Though they sprang up at about the same time they were yet wholly independent in origin. In Paris the Abbe de l'Epee having observed two deaf-mute sisters conversing by means of gestures, seized upon the idea that in gesture language lay the secret of instructing the deaf and dumb. He therefore elaborated a system of gesture signs and made it the medium of instruc- tion in the school which he started. Heinicke in Dresden and Braidwood in Edinburg simply adopted articulate speech as the language of man and taught their pupils through it, requiring them to speak and read the lips of others. Thus arose the two important methods of deaf- mute instruction. Reports of the successes, chiefly in the British school, hav- ing reached America, several parents of deaf-mutes sent their children to Scotland to be educated. These deaf 6 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [774 children returned no longer as mutes ; they were able to converse readily by speaking and lip reading. One of these parents was so delighted with his boy's schooling that he published a book in London and wrote articles for the New England periodicals, with the intention of arousing interest in the new work. This man also took steps to ascertain the number of deaf-mutes in Massachusetts. Another man in Virginia, some of whose relatives had attended Braidwood's school, even opened a little school for deaf and dumb pupils in his state, employing as its teacher one of the Braidwood family, who had come to America for the purpose of continu- ing in the profession of his family here. This was in 1812. The school was the first of its kind started in America. However, it was soon given up, as was a similar effort in New York, where a clergyman undertook to instruct several deaf children whom he found in an almshouse. Though the events above touched upon seemed to result in little, they yet had great effect in directing intelligent atten- tion to this field of work. They constitute its preliminary stages. It happened in Hartford, Conn., that there was a physician, one of whose little daughters had become deaf. Why could not this child be educated as well as her hearing sisters ? With this thought he spent some eight years in agitating the question of starting a school for deaf children. In 181 5 money enough was raised in a single day to defray the expenses of sending a teacher abroad to study methods. A young graduate of Yale college and of a theological semi- nary was chosen as the teacher to go. This was Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, who was destined to become the founder of deaf-mute instruction in America. Of course he went to Great Britain. He proposed to study the only method that Americans knew about. But the doors of the British schools were closed to him. He found the science and art of teaching the deaf regarded as a business monopoly, whereas he had expected to find it conducted from his own motive of philanthropy. After 775] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 7 wandering about there for nine months he gave up hope of acquiring the Braidwood method and accepted an invitation to study methods at the Paris school. At this school he spent the three remaining months of the year, a time far too short in which to acquire the special language of gesture signs. Hence, he induced a deaf-mute, who was teaching in the school, to accompany him to America. This man was the brilliant and accomplished Laurent Clerk, who became an engine of power for establishing schools for deaf-mutes in our country. Thus was the French method or the sign- language method brought to America. It was improved and further systematized by our early teachers and in this form was the basis of instruction in all our schools for half a century. During the absence of Dr. Gallaudet, influential men of Hartford had secured from the state legislature the incorpo- ration of the Connecticut asylum for the education and instruction of deaf and dumb persons. Upon his return he and Mr. Clerk traveled for eight months among prominent cities in behalf of the cause of the deaf. The exhibition of Laurent Clerk alone helped the cause as nothing else could have done. On April 15, 181 7, school work began at Hart- ford with seven pupils. During the year 33 pupils came. This was the first permanent school in the country. While in other countries similar schools had no reliable basis of support, the founders of our schools immediately established theirs on a permanent basis. Private aid was necessary at first, but no sooner had the feasibility of the work been shown than public moneys were granted. In this year the Connecticut asylum changed its name to the American asylum at Hartford for the education and instruction of the deaf and dumb ; for it was then supposed that one school could accommodate for many years all the pupils of the country who would attend school. But interest in the schooling of deaf-mutes had been aroused in other places. In 181 8 a school was opened in New York under a teacher from Hartford ; and in Philadelphia, where Dr. Gal- 8 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [776 laudet and Mr. Clerk had gone to obtain aid for the Hart- ford school, an humble storekeeper by the name of Seixas began to teach, in 1819, a little class of deaf pupils, and he was so successful that an institution was organized in 1820 with Seixas as first teacher and principal. In a very few months he was succeeded by a permanent principal from Hartford. Back in 18 19 Massachusetts had provided an appropriation for the education of 20 indigent pupils at Hartford, and in 1825 New Hampshire and Vermont adopted the same policy. " Other states soon followed this good example. Thus, through the efforts of the founders of this [the Hartford] school, the humane, just and wise policy of educating deaf-mutes at the public expense was firmly estab- lished in this country, and has been adopted by almost every state in the union. In some of the western states means for the education of deaf-mutes are secured by constitutional provision. This has put the schools for deaf-mutes in the United States on a better basis, financially, than those in any other part of the world." 1 Only two years after the founding of the Pennsylvania school, Kentucky followed with its institution, being the first to be supported by a state. The act establishing it limited the pupils at any one time to 25, and their term of instruction to three years. In fact limits of this kind are usually prescribed in all the early institutions. (The Illinois school now has 612 pupils, and the New York schools allow a term of 17 years.) The first principal of the Kentucky school went to Hartford for a year to study methods. Ohio and Virginia soon followed in the good work. Both received their first superintendents from Hartford. Thereafter insti- tutions sprang up rapidly in the south and west, taking their early superintendents or teachers either from the parent school at Hartford or from one or another of the older schools. In 1857 there was incorporated by the national congress the Columbia institution at Washington, D. C, which requires 1 Histories American schools for the Deaf. — American asylum, i: 13. 77J'] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 9 special mention. Though originally intended as a school where the deaf children of government beneficiaries could be educated, circumstances of which not the least influential was the energy of its principal, Dr. Edward M. Gallaudet, son of the pioneer, soon brought about a change enabling the institution to confer collegiate degrees. The institution was then divided into two departments, the advanced depart- ment taking the name of the National deaf-mute college. Thus, in 1864, America had taken a step "unprecedented in the history of deaf-mute instruction." Most of the deaf and dumb are either born deaf or become so before acquiring language. They are dumb because they are deaf, and without special instruction can never know any but a gestural language. The pioneer edu- cators of the deaf in this country were all " broad-minded men of liberal education," and they set a high standard at the outset for the work. A language of signs they saw was the key to the instruction of their pupils, who, indeed, were allowed so few years of schooling, that no time was to be lost in laboring over the extraordinary difficulties of teaching them speech. Moreover, these teachers saw with great satisfaction the development of their pupils through the language of signs. This language is ideographic — " being readily expressive of ideas and emotions," rather than of phraseology. Put into words their order is entirely different from the natural order, thus, " Let it be supposed that a girl has been seen by a deaf-mute child to drop a cup of milk which she was carry- ing home. He would relate the incident in the following order of sign words : Saw-I-girl-walk-cup-milk-carry-home- drop." z The late superintendent of the Illinois institution, Dr. Gillett, writes : " When reduced to a system they .[signs] form a convenient means of conveying to one mind the ideas conceived by another, though not clothed in the language in which a cultured mind expresses them. One addressed in the sign language receives the idea and translates it into 'Encyclop. Brit. (9th ed.) Am. reprint — Art. Deaf and dumb. IO EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [778 English without any intimation of the phraseology in the mind of the speaker, so that a dozen persons familiar with the sign language, observing the gesticulations of a speaker, would each translate correctly the thoughts given forth, but no two of them would be in exactly the same phraseology. It is a concrete language, in which the expression of abstract ideas is exceedingly difficult." x As the ideas are given out chiefly by means of hand gestures, schools using the sign language as a means of instruction are said to follow or use the manual method. 2 Among the manually-taught deaf this language early becomes the vernacular. As it is a language of living pictures, such deaf people think in pictures and dream in them. The sign language is said to be to the deaf what spoken language is to the hearing ; and yet its use in the school room is deemed by many teachers extremely detrimental to the acquisition of the English language, and, therefore, unwise. All our educators of the deaf agree that giving to their pupils the ability to use the English language is their chief end and aim. They differ widely, however, over the use of signs. The greater number believe a moderate use of them to be economical of time and extremely useful to the deaf in the acquisition of knowledge. There is a small but grow- ing number who dispense with signs in toto just as soon as possible. These latter teach by the intuitive, direct or " English language method." They teach English by and through English, spoken, read and written. It is extraordinarily difficult to get started by the oral or English language method. But teachers of this method claim that once well started their pupils advance more 1 Gillett. Some notable benefactors of the deaf. Pp. 14-15. 5 The simple sign for cat well illustrates the graphic nature of the language. In order to teach this sign, a sign teacher "would show the child a cat, if possible, or a picture of a cat, which would be recognized by the child. The next step would be to direct attention to the cat's whiskers, drawing the thumb and finger of each hand lightly over them. A similar motion with the thumb and finger of each hand above the teacher's upper lip at once becomes the sign for cat. The instructed deaf child will be expected to recall the object, cat, on seeing this con- ventional sign." Gordon. The difference between the two systems of teaching deaf-mute children the English language. Pp. 1-2. '779] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES II logically, more surely, more precisely, and finally more -swiftly than the pupils of those permitting the intervention of signs. Advocates of using the signs together with other means claim that the minds of most of their new pupils are -sluggish from want of language to think in, and that they need to be aroused by the quickest method ; that their pupils have already lost too many years of youth, and that to cause them to lose more because of a theory is wrong and wicked. This school asserts that " A large percentage of the deaf under proper methods can obtain a very use- ful amount of speech and lip-reading, but [that] there is also a large percentage of them that would be greatly restricted in their mental development, if allowed no other means of instruction," and continues : " We are striving to take the golden mean, placing first in importance mental development and a knowledge of written language, and adding thereto in the case of every child speech and lip-reading to the degree that his capacity and adaptability allow him to acquire them." 1 And again, " For rapid and clear explanation, for testing the comprehension of the pupil, for lectures and religious instruction before large numbers of pupils, there is no other means equal in efficiency to the sign language. Its proper and conservative use always tends to mental development, saves time, and is the most efficient aid known in the acqui- sition of written and spoken language." 2 The other school affirms that the two methods or systems are mutually exclusive, saying : " Of course no pupil can be taught under the intuitive and the sign method at the same time, and it is impossible to combine into one system a method which is dependent upon the ' sign ' language at every stage of instruction with a method which dispenses absolutely with the ' sign ' language at every stage in teach- ing the English language. In the 'sign-language' method instructors aim to teach the vernacular language through 1 Third Biennial Report American school, p. 12. 2 First Biennial Report American asylum, p. 17. 12 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [780 the intervention of signs, but their deaf-mute pupils acquire a mixture of natural signs, pantomime, conventional signs and finger spelling which becomes the habitual vehicle of thought and expression, wherever it is possible to use a gestural language, to the exclusion of the English language. The intuitive method dispenses entirely with the crutch of the 'sign-language' in the mastery of English." 1 A form of the English language method, taught at the Rochester (N. Y.) institution, substitutes finger spelling for signs as these are used in manual schools, and is called the "manual alphabet method." Superintendent Westervelt says of it, " It is the principle of our method of instruction that the child has a right to receive instruction through that form of our language which he can understand most readily, with the least strain of attention, and the least diversion from the thought to the organ of its expression." 2 So much for the rival methods, which, however, it is absolutely necessary to understand if we would compre- hend the history of deaf-mute education in America. The history of the rise of the oral method is interesting. As has been said, the manual method reigned supreme for the first fifty years of the work. In 1843, Horace Mann, sec^ retary of the Massachusetts state board of education, and Dr. Howe, director of the Perkins institution for the blind in Boston, made a tour of Europe. In his next annual report Horace Mann praised the oral method as taught in Ger- many, stating that it was superior to the method employed in America. The report was widely read, and caused no little commotion among our teachers of the deaf, several of whom went abroad to see for themselves. These gentlemen did not agree with Horace Mann, and little change was then made in American methods. Still as a result of their recom- mendations, classes in articulation were introduced into sev- eral schools. Later, in 1864, the father of a little deaf girl in Massachusetts began to agitate for the incorporation of an 'Gordon. The Difference between the two systems of teaching, etc., p. 3. 2 Histories of American schools for the deaf, West. New York inst., 2: II. 781] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 1 3 oral school in that state. A small private school of the kind was soon opened near Boston. In the nick of time — for the opponents of opening an oral school were active — a Mr. Clarke of Northampton offered to endow a school for the deaf in Massachusetts. The project being favored by the governor of the commonwealth, and by Dr. Howe, who was then sec- retary of the state board of charities, the legislature incor- porated in 1867 the Clarke institution at Northampton, which was opened as an oral school. In the same year a former teacher of an Austrian school opened in New York what soon became the New York institution for the improved instruction of deaf-mutes. This invasion of the field so long occupied by the silent method of signs occasioned much controversy. Dr. Edward M. Gallaudet, president of the Columbia institution, at once went abroad to examine schools and their methods. Upon his return he reported that if the whole body of the deaf were to be restricted to one kind of instruction, he favored results to be obtained by the manual methods of America ; but he maintained " the practicability of teaching a large proportion of the deaf to speak and to read from the lips," x and advocated the introduction of articulation into all the schools of the country. As a result a conference of princi- pals of American institutions met at Washington, which adopted resolutions in the line of President Gallaudet's recommendations. Classes in articulation were then very generally introduced. During the next few years a gradual movement abroad towards the abolition of signs was evident ; and at the sec- ond international conference at Milan, in 1880, an over- whelming majority of the delegates present voted in favor of the oral method. Even the French delegates were found to have abandoned the method that originated with them in favor of the oral method. At the various conventions of the American instructors of the deaf, more and more atten- 1 Quoted in Gordon's notes and observations upon the education of the deaf, p. xxix. 14 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [782 tion came to be paid to the question of methods. Then, conventions of articulation teachers were held. In the meantime Dr. Alexander Graham Bell had introduced to teachers his father's system of visible speech, a system of written characters devised to show the position taken and the movement made by the tongue, teeth, lips, glottis, and other vocal organs in articulation. A similar but simpler system of visible speech symbols had been independently worked out by a Mr. Zera Whipple, of Mystic, Connecticut ; and more recently the Lyon phonetic manual has been devised, which is founded on the principle of visible speech and may be written in the air by the fingers. In 1888 the royal com- mission of the United Kingdom voted "that every child who is deaf should have full opportunity of being educated on the pure oral system," but that those found physically or mentally disqualified " should be either removed from the oral department of the school or taught elsewhere on the sign and manual system." 1 In 1890 the American associa- tion to promote the teaching of speech to the deaf was incor- porated, with Dr. Alexander Graham Bell as president. Dr. Bell immediately endowed the association handsomely. Ever since Horace Mann stirred up the waters in 1843, they have remained in more or less agitation. And this fact has had a grand effect upon the work. It cannot be denied that at times the controversy over methods has been bitter ; to-day, however, it has been reduced to a generous rivalry, in which the champions of the various methods and systems are striving with might and main to find out the best means of instructing the deaf and to pursue it. The majority of our schools do not limit their teaching to any one method, but are eclectic, calling themselves " combined system " schools. Satisfaction with the original uniformity of method would not have meant progress ; and certainly the work for the deaf in this land of opportunity has pro- gressed remarkably. No other country has so many deaf pupils under instruction as this has, none has provided so 1 Quoted in Gordon's notes and observations, p. xlii. 783] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 1 5 generously for them, and there is none in which their edu- cators are more alert to test new inventions and appliances that may bear upon the methods of instruction. And yet, unquestionably, the education of the deaf is still in its youth. The early principals saw the need of exchanging ideas, and soon after the beginning of the work started an organ of communication. This organ, " The Annals of the deaf," is now in its 44th volume. It is a quarterly magazine, 1 conducted under the direction of a committee of the confer- ence of superintendents and principals of American schools for the deaf. It is a high-class, much-prized periodical, and is said to be the leading publication of its kind in the world. In the pages of the Annals have been published articles on all manner of questions relating to the deaf. Its editor, Dr. Edward A. Fay, has made a most thorough investigation into the results of marriages of the deaf. His data and con- clusions have appeared in a volume published by the Volta bureau. The Volta bureau is a unique institution. The Volta prize of 25,000 francs awarded by the French government to Dr. Bell for his invention of the telephone, he applied to the founding of a bureau for the purpose of collecting and diffusing knowledge concerning the deaf. This is the Volta bureau of Washington, D. C. It has already published a large number of papers, studies, and books. The influence of Dr. Bell upon the work for the deaf has been deep and lasting. The invention of the telephone itself resulted from his experiments upon a device which he hoped would enable the deaf to read the vibrations of the human voice. Though a Scotchman by birth, he is practi- cally an American, and has devoted his best energies and his means to furthering the work which he has made his profession. His great efforts have been towards the promo- tion of speech-teaching to the deaf. " The instruction of the deaf is one of the most difficult 1 It now appears six times a year. 16 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [784 fields in the entire department of education for achievement at once successful and satisfactory to the x teacher." * For many years the parent school at Hartford was parent in the sense of providing principals and teachers for other schools. The New York institution has also furnished schools with many officers and teachers. It is only within comparatively recent years that normal classes, as such, have come to exist in a few of the schools. Among others, the Clarke institu- tion, the Wisconsin phonological institute, the school at Bala, Pa., and Gallaudet college have them — the latter announcing that it has opened to a limited number of col- lege graduates annually, normal fellowships of $500, tenable for one year. Thus has the standard of deaf-mute teaching come to be in line with modern university methods of train- ing teachers. Public day schools for the deaf have sprung up in vari- ous places. The Horace Mann school of Boston is a nota- ble example. They fill an unquestioned need, as many parents refuse to send their deaf children off to an institu- tion. A still further movement towards decentralization has come to pass in Wisconsin. Wherever in this state a few deaf children can be gathered near their homes, state aid will be given to pay teachers sent there to teach them. And this movement is tending to become more and more general. All these day schools spread the oral method. An important effect of the rise of this method has been the lowering of the age when deaf children are received, and of lengthening their term of instruction ; also of largely increas- ing the number of women teachers employed. The Home for the training in speech of little deaf children before they are of school age, at Bala, takes children at the age when normal children learn to talk and teaches speech by talking to them and having them talk back as if they heard. There are several private oral schools for the deaf in this country where the pupils pay tuition. One of the best is the Wright- Humason school in New York. 1 Gillett. Some notable benefactors of the deaf, p. 3. 785] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 1 7 With the lowering of the age of pupils, kindergarten methods have been made use of more and more ; though no true kindergarten can be conducted in schools where lan- guage comes so hard and so late, where even natural signs are arbitrarily interdicted, and where there can be no music. But the occupations and the games are widely applicable and are now universally used. From the above discussion it is seen that the deaf child comes to school with almost no language to think in, his only means of expressing his wants being crude natural signs. Such being the case, the first duty of the teacher is to estab- lish communication with him and thereafter, during his whole course at school, more than in any other kind of educational work, to make language the end of training and other sub- jects the means of varying language teaching. This state- ment is strictly true only of elementary education, but then the majority of deaf pupils do not advance far beyond the elementary stage ; not because they cannot, for they can, but because so very much time is absorbed in language work that their progress in other things is slow ; then, too, parents are prone to call their boys away from school as soon as they believe these can help sustain the family. A few of the brighter and more ambitious pupils from the schools take the course at the National deaf-mute college, now called Gallaudet college, where they have "an opportunity to secure the advantages of a rigid and thorough course of intellectual training in the higher walks of literature and the liberal arts." Occasionally we hear of deaf pupils taking high school work in schools with hearing pupils, and even of being graduated from colleges of the hearing. The course of training at American schools for the deaf has always been practical. Indeed, industrial training is almost essential for those young people who would form industrious habits and facility in the use of tools that will put them on their feet when they enter the world of labor; for most deaf pupils will have to work for their living. Their educators have a magnificent incentive in the knowl- l8 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [786 edge that the trained deaf are not at all disqualified from earning a living by simple inability to hear. In their schools general manual training is followed with a pupil until, for one reason or another, he chooses his trade or it is chosen for him. The general equipment for trade teaching is excel- lent. Printing is an extremely useful occupation for the deaf, especially in the acquisition of idiomatic language ; and nearly every institution for their instruction publishes one or more papers. Our educated deaf people form a quiet, well-behaved, self- supporting part of the community. They have formed local and national societies for mutual benefit. The conven- tion of the deaf that met in 1893 at the Columbian exposi- tion at Chicago was the largest meeting of the kind ever held. Their speeches and deliberations and social gather- ings occupied several days. That a convention so great and so remarkable could have been held was a source of great pride and satisfaction to those engaged in educating the deaf. Within the grounds of Gallaudet college at Washington stands a beautiful memorial statue of Gallaudet teaching a little deaf and dumb girl. It was presented to the college by the deaf of the whole country. In this memorial the deaf have made fitting recognition of their indebtedness to education. THE BLIND When it is stated that prior to 1830 the blind of America were to be found " moping in hidden corners or degraded by the wayside, or vegetating in almshouses," it is the adult blind that is meant. Still blind children were occasionally found in these places, though it could scarcely be said that they were vegetating, as could be said of the untrained deaf children. Their ability to hear and speak does not cut off the blind from the education of communion with friends and associates. The needs of the blind, then, were not so evi- dent or so early forced upon people's attention as were those of the deaf and dumb children. Blind children were less j2>7] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 1 9 often seen than deaf children, for the simple reason that there were and always are fewer of them. This fact was not then realized. The British census of 1851 first showed the world that over 80 per cent of the blind are adults. Our schools for the blind were started, first, because of the wide- spread interest in the results of educating the young deaf and dumb, which furnished inspiration for new fields of educational endeavor ; secondly, because the country was coming to the conviction that all the children of the state should receive education both as a matter of public policy and as a private right ; and thirdly, because reports of what had been accomplished abroad in schools for the blind were being promulgated in our land. By 1830 the more progressive states of the east were ready to give their blind children school training. In that year the government first included in the national census the deaf and dumb and the blind. The work of the blind was to begin with scientific foreknowledge as to their number. Private ardor to begin the work had been smouldering for several years, when in 1829 certain gentlemen in Boston obtained the incorporation of the " New England asylum for the blind." This was before they had selected either the pupils or a teacher for them. By a most fortunate cir- cumstance, the interest and services were obtained of a graduate of Brown university, Dr. Samuel G. Howe, who after finishing his medical studies had chivalrously gone to the aid of the Greeks. This gentleman became the Amer- ican father and Cadmus of the blind. He went at once to Europe to study methods of instruction. Upon his return, in 1832, the school was opened with six pupils. In New York the act of incorporation of the New York institution for the blind was passed in 1831 ; but funds were needed and no one went abroad to study methods. This school opened in March, 1832, antedating by a few months the school at Boston. In the very same year a German teacher of the blind, a Mr. Friedlander, most opportunely came to 20 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [788 Philadelphia, in the hope of starting a school for the blind there. The way the enterprise was put through is typical of many other beginnings of special schools in America. Having trained certain blind children he exhibited their accomplishments, first, to a few influential people, secondly, before a large audience among whom he distributed a leaf- let, " Observations on the instruction of blind persons." A meeting of public-spirited citizens followed, funds were lib- erally contributed, fairs held, and the success of the cause was assured. The Pennsylvania institution for the instruc- tion of the blind was opened in 1833, fully ten months before an act of incorporation was obtained. The three schools at Boston, New York and Philadelphia are called the pioneer schools. All sprang from private effort and private funds. All were incorporated as private institutions, and remain so to this day. Two similar insti- tutions for the blind have arisen in this country, that at Baltimore and that at Pittsburg. The origin of the state schools differs from that of the type above given only in that classes of trained pupils from the earlier schools were exhibited before the state legisla- tures, as well as before the people. State appropriations followed and the institutions were inaugurated as state insti- tutions. The new schools sprang into being with astonish- ing rapidity. There are now in 1899 40 schools for the blind in the United States, and every state in the union makes provision for its blind of school age either in its own school or in that of a neighboring state. In our sparsely-settled country, especially west of the Alleghenies and south of Maryland, great efforts had to be made to find the children and still greater efforts to persuade the parents to send them to school ; and in many regions similar conditions of parental ignorance exist to-day. In certain states where the amount of the public fund seemed to preclude a special grant for the blind, pupils of this class were brought together in connection with a school for the deaf and dumb, forming " dual schools," as they are called. 789] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 21 These institutions could not help being unfair to their blind contingent ; for in nearly every such case the blind came to a school already established as a school for the deaf, and under the superintendence of a man especially interested in the education of the deaf ; moreover, the number of the deaf pupils usually far exceeded that of the blind. There are still a few of these dual schools, but wherever possible they have been divided into two distinct institutions. In northern schools the colored blind are educated with the white ; in southern schools it is best for the colored to have schools of their own. Both the whites and they prefer this arrangement. The first school for the colored blind was opened in North Carolina in 1869. All the institutions for the blind were in their very incep- tion schools. The pioneer schools imported literary teach- ers from Paris and handicraft teachers from Edinburg. At first only the brighter class of pupils came under instruc- tion. Teaching them was easy. They progressed with amazing strides ; all was enthusiasm ; exhibitions were called for and widely given (Dr. Howe's pupils gave exhibitions in 1 7 states) ; large editions of the various annual reports were exhausted. Soon, however, less bright pupils came to be admitted ; then the curriculum of studies began to sober down to the practical and comprehensive one prevailing to-day. Whatever occupation the boy or girl expects to follow after leaving school, it is assumed he will follow it better and thus live more happily and worthily if he has a general education. When, as was formerly the case, the period or term of schooling allowed pupils was shorter than it is now, they were not admitted before the age of eight or nine. Now that kindergarten departments have been uni- versally added to the schools, the pupils are urged to enter at an early age ; because experience has shown that at home these little blind folks are coddled rather than trained, so much so in fact that by the time many of them come to school their natural growth of body and mind has been so interfered with by inaction, that all the efforts of the schools 22 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES \_79° cannot make up for lost time and opportunity. The prin- ciple of periodicity of growth has now come to be under- stood and the importance of applying the proper stimulus at the period most sensitive to it, comprehended. Children with good sight and hearing have got along without kinder- garten training, and so have blind children, but of all the useful means of reaching and developing the average blind child none is so effective as the properly-conducted kinder- garten. It is not easy to overestimate the importance of hearing as giving the child language and all that this means, song and the joy it brings and the deep feeling it inspires. The practical knowledge of things comes to the blind through the hand, their fingers being veritable projections of their brains. Thus must their hands not only be trained to sensitiveness of touch but to be strong and supple, so that they may, indeed, be dexterous ; for as their hands are so are their brains. The kindergarten cultivates ear and heart and hand and brain as nothing else does. Even color is not wholly omitted in kindergartens for the blind. Many see colors, and those who do not love to talk about them and certainly derive some indirect value from considering them. Kindergartens for the blind may be true kindergartens in every sense of the word. A kindergartner of fully-sensed children would miss here only the brightness coming from the untrammeled ability to run and play and observe all that sight brings into view, the quick response of " I know," " I have seen this," and " I have been there." But, then, kin- dergartens for the blind have as their end and aim this very arousing of the children and the putting of them in touch with their surroundings. Blind children with kindergarten training are more sus- ceptible to instruction than those without it. Above this department the course of studies in American schools requires from seven to eight years, which means a primary, a grammar and a high school education, or instruction in object lessons, reading, writing, spelling, grammar, compo- sition, arithmetic, history, physiology, botany, zoology, geol- 791 J EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 23 ogy, physics, algebra, geometry, civics, English literature, typewriting and sometimes Latin and modern languages. Not a few pupils have fitted for college where they took the regular course with the seeing students, and from which they were graduated usually with distinction. Formerly much of the teaching was oral, which, in many cases, was apt to be more pleasant than profitable to the pupil. Since the gen- eral introduction of the embossed text book and tangible writing, the pupil has been forced to depend more and more upon himself, obviously with better results. In fact, the work has been growing more and more practical. The methods of teaching the blind correspond in general to those of teaching other hearing children. The common appliances have but to be raised and enlarged as in maps and diagrams, or simply made tangible, which may be done, for example, by notching an ordinary ruler so that the graduations can be felt. A successful teacher of the seeing readily adapts her- self to the instruction of the blind. She learns to write their punctographic systems and to read them with the eye. Industrial training has been an integral part of the school course from the beginning. Recently educational manual training has been generally introduced as preliminary to the trades. Sloyd has been found especially adapted to the blind. The handicrafts — chair-caning, hammock-mak- ing, broom-making, carpet-weaving, and a few others, alone remain of all the many trades taught at one time or another in our schools. Manual occupations of some kind will always be taught, even were it evident that none of them would be followed by the blind as trades ; for it is by doing and making that the blind especially learn best. Then, it is essential that they be kept occupied. They are happier so and far better off. In the past, before the introduction of such varieties of labor-saving machinery as the last half century has seen, many of the discharged pupils followed some manual trade and succeeded in subsisting by it. To- day this is less and less possible. The mind itself of the blind is least trammeled by the lack of sight ; hence some 24 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [792 pursuit where intelligence is the chief factor would seem to be best adapted to his condition. Music, of course, opens up his most delightful field. It is said that all the force of the superintendents of the early schools was required to prevent the institutions from becom- ing mere conservatories of music. To-day only those pupils pursue music in regular course who have talent for it ; but even those are not allowed to neglect other studies for it. It is the experience of the American schools as of the European, that the profession of music offers to the edu- cated and trained musician who is blind, a field -in which he can work his way with least hindrance from his lack of sight, and many are they who have found in it a means of liveli- hood for themselves and their families. A few in nearly every school fit themselves to be tuners of pianos. The importance of physical training was early recognized ; for the blind have less vitality and more feeble constitutions than the seeing ; besides, those of our pupils who most need exercise, are least apt to seek it of their. own accord. At first the schools had no gymnasiums ; of late years such have been pretty generally added, and systematic physical exercise is carried out. The American schools for the blind were founded upon embossed books. Dr. Howe states somewhere that the sim- ple reading from embossed print did more to establish the schools in the country than any other one thing. Extraor- dinary pains were taken by Dr. Howe and his assistants to perfect a system which should be at once readily tangible to the fingers of the blind and legible to the eyes of their friends. The result was the small lower case letter of Dr. Howe, the Boston line print, as it is often called. To this the jury gave preference before all other embossed systems exhibited at the great exhibition of the industry of all nations, in London, in 1852. | Backed by such indorsement and all the authority of Dr. Howe the system was rapidly adopted into the American schools. | It was then the theory that the blind would be further isolated from their friends 793] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 25 if their alphabets were dissimilar. ( The blind of themselves had devised a writable system — arbitrary and composed of dots or points — one which they could both read and write. \ But the early superintendents would not countenance it. I However, many of the blind failed to read the line letter system ; because to read it requires extreme nicety of touch, which all the blind by no means have. Characters composed of points not of lines are scientifically adapted to touch read- ing. J In the 33rd report of the New York institution, Supt. Wm. B. Wait wrote : " Now, which is the more important, that all the young blind should be able to read, thus being made, in fact, like the seeing, or that they should be taught an alphabet which in some sort resembles that used by the see- ing, but by doing which only 34 per cent of them will ever be able to read with any pleasure or profit?" This attitude of the New York school was the outcome of statistics gathered from seven institutions, in which 664 pupils were involved, and of experiments made by Mr. Wait with his own pupils, using a system scientifically devised by him, composed of points in arbitrary combination. This was in 1868. At the next convention of the American instructors of the blind, it was resolved " That the New York horizontal point alphabet as arranged by Mr. Wait, should be taught in all institutions for the education of the blind." Not long afterwards 'a national printing house was subsidized, from which the schools obtained free books, both in the point and in the line systems. In a very few years the point books were in increasing demand, and to-day most of the schools prefer them to those in the line print. The acceptance of the point was due to several things, — first of all, to its writability and superior tangibility, and secondly, to the extraordinary energy of a few of its advo- cates. The old world was a long time accepting a writable point system. That of Louis Braille, devised in 1829, though much used by individuals, was not officially adopted into the Paris school where it originated until 1854. In contrast, America devised, printed, spread, and resolved to 26 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [794 accept its writable system in less than one-half the time. The benefits of a tangible writable system are vast. It puts the blind more nearly on a par with the seeing, particu- larly as pupils in school. Its adoption here, next to that of tangible printing, makes obtainable the ideal of American schools for the blind. Every tangible system has its defects. French "braille" as adopted into England has antiquated abbreviations and contractions for the use of adults ; and is involved with rules allowing much bad use, like the omission of all capitals. The New York point as printed also laid itself open to much criticism as to " good use." The American braille, the latest system, combining the best features of French braille and of New York point, was devised by a blind teacher of the Per- kins institution. It takes full account of " good use," and those who use the system deem it very satisfactory. In 1892, when the American braille system was adopted into several schools, a typewriter for writing braille was invented, and this was followed by the invention of another machine for embos- sing braille directly on plates of thin brass from which any number of duplicates could be struck off on paper. 1 Here was a means of creating a new library at once. But the chief value of the invention lay in the fact that as the machine was simple and inexpensive and could be operated if neces- sary by a blind man, any institution could have a printing office of its own. And several schools immediately estab- lished such offices, from which they issued at once whatever their school classes demanded. By co-operating in the selection of the books to be embossed these schools have cre- ated in the space of seven years a library of books in Ameri- can braille than which there is no superior in any system in any country, and they have added an immense amount of music in the braille music notation, which is the same all over the world! A typewriter, and a machine for embossing brass plates in the New York point system, have also appeared. 1 For these inventions, which have been of the greatest recent service to the education of the blind, the work is indebted to Mr. Frank H. Hall, sup't of the Illinois school. 795J EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 2j The production of books in both point systems is going on parallelly. Whether this is wise or not it is certainly waste- ful. And yet the antagonism of the advocates of the rival systems is so great that the race may continue for some years yet. The matter is, however, not so " stupid " as it would seem to be. There is nothing like competition to eliminate defects and bring out excellences. Moreover, there has been evolution in systems of ink print as there has been in systems of embossed print. In either case that which eventually survives will be the fittest and will be worth all the trouble it caused to make it survive. Excellent embossed libraries exist in all three of the sys- tems. Books in all three may be obtained from the National printing house for the blind at Louisville, Ky., where many of the plates have been made and where most of them are kept. This printing house was subsidized by congress in 1873, and since that time has spent $10,000 annually in the production of books in the various systems, music scores in the New York point notation, and tangible apparatus, each school ordering from the published list, books, etc., to the value of its quota or part proportional to the number of its pupils. The printing office of the Perkins institution at Boston is the largest private enterprise of its kind in the world. It has been running almost continuously since 1834, and has put forth a splendid list of books in the Boston line print. American generosity to its defectives has not only pro- vided institutions unsurpassed in their general appointments elsewhere, but the proverbial American ingenuity has sup- plied the classrooms with appliances and mechanical aids to instruction unequaled in any land. \ The interest in the work for the blind taken by those actually engaged in it may be seen by a reading of the annual reports of the superin- tendents, which have served as a means of communication among the schools and between these and the public. France, Germany and Italy have been publishing for many years, magazines or periodicals in the interest of the blind. 28 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [796 For four years this country produced " The Mentor," a monthly which was so excellent and timely that it ought to have been kept up. However, it was supported but poorly and was stopped for that reason. America, then, has no organ of communication among workers for the blind. The superintendents and teachers engaged in this work first met in convention in 1853. The Association of American instructors of the blind was formed in 1871, and has met biennially ever since, usually as the guest of one or another of the institutions. The proceedings of each convention have been published. The principles underlying the scheme for educating the blind being to make them as little as possible a class apart from the rest of the community, it has not been deemed wise to attempt to establish a national college for the higher edu- cation of those capable of taking it, but efforts are making towards enabling the brighter and worthier pupils to attend one of the colleges for the seeing, at the expense of the states or the schools from which they come. The school instruction of the blind is comparatively an easy matter. The work is less of a science than the more difficult task of instructing the deaf and dumb. But if we consider the results, it must be admitted that it is far easier to fit the intelligent deaf to be self-supporting than it is to fit the blind to be so. The world of practical affairs is the world of lieht ; and if the blind succeed in that world it is cer- tainly to their credit. And yet we expect them to succeed in it ; and having given them the best preparation we can devise, we find that many do succeed, some brilliantly. Just what proportion "succeed" is not known; for in the vast areas of our large states the majority go out and are lost to view. Many — especially the girls — go home to become helpful in the family, and these live on there as centers of light and culture, and so what was once deemed a calamity, may become to the family a blessing in disguise. In 1878 an exhaustive census of the graduates from all over the country was compiled. It revealed the following - 797] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 29 encouraging facts : 1 6 became superintendents of other insti- tutions ; 214 became teachers or were otherwise employed in institutions ; 34 became ministers of the gospel ; 84 authors, publishers or lecturers ; 3 10 were engaged as teachers of music or were vocalists outside of institutions ; 69 had been organists in churches; 125 piano tuners; 937 had been engaged as teachers, employees, and workers in handicraft ; 277 were storekeepers, etc. ; 45 became owners and man- agers of real estate ; 760 (mostly women) were employed at housework at home or in families, or at sewing with machines, or by hand, and 78 were in homes of employment. 1 Fur ther, according to the 10th census of the United Stales (1880) when there were 48,928 blind in the land, but 2,560 were found in almshouses. 2 What proportion of these ever attended our schools, will never be known, but it must be remembered that blindness is an affliction of old age. According to statistics printed in the report for 1879 °f the New York institution, "More than 1,200 persons have been instructed, and have gone out from the institutions for the blind in this state [New York], only 21 of whom were found to be in almshouses on the 30th of Octo- ber, 1879. Such facts give great force to a statement made by the board of state commissioners of public charities upon this subject. They say : " As observation shows that edu.- cated blind persons seldom become a public charge, it would seem important, not only in its social bearings, but as a question of political economy, to bring as many of the blind as practicable under proper educational training." 3 THE DEAF-BLIND " Obstacles are things to be overcome " is the motto given by Dr. Howe to the Perkins institution for the blind. When this remarkable man learned in 1837 that up in the mountains of New Hampshire there was a little girl not only 1 Proceedings fifth bien. conv. of the American association of instructors of the blind, p. 21. 2 Compendium loth census, 2, 1702. 3 Pp. 32-33. 30 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [79$ blind but also deaf and dumb, he eagerly sought out the child and obtained the parents' consent to take her to South Boston to be educated. He had already formed a theory as to how he would reach a mind thus doubly shut in, and with the finding of Laura Bridgman came the wished-for opportunity to test this theory. It should be noted that Laura Bridgman saw and heard until she was two years old. She had been rather a delicate child, however, having enjoyed only about four months of robust health, when she sickened, her disease raging with great violence during five weeks, " when her eyes and ears were inflamed, suppurated and their contents were dis- charged." x Her sufferings continued for months, and it was not " until four years of age that the poor child's bodily health seemed restored." 2 She was intelligently active, fol- lowing her mother about the house, seeming anxious to feel of everything, and thus to learn about it ; and she devel- oped signs for her father and her mother, and for some things. She was eight years old when brought to the Perkins institution. Dr. Howe writes : " There was one of two ways to be adopted : either to go on and build up a language of signs on the basis of the natural language, which she had already herself commenced, or to teach her the purely arbi- trary language in common use ; that is, to give her a sign for every individual thing, or to give her a knowledge of letters, by the combination of which she might express her idea of the existence, and the mode and condition of exist- ence, of anything. The former would have been easy, but very ineffectual ; the latter seemed very difficult, but, if accomplished, very effectual ; I determined, therefore, to try the latter." 3 After the child had become adjusted to the change of homes, Dr. Howe began teaching her by means of common articles with which she was familiar — spoons, forks, 1 From reports of Dr. Howe on Laura Bridgman, appendix C, 48th annual report, Perkins institution for the blind, p. 160. 2 Same source and page. 8 Same source, pp. 162-3. 799] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 3T keys, etc., on which labels with their names printed in raised letters had been pasted. Similar detached labels were given her to feel. Her touch was acute enough, hence she was able to match labels, placing that for book on the book, etc. She did this easily and willingly because she received appro- bation for so doing ; but the idea that the printed word stood for the name of the object had not entered her brain. Then other detached labels were cut up into their component letters. These her memory soon enabled her to build into wholes or the words she had felt. Such exercises continued for many weeks to be only a meaningless play to the poor child. The success had been " about as great as teaching a very knowing dog," when suddenly the idea flashed upon her that " Here was a way by which she herself could make up a sign for anything that was in her own mind, and show it to another mind, and at once her countenance lighted up with a human expression ; it was no longer a dog or parrot, — it was an immortal spirit, eagerly seizing upon a new link of union with other spirits ! I could almost fix upon the moment when this truth dawned upon her mind, and spread its light to her countenance ; I saw that the great obstacle was overcome, and that henceforward nothing but patient and persevering, plain and straightforward efforts were to be used." * Next, she was given metal type each bearing some embossed letter, and a frame with holes to receive them. With this appliance Laura readily wrote the name of any object she knew and by writing them fixed in mind an extensive vocabulary of common names. Then the less cumbrous manual alphabet was taught her. Here was a means by which she could both write and read ; she could spell to her teacher and read what her teacher spelled into her hand. Dr. Howe's reports teem with interesting psychologic material. At the end of the year he writes : " She is nine years of age, and yet her knowledge of language is not 1 Same source, p. 164. 32 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [SOO greater than a common child of three years. There has been no difficulty in communicating knowledge of facts, positive qualities of bodies, numbers, etc. ; but the words expressive of them, which other children learn by hearing, as they learn to talk, must all be communicated to Laura by a circuitous and tedious method. In all the knowledge which is acquired by the perceptive faculties, she is of course backward ; because, previous to her coming here, her per- ceptive faculties were probably less exercised in one week than those of common children are in one hour." 1 And so her instruction went on. Through it all the child showed, an eagerness to learn and to put herself in touch with the world that was a powerful aid to the teacher. In a few years, when Oliver Caswell, also deaf, dumb, and blind, came to the institution, Laura naturally took great interest in teaching him, and thereby profited much herself. As she approached womanhood her education was already good. Laura had learned to sew, to knit, and to do fancy work, and so employed her time when not reading or con- versing with her many friends. She often visited her home but her true home was the institution. There she lived to her 6oth year and there she died, the first case of any one so afflicted made capable of leading an industrious and happy life, and as the first case, historically the most remarkable. Popular interest in Laura Bridgman, both in this country and abroad, was naturally very great. The printed reports of her progress which were eagerly awaited were as eagerly absorbed. Distinguished foreigners coming to Boston visited her. Charles Dickens wrote in his American notes a sympathetic account of his impressions of her. Naturally enough in succeeding cases of the deaf-blind that from time to time came under instruction in one school or another, much less interest was shown. The way to give liberty to the imprisoned mind had been made plain. In the year 1887, however, something like the old interest 1 Same source, p. 167. 8oi] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 33 was aroused by the publication of accounts of the brilliant deaf, dumb, and blind child in Alabama, Helen Keller. This child had lost sight and hearing at 19 months as a result of a serious illness. Like Laura she kept actively interested in all that surrounded her, and like Laura she developed her own little language of signs. When she was six years old, her friends, who knew of Laura Bridgman's case, applied to Boston for a teacher. In the following year Miss Annie M. Sullivan was sent. This lady was able to put herself in touch with Helen in a very short time and in a marvelous way. In fact, she has proved herself to be a most remarkable teacher. Following in general the methods adopted in teaching Laura, Miss Sullivan began her work by putting Helen in possession of the manual alphabet. A doll was happily chosen to begin with ; and with the doll on the child's lap, the teacher formed in Helen's hand the finger letters d-o-l-l. Other familiar objects were similarly introduced, and strange as it may seem, that which had taken three months to reach in Laura's case in Helen's took but a few days ; x or, in Miss Sullivan's words, " it was more than a week before she understood that all things were thus identified." 2 Her teacher writes : " Never did a child apply herself more joyfully to any task than did Helen to the acquisition of new words. In a few days she had mas- tered the manual alphabet and learned upwards of a hundred names." 3 After teaching verbs and prepositions through action and position Miss Sullivan made a departure. She began to use new words in connection with old words, let- ting Helen understand them if possible from the context. The child adopted these words " often without inquiry." In this way she became familiar with the use of many words whose meaning never had to be explained to her. As to the letters of the raised alphabet, Miss Sullivan writes : " Incredible as it may seem, she learned all the let- 1 See 56th an. rep. Perkins inst. for the blind, p. 82. s Same source, p. 101. 8 Same source, p. ior. 34 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [8o2 ters both capital and small in one day." 1 Then came the primer ; then pencil writing than which there is scarcely a more difficult exercise for the blind to learn ; and yet Helen "wrote without assistance a correctly spelled and legible letter to one of her cousins ; and this was only a little more than a month after her first lesson in chirography." 2 Braille, or tangible point writing, became a constant delight to her. Words like perhaps and suppose and those indicative of abstract ideas she learned more through association and repetition than through any explanation of her teacher. The child had the language sense largely developed. Much of the time when no one was talking with her she was read- ing in books printed in raised letters. Dr. Bell in trying to account for Helen's wonderful familiarity with idiomatic English, considers of great significance the statement of Miss Sullivan that, "long before she could read them [the books] . . . she would amuse herself for hours each day in carefully passing her fingers over the words, search- ing: for such words as she knew." 3 In 1888, when Helen was 8 years old her teacher took her to South Boston where she could have the advantage of all the appliances and embossed books that a school for the blind affords. Thenceforth an account of her progress reads like a romance. It was no more difficult for her to learn a new word in German or in Greek than in English ; and she took great delight in picking up and using French or Greek phrases. And when later she came to study these languages, she seemed to advance without effort in the knowledge of them. The educators of the deaf, who have good reason to com- prehend the exceeding difficulty of teaching their pupils to articulate intelligibly, feel that Helen Keller's rapid mastery of speech is by all odds her most wonderful achievement. After she had been in South Boston some little time she heard of a Swedish girl afflicted like herself, who had learned 1 Same source, p. 103. 2 Same source, p. 104. 8 Amer. annals of the deaf, April, 1892, p. 134. 803] EDUCATION OP DEFECTIVES 35 to speak, and she said, " I must learn to speak." Miss Sul- livan took her to Miss Sarah Fuller, principal of the Horace Mann school for the deaf, and though Helen's only means of learning the position of the vocal organs in speech was to put her fingers on the lips, tongue, teeth, and throat of the speaker, she learned in ten lessons 1 to articulate so well that she could carry on an intelligible and audible conver- sation, having communication addressed to her spelled into her hand by the manual alphabet. She has learned since that time to read from the lips and throat of a speaker by placing her fingers lightly on them ; so that any one sitting near her can converse with her just as though she could both hear and see. She spent a winter at the Wright-Huma- son private school for the deaf, where she improved her articulation. When Helen was sixteen years old she entered the Cam- bridge school for girls, Miss Sullivan accompanying her. There, under the guidance of Mr. Arthur Gilman, the director of the school, she took the course preparatory to entering RadclirTe college. At the end of one year she took the regular required examinations in the history of Greece and Rome, in English, in Latin, in elementary French, in elementary German, and in advanced German. As the questions and other matter were read into her hand by Mr. Gilman himself, Helen wrote her answers and translations. on an ordinary typewriter. Her papers were read by the regular examiners. She passed the tests in every subject, taking " honors " in English and German. Mr. Gilman writes : " I think that I may say that no candidate in Har- vard or Radcliffe college was graded higher than Helen in English." 2 There are still other children afflicted like Helen who are doing splendid work, but, "taking this child all in all," says Dr. Job Williams, principal of the American school for the 1 See Sarah Fuller's article How Helen Keller learned to speak, Annals of the deaf, Jan. 1892, p. 26. 2 Miss Helen Adams Keller's first year of college preparatory work. American. Annals of the Deaf, November, 1897. 36 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [804 deaf at Hartford, " and making due allowance for every pos- sible aid that has been given her, and for all unconscious exaggeration due to friendly admiration, there yet remains so much that is marvelous as to place her beyond compari- son with any other child of whom we have ever heard. The whole history of literature reveals nothing equal to her lan- guage productions from one of her years, even among those possessed of all their faculties. She is a genius, a prodigy, a phenomenon." x The other deaf-blind children under instruction are some at schools for the blind, some at schools for the deaf. They must always have a special teacher, and use embossed books and adapted appliances. All are being taught on principles used in teaching Helen. In South Boston, where there are several, they attend classes with other pupils, the special teacher acting simply as interpreter and companion. THE FEEBLE-MINDED The term feeble-minded is now used to embrace all classes and grades of the mentally defective, excepting the insane, who, properly speaking, are mentally sick. Idiocy was the term formerly used to cover the same range. Idiocy or feeble- mindedness may be defined as " mental deficiency depend- ing upon imperfect development, or disease of the nervous system, occurring before, at or after birth, previous to the evolution of the mental faculties." 2 At the time the feeble- minded were first taught, it was supposed that their growth of body and mind, which was seen to be but partial, had simply been stopped by malign influences, and that in many cases all that was needed was proper environment in order to start the growth again ; it was hoped that the improvable cases at least could be educated and trained to approach in capacity the normal-minded individual. With the end in view of so educating idiots, as they called them, the first attempts to train them in this country were 1 Annals of the deaf, April, 1892, p. 159. 3 Quoted in Fernald's Feeble-minded children, p. 2. 805] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 37 made in 1848. Before then idiots who were not kept at home were to be found in almshouses or in insane asylums, where they were sadly out of place. Kind-hearted physicians who saw this "rubbish of humanity" cowering in terror before lunatics or abused by almshouse associates, agitated for their relief, care, and training. The movement began in New York and Massachusetts in the year 1846. Massachu- setts was more ripe for the work ; for the matter had no sooner been presented to the legislature than this body appointed a commission to report upon the number, condi- tion, and the best means of relieving the idiots in the com- monwealth. Dr. Samuel G. Howe, the director of the Per- kins institution for the blind, was made chairman of the commission. Its report made in 1848, and widely known as " Dr. Howe's report on idiocy," was exhaustive, and ended by recommending the opening of an experimental school.. One was opened at the expense of the state and under the guidance of Dr. Howe himself. The results were so favor- able that in three years' time the state doubled its appropri- ation, and founded in South Boston the Massachusetts school for idiots, the first state school for them. The state of New York followed, establishing its school similarly, or experimentally, in 1851, and permanently in 1853. Between the appointment of the Massachusetts commis- sion and its report, a country physician, Dr. H. B. Wilbur, had opened a small private school for idiots at Barre, Mass., really the first school of its kind in America. Dr. Wilbur was soon called to take charge of the New York state school. The Pennsylvania school followed in 1852, and was estab- lished in Philadelphia as a private corporation in 1853 ; then in 1857 came the Ohio state institution at Columbus; in 1858 the semi-public school in Lakeville, Conn.; the Ken- tucky state school at Frankfort in i860; the Illinois state school in 1865 ; the Hillside home, a private school at Fay- ville, Mass., in 1870. "Thus up to 1874, twenty-six years after this work was begun in America, public institutions for the feeble-minded had been established in seven states. 38 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES [806 These institutions then had under training a total of 1,041 pupils. There were also two private institutions in Massa- chusetts, . . . with a total of 69 inmates." x Applica- tions for admittance were numerous and pressing. At first it was the theory that only imbeciles, the improvable idiots, should be taken into the institution, that the institution should be a school and should graduate its pupils into the world. Still, it was but a few years before most of the superintendents recognized that the pupils would always be children though adult in years ; and that as children they needed guidance and protection always ; that for obvious reasons girls and women of child-bearing age should not be discharged — for no girl is so exposed as the simple, weak- willed, feeble-minded girl — and finally that practically all cases would have to be retained within the protection of the institution. Physiology and pathology now teach that " men- tal deficiency generally, if not always, is the result of a defi- nite cerebral abnormality or defect, or the result of actual dis- ease or damage to some part of the central nervous system ;" 2 that feeble-mindedness is practically a permanent condition, and that it cannot be cured. From the time this fact came to be realized the institutions began to change in character There arose two distinct departments — the training school and the asylum. The school Was, is, and ought to be the fundamentally important department. Education is just as much a right of the improvable imbecile or feeble-minded child as it is of any child ; and what are always acknowledged to be the benefits of an education are no less benefits to the one than to the other. It is in the school that the feeble-minded child is to be aroused, developed and trained to lead a use- ful and a happy life.j The aim in the education of an ordi- nary child is to give a liberal all-round training, fitting him for anything in life he may choose to take up. With our feeble-minded child the aim of his education, which is to 1 Fernald, The history of the treatment of the feeble-minded, p. 8. 2 Fernald, Feeble-minded children, p. 2. 807] EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES 39 lead a useful life within the institution, is kept ever in mind. He is happiest when occupied. Hence, his education is principally a practical education. The difference between a normal person and a feeble-minded person after training is that the latter has no initiative, no power to resist the seduc- tion of stronger minds. He may be useful and even self- supporting, but he can become so only under guidance and direction. When they come to school these children have extremely weak will power. In fact the feeble-minded as a class have been divided according to the attention, thus : " 1. Absolute idiocy. Complete absence and impossibility of attention. " 2. Simple idiocy. Attention feeble and difficult. " 3. Imbecility. Instability of attention." 1 With all these the condition of the hand indicates that of the brain. The " idiotic hand " is proverbial. Many imbe- ciles see but do not perceive ; hear but do not understand. They rarely make a purposive effort, but need to be directed in everything. When it is comprehended that though they love games they do not even play of their own accord, it will be understood how their teachers must begin at the very bottom rung in the ladder of education. The special senses of seeing, hearing, and feeling, actually have to be aroused and developed, first, as simple physiological functions ; sec- ondly, as intellectual faculties. Calisthenics in classes, marching to music, military drill — movements and exercises of all kinds — exert a most salutary and energizing influ- ence, and are in great use in all the schools. The normal child does not need to be taught each step ; his power of attention, his will, his desire, his originality enable him to fill the gaps in instruction from his own daily experiences. In fact he often learns more out of school than in. On the contrary, the feeble-minded child has to be taught each step, hence, his education is extremely slow. 1 Sollier: Psychologie de l'idiot et l'imbecile, Paris, 1891. Quoted from G. E. Johnson, Pedagogical seminary, 3, 246. 4 -±0 ir> O coco M m o in O M UlTt ffOoo CM t-.C)H CM3>h t^O CO CO CM O^kO m IN ^"O CO O H H *f r^ ■pjox ef h cm" o" On r^ m co co m • ■ • o " C • N CO in O co M h o ■ r^ . o • Tt- * •usuio^y ■*f m ir> cm r-~ 0_ ■ • « >*; o> M M CO O r^ *• i-i M q_ • CM IN CO O o co h r--co o Oco r» if coco r-> CO co Tf rf O co cm o Oco r^ in h O m CO TBIOX cocf M ■* CM O - ■ • I~- • H • -f h-1 CO O O CM vO O • m m • in CO o •uauio^Y Tf l-l CO CM Tf N • M M HI ■ CO CO tl N Mn M • ■ • O "CM •*+ c> ^" in r^ t^ co • O • O "in in •nan CO M CM CO CM H • M • • 0) M CO OinOO t^>trnO rf O O coo) ir CM Or^r^OO O in m co o mo O t-> in •i E '°x CM o" I m CM O M O CM • • • vO -l-i -i- 1 a> so O cm rf m r^ ON • (N • t» M o •usuio^y ■sf in rf cm in IN • • m ■* H co CO CO CO OCO CM . . . -f • IN *d co co i-i in in Tf co C* • Tf ir N •u»K CO l-l H CM CM w tH CM • • CnI co Csf • ^- r^O 'finco^fOini-i com t; r^ • r^.McocOMcoOMcoOMOc > O •p>°X • VO TfTft^M CO^O COM M M C '. m" m > co •f • co co m O m • • • O cm -co vO 8 . O O co M Tf ■q- • in CM •uauiOjW • O co n in M • M M H w Pi W > C c> P • • CD ClJ 3.3 .m '- "3 J: i— e c T3 rt 'c a- !s3p f c - • c ( c i ( i 5 T J e : S ' 1 » < > 'S Q - : c c I s r > 1 | IO SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [83O An inspection of the table discloses certain facts. First, there is on the whole a steady increase in the number of summer students at the universities. The numbers at Chi- cago, Cornell, Columbia, Minnesota, Michigan and Missouri are noteworthy. The large increase at Harvard in 1903 is to be attributed almost wholly to the fact that the National Education Association met in Boston last July. The figures further show that in so far as universities offer a wide range of subjects and approximate the normal work of the regular curricula that the number of men increases. On the other hand, the universities which offer summer work appeal- ing especially to school teachers have a large proportion of women. Tuition Fees and Expenses. — In the case of universities which charge a summer tuition fee we find a tendency to something like uniformity. A fee of about $20 for three courses extending over six weeks has come to be the rule. The fee varies somewhat, but tends toward a pro rata of ordinary academic fees. In some schools a fee is charged for each course. This varies from $5 to $10 for one hour a day, or five hours a week for six weeks. In case of special schools much higher fees are often charged. In schools of music, art, elocution and the like the fees are usually those charged for private lessons in city studios — they may even exceed these rates, although the tendency is to fall below rather than to rise above the average winter charge. The cost of board varies from $2 to $10 per week. The average price may be placed at about $5. The cost of living varies with the locality and with the accommodations avail- able. Several of the universities, such as Harvard, Columbia, the University of Chicago, admit summer students to the university dormitories, and in some cases serve meals in the university commons. In many of the summer normal schools held in smaller towns the price of board and lodging is very low, while in cities and at the more popular summer resorts the cost of living tends to rise. On the whole the expenses of the summer student are about the same as those 831] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION II of a student in residence for the same length of time during the regular academic year. THE CLASSIFICATION OF SUMMER SCHOOLS The multiplicity of purposes which have found expression in the summer schools makes it a puzzling task to classify them. Several principles of classification have been applied. Thus, Dr. Stephen B. Weeks 1 has classified them into five groups, according to the phases of education which they emphasize, and again he has made three groups from the standpoint of control. Dr. W. W. Willoughby 2 subdivides summer schools into (1) those for original research and the training of specialists ; (2) summer schools which give instruction in single subjects ; (3) Chautauqua assemblies and a large miscellaneous residuum. On the whole, it is believed that the following classification will serve as a fairly satisfactory method of grouping summer schools : 1. Academic schools. 2. Schools of pedagogy. 3. Specialized schools. 4. Schools of art, music, expression, etc. 5. Popular classes and lectures, of the Chautauqua type. Academic Schools. — Under this head may be grouped those schools which offer a wide range of college and sec- ondary subjects for a period of six weeks. Most of the university and college summer sessions fall into this class, to which also belong certain other schools, such as those of Chautauqua, Winona and Bay View. These schools appeal especially to teachers who are not pursuing strictly pro- fessional courses, but who are rather increasing their control over subject-matter while they at the same time aim at gen- eral culture. To some extent college students resort to these schools either for advanced standing or to make up entrance and college deficiencies. Schools of this academic type really provide a continuation of college and high school 1 Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1894-5, pp. 1485-90. 2 Report of the Commissioner of Education, iSgi-2, pp. 895-7. 12 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [832 instruction of the more conventional sort. The summer term for schools in this class is almost uniformly six weeks. The session opens soon after the fourth of July and closes about the middle of August. Experience has shown that these dates include the period which the majority regard as most convenient for summer study. Instruction in schools of this class is given almost wholly by university, college and high school teachers, who employ practically the same methods which they use throughout the rest of the year. In certain cases the lecturing may be somewhat less formal, and almost always the tests are less rigid. Inasmuch as most of these schools have no system of certificates, this laxity of administration works a minimum of harm. It should be noted that in the case of certain colleges and universities the standard for summer instruction is virtually the same as that which prevails throughout the rest of the year. The greater maturity of summer students makes it possible to employ a somewhat different system of class administration. Schools of Pedagogy. — The chief reason for making the separate classification of the schools which offer professional training to teachers lies in the fact that the overwhelming majority of summer students belong to the teaching profes- sion. While teachers are resorting in increasing numbers to schools of the academic class, a majority are still found in schools which aim at a special professional training. Many of these schools have features of the academic type, but they lay stress upon educational psychology, teaching methods, "drill and review" courses in school subjects and other disciplines which bear directly upon school work, and which fulfill requirements for certificates and professional promotion. The large summer normal schools appear nat- urally in this class. More than twenty summer institutes under state auspices belong also in this category, to which might be added hundreds of county and district institutes which meet during the summer in all parts of the country. The fact already noted that the work of these summer schools bears directly upon the promotion of teachers to 833] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 1 3 higher positions is a source of danger. The schools are too likely to become coaching machines for examination and certificate purposes. The leading schools of this class, how- ever, are holding up higher ideals and rendering an import- ant service to professional training of a broader kind. Specialized Schools. — To this class may be assigned those summer institutions which concentrate upon one subject or one group of closely related subjects. The schools of this group may be further subdivided : (a) Summer schools for research. Under this head belong the marine laboratories which have already been mentioned. These schools are designed for specialists and not for ordi- nary students. The numbers who frequent them are, from the nature of the circumstances, small. The sessions extend over six weeks, and in some cases include the entire sum- mer vacation. In one sense these schools are not strictly " summer schools," but rather the extension of university laboratory work into the vacation. The marine laboratory at Wood's Holl, Mass., and the Clark university school of psychology at Worcester are most conspicuous types of this subdivision. (b) Professional schools. Under this head belong summer schools of law, medicine, theology, library training and other institutions which aim at preparation for definite professional or specialized occupations. These schools are for the most part under academic auspices, although some of them are conducted for profit on a commercial basis. The law schools at the University of Virginia, University of Michi- gan, University of Chicago, the library schools at Albany, Chautauqua, Winona and Madison may be cited as repre- sentative of this subdivision. (c) Schools of philosophy and ethics. Certain groups or schools of thinkers have from time to time established summer schools which deal with a specialized interest, and yet belong in a subdivision of their own. The Concord school of philosophy, the School of applied ethics at Greenacre, the school of the same type at Plymouth, Mass., 14 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [834 are representative of this class. The instruction is uncon- ventional, consisting" of lectures and conferences. In the case of these schools we have a distinct departure from the regular academic methods which prevail in the schools above described. It is difficult to estimate the educational value of these institutions. They appeal exclusively to people of education and a certain degree of reflective power ; they are " schools " in a different sense from that in which the word has heretofore been used in this classification. (d) Religious and biblical conferences. In the late eighties Mr. D. L. Moody established at Northfield, Mass., summer conferences on biblical and religious themes. These meetings were soon developed into a gathering for college students at the end of June or the beginning of July ; and later in the season a general conference for Chris- tian workers, biblical students and others. In 1895 Dr. Sol C. Dickey was a prime mover in founding the Winona assembly and summer schools at Winona lake, Indiana. Here a few years later Dr. J. Wilbur Chapman established what is known as the Winona bible conference. Both Northfield and W T inona attract large numbers. At the lat- ter place especially ministers have gathered by the thousand for a ten days' series of addresses, sermons, conferences and devotional services conducted by leading evangelists and noted preachers from England, Scotland and the United States. Winona is an institution of the composite type including summer schools, a popular program and other features. Those who administer Winona seek to combine the Chautauqua and Northfield ideas in a more or less origi- nal way. It is further to be noted that both Northfield and Winona, the latter on a large scale, are adding industrial and technical schools for young people. These schools continue throughout the usual academic year, while the buildings are utilized in July and August for summer school and other purposes. Schools of Art, Music, Expression. — Under this head belong schools which usually represent a personal following. 835] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 1 5 For example, Mr. William M. Chase, the artist, goes for a a few weeks each summer to the Shinnecock hills, Long Island, where he gathers about him a group of pupils whose work he criticises and to whom he gives informal lectures. In the same way well-known musicians and teachers of ele- cution and oratory give instruction during the vacation sea- son. Occasionally the work is conducted in city studios but usually these summer schools are held at attractive places in the country. To these schools resort many teachers of art, music and expression who, released from their own work, seek contact with leaders in their own professions. These summer schools, therefore, serve as normal institutes for the teaching of those arts which as yet have not been regularly admitted to the curricula of academic institutions^ Popular Classes and Lectures. — There remains another type of summer institution which it is hard to classify, i. e. r a Chautauqua assembly, or, as it is often called, " a Chau- tauqua." The name comes from an assembly held for the; first time in western New York in August, 1874. Many of these Chautauqua assemblies combine elements which have already been described in preceding classifications. Thus,, some of them have a complete system of academic summer schools ; they offer pedagogical and professional training.. They provide classes in art, music and oratory. Chautau- quas of this kind are really composite in their nature. They add, however, another idea — that of a series of pub- lic lectures, conferences, entertainments and concerts not technically of an educational character but which represent important influences. Moreover, in origin and generally in the extension of Chautauqua assemblies a strong religious motive has been present. In most cases the assemblies are non-sectarian, in a few they are fostered directly by denomi- nations. Nearly two hundred assemblies have taken the name Chautauqua, although scores of them have imitated only one or two features of the original Chautauqua plan, neglecting its more fundamental principles. The average Chautauqua of the imitative type lays chief stress upon popular lectures, l6 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [836 concerts, readings and entertainments. Noted lyceum lec- turers, men prominent in public life, well-known reformers and persons who for various reasons are temporarily con- spicuous are invited to the platforms of these institutions. Many of them are commercial enterprises, sometimes subsi- dized by railways, street-car lines or merchants' associations, sometimes managed as stock companies for profit. There is another and smaller group of Chautauqua assem-. blies which introduce class exercises extending over ten days or two weeks. These classes usually deal with literature, Bible study, elementary science, elocution, music, practical arts, such as cookery, various forms of manual training and the like. In the lecture schedule the miscel- laneous, unrelated addresses are to some degree replaced by courses of continuous lectures of the university extension type. Even in these assemblies the popular program plays a leading part. It is the means by which the institution secures its revenue. An economic necessity compels the management to exploit persons technically known as "attractions" or " talent." There is a still smaller group of Chautauqua assemblies, among which the original Chautauqua institution is the most conspicuous, in which stress is laid upon a wide range of class instruction extending over six weeks, upon syste- matic university extension courses and upon other exercises which have a direct educational value. In these institutions the popular program also has an important place in providing timely addresses in great variety ; music of a worthy kind ; wholesome entertainment, thus adding to the pleasures of a community life which the institutions seek to foster. TYPICAL SCHOOLS A clearer idea of the character of summer schools may be gained from a rather more detailed description of certain institutions which may be regarded as typical of the classes already outlined. Of the academic schools we may select two types : First, a summer school under university auspices, 83'j'] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION I 7 i. e., teaching at a university ; second, summer instruction as a regular part of the university year, or teaching by a university. To represent the first class we may select the Harvard summer school, while for the second we may choose the University of Chicago. The Harvard Summer School. — Summer teaching at Harvard was originally wholly in science. It began under the impulse given by Agassiz and his friends. As early as 1869 Harvard professors gave instruction in geology with field excursions. In 1872 Agassiz held his first school on Penikese island. It was not until 1874 that regular summer instruction in botany and chemistry was given at Cambridge. From year to year the course was enriched by the adding of other sciences. In 1887 a departure was made in the establishment of a school of physical training under the direction of Dr. Sargeant. A year later courses in French and German were offered for the first time, while in 1889 physics and field engineering were added to the list. Gradu- ally subject after subject has been included until in 1903 courses were offered in twenty-nine departments, namely : Sanscrit, Greek, Latin, English, speaking and reading, German, French, Spanish, Russian, history, civil govern- ment, economics, pyschology, education, theory of design, drawing, music, mathematics, teaching of mathematics, astronomy, surveying, shop work, physics, chemistry, botany, geology, geography, mineralogy, physical education. The registration of students in 1903 was unusually large. This was doubtless due to the fact that early in July the National Education Association held its annual meeting in Boston. Thus the registration for 1900 was 784 ; for 1901, 767 ; for 1902, 737; while for 1903 the number reached 1,186. If 1902 be regarded as a normal year an analysis of registra- tions will give some idea of the special work of the Harvard summer school. The total number of registrations in 1902 was 890. Of this number 204 were in physical education, 165 in English, 80 in theory of design, 70 in mathematics, 70 in education, 44 in chemistry, 38 in history, 33 in J 8 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [838 geography and 30 in geology. In all other departments the registration was comparatively light It is clear from these figures that there is a concentration at Harvard upon a few departments, of which physical education and English are far in the lead. The Harvard summer school was originally an unofficial affair. Certain members of the faculty offered courses on their own responsibility, receiving compensation from the tuition fees of students. Little by little the university has assumed a responsibility for the summer work, which is now under the control of a faculty committee. The students' fees are paid to the university burser, while salaries for the summer staff are appropriated directly by the trustees. In this sense the work has secured official recognition. The Harvard summer session has passed from private to official control. Yet the six weeks' session is not an organic part of the university work. Credit for the summer courses is not regularly granted by the university, although, in certain circumstances, university standing may be secured. The summer students are not included in the regular statistics of university attendance, or, rather, these numbers always appear in a separate category. One of the features of the Harvard summer school, which has been adopted by other institutions, is the plan of Saturday excursions into the his- toric regions about Boston. It is interesting to note that the first work at Cambridge was in connection with geo- logical expeditions. The policy has been extended to include excursions to Concord, to Lexington, to Plymouth and to other places of historic and literary interest. Field excursions in science and nature study are also continued. A notable episode in the history of the Harvard summer school was the special provision made for Cuban teachers, who were brought to the United States in the summer of 1901. Nearly thirteen hundred of these Cuban teachers were trans- ported free by the government, while the Harvard author- ities raised an entertainment fund of $70,000. As to definite educational results secured by this experiment there is very 839] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION Ig little tangible evidence, but the experiment undoubtedly had important social and political bearings. It was conceived in a liberal spirit and is a sufficiently notable undertaking to deserve mention in connection with the Harvard summer school. The University of Chicago. — In 1891 the University of Chicago announced continuous instruction on the quarter plan, i. e., an academic year of four quarters of three months each. It was explicitly stated at the outset that the summer quarter would have in every respect the same academic status as that of any other quarter of the year. The uni- versity opened its doors to students October 1, 1892. On account of the World's fair the summer quarter of 1893 was omitted, but the following year the full system was inaugurated and since then has been in continuous opera- tion. All departments of the university are open to stu- dents during the summer quarter. A considerable percent- age of students who register in the summer are also in residence during the other quarters of the year. It is true, however, that the majority of students in the summer are registered for the summer quarter only. From the very outset, summer teaching at the University of Chicago has been upon a university rather than upon the summer school basis. The policy of the university is to afford continuity of work for regular students, of whom an increasing number take advantage of the opportunity to shorten their college courses. Again, by the summer quarter the university seeks to provide full university privileges for teachers in the pub- lic schools as well as for instructors and professors in smaller colleges. Experience has shown that a large constituency are eager to avail themselves of the opportunities offered. The statistics for the last few years indicate a large attend- ance, and show the distribution of students among the different departments. In 1900, 1,006 men and 668 women, making a total of 1,674 were enrolled. In 1901 the total enrollment reached 2,375, of whom a little more than half were women. The next year 2,246 students were in attend- 20 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [84O ance. At this session the men were slightly in majority. Dur- ing the last summer (1903) the enrollment was practically the same, 2,244, of whom 1,137 were men and 1,107 were women. A somewhat detailed analysis of the registration for 1903 gives the following results : In the divinity school there was a total registration of 2 2 3, of whom 200 were men. Of the 7 1 2 graduate students in residence, 45 1 were men. The regis- tration in the graduate department is explained by the fact that high school and college instructors and advanced stu- dents take advantage of the summer quarter. In the senior -and junior years of the undergraduate course, 213 students were registered, 125 men and 88 women. In the sophomore and freshman classes 86 men and jy women were enrolled. Students who are not able to matriculate with regular academic status, i. e., with full high school courses or with a high school course and advanced college standing, are known as "unclassified" students. In 1903,445 unclassi- fied students were in residence. Of these 321 were women. Here we have represented a large number of public school teachers pursuing special courses. In the medical school 81 were registered, a ll but three of whom were men. The 46 students of the law school were men, while out of the 361 pursuing courses in the school of education, all but 27 were women. At this point again we note a constituency of school teachers. The distribution of registrations for the summer quarter is significant. Of the 4,223 registrations in 1903, 593 were in English, 265 in philosophy, 2>77 in history, 375 in Latin, 307 in Germanic languages, 224 in romance languages, 239 in mathematics, 210 in chemistry. The other departments were represented in approximately normal proportions. These figures make it evident that the work of the univer- sity in summer is typical university work in which normal demands are made upon all departments. There is no con- centration upon a few specialized lines of work. Marthas Vineyard Summer Institute. — Although many pedagogical institutions are at the present time more promi- 841] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 21 nent, the Martha's Vineyard institute deserves especial notice because of the pioneer service which it has rendered. Founded in 1878 by Dr. Homer B. Sprague and his col- league, Professor Elliwood, the school originally assumed an academic character. Instruction was offered for six weeks in botany, entomology, geology and mineralogy, zoology, microscopy, French, German, Greek and Latin, English, literature and oratory, industrial training and pedagogics. In the first year the teaching staff included representatives of Cornell, Vassar, the Boston Latin school and the state normal schools of Rhode Island and New Jersey. Eighty students were enrolled. The numbers increased steadily from year to year. The Shakespearean scholar, Professor W. J. Rolfe succeeded Dr. Sprague as president. Col. Francis W. Parker, Dr. William T. Harris, Mr. F. L. Soldan were prominent in the work of the institution during the earlier years. By 1887, 250 students were in attendance. In 1888 a school of methods was incorporated with the academic cur- riculum. By 1 89 1 a comprehensive course in subject-matter and teaching methods had been developed. Elementary, high school and academic divisions were included, stress being more and more laid upon the pedagogical side of the instruction. The school, now under the charge of Dr. Wil- liam A. Mowry, has maintained its honorable position to the present time although as has already been indicated it is overshadowed in numbers of students and in resources by several pedagogical schools which have sprung up during the last ten years. In 1903 30 instructors conducted courses for 300 students. The Summer School of the South. — In 1902 the Summer School of the South, a school of methods for teachers, was opened at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. The session lasted for six weeks. The attendance was unex- pectedly large. In 1903 the experiment was continued; 149 different courses were offered in a wide range of sub- jects among which may be mentioned kindergarten and primary work, drawing, art, manual training, domestic 22 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [842 science, expression, music, physical culture, nature study, agriculture and horticulture, physiology and hygiene, psy- chology, education and the usual academic branches. The teaching staff included 91 members while 2,150 students were enrolled, of whom 662 were men. Exhibits of school work from different parts of the United States, model libraries, exhibits of apparatus, text books and school sup- plies were important features of the school. The expense of maintaining the school in 1903 was approximately $30,000. The school was subsidized by the General Education Board and by Knoxville citizens. 1 This institution must undoubt- edly be regarded as a very important step in raising the educational standards and the qualifications for teachers in the south. The Marine Biological Laboratory. — In 1881 a marine laboratory was established at Annisquam, Mass., under the joint auspices of the Women's Educational Association of Boston and the Boston Society of Natural History. The school was conducted successfully for five years. Unlike other experiments of this kind students as well as investi- gators were admitted. In 1886 an appeal was made to the biologists of the country to make the laboratory a center of biological research. Funds were raised, a charter secured, and in 1888 a marine biological laboratory, with Dr. C. O. Whitman as director, was re-established at Wood's Holl, Mass., a point on Buzzards bay admirably situated for the collection of specimens. In his opening address Dr. Whit- man made it clear that the laboratory was to be regarded as devoted primarily to research. " I have no sympathy," he said, " with anything merely devoted to elementary instruc- tion, and unless the greater part of the energy is given to original work it is of no interest to me." The attendance for the first year was 15. In 1896 there were 74 investi- gators and 103 students. In 1899 the numbers were 71 and 78 respectively, while in 1903 the investigators numbered 'University of Tennessee Record, Nashville, Oct., 1903, pp. 262-3. 0843] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 23 76 and the students 54. By the co-operation of nearly 30 colleges and universities, research rooms and " tables " are provided for investigators and students. The laboratory publications now number about 400, and represent contribu- tions of first importance. The laboratory is a " biological clearing house " for the whole country. It promotes inter- university fellowship, stimulates the growth of biological science, and tends to become an agency through which uni- versities and colleges recruit their teaching staffs. The marine laboratory at Wood's Holl is, in its very nature, a university institution, appealing only to investigators and to advanced students. Chautauqua Institution. — In 1874 the Chautauqua Sun- day school assembly was founded by Lewis Miller, of Akron, Ohio, and Dr. John H. Vincent, now a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church. The first session was held for ten days in August on the shores of Chautauqua lake in southwestern New York. The fundamental idea of the assembly was to afford a broader training for Sunday school teachers, to combine formal instruction with informal con- ferences and to provide elements of recreation and enter- tainment. Although the founders were members of the Methodist Episcopal church, the assembly was made from the outset unsectarian. Among the speakers were representa- tives of all the leading denominations. More than 1,000 per- sons interested in progressive Sunday school ideas attended the first session, which aroused an enduring interest. The next year the plan was continued and extended. Instruction in Hebrew and Greek from a biblical point of view was begun in 1875. The following year English literature was included. By 1878 French and German had been added to the list of studies, and in the same year the "teachers' retreat" was inaugurated under the charge of Dr. J. W. Dickinson, of Boston. Thus, within four years of its founding, the Chautauqua assembly began to provide instruction for the teachers of the public schools. Each year now saw a lengthening of the session, an enrichment 24 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [844 of the popular lecture program, an enlargement of the cur- riculum of the summer schools. In 1883 Dr. William R. Harper, now president of the University of Chicago, became the head of the summer school department of Chautauqua, and for fourteen years rendered service of the greatest value in building up the distintively educational side of Chautau- qua work. It was in 1878 that the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle was founded. This plan of home reading extending over four years and offering what was described as the " college outlook " to mature people met with instant success. The first year over 7,000 readers were enrolled and within a few years 60,000 were pursuing the prescribed courses of the circle. After 1883, under the direction of Dr. Harper correspondence work in college subjects was inaugurated and carried on successfully for a number of years. Thus, within ten years from its found- ing, Chautauqua had developed from a Sunday school assembly into a popular educational institution appealing to earnest and ambitious people of all classes, providing sum- mer school instruction, directing home reading, conducting thorough personally supervised correspondence courses. The institution has grown steadily from the beginning. At one time under a charter from the state of New York, Chautauqua was empowered to confer degrees. A few degrees were granted, chiefly to bachelors of divinity and to, perhaps, a score of bachelors of arts. With the assum- ing of correspondence instruction by two or three leading universities Chautauqua was relieved from work of this type and surrendered the degree conferring power. In 1902 a new charter was issued to Chautauqua, the name being changed to the Chautauqua institution. Chautauqua is a summer community with a maximum resident population of 10,000 or 12,000 people. More than 30 public buildings provide accommodations for the educa- tional work. In 1903, 74 instructors offered 187 courses to 2,158 students in 15 different schools. In connection with the popular program, there were 113 lectures, 48 religious 845] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 25 addresses, 14 illustrated lectures, 26 readings, 20 entertain- ments, 38 concerts, 9 sermons. Chautauqua is more than a summer school and a popular program. It is community and an institution. From the very beginning the sentiment of loyalty has been fostered by many devices. Ritual, ceremony, processions, anniversaries, songs, have all played their part in developing an esprit de corps which gives the place a distinctive character. The strong religious motive which was present at the beginning has dominated the whole life of the institution. This relig- ious motive has not, however, taken a narrow or sectarian form. The institution recognizes the symmetry of a life which includes intellectual, sesthetic, recreative, associative as well as distinctively religious elements. It attempts to combine these in the summer into a stimulating and sane environment, and throughout the year to direct and encour- age the reading of thousands of persons to whom regular educational opportunities are denied. THE THEORY OF SUMMER SCHOOLS It is characteristic of human nature to solve problems, to develop institutions and then to seek a reason for the thing that has been done. We have seen that summer schools sprang up in response to certain needs. It was inevitable that the conservative elements in the community should resist the new idea. At the beginning, college and univer- sity men were naturally skeptical concerning summer schools. Thirty years ago the democratic tendency in higher educa- tion was far less marked than it is to-day. The old aristo- cratic traditions were still dominant. The college professor and the college graduate were suspicious of popular educa- tion. These are some of the points which were raised against summer schools : They would encourage super- ficiality in education ; would foster the idea that the higher education after all is comparatively a simple matter, and that a summer course would go far toward accomplishing the results achieved by a whole year of resident study. It 26 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [846 was insisted that thousands of people would be induced merely to. dabble in intellectual pursuits. This would beget in these ephemeral students a kind of arrogance which would be nothing short of intellectual hypocrisy. In a word, these brief courses would turn out vain and compla- cent persons who would not only be insincere themselves, but would bring true learning into disrepute. Moreover, the critics feared that competent teachers could not be secured. Men engaged in university and col- lege work throughout the year ought not to assume further burdens of teaching ; those likely to be engaged for the work would be of the cheap and "popular" type, intel- lectual middlemen mediating between the university and the vulgar herd. Then, too, the majority of the students, school teachers, ought not to spend their time of rest in continued confinement to the class room. The long vaca- tion was regarded as a time of sacred idleness, not to be employed in intellectual work of any kind. Still other critics who were not wholly unsympathetic, pointed out the dangers of unrelated summer study. The absence of a fixed curriculum, the application of the elective system without supervision, seemed to them to make for a kind of mental dissipation, a sort of intellectual " sloppiness," which could not fail to be a real menace. There were even a few who seemed to fear that by summer study many would be led to forego a regular college course, substituting vacation pursuits for the more serious and persistent academic work. Then there was, from certain supersensitive sources, a kind of sarcasm and ridicule heaped upon the whole idea. In reply to these criticisms the advocates of the summer school movement urged that superficiality was at best a relative term, and that while summer study could not be expected in the main to make for profound scholarship, yet concentration upon a single pursuit for six weeks might result in distinct progress toward the mastery of many a subject. The evils of diffused effort were frankly recog- 847] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 2 J nized, and attempts were made to guard against the dangers involved. Much was made of the value of informal per- sonal contact between students and teachers of strong individuality. It was asserted that summer schools, so far from competing with the regular college courses, would popularize higher education and increase the number of col- lege students. The important influence of social contact between students from various parts of the country was also urged. Then, too, it was insisted that in almost all summer schools there is a combination of study with recreation ; that the conditions of summer study are so different from those of the winter work of teachers that under wise regu- lation summer school study may be made genuinely recrea- tive. Moreover, the great national summer schools were described as " clearing houses of ideas " and " nerve cen- ters" for the control of public opinion. Under these some- what commercial or biological figures we have expressed the important truth that professional and intellectual enthusiasm are greatly stimulated and made more effective by such con- tacts as the summer schools provide. Of late years more has been heard of the loss of time involved in the long vacation. It has been pointed out that this long vacation originally grew out of economic and social conditions which have been greatly modified ; that it is not, therefore, a sacrosanct period which may not be encroached upon. Vacation schools for children, summer camps and other places for juvenile instruction are now common. These are but another form under which the summer school idea is finding recognition. On the whole, the critics have served a useful purpose in pointing out dangers which have existed and still lurk in summer schools, but experience has demon- strated that these objections are not vital, and that the dan- gers which they impute may be either avoided or minimized. THE FUTURE OF SUMMER SCHOOLS It is never safe to make precise prediction as to the future of human institutions. It is possible, however, to suggest 28 SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION [848 the projection of a curve of tendency. The facts seem to warrant the following general predictions : 1. The number of summer schools will not continue to increase rapidly. The statistics given by the University of the State of New York 1 show a diminution in the number of schools reporting. In 1893 there were 105 ; in 1896, 251 ; in 1900, 105. If we except the multiplication of so-called Chautauqua assemblies of the local, commercial type, we shall find that the weaker schools are yielding to the com- petition of the larger and stronger institutions. The result seems likely to be that a few strong schools in each state will serve the purpose of summer instruction. This in itself is an encouraging sign. 2. There is undoubtedly a tendency to strengthen the teaching staffs in summer schools. Thus, at the universities professors of higher rank are in increasing numbers tak- ing the places which at first were filled almost exclusively by young instructors. In the case of summer schools not directly connected with universities, the practice is to secure stronger men, chiefly from well-known educational institutions. 3. Summer instruction tends to come more and more directly under the control of colleges and universities ; that is, to be incorporated in the regular educational system of the country. The utilizing of the university plants, the economies of administration, etc., will inevitably lead to this result. 4. The state, notably in the middle west, may be expected to give increasing support to summer schools especially for public school teachers. Here, again, the summer institutes will be assimilated and incorporated into the normal school system. 5. It seems likely that the tendency to specialize which characterizes all modern movements will play a part in the development of summer schools. There is sufficient evi- dence at hand, some of which has already been cited, to 1 Bulletin No. 39, cited above. 849] SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 29 snow that certain schools and certain universities will offer unusually rich opportunities in some one subject or group of subjects, as, for example, the Cornell summer department of geography. 6. With the admission of history, art, expression, physical culture, to the list of college and university subjects, schools which deal especially with these departments will be drawn into closer relations with higher educational institutions. 7. In spite of this general tendency a few strong centers may be expected to persist as independent institutions, offering instruction under college and university auspices, maintaining religious exercises in close association with the leading churches and fostering a community life which shall have a distinctive and traditional value. Above all, the one great tendency which seems to be revealed by facts of past and present is that toward a more intimate and direct relationship, organic or personal, between summer schools and the centers of higher education — the universities and the colleges. UNIVERSITY EXTENSION The term university extension is used in a specific and in a general sense. It describes a certain type of popular edu- cation developed in England twenty-five years ago. It is also employed for example by the University of the state of New York, in a general sense, to include home education, study clubs, summer schools, correspondence schools, read- ing circles and traveling libraries. We shall deal first with university extension in the special sense, and then briefly call attention to some of the other forms of popular education. UNIVERSITY EXTENSION IN ENGLAND If we ignore two or three vaarue foreshadowing^ of uni- versity extension which diligent students have discovered in the records of Oxford and Cambridge, we may date the movement from 1872, when the University of Cambridge received memorials from mechanics' institutes in Leeds, 3- < ^J- ■»*- W VO IDCO h- ("*. lO i t^xo vo in ■* r- ■■*• « ro t"- N NN 000 t^.H N ■ invo -*t- t^ M H^O O00 NOCO O 1 i m ih m w rovo Ov t>> . r*-. o t*-vo iom M C^M ^--^-m M^OCO M ■*»- ■<*■ ij- in M t-* MD "0 ^■0*00 ^" ' I --J-VO 0>M VO vo vo C-.VO \r>\o t*- i I o.vo \o invO VO^CO t^^O JOO N ^J-vo VO Q> fOrtOO i t-* t^. mvo t>-vo vo r-. t-^. invo t-» ro ■ oco a- o i m vo t-- -+y > O OCO N ( t^ OWO OwO i -*- ro Tj-o -»\o CO » VO H rooo -<*- O'oobvo o-o>e)^o rovo 1^. m m ooo in N M O "">vo --J- in •* t^- m t^. o o o ■*- M IT) VO 00 *VO CO m -<*- r-.'O r^vo vo h*. vo I « r- t^-\o r- t^vo invo c^ i^-vo >oco^ ns t^vo > en o oo r-» rooo h h m h mo inr-»o in o* o> « vo fi n h\ m rn t-*vo vo •^-oo ro inoo vO nmhoocovO f-^ h- rr O t*- m (Ji h Oh vo H nfON N00 vo ro t~- Ov O^vo CO -^-00 « MO ^t fCO t^. invo t^. rovo N m ■*■ OvO " T CO vo ^ ■ ) H M H VO I vo vo ro CO v HCOCO -tO hoo^o a^ ovo w t^« i>vo vo t^-oo in ^-o C^O-N -^-mvo M ^00 n nj ico in m ->*vo h-N m m tsio 't o inoo t^. "+■ « i>. ■*■ ^oo vo i moo ■<*• t^« ■<- owo iO NO* rovo ) OvO ■*■ "*• M 1^ fOCO vo o rt ■ 'S Nfl ■ O- o> 6 . H 3 ' Ol ^"o • O »u : ^^ o ". c g .^ . o o iu i« 4J CO ■5 c C .. 3-2-3.2 sgggs.s.sgggs.ffs 38 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [930 TABLE 2 — Sixteen former slave states and the District of Columbia 1870-71 1871-72 1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 1876-77 1877-78 1878 79 1879-80 1880-81 , 1881-82 . 1S82-83 1883-84 , 1884-85 . 1885-86 . 1886-87 • 1887-88 . 1888-89. 1889-90 . 1890-91 . 1891-92 . 18Q2-93 . 1893-94 . 1894-95 . 1895-06 . 1896-97 . YEAR COMMON SCHOOL ENROLLMENT White Total. 1 827 139 2 034 946 2 OI3 684 2 215 674 2 234 877 2 249 263 2 370 IIO 2 546 448 2 676 9II 2 773 145 2 975 773 3 no 606 3 197 830 3 402 420 3 570 624 3 607 549 3 697 899 3 835 593 3 845 414 3 861 300 3 937 99 2 Colored 571,506 675 I50 685 942 784 709 802 374 802 982 817 240 I 002 313 I 030 463 I O48 659 I H8 556 I I40 405 I 213 O92 I 296 959 1 329 549 1 354 3i6 1 367 515 1 424 995 1 441 282 1 429 713 1 460 084 Expenditures (both races) $10 385 464 II 623 238 II 176 048 11 823 775 13 02I 514 12 033 865 11 23I 073 12 O93 09I 12 174 I4I 12 678 685 13 656 814 15 241 740 16 363 471 17 884 558 19 253 874 20 208 II3 20 821 969 21 8lO 158 23 171 878 24 880 I07 26 690 310 27 69I 488 28 535 738 29 223 546 29 372 990 30 729 819 31 144 801 $514 922 268 930 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 39 I*1°X CT*NN'>}-CNcoOaor->Moo cn co no o co N i^r^o m * 0 in m o CO CJO nOH uihvO m no >* m cn u->0 0o N tj-oo mo n moo en en n n en Nco Nco cn -3- cr. m o OentNcoen mMcnOMNcnM ajeuis^j co oo O O o* O >o mvo Tfco oONNrfwOHin O m o>O^NinoococonHM<3c>nNO't*0 ON in o in m m en tx co m mo ■q" O h »I B H en en tJ-co N 0>0 mOvO eno m N N tuo O O Ocrt c>) in cn O O cn n m N co cn m r^-1-enoo cn uno n ^t- n o O CN O N O ■* O H M *0 «1N « M CN CN H^H fl N't cnnH i^nm OvO O cn o m i CN CO OCO O ** OMONNO t N M M in CN O M H N O N I vO en w O ino MenwwcMCNcooo-f 0» in tJ-\0 m cn m co N m o no in o^ *S-co -^-cn o h o Mnt MM M l^°X 3[EUI3jJ a l«IV sjootps jo jaquin^sj enco m ^ in o m tN no o o m m mn cn cn r)-o -3- cn U ex fc/3 o O 9-T3 C 3 P>M M -M (- CO !/) 3 d.S > « H <? 40 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [932 vOOOO^OOO • hi t-» OmcjOOOOOO s V 0>N O M O o o 3PIM P"°X CO O CO C<1 O •*• O in o ^~ m O N ts N C^ nN TtN ON • n m« **■ in ■ mm O^r^r^OOvOO C^co mM~. is in r-ico M O i- N in is no h "tw m vo *o rs oj rs *I*JM c* co c< OvO O O is OoO O c^OOcoOO N ^nmN h ninin isco 00 o c<"> hi in o ^t H l/l ^ i«»°x 3JBU13 j 8 .^1 'FW I^'OX 6 PQ 3IBUI3J m N Cl(?i M W N in V O C/3 W rj ii ^ n J 3 'm'o S >s o Ul is! SO n! ► 5 * 3 « "a • « w -T^U « ^ CJ3 in U V 933J EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 45 OOOOONcnOOMi-iOO s .3 <5 •<4 I < Q * Tf H CO CO N O CO M i-i N O hoo o nconmH inmo n r~- in ^f w xnco co N ci t-^ r^*o N N h ^ coo N M M tj-o MO r^O P* Tf onmoo in tj- 'i-O ninifl ninM NO mo CO i-i i-i n tin- I--. N r-unw o i-i O^-NO r--co o cq I-I M M I-I tj s d-d ^U C4.5 > rt » »1 H "I in 42 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [934 On I s .8 to ""si 8 .5> 3 PQ H •5 I ssicnpejo s I sjuapnjg O • O O •NOOOOO00OOOOONOOOO in ssjEnpEjg sjuaprug sajcnpEjg sjuapmg sajcnpBjQ SJUapilJg sajEnpcjQ sjuapujg SSJBnpBJQ sjuapnjg O £ O-OOOu-iO^OOOOO-OOONO OOOOOOOOOooOOO^OOO OOOOOOOOOmOOOmOOO 00000000000000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOO00OOO OOOO0OOOOOr^oOo-*OOO OOOOOOOOOP-iOOOWOOO 000000000"-iMO cio OOO HOOOONwOOt^MvOOHwooO I*'°X 0-000"^0h TO 1) > O _5 « * « c c- H 'i r 1 "! «i ^f o Cu i » m» 3.S-S Sf3 s£3* C K M» 935] EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO 43 sapuj} jai[JO 3u;j[oo3 SuiAvsg M- M in m tj- m in m Q\ Sujjuuj Su;?(Eui3oqg 3JJOAV dot[S-9UtipEJ\I c* s w co • m SuiSjoj J331JS JO UIJ^ SUIJUIEJ 3UU3JSE[,J SutXB^oug XajuadjB3 3JJ0.M. uap -jeS jo uijbjJ N O l^ o H N W coo moo O vO *3"C0 O N Tj-vO 00 O H i-l M vO ■* M M « (<1 i-i o ^vO O CO m t^ CO l-i O M ** N TJ-VO CO M ^" M C7* in r^ r-» o O O O m v£> H 3fc i*i°x in Tf O in 'i- co O i-i ■* c< o a M CO N M VI i-i huiN in m co O O Oco ^-nh NNinoOmmMMOinMvoO wcoMt^M mNMi-^mMcOM »FIM CO N O TtOO 0) co co r^ m r-~ CJiH I-I W m co r-~ N O coo coco f) vO co in e* O CO O CO Tf ^o « C3 So e* y *.,s.s S"§,s S'ff'S " S.S^ « 3 $ £ SS ? u.s = a Q» - ^ «P OJS — JDO^ - g d.5 c o > rt 4) a 'So Cd.M ECU! , IU Q W . 44 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO [936 i6-96g 1 jbsA aqj O) 1UI03UI l^joj^ m N O •<*■ r^ CT> 1-uiO m en N intl f) ino>H O O 00 O m l~» O M Own 4©. ih m rf O in N O OO O O moo 00 O m H o h o>cn» o o n 00 h r-» m en w ^t o^co m pagisscp -un s33jnos mojj paApoaj junouiy co in O O in in !>• ■* O O Tj- M t-» H C* O H H enCO^O©^*-" r-^ m m N o in r^ h vo m o^ 00 r-> en en tj-o o en co en o O spun; aAijonpojd uiojj paAi903j junouiy aoOOOmOmcn N "t tf o o WD in rt- N O m t^ en O 00 in N in ^ Os S <8 S33j uouiru uiojj paAiaoaa' ' junouiy O M O • in O H o 00 M O O « MN inco in t}- en r-> H CO m inco en 1-1 in 00 Anco 00 M Tf 00 vO en pie jedpiunui jo siejs 10 junouiy OOOOOO en O O O O O r^ w OO in en rfco Tf M m r-~ ,_, ^ H H 4© MOOr^OOco^*- OON CT>co en r^o N M M MM OOOOO O O O in O H h vO in •snjciedde oyn -U3IDS pUB 3J11J -iujnj 'sSuipjinq 'spunoj3 jo anjB^ t-OOOOC^OO envO OOO -3-OOOOvOOOOenOOO NNcoOmNOmNWOincn N O t»> in O 'too N tTO O h vO en r^ m o f~ w m ohm envO in m ct> en n en m •*}■ m OOOOOOO m Q o o o o o r-> O O in tJ-O enco •tw * Ttoo w o m m O N co m m M m ct> en 00 XiEjqu jo anjr^ OOC>OOmOQQO*ininOOOOOenQ OinincsONOO0inr^enO0 co enOco i-» O coO^i-iNOO-^i-iin *t^O 00 O inO c» r^o too 00 Nr>m £6-9681 'sjsanbaq jo suou OK/auaq jo anJB^ r^ O r^ n O en O N en O en O O M O M Ci inco O O in ■ d g s 5 ts -a .2 2 2 o s g -a 'S bo 19 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN BY WILLIAM N. HAILMANN Head of the Department of History and Philosophy of Education Cleveland Normal Training School, Cleveland, Ohio EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN INTRODUCTION The first successful attempts to colonize America on the part of the Anglo-Saxons were made during the first quarter of the seventeenth century. Immediately the struggle set in between brutal greed and a certain irrepressible spirit of fair play on the part of the intruding race in their intercourse with the Indians. Greed saw in the Indian a hateful obstacle in the way of its advance in the acquisition of territory. Fair play, aided by a nascent spirit of broad Christianity and genuine philanthropy, emphasized in the Indian his essential humanity and labored to lead him, for the sake of his own salvation, to a recognition of the fatherhood of God and to lift him into a condition that would render him worthy of being received as a full equal into the brother- hood of man. This struggle is still going on with shifting success. Yet, on the whole, humanity and fair play are steadily gaining. The intellectual and spiritual upheavals of the sixteenth century, which had culminated in Bacon and Luther, had directed thought to education as the chief reliance in the liberation of the race from the trammels of superstition, and in leading him out of the worship of physical prowess to the recognition of his duty to God and man. Naturally, there- fore, those who sought the conversion and uplifting of the Indian directed their attention primarily to efforts for his education. The very charters, granted to the colonizing companies, breathed the hope that their work might bring about " the enlargement of God's kingdom among the heathen people." The present system of Indian education, under the direc- tion of the government of the United States, is in no way the outcome of a deliberate and carefully-conceived plan on the part of Washington officials. It is descended directly 4 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [94<> from the first attempts in Indian education on the part of Virginia, and more particularly on the part of New England. Here its seeds were planted. From these it derives certain inherent, vital principles, rooted in a broad Christianity and a fervent philanthropy which have enabled it to withstand blights of partisanship, of greed and rapacity on the part of spoilsmen, of incompetence on the part of teachers, of race prejudice on the part of settlers and other unfavorable con- ditions of environment and policy. JOHN ELIOT A remarkable pioneer work, and of a typical character, was done by Rev. John Eliot in Massachusetts. Mr. Eliot: was actuated by motives of broadest Christianity and pur- est philanthropy. His simple measures were chosen with consummate wisdom. In the first place he familiarized himself with the language, disposition and character of his Indians. Then, by according them the same, he secured their confidence and respect and stimulated in their hearts reverence and a sincere desire for the industry and thrift, the godliness and purity of life, of which New England communities afforded the example. Those who would follow him he gathered in towns, where he taught them the liberties and responsibilities of township government and the devices and institutions of civilized life, among which the church and the school naturally occupied places of honor. A num- ber of "choice Indian youths" he induced to attend English schools that they might prepare themselves for missionary work as teachers and catechists among their own people. He was warmly supported in his work by " the corpora- tion for the propagation of the Gospel in foreign parts," by the general court of Massachusetts and, particularly, by Mr. Daniel Gookins, the official superintendent of the Indians in Massachusetts. Mr. Eliot began his work in 1646. In 1674 there were fourteen towns of " praying Indians" whose schools and churches, in the majority of instances, were administered by educated natives. At the same time, an 94 1] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 5 Indian college had been founded at Cambridge. Yet, in due time, this success was swept away by the fears and prejudices which developed under the baneful influences of the Indian wars. Similar successful work under the direc- tion of Revs. John Cotton and Richard Bourne in Plymouth colony shared the same fate. SERGEANT AND WHEELOCK Other memorable efforts in the eighteenth century were robbed of their fruits by similar causes, intensified by a num- ber of disorganizing factors incident to the revolutionary period. Prominent among these is the work of Rev. John Sergeant at Stockbridge in Massachusetts and that of Rev. Eleazer Wheelock in Connecticut and New Hampshire. The work of Mr. Sergeant, which involved the establish- ment of day schools, of a boarding school and an experi- mental " outing system," was almost ideal in conception, but ended with the deportation of his Indians to the west. Dr. Wheelock's labors led to the establishment of an effective training school and, indirectly, to the creation of Dartmouth college " for the education and instruction of youths of the Indian tribes in this land in reading, writing, and all parts of learning which shall appear necessary and expedient for civilizing and christianizing the children of pagans, as well as in all liberal arts and sciences, and also of English youths and any others." Only the last purpose was destined for achievement. PERSISTENCE OF SPIRIT OF WORK It is interesting to note that, in spite of practically total external failure, the spirit and even much of the form of these early enterprises persisted. Their impress is observ- able to-day in almost every prominent feature of the Indian school organization of the United States. Among these I would point out the establishment of day schools in or near Indian villages or settlements and their organization as a means for the domestic and industrial uplifting of Indian family and village life, as well as for the 6 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [942 instruction of children ;. the establishment of industrial boarding schools in territory occupied by Indians, with their opportunities for introducing among the young a taste for the amenities and refinements, as well as for the duties and responsibilities of civilization ; the establishment in civilized English-speaking communities of advanced training schools for the fuller equipment of "choice Indian youths" for full citizenship in white communities or for missionary work in the ideals, institutions, and arts of civilization among their own people ; the universal stress in all schools upon instruc- tion of boys in the arts of husbandry and certain trades and of girls in the domestic arts ; the " outing system " which places partially educated Indian girls and boys as paid help- ers in suitable English-speaking families and affords them instruction in the ordinary public schools; the importance attached to religious and ethical training. SHORTCOMINGS On the other hand, it is to be deplored that a number of valuable features of the early schools have been abandoned and even supplanted by opposite tendencies. Among the latter are to be reckoned the unintelligent warfare waged against the Indian idiom; the introduction of certain brutali- ties of military discipline under the influence of soldiers who for a time controlled Indian schools ; an equally unin- telligent effort on the part of some schools to wean Indian youth from Indian association by throwing contempt upon the Indian and by stimulating a feeling akin to hatred of Indian family ties ; and a variety of measures and devices inspired by a policy of compulsion and repression, rather than by a spirit of development and benevolent helpfulness. Serious harm came to the government schools from time to time from the fact that until 1893 patronage and partisan- ship entered as a weighty, perhaps the weightiest, factor in the appointment of officers and employees. Thanks to the constant vigilance of the Indian rights association, the Mohonk conference and a number of other societies earn- 943] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 7 estly interested in the welfare of the Indians, these evils are steadily yielding. They have been greatly reduced since 1893 by the application of civil service rules to school employees, and it is hoped that in these matters every new dawn will bring a better day. PERIOD OF INACTION Before entering upon a descriptive account of the Indian school work of the present day, it is desirable to indicate in a few words the successive steps that have led to their organization. After the revolution, congress and the country as a whole were so much absorbed with the duties of self-establishment that little heed was paid to Indian education. A number of minor appropriations are recorded on the basis of treaties with a few tribes, and at a few points missionary zeal con- tinued a fitful activity. During the first quarter of the nine- teenth century, however, a great religious revival again directed general attention to Indian education as a Christian and national duty. RESUMPTION OF WORK Missionary bodies took up the work with renewed zeal. Congress responded in 1819 with an appropriation of $10,000 in addition to certain treaty obligations. In 1820 the presi- dent was authorized to apply this sum annually in aid of societies and individuals engaged in the education of Indians. In 1823 the sum of $80,000 was expended in 21 schools maintained by missionary bodies; $12,000 of this amount had been contributed by the government. In 1825 the number of such schools had risen to 38, the entire expenditure for these to $202,000, of which the gov- ernment, directly and indirectly, had contributed $25,000. In 1848 there were reported in operation 16 manual training schools, 87 boarding schools and other schools. These schools continued to increase in number and efficiency up to 1873. They were under the control of mis- sionary bodies with such scanty aid from the government as 8 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [944 the small appropriations afforded. Only a few small day schools had been established by the government directly under treaty provisions. GOVERNMENTAL ZEAL After this time, however, the government entered upon an era of almost feverish activity in the establishment of strictly government schools ; first, day schools, then board- ing schools and industrial training schools. Congress kept pace with this 'zeal in the liberality of its appropriations. In 1877 it appropriated for schools, outside of treaty pro- visions, $20,000, in 1880 $75,000, in 1885 $992,800, in 1890 $1,364,568, in 1895 $2,060,695, in 1899 $2,638,390. During this period the average attendance rose in similar ratio from 3,598 in 1877 to 19,648 in 1898. The increased appropriations by congress for the educa- tion of Indians naturally stimulated a desire on the part of the government to control the expenditures directly and in detail. Possibly this desire was much enhanced by the fact that such expenditure opened to the party in power a rich field for patronage. At the same time it was discovered that the constitution, by implication at least, forbade the appropriation of public funds for denominational purposes. Concurrent conclusions, unfavorable to government support of missionary schools, were further strengthened by the fact that the Roman Catho- lic church had gradually outstripped the Protestant mission- ary bodies and was absorbing the lion's share of government support. DECAY OF MISSIONARY EFFORT During the first half of the century the Protestant mis- sionary organizations had had well nigh a monopoly of gov- ernment support ; but, later on, the Roman Catholics had wrested from them the preponderance. In 1889 the Catho- lic church drew from the appropriations for this purpose $347,672, as against $128,518 drawn by Protestant bodies. In 1892 these amounts had risen to $394,756 for the Catho- 945] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 9 lies and $160,874 for the Protestants. In 1893 the Metho- dist Episcopal church withdrew from participation in govern- ment aid without, however, abandoning its schools. In 1895 this example was followed by the Presbyterians and Congre- gationalists, in 1896 by the Friends, and in 1897 by the remaining Protestant denominations. This left only the Catholics in the field with an appropriation of $198,228. This process was aided by congress which, in 1894, had declared its policy of gradually abandoning all support of denominational schools. This policy has since been followed, so that in 1899 the appropriation was reduced to $116,862. PRESENT ORGANIZATION In their present organization the Indian schools under government control are designated as day schools, as reser- vation boarding schools, non-reservation boarding schools, and as industrial and normal training schools. Day schools — Day schools are located in Indian villages or near Indian camps or settlements. They are, as a rule, in charge of a male teacher and his wife, who acts as house- keeper, or — more particularly in the pueblos of New Mexico and in the Indian villages of Southern California — of a lady teacher and an Indian housekeeper. The children spend from five to eight hours during five days of the week under the care of these employees and return to their homes in the evening. At noon they are furnished a substantial luncheon, except in the pueblos of New Mexico and in the villages of Southern California, where they generally return to their homes during the noon recess. The instruction is of the simplest character. The children are taught to speak, read and write the English language within narrow limits, to cipher, to draw and to sing. In addition they get some rudimentary notions of geography, of natural history and of United States history. The methods are borrowed largely from the kindergarten and from object teaching. Much stress is laid upon habits of cleanliness and order, IO EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [94^ mutual kindliness and prompt obedience. The boys receive some instruction in the use of tools, in gardening and, in some instances, in the care of cows. The girls are taught sewing, cooking and other arts of housekeeping. While day schools, as a rule, accomplish comparatively little in conventional school-room work, they achieve much in bringing to the Indians among whom they are located, the message and desire of better ways of living. The school as such serves as a concrete illustration of a civilized Christian home which the Indians learn to respect and in an appreciable degree to emulate. Where the teacher and housekeeper, at the same time, possess the inclination and the skill to attract to themselves the older Indians, to secure their confidence and to instruct them unobtrusively in the simpler arts of thrift and home-making, these schools become invaluable factors in the uplifting of the race. Moreover, they reconcile the Indian with the idea of sending his chil- dren to school, and render him more willing in due time to intrust them to the care of boarding schools, as well as more ready to appreciate and to accept the lessons of civilization that radiate from these centers of education. According to the report of the commissioner of Indian affairs the government operated in 1898 142 day schools. The most successful of these are located in Wisconsin (16), in North Dakota (11), and in South Dakota (54) ; the least successful, probably, among the pueblos of New Mexico (14). This comparative lack of success, however, is not to be attributed to the teachers who are devoted and capable. It is due rather to the fact that these Indians live in a state of half-civilization which they owe to their Mexican and Spanish antecedents. This condition fully satisfies their ideals, and, consequently, they do not care to exchange it for the ways of their teachers. The life of the day-school teacher is one of extreme isola- tion from the amenities and refinements of civilization. It argues on their part a degree of self-denial and devotion which even with persons of only ordinary goodness is sure to 947] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN I I emphasize the best traits and impulses of the soul. It is not rare, therefore, to find among them sanctified men and women whose very presence is an inspiration. I have no doubt that to this is due much of their benign influence upon the Indians among whom their lot is cast. It is an observation much to the credit of human nature that only rarely a teacher is found of a character so corrupt as to take advantage of the people and the children intrusted to his care. The day schools are kept open for ten months. The salaries paid vary from $600 to $800 for the teacher and from $300 to $480 for the housekeeper, according to location. Reservation boarding schools — These schools are located within the territory reserved for some tribe of Indians. They are in charge of a superintendent, assisted by a matron and such teachers, industrial and domestic helpers as the capacity and character of the school may require. In addi- tion to the required number of school teachers, the school is provided with a cook, a seamstress, and a laundress whose office it is not only to supervise their respective departments, but also to instruct the girls in these arts. Similarly, there is for the instruction of the boys a farmer, an industrial teacher, and, at larger schools, a tailor, a shoe and harness maker, a carpenter and a blacksmith. An experiment to provide for more methodical instruction in the use of tools by expert manual training teachers failed because the Indian office would not afford a salary for this position, sufficient to attract competent men. In 1894 the experiment of connecting kindergartens with these schools was tried. The experiment proved eminently successful. The children entered into the work and the games with zest and intelligence. Their traditional shyness and reticence yielded naturally and readily to their objective interest in the exercises. They acquired the English idiom with much ease and learned to express their ideas freely and with eagerness. At the present time, there are forty kinder- gartens connected with boarding schools. Moreover, the use of kindergarten methods and of kindergarten material 12 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [94S has entered the primary classes in practically all these schools and in many of the day schools with similar good results. The children spend from one and a-half to two hours each half-day with the kindergarten. Other children, in the majority of these schools, spend half a day — forenoon or afternoon — in the school room and the other half-day in domestic or industrial work of a character suited to their age. In a number of schools, however, which are lacking in facilities or in skill and good will on the part of the respective employees, the smaller children are detained in the school room during the entire day, much to their physical, intellectual and moral deterioration. Indeed, experience has proved that half-day instruction which at first was forced upon the schools as an expedient, is one which every consideration of wisdom and prudence would commend. The sedentary life of the more or less crowded school room becomes irksome to these children accustomed to an active outdoor life ; the interests of the school room are foreign to their heredities and traditions. The industrial features of the work, on the other hand, appeal more or less forcibly to their habits and tastes and stimulate practical interests which the parents can appreci- ate and which induce them to look with favor upon the school and to aid it in its work. The school room itself finds in these interests material for practice and discussion directly welcome to the pupil ; it can thus more readily overcome aversion and secure an appreciative and sympa- thetic attitude on the part of the pupils. It adds to the work of the schools in a large measure all the advantages of mental stimulation which manual training yields. It is, consequently, not astonishing that the children in schools in which the half-day practice has not been adopted make less rapid progress, are backward in physical and intellectual development, and morally less earnest and responsible than the children of half-day schools. The aim of the school, in so far as instruction is con- cerned, is to give to the pupils ability to read and write 949] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 1 3 English within the limits of ordinary primary school work, practical control of arithmetic for the needs of ordinary daily life, clear rudimentary notions of geography and United States history, drawing and singing, a knowledge of the laws of hygienic living, garden work, the cultivation of fruits and vegetables, and familiarity with the simpler require- ments of agricultural and domestic industries suited to the locality. Moreover, in a few of the larger schools, the larger boys have much opportunity to acquire skill in car- pentry, blacksmithing, tailoring and shoemaking. It has already been indicated that these institutions are to the children not only school, but also home and community. The institution gives them shelter, food and clothing ; it accustoms them to habits of cleanliness and decency ; it cul- tivates their aesthetic tastes ; it labors to secure right moral attitude and, at least in its Sunday school, seeks to impart the plainer truths of Christianity and to stimulate the religious life of the children. In these last efforts, it is true, the schools are much handi- capped by denominational jealousies which are ever ready to suspect proselyting, and which have forced the government into an attitude of indifference and inactivity in all matters that affect religion. In a number of reservations, however, missionary establishments, which are impartially encouraged by the government, supplement the work of the schools to a certain extent in matters of religion. The superintendent of the reservation boarding school is subject in his work to the control of the Indian agent, who, as representative of the government, administers the affairs of the reservation. To this agent he makes requisition for whatever the school may need ; through him he makes his reports and requests to the Indian office at Washington and receives replies and directions ; through him he makes his recommendations, if any, for the appointment or dismissal of employees ; from him he and his subordinates receive their pay. Inasmuch as these agents are selected on partisan 14 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [950 grounds, usually at the suggestion of local politicians and as a reward for partisan service, this arrangement is fraught with much danger to the true interests of these schools. Until 1893 — when superintendents, matrons and teachers were placed under civil service protection — all employees at these schools were at the mercy of the Indian agents, dis- missals for partisan or patronage reasons were the order of the day, scandals of every description were frequent, and the schools accomplished good only when the agent happened to be a good man. After 1893 there came some improvement. Yet with reference to employees in the domestic and indus- trial service and in minor positions the same evils continued practically unabated. With reference to these the superin- tendents and even the Indian office were powerless, and fre- quently good superintendents were forced out of the service by combinations against them among the appointees of the agent or through the aid and influence of unscrupulous par- tisan inspectors or supervisors. In 1896, at last, all employees of the school service were placed under civil service protection, and since that time there has been marked improvement in the conditions and work of these schools. Nevertheless, from the very inertia of things — moral as well as material — the superintendents of these schools are frequently ignored, recommendations are made by agents without even the knowledge of the superintendents and honored by Washington officials. In a number of agencies, where the agent has practically no duties save those con- nected with the school service, this relation is peculiarly oppressive and acts generally as a hindrance in the develop- ment of the school. As a remedy for these evils, friends of the Indians and of good government have repeatedly proposed the relief of these superintendents from the control of agents and the abolishment of unnecessary agencies, but the propositions have as repeatedly been " turned down " by spoilsmen in control at Washington. 95 1] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 1 5 On the other hand, there has been decided gain in the equipment, in the sanitary condition, in the general charac- ter of employees, and in the conduct of these schools. Employees are learning to look to efficiency as their chief reliance for continuance in office and for promotion, rather than to the favor of some patron. The consequent increase in self-respect on their part has operated as a barrier to a number of abuses which thereby became simply impossible, and have secured a spirit of genuine devotion to the work of the school on the part of the employees. „ At the same time the Indian office has been relieved of attention to office-seekers and their patrons, which had occu- pied so much of the time of officials. It has, consequently, been enabled to pay increased attention to the schools them- selves, to their equipment, their sanitary condition, their management. The new schools, erected within the last few years, are models in their way, and most of the older schools have in all these matters been greatly improved. According to the report of the commissioner of Indian affairs there were in operation in the year 1898 seventy-five of these schools with a capacity of 8,825, an enrollment of 8,877, and an average attendance of 7,532 pupils. There were employed in their conduct 1,247 persons, including Indian cadets and apprentice assistants who are paid at the rate of $60 per year. The cost of these schools to the gov- ernment was $1,149,155.90. The life of the employees is comparatively pleasant and affords many social amenities. In many instances, towns inhabited by white people are within easy access. Where this is not the case there is, as a rule, a sufficient number of employees at the school to preclude the isolation and loneli- ness of day-school life. Usually a pleasant room is set aside and neatly furnished as an employees' sitting room. The employees are furnished quarters at the schools, but provide for their food. For this purpose they are organized in a common mess. Their expenses for board rarely reach $12 per month, and more frequently fall below $10. l6 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [952 They are employed for the year ; but are granted thirty days leave of absence, and on occasion thirty days of sick leave without deduction of pay. Instruction continues through forty weeks ; but in many instances a portion of the children are kept at the school throughout the year. Superintendents are paid from $900 to $1,200; matrons from $500 to $720, according to the size of the school. Teachers receive from $450 to $720, according to experi- ence ; farmers and other industrial employees from $600 to $800 ; heads of domestic industries $400 to $600 ; their assistants $300 to $500; Indian apprentice assistants from $60 to $240. Promotion is based usually on experience and merit. Non-reservation boarding schools — Of these there are at present twenty-five. Seven of them are distinguished as industrial training schools and three others as industrial and normal trainino- schools. The remaining fifteen, in their original scope of work, dif- fered little from the reservation boarding schools. Differ- ences in organization, however, as well as differences in environment, have exercised a salutary influence upon them, and have lifted them in aims and attainments far above the latter. In the first place the superintendents of these schools are bonded and directly responsible to the Indian office. There is between them and the authorities at Washington no inter- vening Indian agency with its demoralizing possibilities. Their authority in the management of the schools is complete. The consequent sense of responsibility and self-respect in the head of the school finds its reflection in the attitude of his subordinates, as well as in the attitude of the pupils. Undivided loyalty on the part of the employees does away largely with factional hindrances. Efficiency and devotion to duty have a vastly greater share in appointments, in tenure and in promotion. The beneficial influence of this better condition of affairs is further enhanced in the majority of instances by the 953] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN I 7 environment of these schools. They are, as a rule, located at a distance from the Indian country and in the vicinity of civilized American towns which afford the schools — teachers and pupils — the stimulus of constant contact with the ideals and amenities of civilized life. The work thereby gains in every respect — in scope, in depth, in intensity, in vitality, in permanence of influence upon the pupils. The pupils at these schools are on an average more advanced in years than those at reservation schools. Fre- quently, they have had some previous training in day schools or reservation boarding schools. They are, because far away from their Indian homes, more constant and more regular in attendance ; and, for the same reason and because of their vicinity to English-speaking communities, they gain a better control of the English idiom. Their class-room work is, therefore, more thorough and more extended, and reaches far into the advanced grammar school courses of study, laying special stress upon language practice, arithmetic, geometry, geography, history, nature study, drawing, and civil government. Their facilities for training pupils in the domestic and industrial arts are much greater than in reservation schools ; and the effectiveness of their instruction in these arts is much enhanced by the fact that pupils have frequent oppor- tunities to observe the practical applicability and value of these arts in the environment of the schools. The superintendents are paid from $1,200 to $1,500 per annum. Other employees are paid on the same scale as in reservation schools. The most noted and successful of these schools are located at Flandreau in South Dakota, Pipestone in Minnesota, Mount Pleasant in Michigan, Fort Mojave in Arizona, Carson in Nevada, Perris in California, Tomah in Wiscon- sin, Wittenberg in Wisconsin, Fort Lewis in Colorado, and Pierre in South Dakota. Industrial training schools — These schools are located at Carlisle in Pennsylvania, Chemawa near Salem in Oregon, l8 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [954 Chilocco in Oklahoma, Genoa in Nebraska, Albuquerque in New Mexico, Lawrence in Kansas (the Haskell institute), Grand Junction in Colorado, Santa Fe in New Mexico, Phoenix in Arizona, Fort, Shaw in Montana. In the essential features of their organization tnese schools are similar to the schools just described. In the scope of their work, however, in equipment and in cultural facilities they excel, as a rule, in a high degree. With a view of training teachers systematically and in greater number for the work of teaching, the government in 1894 added to three of these schools normal departments. This was done at Carlisle, at the Haskell institute and at Santa Fe, and these schools were henceforth distinguished as industrial and normal training schools. The experiment proved fairly successful with Carlisle where, indeed, similar work had been previously done, and, more especially, with the Haskell institute. The school at Santa Fe during the first years accomplished little in this direction, but of late has begun to gain success under a gifted superintendent. Haskell institute — The following sketch of the work of Haskell institute will afford an idea of the scope of these schools, as well as of the possibilities of Indian education under government control : Haskell institute is located near the city of Lawrence, in the state of Kansas. The school was opened in 1884. It has now a capacity of 550 pupils. The main buildings are substantial stone structures. The dormitories, school build- ing and some other buildings, are heated by steam, lighted by electricity, provided with hot and cold water, and sup- plied with modern sanitary conveniences. The entire plant consists of about thirty buildings and has its own water works. A farm of 650 acres is attached to the institution. The institution is under the direction of a superintendent, aided by an, assistant superintendent, who acts also as phy- sician, and by three clerks. In their daily movements the pupils are under the supervision of a disciplinarian — exclusively for the boys — and a corps of six matrons and 955] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 19 housekeepers. The academic department of the school is administered by a principal teacher, assisted by fifteen teachers, suitably assigned to the kindergarten, the model school, the normal department, the commercial department, and the department of music — vocal and instrumental. In addition there are the departments of manual training and of domestic science, and a printing office, each under competent leadership. In the girls' industrial department, sewing, cooking, laun- dering, and other features of housekeeping, are taught and practiced in supplying the needs of the institution in these matters. Similarly, in the boys' industrial department, farming, gardening and dairying, carpentering, blacksmithing, masonry and plastering, steamfitting and engineering, wheelwright- ing, painting, harnessmaking, tailoring, shoemaking and baking are taught and practiced. In a well-equipped hospital the physician and two nurses take care of the sick. In a number of departments, graduates and other advanced pupils are employed as assistants at salaries ranging from $60 to $120 per annum. In 1898 there were 18 of these. Much attention is paid throughout the institution to music, vocal and instrumental. In addition to general sing- ing exercises, the school has organized special choruses, glee clubs, a string orchestra, and an orchestra of mixed instru- ments, all of which render music very creditably. For purposes of study and for the stimulation of self- culture, the institution is provided with a carefully-selected reference library, as well as with magazines and other peri- odicals placed at the disposal of pupils in a comfortable and well-lighted reading room. Religious nurture is provided in a Sunday school on Sunday forenoon ; in a short, undenominational religious service on Sunday afternoon, and in certain devotional exercises connected with the daily movements of the school. Moreover, pupils who may wish to do so are given oppor- 20 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [95^ tunity to attend religious service in the city on Sunday morning in the churches with which they may be affiliated. Pupils enrolled in the Young Men's Christian association and in the Young Women's Christian association hold their meetings at the school on Sunday evenings. They welcome all non-members who may wish to attend. The model school is arranged in eight grades and is planned for eight years of work. In scope and content it compares satisfactorily with the ordinary public school courses for elementary schools, and is fully abreast with the times in matter and method. The model course is followed by a preparatory course, intended for pupils who may desire to enter the normal or commercial course. It embraces a general review of arithmetic, the first rudiments of algebra, the systematic study of English grammar, the reading of literary master- pieces, composition work, English history, zoology, botany and music. The normal course, planned for two years, deals with the rudiments of algebra and geometry, with elementary physics, general history, rhetoric, American and English literature, and — on the professional side — with psychology, history of pedagogy, pedagogics, discussion of methods, and practice teaching under the direction of a critic teacher. The commercial course, planned also for two years, affords instruction and practice in stenography, typewriting, com- mercial arithmetic, commercial law, parliamentary rules, bookkeeping, business correspondence, banking, penman- ship and business practice. Graduates of the normal department are offered the oppor- tunity to devote one additional year to preparation for kindergarten work under the direction of the kindergartner of the institution, and in connection with a well-equipped kindergarten, where they are permitted to observe the work and occasionally to assist in it. Members of the three special departments are exempt from industrial training ; they devote their entire time to 957] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 21 class-room work. All others give one-half of the day to class-room work and the other half to manual and industrial training. In both of these they acquire a commendable degree of skill and efficiency. The fact that the Kansas state university is located at Lawrence exerts a stimulating influence upon the institution. The professors of the university take an active personal interest in its welfare and favor it from time to time with courses of lectures adapted to the needs of the pupils. As a result the desire grows in their hearts to secure for them- selves university training after graduation from Haskell. At present there are two graduates of the institution in the law school of the university. Quite a number of acceptable teachers have gone forth from the normal department of the institution in the years of 1896, '97 and '98, and have found employment in Indian schools. With very few exceptions, these have shown a commendable degree of judgment, devotion, progressiveness and continuity in their work, repelling by their conduct the pessimistic allegation made by detractors of the Indian character, that they would prove capricious and unreliable. Of the 25 normal graduates put out by the institution in the three years, 14 are now acting as teachers, one as princi- pal teacher, one as disciplinarian, one as lumber inspector, two as clerks, one as farmer and dairyman, one as assistant matron. One has entered the training school for kinder- gartners, one the high school in a western city, and one the law school of the university. Carlisle — The organization of the Indian school at Carlisle, in the state of Pennsylvania, is, in its main features, similar to that of Haskell institute. It differs, however, in many details of management, because of the strong personal characteristics of its superintendent. The school has a capacity of 800 pupils. This, however, may be nearly doubled with the aid of the excellent " out- ing system," which is a distinctive feature of the institution. By this system the Carlisle school requires its students to 22 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [958 spend one or more years of their school life away from the school in carefully selected white families, under the super- vision of the school. For their services in these families they receive current wages, but are required to attend public schools for four or more months during tjie winter. Thus they gain direct, personal experience in self-support by hon- est work and an insight into the responsibilities and ameni- ties of civilized family and institutional life in its best and most attractive forms, while at the same time they are rea- sonably protected against the demoralizing factors of white civilization which are so much in the way of success in the outlying districts near the Indian country. The growth of this system has been quite remarkable and emphasizes its value. It began tentatively with a few pupils in 1880. In 1898 the superintendent reported that "an average of 250 remained out during the winter attending the public schools, and 600 were out during the vacation." " Each pupil," he continues, " earned wages according to ability, the boys' earnings aggregating $13,541.30, of which they saved $5,208.61, and the girls' earnings aggregating $8,184.20, of which they saved $3,098.50." Other distinctive features of this school are found in its excellent department of music, its art school, and, more par- ticularly, in its systematic attention to physical training. The school has a well-equipped gymnasium in which both girls and boys receive instruction and training. The foot- ball team of Carlisle has a national reputation for clean and vigorous play ; it receives and meets with credit challenges from the best colleges of the land. Contract schools — In addition to maintaining these strictly government schools, the Indian office pays $108 per pupil to 25 Catholic mission boarding schools for the educa- tion of 1,098 children ; $30 per pupil for 21 children in two Catholic day schools, and $167 per pupil for 200 pupils in Lincoln institute at Philadelphia, and for 120 pupils in Hampton institute, located at Hampton, in the state of Virginia, ."".... 959] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 23 Of these, Hampton institute deserves special mention. It was originally established with the help of northern phil- anthropists for the industrial and normal training of negroes in 1868. Its support to-day is derived from small endow- ment funds, liberal annual contributions from the north, and $10,000 annually paid to it in its capacity as an agricultural school by the state of Virginia. In 1878 seventeen young Indians were brought to it from Florida, where they had for three years been kept as pris- oners of war. From this was developed the present Indian department of the institution, superior in equipment and in the spirit that controls its work. Here, too, originated the outing system which, subsequently, grew into an educational factor of vast importance at Carlisle. The distinctive feature of this school, however, is its broad missionary spirit. Bound to no particular denomina- tion, yet respecting all and respected by all, it is deeply religious in spirit and work, and labors to inculcate its own missionary zeal in the hearts of its students. In its young Indian students it stimulates a keen sense of responsible manhood and womanhood. It teaches them to experience and to appreciate the advantages of the intelli- gent Christian civilization of which it furnishes them the example. It stimulates and nurtures in them a deep sym- pathy with their own people in their sufferings and needs, and a fervent desire to bring to these in due time the bless- ings of which they themselves have become participants. There are still a number of independent schools that receive no support whatever from the government. Some of these do much good so that it would be a gratifying task to give a detailed account of their organization and work. Nothing, however, could be gained by this for the presenta- tion of the subject in its general bearings. On the whole they are similarly organized, with the exception that they pay more direct and persistent attention to religious train- ing, inasmuch as they are affiliated with particular religious denominations. 24 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [960 Supervision — The direction and supervision of the Indian schools rests with the Indian office which, in its turn, is under the direction and supervision of the secretary of the interior. In the Indian office the details of the work are intrusted to the education division, now probably the most important division under its control. The education division consists of a chief clerk, with a corps of subordinate clerks, stenogra- phers and copyists. To this division all reports are made ; by it all directions and orders are drafted and issued. The education division is aided in its work by the super- intendent of Indian schools and by five supervisors, assigned in their work to five districts respectively. These officials constitute a branch of the Indian school service which occu- pies a very uncertain position, which can be designated neither as subordinate nor as co-ordinate, and which in its effectiveness depends wholly on the force of character of the incumbents and the good will of the commissioner. They have duties, but no rights ; and even their efforts to perform these duties may be rendered practically nugatory by the ill-will of the education division or of the commissioner. A similarly anomalous relation exists between the com- missioner and the secretary of the interior with regard to all matters which the latter may wish to control directly. For this purpose the secretary has established under his direct control an Indian division, independent of the Indian office, and to which all orders and directions which the secretary may designate must be referred by the Indian office for approval. The power of this Indian division is further reinforced by a corps of inspectors in the field appointed on partisan grounds and responsible to him alone. Here too, therefore, the effectiveness of the commissioner in his work depends wholly upon the good will of the secre- tary of the interior, who may reduce the commissioner to practical non-existence in so far as the judgment and the conscience of the latter are concerned. It is true that technically the superintendent of Indian schools may appeal from the commissioner to the secretary 961] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 25 of the interior, and the commissioner from the decision of the secretary to the president of the United States. In view, however, of the hopelessly autocratic relation that runs through the chain, that is practically out of the ques- tion, as it would tend to increase ill-will. Under these conditions the fact that Indian education has prospered reflects credit upon all concerned. It argues, on the part of the subordinates, a commendable degree of force of character and on the part of superiors an equally com- mendable degree of moderation and sense of justice. CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK There can be no doubt that an education which incul- cates the tastes and establishes the ideals of current civili- zation constitutes the proper first step in the work of intro- ducing the Indians into American citizenship. It is equally evident that the cultivation of these tastes and ideals is well nigh impossible under the conditions and influences of tribal life on Indian reservations. The mere recital of a few of the leading differences between the two civilizations will sufficiently emphasize these difficulties. The Indian civilization looks upon the tribe or family as the unit ; with us it is the individual. With the Indian he is richest who gives most ; with us it is he who keeps most. The Indian claims hospitality as a right until the means of his host are exhausted ; and this hospital- ity is freely granted. To the Indian, land is as free as the water he drinks ; proprietorship continues only so long as the land is tilled or otherwise in use. The Indian prizes the worthless pony, whilom his companion and friend in the lost occupations of the chase and war. The cow is to him only a poor substitute for the buffalo ; he knows nothing of her value as a giver of milk and a breeder of cattle. Woman in Indian civilization is a producer and possesses in full Indian life an economic value and independence to which in our civilization she is largely a stranger. His religious rights and ceremonies afford the Indian, in addition to a 26 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [962 certain degree of spiritual elevation, opportunities for intense social enjoyment for which he looks in vain in the new civilization. Add to this that the wants of the Indian are few and easily gratified by simple forms of homely skill in which the industries and other acquirements of the Indian school find little application ; that chiefs and medicine-men in the very nature of things look with distrust and disdain upon a civilization which robs them of power and influence ; that time-honored tradition imposes upon the young Indian silence and obedience, — and you have an array of adverse conditions which is appalling. Against these odds the Indian schools are pitted. The government, it is true, made an effort to come to their aid in a well-intentioned allotment scheme. In this, a certain amount of land was allotted to each member of a tribe for purposes of agriculture or stock-raising. The allotment was to be held by the respective" allotees inalienably for a period of twenty-five years, and it carried with it under certain con- ditions rights of citizenship. In most instances, however, this well-meant measure developed into a new obstacle to the work of the schools. The Indians are gregarious ; they live in bands and villages. The isolation of farm life is distasteful to them. They prefer, therefore, to lease their lands to white farmers and to enjoy the meagre income from this source and from cer- tain government annuities in tribal bands and villages as heretofore. Nevertheless the schools are steadily gaining ground even against this added difficulty, partly through their direct influence in day schools and reservation boarding schools, partly through the medium of " returned students " from the more advanced non-reservation schools. Honor and grateful admiration is due the young heroes and heroines who annually go forth from the Indian schools pitting their lives against adamantine walls of tradition and superstition, wresting victory for themselves and their unwill- ing people from conditions which seem all but hopeless. It 963] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 2j is not to be wondered that of these soldiers of a new dispen- sation some fall by the wayside or succumb in the unequal struggle ; but the misfortune, rather than dishonor, of these should not render us blind to the steady valor of the young men and women who are steadily pushing ahead, gaining new ground inch by inch, until even now the observer who looks beneath the surface sees victory assured. So great, indeed, has been the gain already achieved that in many instances where twenty years ago Indian savagery ruled supreme, it would be difficult now to find any of its features as enumerated above clearly manifest. The busy farmer, the thrifty housewife, the skillful artisan, the careful trades- man are no longer rare ; on a number of reservations they are beginning to be respected as marks of superiority to which all should aspire. The Indian schools can point with satisfaction to fervent missionaries, devoted teachers, phy- sicians, lawyers, field matrons, nurses and trained workers in other fields who owe the impulse to their career, and much of their equipment to the work and influence of these schools. In response to the outcry against the efficiency of Indian education on the part of superficial observers and prejudiced detractors of the Indian, the Indian office a few years ago gathered statistics as to the success in life and fidelity to the "white man's ways" on the part of "returned students." As a result it was enabled to announce that fully seventy-five per cent of these could be rated as excellent or good ; that less than ten per cent were poor or bad, and the remainder fair or indifferent. Surely an encouraging showing. Schools of Indian territory — The schools of the so-called " five civilized tribes " of Indian territory are not included in the above sketch. Indian territory comprises more than 40,000 square miles of rich, arable land, with valuable coal and asphalt deposits. It was set aside in 1832 for certain Indian tribes who formerly occupied the southern and gulf states. The five civilized tribes of to-day include 30,000 Cherokees, 14,500 Choctaws, 10,000 Creeks, 6,990 Chicka- 28 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [964 saws and 2,000 Seminoles. In addition there are in the ter- ritory 18,500 freed men and 200,000 whites. Missionary zeal availed itself promptly of this new field for its efforts. Substantial boarding schools were erected, more particularly by the Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists. Much good radiated from these centers of civilization. In due time, however, the Indian authorities began to make appropriations for these schools. Ultimately, they took entire charge of them. Unfortunately, administrative affairs were largely in the hands of whites who, by intermarriage or bribery, had been adopted into the tribes, and there came £>ver the schools, as well as over all other public interests, the blight of extreme partisanship and nepotism which rapidly degraded them in character and efficiency. In 1898, therefore, the government at Washington found itself compelled to come to the rescue and to assume super- visory control over the affairs of all these tribes except the Seminoles. Under the act by which this was done, the conduct of the schools and orphan asylums in the four tribes involved was placed under the direction of a " superintendent of schools in Indian territory," appointed by the secretary of the inter- ior. Under him there is for each of the tribes or nations a " supervisor of schools," whose duty it is to inspect the edu- cational institutions in his district and to assist in their organization and conduct. The superintendent reports to the commissioner of Indian affairs at Washington through the United States inspector for the Indian territory, who is his immediate superior. The initial report of the superintendent shows that there are in the four tribes 24 boarding schools, with an enrollment of 1,758 pupils, and an average attendance of 1,480, taught and cared for by 234 employees at an annual expense of $236,824. This does not include 363 neighborhood schools, in which more than 10,000 children are taught at an annual expense of $1 13,380. In character and equipment, however, these schools are very poor. 965] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 2 9 STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE 1 — Number of Indian schools and average attendance from 1877 to jScjS 1 877 s 7 8 879 880 881 882 8Sj 8S4 885 886 8S7 888 8S9 800 8gi 892 893 894 895 896 897 BOARDING SCHOOLS Number 49 52 60 68 71 80 87 114 "5 117 126 136 140 146 149 156 157 157 156 145 Average attendance 3 077 3 793 4 723 6 201 7 260 8 020 8705 9 H6 9865 11 425 12 422 13635 14 457 15 061 15683 15 026 16 112 DAY SCHOOLS ' I02 II 9 I07 I09 106 76 99 no 107 103 106 no 126 119 115 125 140 143 147 Average attendance 1 637 1893 2237 1 942 2 37° 2 500 2 715 2 406 2 3 6 7 2 163 a 745 2 668 2639 3 "7 3 579 3650 3 536 Number 159 169 174 147 200 214 227 233 239 246 256 275 275 272 282 296 388 295 Average attendance 3 598 4 142 4 448 4651 4976 4 7i4 5686 6 960 8143 9630 10 520 n 420 11 552 12 232 13588 15 167 16 303 17 220 18 188 19 262 18676 19 648 1 Some of the figures in this table as printed prior to 1896 were taken from reports of the superin- tendent of Indian schools. As revised, they are all taken from the reports of the commissioner of Indian affairs. Prior to 1882 the figures include the New York schools. 2 Indian children attending public schools are included in the average attendance, but the schools are not included in the number of schools. - 3o EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [ 9 66 TABLE 2 — Enrollment and average attendance at Indian schools, iSgj and 1898, showing increase in 1898; also number of schools in 1898 KIND OF SCHOOL ENROLLMENT AVERAGE ATTENDANCE Number 1897 1898 Increase 1897 1898 Increase schools Government schools: Non-reservation boarding. Da}' 5 723 8 112 4768 6 175 8887 4 847 452 765 79 4 787 6855 3 234 5 347 7 532 3286 560 677 52 289 25 75 • 242 18603 19899 1 296 14 876 16 165 I 342 Contract schools: 2 579 208 37i 2509 96 394 1 70 £ 112 23 2 3 T 3 142 23 2 245 68 326 1 1 68 74 4 2 29 Dav 3 Boarding, specially ap- 2 Total 3158 2999 I 159 2 785 2639 I 146 34 Public 303 315 12 194 183 1 11 (3) 813 737 I 76 741 662 1 1 79 ""58" '7 87 54 1 33 80 22 19 671 2 22 964 24 004 1 040 18676 995 295 TABLE 3 — Annual appropriations made by the government since the fiscal year 1877 for the support of the Indian schools YEAR Appropri- ation Per cent increase YEAR Appropri- ation Per cent increase $20 000 30 000 60 000 75 OOO 75 000 135 OOO 487 200 675 200 992 800 1 100 065 1 211 415 1 179 916 $1 348 015 1 364 568 1 842 770 2 291 650 2 315 612 2 243 497 2 060 695 2 056 515 2 517 265 2 631 771 2 638 390 50 100 25 80 260 38 47 10 10 1 2.6 1 35 1 3-5 1 8.87 1 .2 22.45 4-54 .0025 1888 1 Decrease. 2 Three schools transferred to the government and contracts made for two schools which were paid by vouchers in previous year. 3 Thirty-one public schools in which pupils are taught not enumerated here. 4 These schools are conducted by religious societies, some of which receive from the government for the Indian children therein such rations and clothing as the children are entitled to as reservation Indians. 967] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 31 TABLE 4 — Location and capacity of government day schools, June jo, 1808 LOCATION Capacity LOCATION Arizona : Hualapai — Kingman Hackberry Suppai Navajo — Little Water... Oreiba Polacco Second Mesa.. California : Big Pine Bishop Hat Creek Independence Manchester Mission, 11 schools Potter Valley Ukiah Upper Lake Michigan : Baraga Bay Mills Minnesota : Birch Cooley White Earth- Gull Lake Montana : Tongue River Nebraska : Santee — Ponca Nevada : Walker River New Mexico : Pueblo— Acoma Cochita Isleta Jemez Laguna Pahuate , Santa Clara.. .. San Felipe 5o 60 60 3° 40 40 40 30 40 30 3° 40 319 5° 3° 3° 40 50 36 30 40 New Mexico — Continued. Pueblo — Continued. San Ildef onso San Juan Santo Domingo Taos Zia Zuni North Dakota: Devil's Lake, Turtle Mountain, 3 schools Standing Rock, 4 schools Fort Berthold, 4 schools Oklahoma : Kiowa Whirlwind South Dakota : Cheyenne River, 3 schools Pine Ridge, 31 schools Rosebud, 20 schools Utah: Shebit Washington : Col vi lie, 2 schools Tulalip — Lummi Swinomish Neah Bay — Neah Bay Quillehute Puyallup — Jamestown Port Gamble Chehalis Quinaielt Skok omish Wisconsin : Green Bay, Stockbridge Oneida, 5 schools La Pointe, 10 schools 1 Total capacity 1. Total number of schools 1. Capacity 140 130 150 67 10S5 631 30 80 56 60 3° 25 40 40 40 So 140 502 5 164 142 TABLE 5 — Location, capacity and date of openi7ig of government reservation boarding schools LOCATION Arizona: Colorado river Keams canyon Navajo Pima San Carlos, White Mountain Apache Capa- city 80 90 120 I50 IOO 65 Date of opening Mar, — , 1879 , 1887 , l88l , l88l , 1880 , 1894 Remarks 1 Including Lac Court d'Oreilles No. 3 day, which was a contract school for seven months during this fiscal year. 32 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN T A B L E 5 — Continued. [968 LOCATION California: Fort Yuma Hoopa Valley , Round Valley , Idaho: Fort Hall Fort Lapwai Lemhi Indian Territory: Quapaw , Seneca, Shawnee and Wyandotte Kansas: Kickapoo. . . . Pottawatomie. Sac and Fox and Iowa. Minnesota: Leech Lake Pine Point Red Lake. . . . White Earth. Wild Rice River. Montana: Blackfeet Crow Fort Belknap Fort Peck Nebraska: Omaha Santee Winnebago Nevada: «. Pyramid Lake Western Shoshone. New Mexico: Mescalero North Carolina: Eastern Cherokee.. North Dakota: Fort Berthold '. Fort Totten. Standing Rock, agency Standing Rock, agricultural.. Standing Rock, Grand River. Oklahoma; Absentee Shawnee Arapaho Cheyenne Fort Sill Capa- city 250 200 70 I50 250 40 90 I30 30 80 40 50 IOO 50 40 65 125 160 I IO 200 75 80 100 120 50 IOO 160 9 o 350 j 120 IOO 75 130 200 125 Date of opening Apr. — , 1884 Jan. 21, 1893 Aug. 15, 1881 Sept. 12, 1893 Sept. Sept. Sept. June -, 1874 -, 1886 -, 1885 -, 1872 -, 1872 Oct. — Sept. Nov. Mar. Nov. — Feb. 11 Apr. — Jan. 1 Nov. 21 Nov. 20 May — Dec. — Aug. — ■ 1871 1373 1871 1875 1867 1802 1877 1871 1891 1881 1881 1874 1874 1882 1893 1893 1874 1891 1877 1878 1893 1872 1872 1879 180.1 Suspended after July, 1883, by burning of building Begun by Friends as orphan asylum in 1867 under contract with tribe Iowa Sac and Fox Prior to this date a con- tract school opened in November, 1888 Building burned in February, 1895 Prior to this date a con- tract school opened in November, 1888 Previously a semi- boarding school Prior to this date a con- tract school opened in At agency At Fort Totten 1 Building burned March 30, \\ 969] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN TABLE 5 — Continued. 33 LOCATION Oklahoma — Continued. Kaw 'Osage Oteo T'awnee Ponca Rainy Mountain.... Red Moon -Riverside (Wichita). >Sac and Fox Seger Oregon: Grande Ronde Klamath Siletz Umatilla Warm Springs Yainax '.South Dakota: Cheyenne River -Crow Creek, Agency Crow Creek, Grace Mission -Hope (Springfield) Lower Brule. Pine Ridge Sisseton Rosebud Yankton Utah: Ouray Uintah Washington: Puyallup Yakima Wisconsin: Lac du Flambeau Menomonee Oneida Wyoming: Shoshone Total Capa- city 60 j ISO 75 125 j 100 50 75 100 120 - 140 80 100 160 100 130 140 50 60 140 200 Date of opening 1869 1874 1874 1875 1865 1878 1883 1893 1898 1871 1868 1872 1893 1874 1874 1873 1883 1897 1882 Apr. 1, 1893 , 1874 Feb. 1, 1897 Aug. 1, 1895 Oct. Dec. 130 200 150 Sept. Feb. — ,' 1873 1897 1882 80 90 Apr. Jan. — , 1893 1881 200 140 June — , 1871 i860 t6o 160 120 July Mar. 10, 27, 1895 1876 1893 200 Apr. 1879 8825 Remarks In Kansas In Indian territory In Nebraska In Nebraska In Indian territory In Kansas In Indian territory At new agency. At old agency school for girls opened in 1874 under missionary auspices in government buildings school for boys opened in 1880 Prior to this date a con- tract school opened in 1888 Prior to this date a con- tract school opened in 1882 Suspended February 8, 1894, when building was burned. Reop- ened in new building February 7, 1898 34 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [970 TABLE 6 — Location, average attendance, capacity, etc., of non- reservation training schools during fiscal year ended June jo, 1898 LOCATION OF SCHOOL Carlisle, Pa Chemawa, Oreg Chilocco, Okla Genoa, Neb Albuquerque, N. Mex. Haskell institue, Kans Grand Junction, Colo. Santa Fe, N. Mex. Fort Mojave, Ariz. . . . Carson, Nex Pierre, S. Dak Phoenix, Ariz Fort Lewis, Colo Fort Shaw, Mont Perris, Cal Flandreau, S. Dak.... Pipestone, Minn Mount Pleasant, Mich. Tomah, Wis Wittenberg, Wis. '. . . . Greenville, Cal. 8 Morris, Minn. 3 Clontarf, Minn.* Chamberlain, S. Dak. . Fort Bidwell, Cal Date of opening Total. Nov. 1, Feb. 25, Jan. 15, Feb. 20, Aug. — , Sept. 1, Oct. — ,' Oct. — , Dec. — , Feb. — , Sept. — , Mar. — , Dec. 27, Jan. 9, Mar. 7, Feb. — , Jan. 3, Jan. 19, Aug. 24, Sept. 25, Apr. 3, Apr. 4, Mar. — , Apr. 4, 1879 1880 1884 1884 1884 1884 1886 1890 1S90 1890 1891 1891 1892 1892 1893 1893 1893 1893 1893 1895 1895 1897 1897 1898 1808 Number of em- ployees 57 66 4i 84 67 23 60 38 24 17 60 44 40 22 27 19 26 20 19 6 15 8 10 5 Rate per annum $167 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 Capacity 1 80O 4OO 450 350 300 500 170 200 I50 I50 I50 40O 300 250 I50 200 90 160 125 130 50 IOO 80 80 I50 5 885 Enroll- ment 961 354 331 293 312 553 171 260 156 166 173 480 314 300 180 304 150 186 146 133 57 92 42 37 24 6 175 Average attend- 851 330 271 277 302 463 158' 2IO 151 I44 I46 418 285 28o 171 204 I02 I50 II 4 Il6 35 79 33 36 21 5 347 1 1,500 with outing system. 2 Previously a contract school. 97i] EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN 35 TABLE 7 — Schools conducted under contract, with number of pupils contracted for, rate per capita, and total amount of contract for fiscal years ending June jo, iSpj, and June jo, 1899 NAME AND LOCATION OF SCHOOL 1S95 Number allowed Banning, California Baraga, Michigan Blackfeet, Montana Bayfield, Wisconsin Bernalillo, New Mexico Colville, Washington Cceur d'Alene, Idaho Crow Creek, South Dakota Crow, Montana Devils Lake, North Dakota Flathead, Montana Fort Belknap, Montana Harbor Springs, Michigan Odanah, Wisconsin, boarding... Odanah, Wisconsin, day Lac Court d'Oreilles, Wisconsin day Osage, Okla., St. Louis Osage, Okla., St. Johns Pine Ridge, South Dakota. ...... Rosebud, South Dakota San Diego, California Shoshone, Wyoming Tongue River, Montana Tulalip, Washington White Earth, Minn., St. Benedict White Earth, Minn., Red Lake. , Pinole, California Hopland, day, California St. Turubius. California - Green Bay, Wisconsin Kate Drexel, Oregon Bay Mills, Michigan , Shoshone mission, Wyoming. . . , Total Hampton institute, Virginia 1 . . Lincoln institution, Philadel phia, Pa. 1 Grand total 45 100 30 60 65 7o 60 85 130 300 135 95 50 15 40 50 40 140 95 95 65 40 100 90 40 20 20 30 130 60 20 20 2 435 120 2 755 Rate £125 IO8 125 125 125 IOS 108 108 I08 108 I50 108 I08 I08 30 3D 125 125 I08 IO8 IO8 I08 I08 I08 I08 I08 30 30 108 I08 I08 30 IOS 167 167 P2 500 4 860 12 5OO 3 750 7 500 7 020 7 560 6480 9 180 14 040 45 000 14 580 10 260 4 400 450 1 200 6 250 5 000 15 120 10 260 11 875 7 020 4 32o 10 800 9 720 4 320 600 600 3 240 14 040 6 000 600 2 160 $274 205 20 040 33 400 $327 645 Number allowed 52 19 34 19 34 34 4i 34 72 161 49 34 34 86 61 5i 34 26 5o 51 27 10 11 6 45 24 1 119 120 1 439 Rate 08 o3 67 167 $5 616 2 052 3 762 2 O52 3 672 3672 4 428 3 672 7 776 17388 5 292 3672 3 672 9 288 6 588 5 508 3 672 2 808 5 400 5 5o8 2 916 300 330 648 4 860 2 400 2 160 $119 022 20 040 33400 $172 462 1 Specially appropriated for by congress. 9 Not including the two schools of Osage and two Pottawatomie schools at Sac and Fox agencies, Okla., nor one day school at La Pointe agency, which was converted into a government school during year. 36 EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN [972 O 5 .8 8 •si R .^> to 8 Q ST < 00000 N O in O N O O l-» "* 1-1 r^ O co w» w^ mO"">OOO0O t)- -t N c( N in O N r^tooo O O i^tJ-m xnOOOOOOO f CT> coo N in O N 00 t^co O *~» •* 1-1 OOO c* O M no o vOOOOcomOOO in w ifN - c^O^OcoinQO toco N s 1^ co TJ- m r-» O OvO co in Q O O vninifl r^co r^ o tt OO ^-co nm tj-ui o u sa>I u d • c "1 0-0 ■ ■-1 C .^ 4) Hi tJ ** ' u 3 M • S «.S o"£ o _ >» • u « >h 5 rt Qx) ag a, -r - 17 W * e 2 M 1 &, W C 2-^ S3" c s ^ 3i d, O W Jn S £ h-I S ^ S c/2 yj Cfl o o -5 a i an( ^ Mount St. Mary's college, Emmetsburg, Md., in 1830. St. Louis uni- versity, Missouri, an institution established by the Jesuits, the history of which is continuous since 1829, was the first insti- tution of collegiate grade chartered west of the Mississippi river, and the medical school connected with it was also the first in that region. The establishing and management of the Roman Catho- lic colleges and universities have been to a large extent the work of the religious orders, a considerable number of which have been active and assiduous in it. Institutions estab- lished and maintained by the diocesan clergy and laymen have also acted a notable part in the educational develop- ment of the church, and are to-day considerable factors in it. Pursuing a vocation to which they have consecrated their whole lives, the teaching brethren and sisters of the religious orders have developed a high standard of scholarship in the branches included in their courses of study, which corre- spond, as a rule, with the traditional classical course, and constitute what has been regarded as the best preparation for the priesthood and for the liberal professions. Much interest has been manifested of late in the extension and perfection of the instruction given in the departments of scientific research, applied science and technology. Especial importance is attached to the religious education of children, and the parish school is regarded as an essential adjunct to the parish church. The organization of a system 1 Mgr. Conaty, Address before the third annual Association of Catholic Teachers, 1901* 981] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 9 of elementary education has been an object of great con- cern, and received attention in the earliest general councils that were held. The Provincial and Plenary councils of 1829 and 1833 made special declarations on the subject. As the Roman Catholic population grew more numerous and large Catholic communities were formed, while the public schools became secular, the importance of giving universal application to the system of parochial schools was more realized. The third Plenary council, at Baltimore, in 1884, repeated the exhortations of the councils of 1829 and 1833, and made the establishment and maintenance of parochial schools in connection with every church a matter of positive regulation. The formation of a complete system of Catholic schools, " in articulate and harmonious co-operation," numerous enough and so well distributed as to accommodate the entire school population, and to embrace the whole series of schools, from the elementary parochial schools to the university, has been discussed in recent years, and much has been done towards it. It was suggested in the third Plenary council, which expressed a desire that such provision might be secured that Catholic youth seeking preparation for pro- fessional careers might find in the series of Catholic acade- mies, colleges and universities all the instruction they might seek. The idea of a Catholic university took shape. It was canonically approved in 1887 by the Pope, who urged that it be carried into effect immediately. Such a university was opened at the capital of the nation for the admission of students in November, 1889, and has since been in success- ful operation. It has faculties of theology, philosophy and law, and a department of technology. The earliest Catholic school for girls was founded at Georgetown, D. C, in 1799. Many others were established by sisterhoods in the former part of the nineteenth century, and they acquired a high repute ; so that previous to the middle of the century they were much attended by daughters of Protestant families. IO RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [982 The summaries of the reports of the schools of this church for 1902 give as the numbers 7 universities, 81 seminaries, with 3,402 students, 163 colleges for boys, and 629 acad- emies for girls. Parochial schools were reported in 3,857 parishes, having a total enrollment of upwards of 900,000 pupils. THE PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH Efforts to found schools under Episcopalian influence were made early in those colonies where the leaders of the settlements were attached to the Church of England. Clergymen often undertook teaching in connection with or in addition to their regular ministerial work. In Virginia a tract of land was granted and money was collected for estab- lishing a college for the education of English and Indian youth in the English language and the Christian religion, and considerable sums were collected by the English bishops in aid of the enterprise. The colonial legislature showed interest in the scheme, and the agents of the company were urged to train up the people in religion and virtue, and to employ their utmost zeal in advancing all things appertaining to the administration of divine service accord- ing to the form and discipline of the Church of England. Particularly was it desired to educate the Indians in accord- ance with the faith of Christ. All preparations had been made for opening the school when the plan was defeated by the massacre of 1622. In the act of 1660 for the establish- ment of a college, the supply of a ministry and the promo- tion of piety were mentioned as being among the objects of the scheme. The charter for the College of William and Mary was obtained from the English government in 1692, through the agency of the Rev. James Blair, missionary and commissary of the bishop of London, and the design in founding the institution was declared to be " that the church in Virginia may be furnished with a seminary for ministers of the gospel ; that the youth may be piously educated in good letters and sciences, and that the Christian faith may be propagated among the Western Indians to the glory of Almighty God." 983] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION II In the acts of 1710 and 171 2, providing for a free school in Charleston, S. C, the necessity of such a school " for the instruction of youth in grammar and other arts and sciences, and also in the principles of the Christian religion," was set forth in the preamble, and the bequest of sums of money for this object by " several well-disposed Christians " was mentioned. The acts prescribed that the preceptor of the school should be of the religion of the Church of England, and capable of teaching the Greek and Latin languages. Further provision was made for the support of schools in country parishes under the direction of the vestries. At the same time the church itself was erecting and managing schools in the colony. The bishops and clergy of the English church were aided in their efforts to maintain schools in this and other colonies by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, which was formed in England in 1701 to serve the spiritual wants of the people in the colonies of America and elsewhere. References to the need for schools and teachers are often found in its American correspondence. It established a school in Charleston in 171 1, and sent out missionaries, " not only to preach, but to encourage the setting up of schools for children." Trinity school in the city of New York was founded by it in 1 709, and is still maintained as a school of the Protestant Episcopal church. An intimation of a design entertained by the colonial government in 170310 provide a site for a college in the city of New York is given in the records of Trinity church. The scheme was favored by Bishop Berkeley. A charter was obtained for King's college in 1754. The college was organized in 1755, when Trinity church conveyed to the governors the site on which the first building stood, upon the sole condition that the president of the college should be a member of the Church of England, and that the liturgy of that church should be used in its daily services. The first president of the college was a missionary of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. 12 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [984 The Protestant Episcopal church in the United States was organized in 1785 as a logical result of the separation of the colonies from the mother country. Avowing its indebtedness to the Church of England, it embodied a formal declaration in the preface to its Prayer Book of an intention not to depart from the faith of that church in any essential point of discipline or worship, or further than local circumstances required. The first Protestant Episcopal theological seminary was opened in 1820, after the subject had been discussed for six years, and was constituted in 1821 the General Theological seminary of the church, to be under its control, with the distinct understanding that the action was to be no hin- drance to any state or diocese establishing a seminary of its own. The privilege has been freely exercised by the dioceses, and there are now sixteen theological seminaries in different parts of the church. Twelve collegiate and 1 16 academical institutions, under diocesan or local control, were reported to the general convention in 1901. The report of the United States commissioner of education for 1900-01 gives the Episcopalians 664 teachers and 4,482 students in 88 secondary schools. Among the earlier colleges established after the forma- tion of the general convention were Trinity college, Hart- ford, Conn. (1823), Hobart college, Geneva, N. Y. (1824), and Kenyon college, Gambier, Ohio (1825). The last, and the theological seminary at the same place, were pioneer institutions in the extension of the church westward. The University of the South at Sewanee, Tenn., is the fruit of a plan that was formed by Bishop Otey, the first bishop of Tennessee, to establish a large institution under the control of the Episcopal church, " in which religion should go hand in hand with every lesson of a secular character, and young men be prepared for the ministry." The scheme was revived by Bishop Polk in 1856, and the co-operation of the bishops of nine southern dioceses was secured to carry it out. The institution was broken up almost at its beginning 985] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 1 3 by the Civil war; but its operations were renewed in i.l It includes eleven departments or schools. The general convention in 1877 advised the clergy and laity to take an interest in the public schools supported by the state, and to supplement them with thorough Christian teaching elsewhere and with church schools. In 1880 it advised churchmen to establish parochial schools and to refuse to send their children to schools undertaken by other denominations ; and recommended the provision of a system of higher education for the girls' schools of the different parishes. Only 33 of the 76 dioceses in the United States reported concerning parochial schools to the general convention of 1901. These dioceses returned 547 teachers and 11,180 pupils in such schools; while 26 dioceses returned 1,073 teachers and 10,824 pupils in industrial schools. THE LUTHERAN CHURCH The Lutheran church has been very careful for the edu- cation of its children and youth under religious influences. This is presented by President Swensson of Augustana college as having been one of the best and most fruitful among its characteristics. The devotion of its people to education in the church is ascribed partly to their attach- ment to Lutheran tradition and usage, and partly to the conditions under which they found themselves situated when they came to America. They brought the parish school as an established part of the system of their church in the fatherland. Isolated in their new home, among strangers speaking another language than theirs, they could do noth- ing else than maintain their schools as they had them. Such has been the course in each of the successive immigra- tions from Germany and Scandinavia, till the settlers became assimilated with the American communities ; and it has been observed that as this process of assimilation has gone on the exclusive attachment to the parish school has relaxed until finally the public school has been accepted instead of it in the older Lutheran bodies, in which the English language 14 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [986 is now used. In the meantime new immigrations have been coining in, bringing with them the original devotion to the parish-school system undiminished ; and the process of assimilation and acceptance of the public schools may still be witnessed going on in all its stages in the different Lutheran bodies in the United States. The condition of the schools was a subject of inquiry at the first convention of Lutherans in Pennsylvania, held in 1 748. In 1 749 ground was bought in Germantown by Henry Melchier Muhlen- berg for a theological seminary and an orphans' home. In 1750 the schools were reported to be flourishing in nearly all the churches. In 1762 an English school was mentioned as being connected with one of the Swedish congregations. It was the duty of the clergyman to supervise these schools, and neglect of it led to his admonition by the convention. Evidences of the growth of the English language in the church appear in the reports of the later years of the eighteenth century, and preferences of parents to send their children to English schools are remarked. The report of a design of the general assembly of Pennsylvania to establish free schools throughout the state caused anxiety in the con- vention of 1796, and fear that the step would injure the German schools, especially in regard to the religion taught in them, and a petition was ordered drafted concerning it. In 1773 the Rev. Henry A. Muhlenberg, Sr., reported that a beginning had already been made for a German seminary in Philadelphia, where "capable subjects might be prepared in the necessary languages and knowledge, &c, and some of the most promising be received into such institution, further instructed and practiced in theoretical and practical divinity, and * * * set apart and pre- pared as school teachers, catechists and country teachers." The establishment of a Lutheran theological professorship in King's or Columbia college, New York, was contem- plated in 1784. Franklin college, Lancaster, Penn., was chartered in 1787 for the special benefit of the. Germans of the commonwealth, and was conducted under the joint con- 987] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 1 5 trol of the Lutheran and Reformed churches. Hartwick seminary, N. Y., was founded in 1797, and a training school for candidates for the ministry was afterwards established in connection with it. The general synod, the oldest of the Lutheran general bodies, was organized in 1820, and in 1822 founded the Theological seminary at Gettysburg, Penn., and in 1832 Pennsylvania college, the oldest Luth- eran college. The general council was formed in 1867. The seminary in Philadelphia, opened in 1864, became its theological school, and Muhlenberg college, which was begun as a seminary in 1848 and became a college in 1867, was its college and the feeder to the Theological seminary. Another theological seminary was established in Chicago in 1 89 1, with the specific purpose of {providing the mission field of the middle west with an English ministry, irrespec- tive of synodical connection. The Augustana (Swedish) synod, one of the synods of this body, has labored with great vigor for the education of its people. A college was maintained by the conference in Minnesota for several years before the organization of the synod in i860. The theo- logical seminary, now established at Rock Island, 111., was founded at the same time with the organization of the synod. Three colleges have been established. The synodical conference, organized in 1872, is the largest general Lutheran body. The first school in the synods composing it was founded in 1839. ^ nas a ^ u ^ series of educational institutions, including three theological seminaries, six colleges and universities, and three normal schools, and maintains its parochial schools carefully. The Theological seminary of the united synod, south, was opened in 1833. Its first college, Roanoke college, founded as such by the Lutherans of Virginia in 1853, originated in an academy that was started in 1843. The growth of the Lutheran high schools has been rapid since 1848. During this period 17 seminaries have been established, 39 colleges or institutions which have become colleges, and 33 ladies' seminaries. 1 6 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [988 The Lutheran church in the United States represents several periods of immigration, and includes in its constitu- ency memberships of German, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish and Finnish nationalities, as well as other nationalities in smaller numbers. The general bodies and synods have been formed according to the affiliations produced by these conditions. The church at present consists of four general bodies and fifteen independent synods. Of the churches of foreign nationalities, some have affiliated themselves with the larger bodies, and others have formed themselves into independent synods, so that the list of these organizations includes German, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic and Fin- nish synods, many of which have established schools of their own, or, in some instances, send their youth to the schools of other Lutheran bodies. According to the statistical tables prepared for the Lutheran church almanac for 1904, the Lutherans in the United States have altogether 116 educational institutions, of which 23 are theological seminaries or departments, with 87 professors, 1,021 students, property valued at $1,600,600, and endowment funds amounting to $768,464 ; 50 colleges, with 557 professors, 9,114 students, $3,022,716 of property, and $1,016,301 of endowment funds; 32 academies, with 146 instructors, 2,906 students, $720, 100 of property, and $58,000 of endowment funds, and 1 1 colleges for women, with 117 instructors, 1,043 students, and $583,500 of prop- erty; giving in all 907 professors, 14,084 students, 2,679 °f whom had the ministry in view, $5,926,916 of property, and $1,842,765 of endowment funds. Five thousand two hun- dred and forty parochial schools are returned, with 3,350 teachers and 234,175 pupils. THE CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH The Congregationalists have been diligent in the promo- tion of education of all grades and in the building up of: elementary and high schools, academies and colleges, from the beginning of settlement in New England. The history 989] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION I J of the earliest schools in New England is identified with them. The system of public schools originated with them when they were the dominant factor in public administra- tion in the earlier period of New England history. The foundations of most of the older colleges in New England — including Harvard (which has passed under Unitarian influences), Yale, Dartmouth, Williams, Middlebury and Bowdoin colleges — were laid by them. Many of the oldest and best-known preparatory academies were established and have been maintained by them ; they were early in urging and promoting the better education of girls and women ; and they have kept pace with the westward advance of settlement, sending out teachers for elementary schools and planting colleges and academies as fast as settlers gathered. Without having formulated a specific and binding creed, the Congregationalists agree in holding to the Trinitarian school of faith ; and they have been at pains to maintain the orthodoxy of their schools. When Unitarian views were declared in the theological professorship of Harvard university, they established a seminary at Andover, Mass., in 1808, "to provide for a learned, orthodox and pious min- istry," and in 182 1 they founded a college at Amherst, Mass., where students could be prepared under their own direction to enter upon their studies at the seminary. A scheme to found a Christian settlement and a school for the extension of Christian influences over the Mississippi valley led to the establishment of Oberlin college, Ohio, in 1833. I n the first annual report of this institution, its objects were defined to be the thorough education of ministers and pious school teachers ; the elevation of female character, and the education of the common people with the higher classes in such a manner as suits the nature of republican institutions. The theological department was regarded as an organic part of the school and as the culmination of the course of study. Young women were received as students on the same terms as young men, and no exclusion or distinction 1 8 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [990 was made on the ground of color. Carrying into effect ideas and principles then novel Oberlin college held for a long time a unique place among American institutions for the higher education. Mount Holyoke seminary (founded in 1837), ultimately dropping the features of a manual labor school with which it beean, became an institution for women of the broadest scope, was the parent of many similar schools, introduced new ideas in the education of women, and was the fore- runner of numerous women's colleges of a new order and superior character. As the Congregationalists have no authoritative organi- zation larger than the individual church, their educa- tional work has been done by voluntary bodies, state asso- ciations, general societies like their national missionary and educational societies and boards or committees instituted for special objects. Many schools and colleges were founded in the west during the earlier part of the nineteenth cen- tury by Congregationalists and Presbyterians co-operating under a plan of union. The Congregational Education Society has been constituted of three societies, the oldest of which, founded in 1816, was intended to assist young men in preparing for the ministry ; the second to assist young colleges ; and the third to maintain schools in Utah and New Mexico. In 1902 it had assisted 9,000 students in obtaining their education; was aiding 145 students, 3 col- leges and 34 academies and mission schools, and held a trust fund of $158,156, the income of which was to be applied exclusively to the aid of students. The educational institutions under Congregational con- trol or influence include 8 theological seminaries and 37 colleges listed in the Congregational year book for 1903 ; and, according to the report of the United States commis- sioner of education for 1900-01, 45 secondary schools, with 225 instructors and 2,792 students. The contributions of the Congregational churches of the United States during the years 1900, 1901, and 1902, for 991] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION Ig increase in the permanent funds of educational institutions for endowment, building, etc., were $8,876,369. THE UNITARIAN CHURCH The Unitarian churches emphasize the value of intellec- tual culture as an adjunct of religion. They have been zealous and efficient in promoting education in every form, and have contributed greatly to its advancement in the United States. They have given the country many excel- lent scholars, skilled and sagacious educational administra- tors, and famous teachers. Their most efficient work in educa- tion has been done in an advisory way and by aiding schools needing help rather than by establishing and maintaining many schools of their own. They thus co-operated with the Christian connection in re-establishing Antioch college in 1882, and have assisted the African Methodist Episcopal church in its educational enterprises. Their work is carried on through the American Unitarian Association, special societies, and district societies. Unitarians exercise the pre- dominating influence in the management of Harvard uni- versity. Their Divinity school at Cambridge, Mass., was founded about 1817. Its constitution provides that every encouragement shall be given " to the serious, impartial, and unbiased investigation of Christian truth, and that no assent to the peculiarities of any denomination of Chris- tians shall be required either of instructors or students." The theological school at Meadville, Penn., was established in 1844, with a charter likewise forbidding the imposition of doctrinal tests. The Hackley school for boys, at Tarry- town, N. Y., and Prospect Hill school for girls, at Green- field, Mass., a school for liberal education, are. under the care of the American Unitarian Association. Proctor academy, Andover, N. H., is maintained by the Unitarian Education Society of New Hampshire. Two industrial schools in Boston are supported by the Unitarian churches, one of them partly from invested funds. The society for promoting theological education, of Bostor -eeks to enlarge 20 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [992 the apparatus of theological instruction, and affords assist- ance to meritorious students. in the Divinity school of Har- vard university. THE PRESBYTERIAN AND REFORMED CHURCHES The pioneer preachers of the churches of the Presbyterian family in the United States were nearly all likewise teachers, and as a rule began a school wherever they planted a church. In the earlier years of the nineteenth century, the settlers of new states often owed their first schools to the Presby- terian missionaries who established classes for instruction in their own houses. In some of these states the influence of Presbyterian communities and ministers was marked in the promotion of movements which ultimately resulted in the institution of general systems of public education. The means of securing a learned ministry engaged the attention of the earliest Presbyterian settlers in Pennsylvania. A proposition for the erection of a school of learning was approved by the synod of Philadelphia in 1739. A com- mittee was appointed to carry the design into effect ; and the synodal school was established in 1744. A school was begun at Elizabethtown, N. J., under the auspices of the synod of New York, and having been removed to Princeton in 1757, became the College of New Jersey under charters which had been granted in 1746 and 1748. In 1782, Dr. John McMillan, the first Presbyterian minister who crossed the Alleghany mountains, opened a school in his log house in Washington county, Penn., which has became famous in Presbyterian educational annals as the "log college." Shortly afterwards, Dr. Thaddeus Dods, having followed Dr. McMillan across the mountains, began another school in the same county. The school of Dr. McMillan developed into Jefferson college in 1802, and the school of Dr. Dods was chartered as Washington college four years later. The two institutions were united in 1855 as Washington and Jefferson college. The one hundredth anniversary of the incorporation of Jefferson college was celebrated in 1903, 993] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 21 with general interest in all branches of the Presbyterian church. For many years in the earlier part of the nineteenth century, the Presbyterians and Congregationalists co-oper- ated under what was called the "plan of union" in the extension of missionary and educational work in the new western states and territories. Under this joint operation many schools as well as churches were built up, which ulti- mately became Presbyterian or Congregational, according to the predominant denominational affiliations of their constituencies. The theological seminary at Princeton, N. J., was estab- lished in 1 812. Eight other theological seminaries and six colleges, other than the one at Princeton, were founded previous to 1837, when the church was divided into two branches, which were known as the Old and the New School Presbyterian churches. With the existing schools and col- leges divided between them the two churches developed their educational interests on lines similar to those already pursued, till 1872, when they were reunited to constitute the .Presbyterian church in the United States of America ; but, in the meantime, the synods of the southern states had become separated during the Civil war, and had been organized into an independent body, which was called the Presbyterian church in the United States. Soon after the reunion of the northern branches of the church steps were taken to increase the educational efficiency of the denomination. The general assembly for 1877 ordered an inquiry with a view to devising some plan for the better endowment of the collegiate and theological institu- tions of" the church, and the general assembly of 1883 insti- tuted the Presbyterian Board of Aid for Colleges and Academies, to have in charge the locating, assisting and endowing of institutions of learning, with special reference to the supply of missionaries and teachers for the frontier. This board reported in 1901 that during the eighteen years of its existence it had aided 78 institutions in 29 states and 2 2 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [994 territories ; had assisted by the grant of loans in the forma- tion of 36 schools ; had helped 26 schools to free themselves from debt, and had collected endowment funds amounting to $413,754 for 13 schools, while the total sum of $2,312,909 had been gathered, used or invested in the work. Contri- butions for the year of $222,000 were reported in 1902, when 22 colleges and academies were receiving aid, having property valued at $1,230,501, and 3,073 students; and, in 1903, contributions of $185,906, and 25 institutions aided, with an increased attendance of students. Thirty-nine colleges and universities are affiliated with this church, of which four are women's colleges, and two are under joint control with the Presbyterian church in the United States. A fund called a twentieth century fund was instituted by the general assembly of 1899, to be collected for various religious and benevolent objects. Of $12,039,064 which had been contributed to this fund to the time of the meet- ing of the general assembly in 1903, $1,543,500 had been appropriated to the benefit of the educational institutions of the church. THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES The Southern Presbyterian church, officially known as the Presbyterian church in the United States, came out of the Civil war impoverished, with most of its educational institutions ruined. The work of restoring them was slow and arduous, but the enlargement and extension of the educa- tional privileges open to the people of the church have been carried on vigorously. The religious character of the edu- cational work of this church is one of its prominent features. The general assembly of 1903 urged presbyteries and con- gregations to bend every energy to maintain and defend the system of Christian education established by the found- ers of the Presbyterian church. To this end the support and patronage of the assembly would be given to those academies and colleges in which biblical instruction was com- 995] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 2$ bined with the usual courses of study in classical, literary and scientific subjects. Ninety-two Presbyterian secondary schools (including both the northern and southern churches) are enumerated in the report of the United States commissioner of edu- cation for 1900-01. THE UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH The American presbytery of the Associate church secured a teacher for ministerial students in 1778, and opened a theological seminary, with a small library, in 1792. The synod of the Associated Reformed church established a school with a library in the city of New York in 1804. These two bodies were united in 1858 to constitute the United Presbyterian church, which has two theological seminaries and five colleges. A college for colored students established by it at Knoxville, Tenn., has been made the colored department of the University of Tennessee. THE REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH The two branches of the Reformed Presbyterian church in North America and the Associated Reformed synod of the south have each a theological school and a college- THE CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH The first synod of the Cumberland Presbyterian church, at the beginning- of its organization, prescribed a course of study and provided a library for the young preachers. The work of education took the form of a general enterprise in 1825, when Cumberland synod undertook the establishment of a college at Princeton, Ky. This institution was opened in 1829, but was discontinued in 1861. Cumberland uni- versity, Lebanon, Tenn., founded in 1842, had at one time the leading law school in the south. The principal theo- logical seminary of the church is connected with this institu- tion. The Cumberland Presbyterian church now has schools and colleges in Pennsylvania, Illinois, Missouri, Oregon, Kentucky, Arkansas, the Indian Territory, Texas, Missis- sippi, Alabama and Tennessee. 24 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [996 The colored Cumberland Presbyterian church has a nor- mal, industrial and theological institute at Newbern, Tenn., and other schools. THE REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA formerly the Reformed Dutch church, is the oldest church with a Presbyterian form of government in the United States, having been the church of the original Dutch settlers of New Netherlands or New York. In the earlier schools of this colony, the West India Company having failed to furnish sufficient teachers as it had prom- ised to do, schoolmasters were supported by voluntary tax- ation of the people, and were obliged to pass examination before the classis. The parochial school connected with the church in New York had a long history, having been founded in 1633. A high school was opened in 1659. The English authorities did not favor the Dutch schools, and for some time after the colony came under their rule, ministerial candidates were sent to Holland for education, or taught by pastors at home. The foundation for a theological chair for the Dutch in King's college was contemplated in 1755, but was not carried out. Another scheme for establishing a distinctly Dutch institution in New Jersey, and for which a charter was procured in 1 766, proved unpopular because it was not American. Queen's college, now Rutgers college at New Brunswick, N. J., was chartered in 1771. The Reformed church co-operated with other denominations in the foundation of Union college, Schenectady, N. Y., which has furnished a considerable number of its ministers. The beginning of a theological seminary was made in 1784, when two professors were appointed. The seminary was permanently located in New Brunswick, N. J. Hope col- lege was established at Holland, Mich., in 1863, and a theo- logical school was associated with it in 1869 for the instruc- tion of Dutch settlers in that region. 997] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 25 THE REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES The interest in their schools of the early German settlers in Pennsylvania of the Reformed church was revived and stimulated by the Rev. Michael Schlatter, who came as a missionary from Holland in 1746. The beneficial results of his efforts extended beyond the bounds of his church. The public schools were not at first favored by these people, on ^account of their failure to provide religious instruction, but they have, to a large extent, taken the place of the parochial schools. Franklin college at Lancaster, Penn., was chartered in 1787, and was directed by the Reformed and Lutheran churches jointly. A theological seminary, was established in 1825. Marshall college, which grew out of a classical school connected with the theological seminary, was estab- lished in 1835. It and Franklin college were united in 1853 to constitute Franklin and Marshall college. Heidelberg college was founded by the synod of Ohio at Tiffin in 1850. Catawba college, North Carolina, founded in 1857, is the only institution of college grade in the south controlled by the denomination. THE CHRISTIAN REFORMED CHURCH The Christian Reformed church in North America, a body of Dutch nationality and language, has a theological school at Grand Rapids, Mich., which was founded in 1876, with 4 theological and 4 literary teachers, and 21 students in the theological and 53 in the literary department. Its 25 parish schools had in 1902 an enrollment of 2,506 pupils. THE METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH The educational history of the Methodist Episcopal church begins with its organization in 1784, when the first general conference took measures for the foundation of a college, the objects of which were defined to be provision for the sons of ministers and preachers, the education and support of poor orphans, and the establishment of a semi- nary for children, where learning and religion might go 26 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [998 hand in hand. The college, Cokesbury college, was started at Abingdon, Md., at a cost of $40,000, nearly all collected in small sums from a denomination numbering not more than 18,000 members. It was opened in 1787 under condi- tions of promise, and had a prosperous career for about twelve years, when it was given up under the stress caused by hav- ing suffered the loss of two buildings in succession by fire. Other schools were begun in Virginia, Kentucky, Pennsyl- vania, North Carolina, Georgia and South Carolina, in which the bishops and leading men of the church were inter- ested. The first really successful and permanent school, which still exists, projected in 181 5 and authorized by the New England conference in 181 6, was opened at Newmar- ket, N. H., in 181 7, and removed to Wilbraham, Mass., in 1824. Augusta college, Kentucky, was chartered in 1822, and was continued as a Methodist college till 1849. By a resolution of the general conference of 1820 the annual con- ferences were advised to take up the work of education. A seminary or school of academic grade was established by the Genesee annual conference in Cazenovia, N. Y., in 1824. In this and in the next two institutions of academic grade, Maine Wesleyan seminary, Kent's Hill, opened in 1825, and Genesee Wesleyan seminary, Lima, N. Y., opened in 1832, young men and young women were admitted on terms of equality. The first Methodist school of collegiate grade, Wesleyan university, was opened for college students at Middletown, Conn., in 1831. Since then the establish- ment and maintenance of secondary schools for both young men and young women, colleges and universities, in the Methodist churches, north and south, have been pursued with a vigor equal to that exhibited by any other denomination. A board of education was constituted by the general con- ference of the Methodist Episcopal church in 1868 to exer- cise a general supervision over the educational work of the church, and particularly to act as a general agency for it in aiding students and schools, and in collecting and 999] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 2J diffusing - educational information. Since it began its work in 1873 it has aided 11,709 students with loans aggregating $1,161,225, and is now aiding annually about 1,850 students. Measures were enacted by the general conference of 1876 intended to secure the interest of every individual church in denominational education. The standard of qualifica- tion for degrees which may be conferred by the denom- inational colleges is regulated by the university senate, which has been created by the general conference for that purpose. The Methodist Episcopal church has so far had the lead- ership in the foundation of the American university, which has been projected to be a Protestant post-graduate univer- sity at the capital of the nation, for which a tract of land has been purchased, one building has been completed, another is in course of construction, and funds and subscriptions of about $2,700,000 have been collected. The list of institutions connected with this church in the United States in 1903 comprises 13 theological institutions, 53 colleges and universities, 52 classical seminaries, 9 insti- tutions exclusively for women, 4 missionary institutes and Bible training schools; in all, subtracting 19 institutions duplicated, 112 institutions, with 2,852 professors and teach- ers, 47,731 students, and $34,994,861 of property and endow- ments, exclusive of debt. Of $20,656,970 contributed by the membership of this church between 1898 and the close of 1903 as a twentieth century thank-offering fund to be applied to the mis- sionary, educational and benevolent enterprises of the church and the payment of church debts, $8,150,613 were appropriated to educational purposes. A biblical institute was founded in pursuance of the action of a convention which met in Boston, Mass., in 1839. It has become identified with the .Boston university school of theology. The Methodist Episcopal church now has 22 theological seminaries and departments, of which 13 are in the United States, and 9 are connected with its missions 28 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [lOOO in China, India, Japan, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Nor- way, Finland, Italy, and Mexico. THE METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH SOUTH After the division of the Methodist Episcopal church in 1844, three colleges, among which was Randolph Macon college, the second of the Methodist colleges in the order of foundation, were awarded to the Methodist Episcopal church south. Several other colleges were added prior to 1 86 1, but were practically ruined by the Civil war. In beginning anew the building up of its colleges, the church was aided by the gifts of Mr. Cornelius Vanderbilt, of New York, in establishing Vanderbilt university on a liberal scale. It has re-established its schools so well and increased them that in 1902 it returned jy institutions, with 11,983 students and buildings, equipments and endowments valued at $7,522,583. Reports made to the general con- ference in 1902 concerning an effort to raise a twentieth century thank offering fund for education of $1,500,000, showed that a sum closely approximating that amount had been obtained in cash collections. The general conference of 1902, assuming that the edu- cational policy of the church aimed at a well-organized system in which there should be no waste of money, resolved that the purpose of the church should be not so much to establish new secondary schools as to care for such as had proved themselves worthy ; that the policy of having the secondary institutions of each annual conference correlate themselves with the colleges of that conference should be insisted upon and enforced ; and that the conferences, in making their collections for education, should, so far as possible, concentrate those collections on the colleges and secondary schools of the church. THE COLORED METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCHES The subject of making provision for the education of the colored people engaged the attention of the Cincinnati con- IOOl] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 29 ference of the Methodist Episcopal church in 1853. A plan of co-operation was proposed to the African Methodist Episcopal church, and was approved by the Methodist Episcopal general conference in 1856. In pursuance of this plan, Wilberforce university, Ohio, was opened in 1856, with the education of colored men to be teachers, or for other callings, as one of its leading objects. The institution was transferred to the African Methodist Episcopal church in 1863. There were reported to the general conference of this church in 1900 (the last) 20 institutions, with 165 teachers and 5,237 students, from which 660 students had been graduated. Between 1884 and 1889, $1,140,013 had been raised in the church for education. The African Methodist Episcopal Zion church had in 1901 5 denominational schools of high grade with school property valued at $165,000. Schools have been established by the Colored Methodist Episcopal church, in the support of which it has been aided by the Methodist Episcopal church, south. THE NON-EPISCOPAL METHODIST CHURCHES The Methodist Protestant church has educational institu- tions in Michigan, Maryland, Kansas, Ohio, Texas and Illi- nois, and in connection with its missions in Japan. The Wesleyan Methodist church in America maintains a school of college grade. The Free Methodist church has a college and six second- ary schools. AFFILIATED CHURCHES Of other churches agreeing generally with the Methodist churches in doctrine and polity, although not classifying themselves as Methodists, the Evangelical Association, organized in 1800, established its first college, the North- western college, in 1 861, in connection with which a divinity school was founded. It has also colleges and academies in Pennsylvania, Iowa, Oregon, and other states. The gen- eral conference of 1898 advised that theological depart- ments be associated with all the institutions. 3<3 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [l002 The United Evangelical church, which was separated from the Evangelical Association in 1891, has three colleges. The United Brethren church founded Otterbein univer- sity at Westerville, Ohio, in 1846. In 1890 the church suffered a division into two branches, both retaining the orio-inal name of the church. The larger branch has a bibli- cal seminary, 7 colleges and universities, and 4 academies. The smaller branch has educational institutions in the states of Washington, Oregon and Indiana. THE BAPTIST CHURCH The earliest recorded act of a Baptist in behalf of educa- tion in the United States was the foundation of a divinity professorship in Harvard college in 1721 by Thomas Hollis, of London, who imposed no religious test, but required that Baptists should not be excluded from the privileges of the class. Measures looking to the education of Baptist minis- ters were considered in the Charleston, S. C, Baptist asso- ciation in 1755, and in the Philadelphia association. An academy was opened at Hopewell, N. J., in 1756. In 1763, the Rev. James Manning, a graduate of the College of New Jersey, co-operating with the Baptist association of Phila- delphia, sought the aid and influence of the Baptists of Rhode Island for the establishment of an institution of learning in the interest of their denomination. They founded the College of Rhode Island, the charter of which embodied the provisions that the majority of the trustees should be Baptists, the others being Friends, Congrega- tionalists and Episcopalians, and that no religious tests should be admitted, while " full, free, and absolute liberty of conscience should be enjoyed by all the members." This institution has become Brown university. A general move- ment of Baptists in behalf of education dates from the hold- ing of the first "general missionary convention of the Baptist denomination in North America in behalf of foreign missions," in Philadelphia, 1814, when the importance of providing Baptist educational institutions was urged by the IOO3] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 3 1 presiding officer, Richard Furman, and a plan was set forth for establishing a national school at Washington, D. C, to be fed by schools and academies supported by Baptists in the several states. The plan was never realized in the shape in which it was proposed, but several theological schools were opened, societies were formed to aid young men pre- paring for the ministry ; and colleges were established at Waterville, Me., Washington, D. C, and (in 1832) Hamil- ton, N. Y. At a state convention for the promotion of educational and missionary interests, meeting in South Carolina in 1825, a site was selected for a school to be sup- ported by the Baptists of the state, which is now represented in Furman university. Beginning with the foundation of Georgetown college, Kentucky, in 1829, great activity was displayed by Baptists in establishing schools and colleges, and for the next forty years, except during the interval of the Civil war, a new col- lege was added to the list nearly every two years. Cor- responding energy was exhibited in the multiplication of high schools, academies and girls' schools. Not all of these institutions, however, have survived. Many Baptist schools and colleges were established in the south previous to the Civil war. Activity in that work was suspended for thirty years afterward, or till the region had recovered from the losses it had suffered. Since it was resumed, the work has been carried on with a vieor at least equal to that shown in any previous period, and which has never been more marked than at the present time. Of the societies that have been formed at different times to promote Baptist educational interests, one organized in 1850 sought to secure an adequate endowment for a theo- logical seminary in the northwest. The American Baptist Education Commission was very successful about 1870 in stimulating interest in denominational education. The American Baptist Education Society, organized in 1888, seeks to promote the endowment of Baptist institu- tions of learning, and secures subscriptions of funds out of 32 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [1OO4 which sums are given to institutions seeking endowment on condition of their securing by their own efforts other sub- scriptions of a specified amount. In 1902, this society reported that in the twelve years of its existence it had paid $1,069,520 in grants to Baptist institutions, while the aggregate collections made by the institutions to meet the grants, including $400,000 by the University of Chicago, had been $2,081,625, giving a total of $3,151,145. Among the contributions of Baptist colleges to educational development may be mentioned the system of elective studies, which was first proposed by President Francis Way- land of Brown university. Dr. Wayland published a book in 1842 in which he criticised the current classical curriculum and advised its reconstruction. In 1850 he presented a report to the board of governors of the university advocating the adoption of an elective system, the provision of an oppor- tunity for specialization in college studies, the arrangement of more extended courses in science and the abolition of the four years' term. His recommendations were adopted. The American Baptist year book for 1903 gives lists of 9 Baptist theological seminaries with 1,088 students ; 100 universities and colleges with 31,314 students, and 91 acade- mies with 15,041 students. These institutions returned property having an aggregate value of $24,703,148, and endowment funds of $24,192,965. OTHER BAPTIST CHURCHES The Free Will Baptist church has 5 colleges, 4 institu- tions of academic grade and 1 institute for colored people. The Seventh-Day Baptist church has 1 university, with a theological department, 2 colleges and 2 academies. OTHER RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS Disciples of Christ — The first college of the Disciples of Christ, Bethany college, West Virginia, was founded by the Rev. Alexander Campbell, under whose ministry the denomi- nation originated. At about the same time the Disciples in IOO5] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 33 Ohio and Indiana were contemplating the establishment of colleges. An academy was opened in Ohio in 1850, which became Hiram college in 1867. >The Northwestern Christian university (now Butler university) was founded at Indian- apolis, Ind., in 1853. The Disciples of Christ have several schools and colleges in the western and southern states. A Bible school for colored ministers was opened in Louisville, Ky., in 1874. Efforts have been made to endow Bible chairs in some of the large universities. Friends — The proper education of their young people is regarded as one of their highest duties by the Friends, who have always seen that schools were provided wherever their societies existed. They were associated with the institution of the first public school in Pennsylvania. The Friends' school in Providence, R. I., has had a continuous existence of more than one hundred years. Colleges are sustained in most of the yearly meetings, the reputation of some of which extends beyond the bounds of the society. Fifty- three secondary Friends' schools are enumerated by the United States commissioner of education with 291 teachers and 2,709 pupils. Christian Connection — The Christian connection, a group of churches, the oldest of which date from near the begin- ning of the nineteenth century, and represented in northern and southern conventions, has a Biblical institute and eight colleges, one of which is for colored students. Universalists — The Universalists maintain 13 academic and collegiate schools, including three divinity schools and one medical school. German Evangelical Church — The German Evangelical church in North America, which was formed in 1840 by ministers and missionaries of the Evangelical church of Prussia, registers 117 teachers in parochial schools, and sus- tains a pro-seminary and a theological seminary and college. Originally wholly German, it now has a considerable Eng- lish element, for which provision is made in the publication of school books. 34 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [l006 Moravians — The schools of the Moravians, while they are not numerous, have been maintained for more than one hundred years. Hebrews — The Hebrews in the United States have availed themselves assiduously of the opportunies afforded by the public schools, where their children are noted for diligence in study and proficiency in scholarship. In their several communities they supplement the instruction given in these schools with special religious training and teaching in Biblical history and doctrine and Jewish literature and philosophy. This instruction has been extended from time to time, and now embraces many grades. Existing at first as scattered and distantly separated communities, the Hebrews were comparatively late in forming concerted organizations, but local efforts to instruct their youth were made earlier. A Hebrew Sunday school society celebrated its semi-centennial in Philadelphia in 1888. At a conven- tion held in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1879, a plan for organizing Jewish Sunday schools was presented, to which a consider- able number of congregations gave their adhesion ; and Sunday schools for religious instruction have become a common institution in numerous Jewish communities. The Hebrew Free School Association of New York was formed in 1875, an d established schools in which Hebrew spelling and reading, translations of prayers and most of the Penta- teuch, Biblical history and the first rudiments of grammar were taught. Its work, greatly enlarged and extended, is now carried on with great vigor by the Educational Alli- ance. Hebrew general schools were established in Phila- delphia, and Maimonides college for the higher instruction was founded there about 1868, with a faculty -of superior qualifications, but failed to attract many students. An effort was begun in 1872 for the union of all American Israelites, which resulted in the formation of the Union of American Hebrew Congregations. Under the auspices of this body the Hebrew Union college, at Cincinnati, Ohio, was founded in 1875. In 1876 the delegates of fifteen con- IOO7] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 35 gregations from different cities met in New York to con- sider plans for the founding and maintenance of a Jewish institution of learning, and for furthering the propagation of Jewish ideas. It advised the fostering and encourage- ment of the study and knowledge of the Hebrew language through congregational and general free schools, and other institutions, with the establishment of chairs for teaching science in the higher departments, or, if possible in the future, of an independent theological seminary. In 1886 the establishment of a theological seminary to train minis- ters " to understand, to enlighten, to obey, to learn and to teach, to observe, and to perform Jewish law," was proposed by the Rev. Dr. Morais. The organization of a seminary in the city of New York was effected in the same year, and the institution was opened in January, 1887. A charter having been obtained for the Jewish Theological seminary of America in 1902, this institution was merged in it, upon the condition that the new school should be run upon the lines of the old one. In April, 1903, a new building for the seminary, the gift of Mr. Jacob H. Schiff, was dedi- cated in the city of New York. The history of Jewish educational enterprises in recent years has been marked by continuous activity manifested in different parts of the country, in the establishment of industrial, technical, and agricultural schools ; the provision of lecture courses on Hebrew and Biblical subjects, increase in the number of Sunday school associations, and the institution of normal instruction for Sabbath school teachers ; the organization and work of Gratz college, Philadelphia ; the establishment of a chair of Rabbinical literature in Columbia university ; the work of the National Council of Jewish women, with the organization of circles for study and the maintenance of mission schools, kindergartens and sewing and industrial schools ; the successful career of the Jewish Chautauqua, a summer school, and the activity of the Jewish publication and historical societies ; in all of which the advancement of Hebrew knowledge and the elevation of the Hebrew peo- 36 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [l008 pie who have come to live among us have been the prime objects sought. Since the great immigration of Jews from Russia began, the Hebrews have undertaken the new task of caring for their incoming co-religionists by assisting them to the means of earning their livings, and helping them qualify themselves for American citizenship. In this effort they are aided by the fund instituted by the late Baron de Hirsch for the benefit of European Hebrews seeking new homes abroad, by the aid of which farm colonies and trade centres have been established, and educational facilities have been provided, with agricultural and trade schools. One interesting feature of the educational work among the Jews is to be found in the large number of organizations laboring in the Hebrew communities of cities, where large numbers of children are cared for, under circumstances which indicate sacrifice on the part of their parents. One of the largest and most efficient of these organizations is the Edu- cational Alliance in the city of New York, whose work for the moral and intellectual improvement of the quarter of the city principally inhabited by Jews is carried on in many departments. Its activities include kindergarten work, ele- mentary and academic classes, classes in letters, science, commerce, domestic art and science, the fine arts and music, Jewish history, Hebrew, religious and moral work, Baron de Hirsch classes in English for immigrant children and adult foreigners, clubs, of which there are about fifty, lecture courses for which men of standard reputation in their sev- eral fields are engaged, and entertainments. The Alliance has an endowment fund of $148,950, and valuable buildings. Its classes and clubs had a registered attendance in 1902 of 7,073 persons, and a gross attendance of 520,162. Corresponding interest with that shown by the denomina- tions here mentioned is taken by numerous smaller or more newly organized denominations, which have, or hope to have, schools of their own. IOO9] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 37 FREEDMEN'S SCHOOLS The condition of the negroes set free during the Civil war at once attracted the attention of the denominational home missionary societies, and steps were taken without delay to care for their religious and educational needs. The American Missionary Association of the Congregational churches established a day school in 1861 for the contra- bands that were gathered at Fortress Monroe. This was the beginning of the undenominational Hampton institute. The agents of the association followed the progress of the Union armies, opening schools wherever the opportunity was offered. In 1 865 it began to establish permanent schools among the freedmen for the education of ministers and teachers, including, as its work developed, collegiate, nor- mal and common schools, and in time departments for pro- fessional and technical instruction. It has also recently, as have other religious societies interested in education in the south, established schools for the white people living in the Southern Appalachian mountains. In 1903 it had six chartered institutions, 44 normal and graded schools and 14 common schools in the south, of which 10 were mountain schools for whites, returning in all 476 instructors and 14,429 pupils. The American Baptist Home Mission Society began its educational work in the south in 1862, and in 1903 was aid- ing 34 schools for colored people, the Indians, and the Mexicans, 12 of which were chartered institutions of the higher grade, with 6,198 pupils. Two hundred and sixty- three teachers were employed in these schools. The Freedmen's Aid and Southern Education Society of the Methodist Episcopal church, founded in 1866, has 14 theological and collegiate and 10 academic schools among the colored people, and 6 theological and collegiate and 16 academic schools among the mountain whites. The Board of Missions to Freedmen of the Northern Pres- byterian church returned, in 1903, 6 boarding schools, 12 38 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [iOIO coeducational schools, 9 academies, and 57 parochial schools, with 1,954 young men and women in the boarding schools. The Committee of Colored Evangelization of the Southern Presbyterian church returned 4 colored schools of high and academic grade. It sustains an institute for the training of colored ministers at Tuscaloosa, Ala. The Protestant Episcopal commission for work among the colored people sustains two divinity schools and two academies for their instruction. The Fathers of St. Joseph's Society for Colored Missions of the Roman Catholic church have three institutions under their charge. More than 100 negro schools, with upwards of 8,500 pupils, are aided by the Commission for Catholic missions among the colored people and the Indians, which distributes the funds collected annually in behalf of these missions by order of the third plenary council of Baltimore. Many other denominational societies sustain at least one school among the colored people. In addition to the regular work of these colored schools, agricultural and industrial training and instruction in domes- tic occupations are given in many of them, where shops and model farms are provided. Schools among the Indians in the Indian Territory, on the reservations and in Alaska ; schools for the Chinese on the Pacific coast and in the large cities, and schools for for- eign populations at different places where they have accumu- lated, should be mentioned as features of the work of a number of home missionary societies. FOREIGN MISSION SCHOOLS A full view of denominational activity in education cannot he obtained without reference to the schools conducted in other lands by foreign missionary societies. The larger of these societies have built up systems of schools ranging from the elementary to the collegiate grade, often having depart- ments for industrial and professional instruction which have been very successful and have become influential. For the IOIl] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 39 most part they have gained the confidence of the people among whom they have been established, and are appreciated by their rulers. CHARACTER AND RELATIONS OF THE DENOMINATIONAL COLLEGES The grade and scope of the instruction given in the denominational colleges vary. A large proportion of them were started as pioneer institutions, in newly-settled districts, where population was sparse and resources were scanty. They were mainly dependent upon a farming population who were as yet hardly able to raise from the soil more than the means of the plainest subsistence. If they received outside help, it was from societies which were never able to respond in full to the calls made upon them, and whose resources at the utmost fell far short of the needs of those they sought to assist. During the period of their growth, there were no large capitalists able and disposed to make great gifts to them, although donors of more modest but insufficient sums were not few. These institutions were adapted by their managers to the wants and conditions of the communities in which they were situated. Preparatory departments were opened, and the courses of studies were enlarged as the constituents of the schools became qualified and ready to receive more advanced instruction. The status of a full college was kept constantly in view, but the progress towards it was often very slow. The preparatory department is still kept up in a considerable number of the institutions, but it has been rendered less necessary by the development of the public schools. The older denominational colleges now teach all that is implied in the term college course in its usually accepted meaning — the Greek and Latin languages, mathematics, general history, topics in literature and philosophy, subjects bearing upon religious culture, and science more or less extensively and thoroughly according as they have means to procure apparatus and provide facilities for experiment. The scope of the instruction has been widened as knowledge 40 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [lOI2 has increased and as new branches of education have been added and new methods developed. A few of them have become full universities, affording facilities for the study of a very large variety of subjects, and for independent research, and many others are advancing toward that standard. The education of young women is well cared for. Schools especially for them are numerous, and are included, along with coeducational schools, in the enumeration of denomina- tional academies and secondary schools. A considerable number of colleges and universities are open to them on equal terms with young men. The colleges especially for women, established and maintained by the religious denom- inations or conducted under denominational influence, have taken a high rank among institutions of that grade. While these institutions have been started with the inter- ests of the denomination primarily in view, and care has been taken in their management that its influence should be the prevailing one, it has not as a rule been their custom to impose denominational tests on their students ; and in a large proportion of cases such tests have not been rigorously exacted from the teachers ; it being simply required that their teaching shall not be contrary to the denominational principles. In most instances it is insisted upon that the college, though denominational, is not sectarian. The relations of these colleges are generally with the district conferences, synods or dioceses, state or other local organizations, the missionary or educational societies, or with special associations formed within the denomination, but not often directly with the general body. Some of them have been founded by private parties and placed under the control of the denominational judicatory, which is exercised through representation on the board of trustees, or through visitatorial supervision. It is sometimes merely specified that a majority of the trustees shall be members of the denomination. The majority of the denominational colleges belong to the class of what are called small colleges. It is not antici- IOI3] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 4 1 pated that they will ever attract large bodies of students or greatly enlarge their courses of study beyond the present" limits, except to adopt such modifications as may be required from time to time to m'eet the advance of knowl- edge and changes in social conditions. But it is believed that they offer advantages in the closer intercourse they allow between the professors and the students, the opportu- nities they afford for individual instruction and develop- ment, and their accessibility to students who would never be able to attend one of the larger institutions, which will always make them useful and entitle them to a recognized place in the educational system. THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES The preparation of suitably qualified ministers is shown in the records of the time to have been the primary and leading thought in the establishment of the earlier Ameri- can colleges and high schools. In the first settlements, whether they were English, Dutch or German, the congre- gations were dependent upon their mother countries for supplies of ministers. But their religious leaders had the foresight to perceive that these sources would soon cease to suffice. In fact, they never did suffice ; and in their efforts to meet the demands from the colonies, urgent appeals were made by the mother churches to their people to give their young men to this service ; and mingled with these were expressions of regret that so few young men offered them- selves to go abroad. The necessity for training ministers at home for home service became obvious, and prompted move^ ments to create schools where candidates could be given the required instruction. The provision of ministers engaged the attention of the earlier ecclesiastical assemblies, and was a subject of earnest consideration in the early meetings of the Lutheran ministerium and the coetus of the Reformed church in Pennsylvania. Where special professorships of divinity were not at first instituted as such in the colleges the instruction given was shaped with reference to qualifi- 42 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [lOI4 cation for the ministry ; the president of the institution was usually a divine of distinguished ability and piety, whose whole influence would tend to the furtherance of religious study and work, and who was prepared to give special aid and counsel to students having the ministry in view. The sermons of President Dwight, of Yale college, were prepared and arranged with special reference to their serving as a course of instruction in divinity. The Hollis professorship of divinity in Harvard university was founded in 1 72 1. A distinct theological seminary was founded by the Reformed Dutch church at New Brunswick, N. J., in 1784. The Roman Catholics established their first theo- logical school in Baltimore, Md., in 1791. The American branch of the Associate church (Presbyterian) brought the Rev. John Smith from Scotland, who from 1778 to 1782, by appointment of the presbytery, " directed the studies of such as were pursuing a course with reference to the holy ministry," and having separated from the Scottish church in 1784, began a school in Pennsylvania in 1794, which is represented by the present theological seminary of the United Presbyterian church at Xenia, Ohio. The synod of the Associate Reformed church (now embodied in the United Presbyterian church) resolved in 1796 to establish a fund to sustain a professor of theology and to assist stu- dents ; and a fund of $5,000 having been collected by him in England, the seminary was opened in New York city in 1804, under the direction of the Rev. J. M. Mason, D. D. The Moravian Theological seminary, at Bethlehem, Penn., was established in 1807; the Congregational seminary, at Andover, Mass., in 1807, in consequence of dissatisfaction at the trend of the teaching in the divinity professorship at Harvard university ; the seminary of the Presbyterians at Princeton, N. J., in 181 1 ; that of the Lutherans at Hart- wick, N. Y., in 181 5 ; the Unitarian seminary at Cambridge, Mass., about 181 7; the Baptist seminary at Hamilton, N. Y., in 18 1 9 and the General Theological seminary of the Protestant Episcopal church in New York, in 1820. Sixty IOI5] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 43 seminaries had been established in i860. The number increased rapidly after the Civil war, largely in consequence of increased demand for ministers to serve the emancipated negroes and for the continuously developing new settle- ments in the west. The report of the United States com- missioner of education for 1901 gave a list of 150 theologi- cal schools, with 744 professors, 244 special or assistant instructors, and 7,567 students, of whom 181 were women. These seminaries returned 1,585 graduates in 1901. Of colored students there were 768, and of colored graduates 71. The object of the theological seminaries is fundamentally to prepare students for the practical work of the Christian ministry. The courses of study are arranged with special reference to enabling the students to deal intelligently and competently with the duties appertaining to that calling, and with the questions that may arise in their pursuit of it. In a considerable proportion of the seminaries both required and elective courses are provided. The courses vary in detail in different seminaries and with different denominations, but are substantially alike in principle. The schools are usually open to students of different denominations. Candidates for admission are required to be graduates of some college or university or to present some other evidence of proficiency in collegiate studies, or to pass a satisfactory examination. The branches taught are primarily those relating to scriptural study, church his- tory and Christian doctrine, with the languages of the Old and New Testaments, general history, literature, rhetoric ; and studies in scientific methods of research, general phil- osophy, psychology, ethics, and other subjects deemed appropriate are often provided for in the required or elec- tive courses. Attention is given to training in the practical work of the ministry, in which the theoretical instruction is often reinforced by opportunities afforded to students to assist pastors in neighboring cities, to act as ministerial supplies in vacant pulpits, to serve country congregations, or to engage in vacation pastoral or missionary work. 44 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [lOl6 The seminaries sustain different relations to the gov- erning bodies of the denominations with which they are affiliated. Not all of them are directly responsible to the general court of the church, although that is regarded as the most desirable plan. A considerable proportion of them are controlled by the synods or other local church organizations, and are responsible to the general bodies only through them. Some have been founded under private endowments, or by bodies not responsible to the church, and have sought its approval and patronage by forming contract relations with its boards. Other seminaries of private foundation are bound by stipulations in the original deeds holding them to the teaching of doctrines conformed to the standards of the church with which it is intended they shall be connected. In a few instances in recent years the general bodies of certain of the churches have encoun- tered difficulty in enforcing the strict conformity of the teachings in seminaries not directly under their control to the standards of the church, and have been embarrassed in dealing with them. This experience has prompted efforts in several denominations to make new adjustments with the governing bodies of their theological seminaries, by the operation of which the supreme court may exercise an effective supervision over the teaching given in them. Sev- eral such readjustments have been made. Besides the denominations of foreign origin, which offer theological instruction in their native languages and in English, the larger denominations having considerable con- stituencies of foreign nationality maintain theological schools or departments specially adapted to the needs of such nationalities. The Northern Presbyterians have two German theological seminaries. The Baptists have a Ger- man seminary, which is under the control of the triennial German Baptist convention. The Congregationalists have German and Scandinavian departments. The Methodist Episcopal church has a Swedish, a Norwegian-Danish, and two German theological institutions. IOI7] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 45 STATISTICS OF DENOMINATIONAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. The following tables of statistics of the denominational universities, colleges, academies, secondary schools, and theological seminaries in the United States have been com- piled from the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1901, and from the official denominational reports for later years. In table I are given the statistics of the denominational universities and colleges, including the number of schools and the number of instructors and of students and the estimated aggregate value of the property and amount of productive funds for all the institutions of each denomina- tion. Table II makes a similar showing for the denomina- tional academies and secondary schools; and table III for theological seminaries. Tables I and II include institutions for men, for both sexes, and for women alone. A fourth table is added showing the colleges and schools of secondary grade which have been established in the south by various denominations and missionary societies for the education of the colored people and of the whites of the Appalachian mountains and other remote regions in the south, where the ordinary opportunities for education are very limited. It is given to illustrate the extent of denomi- national activity in that line of work. The numbers should not be added to those given in tables I and II, most of the institutions included in it being already represented in those tables. 4 6 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [lOl8 TABLE I — Statistics of Denominational Universities and Colleges DENOMINATION Adventist Church, Seventh Day Baptists Free Baptist Church Seventh Day Baptist Church. German Baptists Brethren Church, the, National Conference of Christian Connection Church of God Congregationalists Disciples of Christ (also desig nated Christians) Evangelical Association Friends German Evangelical Synod of North America Latter Day Saints Lutherans Methodist Episcopal Church... Methodist Episcopal Church, South Methodist Protestant Church.. . Free Methodist Church African Methodist Episcopal Ch. African Methodist Episcopal Zi on Church Moravian Church Presbyterian Church in the United States of America Presbyterian Church in the United States United Presbyterian Church North America Cumberland Presbyterian Ch Reformed Presbyterian Church (two bodies) Associate Reformed Synod of the South Reformed Church in America Reformed Church in the United States Protestant Episcopal Church... Roman Catholic Church* United Brethren Church United Brethren Church (Old Constitution)., United Evangelical Church .... Universalists Total v. m V* O C O -C." % 2 fi w ES 3 c £■- £~ I 21 IOO 2,033 6 66 3 36 2 35 1 10 8 66 1 14 3« i,334 14 262 1 22 8 127 1 7 2 26 50 557 52 2,173 18 380 3 86 1 15 4 74 1 15 I 6 39 731 10 138 6 87 7 78 2 15 1 9 2 55 4 86 8 86 64 i,43i 7 87 2 3 3i 4 77 475 10,276 E2 423 31,314 1,037 475 492 N I 9 I 938 "5 17,716 4,803 360 1,780 107 679 9 IX 4 31,227 4,896 720 204 1,516 35o 37 9,365 2,793 1,430 1,373 219 99 546 1,145 808 12,287 1,544 294 1,396 141,733 ?« l. c rt _ o-- rt «* 3 3 B* $174,000 19,558,856 649,972 160,291 150,000 272,000 100,300 12,422,497 1,520,500 Il8,000 1,206,608 50,300 127,667 3,022,716 14,638,780 3,537,6q2 354,000 150,000 310,500 12,650 100,500 8,619,756 606,700 468,800 784,600 190,300 82,000 571,000 718,500 2,146,472 20,590,277 425,900 84,508 1,455,000 $95,281,642 S.5 "> s-o-o 2 o B $19,731,786 776,532 153,044 41,000 33,400 20 r, 800 49,000 23,825,216 1,417,000 104,000 1,057,207 4,000 100,000 1.016,301 11,074,454 2,683,983 80,000 130,000 25,000 150,000 115,000 7,248,423 768,000 525,553 400,000 147,000 100,000 749,967 633,000 1,909,124 I,735,i84 90,740 140,820 2,065,000 2,281,534 * These numbers are from the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1901. They do not agree with those given in the Roman Catholic almanacs, which are computed upon a different basis and refer to a different system of classification. These were, for 1902, number of universities, 7; of seminaries, 81, with 3,402 students ; number of colleges for boys, 163 ; number o£ Colleges for girls, 629. IOI 9 ] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 47 TABLE II — Statistics of Denominational Secondary Schools a7id Academies DENOMINATION Advent Christian Church Advent Church, Seventh Day Second Adventists Baptists Free Baptist Church Seventh Day Baptist Church. Baptists, German Christian and Disciples Congregationalists Durker Brethren Evangelical Association Eriends . , Latter-day Saints Lutherans Mennonites Methodist Episcopal Church . . Methodist Episcopal Church, South Methodist Protestant Church. Eree Methodist Church American Wesleyan Church African Methodist Episcopal Church Colored Methodist Episcopal Church , " Methodist " Moravian Church New Jerusalem, Church of the , Presbyterian Church (including both the northern and south em branches) United Presbyterian Church in North America Cumberland Presbyterian Church. Reformed Presbyterian Ch. Reformed Church in America Reformed Church in the United States " Protestant " schools Protestant Episcopal Church Roman Catholic Church Schwenkfelders Unitarians Universal ists United Brethren Total '5 .- ^-i - **- u O o V u -O J2 s C 3 3 z z I 7 4 3i I 2 105 828 4 26 2 239 4 39 11 49 45 225 1 14 1 1 53 291 6 75 43 263 3 19 60 593 38* 169 1 3 6 25 1 6 3 11 7 11 85 4 26 2 7 92 39 6 4 19 6 18 1 8 5 18 7 57 4 14 88 664 361 1,912 1 9 2 4 2 14 5 36 995 6,203 87 868 144 15,041 486 145 815 1,512 2,792 627 34 2,709 1,819 3,949 496 11,074 3,202 151 703 22 303 1,529 483 4,885 865 1,026 220 300 740 380 4,882 17,171 245 49 330 80,994 §J'f — WO 2 o c 5 a 12 ., « V72 u a J2 = 3 a. > $15,000 136,000 28,500 4,006,667 165,000 10,000 110,000 6l,000 I,233,H5 85,000 40,000 1,476,000 400,300 1,303,600 73,208 3,824,300 1,060,784 4,000 I08,000 l6,l6l 75,000 120,000 168,000 65,000 2,345,410 Il6,000 65,000 25,000 10,000 165,000 5,305,497 13,361,537 50,000 162,000 84,000 •.274,079 $1,509,078 58,000 1,093,959 15,000 10,500 25,000 >2,7ii,537 * The Year Book of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, for 1903 gives the number of secondary schools as more than 100, but furnishes no statistical details. 4 8 RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [l02O TABLE III — Statistics of Theological Seminaries DENOMINATION Baptists Free Baptist Church Seventh Day Baptist Church. . Christian Connection Congregationalist Disciples of Christ Evangelical Association German Evangelical Synod of North America Hebrews Lutherans Methodist Episcopal Church . . . Methodist Episcopal Church, South Methodist Protestant Church. Free Methodist Church American Wesleyan Church . . African Methodist Episcopal Church Moravian Church New Jerusalem, Church of the. . Presbyterian Church in the United States of America . . Presbyterian Church in the United States United Presbyterian Church in North America Cumberland Presbyterian Ch. Reformed Presbyterian Church (two branches) Associate Reformed Synod of the South Reformed Church in America . Reformed Church in th United States Christian Reformed Church . Protestant Episcopal Church . . Roman Catholic Church Unitarians United Brethren Universalists " Non-sectarian " Total 2 23 13 I 3 1 1 1 1 1 13 5 2 158 77 11 6 ir 105 13 2 4 20 87 58 24 2 3 13 33 4 84 221 20 4 28 14 995 1,088 58 9 43 423 387 45 65 99 1,021 828 52 66 10 35 27 6 636 161 93 5i 6 53 135 21 363 1,836 52 50 49 7,959 •41 3 &I, 137,625 3,000 20,000 I,l6l,783 37,500 150,000 110,000 1,600,600 1,961,302 I0,000 10,000 100,000 60, OOO 2,l88,OI5 310,000 156,000 20,000 270,000 125,000 2,695,197 3,773,000 25,28l 38,000 85,000 165,000 ),2I2,303 fc2,952,I07 63,000 35,232 69,058 3,482,325 80,000 20,000 500,000 768,464 1,953,060 4,000 100,000 152,000 5,162,417 658,541 465,000 80,000 87,OI3 32,000 579,773 215,000 3,532,574 747,3oo 499,686 60,000 165,000 47,610 [,22,511,160 I02l] RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION 49 Total statistics of denominational universities, colleges, academies, secondary schools, and theological seminaries in the United States : Whole number of institutions 1,628 Whole number of instructors 17,474 Whole number of students 230,686 Total value of property $147,768,024 Total amount of productive funds 104,504,231 These exhibits can be regarded as only approximate, and generally falling short of the actual numbers. Many schools entitled to be classed as denominational are not represented in the general reports. Discrepancies are not infrequent, and omissions of important items sometimes occur, even in officially published reports. However, the conditions are constantly and rapidly changing in the direction of growth. The facilities of the institutions are enlarging, the numbers of students are increasing, new properties are added from year to year ; and large additions are made, by gifts and bequests, to productive funds, with a frequency and liber- ality which at the present time far exceed anything ever before recorded in the history of American education. 5Q RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS AND EDUCATION [l022 TABLE IV — Statistics of Denominational Secondary and Higher Schools for Colored Students, and Other Missionary Schools in the South DENOMINATION Baptists Free Baptist Church Christian Connection Congregationalists Disciples of Christ Friends ... Methodist Episcopal Church. . . Methodist Episcopal Church South* African Methodist Episcopal Church. African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church Colored Methodist Episcopal Church Presbyterian Church (northern and southern branches). . . . United Presbyterian Church in North America Cumberland Presbyterian Church, colored Reformed Church in America . . Protestant Episcopal Church... Roman Catholic Church Universalists Total «> ^ 3 A c *° V V -O J3 6 S 3 fc z t 24 337 I 7 I 8 40 408 I 8 2 21 43 434 2 20 6 87 5 20 7 ' 10 109 2 70 1 1 7t 26 2 16 1 2 156 1,573 6,098 122 147 12,119 93 445 10,329 533 1,810 2,280 1,007 784 808 70 37,332 ■3 "2 „ w °.E § rt •a a «j."3 s p. a a 3 o. -3^1 S as > $864,500 50,000 399,500 50,000 25,000 883,800 78,733 315,050 l65,000 479,000 IIO.OOO 1,500 $2,666,583 frl, 394,382 1,663,052 25,000 14,500 $,096,934 In addition to these institutions, many local and ele- mentary schools are taught in connection with mission stations among the colored people and the mountain whites, and several industrial schools are sustained. * In co-operation with the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church, f Including three theological departments, returning 6 instructors and 34 students. INDEX BY CHARLES ALEXANDER NELSON 0} the Columbia University Library Academic honors, 228-29 Academic summer schools, 831-32 Academies, Local, in many cities, 873-74 Academies, National, for army and navy, 6, 96 Academies and seminaries, Private, 25-26; of the middle period, 143, 148-50, 361; English precedents followed, 148; the "Log College," 149; Phillips academies, 140-50; character of the, 153-56; for the middle class, 153; religious, 154-55; co- educational, 155; supplied teachers, 156; became the preparatory schools, 161; im- portance of, 161-62; statistics, 202 Academische Gymnasium of Vienna, 438 Academy of Medicine in New York City, 876 Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 873 Academy of Philadelphia, The, 149, 263, 366 Academy of Sciences, New Orleans, 874 Accrediting system of college entrance, The, 165-68; at University of Michigan, 165- 66; at University of California, 166-68; not wholly satisfactory, 168; of Indiana, 194-96; of University of Wisconsin, 197- 98 Adams, Herbert Baxter, introduced Uni- versity extension in the U. S., 852; on diminished zeal for extension, 859 Adams, John, on President Witherspoon, 238 Adams, John, taught in grammar school at Worcester, 365 Adams, Mrs. John, on female education in America, 366 Adelbert College, excluded women, 333m Administration see Organization and ad- ministration Admission to agricultural colleges, Require- ments for, 620-21 Admission to practise medicine, A uniform standard for, 5ogn2 Admission to the bar, Preliminary educa- tion required for, 471-72; in colonial days, 498-500; after the Revolution, 500- 2; present requirements, by states, 502-5 Admission to the university, Qualifications required for, 290-95 Adolescence, Results of the study of, 182-83 ^Esthetic element lacking in American edu- cation, 751-52 ^Esthetic faculties not cultivated in manual training school courses, 742-44 ^Esthetics in the schools, 187 Affiliated colleges, Five, in U. S., 346-51; the Harvard Annex the first American, 347 ni African Methodist Episcopal Church aided in educational work by the Unitarians, 991; schools of, 1001 African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, Schools of the, 1001 Afro-American teachers and preachers in the South, 917 Agassiz, Louis, graduate lecturer at Har- vard, 285; professor in Lawrence Scien- • tific School, 576; took out field parties of students, 824; opened laboratory on Pen- ikese Island, 824, 837, 890 Agassiz, Mrs. Louis, head of the Harvard Annex, 347m Age, School; defined, vii Agricultural college, The first, established in Michigan, 609 Agricultural College of Maryland estab- lished, 609; experiment station at, 640- 4i Agricultural colleges, The first, 606-n; the argument for independent, 617; classifi- cation of, 618-20. See also Agricultural education; .Colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts Agricultural colleges and experiment sta- tions, Veterinary workers in, 546-47 Agricultural education (C. W. Dabney), 593-651: The colonial farmer, 595; Wash- ington's interest in agriculture, 596-97; fir3t societies and fairs, 597-600; rise of agricultural schools, 600-3; beginnings of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 603-5; the first agricultural colleges, 606-n; in New York State, 607-8; Michigan, 609; Mary- land, 609; Massachusetts, 609-10: Penn- sylvania, 610; the land-grant colleges, 611-18; classification of agricultural col- leges, 618-20; requirements for' admis- sion, 620-21; courses of study, 621-28; military instruction, 628; expenses of stu- 1023 1024 INDEX dents, 629; extension work in agriculture, 629-32; in the common schools, 632-37; the Cornell attempt, 633-36; of high school grade, 636-37; statistics of the land-grant colleges, 637-40; origin of the agricultural experiment stations, 640-44; Tables I-III, 646-51 Agricultural experiment stations, 640-44; origin of the, 640; early stations, 640-42; the Hatch Act providing for, 642-43; statistics, 643-44 Agricultural schools, Private, established, 606,607 Agricultural societies and fairs, The first, 597-600 Agriculture, Boards, commissioners, or sec- retaries of, in nearly all the states, 599-600 Agriculture, Instruction in, by correspon- dence and home reading, 631-32; in the common schools, 632-37; nature teach- ing. 635 Aid, Granting of, by state, implies naming of conditions, 21 Air ducts, 414-16, 420, 421, 422-23, 424, 449; conveying air through, 423; size of, 429 Alabama, Illiteracy in, ix; grant of swamp lands to, 96; county and congressional townships the units in, 105; corporal pun- ishment in, 133; passed first dental law, 531; law on licensing apothecaries, 537; secondary schools of agriculture in, 636 Alabama Experiment Station maintained by the state, 643 Alaska, General government educates chil- dren in, 96; agricultural experiments be- gun in, 643; appropriation for, 644 Albany capitol building, Ornamentation in interior of, 760-61 Albany prohibits corporal punishment, 133 Alleghany (Pa.), Corporal punishment in, 133 Allen, Edward Ellis, Education of de- fectives, 769-819 Allen, F. S., architect, 458 Alumni, Filial devotion of, 235 American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 8 7 T . American Academy of Medicine, 876 American Academy of Political and Social Science, 879 American Antiquarian Society, 879-80 American art annual, 1898, 726 American Association for the Advancement of Science, Objects of the, 869; members, fellows, and sections, 869-70; list of pres- idents, 870 American Assoc, to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, 782 American Asylum at Hartford for the Edu- cation and Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, 775; Mass. made appropriation for education of pupils at, 776 American Baptist Education Commission, 1003 American Baptist Education Society, 1003-4 American Baptist Home Mission Society, Educational work of, in the South, 1009 American Baptist Year Book, 1004 American Bar Association, 876-77; Report of Committee of, on legal education, 498; recommendation of, in re admission to the bar, 501-2 American Chemical Society, 877 American college, Extravagance of trustees of the, in the matter of buildings, 616 American college, The (A. F. West) 209- 49: its place and importance, 209-10; the old fashioned, 210-12; the college of to- day; proposals to shorten the course, 212- 14; the course and the bachelor's degree, 214-19; other phases of change, 219-23; freedom in studies; elective courses, 223- 27; modes of instruction, 227-28; aca- demic honors, 229; student life, 229-35; organization and administration, 236-37; student expenses, 237; the college is Amer- ican, 238-39; a few statistics, 239-41; list of colleges in chronological order, 241-49 American Dante Society, S80 American Economical Association, 879 American education, Fundamental princi- ples of, xv American Folklore Society, 878, 880 American Geographical Society of New York, 878 American Historical Association, 879 American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 877. American Institute of Homeopathy, Action of the, 509 American Institute of Mining Engineers, 8 77. American Journal of Dental Science estab- lished, 526 American Journal of Education, 710 American Journal of Pharmacy, 534 American Journal of Science founded by Silliman, 880 American Library Association, 880 American Mathematical Society and its publications, 878 American Medical Association organized, 508, 876 American Metrological Society, 878 American Missionary Association opened earliest school for freedom at Fortress Monroe, 915; work of the, 919; Daniel Hand Educational Fund of the, 919; Freedmen's schools of the, 1009 American Museum of Natural History, 886 American nationality, American schools developed with development of, 143 American Naturalist, The, founded, 880 American Numismatic and Archaeological Society, 880 American Ornithologists' Union, 879 American Pharmaceutical Assoc, Efforts of, for laws regulating practice of phar- macy, 538-39 INDEX IO25 American Philosophical Society organized by Franklin, 870; scope of the, 871 American Presbytery of the Associate Church, The, 995; and Rev. John Smith, 1014 American Social Science Association, 879 American Soc. for Extension of University Teaching.organized, 853; held a national conference in Philadelphia, 853-54; work of, 854-55; courses and audiences, 856- 57, 859; table of work, 857-58; proposed a seminary, 860 American Society of Civil Engineers, 877 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Society of Naturalists, and affili- ated societies, 878-79 American spirit, The, 31, 156, 159, 289; cost of discovering, 305 American Statistical Association, 879 American system of education, No. v, xv- xx; weakest point in, 404-5 American Unitarian Association, 991 American universities, xii-xiii American university, The (E. D. Perry) 253-318: I. Do universities exist in the U. S. ? 253-56; not in the European sense, 256. II. Different forms of , 257-75: unconnected with colleges, 1. Clark Uni- versity, 257-59; 2. Catholic University of America, 259-60; united with colleges and professional schools, 260-65; typical American form, 260-61: 1. Johns Hopkins University, 261-63; 2. Bryn Mawr Col- lege, 263; 3. University of Pennsylvania, 263-65; with graduate courses open to undergraduates, 265; institutions of pri- vate foundation, 266-75: 1. Harvard Uni- versity, 266-68; 2. Yale University, 268- 69; 3. Columbia University, 269-72; 4. Cornell University, 272-74; 5. University of Chicago, 274-75; the state universities, 276-80: University of Wisconsin, 278- 79; University of California, 279-80; con- trast with European universities, 280- 82. III. Earliest beginnings of university or graduate instruction, 283-87; develop- ment out of the college, 285-88; influence from Germany, 288-89. IV. Qualifica- tions for admission, 290; studies and de- grees, 290-96; Ph. D. degree, 291-94; master's degree, 294-95; lecture and sem- inar, 295-96; the honorary Ph. D., 296; laboratories, museums, and libraries, 296-97. V. Publications of Amer. uni- versities, 297-300. VI. Fellowships and scholarships, 300-3; gifts and endow- ments, 303-4. VII. Some present prob- lems, 305-13; organization, 305-7; func- tion, 307-8; relation of graduate to other work, 308-10; freedom, 311-13; statistics, 314-15; bibliography, 316-18 American University, The, at Washington, D. C, 999 American Veterinary College opened. 543 American Veterinary Medical Association, Requirements of, for veterinary schools, 545 Amherst College founded by Congregation- alists, 989; closed to women, ^^^ Andover Phillips Academy established, 149; seminary for teachers opened at, 156; courses of study in, 177-78 Andover Theological Seminary, 489, 989, 1014 Andrew D. White Fellowships at Cornell, 3°3 Andrews, Elisha Benjamin, on the Kinder- garten, 64 Anesthetics in dentistry, 527-28 Angell, Pres. George Thorndike, on instruc- tion in pedagogics at Univ. of Michigan, 392 Annals of the Deaf started, 783 Annapolis, Naval Academy at, 96 Annisquam, A Marine Biological Labora- tory at, 842 Anthropological Society of Washington, D. C, 873 Anthropology, Journals of, 883 Antioch College coeducational, 324; found- ed, 991 Apartment house, Impertinent modern, at Washington, D. C, 758 Appleyard, W. P., and E. A. Bowd, Plan for economical one room country school- house, pi. I. 422, 413, 415; 458 Apprenticeship in pharmacy, The question of, 535 Apprenticeship system in study of medicine, 506 Archaeological Institute of America, 879 Architects, Lists of, 458; work of school supervisors and, 460-61 Architectural treatment of school buildings, 43 794 Braille, The American, system for the blind, 794 Brainerd, John, instructed the teachers of Cleveland in drawing, 711 Breeders associations, Cattle, 600 Brewer, William Henry, on first industrial college in New York, 607-8; student un- der J. P. Norton, 610 Bridgewater (Mass.) Normal School, Or- ganization of, 124, 368: course of study, 368-69, 371 Bridgman, Laura, The case of, 798-800 Briggs, Dr. C. A., on a theological educa- tion, 492 Briggs, Warren R., Plan of, for two-room schoolhouse, 420, pi. Ill, 422; 458 Brighton (Mass.), Kindergarten in, closed, 37 Britton, Nathaniel Lord, director of New York Botanical Garden, 889 Brookline, Kindergarten system in, 42; S. T. Dutton on, 68-69 Brooklyn Art Association, 722 Brooklyn, Kindergarten system in, 42; co- education in, 103; first city superintend- ent in, 124; aid, annuity, and pensions in, 134 INDEX IO29 Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, or- ganized, 886-87; offers University ex- tension courses, 855, 856 Brooklyn Institute, Biological Laboratory of, at Cold Spring Harbor, 827, 891 Brooklyn Kindergarten Association, 37 Brothers of the Christian Schools, 154-55 Brown, Rev. Amos, secured act for N. Y. State Agricultural College at Ovid Academy, 608; secured N. Y. land-grant for People's College, 608-9 Brown, Elmer Ellsworth, Secondary education, 143-205 Brown University, 274; has assumed re- sponsibility for its Women's College, 350; Pres. Wayland tried to establish a course in teaching at, 392; Francis Way- land favored introducing scientific studies at, 611; built up by the Baptists, 976 Bruce Fellowship in Biological Science at Johns Hopkins, 303 Bruess, J., architect, 458 Bryant and Stratton commercial schools, 659m, 671 Bryn Mawr College offers university in- struction, 254; high standard of, 263, 287; scholarships and fellowships at, 301; three European fellowships, 302; one of the largest, 337; organization 0^339-40; excludes accomplishment courses and special students, 342, 343; requirements for entrance have raised standard for teachers in fitting schools, 343^; un- married men instructors at, 344n; self- government under Students' Association at, 345; marriage rate of, 358 Buffalo, School affairs in, 12; post-graduate kindergarten work in, 74; had first city superintendent, 124; corporal pun- ishment in, 133; benefit association and pension fund in, 134 Buildings, The many storied, of New York, 757.-59 Buildings used for common schools, Value of, vii-viii, 30 Bureau of American Ethnology, Publica- tions of the, issued by the Smithsonian Institution, 885 Bureau of Education, see U. S. Bureau of Education Burgess, John William, on liberty and gov- ernment, xvii-xviii Burke, Edmund, on educated Americans, 238 Business arithmetic, Regents' test in, 666 Business career, Preparation for, see Com- mercial education Business college, First, opened by Bartlett of Cincinnati, 658; advance made by the, 668 Business English, Regents' test in, 668 Business High School, Washington (D. C), 181 Business practice and office methods, Regents' test in, 667 Business schools, see Commercial education Bussey, Benjamin, Bequest of, to Harvard, 641 Bussey Institution founded, 641 Butler University founded, 1005 Cadwallader, Dr. Thomas, gave instruction in anatomy, in Phila., 506 California, Illiteracy in, ix; length of annual school session in, viii; grants of lands to, 26; kindergartens in, 42; de- partments for, in normal schools, 73; compulsory law in, 99; women county superintendents in, 101; district the unit in, 106; kindergartens authorized in, 112; pension funds in all cities of, 134; secondary school teachers in, 191; in- come from land grant, 638-39; provision for its University, 639 California College of Pharmacy, 280 Calisthenics beneficial to the feeble-minded, 807 Calvert, Charles B., Agricultural college on estate of, 609 Cambridge (Mass.), First school in, 120; aid to Latin school in, 144; English High School described, pi. XIV-XV, 440-42; gift of F. H. Rindge, 442, 448 Cambridge University, Organization of our earliest colleges inherited from, 209, 210, 280; a congeries of colleges, 280; number of women taking the higher local exam- inations at, 343n2; colleges for women at, 346n4; summer meetings for teachers at, 387; University extension begun by, 849-50; experience at, 852 Campbell, Rev. Alexander, founded the Disciples of Christ, 1004 Carlisle, Indian School at, 957-58 Carr, Dr. William, on dentistry, 526n2 Case, Leonard, founder of Case School of Applied Science, 568-69 Case School of Applied Science incorpo- rated, 568; courses and degrees, 569-70 Castration, Effect of, on the feeble-minded, 8nni Casts from the antique, Few collections of, before 1870, 752-53 Caswell, Oliver, taught by Laura Bridg- man, 800 Catholic School for Girls at Georgetown, D. C, 981 Catholic secondary schools, 154-55 Catholic Summer School of America at Cliff Haven, N. Y., 826; at Detroit, 826 Catholic University of America, The, 255; constitution of the, 259-60; closed to women, 260; opening of, 981 Cattell, James McKeen, Scientific so- cieties and associations, 865-91 Cattle lung plague, Eradication of the, 547 Cattle show, First, at Pittsfield (Mass.), 599 Cazenovia Seminary, 998 Centennial Exposition of 1876 gave im- petus to manual training, in, 1S1: 1030 INDEX lessons of the, 707, 725, 737, 738, 752, 753-54, 763-64; interest taken in the, 716, 725; showing of Boston schools at, 745; advance since the, 764 Centralization, Tendency towards, 21 Certificating teachers, 20, 27-28, 401-4 Chairs of education in colleges and uni- versities, 391-95 Chamber of Commerce, see New York Chamber of Commerce Chandler, Abiel, founds School of Science at Dartmouth College, 577 Chandler, Charles Frederick, professor in School of Mines, 579 Chandler School of Science, Dartmouth College, founded, 577 Channing, William Ellery, a private in- structor in Richmond, 364 Chapman, Dr. J. Wilbur, established Winona Bible Conference, 834 Charitable School at Philadelphia chartered as an academy, 149, 263; called College and Academy of Philadelphia, 263; later University of Pennsylvania, 264 Charleston, S. C, Pension fund in, 134; free school at, 983 Chartered rights, Inviolability of, 157 Chase, Salmon P., taught a classical semi- nary in Washington (D. C), 364 Chautauqua Assemblies in Indiana, Kansas and California, 825; as summer schools, 826, 827; varieties of, 835-36 Chautauqua Assembly, The first, 824, S35; characteristics of the, 835-36 Chautauqua Assembly at Madison, S. D., 825 Chautauqua College of Liberal Arts, 863 Chautauqua, Institute for Teachers at, 826 Chautauqua Institution, Foundation and development of the, 843-45 Chautauqua Institution at Lakeside, Ohio, 825 Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle founded, 844; plan of, 862-63 Chautauqua Reading Circle, 862 Chautauqua School of Theology, 863 Cheever, Ezekiel, early schoolmaster of Boston, 120 Chemistry and farming, 595; hopes for, 601 Chemistry, Journals of, 882 Chicago, Kindergarten system in, 42; normal department of Free Kindergarten Association, 73; first city superintendent in, 124; prohibits corporal punishment, 133; benefit association and pension fund in, 134; manual training in, 1S1 Chicago Academy of Sciences, 874 Chicago, Free Kindergarten Association of, Chicago Froebel Association, 37 Chicago Kindergarten College, Post- graduate work at, 74; mothers' depart- ment at, 75-76; organization of, 376 Chicago Medical College adopted graded system of instruction, 516 Chicago Public Library building of the re- naissance period, 760 Chicago University, see University of Chi- cago Child, The work of the school for the, 1 14-15 Child-nurture, The study of, 74-76 Child-study, Results of, for the feeble- minded, 811 Children, Average time spent in public schools, 746 Children, Employment of, 97-98, 100 Children of the district schools, 9 Chimney, The schoolhouse, 414-17, 419; the aspirating, 415, 420 Christian Connection, Schools of the, 1005 Christian Reformed Church, Theological School of the, 997 Church, John R., Exit registers in plan of, 415-16, 458 Church and state, Separation of, 147, 156 Cincinnati, First city superintendent in, 124; corporal punishment in, 133; bene- fit associations and pension fund in, 134 Cincinnati Art Academy, Summer instruc- tion at, 825 Cincinnati Kindergarten Association, 37 Cincinnati Law School. opened, 495 Cities, Increase in number of, 14, 123 Citizen, Average schooling for each, 80-81 City pupils, Number of, 30 City school systems, 12-17; °f Buffalo, 12; of Cleveland, 13; badly managed in the greater cities, 13-14; Committee of Fifteen on, 14-15; legislative functions, 14; administrative officers, 15; powers of city boards, 16-17; demands for best, 17 City schools, Number of, 30; exert a stronger moral force than rural, 94 City superintendent, Women holding posi- tions of, 101 City ward and grammar school, Architec- tural treatment of the, 429-30; E. M. Wheelwright on the, 430-31; New York School No. 165, 432-37; heating and ventilating, 432; the H type, 432-33; manual training and auditorium in, 433- 34; lighting, 434; size of rooms, 435; wardrobes, 436; playgrounds, 437 Civil War, Effects of the, on elementary and secondary education, 323 Civilization, Four fundamental institutions of, 117-18 Clandestine schools for negroes, 902 Clark University has no undergraduate department, 242, 255, 287; organization of, 257-59; number of students, 258; the "torso of a university," 258; closed to women, 260, 2>Z2>\ surprising in view of its courses, 351^3; study of education at, 398-99; summer instruction at, 826; Summer School of Psychology, 833 Clarke, Isaac Edwards, Art and indus- trial education, 705-67 INDEX IO31 Clarke Institution for Deaf-Mutes opened as an oral school, 781; normal classes at the, 784 Clarkson Institute of Technology, 573 Class vs. individual instruction, 85-87 Classic literature, Study of, 185 Clay, Cassius M., never reconciled to slave system, 902 Clay, Henry, never reconciled to slave system, 902 Clerc, Laurent, instructor of deaf and dumb in sign language, 775-76 Cleveland, Board of Education of, 13; first city superintendent in, 124; prohibits corporal punishment, 133; benefit asso- ciation in, 134; drawing in the schools of, 711 Cleveland Summer School of Library Sci- ence opened, 826-27 Cloak and coat rooms, 419, 421, 422, 436, 437 Closets, Location of, 455-57 Coal, Foot pounds of actual work in one pound of, 428; saving in consumption of, 429 Coeducation of the sexes, the general prac- tice, 103-4, 322; in academies, 155; in high schools, 180, 322n, 323; in college education, 321-35; in state universities, 323-25; introduced at Cornell, 326; table of colleges for, and closed to, 327; attitude of different sections toward, 328-29; at fifty-eight colleges, 330-33; diagram of growth of, 332; arguments against answered by experience, 333; suc- cess of, 334-35; objection of men to, 335n2; progress of, in theology, law, medicine, etc., 353-54; vs. separate edu- cation, 358a-58c. Coeducational colleges, Women average higher standing than men at, 333-34; increase of attendance at, 334-35; no modification of courses for women in, 342 Cogswell, Joseph Green, graduate of a German university, 283 Cokesbury College, the first Methodist, 998 Colby College, Coeducation partial at, 333m, 1003 Cold Spring Harbor, Biological Laboratory at, 827, 891 Colgate University, closed to women, ^^t, College, The American, see American col- lege, The (A. F. West) College, Local influence of the, xii College, The old fashioned, blended second- ary and higher education, 211; require- ments of admission, 211; prescribed course, 212; changes in, 220-22 College and university, The union of, the typical American organization for higher education, 260 College and University Professors of Edu- cation, Report of committee of, on certifi- cation of graduates as teachers, 402-4 College Assoc, of Pennsylvania, 169 College comradeship, 231-32 College course, Proposals to shorten the, 212-14, 311; alterations in the, 214-19; development of elective, 223—27 College education of women, see Coeduca- tion, Colleges for women, Women, Edu- cation of College entrance examination, 229 College entrance requirements, N. E. A. Report on, xiv; movement for uniformity of, 169; Com. of Ten on, 172; N. E. A. Com. on, 174-77; national units or norms in, sought, 175; recommendations on, 176; the old fashioned, 211 College entrance requirements in English, 169; nearly uniform, 175 College for Women of Western Reserve University, Organization of, 349; a sep- arate institution, 350 College matriculation, Requirements for, unified, 169, 175; examination for, 229 College of California, 279 College of Civil Engineering at Cornell University, 585 College of Commerce and Politics at Uni- versity of Chicago, 692-94; courses, 692- 94; confers degree of B. Ph., 694 College of Commerce at University of Cali- fornia, 695-97; courses, 695-97 College of Engineering and Mechanic Arts in University of Minnesota, 588-89 College of Engineering at Ohio State Uni- versity, 588 College of Engineering, University of Illi- nois, Courses in, 587-88 College of Mechanics and Engineering at University of Wisconsin, Courses at, 587 College of New Jersey chartered and in a measure supported at the start by the state, 26; the classical school it sprang from, 121; requirements of admission, 146; origin of Princeton University, 242, 362; gave free education for the ministry, 487; under Presbyterian control, 976; beginning of the, 992 College of Philadelphia, Course of lectures in law by James Wilson at, 495 College of Physicians, Philadelphia, S76 College of Physicians and Surgeons, 271; largest medical scholarship in, 477; organized, 507; Vanderbilt Clinic and Sloane Maternity Hospital added to, 518 College of Rhode Island, later Brown Uni- versity, founded, 1002 College of Science, University of Illinois, 587, 588 College of Technology of Tulane Univer- sity, Courses in, 583 College of the City of New York opened as the Free Academy, 159 College of the University of Pennsylvania, 58 1 College of to-day, 212-14; age of entrance increased, 212, 219, 221; a shortened 1032 INDEX course, 213-14; new courses and degrees, 214-19; change of form and spirit, 219- 23; student government and sports, 222; elective freedom, 224-26; the historic bachelor's course, 226-27; modes of in- struction, 227-28; examinations and honors, 228-29; form of government, 235-36; administration, 236 College of William and Mary, Graduates of, in the national life, 238; organized, 3 6 3 College professor, The old and the new, 221-22 College women, Number of, 354-56; health of, 356-57; marriage rate of, 357-58a; occupations of, 358a Colleges, Number of, and their source of supply of students, xii; children of the state, 26 Colleges, American, Too narrow curricu- lum of, 156; the secondary schools and the, 163-65; our first, classical, 600-2 Colleges and universities, Commercial edu- cation in, 687-700; unwilling to take up the practical subjects, 688; four institu- tions noted, 688-700 Colleges and universities, Number of, 30, 221, 327; coeducation in the, 104, 329; the state should grant charters to, 156; the schools and the, 163-65; the accred- iting system, 165-68; so-called univer- sities, 220, 329n3; large number of weak, 239; statistics, 240-41; list of, in chrono- logical order, 241-49; ambiguity of names, 254-55, 329^; demand different organization, 255; principles and prac- tices common to, 255; fifty-eight, giving true collegiate work, 330-33; long closed to negroes, 906; now open to, 924-25 Colleges for men open to women, 326-35; 70 per cent of, 329 Colleges for women, 324-25, 336-51; in- dependent colleges, 336-46; and the pri- vate fitting schools, 343^; standard of scholarship for instructors at, 344; work at, must be of same quality as at men's, 345; domestic work at, 345; discipline at, 345-46; affiliated colleges, 346-51 Colleges for women in England organized in precisely the same way as those for men, 346n4 Colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts, Land grant act of 1862 for, 24, 95, 611-18; separate, 619-20; requirements for admission, 620-21,623; courses of study, 621-28; military instruction in, 628; expenses of students, 629 Collegiate School of Connecticut, Saybrook, 268; moved to New Haven and became Yale College, 268 Collegiate students, Number of, 30, 240 Colonial and revolutionary colleges, 242 Colonial life, Opposing influences in shap- ing of, 143 Colonial schools, Characteristics of, 146-47 Colonial systems of secondary education, 145 Colorado, Kindergartens in, 42; depart- ments for, in normal schools, 73; com- pulsory law in, 99; clothing furnished poor school children in, 100; women county superintendents in, 101; women may hold any school office in, 102; woman suffrage in, 102; district the unit in, 106; kindergartens authorized in, 112; school and college association in, 169; aid to University, 639, 640 Colorado School of Mines, 589 Colored Methodist Episcopal Churches, The, 1000-1 Colored students, Provision for, in second Morrill Act, 618 Colored youth, Secondary and higher schools for, 180, 924-28; financial sum- mary of 169 schools for, 924, 936; teachers and students, 925-26; Table 3, 937; classification of, 926, 932; number of students and graduates, 926, 933; professional students and graduates, 934; industrial training, 926, 935 Columbia College, Professional studies in last year at, 213, 272; and the bachelor's degree, 219, 272; graduates of, in the national life, 238; legal designation of, 270; S. L. Mitchill professor of agricul- ture at, 602; N. Y. Chamber of Com- merce plans a commercial course at, 697-99; Lutheran theological professor- ship at, 986 Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb incorporated, 776-77; E. M. Gallaudet principal, 777 Columbia Law School, Opening and growth of the, 495-96 Columbia University, Gifts to, xiv; origi- nally King's College, 242, 269-70; organ- ization of, 270-72, 287; non-professional schools, 271; professional schools, 271- 72; graduate courses and lectures, 285, 287; A.M. and Ph.D. at, 287, 291; gradu- ate students candidates for higher degree, 290-91; requirements for Ph.D. at, 292- 93; for A. M., 294; Library of, 297; pub- lications of, 299; scholarships and fellow- ships at, 301; notable fellowships at, 303; gifts to, 303, 304; special studies be- gun before receiving degree, 310; gradu- ate students at, 312; president's report, 317; unrestricted coeducation in graduate department of, 350; scientific, technical, and engineering schools at, 378-80; Teachers College an integral part of, 396-97; opens summer school, 827; chair of Rabbinical literature in, 1007 Columbia University Library, gift of Seth Low, 303; fund for, from the Due de Loubat, 303 Columbia Agricultural Society formed, 599 Columbian Exposition in Chicago, 725, 752, 754, 764; the architecture of the, 754-55 INDEX I033 Columbus (O.), Corporal punishment in, Commercial college, The, a peculiarly American institution, 657; function of the, 660-61; has no rival, 669; aim of its training, 669-70 Commercial education (E. J. James), 653— 703; Statistics of, unsatisfactory, 655; four classes of opportunities for, 656-57; the commercial college, 657-74; pecu- liarly American, 657; small beginnings, 658-59; statistics, 657m, 659; broaden- ing views in, 660-61; pedagogical for teachers of, 662; rivalry of the public high school, 662-63; recognition by the University of the State of New York, 664-65; Regents' syllabus, 665-68; work of the commercial college, 668-74; its quality, 669; increased employment for women, 670; work of S. S. Packard, 670- 73; of T. M. Pierce, 673-74: in the public school, 674-80; in Omaha and other cities, 674-75; Supt. Pearse on, 676; the course in, 676-77; study-plan in Phila- delphia Central High School, 677-78; in Pittsburgh High School, 679; in, Boston high schools, 679; in Hillhouse High School, New Haven, 679-80; work of private secondary schools and normal schools, 680-87; Drexel Institute courses in three departments, 681-87; i n colleges and universities, 687-700; attitude of, 687-88; in University of Pennsylvania, 689-92; in University of Chicago, 692- 94; in University of California, 695-97; in Columbia University, 697-99; in University of Vermont, 699m; App.: Statistics of schools, 701; Table I: Com- mercial and business colleges, 702; Table II: Students in business courses in other institutions, 703 Commercial geography and history of com- merce, Regents' test in, 666-67 Commercial law, Regents' test in, 666 Commercial or business colleges, 181 Commercial schools, 7 Commission of Colleges in New England on Admission Examinations, 168-69 Committee of Colored Evangelization of the Southern Presbyterian Church, 1010 Committee of Fifteen, see N. E. A. Com. of Fifteen on Elementary Education Committee of Ten, see N. E. A. Com- mittee of Ten Common school statistics of the southern states, Table of, 929; remarks on, 909- 10; expenditures, 910; Table, 930 Common school statistics of the U. S., Table of, 130 Common schools defined, vii, xxii; number of pupils registered in, vii; total receipts for, viii; land rights for support of, 23; agriculture in the, 632-37; are the pre- paratory academies for the agricultural colleges, 730 Compulsory school attendance, Laws for, 22, 30, 97-98; statistics of, 98-100 Concord School of Philosophy established, 825, 833 Congregational Church, The, and educa- tion, 988-91 Congregational Education Society, The, 990 Congress, Appropriations by, for education of the Indians, 943-45 Connecticut (colony), Schools established in, 120, 144; one fourth of revenue for, 121; grammar school required in each county town, 145 Connecticut, Illiteracy in, ix; kindergartens in, 42; departments for, in normal schools, 73; compulsory law in, 97, 99; truants, 100; employment of children, 100; secretary of State Board of Edu- cation, 101; school visitors, 101; women hold school offices in, 102; may vote at school elections, 102; town and district in, 105-6; authorizes industrial training, 112; kindergartens authorized in, 112; work of Henry Barnard in, 124, 901; corporal punishment allowed in, 133; high schools in, 159, 160; laws on venti- lation, 459; admission to bar in, 471; law suppressing colored schools, 904 Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 873 Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb, 775 Connecticut Common School Journal, 7 10 Connecticut Experiment Station estab- lished, 641-42; maintained in part by the State, 643 Connecticut School for Imbeciles, 805 Conn. State Board, Documents of, on schoolhouses, 460 Constitution, A written, creates and defines the powers of a government, xviii Constitutions, state, Provision for popular education in, 19 Contract schools for Indians, 958-59 Conventual schools for girls, 155 Cookery in elementary schools, in Cooley, Thomas M., Decision rendered by, in the Kalamazoo case, xx-xxi Cooper Union art schools, 721 Coppee, Henry, first president of Lehigh University, 566 Corcoran, William Wilson, founder of Corcoran Art Gallery, 724 Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, D. C, 722; founded, 724 Cornell, Ezra, founder of Cornell Univer- sity, 272, 273, 307 Cornell University, Scope of, included many colleges, 255; foundation of, 272- 73; organization, 273; College of Medi- cine in New York City, 273; degrees offered to graduate students, 274; gradu- ate courses at, 286; Library of, 297; scholarships and fellowships at, 301, 477- :o34 INDEX 79; notable fellowships at, 303; conception of plan of, 307; graduate students at, 312;- first private college to admit women, 326; Medical School of, in New York City, 519; instituted veterinary chairs, 544; schools of engineering at, 584-85; land-grant of N. Y. State turned over to, 609; admission requirements to College of Agriculture, 621; itinerant agricultural school, 632; holds unique position among land-grant colleges, 639; Experiment Station, 642 Corporal punishment, Laws and regula- tions on, 133 Correlation of studies in secondary schools, Com. of Ten on, 1 7 1-7 2 Correspondence, Instruction in agriculture by, 631-32, 634, 635 Correspondence instruction instituted by W. R. Harper, 863; at several universi- ties, 863-64; variety of schools for, 864; value of, 864-64a; E. Marburgh on quality of technical, 864a Correspondence work in college subjects inaugurated at Chautauqua, 844 Cotton, Rev. John, and the Indians, 941 Coubertin, Pierre de, on true Americans, 238 Country schoolhouse, The, 412-19, pi. I- II; seating, 413; heating and ventilating, 413-17; lighting, 417-19; two-room building, 419-21, pi. III-IV; three-room building, 421-23, pi. V; eight-room building, 423-29, pi. VI-IX County superintendent, Women holding position of, 101 County superintendents elected in thirteen states, 100 County system, The, of the southern states, 11, 105 County teachers' institutes, Varieties of, 383 Course of study, see College course Courses of study for secondary schools, Com. of Ten on, 170; actual, show great diversity, 177; in Andover Phillips Academy, 177-78; in high schools of Minnesota, 178-79; in Boston Public Latin School, 179 Courses of study in agricultural colleges, 621-28; four years' course, 622-26; Prof. Jordan on, 626-27; the short courses, 627-28 Cowan, Minnie R., on kindergarten chil- dren, 65 Cox, John, Jr., architect, 458 Crandall, Prudence, School of, for colored misses suppressed by law, 904; mob violence against, 905 Crawford, Thomas, sculptor, 762 Crime, Education and, ix-xi; statistics of, in Mass., xii; of the country, 115-16 Culture aspect of teachers' institutes, 384 Cumberland Presbyterian Church, The, College of, at Princeton, Ky., 995 Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tenn., 995 Curry, Jabez Lamar Monroe, on the Pea- body Education Fund, 921-22 Curtains, Proper use of, 418 Curtius, Ernst, Library of, bought for Yale Univ., 304 Dabney, Charles William, Agricultural education, 593-651 Dartmouth College, closed to women, 333; originated in an Indian missionary school, 976; founded by Congregation- alists, 989 Dartmouth College decision, Importance of the, 157 Dartmouth Medical College organized, 507 Dana, James Dwight, and field parties of students, 824 Davenport, Charles Benedict, director of Biological Laboratory at Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., 891 Day schools for Indians, 945-47 Deaf and dumb, First schools for the, 771, 773; Connecticut Asylum for, incorpo- rated, 775; sign language for, 777-78; oral or English language method, 778- 80; manual alphabet method, 780; con- flict of methods, 781-82; a periodical for, 783; The Volta Bureau, 783; sources of teachers for, 784; public day schools for, 784; practical training for, 785-86; Convention of, at Columbian Exposition, 786; bibliography, 811-12 Deaf-blind, The, 797-804; Laura Bridg- man, 798-800; Helen Keller, 801-4; bibliography of, 813-14; statistics, 816- 17 Defectives, Education of (E. E. Allen), 769-819: Experimental beginnings, 771; T. H. Gallaudet, 771, 774-75; public and semi-public institutions, 771-773; the deaf, 773-86; foreign schools, 773-74; school in Va., 774; Connecticut Asylum incorporated, 775; schools established, 775-76; the Columbia Institution in- corporated, 776; sign language and manual alphabet methods, 777-80; the oral method, 780-82; Annals of the Deaf, 783; the Volta Bureau founded, 783; in- fluence of A. G. Bell, 782, 783-84; nor- mal and day schools, 784; practical train- ing, 785-86; the blind, 786-97; why schools were started, 787; New England Asylum and Dr. S. G. Howe, 787-88; state schools, 788-89; kindergarten de- partments, 789-91; industrial training, 791-92; music, 792; embossed books, 792-95; appliances for, 795; higher edu- cation of the blind, 796; statistics of graduates, 797; the deaf-blind, 797-804; Dr. Howe and Laura Bridgman, 798- 800; Helen Keller and Miss Sullivan, 801-4; the feeble-minded, 804-n; early schools for, 805; the training school and INDEX !°35 the asylum, 806; school methods, 807-9; statistics of causes, Sio; bibliography, 811-15; statistics of schools, 815-19. See also Blind; Deaf; Deaf-blind Defectives, Free schools for, 6 Degree of A. B., 211, 212, 214, 215, 216, 219, 223, 224, 241, 262, 267, 268, 285, 347, 348, 397. 473-74, 844 Degree of A. M., First, after examination conferred at Univ. of Michigan, 285, 287; at Harvard, 285-86; at Princeton, 286; last in course at Columbia, 287; requirements for at various institutions, 294-95; in England, 295; 35in2; 264, 267, 269, 274, 275, 278, 280, 290, 347 Degree of Agr. S. B., 267 Degree of B. D., 267, 269, 275 Degree of Bachelor of Letters, 214, 218 Degree of Bachelor of Pedagogics, 372 Degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy, 373 Degree of B. S., 214, 216, 267, 278, 473-74 Degree of Bachelor of Social Science, 259 Degree of C. E., 269, 271, 278 Degree of Certified Public Accountant, 474n2 Degree of Doctor of Civil Law, 259 Degree of D. D. S., 526 Degree of D. M. D , 267, 527 Degree of Doctor of Ecclesiastical Law, 259 Degree of Doctor of Social Science, 259 Degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, 267 Degree of Electrical Engineer, 278 Degree of Engineer of Mines, 271 Degree of J. U. D., 259 Degree of Licentiate of Instruction, 375 Degree of LL. B., 219, 259, 267, 269, 271; Work required for the, 496-97 Degree of LL. D., 259-60 Degree of LL. M., 259, at Columbia, 291 Degree of Master of Civil Engineering, 274 Degree of Master of Mechanical Engineer- ing, 274 Degree of M. D., 219, 262, 267, 268, 271, 5°9. 526 Degree of Master of Pedagogics, 372 Degree of Master of Soc. Sc, 259 Degree of Mech. E., 269, 278 Degree of Ph. B., 214, 218, 271 Degree of Ph. D., at Catholic University, 259; 262, 264, 275, 278, 280; at Yale, 269, 284; at Harvard, 267, 285, 291; at Cor- nell, 274, 286; at Princeton, 286; at Univ. of Michigan, 287; number of persons who received, 287; at Columbia, 290; requirements for, at different institutions, 291-94; in Germany, 295; opposition to conferring honorary, 296; number of conferred, 296; 358c Degree of Ph. G., Graduate in Pharmacy, 586 Degree of Ph. M., 259, 275 Degree of Sc. D. at Harvard, 267, 285, 286, 291 Degree of Sc. M., 267, 269, 275, 278, 280 Degree of Sc. M. in Agr., 274 Degree of Sc. M. in Arch., 274 Degrees, Difference between English and American, 346n4 Degrees granted by professional schools, 469; varying standards for, 470; pre- liminary general education for, 472-73; professional students with college, 473- 74; power to confer, 485 Delafield, John, planned first industrial college in New York, 607-8 De La Mater, Ida, on kindergarten chil- dren, 67 Delaware, District the unit in, 106; pro- fessional licenses in, 471 Delaware State Medical Society organ- ized, 507 Democracy, The future of, bound up with that of education, xxiii-xxiv; entire peo- ple of a, should be educated, 113; the rising spirit of, Calvinistic, 143 Democratic movement for popular educa- tion, Demand of the, for better teachers, 367 Denominational colleges, 7 ; vast number of, 26; number of, closed to women, 328 Denominational colleges, Character and relations of the, 1011-13 Denominational educational institutions, Statistics of the, 1017, 1021 ; Table 1, Uni- versities and colleges, 101S; Secondary schools and academies, 1019; Theological seminaries, 1020; for colored students and others, 1022 Dental licenses, Interchange of, proposed, 53^31 Dental schools, Scholarships in, 478; fees, 479; libraries, 479-80; endowments, 481; value of property, 482-83; growth of, 527; degrees granted, 527 Dentistry, Women students in, 353-54; in- dependent schools, 526-27; dental de- partments, 527; growth, 527; discoveries and inventions, 527-28; societies, 528- 29; subjects discussed, 529-31; legisla- tion, 531; present requirements, 472, 531- 33 Denver, Corporal punishment in, 133 Des Moines, Kindergarten system in, 42; time gained by children in, 68 Design, Schools of, see Art and industrial education Detroit, Corporal punishment in, 133; benefit association and pension fund in, 134 Development of popular education, 897- 901 Dewey, Melvil, urged University extension upon the Regents, 85 2; remarks on, 854 De Witt, Simeon, proposed an agricultural college of the State of New York, 606 Dickens, Charles, interested in Laura Bridgman, 800 Dickinson, Daniel Stevens, favored agri- cultural studies in schools, 607 1036 INDEX Dickinson, John W., inaugurated the "teachers' retreat" at Chautauqua, 843 Dickey, Sol C, active in founding the Wi- nona Assembly and summer schools, 834 Differentiation of secondary schools, 179-82 Diplomas given to graduates of Bridge- water Normal School, 371 Disciples of Christ, Schools of the, 1004-5 Discipline, of the graded school, 91-93; harsh, of the rural, 92; in secondary schools, 185-86; in colleges for women, 345 Discoveries in the realms of nature, Results of, far-reaching, 733-34 Dissertation for Ph. D., 293-94 District of Columbia, Illiteracy in, ix; com- pulsory law in, 99; appropriations for industrial training in, 112; aid and annuity associations in, 134; education of negroes in the, 909-10 District school, The old-time, 84, 122 District system, The, 7-9, 106, 122 Divinity School of Harvard University, 991, 1014 Doctor of Medicine, Degree of, first con- ferred in 1770 at King's College, 507 Doctor's degree, see Degree of Ph. D. Dods, Dr. Thaddeus, School of, chartered as Washington College, 992 Domestic work in colleges for women, 345 Dorchester (Mass.), First school in, 120 Doren, Supt., on farm work for the feeble- minded, 809 Dormitories, 281-82; 301 Dozier, Miss C. P., Supervisor N. Y. Kindergarten Assoc, 74 Drake University, Summer school of methods for school teachers at, 825 Draper, Andrew Sloan, Educational organization and administration, 3-31 Drawing in the public schools, General movement for, 707, 712, 735, 750; Frank- lin advocated, 709; in Boston public schools, 709; early efforts for, 710; of W. Minifie in Baltimore, 710-11; in schools of Cleveland, 711; made per- missible in Massachusetts, 712; sporadic efforts for, 713; adopted in Mass., 714- 15; Circular of Education, No. 2, 1874 on, 715, 716-19; the very alphabet of art, 718; results of introduction of, 728; a requisite preparatory study for all schools of science, 729-30; art knowledge and art industries, 731-32; the new de- parture, 732-34; relation of, to the in- dustrial movement, 735-42; art quality of, again recognized, 747 Drawing, industrial, Universal teaching of, essential, 730-31 Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, 590; Dept. of Commerce and Finance, 680-87: Founded 681; three special courses, 681; the general course, 682-83; office courses, 684-85; evening classes, 686; work done at, 687 Drisler Classical Fund at Columbia, 304 Durham University joined Cambridge in University extension work, 851 Durant, Henry F., founder of Wellesley College, 338 Dutch colonial common schools, 4, 362-63: Dutch Latin school at New Amsterdam, 144 Dutch schoolmasters, Duties of the, 362-63 Dutch West India Co., Provision of, for clergyman and schoolmaster in New York, 120, 996 Dutton, Samuel Train, on advantages of the kindergarten, 68-69 Dwight, Theodore, on the early schools in New York City, 363 Dwight, Timothy, Sermons of, at Yale, a course in divinity, 1014 Eaton, Amos, first director of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 556-58 Eaton, Gen. John, Report on the worth of education to the workingman, 714 Edbrook & Burnham, Exit registers in plan of, 415, 458 Edinburgh, High School of, imitated in Boston, 158; summer meetings for teachers at, 387 Education, a state function, vi-vii, xviii- xix, 401; private aid to, xiv; fundamental principles of American, XV; study of, xxiv; elective study of, in colleges and universities, 403-4; enormous growth of, 405; gifts and bequests for general, 484; Journals of, 883 Education and crime, ix-xi Education and industry, xi Education, Chairs of, in colleges and uni- versities, 391-95; University of Michigan, 392-94 Education in the South, see Southern States Education of defectives (E. E. Allen) 769-819 Education of the Indian (W. N. Hailmann) 937-72 Education of the negro (B. T. Washing- ton) 893-936 Education of women, see Women, Educa- tion of Education, tax-supported, Unlimited power of the people to provide, xx-xxii Education through the agency of religious organizations (W. H. Larrabee) 973— 1022 Educational Alliance, The, New York, 1006, 1008 Educational institution, Three types of, in the U. S., xviii-xx Educational opportunities must be provided and taken advantage of, 22 Educational organization and administra- tion (A. S. Draper) 3-31 Educational organization in the U. S., 94- 106 Educational Review, The, 317-18; founded by N. M. Butler, 881 INDEX io 37 Educational revival, The, of early 19th century, 361, 367 Educational system, The American, xv-xx; at beginning of 19th century, 6-7, 22; Summer schools a part of, 823 Egleston, Thomas, planned the School of Mines, 578-79 Elective courses, Development of college, 223-27 Elective system, The, in secondary educa- tion, 172-74; first proposed by Francis Wayland of Brown University, 1004 Elementary course of study, 106-13. ^ ee Elementary education, III. Elementary education (Wm. T. Harris) 79-139: I. General survey of school sys- tem, 79-94; enrollment and attendance, 79-80; average schooling, 80; greatest good accomplished by the system, 81; educated teachers, 82-83; graded schools vs. ungraded, 83-85; individual sup- planted by class instruction, 85-86; text-book vs. oral instruction, 86-87; definition of school instruction, 88; diffi- culties of the rural schools, 88-91; divi- sion of labor, 89; organization and gov- ernment in the city school, 91-93; school discipline, 92-93; moral force of rural and city schools, 93-94. — II. Educational organization, 94-106: No control by central government, 94-95; gifts of land and funds, 95-96; Bureau of Education, 97; centralized power in each state, 97; compulsory attendance, 97-98; statis- tics of, 99-100; statistics of supervision, 100-1; school boards, 101; women in school administration, 101-2; salaries of teachers, 102-3; coeducation of the sexes, 103-4; sectarian division of school funds, 104-5; the local unit of school organization, 105-6. — III. The elemen- tary course of study, 106-13: Elementary school course, 107; general program, 108; subjects actually taught, 109-11; manual training, 111-12; kindergartens, 112-13. — IV. Place of popular education in the ideals of the American people, 113-17. — V. Historical beginnings, 117-25: Family training and school technique, 1 17-19; earliest schools, 120-22; Berkeley and Jefferson on free schools, 120-21; dis- trict schools, 122; the urban epoch, 123; Horace Mann and Henry Barnard, 123- 25. — VI. Appendixes, i-ix, 126-39: App. i, Total attendance in schools and col- leges, 1897-98, 126-27; App. ii, Enroll- ment in common schools at various pe- riods, 128-29; App. iii, Common school statistics of U. S., 130; App. iv, State systems, 131-32; App. v, Corporal pun- ishment, 133; App. vi, Teachers' pen- sions and benefit associations, 134; App. vii, Text-books; selection and supply, 135-38; App. ix, Average total amount of schooling, 139 Elementary education, N. E. A. Report on organization of, xiv; assumed by the government, xix Elementary school course, 107; general program, 108 Elementary schools, Public, carefully reg- ulated by law, vii, 6; subjects actually taught in, 109-10 Eliot, Charles William, Reports as presi- dent of Harvard University, xiv, 312; on a theological education, 493-94; on teaching medicine, 516-17; on state medicine, 519-20 Eliot, John, and his work with the Indian, 940-41 Ellsworth, Henry Leavitt, Distribution of seeds by, 604-5 Elmira College, 338m; organization of, 341 Embossed books for the blind, 792-95; point and line systems, 793; the Amer- ican braille, 794 Embossed libraries for the blind, 794, 795 Emma Willard School, 338n Encouragement of schools a function of government, 5 Endowments of professional schools, 481 Engineering schools, see Scientific, technical and engineering education, 553-92 Engineers, chemists, and miners, Need of, 601 England, University extension in, 849-50; ideal course in, 856 English, Art development of the, since 185 1, 707; Haydon on, 708 English, good, Kindergarten children learn, 57-58 English academies, Origin of the, 148 English colonists established colleges, 4-5 English language method for the deaf and dumb, 778-79; history of the, 780-81; Bell's visible speech, 782 English universities, Residential halls characteristic of the, 280-81 Enrollment, Public school, of the U. S. 79; increase in the, 79; one person in every five, north and south, 81 Entomological Society of Washington, 873 Entrance examinations of the women's col- leges, Influence of, on the private fitting schools, 343n2 Entrance requirements for admission to the agricultural colleges, 620-21 Entrance requirements for professional schools, 473 Episcopal Divinity School at Philadelphia, 492 Episcopal Theological School at Cambridge, 49 2 European universities, Contrast of Amer- ican with the, 280-82; features of the, 281; points of difference, 282 Evangelical Association, Schools of the, 1001 Evelyn College, affiliated with Princeton, closed, 346n2 io 3 S INDEX Evening high schools, 180 Everett, Edward, first American graduate of a German university, 283 Examinations for degrees at English col- leges, 346n4; oral, for admission to the law, 501-2 Examining boards for teachers, 401-2 Exercises, Froebelian, vs. arbitrary, 71 Exeter Phillips Academy established, 149 Expenditure for common schools in the southern states and D. C, 910; 918; Table of, 930 Expenditure per capita for common schools, viii, 79; increase of, 79-80 Expenses, Student, 237; of agricultural students, 629 Experiment Station (Hatch) Act passed, 642-43 Experiment Station at University of North Carolina, 642 Experimental farm, The first, in South Carolina, 598 Extension work in agriculture, 629-32; farmers' institutes, 629-30; cooperative field experiments, 631; instruction by correspondence and home reading, 631- 32; itinerant agricultural school, 632 Eye and hand, Training of, in the kinder- garten, 39-40, 47, 49, 52, 54, 57 Eyes, Protection of the, in lighting rooms, 417-18, 421 Fairs and exhibitions, Agricultural, 598-99 Fall River, Corporal punishment in, 133 Family, The, and the school, 1 17-18 Farm schools, Failure of the, 713-14 Farmer, The, needs knowledge of condi- tions not methods, 626-27; popular education for the, 633-37 Farmer, The colonial, 595 Farmers' High School incorporated in Pennsylvania, 610. See also Pennsylvania State College Farmers' institute, The, 629-30 Farmers' National Congress, The, 600 Fathers of St. Joseph's Society for Colored Missions, 1010 Fay, Edward Allen, investigated marriages of the deaf, 783 Fayerweather, Daniel B., Munificence of, 3°4 Federal government, see General govern- ment Federation of Business Teachers' Asso- ciations, 660; address of J. E. King be- fore, 66mi, 663 Federation of Graduate Clubs, opposed to honorary Ph. D., 313; Graduate hand- book of, 317; colleges included in the, 33° ni > 35 1 Feeble-minded, The, 804-n; the first school for, public, 771; opened in 1848, 805; Mass. Commission on, 805; insti- tutions for, 805-6; divisions of, 807; instruction of and work done by, 808-9; custodial cases, 809; causes of, 810; castration of the, 8nni; bibliography of, 814-15; statistics of schools for, 819 Fellowships, Number of, at Chicago, Co- lumbia and Univ. of Penna., 301; average value of, 301-2; differences between scholarships and, 302; first extensively used at Johns Hopkins, 302; some notable, 302-3; at Amer. schools of classi- cal studies at Athens and Rome, 303 Field Columbian Museum of Chicago, 887 Field experiments, Cooperative, 631 Finance and economy, see Wharton School of Finance and Economy Financial summary of 169 colored schools, 924; Table 8, 936 Fine arts, Opportunities for thorough train- ing in the, 764-65 Fireplace, The open, in the school room, 416-17, 421 Firmin, Dr. Giles, gave readings on oste- ology in 1647, 506 Fish, Hamilton, recommended a state agricultural college, 607 Fisher, Laura, director of Boston kinder- gartens, 44; post-graduate work organ- ized by, 74 Fisk University, 924 Florence (Mass.), First charity kinder- garten at, 35, 36 Florida, Illiteracy in, ix; The county system in, 11, 105; grants of land to, 96; district the unit in, 106; repudiated bonds, 920 Flower Hospital, Study of practical medi- cine at the, 518 Fogg Art Museum at Cambridge (Mass.) 3°3 Foreign missions schools, 1010-11 Forestry protection, 600 Fortune, T. Thomas, on the New England teachers of the freedmen, 916-18 Forum, The, 881 Foul air, Removal of, 414-17 Fowle, William Bentley, introduced draw- ing in his school in Boston. 709-10 Framingham (Mass.), Normal school at, 124 France, Systematic work for defectives be- gan in, 773 _ Franklin, Benjamin, and manual training, 111; established an academy at Philadel- phia, 149, 263, 750; on need of teachers, 366-67; on drawing, 709; president Amer. Philosophical Soc, 871 Franklin and Marshall College, Beginning of, 997 Franklin College, Lancaster, Penn., 986 Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, 873 Free industrial classes for adults obligatory in Mass., 720, 721 Free School at New York, see New York Free School Society Free-Will Baptist Church, Schools of the, 1004 Freedmen's Aid and Southern Education Society of the M. E. Church, 1009 INDEX IO39 Freedmen's Bureau, Establishment and work of the, 914-16, 918 Freedmen's Schools, 1009-10 Freshman, The American, not a university student, 225; compared with foreign, 225; picture of career of, 229-35 Friedlander, — , started school for the blind in Philadelphia, 787-88 Friends, Society of, established Institute for Colored Youth at Philadelphia, 906, 925; opened first public school in Pennsyl- vania, 976; schools of the, 1005 Frissell, Hollis Burke, head of Hampton Institute, 927 Froebel, Friedrich, First kindergarten of, 35; principles of, 63; traditional games and toys, 70-71; education of mothers, 75-76 Froebel Association (Chicago), Normal department of the, 73 Froebel associations in the United States, 36 Froebelian ideals, 35, 36; merit of, recog- nized, 43-44; 49-50, 61, 63; no sentimen- talism in, 69; obstacles to, 70-71; St. Louis kindergartners study of, 74; the education of mothers, 75-76 Froebel's gifts, Child trained in, 39 Fuller, Sarah, and Helen Keller, 803 Function of a university, The true, 307-8 Fundamental principles of American edu- cation, xv Funds, State school, 18 Furman, Richard, and Baptist schools, 1003 Furnace, The, should be centrally located, 420, 422; steam plant, vs., 424 Gallaudet, Edward Miner, principal of Columbia Institution, 776-77; abroad to study methods, 781 Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins, founder of deaf-mute instruction in America, 774; sent to Europe, 771, 774-75; secured L. Clerc, 775; statute of, at Gallaudet College, 786 Gallaudet College has normal classes, 784 Gaines, traditional, Froebel's modification of, 70 Garland, Miss, Kindergarten training school of, 72 Garrett, Miss, Gifts of, to School of Medi- cine of Johns Hopkins University, 262 Garrett, Robert, 751 General Education Board subsidized the Summer School of the South, 842 General government, The, and education, 22-25, 94-95; land rights for mainte- nance of schools, 23; Ordinance of 1787, 24; land grant act of 1862, 24, 95; U. S. Bureau of Education, 24-25, 97; has no control over, 94; total amount of land donated, 95; supports West Point and Naval Academy, 96; educates Indians and children in Alaska, 96 General science, Journals of, 881 General Theological Seminary established, 489, 984, 1014 Genesee Wesleyan Seminary, 998 Geography in elementary schools, 109 Geological and topographical surveys, Governmental, 888-89 Geological Society of Washington, 873 Geology, Summer instruction in, at Har- vard, 824, 837 Geology and geography, Journals of, 882 Georgetown College, D. C, founded by Bp. Carroll, 980 Georgetown College, Ky., founded, 1003 Georgia, Illiteracy in, ix; the county system in, 11, 105; kindergarten department in normal school, 73; authorizes county manual labor schools, 112; passed first law licensing apothecaries, 537; law of, against educating negroes, 902 German Evangelical Church, Schools of the, 1005 German teachers' seminaries, 378 German theological seminaries, 1016 German universities, First Americans at, 283; made possible by their rigid Gym- nasium system, 288-89 Germany, Impulse and inspiration brought from, 288; university methods of, adapted not adopted, 288-89 Gibbs, Wolcott, president National Acad- emy of Sciences, 868 Gifts and endowments, 300-1, 484; many of the largest from non-collegiate men, 3°4 Gillett, Philip G., on the sign language, 777-78 Gilman, Arthur, originator of the Harvard Annex, 347m; examined Helen Keller, 803 Girard, Stephen, 750 Girard College, Negroes not admitted to, 906 Girls, Colonies provided no education for, 147; academies for, 155; high schools, 180, 322m; conditions favoring educa- tion of, 321-25; per cent of, in secondary schools, 322n2; excluded from early pub- lic schools of Boston, 366 Girls' schools, College entrance require- ments have raised standard of teachers in, 343n2 Girton College, Cambridge (Eng.), 338m, 346n4, 347 m Golden Gate Association, of San Francisco, 36-37; training school of the, 73 Goode, George Brown, administrator of U. S. National Museum, 886 Goodhue, Lincoln P., on the kindergarten, 65 Gookins, Daniel, superintendent of Indians in Mass., 940 Gottingen, American students at, 283-84 Gould, B. A., took Ph. D. at a German uni- versity, 284 Government, The State and the, xv-xx 1040 INDEX Government in secondary schools, 187-88 Graded schools, Long session of, 80; edu- cated teachers in the, 82-83; work in the, 88; division of labor in, 89; superiority of education in, 91-92: discipline in, 92- 93; a stronger moral force than rural, 94; demanded professional teachers, 122 Graduate Clubs, The Federation of, op- posed to honorary Ph.D., 313; publica- tions of, 317 Graduate fellowships and scholarships, 352 Graduate handbook, 317 Graduate instruction for women, 351-54; in Faculty of philosophy, 351-52; in theology, law, medicine, etc., 353-54 Graduate school closer to collegiate course than professional faculty is, 309; prepa- ration of candidates for admission to, 310 Graduate schools, Statistics of, 314-15, 352; the sixteen open to women, 351-52 Graduate students, Resident, 30-31; at Harvard before 1800, 283; number of, 287; remaining at their almae matres, 312; associations of, 312; statistics of, 314-15 Graduate work, Many institutions for, in the U. S., 256, 257, 265; beginnings of, 284-89; at Yale, 284; University of Michigan, 285, 287; Columbia, 285, 287; Harvard, 2S3, 2S5-86; Cornell, 286; Princeton, 286; expansion of, 287-88; relation of, to the college, 310 Graduates, College, in the national life, 238-39; Report on the certification of college and university, as teachers in public schools, 402-4 Graduation exercises, 189 Grammar in elementary schools, no Grand Rapids, Kindergarten system in, 42 Gratz College, Philadelphia, 1007 Gray, John Chipman, on methods of teach- ing law, 498 Great Britain, Agricultural societies in, 598 Green, J. C, founder of John C. Green School of Science, 681-82 Greene, B. Franklin, 558 Greenough, Horatio, sculptor, 762, 763 Greenwood, John, first American dentist, 526 Gregory, Dr., on experience in a pharmacy, 535-36 Gregory, Charles Noble, on salaries of law teachers, 497 Griggs, Edward Howard, University ex- tension lecturer, 855 Guyot, A., Graduate course of, at Colum- bia, 285 H type of schoolhouse, 432-33; 436-37, pi. XII H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for Women, 346; organization of, 349; a separate institution, 350 Hackley School for Boys, Unitarian, 991 Hackney & Smith, Exit registers in plan of, 4i5 Hadley (Mass.), Latin grammar school in, 144 Hailmann, William Nicholas, Educa- tion of the Indian, 937-72 Haines, Henrietta, introduced kindergarten in her school in New York, 36 Hale, George Ellery, director of the Yerkes Observatory, 888 Hall, Use of, as cloak and coat room, 422, 426 Hamilton College, closed to women, ^t,^ Hamilton Literary and Theological Insti- tute, 1003, 1014 Hamilton Theological Seminary, the first Baptist, opened, 489 Hammond, John E., Report of, 460 Hampden-Sidney College, Patriotic charter of, 238 Hampton Normal and Agricultural Insti- tute, 926-27 Hand, Daniel, Gift of, to Amer. Missionary Assoc, for education of negroes, 905, 919 Hannan, James, on the kindergarten, 65 Harper, William Rainey, head of Summer School Dept. of Chautauqua, 844; in- stituted correspondence courses, 863 Harris, William Torrey, Elementary education, 79-139 Harris, William Torrey, on national grants for education, vi; reports of public schools of St. Louis, xiv; as thinker and writer, 25; introduced the kindergarten in St. Louis, 38-39; on value of the kindergar- ten, 39-41; on enrollment in normal schools, 378; at Martha's Vineyard Insti- tute, 841; at national conference on Uni- versity extension, 853 Harrison, Samuel A., on kindergarten chil- dren, 66 Harrison Fellowship Fund at Univ. of Penna., 303 Hart, Miss C. M. C, Kindergarten training school of, in Baltimore, 73; postgraduate work at, 74 Hartford, Early Latin school in, 144; changed to high school, 158-59; Hartwick Seminary founded, 489, 987, 1014 Harvard, John, Endowment given by, 120, 266 Harvard Annex, Organization of the, 347m Harvard Astronomical Observatory, Gift of Robert Treat Paine to the, 304 Harvard College set up to train the aris- tocracy, 4; chartered and supported at the start by the state, 26; founded, 120; requirements of admission, 146; and the bachelor's degree, 218-19; graduates of, in the national life, 238; center of the University, 242; resident graduates at, 283, 285; tO train for the ministry, 487, 97 5 ; to meet demand for higher education, 899; founded by Congregationalists, 989; INDEX IO41 T. Hollis founds divinity professorship in, 1002 Harvard examinations for women, 343n2 - Harvard Law School, the earliest connected with a university, 495 Harvard Medical School organized, 507; adopted graded system, 516; opened a dental department, 527; summer courses at, S25 Harvard Observatory, The, 887-88 Harvard Summer School, The, 837-39; Cuban teachers at, 838-39 Harvard University, Gifts to, xiv; founded, 266; organization of, 266-67; the Grad- uate School, 267, 286; courses under Faculty of Arts and Sciences, 267-68; other schools, 268; requirements for Ph. D. at, 292; the Library of, 297; publica- tions of, 298; scholarships and fellow- ships at, 301; twelve non-resident fellow- ships, 302; notable benefactions, 302-3; college and graduate work at, 310; gradu- ate students, 312; president's report, 317; Bussey Institution at, 641; summer in- struction in geology at, 824; Botanic Gar- den and Arnold Arboretum of, 889; Uni- tarian influence predominates in manage- ment of, 991 Haskell Institute, 954-57 Hastings College of the Law, 280 Hatch, William H., advocate of the Experi- ment Station Act of 1887, 642 Hawaii, Agricultural Experiment Station in, 643 Haydon, Benjamin Robert, on lack of art development in England, 708; tragic failure of, 7 13 Health of college women, 356-57, 356m Hearst, Mrs. Phoebe A., Kindergarten sustained by, in Washington, D. C, 72; gifts of, to University of California, 279, 3°4 Heating and ventilating the schoolroom, 413-17; the furnace, 420; apparatus for, centrally located, 420, 422, 426, 449; in N. Y. City ward school, 432 Hebrew Free School Association of New York, 1006 Hebrew Sunday School Society, 1006 Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, 1006 Hebrews, Work of the, for education, 1006-8 Heffley School, 687 Hegel on the ultimate end of the State, xvi Heidelberg College founded, 997 Heinicke, Samuel, adopted oral method for deaf-mutes, 773 Hemenway Fellowship of American Archae- ology und Ethnology at Harvard, 303 Henderson, George, secretary of Univer- sity extension movement in Philadelphia, 853 Henrico College at Jamestown, Va., 982 Henry, Joseph, Opening address, at agri- cultural college in Maryland, 609; first secretary of the Smithsonian, 884 Henry Drisler Fellowship in Classical Phi- lology at Columbia, 303 Heriot J. C. A., architect, 458 High school building, The, 438-46; the Boston Latin-English, 438-40; court plan, 438; rooms, 439; assembly halls, 440; Cambridge English High School, pi. XIV-XV, 440-42; Hplan, laboratories and class rooms, 440-41; elegance of architecture, 442; Springfield (Mass.), 442-45, pi. XVI-XVIII; central court plan, 443; heating, 443~44! lighting, 444; laboratories, 444-45; observatory, 445; lunch room, 445-46 High school movement, The, 156-60 High schools not usually regulated by law, vii; rapid increase in number of, xii; number of, xi, 30; free public, 6; period of public, 143, 156-60; fill gap in com- plete educational system, 162-63; con ~ nection with the colleges, 163-65; the accrediting system, 165-68; differentia- tion in, 179-82; evening, 180; for colored students, 180; manual training, 181; com- mercial, 181; of Massachusetts, 192; of Maryland, 194; of Indiana, 194-96; of Wisconsin, 196-98; of Minnesota,. 198-99; table of students in certain courses in, 201-3; commercial education in the, 662-63, 674-80 High schools and academies, private, Num- ber of, 30; table of students in, 202 Higher education, Bibliography of Amer- ican system of, 316-17 Hill, S. H., opened first charity kindergar- ten, 36 Hillside Home for Feeble-minded Children, The, 805 Hinsdale, Burke Aaron, The training of teachers, 359-407 Hiram College founded, 1005 Hirsch Fund for the Benefit of European Hebrews, 1008 Historical societies very numerous, 879 Historical Society of Pennsylvania, S79 History in elementary schools, no; neg- lected in secondary schools, 187 History and archaeology, Journals of, 883 Hobart College, Geneva, N. Y., founded, 984 Hodgkin, Thomas G., Bequest of, to the Smithsonian Institution, 886 Holland, A school law in, 120 Hollis, Thomas, founded divinity pro- fessorship at Harvard, 1002, 1014 Hollister, F. W., architect, 458 Holloway, David P., Commissioner of Patents, 605 Holmes, Dr. Bayard, on present tendencies in medical education, 520-21 Hoist, Hermann Eduard von, on the uni- versity in America, 256 Home Reading Union of England, 863 Honors, Academic, 228-29 Hope College, Holland, Mich., 996 1042 INDEX Hopewell Academy, N. J., opened, 1002 Hopkins, Gov. Edward, Notable bequest of, 144 Hoppin Fellowship at Athens, 303 Horace Mann School of Boston a day school for the deaf, 784; Helen Keller at the, 803 Horizontal point alphabet, The New York, for the blind, 793 Hornaday, William Temple, director New York Zoological Garden, 890 Horticultural societies, 600 Hosack, David, began a Botanical Garden in New York, 889 Hospitals, Gifts and bequests for, 484 Houghton, Frank A., on the kindergarten, 67 Howard & Camdwell, architects, 461 Howard, Gen. Oliver Otis, Work of, through the Freedmen's Bureau, 914-15 Howard University, 914, 924 Howe, Dr. Samuel Gridley, abroad with Horace Mann, 780; at New England Asylum, 787; Boston line print devised by, 792; and Laura Bridgman, 797-800; Report of, on idiocy, 805 Hubbard, Gardiner Greene, a founder of Science, 881 Hudson, William H., in extension work, 855 Hudson & Wachter, architects, 461 Huested, Dr. A. B., on the teaching of pharmacy, 536-37 Hull House, First summer school of, 826 Humphreys, Richard, endowed Institute for Colored Youth at Philadelphia, 906 Hunt, Richard Morris, Art building at Chicago by, 757 Hunt, William Morris, Influence of the pictures of, at Albany, 755, 761, 763 Hunter, Dr. Wm., gave first lectures on anatomy in 1752 at Newport, 506 Hygiene, see School architecture and hy- giene (G. B. Morrison) 409-64 Hygiene, Study of, 519 Idaho, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory law in, 99; women county superintendents in, 101; women may hold any school office in, 102; woman suffrage in, 102; district the unit in, 106 Idiotic hand, The, 807 Illinois, Kindergartens in, 42, 112; depart- ments in normal schools, 73; grants of land to, 96; compulsory law in, 99; truant schools in, 100; employment of children, 100; school directors, 101; women county superintendents in, 101; women may hold any school office in, 102; may vote at school elections, 102; township the unit in, 105; or district, 106; author- izes industrial training, 112; corporal punishment in, 133; first teachers' in- stitute in, 382; leads in professional stu- dents, 470; professional licenses in, 471; education of defectives in, 771 Illinois Industrial University instituted veterinary chairs, 544 Illinois Institution for the Education of Feeble-minded children, 805 Illiteracy in the U. S., ix Illiterate population, An, transformed into a reading one, by the public school sys- tem, 81; proportion of criminals in, 94 Immigrants to America established schools, 119-22 Independent colleges for women, see Women, Education of Indian civilization, Features of, 961-62 Indian, Education of the (W. N. Hail- mann) 937-72: Introduction, greed and fair play, 939-40; John Eliot, 940-41; Sergeant and Wheelock, 941; persistence of spirit of work, 941-42; shortcomings, 942-43; period of inaction, 943; resump- tion of work, 943-44; governmental zeal, 944; decay of missionary effort, 944-45; present organization, 945-61: Day schools, 945-47; reservation board- ing schools, 947-52; non-reservation boarding schools, 952-53; industrial training schools, 953-57; Carlisle, 957— 58; Contract schools, 958-59; supervision, '960-61; conclusion and outlook, 961-63; schools of Indian Territory, 963-64; statistical tables, 965-72 Indian Rights Association, Influence of, for the Indians, 942-43 Indian schools, Statistical tables of, 965- 72; number and attendance, 965-66; lo- cation and capacity of day schools, 967 of reservation boarding schools, 967-69 of non-reservation boarding schools, 970 of contract schools, 971; appropriations for private schools, 972 Indian Territory, Schools of the five civi- lized tribes of, 963-64 Indiana, Kindergartens in, 42 Indiana, Grant of swamp lands to, 96; compulsory law in, 99; truants in, 100; clothing furnished poor school children, 100; school trustees in, 101; women may hold any school office in, 102; may vote at school elections, 102; township the unit in, 105; authorizes industrial training in cities, 112; and kindergartens, 112; corporal punishment allowed in, 133; provision of constitution of, for general system of education, 152; commissioned high schools under State Board of Edu- cation, 194-96 Indiana Institute of Technology, see Pur- due University, 586 Indiana Teachers' Reading Circle, Success of the, 390, 863; list of books read by, 390-91 Indiana University, Accrediting system in the, 194; admitted women, 325; summer courses at, 825; Biological Station of, on Winona Lake, 826 INDEX I043 Indianapolis, Kindergarten system in, 42; corporal punishment in, 133 Indians, uncivilized, General government educates children of, 96 Individual instruction supplanted by class instruction, 85-87 Industrial classes, Scientific and liberal education provided for the, 613-14, 617- iS Industrial college, The first, in New York, 607-8 Industrial education, see Art and industrial education, 705-67 Industrial education for the negro, 925-28; Institute for Colored Youth, 925; Hamp- ton Institute, 926-27; Tuskegee Insti- tute, 927-28; Table of statistics of, 935 Industrial education movement, Scope of the, 744-47 Industrial era, Advent of the, 734, 739 Industrial progress, Effects of general sec- ondary education on, 322n2 Industrial schools, 7 Industrial training, States authorizing, 112. See also Art and industrial education (I. E. Clarke) Industrial training for the blind, 791-92 Industrial training schools for Indians, 953-58; Haskell Institute, 954-57; Car- lisle, 957-58 Industries of applied art, Opportunities for workers in the, 764 Industry, Education and, xi. See also Education and industry Ingham University, closed, 336n2 Institute for Colored Youth, Philadelphia, endowed by R. Humphreys, 906, 925 Institutions, Privately-established, vi, 266- 70; enrollment in, viii; relation of, to American education, 25-26; Harvard University, 266-68; Yale University, 268-70 Instruction, college, Modes of, 227-28 Introduction (N. M. Butler) v-xxiv Iowa, Length of annual school session in, viii; illiteracy in, ix; kindergartens in, 42; grants of land to, 96; school directors, 101; women county superintendents in, 101; women may vote at school elections in, 102; township or district the unit in, 106; authorizes kindergartens, 112; corporal punishment allowed in, 133; higher schools authorized, 160; first teachers' institute in, 382; professional licenses in, 471; income from land grants, 639 Iowa Agricultural and Mechanical College, Veterinary Dept. at, 544 Iowa Educational Board of Examiners, One member of the, must be a woman, 102 Iowa, State University of, coeducational, 324; chair of didactics at, 392 Itinerant agricultural school under College of Agriculture at Cornell University, 632, 635 James, Edmund Janes, Commercial edu- cation, 653-703 James, Edmund Janes, in University ex- tension work, 855 Jamestown (N. Y.), Kindergarten system in, 42 Jamestown, Va., Henrico College planned at, 982 Jefferson, Thomas, recommended manual training, in; system of general instruc- tion, 121, 913; opposed to slave system, 902; educational ideas of, endorsed by Virginians, 908 Jefferson College begun as the Log College of Dr. J. McMillan, 992 Jersey City, First city superintendent in, 124 Jewish Chautauqua at Atlantic City, 826; a success, 1007 Jewish Sunday Schools organized, 1006 Jewish Theological Seminary of America, organized, 1007 John C. Green School of Science, of Prince- ton University, 581-82 John Tyndall Fellowship in Physics at Harvard, 302 Johns Hopkins University, Electives in undergraduate college at, 219, 242; organized at a college, 255; foundation of, 261; admits women to School of Medicine, 262, 328, 333, 351; fellows at, 262; classes of students, 262-63; f° r graduate work, 287; requirements for Ph.D. at, 292, 293; publications of, 298; scholarships and fellowships at, 301, 302; Bruce Fellowship at, 303; library of Bluntschli given to, 304; aims at produc- ing specialists, 310; graduate students, 312; president's report, 317; medical school of, a true university school, 351m; exclusion of women, a serious matter, 35in2; influence of, on schools of science and engineering, 591 Johnson, Samuel W., agricultural chemist, 607; professor at Sheffield Scientific School, 641 Joliet (HI.), Fifth ward school building, 424-25, pi. VI-VII Jordan, Prof., on the knowledge needed by the farmer, 626—27 Joselyn, E. A., architect, 461 Journal of Psycho-asthenics, The, 811 Journal of the Franklin Institute, 873, 880 Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy started, 534 Journals, List of scientific, 880-84 Judd, Orange, established chemical labora- tory at Wesleyan University, 641 Kalamazoo case, Decision in the, xx-xxi, Kansas, Illiteracy in, ix; kindergarten de- partment in normal school, 73; grant of land to, 96; compulsory law in, 79; women county superintendents in, 101; 1044 INDEX women may vote at school elections in, 102; district the unit in, 106; corporal punishment in, 133; income from land grant, 638, 639 Kansas City (Mo.), Corporal punishment in, 133 Kansas City (Mo.), Manual Training High School of, 425-26; mechanical ventilation in the, 429; 442; described, 447-55, pi. XIX-XXII Kansas State Normal School, Summer school- of methods at, 825 Karr, C. Powell, Plan of, for country school- house, 419, 422, pi. II; 458 Keeler, James Edward, director of the Lick Observatory, 888 Keener, Win. Albert, on methods of teach- ing law, 498 Keller, Helen Adams, 801-4; mastery of speech by, 802-3; at Radcliffe College, 803; Dr. Job Williams on, 803-4 Kempin, Madame, Private law school of, incorporated with New York University Law School, 354m Kent, James, Course of lectures in law by, at Columbia College, 495 Kentucky, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory law in, 99; school trustees, 101; women county superintendents in, 101; women may vote at school elections in, 102; dis- trict the unit in, 106; granted lands for academies, 152; legal provisions for schoolhouses, 459; education of defect- ives in, 771; first state school for deaf- mutes, 776 Kentucky Institution for Feeble-minded Children, 805 Kentucky University, admitted women, 325 Kenyon College founded, 984 Kindergarten, W. T. Harris on the value of the, 39-41 Kindergarten, Experimental, opened in Boston, 35; closed, 37; in St. Louis, 38- 4i Kindergarten associations, The work of, 36-37, 73 Kindergarten children, Testimony of Bos- ton primary teachers on, 44-60; disci- pline of, 46-48; characteristics of, 49-60; in third grade, 60-61; testimony of St. Louis teachers, 63-64; Chicago superin- tendents and principals on, 64-68; time gained by, 67-68; number of, 112-13 Kindergarten departments in normal schools and other institutions, 72-73, 376; states providing, 73 Kindergarten education (S. E. Blow) 35- 76; four movements in America, 35; pioneer movement of Elizabeth Peabody, 35-36; Miss Boelte, 36; philanthropic movement in Boston, San Francisco, New York and Chicago, 36-37; national movement begun by W. T. Harris in St. Louis, 38-41; number of public kinder- gartens, 41; cities and states providing, 42; aim of, development not instruction, 43; unjust criticism of kindergarten chil- dren, 43; testimony from primary teachers of Boston, 44-61; trend of un- favorable criticism, 45-46; as to disci- pline, 46-48; moral tone and progress, 48-50; replies from teachers in full, 50- 60; influence extends beyond the primary room, 60-61; letter from E. P. Seaver, 61-63; favorable letters from St. Louis, 63-64; valuable testimony from Chicago superintendents and principals, 64-68: gives favorable age result, 68; S. T. Dutton on benefit of, 68-69; "sentimen- talism" not discoverable in, 69-70; qualified supervisors needed, 70; two dangers contravening Froebel's ideals, 70-72; efficient normal training needed for, 72-73; notable departments for, 73; postgraduate work in, 74; the maternal movement, 75-76 Kindergarten Institute of Chicago, 72 Kindergarten teachers, Number of, 11 2-13 Kindergarten training, Summer school for, at Grand Rapids, 826 Kindergarten training for the blind, 789- 91; for the feeble-minded, 808 Kindergartens, Number of public, 41-42, 112; fifteen states have extensive pro- vision for, 42; statistics, 42, 112-13; au- thorized by law in fourteen states, 112; cities establish under charters, 112; num- ber of, and of pupils, 1 12-13 Kindergartens, Private, 7, 36-37, 42, 72-73; number of, 112 Kindergartens and object teaching in public schools, 728 Kindergartners, Normal schools for, 72-73; as students of educational literature, 73-74 King, J. E., on the commercial college, 66mi, 663 King William's School, Annapolis, 145 King's College established to prevent spread of republican ideas, 5; chartered and supported by the state at the start, 26, 270, 362, 983; strongly religious in aim and purpose, 976; theological chair for the Dutch contemplated, 996 King's College, Medical Dept. of, 468. See also College of Physicians and Surgeons Kirchaffer, W. G., architect, 458 Kirk, John R., valuable work of, in Mis- souri, 461 Kirkland Fellowship at Harvard founded by George Bancroft, 302 Knoxville College the colored department of the University of Tenn., 995 Koch, H. C, & Co., architects, 458 Kraus-Boelte, Mrs. Maria, Kindergarten work of, 36; kindergarten training school of, 72 Laboratories, Instruction in, 1S3-84; in INDEX I045 college, 228; university, 296-97; gifts of, 303-4; Cambridge English High School, 440-41; Springfield (Mass.), 444-45; Kansas City, 453-54; great physical and chemical, needed, 888 Ladd, George T., on the American uni- versity, 253 Eady Margaret Hall, Oxford (Eng.) 346n4 Lafayette College, closed to women, ^1,1, Lancaster, Joseph, The monitorial instruc- tion of, 368 Land grant act of 1862, 24, 95, 729 Land-grant colleges, Free, 6; work of J. S. Morrill for, 611-12; purpose of the Act, 612-15; free tuition in, 615; not class institutions, 616; buildings for, must be provided outside the grant, 616-17; character of each, to be determined by the state legislature, 617-18; second Act providing endowment for, 618; statistics of the, 637-40; tables, 646-51 Land grant of New York State turned over to Cornell University, 609 Land grants for education, v; total .".mount of, 95, 96 Land rights from the public domain, 23, 95 Lane, Albert G., on the kindergarten, 64 Langley, Samuel Pierpont, secretary of the Smithsonian, 884 Language of signs for deaf and dumb, 777— 78; defense of, 779 Lareabee, William H., Education through the agency of religious organizations, 973-1022 Latin, Increased study of, in high schools, xii; 185 Latin grammar schools of the colonial period, 143, 144-47; characteristics of the, 146-47, 361 Laurie, S. S., on a faculty of education, 395-96 Law, Women students in, 353-54 Law schools, Number of, 30; scholarships in, 477-78; fees, 479; libraries, 479-80; endowments, 481; value of property, ' 482-83; gifts and bequests, 484; early, 495; development of, since 1858, 495-96; number of, 496; salaries in, 497; methods of instruction, 497-98; admission to the bar, 498-5 S Lawrence, Abbott, founder of Lawrence Scientific School, 575-76 Lawrence Scientific School founded, 575, 611; object, courses, 576; affiliation with Harvard, 577 Lawyers, Ratio of, to population, 496m; state and local societies of, 876-77 Lecture system not prominent in secondary schools, 184; the rule in college instruc- tion, 228, 295-96 Legislation for schools, 19, 21 Legislation on pharmacy, 537-39; require- ments of, 539-42 Legislation on school architecture in various states, 458-60 Legislative requirements for practice of veterinary medicine, 549 Lehigh University closed to women, 333; founded, 565; courses and organization, 566 Lehrfreiheit and Lemfreiheit, 311 Leland Stanford, Jr., University, 274; gifts from Leland Stanford, 304; the purpose of, 307; coeducational, 32S; science courses, 583; Biological Laboratory of, at Bay of Monterey, Cal., 891 L'Epee, Charles Michel, abbe de, elabor- ated sign language for deaf-mute school in Paris, 773 Levy, Florence N., Statistics of art institu- tions gathered by, 726 Lexington (Mass.), The first normal school in the U. S. at, 82; founded, 124, 368; moved to Framingham, 124; organization of, and courses, 368-69; all normal school work traces back to, 371 Liberal education, The college the shelter of, 209-10; confused ideas of, 215-19 Liberty and government established by the State, xvii-xviii Libraries, College, 228; growth cf univer- sity and, 297 ; great benefactions for, 303- 4, 484 Libraries, public, N. E. A. Report on rela- tion of, to public schools, xiv, xix; num- ber of, 30 Libraries for teachers, 401 Libraries in professional schools, 479-80 Library science, Entrance requirements for degrees in, 474n2 Library training, School for, at Madison, Wis., 826 Licenses to practice professions, Varying standards for, 470-71; preliminary gen- eral education for, 471-72 Licentiate of Instruction, Degree of, 375 Lick, James, established the Lick Observa- tory, 888 Lick Observatory, 279, 280, 583, 888 Liebig's Lectures on chemistry, Popularity of, 601 Lighting of the schoolhouse, 417-19, 421, 422, 424-25; ideal, 426, 452 Lincoln, Abraham, Dept. of Agriculture and Land-grant Act approved by, 605, 612 Lincoln University, 906 Litchfield (Ct.), First American law school at, 495 Literature, The study of, 185, 187 Literature Fund of the State of New York, 151, 160 Literature of education, xiii-xiv Live stock of the U. S., Value of the, 548 Loan exhibitions, 722-24 Local school boards, Various titles of, 101 Local influence of the college, xii Local school officials agents of the state, 21 Local unit of school organization, The, 97, 105-6 1046 INDEX "Log College," The, at Neshaminy, Pa., 149, 992 London Exhibition of 185 1, Results of the, 707, 708, 723, 725, 734 London Society for the Extension of Uni- versity Extension established, 851 Long Island Hospital College, The Pol- hemus Memorial Clinic at the, 51S Los Angeles, Kindergarten system in, 42; corporal punishment in, 133 Loubat, Joseph E, Due de, Gift of fund for Library of Columbia, 303 Louisiana, Illiteracy in, ix; grants of land to, 96; school supervision in, 100; school directors, 101; women may hold any school office in, 102; county the unit in, 105; professional licenses in, 471 Louisiana State University, closed to women, 325, 329 Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station, 643 Louisville, Coeducation in, 103; corporal punishment in, 133 Louisville Kindergarten Association, 37; training school of the, 73 Lowell, James Russell, graduate lecturer at Harvard, 285 Lowell, John, endowed Lowell Institute Lectures, Boston, 873 Lowell Institute Lectures, Boston, 873 Lowell School of Practical Design affiliated with Mass. Institute of Technology, 561, 721 Luther, Ideas of, echoed by reformers else- where, 119 Lutheran Church, Schools of the, 985-88 Lyman, J. Frank, architect, 458 Lyon, Mary, opened Mt. Holyoke Seminary, 33§n Lyon phonetic manual, The, 782 McCulloch, Mary C, supervisor of St. Louis kindergartens, 31 McDonogh, John, 750 McHenry, Olive, on time gained by kinder- garten children, 68 Mackinder, Halford John, University ex- tension lecturer, 854 McKinley, William, on the national growth, 895-97 McKinney, Corliss, architect, 458 McMillan, John, opened his "Log College" in Washington Co., Pa., 992 Maimonides College, Philadelphia, 1006 Maine, Compulsory law in, 99; truants, 100; superintending school committees in, 101; women hold school offices in, 102; township may be unit in, 106; authorizes industrial drawing, 112; cor- poral punishment allowed in, 133 Maine Wesleyan Seminary, 998 Manderson, Charles E, on local bar asso- ciations, 502 Mann, Horace, Reports of Mass. Board of Education, xiv; secretary, 123, 900; revo- lutionized the educational system, 123- 24, 900; first president of Antioch Col- lege, 324; on common school teachers, 362; introduced study of teaching at Antioch, 392; praised the oral method, 780, 782 Manning, Rev. James, Efforts of, for Col- lege of Rhode Island, 1002 Mansfield, G. Stanley, architect, 458 Manual alphabet method for the deaf and dumb, 780; taught to Laura Bridgman, 799 Manual labor schools of agriculture, 606 Manual training, in elementary education, 111-12; in secondary education, 181; origin of the educational form of, 732; statistics of, 747-49 Manual training, The movement for, 727- 49, 750. See also Art and industrial education (I. E. Clarke), III Manual training high school, 446-55; de- velopment of the, 446, 737-38; the first in St. Louis, 447; the Kansas City, 447- 55, pi. XIX-XXIII; the building, 448; heating and ventilation, 449-52; lighting, 452-53; laboratories, 453-54; construc- tion, 454 Map showing attitude of different sections toward coeducation, 328 Marburgh, Edward, on the value of cor- respondence instruction in technical edu- cation, 864a Marine Biological Laboratory established, 842-43, 890 Mark Hopkins Institute of Art, 280 Marriage rate of college women, 357~58a Marsh, George Perkins, Graduate course of, at Columbia, 285 Marsh, Othniel Charles, and field parties of students, 824 Martha's Vineyard, Summer school founded at, 387 Martha's Vineyard Summer School of Pedagogy, 825; founders and work of, 840-41 Maryland, County the unit in, 105; author- izes industrial training, 112; erected King William's School at Annapolis, 145; county grammar schools, 145; high schools, 160, 194; professional licenses in, 471; an agricultural college estab- lished in, 609; experiment station, 640- 4i Maryland Academy of Sciences, Baltimore, 873 Maryland College of Pharmacy founded, 534 Maryland Institute School of Design, 711 Mason, George, sent to Scotland for private teachers, 363 Mason, Rev. J. M., director of Presby- terian Theological Seminary in New York, 1014 Massachusetts, Educational system in, not centralized, vii; length of annual school session in, viii; illiteracy in, ix; education INDEX IO47 and crime in, x; average school period for, xi; individual productive capacity in, xi; source of supply of students at col- lege in, xii; kindergartens in, 42, depart- ments for, in normal schools, 73; com- pulsory law in, 97, 99; truants, 100; employment of children, 100; secretary of State Board of Education, 101; school committees, 101; women hold school offices in, 102; township may be unit in, 106; requires manual training courses, 112; an early law requiring education, 120, 145, 899; established Harvard Col- lege, 120, 899; law of 1647, 121; school sys- tem of, reconstructed by Horace Mann, 123-24, 900; annuity guild in, 134; Latin grammar schools in, 144; provision for town grammar schools, 152; modified laws and reaction, 160, 899; report on high school teachers, 190; provision for secondary education in, 191; high schools of, 192; nine normal schools in, 320; courses in, 371; teachers in, who received normal instruction, 376-77; first teachers" institute held in, 382; appropriated money for institutes, 382; local examining boards in, 401-2; legal provisions for school- houses, 459; established veterinary in- struction at State Agricultural College, 546; made drawing a public school study, 720 Massachusetts Agricultural College opened, 610; the only specially agricultural in- stitution, 619 Massachusetts Board of Agriculture es- tablished, 610 Massachusetts College of Pharmacy founded, 534 Massachusetts Commissioners on Idiocy, Report of, 805 Massachusetts Historical Society, 879 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 558-62; admitted women, 326; founders of the, 559-60; courses, 561; degrees conferred at, 562; F. A. Walker and manual training at the, 747; field in- struction in mining and metallurgy at, 824; summer courses in engineering at, 825 Massachusetts Normal Art School, Work in drawing from, at the Centennial Exhibition, 707, 745 Massachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble- minded Youth established, 805 Massachusetts School of Agriculture, Char- ter granted to, 610 Massachusetts Soc. for the Promotion of Agriculture, 598; gave aid to Harvard for an experimental station, 641 Massachusetts State Board of Education organized; Horace Mann, secretary, 123; favored techni-industrial education, 712 Master of Arts degree, see Degree of A. M. Maternal movement, Evolution of the, 35, 75-7 6 Mathematics, Journals of, 881 Mather, Cotton, List of N. E. churches in 1696, 487 May, Samuel Joseph, gave bail for Pru- dence Crandall, 905 Mayo, Amory Dwight, on the common school, 899, 900; on education in Vir- ginia, 907, 908; on Jefferson's educational scheme, 913 Mead, E. H., architect, 461 Meadville Theological School Unitarian, 991 _ Meat inspection by experts, 547 ; science of, 548 Mechanical drawing an essential factor in industrial education, 766 Medical_ College of Philadelphia, 468; organized, 506, 507; requirements for admission at, 508 Medical Dept. of King's College organized, 507; discontinued, 507. See College of Physicians and Surgeons Medical lectures, First public, 506 Medical schools, Number of, 30; indepen- dence of the, 260; scholarships in, 477, 478; fees, 479; libraries, 479-80; endow- ments, 481; value of property, 482-83; gifts and bequests, 4S4; early, 506-8; no requirements for admission, 508; in- fluence of medical societies on, 508-1.2; teaching facilities in, 510-n; gradedsys- tem of instruction in, 516-17; and stu- dents in 1899, 517-19; hygiene and state medicine, 519-20; present tendencies, 520-21; early legislation 521-22; grad- uates must take licensing examinations, S22-25 Medical sects, 513-15 Medical societies, Influence of, on medical education, 508-12 Medical Society of the District of Columbia, 873 Medical students, Requirements of, recom- mended, 511-12 Medical women's colleges regular and ir- regular, 353114 _ Medicine, Preliminary education for license to practice, 471; apprenticeship system in study of, 506; results of licensing ex- aminations in, 508m; requirements for night to practise, 522-25 Medicine, Women students in, 353-54 Memphis, Corporal punishment in, 133 Men teachers, Average monthly salary of, vii, 102; number of, viii, 375n Mendenhall, Thomas Corwin, Scienti- fic, technical, and engineering education, 55I-9 2 Mentor, The, a periodical for the blind, 796 Methodist Episcopal Church, Educational history of the, 997-1000 Methodist Episcopal Church South, Schools of the, 1000 Methodists, First theological seminary of the, founded, 489-90, 491 1048 INDEX Methods of instruction in law schools, 497- 9 8 Methods of instruction in secondary sub- jects, 183-86; laboratories, 183-84; oral and written recitations, 184; study of literature, 185; Latin and Greek, 185 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 722 Michigan, Length of annual school session in, viii; kindergartens in, 42; kindergarten departments in normal schools, 73; grants of land to, 96; compulsory law in, 99; truants, 100; township supervision in, 100; employment of children, 100; school boards, 101; women county super- intendents in, 101; women may vote at school elections in, 102; district the unit in, 106; authorizes kindergartens, 112; gives local boards power of discipline, 133; a university established in, 151; opposition to secondary schools in, 159; school and college association in, 169; first teachers' institute in, 382; admission to bar in, 471-72; income from land grant, 639 Michigan School of Mines, 589 Michigan State Agricultural College opened, 609 Michigan State Normal College confers .degrees of Bachelor and Master of Ped- agogics, 372 Michigan, Supreme Court of, Decision of, in the Kalamazoo case, xx-xxi Middle states, Education in the, 362-63 Middlebury College founded by Congre- gationalists, 989 Middleton, Dr. Peter, dissected a human body for instruction in 1750, 506 Midwifery, 515-16 Migration of students, desirable, 311-12 Military science, Land-grant colleges to give instruction in, 612, 628 Mill, John Stuart, on the fatal belief of the American public, 405 Mill construction, 425-26, 454 Miller, Lewis, a founder of the Chautau- qua Institution, 843 Mills College, Organization of, 342 Milton, John, and the English academies, 148 Milwaukee, Kindergarten system in, 42; kindergarten work in Normal School, 73; corporal punishment in, 133 Milwaukee High School, Four year com- mercial course in, 675 Minerva, Colleges and universities includ- ed in, 330m Minifie, William, taught drawing in Bal- timore, 710-11 Minneapolis, Corporal punishment in, 133 Minnesota, Illiteracy in, ix; kindergartens in, 42; department for, in normal school, 73; grants of land to, 96; compulsory law in, 99; truants, 100; women county su- perintendents in, 101; women may hold any office of school management in, 102; may vote at school elections in, 102; township may be unit in, 106; or district, 106; corporal punishment allowed in, 133; courses of study for high schools of, 178-79; state system of high schools, 19S-99; income from land grant, 638; millage to University, 640 Missionary bodies, Work of, for the Indians, 943-45 . Mississippi, Illiteracy- in, ix; grants of land to, 96; school supervision in, 100; school trustees in, 101; county or district the unit in, 105-6; corporal punishment in, 133; seven normal schools in, 370; repu- diated bonds, 920 Missouri, Decision of Supreme Court of, on common schools, xxii Missouri, Grants of land to, 96, 639; women county superintendents in, 101; school unit in, 106 Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, 88q Mitchill, Samuel Latham, first professor of agriculture, 602 Mohonk Conference, Influence of, for the Indians, 942 Montana, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory law in, 99; women county superintendents in, 101; women may vote at school elec- tions in, 102; district the unit in, 106; corporal punishment in, 133 Montreal, Brothers of the Christian Schools in. 154 Moody, Dwight Lyman, established sum- mer conferences at Northfield, 834 Morais, Rev. Dr., proposed a Jewish semi- nary, 1007 Moral influence of secondary schools, 186- 88; personal influence of teachers, 186; music and history, 1S7; government, 187- 88; social life of the school, 188 Morality the ultimate end for which the State exists, xvi Morals and manners in elementary schools, in Moravian Theological Seminary, Bethle- hem, Pa., 1014 Moravians, Schools of the, 1006 Morrill, Justin Smith, Work of, for the land-grant colleges, 611-12; on the meaning of the Act, 613-14, 615; secures passage of second Act for endowment, 618 Morrison, Gilbert B., School architec- ture and hygiene, 409-64 Morton, Henry, first president of Stevens Institute, 567-68 Morton, Wm. Jennings, discoverer of anes- thetics, 527 Mosenthal Fellowship in Music at Colum- : bia, 303 Motherhood, A more enlightened and con- secrated, 35, 75-76 Moulton, Richard Green, University ex- tension lecturer, 854-55 INDEX IO49 Mt. Holyoke College, 33811; organization of, 340; closed preparatory department, 343 Mount Holyoke Seminary founded by Con- gregationalists, 990 Mount St. Mary's College, Emmetsburg, Md., Catholic, 980 Mowry, William Augustus, president of Martha's Vineyard Institute, 841 Muhlenberg, Henry A., Sr., on German Lutheran Seminary in Philadelphia, 986 Muhlenberg, Henry Melchior, bought ground for a theological seminary in Germantown, 986 Muhlenberg College, 987 Mulcaster, Richard, proposed a teachers' college, 395 _ Muscles of children easily trained, 39-40; in the kindergarten, 54, 57, 59, 66 Museums accessible to university students, 297; gifts for establishing, 303 Museums and other scientific institutions, 884-91; of societies and universities, 887 Music a field for the blind, 792 Music schools, 7 Nation, The, 881 National Academy of Design, 880 National Academy of Design, Schools of the, 721 National Academy of Sciences incorpo- rated, 867; adviser of the government, 868; membership and officers, 868-69 National Association of Dental Examiners, Efforts of the, 528-29; proposed uniform examinations, 530 National Association of Dental Faculties, Influence of the, 528, 529; subjects dis- . cussed by, 530 National Association of German Technolo- gists, 878 National board of agriculture, First move- ment for a, defeated, 603; recommended by Washington, 604 National Board of Health needed, 891 National Confederation of State Medical Examining and Licensing Boards, on standards of admission, 510 National Council of Jewish Women, 1007 National Deaf-mute College, 777 National Educational Association, Meet- ing of, at Boston, 830, 837; objects of the, 875-76 National Educational Association, Publi- cations of the, xiii-xiv N. E. A. Committee of Fifteen on Elemen- tary Education, on a large city school system, 14-15; on training of teachers, 190 N. E. A. Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies, Report of, 169-72; on courses of study, 170; correlation of studies, 171; requirements for admission, 172 N. E. A. Committee on College Entrance Requirements, Report of, 174-77; na- tional units or norms, 175; significant recommendations, 176-77 N. E. A. Committee on Elementary Course of Study, Report, 106-7; general pro- gram, 108 National Farmers' Alliance, 600 National Geographic Society, S73, 878 National government and education, v-vi, 22-25 National Library, The, 755; library of the Smithsonian Institution added to, 885 National University at Washington advo-~\ cated, 313; report of N. E. A. committee against, 3i3n National Zoological Park under the di- rection of the Smithsonian Institution, 8S5 National Zoological Park, Washington, D. C, 890 Nation's life, A, and a nation's government, xvi-xx Natural science in elementary schools, 111 Natural science, Journals of, 882 Natural science camp for boys, The first, at Canandaigua Lake, 825 Nature teaching in the rural schools, The Cornell attempt at, 633-37 Naval academy, National, 6 Nazareth Hall, the first normal school, es- tablished by the Moravians, 976 Nebraska, Illiteracy in, ix; has kindergar- ten dept. in Normal School, 73; grant of land to, 96; compulsory law in, 99; school boards, 101; women county super- intendents in, 102; women may vote at school elections in, 102; district the unit in, 106; millage for University, 640 Negro, Education of the (Booker T. Washington) 893-936: I. Introduction: Pres. McKinley on the national growth, 895-97. — II- Development of popular education, 897-901; the public school system of New England, 897-99; under Horace Mann and Henry Barnard, 900- 1; little done for the negro, 901. — III. Education of negroes before i860, 901- 7; slave code laws against teaching ne- groes, 902; clandestine schools, 902; zeal for instruction, 903; special law enacted in Conn, against a private colored school, 904-5; private schools in the North, 905- 6; change in public sentiment, 906-7. — IV. Public school education in the South after the War, 907-12; A. D. Mayo on, 907-8; revival through the South, 909; enrollment of white and negro children, 909-10; expenditure for both classes, 910; optimistic outlook, 911-12. — V. Ground work education in the South, 912-18; two prejudices overcome, 912-13; Jef- ferson's plans more than accomplished for both races, 913; government provi- sion through the Freedmen's Bureau, 914-16; teachers from the North, 916- i°5° INDEX 18. — VI. Bequests for southern education, 918-23; the American Missionary Assoc, 918-19; bequest of Daniel Hand, 919; the Peabody Education Fund, 919-22; the Slater Fund, 922. — VII. Present edu- cational status, 923-28; secondary and higher education provided for, 923-26; Hampton Institute, 926-27; Tuskegee Institute, 927-28; Table I, Common school statistics, 929; Table 2, Sixteen former slave states and D. C, 930; Table 3, Teachers and students in in- stitutions for the colored race, 931; Table 4, Classification of colored stu- dents by courses of study, 932; Table 5, Number of colored normal students and graduates, 933; Table 6, Colored pro- fessional students and graduates, 934; Table 7, Industrial training of colored students, 935; Table 8, Financial sum- mary of the 169 colored schools, 936 Nevada, Illiteracy in, ix Nevada, Grant of land to, 96; compulsory law in, 99; school trustees in, 101; dis- trict the unit in, 106 New departure in education in the public schools: The industrial movement, 932- 42 New England, Supply of schools in early, 361; sent out the Yankee schoolmaster, 364; men and women teachers from, settled in the South, 364-65; first school for deaf and dumb in, 771; development of common school system of, 897-901 New England and middle states, Separate college education in, 321; private colleges of the, slow to admit women, 326; of true college grade in, 33on New England Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools, 168-69 New England Asylum for the Blind incor- porated, 787 New England colonies maintained gram- mar schools, 145 New England states, School supervision by townships in, 100; school societies in, 122 New England teachers of the freedmen, The, 914, 916-18, 923 New Hampshire, Illiteracy in, ix; compul- sory law in, 99; truants, 100; employment of children, 100; school boards, 101; women hold school offices in, 102; women may vote at school elections in, 102; township may be unit in, 106; profes- sional licenses in, 471; lax statute for admission to the bar in, 501 New Haven, Corporal punishment in, 133; first Latin school in, 144 New Haven (Conn.) Hillhouse High School, Commercial course in the, 679-80 New Jersey, Length of annual school ses- sion in, x New Jersey, Kindergartens in, 42; depart- ments for, in normal schools, 73; com- pulsory law in, 99; truants, 100; employ- ment of children, 100; school trustees, 101; women on school boards in, 102; may vote at school elections, 102; town- ship the unit in, 105; authorizes manual training, 112; early schools in, 121; for- bids corporal punishment, 133; pension fund in all cities of, 134; professional licenses in, 471 New Jersey Experiment Station, 642; maintained by the State, 643 New Mexico, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory law in, 99; district the unit in, 106 New Mexico University coeducational, 325 New Orleans, School board of, 13; first city superintendent in, 124; corporal punishment in, 133 New York Academy of Sciences, 872 New York Chamber of Commerce, Report of Com. of, on establishing a commercial course at Columbia University, 697-99;. plan for the course, 698-99 New York City, Brothers of the Christian Schools in, 154 New York City, Pioneer kindergarten move- ment in, 36; most extensive provision for kindergartens in, 42; coeducation in, 103; the early Dutch schools in, 120; school societies in, 122; city superintendent in, 124; prohibits corporal punishment, 133; annuity and pension funds in, 134; man- ual training schools in, 181; has several normal or training schools,. 373-74; Pub- lic School No. 20, 432, pi. XIII, 437; Pub- lic School No. 165, 432-35, pi. X, 437; Free Lecture Courses, 855, 856, 858 New York City Hall, Belittling of, by high buildings, 758 New York College of Dentistry founded, 526-27 New York College of Pharmacy founded, 534 New York College of Veterinary Surgeons chartered, 543 New York (Colony), Admission to the bar in, 500 New York Free Academy (later College of the City of N. Y.) opened, 159 New York Free School Society, 122, 145 New York Historical Society, 879 New York Institution for the Blind in-* porated, 787 New York Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, 781; teachers sup- plied by, 784 New York Kindergarten Association, 37 New York Medical College and Hospital for Women, 518-19 New York Soc. for the Promotion of Agri- culture, 598, 602 New York (State) educational system centralized, vi; length of annual school session in, viii; illiteracy in, ix; cities in, contribute to support of country schools, 18; educational organization of, excep- INDEX IO51 tionally complete and elaborate, 20-21; Board of Regents, 20; powers of State Supt. in, 20; provision for kindergartens in, 42; in normal schools, 73; compulsory law in, 99; truants, 100; employment of children, 100; school trustees, 101; women county superintendents in, 102; women may vote at school elections in, 102; towns and districts as units, 106; authorizes industrial training, 112; and kindergartens, 112; had first state super- intendent, 124; gives local boards power of discipline, 133; the University and the Literature Fund, 150-51; service of the academies, 156; high schools in, 159; academic departments in the University, 160; «chool and college assoc. in, 169; secondary school teachers in, 190-1; twelve public normal schools in, 370; first teachers' institute was held in, 382; appropriated money for institutes, 382; requires attendance at institutes, 385- S6; a State School Library for Teachers, 401; legislation on school architecture in, 458; professional students in, 470-72; high standards demanded for degrees in, 472; admission to the bar in, 500-2; first dental law in, 531; leadership of, in veterinary education, 545-46; income from land grant, 638; Experiment Sta- tion maintained in part by the State, 643; school for deaf and dumb in, 771, 775; appropriation for University exten- sion, 853 New York State Agricultural College opened at Ovid Academy, 608 New York State Agricultural Society, Work of, for agricultural education, 606, 607 New York State Board of Regents, 20 New York State College of Forestry, 273 New York State Library School, 826 New York State Normal College gives pro- fessional work only, and confers degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy, 373 New York State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Authority vested in the, 20; established in 18 12, 28 New York State Veterinary College, 273 New York University, admits women to graduate work, 333; opens to summer students, 827 New York University School of Pedagogy, 379-98 New York Zoological Garden, Bronx Park, 890 Newark, Kindergarten system in, 42; first city superintendent in, 124 Newark, Coeducation in, 103 Newcomb, H. Sophie, see H. Sophie New- comb Memorial College Newnham College, Cambridge (Eng.) 346n4 Newspaper, The, extends average educa- tion, 81 Newton Street Girls' High School, Casts and busts procured for the, 739 Niel, Miss H. A., Kindergarten training school of, 72; postgraduate work at, 74 Nixon bill, The, for horticultural experi- ments in New York, 632 Non-Episcopal Methodist churches, Schools of the, 1001 Non-reservation boarding schools for In- dians, 952-53; superintendents responsi- ble to the Indian office, 952; the most successful, 953 Normal College of City of New York con- fers degrees, 372 Normal school and college buildings, 457- 58 Normal school at Lexington (Mass.) the first in the U. S., 82, 386, 371; founded through influence of Horace Mann, 124; at Bridgewater, 124, 368, 371; first in Conn., 124; Normal school students, Number of, 82, 377-78, 379; in colleges and universities, 379-80; in high schools and academies, 380 Normal schools, City public, having kinder- gartens, 73, 376; reasons for maintaining, 373; authorized by law in N. Y. State, 374 Normal schools, N. E. A. Report on, xiv; free, 6; excellent, 18; of New York State, 20; number of, 30, 82, 379; providing kin- dergarten instruction, 73, 376; increase of, 124-25; names of leading, 370; work in the Massachusetts schools, 371; the first were private, 374; statistics of, 377, 379. See also Training of teachers. I: Normal schools, 368-79 Normal schools of Prussia, Attendance at the, 378 Normal schools, see Training of teachers (B. A. Hinsdale) I, 368-79 North American Review, The, 881 North Carolina, Annual school session in, viii; illiteracy in, ix; expenditure for public education in, xi; individual productive capacity in, xi; the county system in, n; school supervision by districts in, 100; county the unit in, 105; or district, 106; corporal punishment allowed in, 133; seven normal schools in, 370; colonial statute relating to attorneys, 498-99 North Central Assoc, of Colleges and Preparatory Schools, 169 North-Central division of states, Students in universities of the, 18 North Dakota, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory law in, 99; employment of children, 100; women county superintendents in, 102; women may vote at school elections in, 102; township the unit in, 106; school and college association in, 169 Northfield, Mass., Summer conferences at, 834 Northwestern College, 1001 Norton, Charles Eliot, graduate lecturer at Harvard, 285 1052 INDEX Norton, John P., professor of agricultural chemistry at Yale College, 610 Nurses, Training schools for, 468ns Oberlin College, the first coeducational col- lege, 324 Oberlin College founded, 089 Observatories, Special, and at universities, 888 Occupations of college women, 358a Ogden School of Science, 275 Ohio, Kindergartens in, 42; department for, in normal school, 73; grant of swamp lands to, 96; compulsory law in, 99; em- ployment of children, 100; boards of education in, 101; women hold school offices in, 102; may vote at school elec- tions, 102; township the unit in, 105; authorizes kindergartens, 112; corporal punishment allowed in, 133; pension fund in all cities of, 134; high schools in, 159; school and college association in, 169; has no state normal school, 370; first teachers' institute held in, 382; appro- priated money for institutes, 382; millage for University, 640; education of de- fectives in, 771 Ohio Asylum for the Education of Idiotic and Imbecile Youth, 805; Supt. Doren on farm work for custodial cases, 809 Ohio College of Dental Surgery founded, 526 Ohio State University, admitted women, 325; opened Veterinary Dept., 544; Col- lege of Engineering at, 588 Ohio Teachers' Reading Circle, Organ- ization and management of the, 388-89 Ohio University, Athens, Summer instruc- tion at, 826 Oklahoma, Women county superintendents in, 102; district the unit in, 106 Omaha High School, Commercial instruc- tion in, 674-75 Oneida Institute, Course in agriculture at the, 606 Oral instruction in Germany, 87 Oral method, see English language method for the deaf and dumb Ordinance of 1787, 24 Oregon, Illiteracy in, ix Oregon, Home supply of students at col- leges in, xii; grant of land to, 96; com- pulsory law in, 99; women may hold any school office in, 102; may vote at school elections, 102; district the unit in, 106; authorizes kindergartens, 112 Organization and administration, Educa- tional (A. S. Draper) 3-31; early Eng- lish and Dutch influences, 3-5; govern-, ment encouragement of schools, 5; the State must provide for all, 6; parts of the U. S. educational system, 6-7 ; the school district, 7-9; the township system, 9-1 1; the county system, n; the city school systems, 12-17; declarations of N. E. A. Committee of Fifteen, 14-15; powers of city boards, 16-17; the states and the schools, 17-22; system developed by state authority, 18-19; the New York State Regents, 20; state aid, 21; compul- sory attendance, 22; the general govern- ment and education, 22-25; l an d rights and grants, 23-24; the Bureau of Educa- tion, 24-25; private institutions, 25-27; expert supervision, 27-29; conclusion: statistics and results, 30-31 Organization, Educational, in the U. S. (W. T. Harris) 94-106. See Elementary education. II. Organization, school, The local unit of, 105-6; the county, 105; town or town- ship, 105-6; district, 106 Organization, university, Problem of, un- settled, 305-9; different systems to meet different needs, 306-7; opposing views of function of the university, 307-8; too complicated, 308; relation to under- graduate and professional work, 308-10 Ormsby, Fulton B., on the kindergarten, 66 Orton, James, and field parties of students, 824 Osteopathy, 513-14 Oswego Normal School, Influence of, under Dr. E. A. Sheldon, 370 Otterbein University founded, 1002 Oxford University a congeries of colleges, 280; Colleges for women at, 346n4; sum- mer meetings for teachers at, 387; adopted University extension, 851 Oxford and Cambridge higher local exam- inations, Women at the, 343n2 Packard, Silas Sadler, The work of, 670- 73 Packard's Business College, 671-73 Packer, Asa, founder of Lehigh University, 565-66 Page, Miss, Kindergarten training school of, 72 Paine, Robert Treat, Gift of, to Harvard Astronomical Observatory, 304 Parker, Francis Wayland, 400; at Martha's Vineyard Institute, 841 Parsons, James Russell, Jr., Profes- sional education, 465-549 Parthenon of Athens followed in art build- ing at Nashville, Tenn., 757 Patent Office, Distribution of seeds by,. 604-5 Pathological Laboratory for New York State, 891 Patrons of Husbandry, The, 600 Pattengill, Henry R., on school grounds, etc. in Report, 460 Patton, R. B., student at a German uni- versity, 283 Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer, started pioneer kindergarten movement in Boston, 35- 36; gave lessons in drawing in Franklin. School, 710 INDEX !053 Peabody, George, giver of the Peabody Education Fund, 919-20 Peabody, Mary, published book on teaching drawing and reading, 710 Peabody Education Fund, 919-22 Peabody Normal College, Nashville, the literary department of the University of Nashville, 374-75 Peale, Rembrandt, Effort of, to promote training in drawing, 710 Peck, William Guy, Graduate course of, at Columbia, 285 Pedagogy, Courses in reported, 406; sum- mer schools of, 832-33 Penikese Island, L. Agassiz opened bio- logical laboratory on, 824, 837, 890 Penn, William, Charter of, called for public schools, 122 Pennsylvania, Educational policy of, vii; Kindergartens in, 42; departments for, in normal schools, 73; compulsory law in, 99; truants, 100; school directors, 101; women county superintendents in, 102; the school unit in, 106; authorizes in- dustrial training, 112; and kindergartens, 112; corporal punishment in, 133; sec- ondary schools in colony of, 144-45; g ave aid to colleges and academies, 152; recog- nized the service of academies, 156; thirteen normal schools in, 370; requires attendance at institutes, 384; professional licenses in, 471-72; school for deaf and dumb, 771, 776 Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, 8S0; School of the, 722 Pennsylvania College, the oldest Lutheran, 987 Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery founded, 526 Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind opened, 788 Pennsylvania State Agricultural Society, 610 Pennsylvania State College opened, 610; gives instruction in agriculture by corre- spondence and courses of home reading, 631-32; income from land grant, 638 Pensions and benefit associations, Teach- ers', 134 People's College, New York's share of land- grant secured for, 608; failure of, 60S-9 People's Institute in New York organized, 855; courses of lectures, 856, 858 People's University Extension Society of New York organized, 855 Periodical publications, Number of edu- cational, xiii Perkins, Charles Callahan, authority on fine arts, 715, 735, 738, 739-41, 743, 751 Perkins Institution for the Blind, The, 797; Laura Bridgman at, 798-800 Perry, Edward Delavan, The American university, 253-318 Persico, Grandiose sculptures by, 763 Pharmacy, Requirements for license to practise, 472; scholarships in schools of, 478; fees, 479; libraries, 479-80; endow- ments, 481; value of property, 482-83; early schools, 534; growth and number, 534-35; apprenticeship in, 535-36; pres- ent tendencies in teaching, 536-37; legislation on, 537-39; present require- ments for practise of, 539-42 Pharmacy, Women students in, 353-54 Philadelphia, School Board of, 13; kinder- garten system in, the most extensive pub- lic, 42; in Normal School of, 73; post- graduate work, 74; coeducation in, 103; earliest schools in, 122; school societies in, 122; first city superintendent in, 124; corporal punishment in, 133; aid and an- nuity associations in, 134; manual train- ing school in, 181; secondary education for girls in, 322m Se^ also Charitable School of Phila. Philadelphia Central High School estab- lished, 158; study-plan of Dept. of Com- merce in, 677-78 Philadelphia College of Pharmacy char- tered, 534 Philadelphia Dental College founded, 526 Philadelphia Model School on Bell and Lancaster system, 368, 374 Philadelphia School of Design for Women, 721 Philadelphia Soc. for the Promotion of Agriculture, the first organized, 597; work of, for agricultural education, 602-3 Philanthropy, northern, Results of, 914-28 Philbrick, John Dudley, on size of school rooms, 435; planned Latin-English High School of Boston, 438; introduced study of drawing in schools of Mass., 715, 735, 738, 743> 75i Phillips academies, Establishment of the, 149 Philological associations and societies, 880 Philology, Journals of, 884 Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, 873 Philosophical Society of Washington, 872, 873 Philosophische Fakultat, 254, 282 Philosophy and ethics, Summer schools of, 833-34 Philosophy, Journals of, 883 Physical culture in elementary schools, in Physical training for the blind, 792 Physical Training, Summer School in, at Harvard, 837 Physicians, Number of, in the colonies, 506-7; ratio of, to population, 518; earliest law relating to, passed by Vir- ginia, 521; New York and New Jersey on, 522; numerous societies of, 876 Physics, Journals of, 882 Physiology in elementary schools, in Physiology and pathology, Journals of, 882 Pickering, Edward Charles, director of the Harvard Observatory, 888 Pierce, Thomas May, Career of, 673-74 io54 INDEX Pittsburgh, School board of, 13; corporal punishment in, 133 Pittsburgh and Allegheny Free Kindergar- ten Association, 37; postgraduate work, 74 Pittsburgh Central High School, Commer- cial education in the, 675, 679 Playgrounds, Importance of, 437-38 Plenum chamber and extensions, 449-51 Plymouth (Mass.), First school in, 120 Political economy and sociology, Journals of, 883 Politics, The great issue between education and, 28-29 Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, Organi- zation of the, 572 Popular education, Place of, in the ideals of the American people, 113- 17; develop- ment of, 897-901 Popular Science Monthly begun, 880 Population of United States, vii Porter, Noah, Graduate course of, at Yale, 284 • Potter, Alonzo, favored teaching agricul- ture in the schools, 607 Poughkeepsie, Pension fund in, 134 Powers, Hiram, sculptor, 762 Pratt Institute, Kindergarten department at, 73; Trade school at, 590 Preparatory students, Number of, 30 Presbyterian and Reformed Churches, Work of, in education, 992-94 Presbyterian Board of Aid for Colleges and Academies, Work of the, 993-94 Presbyterian Church in the United States, The, in the South, 994-95 Princeton Theological Seminary founded, 489, 993, 1014 Princeton University, Experimental courses at, 213; graduates of, in the national life, 238; originally College of New Jersey, 242, 274; postgraduate courses at, 286; A. M. degree in course, 286; scholarships and fellowships at, 301; gifts to, 304; closed to women, ^^^, 351. See also Col- lege of New Jersey Printing house for embossed books, 793, 795 Printing machine for embossing braille, 794 Privatdozenten, a valuable feature of the German system, 311 Private aid to education, Munificent, xiv Private institutions, 25-27, 266-70 Private schools, Innumerable, 26; regulated by legislation, 27; and domestic instruc- tion in the middle states, 362 Problems, Some present university, 305- 13; organization, 305-7; conditions re- flected in, 306; true function of the uni- versity, 307-8; relation of graduate to undergraduate work, 308-10; Lehrfreiheit and Lernfreiheit, 311; migration of stu- dents, 311-12; graduate associations, 3*2-13 Proctor Academy, Andover, Unitarian, 991 Productive capacity, Average individual, in U. S. and in Mass., xi; in North Carolina, xi Professional and technical schools, Inde- pendence of the, 260 Professional courses, Length of, 475-76 Professional education (J. R. Parsons, Jr.) 465-549: 1. General, 467-85; au- thorities, 467; growth, 468-69; distribu- tion in 1S99, 469-70; varying standards, 470; preliminary general education for licenses, 471; for degrees, 472; entrance requirements, 473; professional students with college degrees, 473-74; length of courses, 475-76; university supervision 476-77; scholarships, 477-79; fees, 479 libraries, 479-80; endowments, 481 value of grounds and buildings, 482-83 property, receipts, and expenditures in 1898, 483; gifts and bequests, 484; women in, 484-85; power to confer degrees, 485. — 2. Theology, 486-94; schools, faculty and students, 486-87; early theological training, 487-88; rise of independent seminaries, 488-91; university relations, 491-92; present tendencies, 492-94. — 3. Law, 495-505; early law schools, 495; development of law schools since 1858, 495-97; salaries of teachers, 497; methods of instruction, 497-98; admission to the bar in colonial days, 498-500; after the Revolution, 500-2; present requirements, 502-5. — 4. Medicine, 506-25; appren- ticeship system, 506; first public medical lectures, 506; early medical schools, 506- 8; influence of medical societies, 508-12; teaching facilities and requirements for graduation, 510-12; medical sects, 513- 15; midwifery, 515-16; graded system of instruction, 516-17; schools and students in 1899, 517-19; hygiene and state medi- cine, 519-20; present tendencies, 520-21; early legislation, 521-22; present require- ments, 522-25. — 5. Dentistry, 526-33; independent dental schools, 526; dental departments, 527; growth, 527; discov- eries and inventions, 527-28; dental societies, 528-29; subjects discussed, 529- 31; legislation, 531; present requirements, 53 x -33- — 6 - Pharmacy, 534-42; early schools, 534; growth, 534-35; appren- ticeship, 535; present tendencies, 536- 37; legislation, 537-39; present require- ments, 539-42. — 7. Veterinary medicine, 543-49; early schools, 543-44; advances made by state schools, 544-45; require- ments of Amer. Assoc, 545; New York's leadership, 545-46; action in Mass., 546; higher standards, 546; army service, 546; workers in agricultural colleges and ex- periment stations, 546-47; municipal, state, and national veterinarians, 547; indications from literature, 547-48; field for educated veterinarians, 548-49; syn- opsis of requirements, 549 m INDEX I055 Professional education of women, 351-54; graduate instruction in the faculty of phi- losophy, 351-52; in theology, law, medi- cine, etc., 353-54 Professional legislation, Restrictive, 470 Professional schools, 7; chart showing rise of, 1765-1900, 467; under university su- pervision, 476-77 Professional schools and students, Distri- bution of, in '1899, 469-70 Professional students, Chart of growth in, 471; with college degrees, 473-74; divi- sion of, by sex, 485 Professional students and graduates, Col- ored^ 934 Professional summer schools, 833 Professional teachers demanded for graded schools, 82-83, I22 5 want of, weakest point in our school system, 404-5 Professions, Ratio of members of, to popu- lation, 470-71 Professors, university, Double work of, 260- 61, 295-96, 308; for graduate work only, 309-10; pinched in the matter of books and equipment, 616 Prospect Hill School for Girls, Greenfield, Mass., 991 Protestant Episcopal Church, School; founded by the, 982-85 Protestant Episcopal Commission for Work among the Colored People, 1010 Proudfoot and Bird, architects, 458 Providence, Coeducation in, 103; first city superintendent in, 124; corporal punish- ment in, 133; opened public high school, Provincial and Plenary Councils on paro- chial schools, 981 Prudential committees, title of local boards in Vermont, 101 Psychology, Journals of, 883 Public accounting made a profession, 474n2 Public buildings, Architecture and position of foreign, and in this country, 758-59 Public instruction, Daniel Webster on, x, 113, 115, 117; A continuous system of, 162-63 Public libraries, N. E. A. Report on relation of, to public schools, xiv; xix Public or common schools, Land given by general government for, 23-24, 95, 96 Public school enrollment, 79 Public school system, Notable decline in - efficiency of, 899 Public schools, see Elementary education; Secondary education; Art and industrial education; Schools, public Public speaking, a feature in Packard's Business College, 672 Publications of American universities, 297- 300 Pupils, Number of, on registers of common schools, vii, 30; in all the schools of the U. S., 79, 126-27; table of enrollment of, and school population, 128-29 Purdue, John, gave land for Purdue Uni- versity, 5S6 Purdue University the Indiana School of Technology, Schools and courses at, 586 Puritan immigrants of New England ab- horred art, 708 Purmont, Philemon, early schoolmaster of Boston, 120 Putnam, Mrs. Alice H., Testimony for kin- dergartens furnished by, 64-68 Quacks in New England, 5i4n2 Queen, The, vs. Cockerton, Decision in case of, xxii Queen's College, later Rutgers College, 362, 996 Race problem, The, in process of solution, 910 Radcliffe College, Harvard examinations the entrance examinations for, 343n2, 346; organization of, 347-48; least ap- proach to coeducation at, 350; graduate courses at, 35in2; Helen Keller entered, 803 Radiation, Direct and indirect, 413-14, 4i7> 423, 424-25, 429, 449 Railway, Effect of increase of, 80, 84; on urban population, 123 Randolph-Macon Woman's College, Or- ganization of, 341-42, 1000 Raymond, John Howard, in extension work, 855 Reading circles, 862-63 Reading in elementary schools, 109 Reading population, Political differences understood in a, 82 Reber, Louis E., Comparison of endow- ments and revenues of land-grant col- leges, 638-40, 648-51 Redemptioners bought as teachers, 363 Reformed Church in America, Schools of the, 996 Reformed Church in the United States, Schools of the, 996 Reformed Church Theological Seminary (Carlisle, Pa.) 489 Reformed Dutch Church, Theological Seminary of the, New Brunswick, N. J., 996, 1014 Reformed Presbyterian Church, The, 995 Regents, State Board of, in New York, 20. See also University of the State of New York Registers, Exit, for foul air, 414-16, 420, 422, 423, 449 Religion, Land rights for support of, 23 Religions, Membership of leading, 487 Religious and biblical conferences, Summer, 834 Religious life of undergraduates, 223 Religious organizations, Education through the agency of (W. H. Larrabee) 973- 1022: Religious motives in the higher education, 975-76, 978; elementary edu- 1056 INDEX cation the function of the State, 977-78 the Roman Catholic Church, 979-82 Protestant Episcopal Church, 982-85 the Lutheran Church, 985-88; the Con- gregational Church, 988-91; the Uni- tarian Church, 991-92; the Presbyterian and Reformed Churches, 992-97; the Methodist Episcopal Church, 997-1002; the Baptist Church, 1002-4; other re- ligious denominations, 1004-8; Freed- men's schools, 1009-10; foreign mission schools, 1010-11; character and relations of the denominational colleges, 1011-13; theological seminaries, 1013-16; statis- tics of denominational educational in- stitutions in the U. S., 1017, 1021; Tables, 1018-20, 1022 Religious teaching in the public schools, 977-78 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Found- ation of the, 556-58; courses in, 558 Research, training in methods of, Institu- tions for, 256, 257; gifts for furtherance of, 303-4 Reservation boarding schools for Indians, 947-52; success of kindergarten, 947- 48; superintendents under partisan In- dian Agents, 949-51; statistics, 951-52 Resident graduates, see Graduate work Residential halls, 281-82, 301 Responsibilities, Educational, of the states, appreciated, 21-22 Revolutionary War, Changes wrought by the, 5 Rhode Island, Length of annual school session in, viii; kindergarten department in normal school, 73; compulsory law in, 99; truants, 100; employment of children, 100; school committees, ior; women hold school offices in, 102; towns as units, 106; work of Henry Barnard in, 124, 901 Rhode Island colonies established schools, 120 Richardson, Henry Hobson, and the capitol at Albany, 760 Roads, National League for Good, 600 Roanoke College, 987 Robert Treat Paine Fellowship of Social Science, 303 Rochester, Kindergarten system in, 42; corporal punishment in, 133 Rockefeller, John D., founder of University of Chicago, 274; princely benefactor, 304 Rockford College, Organization of, 342 Roelandson, Adam, first Dutch school- master of New York, 1 20 Roeschlaub, Robert S., architect, 461 Rogers, Randolph, sculptor, 762 Rogers, William Barton, first president Mass. Institute of Technology, 559-61 Rolfe, William James, president of Mar- tha's Vineyard Institute, 841 Roman Catholic Church, The, and edu- cation, xiv, 979-82; institutions of higher learning, 980; parish schools, 980-81; a complete system of Catholic schools, 981; statistics, 982; first Theological School of, 980, 1014 Roman Catholic colleges and seminaries, 328-29, 332, S33 Roof playgrounds, 437-38 Rose, Chauncy, founder of Rose Polytech- nic Institute, 570-71 Rose Polytechnic Institute founded, 570- 71; courses and degrees, '571-72 Ross, Edward Alsworth, University ex- tension lecturer, 853 Royal Board of Agriculture established, 598 Ruffner, William Henry, the Horace Mann of the South, 908 Runkle, John D., 560; advocate of manual training, in; on the Strogonoff School exhibit, 732 Runyan, Mary D., head of Kindergarten Dept, Teachers College, 74 Rural schools, N. E. A. Report on, xiv; sessions of, 80, 122; have not professional teachers, 83; difficulties of the, 84-85, 88-91; grading in, 89; harsh discipline in, 92-93; a great moral force, 93-94; wages of teacher, 122 Ruskin, John, on material wealth, 760 Rutgers Female College, closed, 336n2 Sadler, Michael Ernest, on University ex- tension, 851 St. Hugh's Hall, Oxford (Eng.) 346n4 St. Joseph, Corporal punishment in, 133 St. Louis, The kindergarten in, 38-41, 42; teachers of first grade on, 63-64; first city superintendent in, 124; corporal punishment in, 133; benefit associations in, 134; pension fund, 134 St. Louis University established by the Jesuits, 980 St. Mary's College, Baltimore, Catholic, 980 St. Mary's Seminary (Baltimore) 489 St. Paul, Corporal punishment in, 133; benefit association in, 134 Salaries of common school teachers, viii; increase of, 79; expenditure for, 102 Salaries of teachers in law schools, 497 Salem (Mass.), First school in, 120 Salisbury, Edward Elbridge, Graduate course in oriental languages at Yale, 284 Salisbury, Stephen, a founder of the Wor- cester Polytechnic Institute, 562-63 Salisbury, Stephen, 3d, benefactor of Wor- cester Polytechnic Institute, 563-64 San Francisco, Coeducation in, 103; first city superintendent in, 124; corporal pun- ishment in, 133; benefit association and pension fund in, 134 San Francisco Art Association, 722 Sanitation, Bibliography of, 461-64 Sargent, Dudley Allen, Summer School of Physical Training at Harvard under, 837 Sauveur College of Languages established, 825 INDEX !°57 SchaefFer, Nathan C, valuable reports of, 460-61 Schiff, Jacob H., gave building for the Jewish Theological Seminary, 1007 Schiff Fellowship in Political Science, The, 3°3 Schlatter, Rev. Michael, Educational work of, 997 Schlee, Dr. E., on weakest point in the American school system, 404 Scholarships in professional schools, 477- Scholarships and fellowships, 301-2; dif- ferences between, 302-3 School, The work of the, 114-15; the ac- quirement of technique, 1 17-19 School affairs in larger cities, Gross mis- management and fraud in, 13-14 School age defined, viii; per cent of persons of, enrolled in common schools, vii, 79 School and college associations, 168-69 School architecture and hygiene (G. B. Morrison) 411-64: The necessary features of a schoolhouse, 411-12; the country schoolhouse, 412-19, pi. I— II; size and seating, 413; heating and venti- lating, 413-17; lighting, 417-19; the two-room building, 419-21, pi. III-IV; the three-room building, 421-23, pi. V; 24 plates, 422-23; the eight-room build- ing, 423-29, pi. VI-IX; the large city ward and grammar school, 429-38, pi. X-XIII: the high school building, 429-46, pi. XIV-XVIII; the manual training high school, 446-55; pi. XIX- XXI; closets, 455-57, pi. XXIV; normal school and college buildings, 457-58; in- fluence of legislation on school architec- ture, 458-60; work of school supervisors and architects, 460-61; bibliography of school architecture and sanitation, 461- 64 School boards, Various titles of, 101; duties of, 101 School committees in Mass. and Rhode Island, 101 School directors in towns and districts, 101 School district, The, 7-9, 122 School district system denounced by Horace Mann, 123-24 School funds, sectarian division of, States prohibiting and allowing, 104-5 Schoolhouse, The, epitomizes the educa- tional situation, 411; necessary features of, 411; ends sought hygienic, economic, and mechanical, 411-12; seating, 413; heating and ventilating, 413-17; chimney, 414; exit registers, 414-16; open fireplace, 416-17; lighting, 417-19 School instruction, Average amount of per capita in the U. S., viii, 80, 139; defini- tion of, 88 School of Applied Ethics at Greenacre, 833 School of Applied Ethics at Plymouth, Mass., 833 School of Comparative Religions at Elliot, Me., 826 School of Engineering, Columbia Univer-' sity, Courses in, 580 School of Medicine of Univ. of Md. organ- ized, 507. School of Mines at Freiburg, 554 School of Mines of Columbia College es- tablished, 578; object and organization, 579-80 School of Mines, University of Minnesota, 588-89 School of Pure Science, Columbia Univer- sity, Courses in, 580 School period, Average, per inhabitant, xi, 80 Schoolroom, Ideal size of, 435 School session, Length of annual, viii, 30, 80, 103 School societies founded schools, 122, 145 School supervisions and architects, Work of, 460-61 School system, The American, supported wholly by taxation,' xx, 6, 17; develop- ment of, 18; a state system, 22; a few facts touching, 30-31; doing efficient work, 31; general survey of, 79-94; great- est good accomplished by the, 81 School term, Increase in length of, 79, 82 School trustees in towns and districts, ior School visitors in Connecticut, 101 School year, see School session Schooling, Average total amount of, viiL 80; tables of, 139 Schoolmaster, Duties required of an early Puritan, 362 Schools, Private, for education of negroes,, 905-6 Schools, public, Provision and supervision of, a sovereign power retained by the states, xix, 17-18; state authority an ad- vantage to, 18-19; aid for, from state, 21; spirit of American, 29; historical begin- ning of, 117-25; colonial schools, 120-21; district schools, 122; graded schools, 122— 23; Horace Mann, 123-24; Henry Bar- nard, 124; normal schools, 124-25; sta- tistics, 126-32, 139; text-books, 135-38; must be provided for the people, 367-68- Schools of art in 1874, 721-22 Schools of design in 1874, 721 Schools of methods in Boston and Evans- ton, 825-26 Schools of technology and agriculture, Women students in, 353-54 Schools supported by the general govern- ment, 96 Science established, 881 Science, pure and applied, Courses and degrees in schools of, 590; requirements for admission, 590-91; discipline and culture in, 592 Sciences, All the leading, have national or- ganizations, 878 Scientific journals, 880-84 io 5 8 INDEX Scientific societies and associations (J. McK. Cattell) 865-91: Societies and academies, 867-80; National Academy of Sciences, 867-69; Amer. Assoc, for the Advancement of Science, 869-70; Amer. Philosophical Soc, 870-71; Amer. Acad- emy of Arts and Sciences, 871-72; New York Academy of Sciences, 872; the Phil- osophical Soc, 872-73; miscellaneous societies, 873-75, 876-80; National Edu- cational Assoc, 875-76; Journals, 880- 84; Museums and other institutions, 884- 91: Smithsonian Institution, 884-86; U. S. National Museum, S86; Amer. Museum of Natural History, 886; Brooklyn In- stitute of Arts and Sciences, 886-87; the Field Columbian Museum, 887; astro- nomical observatories, 887-88; botanical gardens, 889-90; zoological societies and parks, 890; biological laboratories, 890-91 Scientific societies, Local, in many cities, 873-75 Scientific, technical, and engineering edu- cation (T. C. Mendenhall) 551-92: Development of schools, 553; earliest schools, 554; three groups: independent, affiliated, state supported, 555: Rensse- laer Polytechnic Institute, 556-58; Mass- achusetts Institute of Technology, 558— 62; Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 562- 65; Lehigh University, 565-66; Stevens Institute of Technology, 566-68; Case School of Applied Science, 568-70; Rose Polytechnic Institute, 570-72; Polytech- nic Institute of Brooklyn, 572; Armour Institute of Technology, 572-74; Second group: Sheffield Scientific School, 574- 75; Lawrence Scientific School, 575-77; Chandler School of Science, 577; Thayer School of Civil Engineering, 578; School of Mines of Columbia College, 578-81; Towne Scientific School, 581; John C. Green School of Science, 581-82; Union College, 582; Washington University, 582; University of Cincinnati, 582-83; University of California, 583; Leland Stanford, Junior, University, 583; Col- lege of Technology of Tulane University, 583-84; Vanderbilt University, 584; Third group: Sibley College of Mechan- ical Engineering and the Mechanic Arts, 584-85; College of Civil Engineering, 585; University of Michigan, 585-86; Purdue University, 586; University of Wisconsin, 587; University of Illinois, " 587-88; Ohio State University, 588; University of Minnesota, 588-89; Uni- versity of Tennessee, 589; State College of Pennsylvania, 589; Michigan School of Mines, 589; Colorado School of Mines, 589; Pratt Institute, 590; Drexel Insti- tute, 590; courses and degrees, 590; re- quirements for admission, 590-91; Johns Hopkins University, 591; object of, 59 1 - 02 Scotch-Irish race furnished numbers of teachers, 364 Scottish universities, The, fostered Univer- sity extension in North Britain, 851 Sears, Barnes, first general agent of Pea- body Education Fund, 920-21; J. M. L. Curry on, 921 Seat, The single, 413 Seaver, Edwin Pliny, Circular on kinder- gartens, 44-45; letter on obstacles to kin- dergartens, 61-63 Secondary and higher education of the negro, Schools for the, 924-28 Secondary education (E. E. Brown) 143- 205: Three types of, 143; the beginnings, 144-46; colonial schools, 146-47; a time of transition, 147-48; the academies, 148- 50; state systems, 150-52, 191-99; char- acter of the academies, 153-56; the high school movement, 156-60; the old and the new, 161-62; a continuous system of public instruction, 162-63; tne schools and the colleges, 163-65; the accrediting system, 165-68; school and college asso- ciations, 168-69; Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies, 169-72; the elective system, 172-74; college entrance requirements, 174-77; courses of study, 170, 177-79; differentiation of schools, 179-82; the study of adolescence, 182- 83; methods of instruction, 183-86; moral values, 186-88; students, 188-89; teach- ers, 190-91; tables of statistics, 202-4; selected bibliography, 204-5; effects of general, on industrial progress, 32 2n2; increasingly in the hands of women, 323 Secondary education, Public, xi-xii Secondary pupils, Number of, 30 Secondary school studies, N. E. A. Report on, xiv Secondary school teachers, Scholarship re- quired of, 190-91; women as, 323 Secondary schools, private, Decrease of pupils at, xii Secondary schools, Public, seldom regulated by law, vii; number of, xi; in every con- siderable town, 6; first step in establish- ment of, 157; well ordered systems of, 160; connection with the colleges, 163- 65; the accrediting system, 165-68; courses of study in, 169-72; independ- ence of the, 173; state systems of, 191- 99; of Massachusetts, 191-92; of New York, 192-93; of Maryland, 194; of Indi- ana, 194-96; of Wisconsin, 196-98; of Minnesota, 198-99; tables of statistics of, 200-4 Sectarian differences, Disturbing influence of, 147-48 Sectarian division of school funds, States prohibiting and allowing, 104-5 Seed distribution by government, Begin- ning of,^ 604-5 Sequin, Edouard, and the feeble-minded, INDEX !°59 Seixas, — , taught deaf pupils in Philadel- phia, 776 Seminar methods widely used, 296 Seminaries or universities, Government land given for, 23, 95 Seminaries, Private, 25-26 Seminary of the Moravians at Bethlehem, Pa., the oldest school for women in America, 976 Seminary of the Reformed Dutch Church, 488-89 Semitic Museum, The, at Cambridge (Mass.), 303 Sentimentalism non-existent in the kinder- garten, 69-70 Separate education, Women have shown a preference for, 335 Sergeant, Rev. John, Work of, for the Indians at Stockbridge, 941 Seventh-Day Baptist Church, Schools of, • 1004 Seward, William Henry, a schoolmaster in Georgia, 364; favored agricultural studies in schools, 607 Sewell, William, of Exeter College, Oxford, proposed University extension, 850 Shakespeare clubs and societies, Numerous, 880 Shaw, Henry, Bequest of, for Missouri Botanical Garden, 889 Shaw, Hudson, University extension lec- turer, 855 Shaw, Mrs. Quincy A., supported free kindergartens in Boston, 36, 61 Sheep, First Spanish Merino, imported, 599 Sheffield, Joseph E., founder of Sheffield Scientific School, 574 Sheffield Scientific School, 269, 284; organ- ized, 574, 610; courses and degrees, 574- 75; agricultural experimental work at, 641 Sheldon, Dr. E. A., founder of the Oswego Normal School, 370 Shinnecock Summer School of Art, 825; William M. Chase at, 835 Shippen, Dr. Wm., gave lectures on anat- omy in 1762, 506 Sibley, Hiram, established College of Engi- neering at Cornell University, 584-85 Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering and the Mechanic Arts established, 273, 584-85 Silliman, Benjamin, Graduate course in chemistry of, at Yale, 2S4 Sinclair, Sir John, first president of Royal Board of Agriculture, 598 Singing in elementary schools, 111 Skinner, Charles R., "Recent school archi- tecture," 460 Slater, John Fox, created trust fund for education of negroes, 905, 922 Slave system, Policy of the, toward edu- cation of the negro, 901-4; change in South after defeat of, 908-13 Sloyd especially adapted to the blind, 791 Smith, Rev. John, directed studies of Presbyterian students for the ministry, 1014 Smith, Walter, and drawing in the Boston schools, 709; abilities of, 713; made art director of Mass. schools, 715, 720, 735, 736, 739; work on Art education, 720m; work of, 742, 743, 751, 766; resignation of, 745 Smith College, one of the largest, 337; or- ganization of, 339; accomplishment courses at, 342; no special students at, 343; accepts entrance certificates, 343n2; discipline at, 345 Smithson, James, founder of the Smith- sonian Institution, 884 Smithsonian Institution at Washington, 884-86; gift of T. G. Hodgkin to, 886; influence of, on the government, 884; li- brary of, transferred to Library of Con- gress, 885; objects and publications, 885-86; funds of the, 886 Snyder, C. B. J., architect of Public School No. 165 New York City, 433 Social conditions, Colonial, 146; later, 147; transformed, 162-63 Social life of the school, 188 Social organization among students, 188-89 Society for Promoting Agriculture in Conn., 598 Society for Promoting Theological Educa- tion, Boston, 991-92 Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women organized the Harvard Annex, 347m Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, Schools founded by the, 983 Society of Jesus founded secondary and higher institutions, 154 Soldan, Frank Louis, at Martha's Vine- yard Institute, 841 Somerville Hall, Oxford (Eng.), 346n4 Soper Summer School of Oratory, Chicago, 825 South Carolina, Illiteracy in, ix; school trustees in, 101; district the unit in, 106 South Carolina University, admitted women, 325 South Dakota, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory law in, 99; employment of children, 100; women county superintendents in, 102; women may hold any school office in 102; may vote at school elections, 102; town- ship the unit in, 106; corporal punish- ment in, 133; school and college associ- ation in, 169 South Kensington Institution, 715 Southern states, Teachers imported and bought in, 363, 364; revival of public school education in the, 907-n; preju- dices of, thrown aside, 912-13; ground- work education in the, 912-18; govern- mental and philanthropic aid from the North, 914-18; bequests for education in the, 918-23 io6o INDEX Southern Workman, The, Extract from, on the New England teachers of the freed- men, 916-18 Sparks, Edwin E., in extension work, 855 Special students in women's colleges, 341, 343 Specialized summer schools, S33-36 Spelling in elementary schools, 109 Spontaneity the keynote of education in the U. S., v Sprague, Homer Baxter, a founder of Martha's Vineyard Summer Institute, 841 Springfield (Mass.) High School described, pi. XIV-XVIII, 442-46 Stairs, Standard requirements for, 454-5 5 Stanford, Leland, benefactor of Leland Stanford, Jr., University, 304 State, The, claims no monopoly in educa- tion, vi; and the government, xv-xx; pub- lic education the function of the, 977 State Agricultural College of Michigan the first to be established, 609 State Board of Education, 20 State College of Pennsylvania, Science courses at, 589 State common school systems, Table of statistics of, 131-32 State inspection and supervision, vi-vii, xviii-xix State Medical Society of N. J. organized, 5°7 State medicine, C. W. Eliot on, 519-20 State school commissioner, 20 State school funds, 18; sectarian division of, 104-5 State superintendent of public instruction, 19-20; powers of the, in New York State, 20; the first, 27-28; women holding posi- tion of, 101 State systems of secondary education, 150- 52; demand for, 156-60 State universities, Free, xix, 6; in twenty- nine states, 276; list of states, 276; sources of income, 276-77; free to all, 277; at head of educational system of each state, 277; governed by boards of regents, 277; political control of some, 277-78; most successful: Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and California, 278; examples: University of Wisconsin, 278-79; University of California, 279-80 States, The, and the schools, 17-22; pro- vision and supervision of schools a sovereign power retained by, 17-18; state authority has developed system, 18-19; legislation by, 19; tendency toward centralization, 21; aid from, 21; responsibilities of, 21-22; assumed func- tions of government touching education, 23, 977; the high school movement, 156- 60 Statistics, common school, of the U. S., Table of, 79-80, 126-29, 130 Statistics of average schooling per inhabi- tant, 139 Statistics of colleges, 239-41 Statistics of commercial education, 657m, 692, 701-3 Statistics of denominational educational in- stitutions, 1017-22 Statistics of education of the Indian, 951, 965-72 Statistics of education of women, 327-33, 353, 35Sbn 2 Statistics of graduate students, 31, 314-15 Statistics of kindergartens, 42 Statistics of land grants, 95 Statistics of manual training, 747-49 Statistics of normal schools, 377, 379 Statistics of Ph. D. degrees, 296 Statistics of professional education, 468, 469, 471, 474-77> 479- 8 7. 5 I 7.- I 8,_534 Statistics of public education, vii-viii, 126- 32, 138 Statistics of schools for defective classes, 815-19 Statistics of secondary schools, 200-4 Statistics of state common school systems, Table of, 131-32 Statistics of summer schools, 827-29, 839- 40 Statistics of the land-grant colleges, 637-40, 646-51 Statistics of the public school system in the southern states, 909-10, 929-36 Statistics of university extension, 856-58 Steam plant vs. furnace, 424, 425 Steamboat propelled by twin screws, The first, 567 Stevens, Edwin Augustus, founder of Stevens Institute, 366-67 Stevens, John, engineer, 566-67 Stevens, Robert Livingston, built first iron- clad vessel, 567 Stevens Institute of Technology opened, 566; founders, 566-67; organization and courses, 568 Stiles, Ezra, on New England college men, ■ 238 Stock interests, Associations for the, 600 Stove, Place and function of the school- room, 413-14, 419, 421; the furnace, 420 Street child, The, 41, 57 Strogonoff School, Work in metals of the, shown at the Centennial, 732 Stuart, James, introduced written papers and the "after class" idea into University extension, 850 Student life, Democratic character of, 222- 23; picture of a student's career, 229-35? expenses, 237 Student self-government, 222 Students in commercial courses, 657m, 702, 703 Students in secondary schools, 188-89 Study and instruction, Methods of uni- versity, 295-96 Study of education, The, xxiv Sullivan, Annie M., teacher of Helen Keller, 801-3 INDEX I06l Summer excursions of university professors and students, 824 Summer institutes, Spread of, 825 Summer school for teachers, The, 386-87; Chautauqua type, 386; at normal schools, colleges, and universities, 386-87; by private associations, 387 Summer School of the South, 841-42 Summer schools and University extension (G. E. Vincent) 821-64D: Origin of summer schools, 823-24; growth of, 824- 27; statistics of, 827-30; registration at universities, 829; tuition fees and ex- penses, 830; classification of, 831-36; academic, 831-32; of Pedagogy, 832-33; specialized, 833-34; of Art, Music, Ex- pression, 834-35; popular classes and lectures, 835-36; typical schools, 836-45: Harvard Summer School, 837-39; Uni- versity of Chicago, 839-40; Martha's Vineyard, 840-4]*; Summer School of the South, 841-42; Marine Biological Labo- ratory, 842-43; Chautauqua Institution, 843-45; the theory of, 845-47; the future of, 847-49; bibliography, 864b. See Uni- versity extension Summer schools for research, 833 Summer students, Registration of, in cer- tain universities, 829 Summer teachers' institutes, 385 Summer teaching, Centers for, multiplied, 826 Summer Theological Seminary opened at Newburgh, N. Y., 826 Superintendent of public instruction in each state, 101; various titles of, 101; began with New York, 124; 44 states have, 124 Superintendent of public schools in 836 cities, 101; began with Buffalo, 124 Superintendents, 27-28; held responsible for the quality of teaching, 28-29; salaries of, 102 Superintending school committees in Maine, 101 Supervision, Expert, 27-29; statistics of, 100-1 Supervisors of kindergartens should be specially qualified, 70 Susan Linn Sage Fellowships in Philosophy at Cornell, 303 Sutherland, Mrs. Elizabeth Huntington, on kindergarten children, 66 Swamp lands, Special grants of, 96 Sweden, Education common in, before 1650, 120 Sweetser, Rev. Dr. Seth, and the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 562 Swensson, Carl Aaron, on the Lutheran Church and education, 985 Svkes, Frederick Henry, University exten- sion lecturer, 855; in charge of extension at Teachers College, 861 Syllabus, Regents', for business schools, 665-68: Advanced bookkeeping, 665; business arithmetic, 666; commercial law, 666; commercial geography and history of commerce, 666-67; business practice and office methods, 667; business English, 668 Symonds, Miss, Kindergarten training school of, 72 Synod of the Associated Reformed Church, 995; opened a theological seminary, 1014 Synodical Conference, Schools of the, 987 Syracuse prohibits corporal punishment, *33 Syracuse Medical School adopted graded system, 516 Syracuse University College of Fine Arts, 721 System of schools, Parts of the great, 6-7 Tangible writable system, A, for the blind, 793-94 Tax supported education, Unlimited power of the people to provide, xx-xxii Tax-supported schools not charity schools, xxii-xxiv Taxation for public instruction, Daniel Webster on, x-xi; amount raised, 30 Taylor, Joseph W., founder of Bryn Mawr, 339 Teachers, Number of vii, 30, 376; average monthly salary of, viii, 79; examination and certification of, 20, 28, 190; all must be upon the merit basis, 28; advancement of, 29; four groups of, in early 19th century, 365-66; average length of pro- fessional career of, 377n; examining boards, 401-2; report on, 402-4 Teachers, professionally trained, Introduc- tion of, 82-83; demand for, 122; supply of, from normal schools, one-sixth of de- mand, 125; trained in academies, 156; in universities, 307; Com. of Fifteen on, 190. See also Training of teachers Teachers, School of Methods for, see Sum- mer School of the South, 841-42 Teachers College (N. Y.), Kindergarten Department at, 73; postgraduate work at, 74; affiliated with Columbia University, 270; organization of, 396; courses and degrees given, 397; the building, 457; offers University extension courses. 855, 856 Teachers' colleges, 395-400; Richard Mul- caster on a, 395; S. S. Laurie on a, 395- 96; F. A. P. Barnard urged for, 396; Teachers College organized, 396; courses at, 397; New York University School of Pedagogy, 397-98; Clark University, 398 -99; the University of Chicago, 399-400; Univ. of Wisconsin School of Education, 400 Teachers' institutes, 20, 28, 823; as summer schools, 826. See also Training of teachers (B. A. Hinsdale) TIL 382-86 Teachers' pensions and benefit associations, 134 1062 INDEX Teacher's platform, Position of, 417-18, 4 21 . Teachers' reading circles originated by Mrs. D. L. Williams, 388; Ohio Teach- ers' Reading Circle organized, 389; management of, 3S9-90; success of Indiana Teachers' Reading Circle, 390; full list of books used, 390-91 Teachers' salaries, Average monthly, x, 79, 102 Teachers' training classes, see Training of teachers (B. A. Hinsdale) II. 379-82 Teachers' training schools in Mass., N. C, and Col., 826 Teaching, School superintendents held re- sponsible for quality of, 28-29 Technical schools, see Scientific, technical, and engineering education, 553-92 Technical schools of science few in number, 7 6 5 Technical schools should be separated from universities, 309 Technical science, Societies of, 877-79 Technical trade schools, 750 Tekniker Verein of Washington, 878 Tendencies in American education, xxiv Tennessee, Illiteracy in, ix; school directors in, 101; women county superintendents in, 102; county the unit in, 105; or dis- trict, 106; school and college association in, 169 Tennessee, Legislature of, on higher edu- cation, 152 Tennessee Experiment Station, 642 Texas, School supervision by districts in, 100; school trustees, 101; school organi- zation in, 106 Text-book instruction vs. oral instruction, 86-87 Text-books, States not supplying free, 135- 36; states authorizing free supply of, 136- 38; less use of, 184-85 Thayer, Gen. Sylvanus, father of U. S. Military Academy, 578 Thayer School of Civil Engineering at Dartmouth College, 578 Theological schools, Scholarships in, 477; fees, 479; libraries, 479-80; endowments, 481; value of property, 482-83; gifts and bequests, 484; number, denomination, faculty, and students of, 30, 486-87, 490; early training and independent semi- naries, 4S7-91; university relations, 491- 92; present tendencies, 492-94 Theological seminaries, 1013-16; object of, 1015; relations of, to governing bodies of denominations, 1016 Theological Seminary, Gettysburg, found- ed, 987 Theological Seminary in Baltimore, Catho- lic, 980, 1014 Theological Seminary of the Assoc. Presby- terian Church of N. A., 489 Theological Seminary of the United Synod, South, 987 Theological Seminary of United Presby- terian Church, at Xenia, 1014 Theological students in 1899, 486 Theology, Women students in, 353-54 Thomas, Martha Carey, Education of women, 3ig-58d Thompson, Charles Oliver, first president of Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 563; and of Rose Polytechnic Institute, 571 Thornton, Dr., suggested agricultural fair at Washington, D. C, 598-99 Thousand Island Park, Institute for teachers at, 826 Thurston, Robert Henry, professor at Stevens Institute, 568 Thwing, Charles F., on work for degree of LL. B., 496 Toledo, Corporal punishment in, 133; manual training school in, 181 Towne Scientific School of the University of Pennsylvania, 264,«58i Township system, The, 9-1 1, 105-6 Township, government, One lot in each, reserved for maintenance of schools, 23; two given to each state for founding a uni- versity, 23-24 Townships authorized to use funds for schools, 5-6; larger units of school gov- ernment, 10 Toys, traditional, Froebel's modification of, 71 Trade schools, in the largest cities, 181; success of, 590 Training of teachers, The (B. A. Hinsdale) 359-407: Agencies for, 361; before the revival, 361; in New England, 361-62; in the middle states, 362-63; at the south, 363-64; the Yankee schoolmaster and schoolmistress abroad, 364-65; four grades of teachers in early 19th century, 365-66; education of women neglected, 366; work of colleges and academies, 366-67; educational needs, 367; call of the democratic spirit for better teachers, 367-68. — I. Normal schools, 368-79: The Bell and Lancaster model school in Philadelphia, 368; three normal schools in Mass., 36S; plan and course of study, 368-69; private and public support, 369; general introduction of normal schools, 370; names of leading, 370; what and how much are students in doing, 371-79; courses in Mass. schools, 371; Bridge- water, 371; other state normal schools, 372; colleges conferring degrees, 372-73; Michigan, 372; Normal College of City of New York, 372-73; N. Y. State Nor- mal at Albany, 373; city training schools, 373; general law in New York author- izing, 374; private normal schools, 374- 75; the Peabody Normal College, 374- 75; kindergarten and manual training, 376; fall far short of supplying teachers needed, 376-77; statistics, 377; increased enrollment in, 378; compared with the INDEX 1063 German schools, 378-79; some author- ities on, 37am — II. Teachers' training classes, 379-82: Students in teachers' courses, 379; in colleges and universities, 379-80; in high schools and academies, 380-81; provision of New York law, 381; admission and instruction, 381-82. — III. Teachers' institutes, 382-86: Earliest were voluntary, 382; provided for by law, 382-83; of various types; the country, 383; for general and special preparation of teachers, 383-84; definition of, 384; at- tendance required in Pa. and N. Y., 384; attendance at, 385; institute instructors, 385; summer institutes, 385; advantages of, 386. — IV. The summer school for teachers, 386-87: Chautauquas, 386; at normal schools, colleges and universities, 386-87; private associations, 387. — V. University extension courses, 388. — VI. Teachers' reading circles, 388-91: Origi- nated in Ohio, 388-89; the Indiana Circle, 389-91; list of books read, 390- 91. — VII. Chairs of education in colleges and universities, 391-95: First efforts at Brown and Antioch, 392; at Univ. of Michigan by Pres. Angell, 392-95; pur- pose and courses of instruction, 393-94; at other state universities, 394; courses elective, 394-95. — VIII. Teachers' col- leges, 395-400: Teachers College of Co- lumbia, 396-97; courses and degrees offered, 397; N. Y. Univ. School of Pedagogy, 397-98; Clark University, 398-99; at Univ. of Chicago, 399-400; Univ. of Wisconsin, 400. — Associations, societies, institutes, and clubs for teach- ers, 400-1; teachers' libraries, 401; certi- fication of teachers, 401-2; of college and university graduates as teachers, 402-3; required study of education, 403-4; growth of education, 404; its greatest defect, 404-5; additional authorities, 406-7; in summer schools, 823, 841-42 Training School for Feeble-minded Chil- dren, Philadelphia, 805 Training schools for kindergartners, 72- 73; postgraduate work in, 74 Training schools for teachers, Free, 6 Trelease, William, director of Missouri Botanical Garden, 889 Trinity Church relegated to comparative obscurity, 758, 759 Trinity College, Hartford, founded, 984 Trinity College, Washington (D. C.) a Roman Catholic college for women, 342 Trinity School in New York established, 9 8 3 , ^ Troy Female Seminary, opened by Emma Willard, 33811 Truant law in Massachusetts, 97 Truant schools, 100 True, A. C, Popular education for the farmer, 633-37 True, Clarence, architect, 458 Trumbull, John, artist, 762, 763 Tufts College opened to women, 326 Tuition fees in business colleges, 669; and expenses of summer students, 830 Tuition in professional schools, 479; free, in the highest schools of learning, 615, 616 Tulane University, 274; closed to women, 329; Dept. of Pharmacy at, 534; College of Technology, 583 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, 927-28 Tyndall, John, founder of fellowships, 302, 3°3 Tyndall Fellowship, The, at Columbia, 303 Typewriter for writing Braille, 794 Undergraduate organizations, 233 Union College, Scientific courses at, 582; founded by cooperation of several re- ligious denominations, 976, 996 Union of American Hebrew Congregations, 1006 Union Theological Seminary in many respects a real university faculty, 310; re- lations of, with Columbia, 310, 492 Unit of school organization, The, local, 97, 105-6 Unitarian Church, The, zealous in promot- ing education, 991-92 Unitarian Education Society of New Hamp- shire, 991 United Brethren Church, Schools of the, 1002 United Presbyterian Church, The, 995 United States, Gifts of the, to the several * states to encourage schools, 23-24, 95-96 United States Bureau of Animal Industry, Work of the, 547 United States Bureau of Education, Func- tions of, wholly advisory, v; work of the, 24-25; voluntary correspondents of, 31; statistics of kindergartens, 42; annual reports of commissioner, 316; efforts of, to collect statistics of commercial educa- tion, 655-56; 657m, 659, 701-3 United States Commissioner of Education, Annual reports of, xiv United States Department of Agriculture, Beginnings of the, 603-5 U. S. National Museum under the Smith- sonian Institution, 8S5, 886 U. S. Naval Academy at Annapolis, 96 U. S. Naval Observatory, 888 U. S. school system, see School system, The American United States Treasury, Surplus funds in the, distributed to the several states, 24, 96 Universalists, Schools of the, 1005 Universities, American, xii-xiii; different from foreign, xiii, 280-82; leading and privately endowed, 7; unconnected with colleges, 257-60; united with colleges and professional schools, 260-75; the State, 276-80 1064 INDEX Universities, Great state, parts of state school systems, 18 Universities, Number of colleges and, 30, 240; list of, in chronological order, 241-49 Universities, The medieval, of Europe, 281 Universities, The older real, have grown up around colleges, 241-42 Universities having departments of agri- culture and engineering, 619-20; require- ments for admission, 621; courses of study, 621-28; military instruction in, 628 University, Definition of a, xiii; land rights for support of a, 23, 95 University, Relation of the, to the college, 253; the names worthless, 254; in com- plex institutions the title theoretically equivalent to the German, 260; the use of the title, 329^. See also American university, The University extension (G. E. Vincent) 849- 64b: In England, 849-52; features of, 850-51; in the United States, 852-56; conditions required for, 855-56; statistics, 856-59; courses and audiences in, 856- 57; finances, 858; disappointments in, 859-60; success of, 860-61; the future of, 861; reading circles, 862-63; correspond- ence instruction, 863~64a; bibliographv, 864b University extension courses, Methods of, 388 University fellowships and scholarships, see Fellowships; Scholarships University Grammar School in Rhode Island, 145 University of Alabama, admitted women,* 3 2 5 University of Arizona, coeducational, 325 University of California, The accrediting system at, and efficient inspection of schools by, 166-68; organization, 279- 80; Mrs. Hearst's benefactions to the, 304; admitted women, 325; science col- leges at, 583; College of Commerce at, 695-97 > adopted summer school, 827 University of Chicago has college depart- ment, 242; founded, 274; organization of, 275; graduate schools, 275; Library of, 297; publications of, 300; scholarships and fellowships at, 301; gifts of Rocke- feller and others, 304; coeducational, 328; women at, 334n2; offers students summer terms, 387; Department of Pedagogy at, 399; the College for Teach- ers at, 399-400; College of Commerce and Politics at, 692-94; continuous in- struction at, 839; statistics of summer registration, 839-40; takes in University extension, 855; courses and attendance, 856-58; cost to, 858-59; will maintain extension work, 861; made correspond- ence instruction a department of ex- tension, 863; students registered in, 864a University of Cincinnati founded, 582; scientific courses at, 582-83; School of Design at, 721; open to summer students, 827 University of Georgia modeled on that of New York, 151; closed to women, 325, 3 2 9 University of Havana, Professional students at the, 469m University of Illinois, admitted women, 325; colleges and schools at, 587-88; vacation courses at, 826 University of Indian Territory, coeduca- tional, 325 University of Kansas, coeducational, 324 University of Maine, admitted women, 325 University of Michigan established, 151; the accrediting system at, and inspection of schools, 165-66; oldest state university, 278; graduate courses at, 2S5; Ph.D. and A.M. at, 287 ; first admitted women to true college grade, 325; teaching of education begun at, 392-94; opened a dental depart- ment, 527; first graduated pharmacists, 535; engineering courses at, 585-86; sum- mer courses at, 826 University of Minnesota, 278; coeduca- tional, 325; opened Veterinary Dept., 544; science schools and colleges at, 588- 89; degrees granted, 589; School of Agri- culture at, 636; summer courses at, 826 University of Mississippi, admitted women, 325 University of Nashville, 375 University of Nebraska, opened coedu- cational, 325; vacation students at, 826 University of North Carolina, admitted women, 325 University of Oklahoma, coeducational, 325 University of Paris, The, 210 University of Pennsylvania, The academy that developed into the, 149, 263, 362; organization of the, 264; courses of in- struction, 264; Library of, 297; publica- tions of, 298-99; scholarships and fellow- ships at, 301, 477-79; Provost Harrison Fellowship Fund at, 303; admits women to graduate work, 333; opened a dental department, 527; veterinary school at, 543; Towne Scientific School, 581; Whar- ton School of Finance and Economy, 689-92, 693 University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Profes- sional students at, 469m University of Tennessee, Science courses at, 589; Summer School of the South at, 841-42 University of Texas, coeducational, 325 University of the South founded, 984-85 University of the State of Missouri, became coeducational, 325; professorship of teaching authorized at, 392 University of the State of New York, Es- tablishment of the, 150-51; wide influence INDEX 1065 of the, 151; academic departments aided from literature fund, 160; High School Dept. of the, 192-93; regents' examina- tions, 193; syllabus for university in- struction, 193; recognition of business •schools, 664-65; syllabus for, 665-68; Bulletin of summer schools, 827, 848; adopted University extension, 852-53 University of Utah, coeducational, 324 University of Virginia, Jefferson recom- mended manual training for the, in; 157; closed to women, 325, 329, 333; Law School opened at, 495; summer teaching in chemistry, 825 University of Washington, coeducational, 3 2 4 University of West Virginia took up corre- spondence work, 864 University of Wisconsin, Accrediting system at the, 197-98; organization of, 278-79; publications of the, 299-300; became co- educational, 325; has summer school for teachers, 387; School of Education, 400; College of Mechanics and Engineering, 587; took up correspondence instruction, 864 University problems, Some present, 305-13 University publications, 297-300 Unlimited power of the people to provide tax-supported education, xx Urban population, Increase of, by the in- crease of railways, 80, 84; in Mass., 123; of the country, 123 Utah, Compulsory law in, 99; women county superintendents in, 102; women may hold any school office in, 102; "women suffrage in, 102; county the unit in, 105; or district, 106; authorizes in- dustrial training, 112; State University of, coeducational, 324 Vandertilt, Cornelius, founds a university, 1000 Vanderbilt University, 274; Engineering Dept. at, 584; established, 1000 Vanderlyn, John, painter, 762 Van Rensselaer, Stephen, sketch of, 556-57. See also Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Vassar College, one of the largest, 337; or- ganization, 338; accomplishment courses not counted in, 342; preparatory depart- ment closed, 343; accepts entrance certificates, 343n2; limited self-govern- ment at, 345 Ventilation and sanitation, Bibliography of, 463-64 Ventilation, Mechanical power in, 426-29; use of exhaust steam for heating, 427; cost of, 428; must come from a pure source, 437; of Kansas City Manual Training High School, 452 Vermont, Compulsory law in, 99; clothing furnished poor school children in, 100; employment of children, 100; prudential -committees in, 101; women county super- intendents in, 102; women may hold any school office in, 102; may vote at school elections, 102; school unit in, 106; au- thorizes kindergartens, 112; statute re- quirements on sanitation, 459; profes- sional licenses in, 471 Veterinary medicine, Requirements for license to practise, 472, 549; education in, 543-49; New York's leadership in, 545; army service in, 546; state and national workers in, 546-47; field for educated veterinarians, 548 Veterinary schools, Scholarships in, 479; fees, 479; value of property, 483; early, 543-44; state schools, 544; requirements of Amer. Veterinary Medical Assoc, 545; higher standards for, 546-47; num- ber of, 548 Victoria University established centers for University extension, 851 Vincent, George Edgar, Summer schools and University extension, 82i-64b Vincent, John Heyl, a founder of the Chau- tauqua Institution, 843 Vinton, Francis Laurens, professor in School of Mines, 579 Virginia, Illiteracy in, ix; school unit in, 106; earliest Latin grammar school in, 144; professional licenses in, 471; colonial statutes relating to attorneys, 499; edu- cation of defectives in, 771; a Braidwood school for deaf and dumb in, 774; revival of public school education in, 908-9 Vocational schools, The question of, 181-82 Volta Bureau founded, 783 Wade, Ben, introduced Morrill Act in the Senate, 612 Wadsworth, James Samuel, favored study of agriculture in the schools, 607 Wages of teachers and superintendents in the common schools, Amount paid for, 30, 102; increase of, 79; of rural or dis- trict school teachers, 122. See also Sal- aries Wagner Free Institute of Science, Philadel- phia, 873 Wait, William B., devised New York hori- zontal point alphabet for the blind, 793 Walker, Francis Amasa, 560; and manual training at Mass. Institute of Technology, 747 Walker Fellowship at Harvard, 302 Walks to outhouses, 419 Wardrobes, 426; number and location of, 43 6 Warming, Economy in, when air is distrib- uted through floors, 450-51 W T ashburn,-Ichabod, a founder of the Wor- cester Polytechnic Institute, 562 Washington, Booker Taliaferro, Edu- cation of the negro, 893-936; optimism of, 911 Washington, George, Father and brothers of, educated at Appleby School, in Eng- io66 INDEX land, 364; on the promotion of science and literature, 596-97, 598; recommended a national board of agriculture, 604 Washington Academy of Sciences, Societies united by the, 872-73 Washington (D. C), Coeducation in, 103; corporal punishment in, 133; agricultural fairs held in, 598-99; Business High School in, 675; paintings and sculpture in the Capitol at, 761-63 Washington (State), Illiteracy in, ix; kin- dergartens in, 42; compulsory law in, 99; school directors in, 101; women county superintendents in, 102; women may vote at school elections in, 102; school unit in, 106; manual training compulsory in certain schools in, 112; corporal punish- ment in, 133 Washington and Jefferson College, Begin- nings of, 992 Washington University (St. Louis), Manual training at, 181; under the direction of Calvin M. Woodward, 447; School of Engineering at, 582 Watson, Elkanah, imported first Spanish Merino sheep, 599; effort of, for national board of agriculture, 603 Wayland, Dr. Francis, favored scientific studies at Brown University, 611; first proposed the elective system, 1004 Webster, Daniel, on taxation for public in- structon, x, 113, 115, 117 Weeks, Dr. Stephen B., Classification of summer schools, 831 Weir, Robert Walter, painter, 762 Wellesley College, one of the largest, 337; organization of, 338-39; accomplishment courses not counted in, 342; preparatory department closed, 343; accepts entrance certificates, 343n2 Wells, Charles W., used nitrous oxide, 527 Wells, Oliver E., on schoolhouses, 460 Wells College, Organization of, 341; closed preparatory department, 343 Wesleyan University opened, 998 Wesleyan University, Conn. Experiment Station opened at, 641 West, Andrew Fleming, The American college, 209-49 West, Benjamin, painter, 763 West India Co., The, and the Dutch schools in New York, 120, 996 West Point, Military school at, 96 West Virginia, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory law in, 99; school supervision in, 100; school unit in the district, 106; corporal punishment in, 133 West Virginia University, admitted women, 325 Westervelt, Supt., on the manual alphabet method, 780 Weymouth (Mass.), First school in, 120 Wharton, Joseph, established School of Finance and Economy at Univ. of Penn- sylvania, 689 Wharton School of Finance and Economy established at University of Pennsylvania, 689; course in, 690-91, 693; number of students, 692; confers degree of B. S. in Economics, 692 Wheelock, Rev. Eleazer, work for the Indi- ans at Dartmouth College, 941 Wheelock, Lucy F., Kindergarten training school of, 72 Wheelwright, E. M., on the American schoolhouse, 430-31 Whipple, Zera, worked out system of visible speech, 782 Whitaker, Rev. W. F., on difference between theology and the other professions, 491 Whitcomb, David, and the Worcester Poly- technic Institute, 562 White, Daniel Appleton, on time gained by kindergarten children, 67-68 White, J. W., 312 White Historical Library at Cornell, 303 Whitford, W. C, issues circular on plans of schoolhouses, 460 Whitman, Charles Otis, director of the Marine Biological Laboratory, 842, 890 Whitney, Eli, was a Yankee schoolmaster, 3 6 4 Whitney, W. D., took degree at Breslau, 284; lecturer at Yale, 284 Wilberforce University opened, 1001 Wilbur, Dr. H. B., Private school for idiots of, 805 Wilder, Marshall Pinckney, Work of, for an agricultural college in Massachusetts, 609-10 Wiley University, 924 Willard, Mrs. Emma, opened Troy Female Seminary, 338n William and Mary College, Religious mo- tive in founding of, 975; charter obtained through Rev. James Blair, 982 William Penn Charter School, 145 Williams, Mrs. D. L., suggested teachers' reading circles, 388 Williams, George Washington, History of the negro race, quoted, 915 Williams, Dr. Job, on Helen Keller, 803-4 Williams College, closed to women, 333; conducted as a Congregational institu- tion, 976, 989 Willoughby, Dr. W. W., Classification of summer schools, 831 Wilmington (Del.), Coeducation in, 103 Wilson, James, Course of lectures in law by, at College of Philadelphia, 495 Windows, Form and position of, 434-35 Winona Lake, Assembly and summer schools at, 834 Winona Reading Circle, 863 Winslow, Gov. Edward, imported first neat cattle, 599 Winthrop, Robert Charles, chairman of Peabody Education Fund, 920 Wisconsin, Length of annual school session INDEX IO67 Wisconsin, Kindergartens in, 42; depart- ments in normal ' schools, 73; grants of land to, 96; compulsory law in, 99; school boards, 101; women county superintend- ents in, 102; women may vote at school elections in, 102; school unit in, 106; authorizes industrial training, 112; and kindergartens, 112; corporal punishment allowed in, 133; system of free high schools, 196-98; seven normal schools in, 370; first teachers' institute in, 382; com- petition of architects in, 458; circular of State Superintendent on plans of school- houses, 460; provision for its University, 640 Wisconsin Phonological Institute, Normal classes at the, 784 Witherspoon, Pres., John Adams on, 238 Woman suffrage, States where granted, 102 Woman's College of Baltimore, Organiza- tion of, 340; closed preparatory depart- ment, 343 Woman's Educational Assoc, of Boston and the Marine Biological Laboratory, 842 Women as professional students, 484-85; admitted to the bar, 501; constitute the majority of summer students, 828 Women, Education of (M. Carey Thomas) 3i9~58d: College education, 321-51: co- education, 321-35; in elementary and secondary schools, 321-24; civil war in- creased number of women teachers, 323- 24; in state universities, 323-25; Oberlin and Antioch opened, 324; in the private colleges, 326-28; Cornell, 326; Boston University, 326; Mass. Institute of Tech- nology, 326; general in south and west, 326-28; table, 327; map of coeducation, 328; colleges giving true collegiate work classified, 330-333; diagram of growth of coeducation, 332; arguments against met and answered by experience, 333-34) average standing above that of men, 333; increase of women students, 334-3 5- — Independent colleges for women, 336-46: I. Vassar, Smith, Wellesley, Bryn Mawr, 337-40; II; Mount Holyoke; Woman's College (Bait.), Wells College, 340-41; III: Elmira, Randolph-Macon, Rock- ford, and Mills, 341-42; usual academic course demanded, 342-43; standard for instructors, 344; work done, 345; disci- pline, 345-46; affiliated colleges, 346-51: Radcliffe College, 347-48; Barnard Col- lege, 348; Women's College of Brown, 348-49; College for Women of Western Reserve, 349; H. Sophie Newcomb, 340- 50. — Professional education, 351-52; in philosophy, 351; graduate fellowships and scholarships, 352; table of increase of students in theology, law, medicine, etc., 353-54; General considerations: Number of college women, 354-56; health, 356- 57; marriage rate, 357~58a; occupations, 358a; coeducation vs. separate education, 358a~58c; a modified vs. an unmodified curriculum, 358c~58d Women, education of, Increased interest in » I S5» 334-35; greatly neglected, 366 Women, Education of young, well cared for in denominational institutions, 1012 Women holding bachelor's degree, Number of > 355. 355m Women in school administration, 101-2 Women, Preponderance of, as normal stu- dents, 375-76 Women teachers, Number of, in the com- mon schools, vii, 323n, 37 5n; average monthly salary of, viii, 102 Women university graduates abroad, 355, 355n2 Women's College of Brown University, Organization of, 348-49; closest affilia- tion, 350; unrestricted coeducation, 350 Women's colleges, Superficial character of so-called, 336113; scandalously inefficient, 336n3 Women's Education Association of Boston, Harvard examinations organized by, 343 n2 Woodbridge, S. H., Schoolhouse warming and ventilating, 460 Woodburn, James Albert, University ex- tension lecturer, 853 Wood's Holl, Marine Laboratory at, 825, %33> 843-44, 890-91 Woodward, Calvin M., introduced manual training, in; built school at St. Louis, 447; on Strogonoff School exhibit, 732; never claimed manual as art training, 744; reference to chapter on manual training, 748 Woolsey, T. D., Greek graduate course of, at Yale, 284 Worcester Polytechnic Institute incorpor- ated, 562; founders, 562-63; methods, courses, and organization, 563-65; praised by Mass. Board of Education, 712-13 Workingman, Worth of education to the, 714 Workingman's Institute, Kindergarten De- partment at, 73 World's fairs milestones of civilization, 725 Wright-Humason School for the Deaf, 784; Helen Keller at the, 803 Wyoming, Illiteracy in, ix; compulsory law in, 99; women county superintendents in, 102; women may hold any school office in, 102; woman suffrage in, 102; district the unit in, 106; authorizes industrial train- ing, 112 Xenia Theological Seminary, 489 Yale College chartered and supported at the start by the state, 26; experimental courses at, 213; graduates of, in the na- tional life, 238; the center of the Univer- sity, 242; gave free education for the ministry, 487; to meet demand for higher io68 INDEX education, 899; founded by nine minis- ters to fit young men for work in church and state, 975-76; founded by Congre- gationalists, 989 Yale Law School established, 495 Yale University, 264-65; founded, 268; organization of, 269; introduced graduate work, 284; first doctor's degree conferred at, 2S4; Library of, 297; scholarships and fellowships at, 301; library of Ernst Curtius given to, 304; graduate students at, 312; admits women to graduate work, 333 Yale University School of the Fine Arts, 721 Yankee schoolmaster, The, in the south and west, 364-65 Yerkes Observatory, The, 888 Young Men's Christian Association, First student conference of, at Lake Geneva, Wis., 825; conferences at Northfield and Asheville, 826 Zoological Society of Philadelphia and its Garden, 890 Zoology, Journals of, 882 Zueblin, Charles, secretary of University extension movement in Chicago, 853; at University of Chicago, 855 Charles Alexander Nelson W V*" V W ^ X°° 'oo «$■ x 00 ^. v*. .^\*° c- ■X^ ' J i £ ^. v> -o N ^ \ 4' V '%<£ A * , •*, v^ - a ■^, ^x .,H -* T>. ,0o. 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